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{ Ss s) oF
THE /

JOURNAL

OF

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

CONDUCTED BY

G. M. HUMPHRY, M.D. F.R.S.

PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE,
HONORARY FELLOW OF DOWNING COLLEGE;

AND

- WM. TURNER, MLB.

PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH.

VOLUME IX.

(SECOND SERIES, VOL. VHT

MACMILLAN AND CoO.

Cambridge and Donvdon.
1875.

Cambridge:
PRINTED BY ©. J. CLAY, M.A.
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS,

QM
|
J6

CONTENTS.

FIRST PART. NOVEMBER, 1874.

Dr Goopuart, Description of Three Cases of Malformation of the
Spinal Column associated with Lateral Curvature (Pl. L)

Prorzssor Srruruers, Variations of the Vertebre and Ribs in Man .

Dean Byrne, The Development of the Powers of Thought in Verte-
brate Animals in Connection with the Development of their

Proressor Watson, Contributions to the Anatomy of the Indian
Elephant, Part IV. Muscles and Blood-Vessels of the Face and
Head - . ‘ ‘

Prorrssorn Watson, Notes of a esbenlilas Gin of Pharyagea Diverti.
culum ss. P je

Dr Ransome, The Position of the Heart’s Imp in Different Toate
of the Body

Baron ARMAND DE Wiseursias, A Desesiption of re Cerebral ‘snd Spina
Nerves of Rana Esculenta = :

Proressor Turner, Phoca Greenlandica as a “British fesnkis of Seal .

Mr J. C. Ewart, On the Minute Structure of the Retina and Vitreous

Humour . ‘ . :
Mr Joun C, Garton, On the iiiesdidiakiursed or income Sextns
(Gruber) (PL Il)... ‘ ;.

Mr James Reocn, On the Urine Pigments : .
Dr Cuartes, Abnormalities in the Arteries of the Unne: Extremity .

Dr Harxer, Dissection of an Abnormal Four-Toed Foetus without Head
or Upper Limbs ° ‘

Mr E. Betuamy, Note on the sical x es ES Wewinits
Muscle and on a Spine possessing a Sixth Lumbar Vertebra, the
First Rib being Rudimentary . x : ‘ +
Notices of Books . °
Report on the Progress of Aeabiake by PROFESSOR eounun cui

D. J. CunnineHam, M.B.. . <i ; . 5
Report on Physiology, by Dr Srinuine .

PAGE

97

118
134
137

145
163

166
169
176
189
182
185

186

190
208

iv CONTENTS.

SECOND PART. MAY, 1875.

Mr Lawson Tart, On the Freezing Process for Section-cutting : and
on Various Methods of Staining and Mounting Sections .
Mr Fiower, Note on the Construction and Arrangement of Anatomi-
cal Museums . ‘ . é ‘ : ; x R 5 °
Dr Hoxuts, Lopsided Generations . ‘ F : : 5 “ :
Mr Watrer Pyz, Observations on the Development and Structure of

the Kidney (Pl. III.) ? : : i : ; ‘ p
Mr B. Tompson Lowne, A Note on the Mechanical Work of Respira-
tion . ‘ ° ; é

Dr Hownen, Case of Atrophy of Right Hemisphere of Cerebrum and
Left Side of Cerebellum, with Atrophy of Left Side of Body "
Proressor Turner, Observations on the Spiny Shark . ‘ :
Proressor Turner, On the Presence of Spiracles in the Porbeagle Shark
(Lamna Cornubica) . a . . Piers : . a
Mr D. J. Cunnincuam, Notes on the Great Splanchnic Ganglion ‘
Me D. J. Cunninanam, Lateral Curvature of the Spine in Conjunction
with Hypertrophy of the Sympathetic Nervous System in the
Lumbar and Sacral Regions . ‘ Ha tons : Re eige 4
Mr Tuomas Dwicut, Remarks on the Position of the Femur and on its
so-called “True Neck.” . F ; : : ; . : .
Dr Kronecker and Dr Sriruine, The Characteristic sign of Cardiac
Muscular Movement ‘ $ " : ; . : : ‘
Dr Kronecker, Digestion-Oven with a Diffusion Apparatus . . ;
Mr J. C. Ewart, On a Large Organised Cyst in the Sub-Dural Space .

Mr James Reocu, The Decomposition of Urea. ‘ . ‘ .
Mr Maenvs R, Srupsoy, Notes on the Presence of two Precaval Veins
in a Dog. 2 : ‘ ; i : : ‘ ; s :

‘Notices of Books ‘ ; ; é ;
Report on the Progress of Anatomy, by Prorrsson Turner and
D, J. Cunninenam ; ’ : ; j ‘ < ; :

Report on Physiology, by Dr Srrruna ; ‘ ‘ ; :
Index . ;

PAGE

249

259
263

272

280

288
293

301
303

306

311

315
360
364
368

385
386

388
407
451

len dla

of Anatomy &Phystology, Vol. IX. Plate 1

University Press, Gambridae.

Journal of Anatomp and Physiology.

DESCRIPTION OF THREE CASES OF MALFORMATION
OF THE SPINAL COLUMN ASSOCIATED WITH
LATERAL CURVATURE. By James F,. GoopHart, M.D.,
Demonstrator of Morbid Anatomy, and Medical Registrar
at Guy's Hospital, Pathological Assistant in the Hunterian
Museum. (Pl. 1.)

Ir may perhaps be doubted how far good is likely to accrue
from drawing inferences concerning normal development from
the conditions found in monsters. Granting this to the full,
the interest attaching to malformations does not subside. They
will still have an individual noteworthiness, and they are al-
ways suggestive. From either aspect, whether as being depar-
tures from the normal and thus indicating some of the yet
secret steps by which perfect development is accomplished,
or as mere curiosities and freaks of nature, the cases I have
now to record will not be thought out of place in a journal
devoted to Anatomy and Physiology.

Case 1.—It is the skeleton of an adult male, 64 years of age,
which has been recently added to the Hunterian Museum at
the College of Surgeons. Of its previous history I could learn
very little. It was ascertained, however, that the man was the
offspring of a lamplighter and a ballad-singer, and even from
early childhood had been known to be dragged about crippled,
by his mother, as an additional stimulant to the flow of
“Charity.” For many years before his death he was the in-
mate of a workhouse, always enjoying good health, and never
paralyzed. He died of some acute chest disease.

VOL, IX. 1

2 DR GOODHART.

General appearance, &c—Height 504 inches. The trunk is
tilted so that the left elbow and hand come two inches lower
than those on the right side. The left olecranon is about on
a level with the lesser trochanter.

The extremities are developed equally on both sides, with
the exception that the left forearm (both bones) is half an inch
longer than the right. Femora equal in length on both sides.

There is a prominent hump in the upper lumbar region of
the spine projecting backwards. A plumb-line from its pos-
terior part runs past the right posterior superior spine of the
ilium and on the right of the sacrum, and drops an inch or
so behind the right heel, and half an inch inside it. Another
dropped anteriorly from the odontoid process of the axis runs

‘in front of the left sterno-clavicular joint, 12 millimetres to
the left of the sternum, corresponding to an inch to the left
side of the symphysis pubis and to the ground through the
internal condyle and side of left foot. Thus the weight of the
trunk appears to be distributed in a vertical diagonal plane
rather than in an antero-posterior one. A horizontal line from
the hump through to the sternum runs parallel to the lower 6
dorsal vertebre from behind forwards, and strikes the sternum
6 centimetres from the top.

Skull—Ridges for temporal fascia well marked. Rather
more than the posterior half of the sagittal suture is oblite-
rated. Some small wormian bones occupy part of the lambd-
oidal suture.

The left malar prominence and superior maxilla have rather
larger proportions on the left side than on the right, and the
face for this reason looks a little one-sided; the left orbit
being at a slightly higher level than the right. Its size is
not diminished,

Foramen Magnum and Spine.—The atlas is firmly ankylosed
by bone to the base of the skull throughout the whole of
its left lateral half, It has an irregular spiculated surface
behind, but fuses the two surfaces, that of the anterior part
of the atlas and the basal surface of the basilar process, com-
pletely in front, The right half is also ankylosed in front
and about the lateral and transverse process, but the lamina
is still separate from the occiput. It is also to be noted that

MALFORMATION OF THE SPINAL COLUMN. 3

the two laminze do not close behind, but leave a chink three
millimetres wide where the tubercle of the spine should be,
and again in front, running deeply into the substance of the
bone beneath the articular facet for the odontoid process, slightly
to the right of the median line, is a cleft in the bone not ex-
tending through its whole thickness. ‘The lateral masses have
ossified, and gradually projected upwards and downwards (or
backwards and forwards) to form the vertebral ring or neural
canal, but they have completely failed to close behind, and have
only partially succeeded in front. A similar specimen is to be
found in the Guy’s Hospital Museum, 1000%. The bone is
there in two symmetrical halves, not having closed either in front
or behind. Farther down the spine, in the rest of the cervical
region, the bodies of the vertebre are all very irregular, with
shelving outgrowths of bone at the edges of the articulating
surfaces, much as is seen in the diseased state known as osteo-
arthritis, The axis and third cervical are completely fused in
front, and the seventh cervical and first dorsal lower down,
The axis and third cervical are united throughout their bodies,
articular surfaces and lamin, with the further abnormalities :—

1. Absence of the posterior segment of the third left trans-
verse process, so that the process as a whole is represented
by a spike of bone, corresponding to a rib in the dorsal
region. It is slightly curved like the other anterior transverse
processes, and firmly ankylosed to the body of the vertebra.

2. The second left transverse process is as it were pressed
out, and has a very Jarge foramen in it some eight millimetres
diameter. It seems probable that this second transverse pro-
cess really represents itself and part of that belonging to the
next vertebra, that it isa double one, Further, the left upper
articular surface of the axis is at a slightly higher level than
that on the other side, while the corresponding lower articular
surface of the third vertebra is well on the lamina not far from
the spine. By these varied distortions the spinal canal is
altered in shape, being deeper antero-posteriorly on the left
than on the right side of the median line, and at the same
time narrower from side to side.

The next vertebre which invite attention are the seventh
cervical and the first dorsal. Premising that there is a general

9

4 DR GOODHART.

bony ankylosis along the front of the bodies from the seventh
cervical to the fourth dorsal inclusive, rendering it difficult
to distinguish the various vertebre along their front aspect,
it is specially noticeable that the left half of the seventh
cervical, and corresponding segment of the first dorsal, are
in a somewhat rudimentary condition. The two are fused into
one, and from the upper part of the lateral aspect comes a
cervical transverse process from the lower, immediately below
the line of junction of the two vertebra, still visible by a hori-
zontal ridge, and precisely in the line of the lower ribs, a rudi-
mentary first rib projects. It is ankylosed at both its extremi-
ties, internally to the body of the vertebra, externally to the
cervical articular process. It is 2} centimetres in length. It
can hardly be said to have any definite parts. It articulates
by a bulbous end with the body of the vertebra, in linear series
with the other ribs. About a third along it becomes very
slender, enlarging again somewhat at its termination by fusion
with the anterior part of the cervical transverse process (Plate,
Fig. 2, b). The posterior aspect ef the seventh cervical and
first dorsal, Plate, Fig. 3, also shews a eomplete ankylosis on
the left side, but not on the right, and thus it happens that
the two lamine of the seventh cervical do not meet in the
median line: that on the right side ends singly in the spinous
process. (Fig. 3, a.) It would of course follow that with vertebra
in this rudimentary condition, one side being normal and the
other but small and displaced, a gap would be left in the
vertebral ring corresponding to the deficiency caused by the
rudimentary parts. This is so to a limited extent. But
lateral curvature, as usually happens, has in some measure
closed the opening, and its existence is further rendered still
less apparent by an overgrowth in a downward direction of
the lamina above, and in an upward direction of the fused
vertebre below (vide Fig. 8). Unilateral fusion of the vertebrae
and arrest of development may also be noticed farther down:
the second and third ribs on the left side come off together, the
one immediately below the other, and the two are ankylosed to-
gether. (Fig. 3, ¢.) Posteriorly they attach to a broad common
transverse process, ‘The laminw and spines of the second and
third vertebra are completely ankylosed, though a ridge still

MALFORMATION OF THE SPINAL COLUMN. 5

marks their proper separation. In the ligament running be-
tween the spines of the first and third dorsal vertebr is a small
bony nodule, which seems to represent the spinous process of
the second vertebra whose laminez, &c. are fused with the
third. (Fig. 3, 6.)

This unilateral abnormality and fusion of the vertebra has,
as was to be expected, caused a considerable deviation from the
normal in the hemal arches. The first rib being rudimentary
the second has all the characteristics of the first, 7. e. it has a
distinct ridge on its upper surface, and an eminence on its
inner border for the sealenus anticus. In front and behind
this are grooves as in a normal first rib for the subclavian vein
and artery, and behind the latter a rough depression for the
scalenus medius, while the third rib is rough and tuberculated, it
may be assumed, for the attachment of the upper serrations of
the serratus magnus.

The terminations of the ribs towards the median line are
also very abnormal (Plate, Fig. 1). The left side of the manu-
brium and the facet for the left sterno-clavicular articulation are
at a lower level than on the right side. The second costal
cartilage, though at rather a lower level, joins the sternum
pretty nearly corresponding with the junctions of the first and
second cartilages on the right side. The third left rib fails to
reach the sternum at all, its inner border becoming blended
with the second rib, while it terminates in a rough and blunt
end just in front of the groove for the subclavian vein noticed
on the second rib. The next succeeding rib, therefore, which
joins the sternum after the second on the left side, is the fourth,
and at a point corresponding to midway between the second
and third cartilages on the right side. The junction of the
bone with the cartilage is flattened upwards, as if a piece of
the third rib might have been tacked on to the fourth (Plate,
Fig. 1). From thence the two sides alternate, as may be seen
in Plate, Fig. 1. The left fifth lies midway between the right
third and fourth. Left sixth midway between right fourth and
fifth. The left seventh midway between the fifth and sixth.
Thus down to and including the ninth, the ribs have a
‘separate attachment to the sternum on the left side, the
seventh or eighth being the last so attached on the right.

6 DR GOODHART.

The twelfth rib is unusually large on each side, while on
the left (Plate, Fig. 4a) a thirteenth rib is seen eight centi-
metres long and ankylosed to the tip of the transverse process of
the first lumbar. The twelfth rib on the right side articulates
with its own vertebral body, and with the under border of the
transverse process of the vertebra above it.

From the fifth to the eleventh dorsal vertebre inclusive the
parts are normal. Below this, there are again much distortion
and abnormality of the bones, possibly due to disease, though
reasons will be hereafter adduced for thinking the condition
one and the same as that existing above.

But first to describe them. The twelfth dorsal is well repre-
sented on the right side, but the left half of its body is wanting.
The corresponding transverse process is still apparent with the
twelfth rib, articulating with it, and perhaps the lamine are
visible behind. This is however doubtful, for the twelfth dor-
sal and first and second lumbar are so fused together behind
into one plate of bone, that they are not separately recognisable.
The first lumbar has no body at all, but on either side and
behind in the plate of bone described are seen tubercles which
represent probably the stunted lumbar transverse processes and
the right articular process.

The second lumbar has its body wanting on the side oppo-
site to the absent half dorsal, that is to say, the left half is in
good condition, the right is absent. The transverse process on
both sides is well formed. The third lumbar has a deep body,
and is slightly compressed on its right side, owing to the lateral
curvature, but it is not otherwise abnormal. The fourth has
two lateral halves, which, failing to meet in the median line,
leave a gap, and so let down the third lumbar body nearly
to the fifth. The fifth lumbar is normal. The curvatures asso-
ciated with such malformations of the spine as these, are, as
might be predicted, various, but except in the dorsal region
they are not extreme. In the lower cervical region, from the
nearly complete loss of half a vertebra and the fusion and _
incomplete growth of other halves, there arises a lateral curve,
the concavity of which is turned towards the left side. It com-
mences at the axis and ends about the fourth dorsal. Its
greatest depth is at the articulation of the first with the second

—— ee ee ee

a a

MALFORMATION OF THE SPINAL COLUMN. 7

dorsal vertebra, and measures 15 millimetres, the base of the
are being 13 centimetres. Below this is a very slight curve
in the opposite direction, ending about the 10th dorsal. A
third in the same direction as the primary one may also be
said to commence, but is quickly lost in an antero-posterior or
angular curvature. The latter is not consequent on the spiral
twist which is so generally found with lateral curvature, but is
brought about by deficiency of the left lateral half of the
twelfth dorsal, the whole body of the first lumbar and the right
half of the second lumbar. ‘The deficiency of opposite halves of
two bodies compensate for each other, and the absent first
lumbar leads to antero-posterior curvature. At the same time
there is a slight lateral curving, owing to the tendency to
displacement of the upper part of the spinal column from the
lower, due to the absence of the right half of the second lumbar.
By this means an inclined plane sloping downwards and to the
right is formed, upon which the dorsal vertebra have slid.
The deficiency of the fourth lumbar body leads somewhat to
the general angular curvature, but does not produce any inde-
pendent additional distortion.

. The rotatory or spiral curve is slight. It is found through-
out the dorsal and lumbar region. The bodies of the four
upper dorsal vertebrae slightly face towards the right, the three
lowér ones face back again to the front. The next five repeat
the primary turn, and the lumbar, the last excepted, twist very
decidedly to the left.

Respecting the thoracic and pelvic cavities I have not much
to say. The chest is a deep one: the antero-posterior diameter
from the anterior surface of the body of the seventh dorsal to
the posterior surface of the xiphoid cartilage is 18 centimetres,
the transverse diameter on a level with the top of the eighth
rib on the left side is 24°8 centimetres. The right side is more
rounded and on a higher level than the left, which is compara-
tively flat in front of the angles.

The pelvic brim has a slightly shallower curve, representing
the segment of a greater circle on the left side than on the
right, but the distortion is hardly appreciable by measurement.
It is however noteworthy, because it would go to shew that

there had been a preponderance in the weight transmitted to

8 DR GOODHART.

the left side, whereas a plummet-line points in the opposite
direction, If we may assume that, given muscular action, the
transmission of the body-weight in the living subject would
not have been permanently altered from its present direction,
this discrepancy leads me to one of two conclusions: that there
has been an arrest of development on one side of the pelvis as a
separate condition—and of this, save for the slight shallowing
of its curve, there is no evidence whatever,—or that the arrest
has been brought about by the unequal transmission of weight
to the extremities consequent upon the spinal deformities. In
that case the curvatures could not have been the same in
younger life as those now present, since a plummet-line now
drops towards the right side, while the pelvis is arrested in
development on the left. The original curves may have altered
under two conditions at any rate. First, as old age progressed,
they may have become more pronounced, the spine settling down
as it were, and carrying the weight to the side opposite to that
which at first sustained the greater pressure, or disease of the
vertebree may have subsequently altered the conditions. The
former explanation is, it seems to me, more likely to be the
correct one; but it is thought by several who have examined
the specimen that extrauterine disease has been at work as
well as an abnormal developmental process, so that either may
have had a share in the production of the various curves. A
sketch of the lumbar region of the spine is appended (Plate,
Fig. 4). It will be seen from this, and much more evidently in

the skeleton, that wliat was noticed in the upper region—be it

remembered where it is undoubtedly of intrauterine date, viz. a
partial absence of parts, is also noticed in the lumbar region—
one vertebra gone altogether, except tubercles, which perhaps
represent its processes; a second with one half absent; the
third overgrown; the fourth wanting in the mid-body, but
present on either side. ‘These are all conditions entirely con-
sistent with the congenital changes throughout the column,
while for disease it is not common, so far as I have seen, to find
diseased vertebre alternating with perfectly healthy interme-
diate ones.

The case next to be described also tends to confirm this

.
—o ee a

MALFORMATION OF THE SPINAL COLUMN. 9

opinion, by shewing, in the early condition, the state of things
which I suppose to have originally existed in this adult skeleton.

It was presented to the Hunterian Museum in 1870 by Mr
Jonathan Hutchinson, and is thus described in the Catalogue
by Mr Lowne: “278. The skull and vertebral column, with a
portion of the ribs and pelvis, of a hydrocephalic male foetus,
with distortion of the vertebral column, defective development
of the occipital bone, and defective closure of the vertebral canal
behind. The laminz of the cervical and first six dorsal are
widely separated behind; those of the right side are defective.
There are apparently but five cervical vertebra, and their laminz
are fused together. The head was pressed back, so that the
edges of the enormously dilated foramen magnum rest on the
edges of the lamin of the dorsal and cervical vertebra, to
which they were attached by ligaments. The supra-occipital
cartilage bones are very small, There are, however, two scale-
like bones, representing the upper part of the supra-occipital
bounding the foramen magnum above. The frontals and
parietals are very large. There is spina bifida in the lumbar
and sacral region. The pedicles and lamin are well developed,
but they are spread out on either side, so that the spinal canal
is open behind. There was talipes of both feet.”

The part to which I would specially call attention is the
upper region of the spinal column. As far as can be made out
the bodies of the cervical vertebre appear to be only four
and a half in number. The odd half is lowest (Plate,
Fig. 5, a). The lateral masses are jumbled together, but six
segments can be distinguished on the left side, and five on the
right. The intervertebral foramina correspond on both sides
(they are six in number) if allowance be made for one large
one on the right side which apparently corresponds to two,
The four whole bodies are each made up of two rounded or
nipple-like masses, arranged side by side, and partially separated
from each other by a deep groove. This is very plain anteriorly
(see Fig.), and less so, but still distinctly posteriorly (Fig. 6).

The odd half occurring on the left side, or rather its other
half deficient on the right side, has caused a rather sharp lateral
curve with the concavity towards the right. Below the cervical
bodies come what appear to be, at first sight, a normal first

nN

10 DR GOODHART.

dorsal, then an odd half on the left side, then a whole body
placed obliquely, and then again an odd half fused with the
vertebra below. But this is not, I think, the correct enume-
ration of these vertebrae. The first dorsal centrum is normal,
but between the second and third what. may be called a cross
ankylosis has occurred, the right lateral half of No. 2 ankylosing
with the left lateral half of the third. The right

lateral half of the lower vertebra is also some- Cay
what displaced outwards owing to the curvature
of the spine towards that side from the dis-

tortion above. It is also ankylosed to the cor- © C4)
responding half of the fourth vertebra, the latter

being somewhat shallower from above downwards than the re-
maining vertebre. This ankylosis is not shown in the figure.
The five dorsal vertebre next below have the distinct vertical
groove, described by Professor Humphry’, as evidence when it
occurs of a double nucleus to the vertebral bodies.

In this case, excepting the spina bifida, there is no further
abnormality. The last rib is wanting on both sides, but the
deficiency is possibly due to the preparation of the specimen.

Another specimen in the College Museum, 289, shews a
very similar and more extreme though less marked state, also
associated with spina bifida and fusion of the ribs. In this it
appears, however, as if an odd half vertebra in excess had been
developed (a foetal condition similar to that described by Roki-
tansky from an adult skeleton). <A fcetal skeleton in Guy’s
Hospital Museum has apparently a fusion of the superimposed
halves of two vertebra on the left side about the eighth dorsal.

The last case to be mentioned is also from the Museum at
Guy's. It has not been previously described, and has some
points of similarity to the other cases. I will therefore repro-
duce the description given of it in the Museum Catalogue by the
editor, Dr Wilks.

1004". “A congenital malformation of the spine. This is
caused by the fusion together of the bodies of the third, fourth,
and fifth dorsal vertebra, and the curvature of the new-formed
mass. A slight oblique fissure passes across the anterior part,

2 On the Human Skeleton, p. 123,

re

MALFORMATION OF THE SPINAL COLUMN. Il

whereby it is seen that the body of the fourth vertebra is wholly
destroyed, and the third and fifth partially so, the one more
on its left side, and the other more on the right. Upon the
posterior view the three transverse processes are seen to be
perfect, those of the lower vertebra retaining their natural
position; and respecting those of the other two vertebre, on
the right side the upper process is seen entering its proper
body, and the middle one attached to a very small portion
of the body of the fourth which remains. On the left side
the two upper transverse processes are fused together, and join
the remains of the body of the third vertebra. The three
spinous processes are correct in number, and the two lower
ones come off from the remains of their respective vertebre
in the usual way, but the upper spine is continuous wholly
with the right arch of the third vertebra; the left arch of the
bone not meeting its fellow at all (the two being developed
separately), but is welded into the spinous process and arch
of the vertebra below. There is a synostosis of the left trans-
verse processes of the first and second dorsal vertebra. The
two last cervical vertebrae are also malformed with respect to
their arches, those of the lower being separate. Thus upon
looking at these two bones posteriorly, two spinous processes
are seen; but the upper is formed not only by the union of
its own two arches but also by the left side of the seventh
cervical, leaving the lower spinous process to be formed wholly
by the right lateral half which is placed beneath its fellow.
The two vertebra are united by their bodies and arches on the
left side. This preparation came from the dissecting room,
and is therefore deficient in history; it shews a congenital
defect followed by a reparative process, which probably oc-
curred during feetal life.”

I would add that the intervertebral foramen between the
third and fourth pedicles is still present in the centre of the
lateral mass, but it is not more than one-third the size of
the others.

The case is of value for one or two reasons. In the first
place, it goes to support the hypothesis of cross ankylosis be-
tween lateral nuclei, for it is best explained in that way. The
bodies of the third, fourth, and fifth vertebre are fused: to-

12 DR GOODHART.

gether; but of these the fifth is obviously perfect, and merely
altered in shape somewhat by reason of the ankylosis and cur-
vature. The fourth is described as wanting in its body, but
from the setting of the transverse processes it is, I think, well
represented on either side, whether by original body centres,
or merely by a growth forwards of that part which helps to
make up the body, but comes from the lateral masses, is very
difficult to say. However, on the left side it seems that the
body of the third is rather wanting, on the right side that of
the fourth. The right half of the third and the left half of
fourth constitute the chief portion of the fused mass, and in the
concavity of the curve is a squeezed-down half third body, in
the convexity a pushed-out larger half body of the fourth
dorsal. This description also tallies with what is observed
behind: the main (right) half of the third vertebra has the
lamina and spine perfect, but the left or small half, is merely
an appendage to the upper border of the fourth, and does not
meet its fellow in the median line.

Then again, the case is of interest because of the implication
of more spots than one. It will have been noticed from the
description that the seventh cervical has a tendency towards
non-coalescence of its laminz in the median line behind. This
may serve to suggest that the upper part of the axis has re-
ceived a twist, and the corresponding lamine of the neural
arches have consequently not been thrown across at the same
level.

Of the correctness of the inference that the deformity dates
from foetal life, there can be no question; both the character
of the changes and the similarity in the results, as seen both
in adult and foetal skeletons, sufficiently attest it.

Such cases are not common, Rokitansky quotes three
which are allied to them, one a case of intercalation of super-
numerary lateral halves of vertebra, another of deficiency of
lateral halves, the third of want of closure of lateral halves
of the bodies in the median line; a precisely similar con-
dition to the lumbar deformity in the adult skeleton described
in this paper, and leading to a similar result, viz. angular
curvature. )

In discussing the question of the number of nuclei in the

a

MALFORMATION OF THE SPINAL COLUMN. 13

body of a vertebra’, Professor Humphry mentions a few other
cases, one of them in the Hunterian Museum (277 Terat. Cat.),
a foetus whose lower spinal column is cleft in twain. He brings
them forward as suggestive “* that in the complete or typical
vertebra two nuclei should be allowed to this part (?.e. vertebral
body), one on either side of the median line.” The foetal skeleton
described in this paper seems to support the conclusion to which
he comes, “that there is sufficient evidence of the occasional
development of the vertebral bodies from two nuclei laterally
disposed.” With the cervical vertebre still deeply grooved;
and the right half of one body united to the left half of its
inferior neighbour, what other explanation is so probable ?

On the other hand, Professor Flower has found no evidence
from the study of normal anatomy, and from whieh alone he
thinks an opinion ought to be formed, of the occurrence of
a double nucleus to the vertebral bodies. Humphry quotes
Muller’s opinion also, “that the form of the centre of ossifi-
cation of the body of a vertebra is bilobed.” If this is so, the
grooved appearance down the centre of the spine in some cases
would be explained without having recourse to the opinion
_that a double nucleus occurs. But both the one and the other
are, it would seem, not improbable, various degrees of the
same want of development, and perhaps the bilobed or less
extreme condition, is not so very uncommon. Do they suggest
the formation in some cases of the rudimentary centre around
the temporarily persistent chorda dorsalis, the perfectly double
nucleus being the more pronounced condition? Supposing this
to be so, it is not inconceivable that occasionally the rudi-
mentary state should be the persistent one, producing what
might almost be called a reversion to the lower type of
spinal axis with its amphicelian vertebre and_ persistent
’ chorda; occasionally, the asymmetrical development of halves
of the centra only. In cases where the latter obtained both
hemal and neural arches would likely enough be interfered
with in their budding, and would close improperly or asymmetri-
cally. This is perhaps the explanation of the abnormalities
in Cases 1 and 2. The fusion of parts is, I think, consequent
upon the malformation, and is often no part of the primary

1 Loe, cit.

14 DR GOODHART.

state. It usually occurs in the concavity of the are, that is
to say, where the pressure upon the bones is greatest, where
they are brought close together by the absorption of the inter-
vening substances. The bony surfaces being brought and kept
in contact, ankylosis may, we know, be predicted with much
probability, and on the other hand it may be said that fusion
of two lateral superimposed halves of the bodies of vertebrae

does not necessarily bring about curvature. This is shewn |

by a specimen in Guy’s Hospital Museum 2541”, in which
about the eighth dorsal the vertebra are ankylosed without
producing any distortion. The same curvature would also
tend towards producing the fusion of the ribs as well as of the
spine, occurring as it does on the side of the concavity of
the arc; but some further explanation is perhaps needed in
their case. For instance, No. 322A in the Hunterian Museum
is the skeleton of a foetus which has no arms, and the first
rib is seen to pass under the clavicle midway, and join to the
second by a fibrous membrane just behind its chondrocostal
articulation. This case, and my own, where the rib has failed
to reach the sternum, rather suggest some early abnormality
in the segmentation of the muscle, or non-ossification of some
primary membranous intermuscular septum, such as is described
by Professor Humphry’.

To conclude then, the cases detailed all seem to render this
position probable: that cases of asymmetry of the two sides
of the spinal column are due to original malformation of the
bodies of the implicated vertebrae in the direction of a bilobed
or double nucleus, and the subsequent unequal growth of the
two halves. By original malformation I mean arrest of de-
velopment in its strictest sense, not merely its wider appli-
cation as included under teratological study, which comprehends
all congenital abnormalities whatsoever, whether of disease
contracted during intra-uterine life, or pure malformation. Tera-
tology includes diseased conditions with the others, probably
because the difficulty has been-so great to decide what was
disease and what was not. It may be as well to repeat that
these very cases admit of either interpretation, and Case 2 is
indeed catalogued by my friend Mr Lowne as one of disease

) Observations on Myology.

tid
Ave
shila es eel

a

— ee

MALFORMATION OF THE SPINAL COLUMN. 15

occurring in the intra-uterine life. If this be correct, the most
obvious explanation of the conditions would appear to be that
of a primary lateral curvature of the spine, not so very unlikely
a thing to happen, one would think, under various circum-
stances, such as hydrocephalus, or excess of cerebro-spinal fluid
in the spinal canal. Such a state of things, however, does not
seem to be very common; the Hunterian Museum possesses
two instances of lateral curvature unassociated with other mal-
formation, one in a calf, the other in a human female foetus
(261, 262, Terat. Cat.), and 2540°, in Guy’s Hospital Museum,
is a foetal skeleton with lateral curvature and spiral twist of
the spinal column in association with a malformed head. There
is also a male patient in Guy’s Hospital at the present time,
under the care of Mr Bryant, aged 26, who has a very pro-
- nounced lateral curvature associated with a cured spina bifida.

But the presence of primary curvature of the spine would
not negative the occurrence of permanent distortion in con-
sequence of a double nucleus to the bodies of some of the
vertebrae. On the contrary, if lateral curvature take place from
whatever cause, and the bodies of the vertebra in such a case
be developed in halves, there willbe a tendency at the point
of greatest pressure to protrusion or displacement of some of
them, and fusion or ankylosis of others, when a spinal distor-
tion similar to that we have described would be the result.

The nature of the supernumerary loin-rib does not require
much discussion; it articulates only with what appears to be the
transverse process of the first lumbar, and it must be looked
upon as an abnormal development of the epiphysial tubercle
of that transverse process; an occurrence which is not so very
uncommon, and has been fully described before. Of more
interest is its occurrence on the same side as the deficiency
above: it occurs on the same side as the rudimentary rib.
I was at first disposed to look upon it as the proper twelfth
rib, thus’ ignoring the presence of the first in its dwarfed con-
dition. The description of the parts that I have adopted was
suggested to me by Professor Flower, and while it is the more
philosophical, is no doubt the correct one. Is this occurrence
of a rudimentary and supernumerary rib on the same side merely
a coincidence, or shall it be said that nature, realizing her
inability to do without the twelve, has added one below to make

16 DR GOODHART. MALFORMATION OF THE SPINAL COLUMN.

up the deficiency above? To solve the reason of its occurrence
in this particular case it would be necessary to have the soft
parts of the skeleton, and those unfortunately were destroyed,
ere the rarity of our specimen could be recognised. But it will
not be going beyond the bounds of probability to say that in
all likelihood the two conditions were associated as cause and
effect ; that the first rib being virtually absent, the soft parts
were in a measure shifted, or the normal segmentation of the
muscular planes interfered with, and that thus some excess of
muscular attachment obtained in the region of the first lumbar
transverse process: that it became developed as any exostosis
might do by reason of increased work bringing with it in-
creased supplies of nutrition.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Case (1).

Fig. 1. Front view of the sternum shewing the relations which
the ribs on either side bear to those opposite. The figures denote the
numbers of the ribs. On the left side the Ist and 3rd are not seen,
the one being rudimentary, the other not reaching the sternum.

Fig. 2. Front view of the lower cervical and upper dorsal region.
a. Fused surface of the bodies of the 7th cervical and upper
four dorsal vertebree.
b. Rudimentary 1st rib.

Fig. 3. Posterior view of same region as in fig. 2, Above is
seen the tilting of the lower cervical vertebra.
a. Termination of the right lamina of 7th cervical in an
odd spine.
b. Tubercle in the ligament, (?) representing the spineof the 2nd
dorsal vertebra, which is completely fused with the 3rd.
c. Compound transverse process representing the transverse
processes of 2nd and 3rd dorsal vertebra,
Fig. 4. Front aspect of lower dorsal, lumbar and upper sacral
vertebree.
a. Supernumerary rib below the 12th.
The numbers and letters indicate the various vertebra,
dorsal or lumbar.
s. Sacrum,
Case (2).
Fig. 5. Front aspect of foetal skeleton, shewing the appearance
of spine developed from double nuclei in the vertebral bodies.
a. Odd tubercle (half body of vertebre not represented on
right side or behind).
The numbering and lettering explain themselves.
Fig. 6. Posterior view of the same region of skeleton. Letters
and numbers the same. <A spina bifida is seen above and below.

a i i

ON .VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS
IN MAN. By Joun Srruruers, M.D., Professor of
Anatomy in the University of Aberdeen.

HAVING over a number of years collected a considerable series
of specimens illustrating variation of the vertebrae and ribs,
I have thought that an account of them might prove inter-
esting as a contribution to the facts of variation. Much that
may appear to be mere detail will, I trust, not prove to be so
to those who are engaged in the objective study of variation of
these parts. It is, in truth, only after a close and critical
examination that the nature and worth of a variation can be
appreciated. Besides what else may appear, it will be evident
from the following study, that individual variations of these
parts are so frequent and may be so great, that conclusions as
to characters of species, or differences of race, in order to be
reliable must be founded on the examination of a series of
specimens. ‘The specimens are, I believe, all European, mostly
obtained from my own dissecting rooms.

(A) Variations in the Cervical Region.

(a) Deficient ossification of the Atlas ; anterior arch, posterior arch,
transverse processes,

(b) Bridges of bone developed on the Atlas, over the nerve and
artery. 14 cases.

(c) Consolidation of the Atlas and Occipital bone.

(d) Case in which the Muscles of the spine of the Axis are trans-
ferred to epispinous bones at the 3rd vertebra.

(e) Variation in the place of entry of the Vertebral Artery in the
cervical vertebrae. 2 cases of artery entering foramen of the
7th, and 3 special cases.

(f) Additional foramen in the cervical transverse processes. Exami-
nation of numerous cases.

(g) Variation of 7th vertebra; lateral foramen, transverse pro-
cesses, costal facets.

(h) Cervical Ribs. Examination of 10 cases illustrating the various
degrees of development.

(i) Recognition of Cervical Ribs in the living body. 3 cases.

VOL. IX. a

18 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

(B) Variations in the Thoracic Region,

(a) Imperfect development of Ist thoracic ribs. Case with remarks,
Case in a three-toed Sloth. :

(b) Varieties of the Sternal Ends of the ribs. 5 cases.

(c) Variation of the Costal Facets of the 9th and 10th dorsal ver-
tebrae.

(d) Imperfect development of the 12th rib. 5 cases.

(e) Variation in the place at which change of the Articular Pro-
cesses occurs. 10 cases. Note respecting position of this
change in animals,

(C) Variations in the Lumbar Region.

(a) Cases 1 and 2, Lumbar Rib simply. Note of 2 cases in the Ox,
differently placed.
(b) More complex lumbar variations ; Vertebrae and Ribs.

Case 3. Dorso-lumbar vertebra more than usual, with additional
pair of ribs. Note of another case of the same in Man, and of
case of the same in a Cat.

4, Case of the same, with 6th lumbar vertebra partly sacralised.
5,6 and 7. Three cases of 6 lumbar vertebrae.

8. Dorso-lumbar vertebra less than usual; 11 pairs of ribs, and
12th rib, or movable transverse process, on one side.

9. Case of 6 cervical vertebrae, and 6 lumbar vertebrae ; and a
vertebra suppressed in some part of the column.
(c) Variation of the 5th lumbar vertebra.

(1) Changes by which it becomes united to the sacrum, 4 cases.
Note on this change in the Gorilla.

(2) Variations of its lower Articular Processes. Cases and re-
marks.

(3) Variations of the upper articular processes of the sacrum.

(D) Variations of the Sacrum.

(a) Diminution in the number of its component vertebrae.

(b) Variation in form of the upper sacral vertebra, apparently from
borrowed lumbar vertebra, The Ape-like sacrum, 4 cases.

(c) Examination of 6 sacra, in which the upper vertebra is of
unusual form, but in which the additional vertebra appears to
have been obtained from the coccyx,

(d) Examination of 7 other cases in which a 6th vertebra is obtained
from the coceyx,

(e) Variation in the number of sacral vertebrae with which the
Tlium articulates,

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 19

(f) Variation in the form of the Auricular Surface,
(g) Case of Sacral Canal open in its whole length.

(E) Variations of the Coccyx.
(a) Diminution in the number of its component vertebrae. Cases of,
and their nature.
(b) Increase. Remarks. Two cases of 10 sacro-coccygeal vertebrae.
(c) Union of the coceygeal vertebrae. External influences.

(A) VARIATIONS IN THE CERVICAL REGION.

(a) DEFICIENT OSSIFICATION OF THE ATLAS, Case 1.
Anterior arch mostly ligamentous, and containing a separate
ossification. This preparation is from a female subject aged 91.
The gap in the bone is # inch at the upper margin, 14 inch at
the lower margin. It is occupied by a ligament flattened like
the normal bony arch but not so deep. A scale of bone, $ inch
in length, 4 inch in height, lies in the right half of the liga-
ment, having a distinct interval of ligament on its right side
also. The edges of the gap are formed by two pointed pro-
cesses which project for } to $ inch inwards beyond the articular
cavities. The fore ends of these cavities converge less than
usual, being nearly as wide apart as the hinder ends are at
their inner edge. The posterior arch, and the other parts of
the bone, are well ossified and healthy looking. The odontoid
process presents a raised platform against which especially the
scale of bone has played.

Case 2. One half of posterior arch of Atlas represented by
a ligament. An adult male subject. The rest of the cervical
vertebrae well ossified and robust. The left side of the arch is
well ossified, ending abruptly a little to the left of the middle
line, where it attaches the ligament. The entire right half
arch is ligamentous, including the part which represents the
pedicle. The anterior transverse process of the same side is
slender, tapering outwards, and is then ligamentous opposite
the outer part of the foramen.

Case 3. Mesial deficiency of posterior bony arch of Atlas.
The bone is otherwise robustly developed. he gap is about

2—2

20 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

? inch, the left arch ending abruptly, the right obliquely on its

upper edge. Both half arches are well ossified, and the addi-

tional small foramen is present on both sides, about the size of
a crow-quill, but oval. In the case of cervical rib No. 6, adult
and the vertebrae robust, the two half arches of the atlas are
just meeting by irregular ends, but are not united.

Deficiency of one of the transverse processes of the Atlas.
In all the adult specimens of this deficiency before me, it is of
the anterior process. Ina female subject (case No. 1, lumbar
variation) it is deficient externally on both sides. In a female
skeleton, it is deficient on the right side in its outer half. Ina
male, aged 31, the neck otherwise well ossified, the outer half is
deficient on the right side. In another case (case No. 4, cervical
rib) the deficiency is of the outer part on the left side. At the
same time it may be remarked that, in several of the specimens
before me in which there is decided inequality of the two
processes, the slender one is the posterior. This is partly owing
to the posterior being more slender than usual, partly to the
anterior process being unusually robust.

(b) OCCASIONAL BRIDGES OF BONE ON THE ATLAS OVER
THE GROOVE FOR THE NERVE AND ARTERY. ‘Two of these
bony arches may occur, the nature of which may be readily
understood by referring to the conditions presented by the more
tube-like atlas of quadrupeds, and to the position of the sub-occi-
pital nerve and vertebral artery, and the fibrous bands, in man,
The posterior bridge is common and well known, It is repre-
sented normally by a strong fibrous arch. It curves from the
back of the condyloid cup downwards and backwards to join the
hinder edge of the arch, at a point where the two stages of the
arch representing the pedicle and the lamina meet, thus con-
verting the superior notch of the atlas into a foramen, I may
note briefly the conditions in thirteen specimens of this variety
before me, five of these being in eases to be referred to after-
wards for other varieties.

1, Robust atlas; bridge on both sides; broad, being } inch
in breadth at the middle.

2, Robust atlas; bridge on both sides; narrow, especially
on right side,

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 21

3. Small atlas; bridge on both sides; about 4 inch broad.

4, Female, aged 40 (case of cervical rib No. 5); bridge
on both sides; an oval aperture in each arch near outer
edge.

5. Male, aged 47 (case No. 4 of imperfectly developed 12th
rib); on left side {inch broad, with oval aperture in it $ inch
long. On right side, incomplete at middle.

6. Male. Complete but narrow on left side. On right
side, only a spur-like process hanging down from condyle.

7. Male. On right side, $inch broad. Left side of atlas
removed,

8. Robust atlas. On right side, complete and narrow.
Left side a pointed process from above, very little from below.

9, (Case of cervical rib No. 4.) On right side complete,
7 inch broad. Left side a pointed process from above, very
little from below.

10. Robust spinal column. (Case No. 8, lumbar variation.)
On right side two pointed processes nearly meeting at the
middle. Left side the processes short and of about equal
length.

11, 12, and 13. Three specimens (one of them case of
cervical rib No. 6). Represented on both sides by an overhanging
spur from the condyle and a slight ledge on the arch.

The lateral bridge is seen in the first of the above 13 cases,

It passes from the outer edge of the condyloid cup, outwards
and downwards to join the back part of the transverse process
external to the foramen. Above, it is nearly half an inch in
breadth, narrowing downwards to about } inch. This is on the
left side. On the right side, it appears to have had exactly the
same arrangement but is broken. In the eighth of the above
13 specimens, the lateral bridge is about half formed on both
sides, mainly from above. In another atlas it is fully half
formed; on the left side, by a broad ledge projecting from
above, and by a shorter pointed process from below, while on
the right side it does not exist; nor on either side is there
any part of a posterior bridge. While the posterior bridge
adds one foramen to the atlas, a transverse one, the lateral
bridge, arching over the vertebral artery as it ascends from

22 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

the lateral foramen, gives the appearance of other two fora-
mina, antero-posterior in direction’.

(c) CASE OF CONSOLIDATION OF THE ATLAS AND OcctI-
PITAL Bone. The first impression on seeing this specimen is
that the condition is the result of former disease, but Professor
Henle shewed me some years ago, in the Anatomical Museum
of Gottingen, several specimens of the same condition, and he
did not consider it as of pathological origin. There is no
history to this case. It occurs in a prepared set of bones of
the head. It is adult, as the basilar process had been united
to the sphenoid; but not old, as the bones have all separated
well at the sutures; and, from the appearance of the frontal
bones and the jaws, is probably from a female.

The ankylosis is not merely articular, but fills up the an-
terior and posterior spaces, making the consolidation continu-
ous; and, although there are vascular foramina here and there,
there is no irregularity or excrescence, but a general appearance
of healthiness. There is also shortening longitudinally, as if
the occipital condyles had not been developed ; the transverse
processes of the atlas being 4 to } inch, instead of 4 to $inch,
from the parts of the occipital bone above them, and the
measurement taken from the lower edge of the anterior condy-
loid foramen to the centre of the inferior articular surface of
the atlas being 8 to 9 lines instead of about 12 lines. No trace
remains of the line of union of the articular surface. The
tubercle and form of the anterior arch of the atlas are visible,
but the bony continuity between them and the basilar process
is not much thinner than the arch itself. It is pierced close
to the left of the middle line by a vascular foramen which would
admit a thick pin, The union of the posterior arch to the
occipital bone is by a thinner plate of bone, in which, to the
right side of the middle line, there is an irregular gap, left
unossified, 3 lines across and 1 line in height. The posterior
arch itself is much thinner than usual and without any rudi-

1 Were the fibrous membrane which here covers over the vertebral arter
between these two bridges also ossified, except the perforation in it whic
transmits the posterior division of the nerve, we should then have the condition
of parts presented by the atlas of a baboon (cynocephalus porcarius) now before
me, marking off a more definite posterior foramen,

a, =

oO

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 23

mentary spine. ‘The lateral foramen of the atlas is, on the
left side, wide, embracing a full-sized round part internally
and an irregular part externally, the two transverse processes
meeting externally only by a narrow bar; on the right side
they do not meet from deficiency of the anterior process. The
foramen for the sub-occipital nerve and the vertebral artery
is situated just behind the condyle, is rounded and scarcely
so large as an average foramen for the vertebral artery. From
the outlet of the anterior condyloid foramen, on both sides, a well-
marked groove leads backwards to above the lateral foramen.
It is smooth and sharp-edged, deep enough to form half a
canal, wide enough to contain an under-sized vertebral artery,
and appears as if it had transmitted something from the an-
terior condyloid foramen, but that foramen itself is below the
average in size and scarcely so large as the groove would be if
completed into a canal. Some occipital bones shew an irregular
groove running backwards from the outlet of the anterior con-
dyloid foramen. The articular surfaces for the axis are very
fully developed, the facet for the front of the odontoid 64 lines
across by 5 in height, and the inferior articulating surfaces
of the atlas are above the average in size.

(d) CASE IN WHICH THE MUSCLES OF THE SPINE OF THE
AXIS ARE TRANSFERRED TO EPISPINOUS BONES AT THE SPINE
OF THE 3RD VERTEBRA. The spine of the axis wants its usual
great size and is not bifurcated. Recti mimores muscles normal.
Interspinales absent as usual between atlas and axis, but pre-
sent between axis and 3rd. The recti majores arise entirely at
the spine of the 3rd vertebra. The inferior oblique also arises
at the spine of the 3rd, but an additional portion, equal to
1 the size of the lower, arises from the axis, deeper than the
spine, and passes to join the greater portion above its middle.
Superior oblique normal. At first the muscles attached at the
spine of the 3rd vertebra seemed as if directly attached to a
massive spinous process, but on dissection it was seen that they
are attached to a pair of movable ossicles.

These epispinous bones are oval and flat, like small-sized
almonds; length 6 to 7 lines, breadth 3 to 4 lines, thickness
1 line; the left being somewhat larger in all directions than

24 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

the right. They are attached to the corresponding tubercle of
the spine of the 3rd vertebra, each by a strong, short, deep,
ligament, and to each other by transverse ligamentous fibres
passing between their inner margins. On dividing the latter,
the ossicles can be moved outwards to inch from each other,
and can be moved freely in all directions. The deep ligament
is attached to the inner part of their deep surface, the muscles
above mentioned to their upper end and outer surface. The
spine of the 8rd vertebra is more developed than usual, the
left tubercle being the larger. The interspinales in the space
between the axis and 3rd vertebra are large and in two
strata; the superficial, flattened laterally, diverge downwards
and are attached to the deep surface of the epispinous ossi-
~ eles and to the deep ligament; the deeper pair are parallel
and more like ordinary inter-transversales. The fibres of the
two sets blend at their attachment to the spine of the axis.
The muscles which normally pass from below to the spine of
the axis, were attached to the lower part of the epispinous
ossicles.

When the ossicles are approximated, as they lay naturally,
they form an elongated saddle-like covering to the 3rd spine,
and can be moved freely (to the extent of half an inch) upwards
and downwards, the deep ligaments then checking. In life, the
preliminary action of the muscles from below would be required
before the rectus major and inferior oblique could have a fixed
point from which to act. It would appear that these ossicles
represent the tubercles of the spine of the axis, developed sepa-
rately and carried down to the spine of the vertebra below,
carrying all the muscles with them, except those deeper fibres
of the inferior oblique which may be seen to arise from the
lamina rather than from the spinous process proper. In other
respects the cervical vertebrae are normal, except that the 7th
has carried its ribs longer than usual before they became anky-
losed, especially on the right side,

(e) VARIATION IN THE PLACE OF ENTRY OF THE VERTE-
BRAL ARTERY IN THE CrervicAL VERTEBRAE. I may note
under this head, as worthy of mention, two cases in which the
vertebral artery entered the foramen of the 7th vertebra, and

a ee

een Se ae ee

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 25

three special cases of the artery, as not unfrequently occurs,
entering higher than the 6th vertebra.

Case 1. Left vertebral artery entering at the seventh ver-
tebra. Aged male subject. Artery arose nearly an inch earlier
than usual from the subclavian, and entered the foramen in the
transverse process of the 7th cervical vertebra. On right side,
artery arose normally and entered at foramen of 6th vertebra.
The bones have not been preserved.

Case 2. Right vertebral artery arising last from the arch
of the aorta, and entering at the seventh cervical vertebra. Male
subject, aged about 15 years. The right vertebral arose from
the back of the aorta half an inch after the origin of the left
subclavian. It passed obliquely up and across between the
gullet and. the first dorsal vertebra, and entered the foramen
in the transverse process of the seventh cervical vertebra on
the right side. The artery was of the normal size. This case
occurred in 1854, and I cannot say more of the other arteries
than that it is entered in my note-book at the time that they
were normal. The macerated vertebrae are in my collection.
On the right side, the foramen is large and rounded, not far.
from twice the capacity of the foramen of the vertebrae above
it. Its anterior boundary is formed by a completely ankylosed
rather narrow bar, bulged forwards, and without a tubercle.
On the left side, the foramen is less than half the size of the
right, and smaller than that of the vertebra above it. The
cervical rib forming this boundary is not fully ankylosed, either
at its inner or outer end; nor is the ossification of the 6th
transverse -process of this, the left, side completed, a narrow
fissure still remaining along the middle of the nerve-groove.

The origin and course of the right vertebral artery in this
subject, before it reaches the foramen, shew that the case falls
to be classed with that interesting variety in which the right
subclavian trunk arises last from the arch of the aorta, repre-
senting the remains of the embryonic right aortic root, four
specimens of which are in my possession. One of these has
the bones attached, and on both sides the vertebral artery is
seen to enter at the foramen of the sixth vertebra, both arte-
ries arising from the subclavian trunks a little earlier than

26 “PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

usual. In regard to the artery not normally entering the fora-
men of the seventh vertebra, the remark may be true enough
that that would be out of its direct road, but it by no means
follows that a lower origin of the artery will alter the result.
It is very common for the left vertebral artery to arise from the
aortic arch, between the carotid and the subclavian, but I have
never yet seen it in such cases enter at the seventh vertebra.
In endeavouring to understand this point one must think of
where these arterial arches were in the embryo, not where they
ultimately arrive at, and also of the early condition of the
neck.

Case 3. Left vertebral artery arising from the arch of the
aorta, and entering at the fifth cervical vertebra. The right was
not noted, but both foramina of the 5th vertebra are equally
full-sized and round, while on both sides of the 6th the foramen
is scarcely half-size.

Case 4. Right vertebral artery entering at the fourth ver-
tebra, with other peculiarities. Preparation of the four lower
cervical vertebrae with the arteries. Although it was noted that
the artery did not enter till the 4th, the foramina of the 5th
and 6th are of good size and rounded, though not quite so large
as those of the 4th. On the left side the artery entered at the
6th, but the anterior transverse processes of the 5th and 4th
are deficient, a ligament bridging over the gap. Nevertheless,
the anterior tubercles of these two transverse processes (sup-
ported from the posterior processes) are well developed, as are
also their fellows of the right side and those of the 6th ver-
tebra. Foramina of 7th oval and unequal; left not much less
than the foramina above it; right about a third the size of the
left.

Case 5. Bony obliteration of the lateral foramen in the siath
vertebra, on one side. Preparation of the six upper cervical
vertebrae; moderately robust ; no history. All the other fora-
mina are full-sized and round. On the left side of the 6th,
instead of a foramen there is a plate of bone. There is no
mark, or thinness, to indicate a filled-up foramen, Anterior
tubercle better developed than usual on this side; on the other
side less than usual.

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 27

(f) ADDITIONAL FORAMEN IN THE CERVICAL TRANSVERSE
PROCESSES. In 15 specimens of double foramen before me, in
detached cervical vertebrae, other than the 7th or atlas or
axis, nearly all, so far as appears, from different subjects, the
double foramen is by the addition of a small one behind the
ordinary foramen; except in one vertebra, in which, on one
side, there is an hour-glass contraction marking off two fora-
mina, of which the posterior.is somewhat the larger. This
frequent small additional foramen is situated opposite the mid-
dle, or a little external to the middle of the normal foramen,
separated from it by a narrow bar of bone, sometimes only by
projecting points, leaving it as a notch in the macerated bone.
It is more or less straight in front, deeply convex behind, and
therefore wants the rounded form of the great foramen. It
varies much in size, in most about the size of the average
foramen spinosum of the sphenoid, in some twice as large,
in some reduced to the size of a thick pin. In nine of these
specimens it is present on one side only, as it so happens in
six on the right side, three on the left; im the remaining six
on both sides, in three of them of about equal size on the
two sides, in the other three considerably smaller on one side
than on the other. It is largest in large-sized vertebrae, but
is of good size in some that are not large. It is not formed at
’ the expense of the greater foramen, although in some the latter
may be a little less rounded at the dividing bar ; nor do the two
foramina, on the same side, appear to-bear any relation to each
other in size apart from the influence of the size of the bone,
Thus the large foramina may be symmetrical while the small
ones are not, and in the vertebrae in which it is present on one
side only, the greater foramen is sometimes larger sometimes
smaller than its fellow of the other side, as often the one as the
other.

It is variously present as follows in 18 of the sets of cervical
vertebrae before me.

1. On right side present, as a notch, in atlas, 3rd, 4th and
5th. On left side present in the four lower vertebrae, smallest
in the 5th, in the 4th and 6th of good and equal size, and
somewhat smaller in the 7th.

28 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

2. On right side in 5th and 7th, the intervening sixth
ordinary foramen unusually large on this side. Left side, in
atlas, 4th, 5th, and 6th, increasing downwards (vertebrae of case
of ligamentous posterior arch of atlas. Case 2).

3. Asa notch on both sides of 4th and 5th, and on da

side of 6th and 7th. (Case of cervical rib No. 4.)
; 4, On both sides of 5th and 6th, and on left side of 4th,
increasing in size downwards.

5. A young spine, 20 inches in length. As a notch, pre-
sent on both sides of atlas, and on right side of 5th; on both
sides of 6th, as a large foramen on right, as a large notch on

left side.
| 6. Asa small foramen on both sides of 5th; as a good-sized
notch on left side of 6th.

7. Female subject, aged 17 years. In atlas on left side, and
in 6th on both sides.

8. As a small foramen on both sides of atlas, as a notch on
both sides of 6th.

9. In atlas on both sides, on right as a notch; and on
right side of 6th as a foramen of good size. First dorsal verte-
bra on both sides presents a well-marked semilunar notch at
the corresponding place. (Female subject, case No. 1 of lum-
bar variation.)

10. As a notch on both sides of atlas, on right side of 6th
as a deep notch. Normal foramen much larger on this than on
left side. (Case No. 4, lumbar variation, male aged 29.)

11. On both sides of 6th, right large, left small; and on
left side of 7th as a notch. Robust spine. Atlas wanting.

12. As a notch on left side of 6th, and right side of 7th.
(Case above noted in which right vertebral artery entered the
7th foramen.)

13. Preparation of two lowest cervical and first dorsal ver-
tebrae. Present on both sides of 6th symmetrically as small -
foramen; on left side of 7th as a notch, and on right side of
corresponding part of Ist dorsal vertebra as a notch.

14. On both sides of atlas as a notch, and on right side of
7th as a deep notch.

15. Asa notch, on both sides of atlas and on both sides of
7th. Male subject (case No. 4 of thoracic variation).

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 29

16. ‘Present on both sides in 4th, 5th, and 6th, on the 4th
as notches only. On left side of 6th the anterior of the two
foramina is the smaller, being about 4 the size of the posterior.
The latter, however, corresponds in position to the additional
foramen in the vertebra above it. The artery has evidently
not entered till the 5th on this side, and the aperture of the
6th has been minimised. The 7th vertebra carries ribs, and on
both sides the lateral foramen shews a notch equal to the
posterior third of an oval foramen. (Case No. 9 of lumbar
variation.) | |

17. On both sides of 6th, as a notch. On left side of 7th
as a foramen, oval transversely, long diameter } inch, and from a
third to a half less than the anterior foramen. On right side
one foramen irregularly oval antero-posteriorly, like the two
on the left side without the dividing bar.

18. On left side of 4th, as a notch; on right side of 5th
asa notch. On both sides of 6th, on right side as a notch, on
left side as a foramen larger than the one in front of it. The
anterior small and oval, about the size indicated by the notch
on the left side. The posterior three times the size of the
‘anterior but not half the size of an ordinary lateral foramen.
The vertebral artery, entering normally on the right side, has
on the left side evidently not entered till the 5th, and the ante-
rior foramen of the 6th has been minimised, and is bounded in
front by a very thick anterior transverse process, about three
times as thick as the corresponding process on the right side, or
as the process of the vertebra above it.

Summing up these details, it appears that in these 18 sub-
jects in which the posterior lateral foramen occurs, it is present
in the stath vertebra in 16 of them, on both sides in 8, on only
one side in 8, of which 3 were on the right, 5 on the left side ; and
of the whole, the foramen was complete in 14, represented as a
notch in 10. In the seventh vertebra it was present in 10, on
both sides in 2, on only one side in 8, of which 4 were right,
4 left; and of the whole, the foramen was complete in 3, as a
notch in 9. It may also be present in the first dorsal vertebra.
In the fifth vertebra it was present in 8, on both sides in 6, on
only one side, the right, in 2; and of the whole, it was com-

30 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

plete in 9, as a notch in 5. In the fourth vertebra it was
present in 6, on both sides in 3, on only one side, the left, in 3;
and of the whole, it was complete in 3, as a notch in 6. In the
third vertebra, it was present in one alone, being on the right
side only and as a notch. In none of my specimens is it pre-
sent in the axis. In the atlas it was present in 9, on both
sides in 6, on only one side in 3, of which 1 was on the right,
and 2 were on the left; and of the whole it was complete in 5,
as a notch in 10. Throughout the neck, in these eighteen _
subjects, it was 25 times present on both sides, 27 times on one
side only; when present on one side only, it was the right
side in 12, the left in 15; and in the whole, whether double or
single, it presented itself 36 times as a complete foramen, 44
times as a notch.

Its situation on the atlas, it is to be remarked, is different,
being separated from the normal lateral foramen by the poste-
rior transverse process. It is, however, still in the course of the
vertebral artery. It might be taken to be in the pedicle, but
more strictly is formed by a bar of bone reaching from the
posterior transverse process to the pedicle. Hence in the case
of the atlas, in contrast with the lower vertebrae, the posterior
boundary of the additional foramen is the more or less straight
one,

(g) VARIATIONS OF THE SEVENTH CERVICAL VERTEBRA ;
LATERAL FORAMEN, TRANSVERSE PROCESS, COSTAL FACET. I
refer here to the transverse process after the normal cervical
rib, which exists in early life in the human body, is fully
ankylosed,

The foramen is generally described as small, and the process
as not bifurcated. It may be so perhaps most frequently, but
it is very common to find the foramen as large as or larger
than those in the vertebrae above it, and to find the transverse °
process with an anterior tubercle, The varieties of the foramen
may be referred to two forms. In the one, it is small and
more regularly formed, round or more or less oval transversely,
the anterior boundary of the oval with a tendency to be less
bent than the posterior. The bar of the anterior transverse
process in front of the foramen is then generally thick. In the

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 31

other form, it is large and irregular in shape, but generally
- pointed externally, or prolonged as a fissure. The anterior
transverse process is then generally slender and flattened and
more or less bent forwards. But between these there are in-
termediate forms and some exceptions. The foramen may be
as small in its long axis as ;, inch, or as large as 4, or even
8 inch. A little over 3 inch may be taken as the average
transverse diameter of the lateral foramen in the other verte-
brae, but it varies very much. Want of symmetry also is
common, and probably this generally corresponds to difference
in size of the right and left vertebral artery, the foramina above
the 7th being generally functionally adapted. But want of
symmetry appears to be more common in the 7th, as we should
expect. In one set of cervical vertebrae before me, however, the
foramina in the 7th are larger on both sides than those in the
vertebrae above it, and are unusually oval in form and not
very unsymmetrical, Although this foramen, or space, may be
large and even not very irregular in form, it would not be safe
to conclude that therefore the artery had passed through it.
As noted above, it is not uncommon to find a notch at the
back of this foramen, representing the additional foramen.

The anterior transverse process generally presents a rudi-
ment of an anterior tubercle, and often a well-marked tubercle.
The rudiment is represented by the ridge which bounds the
nerve-groove internally, continued from the upper edge of the
process. This ridge may rise upwards and outwards into a
distinct anterior tubercle, giving the process a bifurcated cha-
racter. There are before me seven specimens of bifurcation
from well-developed anterior tubercle. Two of them are in
young spines (each 20 inches in length), one of them with large
oval foramen and slender anterior boundary, the other with
middle-sized oval foramen and thick anterior boundary. Of
the adult specimens, two have small foramina and thick ante-
rior process; the other three have pretty large and well-rounded
foramina. Even in the best developed it is narrow and pointed
as compared with the tubercle of the sixth vertebra, the tu-
bercle which meets the finger in the dissection of this part of
the neck. In only one of my specimens (case of cervical ribs —
ankylosed on both sides—case 7a) is the anterior tubercle of the

32 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

siath vertebra but slightly developed, and that on the right
side only, and the foramen on that side is very small, while it
is full-sized on the other side and in all the vertebrae above.

Costal facet. According to my observation it is rare to find
a facet on the 7th cervical vertebra for articulation with the
head of the Ist thoracic rib, more rare than the expressions
in books imply. Apart from cases of supernumerary cervical
rib, it is present in only two of my specimens, and that on one
side only; one on the left side, one on the right. In the latter,
the facet is about half the size of the neighbouring one on the
1st dorsal vertebra. The head of the 10th rib articulates with —
the 9th vertebra in this case also on the right side, but not on
the left. Im the other case, the 10th rib does not touch the
9th dorsal on either side. It is, however, common among
quadrupeds to have the Ist rib articulating with the 7th cer-
vical vertebra as well as with the 1st dorsal, and as the foramen
is often wanting at the same time, this vertebra then has not
the character of a cervical, and has the character of a dorsal,
according to the definitions of human anatomy.

(h) Crrvicat Riss. I shall notice my various specimens
in the order of development.

Case 1. Preparation shewing rudiments of Cervical Ribs on
the 6th and 7th vertebrae, in a male subject aged four years.
The preparation includes the cervical vertebrae, and the first
four dorsal vertebrae with their ribs. On the siath vertebra
the cervical rib, or separate bony element, forms the lower part
of the anterior transverse process, and is the same on both
sides. It is separated from the process proper by an oblique
suture, seen both before and behind, running downwards and
outwards, dividing the wall of bone nearly equally, so that the
rib is broad internally where it rests on the body, and tapers
outwards to nearly as far as the end of the anterior process
proper. ‘Total length ,'; inch. As seen from below, it rests
against the anterior half, as seen from above against the an-
terior third, of the body, the neural arch resting on the pos-
terior part. Both rib and neural arch are seen to form the
lateral part of the intervertebral “body” surface, above and
below. The anterior transverse process proper is, like the pos-

Te.

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 33

_ terior, ossified from the neural arch. It passes forwards and

outwards behind and above the rib, and meets the posterior at
the outer end of the well-marked foramen, at the fore part of
the nerve-groove, a very little way external to the apex of the
rib, Thus a foramen is completed by the two processes quite
irrespective of the rib, although the back of the latter forms
the lower part of the front wall of the foramen. A small ad-
ditional foramen exists behind the normal foramen on the right
side, no other vertebra of this neck shewing it. The 5th ver-
tebra shows, and indeed the 4th, 3rd, and 2nd also show, on
their under aspect, traces as if from fissure between the fore
and back parts of the arch where it rests on the sides of the
body, but these are not reliable.

On the seventh vertebra, the rib or additional element is dif-

- ferently placed, being farther out and not reaching in to touch

the body of-the vertebra. The neural arch rests against the
whole side of the body, from before backwards, sending out a
broad anterior process in front of the foramen to meet the pos-
terior process, which has turned round far enough to form the
outer end of the foramen and the outer half of the nerve-
groove. The rib reaches outwards as far as the tip of the pos-
terior transverse process, and, tapering inwards, ceases } inch
from the body proper, reaching as far in as opposite the inner
end of the foramen. Total length of rib 4, inch. The rib is
broadest about its middle, forming two-thirds of the breadth
of the compound anterior transverse process, and the suture
which unites it to the two transverse processes is very irregular,
This applies to the left side. On the right side, my notes,
made in 1857, state that “a ligament completed the foramen.
No separate bony element existed here.” The ligament has

perished, the broken points of its attachment remaining visible,

opening up what has been a foramen about the same size as
that on the left side, «

Case 2. Moveable Cervical Rib, developed to the extent of
head neck and tubercle, on both sides, in a female subject aged

_7 years. Preparation of two lower cervical vertebrae and two

upper dorsal vertebrae with their ribs, In contrast with the
last case, these ribs form the entire anterior boundary of the
VOL. IX, 3

oe PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

foramen. They represent the head neck and tubercle of a rib,
and pass about } inch beyond the tip of the transverse process.
They are nearly symmetrical, the left a little broader and more
marked with a nerve-groove, the right passing a little farther
beyond the tip of the transverse process. Total length 74 to
; inch. A conical parapophysis, 3 inch in length, rises from
either side of the body, upon the end of which the obliquely cut
head of the rib is movably articulated. The foramen, or space,
which they bound is, on the left side, chiefly formed by a deep
notch in the posterior process and is of moderate size, on the
right side more shallow and smaller. Beyond this they are
moveably articulated, for 4 inch, to the posterior transverse pro-
cess. Greatest breadth of rib here, right 2, left 4; inch. The
sixth vertebra presents a normal lateral foramen on the left
side, about twice as large as that- of the 7th, but a very small
one on the right, smaller than that of the 7th.

Case 3. Similar to the last. Preparation of a young spine,
in section, about 20 inches in length. All the other vertebrae
and ribs normal. Conical parapophysis 4 inch long, against
which head of rib is movably articulated. Neck of rib bounds
a large foramen on both sides. Costo-transverse articulation
for 4 inch, and ribs project } inch beyond tip of process.
Ribs expand opposite and beyond their external articulation.
Left rather the largest but nearly symmetrical. Total length 74
to ;,inch, Greatest breadth at outer end ;. Neck and head
are more flattened than in the last case. |

Case 4, Cervical Rib, to the extent of head neck and tubercle,
Sree on right side, ankylosed on left. Position of arteries and
nerves. Adolescent subject, the body epiphyses not being
united, and the tips of the spinous processes cartilaginous,
Preparation now presents the cervical vertebrae with the first
dorsal vertebra and its ribs, Cervical rib on right side to the
extent of head, neck, and tubercle, Length nearly 1 inch.
Rather more than the inner half is a narrow bar jy to $ inch
broad ; outer part suddenly enlarged to a breadth of + where
it rests on the posterior transverse process, presenting a triangu-
lar mass which tapers outwards to a distance of nearly half an
inch beyond the transverse process. Rib was articulated at

i

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 35

both its costo-vertebral and costo-transverse connections by car-
tilage, allowing of motion. Head rested on a parapophysis
$ inch in length, flattened, and extended vertically at its root.
Neck of rib shews a nerve-groove on which the 7th cervical
nerve was seen to rest. Internal to this it becomes flattened,
expanding at last, vertically, to a breadth of 4 inch where it
meets the parapophysis. On left side, rib completely ankylosed,
leaving no kind of trace internally, nor any externally except
that an undulation seems to mark off where the triangular
tubercle has joined the posterior process. The tip of the now
united mass does not reach so far outwards, by nearly 4 inch, as
the tip of the rib does on the right side. The bar in front of
the foramen is more flattened at the nerve-groove than the
neck of the rib on the right side is.

The right vertebral artery divided immediately at its origin,
half an inch below the level of the 7th foramen; the posterior,
rather the smaller, entered the 6th foramen, and the two re-
united between the 6th and 5th foramina, the artery then
having the usual course. The left vertebral artery arose normally
and entered the 6th foramen. Arising behind it from the sub-

clavian was a small artery, about } its size, which entered the

7th foramen, but was lost between the 7th and 6th foramina.
In the now macerated bones the left 7th foramen is oval and
rather large, being 4 lines in its long diameter, and rather more
capacious than the rounded 6th foramen above it. The foramen,
or costo-vertebral space, on the right side is larger and elongated

outwards into a narrow apex. The narrow outer part was occu-

pied by fibrous tissue; the larger part was closed by a fibrous
membrane, the naturally perforated part of which was under a
line in diameter. The notches representing the additional
foramina in this neck are noted under that section, case 3. The
notch for the posterior foramen on the right side of the 6th
vertebra is large, about 4 to 4 the size of the anterior foramen
(through which the posterior division of the vertebral artery
probably passed), which again is considerably less than that of
the 5th through which the re-united vertebrals passed. The

6th foramen on the right side has the full size.

Case 5. Cervical Rib, to the extent of head neck and tubercle,
2

36 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

Free on left side, ankylosed on right. Female aged 40. Prepara-
tion of entire spine with Ist and 12th thoracic ribs. Length of
cervical rib 1} inch. Projects over } inch beyond transverse —
process, Head flattened and rests in a facet upon a short thick
parapophysis projecting from upper part of side of body. Joint
was surrounded by ligament and presented cartilaginous surfaces
and a cavity. Costo-transverse joint § to § inch long, and when
opened presented cartilaginous facet 4 inch long, transversely,
by 4 broad. The facet was at the lower and outer part of the
connexion, the rest being strong interosseous ligament. Nerve-
groove double. Foramena moderate-sized oval space internally,
half the size of the right foramen, prolonged as a narrow fissure
externally which an interosseous ligament occupied. Vertebral
artery entered on right side at 6th, on left side at 4th. Left
foramen of 6th undersized, of 5th small. On the right side the
lines of union have disappeared ; tip projects 4 inch less than
that of rib on other side. Nerve-groove single. First thoracic
rib seems as if it had touched 7th vertebra, at least on right
side, but there is no real notch. Other peculiarities of this
preparation are,—12th thoracic ribs small, left the shortest.
First coccygeal bone ankylosed to sacrum. Atlas has posterior
bridge on both sides, (case 4 of that variety).

Case 6.. Cervical Rib, to the extent of head neck and tubercle,
on left side, ankylosed externally on right. Preparation of cervi-
cal vertebrae, adult and otherwise fully ossified except that the
laminae of the atlas have not quite united behind. (Already
referred to with case 3 of that variety.) On right side a fissure
remains between head of rib and a well-marked flat tapering
parapophysis, which projects from above the middle of the body.
Head of rib here thin and ;; inch in breadth. Is bulged for-
wards with large foramen. Moderate anterior tubercle, suc-
ceeded by broad and deep nerve-groove. Externally no reliable
trace of ankylosis remains above, but line is distinctly seen on
under surface. United mass tapers to a point outwards and
forwards, 5 lines beyond transverse process. Foramen large
and rounded with addition of a narrow part externally, the
rounded part as large as that of the 6th, which is large on both
sides, Left side. Rib now lost. Vertebra shews two smooth

CPP, tee eee ee ee ee

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 37

facets where the rib has articulated; one on the well-marked
parapophysis, 4 inch vertically by 4, in breadth; the outer, on
the anterior edge of the transverse process, } inch in length
by 4 in height, facing forwards and outwards. The transverse
process is a little shorter and more pointed than the part refer-
able to the transverse process on the other side. The foramen
has been about half of that of the right side, as indicated by the
deep oval notch.

Case 7. Two cases of Cervical Ribs, to the extent of head
neck and tubercle, ankylosed on both sides. (a). Adult female.
The elongation and curved form of the transverse processes shew
that cervical ribs have existed here prolonged for about half an
inch beyond the transverse processes proper. Although there
is no mark like a suture, one can readily see, by the undulation
and the direction of the part beyond, where the union with the
process has taken place. The tip of the left is 1 inch, measured
straight, from the body of the vertebra, that of the right over
2 inch, its tip being more curved in and more pointed than that
of the left. They project beyond the tip of the posterior trans-
verse process of the 6th, on the right side 3 lines, on the left
side 5 lines. Anterior boundary of foramen straight and rather
thick on left side. Nerve-groove well marked. Foramina oval;
left about as capacious as the rounded foramen of the 6th above
it; right somewhat larger with a point externally, and thrice
the size of the foramen of the 6th above it, which is small, that
of the 5th being full-sized. The 7th vertebra has on its right
side what seems to be a true notch for the head of the first
thoracic rib, not merely a mark for the ligament.

(b) Also from an adult female, and so closely resembling
the last case as scarcely to require separate description. In this

‘case the right is the longest, the tip fully 1 inch from the body,

that of left inch. Projection beyond posterior transverse pro-
cess of sixth, right side 6 lines, left side 4 lines. Foramen of
left side oval and smaller than foramen in sixth; on right side
elliptical and large, 8 inch in length and over half of that in
breadth at the middle. Anterior boundary of foramen more
slender, and has better marked nerve-groove than on left side,
and presents a small anterior tubercle.

ae PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

Case 8. Loss of Cervical Ribs causing apparent want of the
foramen in the seventh vertebra. The nature of such cases is
evident, the rib having been lost in maceration the lateral fora-
men appears to be wanting. A good instance of this is seen in
a full-grown male skeleton in the Anatomical Museum of the
University. The facets for the head and tubercle of the missing
cervical ribs are well marked on both sides. The smooth facet
on the end of the short parapophysis is round and about 4 inch
in diameter on the left side, vertically oval on the right; the
facet on the transverse process is rounded, concave, 1 inch in
diameter, and placed on the lower half of the outermost part of
the front of the process, facing forwards and a little outwards.
The outer edge of this facet is 1 inch from the body of the
vertebra. One would infer from the size and completeness of
the facet, and from the robustness of the transverse processes to
their end, that the lost rib had been developed some way be-
yond the tubercle. Although the normal foramen is thus want-
ing, there is what might have been mistaken for it in a reduced
condition, the notch of an additional foramen on both sides,
that on the right side nearly completed into an oval foramen
4 inch in its long diameter. This additional foramen is present,
‘on the left side, also in the 6th and 5th, and on the right side
in the 4th and 5th, in the latter as a deep notch. (This case is
in addition to the 16 cases given under that variety.)

The various forms presented by the transverse process,
or what is included in that term, of the 7th vertebra are under-
stood by referring to the various degrees to which the normal
cervical rib of early life may be developed before becoming
ankylosed,—when it gets well in front of the outer end,
increasing the process in breadth, antero-posteriorly ; when it
passes beyond it, increasing the length of the process and giving
it a curvature forwards; and, it may be, increasing the robust-
ness of the process proper, both antero-posteriorly and verti-
eally, to give support and surface for articulation, The varying
conditions also of the neck of the rib farther affect variously the
size and form of the foramen, so that, in fact, it is not easy to
get two seventh cervical vertebrae whose transverse processes
are exactly the same’.

1 The seventh cervical vertebra is well known to vary much in different
groups of the mammalia in regard to the presence or absence of the ‘* perfora-

a a Coes

2
4
j

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 39

The preceding seven cases of cervical rib, occurring to the
extent of what may be termed its vertebral or posterior stage,
illustrate a condition which I believe is more common than
appears to be generally supposed. From the situation of the
part and the mode of proceeding in dissection, this particular
region is apt to be left over and afterwards neglected, Were
it looked for, I believe that these short cervical ribs in a non-
ankylosed condition, or ankylosed after abnormal prolongation,
would be more frequently found.

I have spoken of these cases as representing only the head
neck and tubercle, the short stump projecting beyond the trans-
verse process hardly deserving to be regarded as shaft. I now
proceed with the cases in which the cervical rib was developed
in its middle stage or shaft, or also in its anterior or sternal stage.

tion” in the transverse process, It was found by Professor Owen not to be
resent in the Gorilla, but in that of an adult male gorilla in my possession
here is a large oval foramen on the right side, bounded in front by a slender
bar of bone, in most of its length as narrow as a small-sized pin. On the
left side the narrow pe is wanting, apparently not broken, leaving a deep oval
notch which would have formed a smaller foramen than that on the right side.
On the right side at least, the foramen is larger than, though not so round
as, the foramen in the 6th vertebra, The Atlas of this gorilla, I may mention,
presents natural deficiency of most of the anterior transverse processes, espe-
cially on the left side. It is not usually present in the Horse, but in a horse
in the Anatomical Museum of the University, the foramen is present on the
right side and is fully as large and as rounded as that of the 6th vertebra,
and bounded below by as thick a bony wall, fully ankylosed, The transverse
process beyond is thickly bifurcated; the superior part prolonged backwards ;
the inferior projecting forwards, and also continued backwards on the body
of the vertebra. The left side has neither foramen nor inferior process. In
a specimen from a Sheep, which I picked up on the hills, the foramen is
present. The preparation now before me, includes the 6th and 7th cervical
vertebrae, and the 1st dorsal with its ribs. On the right side, the foramen
is rounded and about half the size of the foramen of the 6th, and is bounded
below by a strong completely ankylosed bony wall; on the left side it is bounded
below by a narrow ligament, leaving an equally large but oval perforation.
The body epiphyses of these vertebrae are not yet ankylosed, and an epiphysis
is seen on the back part of the free edge of the inferior transyerse process of
the 6th, on the left side, this part on the right side having been destroyed.
The foramen is not normally present in the Elephant, but in the skeleton of
an adult Indian elephant in Dr Barclay’s Museum, in the keeping of the Edin-
burgh College of Surgeons, from which I was in the habit of delivering my
lectures on the osteology of the elephant, the foramen is present on the
right side, the inferior boundary, however, not joining the body of the vertebra,
a gap of 4 inch intervening. On the left side there is a deep notch. I have
twice noticed in not full-grown elephants a well-marked notch corresponding
to the back part of this foramen. In one of the two Camels in the Edinburgh
College of Surgeons Museum (camelus dromedarius) the foramen is present on
the right side, and I noticed it present on the right side in a camel (camelus
dromedarius) in the excellent Anatomical Museum in the University of Jena.
The variety occurring in the camel is of further interest, considering the
position of the foramen, or canal, in the five middle vertebrae of the neck in
that family.

40 , PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

Case 9. Cervical Rib developing a shaft and resting by its
anterior end on a conical process of the first thoracic rib. Recog-
nised by me during life. The cervical rib and the first thoracic
rib were removed at the post-mortem examination. From a
young woman, left side. As to the right side I] can only now
say that I do not recollect that there was any thing there to
attract attention. The first thoracic rib is well formed, mea-
sures 44 inches along the outer edge, 3 inches straight from end
to end, at the furthest points, and § in breadth before and
behind the base of the conical process; and it has a good carti-
lage at its sternal end. Cervical rib. Total length 24 inches,
of which 14 belong to the shaft. Presents head, neck, and
tubercle fully as distinctly formed as those of the first thoracic
rib, the neck broader and thinner, and the tubercle more pro-
jecting owing to the narrowness of the shaft. Shaft narrower
than neck but more rounded; breadth of shaft + inch, thick-
ness +. An elevation about the middle of the upper surface
marks off two grooves, each as broad as the little finger, the
anterior best marked, and here I infer that the subclavian
artery lay. In front of this groove the rib forms a rounded
button-like terminal expansion, 3 inch in diameter, 2 in thick-
ness. The shelving outer half of this expansion articulates
moveably with the blunt apex of the conical process, having the
appearance as if there had been a cavity surrounded by a strong
capsular ligament, the latter, however, deficient on the pleural
aspect. The two ribs are over half-an-inch apart. Conical
process on first thoracic rib, length } inch; breadth at blunt
apex 3, at its expanded base about ?, but limit not very defi-
nite as the anterior border runs very obliquely into the inner
border of the rib. The cone is thick and triangular, inner
surface rising from the inner border of the rib, the edge between
the anterivr and posteiior surfaces reaching some way on the
upper surface of the rib, The process is situated two inches in
front of the tubercle, and 1} inch from the anterior end of the
bony rib.

Case 10. Cervical Rib on both sides; on right side, shaft
resting by its anterior end on conical process of first thoracic rib;
on left side, shaft prolonged to sternal connection. Female aged 65.

= wo

-

1 EEL Ting CN Py eae ee

EP err A) oe ea

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 41

Vertebrae normal throughout, except that 7th carries the cervical
ribs. Besides, there are the twelve thoracic ribs, the 12th pair

about 3 inches in length. The three last coccygeal bones united,

the first moveable. ibs and their anterior connections. The
cervical rib on the right side, the shorter of the two, has a close
resemblance to the cervical rib in the case last noticed. Length
of head neck and tubercle, 1$ inch. Shaft also 14, and very
like another head and neck turned forwards, nearly at right
angles, but more rounded in form. Neck at middle } inch
broad, ;4; thick; shaft at middle } broad, 1 thick. Breadth of
rib at its tubercle 4 inch. Shaft on upper surface is on the
whole convex, bending down to meet the conical process; a
groove in front of tubercle corresponds to position of 1st
dorsal and 8th cervical nerves, and there is a very shallow
groove at the fore part. Anterior end enlarges a little, to
5 lines in breadth and 4 lines in thickness, and rests abruptly
against hinder aspect of top of conical process of first thoracic
rib. The joint between them presents a strong capsular liga-
ment, but nearly wanting on the pleural aspect. End of rib
notched, partially embracing top of conical process, part on
sternal side but most rests on the flat facet of the process
which looks upwards and backwards. Upward and downward
motion free. Synovial cavity present and both surfaces smoothly
cartilaginous. Upper } of conical process composed of carti-
lage. Length of process at middle } inch, more on sternal
side, less behind. Breadth at middle 5 to 6 lines, at top 4 to
5 lines, at base about 3 inch but not exactly defined. Thick-
ness, in all its length, nearly 4 lines. Pleural surface flat, rising
from the rounded-off inner border of the rib, outer surface
convex. First thoracic rib,—breadth in front of conical process
8 lines, behind it 5 lines. Length of head neck and tubercle
1} inch; of shaft along outer edge 34, along middle 3}. Length
of costal cartilage, upper margin 1 inch, lower margin 1}.
Breadth at middle 7 lines.

Left side. Cervical rib; length of head neck and tubercle
13 inch. Length of shaft 2 inches. Thinner than right, breadth
at middle over } inch, thickness $. The anterior groove, where
the subclavian artery lay, is well marked, its middle is 1} inch
in front of hinder edge of tubercle. This groove is deepened in

42 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

front by the development of a scalene process, in the form of a
low triangular elevation from inner margin of rib, to which the ©
anterior scalene muscle is attached. Breadth of rib at this
process, 4 inch. At the front of this process, but } inch further
at the lower edge, the rib ceases to be bony, and is prolonged
as cartilage, 1} inch in length, } in breadth, till it reaches and
blends with the upper part of the cartilage of the 1st thoracie
rib. There is a break in this narrow cartilage, 4 inch from the
anterior end of the rib, which shews a kind of cavity when cut
into, but, although it is very like a joint, I will not aver that it
is not a fracture. First thoracic rib—BHead neck and tubercle
Ij} inch. Length of shaft 4$ inches along outer edge, 4 along
middle. Breadth towards back 6 lines, increasing forwards to
8 lines. Length of cartilage of this rib, at lower margin 1}
_ inch, at upper part before it unites with the cartilage of the
cervical rib, 4 inch; length of united cartilage 3 inch. Breadth
of united cartilage at the middle 3 inch, thickness 4.

Connection with the vertebrae. Costo-vertebral joint. The
two cervical ribs rest entirely on the 7th vertebra. The left
had a capsular ligament allowing free gliding motion. Within
this a synovial cavity with not very smooth cartilaginous sur-
faces. Shelving head rested obliquely on front and end of a
short parapophysis. On right side, an oblique ligament passed
from the head to the fibro-cartilage above; a strong ligament,
4 inch thick, passed down to the head of the first thoracic rib,
preventing the two heads from being separated farther than
+ inch; and between these a capsular ligament bound the
convex head into a socket which lies very close to the socket
for the head of the rib below. The first thoracie ribs rest in
part on the 7th cervical vertebra by rounded heads, and had a
stellate ligament, but I saw no inter-articular ligament, Syno-
vial capsule present and rather spongy cartilaginous surfaces.
The costo-transverse articulation on both sides presented syno-
vial cavity and smooth cartilaginous surfaces, transversely oval
and }inch in length; above the facet a transverse fissure into
which a ridge of the rib fitted; and strong ligamentous fibres
existed externally all round. ‘Tips of transverse processes still
covered with cartilage.

Muscles connected with the cervical ribs, On the right side

eo

le te ee elednalt

= ribet

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 43

only the external intercostal muscle was present, the space
1 inch in length, } inch in height. On the left side, the space
84 inches in length by under 4 inch in height; the internal
intercostal also was well developed, with the usual absence of
the internal at the back part and of the external at the fore
part. The scalenus anticus was, on the left side, attached to
the process above noted on the cervical rib, having the sub-
clavian artery behind it. On the right side the muscle had
been torn, the remains of its insertion being on the end of the
cervical rib and on the conical process of the first thoracic rib.
This process, occurring so often in cases of cervical rib extend-
ing only: to this extent, may be looked on as the normal scalene
tubercle, or process, of the first thoracic rib in a more developed
condition. The muscle having been torn through, and the sub-
clavian artery displaced, I could only infer that on this side also
the artery lay behind the scalenus, but there is only a very
shallow groove on the rib here. The scalenus medius was
attached partly to the first thoracic rib, partly, about half of it,
to the cervical rib, the insertion beginning just in front of the
tubercle and extending for ? inch outwards on the shaft. The
part of the scalenus medius which comes from the 6th trans-
verse process was detached as a separate muscle, forming a

levator costae to the cervical rib. It was about the size of an
ordinary levator costae muscle, larger on the left than on the

right side. Arising from the lower edge of the posterior trans-
verse process, it passed downwards expanding to be inserted

into the cervical rib at the outer part of the neck and extend-

ing to beyond the tubercle. The back part of it, separating
from the rest, was inserted into the 7th transverse process,

representing a ior inter-transverse muscle. The anterior
Pp g

inter-transverse muscle was a small and flattened but very dis-
tinct bundle, § inch in length, } im breadth, arising from the

lower edge of the anterior process, inserted into the fore part
of the upper surface of the neck of the cervical rib, nearer the

tubercle than the head. The 7th nerve passed out between
this muscle in front and the cervical levator costae and pos-
terior inter-transverse muscle behind. .A muscle appearing as
a levator costae to the first thoracic rib arose partly from the
7th transverse process but mostly from the cervical rib external

44 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

to the tubercle, concealing the back part of the external inter-
costal proper. The only other muscle attached to the cervical
rib was, to its tubercle, the ascending tendon of one of the long
muscles of the back, its lower connections not seen.

The right vertebral artery arose from the subclavian oppo-
site the mammary, an inch from the bifurcation of the innomi-
nate, and entered at the 6th foramen; the left arose from the
arch of the aorta between the left carotid and subclavian, and
after a course of four or five inches entered the foramen of the
5th vertebra. It is of good size though somewhat less than the
right. The deep cervical artery, on both sides, passed back
between the cervical rib and the first thoracic rib. ‘The 8th
cervical and Ist dorsal nerves passed across the upper surface of
the cervical rib, uniting on it, and resting on a shallow groove
on the inner side of the back part of the shaft, the 7th nerve
passing obliquely across the front of the neck.

(i) Recognition or CERVICAL Rip IN THE LIVING BODY.
SURGICAL AND HEREDITARY ASPECTS. When a cervical rib is
developed some way beyond the vertebra it assumes a surgical
importance. The projection may be mistaken for a morbid
growth, and the pulsation of the elevated artery might at first
be taken for a commencing aneurism. The late Professor
Syme was familiar with the condition, under the name of
exostosis of the first rib, and I remember his mentioning to
me in 1853 the case of a medical man who had come to
consult him in great alarm under the impression that he had
discovered an aneurism of his subclavian artery.

1. The case No. 9, above related, occurred to me when I
was surgeon to the Edinburgh Infirmary. The patient was
under treatment for some internal complaint when I was asked
to see her on account of the tumour at the bottom of the neck,
and I had no difficulty in recognising the nature of the case,
There is no reason why this variety should not, like other
-varieties be hereditary, and as the condition admits of being
recognised in the living body, the question of its hereditary
transmission admits of being determined, For the following
two cases in which the cervical rib was recognised during life

ee ey ee,

_ VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 45

by them, I am indebted to the gentlemen whose names are

mentioned.

2. Case in which a Cervical Rib was recognised in the
living body by Mr Wilkes, of Salisbury, reported to me by him.
E. H., a woman aged 56, admitted to the Salisbury Infirmary,
August 1874, under Mr Wilkes’ care, suffering from chronic
disease of the right shoulder-joint. She is very thin, rendering
the parts distinct. Mr Wilkes noticed a very prominent knob
in the middle of the eft posterior triangle, and recognised it to
be a cervical rib, an opinion in which his colleagues concur.
The prominence ends as a knob of bone, the size of the last
division of an adult man’s thumb; projects boldly outwards
and forwards, and from the under surface of the knob a hard
continuation can be traced to a part beneath, apparently the
first rib. Distance of knob from spine of 7th cervical vertebra,
44 inches; from middle line of neck in front, 3 inches; from
centre of clavicle, arm natural, 2 inches; when arm is raised,
1 inch; from the knob to the left sterno-clavicular articulation,
3} inches; to the end of the acromion 5 inches.

The subclavian artery seems raised quite two inches above
the clavicle, and is most dangerously situated for injury. In its
third stage, traced upwards and inwards from the middle of the
clavicle to the knob, the artery is seen pulsating, as if sub-
cutaneous, and might easily be mistaken for an aneurismal
dilatation. Above and external and somewhat posterior to it
are felt the cords of the brachial plexus of nerves. In the situa-
tion of the knob the pulsation is lost, leaving the position of
the artery here uncertain. To the inner side of the scalenus
anticus, is felt the connecting bond between the cervical rib_
and the first thoracic rib, and then the first stage of the artery,
outward pressure on which stops the circulation in the
third stage and also the radial pulse. The external jugular
vein passes downwards and inwards across the middle of the
front of the prominence. In the right posterior triangle, on this

‘side, as on the other, on a level with the 7th cervical vertebra,

there is a similar prominence, much less developed, but enough
to produce a more than usual fulness at this part of the neck.
The artery is more deeply seated and as if smaller on this side,

46 ‘ PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

and elevated above the clavicle about an inch and a half. The
patient has had the prominence as long as she can remember
and has never had pain in it. Mr Wilkes has most kindly also
sent me photographs of the neck, which shew quite plainly a
conical projection on the left side in the situation described by
him. He considers the state of parts to be similar to that pre-
sented by the specimen in my case No. 9,

3. Case in which a Cervical Rib was recognised in the living
body, by Dr Housley, of Lincoln, reported to me by him. B. W.,
a man aged 25. In February 1873, when examining this
patient’s chest, Dr Housley noticed an unusual appearance on
the right side of the neck, and on farther examination recognised
it to be a case of cervical rib. The right subclavian artery is
higher than the left when the clavicles are on the same level,
and the pulsations are distinctly visible on the right but not on
the left side. A cervical rib cannot be detected on the left side.
The man has brothers and sisters who reside at a distance, but
Dr Housley has most kindly examined those of the relatives
who are within his reach—the mother, his children, one brother
and his children—but found no trace of cervical rib in any of
them. I expect however that it will fall to some one before
long to meet with a case of hereditary transmission of this
condition.

(B) VARIATIONS IN THE THORACIC REGION.

(a) IMPERFECT CONDITION OF First PAIR OF Rips. Male
subject aged 24, This case occurred in 1852, and the accom-
panying drawing of it is that which I published in 1853, There
is no absolute certainty that it was not a case of supernumerary
cervical rib, It was noted that it was carefully ascertained that
there were only eleven other pairs of ribs, but it is possible enough
that the presence of a rib on the 7th cervical vertebra may be
accompanied by the absence of one on the 12th dorsal. It is
also noted that the anatomy of the scalene muscles and sub-
clavian vessels was normal, but this is not altogether incom-
patible with the supernumerary view. The general appearance
of the supporting vertebra suggests a first dorsal rather than a
7th cervical, but the ordinary differences between these two

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND .RIBS IN MAN. 47

vertebrae when normal, are just those which one would expect
to be affected by the occurrence of one or other of the two

1. Rudimentary rib. 2. Ligam
3. Pocit ee taidac tedcniading Aigtbaed with eoptliogs ot sosck nth.

varieties—viz. the size and direction of the transverse processes,
the form of the body and the somewhat variable length of its
lateral elevations, the costal facets, and the slight differences
between their upper and lower articular processes. The rela-
tion of the cartilages to the manubrium seems to favour the
supernumerary view, but that also will be seen below to be
compatible with either view’. The head had been removed, and

1 By the kindness of Prof. Rokitanski I was enabled to make a note of
a specimen of imperfect development of the first thoracic ribs, in the Patho-

logical Museum of Vienna, which throws some light on this point. The whole
of the cervical vertebrae being present there is no doubt as to the case being

Lovech description of similar case on subsequent pages of this number of the
Journal.]

48 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

there is at least no record as to the lumbar vertebrae. I was
perhaps more easily satisfied then than now, but with the
question before me when the dissection was under observation,
I was led to conclude that the case is one of imperfect first
thoracic rib. With such doubts, the question occurs whether
some of the cases which it has been customary to regard as
instances of supernumerary rib, but in which the whole neck
vertebrae were not examined, may not have been cases of im-
perfectly developed first thoracic rib. It is possible that case
No. 9 of cervical rib, above described, may have been of that
nature, but the appearances during life, and the resemblance to
other cases, seemed to entitle it to be regarded as a case of
cervical rib’,

Note of the parts in this case. See also the woodcut. Head
of each rib articulates with upper part of body of vertebra,
lower part of body receiving as much of head of 2nd rib as
body of vertebra below it does. Each has a good costo-trans-
verse articulation. Length of head neck and tubercle 1 inch;
length of shaft, right 1 inch, left 14. Left shews near its
slightly expanded end a well-marked groove where the sub-
clavian artery lay, best marked on the inner side; right shows
groove on inner side but less marked, and very slightly marked

one of imperfect first rib. (No. 2882.) On left side, rib goes about ? round,
and articulates with a process of the second rib, On right side, it joins second
rib at from } to 1 inch beyond tubercle, but again projects as a curved process
where the subclavian artery has passed over it. The manubrium sterni first
receives a broad cartilage, as if from one rib only, and, secondly, a ¢artilage
at the junction of the manubrium and body, which is the cartilage of the third
thoracic rib,

1 Case of imperfeet first thoracic rib in a three-toed Sloth. In a three-toed
sloth (Bradypus tridactylus) in my possession, the first thoracic rib is very
incompletely formed on one side. The ninth cervical vertebra shows, on the
left side, its square-shaped rib, } inch in length, resting abruptly on the trans-
verse process; on the right side, it is ankylosed, the line of ankylosis barely
recognisable; and there is no inferior transverse process or foramen, The
eighth, besides the foramen, has the well-bifurcated transverse process; and,
on the right side, the end of the blunt superior transverse process looks as if
it had supported a rib, while that of the left side is flattened and tapers to a point.
The first thoracic rib is complete on the left side, with its double implantation
on the 10th vertebra, and meeting in front, but not. ankylosed to, the lateral
process of the presternum. On the right side this rib begins by head and
tubercle attachments, but its shaft is only half an inch in length and termi-
nates, in the macerated bone, by an irregular blunt end; thus presenting an
approach to what might be called a 8rd cervical rib and a 10th cervical vertebra.
The rather deficient right lateral process of the presternum ends in a short
tapering cartilage, which terminates on and adheres to the second thoracic rib
near its anterior end. The wanting two-thirds of the shaft may have been
represented by cartilage and ligament,

Pe ae

ws ee

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 49

on upper aspect. Breadth of each at the tubercle 5 lines, of
shaft at middle 3 lines, thickness 2 lines, but left rib the largest
all along. A ligament, narrow but strong, 2 inches in length,
passes forward from the tip of each rib and joins the pointed
hinder end of a narrow cartilage. This cartilage, 1 inch in
length, 4 inch in breadth, joins the upper part of the manu-
brium, and by its lower edge is in contact and apparently
fused with the cartilage of the second rib, earlier on the right
than on the left side. Second pair of ribs. Length of shaft
6 inches along middle, along outer edge 63. Average breadth
8 lines. Rough mark for serratus magnus muscle well deve-
loped, breadth here 10 lines. This gives a length of shaft
1 to 14 inches less than that of 2nd rib in four male specimens
before me, and about 2 inches more than that of the first rib in
the same skeletons. Transverse diameter of thorax between
edges of 2nd ribs, almost 6 inches. Same of the other specimens,
63. Superior aperture of thorax, as bounded laterally by the
rudimentary ribs and their prolongations, transverse diameter
44 inches, antero-posterior 2}, which is fully equal to that of
an average male thoracic inlet.

The manubrium sterni, as marked off by the non-union
opposite the cartilage of the third rib, is longer than usual,
3 inches in length, while the body is shorter than usual, 34
inches, the more usual proportions being 2 to 24 and about 4.
From the 38rd cartilage downwards the pieces of the body of
the sternum are quite united, and receive the next four carti-
lages in the usual way. Cartilage of the 8th rib runs to the
ossifying appendix, } inch below the sternum. The increased
length of the manubrium is not gained between the 3rd and
2nd cartilages, but opposite the broad united cartilage of the
first two ribs, this cartilage being 14 inches in breadth, ob-
liquely, along the line of its union with the sternum, The
whole of this cartilage has an oblique slope downwards and
inwards to the sternum’.

1 Although the Vienna specimen, above alluded to, shews that along with an
undoubtedly imperfect first thoracic rib, the cartilage which meets the sternum
at the junction of the manubrium and body may be that of the third thoracic
rib, there are not wanting indications here that the first segment of the body
has been ossified to the manubrium proper, which would explain the fact of the

body supporting a cartilage too few and the manubrium one too many.
Although it is not well shewn in the drawing, the edge of the sternum is not

VOL. IX. 4

50 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

Vertebra supporting the ribs. On examining a series of
skeletons from behind and sideways, it is seen that the trans-
verse processes of the 7th vertebra are more or less flattened,
and are directed a little forwards and also a little downwards,

the latter increased in appearance by the slope of the upper
margin. In contrast with this, it is seen that the transverse
processes of the Ist dorsal vertebra are directed backwards and
also upwards, and are thick to their ends, and ‘that their tips
are wider apart than those of the 7th or 9th vertebrae. But
these characters, in so far as they differ from those of the 7th,
are adaptations to the support of ribs, and may be expected to
vary accordingly, In the ease under notice, the transverse pro-
cesses of the vertebra supporting the rudimentary ribs are
4 inch wider apart than those of the vertebra below, and are
thick to their ends, but they are directed a little downwards
and also a little forwards, while those of the vertebra below are
directed much upwards and also backwards.

Muscles and arteries. The intercostal spaces were occupied
in the usual way by the intercostal muscles and membrane.
The scalenus anticus was attached, on each side, chiefly to the
end of the rudimentary rib, partly to the ligament close to it,
and a large tendinous slip passed down on the inside of the in-
ternal intercostal muscle to be fixed to the upper margin of the
2nd rib, which shews a slight roughness there. The subclavian
vessels were normal in their relative anatomy. The artery lay
immediately behind the scalenus upon the groove of the rib.
As a line between the tips of the rudimentary ribs passes only
4 inch in front of the body of the vertebra, the position of the
subclavian artery must have been farther back than usual.
A line drawn across between the subclavian grooves, at their

uniformly oblique, especially on the left side, but there is, first, a more out-
wR 5 part weer the small first cartilage and part of that of the second
rib, and below this, em most of the cartilage of the second rib, there
is a notch similar to those which receive the cartilages on the body of the
sternum. Opposite the lower part of this notch a faint elevation crosses
the front of the sternum, smooth but quite as distinct as those between
the notches for the 4th and 5th pairs of cartilages. On this supposition,
the manubrium, in this case, would correspond exactly to the manubrium
together with the first segment of the body of a robust sternum in my collee-
tion, in which the short manubrium is 14 inch, the first segment of the body
Li, the division between them running across at the lower edge of the second
cartilage, and there is almost no interval, on one side, between the outstanding
part for the first cartilage and the oblique part for the second.

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN, 51

fore part, gives a rather variable distance in front of the bodies
of the vertebrae in different skeletons, 4 to 3 inch, or even 1 inch.

(b) VARIETIES OF THE STERNAL END OF THE RIBS; GREAT
BREADTH AND BIFURCATION OF RIBS, BIFURCATION OF CARTI-
LAGES, ENCLOSED SPACES. I have several specimens of these
varieties, which may be of interest to the physician or to the
surgeon.

1. Fourth rib on both sides becoming broad, and bifurcated
in front. Male aged 93. From about the middle of the shaft
these ribs begin gradually to increase in breadth from 7 lines
to 14 inch on the left side, 1} on the right. They then fork,
the left 1} inch, the right } inch from where they join their
cartilages. Cartilage of right forks close to rib, enclosing a
space which admits little finger. Cartilage or cartilages of left
now lost, but the diverging bony divisions, each of good breadth
for a rib (6 to 7 lines) enclose an intercostal space 1} inch in
length, attaining a breadth of ? inch, which was probably con-
tinued forwards by the divisions of the cartilage or by two
cartilages. This condition might well give rise to mistake in
indicating the position of a chest symptom or of a fracture.
The cartilage of the 7th rib on the left side is double for 14
inch, nearer the costal than the sternal end, the two portions,
each about half an inch broad, separated only by a narrow
space. All the other ribs and cartilages on this side, and all
but the 4th on the right side, normal. The cartilages are be-
coming invested by plates of ossification.

2. Left fourth rib becoming very broad, and bifurcated in
Front ; two large spaces, one in the bone, one at the bifurcation.
The other ribs normal in form, and number of ribs normal.
Age and sex unknown, but rib is robust. Rib before it be-
gins to enlarge, behind middle, 8 lines in breadth, at beginning
of fork 14 inch. Before it forks there is an oval window,
length 8 lines, height 4, admitting point of fore-finger; edges
of this window thin and irregular, but rib between it and the
fork, which occurs 8 lines farther on, is of the full thickness.
The large oval window is 1 inch in length by 8 lines in height;
2 of it between the bifurcated bone, the rest between the bifur-
cated and now ossifying costal cartilage.

4—2

52 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

3. Left fourth rib becoming broad towards sternal end,
where it joins bifurcated cartilage. Female aged 19. Same
subject as case No. 1 of rudimentary 12th rib. Breadth of rib
at middle of shaft 7 lines, at front end 14 lines. Vertically oval
window between end and bifurcated cartilage 6 lines by 3.

4. Rib broad at sternal end, with bifurcated cartilage. Ro-
bust right rib, closely resembling 4th rib of case 1, but an inch
longer. Over 12 inches in length, and is probably the 4th or
5th rib. Breadth at middle of shaft 8 lines; at front end 16
lines. Window between end and bifurcated cartilage admits
point of fore-finger.

5. Bvrfurcated cartilage. Anterior $ of a robust left rib.
Curvature indicates it to be probably the 4th rib. Rib broader
than usual in anterior two inches, but rather diminishes in
breadth along upper margin in last inch, and along here is
applied the upper division of a bifurcated cartilage, the other
division, the larger, meeting the end of the rib. Window ad-
mits point of fore-finger.

In three of these cases the variety was ascertained to be of
the 4th rib, another probably of the 4th, the other two probably
either of the 4th or 5th. In three it occurs on the left side only,
in one on the right, in one on both sides. One was in a female
aged 19, There is no trace of fracture or injury on any of these
specimens,

(c) VARIATION OF THE CosTAL FACETS ON THE 9th AND
10th DorsaL VERTEBRAE. The text-books of anatomy differ in
regard to these facets. The following is the result of the exami-
nation of 21 sets of vertebrae, excluding those which present
other variations. The points to be noticed are, whether the 9th
presents an articular facet on its lower edge for the head of the
10th rib, and if not, whether the facet on the 10th is complete.
Also whether the costo-transverse facet of the 10th vertebra is
absent.

The ninth vertebra had the lower facet on the “body,” on
both sides in 8; on one side, but uncertain whether present on
the other side, in 3 (2 right, 1 left); on one side only in 4 (8
right, 1 left). Uncertain on both sides 2; leaving 9, perhaps 11,
of the 21 in which the ninth vertebra bears no facet below.

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VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 53

Among these 9 cases the body-facet on the 10th had the ap-
pearance of being “entire” in 5. Thus in 17 of the 21, the
facet on the tenth was not complete, at least the fibro-cartilage
being necessary to its completion; and in 10 of the 21, the
ninth vertebra had a lower body-facet in at least 3 on both
sides, and in 7 others certainly on one side. I do not here
include those in which the lower edge of the 9th vertebra pre-
sents not only the usual slight elevation to which the upper
band of the stellate ligament is attached, but also a triangular
recess below and behind the elevation. That recess, although it
may accommodate the head of the 10th rib in certain motions,
is not articular in relation to the rib, in the sense in which the
other demi-facets are. The prominence and recess behind it
are seen on the 11th and 12th and upper lumbar vertebrae.
The lower part-facet on the 9th is large in some, in others small
but distinct. The head of the 10th rib generally presents a
corresponding modification, having a somewhat rounded outline
above, the upper angle being more or less rounded off. These
observations refer to the characters presented by the bones.

In the above 21 sets of vertebrae, the costo-transverse facet
of the 10th dorsal vertebra was wanting, on both sides in 4, on
one side (1 right, 1 left) in 2; and its presence was uncertain in
one case on one side, in another on both sides. In only one
case the absence of the 10th costo-transverse facets was con-
joined with the presence, though uncertain on one side, of the
lower facet on the body of the 9th; in all the other cases of ab-
sence of the 10th transverse facet, the head of the rib was set
low, in two of them the body-facet on the 10th being entire.
The absence of the transverse facet is in some accompanied by
the absence of the tubercle of the rib; in others the tubercle is
moderately developed’.

1 Among the cases presenting other variations, the following was noted of
these costal facets. In two cases of unequal 12th ribs (cases Nos. 3 and 4)
the head of the 10th rib had an entire facet on the 10th vertebra; in one,
the costo-transverse facet was wanting on both sides, in the other it was pre-
sent on both sides. In case No. 8, lumbar variation (dorso-lumbar vertebra
less than usual, and movable 12th rib on one side only), the head of the 10th
rib did not touch the 9th vertebra and the 10th costo-transverse facets were
wanting. In the five cases of additional dorso-lumbar vertebra (cases Nos. 3,
4, 5, 6, 7 lumbar variation) in all the head of the 10th rib articulated in part
with the 9th vertebra, except on one side in case No. 6. In case No. 3 (13th
pair of ribs also present) the costo-transyerse facet was wanting on both sides

54 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

The costal facets on the 9th and 10th dorsal vertebrae,
therefore, vary so much that they cannot be relied on as distin-
guishing characters of these vertebrae. If the 9th has the part-
facet below, it resembles the 8th; if that facet is wanting, it
resembles the 10th. Unless the 10th has the body-facet entire,
it cannot be distinguished from a 9th; and as, along with an
entire body-facet, it may want the transverse facet, it comes in
these respects to resemble an 11th. In like manner the 11th
resembles the last-mentioned variety of the 10th, or it may
have the lower articular processes turned outwards, and be
taken fora 12th. Again, the 12th may not have its lower arti-
cular processes turned outwards; and the 1st lumbar may have
carried a rib, These varieties, however, of the two last dorsal
and of the 1st lumbar are rare, compared with those of the 9th
and 10th dorsal.

(d) Imperrect DEVELOPMENT OF 12TH Rip. Case I.
Twelfth Ribs very small. Female aged 19, Preparation of
three dorsal vertebrae and first lumbar, with 11th and 12th
ribs. Twelfth pair of ribs so small that they might easily have
been overlooked. I ascertained carefully that these were the
twelfth from above downwards, and there were five lumbar
vertebrae below them, They are nearly symmetrical. Length
of right 1 inch, of left a line less. Breadth at the middle, right
4 inch, left 4, each expanding a little at the end, Thickness
of outer half under a line, of inner half nearly } inch, Head
rounded, and } inch from it is a tubercle, where the rib also
bends forwards, giving the appearance of a neck and tubercle,
Head retained by capsular ligament, articulates with a facet on
the upper and fore part of the pedicle near where it joins the
body, and corresponding to where head of 11th rib joins its
vertebra, although the 12th rib appears as if not so far back on
the pedicle owing to its lesser size. Change of direction of
articular processes takes place between 11th and 12th dorsal
vertebrae. ‘This modifies the character of the neighbourhood of
the superior articular process of the 12th vertebra; metapophy-
sis (superior tubercle, or mammillary process) moderately de-
on the 10th, but present on one side of the 11th vertebra, In case No, 4 (18th

pair of ribs also present) the 10th costo-transverse facet was absont on one
aide, well marked on the other side,

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 55

veloped; anapophysis (inferior tubercle, or accessory process)
very slight; no transverse process (external tubercle) present.
. Transverse process of 1st lumbar 5 lines in length, 3 in breadth,
and springs as usual from the back part of the pedicle, with a
slight anapophysis behind it. Hleventh ribs each 6 inches in
length, and 4 inch in breadth at middle, where they are broadest.
Besides costo-vertebral articulation, they are connected to the
external tubercle by a strong ligament. This case was pub-
lished in 1853 along with the case of imperfect 1st thoracic rib
above noted. It is one of the cases (No. 3 of that variety) in
which the sternal end of the left 4th rib was broad, with bifur-
cated cartilage.

Case 2. Same as the case just related. Adolescent sub-
ject. Preparation shewing 7th cervical vertebra, 12 dorsal ver-
tebrae with their ribs, and 3 lumbar vertebrae ; a vascular pre-
paration. Eleventh ribs 4 inches long, 44 with the cartilage.
Rudimentary 12th rib, length of left 1 inch, of right ?; breadth
of each about } inch. Inner end is set on anterior and upper
part of pedicle of vertebra, the right by a short intervening
process, corresponding to where the 11th rib is set upon its
vertebra. Change of direction of articular processes of vertebrae
takes place chiefly between 11th and 12th dorsal.

Case 3. Twelfth Ribs short and unequal. Female aged 40.
Vertebrae, C. 7 (with rib on 7th; case No. 5 of cervical rib),
D. 12, L. 5, S. 6, C. 3. Length of left 12th rib 1} inch, of right
13. Breadth of left 3 to 4 lines, right the same but much larger
than left at its head. Head of right articulated on short blunt
elevation on lower 3 of side of pedicle, corresponding to where
11th rib rests on its vertebra, making allowance for the eleva-
tion pushing back the articulation of the 12th. A low tubercle
or roughness external to the head, but without any interval, is
in contact with a slightly developed transverse tubercle of the
vertebra, but there is no facet. The fusion of the rib and vertebra
would, at this part, represent the transverse process of the first
lumbar vertebra. The shorter rib (left) rests on a narrow emi-
nence below the middle of the pedicle, by a notched head, the
part behind the notch not quite close to the slightly developed
transverse tubercle behind it. Change of direction of articular

_

56 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

process has taken place partially between 11th and 12th ver-
tebrae on left side, being the side of the smaller 12th rib.
Tenth dorsal vertebra has an entire costo-capitular facet and a
very large costo-transverse facet, although the transverse pro-
cesses are short.

Case 4. Very unequal 12th Ribs. Male aged 47. Ver-
tebrae, C. 7, D. 12, L. 5, S. 5, C. 4. Twelfth ribs of very
unequal length, that of left 34 inches, of right scarcely 2 inches,
The larger one has a much larger and more distinct head, and a
broader shaft than the other. The three tubercles on the trans-
verse process of the 12th dorsal vertebra are very pronounced
on both sides. The external of these is in series with the trans-
verse processes of the lumbar vertebrae, but, as far as mere
position and form go, if the transverse processes are looked at
from above, the antero-posterior broadening at the root suggests
a double relation, very distinct in this specimen, the posterior
continuation corresponding to the external (transverse) tubercle
of the 12th dorsal vertebra, the anterior to the 12th thoracic
rib, this root of the process curving forwards on the pedicle.
The head of the lesser (right) 12th rib is flat, rests on the upper
half of the body of the vertebra, at the fore part of the pedicle,
on a slight elevation. Behind, it has a cartilaginous facet on
its lower part, an interosseous ligament at its upper part. The
upper band of the stellate ligament went to the fibro-cartilage
above. A strong costo-transverse ligament connected the rib to
the external of the three tubercles on the transverse process,
leaving a costo-vertebral space, or lateral foramen, between the
two articulations. In connection with the shortness of the 12th
rib on the right side may be noted the fact, that the transverse
process of the 5th lumbar vertebra is ankylosed to the sacrum
on that side. The 10th dorsal vertebra has an entire costo-
capitular facet, and no costo-transverse facet although the trans-
verse processes are well developed,

Case 5. Twelfth Ribs short and ankylosed to Vertebra.
Female aged 62, Considerable lateral curvature of spine to left
side, with articulation of left transverse process of 5th lumbar
vertebra to sacrum, Vertebrae, C. 7, D, 12, L. 5, 8.5, C. united
and obscure, All the other ribs normal. Length of eleventh

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 57

5} inches. Twelfth ribs, right 12, left 12, breadth about } inch.
Left thick internally, tapering outwards, with a direction down-
wards (this being the side to which the spine is curved), and
passing } inch farther out than the transverse process of the Ist
lumbar vertebra. Right directed rather upwards and nearly
parallel to the lumbar transverse process, and passing over } inch
beyond it. Line of ankylosis quite visible on right side, just
traceable on left. The heads have been implanted on short
processes from the fore part of the pedicle, corresponding to
where the 11th ribs rest on their vertebra. On right side, be-
tween the pedicle and the transverse tubercle of the vertebra
behind, and the part of the rib representing its neck and
tubercle in front, there is a narrow space ; on the left side this
is filled up by bone. These ankylosed ribs have a general
resemblance to lumbar transverse processes, in at least their
projecting portions, but inwardly they begin from the anterior
instead of from the posterior part of the pedicle.

(ec) VARIATION IN THE POSITION AT WHICH THE CHANGE
FROM THE DORSAL TO THE LUMBAR DIRECTION OF THE ARTI-
CULAR PROCESSES TAKES PLACE, This change normally occurs
between the 12th dorsal and 1st lumbar vertebrae, and is not
accomplished by an intermediate position of the two processes,
but entirely by the process of the vertebra above assuming the
lumbar type. This character, however, of the 12th dorsal
vertebra is not invariable. The following ten cases are ex-
amples,

Cases 1 and 2. In the two first related cases of imperfectly
developed 12th rib we have seen that the change takes place
between the 11th and 12th dorsal vertebrae. In the first of
these cases the change is complete and symmetrical, in fact the
lower processes of the 11th look more decidedly outwards than
those of the 12th and Ist lumbar. In the second case it is
symmetrical but less complete, though more resembling the
lumbar than the dorsal.

Case 3. In this case (yet to be noticed, case 8 of lumbar
variation ; vertebrae C. 7, D. 11 or 12, L. 5 or 4, S. 6, C. lost)
the change takes place, and completely, with the lower pro-

58 ’ PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

cesses of the 11th dorsal. A slightly movable 12th rib exists on
one side only.

Case 4. Female skeleton. Grouping of vertebrae normal.
Articular processes change between 11th and 12th dorsal, on
left side completely, on right side not completely, but more
resembling lumbar than dorsal.

Case 5. In an otherwise normal spine (young, 20 inches in
length) the change is not fully accomplished till between the
1st and 2nd lumbar vertebrae, the processes between the 12th
dorsal and 1st lumbar partaking more of the dorsal than of the
lumbar direction. Costal facets normal.

Case 6. Inthis robust adult spine, the change is only half
accomplished between the 12th dorsal and 1st lumbar verte-
brae, the direction of the processes being exactly intermediate.
Costo-capitular facets on 12th vertebra well marked.

Case 7. The case to be described under lumbar variation,
No. 1, presenting 13 ribs, contains an example of the change
taking place chiefly a vertebra lower than usual.

Case 8. The skeleton in Dr Barclay’s museum, having an
additional dorso-lumbar vertebra and 13th rib, presents an
example of the change taking place a vertebra lower than
usual. This skeleton is noticed in foot-note to case No. 3 of
lumbar variation.

Case 9. In another robust adult spine (C. 7, D. 12, L. 5) the
change takes place between the 11th and 12th dorsal on one
side, the left, but not on the other, Yet, as far as their direction
is concerned, the processes of the space above and of the space
below are symmetrical, But there has been some lateral curva-
ture of the spine towards the right side, and the edges of the
bodies throw out excrescences on that side. Costo-capitular
facets on 12th dorsal vertebra well marked, the right the larger
and deeper. Tenth dorsal vertebra has the costo-capitular
facet entire on the right side, and no facets on its well-
developed transverse processes, ‘The transverse process of the
12th seems to develope a shorter metapophysis on the side
on which the articular processes between it and the 11th have

ee ee ee

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 59

changed to the lumbar type; but this necessarily follows; the
change in the direction of the process filling up the space which
otherwise separates the metapophysis and the superior articu-
lating process.

Case 10. Adult male skeleton in the Anatomical Museum
of the University. Ribs and grouping of vertebrae normal.
The same want of symmetry is seen in this case as in the last,
but between the 12th dorsal and 1st lumbar vertebrae. The
articular processes of the left side retain the dorsal type, facing
front and back, while those of the right side have assumed the
lumbar type. The articular processes of the space above and
of the space below are normal and symmetrical. Costal facets
normal. Twelfth ribs 5 inches in length and symmetrical.
There is no abnormal curvature or disease. The skeleton is a
tall, robust, well-proportioned, and healthy one’.

1 Articular Processes in Animals. It is interesting to observe the various
situations at which the change of direction of the articular processes takes
place in different animals. My limits prevent me from going into this compari-
son more fully at present, but I may state generally that the change from the
thoracic to the lumbar type of process takes place in most quadrupeds more or
less in front of the last thoracic, leaving from 1, or more generally from 2,
to as many as 5 of the dorsal vertebrae with articular processes of the lumbar
type, these generally corresponding to where the ribs are small or less firmly
articulated. Along with this, generally but not always, is seen the convergence
of the spinous processes to the point where the change of the articular pro-
cesses takes place, of which the feline back presents an exact and striking
illustration, In others, again, of which the Indian Tapir is a striking example,
the thoracic type commences in the lumbar region ; in the tapir (Vertebrae C. 7,
D. 18, L. 5) commencing as far back as between the two posterior lumbar
vertebrae. In this animal all the spinous processes slope backwards, and all
the ribs have the head intervertebrally placed, and all of them except the last
have a costo-transverse articulation. But that the place of change is not re-
gulated only by number of ribs and length of the ilio-costal space is seen,
for instance, in the Kangaroo and Wombat, in both of which the place of
change is between the 11th and 12th dorsal, leaving behind it, in the kangaroo
2 dorsal and 6 lumbar, in the wombat 4 dorsal and 3 or 4 lumbar and a short
ilio-costal space. In most the change is sudden as in Man, but in some it
is gradual, extending over two or even three spaces. The part to which the
anterior spinous processes slope back and the posterior slope forwards is some-
times termed the centre of motion, and the vertebra to which they incline
the ‘‘anticlinal” vertebra. The convergence of the spinous processes is no
doubt the most striking feature, and the other processes change more or less
here, but the change of the articular processes is the fundamental one.

The change from the cervical to the thoracic type of articular process
is not so gradual as in man, but is generally abrupt and situated some way
within the thorax ; generally between the Ist and 2nd dorsal vertebrae, in some
between the 2nd and 3rd; or it may be divided between the Ist and 2nd and
the 2nd and &ard, or between the 2nd and 3rd and the 3rd and 4th, but still
strikingly visible. In man it is not easy to recognise the change from cervical
to dorsal articular processes, at least from the oblique to the vertical, though
the shifting of the processes inwards is evident below the 1st dorsal on com-
paring the lower with the upper processes of that vertebra.

60 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

(C.) VARIATIONS IN THE LuMBAR REGION.

(a) LumBar Riss. Case l. Lumbar Rib on both sides,
but unequal, giving thirteen pairs of ribs. Adult female.
Preparation shews 7 cervical, 4 lumbar, and 13 vertebrae
bearing ribs, and the parts bounding superior aperture of
thorax. First thoracic rib incomplete on right side. Thir-
teenth rib, on right side, the larger, length almost 3 inches,
average breadth 3 lines, at middle 4. On left side, length
1} inch; breadth at middle over 2 lines, expanded at outer
end to 3 lines. Head of each rests on vertebra at upper and
fore part of pedicle, upper part of head resting on parapophy-
sial elevation, most marked for the smaller rib. Each has
likewise a synovial costo-transverse articulation, a distinct
facet on the rib articulating with the external tubercle which
represents a rudiment of a transverse process, ligamentous
fibres intervening between the two articulations. The lumbar
ribs recede to this point and then turn outwards and for-
wards. Both 13th ribs slant downwards like the 12th ribs, in
contrast with the transverse processes of the vertebra below,
which are horizontal and about } inch in length. Tip of
shortest 13th rib projects nearly } inch beyond tip of transverse
process below it. Twelfth ribs, on right side 54 inches in
length, breadth nearly 4 inch at middle; on left side outer
part now removed but it was, like the left 13th rib, shorter and
more slender than its fellow. Vertebrae. Articular processes
assume lumbar type a space lower than usual. The change is
partially effected at the usual place on the right side, but on
left side the processes still have strictly the direction of dorsal
processes. Spine of 12th dorsal vertebra has sloping upper
edge; spine of vertebra below it is square-shaped and nearly
horizontal. J irst thoracic rib, on right side is imperfect. For

The study of the direction of the mammalian articular processes is much
facilitated by beginving with an earlier type, as in the Crocodile, There all
the processes—cervical, thoracic, lumbar, caudal—are on the same general and
simple type. The anterior pair form the sides of a socket (zygantrum) facing
inwards and more or less upwards, the posterior pair forming a wedge (zygo-
sphene) fitting into the socket, It is now easy to see by what — changes,
in one or two directions, processes corresponding to those in the different
regions of mammals may be obtained; those of the posterior regions having
departed least, those of the thoracic region most, from the early type.

a

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 61

8 inch in front it is represented by a ligament which joins
internally the narrow first costal cartilage, most of which is
ossified, more so than the cartilage of the other side is. Shaft is
slender, 24 inches in length, } inch in breadth at the subclavian
groove. This deficiency of Ist rib is on that side on which the
13th rib is longest. Transverse process of 7th cervical vertebra
presents well-marked bifurcation, with small-sized foramen.
Anterior transverse processes of atlas incomplete on both sides.

Case 2. Lumbar Rib on both sides. No history. Prepara-
tion of an otherwise characteristic robust 1st lumbar vertebra.
Left rib the longest and thickest, length 2? inch, right 2}.
Both expanded at outer third to breadth of 4 inch, thicker and
a little narrower along inner 3, right the more slender as well
as the shorter. elation to the vertebra. Each presents a ter-
minal facet, articulating with a parapophysial elevation placed
where the upper and fore part of the pedicle joins the body,
and a posterior facet, close to the other, which articulates with
a slight eminence on the lower and back part of the pedicle.
On the left side, however, these two surfaces on the pedicle
appear to have been continuous by a narrow connection. Back
of rib external to this is in relation with the transverse process,
which is 4 inch in length, but with a narrow interval between.
No facet here, but marks of ligamentous attachments. The
parapophysial eminence, pedicle, and transverse process toge-
ther form a somewhat square-shaped socket into which the
elongated head of the rib is received, but without contact with
the transverse process, and motion must have been limited.
The elongated head of the rib gives the appearance as of a
head and tubercle without a neck, but both the facets appear
- more strictly to belong to the head, the costo-transverse articu-
lation having been ligamentous only’.

1 Two cases of Lumbar Rib in the Ox; in one the rib placed on the end of
the transverse process, in the other placed in the usual situation. 1. The rib
in this case, as in case No. 8 following in this series, is placed on the end of
the transverse process, and on one side only, but it is a supernumerary rib
and there is no serial variation of the vertebrae. Skeleton ofa short-horn
cow in the Anatomical Museum of the University. Vertebrae C. 7, D. 13, L. 6,
the first carrying the rib. Transverse process of first lumbar vertebra 24 inches
in length on right side. On left side a movable rib, 4 inches in length, is sup-
ported on a transverse process 6 inches in length. First inch of latter is like
the root of the transverse processes; then follows an enlargement as if the

62. Ci: PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

(b) More COMPLEX LUMBAR VARIATIONS. VERTEBRAE
AND Rips. Case 3. A Dorso-lwmbar Vertebra more than
usual, with additional pair of Ribs. Male aged 50. Prepara-
tion shews, cervical vertebrae 7, dorsal 12, lumbar 6, the first
having lumbar ribs, sacral 5, coccygeal 3 or 4, probably 4. .
Thirteenth ribs, nearly symmetrical, but right a little longer
and thicker than left. Right, length 2 inches; breadth of
shaft at inner two-thirds, 4 inch, at outer third }. Left,
length 1%, a little less in breadth that right. Both are thinner
as well as more expanded at outer third than along inner two-
thirds. They slope a little downwards, but direction not very
fixed as they are freely movable. They reach out 1 inch be-
yond tips of transverse processes of vertebra below. The latter
slope a very little downwards, are 1 inch in length, measured
from the body, and 3 inch in breadth. Articulations. Head
surrounded by ligament. Also interosseous and costo-transverse
ligaments, occupying all the length of the transverse process
and outwards from it. Length of transverse process } inch,
Head rests by articular facet on parapophysial eminence situ-
ated where upper and fore part of pedicle joins body. As the
dissection was not so fresh as I could have wished I could not
satisfy myself whether at any part external to the head there
was a second synovial membrane or only loose connective tissue,
within the ligament, but there was no second cartilaginous
facet. The motion of the rib, with the ligaments entire, was
very free. Twelfth rib, length of right 7 inches; breadth along
inner part of shaft 5 lines, outer part 4 inch. Left now re-
moved, Large cartilaginous facet for head, and same synovial
cavity reaches out to end of transverse process, but there is no
rest of the process had been separate and become ankylosed here, This long
transverse process is curved backwards like the 13th rib, and as broad as it,
while the transverse process behind it, 4 inches in length, is curved with
concavity forwards. As the movable rib and transverse process now present
irregular bony ends, they have probably been united by cartilage. 2, Occurs
in a Bos grunniens, on both sides. Vertebrae O, 7, D. 14, L. 5. The supernu-
merary (14th) rib is long and well formed; length along curve 10} inches,
straight 9, being only 14 inches shorter than 18th rib, Shaft as broad as that
of 18th along vertebral half, and nearly as broad as 18th along lower half,
Head intervertebral. Costo-transverse articulation present on right side, none
on left; present on 18th rib on both sides,

In this Journal for November 1871, I recorded a case in which I found a
supernumerary (16th) pair of ribs in a Great Fin-Whale (Balaenoptera Mus-

culus), In this case the supernumerary ribs floated among the muscles, un-
connected with the vertebrae,

‘VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 63

external facet. Same on both sides. Transverse process, as on
vertebra supporting lumbar ribs, } inch in length; metapophy-
sis and anapophysis also well marked on both. Lleventh rib,
costo-transverse facet present on right side, $ inch out from the
head; none on left side. Tenth rib, no costo-transverse facet
on either side; head rests partly on 9th vertebra on both sides,
Siath lumbar vertebra. (25th vertebra.) Freely movable.
Has the characters of a normal last lumbar vertebra, including
normal transverse processes. Lower articular processes } inch.
wider apart than upper, but are not wide apart (12 inch), and
look very much inwards. Lower processes of fifth also } inch
wider apart than upper. Antero-posterior thickness of pedicles,
9 lines; those of fifth, 7 to 8 lines; those of fourth, 4 to 5
lines. Lumbo-sacral fibro-cartilage same length at middle as
those above, but less at the sides. Distance between transverse
processes and sacrum nearly } inch. Two entire nerves, being
the 5th and a 6th lumbar, went down to join the sacral plexus.
The obturator arose from the 8rd and 4th, the anterior crural
from the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th. Sacrum. The 5 pieces completely
ossified together. Greatest breadth 44 inches; length at ante-
rior surface, straight 3} inches, along curve 4}; depth of curve
1}. Promontory well marked. Upper surface of wings a little
-more sloping than usual. Auricular surface extends down to
nearly opposite lower edge of 2nd foramen. Canal opens at
3rd space. Horns short, outer boundary of 4th foramen } inch
broad. Lower end, breadth 9 lines; less motion here than
between Ist and 2nd pieces of coceyx. Coccyx, in three movable
pieces, the third apparently composed of two. Total length
1jinch. First piece, length 6 lines; breadth including short
transverse processes, 15 lines; very short horns, connected to
sacral horns by ligament. Second piece, length 4 lines, breadth
8lines. United third and fourth pieces, length 7 lines, of which
4 belong to third; line of ankylosis indicated by deep notch at
either side, by a furrow in front, and by a deep fissure behind
- going more than half through the thickness of the bone. ‘Third
piece diminishes in breadth from 6 lines to 4. Fourth piece,
breadth at first 5 lines, semilunar termination. After compari-
son with other specimens of more or less ankylosed coccyx it
must be concluded that this coccyx has had four pieces.

64 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

We have, therefore, in this case an instance of an additional
lumbar vertebra, with an additional pair of ribs, together with
the full number of sacral and, apparently also, of post-sacral
vertebrae’.

Case 4. A Dorso-lumbar Vertebra more than usual, with
additional pair of Ribs; the sixth lumbar vertebra partly united
to the sacrum. Male aged 29. Preparation shews entire spine
with vertebral ends of ribs, the vertebrae still united by their
fibro-cartilages. Vertebrae, cervical 7; dorsal 12; lumbar 6, the
first carrying ribs, the sixth partially united to the sacrum;
sacrum 5, exclusive of sixth lumbar; coccyx 4, first separate,

1 Case of additional dorso-lumbar vertebra and additional rib in Dr Barclay’s
Museum. I was acquainted with a skeleton in the Barclay Collection in the
Edinburgh College of Surgeons, marked ‘‘Skeleton of a European male used
by Dr Barclay in his lecture-room, as having thirteen dorsal vertebrae and
thirteen ribs on the left side.” My notes of it contain the following. Vertebrae
C. 7, D. 13, L. 5, 8. and C, ankylosed together. Seven well-formed cervical ver-
tebrae. The seven upper ribs join sternum in usual manner. Twelfth rib
over 6 inches in length along the curve, and same on both sides. Thirteenth
rib, length 1{ inch, breadth 4 inch. Head rests on a short parapophysial
elevation, and a short transverse process is in close relation with the rib pos-
teriorly. Appearances indicate that a corresponding supernumerary rib has
been present on right side also, but probably not so much developed. Lower
articular processes of 12th dorsal do not undergo the change to the lumbar
type, those of 13th the first to do so, but the processes between the 12th and
13th are smaller than those higher up and are not quite symmetrical. Lower
articular processes of 4th lumbar (24th vertebra) 14 inch apart, and only } inch
wider apart than its upper processes. Lower processes of 5th lumbar 2 inches
apart, and about 4} inch wider apart than its upper processes. Sacrum and
coccyx ankylosed in one piece; 5 pairs of foramina and an irregular mass
beyond, Uncertain whether this mass comprises 2 or 8 pieces. Coccyx twisted
to right side, making 4th and 5th foramina much smaller on right than on left
side. Canal of sacrum opens opposite upper edge of 5th foramen, Sacro-iliac
articulation reaches down to midway between 2nd and 8rd anterior sacral
foramina.

We have in this case an instance of a dorso-lumbar vertebra more than
usual, with additional rib; but as it is uncertain whether the sacro-coccygeal
vertebrae have been 9 or only 8 in number, it is uncertain whether there has
been also an absolute addition to the number of the vertebrae,

Case of additional dorso-lumbar vertebra, with additional pair of ribs, in
a Cat. This variation is seen in the skeleton of an adult cat in my possession,
The vertebrae and ribs are still connected by their fibro-cartilages and liga-
ments. Vertebrae, C. 7, D. 18 or 14, L. 7 or 6. Change of articular processes
from dorsal to lumbar between 11th and 12th dorsal, as usual. Supernumerary
rib (14th), like the two in front of it, rests on body ‘of vertebra only, Is
14 inch in length on right, 1 inch on left side, the latter just half the ength

the 18th rib; and seems to have ended as a free floating rib. In the place
of its attachment to the body of the vertebra, it is serial with the rib in front
of it and with the transverse process behind it. The latter process is a little
shorter than those behind it, but resembles them in direction and in springing
from, in the developed skeleton, the side of the body of the vertebra. The
seven lumbar vertebrae have the usual characters; and the sacrum its usual
three vertebrae, ankylosed above and below,

ee ee a

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 65

three last ankylosed to each other. Lumbar ribs nearly sym-
metrical, but tip of left has been sawn off. Length of right
14 inch, projecting 3 inch farther than tip of transverse process
of vertebra below it. Breadth 3 to 4 lines, a little broader and
thinner at outer fourth. Transverse process below has same
breadth but is thinner. Rib and process below both directed
horizontally. Relation to vertebra. Same on both sides. Head
forms triangular enlargement which is received into a kind of
socket, formed, behind by the short transverse process, internally
by a parapophysial elevation. Latter crosses pedicle obliquely
downwards and backwards, presenting a partially divided but
continuous cartilaginous surface, } inch in length, } inch in
breadth, on which end of rib articulates. The posterior surface,
meeting this nearly at a right angle, isin close relation with the
transverse process, which is } inch in length, but there is no
articular facet between them. Only up and down motion could
occur here, and it cannot have been free. Dorsal vertebrae.
No articular facet on transverse process of 10th on left side, but
well marked on right; head of 10th rib touches 9th as much as
10th body, on both sides, although head of this rib on right side
is exceptionally narrow.

Fifth lumbar vertebra. Transverse process has the usual
upward slope and triangular form, but is much less robust than
usual for the fifth as seen in front. Seen from above, there is
that antero-posterior thickness of the pedicle which belongs to a
normal 5thlumbar. Siath lumbar vertebra (25th vertebra). Re-
lation to sacrum—Fibro-cartilage in front is half the thickness
of those above, narrow at the sides, becoming encrusted with
ossification behind. Articular processes free; lower } inch
nearer each other than the upper are, in contrast with those of
5th, which are + inch wider apart than its upper processes.
Distance between upper processes of sixth, 2} inch, at outer
edges. Transverse process, on right side, massive, bluntly bifid ;
8 lines in height at foramen, expanding outwards to form a wing
14 lines in. height; articulates below with a concave surface on
outer and back part of sacrum, 4 inch broad, forming outer
boundary of a lumbo-sacral foramen. On left side. transverse
process larger, expanding into a wing 16 lines in height, and
similarly bifurcated; line of articulation with sacrum, 1 inch in

VOL, IX, 5

66 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

breadth, and undergoing ankylosis. The line of suture is uneven,
the approach being mainly by the descent of the transverse
process behind and internally, and mainly by the ascent of the
sacrum in front and externally. Foramen 5 lines across on this
side, 7 lines on right; neither of them so large as Ist and 2nd
sacral foramina, but fully as large as 3rd. Besides the nerve
which occupied this foramen, the whole of the 5th nerve and
part of the 4th passed down to the sacral plexus. Sacrum—
5 pieces. Apart from the above-mentioned transverse process
relations, it would pass for a well-formed though small-sized
sacrum. Greatest breadth 44 inches, length in front 32 straight,
along curve 4; greatest depth of curve 14. Upper surface of
wing less sloping than usual on right side, more than usual on
left side. Sixth lumbar vertebra is in line with the lumbar
curve, and away back from the general curve of the sacrum.
Auricular surface reaches down fully to opposite middle of 2nd
foramen. Portion of sacrum has extended up so as to come in
between lower part of left transverse process of sixth lumbar
vertebra and ilium, but a small part of right has articulated
with ilium continuously with where it articulates with sacrum.
Canal opens at 3rd segment. No horns towards coccyx. Outer
boundary of 4th foramen } inch in breadth. Lower end, 8 lines
transversely. Coccy#. ‘Total length 14 inch. Four pieces,
First piece separate, length over 4 lines, breadth, including
transverse processes, 14 lines; horns very short. Last three
pieces ankylosed; indicated by constrictions, marked enough in
front, very distinct behind. Second piece, length under 4 lines,
breadth 6 lines, tapering to 4, Third piece, length 3, breadth 4
Fourth piece, length between 2 and 8 lines, breadth 5.

We have in this case another instance of an additional lum-
bar vertebra, and an additional pair of ribs, together with the
full number of sacral and post-sacral vertebrae. Or, if the 6th
lumbar be regarded as the 1st sacral only partially consolidated,
we have then a case presenting that condition, together with
an additional pelvic vertebra, and a 13th pair of ribs.

Case 5, Sia Lumbar Vertebrae. Male aged 56. Vertebrae
©. 7, D. 12, L. 6, 8. 5, C. 8. Dorsal vertebrae and ribs normal.
‘Twelfth rib 54 inches in length, /irst lwnbar vertebra normal

:
:
:

. — « ile oat ‘
NN ee eee eee ee ae ee ee

—

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 67

except that it has no vestige. of transverse process on either side,
although there is a fair metapophysis and anapophysis, From
this, and the presence of markings on the fore part of the
pedicle, I am inclined to infer that there have been small lum-
bar ribs here, though they were not noticed in dissection.
The appearances here are precisely like those on the correspond-
ing parts of the 12th dorsal vertebra in case No. 1 of unde-
veloped 12th thoracic rib, supposing the minute rib to have
been removed here, I have an otherwise normal spine in
which the first lumbar vertebra shews this condition on the
right side; with an ordinarily developed first lumbar transverse
process on the left, there is, on the corresponding part on the
right side, an irregular concave facet as if a movable process
had been attached there.

Sizth lumbar vertebra. Is quite separate from sacrum,
Lower articular processes ;; inch less apart than upper. Dis-
tance between upper, 24 inches, Lower of fifth } inch wider
apart than upper. Transverse processes are more robust than
usual; while those of the vertebra next above it are unusually
short and narrow externally, with moderate increase of thickness
at pedicle. Left process, length from body 1 inch, height
6 lines, thickness 4 to 5 lines. Right same length, commencing
to bifureate, giving height of ? inch, and is also thicker than
left. These are not in contact with sacrum, but by bending to
either side they are made to touch; articular facets are seen
below their ends, and corresponding facets on the sacrum and
partly on the ilium, just above the end of the sacro-iliac articular
surface. On the left side these are small and form separate
joints. On right side the articulation is for } inch with a con-
cave facet on outer and back part of sacrum, and, externally
and continuously, with a flat facet of the same size on the ilium.
Although the latter now appears separated by a rough furrow
from the sacro-iliac joint, it was noted in the dissection that
they were continuous, Sacro-iliac articular surface goes down
to opposite a little below lower edge of 2nd foramen on left side,
to below middle of foramen on right side. A rather scattered
sacro-lumbar ligament passed up to the transverse process, and
an ilio-lumbar ligament passed in to the transverse process of
the 6th, none to that of the 5th, which is unusually short and

5—2

Ge; PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

narrow. Thickness of fibro-cartilage, at middle, between sacrum
and 6th.vertebra nearly } inch. Both 5th and 6th nerves went
entirely down to tbe pelvis, the 5th a smaller nerve than it
usually is. Obturator arose as usual from 3rd and 4th. Abdo-
minal aorta divided as usual at the lower part of the 4th lumbar
vertebra.

Sacrum. The 5 pieces quite ankylosed. Breadth 44 inches;
length in front 34 straight, along curve 44. Greatest depth of
curve 1}. Promontory sharp. Upper surface of wings not more
sloping than usual, if so much. Canal opens at 4th segment.
Outer boundary of 4th foramen broad, } inch-on left, $ inch on
right side. Horns short and unequal. Lower end, 4 inch in
breadth. Coccyx, of 3 pieces, ankylosed to each other. Total
length 1 inch behind, $ less in front. First piece, length nearly
4 lines in front, 5 behind; breadth 11. lines; transverse processes
very unsymmetrical, right narrow, left thick and robust, giving
coccyx an obliquity to right side. Horns very short. Second
piece, length 4 lines, breadth 7 lines. Third piece, length 3,
breadth 6 lines. Ankylosis of Ist and 2nd the more complete,
and much resembles that between 3rd and supposed 4th in case
No. 3.

This case is an example of an additional lumbar vertebra,
gained from the sacrum, the sacrum being compensated by bor-
rowing one from the coccyx.

Case 6. Six Lumbar Vertebrae. Preparation shews the
vertebrae and vertebral ends of ribs still united by their fibro-
cartilages, upper 6 cervical removed, 4th coccygeal lost. From
the size I infer that it is from a female subject. Vertebrae,
dorsal 12, lumbar 6, sacral 4, coccygeal 4. Dorsal vertebrae
normal, Transverse processes of 1st lumbar 4 inch in length
behind; those of 5th much narrower than those of 3rd and 4th,
but have the usual upward slope and greater obliquity of lower
margin, and moderate antero-posterior increase at the pedicle.
Sicth lumbar vertebra. ‘Transverse processes thick, 1 inch in
length from the body; height on left side } inch, on right 1 inch
with commencing bifurcation, The right by its lower and outer
part articulates by a synovial joint, below with the sacrum for
} inch, and. outwardly for a like distance with the ilium, the

— a = oT

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 69

two joints being continuous. This is just above the upper end
of the sacro-iliac joint, with which the lumbar process articula-
tions appear to have been continuous. On the left side there is
a space of 4 inch between the process and the sacrum, and ap-
parently no facets. Iliac articular surface on sacrum reaches
down on right side to opposite middle of 2nd foramen, on left
side to opposite lower boundary of foramen. Lower and upper
articular processes of sixth equidistant. Lower of fifth, +5
inch wider apart than upper. Distance between upper of sixth,
1} inch. Sacrum 4 pieces, fully ankylosed. Breadth 4} inches,
length in front, straight 3, along curve 38; greatest depth of
curve 10 lines. Canal opens at 4th piece. Promontory well
marked, upper surface of wings less sloping than usual.
Horns well developed. Lower end, a little expanded laterally,
breadth 1 inch, sharp-edged and nearly flat. Fourth foramen a
wide notch which lateral processes of first piece of coceyx would
complete into a foramen if prolonged for } inch on left, for

-} inch on right side. Second sacral foramen fully larger than

Ist, although it is here the foramen of the third nerve. Coccyz.
Pieces still separate. First piece, length 8 lines, breadth be-
tween tips of wings 12 inch, each lateral process 4 lines at

upper margin. Breadth of upper articular surface 1 inch; lower

end } inch in breadth and bevelled like normal lower end of
sacrum, and motion more free here than between this vertebra
and the sacrum. Its characters are thus transitional between
5th sacral and 1st coceygeal, but serially it is the 1st coecygeal
(80th vertebra) and it is movable on the sacrum. Second piece,
length 6 lines, breadth 9 lines tapering to 5. Third piece,
length 4 lines, breadth 6 lines tapering to 3. Fourth piece was
hanging loose and has now been lost; cartilaginous surface
visible on which it rested.

This case presents an instance of an additional lumbar ver-
tebra, obtained from the sacrum, while the sacrum has not
borrowed a compensatory piece from the coccyx.

Case 7. Sia Lumbar Vertebrae. A spine in the Anatomical
Museum of the University; no history. Vertebrae C. 7, D. 12,
L. 6, S. 5, C. lost. Dorsal and upper lumbar vertebrae normal.
Marked increase of thickness of pedicle of 5th lumbar. Siath

70 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

lumbar. Transverse processes thick, about as thick as little
finger, and slanting very obliquely upwards. Right has short
bifurcation, upper division narrow, lower close to sacrum with
corresponding rounded facets 4 inch in diameter. Process is
3 inch short of reaching out to level of sacro-iliac joint. Left
_ thick, instead of bifurcating, and is quite close to sacrum for
} inch, with a facet. Included lumbo-sacral foramina elliptical
and very oblique upwards and outwards. Articular processes
not wide apart. Distance between upper processes of sixth, less
than 1} inch. Lower processes } inch wider apart, directed
nearly straight forwards, and not quite symmetrical. Lower
processes of fifth are 4 inch wider apart than upper. Sacrum
5 pieces. Breadth 42; length in front, straight 38, along curve
32; depth of curve 7 lines. This is a remarkably flat sacrum ;
the slight curve is where the 4th and Sth pieces join, Pro-
montory well enough marked; upper surface of wings more
sloping than usual at back part only, brim-line being well
formed. Sacro-iliac articular surfaces appear to stop even be-
fore reaching to opposite upper edge of 2nd foramen, a sharp
and prominent ridge here cutting them off from a doubtfully
articular excavated surface which is continued ? inch farther, to
opposite lower edge of 2nd foramen. Canal opens at 4th piece.
Upper two pairs and lower two pairs of foramina of usual size.
Lower end 4 inch transversely. No horns towards coccyx.
Coccyx lost.

This case presents an instance of a sixth lumbar vertebra,
obtained from the sacrum, while the sacrum is numerically
compensated by borrowing a vertebra from the coccyx.

Case 8. A Dorsal or Lumbar Vertebra less than usual;
Eleven pairs of ribs ; 12th dorsal, or 1st lumbar, vertebra with
movable transverse process on one side. Robust spine with ver-
tebral ends of ribs, the vertebrae still united by their fibro-
cartilages. Vertebrae C. 7, D. 11 or 12, L. 5 or 4, 8. 6, C. lost.
Tenth ribs do not touch 9th vertebra, and have no costo-trans-
verse facet. Vertebral part of 11th ribs preserved for 2 inches,
robust, left more so than right. leventh dorsal vertebra.
Lower articular processes assume lumbar type (as already noted,
case 3 of that variation), Metapophysis long and projecting

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 71

but would be more so on vertebra below but for the filling up

- implied in the change of the articular process. Transverse pro-

cess a conical tubercle } inch long on left side, still shorter on
right. Heads of 11th and also of 10th ribs rest on the pedicles,
in sockets the fore part of which is formed by a parapophysial
elevation situated where upper part of pedicle joins body.
Twelfth dorsal or 1st lumbar vertebra, presents on left side a
transverse process which resembles that of vertebra below in its
place of origin and its upward slope, but is longer than it by
4 inch (length from the body 14), and nearly a third broader
(breadth 4 inch); and is also thicker, so that its base extends

farther forwards on the pedicle than that of the process below,

or than that of an ordinary first lumbar transverse process. On
the right side, the corresponding part is in two pieces. Inner
portion, } inch in length, is thick, rising from nearly the whole
of the pedicle. It is thicker antero-posteriorly than the base
of the left process, reaching especially more forwards on the
pedicle. Articulated on the end of this long parapophysial
eminence is a movable process 1 inch in length, its form and
proportions extremely like those of the entire lumbar transverse
processes below it, or of any ordinary lumbar transverse process.
The intervening articular surface, as now seen, 8 lines in length
backwards and downwards, 4 lines in breadth, most of it smooth
and covered by cartilage, and undulating so that the motion
must have been only up and down and very limited. This ap-
parently has been an instance of what is termed development
of the first lumbar transverse process from a separate centre.
There is no reliable trace of ankylosis having taken place be-
tween two similar parts on the left side. Lowest lumbar ver-
tebra (23rd vertebra) presents the usual characters of a normal
5th lumbar. Lower articular processes 4 inch wider apart than
the upper. Distance between the upper, 14 inch. Pedicles pre-
sent the usual increased thickness of those of a lowest lumbar
vertebra.

Sacrum, 6 pieces. The unusual shape of the 1st piece, and
the dorso-lumbar vertebra less, lead to the inference that the
extra piece has been borrowed from above. Breadth of Ist
piece 4 inch, of 2nd piece an inch less; length in front, 54
straight, along curve 53, without 6th piece 8 lines less; depth of

72 © 2 vr © | PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

eurve 1 inch. Curve is gained on lower 2 pieces, the general
appearance of the front being that of great flatness. Body of
first piece, instead of prolonging general curve of sacrum, lies
back towards lowest lumbar vertebra, which it meets at a very
obtuse angle, forming but a slightly projecting promontory.
Upper surface of wings slopes downwards and outwards, but
more especially forwards, forming a very obtuse angle with front
of sacrum. Thickness of neck of 1st piece, opposite the fora-
men, is really less than that of 2nd piece (9 lines) as seen from
before and below; but as seen from above, the 1st piece appears
much the thicker of the two, owing to the obliquity. Auricular
surface reaches down to opposite upper edge of 3rd foramen ;
angle. is on first piece; upper part goes off at a very obtuse
angle and is rather short, reaching on the anterior and lower
half of the wing. Brim-line on first piece, runs from angle of
auricular surface inwards and upwards to upper edge of first
foramen, where it is lost. What the transverse mass of this Ist
sacral vertebra wants, is that thickness of the fore part which
normally carries the anterior surface of the sacrum so high above
the 1st foramen as to give nearly a right angle with the upper
surface, the rounded-off angle forming the brim of the true pelvis.
But in this specimen there is but one surface, sloping from the
upper boundary of the foramen to the upper border of the wing,
almost in line with the front of the transverse processes of the
lumbar vertebrae. This is the part occupied by the sacral rib
in development, and as this vertebra is serially the 5th lumbar
(24th vertebra) the absence of this element in its development
would be sufficient to account for this peculiar form. The first
three foramina are large, the 2nd less than the Ist and 3rd,
Canal opens at 4th piece. No distal horns. Outer boundary
of 5th foramen 4 inch broad on left side; on right, foramen
only half enclosed from below. Lower end nearly 7 lines trans-
versely. Coccyx removed.

This case presents an instance of deficiency of a dorso-lum-
bar vertebra, accompanied by a variety in which the 12th rib
and transverse process are convertible ; and in which the seem-
ingly absent vertebra has been united to the sacrum.

Case 9. Sia Cervical Vertebrae, and siw Lumbar Vertebrae;

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 73

and a Vertebra suppressed in some part of the column. Female
aged 40. This case presents variation of several regions of the
spine, but will be most conveniently noticed here. It might be
defined simply as a spine on which the thorax is planted a
vertebra higher than usual; but the first rib on one side has the
characters of a half-developed supernumerary cervical rib; the
articular processes change in the usual space, between the 19th
and 20th vertebrae; two entire lumbar nerves went down from
the lumbar region to the sacral plexus; and, while the sacrum
has 5, the coccyx has only 3 pieces. . As it actually stands, the
grouping is, ©. 6, D. 12, L. 6, 8.5, C.3. The preparation
presents the entire spine with the vertebral end of the ribs.
Siath cervical vertebra. Anterior transverse process much
less robust, especially on left side, than that of 5th. Lateral
foramen double, anterior the smaller on left side; artery has not
entered till 5th on left side (see case No. 16 of variation of lateral
foramina in neck). Seventh vertebra (supporting Ist pair of
ribs). Transverse processes directed a little downwards and
nearly straight outwards, while those of vertebra below are
slanted upwards and backwards; robust, but not so much so
as those of vertebra below; long, between tips 2? inch, being
a line more than in vertebra below. The inward shifting of
the articular process, from cervical to dorsal, is, as usual, most
marked below the 8th vertebra, very little between 7th and 8th.
First pair of ribs. Left, small, ceasing at middle of shaft.
Head rests on upper part of body; right, broad, on a parapo-
physial eminence; left, narrow, sunk in a depression. Good
costo-transverse articulation; head neck and tubercle 13 lines,
right like an ordinary first thoracic rib, left narrower. Shaft of
right has been sawn across after 14 inch, is rather narrower than
ordinary first rib in female; breadth at subclavian groove 5 lines,
at low scalene tubercle in front of this, 7 lines; groove for artery
broad and moderately marked. Shaft of left, length 13, breadth
at middle 4 inch, tapers to subclavian gréove, which is well
marked, and in front of this forms flat terminal expansion,
5 lines in breadth. Inner part of this expansion is a muscular
ridge, the lower aspect articulates with conical process of 2nd
rib, and, anteriorly, an uneven surface is seen which has evi-
dently given attachment to a small cartilage, or to a ligament,

74 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

prolonging the rib. Conical process of 2nd rib, } inch in height,
top truncated, forming flat oval facet, 4 inch in length, on which
end of Ist rib rests by a now irregular surface. Intercostal
space, length, from costo-transverse articulation to conical pro-
cess, 14 inch, and $inch in height at middle. On left side,
1st rib thus presents all the characters of a half-developed
supernumerary rib, as in case No. 9, and on right side of case
No. 10, of that variety. I have no note respecting the anterior
part of the right first rib, the parts having been removed, but it
has all the appearance of a rib which would reach the sternum.
Head of 2nd rib has probably touched the 7th vertebra, at least
on left side. The 3 lowest ribs have the same relation to their
vertebrae which the normally placed 3 lowest have to their
vertebrae. Head of 12th ribs, and the 14 inch of their shaft
which the saw has left, are of good size.

First lumbar vertebra (the 19th vertebra) has the oidin
transverse processes of an uppermost lumbar vertebra; length 5
lines behind, and #? inch along lower edge from body; about
+ inch in breadth; and they spring from behind middle of
pedicle. Direction horizontal. Metapophyses project, as they
also do on the vertebra in front, the change of the articular pro-
cesses not having taken place. Spine horizontal and quadran-
gular, spine next above it having sloping upper edge. Neat
lowest lumbar vertebra. Transverse processes have triangular
form and upward slope, but in less degree, which those of lowest
lumbar vertebra usually present ; narrower and a little shorter
than those next above; pedicle thicker than usual for a next
lowest lumbar vertebra. Lower articular processes nearly 4 inch
wider apart than superior. Siath lumbar vertebra (24th vertebra).
Transverse processes same length as those of 38rd and 4th; thick
both ways, vertically 4 inch thick, antero-posteriorly right 9,
left 7 lines. Slant a little upwards; outer ends bluntly oblique,
facing to sacrum but } inch from it: pedicle has the usual
thickness of a lowest lumbar vertebra, Lower articular pro-
cesses } inch less apart than the upper are. Distance between
upper sixth 1% inch.

Sacrum 5 pieces. Breadth 4} inch, length in front, 32 —

straight, along curve 44, depth of curve 8 lines, curve mainly at
lower half, beginning at middle of 3rd piece. Upper surface of

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 75

wings less sloping than usual. Auricular surface reaches on
right side to opposite middle, on left side to near lower edge, of
2nd foramen ; upper part of that surface broader on right than
on left side. Canal opens at 4th piece. No horn on left, short
on right side. Outer boundary of 4th foramen 4 inch broad on
right side, on left mostly wanting. Lower end, } inch trans-
versely. Coccyx represented by the three nodular pieces, anky-
losed together. Total length {inch in front, behind } inch
more. First piece, length 4 to 5 lines, breadth 6 lines, tapering
to 5; presents slight depressions on each side on a front view,
but no line across, and no mark of any kind behind. Second
piece, length 3 lines, breadth 54 lines, widest at middle. Third
piece, length nearly 3 lines, breadth 44, termination semilunar.

The variation in this case presents some complexity. To
which region is the suppression of the vertebra to be referred ?
The lumbo-sacral nerves would seem to indicate that the lowest
lumbar vertebra is the usual Ist sacral set free, thus accounting
for the seemingly deficient pelvic vertebra, and leaving 23 in-
stead of 24 vertebrae above. The appearance of suppression of
a vertebra in the neck, is met by the consideration that the 7th
vertebra carries ribs, imperfectly developed on one side, like
cervical ribs. Then, although only 11 ribs remain, the next
vertebra below, though rib-less, has the normal articular pro-
cesses of a 12th dorsal (19th vertebra). If it is to be regarded
as such, and not as the 1st lumbar, then the suppressed vertebra
would be really a lumbar, although there are six free vertebrae
between the thorax and the pelvis. Whichever view be taken,
this case is an interesting one, as exhibiting variation in every
region of the spine, and as shewing the importance of examin-
ing the entire spine before deciding as to a variation of any one
part of it. The observation of the grouping of the nerves along
the whole spine, would always be important in these cases, but
the dissection is generally far advanced before the variation of
the vertebrae is noticed.

(c.) VARIATIONS OF THE 5th LUMBAR VERTEBRA. (1) Ez-
amination of Cases illustrating the changes by which it becomes
united to the Sacrum. This union is by ossification at the parts
which attach the inter-transverse (sacro-lumbar) ligament. The

76 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

characters of the transverse process of the 5th lumbar vertebra
which at once strike the eye, are, its greater thickness, tapering
form, and upward slope. But a more remarkable character is
the great antero-posterior thickness at its root, seen in a vertical
view, making it appear to spring from the body as well as from
the pedicle, as if a short rib had been consolidated here. The
lumbar pedicles increase in thickness, antero-posteriorly, from
above downwards, but that of the 5th is suddenly increased to
about double that of the 4th. Beginning a little farther out-
wards at the canal, its attachment reaches obliquely forwards to
near the middle of the side of the body, it may be even in front
of the middle. This character is most conveniently referred to
as increased thickness of the pedicle. The obliquity of the
transverse process, as seen in front, is mainly on the lower edge,
corresponding more or less to the similar slant of the neighbour-
ing part of the sacrum. This margin presents, first, a concave
part, the boundary of the intervertebral foramen, having gene-
rally a distinctly marked outer termination. Here the sacro-
lumbar ligament begins, forming the outer boundary of the fora-
men. The outer more sloping part of the lower edge of the
process is devoted to this ligament, the farther part of it, and
also the tip, attaching the ilio-lumbar ligament. The lumbo-
-sacral ligament is attached, below, to the back part (transverse
process part) of the wing of the sacrum; either to the developed
upper angle and inwards from it, or, more inwardly, to the low ~
conical process in which the back part of the wing may stop
short. The distance between the transverse process and the
sacrum varies a good deal; it is often } inch, sometimes more,
oftener less, often enough they are very near. They are brought
together by lateral motion to that side and by extension, the
ligaments of the opposite transverse process checking.
Specimens before me shew the process of sacralisation in
various stages. In a female pelvis (case No. 8, sacral variation) |
the conical process (ascending inter-transverse process) rises up
from the sacrum, so as to be almost in contact with the trans-
verse process of the vertebra. In a male pelvis, aged 48, (case
No. 9 of sacral variation) the sloping part of the transverse
process is thickened downwards, and is within ;; inch of the
sacrum, for a breadth of 4 to ? inch, In more advanced stages,

yer Dr.

Og Ol eg

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 77

the transverse process acquires much greater thickness, and
bifureates, the lower limb of the fork (descending inter-trans-
verse process), passes downwards and outwards towards the
sacrum, and articulates movably with the sacrum below, and, it
may be, with the ilium externally. In a farther stage, the
union may be broad and sutural; and, finally, osseous union
takes place.

In the four cases to be related in which this vertebra ap-
pears to have been included in the sacrum (cases 1 to 4, sacral
variation) the union is symmetrical, and the variation has
probably been congenital. In the specimens before me, in
which the vertebra has probably been at one time more normal,
the approach, or union, is very unsymmetrical, or occurs on one
side only. This condition is probably related to a lateral incli-
nation of the spine.

1. Female aged 62 (case No. 5 of Thoracic variation. Anky-
losed 12th ribs), Left transverse process massive and bifurcated,
descending division articulating with sacrum. Height of pro-
cess, at middle, 10 lines; each division as large as middle-sized
finger ; upper attached the ilio-lumbar ligament; lower articu-
lates, below, for $ inch, by a synovial joint, with a concavity on
outer part of sacrum, which has ascended a little to meet it.
Lumbar process, together with the elevated part of sacrum,
is received into a depression in the ilium, close above auricular
surface, but the union is only ligamentous. Motion at the
inter-transverse sacro-lumbar joint limited. Right side, simply
a massive process. Height at middle, 9 lines; distance from
sacrum } inch. Lower articular processes } inch wider apart
than upper. Distance between upper 2} inch. Difference more
marked on 4th.

2. Male aged 40 (case No. 11 of Sacral variation; 1st
eoccygeal united to sacrum). Right transverse process massive,
height at middle, 10 lines; bifurcated ; descending division as
large as a thick finger, passes downwards and outwards, and ar-
ticulates movably with a cavity on outer and back part of wing
of sacrum, which ascends to meet it only on outer side, where
they articulate with the ilium. Line of articulation between
sacrum and transverse process, oblique, outwards and upwards
from the foramen. Auricular surface reaches up to the very

78 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

top.of sacral wing, and a little upon the lumbar transverse
process; and down, on both sides, to near the lower edge of the
2nd normal foramen. Lower articular process on this side faces
almost straight forwards; and lower processes +4 inch less apart
than the upper. Width between upper, 2 inches. Left side,
transyerse process shorter than usual, and as thick as_ little
finger; corresponds to upper division of the bifurcated right
process; distance from sacrum, 4 lines.

3. Female skeleton. Vertebrae C. 7, D. 12, L. 5, S. 5,
C. lost. Same subject as case 7 (b) of ankylosed short cervical
ribs. ight transverse process of 5th lumbar vertebra, massive.
Height at foramen ? inch. Short thick wing, rather than a
bifurcation ; upper angle corresponds to transverse process of
left side, but is thicker. Below, articulates broadly, for 14 inch,
with outer and back part of sacral wing, which has risen up to
_meet it; articulation directed obliquely outwards and upwards,
and movable. In growing towards each other, most in front
has been done by the sacrum, most behind by the lumbar wing.
Only a very small part of the latter appears to have articulated
with the ilium, Left transverse process, thicker than usual
externally; distance from sacrum, about } inch. Lower articular
processes } inch nearer each other than the upper are. Distance
between upper, 2 inches, Neither upper nor lower quite sym-
metrical, Those of 4th equidistant. Lower processes of 3rd
are 4 inch wider apart than upper, but not so wide as those
of 4th,

4. Male aged 47 (case 4, Thoracic variation, Very unequal
12th ribs). ight transverse process massive, 1 inch in height
at middle; expanded externally as a wing, nearly 1} in breadth,
anterior surface looking obliquely forwards and upwards. Outer
and lower part of wing ankylosed to outer and back part of
wing of sacrum, which has ascended to meet it; line of anky-
losis 1 inch in length, directed obliquely upwards and outwards
from the foramen. Free outer edge of wing slopes upwards
and inwards to a blunt upper angle; and, below, supports the
upper end of the auricular surface. Upper portion of auricular
surface, 14 inch in length, is prolonged on ascending process of
sacrum, and for about 4 inch on wing of lumbar vertebra; lower
portion, somewhat shorter, reaches.down to opposite lower edge

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 79

of 2nd normal foramen. The wing-like expansion of the lumbar
transverse process here presented, is remarkably like that of
the corresponding part of the first sacral vertebra in cases 1 to 4
of sacral variation, in which the 5th lumbar vertebra appears to
have been sacralised. Left side, transverse process, shorter and
somewhat thicker than usual, distance from sacrum } inch.
Lower articular processes } inch wider apart than upper, and not
symmetrical. Width between upper, 1? inch.

Reference may here be made to the condition of the lumbar
transverse processes in cases Nos. 5, 6 and 7 of lumbar variation,
shewing six lumbar vertebrae. Although we sometimes speak
of that condition as one in which a sacral vertebra has been
given off to the lumbar region, the condition is simply that the
25th vertebra has remained free. The cases therefore serve to
illustrate the approach of a vertebra to the sacrum, and there is
greater symmetry. In each of the three, the transverse pro-
cesses are larger than usual, and articulate by facets with back
part of wing of sacrum, in case 7 on both sides, in cases 5 and 6
on the side on which the process is larger than on the other;
and in these two cases, the greater transverse process has an
articular facet for the ilium also. Case No. 4 of lumbar varia-
tion illustrates still better the advancing sacro-lumbar synos-
tosis’, :

1 Occurrence of this change in the Gorilla. In the Gorilla, and apparently
also in the Chimpanzee and the Orang, the lowest lumbar vertebra more or
less frequently becomes united to the sacrum in old subjects. This change
appears to be by some considered as normal, by others only as not unfrequent,
In the specimen of the gorilla in my possession, that of an adult but not
old male, this vertebra (the 24th) is quite free, and shews no indication of that
change of form by which it would come to resemble an upper sacral vertebra.
No doubt, the upward elongation of the iliac wings, and the closeness and
ligamentous connection of the last rib to the iliac crest, with the related lesser
mobility of the lumbo-sacral articulations, place the gorilla favourably for the
occurrence of this synostosis with advancing age; but, comparing my specimen
with that figured by Professor Owen (T7'rans, Zool. Soc. Vol. v. plate 12, fig. 2),
in which the 24th vertebra has become the broadest piece of the sacrum,
I have great difficulty in believing that this vertebra would in the farther life
of this individual have undergone such a change. Between its short blunt
transverse processes and the upper border of the first sacral vertebra, there
is a triangular gap, internally 4 lines, externally 9 lines in height. The
greatest breadth of the sacrum, at the brim-line, is 3} inches, contracting up-
wards to under 2¢ inches. The breadth of the lowest lumbar vertebra, from tip
to tip of its transverse processes, is the same as that of the sacrum at its
upper border, a line less than the 2% inches. The blunt outer ends of these
transverse processes, 1} inch in height, by 2? inch in breadth, are but from 2
to 3 lines distant from the corresponding shallow and smooth recess in the
ilium, I have noted considerable variation in regard to the free or sacralised

au. PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

(2) Variation of the lower Articular Processes of the 5th
Lumbar Vertebra. The articular processes of the 5th lumbar
vertebra present the double character of great actual width
apart, as compared with those of the vertebrae above them, and
of greater width apart of the lower compared with the upper
processes ; an adaptation to the greater breadth of the human
sacrum. The first piece of the sacrum presents the contrast of
having its lower articular processes much nearer each other
than the upper processes are. But these characters of the
articular processes of the 5ih lumbar vertebra are not invari-
able, nor are they distinctive of a 5th as compared with a 4th
lumbar vertebra. The increase in width apart of the lumbar
articular processes begins generally on the 38rd, and becomes
marked on the 4th. While the lower processes of the Ist and
2nd are nearer each other than the upper processes of the same
vertebra, those of the 3rd may be as wide apart as its upper
processes, or a little wider. The lower of the 4th are wider
apart than the upper by about } inch, or it may be less; and
the lower of the 5th are wider apart than the upper by from
4 to4inch. This is between the outer articular margins, but
between the inner articular margins also shews the difference ;
which is not due to the processes having been turned round so
that they face more forwards and backwards, but to actual
carrying outward of the whole process, although the change of
position and the change of direction are associated.

But while these differences are seen in a series, they will
not serve to distinguish a 5th from a fourth, which presents
the same characters absolutely, sometimes highly, while the 5th
may shew them to a less than usual degree, Better characters
are the thickness of pedicle, and the generally greater depth of

condition of this vertebra (the 24th) in the specimens of the gorilla in museums,
and the differences may be referable to individual variation as well as to age ;
but the number of specimens altogether as yet in museums is not sufficient to
afford ground for safe generalization on such a point. The cases of human varia-
tion above recorded, in which a 18th rib is developed, correspond in this respect
to the normal condition in the gorilla and chimpanzee, except that the rib in
them is more fully developed; while the cases of 5th lumbar vertebra uniting
to the sacrum, correspond to what is at least a frequent if not the normal
change in the anthropoids with advancing age. In man, however, the reverse
change, that of leaving the 25th vertebra free, appears to be more common,
tending to increase his lumbar region at the lower part; while the tendency in
the gorilla is in the direction of decrease, by iliac as well as by costal encroach.
ment, +

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VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 81

the body before than behind. Farther, in some instances the
lower processes of the 5th may not be so wide apart as the
upper, though I have not met with a fourth in which it is so.
1. In one case (case No. 8 of imperfectly developed 12th ribs,
and also case No. 5 of cervical rib; female), the lower articular
processes of the 5th lumbar vertebra are exactly the same
distance apart as the upper processes, while the lower processes
of the 4th are tinch farther apart than the upper. The lumbo-
sacral processes are very little turned round, so that the sacral
processes face very much inwards. 2. In another case, a de-

tached 5th lumbar vertebra, the lower and upper processes are

equidistant; the lower processes have the same inward direc-
tion as in the last case, but to a less degree. 3. Reference is
made to other cases in the following summary.

Summary of the disposition of the articular processes in the
cases in which the lowest lumbar vertebra is variously abnormal.
It will be seen to be very various, appearing as if determined
sometimes by functional circumstances, sometimes by the in-
herited character of individual vertebrae. In the four cases
(variation of 5th lumbar vertebra) in which the 5th lumbar
transverse process was articulated or ankylosed to the sacrum
on one side, the lower articular processes of the 5th are wider
apart than the upper in two (cases 1 and 4), and not so wide
apart as the upper in two (cases 2 and 3). In the three cases
of movable sixth lumbar vertebra (lumbar variation, cases 5,
6, and 7); in case No. 5, lower processes of sixth not so wide
apart as upper; those of fifth } inch wider apart than lower,
and wide. In case No. 6, lower and upper processes of sixth
equidistant : lower of fifth a little wider apart than upper, but
not wide. In case No. 7, processes not wide apart; lower of
sixth } inch more apart than upper; lower of fifth inch more
apart than upper. In case No. 3 (lumbar variation), also with
movable 25th vertebra, lower processes both of sixth and of fifth
are } inch wider apart than their upper processes, but are not
wide apart and look much inwards. In case No. 9 (lumbar varia-
tion), in which the sixth lumbar is the 24th vertebra actually,
and freely movable, the lower articular processes are 4 inch less
apart than the upper; while the lower of the vertebra next
above are 4 inch more apart than the upper. In the cases in

VOL, FX, 6

82 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

which a lumbar vertebra appears to have been ankylosed to the
sacrum (cases 1 to 4, sacral variation), the lower articular pro-
cesses on the first sacral piece have the usual inward sacral posi-
tion, compared with the upper processes. In case No. 1 of these,
in which alone the movable vertebrae were present, the lowest
lumbar (23rd vertebra) has the lower articular processes } inch
wider apart than the upper, and wide. In case No. 4 (lumbar
variation) in which the sixth lumbar (25th) vertebra is partly
ankylosed to the sacrum, the lower processes of that vertebra
are 4 inch nearer each other than the upper, which are wide
(24 inches apart) ; while the lower of the fifth are } inch wider
apart than the upper.

(3) Variations of the wpper Articular Processes of the
Sacrum. These processes vary frequently in direction, cur-
vature, and size. It may be remarked that they usually face
more backwards than the upper lumbar processes do. This
sometimes goes so far that the sacral processes face almost
directly backwards. Sometimes they are much more concave
than the lumbar processes; in other cases almost flat, as when
they face much backwards; but the curve is generally greatest
at the inner and fore part. When flat, and facing but little
inwards, they are mostly small; the much curved ones mostly
large. Want of symmetry is not uncommon, both as to curva-
ture and general direction. The variations of these processes
indicate corresponding variations of the lower articular processes
of the 5th lumbar vertebra, in addition to the varieties in width
apart above noticed, but they are more easily studied on the
sacrum, Oe]

(D) VARIATIONS OF THE SACRUM.

(a) DIMINUTION IN THE NUMBER OF VERTEBRAE COMPO-
SING THE SAcruM. This condition is rare compared with the
opposite one of increase, In case No. 6 (lumbar variation) we
had an instance of a sacrum with only 4 vertebrae, in which
there were 6 lumbar vertebrae, and 4 coccygeal. In that case
the diminution was accounted for by the upper vertebra re-
maining free; in the following case the diminution appears to
have been due to the lower vertebra remaining free,

— ae

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VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 83

Second case of adult sacrum composed of only 4 vertebrae.
A fully ossified but small pelvis, the upper pelvis especially
unexpanded, having on the whole the characters of the male
more than of the female pelvis; upper parts of thigh-bones,
which are present, muscular and shew very oblique neck. Sacrum
normal above, as also the lowest lumbar vertebra, which is pre-
sent. Only the first vertebra below the 4th sacral is present, the
rest being lost. This piece is quite movable; body very short, 3
to 4 lines, and broad. Breadth where it articulates with sacrum,
10 lines, and concave transversely; lower end 6 lines trans-
versely. Wings slender, especially left; these and left horn in
contact-with sacrum but not ankylosed. No distal horn. The
form of this piece might pass it for either a 5th sacral or a
Ist coccygeal. There may not unlikely have been 4 coccygeal
pieces beyond, but, while the sacrum normally consolidates
from below upwards, we have here what would have been the
5th piece remaining quite free, leaving a sacrum with 4 pieces.
Canal opens at lower part of 2nd piece. Auricular surface goes
down to opposite lower edge of second foramen. Breadth of
sacrum almost 4 inches; length, in front, 33 straight (with
movable piece 4inch more), along curve 33 (with movable piece
% more) ; depth of curve 6 lines (with movable piece 8 lines).

(b) EXAMINATION OF CASES OF VARIATION IN FORM OF THE
UPPER SACRAL VERTEBRA, IN WHICH IT APPEARS TO BE THE
LOWER LUMBAR VERTEBRA ADDED TO THE SACRUM. THE APE-
LIKE SACRUM. Case 1. For a case in which the upper sacral
vertebra must be considered as obtained from the lumbar region,
from its peculiar form together with the absence of a dorso-
lumbar vertebra, reference is made to case No. 8 under lumbar
variation. ‘The account of the form of the Ist sacral piece is
specially referred to.

Case 2. Wings of 1st sacral vertebra very deficient in front ;
sacrum of 5 pieces. In a well-marked male pelvis. Brim-line
of true pelvis is on 2nd piece. Brim-line of ilium bifurcates,
the lower runs on 2nd piece of sacrum, the upper runs to Ist
piece. Body of 1st inclined a little back from curve of sacrum,
Upper surface of wings slopes very much forwards, beginning
at lower edge of 1st foramen, especially on left side. Greatest

6—2

84 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

breadth of Ist piece, at upper end of auricular surface, 48
inches; of 2nd piece, at brim-line, $ inch less. But to the
eye the first piece seems as if narrower than the 2nd, owing
partly to the want of the usual much greater breadth of
the Ist piece, partly to the first piece rapidly narrowing
above the auricular surface. Neck of wing, as seen in front,
considerably thinner than that of 2nd, which is unusually
. robust (9 to 10 lines) and like that of a first sacral piece.
Even as seen obliquely, from above, the breadth of neck of
wing of Ist piece is not equal to either the vertical or the
antero-posterior measurement of neck of 2nd piece. Is ossified
to 2nd by the wings only, a fissure still remaining at outer side
of left foramen. Second not quite ossified to 3rd at body, or on
right side. Traces of epiphyses of iliac crests still visible.
Auricular surface reaches from middle of Ist piece down to
opposite the upper 3 of the 3rd foramen. Canal opens at 4th
piece. Fifth piece resembles an ordinary 4th; breadth between
tips of wings 24 inches; horns robust; lower end, breadth
1 inch, cartilaginous surface transversely convex and not much
bevelled. Remainder lost. In this case the sacrum has only
5 pieces, while in case 1, and in the two following cases, it
has 6.

Case 3. Wings of 1st sacral vertebra very deficient in front;
sacrum of 6 pieces. Upper sacral vertebra closely resembling
that of last case, but sacrum smaller and not quite fully ossified.
Is ankylosed only by inner half of wings, as seen in front, the
entire wing not yet ankylosed behind. Body inclined a little
back from curve of sacrum. Wings slope much forwards, the
slope beginning at outer edge of foramen. Greatest breadth, at
upper end of auricular surface, 38; of second piece, at angle of
auricular surface, 4 inch less. Neck of wing, as seen in front
view, is much thinner than that of 2nd, which is robust (7 lines)
and convex, liker that of a first, for a sacrum of this size. Seen
obliquely, as from above, the breadth is scarcely more than
either the vertical or the antero-posterior measurement of the
2nd. Rounded off brim-line runs in on 2nd piece. Auricular
surface; angle at middle of 2nd piece; upper portion goes up at
very obtuse angle to lower and anterior third of Ist piece; goes

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VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 85

down as far as rather below middle of 3rd foramen, but appa-
rently not reaching across the remains of the fissure between
the 3rd and 4th pieces. Sixth piece ossified to 5th by horns
and wings but not by body, no distal horns. Lower end 5 to 6
lines transversely. But for the peculiarities of the upper piece,
this sixth piece might pass either as a fifth sacral, or as an
ankylosed 1st coccygeal. Coccyx lost.

Case 4. Sacrum very like the last, but large. Upper ver-
tebra ankylosed by whole of wings and side parts of body.
Body and wings same characters as in last two cases. Breadth
of Ist piece 4%, of second } less. Auricular surface, upper
portion goes off at very obtuse angle, extending on 1st piece for
an inch; angle is on wing of 2nd piece; lower portion goes
down to rather below middle of 3rd foramen. Brim-line is on
2nd piece, but very much rounded off. First foramen, as in last
case longest vertically, and is smaller in this case than the 2nd
or 3rd foramen. Fourth foramen as small as 5th, and much
smaller than 3rd. Sixth sacral piece united by wings, not by
horns or most of body. Canal opens at 4th piece. No distal
horns. Lower end 6 to 7 lines transversely.

In the absence of the vertebrae above and below, there can
be no absolute certainty; but in these three last cases, as well
as in the first case, the lowest lumbar vertebra appears to have
been sacralised; the characters, indeed, being in all the three,
more marked than in case No. 1 in which the deficiency of a
dorso-lumbar vertebra is proved. The sacralisation in case 1 is
carried so far that the upper piece attains the usual predomi-
nating breadth over the 2nd, and supports not merely the upper
portion of the auricular surface, but also the angle of that
surface, together with the brim-line, which the position of the
angle determines. In case 1, there is also little or no deficiency
in the expansion of the back part of the wing, behind the
auricular surface. Asa result of this deficiency in cases 2, 3,
and 4, the posterior angle of the wing is placed far in, rising as
a conical process, towards which the side of the wing, behind
the auricular surface, slopes rapidly inwards. In case 1, however,
as in the others, the upper end of the auricular surface is, as in
the normal sacrum, the broadest part.

86 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

Reference may be made here to the account of the condition
of the lowest lumbar vertebra in case No. 4 of lumbar variation.
Comparing the specimens, it is seen that a little more advanced
ossification would have converted that vertebra into an upper
sacral piece, similar to that in this group of cases. It is
seen also, that the low conical process on the upper sacral
piece corresponds to the upper limb of the bifurcated lumbar
transverse process, and is the end of the true transverse
process. In an otherwise normal Ist sacral piece, this pro-
eess is the end of the unexpanded transverse process part of
the wing.

(c) EXAMINATION OF CASES OF SACRUM WITH 6 VERTEBRAE,
IN WHICH THE UPPER IS OF UNUSUAL FORM, BUT IN ALL OF
WHICH THE ADDITIONAL PIECE APPEARS TO HAVE BEEN
GAINED AT THE COCCYGEAL END. Cases 5 and 6. In these
two sacra, the wings of the upper piece have a marked down-
ward and outward direction and are deficient in thickness.
Case 5. A robust sacrum. First piece entirely ossified to 2nd,
and body continues the curve of the sacrum, but wing is modi-
fied. Is deficient in thickness, so that, seen in a strictly front
view, neck is considerably thinner than that of 2nd piece, while
2nd is not much more robust than usual, Direction is obliquely
downwards and outwards, giving a very oblique brim-line, a
little above the 1st foramen, and placing the auricular surface
so low that its upper part is rather below the level of the upper
edge of the Ist foramen. Wing deficient also at upper and
outer part, so that upper part of auricular surface is very short.
The conical process (ascending inter-transverse process) which
often rises from some part of the posterior margin of the wing,
and is well seen also in the next case, is here close to the arti-
cular process, and rises as high as it. Antero-posterior measure-
ment of wing external to this, at middle, 1 inch; expanding
outwards to only 1}. Breadth of Ist piece 4%, of second 44.
Auricular surface reaches down to opposite wpper edge of 3rd
foramen. Canal opens at 5th piece. Coccyx present; 38rd and
4th pieces ankylosed ; 2nd separate, and of usual form; Ist has
evidently furnished the 6th vertebra to the sacrum. Fifth
foramen, and union of the right horns, incomplete.

Peay a,

|
:
:

0 ES ee i ee

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 87

Case 6. A well-marked female pelvis, very capacious, and
somewhat twisted to left side in front. Body and wing of Ist
sacral vertebra as in last case, but wing not so deficient in ex-
pansion at upper part of sacro-iliac articulation. In strictly
front view, neck not thicker than that of 2nd piece, which is
not unusually robust. Brim-line passes obliquely upwards to
promontory, a little above 1st foramen, above the plane of the
rest of the pelvic brim. Breadth of 1st piece 48, of 2nd piece
34. Auricular surface reaches down to opposite upper edge of
3rd foramen. First foramen, as in last case, unusually large,
especially in vertical direction. Canal opens at 4th piece.
Sixth piece appears to be the Ist coccygeal, ankylosed by body
and left horns; has short wings, above which are widely open
notches; lower end 5 to 6 lines transversely. Rest of coccyx lost.

Although the want of thickness, and the lateral slope, of
the wings, in these two cases, is sufficiently marked to attract
notice, this condition is not to be confounded with that pre-
sented by the preceding four cases, in which the fore part of the
wing (that where a true sacral vertebra is developed from a rib)
is undeveloped, giving the ape-like form to the upper sacrum.

Cases 7 and 8. In these two cases, both well-marked speci-
mens of female pelvis, the downward direction of the wing is
seen in a less degree, but there is no deficiency in breadth of
wing externally, and the neck, as seen in front, is somewhat
thicker than the neck of the 2nd vertebra. Breadth of 1st piece
in each, 4§ inch ; of 2nd piece, 1 inch less. In one (No. 7) the
three nodular pieces of the coccyx are present, the first piece
ankylosed to the sacrum and forming its 6th piece. Sacro-iliac
articulation goes down to nearly opposite upper part of 3rd
foramen. In the other (No. 8) the two distal pieces of coceyx
are broken off, leaving one with the usual characters of the
third piece, and the first piece ankylosed to the sacrum by
body and right horns. Wings of latter transverse, leaving 5th
foramen as a wide notch. Sacro-iliac articulation goés down to
opposite nearly the middle of 3rd foramen.

Cases 9 and 10. Two well-marked male pelves. Wings of
Ist sacral vertebra, though massive enough, attract notice as
having more downward and outward slope, and also more for-

88 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

ward slope, than usual; giving a brim-line more oblique, and
less distinct, than usual. In one (No. 9) a male aged 48;
breadth of first piece 4% inch, of second 38. Sacro-iliac articu-
lation reaches down to opposite rather below upper edge of
3rd foramen. Coccyx, 3rd and 4th pieces partially ankylosed ;
2nd free; 1st completely ankylosed to sacrum, by body wings
and horns. It has no distal horns but abrupt eminences, and
2nd piece has minute proximal horns and commencing trans-
verse processes. In the other (No. 10) a male aged 30; breadth
of first piece 44 inches, of second piece 4. Sacro-iliac articu-
lation goes down to opposite upper 4 or } of third foramen.
First coccygeal piece ankylosed to sacrum by wings, imperfectly
by body, horns in contact. Second piece has minute horns and
commencing wings, and is free. Third piece, a triangular no-
dule, also free. Fourth piece wanting and has, apparently,
been lost.

(d) EXAMINATION OF OTHER CASES OF SACRUM COMPOSED
OF 6 VERTEBRAE, B¥ ADDITION OF THE FIRST COCCYGEAL.
Case 11. Male aged 40, Coccyx, three distal pieces, all sepa-
rate, and nodular. First piece, wings and horns short, is partly
ossified to sacrum by body, forming the 6th piece of sacrum.
Canal opens at lower part of 4th piece. Right transverse pro-
cess of last lumbar vertebra large, bifurcated, and articulates
with sacrum (see case 2 of variation of 5th lumbar vertebra).

Case 12. Male aged 34. First coccygeal ossified to sacrum,
by right wing and right side of body; left 5th foramen widely
open; horns do not meet. Rest of coceyx one ankylosed mass,
with constrictions which might be held to indicate either 3 or 4
pieces, without any processes. Canal opens at lower edge of 4th
sacral piece, Auricular surface reaches down to nearly upper
edge of 3rd foramen.

Case 13. Well-marked male pelvis. Three distal pieces of
coceyx ankylosed to each other, First piece ossified to sacrum
by body and horns; wings transverse, leaving 5th foramina as
wide open notches. Auricular surface goes down, on left side,
to opposite middle of 3rd foramen; on right side, not quite
80 far.

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 89

Case 14. Female skeleton; adult but of short stature.
_ First coccygeal vertebra, united to sacrum by body, wings, and
horns. Nodular pieces of coccyx ankylosed into one bone, with
3 constrictions ; doubtful whether this coccyx has 5 pieces, or a
4th with hour-glass contraction. Canal opens at lower part of
4th sacral piece. Auricular surface reaches down to near upper
edge of 3rd foramen.

Case 15. Female pelvis. Traces of epiphyses still visible.
First coccygeal vertebra ossified to sacrum by right horns; mo-
tion at left horns and at body. Wings short, and 5th foramina
very wide notches. Rest of coccyx lost. Canal opens at 5th
piece. Auricular surface reaches down to opposite upper } of
2nd foramen, but a fissure of development, still remaining, dis-
tinctly shews that the ilium is } inch from touching the 3rd
sacral vertebra,

Case 16. Female pelvis. Aged 32. A sixth vertebra
united by body, wings, and horns to sacrum. Rest of coceyx
lost. Canal opens on 5th piece. Auricular surface goes down
to lower edge of 2nd foramen.

Case 17. Fully ossified but small pelvis. Sex uncertain.
Same as last case, but left horns not united, and wings not so
broad. Canal opens on 5th piece. Auricular surface goes
down to rather below upper edge of 3rd foramen.

(e) VARIATION IN THE NUMBER OF SACRAL VERTEBRAE
WITH WHICH THE ILIUM ARTICULATES. Development of the
parts which support the auricular surface. It is evident enough
in young sacra, that the upper piece forms much the largest
part of the foramen, but specimens in which consolidation is
nearly completed shew the line more precisely. The part next
the foramen has consolidated first, and the fissure passes out-
wards opposite a little above the lower edge of the foramen,
undulating, but on the whole horizontally, whether seen before
or behind; and opens externally, the edges curving upwards
and downwards. Upon the upward and outward projection
thus formed by the shoulder of the 3rd vertebra, the lowest
part of the ilium rests; the cartilage, or bone, of the lateral

Fe
v '-
a:

90 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

epiphysis intervening here, as well as higher up, in the un-
finished bone. Taking the limits of the anterior foramen pro-
per, from a third to a fourth, or less, of the foramen is formed
by the 3rd vertebra; but the outer part of the fissure may be
quite down to the level of the lower edge of the foramen. If,
therefore, the auricular surface does not pass below the middle
of the 2nd foramen, we may conclude that the ilium has not
rested on the 3rd vertebra; and that, unless it has passed
down to nearly opposite the lower edge of the foramen, there
is uncertainty whether it has reached upon the third. Young
specimens farther shew that the sacral ribs have expanded so
much, antero-posteriorly, at their outer part, that they form
much the greater part, about 3, of the breadth of the lateral
surface, supporting the whole auricular surface and part of the
ligamentous surface behind it.

Varying extent of auricular surface. Cases in which it rests
on only two vertebrae. A projection, seen in a front view, form-
ing a mid-lateral angle, indicates generally the lower end of the
auricular surface, but careful inspection is required, in front
and behind, before concluding as to the true level in relation to
the foramen. It will then be found that the extent to which
the articulation passes down upon the 3rd vertebra varies con-
siderably, and that sometimes it rests only on the Ist and 2nd
vertebrae. The latter condition appears to occur more fre-
quently in the female than in the male. In 20 specimens of
sacrum composed (with one exception, a male) of 5 pieces, in
which the sex is certain, 12 female, 9 male, the position of the
lower end of the auricular surface is as follows. In the twelve
female specimens, it does not reach to the third vertebra in four,
and probably in a fifth; it reaches on the third vertebra cer-
tainly in two, probably in other two, while in one it probably
does so on one side and probably not on the other; in the re-
maining two it is uncertain, In one of those in which it rests
on two vertebrae only, (a characteristic and wide female pelvis,
gacrum much curved,) it reaches only to the upper edge of the
2nd foramen ; and in another (sacrum very little curved) to the
middle of the 2nd foramen. In none of the twelve does it go
down farther than just a little below the lower edge of the
2nd foramen. In the 9 male specimens, it goes down upon

: ~
ee ee

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 91

the 8rd vertebra in 7; in one (with remarkably wide upper
pelvis) it is doubtful, probably touching the 3rd on one side
only; and in the ninth (a robust middle-sized skeleton, case
No. 1 of ten sacro-coceygeal vertebrae) it is not lower than the
upper two-thirds of the 2nd foramen, and does not appear to
have touched the 3rd vertebra. In most of the seven, it goes
well upon the 3rd, the farthest being to a little below the upper
edge of the 3rd foramen. In one, an adolescent specimen, in
which it goes to midway between the 2nd and 3rd foramina, it
is seen to rest for } inch upon the third vertebra.

Position of the auricular surface in the cases of abnormal
sacrum. In the cases of more or less abnormal sacrum above
noted, the position of the auricular surface is mentioned with
each. In the third group ((d) cases 11 to 17, each of six pieces,
the sixth obtained from the coccyx) it extended upon the third
vertebra freely in two of the males (12 and 13), and probably
in the third (11), and freely in the specimen (17) of uncertain
sex. In the three female specimens, certainly in one (14),
probably in one (16); and in the third (15) though reaching
opposite # of the 2nd foramen, the fissure shews that it does
not reach the 8rd vertebra. In the second group ((c) cases 5
to 10, sacra of 6 pieces, upper piece more or less abnormal, but
6th piece obtained from coccyx) it reaches on the third verte-
bra freely in all, including three female specimens; in one,
reaching nearly to the upper edge of the 3rd foramen, in the
other five, reaching farther down. In the first group ((b) cases
1 to 4, in which upper vertebra appears to be 5th lumbar
added to sacrum), the auricular surface rests on three vertebrae,
being the borrowed vertebra and the two upper true sacral
vertebrae, In one (case 2) it reaches down to very near the
4th piece. |

In the five cases of a dorso-lumbar vertebra more than
usual (lumbar variation, cases 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) the ilium articu-
lated with the vertebrae as follows. In case No. 5, with the
sixth lumbar vertebra on both sides, by a small facet, largest
on the right side; with the sacrum, on right side apparently
with two, on the left side apparently with three of its five
vertebrae. In case No. 6, with the sixth lumbar vertebra on
right side ; with the sacrum, on right side with two, on left side

92 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

apparently with three of its four vertebrae. In case No. 7,
ilium does not touch the sixth lumbar vertebra ; articulates with
upper two of the five sacral vertebrae, and apparently only by
ligament with the third. In case No. 4, in which lowest lumbar
is partly sacralised, ilium rests on small part of sixth lumbar
on right side, an ascending process of sacrum intervening on
left ; and on two of the five sacral vertebrae on each side. In
case No. 3, ilium not in contact with transverse processes of
sixth lumbar it rests on three of the five sacral vertebrae.

(f) VARIATION IN THE FORM OF THE AURICULAR SURFACE.
On examining a series of innominate bones and sacra, the
bend of the sacro-iliac articular surface is seen to vary much ;
sometimes it is very obtuse, sometimes rectangular or less. This
is determined by two distinct conditions, the conjunction of
whiéh may give either form in an exaggerated degree. Less
complete development of the fore part of the wing of the first
sacral vertebra, giving obliquity to the portion above the angle;
and little curvature of the sacrum, influencing the direction of
the part below the bend, together contribute to the obtuse-
angled variety, strongly marked in the ape-like sacrum. The
opposite conditions determine the rectangular variety. Want
of symmetry, as to breadth, and as to longitudinal extent, up or
down, is occasionally seen.

(g) CASE IN WHICH THE SACRAL CANAL IS OPEN IN ITS
WHOLE LENGTH. Sacrum of 5 pieces; otherwise well formed,
and well ossified, but line of union between bodies of Ist and
2nd pieces is open at middle in front, and same between 3rd
and 4th, and 4th and 5th, pieces on posterior aspect. Laminae
about 4 inch from meeting; form a continuous smooth plate on
each side internal to posterior foramina which ends in a smooth
nearly straight margin. Slight projections at the edge at the
Ist and 2nd vertebrae; narrowest part is at 2nd, gap widening a
little upwards and downwards. Edges run up into inner side of
articular processes, down into horns of moderate length.

(E) VARIATION OF THE Coccyx.

(a) DIMINUTION IN THE NUMBER OF THE COCCYGEAL
Verteprag. Instances of the movable coccyx composed of only

ee

<= Cle Me he

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 93

3 pieces are of no value as bearing on the question of absolute
numerical variation, unless there is present at least a well-
formed sacrum of five pieces, including a well-formed upper
sacral piece. Even then the seemingly suppressed vertebra
may be found as a sixth lumbar, as we saw in case No. 5, of
lumbar variation, Case No. 9 of the same group, shews 3 coc-
cygeal with 5 sacral, yet the nerves seemed to indicate that the
suppressed vertebra was from higher up. But, considered as a
regional fact, cases of the movable coccyx composed of only
3 pieces are common; and considered as a serial variation, cases
of 8 coccygeal pieces along with 5 sacral occur occasionally (as in
cases Nos. 5 and 9 of lumbar variation) while cases of 3 cocey-
geal with 6 sacral, the upper sacral not borrowed, are common,
as in the seven instances in the third group of cases (Nos. 11 to
17 of sacral variation), and apparently also in the six cases in the
second group (cases Nos, 5 to 10).

(b) INCREASE IN THE NUMBER OF THE CoccyGEAL VERTE-
BRAE. Remarks on sources of fallacy. Cases may occur in
which the 5th sacral vertebra instead of consolidating first, has
remained separate, of which the case of a sacrum with only
4 pieces, given under sacral variation ((@) second case), is an
example ; and probably also case No. 2 (b), although the sacrum
had 5 pieces. In such cases the apparent coccyx may have had
5 pieces, but in these two cases the coccyx had been lost. But it
is in my experience rare to find the coccyx presenting five pieces,
besides the five sacral pieces. The first piece is easily enough
recognised, either separate or ankylosed to the sacrum, but some-
times the nodular pieces are so united that no reliable conclusion
can be drawn as to how many pieces there had been. Putting
aside such specimens, there remain others in which it is not easy
to decide how far a kind of constriction which is sometimes seen
on the 4th, is to be accepted as evidence of a 5th having existed.
But after the study of a series of well-formed specimens of coccyx
in various stages of ankylosis, it becomes in most cases easy to
recognise where a union has taken place, the examination being
made on both aspects and by the help of a magnifying power.
Besides the lateral notches, a groove runs across before and
behind, and is sometimes quite distinct on one aspect when it is

94 PROFESSOR STRUTHERS.

obscure on the other, generally most distinct on the dorsal as-
pect. Of the three distal pieces, the 3rd and 4th are found
united when the 2nd is still free; and in cases in which the
three distal are united, the constriction between the 3rd and 4th
is the least marked.

Forms presented by the respective coccygeal vertebrae. The
jirst piece, either separate or united to the sacrum, has almost
always more or less developed horns and wings. The second is
generally bluntly triangular, and generally broader than long.
In cases Nos. 9 and 10 of sacral variation, males aged 48 and
30, in which the first coccygeal piece is sacralised, the second,
(the first free piece,) presents short wings and slight ascend-
ing horns, and is intermediate in size and form between the
usual first and second coccygeal. The third is usually square-
shaped, with rounded angles, and may also be broader than long.
The fourth is of various forms; may be broader than long, may
diminish to a blunt point, or to a very slight bifurcation, or may
have a semilunar termination somewhat like the end of a digital
phalanx; or it may be longer than usual, and present the
appearance of a constriction. In some instances the form of this
hour-glass 4th piece appears to result only from a semilunar
expansion at the end, the constriction wanting that regularity
and smoothness which generally characterise the groove between
two united pieces; while in other specimens the indication of
separation between a third and fourth has not greater distinct-
ness. Section does not appear to help. In two specimens
before me of section of normal sacrum and coccyx, in which the
three nodular pieces of the coccyx are ankylosed but plainly
indicated externally, the cancellous tissue of the three nodular
pieces has become continuous, at least at the centre. It is not
that there is reason to doubt the probability or the fact of the
occurrence of a true additional coccygeal vertebra, but I desire
to caution the observer against being too easily satisfied with
appearances on this score, Putting aside all such doubtful cases,
the following are two instances of the occurrence of ten pelvic
vertebrae.

1. Case in which there are ten Sacro-Coccygeal Vertebrae,
in addition to the full number in other regions of the spine.

———

————

= —_—— =

Ce ee ee ee ee

VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE AND RIBS IN MAN. 95

Male skeleton, fully ossified, middle-sized, and of good muscu-
larity. Fifth sacral piece normal except that body is shorter,
reaching only } to 4 inch, instead of 3? inch, below level of
lower edge of 4th foramina, Sixth piece partially ankylosed
here; separate behind and at right side, ankylosed in front
and at left side, but line visible. Breadth at junction with 5th
piece 14 inch, at distal end # inch, edges curving upwards and
outwards from lower to upper end. No wings or horns from
either this or next piece, but 5th sacral piece sends downwards
strong horns, passing a little beyond ’the line of union between
the bodies of the 5th and 6th pieces. Owing to shortness of
5th sacral body, and absence of wings from 6th, the lower
lateral angles of sacrum project abruptly, and there is no at-
tempt to enclose a 5th foramen. At a more advanced age
there would probably have been little or no trace of a sixth
piece having existed here. Seventh piece, movable on 6th;
triangular; length 4 lines; breadth, 9 lines above, 6 lines
below. Small tubercle on left side where a horn would grow.
Eighth, ninth, and tenth pieces ankylosed to each other, and
partially also to the seventh, with very distinct notches and
grooves of separation, ankylosis of the two distal most advanced.
Length of each of the three last, 3 lines. Breadths as follows ;
of eighth piece, 7 lines at upper part, diminishing to 5; of ninth
piece, 5 lines, a little more above, a little less at lower end;
tenth piece, 4 lines at middle, diminishing a little to a rounded
termination. Total length of the five pieces, 19 lines; of the
last four pieces 13 lines.

2. Another case in which there are ten Sacro-Coccygeal
Vertebrae. Female aged 53. Six pieces ankylosed in sacrum,
7th piece free, 8th, 9th, and 10th ankylosed together. Sixth
piece ankylosed to fifth by body and by robust horns, wings
very short, forming lower end of notch instead of 5th foramen.
Seventh piece, no horns or wings; length, 4 lines in front,
6 lines behind; breadth, 9 lines above, 6 lines at lower end.
Length of the three distal pieces together, 9 lines behind, 7 lines
in front; lengths of each separately, on dorsal aspect, eighth
piece 4 lines, ninth and tenth pieces each 2} lines. Breadths
at middle, of eighth piece, 5 lines; of ninth, 4 lines; of tenth,

96 PROF. STRUTHERS. VARIATIONS OF THE VERTEBRAE.

3 lines, diminishing a little to a rounded end. Total length of
the four distal pieces, 15 lines; including the sixth piece, 20
lines in front, 24 lines behind. Constrictions between the three
distal pieces not nearly so well marked as in last case, but are
sufficient. The ankylosis of the first piece to the sacrum is
also more complete in this case.

(c) ORDER OF UNION OF THE CoccYGEAL VERTEBRAE. Ex-
TERNAL INFLUENCES. The usual order of union of the coccy-
geal pieces, according to my observation, is first between the
4th and 3rd, next between the 3rd and 2nd, while the Ist
remains separate or unites with the sacrum. The three distal
pieces, more or less ankylosed, form one body moving freely on
the first, and it is this probably which most commonly passes
for the coccyx in practice. They are commonly said to be later
in uniting in the female than in the male. In a specimen from
a female aged 43, the 5 sacral and 4 coccygeal vertebrae are
already all united into one bone, but there are traces of bony
excrescence at various parts of the sacrum. Besides the in-
fluence of sex and of natural variability, the sedentary and
other habits of the individual, must, especially in civilised life,
influence the length of time during which the coccyx retains
its mobility. In persons who sit while working, and in those
who are much in the saddle or in the carriage, the coccyx must
be kept in frequent passive motion; while in the recumbent
posture it is freed both from external influences and from mus-
cular traction.

ee ee EE LL—— =

——

———————E

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POWERS OF
THOUGHT IN VERTEBRATE ANIMALS IN CON-
NECTION WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR
BRAIN. By James Byrne, Dean of Clonfert, and Ex-
Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin.

ALTHOUGH Mind can never be identified with Matter, nor the
acts and states of the mind reduced to acts and states of the
brain, yet as the latter are the physical antecedents of the for-
mer, the study of the one class of phenomena is calculated to
give light and guidance in the study of the other. The
object of the present paper is to consider some general outlines
of the development of the powers of thought in Vertebrate
Animals in connection with the development of their brain, in
the hope that such a general view may throw some light, both
on the powers of the mind and on the functions of the brain.

An obvious characteristic of mental action in the lower ani-
mals as compared with the higher is, that it is to so large an
extent instinctive. Now the nature of such instinctive action
as involves thought may be well studied in the case of the
Beaver, though his mental action is not limited to instincts.
The following is an instructive account given by Mr Broderip
of one which he kept in his house. I quote it from Dr Car-
penter’s work on Mental Physiology, p. 92.

“The building instinct shewed itself immediately it was let out of
its cage and materials were placed in its way; and this before it had
been a week in its new quarters. Its strength even before it was
half grown was great. It would drag along a large sweeping-brush
or a warming-pan, grasping the handle with its teeth, so that the load
came over its shoulder, and advancing in an oblique direction till it
arrived at the point where it wished to place it. The long and large
materials were always taken first and two of the longest were gene-
rally laid crosswise, with one of the ends of each touching the wall,
and the other end projecting out into the room. The area formed by
the cross-brushes and the wall he would fill up with hand-brushes,
rush-baskets, boots, books, sticks, cloths, dried turf, or anything port-
able. As the work grew high he supported himself on his tail, which

' propped him up admirably ; and he would often, after laying on one

of his building materials, sit up over against it, appearing to consider
VOL. IX, 7

98 DEAN BYRNE.

his work, or, as the country people say, ‘judge it.’ This pause was
sometimes followed by changing the position of the material ‘judged,’
and sometimes it was left in its place. After he had piled up his
materials in one part of the room (for he generally chose the same
place), he proceeded to wall up the space between the feet of a chest
of drawers, which stood at a little distance from it, high enough on its
legs to make the bottom a roof for him, using for this purpose dried
turf and sticks, which he laid very even, and filling up the interstices
with bits of coal, hay, cloth, or anything he could pick up. This
last place he seemed to appr opriate for his dwelling ; the former work
seemed to be intended for a dam.”

Here we see that though the labours of the Beaver in its
natural condition seem to be full of purpose and guided by a
wonderfully intelligent reference to the end which they are to
serve, the animal is really urged to form its constructions by
an impulse which is quite irrespective of that end and purpose.
Mr Broderip’s beaver can hardly have had any idea of a dam
acting as such, connected with its successive acts of construc-
tion, and guiding those acts as what they were to realise; for
its surroundings were inconsistent with such an idea, And if
its successive acts were not quite independent of such an idea
they would not have been performed under the circumstances.
At the same time, however, the labours of the Beaver were far
from being destitute of thought. On the contrary, it seems to
have had a very distinct idea of the particular step of construc-
tion in which it was engaged, and to have been careful to make
its work conform to that idea. Hach constructive act was in
continuation of what had been already done, and its regulative
idea was suggested by the then state of the work. But the
realisation of each such idea was sought in suecession as an end,
without reference to the ultimate result of the entire series of
actions.

In our own mental constitution we are familiar with a pro-
cess by which means come to be sought for themselves without
reference to the end which they subserve; the desire having
been transferred from the end which was originally its object to
the means which have been successfully used for the attainment
of that end. ‘The money which was first prized only for what
it could purchase comes gradually to be desired for itself, and ig
sometimes preferred to any thing that it could buy, the means
having become the end, and the original end being compara-

: DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT OF BRAIN. 99

tively disregarded, And in truth many, if not most of the
objects which we seek in mature life, are examples of desire
similarly transferred. In such cases the means successfully used
to attain the object of our desire become associated in the mind
with the pleasure of that attainment, so that a sense of such
gratification combines with the thought of those means, and
forms part of the idea of them; and in proportion as this takes
place the means attract to themselves the desire, and are sought,
as an end. When a variety of ends are attained by similar
__- means, as when money is found to purchase all other commo-
ities, then a corresponding variety of desires become combined
with the idea of those means, and the compound attractiveness
which they thus acquire is different from any of the original
desires, and may supplant them all. But when the same means
continue to be used only for the attainment of the same end, it
: is the gratification of the original desire which is combined
| with them, and this desire, after having sought the means, goes
on to seek the end. A succession of means may in this way
come to be sought, each one attracting action after the other,
_ and leading to the attainment of the original end. And if this
| process be often repeated it will become habitual, and may even
_ be transmitted to offspring as an hereditary tendency, so as to
generate an instinct; though there are some instincts which
could not have been originated in this way. Now in human
nature, according as such series of acts become more and more
habitual and easy, they are performed with less and less thought,
till at length they may be performed without any thought at
____all, being guided only by sensation. But when they do engage
thought, that thought generally involves intelligent purpose ;
and the mind thinks not only the present act but what that act
will effect. Now the peculiarity of instinctive action, like that
of the Beaver, is that it is not an unthinking hereditary habit
connected only with sensation, but that each successive act is
performed with thought; while, at the same time, thought is
confined to the present act, or at most includes very little be-
_ yond it. The native impulse or desire seeks each step in suc-
cession irrespective of the result of the whole, because thought
cannot take in the end of the series.
But this limited scope of thought which is unable to take

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100 - DEAN BYRNE.

in a series of acts, is far from being characteristic of the intelli-
gence of Vertebrate animals in general. On the contrary, those
which have a more developed brain plainly exhibit in their
actions intelligent purpose, a power of thinking the means in
connection with the end, so as to have present to their con-
sciousness a sense of a series of acts leading to a desired result.
Of this many examples might be given, but it may be sufficient
to quote as an illustration of it the following anecdote of a
dog, from Mr Watson’s book, on the Reasoning Power in Ani-
mals, p. 130.

“ Count Tilesius, a Russian traveller, who wrote at the beginning
of the present century, relates a most remarkable proceeding of a dog of
his, which he himself witnessed. The dog in one of his excursions
from home had been worried by an animal of greater strength than
himself, and returned crest-fallen. For some time afterwards it was
observed that he abstained from eating half of the food given him,
but carried away the other half and laid it up as a private store.
When he had gone on thus for some days, he one day went out and
gathered round him several dogs of the neighbourhood, whom he
brought to his home and feasted on his hoard. This singular assem-
blage attracted the count’s attention. He watched their movements,
saw them all go out together, and followed them at a distance, They
proceeded deliberately onwards through several streets till they came
to the outskirts of the town, where, under the guidance of their leader,
they all fell upon a large dog, whom they punished with great
severity.”

Now this series of actions is of such rare or merely occa-
sional occurrence in the life of a dog, that it cannot be ac-
counted for on the supposition that by that process of associa-
tion which grows out of frequent repetition, the gratification of
attaining the end had mingled with the thought of all the
means, and rendered them in themselves attractive in succes-
sion. There may, indeed, be in the dog, as a gregarious animal,
an inherited tendency to look for help in circumstances which
make help needful, and possibly a tendency to court the alli-
ance of other dogs by giving them food, though this is more
probably due to his own intelligent sense of their feelings,
But the further step of saving his food instead of cating it can
hardly be an instinctive impulse awakened by the circum-
stances but without conscious purpose ; for it requires so strong
an impulse that the instinct should be one in full action, and

DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT OF BRAIN. 101

therefore of frequent occurrence. The sense of injury would

arouse the instinct of revenge. This from inherited or acquired
association would be followed by a desire for help. This would
suggest the giving of food, and this the storing of food. And
each time that food was present the sight of it might awaken
these thoughts in succession. But if it was only in succession .
that the dog could have these thoughts, losing the conscious-
ness of each as he passed to the next, the original desire for
vengeance which would mingle in some degree with the second
thought, and perhaps might even tincture the third, would be
so faint in the fourth, if it were present at all, that the strong
instinct of eating the food would prevail over the mere idea of
storing it. That there might be an active desire to store the
food sufficiently strong to make the dog abstain from it, there
must have been present to his consciousness along with the
idea of storing it a thought of giving it to the other dogs, and
gaining their help to gratify his revenge. He must have had
a power of thinking a particular act as a part of a series, com-
bining with the idea of that act a thought of the series of acts
leading to their result.

Now wherein does this differ from the power which the
human mind possesses of forming a plan to attain an end? If
what has been stated contains the whole of the action of intel-
ligence which was involved in the proceedings of the dog, then
those proceedings reveal only a power of thinking, as a whole,
a series of acts, each with its effect, and all with their result.
But the human mind adds to this the further power of believ-
ing, with more or less certainty, that each step in the series of
acts which it plans will be followed by the consequence con-
nected with it in thought. Now this implies inference from
past experience; and after all that has been written on the
process of inference or reasoning properly so called, we must,
if we are to distinguish it from mere association of facts, come
back to the.old theory, that inference is the process of im-
parting to the idea of a fact the degree of assurance which
belongs to it, as a case of a general principle,

Mr Darwin, in his Descent of Man, p. 41, mentions a female
baboon who adopted young dogs and cats, which she continually
carried about; and he tells that an adopted kitten scratched

102 DEAN BYRNE. —

this affectionate baboon, “ who,” he says, “certainly had a fine
intellect, for she was much astonished at being scratched, and
immediately examined the kitten’s feet, and without more ado
bit off the claws.” Now such an act of intelligence seems to be
beyond the powers of a dog. In the Wonders of Animal In-
stinct, from the French of Ernest Menault, p. 363, the following
acute distinction is drawn between the intelligence of the
ourang-outang and that of the dog.

“The ourang-outang, without being instructed by man, does

accomplish acts of which the most sagacious and best instructed of
our dogs is incapable. If the dog is chained up, and the chain

becomes entangled, the animal pulls it forcibly towards him, and.

often increases the evil, instead of removing it. If the obstacle con-
tinues, be becomes frightened and cries out, but never thinks of
searching into the cause of the mischance. It is not so with the
ourang-outang. The moment a similar accident happens to him, he
tries to find out the real state of things. You will not see him
pulling against a powerful obstacle with blind force. He stops at
once, as a man would do in similar circumstances. He turns round
to examine the cause of the occurrence. If the chain be entangled
by a heap or weight of any kind, he disengages it. In every case he
seeks the why and the wherefore. Is not this seeking for causes a
manifest sign of intelligence }”

Now it is much more than a sign of intelligence, it is evidence
of the power of thinking a fact with belief as a case of a general
principle ; and that power is the power of reasoning. The dog
whose chain is entangled finds himself unable to perform the
action which has become usual to him under the circumstances;
and he is merely disturbed by this impediment to the regular
play of his associations. The ourang-outang sees in this check
to his usual action something more than the fact that he is
checked, namely, the presence of a thing not yet known, alter-
ing the usual action of the chain. If, indeed, such a thing had
been observed before acting in this way sufficiently often to
form an association, the dog would think of it as well as the
ourang-outang, And if its removal on those occasions had re-
lieved him, the dog too would think of removing it. The sup-
posed case, therefore, is one in which such an association has
not been formed. The ourang-outang may never before have
been confined by a tangled chain; the baboon may never before
have been seratched by a paw. The thought which each oceur-

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DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT OF BRAIN. 103°

rence suggests to them is a fine abstraction from a far wider
experience, namely, the presence of a new condition to a new
action. This is a fine element of fact which belongs in common
to a number of facts. It might be connected in thought with
the present fact by mere association of those other facts in
which it was an element. But when thus thought, it would be
too faint to attract the attention of the mind and govern action.
In order that such an abstract element of past experience
should govern action, it is necessary that it should be strength-
ened with a new element of belief and combined in a
sense of reality with the present object. It will thus become
strongly noted as part of that object, and will engage the desire
which that object inspires. To the ourang-outang in the one
case, and to the baboon in the other, the thought of a new cir-
cumstance as condition of a new action was no abstract concep-

‘ tion, but a special part of the idea of the present fact; and it

attracted action, suggesting the way in which the unpleasant-
ness was to be removed. It was thought with a power which
the dog does not possess, the power of combining in an assured
sense of reality with the idea of an object some abstract coexist-
ence or succession which has been gathered from similar objects
as a uniformity of experience ; the power, in a word, of thinking
a case of a general principle with the belief which belongs to it
as such, ;

Now this step of mental development which may be ob-
served in the ourang-outang, as compared with the dog, is
similar in its essential nature to the previous step to which it
is superadded, and which may be observed in the dog compared
with the lower vertebrate animals. The dog can combine with
the idea of an act, a thought of a further series of acts leading
to a result, so as to think the act with purpose as part of the
series. The ourang-outang can combine with the idea of a fact
or thing, a thought of other similar facts or things, singling out
an element in which they more or less uniformly agree, so as
to think the fact or thing with more or less assurance as an-
other instance of the uniformity. Each is a new power of com-
bining thoughts which otherwise would have required a long
course of repetition in conjunction with each other, before they
could have grown together. And each combines those thoughts

104 . DEAN BYRNE.

in a closer and more vivid union through the medium of a new
element, namely, sense of progress towards an end in the one
case, and belief in the maintenance of a uniformity in the other.

But can the progress of mental development be traced
through the Vertebrate series of animals as having advanced by
these steps? Can they be classed in reference to their mental
powers in three groups, of which the lowest can comprise in one
act of thought only what can be perceived by-sense all at the
same time, the second can comprise in one act of thought a
‘series of successions in time so as to think a single object of
_sense as part of such a series, and the third can comprise in ©
one act of thought an entire class of coexistences or succes-
sions so as to combine with a particular fact the common
element of coexistence or succession belonging to the class ?

The operations of birds in the building of their nests are
evidently of the same character as those of the beaver in the ~
construction of his dam. They plainly proceed from an in-
stinctive impulse which is independent of conscious purpose,
and which acts even where the circumstances are inconsistent
with the end to which it leads. They indicate therefore no
larger power of mind than that which is limited in each of
its acts to the thought of one object of sense, and which can-
not think a successive series with its result; and the same may
be said of the migratory instincts of birds. But it is rather in
occasional manifestations of intelligence that the highest men-
tal power possessed by any class of animals is to be seen;
for in every class the actions which are habitual come to be
performed by the lower powers. Now the intelligence of birds
never reaches to the comprehension of a number of different
successive acts, nor to the thought of a principle.

The case of the jackdaws, quoted from Mr Jesse by Dr
Carpenter, seems indeed to indicate a power of thinking in one
thought a series of acts leading to a result, but closer examina-
tion shews that this is only apparent.

“A pair of jackdaws endeavoured to construct their nest in one
of the small windows that lighted the spiral staircase of an old church-
tower. As is usual, however, in such windows, the sill sloped
inwards with a considerable inclination ; and consequently there being
no level base for the nest, as soon as a few sticks had been laid,

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DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT OF BRAIN. 105

and it was beginning to acquire weight, it slid down. This seems to
have happened two or three times; nevertheless, the birds clung with
great pertinacity to the site they had selected, and at last devised a
most ingenious method of overcoming the difficulty. Collecting a
great number of sticks, they built up a sort of cone upon the staircase,
the summit of which rose to the level of the window-sill, and afforded
the requisite support to the nest. This cone was not less than six feet
high, and so large at its base as quite to obstruct the passage up the
staircase ; yet, notwithstanding the large amount of material which it
contained, it was known, to have been constructed within four or five
days. Now, as this was a device quite foreign to the natural habit
of the bird, and only hit upon after the repeated failure of its
ordinary method of nest-building, the curious adaptation of means to
end which it displayed can scarcely be regarded in any other light
than as proceeding from a design in the minds of the individuals who
executed it.”

The question is, does this indicate that jackdaws possess
the power of comprising in one act of thought a series which
sense could perceive only in succession ?

Now the cone of sticks is a single object of sense. The
idea of it may have been formed by successive acts of thought,
suggested first by the need for a support at the base of the
nest, and then by the need for an additional support for this,
and so on, till a bottom was reached; but each such thought
would combine with the preceding ones into an idea of a single
object of sense. The last element added to the idea would be the

thought of the foundation; and this would suggest the first act

of construction; and the process of construction would proceed,
realising in succession the ideas of the successive parts without
ever involving the thought of more than a single object of
sense. The device was foreign to the natural habit of the bird,
yet not quite foreign to the thoughts which the nest-building
instinct involves. For the various peculiarities of the sites
chosen for nests must awaken in birds instinetive associations
of corresponding varieties of construction, and these must in-
volve ideas of supports, and of the other requisites for stability.

The nest-building instinct must also often involve a desire
for shelter and protection; and with those birds which have
vivid and distinct mental action, a special need for shelter may
awaken instinctive associations which suggest the construction
of artificial shelter. Such constructions may seem to require a
number of different ideas thought together in a plan, but they

106 DEAN BYRNE.

do not really imply the thought of more than a single object
of sense at one time. Thus a pair of magpies in a neighbour-—
hood where there were no trees, built their nest in a gooseberry-
bush, and frequented it for years. But as it was accessible to
foxes, cats and other animals, they barricaded with a circle
of briars and thorns not only the nest, but the whole bush’. In
this case the desire for protection would operate successively
with regard to each side of the nest, and would suggest suc-
cessively the erection of each piece of the barricade, without
ever thinking more than a single object at once.

For it is to be noted that when an object is thought with
desire, and when it suggests through former association what
led to its own attainment, the desire will attach itself to this
suggested idea, even though there be no power of thinking
means and end together. In order that the original desire
should thus be taken up by a series of means, so as to cause
them to be sought after one another as ends, a process of asso-
ciation is necessary which requires a long course of repetition ;
but this would never take place, unless there was a partial
transfusion of desire to the nearest means in the first instance,
And when the desire is strong this transfusion will be sufficient
to cause the immediate mean to be sought even where each
thought is limited to one object of sense. Thus birds as well
as mammalia seem to have intelligence enough, when accus-
tomed to the company of man, to associate human interven-
tion with relief of their distress in special cases, and to apply
to man for help; and when his help has come to them in a
painful form, as for example in a surgical operation, they con-
tinue to desire it notwithstanding the present pain. But there
is no evidence that any animal below the order to which the
beaver belongs can think a series of sense perceptions, or a
general principle; though there may be cases which simulate
these powers. The old story of the raven throwing pebbles
into water as if to raise its level, seems to indicate the know-
ledge of a general principle, but if the incident ever occurred,
it was more probably a suggestion from the familiar act of
standing on a stone to drink in a stream; in which the bird
thought only this single act,

1 Watson's Reasoning Power in Animals, p, B48,

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DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT OF BRAIN. 107

In the order of Rodents to which the beaver and the rat
belong, we first meet the power of thinking a series of acts, but
this power is still so limited in them that the series of acts
which they perform with conscious purpose, consist only of one
or two acts, or of one or two acts repeated over and over again.
A more diversified series of acts, like that which is required in
the construction of the beaver’s dam, is with them instinctive.
Moreover they seem to have a tendency to perform those
actions which involve the most design in combinations in
which several are engaged, each one doing a part of the
action. This is a feature of resemblance to the intelligence
of insects, and corresponds to a limited power of thinking a
series of acts. For this simultaneous performance by the com-
munity, of all the steps leading to an end, helps to enable
each to perceive by sense the entire series all at the same
time. The Ruminants have a larger power of thinking a
series of acts, as may be seen in the artifices of the hunted
stag, though it is hard to say how much of these may be
instinctive; and still more clearly in the intelligence of the
oxen of the Hottentots, which in war fight with the Hottentots
against their enemies, and in peace perform for them the same
services that are elsewhere performed by dogs. In the Pachy-
dermata, the power of plan and purpose, and of understanding
a series of acts which is expected from them, is clearly mani-
fested by the elephant. And though the other pachydermata |
are so inferior in intelligence to the elephant, the inferiority
is not in the nature of their thoughts, but in vividness and
distinctness. In the Carnivora, the intelligence of the dog and
of the fox, and of the other animals of the order, exhibits
clearly the power of design; and the Dog moreover shews
his power of thinking a series of acts by the signs which
he gives of feeling guilty or ashamed or proud on account of
his conduct. In the Quadrumana there appears for the first
time, in addition to the powers of purpose, a-sense of general
principles; and this, as has been shewn, appears with clearness
in the anthropoid apes.

Now such being in outline the development of the powers
of intelligence in vertebrate animals, what is the course of
development of their brain ?

108 . DEAN BYRNE.

This question may be answered by the following quotation
from Dr Carpenter's Mental Physiology, p. 116.

‘That the different poxtions of the Cerebrum should have different
parts to perform in that wonderful series of operations by which the
Brain as a whole becomes the instrument of the mind can scarcely be
regarded as in itself improbable. But no determination of this kind
can have the least scientific value that is not based on the facts of com-
parative Anatomy and Embryonic Development, In ascending the Ver-
tebrate series we find that this organ not only increases in relative size
and becomes more complex in general structure, but undergoes progres-
sive additions, which can be defined with considerable precision. For
the Cerebrum of Oviparous Vertebrata is not a miniature representative
of the entire Cerebrum of man, but corresponds only with its ‘anterior
lobe,’ and is entirely deficient in that great transverse commissure,
the corpus callosum, the first appearance of which in the Placental
Mammals constitutes ‘the greatest and most sudden modification
exhibited by the brain in the whole Vertebrated series.’ (Huxley.)
It is among the smooth-brained Rodentia that we meet with the first
distinct indication of a ‘middle lobe’ marked off from the anterior by
the fissure of Sylvius ; this lobe attains a considerably greater develop-
ment in the Carnivora; but even in the Lemurs it still forms the
hindermost portion of the Cerebrum. The ‘posterior lobe’ makes its
first appearance in Monkeys, and is distinctly present in the Anthro-
poid Apes. The evolution of the Human Cerebrum follows the same
course. For in the first phase of its development, which presents
itself during the second and third months, there is no indication of
any but the anterior lobes; in the second, which lasts from the latter
part of the third month to the beginning of the fifth, the middle lobes
make their appearance, and it is not until the latter part of the fifth
month that the third period eommences, characterized by the develop-
ment of the posterior lobes, which sprout as it were from the back
of the middle lobes, and remain for some time distinctly marked off
from them by a furrow.”

These facts of embryonic development give great signifi-
cance to the facts previously mentioned of Comparative An-
atomy. And the latter have such correspondence with the
sketch just given here of the development of the powers of
intelligence, as at once to suggest that the functions of the
anterior lobe belong to the act of thinking single objects of
sense, those of the middle lobe to the act of thinking such
objects with a sense of a succession of them and as part of
that succession, and those of the posterior lobe to the act of
thinking a coexistence or succession of them as a case of a
general principle. But as the development of intelligence in

DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT OF BRAIN. 109

vertebrate animals, even if the view just taken of it be correct,
may be thought to be connected rather with other features
of the development of the brain, and as the view taken of
the course of development of intelligence may itself be ques-
tioned, it may be well to study the question from another
point of view. I shall therefore consider briefly the functional
meaning of those other features of brain-development as it
may be suggested by the analogies of the nervous system
itself, and that of the successive addition of the three lobes
as it may be inferred from the analogies of ssi 7qcare in
general.

There are two other striking features in the develop-
ment of the brain in the vertebrate series of animals, namely
the progressive increase of the superficial or cortical layer of
the brain, and the increased development of the fibres which

_ eonnect together the different parts of the brain.

2. CU

Now the superficial layer of the brain is the part where the
nerve-force of the brain is developed, and its increase, sup-
posing the functional activity of any given extent of it to
remain undiminished, must be accompanied by an increased
development of cerebral force, and therefore of mental action.
Moreover, such an increase of the superficial layer, without any
change of the relations of its parts, would magnify each part so
that an amount of cerebral force corresponding to a thought
might be developed in a smaller fraction of the whole. Thus
the actions of the brain in connection with the mind would be
subdivided and thought analysed; and the effect of the in-
creased size of the cortical layer of the brain, in consequence of
the increased number and depth of its convolutions, would be
not only an increased amount of mental action, but also an
increased subdivision of thought; that which was a single idea
of an object being broken up at pleasure into a number of
different ideas,

An increase of mental action corresponding to an increase
of the convolutions may perhaps be seen in the indications
observable in dogs that they dream in their sleep. It is more
distinctly manifested in the curiosity displayed by monkeys,
and in that general interest taken by them in objects irre-
spective of utility, which has caused some authors to impute to

110 DEAN BYRNE.

them an inferiority to other animals in common sense. But.

the increase of mental action is chiefly to be seen in whatever
shews a habit of reflection. And though the higher animals
may be observed contemplating objects, the power of reflection
is scarcely open to our observation except in ourselves. In us
it is developed in a degree corresponding to the enormous
increase of the cortical layer of the brain and of its functional
activity as shewn by the increased supply of blood.

The analysis of thought which is probably also connected
with this particular brain-development breaks up the idea of a
single object of sense into ideas of parts which are seen to con-
stitute it. It is no doubt concerned in that observation of the
way in which things act on other things which leads monkeys
and apes to use instruments, though this is of course facilitated
by their having hands. With this analysis of thought is con-
nected the development of the powers of abstraction and com-
parison and perception of relation. For though these powers
are possessed in their essence by all animals which can at will
observe either separately or together objects which are together
before their senses, yet in order that they may act with any
degree of fineness a fine analysis of thought is needed. In
human language, the analysis of thought reaches its acmé.

The second principal feature in the development of the
brain is that of the system of nerve-fibres which connect the
parts of the brain with each other. These must serve to make
the action of the different parts of the brain consentaneous,
and in doing so give correspondence to the muscular action of
the two sides of the body, and strength and steadiness to thought.
Attention and volition require this unfaltering unity of action;
for if any part concerned did not concur decisively, its indecision
would affect the other parts. And in proportion as powers of
thought are developed which are less closely connected with
sense, there is still more need of these connections to preserve
that unity of action which the impressions of special sense, by
reason of their decisive unity, give to cerebral action imme-
diately connected with them, Accordingly the great transverse
commissure which connects the two lateral halves of the cere-
brum appears first with any degree of development worthy of
notice in the Rodent.order of the mammalia along with the

PE ————— ee mC CTU

SCS

DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT OF BRAIN. I111

middle lobe. Thus neither the convolutions nor the fibres of
the brain seem to have any tendency to give that extension to
thought which has been assigned to the three lobes. They
improve the action of the brain rather than enlarge the range
of its objects. But the development of each additional organ
of intelligence extends the range of the objects of thought. And
it is as superadded developments that the three lobes appear
both in the vertebrate series of animals, and in the develop-
ment of the human embryo.

And now what suggestions as to the functions of the three
lobes may be derived from the general analogies of development
as giving successively the advantages which are needed in the
struggle for life’?

The general function of the eerebrum is to direct the actions
of the body by thoughts of the mind to the attainment of
desirable ends, and each distinct addition which it receives may
be expected to correspond to a distinct enlargement of that
power*,

1 The development spoken of is only that which is to be observed as a
matter of fact in comparing the higher animals with the lower. Whatever
theory be adopted as to the mode in which that development has been produced,
it is a fact that in general each new development gives an advantage in the
struggle for life, and that the general course of development corresponds with
the satisfaction of these successive needs.

2 It is an essential property of the nervous system to form associations, and
any higher development of that system must exalt the power of association.
When an action has been performed by a part of the nervous system, the
restoration by nutrition of the force expended in the action seems to adjust
itself to the then condition of the organ, so that when the action is performed
again the organ in recovering its equilibrium after the action tends to be thrown
into that same condition. And if on the first occasion the action was followed
immediately by another action which quickened the life of the organ, as when
an action gives pleasure, then the renewal of the first action will tend to throw
the organ into a condition which is at the same time one of exalted life and
one which it is natural for the organ to assume after the performance of the two
actions in succession. The organ will then not only be quickened by the first

_ action, but in the effort to attain equilibrium will tend to perform the second.

And thus the sequence of two acts, of which the second gives pleasure, pro-
duces a twofold effect. It combines a degree of pleasure with the first act in
its next performance, and it associates the second with it in a similar degree.
Moreover, when the immediate effect of any action is to promote the life of
the nervous system, as when an action gives pleasure, it seems by a general
law of life to attract the force of the system while it is being performed, and
to stimulate its nutrition afterwards, The disturbance caused by it in the
first instance will be the greater, and when afterwards induced by an antecedent
associated action will have the more force in eliciting it again to attain equi-
librium; and the subsequent nutrition being accomplished more quickly while
the one condition of the organ lasts, will correspond more closely to that con-
dition, and cause it to be reproduced afterwards more faithfully. Thus an
attractive action will have a special tendency to be associated with another

112 DEAN BYRNE.

The intelligence requisite for the attainment of desirable
ends consists of knowledge of the ends and knowledge of the
means; but this degree of intelligence is only gradually at-
tained. We find that in some animals which have no cerebrum
certain sensations have become associated with the origination
of certain muscular movements, so as to direct the actions of the
body in accordance with the notices of external things which
sensation gives. We must suppose that in these animals when
a new sensation of a pleasurable kind has been imparted by an
object, the presence of a similar object again will tend to recall
that sensation. A mental state thus elicited by association follows
that which calls it forth; and the obscure sensation thus recalled
by the recurrence of the object will follow the impression which
the object makes directly on the senses. Now the pleasure of
the recalled sensation must be combined with the direct impres-
sions made by the object, instead of only following them, in
order that the present object, and not the mere past sensation,
may be the object of desire. A pleasurable sensation thus
awakened by association tends gradually to coalesce with that
which often calls it forth. But this process is too slow for the
prompt recognition of desirable objects; and the demand for
development therefore will be the want of an organ to combine
the successive impressions made by objects on sense, so as more
rapidly to select by experience those objects which are desirable
as ends for action. Accordingly the first function of the cere-
brum should be to enable the mind to combine the impressions
of sense into perceptions of sensible things, adding each new
impression to the idea of the thing, as a quality inhering in it. —
Connected with this perception of desirable objects a power of
thinking those objects in their absence is needed in order that
they may effectively guide action by continuing to be the ends
towards which it is directed, This need would be supplied by
an action of the cerebrum on the sensorium, whereby the cere-
bral states which are produced by the impressions of sense may
afterwards renew those impressions in the centres of sense, so as
to supply ideas of absent objects; and accordingly the function

action which preceded it, and will also tend to infuse into that other action
a portion of its own attractiveness, A painful action arouses the life of the
nervous system to resist it, so that it too has a special tendency to form an
association; but here the association is negative of the action,

DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT OF BRAIN. 113

of the first lobe of the cerebrum in connection with thought
should be to act with the sensorium in the perception of sensible
things, and afterwards in the renewal of the idea of them.
If we analyse our own consciousness we find that there is
in every perception or idea of external things an element of
thought which is the centre or nucleus of our idea of the thing.
This element of thought, though it has no mental image, can
be distinguished by the human mind as substance; and the
thought of substance therefore in a more or less indistinct and
rudimentary form is probably what corresponds to the first
contribution which the cerebrum gives to the powers of thought.
In this element the sensations are combined into unities; for
to substance they are all referred as qualities inhering in it, and
constituting with it sensible things. And the first rudiments of
position and dimension are probably added to the ideas of
things from the series of muscular sensations associated with
the sight of them during the motion to them or about them.
As the cerebrum grows in the vertebrate series of animals and
thought gets subdivided, the comparative attributes of things

and the relations of things are thought ; new emotions, desires

and aversions grow out of the associations of ideas of things
with the pleasures and pains which are essentially involved in
various modes of nervous action; and possibly that reaction of
the cerebrum, whereby after one thought has been conceived
another is elicited in the mind, may become localized in different
parts and specialized as different powers for ordering the succes-
sions of thought, so as to compare, combine, observe relations,
and awaken emotions; the cerebrum and sensorium being both
probably in action whenever an idea or mental image is before
the mind. The cerebrum is also connected with the centres of
motion, combining into unities groups of muscular actions as it
combines into unities groups of impressions of sense, and ex-
tending and facilitating the associations between thought and
action. Simultaneously with the cerebrum the cerebellum also
makes its appearance in vertebrate animals. It is believed to
coordinate the actions of the muscles with one another; and as
its connections are principally with the spinal chord, it probably
serves as a store of force, which having been set in action by the
contracted muscles through the pesterior nerves, continues to

VOL. IX. 8

114 DEAN BYRNE.

maintain through the anterior nerves the stimulus to muscular
action. Thus the cerebellum probably keeps up the activity of
the groups of muscles which have been set in motion, that the
momentary impulses which come from the brain may carry on
with steadiness the progress of the action. For volition acts at
each moment in producing slight changes in the existing action
of the muscles, or directing that that action shall be un-
changed or suspended.

Now after the power of thinking the ends of action the next
development which is needed in the furthering of attainment is
the power of thinking the means. For though the various
steps in the process of attaining an end may be joined one to
the other by association, action will not be moved to take those
steps till the desire inspired by the end has been transferred to
them, and this transference by association is, as has been said
before, a gradual process. The same necessity therefore for a
new power of combination which demanded the first develop-
ment of the cerebrum in order to combine sensations into a
perception of a sensible thing, will demand a fresh development
of that power in order that the mind may think means in com-
bination with their end, as leading to it. The desire inspired
by the end will then combine with the means so as to prompt
their adoption; and the idea of the means as such, that is as
leading to the end, will be formed, and may be renewed in their
absence so as to maintain the guidance of action.

Thus the middle lobe would be developed to act along with
the anterior lobe so as to give a sense of the series leading to
the end; though there can be no idea or mental image except
of that part of the series with which the cerebrum is impressing
the sensorium. To the middle lobe thus acting with the
anterior would belong on this supposition the power of thinking
acts with a view to their end, the power of thinking a series of
occurrences, the distinct sense of time, a fuller development of
that idea of space which springs from the sense of a series of
muscular movements, the thought of action or fact as part of a
series, and therefore involving time; and as substance is the
special thought corresponding to the action of the anterior lobe,
so fact or occurrence in time would be the special thought cor-
responding to that of the middle lobe, combining into a unity

DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT OF BRAIN. 115

the series comprehended within the time of occurrence, and
inhering in a subject which is thought by means of the anterior
lobe and sensorium. As the cerebrum grew in the development
of the vertebrate series and thought was subdivided, the rela-
tions and the comparative attributes of facts and actions would
be thought, and new emotions, desires and aversions would be
formed in connection with them. Particular powers of com-
bining them and comparing them, and thinking them with an
emotional sense of them, might possibly be located in different
parts of that region of the cerebrum which consists of the anterior
and the middle lobe, and it would be the seat of all moral judg-
ments on action which are formed by association with facts. To
that region would belong whatever is expressed in language by
the verb, including its infinitive, gerund and participles; and it
is some confirmation of this view, that, among the strange
effects of cerebral disease producing Aphasia or loss of correct
speech, it is found that sometimes the nouns are lost while the
use of verbs is unimpaired, and sometimes the contrary ; as if
the verb belonged to a different part of the brain from the noun.
With muscular action the middle lobe would have indirect con-
nection through the anterior, and in consequence of its immediate
union with the anterior it might conceivably acquire direct
connections of its own.

Now if such be indeed the course of development, each lobe
carries forward by one step the power of directing action to the
attainment of its object. Through the anterior lobe the mind
combines with the ideas of things the sense of desirable impres-
sions as qualittes inhering in them, so as to think things as
desirable ends of action; and through the middle lobe it com-
bines with the end of action steps in the process of attainment
so as to think these as means leading to it. But another power
is needed for the secure guidance of action towards attainment.
A desirable quality may be erroneously attributed to an object
which does not possess it. Means may be thought as leading to
an end which they have no real tendency to secure. In order
that action may be directed rightly a further development of in-
telligence is needed. Not only must there be the thought of ends
and of means, but the knowledge of ends and of means—the
power of judging by past experience whether the object really

8—2

116 DEAN BYRNE.

has the quality, and whether the means are really conducive to
the end. There may arise from association with the past ex-
perience of similar cases a suggestion of the quality, as belong-
ing to the present object, or of the means as conducive to the
present end; and this suggestion will be more or less strong
according to the frequency and uniformity and interest of the
past experience. But the strength or weakness of the suggestion
is not sufficient guide to the reality or unreality of that which
is suggested. The idea of it may be weak because the experi-
ence of it was scanty though quite uniform. And the idea of it
may be strong because the experience of it was accompanied by
special interest, though there were many cases in which it was
not realised. What is needed is a sense of the degree of uni-
formity of occurrence in cases similar to the present, and the
extension of that degree of uniformity to the present case; in
other words, a power of thinking the degree of uniformity of
past experience in combination with the present case, so as to
impart to the present case a belief in the presence of the
element proportioned to that uniformity. This should be the
next development; and accordingly the posterior lobe should
act along with the middle and anterior lobes in such a way, that
when by the associations which they form the thought of a fact
or thing awakens the thoughts of other like facts or things,
then the posterior lobe shall receive the impressions of those
other ideas, so as to strengthen the sense of an additional
element in which they agree, and strengthening that element
in proportion to the uniformity of the agreement, to combine it
in a corresponding strength of apprehended fact with the object
which is before the mind. This would be in a more or less
rudimentary form, according to the degree of development,
the power of thinking a fact as a case of a principle. It is
the physiological expression of the first obscure beginning of
syllogistic reasoning, To the posterior lobe thus acting with
the middle and anterior lobes would belong, according to this
view, reasoning and principle and all the tendency to generalise
in the sphere of fact and in the sphere of morality. As the
cerebrum grew in the course of vertebrate development and
thought was subdivided the relations and comparative attri-
butes of general principles would be thought, and possibly

a ae ee

| eS CH ae Se er

ie

DEVELOPMENT OF THOUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT OF BRAIN. 117

special powers of dealing with general principles and seeing
emotional aspects of them might be localised in the cerebrum.
The associations of action with reward and punishment, approval
and disapproval, already formed by the instrumentality of the
middle and anterior lobes, would be generalised by that of the
developed cerebrum into universal principles of morality in-
herent in the nature of things, and the constraining influence
which such associations exert on conduct would be elevated
into natural obligation. And in the unity of all perfect law
referred to its source and author the human mind would at
length attain to its highest idea of God.

Thus the hypothesis with regard to the functions of the
three lobes of the cerebrum which is suggested by the natural
order of development as determined by the great requirements
of life, is that which the closest, analysis of the degrees of intelli-
gence in vertebrate animals seems also to indicate. So that
though each class of facts is so intricate and obscure, as scarcely
to afford a solid footing for investigation, yet their agreement
may perhaps be considered to give a degree of positive probabi-
lity to the general views here given of the mechanism of thought
in the brain. And if it be objected that considerable portions
of the cerebrum may be removed without any apparent mutila-
tion of the powers of thought, shewing that no part of the
cerebrum is specially connected with any act of the mind, it is
to be observed that the acts of the mind become by association
so connected with each other, that in each thought there are
many associated elements, and the corresponding seat of cerebral
activity would be not in one but in many localities throughout
the brain. Even if some of these were removed, the action of
the others would still by association elicit and be elicited by the
accustomed impressions of the sensorium and stimulation of the
centres of muscular action.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE ANATOMY OF THE INDIAN
ELEPHANT, Part IV. MUSCLES AND BLOOD-
VESSELS OF THE FACE AND HEAD. By M. War-
son, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in The Owens College,
Manchester’.

THE NOSE.

ON reflection of the levator proboscidis muscle the nasal carti-
lage is exposed to view. It consists of a large flattened piece of
cartilage six inches in length, in shape resembling one valve of
a bivalve shell, and attached by its inner margin to the septum
narium, whilst its outer margin is prolonged by means of a
stout fibrous membrane as far as the external margin of the
anterior narial aperture. On tracing it up, the cartilage is seen
to sink into the anterior nares, describing a spiral curve as it
descends. This spiral curve has its concavity directed toward
the septal cartilage, and terminates in a free projecting margin,
which in the natural condition of the parts is directed inwards
so much as to diminish the narial passage to a very consider-
able extent, whilst by its outer margin it is attached to the
external bony wall of the nares. Connected to the outer convex
surface of the nasal cartilage is a strong fibrous membrane,
which, on being traced outwards, is seen to be attached to the
anterior margin of the external osseous boundary of the anterior
nares, This membrane, along with the external wall of the an-
terior narial aperture, form the boundaries of a large air-space
which communicates inferiorly with the narial canal of one side,
as also by means of an aperture of large size, visible in the
dried skull with the air-sinuses of the diploe, which in their
turn communicate freely with one another, It is by means of
this communication that these sinuses are supplied with air
from the nasal cavity.

From the arrangement just described, it will be observed
that the lower and internal margin of the nasal cartilage pro-

* Parts I, IL, III, are in the November numbers of this Journal, for 1871,
1872, 1873,

PROF, WATSON. ANATOMY OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT. 119

jects into the narial tube in such a manner as to form as it
were a valve, which in the natural condition of the parts hangs
free in that tube and separates it into two compartments. By
means of the external of these a free communication is main-
tained between the bony nostril and the air-sinus already de-
scribed, whilst the internal permits of the continuity of the air-
tube prolonged forwards to the trunk with the cavity of the
nose. Under the action of certain muscles, to be presently
described, however, this valve-like cartilage can be drawn out-
wards, so as to occlude the opening of the air-sinus, and thus
shut off the communication of this with the cavity of the nose.
This, I believe, is an arrangement calculated to obstruct the
flow of water into the air-sinuses of the skull during its passage
along the narial tubes. The muscles which act upon the nasal
cartilage just described are three in number. Of these, two are
arranged so as to act upon the spiral portion of the cartilage,
whilst the third elevates that portion of it which overlaps the
nasal tube. Of the former, one arises from the outer side of the
nasal bone, and, passing downwards, is inserted into the ante-
rior free margin of the spiral cartilage; whilst the other, arising
from the outer concave margin of the arterior nares, and pass-
ing downward and inward, is inserted into the upper surface of
the spiral cartilage as well as into its free margin. Both of
these muscles will tend to pull outwards the lower part of this
cartilage, and so close the external of the two passages into
which it divides the nostril. The third muscle arises from the

anterior margin of the nasal septum, and, passing outwards, is

inserted into the upper convex surface of that portion of the
nasal cartilage which lies over the nasal tube, which it evidently
raises when in action,

The nasal tube of each side is a stout fibrous tube which
continues forward the bony nostril to the extremity of the pro-
boscis. It is attached superiorly to the upper aperture of the
bony nares as well as to the spiral nasal cartilage. It passes
downwards, resting at first on the corresponding intermaxillary
bone, and is then continued on to the extremity of the trunk.
In its course along the trunk it gradually narrows in calibre
from the root to the tip, but its narrowest part is that which
rests upon and corresponds in length to the intermaxillary

120 PROFESSOR WATSON.

bone; above this—that is, in the superior narial aperture—the
tube dilates considerably, and lies under cover of the projecting
piece of the nasal cartilage. Lying in relation to the roof of
this portion of the tube is a large mass of mucous glands, which
are concealed by the cartilage. The numerous openings of the
ducts of these little glands are visible on the interior of this
portion of the nasal tube, which at this spot is perforated by
them. These would appear to be the sole source of the supply
of mucus to the nasal tube, as nowhere else throughout its
course are any such glands to be detected. A number of mus-
cular fibres arise from the anterior margin of the outer wall of
the bony nostril, and are inserted into the lower surface of this
dilated portion of the nasal tube.

ARTERIES OF THE HEAD AND NECK.

THE COMMON CAROTID

arteries of both sides arise from the trunk of the innominate,
and pass forward on either side of the trachea and larynx, as
far as the angle of the jaw, where each divides into the external
and internal carotids. Each is accompanied in this course by
the internal jugular vein and pneumo-gastric nerve, which lie
to their outer sides.

Branches.—Two branches are given off from the common
carotid artery.

1, Superior thyroid, which passes to supply the anterior
portion of the thyroid gland.

2. A short trunk, which, arising from the inferior aspect
of the main artery, divides at once into several branches for
the supply of the cesophagus and trachea. One of these, of
larger size than the others (the laryngeal artery), pierces the
thyro-hyoid membrane, and is distributed to the larynx,

EXTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY

is given off from the trunk of the common carotid to the inner
side of the ramus of the lower jaw, and passes outwards and:
upwards to gain the posterior aspect of the articulation of that
bone, where it divides into the temporal and internal maxillary
arteries. In this course it gives off the following branches :—

ANATOMY OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT. 121

1. THE LINGUAL ARTERY, °

which is a branch of considerable size, and arises close to the
following. It runs almost horizontally forwards under cover of
the hyo-glossus muscle, to gain the lateral margin of the root
of the tongue, where it divides into its terminal twigs. One
of these continues along the outer border of the genio-glossus
muscle, toward the tip, whilst the other ascends to supply the
dorsal aspect of the root of the tongue.

Branches.—As the artery lies under cover of the hyo-glos-
sus, it gives off two branches of considerable size, which ascend
to supply the soft palate.

2. FACIAL ARTERY

comes off immediately in front of the lingual, and passes ob-
liquely downward and forward to gain the angle of the jaw,
round which it turns, and appears upon the face, where it di-
vides into two branches. One of these runs forward parallel to
the upper border of the lower jaw, and, anastomosing with the
mental artery, is continued upwards in the substance of the
lip, of which it forms the coronary artery. The other branch
passes backward, and supplies the buccinator muscle.

Before the artery reaches the face it gives off the sublingual
branch, which, running forward on the surface of the mylo-byeid
muscle, terminates by supplying that muscle.

3. INTERNAL MAXILLARY ARTERY,

the largest of the three anterior branches of the external carotid,
passes obliquely forward and upward, resting against the inner
side of the temporo-maxillary articulation, and crosses over the
styloid process of the temporal bone. Having reached the base
of the skull, it passes through the spheno-palatine canal, be-
neath the orbit, and appears at the root of the proboscis, after
traversing the infra-orbital canal. The artery (infra-orbital)
then sinks into the interval, between the superior and lateral
muscles of the trunk, and is continued along the lateral margin
of that organ, under cover of its longitudinal muscles, as far as
the extremity. As it lies in relation to the trunk, it is con-
tained within a fibrous canal, and is accompanied for some
distance by a large branch of the superior maxillary nerve.

133 PROFESSOR WATSON,

It gives off numerous branches for the supply of the pro-
boscis, one of which, larger than the others, leaves the artery
immediately above the incisor tooth, and proceeds along the
dorsal aspect of the proboscis, which, with the others, it supplies.

The branches given off by the internal maxillary are as
follows :—

1. Meningeal artery, which is given off before the parent
trunk passes into the spheno-palatine canal. It passes upwards
and backwards, and, having pierced the base of the skull, is
distributed to the meninges. It is from this artery that the
mucous lining of the air-sinuses of the skull receives its supply
of blood.

2. Posterior deep temporal artery, given off immediately in
front of the preceding branch, runs upwards and supplies the
posterior portion of the temporal muscle.

3. Anterior deep temporal artery passes off from the in-
ternal maxillary after it has passed through the spheno-palatine
canal, and ascending, is distributed to the anterior portion of
the temporal muscle.

4, Pterygoid artery of small size runs downwards and sup-
plies the muscles of the same name.

5. Buccal artery of large size describes a curve downward
and forward, and is distributed to the buecinator muscle.

6. Ophthalmic artery of considerable size is given off as the
internal maxillary is about to enter the infra-orbital canal. It —
runs forwards and upward, and entering the orbit supplies the
structures situated in that cavity. Several of its branches
emerge on the face after passing through the orbit.

7. Superior dental artery leaves the internal maxillary as
it lies in the infra-orbital canal. It passes through the canal
of the same name, and is distributed to the teeth of the upper
jaw.

4, TEMPORAL ARTERY

is the direct continuation of the external carotid. It passes up
behind the articulation of the lower jaw and under cover of the
parotid gland as far as the zygoma, where it divides into two
terminal branches. The posterior, the smaller, passes up to the
vertex of the cranium, whilst the anterior, considerably larger,

TR

th ee

ANATOMY OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT. 123

runs: upward and forward in the direction of the orbit. These
branches are the main sources of supply to the temporal gland. .

Branches. 1. Posterior auricular is of large size, and passes
upward and backward behind the ear, the auricle of which it
supplies; as it lies in relation to the parotid gland, it gives off
numerous branches of supply to that gland, as also the stylo-
mastoid artery, which, ascending vertically, passes into the
stylo-mastoid foramen in company with the facial nerve.

2. Inferior dental artery passes off from the front of the
temporal, and running downwards enters the dental canal to
appear subsequently on the face as the mental artery. It gives
off a small mylo-hyoid branch.

3. Sub-zygomatic artery, a short trunk, which divides di-
rectly into the masseteric artery, which enters the posterior
border of that muscle and the transverse facial artery, which
runs along the lower border of the zygoma, and is distributed
to the parts lying superficial to the masseter muscle.

INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY

runs forward to reach the base of the skull through the carotid
canal of which it passes, and divides within the cranial cavity
into two branches. One of these, the anterior cerebral artery,
passes forwards and dips into the longitudinal fissure of the
cerebrum, It is connected to the corresponding branch of the
opposite side by the anterior communicating artery. The other
branch passes backward, and anastomoses directly with the ~
vertebral artery.

VERTEBRAL ARTERY

is a branch of the subclavian. It enters the foramen of the
transverse process of one of the cervical vertebre behind the
fifth, and passing through the series of foramina, turns inwards,
lying in a deep groove on the arch of the atlas, which it perfo-
rates. Appearing on the base of the skull it anastomoses with
the posterior branch of the internal carotid artery of the same
side. The circle of Willis is therefore incomplete posteriorly.
It gives off numerous branches in the cervical region, one of
which of large size passes upwards and supplies the muscles
behind the head, and consequently takes the place of the occi-

124 PROFESSOR WATSON.

pital artery, which is absent. From the cranial portion of the
artery a number of branches are given off to supply the poste-
rior lobes of the cerebrum as well as of the cerebellum.

VEINS OF THE HEAD AND NECK.

INTERNAL JUGULAR VEIN

receives the blood from the sinuses of the dura mater, and is
attached to the margin of the jugular foramen. It passes back-
ward, lying to the outer side of the internal and common carotid
arteries to the root of the neck. In this course it receives blood
from

1. SINUSES OF THE DURA MATER.

1. The great longitudinal sinus and the small longitudinal
sinus contained within the substance of the falx cerebri, which
both terminate in the torcular Herophili, The former receives
the blood from several smaller sinuses, which run transversely,
and form a right angle with the main channel at their entrance
into it.

2. The occipital sinus, which, passing upwards, terminates
in the torcular Herophili.

3. Another sinus of large size is formed by the junction of
one from each side in the middle fossa of the base of the skull,
and passing horizontally backward, becomes continuous through
the foramen magnum with a large sinus of the spinal dura
mater. The two tributaries of this sinus come one from either
side of the pituitary fossa,

4, A sinus of large size passes from the upper part of the
cerebellar fossa of each side, and, bending forwards, opens into
the lateral sinus of its own side.

5. ‘The lateral sinus passes down along the line of attach-
ment of the tentorium, and opens finally into the jugular vein
at the foramen of that name.

The sinuses situated on the roof of the skull received numer-
ous veins from the cerebral hemispheres, which opened into them
by means of peculiar valvular openings, visible on the inner
surface of the dura mater,

ANATOMY OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT. 125

2. TEMPORAL VEIN

arises from the temporal rete—already described in connexion
with the temporal fossa—by the junction of three or four main
trunks, which, passing downward superficial to the companion
artery, finally open into the internal jugular behind the angle
of the jaw. The temporal vein receives—

The masseteric veins, two in number, and of large size, which,
after uniting into a single trunk, and receiving the transverse
facial vein, terminates in the temporal.

3. INTERNAL MAXILLARY VEINS.

These are two in number, on each side, and are the direct
continuation backwards of the companion veins of the infra-
orbital artery. They do not accompany the artery through the
spheno-palatine canal, but are separated from it by the internal
pterygoid muscle. Finally, they unite into a single trunk,
which enters the internal jugular just below the articulation of
the lower jaw. It receives—

1. Ophthalmic vein from the orbit.

2. Lingual veins, two in number, which accompany the
artery, and finally form a single trunk, which opens into the
maxillary vein just before the latter joins the jugular.

4, FACIAL VEIN

arises from a venous plexus situated immediately in front of
the orbit, by means of which it communicates with the internal
maxillary veins. It passes obliquely downward and backward,
and crosses the lower jaw in front of the masseter muscle.
Here it is separated from its companion artery by the digastric
muscle, and opens into the internal jugular vein immediately
below the point of entrance of the internal maxillary vein.

5. POSTERIOR AURICULAR VEIN,
which accompanies the artery of the same name, but is sepa-

rated from it below by the digastric muscle.
VERTEBRAL VEINS

are two in number, and of large size. They accompany the
artery.

126 PROFESSOR WATSON.

MUSCLES.

1. FACIAL MUSCLES.

1. Panniculus carnosus passes up from the side of the neck
over the angle of the jaw to the face, where it expands and is
inserted as follows:—The lower fibres are inserted into the outer
side of the body of the lower jaw, the upper are inserted into
the strong aponeurosis covering the cheek, whilst the inter-
mediate are continued forward to the angle of the mouth, along
with the fibres of the next muscle.

2. Zygomatico-labialis is quadrilateral in form, and arises
from the facial aponeurosis between the zygoma and the lower
jaw. The fibres pass forward and blend with those of the orbi-
cularis at the angle of the mouth, which it evidently retracts.

3. Orbicularis oris passes continuously round the angle of
the mouth from the chin, where it is continuous with the cor-
responding muscle of the opposite side to the root of the trunk,
along the side of which it blends with the lateral muscles of
that organ. The fibres forming the free margin of the lips are
much finer and more closely packed than the external portion
of the muscle, which is intermixed with a large quantity of
fibrous tissue. Opposite the angle of the mouth the fibres of
the preceding muscle blend with those of the orbicularis.

4, Levator labii superioris is triangular in form, and arises
from the anterior portion of the supra-orbital ridge immediately
in front of the orbicularis palpebrarum by a pointed attachment.
The fibres diverge as they pass down to the upper lip, and are
inserted in this way. The anterior and stronger portion of the
muscle is inserted into the lip immediately above the root of
the tusk, whilst the posterior and weaker bundles are inserted
into the facial aponeurosis directly beneath the eye. At its
origin it lies over certain of the lateral muscles of the trunk.

5. Orbicularis palpebrarum consists of two sets of fibres,
an internal and an external. The internal finer fibres are
attached to the projecting spine of the lachrymal bone in front
of the eye, and pass continuously round the upper and lower
eyelids, The external portion of the muscle is confined to
the anterior and posterior regions of the eye, and does not,

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.

ANATOMY OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT. 127

like the inner fibres, surround it continuously. The anterior
division arises along with the inner fibres from the spine of
the lachrymal bone, and certain of these fibres pass upward,
others downward. The former are inserted into the facial
aponeurosis above the eye, whilst the latter are inserted in the
same manner below the eye. The posterior division of the
muscle arises from the post-orbital spine, and the fibres de-
scribing segments of circles pass to be inserted into the facial
aponeurosis behind and below the eye. In front the muscle
corresponds to the levator labii superioris, whilst posteriorly it
comes into relation with the occipito-frontalis,

6. Occipito-frontalis is, as in the human subject, a double-
bellied muscle with an intermediate tendon. The posterior
belly, much the larger, arises from an aponeurosis covering the
superior and lateral aspect of the cranium immediately above
the posterior part of the temporal fossa. The fibres pass
obliquely upward and forward, and terminate on a strong apo-
neurosis covering the temporal fossa, and attached above to the
temporal ridge. The anterior belly of the muscle arises from
the post-orbital process, and, passing backward, terminates on
the aponeurosis before described. The muscle is subcutaneous,
its anterior belly coming into relation with the posterior fibres
of the orbicularis palpebrarum, whilst the posterior belly at its
origin is in contact with certain of the muscles of the ear.

7. A cutaneous muscle, which may perhaps be regarded as
a portion of the panniculus, arises from the cranial aponeurosis
of the posterior surface of the skull. The muscle measures
three inches in breadth, and the fibres passing transversely
outward are inserted into the cranial aponeurosis immediately
behind the origin of the posterior belly of the occipito-frontalis,

2. MUSCLES OF THE EXTERNAL EAR.

These, for the sake of convenience, may be divided into
three groups—Ist, Those whose origin is situated behind the
external auditory meatus (retrahent muscles) ; 2nd, Those whose
origin is situated in front of the external meatus (attrahent
muscles); and, 3rd, Those whose origin is placed above the
meatus (attollent muscles),

128 PROFESSOR WATSON.

The first group comprises four muscles :—

1. Retrahens inferior is a strong muscle which arises from
the cervical fascia, where it becomes incorporated with the
tendon of origin of the trapezius, close to its attachment to the
back of the skull. The fibres pass outward and forward, and
are inserted into the middle of the upper border of the cartilage
of the ear. When in action, it pulls the ear directiy toward the
side of the skull.

2. etrahens superior a¥ises from the eranial aponeurosis
below the origin of the cutaneous muscle of the back of the
skull. The fibres pass downward and outward, and are inserted
into the cartilage of the ear below and in front of the insertion
of the preceding muscle. When it acts, it elevates at the same
time that it draws the aural cartilage to the side of the skull.

3. Retrahens anterior arises by means of a broad, flattened
tendon from the same aponeurosis which gives attachment. to
the retrahens inferior, by which muscle it is concealed. The
fibres, separating so as to form distinct muscular slips, pass
obliquely forward and downward, to be inserted into the back
of the aural cartilage im front of the retrahens superior. When
this muscle acts, it elevates the cartilage of the ear at the same
time that it approximates it to the side of the head.

4. Retrahens internus is the largest of the muscles of the
ear. It is broad and flat, and arises from the aponeurosis which
gives origin to the retrahentes inferior and anterior, both of
which muscles conceal the attachment of the internus. Its
fibres pass directly forward, and are inserted into that margin
of the cartilage which bounds the external meatus posteriorly.
When it acts, the muscle will tend rather to widen the auditory
meatus than alter the position of the cartilage with reference to
the head, inserted as it is so close to the fixed point of the
aural cartilage, where it is attached to the side of the skull.

The second group includes two muscles :—

1. Attrahens superior consists of two portions—the wpper of
which arises from the temporal aponeurosis above the zygoma,
The fibres converge as they pass obliquely downward and back-
ward, and are inserted into a well-marked projection of the
aural cartilage immediately in front of the external auditory

ANATOMY OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT. 129

meatus. The lower portion arises from the external surface of
the zygoma, and passes directly backwards to be inserted into
the anterior margin of the cartilage of the pinna immediately
below the insertion of the first portion of the muscle. In
action, the upper part of the muscle will pull the cartilage for-
ward and upward, whilst the lower will pull it directly forward.

2. Attrahens inferior arises by a narrow tendon from the
root of the zygoma immediately in front of the auditory meatus.
The fibres of the muscle arch over the fibrous roof of the
meatus, and are inserted into the anterior extremity of the
upper margin of the aural cartilage. When in action, this
muscle will tend to diminish the aperture of the external
meatus,

The third group includes two muscles :—

1. Attollens superior arises from the cranial aponeurosis
above the ear, its origin being closely related to that of the
posterior belly of the occipito-frontalis. Its fibres pass obliquely
downward and backward, and are inserted into the middle third
of the upper margin of the cartilage of the ear. This muscle in
acting will direct the cartilage of the ear forward, so as to
enable the animal to catch any sound coming from the front.

2. -Attollens inferior is a muscle of a square shape, the
fibres of which pass downward and forward. Its origin exactly
corresponds to that of the preceding muscle, and its fibres pass
obliquely downward and forward to be inserted into the cranial
aspect of the cartilage of the ear, behind the external auditory
meatus. In action, this muscle partakes more of the nature of
a retrahent than of an elevator muscle of the ear. That is, sup-
posing the ear to have been directed forward by the preceding
muscle in the first instance, this muscle tends to approximate it
to the side of the skull. .

Two intrinsic muscles of the ear remain to be described :—

: 1. Trajicus muscle, which consists of two well-marked
_ fasciculi which arise from the cartilaginous projection in front
of the auditory meatus, and, passing backward and upward, are
inserted into the upper margin of the cartilage of the pinna
close to the insertion of the attollens superior.
2. Transverse muscle of the auricle is a muscle of consider-
VOL. IX, 9

130 PROFESSOR WATSON.

able size, whose fibres pass across the cranial aspect of the car-
tilage of the pinna. In this course, they separate the fibres of
the retrahens superior into two bundles. The fibres radiate in
all directions and form a special muscle of the pinna.

3. MUSCLES OF MASTICATION.

1. Masseter arises from the lower margin of the zygomatic
arch, from a point immediately below the eye as far back as the
insertion of the sterno-maxillaris. The fibres pass obliquely _
downward and backward, and are inserted into the outer aspect
of the rounded angle of the jaw. In relation to its superficial
surface is the facial aponeurosis and the duct of the parotid
gland, whilst its deeper aspect rests on the temporal muscle.

2. Temporal muscle has an extensive origin from the whole
of the temporal fossa. The fibres arise from numerous tendi-
nous intersections, which run through the muscle, and, passing
obliquely downward and forward, are inserted into the anterior
edge and inner surface of the coronoid process of the lower jaw-
bone by means of a powerful tendon. Superficial to the muscle
are the temporal artery and temporal aponeurosis, along with
the oceipito-frontalis muscle.

3. Lxternal pterygoid muscle arises along with the next
muscle from the external surface of the pterygoid bone, in which
there is a well-marked ridge extending from the anterior border
to near the spheno-palatine canal. From the common tendinous
origin the fibres pass off, forming a weak riband-like muscle,
which, passing obliquely backward and outward, is inserted into
a deep depression on the inner side of the neck of the lower
jaw, immediately above the dental foramen,

4. Internal pterygoid muscle arises along with the pre-
ceding. The fibres form a broad flattened muscle, which, pass-
ing backwards and downwards, is inserted into the posterior
margin as well as into the inner surface of the ramus of the
lower jaw behind the dental foramen.

5. Buccinator muscle arises from the alveolar margins of
both jaws, as well as from a powerful elastic ligament which
extends from the styloid process down to the lower jaw. The
fibres pass forward and blend with the other muscles surround-
ing the opening of the mouth. The muscle is further strength-

ANATOMY .OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT. 131

ened by the addition of two muscular bundles, which arise from
the alveolar margin of the upper jaw between the tusk and
molar tooth. Of these the anterior passes downwards and
blends with the fibres of the zygomatico-labialis, whilst the
other, passing obliquely backwards, is inserted into the ligament
which gives attachment to the fibres of the buccinator muscle in
the interval between the upper and lower jaws. The muscle is
pierced by the duct of the parotid gland.

4. MUSCLES OF TONGUE AND HYOID BONE.

1. Mylo-hyoid muscle arises from the inner surface of the
ramus of the lower jaw by a linear origin extending from oppo-
site the last molar tooth forward to the symphysis. The muscles
of opposite sides are continuous with one another, and have no
attachment to the hyoid bone, but form as it were the floor of
the submaxillary region. Jn connexion with the posterior part
of this muscle are to be observed a number of fibres which, aris-
ing in common with the posterior fibres of the mylo-hyoid, form
a flattened band which, passing behind the hyoid bone, is in-
serted into a tendinous bundle which stretches between the
roots of the great cornua of the hyoid bone. The function of
this band seems to be that of limiting the backward motion of
the hyoid bone, and confining it within the sling formed by the
mylo-hyoid muscles of opposite sides.

2. Genio-hyoid muscle is about two inches broad, and extends
from the back of the symphysis of the lower jaw backwards, to
be inserted into the posterior aspect of the body of the hyoid
bone.

3. Genio-glossus muscle is the largest of the lingual muscles.
It is triangular in form, and is attached by its anterior extremity
to the whole depth of the symphysis of the jaw. From this the
fibres pass off, the upper almost vertically, whilst the lower are
almost horizontal, and the intermediate having different obliqui-
ties between those two sets of fibres. The muscle is inserted
along the whole length of the under surface of the tongue, as
far back as the hyoid bone, to which, however, none of its fibres
are attached, _ .

4. Hyo-glossus lateralis—The muscle which I have so
named to distinguish it from the hyo-glossus anterior corre-

9—2

132 PROFESSOR WATSON.

sponds to the hyo-glossus of human anatomy. It is a broad
flattened muscle, and arises from the outer surface of the upper
half of the great cornu of the hyoid bone. The fibres pass
obliquely forward and upward to blend with the other muscles
forming the lateral margin of the tongue. Beneath it lie the
lingual artery and vein.

5. Hyo-glossus anterior, to the action of which with refer-
ence to the pharyngeal pouch I have already-referred, arises
from the anterior sharp margin of the body of the hyoid bone,
the muscles of opposite sides being in contact at their origin.
Each muscle is thin and riband-like, and passes obliquely up-
ward, forward, and outward, to be inserted into the lateral
margin of the posterior portion of the tongue. In action these
muscles diminish the depth of the pharyngeal pouch.

6. Stylo-glossus is a very delicate muscle. It arises from
the apex of the styloid process, and passes downward and for-
ward, crossing the insertion of the hyo-glossus lateralis, to be
inserted into the side of the tongue in front of that muscle.

7. Digastric muscle is a broad fleshy muscle, and arises from
the process which projects backward from the styloid process, as
also from the surface of bone at the root of the latter. It nar-
rows as it descends, having.a broad tendinous intersection about
its middle, and is inserted into the lower border of the rounded
angle of the lower jaw. On its superficial surface is the exter-
nal carotid artery, whilst its deeper surface rests on the parotid
gland.

Mayer mentions the presence of a stylo-hyoid muscle in the
elephant, but such I could not distinguish as a muscle distinct
from the digastric.

5. MUSCLES OF PHARYNX.

1. The constrictor muscles of each side of the pharynx can-
not be separated from one another, but form a continuous mus-
cular sheet on each side, attached from before backward to the
whole length of the great cornu of the hyoid bone, to the lateral
aspect of the thyroid cartilage, and lastly by a small slip to the
lateral aspect of the cricoid cartilage. These different portions
pass with various obliquities upward to the middle line to be-
come continuous with the corresponding fibres of the opposite

ANATOMY OF THE INDIAN ELEPHANT. 133

side, and complete the tube of the pharynx. The posterior
fibres have the greatest obliquity, and thus gradually verge into
series with the straight fibres of the cesophagus.

2. The stylo-pharyngeus muscle is very small in size. It
arises from the posterior edge of the styloid process, as well as
from the angle formed by it with that process of bone which
projects backward from it. It passes downward and forward,
and is lost in the side of the pharynx.

6. MUSCLES OF THE SOFT PALATE.

Of these there is only a single one on each side,

The palato-pharyngeus, which passes backward from the free
margin of the soft palate, and is lost in the interior of the pha-
ryngeal wall. It is a well-developed muscle.

The other muscles of the soft palate—namely, the levator
palati and tensor palati—are absent, as is also the palato-glossus,
the place of which, in front of the tonsil, is occupied by a large
fold of mucous membrane, before referred to, which projects free
into the region of the fauces.

Mayer describes a circumflexus palatias being present. This
was certainly not the case in my specimen.

SALIVARY GLANDS.

Mayer states that in the elephant the submazillary as well
as the sublingual glands are present. I failed to ascertain the
presence of any of the salivary glands, with the exception of the
parotid. This, which measures eight inches in length by five
in breadth, is lodged in the interval between the lower jaw
and the temporal bone. The duet passes off from its anterior
margin, and, running forward under cover of the facial aponeu-
rosis, pierces the buccinator muscle, to open into the cavity
of the mouth.

The other glandular bodies met with in the head of the
elephant, such as the thyroid and temporal glands, have been
described with sufficient accuracy by Mayer.

NOTES OF A REMARKABLE CASE OF PHARYNGEAL
DIVERTICULUM. By M. Watson, M.D., Professor
of Anatomy in The Owens College, Manchester.

ALTHOUGH cases in which diverticula connected with the
pharynx or cesophagus have been reported from time to time
by various authors, these, so far as I can ascertain, have been
uniformly of small size, and in none of them is there any ap-
proach to the peculiarity of characteristics of the case which
I am about to report, and which would therefore appear
to be altogether unique; at least in the works of none of the
authorities on such subjects, such as Meckel, St Hilaire, or
Forster, is there any mention, among the various deviations
from the normal to which the cesophagus is liable, of any at
all comparable to those of the case here figured.

The body in which it occurred was that of an adult male,
sent during the Summer Session, 1874, to the Anatomical
Rooms of the Edinburgh University for purposes of dissection.

Upon removing the skin, superficial and deep cervical
fascize covering the anterior triangular space of the right side
of the neck, a muscular structure was seen to extend down-
ward from beneath the tendon of the digastric muscle, which
crossed it superficially, as far as the interclavicular notch of the
manubrium sterni. This, on closer examination, proved to be
a tube with muscular walls, which in the upper part of its
course lay directly, over the interval between the external and
internal carotid arteries, whilst its lower half lay parallel to
the anterior border of the sterno-mastoid muscle, and rested
on the sterno-hyoid and the sterno-thyroid muscles,

The tube terminated inferiorly in a dilated cul-de-sac, which
on being cut into discharged a quantity of grumous material,
similar to that found in the cavity of the mouth, as also in the
cesophagus. On tracing it upward from the point of crossing
of the tendon of the digastric muscle, the tube was seen to pass
directly inwards, so as to reach the pharyngeal wall, which it
pierced above the level of the stylo-pharyngeus muscle, and
opened by a narrow slit-like orifice on the free margin of the

PROF. WATSON. CASE OF PHARYNGEAL DIVERTICULUM. 135

posterior pillar of the fauces, immediately behind the tonsil.
The slit-like opening was not more than one-eighth of an inch
in length, and its margins were so closely in contact, that the
entrance into it of solid particles from the cavity of the mouth
must have been almost entirely prevented. As the tube entered
the wall of the pharynx, it passed between the external and
internal carotid arteries, and was crossed superficially by the
stylo-glossus and stylo-pharyngeus muscles. In relation to its
deeper aspect were the glosso-pharyngeal and hypoglossal
nerves, along with the stylo-hyoid ligament, as these crossed
from without inwards towards the middle line of the neck.
It will thus be observed that the tube intervened between

Dissection of the side of the neck of the subject in which the Pharyngeal
Diverticulum here described occurred.

the stylo-pharyngeus muscle and the glosso-pharyngeal nerve,
which in the normal condition of the parts are closely applied

136 PROF. WATSON. CASE OF PHARYNGEAL DIVERTICULUM.

to one another. The diverticulum itself increased in calibre
from above downwards, so that whilst at its upper extremity
a crow-quill could with difficulty be introduced, at its lower
a pencil could readily be passed along the lumen of the tube.

Vessels and Nerves.—Two arterial branches of considerable
size were supplied to the tube, one from the occipital, and the ~
other (shown in the woodcut) from the inferior thyroid artery.
Several small nerve-twigs were given off by the glosso-pharyn-
geal as it crossed behind the tube, and were distributed to the
walls of the latter.

Structure.—The tube itself was composed of a muscular and
a mucous coat. The former consisted of only a single layer
of fibres arranged parallel to the long axis of the tube, the
circular fibres met with in the other portions of the alimentary
canal being altogether deficient. The fibres were, for the most
part, of the red striated description. The mucous lining re-
sembled closely that of the cesophagus, being thick and tough,
whilst its free surface was covered with a scaly epithelium
similar to that found in the csophagus. The presence or the
absence of glands in this coat could not be ascertained by —
reason of the age of the specimen.

Remarks.—There is considerable difficulty in giving a satis-
factory explanation of the presence of this extraordinary diver-
ticulum, Its extent is such, and the opening of communi-
cation between it and the pharynx is so small, as at once to
exclude the idea that it owes its origin to a hernial protrusion
of the mucous surface of the latter. The position of the pha-
ryngeal opening, situated as it is between the lower jaw above
and the stylo-hyoid ligament below, points to some modifi-
cation in the closure of the first post-mandibular visceral cleft
of the embryo; but as to what the peculiar circumstances of
the intra-uterine existence of this particular individual were
which occasioned such a deviation from the usual condition
of the parts as we have before us, is difficult to conjecture,
more especially when it is borne in mind that our knowledge
of the different stages of the development of the visceral arches
and clefts is as yet much too limited to enable us to advance
anything but a hypothetical explanation of the case now re-
ported, ;

ON THE POSITION OF 'THE HEART'S IMPULSE, IN
DIFFERENT POSTURES OF THE BODY, based
upon Chest-rule measurements, taken by Mr W. A.
PatcHeTr, Ltesident Medical Officer to the Manchester
Workhouse Hospital. By ArtHur Ransome, M.D., M.A.

WHEN it is remembered how often it is necessary in Clinical
Medicine to observe the position of the heart’s impulse, with a
view to determine the presence or absence of cardiac disease, or
to record its progress, the importance of ascertaining its normal
position, and its healthy variations due to changes in posture,
will be at once conceded—and it might fairly be anticipated
that observations undertaken with these objects might well lead
to interesting collateral results. It is therefore somewhat sur-
prising to find how few have been the observations on the
subject. It is true that anatomists have stated in general
terms the usual impulse-site, but no variations are recorded.

Thus in Quain and Sharpey’s Anatomy it is stated that “the
heart’s apex strikes the walls of the chest in the space between the
cartilages of the fifth and sixth ribs, a little below the left mamilla.”
Dr Sibson gives the point “ between the fourth and fifth or the fifth
and sixth ribs,” and Dr Walshe, in more exact terms, states that it
* beats in the fifth interspace and somewhat against the sixth rib,
about mid-way between the vertical line of the nipple and the left
border of the sternum” (Dis. of Heart, 4th ed. p. 18). Piorry on
the other hand remarks that ‘in some individuals in health, the
heart-beat is raised three, four, or five centimetres higher than in
the others,” that ‘in some, it may be found three centimetres to the
right of the sternum, in others three or four centimetres to the left
ot its ordinary state,” and though he gives no proofs of his statement,
he believes it varies with age, sex, build, constitution, proportion of
Llood in the organism and “a crowd of other circumstances.” Plessi-
métrisme, p. 379. Still fewer records can be found of the degree of
mobility of the impulse in different positions of the body. Dr Quain
(p. 1102) simply says that the heart ‘comes more extensively into
contact with the anterior walls of the chest when the body is in the
prone posture, or lying on the left side,-—and Dr Walshe that
“changes of posture elevate, depress, throw it upwards or back-
wards,’—or again, “the heart falls downwards somewhat (if its
substance be weighty the fall may equal an inch) in the erect atti-
tude and comes more forward than in decumbency, Changing the

138 DR RANSOME.

posture in decumbency from the right to the left side will carry the
heart an inch, or even more, to the right or left of the position it
occupies when the individual lies on the back.” P. 9.

But it will be observed that nothing is here said as to the extent
to which the motion of the body affects the position of the impulse,

The effect of different diseases of the heart upon the impulse-site
is indeed clearly pointed out by this acute observer, and even in that
of some non-cardiac disorders; thus he notes the raising of the apex-
beat in severe hemorrhage, and the lowering of its level after a case
of typhoid fever, but even Dr Walshe gives no exact measurements
on this point.

It is probable that one cause of absence of information has
been the difficulty of localizing with sufficient definiteness any
alterations in the site in question. It is not easy to describe in
words the extent to which the impulse gravitates downwards or
slantwise, or from side to side, this can only be done satis-
factorily by means of ordinate measurements, vertically down
the central line of the sternum, and horizontally at right angles
to this line.

I have recently proposed the employment of a simple instru-
ment, ‘the chest-rule’, in order to perform these and other
measurements, and Mr Patchett, the resident medical officer to
the Manchester Workhouse, has, with the help of this rule,
kindly made a number of observations upon which I will now
make some comments.

The measurements relate to 51 individuals, they have been
made with great care, and are very accurate so far as they
extend; they are perhaps as yet too few in number to found
upon them any final conclusions, but they are an important con-
tribution to the records on the subject. It is indeed probable
that subsequent investigation will only confirm the chief results,

1 The chest-rule consists of a framework of the
finest spring steel, so arranged as to form a rect-
angular parallelogram, 6 inches long, by 8 in width,
and divided into 18 squares of exactly one inch
length of side. Owing to its lightness and flexibility
it may easily be carried in the note-book, and may
be readily applied to the chest, adapting itself to
inequalities on the surface.

t is used as is shewn in the annexed diagram-
figure, and not only facilitates accurate noting, but
may employed for making numerous measure-
ments both in health and disease, It is manu-
factured by Messrs J. and W. Wood, King Street,
Manchester,

POSITION OF THE HEART'S IMPULSE 139

Many of Quetelet’s famous measurements of the average dimen-
sions of the human frame were the result of still fewer observa-
tions, and yet they were found to be accurate by those who fol-
lowed him. Even if the tables which follow are insufficient to
afford trustworthy averages they at least give the extreme
measurements as met with amongst the persons examined, and
these will be found to present some very interesting points for
remark,

In one sense only are the examples selected—that is, they
are drawn from the class to be met with in a workhouse hos-
pital, and therefore represent neither the strongest nor the
healthiest of their kind ; otherwise as may be seen they were
taken without discrimination of height or make. It may be
stated however that cardiac cases were purposely excluded, since
it was deemed desirable before passing to this class of cases,
that the ordinary standard amongst other sick persons should
be ascertained. Moreover, in order to obtain any practical
result from such measurements, in cases of heart disease, it
would be necessary to accompany them with careful notes of
other physical signs and with some history of the symptoms.

The method employed in taking the measurements, was to
ascertain by careful touch the position on the chest-wall, where
the strongest beat of the heart was to be felt, and at this point
a mark with ink, or what is better, coloured collodion, was made.
This search was first made in the recumbent posture on the
back, next when the patient was sitting or standing up, then
when he was lying on the left side, and finally when he lay on
the right side. It will be found from the tables that the last-
named observation was often doubtful and therefore omitted,

and as might have been expected the omissions of this observa-

tion are most frequent in the larger and stronger made of the
subjects. After each of these points had been ascertained and
marked with the pigment, it was very easy afterwards to

- measure their ordinate distance, first along the vertical line

down the centre of the sternum (#) and second along a line
through the point at right angles to the vertical (y).
The following are the results obtained. |

DR RANSOME.

140

Sar] Jo 109, | syyuout ¢
‘youorg “YO shep 1G
savok FT sIstqyyg | syyToW ¢
WsyVUINEyY | sSYIo Z
wsT}VUINO YY skep Z
UWIST}VUING YY skep Z
wustyeumorpy |. ct
‘SI Saqsug | y3uour |
bith bag et
Sey ee Ae: T
oy UL “9ST skep 7]
RP 4 FROM FT
YlIeyeO) Yoon |
eImouneug | Syoom Z
Say JO 1001) | syyuou ¢
rid | Soom ¢
sIsTgyY skep OL
“qoucrg “GO| SPO Z
wrorpeqyydg | ove
erurpeyyydg, | otters
IOART JOLTVOG Yoo T
sseosqy | soa F
‘ouaqumoe(T
“aSBesiqy jo
worn

‘eBV

fo" OL Oe . OL. te Lee oe 8
ero fee Se BR Sie Se g
ear Ree sue Be Gu eo. Sake. Gy Meee. g
OG ee rh es SEO SO TTY “s SE
rat hes hl ee” he SL Le eee Sh ee
(ag Ae. ee ae. t OPE 2 Aes
Be A ey Lae hg toe et Fi g L
"arenes bg OL ge Se Poe eS “ 4fob-e°2 9 1
GP ge Se ep ee eet Seb eae 1
fe * o| g * ¥o| » * fol + * Of: L
& ' Go\tp : ESC a 5 G Wee owe kg
if eo ae Ee = Bette fo ltecee]-
og Ge ee te Or Fe Bot ota ¥9
oo gee Fh Pee OSS
¢ ‘ 9| ¢ ° ¥9|.% * ¥9| + * 9| @° | 9
Loe Ole 8 eee here Per ee 9
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OS Pe Se ee a a ee Se gee 9
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tm Sips * eee 2 op ae Ss ee ee ee ¢
i ebe & eters cole - Ee ¢
Tost op ge tS ge Sp Pe ae Se eS
*x > ¢ "x we 4 "Ak x: w.< — % i

‘OPIS WIT | “OPISWT | oa pa Ee se Ri
uO uO tA eae oy me cae

worTs0g

(-sopey) ‘osmmdury 820077 Jo uorsoq

(SHHONI ND GLISASTAdWI SLUVAH AHL NO SINANAYASVAN ATIAWLSAHO

| 71.98 09 <a x0 bw 'c0 oh 69 Sas «© sto Oe
| cee eee A ee eee eee cee BO oe ce eB |

GE
1é
0G

141

POSITION OF THE HEART'S IMPULSE.

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142 DR RANSOME,

The length of the sternum has been taken as a guide in
the arrangement of these cases, and though, as may be judged
from the tables, this bone varies much in length in proportion

‘to the other dimensions of the chest, yet it is probably as good
a standard as could be chosen.

The position of the left nipple is also given, but this varies
even more than the length of the sternum, varying in indi-
viduals with the same length of sternum, both in its vertical
and horizontal ordinates. ‘Thus in the group of cases with eight
inches length of sternum, the extreme vertical ordinates of the
nipple are 4 and 6}in., and the horizontal ordinates vary from
3 in. to 43 in,

The relation of the heart’s impulse-site to the nipple in
the supine posture, varies from a position immediately under
this point, to 1 inch or 1} inch*nearer to the median line of the
body, but it is noteworthy that 6 out of the eight cases in which
it falls vertically under the nipple, were subject either to
chronic bronchitis or phthisis, and it would therefore be im-
portant to know whether emphysema or any other lesion of the
‘lung accounted for this, probably abnormal, situation,

The mobility of the impulse-site in different postures of
the body varies considerably in these cases. The difference in
its position is greater in the change of posture from side to side
‘than in that from the lying to the upright position. Im many
cases (20 out of the total number) its level is the same in the
upright and in the recumbent posture, and in the remainder it
varies from } inch to 1 inch. In 9 cases it is lowered } inch,
in 12, 4 inch, in 3, ? inch, and in three 1 inch. The size of the
individual does not seem to make much difference in this
regard, since there is as much alteration in the level of the
impulse in the small as in the larger made men. One of the
cases in which a fall of 1 inch occurs is in a man et. 59, with
a breast-bone 9 inches long, who suffered from chronic bron-
chitis. It seems possible that some unnoticed hypertrophy of
the heart may have existed in this case, but in the other two
there is no suspicion of this disorder, Of the three cases in
which it dropped ? inch, one was a case of phthisis, another of
chronic bronchitis, aged 74, and the third a man aged 383,
suffering from a crushed leg.

POSITION OF THE HEART’S IMPULSE. 143

It is interesting to observe that in most cases (i.e. in 60 per
cent.) there was a small movement of the impulse to the left
‘as the patient rose to the upright position, and in some in-
stances this occurred even when there was no sinking in the
level of the heart. The extent of this sidelong movement
varied from } inch to 1 inch along the horizontal ordinate.
In one case only (No. 20) was there a movement of the impulse
to the extent of 14 inches towards the right side; and as this
man was the subject of phthisis, there might well have been
some adhesions or loss of lung-substance to account for the
exception.

The extent of the movement of the impulse-site from side
to side is not, as I have before mentioned, always discoverable,
since in some cases, when the patient lay upon the right side,
the heart-beat was under the breast-bone*. In twelve out of the
51 cases the extent of the lateral movement was thus left un-
certain; but in the remaining 39 it was traced, and was, in
most instances, found to be much larger than could have been
anticipated from the remarks which have just been quoted.:

The mean extent of the movement in the whole number of
cases was about 3% inches, the maximum was 5} inches, and
the minimum two,

As might have been anticipated, the degree of movement
increased, in the main, with the length of the sternum; in
other words, with the size of the chest: thus, the mean of the
18 cases, with less than 8 inches of sternum, was 2’8 inches,
that of the eleven having this bone 8 or 9 inches long was
about 3°6 inches; the remaining 10 possessing a lateral move-
ment of over 4 inches,

The case (No. 36) having the maximum motion of 5? inches
belonged to the last group. It was one of chronic albuminuria,
and the patient had been confined to bed for 3 months; the
length of his sternum was 9 inches: here again there may
have been some cardiac hypertrophy. Of the 4 cases with the

1 In this statement it may be noticed that the term “‘ apex-beat” has been
avoided, It involves the theory that the heart’s impulse is always occasioned
by the impact of its apex against the chest-wall, but as Dr Walshe has pointed
out the chief vibration of the chest-wall is sometimes produced by its base,
and in many of the cases recorded here, it was certainly not the apex that was
felt beating under the finger.

144 DR RANSOME. POSITION OF THE HEARTS IMPULSE.

minimum movement of 2 inches, three came within the first
group, and one had a breast-bone 8 inches long; this last was
a case of bronchitis in a man 30 years of age.

In most instances (27 cases) when the body was turned
upon the left side, the heart’s impulse remained at the same
level that it had in the supine posture ; but it is interesting to
note that, in a fair proportion (21 cases), the heart-beat was as
low as in the erect position; in 4 cases it sank even lower than
this, and in 22 it was found at a slightly higher level.

It would be impossible to draw from these cases of disease
any trustworthy conclusions as to the usual extent of the mo-
tion of the impulse-site in health ; and their number is still far
too small for us to gather much information as to the variations
introduced by different disorders.

It is, however, already evident, that such variations do
occur, and we may reasonably expect that further investigations
of a similar nature will enable us to trace some definite rela-
tions between the disease and the mobility of the heart. It is
at least highly probable that conditions affecting the expansion
of the lungs, or permitting the relaxation of the parts composing
the ligaments of the heart, would manifest themselves in obser-
vations such as those now before us.

It is also important to notice what emphasis these measure-
ments give to the caution that in all observations upon the
heart’s impulse in cardiac disease, care should be taken always
to place the patient in the same posture at each observation,
otherwise most serious errors might easily be made.

A DESCRIPTION OF THE CEREBRAL AND SPINAL
NERVES OF RANA ESCULENTA.—By the Baron
ARMAND DE WATTEVILLE, M.A., Lond.

THE following pages are but a fragment, the partial result of a
series of dissections conducted last winter at the South Kensing-
ton School of Science, and at University College, by the kind
permission of Profs. Huxley and Sanderson. However humble
in their aim, and defective in their execution, I cannot allow
them to pass through the press without acknowledging my
deep gratitude to both the distinguished savans just named,
for the encouragement given and the kindness shewn to me
throughout my work.

My aim in publishing the present paper is simply to supply
some facts to the comparative anatomist, and offer a guide to
the practical physiologist in his study of that serviceable, but
ill-remunerated animal, the Frog’.

TABLE OF THE MUSCLES SUPPLIED BY THE CEREBRAL AND
First SPINAL NERVES.

(Ecker’s nomenclature is followed as being the most convenient.)

Rectus Inferior ... ... ... ... UL
EE Ren prom (A
PRE OY ae es Ae peste tts
gut Rng as oa VL
Obliquus Superior ... ... ... IV.
se Inferior? ’. POS) st III.
Retractor Bulbi ... ... ... ... VI.
Levator Bulbi ... ... ... ... V. (orbito-nasal).
Intermaxillaris ... ... ... ... V. (orbito-nasal).

1 I much regret that circumstances did not allow the illustrations which
were to accompany the present description to be brought out in time for the
present number of the Journal. Their publication is, I trust, only retarded.
In the meanwhile the student will derive much help from Ecker’s figures of the
nerves of thé frog in his Icones Physiologice; and of the bones and muscles in
the first part of his Anatomie d. Frosches—a work which is unfortunately un-
finished. Paine illustrations in Schiess’ paper are as unsatisfactory as the text
is inaccurate.

VOL. IX. 10

146 BARON ARMAND DE WATTEVILLE,

Lateralis Narium ... ... ... V. (orbito-nasal).
DD ipaShP OW ids 65k aus roids) nae See
Temporalis ... ... ... ss. ... V. SUp. Max.
Pterygoideus cate uh. Maabeses a
Massoter 5. tr:\ius, nse shen mt
Ba bmaxillaris |) cs onicwusuans is
Submentalis Gree G, ag
Geniohyoideus ... ... ... ... Ist spinal.
Sternohyoideus ... ... ... ... 55 A
Omonveidess eee. Se 3
Genioglossus pr A aad: Sd $e <s
Hyoglossus ... ... Bad Saati a
Petrohyoideus Anterior’ eel wt
© pe ed Be « ... X. (petrohyoid).
ee = BER A a x. (petrohyoid).
4 Ber x. Recurrent Laryngeal.
Sternomastoid ... ... ... ... XL
Interscapularis ... ... ... ... X. (scapular).

Levator anguli scapule ... Ist spinal.
Intertransversarii capiti ... Ist spinal.

Longissimus dorsi (anterior part) ,, PY
Retrahens scapule ... ... «. . a
Transverso-scapularis tertius __,, i

List of writers to be consulted :

Volkmann. Miiller’s Archiv, 1838. p. 70.
Fischer. Amphibiorum Nudorum Neurologia. Berol. 1843. 4to.
Hjelt. De nervis Cerebralibus de. Bufonis Cineri.
Helsingfors. 1852. 8vo.
Schiess. Specielle Newrologie d. Rana Esculenta.
Bern et St Gallen. 1857. 4to.
Vogt. Miiller’s Archiv. 1839. p, 39.
Vogt. Neue denksch. d. Alg. Schw. Ges. f. d. Ges, Naturwiss. rv.
Neufchatel. 1840,
Wyman. Smithsonian Institute, v
E. H. Weber. Anat. Comp. Nerv. Symp. Lipsiw. 1817. 4to.
Bidder and Volkmann, Die Selbstandigheit d. Nerv. Symp.
Lip. 1847, 4to,
Kiittner. Dissertatio de orig. n. 8. Ran. Dorpati, 1854,
Ecker. cones Physiologica. Leips. 1851—59.
Stannius. Zootomie: Amphibien. Berlin, 1854, 8vo.
Firbringer, Jenaische Zischr. f. Med. u. Nat. wiss, March, 1873.

CEREBRAL AND SPINAL NERVES OF RANA ESCULENTA. 147

Cerebral Nerves.

We shall, for the sake of convenience, divide the cerebral
nerves into three groups :

1. The first group includes those nerves which are destined
to the organs of the higher senses—olfactory, optic, and audi-
tory. These nerves are characterized by their softer consistence,
and are distributed to the parts they supply after a very short
course. They will be best considered along with the description
of the organs themselves.

2. Nerves included in the trigeminus group, 7.e. the third,
fourth, fifth and sixth pairs, along with the seventh. The last
three enter into the composition of the Gasserian ganglion.

3. The vagus group, including the ninth, tenth, and eleventh
pairs.

All the cerebral nerves are characterized by taking their
origin from. the encephalon, and by being, during the first part
of their course in the cranium, directed forwards to their fora-
mina of exit.

Second Group of Cerebral Nerves.

We have seen that three of this group—the trigeminus,
abducent, and facial—concur in the formation of the Gasserian
ganglion. Of the remaining two, the oculomotor enters into
close relation with the ophthalmic, whilst the pathetic runs in a
common sheath with a branch of the ophthalmic, but without
intermixture of fibres. All the nerves of this group supply the
head with motor and sensory fibres. Their branches may be
arranged in four categories—orbital, nasal, palatine and max-
illary. The seventh pair sends also a large cutaneous branch
to the sternal region, As will be seen further on, the cephalic
portion of the sympathetic merges into the Gasserian ganglion,
and so enters into close relation with the various branches given
off by it.

Third Pair, or Oculomotor.

The oculomotor nerve arises as a round bundle from the
crus cerebri, covered by the hypophysis. It thence runs at an
angle of about 45° forwards and outwards towards a foramen in

10—2

148 BARON ARMAND DE WATTEVILLE.

the cartilaginous wall of the cranium, situated immediately in
front of the Gasserian ganglion.

Upon leaving the skull it enters the orbit between the
pterygoid and retractor-bulbi muscles, and divides into two
branches, which closely embrace the ophthalmic nerve.

(a) The Superior Branch passes over the ophthalmic and
ascends under cover of the rectus superior, in which it ends.

(b) The Inferior Branch enters into close relation with the
ophthalmic, with which it apparently exchanges fibres. Passing
underneath that nerve it continues its course between the re-
tractor and levator bulbi muscles to the inferior surface of the
eyeball, where it supplies the inferior and internal recti, and
ends in the inferior oblique.

(For the “ciliary” nerve see below, under sixth pair.)

Fourth Pair, or Pathetic.

The fourth nerve arises from the optic lobes. It then winds
downwards and forwards around the lobes, and reaches the
inferior surface of the encephalon. It then runs forwards,
crossing the third, to a small foramen in the cartilaginous wall
of the cranium, above and behind that of the second. It enters
the orbit among the fibres of the superior rectus. Its course
lies first to the inner, then to the outer side of the ophthalmic,
over which it passes to supply the superior rectus.

As mentioned above, the fourth nerve is usually placed in
a common sheath, with a branch of the ophthalmic during its
course in the orbit. But there appears to be no interchange of

fibres between the two nerves. Occasionally the pathetic passes
through the branch of the fifth.

Fifth Pair, or Trigeminus.

The fifth nerve arises from the lateral part of the medulla
oblongata behind the optic lobes. This root is single, and no
distinct motor part can be made out. Running for a short
distance forwards and outwards, the nerve expands into a con-
siderable ganglion of Gasser. ‘This is placed in a depression
in the lateral wall of the cranium, leading to a large foramen.
This foramen is almost entirely surrounded by the prootic, the
ring being completed, in front, by cartilage. This cartilage

a eee eee

CEREBRAL AND SPINAL NERVES OF RANA ESCULENTA. 149

sometimes is found ossified and contains the foramen of the
third nerve. The Gasserian ganglion is of considerable size,
oval, and of a bright yellow colour. It is closely surrounded by

the usual chalk crystals and pigmented fibrous tissue; the

carotid artery is in close relation with it as it enters the skull
through the above-mentioned foramen.

As we have seen, the Gasserian ganglion of the frog exhi-
bits some peculiarities; for besides the fifth it receives three
other nerves, viz. the sixth, seventh, and cephalic portion of the

. sympathetic.

It will be perhaps convenient to describe the origin of the
sixth and seventh at once.

The sixth nerve is a very slender filament arising from the
medulla oblongata, near the middle line, opposite the “ precon-
dyloid” foramen. It thence runs to the inferior surface of the
ganglion, which it enters. —

The seventh nerve arises immediately in front of the audi-
tory, and remains in contact with it during the first part of its
course. It soon separates, however, and bending forwards
reaches the external border of the fifth, along with which it
penetrates the Gasserian ganglion.

The arrangement and course of these nerves in the ganglion,
as far as they can be made out by mere dissection, are as
follows: looking at the inferior surface of the ganglion its con-
stituent nerves appear in this order: first the sympathetic,
immediately beneath it the sixth, then the fifth and seventh.

The sympathetic presents the usual appearance of a double
chain. It splits up into several bundles, which are seen to join
the various branches given off by the ganglion.

_ The sixth divides into two bundles which traverse the gan-
glion, one of these usually joins the ophthalmic, whilst the other
makes its exit independently next to the ophthalmic.

The seventh bends backwards and splits into two bundles,

one of which leaves the ganglion as the hyomandibular branch ;

whilst the other approximates the palatine of the fifth, to which
it gives some of its fibres, and is continued as the palatine of
the seventh.

The fifth divides into three main bundles, one of which
becomes the maxillary nerves; the two others continue their

150 BARON ARMAND DE WATTEVILLE.

course as orbito-nasal and palatine respectively. All these
nerves give fibres to and receive fibres from the substance of
the ganglion.

I. Orbito-Nasal, or Ophthalmic Nerve.

This nerve arises from the anterior border of the Gasserian
ganglion. The first part of its course lies in the orbit: here its
direction is forwards and slightly upwards, rising as it advances
from the foramen “lacerum” to that in the os en ceinture,
through which it leaves the orbit. It lies throughout near the
lateral wall of the cranium, to which it is parallel. The nerve
lies at first between the origins of the pterygoid and retractor -
bulbi muscles. Here it comes into close contact with the
third nerve, being embraced by its two divisions, as we have
seen before. The orbito-nasal then passes over the optic nerve,
between it and the rectus superior, and has first to its inner
side, then to its outer side, the fourth nerve. The nerve is
next placed between the eye and Harderian gland and the
lateral wall of the cranium, lymg upon the fibres of origin of
the levator bulbi, and being covered by the dense fibrous tissue
which forms with a fold of skin the upper eyelid. Having
reached the anterior corner of the orbit it passes into the nasal
cavity through the foramen above mentioned.

During the first part of its course the orbito-nasal gives off
the following branches :

(1) Cutaneous branches. One of these joins the pathetic
in the manner before explained, It is distributed to the ante-
rior half of the upper eyelid. One or two other branches are
given off to the skin between the orbit and the nostril.

(2) Branches of minute size seem to terminate in the Har-
derian gland. For the “ciliary” nerve see below, under sixth
pair. In the nasal cavity the orbito-nasal lies between the
mucous membrane and the nasal bone. It runs forwards
parallel and in apposition to the cartilaginous septum of the
nose. At the anterior part of the cavity it makes its exit
between the nasal and premaxillary bones, and becomes cuta-
neous, splitting into a bundle of filaments to supply the inte-
guments of this region,

CEREBRAL AND SPINAL NERVES OF RANA ESCULENTA. 151

During its course in the nasal cavity the orbito-nasal nerve
gives off :

(1) A cutaneous branch, which leaves the trunk close to
the “nasal” foramen, and runs at an angle of about 45° across
the roof of the cavity to the nostril, behind which it be-
comes subcutaneous and supplies the integuments about the
_ nostril. One or two cutaneous offsets occasionally pass through
the roof of the nasal cavity and supply the integument of
the part.

(2) A large communicating branch is given off at the ante-
rior extremity of the nasal sac, around which it arches to join
the vomerine branch of the palatine. Its distribution will be
given below. .

(3) Cutaneous branches to the premaxillary region, men-
tioned above.

II. Supramasillary Nerve.

During the first part of its course this nerve is included in a
common sheath with the inframaxillary. The two nerves are
placed at first upon the anterior surface of the prootic, and are
covered by the pterygoid. Next they run forwards and out-
wards between the latter and the temporal muscle. They thus
reach the posterior angle of the orbit, where they become
subcutaneous and take different courses.

The supramaxillary keeps close to the posterior and inferior
margin of the orbit, between the eyeball and the tympanic bone,
and is here covered only by the skin and some tough fibrous
tissue. It continues its course downwards and forwards along
the external surface of the upper jaw, being subcutaneous, and
spending itself as it proceeds in branches to the integuments
of these parts.

The supramaxillary nerve supplies branches to the integu-
ments and the mucous membrane of the palate. The following
are the most important:

(1) Supraorbital branch. This is considerable in size and
supplies the posterior half of the upper eyelid and the skin
above and behind the orbit.

152 BARON ARMAND DE WATTEVILLE.

(2) Tympanic branch. Runs under the temporal fascia,
which it pierces above the tympanic ring. It supplies branches
to the skin behind the ring and the tympanic membrane itself.

(3) Malar branches. One of these supplies the skin in
front of the ring. Another large branch passes over the tym-
panic bone, and supplies the skin below it, anastomosing with
the former and with the auricular branch of the seventh.

(4) Inferior palpebral, to the inferior eyelid and nictitat-
. ing membrane.

(5) Communicating branch, to the palatine, given off at the
inferior margin of the orbit. This branch sinks directly down-
wards between the orbit and maxillary bone, and joins the
palatine, as will be more fully described further on.

(6) Infraorbital supplying the skin above the maxilla as
far as the nostril. | |

(7) Maxillary branches supply the integuments covering the
upper jaw, and are divisible into two sets, posterior and an-
terior, the former running backwards, the latter forwards.
Some of the anterior filaments anastomose with the cutaneous
branches of the orbito-nasal in the premaxillary region.

Ill. Inframamillary Nerve.

After it has separated from the supramaxillary the infra-
maxillary nerve arches backwards over the temporal muscle, -
passes under the tympanic bone, and behind the tympanic ring
pierces the masseter. It descends among the fibres of this
muscle and reappears at its insertion into the lower jaw. It is
here subcutaneous, and winds round the bone, reaching its
internal surface, which it follows closely to the symphysis.

Branches. (1) Zemporal and pterygoid. Given off whilst
the nerve is placed between these two muscles, They either
arise separately or by a common trunk,

(2) Masseteric filaments are furnished during the course of
the nerve among the fibres of the massetes.

(3) External mandibular follows the external surface of
the lower jaw and supplies the integuments.

CEREBRAL AND SPINAL NERVES OF RANA ESCULENTA. 153

(4) Musculo-cutaneous branch. This is a considerable offset,
and runs inwards, supplying the “mylohyoid” muscle and the
skin covering it.

(5) Cutaneous branches to the integuments near the sym-
physis.

(6) Muscular branches to the mylohyoid and submentalis
muscle.

IV. Palatine Branch.

On leaving the Gasserian ganglion this nerve is directed
forwards and downwards. It curves round the posterior border
of the rectractor bulbi, and-then lies between this muscle and
the mucous membrane of the mouth, upon which it continues
to run with the parasphenoid to its inner side as far as the an-
terior extremity of this bone. Here the nerve gives off its
vemerine branch, and bends sharply outwards. It follows the
posterior border of the palatine bone, and is joined, close to the
internal surface of the maxilla, by the communicating branch
from the supramaxillary.

Branches.

The palatine nerve supplies several offsets to the mucous
membrane of the mouth.

After its junction with the communicating branch of the
supramaxillary it supplies branches to the mucous membrane
covering the jaw. ‘These are posterior and anterior. ‘The for-
mer running backwards along the posterior half of the maxilla.
The latter runs along the inner surface of the maxilla and pre-
maxilla, where they anastomose with offsets of the vomerine
branch.

The Vomerine branch runs forwards over the inner extrem-
ity of the palatine bone to the vomer, then it passes through a
foramen in the bone, reappearing at its anterior edge. Here it
sends a few offsets to the neighbourhood of the internal nerves.
Continuing its course forwards and slightly outwards, it is joined
by the communicating branch of the orbito-nasal, and is dis-
tributed to the mucous membrane of the region. Some offsets
appear to end in the intermaxillary muscle.

154 BARON ARMAND DE WATTEVILLE.

Sixth Pair, or Abducent.

The sixth nerve runs through the Gasserian ganglion parallel
with and covered by the sympathetic. It reaches the point of
origin of the ophthalmic nerve, and there divides into two
branches. The first of these runs outwards along the external
rectus, which it supplies. ‘The second runs along with the oph-
thalmic to a point a little beyond where the third enters in
communication with the ophthalmic. Here a nerve is given off,
of which a part containing the fibres of the sixth go to supply
the retractor bulbi muscle, whilst the rest run onwards closely
applied to the ophthalmic artery, and forms a “ciliary” nerve,
splitting up into a number of filaments which penetrate the
sclerotic about the point of entrance of the optic nerve.

This “ciliary” nerve probably consists of elements of the
fifth, along with fibres from the third and sympathetic.

Seventh, or Facial Nerve.

We have seen that the facial nerve divides in the Gasse-
rian ganglion into two bundles, of which one forms the pala-
tine, the other the hyomandibular branch.

(1) Palatine branch. ‘This branch arises near the palatine
of the fifth, but is separated from it by the carotid artery, which
here enters the skull. Its course is very short. It sends seve-
ral offsets to the posterior part of the mucous membrane of the
mouth, and immediately throws itself into the palatine branch
of the fifth.

(2) The Hyomandibular branch represents the facial pro-
per of man. It lies at first upon the anterior surface of the
prootic, and is covered by the temporal muscle. It next turns
backwards and passes through the foramen into the tympanic
cavity, where it crosses over the columella. At its exit from
the cavity it unites with a large branch from the glossopharyn-
geal. ‘Thus increased the nerve takes an outwards and down-
wards direction, having in front the posterior wall of the tym-
panic cavity, and above the sterno-mastoid muscle. It next lies
in contact with the thyroid body under cover of the digastric,
and in this position splits into its two main branches, mandibu-
lar and hyoid, after having furnished the following offsets,

CEREBRAL AND SPINAL NERVES OF RANA ESCULENTA. 155

Branches.

(1) To the digastric.

(2) Auricular. This branch runs forwards under the di-
gastric muscle and becomes subcutaneous at its anterior border,
close to the inferior margin of the tympanic ring. Cutaneous
offsets are given off:

(a) Anterior, to the skin over the jugal bone, anastomos-
ing with branches of the malar of the supramaxillary.

(b) Posterior, distributed to the integuments behind the
tympamun.

(c) Descending, passing over the articulation of the jaw,
and losing themselves in the integuments of that region.

A. The mandibular branch winds round the articulation of
the jaw, and runs forwards to the symphysis along the inner
surface of the lower jaw, parallel to, but deeper than, the infra-
maxillary, from which it is separated by a layer of connective
and adipose tissue.

B. The hyoid branch (sternal) is larger than the preced-
ing. It runs downwards and inwards along the posterior belly
of the “ mylohyoid,” and over the deltoid. It is subcutaneous.

Branches.

(1) Muscular, to “the posterior belly of the mylohyoid ”
(stylohyoid).

(2) Cutaneous, to the integuments in the region of the
episternum. Volkmann states that on electrical stimulation
of the root of the seventh he observed contractions of the
air-pouch of the male frog. This implies the existence of off-

sets from this branch of the nerve to the muscular layer of the
pouch,

Third Group of Cerebral Nerves.

This group comprises the ninth, tenth and eleventh pairs of
nerves. They unite to form a large ganglion, to which the
sympathetic also contributes a considerable offset.

_ The roots of the ninth and tenth arise close together from
the lateral aspect of the medulla oblongata opposite the con-

156 BARON ARMAND DE WATTEVILLE.

dyles of skull. They soon unite into a thick bundle as they
proceed to the precondyloid foramen.

The eleventh nerve arises by a single root from the antero-
lateral aspect of the spinal cord, opposite the body of the first
vertebra, a little higher than the root of the first spinal or
hypoglossal nerve. It makes a sharp angle with the spinal
cord and joins the root of the vagus near the foramen, inti-
mately blending with it. -At their exit from the bone the
three nerves expand into a large ganglion. The ganglion is
placed under cover of the intertransversarii capitis, and is sur-
rounded by a capsule of pigmented fibrous tissue. It is pyri-
form in shape. Closely connected with its inferior surface the
sympathetic lies underneath it. The three nerves occupy in
the ganglion from above downwards the reverse order of that
which they occupy lineally, 7. e. uppermost comes the eleventh,
then the vagus, and lastly the glossopharyngeus,

Ninth Nerve, or Glossopharyngeus.

The glossopharyngeus leaves the ganglion beneath and
somewhat in front of the vagus. Both nerves run together
for a short distance, the glossopharyngeus remaining in front.
They are placed at first under the intertransversarii capitis,
then arch over the origin of the protractor scapule. Their
direction is outwards, parallel to the petrous bone, to the pos-
terior surface of which they are closely applied. They are
covered, partly by the overhanging ridge of the bone, and by
the depressor maxillze muscle,

The two nerves thus reach the posterior border of the petro-
hyoids, where they separate. The glossopharyngeal passes under
the posterior petrohyoid, between it and the levator anguli
scapule, and reappears through the fibres (usually) of the
third petrohyoid, upon which it runs as far as the carotid gland.
Here it is parallel to, and in front of, the laryngeal nerve. The
nerve makes upon the gland a sharp turn forwards, and passes
under the omohyoid and upon the anterior petrohyoid at its
insertion into the hyoid bone. It is crossed by the lingual
artery, which from this point runs along its outer side to the
tongue,

CEREBRAL AND SPINAL NERVES OF RANA ESCULENTA. 157

The glossopharyngeal is here covered by the geniohyoid
muscle; it continues its course forwards through the notch
between the body and anterior cornu of the hyoid bone, thence
between the hyoglossus and geniohyoid to the tongue, taking a
more inward direction so as to come to lie to the inner side of
the hypoglossus. The latter nerve is superficial to the glosso-
pharyngeal during this part of its course. But near the root of
the tongue the two nerves lie near one another, both bending
sharply backwards as they enter the organ through the tri-
angular space formed by the two halves of the hyoglossus and
genioglossus muscles. They are thrown into folds, so as to
present a wavy outline, this being a provision to allow for the
great extension to which they are subjected when the tongue is
extruded.

Branches.—1. Communicans ad facialem. This is of large -
size—as large as the seventh itself,—and is given off close to
the ganglion, whence it is directed along the posterior wall of
the cranium, to join the seventh at its exist from the tympanic
cavity.

(2) A branch is given off near the point where the glosso-
pharyngeus passes under the fourth petrohyoid. It runs down-
wards between the mucous membrane of the pharynx, to which
it sends offsets, and the petrohyoid muscles and hyoid bone. It
contributes to form the plexus mentioned further down, under
the head of the branch of the vagus.

(3) A branch to the anterior petrohyoid is given off by the
former glossopharyngeal as it lies upon this muscle,

(4) Other offsets. to the mucous membrane of the pharynx
and middle portion of the floor of the mouth are given off by
the nerve as it proceeds. The lateral parts of the floor of the
mouth are supplied by offsets of the mandibular branch of the
seventh, derived ultimately, it is probable, from the commu-
nicating branch mentioned above.

(5) As the nerve is about to enter the tongue several branches

are given off to the mucous membrane about the symphysis of
the mandible.

(6) The glossopharyngeus ultimately expends itself into

158 BARON ARMAND DE WATTEVILLE.

filaments to the mucous membrane of the dorsum of the
tongue.

Tenth Nerve, or Vagus. Eleventh Nerve, or Spinal Accessory.

After separating from the glossopharyngeus the vagus, con-
taining the fibre of the eleventh, bends backwards and down-
wards, and follows the posterior edge of the petrohyoideus IV.,
accompanied by the cutaneous artery and vein.. It is covered
by the sterno-mastoid. It lies first upon the levator anguli
scapule, around which it winds, so that further down this
muscle covers the nerve. In this position the vagus passes
between the hypoglossus and the ascending aorta, and gives off
its gastric branches. Still keeping along the petrohyoid muscle,
which usually separates it from the laryngeal nerve, the vagus
reaches the arch of the pulmonary artery, and splits underneath
it into its terminal offsets, and pulmonary cardiac and small
laryngeal.

Branches.—(1) The cutaneous branch is given off by the
vagus close to the ganglion. It runs directly upwards along
with the cutaneous artery, and passes between .the temporal
and digastric muscles to be distributed to the skin, chiefly of
the scapular region. Its offsets are (a) ascending, towards the
middle line of the back; (b) descending, supplying the skin
over the digastric; (¢) posterior, accompanying the ramifica-
tions of the cutaneous artery.

(2) The petrohyoid branch is a short trunk which passes
underneath the petrohyoid muscles, where it sometimes forms a
ganglion, and splits into fine branches. Two of these run down-
wards under the second and third petrohyoids, which they
supply, and reach the mucous membrane of the pharynx under
the lower cornu of the hyoid bone, where they form, with an
offset of the glossopharyngeus, a kind of ganglion plexus,

(3) Branch to the interscapularis muscle, This is a very fine
offset, which runs backwards upon the levator anguli scapula,
and ends in the above-mentioned muscle,

(4) Laryngeal Nerve, This important branch, the homo-
logue of the “recurrent,” runs parallel with the vagus, from
which it is usually separated by the petrohyoid IV. It lies

CEREBRAL AND SPINAL NERVES OF RANA ESCULENTA. 159

either in front or upon this muscle, and supplies it. Near the
inferior cornu of the hyoid bone it winds round the pulmonary
artery from above down. It then crosses at a right angle the
cornu at its lower third, and sinks between it and the larynx,
to which it is distributed, supplying its muscles and mucous
membrane.

(5) Gastric Branches.—These are usually two in number
and of considerable size, They are given off at the point where
the vagus passes under the hypoglossal. They reach the sto-
mach by piercing the muscular diaphragm, formed by the in-
sertion of the upper fibres of the internal oblique into that
organ. They ramify largely upon its surface, and supply its
substance.

(6) Pulmonary Branches.—As before mentioned, the vagus
splits under the pulmonary artery into several branches. Those
destined to the lung accompany the ramifications of the artery
to that organ, piercing the diaphragm, and spreading over the
anterior and posterior surfaces of the lung.

(7) Cardiac Branch.—This branch is usually smaller on
the right side than on the left, and runs under cover first of
the pulmonary artery, then of the superior vena cava, which it
accompanies to the posterior aspect of the sinus venosus. As
it proceeds it sends off two or three filaments to the roots of
the lungs. Before the cardiac nerves reach the heart they are
placed in communication with one another by means of a trans-
verse branch. They then enter the cavity of the auricles,
where they are placed upon the septum; the nerve of the right
side coming to be in front of the other. They run downwards
towards the auriculo-ventricular opening. There they expand
into two ganglia, from which filaments ramify into the sub-
stance of the heart.

(8) A small superficial laryngeal nerve is given off by the
vagus along with the cardiac. This branch passes between the
tip of the posterior cornu of the hyoid bone and the mucous
membrane of the pharynx. It splits up into numerous fine
offsets, which are distributed to the mucous membrane around
the external laryngeal opening.

_ The eleventh nerve leaves the vagus close to its scapular

160 BARON ARMAND DE WATTEVILLE.

branch, and supplies the “sternomastoid” of Ecker—a muscle
which Fiirbringer identifies as the homologue of the trapezius.

Spinal Nerves.

The spinal nerves are ten in number. They all originate
by two roots, anterior and posterior, which run backwards in
the vertebral canal towards their respective intervertebral fora-
mina, The lower a nerve arises, the longer its course inside
the canal, and the acuter the angle it forms with the cord.
Opposite each intervertebral foramen the posterior root ex-
pands into a ganglion. The ganglia are of the characteristic
yellow colour, and are surrounded by a variable quantity of
chalk crystals. Much pigment is found in the fibrous tissue
surrounding some of the nerves near the vertebral column, es-
pecially the brachial. Each spinal nerve gives off near the
intervertebral foramen a posterior branch to the muscles and
integuments of the back. The number of each nerve corre-
sponds to that of the vertebra behind which it is placed in the
intervertebral foramen, there being no “sub-occipital” nerve.

The spinal nerves may be arranged in the following manner : |

First, or cervical division; First spinal nerve (hypoglossus).
Second, or upper dorsal: Second (brachial) and third nerves.
Third, or lower dorsal: Fourth, fifth, and sixth nerves.
Fourth, or lumbo-sacral: Seventh, eighth, and ninth nerves,
Fifth, or coccygeal: Tenth nerve,

First Division of Spinal Nerves.

The anterior root of the hypoglossus is double, being com-
posed of two bundles of fibres arising opposite the first vertebra,
The posterior root is very slender, and forms a small ganglion
at its exit from the intervertebral foramen. Here the anterior
and posterior roots join into one nerve, and come into close
contact with the sympathetic, with which they are bound up
by some very dense fibrous tissue, and exchange fibres. The
hypoglossus is here placed between the intertransversarii mus-
cles and the mucous membrane of the pharynx. In front of it

CEREBRAL AND SPINAL NERVES OF RANA ESCULENTA. 161

lies the vertebral artery, behind the brachial artery and nerve.
It lies upon the sympathetic and the bend of the aorta. It runs
downwards under cover of the levator anguli scapul, super-
ficially to the ascending aorta. Further it crosses the vagus
and laryngeal nerves, the carotid gland being placed between
the sternohyoid and petrohyoid muscles. The hypoglossus
then makes a sudden curve forwards, and proceeds under the
omohyoid and the mylohyoid muscles to the origin of the genio-
hyoid, between the fibres of which it runs as far as the root of
the tongue. Its relations to the glossopharyngeus are as follows:
It lies first superficial to, and to the outer side of, it; then, as
before mentioned, comes to be placed to its inner side as it
curves backwards and upwards to enter the tongue. It ends
into filaments to the intrinsic muscles of this organ.

Branches.—(1) Posterior branches are given off close to the
intervertebral foramen to the muscles of the neck, viz. the an-
terior portion of the longissimus dorsi and the intertransversarii
capitis,

(2) Offsets supply the following scapular muscles :—levator
anguli scapulz, retrahens scapule, and transverso-scapularis
tertius. (See Fiirbringer, loc. cit.)

(3) A communicating branch to the brachial plexus, which
either joins the brachial, or, as Fiirbringer has shewn, splits into
two filaments, one of which joins the supracoracoid, the other
the branch supplying the abdominal muscles,

(4) A branch to the sternohyoid and omohyoid (descendens
noni) arises from the nerve where it is covered by these
muscles.

(5) As the nerve proceeds it gives offsets to the muscles by
which it is surrounded, the hyoglossus, geniohyoid, and genio-
glossus.

VOL. IX. 11

162 BARON ARMAND DE WATTEVILLE. CEREBRAL NERVES, &c.

APPENDIX.

ON THE CERVICAL AND CEREBRAL PORTION OF THE SYMPA-
THETIC.

The sympathetic chain on either side of the body enters
into relation with every spinal nerve by means of thick com-
municating branches, These are very long in the lower part of
the body, but become shorter and shorter higher up, until, as is
the case with the brachial nerve, the cord itself of the sympa-
thetic comes into contact with the spinal nerve. This is the
case also with the cerebral nerves, as we have seen above.

Between the brachial and hypoglossal nerves the sympa-
thetic splits into two chains, which surround the brachial artery.
Having then exchanged fibres with the hypoglossal the sympa-
thetic expands into a large cervical ganglion, the anterior ex-
tremity of which reaches almost as far as the ganglion of the
vagus.

The sympathetic penetrates into the skull through the pre-
condyloid foramen, and thence runs forwards along the floor of
the cranial cavity, under the roots of the eighth and seventh
nerves, to the inferior surface of the Gasserian ganglion, into
which it sinks and splits up into several bundles of fibres, which
go to join the various offsets of the ganglion.

ON PHOCA GROENLANDICA AS A BRITISH SPECIES
OF SEAL,—By Proressor TURNER.

THERE has been some question amongst naturalists if the
Greenland Seal is a frequenter of the British seas and coasts.
Seals captured in the Severn, the Thames and the Firth of
Forth, have been mentioned as belonging to this species, but
as neither their bones nor skins have been preserved doubts
have been thrown on their identity. The late Dr Saxby stated
in the Zoologist for March, 1864, that several Harp Seals were
then to be seen in Balta Sound, Shetland, but none of these
specimens seems to have been captured. The editors of the
new edition of Bell’s British Quadrupeds’, referring to these
cases, whilst stating “although we are unable to point out any
undoubted native specimens in our Museums, the evidence in
favour of its occasional occurrence seems too strong to be dis-
regarded,” yet admit that “it is not without considerable doubt
that we retain the Greenland Seal in the list of British Mam-
mals.” During the past summer (1874) a specimen was sent
to me for examination, which indubitably establishes the Phoca
Groenlandica to be an occasional visitor to our shores, and
gives it a right therefore to a place in the British fauna. It is
to the sagacity of Thos. Gough, Esq., M.R.C.S. of Arnbarrow,
Milnthorpe, that we are indebted not only for the determina-
tion of the species, but for the preservation of the specimen.
Mr Gough has kindly favoured me with the. following extract
_ from the Westmorland Gazette of Feb. 1, 1868, in which he
gaye an account of the capture of the animal.

“CAPTURE OF A SEAL IN MORECAMBE BAY,

“On Thursday the 23rd of January, the Messrs Crossfield
shot a seal near the viaduct on the Lancaster and Ulverston Rail-
way, near Arnside. When first discovered its dark-coloured head,
alternately bobbing about and ducking under the surface of the

1 London, 1874, p, 253.
11—2

164 PROFESSOR TURNER.

water, was taken for a duck, but a nearer approach soon made
known the prize which the marksman had to secure. <A dis-
charge of shot wounded the animal severely, and repeated blows
on the muzzle and head rendered it a helpless captive. It was
conveyed to Kendal on the following Saturday, and was pur-
chased for the Museum of the Literary and Scientific Institu-
tion. We had an opportunity of examining the specimen soon
after it arrived. Its length was six feet from the tip of the nose
to the point of its hind toes, the circumference behind the fore-
feet 43 inches: colour of the head dark brown, rather dark on
the back, rest of the body grey blotched with brown spots—
teeth six incisors in the upper jaw, four in the lower; canines
two in each jaw; molars five on each side of each jaw, with
prominent conical points slightly lobed at the base, placed in a
straight series with moderate interspaces between, in all thirty-
four, a number characteristic of the genus Phoca (seal); fore-
feet with the second toe rather longer than the first. There
are two characters in the above short description, which enable
us to determine the species. These are the arrangement of
the grinders and the comparative length of the first and
second fore-toes. In the common seal (Phoca Vitulina) the
grinders are placed obliquely and contiguously, the inner hinder
margin of one being in contact with the outer fore margin of
the one immediately behind; the first fore-toe the longest.
In the Greenland or Harp seal (Phoca Groenlandica) the
grinders are in a direct line, and separated from each other by
well-marked intervals, and second fore-toe is the longest. Our
specimen therefore is the Greenland Seal. The colour of this
species is said to vary with its age,..&c. The one in our pos-
session is a young male, probably in the imperfect clothing of
the third or fourth year. An examination of the contents of
the stomach proved that this wanderer had fared badly in the
bay: for we found nothing but a moderately-sized pulpy mass
mixed with the bones of small fish.”

Owing to the doubt thrown by the editors of the “British
Quadrupeds” on the Phoca Groenlandica as a British species, .
and*their inability to point out undoubted mative specimens in
our museums, Mr Gough was desirous of obtaining my opinion
on the specimen in the Kendal Museum, so that if, after exami-

PHOCA GROENLANDICA AS A BRITISH SPECIES OF SEAL. 165

nation, I could confirm his view as to the species, a more formal
record of the specimen should be made than a paragraph in the
columns of a country newspaper, or an entry in the catalogue of
a local museum, The animal had been carefully skinned, and
in stuffing and mounting it for preservation in the Museum the
mouth had been opened so that the teeth could be examined.
I compared its dentition with that, not only of crania of the
Greenland seal in the museum of the Edinburgh University,
but with skulls of all the northern species of seal, and found its
dental characters to correspond exactly with those of the Green-
land seal. The unworn condition of the cuspidate molars satis-
factorily proved it to be a young specimen. But confirmatory
evidence was also furnished by the colour and markings on the
fur. It has frequently been pointed out that the young harp
seal has a white or greyish white coat with brown spots scatter-
ed over it. The colour of this specimen when fresh is referred
to by Mr Gough in his description, but in the dried skin I
observed that the brown patches of hair were scattered across
the shoulders, and down the sides at the roots of the pectoral
limbs, Similar patches were seen on the belly and under-
surface of the neck. The largest patch 3in. by 1$in. was
situated on the right side. The markings were not unlike
those of the specimen figured by Mr Berjeau in the upper right
corner of the plate illustrating Dr Murie’s paper on Phoca
Groenlandica in Proc. Zool. Soc. of London, June 23, 1870,

NOTES ON THE MINUTE STRUCTURE OF THE
RETINA AND VITREOUS HUMOUR —By J. C.

Ewart, M.B., ©O.M., Demonstrator of Anatomy in the
University of Edinburgh.

SINCE my paper in the last number of this Journal, describing
a layer of epithelial cells on the anterior surface of the retina, I
have made a further series of observations and have a few
additional facts to add. In regard to the retina I have stated
that by means of a weak solution of nitrate of silver a layer of
epithelial cells may be demonstrated on its anterior surface, and
I now wish to shew that a similar layer of cells exists on the
surface of the hyaloid membrane of the vitreous humour.
Since writing the last paper I have become aware that on the
continent certain structures have been described and figured as
the anterior surface of the connective-tissue system of “ radial-
fasern.” Although I may have described the irregular outlines
of some of these structures as cells, yet I have seen in addition
patches of epithelial cells as represented in Figure 1 lying on
the anterior surface of the retina,

I have examined the retinze of the ox, sheep, rabbit, kitten
and frog. Of these I find that the cells are most distinctly seen
in the sheep. They are best demonstrated by using a }th per
cent. solution of nitrate of silver and then exposing the retina
to a bright light. The cells thus obtained are flat, of various
sizes, and sometimes distinctly nucleated. They differ from the
connective tissue forming the “radial-fasern” and from the
ganglion cells seen at a deeper focus. The latter are large
branched cells of considerable thickness with a large nucleus
and nucleolus, and are generally at some distance from each
other. The connective tissue forming the anterior surface of
the “radial-fasern” has the appearance of an irregular network,
the spaces of which diminish in size on changing the focus.
This is best understood by examining vertical sections. When
in these spaces small nerve-cells exist, there is sometimes a
difficulty in distinguishing the appearance produced from a

MR EWART. THE RETINA AND VITREOUS HUMOUR. 167

layer of cells; the fibres however forming the network have
generally a double contour, and are thicker than the fine lines
produced by the action of silver on intercellular substance.

External granular layer of retina—Schwalbe in the work
of Von Graefe and Saemisch* describes in the pike a layer of
large irregular nucleated flat cells in the substance of the ex-
ternal granular layer of the retina. In a similar position I
have seen in the retina of a kitten a layer of cells having a
decided resemblance to those described by Schwalbe. At some
parts of the same preparation, by changing the focus, another
layer of similar cells was brought into view; thus there may be

a layer of cells on each surface of the external granular layer, or
a double layer in its substance. Some of these cells are re-
produced in Figure 2, and though much smaller than those
from the pike, they have the same irregular outline, and con-
trast strongly with the nerve-cells lying superficially to them.

Epithelial investment of the vitreous humour—Schwalbe
describes the vitreous humour as having a distinct hyaloid
membrane, but denies the existence of an epithelial layer of
cells on its surface as described by Huschke, Ritter and others.
The results of observations made by me during the past summer
confirm the statements of the latter writers. On the surface of
the vitreous humour of a rabbit treated with a weak solution of
nitrate of silver and exposed to a bright light in glycerine and

- water I found the appearances reproduced in Figure 3. These

fine lines were traceable over a considerable part of the pre-
paration; and although no nuclei were visible, I consider them
conclusive as to the existence of a layer of epithelial cells on
the surface of the hyaloid membrane of the vitreous humour. In
the same preparation another layer of cells with distinct nuclei
was seen at a deeper focus. Some of these cells are reproduced

1 Handbuch der Ophthalnologie.

168 MR EWART. THE RETINA AND VITREOUS HUMOUR.

in Figure 4. They are similar to the flat cells figured by
Dr Thin as covering the secondary and tertiary bundles of

tendon’, and I regard them as corresponding to the subhyaloid
nuclei figured by Schwalbe in the work already referred to.
It happened that the cornea of the rabbit, whose vitreous
humour I had been examining, had been previously inflamed
by a thread which had been inserted and left in the substance
of the cornea for some days. But I do not believe the inflam-
mation set up in the cornea had any effect on the cells which
I have described as covering the vitreous humour. It may
however have led to dilatation of the lymphatic spaces, and
thus made way for the easy entrance of the solution of silver
between the vitreous humour and the retina’,

Ending of nerve fibrille in the cones of the retina,—Schwalbe
also states that nerve-fibres have never been traced beyond
-the external granular layer of the retina, But in some of my
observations on the retina of the common fowl stained with
haematoxylin I have found fine nerve-fibrillz extending beyond
the external granular layer as far as the rods and cones. Figure
5 shews what I believe to be a fine-beaded nerve-fibrilla (0)
passing through the inner segment of a cone (a), and ending at
the lenticular body (ce) situated at the junction of the inner
and outer segments of the cone,

: Edinburgh Medical Journal, September, 1874,
2 It is right that I should state that the investigation into the structure of
the vitreous humour was carried on under the directions of Dr Thin, J. 0, EB.

scbncdane) ely Monies “2IOSNW SNANOONV-O3THOOULIdS

hy 29 Tap “uoRD 9 6

NOTE ON THE EPITROCHLEO-ANCONEUS OR AN-
CONEUS SEXTUS (GRUBER). By Joun C. Garroy,
M.A. (Oxon), FLS. (PL IL)

As the subject of the Epitrochleo-anconeus muscle has been
well-nigh exhausted by Professor Wenzel Gruber, of St Peters-
burg, in an elaborate monograph’, and an appended supple-
ment’, it is not my intention to do more than add a few figures
of its occurrence in certain mammals whose myology in this
respect is not represented in Prof. Gruber’s plates, and to
make a few general remarks upon the muscle in question; and
I am the more encouraged to perform that which to some, nay
even to myself, may seem a work of supererogation, by some
recent expressions of Dr Burt Wilder, a well-known American
anatomist, to the effect that “there is need of more accuracy
in the dissection, delineation, and description of muscles, since
at present there is great confusion respecting the nature of true
muscular integers, and the basis of muscular homologies*.”

Prof. Gruber, in the first of his monographs on the epitroch-
leo-anconeus, illustrates the subject by two lithographic plates, the
first of which, in five figures, represents its occurrence in man,
while in the second plate a comparative view is given of its
presence in Inuus nemestrinus, Cebus fatuellus, Galeopithecus
volans, Myogale moschata, Ursus arctos, Felis leo, Felis domes-
tica*, Dasyurus viverrinus, Lepus timidus, Dasypus tricinctus,
and Phoca vitulina. This anatomist, though he figures its oc-
currence in only eleven genera of mammals, exclusive of man,
has, nevertheless, found this muscle in no fewer than forty-seven

1 Ueber den Musculus epitrochleo-anconeus des Menschen und der Siuge-
thiere (mit 3 Tafeln). Mém. de Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg,
7th ser. Tom. x, No. 5.

? Nachtrag zur Kenntniss des Musculus epitrochleo-anconeus der Siugethiere.
Bulletins de VAcad. Imp. des Sciences de St. Pétersb. Tom. xm. p. 329. No
figures accompany this paper. A few supplementary remarks upon this muscle
are further made in the course of a paper entitled Ueber den Musculus Anconeus
v. des Menschen. Mémoires. Tom. xvi. No. 1. 1871.

3 The Pectoral Muscles of Mammalia. Proc. Americ. Assoc. for Advance-
ment of Science, Aug. 1873, p. 307. Published 1874. Ithaca, N. Y.

4 Possibly the anconé interne of Strauss-Durckheim, Anatomie Descriptive et
Bb fe du Chat, Tom. 11. p, 351, and Atlas, Plate 1x. Fig. 3,17. Paris,

170 MR GALTON.

genera, a list of which is given at the end of his supplementary
paper’. Iam able to add to this list and give figures of three
new genera, viz. Phascolomys (wombata), Echidna (setosa), and
Cholopus (didactylus), and to give in addition a figure of the
muscle in Myrmecophaga tamandua, in which animal it has been
already described, but not figured, by Rapp in his well-known
monograph*, under the name of “anconeus parvus,”

Georges Cuvier, it is true, has in his magnificent atlas figured
this muscle in no less than sixteen genera of mammals’, but, not
only entirely omitting to delineate it, as Prof. Gruber feelingly
remarks, in genera where it is undoubtedly present’, he, when he
does represent it, masks it under a crowd of aliases, and at
times so misrepresents it that we need scarcely wonder at the:
utterance of one of his own countrymen: “ Mais les desseins
qu il en donne sont assez imparfaits, et n’ont pu nous étre que
d’un faible secours’.”

The specimens from which my dissections were made were
kindly placed at my disposal a few years ago by Professor
Rolleston, of Oxford, in order that I might verify certain points
in complete dissections which I was making of two members of
the Edentata. Unfortunately I have no very full and precise
notes of these supplementary dissections, but it will be, I think,
practically enough to state that in every instance the epitroch-
leo-anconeus arched over the ulnar nerve, and that all the
drawings are taken from the inner aspect of the right cubital
region. I have also in my possession a drawing of the cubital
region of the opposite side in a seal (Phoca vitulina) which well
shews the branchlet given off from the ulnar nerve to the epi-
trochleo-anconeus, but as Prof. Gruber has figured the self-same
region in the same animal in his monograph, I do not consider
it worth while to reproduce it here.

The muscle in question seems to be more constant in the
Edentata—a group to which, through circumstances, I have

5 Nachtrag, &c. 8. 884.

® Anatomische Untersuchungen tiber die Edentaten, 2to Auf. 8, 48, Tiibin-
gen, 1852;

7 Anatomie Comparée, recueil des planches de Myologie dessinées par Georges
Cuvier, ou exécutées sous ses yeux par M. Laurillard. Fol. Paris, 1855,

§ Nachtrag. 8. 830,

® M, Georges Pouchet, Mémoires sur le Grand Fourmilier, liere Livraison.
Paris, 1867.

2 ie

THE EPITROCHLEO-ANCONEUS. 171

paid particular attention—than in any other mammalian order,
though this may, of course, be due to the fact, that its several
members are much fewer in number than those of a larger
group, ¢.g. the Carnivora. It has been previously figured and
described by Gruber and Murie” in Dasypus (Tolypeutes) tri-
cinctus, described and figured by myself”, and figured only by
Cuvier in Dasypus seacinctus, described and figured by Pouchet
in the Great Anteater”, under the name of vaste interne: de-
scribed and figured by myself** and described only by Prof.
Humphry“ in Orycteropus, and deseribed only by Gruber” and
Prof. Humphry”, in Manis; by myself as occurring in a very
young specimen of Tatusia novem cinctus (D. Peba), having the
umbilical cord still adherent; by Prof. Humphry”, Gruber, and
myself in Cyclothwrus; by Prof. Humphry and Prof. Maca-
lister® in the Ai, and by Rapp” and Gruber in the Tamandua;
and, though it is neither figured nor categorically mentioned by
Prof. Hyrtl in his truly classical monograph on Chlamydophorus
truncatus, its presence seems to be hinted at in the following
sentence: “Ceterum triceps non omnis metam suam in olecrano
attingit, sed crasso lacerto, ultra cubitum producto, internam
antebrachii regionem visitat, ubi Zensoris fascice antebrachit

munere fungitur™.”

From the foregoing then it may be stated that the epi-
trochleo-anconeus is, almost without exception, present, and
well developed, moreover, throughout the whole group of
Edentata ; but this, of course, may be owing to the fact that
from the limited number of the members of this group, the

10 On the Habits, Structure, and Relations of the Three-banded Armadillo
(Tolypeutes Conurus). Trans. Linn. Soc. Vol. xxx. Tab. 25, Fig. 32.

11 Tbid. Vol, xxv. p. 539, and Tab. 44, Fig. 2.

12 Loe. cit. p. 11, and Pl. ur. kh”.

13 Trans. Linn. Soc. Vol. xxv. p. 579, and Tab. 45, Fig. 1.

14 Under the name of anconeus internus. Journ. of Anat, and Phys. 2nd
Series, Vol. 1. p. 301.
be In a very young specimen, only 94 in. long including tail. First Memoir,
p. 22.

16 Journ. of Anat. and Phys. Vol. rv. p. 39.

7 Ibid. Meckel makes no mention of the muscle in his description of the
anatomy of the Two-toed Anteater. Meckel’s Archiv. Ver. Bd. 1819.

18 Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. 4th Series, Vol. rv. p. 251.

19 On the Myology of Bradypus tridactylus, with remarks on the general

anecand of the Hdentata. Ann. and Mag, Nat. Hist. 4th Series, Vol. 1v. p. 59.
1869.

20 Op. cit. s. 48.
21 Denkschrift. der k. Akad. der Wissen, in Wien, p. 37, 1x. Bd. 1855,

172 MR GALTON:

means of coming to a correct conclusion have been easier
arrived at than had more items been included in the sum
total.

Now in the Cheiroptera, on the other hand, to judge from
the little which has been contributed to the myology of this
order, this muscle is entirely absent, for neither does Prof.
Humphry mention its presence in Pteropus™, nor does Prof.
Macalister indicate either by figure or description its occurrence
in those members of the Cheiroptera, upon the dissection of
which his valuable monograph is based*. Prof. Gruber, it is
true, describes it as present in one of the Cheiroptera, but this
is no real exception, as the animal in question, being a
Galeopithecus, must, in accordance with the most recent system
of classification, be placed amongst the Insectivora.

In that smallest of all the mammalian orders, the Monotre-
mata, the epitrochleo-anconeus has been found by Prof. Wood
in the Ornithorhynchus™, and by Mr Mivart” and myself in two
separate species (or varieties?) of Hchidna, so that we may
almost safely assume that this muscle is always present in this
order.

In the Ungulata this muscle seems to occur but rarely, or,
what is more likely, has not as yet been carefully looked for.
The late Prof. Gratiolet, though he does not figure it, seems to
have recognised it as a factor of the triceps, for when writing of
this muscle in his posthumous work on the Hippopotamus, he
says: “Le vaste interne s’attache d’une part a l’une des faces
latérales de l’olecrAne et d’autre part & ’humérus. Ses relations
avec ce dernier os sont toutes particuliéres. Il ne s’attache point
& sa face postérieure, mais s’enroule sur sa face interne, pour se
terminer sur sa face antérieure, jusqu’d la créte qui sépare
cette face de la face externe. Cette disposition d l’enroulement

23 Journ. of Anat. and Phys. Vol, 11.

% Phil, Trans, 1872.

% Proc, Roy. Soc. June 18, 1868, p. 497. In Meckel’s description of the
muscles of this animal—which is, however, very short—in his well-known
monograph there is no mention made of the epitrochleo-anconeus, nor is it
figured in any of the plates.

*° On the Anatomy of Echidna Hystrix. Trans, Linn. Soc, Vol. xxv. This
anatomist, though he does not specifically mention or figurethis muscle, describes,
novertheless, a ‘distinct slip” of the triceps which ‘‘ forms an arch ep
from the inner condyle to the olecranon) beneath which pass the inferior pro-
funda artery and the ulnar and median nerve.”

ee See

THE EPITROCHLEO-ANCONEUS. 173

est fort analogue a celle que présente le muscle supinateur, et
il résulte des conséquences pareilles. En effet, en rapprochant
fortement l’olecrane de l’épitrochlée, le vaste interne est lui-
méme supinateur 4 un degré trés-prononcé. Rien n’est cer-
tainement plus curieuse et plus digne de l’attention du natu-
raliste philosophe™.”

With regard to the Carnivora, Rodentia, and Insectivora,
the members of these three orders are so numerous that as yet
we have not been able to arrive at any generalization as to the
occurrence of the epitrochleo-anconeus in them; though there
seems to be warrant for the statement that this muscle is fairly
frequent in all the three groups.

When we arrive at the Primates we find an evident falling
off in the frequency of occurrence of the muscle; for though it
is sparingly—certainly not universally”—present among the
Lemurs and lower monkeys, it seems to become lost among the
anthropoid apes”, and occurs finally in man, though compara-
tively frequently as a muscular anomaly, still only as an
anomaly.

Prof. Gruber, in the first of his two papers (s. 24), rightly
concludes that the muscle in question is homologous in man and
the other mammals, this conclusion being supported by its

‘nervous supply. In man, however, it is sometimes an inde-
pendent muscle, sometimes a factor of the triceps brachii, while

in the rest of the mammalia it is always an independent struc-
ture. It is further stated that its function in man is to guard
the ulnar nerve and the vessels which accompany it from pres-
sure, and to act as adjutant to the triceps brachii, and to the
ligamentum cubiti mediale in the way of support of the elbow-
joint on its median aspect. In other mammals it acts as an
adductor of the olecranon and a supinator of the forearm, being
adjutant to the extensor or extensors of the forearm, and serv-

26 Recherches sur VAnatomie de U Hippopotame, publiges par les soins du
Dr. E. Alix, p. 266, footnote. Paris, 1867.

*7 It is neither mentioned nor figured in Mivart and Murie’s most elaborate
paper, On the Anatomy of the Lemuroidia. Trans. Zool. Soc. Vol. vu. Nor in
Burmeister’s Beitriige zur naheren Kenntniss der Gattung Tarsius. Berlin, 1846.

*8 No mention is made of its presence by Vrolik, Chureh, or Champneys in
their writings on the anatomy of the Chimpanzee, Orang-utan, and Cynocepha-
lus Anubis, and Prof. Macalister expressly states, in his paper On the Muscular
Anatomy of the Gorilla (Proc. Roy. Irish Acad, Vol. 1. Ser. 11. Science, p. 502)
*«There is no anconeus internus, ”

174 MR GALTON.

ing to- protect from pressure either the ulnar nerve and its
accompanying vasa alone, or the median nerve and brachial
vessels in addition to these.

In man it has the character of a structure retained from an
earlier and lower condition of existence, being, in other words,
a “Thierbildung,” while in other mammals it is a necessary
and functional mechanical appendage of the elbow-joint.

In order to find out the frequency of the occurrence of this
muscle in man, Prof. Graber in the space of less than a month
examined one hundred bodies, that is, two hundred elbow-
regions, and found its frequency thus distributed :—It was met
with in 26 males and 8 females, and occurred on both sides in
15 male and 4 female subjects. It was found on one side only
in 11 males and 4 females, ‘being on the right side only in
9 males and 3 females, and on the left side alone in 2 males
and 1 female. Without reckoning difference of sex it was
present in every three subjects and in every four extremities,

This muscle, when present, is generally well developed,
rather than weak, in man, and is usually stronger in males, and
on the right side, than in females, and on the left side®.

Up to this time Prof. Gruber had thought that the presence
of a third head to the biceps brachialis was the most frequent
anomaly in the upper extremity, but he now came to the con-
clusion that it was exceeded in frequency by the epitrochleo-
anconeus.

Though I will readily concede that the epitrochleo-anconeus
may in man ke occasionally adjutant to the triceps, it seems to
be rather a straining after a réXos to assume that any function
other than an active one should be accredited to a muscle rather
than it should be simply deemed rudimentary. For I cannot
help regarding the function of an organ but as dependent upon
its physical capacity, and could as soon conceive of a ligament
taking upon itself the active duties of a muscle, as of the latter

%” Prof. J. Wood found this muscle (seo Proc, Roy. Soc. June 18, 1858,
p. 497) in four male subjects out of 86, in three instances in both arms, and in
one on the left side only. <A percentage of occurrences of this muscle founded
upon Prof, Wood's more limited—thanks to the encouragement to the study of
anatomy afforded by the legislature in this country—series of observations is,
it will be readily seen, much smaller than one grounded upon the records of the
Russian anatomist. This seeming fallacy can, it may possibly be objected, be
due not to arithmetical considerations but to real differences of race,

PIAS ee ee

THE EPITROCHLEO-ANCONEUS. 175

enacting the passive réle of its far less highly organized coad-
jutor. Better declare at once that a purely muscular slip is
functionless, than assume that it exercises the office of pro-
tecting a nerve from external injury.

Seeing then that this muscle has been found so frequently in .
all the lower mammals, and that it is so invariably present in
an order—and that, too, one of the lowest—the myology of
which, at any rate, has been most carefully studied, while it
becomes less frequent among the lower Primates, to finally
disappear among the anthropoid apes, and only to emerge again
occasionally in man as an “anomaly,” we have reason for
regarding it, as we do such a structure as the supracondyloid
process, as a now almost functionally useless heirloom, which
has descended to us from very remote ancestors”.

80 One source of difficulty and of probable fallacy must have occurred to
every one, though no allusion is made to it in anatomical writings—in the fact
that while perhaps only one member of a species among the lower mammals
has been once dissected, hundreds of human subjects—in spite of the indifference
manifested in the majority of London dissecting rooms—have been under care-
ful investigation, so that it is possible that in the case of the former, instead of
that which is normal presenting itself, an anomaly has been stumbled upon,
which has forthwith been registered as normal.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Inner aspect of the right elbow-regions in

Fig. 1. Myrmecophaga Tamandua.
Fig. 2. Cholopus Didactylus.

Fig. 3. Phascolomys wombata.
Fig. 4. Echidna Setosa.

i Triceps.

E. A. — Epitrochleo anconeus.

U.N Ulnar nerve.

CB,. Coracobrachialis tertius.

tp'} Latissimus Dorsi, primus et secundus.
F.6.U. Flexor Carpi Ulnaris,

D.E. —_— Dorso-epitrochlien.

NOTES ON THE URINE PIGMENTS. By James Reocu,
M.A., M.B., Lecturer on Practical Physiology, College of
Medicine, Newcastle-on-T'yne.

THE following scattered observations may throw some light on
one of the most difficult subjects in Chemistry. To get what
I shall call the pigmentary strength of urine I mix }ce. with
194cc. H,O and allow the mixture to flow into a test-tube placed
on a sheet of white paper and compared with a similar test-tube
containing distilled water. The moment a distinct colour is
perceived, the quantity used is read off and called the pigment-
ary strength. This method is much more exact than Vogel’s
where the undiluted urine is compared with mixtures of gam-
boge and other pigments, and, moreover, it enables the same
urine to be compared with itself at different times. Now I have
found by this method that the precipitation of uric acid and
urates always causes a marked diminution in the pigmentary
strength; the latter, more especially when high coloured, will
often reduce the pigment to one-half; of course when the preci-
pitated urates are dissolved in hot water the missing pigment is
accounted for, There are those who believe in an acid urinary
fermentation, which they ascribe to changes in the pigment, but
I have never found any change in the pigment, except a greater
or less diminution, always accounted for by its attachment to
the uric acid and urates. This pigment is red, and gives to uric
acid that colour which has secured for it the name of “red
sand” deposit; it also renders the urates red, though scarcely so
much so, yet the colour seems rather to be due to a salt than an
acid, for I find that the invariable effect of alkalies is to increase
the pigmentary strength of the urine, Ammonia and potash do
this, but chiefly soda, which increases it two or three times,
To observe this properly 2cc. urine are mixed with 2cc. soda,
boiled and filtered from the earthy phosphates: on diluting with
the wash-water and comparing it with the original urine, it is
found that the pigment is much increased, but more especially
the red pigment to which I refer; for the urine, while generally

MR REOCH. NOTES ON THE URINE PIGMENTS. 177°

amber yellow, has always more or less of a red tinge. The
action of the alkaline earths is quite different from that of the
alkalies, for while baryta water does not diminish the pigment-
ary strength but rather increases it, yet it deprives the urine
entirely of the red tinge, and leaves it purely yellow. A further
fact in this connection is the action of an acid solution of mo-
lybdate of ammonium. In a recent paper on Alloxantin, in the
Chemical News, I have referred to this subject, and shall here
only add, that if a series of test-tubes be taken with 2 cc. urine,:
2—100 drops of HNO, and HCl, and 2 drops of a saturated solu-
tion of molybdate of ammonium be added to each, the next day
the colour will be found green in the lower HNO, series, and
green with a tinge of blue in the lower HCl, while the higher
of each exhibit no change. Now this something, whatever it is,
which reduces the molybdate, is attached to the red pigment,
for by washing the urates and dissolving them in hot water
they are seen to act nearly as powerfully as the urine itself,
though pure uric acid has no effect whatever. Moreover, it is
precipitated by baryta water, for the yellow filtrate from the
latter no longer reduces the molybdate; but if the precipitate
be treated with dilute HCl it will do so, and if evaporated, erys-
tals, similar to alloxantin, may be got amongst many others of
hippuric acid and salts. The blue colour is not stronger than
what may be obtained from 3 grs. of alloxantin per diem; but
even though this body be admitted as one of the pigmentary con-
stituents of urine it would not explain the red pigment, for it
does not form any coloured salt with soda, yet it points to the
direction in which an explanation must be sought for. Allox-
antin is one of the intermediate products between uric acid and
urea, and is intimately connected with murexide, one of the
most powerful of known pigments. Further facts in the same
direction are that urates invariably become much more pink
when exposed to the air, which is a characteristic of the bodies
from. which murexide is obtained. Moreover, when HNO, is
added to 2cc. of urine of sp. gr. of 1028, I have always found
after 24 hours, that when 2—10 drops were added the colour
was progressively darker red, and some uric acid-had precipi-
tated, but above this the redness diminished and also the uric
acid until with 16 or 20 drops up to 50 or 60 the colour was

VOL. IX. 12

178. MR REOCH,

pure yellow, and nitrate of urea had precipitated instead of uric
acid. This fact, which I have found constant in a urine of con->
siderable specific gravity, seems to point to a much closer rela-
tion between the urea and uric acid than many suppose.

The pigment which gives the urine its yellow colour is not
nearly so well defined in its character as the red pigment con-
nected with the uric acid. It has been supposed by Schunck
and others to be of the Indigo family, and there is no doubt
that a blue pigment may often be obtained from it; but our
knowledge is imperfect in regard to the mode of its production.
After the red pigment of the urine is precipitated by baryta the
yellow solution may be decolorized by nitrate of mercury, but
the uréa is also thrown down, so that an analysis is contra-indi-
cated. Corrosive sublimate precipitates a considerable amount
of this colouring matter of the urine along with the urates, for
the precipitate is rendered pink by HCl, and yields uric acid as
well. About two-thirds of the pigment is in this way thrown
down, but an even larger quantity is precipitated by acetate of
lead. The most remarkable characteristic of the second urine
pigment is its being turned pink or brownish red by HCl and
H,SO,. The red pigment is not affected in this way, for the
“red sand” deposit is simply decolorized when boiled with
HCl, but the yellow, left after the red pigment is thrown down
by baryta, shews the violet colour extremely well when treated
with strong HCl. The action of acids, and indeed of most re-
agents on the urine, is best studied by a comparison of the
effect of successive amounts added to 2cc. Thus, if 2—100
drops of strong HCl or H,SO, be added to a series of test-tubes
containing 2cc. urine each, it will be found that H,SO, will
darken the colour more quickly, probably from the greater heat
developed; but with HCl there is only a slight alteration, unless
the fluid be boiled, though, if allowed to stand for 24 hours, it
will come out equally well: it is independent of any oxidation
from the air, for it comes out when the air is excluded, but
seems to require time for its development simply from the small.
quantity contained in the urine. The darkening increases up
to 8 or 10 ce. of strong acid, but beyond that further acid acts
like water, and simply dilutes the colour. The action of acids.
on this pigment seems to point to its albuminoid nature, for it

NOTES ON THE URINE PIGMENTS. 179

‘is well known that albumen when boiled with strong HNO,
yields a deep yellow solution, but with HCl or H,SO, a deep
violet or pinkish red solution is the result: this is exactly the

effect. of these strong acids on the urine, and they therefore
would seem to indicate the derivation of this pigment from an
albuminous source.

I have thus far spoken of two pigments which give to the
urine its yellow colour with tinge of red, and it will be evident,
from what I have mentioned, that two very different causes
may give rise to that condition known as “high-coloured”
urine, for it seems to me a graye mistake to impute, as many
do, all cases of high-coloured urine to increased concentration.
The latter must always be accompanied with a corresponding
increase in the specific gravity, so that to double the pigment
would double the latter also; but the pigment is often much
more than doubled, while the alteration in specific gravity is
comparatively trifling. Independently of concentration there
may be increase of the red pigment, indicated by increase of the
urates to which it is principally attached, and there may also
be no increase of the red pigment, but a metamorphosis of the
other pigment by increased secretion of acid within the system
causing it to be darkened, The precipitation of uric acid in the
latter case would be caused by the increased acidity of the
urine, but might of course depend to some extent on the fact,
that the same cause which increases the acidity of the system
might also increase the uric acid,

12—2

NOTES OF ABNORMALITIES IN THE ARTERIES OF
-. THE UPPER EXTREMITY. By J. J. Cuartes, M.A.,
M.D., Demonstrator of Anatomy, Queen’s College, Belfast.

Ix-a female subject, 70 years of age, dissected last winter in the
Belfast Anatomical Rooms, the arteries of the upper extremities.
presented a greater number of abnormalities than we generally meet
with in one and the same body.

Right upper extremity. In this extremity the posterior circum-
flex and dorsalis scapule arose together a little above the origin of
the anterior circumflex, and one inch and a half below the subscapular ;
the latter was comparatively small, and soon divided into a number.
of branches for the subscapularis and teres major. The superior and
inferior profunde came off together from the axillary, half an inch
above the lower border of the teres major. The branch for the
biceps was large, took origin from the commencement of the brachial,
and supplied offsets to the inner border and deep surface of that
muscle in the middle of the arm. From this muscular branch, one
inch and a half below its origin, sprung a slender branch—a vas:
aberrans—which ran downwards on the outer side of the brachial
along the inner border of the biceps as far as the elbow; it then.
crossed to the outside over the tendon of the biceps, and lay partly
concealed by the supinator longus till it reached the middle of the
radius, where it joined the radial at an acute angle. The vas aber-
rans was ten inches long, and was filled with injection except for
two inches and a half in the middle of its extent. It was com-
paratively superficial throughout its whole course, and rested suc~
cessively on the brachialis anticus, the tendon of the biceps, recur-:
rent radial, supinator brevis, and pronator radii teres, The brachial.
divided one inch below the neck of the radius into two branches
of nearly equal size: the ulnar and a trunk about a quarter of an
inch in length. This trunk terminated in three branches, the
radial, and the anterior and posterior interosseous, the two latter being
of almost the same size, but smaller than the radial. The ulnar tooka
normal course to the palm of the hand, but supplied only two digits
and a half, there being no “superficial arch.” The anterior and
posterior ulnar recurrents were derived from the front of the brachial
just above its termination, and had a normal distribution. The
radial became appreciably larger below the point of union with
the vas aberrans, and gave off the usual branches to the wrist and
hand. The median artery arose from the radial an inch and a half
below its origin, and accompanied the median nerve to the palm
of the hand, where it terminated by dividing into two branches
for the contiguous sides of the index and middle fingers. The
radial recurrent was derived from the brachial above the neck of the
radius, and was normal in its distribution.

DR CHARLES. ABNORMALITIES IN THE ARTERIES, &. - 181

In one of his plates’ Quain delineates an arrangement of arteries
similar in some respects to that I have detailed above ; and in the
text he mentions two different ways in which that arrangement
might be considered and described. The case before us, too, it is
possible to consider and describe differently. The radial may be

_said to have had a double origin, one (the vas aberrans) indirectly

from the beginning of the brachial, and the other (a cross branch)
from its termination. Indeed, there is some reason for believing
that the inferior root came from the interosseous, as it gives off
the median artery ; and the disposition of the arteries in the left
extremity supports this view. According to the first hypothesis,
the median took its rise from the radial, an abnormality of very
rare occurrence, since Quain does not record a like instance.

Left upper extremity. In this extremity the subscapular was
small, and the superior and inferior profunde took origin by a
common trunk. The radial arose from the inner side of the com-
mencement of the brachial, and curved downwards parallel with
that vessel until it reached the elbow, where it crossed the main trunk
to the outer side, whence it maintained its ordinary course. As is

“usual in such cases, the radial recurrent sprung from the brachial

(ulnar-interosseous). The interosseous artery and its branches were

‘normal in their origin and distribution, with the exception of the
“median, which arose directly from the interosseous trunk. The median

artery wa8 smaller than on the right side, and ended by supplying
offsets to the flexor sublimis digitorum. The ulnar was quite normal
in its course and branches.

The disposition of the arteries in these extremities is interesting
as illustrative of the manner in which it is believed a high origin of
one of the vessels of the forearm is produced*. On the right side
we find a more rudimentary stage than on the left. The vas aber-

‘rans in the right, and the radial in the left, closely correspond in

their origin and course ; but the upper part of the radial, according
to the first view stated above, has diminished in size, though it has
not become obliterated and absorbed as its counterpart on the left.

It will be observed that in this body the arteries of the upper
extremities shewed very little correspondence in their arrangement.
The abnormalities just pointed out, taken in conjunction with those
T described in a previous number of this Journal*, furnish evidence
in support of the view of Bichat and Quain that lateral symmetry is
not maintained in malformations.

1 No. 35; Fig. 4.
2 Quain and Sharpey’s Anatomy, last edition, p. 392.
3 June, 1873.

DISSECTION OF AN ABNORMAL FOUR-TOED FQTUS
WITHOUT HEAD OR UPPER LIMBS. By Jonny
Harker, M.R.C.8., Lancaster.

TI Am induced to publish the dissection of an imperfectly developed
foetus on account of the interest involved in the relation which its
nervous system, so far as it was developed, bore to the condition of
the viscera.
_ On May the third I attended Mrs C. at her ninth birth, she was
confined prematurely, at the fifth month, of male twins. The first
was born at 2.50, normal but dead, and discoloured brown. Hzemor-
rhage ensued, on account of which, I ruptured the second set of
membranes and with my fore and index fingers reached down the
foot of the second twin, which was slender, with only four toes—a
great toe and three others, and the hemorrhage now abated. The
uterine pains were but slight, yet in half an hour a malformed feetus
was expelled.

The legs with the exception of the four-toed feet were well de-
veloped, as also the pelvis. There was an anus and male genital
organs, but from the pelvis upwards the body consisted of a mere ~
round mass with no upper extremities, no head or features, no ori-
fices, no neck; on the front of this body two shallow indentations
led to the part where the umbilical cord was inserted in a deep cleft,
on each side of the upper eminence formed between these indenta-
tions two pellucid spots were noticed, perhaps these were conjunc-
tival cornez ; I shall refer again to them, they were mere skin struc-
tures. The umbilical cord was short, with little albumen about its
vessels, and was very fragile; on the expulsion of a single placenta it
was found to have originated from that body, at one side, close to the
membranes, whilst the cord of the normal fetus was implanted in
the centre.

Dissection. —First an attempt was made to trace out the vertebral
column, then the abdomen was examined, next the thorax, next the
viscera in detail, then the spinal cord and nervous system, lastly the
lower extremities. Weight of the foetus, one pound one ounce and
three quarters ; length eight inches, of this from os caleis of left foot
to crest of the left ilium four inches, from the crest to the top of the
round mass four inches; diameter of mass three inches and three
quarters, ‘The skin was entire and complete over the whole surface
of the foetus, but the epidermis over the mass was beginning to peel
off.

A longitudinal incision was made in the direction of the spinal
column from the sacrum to the top of the mass through the skin and
subcutaneous fat. By this a smooth serous cyst was revealed in
capacity about the size of a hen’s egg; in the serum which filled it, a
few fibres of white nerve-tissue floated. This cranial cyst occupied
the interior of the highest part of the mass, it had no connection

DR HARKER. AN ABNORMAL FOUR-TOED FETUS. 183

with the spinal column, its deep wall merely resting over the spines
of the dorsal vertebre. A prolongation of the incision to the cornea-
like marks (mentioned above) shewed that there was no connection
between them and the serous cavity, neither was there with the
cornea the least trace of nerve-tissue or choroid pigment ; the marks
were mere dermic simulations.

Examination of the spine shewed that the column did not extend
upwards further than the first dorsal vertebra, which last, indeed,
was reduced to a mere nodule. There was no trace of cervical or
cranial vertebre. The upper dorsal vertebrae were bent somewhat
forward, so as to arch over the thorax; to the dorsal vertebrae were
attached rudimentary ribs, but there was no sternum, and the upper
extremities were entirely deficient.

Abdomen.—The abdominal walls were very thin, particularly in
the neighbourhood of the umbilical cord. The cavity was found to
contain an intestine, which beginning with a perfectly closed pouch,
had a small stomach portion, bent at an oblique angle to the small
intestine, The small intestine was normal in its direction and
opened into the large intestine in the usual manner. To the large in-
testine there was appended a considerable appendix vermiformis ; the
rectum terminated at the anus ina normal manner, The entire gut
was quite empty, and there was not the least trace of liver-duct
or hepatic tissue in connection with it; in fact the liver was entirely
absent from the abdomen. There was no trace of a spleen with the
stomach portion of the intestine, and the mesentery was very clean.
There were no supra-renal capsules, A small rudimentary kidney
existed on the left side. The abdominal cavity was separated from
the thorax by a diaphragm of remarkable fineness which did not ap-
pear to possess muscular tissue. On opening the thorax a normal
heart was exposed with lungs. The lungs were developed in a glan-
dular manner, and did not possess trachez or bronchi,

Circulation.—The umbilical vein was continued as a ductus veno-
sus through a little dense cellular tissue to join the omphalo-mesen-
teric vein and so entered the heart. From the heart, besides the pulmo-
nary vessels, emerged an aortic vessel, which formed a simple thoracic
arch without giving off innominate, carotid, or subclavian branches.
It was distributed to the intestines and by the common iliac arteries
to the lower extremities chiefly. On removing the heart and lungs
from the chest, no trace of cesophagus could be discovered. The
lungs when further examined were found to consist of mere paren-
chymatous tissue without bronchi or muscular tissue. The vertebral
column when cleared from muscular tissue was found to consist only
of the dorsal, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal vertebrae ; and of the
dorsal vertebra, the first dorsal was reduced to a mere centrum.
On opening the spinal canal, the spinal cord was found to be ex-
tremely attenuated above, but increased gradually in thickness, and
was normal at about the sixth dorsal vertebra; and so continued,
giving off the dorsal, lumbar and sacral nerves, in a normal manner,

184 | DR HARKER. AN ABNORMAL FOUR-TOED FETUS.

Examination of the four-toed feet shewed that the little toe with
its metatarsal bone was the deficient ray.

It is evident in this case that the ovum through its chorion
failed to obtain a proper amount of nutriment from the maternal
uterus and to form a sufficient placenta, and hence in the foetus
only the thoracico-abdominal parts of the body are developed, the
upper parts, which in healthy development take a free supply of
good blood, being deficient. There is a close relation between the
condition of the nervous system and the state of the organs formed ;
for just as the absence of the neck-vertebree and the brachial plexus
is accompanied by the entire absence of the upper extremities, so the
absence of the respiratory tract and its nerves is associated with
the absence of the face, pharynx, esophagus, trachea ; and absence
of the muscular tissue of the diaphragm is associated with the absent
phrenic nerves. The condition of the lungs also is interesting, for
normal lungs are formed in the embryo as diverticula from the eeso-
phagus, at first as trachee with bronchial extensions, each portion
of the tube being accompanied by a plexus of nerves from the
pheumogastric nerves. The pneumogastric nerves are here absent,
and so are the trachez and bronchi, but this interesting case shews a
double origin for the lungs, a second one being a vascular extension ;
for we have here the lungs developed as a mere parenchymatous
tissue.

Absence of the liver masses has been noticed by writers. The
cranial cyst needs no particular remark.

NOTE ON THE ABSENCE OF THE QUADRATUS FE-
MORIS MUSCLE AND ON A SPINE POSSESSING A
SIXTH LUMBAR VERTEBRA, THE FIRST RIB BEING
-RUDIMENTARY.—Communicated by Epwarp BE..amy,
F.R.C.8., Senior Assistant Surgeon and Lecturer on Anatomy
at Charing Cross Hospital, and in the National Art Training
School, S. Kensington.

Dr James Cantiiz, the Demonstrator of Anatomy at Charing Cross
Hospital, called my attention to these peculiarities in the human
subject, and which I think worthy of being recorded,

The first is an instance of entire absence on both sides of the
Quadratus Femoris muscle. The subject was a female. In this
instance, as has been elsewhere recorded, the obturator internus
and gemelli were greatly developed, and had evidently, as far as the
mechanism of the movements of the hip-joint were concerned, sup-
plied its place. Mr J, C. Galton has kindly favoured me with the
following note upon this irregularity. He says:

“T have found in the Cape Ant-eater (7'rans. Linn. Soc. Vol. xxvt.
p. 589) that while the Quadratus femoris was absent, the gemelli, on
the contrary, were very well developed. Thiele (Hncyclopédie Anato-
mique, Vol. 111. p. 279, Paris, 1843) notices the occasional absence of
this muscle in Man, and further observes that ‘alors les jumaux ont
plus de volume. With the only instance in which Hallet (Zdin.
Med. and Surg. Jour. Vol. ux1x. p. 20, 1848) found the guadratus
Jemoris deficient in Man (out of 105 subjects examined), there was
associated an unusual development of the two gemelli and obturator
internus.

“On reference being made to my paper on Dasypus seacinetus (loc.
cit. p. 551), it will be seen that while the muscle in question is in
this animal exceedingly well developed, the obturator internus is
absent, and the gemelli very small—the converse of Theile’s and
Hallet’s observations being thus illustrated in a very singular manner.

“Dr Murie, in a monograph recently published (Z'rans. Linn. Soe.
Vol. xxx.) on the Three-banded Armadillo (Zolypeutes conwrus)
observed (pp. 96, 97) that while there were only ‘a pair of feeble
gemelli,’ ‘a longish goodly-sized quadratus femoris’ was present.”

I do not remember myself to have before met.with this condition,
although I was aware that it had been noted. In one instance I
found the lower edge of the muscle in question incorporated with the
fibres of the adductor magnus, but I have no note of the case.

The second is an instance in which the first rib was found on
either side to be rudimentary. The whole length of the process, which
represented the rib, measured about an inch and a half, and resembled
a small horn attached to the first dorsal vertebra. The processes on
either side are exactly alike’. The surrounding relations were nor-

1 [See description of similar case p. 44 of this number of the Journa?.]

186 MR BELLAMY. ABSENCE OF THE QUADRATUS FEMORIS, &c.

mal, The first dorsal nerve with the superior intercostal artery lay
on its anterior surface and behind it touched the transverse process.
The peculiarities in front where the rib was wanting were; that,

(1) The subclavian artery was in its normal position; it did not
appear above the level of the clavicle, but on taking away the clavicle
the artery was seen two inches above the level of the highest rib.

This rib on farther dissection proved to be the 2nd, so that the
subclavian was in its normal position, although wanting bony support.

(2) The scalene muscles descended in front and behind the vessel,
and, after forming a junction below the vessel, passed on to be in-
serted to the 2ndrib. The anterior scalene passed backwards, internal
to the other scaleni, to be inserted into the upper border of the 2nd
rib, in about the middle of its course. The middle scalene passed
forwards, external to the anterior muscle, to be inserted into the upper
border and outer surface of the anterior part of the 2nd rib, for about
4rd of its length.

The posterior scalene was normal. These scalene muscles were
mistaken at first for intercostal muscles, as their direction and position
exactly tallied with the intercostals,

In the same body there were six lumbar vertebre ; and neither
of these have any trace of a rib attached to them. The vertebre are
as follows: 7 cervical, 12 dorsal, 6 lumbar.

The deficiency in the dorsal ribs is in this instance made up in
some measure by a 6th lumbar vertebra, the first of which certainly
bore no osseous trace whatever of a rib. I cannot find any similar
case recorded, and am therefore induced to place the foregoing on
record,

NOTICES OF BOOKS,

The Elements of Embryology, by M. Foster, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.,
Fellow and Preelector of Physiology in Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, and F, M, Batvour, B.A., Fellow of Trinity College,
Cambridge, Part I. Macmillan, 1874, Pp. 272, with seventy-
one Woodcuts,

Iv is remarkable that hitherto there has been no English text-book on
Embryology. Indeed, if we except Dr Martin Barry and Prof. Allen
Thomson, scarcely any anatomists in this country had contributed
to the embryology of vertebrata until Mr Parker’s recent researches,
and even his admirable work has been rather osteological than em-
bryological in its scope. It is therefore a subject for congratulation
that the task should now be undertaken by those who are able to
do it well, It must be very gratifying to Dr Foster that, during
the short time since he migrated to Cambridge, he has succeeded

NOTICES OF BOOKS. 187

in founding a flourishing school of physiology, and that he is now
able to associate with himself in this important work one of the
most distinguished of his pupils. Mr Balfour’s admirable researches
on the development of Selachii’ sufficiently prove his capacity for
the patient industry and the sound judgment necessary in. this
difficult branch of science.

If this book were a general sketch of embryology, such as might
be acceptable to zoologists and medical men who have no time or no
inclination to go thoroughly into the subject, there are several English
physiologists who might have written it. Such a-semi-popular work
would perhaps be useful, though Prof. Heckel’s recent ‘“ Anthropo-
genie” proves how easily a man of genius may fail in such a task. But
Dr Foster’s plan is, if not more difficult, much more important and
laborious. ‘The present volume, containing a full account of the
development of the Chick, will be followed by a second on that of
Vertebrata generally, with special reference to human embryology,
and completed by one dealing with the salient points of develop-
ment among the Invertebrata. The last will be the most difficult part,
from the immense range of the subject and the impossibility of veri-
fying or correcting the statements of other observers in the way
which has been done in the first, and no doubt will be in the second
volume. But it may perhaps be the most generally interesting,
especially if the writers should, as we hope, enter on the hazardous
but fascinating problems of the mechanical causes of development,
the homology of embryonic parts, and the bearing of the whole sub-
ject on classification and phylogeny.

They have, however, with a boldness which does not need success
to justify it, begun by the minute and somewhat dry details of the
development of a single form which occupy the well-filled pages
of this first volume. Anatomy must precede physiology: and though
we may regret that no nearer ally of the animal most interesting
to ourselves can be found equally fitted for examination, or wish
at least that some less aberrant group than Aves had become domestic
egg-layers, yet there can be no question that on every ground of his-
torical fitness, of practical convenience, and of previously established
knowledge, the development of the chick is the one with which a
practical study of embryology must begin. At the end of the book
are careful and precise directions for conducting all the examina-
tions necessary. They are much more minute than those given by
Dr Klein in the Handbook for the Physiological Laboratory, and,
indeed, are such that anyone accustomed to work at normal or patho-
logical histology will be able by following them to see for them-
selves what hitherto they have only read of.

The only part of the volume which is not strictly practical is
the introduction, which gives a short sketch of the progress of em-
bryology from Fabricius ab Aquapendente to the present time. So
far however from objecting to this, we wish it had been much longer.
Every scientific treatise should be preceded by some account of the

1 See the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, October, 1874,

‘188 “NOTICES OF BOOKS.

‘steps by which the knowledge it imparts has been obtained : this
not only gives a human interest to the driest studies, but forms
a valuable help in avoiding a prejudiced or private interpretation
of facts: and the history of the development of Embryology by the
discoveries of Harvey, Wolff, Pander, von Baer, and their successors,
is only second in instruction to that of the development of the embryo
itself. .

In accordance with the analytical rather than systematic character
of the book, it begins by describing the structure of a new-laid egg,
and only afterwards returns to its previous formation in the ovary.

The second chapter is a brief summary of the changes which take
place during incubation, and serves as a kind of table of contents
to the well-told history which follows.

This is related in a nearly strict chronological order down to the
end of the fifth day of incubation. For practical purposes this plan is
obviously the right one, though the interest of the continuous evolu-
tion of the several organs is somewhat impaired. However, Dr Foster is
too experienced a teacher to be shy of recapitulation, and thus contrives
to pick up the threads of organic development from time to time,
And there is a special and dramatic interest which attends the succes-
sive work of each day, as the reader, and still more the observer,
sees repeated before his eyes the marvellous work of creation.

Up to this point the process of development described has been
vertebrate or amniotic, or at least sauropsidan : the subsequent more
specialized history of the embryo is treated in a somewhat different
manner. The object of the authors is to use the chick as the most
‘convenient example of development, but not to describe minutely
that of the genus Phasianus, or even of birds as a class: and accord-
ingly the changes which occur from the sixth day to the end of
incubation are given in a more general manner, and occupy only a
single chapter.

The last chapter is devoted to the development of the skull of the
fowl, being chiefly based on Mr Parker’s elaborate memoir. At
first sight this seems an inadequate way of dealing with so im-
portant a subject, especially as the skull of birds, while not less
aberrant than the rest of their anatomy, offers peculiar difficulties
in its development. But here again the object is a practical one,
and the ease with which material can be obtained is decisive.

Although the authors so steadily refrain from comparisons with
other embryonic structures, from questions of causation, and from
“theoretical considerations generally,” the book is far from being
a mere accurate and well-arranged manual of dissection. Disputed
points are discussed with considerable fulness, and minutise beyond
the reach of a first course in embryology find their due place ; but
these are all printed in smaller type, so as not to impede the stu-
dent in a first perusal.

The illustrations are sufficiently numerous, and, though all
woodcuts, are mostly clear and efficient. It would perhaps have
been better if in some no attempt at a picture had been made, and
a mere diagram substituted: and we think that the graphic and

NOTICES OF BOOKS. 189

homely verbal illustrations which are occasionally introduced might
have been more freely used. None but teachers of anatomy know
what difficulty some persons find in realizing almost any arrange-
ment of objects in space of three dimensions, and that even when
they éan be handled. When a student is tolerably familiar with
longitudinal and transverse sections of an embryo, it requires some
effort of Vorstellungskraft to combine them with one another and with
the views gained of the blastoderm or fcetus as an opaque object.

We consider the present text-book as an index of the revival
of embryology in the country. Beside students of physiology it
addresses only a certain proportion of zoologists and other scientific
men, and, as we have seen, the authors have refused to write down
to a popular standard.

Hitherto the success of this kind of scientific literature has not
been encouraging to writers, or creditable to the state of Biology
in England. Mr Parker’s great work on the shoulder-girdle could
not have been published except by the wise help of the Ray Society,
and we fear that that association lost in purse almost as much as
they gained in reputation by the venture. Professor Huxley’s ad-
mirable Lectures on the skull were only “floated” by the chapters
on classification which were bound up with them. Mr Flower has not
followed his excellent text-book on the Osteology of Mammalia by
the expected sequel on their teeth and viscera, but we hope that
with restored health he will be encouraged to do so. Such an
encouragement will be given by a good sale of the present volume,
and this we heartily wish, not only because Dr Foster and Mr
Balfour will then be enabled to complete the task so well begun,
but because it will be a welcome sign that there is an English public
for text-books of the best kind on purely scientific subjects.

The Histology and Histochemistry of Man. By Hernuicu Frey,
Professor of Medicine in Zurich, translated from the fourth
German edition by Arruur E. Barker, Demonstrator of Ana-

. tomy, Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland, with 608 Engravings
on wood, revised by the author. Churchill, 1874.

We are glad to see Professor Frey’s valuable and richly illustrated
work rendered thus accessible to English reading students by means.
of a good translation. It will prove a valuable book to them, being
one of the best available sources of information in the important.
subjects of minute anatomy and associated chemistry,

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY",
By Prof. Turner and D, J. Cunninenam, M.B. C.M.

OssEous System.—Wenzel Gruber communicates (Mém. del Acad.
Imp. de St, Pétersbourg, xxt. 1874) an elaborate memoir on the
variations in position, size and shape of the Inrra-orpiraL CANAL in
Man aypd Mammats. Gruber also publishes in Reichert u. du Bois
Reymond’s Archiv, 1873, p. 337, some remarks on SUPERNUMERARY
Bones in the Zycomatic Arcu. On p. 348, observations on the
SEMI-INFUNDIBULUM INFRA-MAXILLARE, the Sutcus MyYLoHyorpEus
and the bridge of bone over it, On p. 706 and 712, some additional
observations on SUPERNUMERARY Bones in the Carpus. G. Wegner
makes (Virchow’s Archiv, July, 1874) a critical enquiry into the
normal and pathological GrowrH OF THE TUBULAR Bones. A. v.
Brunn concludes, from his observations on Ossrrication (Reichert u.
du Bois Reymond’s Archiv, 1874, 1.), that the cartilage-cells persist in
the medullary spaces as marrow-cells, from which they become con-
verted into osteoblasts, and as such form bone; that whilst the
greatest part form the matrix of bone, a part remains as the bone-
corpuscles ; the canals in bone are due to absorption. T. Zaaijer
communicates (Nederland, Tijdschrift voor Geneesk, 1874) a paper on
the ConsTRUCTION AND GROWTH OF THE Bones. Paul Langerhans
contributes (Virchow’s Archiv, LX1. 229) a paper on the ARCHITECTURE
of the Sponey Tissue of bones.

CarTILAGE, Connective Tissur AnD Muscite.—R. Deutschmann
communicates a paper (Reichert u. du Bois Reymona’s Archiv,
1873, 732) on the development of Exastic Freres in the yellow
fibro-cartilages. Ranvier contributes (Arch. de Phys. 1874, 181)
new observations ON THE STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF TEN-
pons, and modifies in some points the opinion he first brought
forward upon the form of the cells of tendon, The first part of his
memoir is devoted to an account of the present state of science
upon the subject. He then seeks to shew that the forms of the
cells of tendon are not always the same, and with this in view he
gives the results of his examination of several types of tendon. In
osmic acid preparations of tendon taken from the tail of a young rat
and teased, he states that he finds along the tendinous bundles cells
either forming a complete series or separated one from the other.
Some are seen to float freely in the fluid. These cells are finely
granular and nucleated, and in appearance they somewhat resemble
a tile or gutter —the concave side being applied to the bundle, whilst
the convex surface is in contact with the neighbouring bundles.
Further, they shew ridges, or rather jutting-out crests, parallel or
oblique to the lateral borders of the cell, These ridges form part of

1 To assist in preparing the Report Professor Turner will be glad to receive
separate copies of original memoirs and other contributions to Anatomy, :

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 191

the cell itself. In transverse sections of tendon hardened by picric
acid, and then treated with carmine, he describes a very complex system
of partitions and red-coloured fibres; and he states that by comparing
preparations obtained by the use of picric acid with osmic acid pre-
parations, we are able to recognise the extent of the cells and of the
fascicular sheaths. In the former the sheaths form complete circles,
and cannot be distinguished from the cells, and they send prolonga-
tions into the interior of the bundle, which end in fibres differing
essentially from connective tissue and elastic fibres. In the latter we
observe stellate cells with short prolongations passing in different
directions. In the young rat the cells are elongated and flat, and
present in different directions longitudinal, angular juttings-out or
ridges; this we see by a study of longitudinal and transverse sections,
In the adult rat the cells are extremely thin, and send in various
directions fine prolongations, which spread between the bundles.

In tendon placed first in osmic acid and then treated by acetic
acid we notice that the cells are limited, the one in relation to the
other in the same series, by transverse or oblique lines, and in such a
manner that they appear rectangular or trapezoidal. In his first
paper he mistook two ridges for the lateral limits. These he now
states cannot be determined with certainty. __

The nuclei of the cells have no nucleoli, and occupy a peculiar
position in the cell. They are placed close to the extremity of the
cell, and in such a manner that two neighbouring cells have alter-
nately their nuclei close to or at a distance from each other. Ina
series of cells, therefore, the nuclei are seen to be grouped in pairs,
M. Ranvier then discusses the appearance known as “ Boll’s elastic
stria.” He maintains that it is not a stria, but a projecting ridge. It
is better marked upon the nuclei than upon the body of the cell;
indeed it is sometimes to be seen solely upon the nucleus, When
observed upon one cell it is seen to stop at the border of the cell, and
to commence again upon the neighbouring cells. He calls it “ erété
d’imprinte.” When the cells are seen edgeways they resemble small
rods slightly swollen at the level of the nucleus. He then describes
a peculiar arrangement of cells, in which the cellular plate is divided
into two parts by a ridge. Of these parts we see the surface of one,
whilst we only obtain a three-fourths view of the other. In fact, the
cell is bent so as to resemble a book three-fourths open. The nucleus
which is situated at the level of the crest is bent like the rest of the
cell. In the aponeurosis of the frog’s thigh he considers that he has
found a perfect demonstration of the impressions left upon the nuclei
by the bundles between which they are placed. When treated by
carmine, and then by acetic acid, we observe fine lines of a rose
colour crossing each other at a right angle, and enclosing clear squares
like those of a chess-board, These fibrous bundles are in two planes—
one external, constituting a layer of parallel bundles, the other in-
ternal, composed of similar bundles, but crossing the former perpendicu-
larly. The nuclei only of the cells on the surface of the fasciculi are
well marked, and these possess most varied and peculiar shapes,
They are flat and elliptical, but when seen edgeways they occupy the

192 PROFESSOR TURNER.

spaces between the two bundles of the same layer and resemble small
rods. Some assume the shape of a Latin or of a Russian cross, of
which the arms are at a different level. Others again are like a half-
moon, with a well-marked rectilinear border: upon the half-moon are
two transverse ridges or crests. These last shapes are due to the
varied manner in which the nuclei are applied to the bundles. They
bear the impressions made upon them by the neighbouring bundles
and by the interstices. He next giyes the results of some observa-
tions he has made upon the sesamoid cartilage of the tendo-Achillis
of the frog. He describes the cells, when ,a section of this has
been treated by a solution of iodine, as being round or irregular
transparent bodies, and scarcely tinted’ yellow by the iodine. They
have an ovular nucleus rarely occupying the centre of the cell,
and close to this we observe a little star-like granular body of a
yellowish-brown colour. They contain no glycogen and no oil-
globules. They thus differ very greatly from cartilage-cells, which
are deeply tinted by iodine, contain glycogen and oil-globules, and
retract upon their contents so as to form a shapeless mass. As to
the little granular body, which is rarely absent, and which always
bears the same relation to the nucleus, its analogue is difficult to
find. That we occasionally find a calcified point in the nodule,
even although this approaches in character to ossification, is no
proof that the nodule is originally formed from cartilage, for ossi-
fication is not produced in cartilage alone.

Ranyier next analyses the structure of the chondroid portion of
the tendons in the foot of the chicken, turkey, &c. He states that
we find in these parallel bundles and a series of cells differing from
those of tendon, inasmuch as they are not flat, but cylindrical or
polyhedral. These cells are separated from each other by a trans-
parent homogeneous intercellular substance, which, unlike that of
cartilage, is slightly coloured by carmine. On transverse section we
see the cells in the shape of circles with the nucleus in the centre,
and the tendinous bundles in the form of colourless circles embedded
in a red matter. In sections of completely ossified tendon when
treated by picric acid and then carmine and acetic acid, we notice the
Haversian canals cut across, and around these a zone more deeply
tinted than the rest of the preparation, and resembling the lamellar
system of long bones. These are not true osseous lamelle. The
osseous substance appears to be formed around the vessels by tendi-
nous bundles, which on transverse section form as many little circles,
Thus, although the tissue is truly osseous, it is evident that the fun-
damental osseous substance is chiefly represented by the transformed
tendinous bundles. In a word, the ossified tendons of birds are
almost entirely constituted by the fibres of Sharpey. He states that,
besides the proofs already given, others may be drawn from the ex-
amination of these tendons by polarized light. Beyond the chon-
droid or ossified parts the tendons present the ordinary structure,
The flat cells are very large, and have thread-like prolongations,
which extend upon the bundles for a considerable distance.

Ranvier has also studied the structure of the tendons of the tail

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 193

of the mole, and finds that in some respects it resembles the tendons
of birds. Between the bundles he found series of cylindrical cells,
placed end to end and cemented together so as to form chains of
cells, which he was able to isolate by maceration in picric acid.
Sometimes these cells present filamentous processes passing from
them, and sometimes the chain itself ends in a slender thread, in
which we find no trace of cellular elements. Ranvier now draws
attention to the fact that, whilst the bundles of tendon are always
similar, the cells have their shape influenced by the age of the animal
and the type of tendon in which they are found. Originally, in
the embryonic state globular, they may assume any of the varied
forms he has described. The latter part of his memoir he devotes
to an account of the development of*tendon. He states that the
tendinous bundles originate in a mass of cartilage, and terminate in
a primitive muscular fasciculus, and that the increase in length of
tendon takes place at the point of union of the tendon with the car-
tilage of insertion. He shews that, if we remove the caleaneum with
the tendo-Achillis attached from a newly-born rabbit and decalcify
the bone by picric acid, longitudinal sections treated by carmine
shew a continuity between the tendinous bundles and the basis sub-
stance of the cartilage. The cartilage-cells also are seen to be inti-
mately related to the cells of the tendon, and to pass from the former
into the latter. Cellular elements having an intermediate form be-
tween those .of cartilage and those of tendon may be observed. He
has also obtained further results by the examination of the union
of cartilage and tendon by polarised light. M. Ranvier believes that
the varied shapes exhibited by the cellular elements-of tendon and
ligaments is due to their tendency to revert to their primitive carti-
laginous nature.

G. Thin gives A Conrripurion To THE ANATOMY OF CONNECTIVE
TISSUE, NERVE, AND MUSCLE, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THEIR RE-
LATION TO THE LympHatic system (Proc. Royal Society Lond., No. 155,
1874).—He first refers to a memoir which appeared in the Lancet
(Feb. 14, 1874), ‘On the Lymphatic System of the Cornea,” in
which he stated that by the action of nitrate of silver the straight
canals, in which the nerves lie, may be seen to communicate with
the lacunee in which the branched cells lie, and that both are lined
by flat cells. Since, then, by the action of hematoxylon and a
saturated solution of caustic potash at a high temperature (105° to
115° F.), he has obtained further results. With the former he found
that the nuclei were many times more numerous than he had been
led to believe frem the examination of geld preparations, thus af-
fording a clear proof that other cells, besides the cornea-corpuscles,
exist in the cornea. ‘With the latter, and after he had removed the
epithelium from both surfaces of the cornea, he discovered numbers
of flat cells of very varied shape throughout the whole fibrillary
substance ; these he describes very minutely both individually and
in mass. He sums up his observations upon the cornea by stating
that he believes it to consist of :—“(1) Fibrillary ground-substance
pierced by straight canals and honey-combed by cavities, (2) flat cells

VOL. IX. 13

194 PROFESSOR TURNER AND MR CUNNINGHAM.

covering the bundles and lining the cavities, (3) cornea-corpuscles,
(4) nerve-structures.” The cornea-corpuscles and the nerves occupy
the canals and cavities, and between them and the flat cells there is a
fluid interval which permits the passage of lymph-corpuscles; and he
considers that the continuity of the superficial epithelium with the
deep flat cells affords a sufficient basis for the belief that the intercel-
lular spaces of the epithelium communicate with the lymph-spaces of
the ground-substance. He next shews that these facts are not con-
fined to the cornea alone, but hold good with other connective tissues.
In tendon, when treated by nitrate of silver, he finds that its entire
surface is invested by large flat cells, over the surface of which he has
observed lymphatic capillaries. Heematoxylon gives results similar
to those observed in the cornea, and the nuclei are especially abun-
dant between the bundles. As regards the fibrillary substance, he
has proved with the potash solution that long narrow cells, similar in
shape to certain of the deep corneal cells, invest the primary bundles.
The branch-cells he considers to be analogous to the branched corneal
corpuscles, and, like them, to occupy the interstices between the bun-
dles. In the skin he also found flat cells, and the relation of these to
the lymph-spaces he believes to be the same as in the cornea. Anas-
tomosing branched cells likewise exist between the bundles of fibril-
lary tissue in the skin, and he is of opinion that all elastic tissue is
formed upon the surface and processes of these cells. This theory he
defends at some length. In fascie, the surface, like that of tendon,
when treated by nitrate of silver, shews large flat cells, whilst
branched cells are occasionally observed on changing the focus.

He then discusses nervous tissue, and shews that each bundle of
fibres is surrounded by a lymphatic sheath. Further, he has been
able to prove by the potash solution, that a number of extremely
fine long and pointed flat cells are in immediate contact with the
medulla, and internal to the sheath of Schwann ; and he states that
appearances indicate that this latter is also lined by flat cells, He
also describes how the nuclei of these cells may be seen by the use of
heematoxylon. He believes that the axis-cylinder is in intimate relation
with the lymph within the sheath of Schwann through the “rings of
Ranvier.” In the general and special perimysium of muscle he has found
a continuous layer of flat cells of large size, the nuclei of which are
seen in hrematoxylon preparations, ‘The potash solution removes all
trace of perimysium, and when kept for an hour at a temperature of
110° F., and then allowed to cool gradually, we find that some of the
fibres present on their sarcolemma quadrangular nucleated cells, and
at other places nuclei. The sarcolemma of muscle is thus also in-
vested by flat cells. Further, by the action of potash we sometimes
see a fibre smooth and unaltered, and still shewing some trace of
striw@, channelled by a longitudinal canal, or presenting vacuoles on the
surface, These correspond to nuclei, which the potash has dissolved.
In using gold and hematoxylon, he has found that whilst the
former only stained the nuclei of branched cells, that the latter
stained both these and the nuclei of the flat cells. Longitudinally
the muscular fibre is seen to consist of parallel bundles separated

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 195

by dilatable spaces, in which we see at intervals oblong nuclei, the
long axis of which corresponds to that of the fibre. A transverse
view shews a number of stellate spaces containing nuclei, branching
out from which is a network of fine dark lines, dividing the sub-
stance of the fibre into compartments. Amongst the fibrille of a
muscle deeply tinged by gold, long flat cells are seen occasionally.
In short, a muscular fibre consists of bundles, similar to those of
tendon, each composed of fibrillee, and between the bundles are inter-
spaces lined by flat cells. A nerve passing through the perimysium
enters the sarcolemma, thus bringing into communication the lymph-
space in the interior of the sarcolemma with that beneath the peri-
mysium,

In the Ldinburgh Medical Journal for September, 1874, Thin
gives a further contribution to the minute Anatomy of Muscle and
Tendon, In this he states that the primary bundle of a muscular
fibre consists of fibrillee of uniform size (12 to 15 in number in the
frog) embedded in an amorphous substance. On the surface of this
bundle, as in tendon, there is an investment of long narrow flat cells.
These cells are mentioned in the foregoing paper as lying amongst the
fibrille, A secondary bundle is composed of several primary bundles,
and on its surface are rounded oroblong cells. The sarcolemma clothed
by quadrangular flat cells surrounds the secondary bundles. When
a fibre is treated with gold and an excess of acetic acid it is seen to be
traversed in its longitudinal axis by numerous fine elastic filaments,
which present oval swellings at certain intervals, and run parallel to
one another. Other constituents, however, enter into the formation
of a muscular fibre, for when it is broken obliquely we find small tri-
angular masses of protoplasm with anastomosing branches. These
form a network, in each mesh of which lies one primary bundle, thus
corresponding to the “ fowr-cornered fields” described: by Cohnheim
in a transverse section of a frozen muscle. In addition to these small
protoplasmic cells we notice branched cells of a larger type, which
anastomose with each other and with the former, and inclose in their
meshes the secondary bundles. The branches of the network are
smooth and glistening, and present the other characteristics of elastic
tissue, and they communicate with the oval swellings on the elastic
filaments which traverse the fibre longitudinally.

He next describes a very peculiar effect produced by the combin-
ation of gold and an excess of strong acetic acid. From the open end
of the sarcolemma an immense number of rounded punctated discs
are seen to flow. These cover the field—some lying singly, others in
circular groups. In the mouse these discs are about the size of a
human blood-corpusele.. He considers this phenomenon explained by
the action of the acetic acid causing swelling of the primary bundles,
and as the elastic network is not affected by the reagent it resists this
expansion and cuts the contents of the meshes into discs. The single
discs correspond to slices of the primary bundles, and the circular
groups correspond to slices of secondary bundles. When a muscular
fibre is treated by carmine and strong acetic acid we may notice fine

13—2

=

196 PROFESSOR TURNER AND MR CUNNINGHAM.

elastic filaments encircling and constricting the sarcolemma, and he
considers that it is due to these that the large transverse cleavage
takes place when the muscular fibre is treated with acids. These
elastic filaments spring from nuclei, surrounded by some remains of
cellular protoplasm. —In chromic-acid preparations, when a single
fibrilla of muscle (by which he understands a fine uniform cylindrical
thread) is isolated and examined by the immersion-lens, we often fail
to recognize any trace of strize. . But with gold the striation is always
indicated, which he believes to be due to the more deeply-coloured
intermediary substance adhering to the fibrilla in a greater or less
degree. As regards tendon, he states that in addition to the flat cells
clothing its surface, and described in the former paper, quadrangular
flat cells are to be found in its substance investing the secondary and
tertiary bundles. These are seen in longitudinal sections of the ten-
dons of cedematous limbs of frogs when treated by chloride of gold,
and they are to be regarded as the analogues of the quadrangular
cells which lie on the surface of the thicker layers of cornea substance.
When the section happens to pass between two bundles a double layer
of cells is observed to form a continuous investment around the bundle.
In chromic-acid preparations of foetal tendon we notice that the
primary bundles are invested by long narrow flat cells of uniform
size, arranged longitudinally, and applied regularly the one to the
other, so as to form a very complete covering. These cells are of the
same form as those which invest the primary corneal bundles, and it
is possible to isolate them by the potash solution from the tendo-
Achillis of the frog. On transverse section in gold preparations we
see branched cells of the larger type oceupying the stellate spaces be-
tween the bundles. The branches present the characters of elastic
fibres, and form a network, in the meshes of which the bundles lie.
The fibres pass longitudinally, however, as well as transversely, and
by lying on the surface of the quadrangular cells investing the se-
condary and tertiary bundles, they give rise to the appearance known
as Boll’s fibre. Thin believes that around the individual bundles of
the primary, secondary, and tertiary order, there is an extremely fine
elastic membrane upon which the cells lie. This is shewn by the
fact that we occasionally see groups of cells falling off from the
bundles and still maintaining their coherence; also in some cases
when the tendon has been hardened by chromic acid we may see a
fine line distinct from and surrounding the transverse section of a pri-
mary bundle. Carmine proves its existence in the secondary bundles,
and by adding concentrated acetic acid to a transverse section the
intermediary substance of the tertiary bundles swells whilst the mem-
brane does not, and thus the membrane is obscured by the swollen
intermediary substance at one focus, but is brought into view by low-
ering the focus, This membrane is thinner and has not the dis-
tinctive glistening appearance of the elastic filaments, and he con-
siders Descemet’s membrane and the sarcolemma of a muscular fibre
to be nothing else than a modified form of it. In osmic-acid prepara-
tions the separate primary bundles of tendon are seen to be direct

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 197

continuations of the primary bundles of muscle. Both the membrane
investing the tertiary bundles and the sheath covering the tendon are
composed of a double layer of cells separated by intermediary sub-
stance. Similar cells to those investing the primary bundles may be
found in the skin, mesentery, cornea, fascie, cc.

In the latter part of the paper he discusses the propriety of
applying the term “epithelium” to the flat cells, and adds a note
upon the branched cells of the cornea. The straight lines hitherto
described as passing from the corpuscle he is satisfied are simply a
deposit of colouring matter in Bowman’s tubes and interfibrillary
spaces, He figures a branched cell seen in a horizontal section of
the fresh cornea of an ox. The processes are slender, thread-like, and
curved, and they anastomose freely with each other. The nucleus,
nucleolus, and protoplasm, are very visible.

EpirHetiuM AND EnporHetium.—Michael Foster (Quart. Journal
Mic. Science, July, 1874) objects to the use of the term Endothelium,
first, on the ground of its etymology, which he characterizes as being
of the “most grotesque kind,” and, in fact, ‘pure nonsense.” His
first used the term. to distinguish the epithelium lining the vascular,
lymphatic and serous cavities, from the true epithelium of a mucous
membrane, and the word epithelia or epithelida, from ém and @yAy, or
‘papilla’ or ‘mamilla, was introduced by Ruysch to designate the
cuticle of the prolabium and the inside coating of the cheeks. Epi-
thelia in course of time became converted into epithelium, and thus
it literally means “that which covers a papilla.” Consequently endo-
thelium means ‘that which is inside a papilla.” In the second place,
he objects to the term because it. cannot be employed to denote the
epithelium derived from the elements of the mesoblast, for in that
case cells still called epithelium and not differing essentially from the
hypoblastic epithelium, viz. those lining the Wolffian and Miillerian
ducts which are of mesoblastic origin, would be included under the
heading endothelium, and the word would lose all its practical utility.
Again, he urges that the continuity exhibited between the peritoneal
epithelium and that of the lymphatics is no reason why they should
be included under the same term, seeing that we find continuity every-
where. In the October number of the same Journal, Cavafy, in
reply, states that the etymology of the term is not so absurd as Foster
would have it. Hndothelium is simply a contraction of endo-epithe-
wm, and means an internal epithelium. It is therefore a misnomer
only in so far that it covers a surface devoid of papilla. As to
Foster’s second objection, he holds that, whilst the mesoblastic origin
of endothelium is undoubted, the fact that epithelium is ever’ derived
from the same source must be received with considerable hesitation.
From the fusion which takes place between the mesoblast and epiblast
in the region of the axial cord of His, we are justified in maintaining
that the genito-urinary epithelium is derived from the one as from the
other, Again, gland-formation and secretion are characteristics present
in epithelium, and altogether absent in endothelium. In the third
place, Dr Cavafy points to the intimate relationship which exists

198 PROFESSOR TURNER AND MR CUNNINGHAM.

between connective tissues and endothelium; how the protoplasm of
the connective-tissue corpuscle becomes flattened, and ultimately con-
verted into an endothelial plate—every transition stage between the
flattened corpuscle in the lymph-spaces and the cells forming the wall
of lymphatics being observed. ‘“Convertibility” therefore, in addition
to “continuity,” he considers as a ground for the grouping of these
cells under a distinctive term, He asserts that it is very improbable
that any such connection exists between the connective tissues and
epithelium. In a memoir on the DEVELOPMENT and PROLIFERATION
of EnporHetium and EpitHerium (Schultze’s Archiv, x, 351), J. Zielonko
contends that a new formation of epithelium and endothelium can
take place in lymph, and that in it also ‘giant cells’ can be formed
out of epithelial and endothelial celis. The growth of epithelium and
endothelium in a lymph-sac ensues without being participated in by
the cell-elements of the blood-vessels and of the blood.

Nervous System.—Axel Key and G. Retzius describe (Wordiskt
Medicinskt Archiv, 1874, 1st part) THE RELATIONS OF THE SuUBA-
RACHNOID SPACES TO THE CEREBRAL VENTRICLES and the StRucTURE OF
THE SUBARACHNOID TrABEcuL&. They begin by referring to their
former memoirs in which they had demonstrated that all the suba-
rachnoid spaces throughout the entire brain and spinal-cord were in
free and uninterrupted communication ;—that the perivascular spaces
around the blood-vessels in the pia-mater were nothing else than
subarachnoid spaces in complete communication with the others ;—
and lastly, that the epi-cerebral and epi-spinal spaces described by His
as lying between the pia-mater and the brain and spinal-cord do not
exist in reality, but are produced artificially—the pia-mater which
enters the brain with the blood-vessels sending some funnel-shaped
prolongations, which are thus immediate prolongations of the sub-
arachnoid spaces continued into the interior of the brain, and forming
the sheaths of the vessels. The contents of those sheaths are
nothing else than the general cerebro-spinal fluid which is.able to pass
freely in and out from the subarachnoid spaces. They also state that
they have further proved in their preceding papers. that the subarach-
noid cerebro-spinal spaces are in free communication with the serous
spaces and lymphatic spaces. of the organs. of sense, and that through-
out the entire peripheral nervous system, even to its. extreme rami-
fications, a serous system is found, which, by means of the ganglia
and nerve-roots, is in free communication with the central subarach-
noid spaces.

In this their latest paper they endeavour to prove that the ven-
tricles of the brain are not shut off from this great and universal
serous system of the nervous system, They describe no less than
three opevings which place the ventricles in free communication with
the subarachnoid spaces. No connection exists between the ventricles
and the subdural spaces, 7. e. the space under the dura mater,

Of the three openings, one is situated in the middle of the floor
of the fourth ventricle in front of the Calamus Scriptorius, and
is called the foramina of Magendie, from its first discoverer, To

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 199

demonstrate this aperture they employed injections consisting of a
coagulable material, which, after it had coagulated, shewed an unin-
terrupted communication ‘between the external subarachnoid space
through the foramen of Magendie, and all the ventricles, whether the
injections were made from the ventricles or from the ‘subarachnoid
spaces. The other two apertures are situated anteriorly at the ex-
tremities of the recessus laterales of the fourth ventricle, and at the
internal part of the flocculus, and at the anterior border, ordinarily in a
half-moon, of the floor of the fourth ventricle. These lateral openings
have a valvular character, and seem more for the outward ‘passage of
fluid than for its entrance. Through them, as also through the fora-
men of Magendie, passes the choroid plexus, which they constrict to a
certain extent. It is only on removal of the vagus and glosso-
pharyngeal nerves that the lateral apertures are well seen as these lie
in front of them and partly hide them. On one occasion the foramen
of Magendie was found occluded by a membrane, and the authors do
not doubt that the lateral openings may also be occasionally shut,
but still they have never observed a case in which this was so,
Finally, they point to the great significance of these three aper-
tures both in a physiological and a pathological point of view—how
unhealthy products can pass from the ventricles into the external
cerebro-spinal spaces, and vice versa, from these last into the ven-
tricles, and how the ventricles can be dilated by a fluid formed out-
side themselves, or again, how an occlusion of any of these three
openings of the fourth ventricle would lead to the retention of fluid
and a consequent expansion of the ventricles.

By these investigations and by the former papers of the authors,
therefore, it is demonstrated that a continuous serous system pervades
the entire nervous system from the ventricles of the brain, the suba-
rachnoid spaces, and the sheaths of the vessels in the brain and spinal
cord, to the extreme ramifications of the peripheral nervous system.

Their memoir upon the subarachnoid tissue is supplementary to
their former papers upon the same subject, in which they had proved
that all the free trabeculee are surrounded by a sheath of thin, flat,
coherent cells. Now they give a description of certain fibres which
are occasionally found surrounding the fibrillary fasciculi of these
trabecule. It is only in certain of the subarachnoid trabecule, when
examined fresh and in an indifferent fluid, that we can recognize any
trace of strie. These may be very indistinct, but in other cases they
are so evident that we can distinguish true filaments of greater or
less tenuity, and which, more or less numerous and closely appressed,
are rolled round the trabecula: often obliquely to its long axis,
superficially to this fibrillary network, the sheath of flat cells is found.
On adding acetic acid the trabecule rapidly swell, and. the circular
fibres, before imperfectly seen, stand out most distinctly, giving rise to
constrictions of greater or less depth in the swollen trabecula. They
may assume an annular or spiral arrangement around the trabeculee—
sometimes they even form a coherent network. They do not swell
themselves by the action of the acetic acid, and thus they resemble
elastic fibres. When the subarachnoid trabecule form networks or

200 PROFESSOR TURNER AND MR CUNNINGHAM.

membranes more or less cribriform, we may find them covered by
these filaments, but it is not rare to find trabecule entirely devoid of
them. When hardened by hyperosmic acid they are more distinct
than in the fresh state, and sometimes they are of considerable size,
and present here and there swellings. But the individual trabecule,
each surrounded by circular filaments, and a sheath of flat cells, may,
on uniting into fasciculi, be seen to be invested by a common network
of such filaments. Sometimes we find an external row of trabecule
enveloping the primitive fasciculi in the form of a network, and in
other cases they have demonstrated that in some forms of cellular
tissue thin membranes with elastic fibres are spread upon the external
layer of flat cells. We observe a similar arrangement in the trabeculee
in question. But in addition to these trabecule encircled by elastic
fibres, the authors have found another kind in the subarachnoid
tissue at the base of the brain and of the cerebellum, and also of the
pons Varolii and medulla oblongata, In these the fibrillary bundles
are surrounded by a thick,. clear, or homogeneous mass, in which we
observe at varying intervals granular points. On close examination
we find these to be nothing else than the cut ends of the encircling:
filaments arranged in layers which vary in number, On looking at
the superior or inferior surface of the: trabeculae, we observe the
closely appressed strie around them They give to the trabecule the
appearance of bundles of longitudinal fibres enveloped in tow. This
thick mass ought to be considered as a peculiay. fibrillary sheath
belonging to the trabecula. The external surface is strictly limited ;
it is covered by a membrane of flat cells which can be, here and
elsewhere, easily detached.

The fibrillary sheath varies in thickness, and even, along the same
trabecula we may sometimes observe knotty enlargements and thin
portions alternately. As a general rule the filaments have a circular
arrangement around the trabeculw, but it is hy no means uncommon
to see them taking an oblique or spiral gourse.. However, upon the
same bundle they usually keep the same direction, There are like-
wise, however, longitudinal filaments of a similar character, and some-
times we may observe alternating layers of longitudinal and transverse
filaments with nuclei interposed between them, Such a fibrillary
sheath can enclose several bundles which may branch and then
reunite, but they are always invested by the sheath. The fibrille in
the sheath are seen in the fresh state, but they stand out better
when treated by hyperosmic or chromic acid. When, treated by
acetic acid they do not swell like the eellular tissue-fibres, but, on
the other hand, they are not, rendered more distingt like elastic
fibres. On the contrary, they become less plain and paler.

What relation have these fibrilla to the true, elastic, encircling
fibrille? Sometimes we observe fibrille of both kinds upon the
game trabecule. In that case the fibrillary sheath is superimposed.
upon the fibrille of the first order, which we axe often able to distinguish
lying beneath the sheath and upon the fibrillary fasciculus. When
we add acetic acid the fibrillary sheath prevents the bundle from
swelling. In some cases we may find trabecule provided by a fibrillary

_ REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 201

sheath in the midst of other trabecule of cellular tissue, and some-
times the two varieties enter together into the formation of networks
and cribriform membranes, In a chapter contributed to Bucknill
and Tuke’s treatise on Psychological Medicine, London, 1874, J. Batty
Tuke enters into the histology of the brain, and, amongst other
facts, enquires into the minute distribution of the BLoop-vEssELs To
THE ConvoLuTions. He shews that the larger arteries go directly to
the white matter, rarely throwing off branches on their way; that
when they have passed through the grey matter they branch off
almost at right angles, and follow the direction of the inner layer of
grey matter. Two sets of vessels supply the grey matter: the
innermost layers by smaller branches than those to the white
matter, but the outer layers receive straight arterioles, small in
size, and not giving off many branches.——-M. Duret gives a con-
tribution to the ANaTomMy OF THE CEREBRAL BLOOD-VESSELS (Arch.
de Phys. 1874, 316). He first discusses the distribution of the
arteries in the pia-mater, describes in detail their method of branch-
ing, and contradicts the prevailing opinion that a rich network of
anastomosing vessels is to be found in the pia-mater on the surface
of the convolutions. That anastomoses exist in the pia-mater, to
a certain extent, he does not-deny, for he has proved by injections
that, at the periphery and at the confines, of their distribution, the
anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries of the same side
communicate the one with the other. In addition the posterior
cerebrals have a slight communication in the middle line, but the
other two arteries are-in, no way connected with the corresponding
vessels of the opposite side except by the anterior communicating
branch. He next gives the results of certain researches into the
arrangement of the vessels in the fetal brain when its surface is
smooth and devoid of fissures. The arteries are then regular and
rectilinear, and arterioles pass off perpendicularly to enter the cere-
bral substance. When the surface of the brain increases by the
appearance of sulci the arteries follow this development. They cannot
pass from one convolution to another without dipping down into the ~
sulcus, for they are held in relation to the nervous substance by little
arterioles. The pringipal branches do not. increase much at their
extremities, but rather undergo an elongation and increase by the
multiplication of the elements composing their coats. On the other
hand, the smaller branches deyelope and produce collateral arterioles,
He states that, although hitherto no one has attempted to trace
the limits of the distribution of the cerebral arteries, all his observa-
- tions point to the fact that the district supplied by each artery is very
definite and constant. He gives an elaborate description of the dis-
tribution of the branches of these vessels, and gives them names
according to the position. they occupy or the convolutions they supply.
He next discusses the arrangement of the veins in the pia-mater, and
shews that a free communication exists between those of the convexity
and those of the base through the medium of a large vessel, the “great
anastomotic vein,” so called by M. Trolard, who first described it.
This vein passes from the superior petrosal sinus to the fissure of

202 PROFESSOR TURNER AND MR CUNNINGHAM,

Sylvius. Another branch of anastomosis may also be found, called
the ‘“‘anterior basilar vein:” This springing from the great anasto-
motic vein joins the posterior basilar vein which ends in the straight
sinus. Very often a true venous circle is formed within the circle of
Wallis by the posterior basilar vein communicating with its fellow
of the opposite side. Duret states that the communications which
exist between the veins of the convexity, although undoubtedly very
numerous, have been much exaggerated by the greater number of
authors. M. Duret now follows the arteries as they pass from the
pia-mater into the cerebral substance, and gives in detail their arrange-
ment in the grey and white matter of the convolutions. The medullary
arteries, ¢. e. those which go to the white matter, spring at right angles
from small branches in the pia-mater, and in the section of a convolu-
tion of medium size we may observe from 10 to 15; they are almost
rectilinear in the adult; those which penetrate the free surface, in
number from 3 to 4, are perpendicular to it; some pierce the con-
tiguous surfaces of the convolutions obliquely; within the grey layer
they bend so as to become parallel to the principal bundles of white
matter; others follow the direction of the commissural fibres of the
convolutions; lastly, near the sulcus we frequently notice a group of
5 or 6 arterioles, which, diverging, spread amongst the white matter,
and these go to supply the most distant parts of the centrum ovale.
The medullary arteries rarely divide into large ‘collateral twigs, but
in passing through the grey matter they give off a few delicate
branches, as also at the point of junction of the white and grey matter.
In the white matter they give off the twigs which, by complex anas-
tomosis, constitute the capillary networks. The cortical arteries, ¢.e.
those which supply the grey matter, are the terminations of those
twigs in the pia-mater which are developed at the same time and in
proportion with the grey matter. The most minute of these vessels
end in the grey substance—others, however, go to its poiut of junc-
tion with the white substance. They rapidly resolve themselves
into capillary networks.

As to the capillary networks Duret states that we can recognize
four varieties: (1) the first occupies scarcely half a millimetre of the
most superficial part of the grey substance. It is best seen in hori-
zontal sections, and the meshes are large, quadrangular, and parallel to
the surface. (2) This extends for two millimetres below the first, and
the meshes, which are very fine, have a polygonal form. The cortical
arteries are innumerable. The region of this network corresponds
to the layer of grey matter in which the large cortical cells are found,
and in this way may we account for its great vascularity. (3) This
constitutes the network of “transition,” and it occupies the last milli-
metre. The meshes are larger than those of the superior layer, but
are much less elongated than those of the white substance, with
which it is continuous, (4) This is the network of the white sub-
stance, and is formed of meshes whose long diameter is three or four
times greater than that of the meshes in the grey substance, The
meshes seem to surround the principal bundles of fibres, and the
network is arranged in the direction of these fibres.

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 203

With regard to the intra-cerebral veins, Duret shews that the
medullary spring from small venous branches in the pia-mater, and
do not exceed 6 to 8 in number in a section of a medium-sized con-
volution. They do not accompany their corresponding arteries. We
generally find one or two piercing the surface of the convolution
perpendicularly. Four or six penetrate by the lateral surfaces, and
they have a calibre three times as great as that of their corresponding
arteries. In passing through the grey matter they give few collateral
offshoots, but at the lower limit of this layer they give three or
four recurrent branches, which seem to act as outlets for the blood in
the network of transition. Duret states that in successful injections
of the arteries and veins, the two first capillary networks of the grey
matters are coloured red, whilst the network of transition is coloured
blue, and the network in the white substance partly red and partly
blue. This, he considers, proves that the return of the blood from
the networks of the grey matter takes place chiefly through the
medium of the transition network and the recurrent branches of the
medullary veins. The blood therefore tends to stagnate in the grey
matter. The medullary veins pass deeply into the centrum ovale, and
Duret considers that they communicate with those of the ventricles,
as he has injected the venee Galeni through one of the cortical veins.
He states that the cortical veins are larger and less numerous than
the corresponding arteries, and that they rarely terminate in the first
two capillary networks, They ramify almost exclusively in the net-
work of transition. Duret next argues that Ecker is altogether
wrong in supposing that a direct anastomosis exists between the
veins and arteries in the pia-mater or in the cerebral substance.
All his researches go to prove the opposite. Burt G. Wilder,
in a Collection of papers, chiefly Anatomical, Salem, Mass., 1874,
writes an interesting paper on the outer CerEBRAL FissuRES OF
Mamata, especially the Carnivora, and the limits of their
homologies; also a paper on CEREBRAL VARIATION IN DomEsTIc
Dogs, and its bearing upon scientific phrenology. These papers are
illustrated by several useful wood-engravings. A. Pawlowsky, a
pupil of Meynert’s, gives an account (Siebold u. Kolliker’s Zeitsch.
1874, 284) of the Course or THE Fipres or THE PosTERIOR Com-
MissURE. He states that it consists of nerve-fibres, descending from
the brain, and crossing over to the tegmentum of the crus cerebri.
These fibres have a fourfold origin : (a) in the pineal body ; (0) in the
frontal lobes through the anterior peduncle of the optic thalamus ;
(c) in the temporal lobes and in the Sylvian fossa through the lower
peduncle; and (d) probably in the thalamus itself. One part of the
tibres extends in the track of the tegmentum, another lies on its inner
aspect. Commissure-like or arcuate fibres do not exist in the poste-
rior commissure. P. Schiefferdecker writes (Schultze’s Archiv, x.
471) on the CoursE or THE Fisres In THE Sprnat Corp. He recog-
nizes five chief modes of arrangement: (1) fibres which pass from
some point at the periphery to ganglion cells ; (2) fibres which go be-
tween groups of ganglion cells; (3) fibres which pass from a point at
the periphery into a commissure; (4) fibres which pass vertically in

204 PROFESSOR TURNER AND MR CUNNINGHAM.

the grey matter to connect parts situated in different transverse
planes; (5) fibres which remain in the same half of the cord, and pass
direct from one part of the white substance to another. A. Lubi-
mnoff relates (Virchow’s Archiv, LXvi. 217) his embryological and histo-
logical researches into the SYMPATHETIC AND CEREBRO-SPrnaL NERVOUS
Systems, and in xxi. p. 145, contributes a memoir on the histology
and pathological anatomy of the sympathetic nervous system.
H. C. Major relates further (West Riding Asylum Reports, tv. 223)
observations on the HisroLogy or THE Morgip Brain. The condi-
tion of the cortical substance in cases of senile atrophy is especially
considered. Finkam investigates (Reichert u. du Bois Reymond’s
Archiv, 1873, 721) the mode of TERMINATION OF THE NERVES in the
GREAT OMENTUM.

ALIMENTARY Canau.—Herbert Watney (Pro. Roy. Soc. London,
No. 152, 1874; also in Centralblatt, 1874, No. 48) gives a contri-
bution to the Minute Anatomy oF THE ALIMENTARY CaNnaAL. He
states that amongst the epithelium of certain parts of the alimentary
mucous membrane of many animals connective tissue may be found
forming a delicate reticulum, in whose meshes nuclei, situated between
and below the epithelial cells, and sending processes to the free surface,
are occasionally seen. Round lymphoid cells may also be observed.
A similar intra-epithelial reticulum exists in the pyloric glands of the
stomach and the crypts of Lieberkiihn. The epithelium of the mucous
membrane of the tonsils and Peyer’s glands is infiltrated by a delicate
reticulum of nucleated cells, in whose meshes lymph-corpuscles are to
be found, and this tissue is in direct continuity with the adenoid tissue
in the corresponding follicles. He states that the lining endothelium
of the lymph-vessels in the mucosa being in direct continuity with
the reticulum, may be considered as being derived from the connective-
tissue corpuscles. He further describes how, when animals are
killed during the absorption of fat, the oil-drops coloured black
by osmic-acid may be seen: (1) in rows between and around the
superficial epithelial cells; (2) in the reticulum at the base of
the epithelium; (3) in the connective-tissue stroma of the villi,
from whence they penetrate into the lymph-vessels, This seems
to shew that the fat-drops are not taken up by the epithelial
cells, but by the intervening processes of connective tissue,
Through the medium of these they reach the central vessel, whose
wall stands in continuity, as above mentioned, with the reticulum
of the villus. The blood-vessels and the muscular tissue receive
special sheaths from the reticulum of nucleated cells. In the papil-
lary processes of mucosa of the pylorus the blood-vessels possess very
vascular lymph sheaths, whose walls are composed of connective-
tissue cells arranged like endothelial plates. J. Custor enters
(Reichert u. du Bois Reymond’s Archiv, 1873, 478) into a comparative
examination of the Retative Sizx or tue Inrestinan Cana to the
chief organic systems in the bodies of man and mammals,

Tue Teeru,—H, Magitot describes (Robin's Journal, 1874, 255)

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY, 205

Anomalies of Dentition in Mammals under the following heads: defi-
nition, classification, and statistics ; their characters in the mamma-
lian series, in which he denies the presence of rudimentary incisor
follicles in the upper jaw of ruminants; anomalies in the races of
men: -their mode of production, their pathological and surgical rela-
tions. On p. 422 he considers anomalies in the seat of production of
the teeth, or heterotopia. Paul Gervais describes (Journal de
Zoologie, 11. 1873, p. 499) the DentiTIon or A FaxraL NARwuat, al-
most at the full time, in which not only were the two usual teeth
apparent and in part dentified, but two others were found placed be-
hind the first-named, one on each side, and some m. m. in: length.
These rudimentary teeth were somewhat pisiform, and their bulb was
ossified. They were caducous. These teeth were obviously a more
_ advanced stage of the rudimentary teeth described by W. Turner in
a younger narwhal foetus in this Jowrnal, November, 1872.

Lrver.—Ch. Legros (Journ. del Anat. et Phys. March and April,
1874, 137) gives the results of some researches into Tue SrrucruRe
AND THE EpirHeLiuM OF THE Secrerory Bite-Dvcrs. He states that
after the successful injection of a rabbit’s liver with gelatine and
nitrate of silver the extra lobular bile-ducts may be seen to be lined
by a very distinct prismatic epithelium. From these ducts proceed
branches which, anastomosing amongst themselves and with the
branches of neighbouring ducts, form an interlobular network with
large meshes. ‘The interlobular secretory canals arise from this, and
they constitute the origins or terminations of the secretory biliary
passages. The terminal network in the interior of the lobule is
formed by these latter. Each mesh of this is small and regularly
polygonal, and encloses a hepatic cell. It is thus easily distinguished
from the capillary network, the meshes of which are very large and
elongated, Further, the biliary canals are much finer than the capil-
laries, and maintain the same calibre throughout the entire lobule.
He further states that in the interlobular canals the epithelium is not so
precisely prismatic as in the extralobular canals, whilst in the intra-
lobular passages it assumes a tesselated character, and the wall is
formed by thin cells placed in accurate juxtaposition. Sometimes fine
canals may be observed lined by cells larger than the calibre of the
canals, so that the latter are obliged to bend upon themselves and
follow the concavity of the vessel. M. Legros considers that his re-
searches prove the existence in the liver of a great glandular network,
constituting a reticulated gland, whose special function is the pro- ~
duction of bile. The hepatic cells included in the meshes of this
biliary network have other functions, being most probably concerned
with the formation of glycogen. G. Asp communicates (Ludwig's
Arbeiten, 1874, 124) a memoir on the Anatomy anp PuHysioLogy
or THE Liver. He investigated the liver of rabbits, both after |
starving and feeding these animals, and found that it contained cells
devoid of nuclei. He saw in the walls of the smaller gall-ducts a
cylindrical epithelium as usually recognized, outside which was con-
nective-tissue containing numerous fusiform nuclei. The interlo-

206 PROFESSOR TURNER AND MR CUNNINGHAM.

bular bile-ducts gave off numerous branches into the lobules which
lay amidst the cells, but these intralobular ducts had no cylindrical
epithelium, or defined wall of connective tissue, but only a layer of
flat cells with fusiform nuclei,

Sxin.—J. Neumann publishes a pamphlet, Vienna, 1873, on the
Lympu-VEssELS OF THE SKIN. He describes them as forming a closed
tubular system, with independent walls lined by a flat epithelium,
without stomata, and having no communication with juice-canals or
other interstices in the tissue of the cutis, or with spaces between the
epithelial cells. The lymph-vessels lie deeper than the blood-vessels,
and form in the cutis a superficial and a deep network. The lymph-
vessels enter the papille, partly as simple tubes, partly as loops. The
hairs, hair-follicles, and sweat-glands, possess their own lymph-vessels,
which do not, however, enter the follicle; the fat-lobules are also sur-
rounded by them. They are most numerous in the scrotum, labia
majora, the hand and sole.

Urerura.—MM. Robin and Cadiat (Journ. de Anat. et de la
Phys. Sept. et Oct. 1874, 514) describe Tue SrrucruRE oF THE
Mucous MEMBRANE AND OF THE GLANDS OF THE MALE AND FEMALE
Urerura. They assert that the simple clusters of glands, and even
the follicles of the spongy and membranous portions of the male
urethra are of the same type as the prostatic acini, and that they re-
present the glandular elements of the prostate, separated the one
from the other. On the other hand, the prostate in reality consists
of a congeries of these elementary parts. Further, in the female
urethra only these dissociated glandular parts are found, and they
exist in comparatively fewer numbers than their analogues in the
male urethra. In this latter the simple glands do not exist in the
mucous membrane, and do not open on the surface by other ducts
than by those of the prostate, and in the prostatic region.

Empryotoay.—F. M. Balfour gives (Atheneum, Aug. 29, and
Quart. Jnl. Mic. Se. Oct. 1874) a preliminary account of the Dr-
VELOPMENT OF ELAsMOBRANCH Fisues, Firstly, although as large a
quantity of food-yolk is present in the shark’s egg as in the bird’s,
yet throughout the egg of the shark there is a fine network of
lines, such as are found in many cells, while scattered through it,
especially around the germinal disc, were a number of nuclei, From
the presence of these lines and nuclei, it is to be concluded that
-the whole of the yolk, including both the germinal dise and the
food-yolk, are to be looked upon as a single cell, the ovum, in the
greater part of which passive food-yolk granules are embedded,
Secondly, in the mode in which its alimentary canal is formed the
shark is intermediate in condition between the frog and the bird;
for, although its alimentary canal is not formed by an involution, as
in the frog, still traces of the primitive mode of formation of the ali-
mentary canal by an involution are retained in the shark, though
lost in- birds. The most important of these is the continuity at the
hind end of the embryo between the epiblast (outer layer) and the

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 207

hypoblast (inner layer), which results in the neural and alimentary
canals, subsequently communicating with each other behind, as is the
case with frogs and other vertebrates whose alimentary canal is
formed by an involution, Thirdly, in sharks the notochord is formed
as a thickening of the hypoblast, and not derived, as in all other verte-
brates hitherto described, from the mesoblast. EK. Ray Lankester
makes (Atheneum, Sep. 5, 1874) some Observations on the DEvELop-
MENT OF THE Eye IN THE CuTTLE Fisu. He instituted a comparison
between the eye of the vertebrate and cephalopod, and shewed how
radically they differ in development. Yet he was inclined to believe
that they might ultimately be traced to a common origin. In Loligo
and Sepia the eye originates as a raised elliptical wall on the surface
of the embryo. ‘The wall closes in above, and thus the primary optic
vesicle is formed. From the front of this arise new wall-like growths,
forming an anterior or second optic vesicle, cornea andiris. ‘The lens,
curiously enough, is secreted from the cells of the anterior wall of the
primary optic vesicle, and is quite free from cell-structure. It is a
cuticular formation, such as the bristle of an annelid. The cells of
the posterior part of the primary optic vesicle become modified, so
as to form the two layers of retinal elements. It is important to
observe that in Nautilus there is, as Hensen described, no lens,
and but one optic chamber. In fact, Nautilus has exactly the ar- _
rangement in adult life which is seen in the early condition of the
eye of the cuttle-fish, before the wall of the primitive optic vesicle has
quite closed in.

Mare Oreans.—V. v. Mihalkovics contributes (Ludwig's Arbei-
ten, 1874) to the Anatomy or THE TesticLeE. He describes the
arrangement of the seminal tubes: he states that the supporting cells
(stiitz-zellen) and keim-netz are artificial products ; that interstitial
cells are constituents of the testicle: that the connective tissue of the
testicle consists of bundles, which form a network, and are invested
by endothelial cells: the origin of the lymph-vessels is in the spaces
between the endothelial invested bundles of connective tissue: the
capillary blood-vessels lie close to the membrana propria of the semi-
nal tubes. The epididymis is not only a tube for conveying the
semen, but also a secreting place for its fluid constituents. The blood-
vessels form in its muscular wall a compact capillary network, which
lies immediately under the cylinder epithelium, and resembles the vas-
cular arrangement in the ovary. P. Langerhans describes(Virchow’s
Archiv, uxt. 208) the Guanpunar Srrucrure of the prostate, vas
deferens, vesicula seminalis, and Cowper’s glands.

FemaLe Orcans.—L. Born contributes (Reichert wu. du Bois Rey-
mond’s Archiv, 1874, 118) to our knowledge of the DEvELopMent of the
Ovary OF THE Mare. In the same Archiv, 234, Haussmann en-
quires historically into the UrricuLar GLANDs. In the Abhand.
der Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, 1873, C. B. Reichert publishes in extenso
his memoir on the condition of the Human Uterus anp Emsryo in
the vesicular stage of development, an abstract of which, published in
his Archiv, was given in the Report for Nov. 1873.

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. By Wititam Sriretine, D.Sc.,
M.B., C.M. (Edinb.), Demonstrator of Practical Physiology in
the University of Edinburgh’.

Nervous System.

Functions oF THE Bratn.—Untersuchungen iiber das Gehirn,
von Dr Ed. Hitzig, Berlin 1874. These investigations on the brain are
the collective papers of the author upon this subject... Most of them
have already been published in Reichert und du Bois Reymond’s Arch.,
and have been noticed in previous reports. A chapter is devoted to
critical and experimental observations on the physiology of the cere-
brum, in relation to the experiments and results of Dr Ferrier. Some
pathological papers are added, including the details of an interesting
Abscess of the grey matter of the brain; Anomalies of Muscular
Innervation; Secondary affections of the nervous system after peri-
pheral injury ; On the disturbances of muscular innervation which occur
on galvanisation of the head. One chapter is devoted to the equiva-
lent regions in the brain of the dog, of the ape, and of man, and two
shorter papers treat of the Physiology of the Cerebellum; and on the
production of Epilepsy by experimental injury to the grey matter.

See Lond. Med. Rec. No. 78, by Ferrier, and reply in No. 81, by
itzig. |

ON THE RESULTS OF THE ExectricaAL INVESTIGATION OF THE
CONVOLUTIONS OF THE BRAIN OF AN Apg.—E. Hitzig, Berlin. Klin.
Wochenschr. 1874. No. 6 (from Abst. in Centralblatt, No. 24), The
experiments were made upon the brain of a living ape, and the author
finds that in this animal the proper motor part of the convolutions of
the brain is the anterior central convolution, that the single centres
lie distributed in it from the great cerebral fissure to the Sylvian
fissure. About 3mm. from the median line lies above the centre for
the posterior extremity of the opposite side; 3mm. to the side that
for the anterior extremity. Removed from this 7mm. is the centre for
the part of the structure connected with the optic nerve, and close to
the fossa 8. the fourth centre, which controls the movements of the
mouth, tongue, and jaw, and from which the collective movements
which result occur on both sides. The proper parietal and frontal
regions were only superficially investigated ; there, weak currents pro-
duced no movements, and the upper part of the posterior central con-
volution reacted most easily on the application of strong currents.
The anatomical details are to be seen in the original.

Tue Locanisation or Function 1x THE Brain.-—D, Ferrier.
Paper read before the Royal Society, London, 1874, March 5. The
author's experiments on the brains Of apes shewed that in general

' To assist in rendering this report more complete, authors are invited to
send copies of their papers to Dr Stirling, Physiological Laboratory, Edinburgh
University.

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 209

the centres for the movements of the limbs lie in the convolutions
bounding the fissure of Rolando; ze. in the posterior central con-
volution with parts of the upper lobes, which lie more backwards
towards the parieto-occipital fissure, in the anterior central convolu-
tion and to the posterior end of the first frontal convolution. In the
anterior central convolution at the level of the junction of the middle
central convolution lie centres for distinct facial muscles (Zygomaticus
etc.) In the angle where the lowest (third) frontal convolution and
the anterior central convolution meet lie the centres for the move-
ments of the mouth and tongue. At the lower angle of the Sulcus
inter-parietalis is the centre for the platysma. In the first frontal
convolution, in front of the centre for certain forward movements of the
arms, and in the corresponding part of the middle frontal convolution,
lie the centres for the (crossed) head and eye movements and for the
dilators of the pupil. The most anterior frontal region, together with
the orbital convolutions, yielded no definite results when irritated.
Destruction of these parts produced a condition resembling dementia.
Stimulation of the gyrus angularis produced movements of the eye-
ball and pupil. Its destruction destroyed the sense of sight. The
sense of smell finds its central ends in the gyrus uncinatus. The seat
of the sense of touch could not be made out. The occipital lobes did
not react upon stimulation ; their destruction seemed to extinguish
the sense of equilibrium. Exact localisation in frogs and fishes is
impossible ; stimulation of the cerebrum produces in frogs movements
of the limbs; in fishes movements of the tail and fins. It is interesting
that as the single result of stimulation of the surface of the brain
contraction of the pupil was observed.

Direcr ELECTRICAL STIMULATION OF THE Corpus SrriaTuM.—
J. Burdon-Sanderson (Centralblatt, No. 33, 1874). By means. of a
sharpened spoon the outer and upper portion of the anterior lobe of
one hemisphere was so far removed, that the parts lying immediately
outside of the anterior portien of the lateral ventricle were exposed,
without, however, opening the ventricle. (The anterior horn can be
opened without injury.) The deepest part and that lying next the
middle line in this prepared surface corresponds to the corpus striatum.
When the surface of the c. striatum was stimulated electrically it
was shewn: 1. That movements of the muscles of the opposite
side occurred upon the application of weak induced currents. 2.
_ That the points where stimulation of the intact surface of the brain
was followed by distinct groups of movements, are also present on
the surface of the corpus striatum. 3. That the opposite position of
the active points is the same on the corpus striatum as on the surface
of the brain. Ifthe deepest part of the corpus striatum is stimulated,
the animal opens its mouth, puts out its tongue and draws it in again
alternately. These are the movements whose centres are pretended
to be found on the convolutions of the under ‘surface of the brain, 7. ¢.
lower frontal and suprasylvian convolutions. (Lancet, June, 1874.)

PauysioLogy oF THE Brain.—Ed. Hitzig (Centralblatt, No. 35,
1874). By removal in the region of the posterior convolutions (Gyri.

VOL. IX, 14

210 DR STIRLING.

n.o. Fig. 3 in Untersuch. diber das Gehirn) blindness of the opposite eye
and paralytic dilatation of the corresponding pupil can be produced,
while stimulation of the same spot is followed by strong and con-
tinued contraction of the pupil. He then refers to B. Sanderson’s
results and remarks that the localised points on the surface of the
brain given by B, Sanderson do not correspond with those described
by himself (Hitzig). That he had already shewn that the corpus
striatum was excitable, and refers to p. 48-49 of his Untersuchungen.

ELectricAL ExcrraBILIty OF THE CEREBRUM.—H. Braun, Zck-
hardt’s Beitr. zur Anat. und Physio. vu. 2. 8s. A, 16 Str. (From the
Centralblatt, No. 29, 1874.) The author disagrees with Hitzig
regarding the sensibility of the dura mater. According to B. the
dura is not a sensitive membrane, and does not become so on being
left exposed for a long time. For the experiments non-narcotised
dogs were for the most part employed, the surface of the brain being
stimulated by weak induced currents, In general, the facts already
known (Journal of Anat. and Phys. vii. & viii.) were confirmed ; the
author finds however often the double presence of a centre on
the same half of the brain, e.g. for the muscles of the neck, After
stimulation with quite weak currents after-movements dependent
on the stimulated centre were manifested by the muscles, which
movements often passed into general convulsions, but could only be
produced from the points which were to be regarded as so-called
centra. The assumption that the movements obtained might arise
from loop-currents passing into the deeper parts of the brain, the
author refutes, by making near the surface, an interrupting section in
the course of the fibres in the deeper parts, having previously sought
out one of the centres, Now, stimulation of the previously excitable
centre gave no result. If the gray substance of the surface which
represented a centre was removed, and the white substance so exposed
was stimulated, then there occurred with the same position of the
electrodes, and the same strength of the current as formerly, move-
ments in the same group of muscles. The bundles of fibres which
penetrate into the gray substance are those whose stimulation pro-
duces the movements. Regarding Schifl’s view that in the move-
ments obtained by stimulating the surface of the brain electrically one
has to do with reflex phenomena, the author does not decide either
for or against.

On THE Function or tHe Tatami Oprtici.—H. Nothnagel
(Centralblatt, No. 37, 1874). From many experiments made upon
rabbits the author draws the following conclusions; 1. These organs
have nothing whatever to do with the innervation of voluntary move-
ments. 2. Quite as little can a direct disturbance of the cutaneous
sensibility be proved after their extirpation. 3. On the contrary
they seem to stand in a distinct relation to the “muscular sense.”
Details are promised shortly,

On tHe Function or tHe Brawy.—Nothnagel, Virchow’s Arch.
Lx, 128, (Abstract in Lond. Med. Rec. No, 72, 1874), has continued

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 211

his researches on this subject, still using the injection of chromic acid.
When only one lenticular body was operated on, the results were the
following. Deviation of the leg of the opposite side (right) towards
the middle line and that of the same side (left) outwards, a lateral cur-
vature of the spine with the convexity turned towards the opposite side
(right), and at the same time a moderate cyphosis. The animal could
however execute all voluntary movements. <A different state of
things occurred when both nuclei lenticulares were operated on, In
twenty-six cases the author succeeded with the operation, and the
results in all cases coincided. Many results were negative, when the
chromic acid focus did not lie exactly in both nuclei lenticulares.
The introduction of a fine cannula and injection of chromic acid into
the nucleus lentic. were not followed by any phenomena of stimu-
lation, the animal remained quite as quiet as if nothing had happened.
When the bilateral injection was successfully executed and the animal
was placed on the ground, it remained sitting and quite motionless,
and when it was not disturbed it remained in this condition for
hours together. The animal did not make the least attempt at volun-
tary movements, and had a stupid and sleepy appearance. The spinal
column was sometimes straight; sometimes cyphotic, but never
curved laterally. The ears were erect, and never laid backwards
upon the neck. The respiration and action of the heart were normal.
If the forelimbs were carefully extended so that the animal did not
lose its equilibrium, and though the feet might be placed in a very
unnatural position, as over the neck, they were not drawn back, as
always occurs in the normal animal. Slight pinching of the tail,
which a normal animal would not notice, was followed by withdrawal
of the foot from the unnatural position, and the animal appeared as if
it would spring ; but with one spring the movement came to an end,
and the animal became motionless as before. The same thing could
be repeated over and over again. In some cases the animal sprang
four, six, or even sixteen times. The animal sat without making any
attempt at spontaneous movement ; and if not disturbed, until death
occurred; just like an animal from whom the cerebral hemispheres
have been removed. Nor did the animals eat of their own accord.
Most of the animals died on the second or third day, but six lived till
the seventh day and were very emaciated. The post-mortem examina-
tion showed a circumscribed chromic acid focus of the size of a lentil
in each nucleus lenticularis. When the focus was of this size, and
was situated in the middle and extended towards the middle line and

terior part of the nucleus, then the characteristic symptoms
were produced. If however, the one nucleus was less affected than
the other, or if the chromic acid had not affected the nucleus sufficiently
in its depth, then the characteristic symptoms were not exhibited.
The author has already described the springing movements produced
by injury of a distinct spot in the corpus striatum, called by him
“nodus cursorius.” When both nuclei lenticulares were operated on and
the nodus punctured the springing movements could still be produced.
In a third series of experiments both corpora striata were operated
on. It was difficult to reach these organs and destroy them totally.

14—2

212 DR STIRLING.

The injection method was here inadmissible, because the fluid passed
to the fourth ventricle. Their structure was broken up by a fine
needle introduced through the skull. When the point of the needle
entered the ganglion, the animal sat quite still. In a time, varying
from one to two minutes, the animal sprang about violently to one
side and to the other avoiding obstacles in its path. The increased
sensibility of the auditory and optic nerves remained for a few
hours, at the longest for two days. The animal could execute volun-
tary movements. After a few days scarcely anything pathological
was to be observed. The explanation given by the author of the
symptoms following injury of the nuclei lenticulares is that by extir-
pation of these organs, the collective nerve-channels which conduct
the motor voluntary impulses from their place of origin—the hemi-
spheres—to the channels lying more posteriorly, and peripherically,
are interrupted. According to Meynert’s expression the collective
psycho-motor paths are divided. Regarding the experiments on the
corpora striata, the author is of opinion, and he expresses his view
with all reserve and as hypothetical, that the nucleus caudatus stands
in relation to all those combined forms of movement which are ex-
cited by the psychical processes, but then continue automatically
without any new voluntary impulse. Such a movement is seen in
the case of laughing, where the play of the muscles lasts for a time
after the psychical process which originally excited them, is already
extinguished.

AcTION OF QUININE ON THE Nervous System.—H. Heubach.
(Centralblatt, No. 43) has repeated Eulenberg’s experiments (Reich.
und Du Bois, 1865). ‘The author employed a sub-cutaneous injection
of the weak basic Quininum amorphum muriaticum, which is easily
soluble in water in the proportion of 1:1. The dose injected at
once was 0,004—0,015 quin. amorph. mur. The following results
differ from those of Eulenberg. 1. Small doses do not diminish but
increase the reflex-excitability. 2. By large doses the reflex-excita-
bility is at first increased, and then diminished, still this diminution
is to be viewed as a consequence of cardiac paralysis. 3. Very large
doses influence not only the respiration and action of the heart, but
extinguish very rapidly all signs of life and therewith the reflex-
excitability. With regard to the cause of death in poisoning with
quinine, the authors find as well in frogs as mammals, that the respi-
ration stops first, and that the paralysis of the heart occurring in
consequence can be hindered by artificial respiration, Death from
quinine is therefore not due to a direct poisoning of the heart, but ins
the first rank to paralysis of the respiration, although the heart is
also paralysed by quinine though later than the respiration.

“Absence of the Corpus Callosum without disturbance of intel-
lect.” Malinverni, Gazetta delle Cliniche, No, 15, 1874 (Abst, in
Lond, Med, Ree, No, 73, 1874), “ Bartholow’s Experiments on the
human Brain.” Lond, Med, Rec, No, 71, u. 1874, “The Physi-
ology and Psychology of Laughing.” KE. Hecker, Berlin, 1873, 8,
83 pp.; and “ Physiologie et Psychologie du Rire,” L. Dumont, Revue

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 213

Scientifique, 1873, m1. No, 23.——“ Brown-Sequard on the Localisa-
tion of Brain Function.” Lond. Med. Rec. No. 74, 1874. “ Esti-
mation of the Capability of Reaction in the Brains of the Insane.”
H. Obersteiner, Virch. Arch. ux. (Abst. in Lond. Med, Rec. No. 74,
1874.) “Cerebral Power in Man.” Brown-Séquard, Lond. Med.
Ree. No. 79. “Hypnotism in Crustacea.” J, Czermak, Sitzwng.
d. Wiener Akadem. uxvi. Heft. 3,4 &5. Lond. Med. Ree. No. 80,
1874, “On the Physiology of the Cortex Cerebri.” J.J. Putnam,
Lond. Med. Rec. No. 86. “ Experiments on the Brain.” Lancet,
June 27, 1874. ‘‘ Localisation of Functions in the Brain.” Burdon-
Sanderson, Nature, July 30, 1874. “ Alterations of the Spinal
Cord consecutive to lesions of the Nerves.” Hayem, Gaz. Méd. de
Paris, No. 16. On Vaso-dilator Nerves.” Goltz and Freusberg,
Phliig. Arch, 1x. 1874. “The Spasm-centre (“ Krampfcentrum”)
of the Frog, and its relation to certain drugs.” E. Heubel, Pig.
Arch, 1x. 261.

REFLEX INNERVATION OF THE ARTERIES OF THE Pia Mater.—
F. Krauspe, Virchow’s Arch. 1874, tix. 472 (Abstract in Centralblatt,
No. 25, 1874). Riegel and Jolly were unable to confirm the asser-
tion of Nothnagel that stimulation of sensory nerves caused reflexly
a contraction of the vessels of the pia mater. K. believes that in
the case of R. and J. the substances employed to narcotise the
animals operated on influenced the activity of the vaso-motor nerve
centre,—so that a normal transference of a physiological reflex act may
be doubtful. Curare has not this disadvantage. The author's experi-
ments upon rabbits confirm the statement of R. and J. that the
vessels of the pia mater do not contract upon a stimulus being
applied to peripheral sensory nerves. After an experiment upon a
tracheotomised rabbit (to which no curare had been given) had shown
that this poison had no effect on the vaso-motor channels, it was
tried to investigate the central circulation without trepanning, and
with the exclusion of air, viz. by ophthalmoscopic examination of the
retinal vessels. The occurrence of a strong and continual flow of
tears rendered every attempt at examination fruitless, Lastly the
experiments with trepanning and the setting in of a piece of glass in
the skull seemed to be useless, in that the action of the air caused
inflammation (reflex paralysis. of the vessels). Even though the
results of two experiments were. positive, still the author has arrived
at no decided opinion, possibly he thinks the difference in the results
may be due to the time of the year in as far as winter animals
(Nothnagel experimented on rabbits) are less predisposed to reflex,
and on the other hand are more torpid towards inflammatory
stimuli.

Removat or THE First Tuoracic GANGLION oF THE GREAT
SymeaTuetic iv THE Dog.—Carville and Rochefontaine (Gaz. Méd.
de Paris, 1874. No. 12), by a new method of operation, a descrip-
tion of which is given in the original, were enabled to remove the
first thoracic ganglion without injury to the pleura; and in conse-

214 DR STIRLING.

quence never observed pleuritis, as is common by the other methods
of operation, and as said by some to depend upon the extirpation of
said ganglion. On the contrary neither increase of the temperature
of the ear, nor of the fore foot on the side operated on, were missed,
also the oculo-pupillary phenomena and the vascularisation of the
conjunctiva as occurs after section of the sympathetic in the neck.
Rotatory movements were absent.

INFLUENCE OF EXTIRPATION OF THE SUPERIOR CERVICAL GANGLION
ON THE MoveEMENTs OF THE Iris.—A. Vulpian, Arch. de phys. norm.
et patholog. 1874. After extirpating the superior cervical ganglion
in a dog it was curarised after the course of from 10 to 15 days.
Artificial respiration was kept up and the skin of the abdomen and
hinder extremities were stimulated with strong induced currents ;
each time both the pupils became dilated, even that corresponding to
the side operated on, and which is innervated from the upper cervical
ganglion (a part of the sympathetie was destroyed at the time of
extirpation). The iridomotor fibres of the sympathetic must there-
fore run in other channels, whether along the vertebral artery,
or one derived from the cranial nerves, remains to be decided.

PuysioLocy oF Vaso-piLnATOR Nerves.—A. Vulpian (Arch. de
phys. 1874. No. 1, 175) contradicts the assertion that there exists a
veritable antagonism between the vaso-inhibitory and vaso-motor
nerves. Under this assumption the vessels of the corresponding -
half of the tongue must contract after section of one chorda tympani,
This however is not the case. Secondly, in that after section of the
chorda tympani widening of the vessels in the mucous membrane of
the mouth can be produced reflexly, then the inhibitory nerves of the
blood-vessels of the buccal mucous membrane must either run in
other channels than through the chorda tympani, or there must be
ganglion cells intercalated in the fibres. of the latter peripheral to the
place of section. Thirdly, after section of the cervical sympathetic
and upper cervical ganglion stimulation of the chorda tympani acts
with unchanged results. This refutes the hypothesis that by stimu-
lation of the vaso-inhibitory nerves, nothing more than an inhibition
of the vaso-motor influence is produced. Or, still above the upper
cervical ganglion, centres must be intercalated in the course of the
chorda tympani. Fourthly, after section of the upper sympathetic
cervical ganglion the histological structure of the chorda remains
unchanged,

HYPERTROPHY OF THE EAR AFTER EXCISION OF A PORTION OF THE
Cervioat, Symparneric iy Rapsir,—A Bidder (Centralblatt fir
Chirurgie, No. 7, 1874) excised a piece (1*5cm. in length) of the left
eervical sympathetic from a. half-grown rabbit, This was followed by
the usual symptoms of this operation. In about a month the rabbit
had grown just as the other rabbits, and appeared quite sound. The
left. pupil was only half as large as the right, and the left eyeball
projected much less from the orbital cavity than the right, The left
ear was distinctly bvoader and longer than the right, and was more

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 215

hyperaemic and warmer. A fortnight later the difference in size was
more striking. The author attributes the increase in the size of the
ear to the increased continued supply of blood to the ear of the young

‘animal where all the nutritive processes are going on actively.

SrimuLATION oF THE Nervi Spiancunici.—Van Braam-Houg-
keest, Pfliig. Arch. vu. 163 (Centralblatt, No. 42), again opens the
question whether the inhibitory influence of the nervi splanchnici
exists apart from their vaso-motor action or is a consequence of it.
He decides for the former. The method of Sanders was adopted, the
animal being placed in solution of salt at blood heat, though the
preparation and stimulation of the splanchnici were conducted outside
the fluid. When both splanchnici were divided, and one of them
slightly stimulated the movements of the stomach and _ intestines
previously produced by stimulation of the vagus, ceased at once,
without the portions of intestine which were brought to rest becom-
ing pale. In these experiments the strength of the stimulation was
sufficient to excite the inhibitory but not the vaso-motor fibres of the
splanchnicus.

DirmmaR oN THE Vaso-Motor CENTRE IN THE MeEpULLA.—
Owsjannikow placed the under limit of the vaso-motor area in the
rabbit, about 4 millimétres (‘15 inch) from the calamus scriptorius,
the upper limit 4 millimétres higher, 1:2 millimétres below the
corpora quadrigemina. C. Dittmar (Ludwig's Arbeiten vi. 103,
1874, and Lond. Med. Recd. Vol. u. No. 61, 1874), in order to avoid
the uncertainty of making the sections of the medulla with the free
hand, as performed by Owsjannikow, has invented an apparatus for
holding a small knife, which can be moved in any direction, and for
any distance, by means of a finely graduated screw. He also laid the
spinal canal more freely open, in order to avoid the accumulation of
blood in the sac of the dura mater, as this has been shown to prevent
a reflex action from reaching the vaso-motor nerves. Any bleeding
from the bone was easily arrested by the application of small pieces
of paper which had been dipped in tincture of iron and then dried,
The blood-pressure was measured in the carotid.

The author confirms in the main the results of Owsjannikow, and

finds that in the rabbit the lower limit of the vaso-motor area lies

about 3 millimétres above the point of the calamus scriptorius, 1 to
14 millimétres (‘04 to ‘06 inch) below the lower margin of the tuber-
culum laterale. The upper limit lies in the neighbourhood of the
fovea anterior, about the upper margin of the corpus trapezoides.
Following the indications given by the experiments of Miescher and
Nawrocki, the author found that sections of the anterior and pos-
terior columns, as well as the gray substance of the same, within the
third cervical vertebra, did not alter the reflex increase of blood-
pressure on stimulation of the sciatic nerve. It, therefore, follows
that not only the centripetal fibres (Nawrocki) of the sciatic nerve
whose stimulation produces the reflex contractions of the vessels, but
also the vaso-motor nerves, run in the lateral columns of the spinal
cord, The remainder of the anterior column, pyramids (lying towards

216 j DR STIRLING.

the middle line), and the posterior part of the remainder of the lateral
column, can be destroyed without materially influencing the reflex
vaso-motor activity. There only remains, therefore, on each side, a
small prismatic space within the vaso-motor area, whose injury
disturbs or causes cessation of the vaso-motor reflex. It forms the
anterior part of the lateral column.

HAVE ALL THE VASO-MOTOR NERVES THEIR DEEP ORIGIN IN THE
Mepvtia Oxstoncata 1—A. Vulpian, Comptes rendus, uxxvul., No.
7, 472 (Abst. in Centralblatt, No. 44), from his experiments is led to
the conclusion that the assumption of a vaso-motor centre which is
situated solely in the med. oblongata, is. incorrect.

In a curarised mammal in which artificial, respiration is kept up,
if the spinal cord is divided at the level of the second cervical
vertebra, and lower down in the dorsal region the cord be half
divided, the temperature rises somewhat in hoth hind extremities,
and in a frog the vessels of the interdigital membrane of the operated
side were wider than those of the other side. The vessels of the hind
extremity become still wider when in a mammal after transverse
division of the cord the nervus ischiadicus of one side is divided, yet
the temperature of one ear rises temporarily after division of one
cervical sympathetic, even after previous section of the cervical spinal
cord. em A

If the vaso-motor centrum was confined to the medulla oblongata,
then after section of the cord below the medulla oblongata no reflex
phenomena should be exhibited by the vessels. If however one nervus
ischiadicus was divided’ in a curarised dog, on stimulation of the
central end of the nerve by the induced current there occurred a dimi-
nution of the temperature of this extremity, in comparison with the
anterior, about 03°C. (‘Thermo-electric expt.) In a similar manner
the author proves that widening of the vessels takes place reflexly
after division of the cord and separation of the medulla oblongata,
as well by experiments on animals, as after observations of reflex
redness produced in paraplegic men. The vaso-motor nerves there-
fore have numerous centra distributed throughout the gray substance
of the cord, each one of which can be excited independently. Also
in Gazette Méd. de Paris, No. 10, (Compare Goltz on Vaso-dilator
Nerves, Pfliig. Arch. x. 174; Abst. in Centralblatt, 1874, 645.)

Tue INFLUENCE OF ANASTHETICS ON THE VASO-MOTOR CENTRES.—
_ Bowditch and Minot (Boston Med. and Surg. Journ. May, 1874)
investigated this subject chiefly on curarised dogs. They regard their
paper as merely a preliminary one. A series of kymographic tracings
are appended, The following conclusion they regard as possessing,
at most, a high degree of probability.

I.. Chloreform inhalation lowers the reflex irritability of the
yaso-mptor centres, thus diminishing. the power of an irvitation of
sensitive nerves to cauge a rise of bloodd-tension,

Il. Ether acts, if it acts at all, much less powerfully in this
respect than chlorofoym. Ether ang chloroform are both anzstheties,
but chloroform is also something more.

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 217

On THE Vaso-motor System.—Nawalichin (Pfliig. Arch. vit.
609) has investigated the point whether the vaso-motor phenomena
occur simultaneously, and with relatively equal strength in all parts
of the arterial system. Simultaneous measurements of the blood-
pressure were made in peripheral portions of two arteries; in the
case cited, the carotid and femoral. Curarised dogs and cats were
employed. ‘The vaso-motor phenomena were produced either reflexly
or directly by stimulation of the vaso-motor centre. The reflex effects
were produced either from the vagus or sciatic nerves, Direct
stimulation of the nerve centre was produced either by diminishing
its supply of blood (compression of both carotids), or by disturbed
arterialisation of the blood (interruption of the respiration). The
following were the results :

1. Central stimulation of the vagus generally produces a pro-
nounced change in the blood-pressure in the peripheral portion of the
carotid, which consists in an increase or diminution, without there
being a corresponding change of the pressure in the peripheral end of
the femoral artery. [t sometimes happens that during the increase
of blood-pressure in the carotid the pressure in the femoral sinks.

2. Central stimulation of the sciatic nerve causes in the majority
of cases an increase of pressure in the carotid, but not in the femoral.
Cases occur where the pressure in the femoral also rises, but the
maximum occurs later than in the carotid.

3. Occlusion of both carotids (in cats) causes an increase of
pressure, sometimes in the one system, sometimes in the other.

4, Interruption of the respiration increases the blood-pressure in
both systems, the increase however begins sooner in the femoral,
increases equally and lasts. longer, so that the maximum pressure in
this vessel is absolutely and relatively: greater than in the carotid.

The above facts show that the changes in the different vessels caused
by the vaso-motor. system are not enly unequal with different forms
of stimulation of the centre, but that they are also not simultaneous
with the same mode of stimulation, and that these changes may be
of different values, and may even run in opposite directions. This
is true not only of different animals, but also of one and the same
animal, at different times,

On THE Resprratory Centre.—Gierke, Pdiig. Arch. vit. 583
(Abstr. Lond. Med. Rec. No. 71) lgcates the respiratory centre in a
longitudinal, bundle of fine nerve-fibres, lying on each, side of the
middle line in the medulla oblongata. It has previously been de-
scribed as belonging to the origin of the vagus and glosso-pharyngeal
nerves. It is a continuation of bundles, which, higher up in the
medulla, pass out transversely from the nuclei of the vagus and hypo-
glossal nerves, then proceed longitudinally downwards, and lose them-
selves in the reticular nervous, tissue between the anterior and pos-
terior horns. This respiratory centre does not. consist of a distinct
group of cells. The author regards respiration as a reflex act, the
afferent nerves being the trigeminus and vagus, and the efferent
nerves the phrenic, intercostals and other nerves. P. Rokitansky

218 DR STIRLING.

Stricker’s Med. Jahrbiich. 1874, 30) considers that the respiratory
centre is not confined to the medulla, but extends to the cord ; for
he finds the respiratory movements occur in rabbits poisoned by
Strychnia, although the medulla has been separated from the cord.
Rabbits die from imperfect respiration when the medulla is divided
at the posterior border of the pons Varolii. When respiration has
been arrested by dividing the medulla at this point, it begins again if
strychnia be injected.

On Covcnine.—Koht, Virch. Arch. tx. 191 (Lond. Med. Ree.
~ No. 80), for his experiments used cats and dogs, which wére in no case
narcotised. Neither the position of the glottis nor diaphragm were
directly observed ; the author, like Nothnagel, drawing his conclu-
sions from the occurrence or non-occurrence of the characteristic de-
tonations during coughing. For the production of coughing me-
chanical (pinching, teasing, tickling with feathers); chemical irritants
(common salt and ammonia); thermal (ice); and electrical stimuli
were employed. By stimulation of the centripetal fibres of the vagus,
reflex coughs are produced, this is proved experimentally :

1. For the trunk of the pharyngeal and superior laryngeal nerves
of the pneumogastric.

2. For the peripheral endings of the vagus in the following
areas. Coughing occurred :

(a) On stimulation of the mucous membrane of pharynx, of the
larynx (of the fossa inter arytaenoidea, of the plica glosso-epiglottica,
and plicae ary-epiglotticae), of the trachea, of the bifurcation of the
trachea, of the bronchi.

b) On stimulation of the costal pleura.

ts On stimulation of the @sophagus (the experimental proof
for a so-called stomach-cough is wanting).

(d) There is a central cough which-can be produced by direct
stimulation of the medulla oblongata (vagus).

General Physiology of Nerve.

“On Electrotonus and the Inner Méchanies of Nerves.” J, Bern-
stein, Pfliig. Arch. vin. 40. “ Experimental and Critical on Elec-
trotomus.” LL. Hermann, Lbenda, 258. “On Electrotonus.”
J. Bernstein, Lbenda, 498 (Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 29, 1874).
“On the Transformations in the Terminations of Nerves in the
Muscles of the Frog after Section of the Nerves.” A. Sokolow,
Arch. de Phys. Norm. et Patholog. 1874, 2 and 3, 300. * Action
of Oxygen on Increased Reflex Excitability.” Ananoff, Centralblatt,
No, 27, 1874. ‘Lectures on Electro-Therapeutics.” G. 'V. Poore,
Lancet, 1874, “ Persistence of Sensibility in the Peripheral Ends
of Cut Nerves.” Arloing and Tripier, Acad. Franc, May 25th (Ab-
stract in Lond. Med. Rec, No, 76, 1874), “ Blectrical Contribu-
tions.” Runge, Deutsch. Arch. Klin, Med, 1874, x11. 345,

Errect or TEMPERATURE AND DIFFERENT DEGREES OF THE STIMU-
LATING CURRENT ON THE Rapiprry or PropaGation or Excrrarron

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 219

IN THE Froq’s Nerve.—A. Trditzky (Pfliig. Arch. vir. 599). After
mentioning the method he adopted for marking with accuracy the
distance in a horizontal line between the beginning of two curves on
the cylinder of the myograph ; the author states his conclusions :
1. With slight intensity of the stimulating current the rapidity of
the propagation of stimulation in the nerve is at its maximum be-
tween +20’, and +10°C. The rapidity diminishes when the nerve
is warmed to 30°C, or cooled to 0°. 2. With stronger currents, the
influence of temperature on the rapidity of propagations in the nerves
diminishes. The rapidity is more influenced by the strength of the
stimulating current than by the temperature. 3. With very strong
currents the influence of temperature disappears completely. 4. The
greatness of the rapidity of propagation in nerves depends upon the
strength of the stimulation, and stands in direct proportion to the
same.

JuNncTION Or Sensory AND Motor Nerves,—Vulpian (Arch. de
Phys. 1873, 597, Comptes rendus, 1874, No. 4, Abstract in Central-
blatt, No. 19, 1874, and Lond. Med. Rec, No. 77) concludes from his
experiments on the union of the divided end of the hypoglossal with
the lingual that “the question of the identity of physiological pro-
perty in all nerve-fibres remains a disputed one, and it is difficult to
foresee in which way it will be decided.”

Eye.

“ Crossing of the Optic Nerves and Hemiopia.” E. Mandelstamm,
wv. Griifes Archiv. xix. 2. 39. ‘Structure of the Chiasma Nervorum
Opticorum.” Michel, Zbenda, 59.——*“ Researches on the Communica-
tions of the Retina with the Encephalon.” Brown-Séquard, Arch. de
Physiol. 1872, 261 (Abstract of all three Centralblatt, Nos. 26 and 27,
1874). “Doctrine of the Sense of Sight.” E. Hering, Wiener.
Acad. Sitzungsb. tv1. Abth. 3, p. 5 (Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 31,
1874). “On the Estimation of the Point of Intersection of Rays
of Light falling excentrically on the Eye.” v. Gréfe’s Arch. x1x. ii.
301 (Abstract im Centralblatt, No. 31, 1874). “ Apparent Accom-
modation in Aphakia.” Onderzoekingen gedaan in het. Labor.
Utrecht, u, 125 (Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 32, 1874). *¢ Zillner’s
Pseudoscopic Figure.” Guye, Maandblad voor Naturwetens, 1873,
No. 6 (Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 32, 1874).——“ Stereoscopic
Vision.” Van der Meulen and Dooremaal, Onderzoek. gedaan in het.
Laborat. Utrecht. 1. 81 and 119 (Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 33,
1874).——“ Apparatus for the Demonstration of Listing’s Law,” de-
scribed under the name of ‘“Blemmatrope.” L. Hermann, Pfliig.
Arch, vi. 305.——“On the Posterior limiting Membrane of the
Human Iris.” A. Grunhagen, Schultze’s Arch. 1x. 726———“ On the
Theory of Colour-blindness.” A. Fick, Wiirzb. Verhandl. B*. 1. 129.
“On the Measure of the Sensations, and specially of the Sensa-
tions of Light and Fatigue.” J. Delboeuf, Mém. del’ Acad. de Belgi-
que, 8, xxiit, p.115 (Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 35,1874). “New
Ophthalmoscope,” Knapp; Gayat “on the Measurement of the Orbit,”

220 DR STIRLING.

Abstracts in Lond. Med. Rec, No. 66, 1874.——“ Physiology of the
Secretion of Tears.” M. Reich, Arch. f- Ophthal. x1x. Pt. 3. 38 (Ab-
stract in Lond. Med. Rec. No. 71, 1874). “ Innervation of the
Plexus Chorioides inferior.” Benedikt, Virch. Arch. u1x. 395 (Abstract
in Lond. Med. Rec. No. 85). ‘The Doctrine of the Field of Vision,
and its Anomalies.” W. Schén (a physiological and clinical study),
Berlin, Hirschwald. 1874, 8vo. 150 pp. 12 plates and 17 wood-cuts
(Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 43).

Ear.

“ Helmholtz’s Model of the Ear, with a Contribution to the Phy-
siology of the Auditory Apparatus.” <A. Luce, Arch. f Ohrenheilh.
I. 4. “Development of the Tympanum.” V. Urbantschitsch,
Wiener. Acad. Sitzb. u1. Abth. uxvin. 1873, 19. “'Tympanum in
the Foetus and the Newly Born.” H. Wendt, Arch. 7, Heilkunde,
1874, x1v. (Abstract of both papers, Centralblatt, No. 34, 1874).
“ Resonant Functions of the External Ear.” Philadelph. Med. Times,
April 4, 1874 (Abstract in Lond. Med. Rec. No. 71). “ Physiology
and Pathology of the Eustachian Tube.” 8. Moos, 8. 58 pp. 7 plates,
Wiesbaden, 1874 (Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 42). “On the Dis-
turbances of Motion, which occur after Section of Semi-circular
Canals.” Liwenberg, Arch. f- Augen. and Ohrenheilk. ur. Abth. 1,
1873, 1——*“ Physical Experiments on the Sense of Equilibrium in
Man.” E. Mach, Wiener. Acad. Sitzwngsb. Lx. iii, 1873, 124 (Ab-
stract of both papers in Centralblatt, No. 43).

Skin.

Tue Conpuction or Hear sy THE Sxin.—Klug (Zeitsch. fiir
Biolog. x. Heft 1, 1874; Lancet, Sept. 1874). Senamont showed that
the conduction of heat by crystals was, except in those of the regular
system, not the same in all directions. De la Rive and De Candolle
observed a similar difference in the conductibility for heat of different
kinds of wood, the undulations of heat being propagated best in the
direction of the length of the fibres, and worst at right angles to
them. Griess made experiments on many other parts of plants (the
leaves) and then proceeded to investigate animal structures, as the
stomach and claws of animals, and in all instances found that wax
spread on the tissues round a wire thrust through both wax and
tissue, melted in the form of an ellipse when the wire was warmed,
Klug has repeated those researches and has investigated particularly the
human skin. Instead of wax, however, he uses the more easily melted
cacao butter, mixed with a little oil. The piece of skin was equally
stretched and a brass. wire passed through it. The skin of the ante-
rior part of the forearm, and to a somewhat less degree the skin of
the back part of the forearm, gave the best marked elliptical figures,
though by no means equalling those of wood. The direction of the
long axis varied considerably in different cases, so that no general
rule could be laid down, ‘The skin of the chest and front part of the

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. Tae...

thigh furnished a much less elliptical isothermal curve, and that of
the back and belly was nearly circular. That of the palm of the
hand was perfectly circular. Experiments made with the epidermis
and corium of the above parts, separately, shewed that the epidermis
conducted heat equally well in all directions, the line of melting of
the wax was therefore circular. The corium behaved in this respect
like the skin as a whole.

Helmholtz’s researches showed that 77:5 per cent. of the whole
heat eliminated by the body passes off by the skin, the question
therefore arose, what influence the different layers of skin exert on
the transmission of heat? The amount of heat given off from the
skin depends upon the extent of surface, and on the difference be-
tween the surface and its environment ; and further as the capacity
for conduction is inversely as the square root of the distance from the
source of heat, the thickness of the skin will also have some influence.
The fat as is already known is of immense value in protecting the
body from loss of heat, and hence its accumulation over breast and
belly ; and secondly the epidermis is a singularly bad conductor of
heat, which the author attributes to the arrangement of its cells.

Blood and Circulatory System.

“On the changes of the red blood corpuscles by sepsis, and septic
infections, with observations on Microcyten.” <A. Hiller, Centralblatt,
Nos, 21, 22, 23 and 24. “Anesthesia produced in man by
injection of chloral into the veins.” Oré, Comptes rendus 1874,
uxxviit. 575 and 561. “Structure of the red blood corpuscles,”
J. Kollmann, Siebold and Killiker’s Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zoology. Xxi1,
Hft. 3. 462 (Abstr. in Centralblatt, No. 25, 1874). “The physio-
logical action of Sulphate of Diazobenzol,” M. Jafié, Arch. f. exp. Path.
1874, u. 1 (Abstr. in Centralblatt, No. 1874).———“ Action of differ-
ent preparations of Ergot of Rye on the Heart, and a contribution to
the more exact knowledge of the irregular movements of the heart,”
M. J. Rossbach, Verhandl. d. Wiirzb. phys. med. Ges. N. F. vi. 19.
(Abstr. in Centralblatt, No. 31, 1874). “The diagnosis of blood-
stains.” Lancet, Augst. 8, 1874. ——“The separation of acids from
the alkaline Blood,” Lancet, July 1874. “Qn the bodily tempera-
ture, and on the rapidity of the blood during respiration of oxygen and
atmospheric air.” Naumow and 8. Beljaew, Pfliig. Arch. vir. 601
(Lond. Med. Rec, No, 69. 11. 1874). “On the Filling of the Lym-
phatics of the Pericardium.” Schumkow, Pyjliig. Arch. vut. (Abstr.
in Lond. Med. Rec. No. 69, 1874). “On the Sphygmograph,”
Boileau, Lond. Med. Rec. No. 75, 1874.———“ Intra-cellular develop-
ment of Blood Corpuscles in Mammalia.” E. Schiifer, Wicroscop. Journ.
June (Abst. in Lond. Med. Rec. No. 80, 1874). Action of Chloral
on the Blood,” Feltz and Ritter, Comptes rendus, Aug. 3, 1874 (Lond.
Med. Ree, No. 86). “Circulation in the Frog’s Lung,” Kiittner,
Virchow’s Arch, ux1. 21——“ The red colouring Matter of Blood.”
Béchamp, Comptes rendus, txxvi1. 850,——*“ Circulation in the Ear
of the Rabbit,’ Moreau, Gaz. Méd. de Paris, No. 11. “ Mode of

222 DR STIRLING.

Action of the Auriculo-ventricular valves,” Sée, Gaz. Méd. de Paris,
No. 13. “On the rhythmical movements of the ven cave and
specially of the Sinus of the vena cava superior,” Colin, Gaz. Méd. de
Paris, No. 19, and “On the functions of the Auricles of the
Heart,” No. 23. “On the Alkalinity of the Blood,” Q. Lassar,
Phliig. Arch. 1x. 44. “ Hemantography,” L. Landois, ibid. 65.
‘Influence of Stimulation of the Vagus on the contraction of the
heart, in the frog,” Nuél, Pfliig. Arch. 1x. 83. *“ On the Action of
caffein, of extract of flesh, and potash salts on the action of the heart
and blood-pressure, H. Aubert and A. Dehn, ibid. 115. * Action
of sensory stimulation on the Blood-pressure,” R. Heidenham,
Pfliig. Arch. 1x. 250. “On the physiological Action of the Ergotin
of Bonjean, and that of Wigger,” H. Kohler, Virch. Arch. ux. 384.
(Abst. in Centralblatt, No. 43).

ON THE DEPENDENCE OF THE ARTERIAL BLOOD-PRESSURE ON THE
QUANTITY OF Boop. Worm Miiller (Ludwig’s Arbeiten, vim. 159,
Abstract in Centralblatt f. Chirurgie, Nos. 8 and 10, and in Lond,
Med. Ree. No. 77,) has investigated this subject but regards his com-
munication as merely a preliminary one,

The experiments of Goltz made upon frogs (Virch. Arch. xxrx.
394 and those of Tappeiner (Zudwig’s Arbeiten v1. 193) upon rabbits,
showed that a considerable quantity of blood can be withdrawn
from these animals without influencing in a corresponding degree the
rapidity of the blood-current, and the pressure in the large arteries
arising from the Aorta.

The Author’s experiments were always made upon dogs. He has
established the remarkable fact that the vascular system can accommo-
date very large quantities of blood without there being any marked
increase of the normal arterial blood-pressure, which was always
measured in the Carotid. More than sixteen per cent. of the body
weight of the animal in blood could be injected into the Jugular Vein
without (after the termination of the transfusion) the blood-pressure
in the beginning of the Aortic system becoming markedly higher than
it was in the normal dog before the commencement of the experiment,
i.e. the quantity of blood that the animal originally had, could be in-
creased to three times its original amount without producing any
marked increase in the Arterial blood-pressure. Within certain limits
this holds good, if the blood-pressure had been diminished either by
section of the spinal cord, or by blood-letting. As soon, during the
injection, as the blood-pressure had reached the value noted before the
beginning of the experiment, the addition of several quantities of defi-
brinated blood, did not raise the pressure above the normal, That
the blood in spite of the over-filling of the vascular system remained
within it and that no important exit of blood or blood-plasma took
place through the walls of the vessels, was established by the negative
results after very careful post-mortem examination. ‘To dispose of the
idea of a simple serous exudation, the thoracic duct was opened to
observe the out-flow of lymph during and after the injection of the
defibrinated blood, The rapidity of the lymph current increased with

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 293

the quantity of blood added, but a sinking of the blood-pressure with
increased quantity of lymph was not observed. A direct proof of the
overfilling of the vascular system is given in the effects of blood-
lettings in an animal into which blood had been previously trans-
ferred. From such an animal quantities of blood, not sufficient to
endanger the life of the animal, were withdrawn from the carotid, and
from this animal, over-filled as it was with blood, on continuing the
blood-lettings until death ensued, and even by pressing the limbs and
body of the moribund animal, scarcely ever was the quantity of blood
transfused again recovered. The results of the post-mortem examina-
tion shewed no marked overfilling of the arteries, and only in the
veins of the abdomen was there any appreciable overfilling observed,
The Author is of opinion that after transfusion, the blood is specially
to be found in the capillaries distributed more or less over the whole
body. He is further of opinion that the increase in the capacity of
the vascular system is accomplished by the help of the capillary net-
works, of the smallest veins, and the smallest arteries. Very probably
throughout the whole body under normal conditions, many capillaries
entirely empty or only partially filled exist, which become permeable
to the blood-current, after considerable increase of the quantity of
blood, <A distention of the capillary networks is not a necessary con-
sequence of the overfilling. This occurs, however, under very pro-
nounced filling of the vascular cavities with blood, and as the author
believes, at those places and in those organs, such as in the thoracic
and abdominal cavities, where the overfilling is most observable.

Even with pronounced filling of the vascular system no change in
the capacity of the heart for doing work (Leistungsfihigkeit) oc-
curred. The pulse-beats remained with increased percentage of blood,
either unchanged both in animals with divided and in those with in-
tact spinal cord, or they were diminished so irregularly that the latter
point could only under certain circumstances be brought into account.
The lungs were found congested post mortem. An increased friction
of the blood in the lungs is not alone sufficient to explain the non-in-
crease of the blood-pressure, Neither congestion of the right heart
nor of the large veins which open into it were found.

If after transfusion the quantity of blood in the transfused animal
was diminished, the paradoxical phenomenon was exhibited that before
one half of the blood injected was recovered, the arterial blood-pres-
sure sank much below the niveau which it had before the transfusion,
By continuing the blood-letting the animal could be brought near to
death, even though the quantity of blood which it had, surpassed by
several per cents. of its body-weight the original (normal) quantity of
blood; in other words animals which had received from one to three
times their original quantity of blood were much more sensitive to
blood-letting than in the normal condition. Absolutely, transfused
animals yield more blood on being bled to death, which is easily ex-
plained by the strongly pronounced filling of the vascular system, but
relatively they require much larger, perhaps twice as large, or may be
still larger quantities of blood (than in the non-transfused condition),
in order to preserve the normal blood-pressure, i.e. that necessary for

224 DR STIRLING.

life. In an animal which has been bled from both carotids, until
nearly dead, even after blood has ceased to flow from the divided
arteries, blood again flows from the carotid on dividing the cervical
spinal cord (This observation I have repeatedly verified. Rep.), and
the stream is increased on raising the posterior extremities and
pressing on the abdominal and thoracic walls. The author then discusses
the upper and lower limits of the physiological filling of the vascular
system, and then follows a short chapter on plethora and transfusion.

InsEcTION OF AIR INTO THE BLoop-VEssELs.— Kowalewsky and
Wyssotsky (Pfliig. Arch. v111) injected air into the blood-vessels of
curarised cats and dogs, artificial respiration having been kept up.
1. A very considerable quantity of air (200 ccm. and more in the
dog,) can be injected into the external jugular vein in the direction of
the heart without disadvantage, when the injection is not completed
at once, only small quantities being introduced at a time. 2. Much
smaller quantities (12 ccm. for the cat, 14 or less for the dog) in-
jected at once are sufficient to kill the animal. 3. The effects on
the blood-pressure and action of the heart were also noted. Post-
mortem in animals in which large quantities of air had been injected
gradually, either none or very little air. was found in the left side
of the heart and arteries, but it was found in the right heart and
in the pulmonary arteries, though the amount was less than that
injected. 4, Large quantities of air injected into the jugular vein
in the direction of the heart produce effects in the circulation similar
to those of ligature of the inferior vena cava. Death follows, because
the blood is prevented from passing from the veins into the arteries in
consequence of the formation of considerable quantities of froth in the
right side of the heart. The cause of death is an arterial anaemia
(notwithstanding that the action of the heart continued for some time).
5. The effects also of injecting the air peripherally, towards the brain,
were studied. 6, Experiments with frothy blood (defibrinated blood
shaken with air) injected through the pulmonary artery of the excised
lungs, showed that the pulmonary and central capillaries do not pre-
sent any insurmountable resistance to the blood charged with air-
bubbles. “The hindrance to ‘the blood-current in the capillaries is, if
present at all, only temporary. The danger of the entrance of air into
the veins does not consist in the formation ‘of eapillary emboli in the
lungs or brain, but in the production of a considerable quantity of
froth in the right heart whereby a mechanical hindrance to the normal
circulation and its consequences—anaemia of the avrtic system—are

produced, (Fuller Abstract in Lond, Med. Ree. No. 69, 1874.)

On THE DereNDENCE oF THE MepriuM CURRENT OF BLOOD ON THE
DEGREE OF EXCITATION OF THE SYMPATHETIC VASO-MOTOR NERVES.—
K. Slavjansky (Ludwig's Arbeiten, vir. and Abst. in Centralblatt f.
Chirurgie, No. 19, 1874) has made a large number of experiments
upon the carotid artery and inferior vena cava of young dogs and
rabbits, to ascertain whether the rapidity of the whole blood-current
was increased or diminished when a large number of sympathetic and

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 225

vaso-motor nerves were stimulated simultaneously. Simultaneously
with the estimation of the rapidity of the volume of the blood flowing
out of the inferior vena cava (for the method by which this was ascer-
tained, vide the wood-cut and description in the original), the blood-
pressure was measured in the carotid. The inferior vena cava was
operated on because its blood passes through muscles, bones, skin,
and the intestines, 7. e. through organs which stand in the most
different relations to the vaso-motor nerves. The results obtained
from the vena cava were controlled on the carotid by two series of
experiments. The blood caught from the carotid was measured by
the apparatus of Tappeiner (Ludwig's Arbeiten, 1872), whilst a mer-
curial manometer was connected with the carotid of the opposite side.

From observations on the spinal cord of curarised dogs the fol-
lowing results were obtained.

1. The quantity of blood which passes through the heart varies
with the stimulation of the spinal cord; after division of the spinal
cord it sinks below the normal, after stimulation of the same it
increases from five or six to ten times.

2. With this increase of the blood flowing through the heart,
on stimulation of the spinal cord, ¢.e. of the sympathetic vaso-motor
nerves, the pressure in the aortic system also rises, because the con-
tents of one part of the vascular system (inferior vena cava) are
driven by the stimulation of the nerves, which cause contraction of
the vessels, into the aorta, and so the contents and pressure are here
increased.

Tn order to control the correctness of these results, the vascular
area, Which was closed, or at least lessened by the stimulation of the
sympathetic nerve-fibres, was artificially shut off by ligature of the
intestinal arteries and of the portal vein, and on stimulation of the
splanchnic nerve the following results were obtained.

1. Ligature of the cceliac, and of the superior and inferior
mesenteric arteries, led to obstruction of the aortic current, and there-
with obstruction to the flowing off of blood in a wide area. The
rapidity of the quantity of blood flowing in the vena cava is some-
what diminished, the pressure in the aortic system increased.

2. Ligature of the portal vein produced widening of current
area of the vessels of the abdomen, and filling with blood; the pressure
in the aortic system was diminished until death, and there was dimi-
nution of the volume of blood flowing.

3. Stimulation of the splanchnic nerve produced closure of the
abdominal arteries and emptying of their contents. Pressure in the
aortic system was increased, and there was an increase in the volume

of blood flowing (Lond. Med. Rec. No. 88).

ON THE CHANGES OF THE HeEAR?’s Beat UPON REFLEX EXCITATION
oF THE Vaso-Motor Nervous SysTeM, AND INCREASE OF THE INTRA-
CARDIAL PRESSURE, AND ON THE INFLUENCE OF THE CERVICAL SPINAL
CoRD ON THE NUMBER OF BEATS OF THE Heart.—P. Knoll, Wiener
Acad. Sttzungsb. LXvVI. 11., 1872, 56 pp., and ebenda 26 pp. (From
Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 36, 1874).—The observation of Kratsch-

VOL, IX. 15

226 DR STIRLING.

mer’s, that, upon stimulation of the nasal mucous membrane with
divided n. vagi in the rabbit, irregularities in the beats of the heart
occur, forms the outset of the author’s investigations. Under the
same experimental conditions he observed a rapid and considerable
increase of the blood-pressure, which was followed very soon by a
slowing of the heart’s beats, whilst the pulse-waves written by the
kymograph increased in height. Thereby peculiar irregularities
shewed themselves in the pulse-curve, in that, the waves characteristic
of excitation of the vagus, as also strong, two or three-pointed eleva-
tions (pulsus bi- or trigeminus) of the duration of two or three slowed
heart-beats, alternated with normal waves, chiefly’in an irregular
manner. These irregularities went temporarily along with the
increased blood-pressure. In these experiments the increase of the
blood-pressure depends very probably upon the reflex excitation of
the vaso-motor centrum. Phenomena, the same as those just de-
scribed, can be produced by the stimulation of other peripheral
nervous expansions, ¢. g. by stimulation of the conjunctiva, and the
increase of pressure never occurred when the spinal cord had been
previously divided. In this case the changes in the frequency and
rhythm of the heart-beats were absent. When, however, the blood-
pressure, lowered by division of the spinal cord, was again increased
by elevation of the posterior part of the body or by compression of
the aorta, then several times those characteristic irregularities in
the pulse-curve occurred on stimulation of the spinal cord, and that
without the pulse being slowed. In fact, further experiments shewed
that when the blood-pressure had not sunk below a certain minimum,
preferably with intact spinal cord, sudden considerable increases in
blood-pressure, such as can be produced by compression of the aorta,
or stimulation of the splanchnicus, occasion at once irregularities in
the rhythm of the heart-beats, even when the heart is freed from all
its connections with the central nervous system, With intact spinal °
cord, increase of the intra-cardial pressure diminishes simultaneously
the frequency of the pulse; but the frequency is never thereby influ-
enced when the heart is completely separated from the central nervous
system. ‘The opposite assertion of Bezold and the brothers Cyon is
questioned by the author. Concerning these irregularitics of the action
of the heart which are caused by increase of the intra-cardial pressure
without the intervention of the parts of the nervous system situated
outside the heart, they are, according to the author, to be regarded
as the expression of abortive heart-beats, in that, between the single
contractions only incomplete diastoles follow; these contractions have
small force, and only from time to time single powerful systoles are
inserted.

In the second cited communication the author shews that the
diminution of the frequency of the heart-beats which occurs after
section of the spinal cord in curarised rabbits, in which the cervical
nerves (vagi, depressores) have been divided, must be regarded as
independent of the simultaneous change of pressure, in opposition to
the view of Cyon. Under different circumstances (e.g. after sti-
mulation of the central end of the N, depressor after previous section

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 227

of the vagi, or after inspiration of amyl nitrite) a considerable dimi-
nution of the blood-pressure is observed without slowing of the heart-
beats. Stimulation of the peripheral end of the spinal cord always
gave an increase of the blood-pressure, which was small, but still was
present, when the aorta was compressed or the splanchnici were pre-
viously divided. Simultaneously an increase of the heart-beats
occurred, which lasted long after the blood-pressure had again sunk,
The acceleration of the pulse never reached a value surpassing the
mean normal frequency. From the above-cited communication it re-
sults that increase of the pressure cannot be the cause of acceleration of
the pulse; and other observations support this view. How the increase
of frequency of the pulse is caused is explained differently by different
authors (Bezold, Cyon, Traube). Even the fact, that electrical stimu-
lation of the intact spinal cord, when the cervical nerves are divided,
never influences the number of pulse-beats, shews that the view of
Bezold of special, spinal motor cardiac nerves is very probably wrong.
On the contrary, many facts support the hypothesis that on stimula-
tion of the spinal cord fibres are met with whose excitation diminishes
the inhibition of the heart’s action; above all, the fact that the influ-
ence of stimulation of the vagus can be paralysed by simultaneous
stimulation of the spinal cord. Whether the inhibitions of the heart’s
action are increased after section of the spinal cord, what connection
exists between the slowing of the pulse and division of the spinal
cord, must be left for the present.

Oricin or (pema.—Th. Rott (Berlin. klin. Wochenschr. 1874,
No. 9) confirms the results of Hehns (Jowrn. of Anat. and Phys. vit.
405), that edema may arise without section of nerves, when, either
by ligature of large venous trunks or numerous veins, the completion
of the collateral circulation is hindered. After section of the corre-
sponding nerves more pronounced cedema occurs on account of the
increased fluxion. [These facts I have often verified. Rep.]

GASEs IN HUMAN TrANsupDATIONS.—A. C. Ewald, Reich. wnd du
Bois Reymond’s Arch. 1873, 663 (1st communication). (Abstract in
Centralblatt, No. 37, 1874.) The author obtained the fluid to be
investigated by means of a trocal provided with an elastic tube,

and caught it directly over Hg, in the apparatus of Pfleuger provided

with three stop-cocks, a description of which is to be found in the
original. By this arrangement the admixture of air was completely
excluded. As the pumping out of the gases could be always im-
mediately undertaken, the three-stop-cocked tube was cooled in
several experiments with ice-water, in order to avoid decomposition.
The results of this method compared with those obtained in the usual
way, shewed that this procedure was superfluous. For the analyses
pleuritic effusions and transudations in different stages were ex-
clusively employed. Ascitic fluids were avoided because in them
there was a possibility of diffusion from the intestinal canal. The
author divides the exudations employed into purely serous exuda-
tions, which gradually become purulent, “chronic,” and acute puru-

15—2

228 DR STIRLING.

lent exudations. To these on the one side belongs the cedemas, on the
other the pure pus of abscesses. The quantity of gases in edema-
tous fluid does not vary greatly from physiological lymph. The
loosely bound CO, in Case 1 was 16, 91 vol. per. cent., in 11 16, 63;
the firmly united in Case 1 6, 92, in 11 23, 7.—The serous pleuritic
exudations shewed an increase of the whole quantity of CO,, with the
duration of the condition; it increased from 33, 84 vol. p.c. to 63,
84 p.c. Only in one case was there an exception, but in this case
- pneumothorax coexisted, and CO, could be removed by diffusion.
The more purulent exudations shewed that the value for the CO,
however, depends upon another factor; the sum of ©O; contained in
an exudation is ceteris paribus smaller, the more its condition
approximates to pure pus. The CO, is almost exclusively contained
in pus-serum—the more this recedes in proportion to the pus-cor-
puscles, the less must be the value for the CO,,—Concerning the
increase of CO, with the duration in the more serous exudations, it is
shewn that it is chiefly the firmly bound CO,, which is first expelled
by addition of acids; here there is quite a regular increase. For the
explanation of these facts there come into consideration 1. The
passage of loosely bound CO, into firmly united CO, in consequence of
the increase of the partial pressure; 2. The addition of CO, salts by
endosmose; 3. The absorption of watery constituents. In the
purulent exudations the quantity of fixed CO, sinks continually,
until in the pus of an abscess it equals O. There are two ways of
explaining these phenomena ; increase of the alkalinity and the capa-
bility of pus-corpuscles to expel CO,—as the red blood-corpuscles do.
An increase of alkalinity could not be proved, so that there only
remains the second possibility, and by special experiments it was, in
fact, proved that the pus-corpuscles—pus free of gases—are able, on
pumping out, to expel CO, from pure simple carbonate of soda, quite
in the same way as mineral acids. Small quantities. of O and N
could be detected in all cases, and the quantity of O and N was under
1,8 p.c. As the quantity of these two sorts of gas is nearly the
same us in blood-serum, and does not increase with the addition of
pus-corpuscles in proportion to the serum, it therefore follows that the
pus-corpuscles and white blood-corpuscles contain no O or only traces,
z.e, ure not O-carriers like the red ones. H, H,S, HC, were found
once, in a putrid exudation.—The reaction of cedematous fluid as
well as of the serous exudations was always alkaline, that of pro-
nouncedly purulent exudations as well as of pure pus more or less
acid, The specific gravity varied from 1005—1026,

Tue Resistance or THE WALLS OF THE VESSELS IN THE NORMAL
AND INFLAMED Conpiti0on.—F, v. Winiwarter, Wiener Acad. Sitzb.
ut Abth. B, 3, uxvut. 1873 (Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 30, 1874).
In order to compare the capability of resistance in inflamed parts with
that in the normal condition, v. W. produced inflammation of the
mesentery of the frog by means of cantharides. The animal was
injected next day, and always at the same time a sound one for com-
parison. The injection mass consisted of water, soluble Berlin blue,

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 229

and gelatine; and the injection was made by means of Hering’s
apparatus, with constant pressure,

The result of 70 experiments was, that as well in normal as in
inflamed mesenterium, injection mass passed through the walls of the
vessels, but there was a pronounced difference in as far as the exit of
the injection in the inflamed condition occurred oftener and was
more copious, and followed even the lowest pressure employed
(25 mm. Hg), whilst in the normal condition exit of the mass was
only observed in those cases where the pressure had exceeded 70 mm.
Similar results were obtained by another series of experiments

_ where the frog pumped the mass into the vessels by the action of its

own heart.

The experiments shew that in the inflamed mesenterium exit is
occasioned by a vis a tergo, which produces none in the healthy con-
dition, and that a vis a tergo which is capable of producing an exit
even in the normal condition, produces in the inflamed more numerous
and larger extravasations. If it is concluded that the vessels in the
inflamed condition offer less resistance than in the normal, it must
not be forgotten that the vis a tergo could be made equal in experi-
ménts and counter-experimeuts, but still the lateral pressure was not
equal without and within. In the inflamed tissue, in which the
blood-vessels are stuffed full with blood-corpuscles, the injection finds
a greater resistance than in the normal vessels, and so in consequence
with equal vis a tergo the lateral pressure must be greater.

In fact one can convince himself with the eye that the injection
progresses less free and easily in the vessels of the inflamed mesentery
than in those of the normal, a condition which the blood must shew
in living inflamed vessels. If it is remembered, however, that in the
inflamed mesentery, already at 25 mm., the exit of the injection mass
was observed, and that in the normal condition this occurred first,
when the pressure had exceeded 70 mm., so one must conclude that
the walls of the vessels themselves have undergone an essential change
by the inflammation, in consequence of which they offer less resist-
ance to the passage of injection mass, red and white corpuscles, than
in the normal condition, a result which coincides fully with the
latest investigations of Cohnheim.

INFLUENCE OF THE GasEOUS CoNTENTS ON THE SOLUBILITY OF
THE Broop-Corpuscites.—L. Landois, Centralblatt, No. 27, 1874.
If different portions of the same blood are treated with CO,, O, and
nitrous oxyde, the red blood-corpuscles exhibit great varieties with
regard to their solubility. The corpuscles charged with CO, are
dissolved much sooner than the others. Certain re-agents which are
unable to dissolve blood charged with other gases produce at once in
blood charged with CO, the lake colour. The re-agents employed
were salts of the bile-acids, very dilute NaCl solution, serum of dog’s.
blood, for the blood of rabbits and guinea-pigs. Nitrous oxyde blood
stands between CO,-blood, and CO-blood. The blood-corpuscles of
all sorts of blood become, before their solution, round, and shew

230 DR STIRLING.

exceedingly fine points. Perhaps the condition of the hemoglobin
in the cells at the time may account for this.

Microscopic OBSERVATIONS OF THE FoRMATION OF FIBRIN FROM
THE RED Buoop-corpuscies. (Jbid.) The formation of fibrin
dependent on the solved corpuscles is here described. If a drop of
defibrinated rabbit-blood is brought into a drop of frog-serum, the
cells aggregate together, become sticky on their surfaces. The
cells soon become globular, and those cells lying towards the periphery
allow the blood-colouring matter to pass out. This discolouring
gradually extends towards the centre of the drop, and at last only
a heap of stroma remains. The stroma substance is very tough and
viscid. At first the contours of the cells can be detected; when the
stroma has been agitated to and fro, the cellular contours disappear and
viscous fibres and stripes are observed, Step by step the formation
of fibrous masses from the dissolyed mammalian cells can be observed.
The author thinks this fibrin should be called stroma jibrin, in opposi-
tion to the ordinary fibrin, or plasma fibrin, which is formed without
solution of the blood-corpuscles. The two kinds of fibrin may
possibly be chemically distinguishable from each other. In transfu-
sion, if dissolution of the cells occurs, then of course the formation of
stroma fibrin may take place. The coagulations occur the sooner, the
more venous the state of the blood. Animals in a state of asphyxia,
in whom heterogeneous blood was introduced, shewed the most
oxtensive coagulations,

Movements oF THE Heartr.—Vulpian (Gazette Hebdom. de Méd.
May 8th, 1874) exposed the heart of a curarised dog, and in order to
diminish the rapidity of its movements, a quantity of infusion of
digitalis was injected into the femoral vein. The conclusions arrived
at were: 1. The auricles in mammalia have a very distinct unmis-
takable systolic movement, which immediately precedes the systolic
movement of the ventricles, 2. There can be several contractions of
the auricles to one of the ventricles. 3. The revolution of the heart
begins with the systole of the auricle, and finishes with the diastole
of the ventricle. Also Colin, in Progrés Médical, April 25th, and
Lond. Med. Rec., No. 72, 1874.—Bouillaud, Gazette Méd. de Paris,
No. 9.

On tHe Dissociation or Oxy-Hamociopin.—Albert Schmidt
(Centralblatt, No, 46), under Preyer’s direction, examined the heart-
blood of guinea-pigs and, frogs micro-spectroscopically with exclusion
of air, and then tested the oxygen-extracting action of different
tissues. The following facts were noted,

I, The cardiac blood of living footal guinea-pigs constantly con-
tains oxy-hmmoglobin before the first respiration,

Il, The cardiac blood of grown-up animals contains

a. Much, Oshemoglobin after death by (1) hunger, in warm-
blooded animals; (2) freezing, ditto; (3) blowing of air into. the
jugular veins ; (4) poisoning with hydrocyanic acid (frog).

b. Hemoglobin free of O, and only traces of, or no. O-hemoglobin

ee

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 931

after death by (1) closure of the trachea and drowning; (2) pneu-
mothorax ; (3) puncture in the respiratory centre ; (4) blows on the
head ; (5) respiration of rarefied ait ; (6) respiration of hot air ; (7)
freezing in the frog; (8) poisoning with nitrobenzol, chloroform,
alcohol, arsenurated hydrogen, iodine, physostigmin, strychnine,
quinine, nicotin, potash-saltpetre (frog), soda-saltpetre (frog).

c. At one time O-hemoglobin is in excess, at another hemoglobin
free of O; or both may be in nearly equal quantities after death by
(1) poisoning with arsenious acid, in warm-blooded animals; (2)
poisoning with HCN, ditto; (3) injection of steinélin into the
jugular vein.

III. Many dissociation experiments made with tissues gave the
following: frog-muscles which were tetanised continually, dissociated
O-hemoglobin outside the body (ceteris paribus) quicker than those
which had not been active, but not so quick as dead muscles, and the
dissociation set in before the change of the spectrum by lactic acid.

Brain and liver withdraw the O from the O-hemoglobin very
rapidly in watery solutions, the latter itself at a temp. of 0°C.

Fungi placed in solutions of blood produced a rapid dissociation
and then changes of the spectrum, such as are produced by dilute
acids,

Quinine presents the dissociation of O-hemoglobin by fungi, but
not that through brain and liver substance.

CELLS CONTAINING BLOOD-CORPUSCLES IN THE SpLEEN.—A. Kus-
nezoff (Wiener Acad. Sitzber. 1873, 11. Abth, Bd. txvir 8. 58) has
investigated upon the warm stage a large number of spleens from
freshly killed mammals, birds, and amphibians, and thereby could
ascertain the most various motor processes and phenomena in the
so-called “ Blutkérperchenhaltigen Zellen.” He could repeatedly
follow the process in the splenic blood of the rabbit, whereby the
colourless cell directly seized the coloured corpuscles and took them
into itself. Also within the colourless cell, division of the enclosed
coloured corpuscles was seen to take place. The opposite process was
also observed, viz. the extrusion of red blood-corpuscles, or parts of the
the same, out of the white colourless cells.

From these observations K. concludes: 1. The structures de-
scribed in the spleen which contain the red blood-corpuscles are
really cells. 2. They arise, in that, pulp-cells (“ Pulpazellen”) take
to themselves red corpuscles. 3. Within them the destruction of the
red corpuscles and their change into pigment occurs. 4. This pro-
cess is physiological.

Lymph.

ON THE DEPENDENCE OF THE SECRETION OF LyMPH ON THE BLoop-
CURRENT.—H. Emminghaus (Ludwig's Arbeiten, vi. 51, 1874, and
Lond, Med. Rec. Vol. u. No. 58, 1874) has studied the dependence
of the secretion of lymph on the blood-current. In this case, the
hind foot of the dog was employed, and the lymph-vessels were
emptied artificially by the hand. No lymph flowed out generally,

232 -- DR STIRLING.

when the foot was quiet and at rest, in animals poisoned with opium,
a fact already pointed out by Paschutin. [I have been able to verify
this fact on non-poisoned animals.—Lep.] Section of the vaso-motor
nerves produced no diminution in the secretion of lymph. In animals
in which the sciatic nerve had been cut through, on ligature of the
veins of the limb, the lymph flowed out more richly than before ; and
when the veins were kept tied, the quantity of lymph was from four
to six times greater than before the ligature of the veins. Here
swelling of the foot was observed. During ligature of the veins,
spontaneous outflow of lymph was often observed. On removal of
the ligatures, the after-effect of the stagnation shewed itself in the
increased excretion, for an hour or more. Not only did the lymph
vary in quantity during ligature of the veins, but also in percentage
composition and in colour. In normal experiments the lymph was
generally clear ; when the veins were tied, the colour became deeper
red with the duration of the ligaturing. The percentage composition
of the serum (in albumen as in Paschutin’s experiments) diminished
in fixed constituents in lymph obtained from limbs with the nerves
divided and the veins tied. Ligature of the veins without previous
section of the nerves increased the formation of lymph, but still only
in a moderate degree.

From his experiments, Emminghaus concludes that obstruction to
the outflow of blood from the limb is of much greater significance for
the excretion of lymph than changes in the strength of the arterial
current ; and further that, when the limb is so placed that there is
no hindrance to the outflow of blood from the veins, little or probably
no lymph is secreted. New lymph, however, is formed immediately,
either when the elastic equilibrium of the tissues is disturbed, or
when any obstruction is offered to the outflow of the venous blood.

Respiratory System and Voice.

On the Innervation of the Glottis of the Frog.” Spir6, P/liig.
Arch, viii, (Abstract in Lond, Med. Rec, No. 69, 1874)——“ Paralysis
of the Dilator of the Glottis.” F. Penzoldt, Deutsch. Arch. f. Klin.
Med, 1874, xu. 107. (Abst. in Centralblatt, No. 30, 1874.)
* Asphyxia through insufficiency of Oxygen.” Le Blanc, Lond. Med.
Ree, No. 73, 1874, “ Cause of the first Inspiratory Act in Infants,”
H. Lahs, Archiv f. Gynecol. 1v. 1873, (Abst. in Lond. Med, Ree,
No. 72, 1874.) “ Combustion in the Animal Organism.” Schiitzen-
berger, Lond. Med. Ree. No. 85. “Physiology of the Human
Voice.” Kilian, Pfliig. Arch. 1x. 244.

EXTENSIVE CAPILLARY EXTRAVASATION OF BRIGHT RED Broop
ivto THe Putmonary Tissue or tHe Insane.”—Dr Jehn (Cenéral-
blatt, No. 22) refers to Nothnagel’s results upon hemorrhage into
the lungs coincident with injury to the brain (Jowrn. of Anat. and
Phys. vit. 397), and cites 5 cases of his own (1 case Melancholia,
1 Mania, 3 Paralysis), where in the lungs extravasations of bright red
blood, completely resembling arterial blood, were found. The patches

ae a gm

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 233

were sometimes distributed, and in one case the extravasation was
almost total. The boundaries were irregular but sharp, the bronchi
were free. Microscopically, the alveoli were almost exclusively filled
with red blood-corpuscles.. No changes were to be observed in the
vessels and pulmonary tissue. The pathological results in the nervous
system were partly negative, partly old and fresh meningitic new-
formations, hemorrhagic pachymeningitis diffuse redding of single
gyri, in two cases apoplexy of the gray matter of a capillary nature.
During life no manifestation of the lung affection was exhibited.—
See also the Lond. Med. Rec. No. 74, 1874, for a series of cases, with
remarks taken from the Progrés Medical.

AcTION OF VAPOURS WHEN APPLIED TO THE PARTS OF THE
TRACHEA BELOW THE LAaRyNx.—Ph. Knoll, Wiener Acad. Sitzwngsb.
LXVII. 111. (Abst. in Centralblatt, No. 44), shews that in rabbits by
stimulation of the respiratory passages below the larynx, ¢.e. in the
area of the terminations of the vagus, the respiratory movements are
changed characteristically, ‘These movements were recorded graphi-
cally, in that the variations of pressure of the enclosed volume of air
in which the animal to be experimented upon was placed, produced
by the movements of the thorax, were communicated to a Marey’s
cardiograph. The animal respired through a tracheal canula, which
communicated by an india-rubber tube with the atmosphere, ¢.e. with
the stimulating substance to be investigated. The inspiration of
chloroform, weak ammonia solution, and several other vaporous stufts,
produced an acceleration and flattening of the respiratory movements
with a deep position of the diaphragm, together with inspiratory
tetanus through the Ny. vagi. Slowing and deepening of the respi-
ratory movements, together with expiratory tetanus through the
vagi, were produced by the inspiration of strong solutions of am-
monia. Still, this excitation of the expiratory vagus fibres is followed
in the greatest number of cases by an excitation of the inspiratory
fibres, i.e. by flattening and acceleration of the respiration. The
author therefore holds as proved the results of previous experimenters,
who observed expiratory tetanus of the diaphragm after stimulation
of the central end of the vagus. Apncea was not importantly affected
by the inblowing of chloroform, &c. After the disappearance of these
the action of the stimuli blown into the lungs was manifested at once.
Carbonic acid does not stimulate the peripheral ends of the inspiratory
fibres of the vagus, as Berut maintains. First, several, minutes after
the inspiration of this gas peculiar changes in the respiratory move-
ments occur; the CO, appears to act rather on the central origins
of the respiratory muscle-nerves, after its absorption into the circu-
lation.

Alimentation.

“ A Treatise on Food and Dietetics.” F.W. Pavy,M.D.; J. & A.
Churchill. ——“ On some points in the Dietetic Treatment of Disease.”
K. A. Parkes, Lancet, May, 1874. “ On the Nerves of the Digestive
Canal.” Arnstein, Pyjliig. Arch. vitt. (Abstract in Lond. Med. Ree,

234 DR STIRLING.

No. 69, 1874.) “ Physiological Action of Alcohol.” Dogiel,
Pfliig. Arch. viu. Heft 11 & 12. (Abst. in Lond. Med. Ree. No. 69,
1874.) “On Casein and Albumin.” Béchamp, Lond. Med. Ree.
No. 80. “Intestinal Digestion.” G. M. Garland, Supplement to
the Boston Med. and Surg. Jour. “On the Pyloric Glands.”
Ebstein and Griitzner, Pfliig. Arch. vit. 617. “ Question of the
Estimation of Nitrogen in Albuminous Bodies.” Seegen and Nowak,
Phliig. Arch, 1x. 227. “On the Digestion of Alimentary Sub-
stances.” Leven, Gaz. Méd. de Paris, No. 9.- “On the free Acid
of the Gastric Juice.” J. V. Laborde, Gaz. Méd. de Paris, Nos. 32,
33, and 34. “On the Nutrition of Animal Tissues.” Marcet,
Lond. Med. Rec. No. 88. 11..———“Colour Reaction of Albumen.”
A. Adamkiewicz, Pfliig. Arch. 1x. 156.——“On Peptones and
Nutrition with the same.” P. Plész, Pfliig. Arch. 1x. 325.

Formation OF Fat In tue AnrmaL Bopy.—H. Weiske and
E. Wildt, Zeitsch. f. Biologie, 1874, x. 1. (Abst. in Centralblatt, No.
43.) Voit and Pettenkofer have shewn that in the dog the body fat
arises from the albumen taken in the food, and even when this is free
from fat the carbo-hydrates take no part in the formation of fat. The
above authors treat the same question in herbivora, ¢.e. omnivora,
Two swine of from 3—6 weeks old were killed, and the pro-
portion of fat of the whole body estimated, whilst another was fed
for half a year on starch and _ potatoes. "The food was weighed
exactly each time, and often analysed ; the feeces were collected, and
by their analysis it was ascertained how much food had been absorbed.
It was shewn that the food was almost completely digested. We can
only cite the roar The ‘ potatoe-sow” contained at the end of
the experiment 2,2835 kilo. albumen, 7,0138 kilo, fat, 0,4101 sub-
stances free from albumen. The control-animal, which at the beginning
of the experiment may be regarded as of the same composition as the
animal experimented on, contained 1,014 kilo. albumen, 0,874 kilo.
fat, 0,0843 kilo. substances free from N. There was thus formed
during the feeding 1,2425 kilo. albumen, 6,1398 kilo. fut, 0,3258 kilo.
substances free from N. 0,5748 kilo. fat were taken with the food.
If we assume that this was directly absorbed, then 5,565 kilo. fat
have been formed in the body. The albumen taken in was 14,3244
kilo., of this 1,2425 kilo. were stored up, so that 13,0819 kilo, remain
disposable for the formation of fat. According to Henneberg this
could yield 6,7241 kilo, fat. Thus even with food very poor in albu-
men, the albumen taken in would suffice to explain the formation of
fat, though of course that the carbo-hydrates might have aided in the
formation of fat, is not excluded.

On THe Cause or tHe Hien Secrerina PressuRE IN THE GLAND,
Sup-mMaxitiaris.—E, Hering, Wiener Sitzber, 1872. Abth, m1. Bd.
u. (From Abstract in Centralblatt, No, 35,1874.) In the cells of the
sub-maxillary glands during their physiological state of activity, accord-
ing to the hypothesis of the author (and others), a colloid substance
is produced, which by its cons‘derable endosmotic equivalent explains

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 235

the high secreting pressure in these glands. This colloid substance is
probably mucin. The great rapidity with which the saliva is secreted
after stimulation of the glandular nerves, only seemingly speaks
against this. The mucin formed in the gland-cells is separated by a
thin membrane from the fluid which causes it to swell up, and as
mucin is always formed anew from the numerous cells, new quantities
of a watery fluid can always be attracted. The saliva so formed is
secreted with stoppage in salivary ducts, towards which the gland-
cells are not separated by any membrane. Not with more difficulty
than the rapidity can the high pressure of the secretion be explained
from the enormous forces which come into play in imbibition.
“Reflex Secretion of Saliva.” Nawrocky, Pjliig. Arch. vi. 601
(Abstract in Lond. Med. Rec, No. 69, 11. 74).

On A NEW Mernop or EstTIMATING THE QUANTITY OF PEPSIN BY
THE Cotour.—P. Griitzner, Pfliig. Arch. vu. 452 (Abstract in Cen-
tralblatt, No. 20, 1874). Fibrin is to be coloured by placing it in a
solution of carmine, immediately to preserve it in glycerine, and be-
fore making an experiment after washing away the glycerine place it
in dilute HCl (0°2 p.c.) until it swells up. By this means a beau-
tiful red-coloured jelly-like mass is obtained, which is easily dissolved
in digesting fluid, and just in the degree to which it dissolves is it co-
loured red. The greater the quantity of pepsin in the fluid to be
investigated, the quicker does the solution of fibrin take place (ceteris
paribus), and therewith the red colouring of the fluid. This method
is as well fitted for the detection of small quantities of pepsin, as for
the comparison of the quantity of pepsin in two fluids.

Digestive Fiurp mv tHe Farus.—A. Moriggia, Revista Clinica,
1873, 8. A. 38. 8°. (Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 22, 1874). The
author has investigated more than 100 embryos (chiefly of the cow)
from the most different periods of development, and has found that
the digestive power of the mucous membrane of the stomach is
present, and can be demonstrated, not only in the sixth and fifth, but
also in the fourth and third month of pregnancy. The salivary
glands, on the contrary, have no digestive properties either in the

foetus or in the newly-born (compare Schiffer and Korowin, Journ. of

Anat. and Phys. vui. 206). The gall-forming function of the liver
begins very soon. When the liver begins to produce glycogen, could
not be accurately ascertained, for even at the earliest period of de-
velopment of the liver, almost all the embryonal tissues contain gly-
cogen or glycose. Embryos which had been preserved for a long
time at the temperature of the body, in Moleschott’s acetic acid
mixture, were by the action of their own gastric juice completely
digested without a trace being left over. To self-digestion the author
seeks to ascribe the disappearance of dead embryos in closed cysts.
The parts of such embryos which generally remain to the last are
either those which are widely removed from the stomach (e.g. head),
or those which afford resistance to the digestive power of the gastric
juice (e.g. hair, bones). From the constant presence of amniotic fluid

236 DR STIRLING.

in the stomach, and of amniotic epithelum in the meconium of the
embryos of the cow, it is to be concluded with certainty that a con-
stant swallowing of the amniotic fluid takes place in the embryo.

ONncE MORE THE PyLoric GLaNpDs.—v. Wittich, Pfliig. Arch. vu.
444. (From Salkowski’s report in Centralblatt, No. 25, 1874.) The
author confirms the results of Ebstein and Griitzner, that extraction
with HCl from the pyloric glands yields pepsin (Journ. of Anat. and
Phys. vu. 207), whilst in glycerine this does not pass over; but
differs from these authors in the explanation of the result. He sup-
poses that the protoplasm of the epithelium of the pyloric glands in
coagulation absorbs pepsin, just as coagulated fibrin does, and that
this coagulation is accelerated by the action of water. The author
refers to the analogy in the properties-of white of egg; if a concen-
trated solution of this is dropped into water, the formation of mem-
branous precipitates is observed, which are not formed when weak
solution of Na Cl (0°5—1 per cent.) instead of water is employed; by
the addition of Na Cl solution such a precipitate once formed can be
caused to disappear. When carefully washed out, these precipitates
are able to take up pepsin from pepsin-glycerine, so that the glycerine
becomes inactive, while the flocculi, by virtue of their pepsin, readily
dissolve in 0°2 per cent HCl solution. If the albuminous flakes
laden with pepsin are digested in glycerine, they yield no pepsin, but
do so when they are digested with a mixture of equal parts of gly-
cerine and one per cent. solution of NaCl. The washing out of the
mucous membrane of the pylorus may lead to the coagulation of the
protoplasm of the cells and fixation of the dissolved pepsin. ‘The
circumstance that the mucous membrane of the fundus yields pepsin
to glycerine, is explained by the author in the following way. A
distinct quantity of fibrin can only absorb a distinct and that a small
quantity of pepsin, so that it is difficult in this way to free a some-
what concentrated pepsin solution from its contents in pepsin. The
coagulated protoplasm and the glandular cells of the mucous mem-
brane of the fundus would fix pepsin, but far from all, as the
quantity of pepsin in the pyloric mucous membrane is much greater.
Thus is explained the observation that mucous membrane exhausted
by glycerine yields new pepsin in dilute HCl, and why active extracts
are obtained from the pyloric mucous membrane, whilst this does not
succeed with glycerine.

The results of Ebstein and Griitzner, that by simple extraction
of the pyloric and fundal mucous membrane with water an active
preparation can be obtained, appears to the author not sufficiently
founded. The further critical objections against the existence of a
* pepsinogenic” substance are to be seen in the original.

On tHE Ferments,—O. Nasse, Vortrag. Sitzungsb. d. naturf.
Ges. 2u Halle, 1874 (Abstract in Centralblatt, No, 34, 1874). Ebstein
and Griitzner have already confirmed the statement of Y. Wittich,
that fibrin absorbs pepsin as explained above. N. also confirms the
sume, but gives another explanation of the action, in as far as he thinks

we

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 237

we have to do here, not with a mere mechanical action, but really
with a chemical combination. He has found coagulated albumen
fixes the pancreas ferment, and swollen-up amylum, ptyalin. By wash-
ing out with ice-cold water the swollen-up amylum can be completely
freed from sugar, if it is digested with water at 30°—40°C., then
a copious formation of sugar takes place, with liberation of the
ferment.

INFLUENCE OF BICARBONATE OF SopA on Doas.—Lomikowsky
(Berlin. klin. Wochensch. No. 40, 1873) finds that this drug acts on
the intestinal canal, and that under its influence the Peyerian and
solitary glands become enlarged. This depends upon hyperplasia of
the lymphoid elements, and is likewise observed in the spleen, which
also becomes larger. The liver, subject to a temp. of 15° R. during a
few hours, shewed no trace of sugar, though in all cases glycogenic
substance was detected.

On tHe Act or Vomirine.—C. Greve, Berlin, klin. Wochenschr.
July, 1874 (Abstract in Lond. Med. Rec. No, 85), reinvestigated the
question as to whether the stomach is active or passive during vomit-
ing. Apomorphia was used, and was found to be the most certain
and speedy of emetics. Vomiting occurs after division of the vagi.
The negative results obtained by Quehl in this respect were due to
his having tied the dogs experimented on upon their backs, in which
position they hardly ever vomit except when their stomachs are full.
When dogs have emptied their stomach in the morning by violent
vomiting, they will not vomit in the afternoon when tied either upon
their backs or bellies, but will do so at once if set free and an emetic
administered. They vomit more easily when placed on their bellies
than on their backs. After the injection of apomorphia, apnoea can-
not be produced, and vice versé. When vigorous artificial respiration
is kept up, it counteracts the emetic power of apomorphia. The
centre for vomiting is identical with or close to the respiratory centre.
The nervous path along which the irritation is propagated from the
vomiting centre to the organs concerned in the act, lies in the spinal
cord as far as the sixth dorsal vertebra. When the cord is divided
below this point voniiting stills occurs, but not when the point of
section is above this vertebra, The stomach takes no part whatever
in the act of vomiting. B. Liittich has also investigated this subject,
with special reference to the réle of the esophagus in the act of
vomiting. Jnaug. Dissert, Kiel, 1873, 20 pp. (Centralblatt, No. 46).
The author combats the views of Traube and Riihle, that the longi-
tudinal fibres of the lowest part of the cesophagus by their contrac-
tion play an essential part in the introduction of the act of vomiting.
In man these fibres consist of smooth muscles and are incapable of
executing retrograde contractions. The author is of opinion that all
the phenomena can be better explained when it is assumed that an
inspiration introduces the act and not any expiration, as Traube
supposes. In fact the author could prove this in a dog with a mano-
meter tied into its opened trachea. The vomiting was produced by

238 DR STIRLING.

the injection of apomorphia. By the contraction of the diaphragm,
pressure is exerted on the abdominal contraction, which is strength-
ened by the simultaneous contraction of the abdominal muscles,
whilst in the thoracic cavity the air is rarefied. Thereby, that at once,
as L. has observed (in opposition to Traube), by direct examination of
the larynx in a dog while vomiting, the glottis is closed, the air in
the lungs remains rarefied, i.e. the sucking power which is exerted
on the contents of the stomach remains undiminished. It is true
that air can enter the esophagus from without, the contents of the
stomach, however more easily, because on these a positive pressure is
exerted. When the abdominal walls are divided transversely and
longitudinally, the pressure of the diaphragm and the elasticity of
the walls of the stomach suffice to overcome the closed cardiac orifice,
or the stomach will become inflated by air swallowed, and the vomit-
ing rendered easier. The latter can also occur with unopened abdo-
men. An active participation of the cesophagus in the act of vomit-
ing the author could not prove in dogs. After opening the thoracic
cavity a complete act of vomiting could not take place. Experiments
in which wax-balls were introduced into the csophagus opened an-
teriorly, speak against the occurrence of antiperistaltic movements of
this organ.

Liver.

On THE ForMATION OF GLYCOGEN IN THE Liver.—B. Luchsinger,
Pfliig. Arch, 1873, vut. 289 (Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 10, 1874).
This author has repeated the experiments of Weiss with feeding on
glycerine (Centralblatt, 1873, 552), and adds experiments with other
easily oxydisable substances. The experiments were conducted partly
on hens and partly on rabbits. On injecting glycerine (42 grms. and
60 grms.) into the stomach, in two experiments, the author found
0°55, and 0°71 grms. glycogen; on injecting grape-sugar (50 grms.)
1678 grms. more, although sugar from the experiments of Schere-
metjewski is oxydised with more difficulty, te. according to the view
of Weiss, is less fitted to protect from use the glycogen originating
in the liver. The estimation with circular polarisation shewed that
the glycogen obtained by feeding with glycerine is identical with
normal glycogen. As in hens, on which the first three experiments
were made, so also in hungered rabbits, a considerable quantity of
glycogen was found in the liver, and also in the muscles, after the in-
jection of glycerine. According to the theory of Weiss subcutaneous
injection of glycerine should have the same effect as injecting it
into the stomach. One experiment rumragie ig 9 yielded no gly-
cogen in the muscles, but traces in the liver. In all 50 ccm. glycerine
were injected. After the third injection the animal had a fit, but,
with this exception, was throughout well. An experiment with feed-
ing on fat gave a negative result; the liver contained fat richly, but
no glycogen. In spite of the large quantity of easily oxydisable
materials in the body, the glycogen was not preserved from oxyda-
tion. Experiments with tartarate and lactate of soda gave no gly-

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 239

cogen in the liver, or only traces. The general result is that sub- —
stances known to be easily oxydisable are not able to cause an
accumulation of glycogen in the liver, in the sense of the “ Ersparniss-
theorie.”

The author then investigated whether other sorts of sugar did
not produce other glycogens corresponding to them. Experiments
with lactose and inulin yielded also a glycogen, which in the latter
case was proved to be identical with the normal glycogen, Glycerine
excepted, according to these experiments, it is the carbo-hydrates
exclusively which occasion a formation of glycogen in the liver. The
author then attempts to shew that glycerine can go over directly into
glycogen, and cites a series of relationships between glycerine and
sugar, also the formation of glycerine from sugar in the alcoholic
fermentation, and the change of glycerine into sugar by the substance
of the testicle after Berthelot. Supported by this, and the negative
results with easily oxydisable substances, the author is of opinion
that glycerine also goes over directly into glycogen.

Movements or tHE Bite.—Kowalewsky (Pfliig. Arch. vit. Ht.
11—12) operated upon curarised cats. He found that: 1. The
motive power for the bile is not constant, either in different animals,
or in one and the same animal at different times, e.g. the pressure in
curarised cats varied from 12 to 20mm. Hg. The different animals
shewed variations at different times: 12°-4—14'1 or 17:5—18°3 or
19:20mm. Hg. 2. These last-cited variations depend upon the blood-
pressure in the large arteries; each increase of blood-pressure being
followed by an increase of the pressure of the bile. A certain time,
however, generally elapses before increase of the arterial blood-
pressure is followed by a corresponding change in the bile-pressure
(estimated by the manometer) ; the latter is also not the immediate
consequence of the former, but depends upon the change in the secre-
tion or on the absorption from the bile-passages. 3, The greatness of
the resistance to the outflow of the bile into the intestine also varies,
even in one and the same animal (in curarised cats). 4. On com-
paring the greatness of the motive power with the resistance, it
is at once observed that a cessation of the secretion of bile, or
a retrograde suction under physiological conditions, cannot occur,
but a stand-still in the outflow of the bile into the intestine may
occur, until the pressure on the walls of the bile-ducts has reached 3-5
to 75mm. Hg. From this moment the bile must flow in drops into
the intestine. This latter must occur oftener in fasting animals, for
in them the gall-bladder is generally found tensely filled. Thereby
can be explained the great difference which exists between the bile
from the gall-bladder of fasting animals and the freshly secreted liver-
bile, for with a tensely filled gall-bladder the continually secreted bile
must flow into the intestine without previously going into the gall-
bladder.

“Influence of Injections of Bile on the Organism.” V. Feltz
and G. Ritter, Gaz. Méd. de Paris, No. 25..

Gasometric ANALysIs OF BiLE.—Bogoljubow (Jnaug. Diss. Kasan,

240 DR STIRLING.

1873. Pfliig. Arch. vit. ibid.) has made comparative gasometric
analysis of bile, and found that the quantity of chemically united
CO, in the bile from the gall-bladder of fasting animals is almost
none, and the quantity of free CO, may fall to 2 vols. per cent.;
whilst the fresh bile from the liver, secreted at the same time, con-
tains 64 per cent. of chemically united CO, and 7 per cent. in the
free condition. (Lond. Med. Rec. 1. No. 69, 1874.)

Spectrum or Bire.—Dalton, New York Med. Journ. June, 1874.
(Lond. Med. Rec. No. 85), discusses first, the spectrum of fresh bile, which
depends on the presence of its normal colouring matters ;/and secondly,
the spectrum presented by the coloured fluid of Pettenkoffer’s test,
which depends for its production on the presence of the biliary salts.
His results are: 1. The spectrum of bile is characterised, as a general
rule, by an absorption-band at C. 2. The existence and intensity of
this band are proportioned to the predominance of green in the colour
of the bile. 3. The spectrum of bile is also distinguished by a dimi-
nution or absence of the orange and yellow, and a corresponding
extension of the red and green. 4. There are sometimes also two
other absorption-bands, comparatively uncertain and ill-defined at
~D and at D 30 E. 5. The pure biliary salts in alcoholic solution,
treated by Pettenkoffer’s test, give a spectrum with absorption-bands
at Eand F. 6. In a watery solution, treated by the same test, they
give a spectrum with but one absorption-band, viz. at E.

ActION OF BILE IN PROMOTING THE ABSORPTION OF Fats,—
C. H. Williams (Boston Med. and Surg. Journ.) has investigated this
subject under the superintendence of Bowditch. His conclusions are:
1. That the passage of neutral fats through capillary canals or pores
is favoured by the presence of bile in those pores, 2. That this
action is increased when the bile is rendered alkaline, and diminished
when it is acid. 3, That the action cannot be due to the bile changing
the form of the pores. 4. That after passing through membrane
moistened with bile the fats appear more finely divided than with
membranes wet with other substances, apparently shewing that the
drop-tension or cohesion of the fat has been affected,

Action oF MuscarINE ON THE PANCREATIC AND OTHER SECRE-
TIONS.— Prevost confirms the results of Schmiedeberg and Koppe on
the action of the toxical principle of Agaricus muscarius on the
heart, pupil, &c., and on the antagonistic action of atropine.—In
‘Comptes rendus, Aug. 10 (Lond. Med. Rec. No, 87), the results of
experiments on the action of muscarine on the pancreatic and other
secretions are recorded.—l. Action on the pancreatic and biliary
Seeretions, The experiments were made on dogs, in which the
openings of the pancreatic and biliary ducts into the intestine were
exposed, Whether the animal was in digestion or fast, the pan-
creatic secretion was notably increased after the injection of some
milligrammes of muscarine into a vein, ‘The excessive secretion
ceased after intra-venous injection of one or two milligrammes of
sulphate of atropine, There was also a great increase of biliary secre-

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 241

tion ; from a feeble flow before the injection of muscarine, it became
abundaut, The excessive secretion ceased, and the normal state was
restored, after atropine was injected.—2. Action on the Urinary Secre-
tion. After intra-venous injection of muscarine the change in the
flow of urine from the ureters was observed in dogs, cats and rabbits,
The bladder was exposed and slit open so as to observe the entrance
of the ureters into this viscus. Injection of muscarine into the veins
diminished the urinary secretion, and almost stopped it completely
when the dose was strong. In all these cases on the other hand the
lachrymal, salivary, biliary and mucous secretions were considerably
increased, The injection of a few milligrammes of atropine into the
veins suffices to restore the urinary secretion,

“On the Formation of bile-pigment from the colouring matter of
the Blood.” J, F. Tarchanoff, Pfliig. Arch. 1x. 53 and 329.

The Genito-Urinary System.

“ The phlogistic properties of Urea.” A. Murow, Gaz. Méd. 447,
1873. ‘‘Tnfluence of Coffee and Tea on the excretion of Urea.”
Rabuteau, Comptes rendus, 1873, Lxxvit. 489. “The microscopic
structure and mode of formation of Urinary Calculi.” The Dublin
Journal, uxvt, 493. “ Diuretic action of Digitalis.” T. L. Brunton
and H. Power, Centralblatt, No. 32, 1874. “ Simple apparatus for
the Estimation of Urea by the Nitrogen process.” G. Steel, Ldin.
Med, Journ. August, 1874,——-‘‘ New arguments with reference to
the formation of Urea in the Kidneys.” Murri, Lo Sperimentale,
Sept. 1873.——*On the Alkalinity of the Urine.” Feltz and Ritter,
Journal de ? Anatomie, Feb, 1874, 311. (Abst. in Lond. Med. Ree.
No. 75, 1874.)———* Fouilhoux on Variations in Urea.” Lond. Med.
Rec. No. 71, 1874. -—“ Urea in Vomit.” Juventin, Gazette Méd. de
Paris, April 25th (and ibid.). “The presence of Albumen in
Urine.” H. Senator, Virch. Arch. ux. 476. * Physiology of the
Menopause.” Cohnstein, Vireh, Arch. x1. 100.——* Chemical Ex-
amination of Saccharine Urine.” Fowler, Lancet, Sept. 19, 1874.
“ Experiments on the process of the Secretion of Urine.” A. Neisser
and R. Heidenhain, Pfliig. Arch. rx. 1.

TEST-PAPER FOR UreA.—Musculus, Acad. des Scien. Gaz. Méd. de
Paris, 1874, No. 4. The ammoniacal fermentation of urine, accord-
ing to Pasteur and Tieghem, is eaused by the- presence of torule
which can be collected on the filter upon filtering putrid urine. If
this paper is then washed with water until it shews no sign of alkaline
reaction, and then dried at a gentle heat, a very sensitive reagent for
urea is obtained. It is best to tint this paper with curcuma and dry
it again. When a piece of such paper is placed in a solution of urea,
in a few minutes carbonate of ammonia is formed by the action of the
revived torule upon the urea, and the paper becomes of a brown
colour, The fluid to be tested must have a neutral reaction,

A New Constituent oF Urine.—F. Baumstark, Ber, d. Deutsch.
Chem. Ges. Bd. 6, 883 (from Centralblatt, No. 25, 1874). This

VOL. IX. 16

242 DR STIRLING.

author found a new constituent of urine first in the urine .of a dog fed
on benzoic acid, then in icteric and lastly in normal human urine.
This body does not pass over with the ether in the ordinary process
employed for testing for hippuric acid, but remains dissolved in the
remaining watery fluid. By addition of acetate of lead it is preci-
pitated and isolated by H,S from the lead precipitate. The compound
erystallises in white columns similar to hippuric acid. It has the
composition C,H,N,O, and forms light combinations with acids.
From its reaction with nitrous acid by which flesh-lactic acid is
formed, and from the action of baryta water, the author gives this
substance preliminarily the rational formula NH,—CO—C,H,—
NH,

On THE Removal or ALKALIES FROM THE ANIMAL Bopy.—Joh.
Kurtz. Jnaug. Diss. Dorpat, 1874. 50 pp. (From Centralblatt, No.
36, 1874.) The experiments were all made on a dog of 24:7 kilos
weight, which was so placed that it could empty its urine into a
vessel at distinct times of the day.

I. In two series of experiments the influence of the supply of
sulphuric acid was tested. During the first series the dog received
on five consecutive “normal days” 1100 grm. flesh and 1000 ccm.
water. On the following six days beyond this, sulphuric acid daily
(per stomach-pump), on the first day 3 grm., on the second 4, on the
third and fourth 5 grm., on the fifth and sixth days on each 6 grm.
diluted with water. The six “acid days” were followed again by
three normal days. Daily, the acidity, urea, uric acid, sulphuric acid
and phosphoric acid in the urine were estimated. On the last normal
day and on the first and last acid days beyond these the Cl, K, Na,
Ca and Mg were estimated. Throughout the whole time the condi-
tion of the dog was good. The changes in the urine were: marked
increase in the acidity and of the sulphuric acid, less increase of the
chlorine; an increase of the bases was also present, but still not im-
portant. If we reckon how much Na the acids found require for
their saturation, and reckon also all the bases as Na, we obtain

Natrium required found,
Normal day 4,540 grm, 5,055 grm,
First acid day _ 6,186 ,, 5,503 ,,
Second acid day 6,589 ,, 6,021 ,,

Whilst on the normal day an excess of bases is present, an excess of
acids is to be observed on the acid days,

In the second series of experiments, which lasted five days, the
dog received as food along with water extracted horse-flesh, in order
to supply it with the minimum of alkaline salts, on the fourth day
7 grm. of concentrated sulphuric acid. In the urine

Natrium required found.
On the Normal day 2,484 grm, 0,803 grm,
» yy Acid day 6,286 ,, 1,963 ,,

» » Gay following 2,857 ,, 0,464 ,,

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 243

In this experiment considerably more acids than bases were ex-
creted, the latter are not even sufficient to unite all the H,SO,, when
one abstracts from all other acids. Nevertheless free H,SO, was not
proved in the urine. Constantly, under the influence of the supply of
H,S0, there was an increase of urea.

II. Bunge, experimenting upon himself (Centralblatt, 1873, 742),
observed after taking phosphate of potash an increase of ‘soda to
4,715 grm. in the urine of the following day; on the next days he
found besides much potash less soda than on the previous days.
Bunge explained this result by the decomposition of the absorbed
phosphate of potash with the chloride of sodium in the blood, into
chloride of potassium and phosphate of soda, which were both excreted.
One must now ask if this action of the potash salts would result even
with the greatest possible exclusion of soda from the food, i.e. when
the blood is poor in these salts. One experiment of Githgens, not
with phosphate of potash but with chloride of potash, which the
author cites, shews that under these circumstances an increase of the
soda in the urine cannot be proved, but on the contrary rather a
diminution, The same result was obtained by an experiment of the
authors with phosphate of potash. The same followed directly from
the experiment with H,SO,, by which the supply of disposable alkali
was surely reduced toa minimum. The diet consisted of 500 grm.
of extracted flesh, 1200 ccm. water and 10 grm. so-called neutral
phosphate of potash, The urine shewed no increase in the soda, on
the contrary a constant diminution to a minimum. From this it
follows from the present question, that the possibility of the with-
drawal of soda from the body depends upon the giving up of phosphate
of potash from the supply of soda present at the moment. One part
of the soda is bound so fast to the constituents of the body that it is
not affected by the ordinary action of affinity. An experiment of
Kemmerich shews this relation, K. found in a dog in spite of rich
supply of potash salts that the quantity of potash in the blood re-
mained unchanged. Very remarkable is in this experiment the
increase of the acidity of the urine on the addition of alkaline reacting
salts; clearly from the phosphate of potash during its passage through
the organism a part of its bases was removed, and acid phosphate of
potash formed, which passed over into the urine.

III. Bécker and Reinson have shewn that a single supply of
phosphate of soda is followed by an increase in the excretion of potash:
a supply of soda salts kept up for a long time has only lately been
tested. Giithgens and Frey fed a dog for a long time on exhausted
horse-flesh, and.gave it in addition daily, at the beginning 4, later
2 grms. of common salt. The excretion of potash remained through-
out the same, and no increase could be observed. Also here the
results of the author join to those of Giithgens. The dog received
again 500 grm. boiled-out horse-flesh, 1000 grm. water, and in addition
15 grm. so-called neutral phosphate of soda. On the first day a small
increase in the excretion of potash, in unison with Reinson, was ob-
served; already even on the second day it sank again to the normal:
certainly the withdrawal of potash is only minimal.

244 E DR STIRLING.

In the second part of the experiment, an essential difference is
Shewn by the excretion of soda, opposite to the potash excretion:
whilst the excretion of soda becomes always smaller, the potash excre-
tion, one day with another, remains unchanged. The author confirms
the correctness of an assertion formerly made by Salkowski that the
potash salts are excreted in the degree in which they become free by
the decomposition of the tissues, whilst for the soda excretion the
same cannot be affirmed. The investigations were made under
Githgens’ direction.

Diasetes.—Dr Pavy (Lancet, Aug. 29, 1874) finds that injection
of defibrinated arterial blood into the portal system occasions a sac-
charine state of the urine, in one experiment 15 grs. of sugar to the
fluid oz. of urine. When defibrinated venous blood was injected no
sugar was detected. He further finds that by the inhalation of puff-
ball smoke a strongly diabetic state of the urine may be induced, and
that the effect is accompanied with sueh a modification of the circula-
tion that the blood flows through the vessels, as is the case after sec-
tion of the sympathetic, without becoming properly de-arterialised.
His experiments, he considers, suggest that, in diabetes of the human
subject, the blood, in consequence of vaso-museular paralysis, is allowed
to reach the portal system in an imperfectly de-arterialised condition
and thus determines the escape of sugar from the liver.

Bone.

“ Mineral Inanition, and the influence of Phosphate of Lime on the
transformation of Albuminous Substances.” Gaz. Méd. de Paris, 1874,
No. 5. “Spongiosa of the Vertebre and Ribs.” K. Bardeleben, Cen-
tralblatt, Nos. 29 and 34. “ Normal and pathological growth of
the long Bones.” G. Wegner, Virch. Arch. uxt. 44. “ Architecture
of the Spongiosa.” P. Langerhaus, Virch. Arch. Lx1. 229. “The
marrow of Bone as an organ for the formation of Blood.” E, Neumann,
Pfliig. Arch. tx. 100, [Reply to Ch, Robin.]

Errecr or Foop on tue Composition or Bones.—H. Weiske and
E. Wildt (Zeitsch. f. Biolog., 1x. Heft 1v. 541, 1873) in a former
series of experiments upon goats shewed that although the withdrawal
of lime or phosphoric acid from the food of adult animals led to fatal
consequences, yet that it had little or no influence on the composition
of the bones, and in particular did not make them more friable,
The present series of experiments were designed to test the effects of
such food upon young animals, The animals selected were South-
down lambs of about 10 weeks old. One of these was fed on food poor
in lime, a second on food poor in phosphoric acid, and a third on
normal diet, After 55 days various bones were analysed, and the
general result was, that just as m adalts so in young animals, no
remarkable change was produced in the composition of the several
bones by the difference in the diet, or, in other words, that the com-
position of the bones is independent of the nature of the food, The
bones were, however, stunted in their growth,

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 245

Muscle.

“On the Doctrine of Tetanus, with Observations on Testing the
Electrical Excitability of Motor Nerves.” W. Erb, Arch. f Psych. v.
Nervenkrankh., 1873, tv. 271 (Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 12, 1874).
“On the Doctrine of Tetanus.” F. Riegel, Deutsches Arch. f.
klin. Med. 1873, x11. 399 (Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 12, 1874).
“On the Difference of the Action of Caffenic on Rana Temporaria
and R. Esculenta.” O. Schmiedeberg, Arch. f. exper. Pathol. v. Phar-
macol, 1874, u. 62 (Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 32, 1874).
“New Experiments on Human Locomotion.” Marey, Abstract in

Lond. Med. Rec, No. 83.——‘ Remarks on Preyer’s Myo-physical

Laws.” B. Luchsinger, Pfliig. Arch. vin. 538. “On the Muscular
Spectrum.” L, Ranvier, Gaz. Méd. de Paris, No. 24.

Puysicat Properties or Muscurar Susstance.—Albert Adam-
iewicz (Centralblatt, No. 22) after a large number of experiments con-
cludes that the muscles of the trunk play a very important réle in the
process of animal heat. This is due to their physical properties.

1. Muscular substance is an exceedingly bad conductor. It con-
ducts heat worse than water. The weak capability of conduction of
the layers of the trunk muscles can be explained in the living
animal on physical principles.

2. With the small diathermancy of the muscular substance co-
incides its greatest power for absorbing heat, which at the ordinary
temperature of warm-blooded animals may be placed at four calories.

3. The muscular substance possesses the highest known specific
heat of solid and fluid bodies and eaceeds that of water considerably.
Further details are promised.

Repuctine Powrr or Active Muscies.—R. Gscheidlen, Pfiig.
Arch, vu. 506 (Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 30, 1874). To the
proof attempted by Griitzner (Jowrn. of Anat. and Phys. vur. 213)
that active muscle uses oxygen and acquires the capability of re-
moving from itself easily reducible stuffs, Gscheidlen used sulphate of
soda, which, with a reducing agent, easily passes into a sulphurous salt.
He injected into the abdominal vein or under the skin of the back of
frogs several ccm. of 1—10 per cent. solution of sulphate of soda,
divided one ischiadic nerve, and then tetanised the frog either from
the spinal cord with the induced current, or by means of strychnia,
After tetanisation from 1 to 8 hours, the muscles of the limbs were
each minced and rubbed up with water and filtered through pul-
verised glass (filtering through paper is not to be trusted, for often
the paper contains sulphate of ammonia). If to the extract so ob-
tained, iodide of potassium clyster and dilute sulphuric acid is added,
in the extract of the active muscle after 4 to 1 hour there oc-
curred a blue coloration, in that of the inactive muscle only after
34—36 hours or later. In the former case a change from nitrate
into nitrite had taken place, in the latter not. Other re-agents also
shew this change from nitrate into nitrite, thus the extract of active

246 : DR STIRLING.

muscle is coloured more yellow with diamidobenzoic acid than that of
the passive muscle. The reaction with brucin and sulphuric acid
also shews the greater quantity of unchanged nitrate in the passive
muscles. Or the muscles which have been active, and also those
which have been passive, may be rubbed up separately with a solution
of sulphate of potash; in the active one formation of nitrite occurs,
in the inactive one none. These reducing substances of muscle are
soluble in alcohol; the alcoholic extract of the active muscle yields
nitrite reaction, that of the passive not. The reducing active is also
expressed with indigo when the air is sufficiently excluded. If the
extract is placed with a few drops of indigo solution in a well-closed
flask, with the fluid of the active muscle the blue colour is lost at
once, with that of the passive muscle very much later. Experiments
on mammalia (rabbits) did not give such decided results, though here
also the blue coloration appeared earlier with K. I. clyster with the
active muscle: the difference however was not so great as in the frog.

INFLUENCE oF Muscutar Work ON THE DECOMPOSITION OF
ALBUMEN WITHIN THE Human Orcanism.—F. Schenk, Arch. f. exp.
Path. &c. 1874, u. 21. (From Salkowski’s Report in Centralblatt,
No. 24, 1874.) In these experiments the arrangement was such that
8. on all the days took the same quantity and quality of food until
the N.-equilibrium occurred, and then a considerable amount of work
was executed. The food consisted of 400 grms. flesh, 375 grms. bread,
250 grms. potatoes, 14 grms. NaCl, 100 grms. butter, 500 cem. milk,
1000 ccm. water, and the same of beer. The quantity of N. was
reckoned from the quantity of urea, and this itself estimated by titrir-
ing after precipitation of the urine with silver solution and baryta. In
the first series of experiments from 22nd Jan. to 15th Feb, on the
sixth day N.-equilibrium occurred; four days later the period of
work was begun, which was continued during three days and the two
intervening nights. During the night the work consisted of walking
32 kilometers ; during the day, work in the laboratory, walking and
gymnastics. The urea shewed a decided increase on the work days,
but (the mean = 46-2 grms. to 51-2, 55°6, 51, 52°3) which in propor-
tion to the work produced is still small. The following fourteen days
were spent at rest, and then two consecutive nights passed without
sleep, to ascertain the effect of want of sleep without work. The
quantity of urea was not influenced thereby, and shewed a constant
value. The influence of want of sleep was tested by Nencki, in
whose laboratory the experiments were made. The urea previously
was 28°9, 30°4, 29°8, 28°4; during the time without sleep, 28-4, 28:7,
28°6. His food consisted of 300 grms. flesh, 180 grms. bread, 250
grms. potatoes, 14 grms, NaCl, 100 grms, butter, 500 cem. infusion of
tea, wine, and the same of water. A second experiment was made
in September with high temperature outside. The work performed
during the three days and the two intervening nights was similar to
that on the former occasion: an increase in urea could not be proved ;
even the uric acid and creatinin estimated on the last day of work,
and on the day after the work, shewed no important increase, The

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. | 247

author therefore concludes that a distinct near connection does not
exist between muscular work and the excretion of urea, and leaves it
undecided whereupon the difference between the two series of experi-
ments rests.

Temperature.

“On the influence of Brandy on the bodily Temperature, the
Pulse, and the Respirations of healthy men.” Parkes, Pro. Royal
Society, Lond. 1874, No. 150.——“ Fever after Transfusion.” P.
Liebrecht, Centralblatt, No. 37, 1874. “Tnfluence of Alcohol on
the Temperature of the Human Body.” Riegel, Deutsch. Arch. f. klin.
Med. xu. pts. 1 and 2. (Abst. in Lond. Med. Rec. No. 71, 1874.)

TeMPERATURE OF Heart anp Lunos.—Albert and Stricker
(Stricker’s Jahrbuch, 1873) object. to the usual mode of determining
the temp. of the heart, that the thermometer is in contact both with
the muscular tissue and with the blood, and they find that consider-
able difference exists between the two, Thus a thermometer intro-
duced through the diaphragm and imbedded in the substance of the
left ventricle, shewed a temp. of 0-5° to 0°7° C. or more than a degree
F. higher than another introduced into the cavity of the ventricle
through the auricular wall. Little difference (0-1 C.) existed between
the blood of the left ventricle and that in the aorta in favour of the
former. Further experiments shewed that the blood of the right
auricle is warmer than that of the sup. vena cava, and that in the
ventricle the temp. is higher as the apex is approximated, probably
owing to the admixture of the blood of the coronary vein, which has
circulated through the warm muscular tissue of the heart. They are
of opinion that there is a decided refrigeration of the blood as it
passes through the lungs, though the heat lost is small, and is partly
compensated for and restored by the higher temp. of the walls of the
left ventricle. They found, lastly, that the blood of the aorta is
warmer than that of the vena cava descendens.

ReeGutaTion oF Heat.—F. Riegel (Virchow’s Arch, ux. 114).
Experimenting on dogs, R. brings new proofs of the changes in the
distribution of heat, under the influence of peripheral cooling. On these
dogs, the temperature was measured simultaneously in several super-
ficially and deeply situated places. As well by local as by general
withdrawal of heat, the temperature sank in the interior (vena cava
inf. aorte thorac.) in most cases at once, seldom after a minimal
recovery of short duration; slower and smaller was the decline in the
rectum and vagina and quite special in the muscular layers (‘inter-
mediary layer” of Senator and “ Zwischenschicht” of Rosenthal).
The explanation of these different changes in temperature the author
finds in change of the circulation produced by the action of cold.

INVESTIGATIONS ON Fever.—Ed. Albert, Berichte des naturwiss.-
med. Vereins zu Innsbruck, 1873, Sep. Abdr. 1874. 38 pp. (Abst.
in Centralblatt, No. 30, 1874.) As a supplement to his previous

-

248 DR STIRLING.

experiments with Stricker, on the effects of the exclusion of a large
vascular area, the author injected milk of starch into the art. pro-
funda femoris on both sides, and ligatured at the same time the
femoral artery below the origin of the profunda. The experiments
were made on dogs. In a series of experiments, apart from the
variations of temperature following the operation, there occurred a
greater or less increase of the rectal temperature with shivering, the
increase lasting to three days. The animals were then depressed,
had no desire to eat; but recovered again. In other cases on the
contrary the temperature fell, the dogs had no ‘typical’ chill and were
very restless. An increase of temperature also occurred when an
embolus was produced by the injection of starch in water into the
splenic vein. The ligatures of the A. femoralis and profunda when
done on one side were followed in one animal by increase of tem-
perature with shivering ; when done on both sides only once in three
experiments,

Miscellanea.

RESUSCITATION AFTER Poisoninc.—R. Bohm (Centralblatt, No.
21, 1874) of Dorpat has made the observation that the action on the
heart and nervous system of warm-blooded animals, which is pro-
duced by doses of the salts of potash, which till now have been held
as fatal, can be removed by artificial respiration and moderate com-
pression of the thorax in the region of the heart exerted during
passive expiration.

A new Sien or Deatu.—-E. Bouchut, Comptes rendus, LXXVIII.
1874, 631. According to B. immediately after death has occurred a
development of gas takes place in the retinal vein, which can be
easily distinguished by the ophthalmoscope through the interruption
of the column of blood.—“ On a certain and immediate Sign of Death.”
Danis, Abst. in Lond, Med. Rec. No. 67, 11. 1874.

“On the Abiogenesis Question.” D. Huizinga, Pfliig. Arch. vu.
551. (Abst. in Centralblatt, No. 32, 1874.)—-—“ On the Galvanic
introduction of different fluids into the uninjured living organism.”
Reichert and du Bois Reymond’s Arch. 1873, 505, * Action of
the Alkaloids.” M. J. Rossbach, Verhandl. d. Wiirzb. phys.-med. Ges.
vi, 1874, 167. (Abst. in Centralblatt, No. 35, 1874.)

Text-Books,

“Vorlesungen iiber Physiologie,” von Ernst Brucke, 2 vols,
Wien, 1874, Wilhelm Braumiiller,
_ “@rundriss der Physiologie d. Menschen,” yon LL, Hermann,
Fifth Edition, Berlin, 1874, August Hirschwald.,

“Lehrbuch d, Experimentellen Toxicologie,” von L, Hermann,
Berlin, 1874, August Hirschwald.

“Compendium d, Physiologie d, Menschen,” von A, Fick. Second
Edition, Wien, 1874, Wilhelm Braumiiller.

“Grundztige der physiologischen Psychologie,” von W, Wundt.
2 vols. Leipzig, 1874, W. Englemann,

“Lehrbuch der physiologischen Chemie,” von E, F, V, Gorup-
Besanez, Braunschweig, 1874, F, Vieweg and Sons,

SHournal of Anatomp and Phpstology.

ON THE FREEZING PROCESS FOR SECTION -
CUTTING: AND ON VARIOUS METHODS OF
STAINING AND MOUNTING SECTIONS. By
Lawson Tart, F.R.C.S.

Ir I may take the directions given in Foster and Balfour's
Elements of Embryology as being an exposition of the most
recent methods of section-cutting, I can only feel that I have,
by patient endeavours, been able to achieve a success which is
not much known beyond the limited circle of those who have
seen my work. I therefore hasten to describe some improve-
ments I have made in the methods of section-cutting, which
seem to me to constitute as important an advance over the
rude hardening and imbedding processes, as the results ob-
tained by them were superior to the sections made by double
knives.

As often as I have asked physiological workers, have you
used the freezing process for section-cutting? so often have
I been answered that they had tried it a little, but that it had
not proved satisfactory and that they had given it up. The
various reasons given for failure I always found were such
as a little patience on my own part had already overcome,
and now I think I have made the process and the apparatus
perfect.

First let me say, that the-results of my work so far, espe-
cially in pathological investigations, have led me to this con-
clusion, that no results obtained by the examination of tissues
which have been chemically interfered with by such reagents
as chromic acid, picric acid, osmium, alcohol, &c.,are trustworthy ;
for the appearances in specimens of the same tissue which

VOL. IX. 17

250 MR LAWSON TAIT.

I have seen in sections so treated, have in some instances been
so widely different from those observed in the unaltered tissue
that I hesitate to receive descriptions which have been taken
from artificially altered specimens, Further, different methods
of staining give such wholly different results, that a great deal
of ground which seems settled now will have to be gone over
again. This is especially the case in embryonic structures.

It cannot be urged against the freezing process that it alters
tissue in any way, for every one knows that in less complex
organisms, even as high up as the lower vertebrates, the whole
animal may be completely frozen, and on being carefully thawed
its life-functions may be resumed without apparent injury.

It is evident, therefore, that sections of a perfectly fresh
tissue which has been frozen, will most closely represent living
structure: and for the same reason, any staining process
or method of mounting which is to be regarded as truthful,
must be the result of some substance which is as indifferent as
may be. Therefore I have almost entirely discarded all tere-
binthinate vehicles for mounting, and all such violent treat-
ments of sections as soaking them in a strong solution of alum
or calcium chloride, and when these processes and my own
have given different results, I have preferred the latter.

The chief difficulty with the freezing process has been, that
in the apparatus usually employed the amount of the freezing
mixture engaged has been too small for the surrounding cir-
cumstances; and thus of Prof. Rutherford’s apparatus I have
always heard it said, that it either never completely freezes the
tissue, or that the complete freezing lasts for so short a time as
to be of little use. This I can readily understand, for Dr
Rutherford directs methylated spirit to be placed in the well to
prevent the screw freezing, and that the tissue be imbedded in
a solution of gum, &c., so that the process is made very com-
plicated. Before the appearance of Prof. Rutherford’s deserip-
tion of his instrument (July, 1873), I had had one almost
identical in use for many months, but I have since had to
modify it very much on account of repeated failures.

The groundwork of the instrument is the section-cutter of
my friend Mr Stirling, described and figured in the third
volume of this Journal, to which is added a freezing tank (e),

THE FREEZING PROCESS FOR SECTION-CUTTING. 951-

four and a half inches long and two and three-quarters deep,
oval, and concentric with the object-well p. Dr Rutherford

¢

| ed

pawen-- Henn,
*

Fixed covering of cork.

Moveable cork cover.

Tank for freezing mixture.

Well for tissue with loose moveable plug H.

Level brass plate with

Lip for fixing it to table,

GG. Drainage wells fitted with moveable quilled cork and rubber tube.

H. Travelling plug.

I. Screw with milled head.

The apparatus is made by Parkes and Son, St Mary’s Square, Birmingham.

17—2

Be ao Oo

252 MR LAWSON TAIT.

objects to this arrangement, because the right half of the well
gets in the way of the hand, but I have found this difficulty
very trifling and soon overcome in practice ; whilst my arrange-
ment has the advantage that the freezing mixture can be
packed in from either side, and that therefore the well does not
get surrounded by a mass of salt, left by the more rapid melting
of the ice, which has to be removed by picking or washing, to
the great hindrance of the process. This is one of the great
objections to Rutherford’s instrument. Outside the well I have
placed a coating of cork, A, fixed by white lead and marine glue,
half-an-inch thick, and firmly secured in its place by a long
strip of Leslie’s sticking plaster wound spirally round, and then
the whole is painted white. Every possible surface of the metal
is covered by the cork, so that as much heat as possible is kept
out. The whole instrument is fitted with a moveable cork
cover, B, which is likewise painted white. Cork is the only good
non-conductor which is available for this purpose, for it does
not absorb water when treated as I have described, as flannel or
almost anything else is sure to do, and thereby become a very
good conductor of heat. The instrument is also provided with
two drainage wells, GG, which are closed by quilled corks, so
that while a fair drainage is possible through the tubes, the
whole well may be cleared out at any moment, so as to get rid
of the slushy salt, which is one of the great obstacles to the
process. Mr W. P. Marshall suggested this and the double
sloping bottom to me, and it is a manifest improvement. The
best freezing mixture is made by intimately mixing one part
of dry salt with two parts of dry snow. If ice be used it should
be pounded very small and drained on a cullender. If the
worker does not mind the extra expense, the substitution of
one-fifth of calcium chloride for the salt will very much save
his time, but it will damage his instrument, and he had better
mind that he does not get his fingers chilblained or even frost-
bitten.

The well being carefully charged, the cap should be put on
and the instrument be screwed to the table while the tissue is
being got ready. If any salt should by accident have got into
the well it must be washed out, as it will materially retard the
freezing. If the tissue to be frozen has been in any hardening

THE FREEZING PROCESS FOR SECTION-CUTTING. 253

solution, especially alcohol, it must be soaked for some hours in
distilled water, which requires to be repeatedly renewed.
Everything being ready the cap is to be removed, and the
well D is to be filled with pure water. A ring of ice will be seen
at once to form round the inside of the tube, and to this the
tissue is to be held by a needle till it is fixed as wanted, and
then the cap is to be replaced, fresh mixture having first been
added to both sides of the tank, if required, and pushed firmly
against the outside of the well. The corks in the wells GG
must be removed now and then to ensure that the sludge gets.
freely away, and the tissue may be arranged from time to time
by a needle, so that it may be made to take any required posi-
tion with absolute accuracy, an advantage which no other
methcd of imbedding possesses. If the tissue is absolutely
fresh, the whole process will not take fifteen minutes, but if it
has been previously hardened in alcohol, the freezing may be
protracted. To facilitate its progress, the water in the well
which has not frozen should be from time to time lifted care-
fully out by a pipette and replaced by fresh distilled water,
the alcohol being driven out of the tissue into the water by the
freezing, so that it may absolutely prevent the completion of
the process. I have often had to change the water in this way
half-a-dozen times, but I have never failed in getting my
sections made.

After the freezing is once perfect, you have only to re-pack
the tank, replace the cap and cover the apparatus with a towel,
and you can leave it for hours, with the perfect assurance that
it will remain in good working order,

When it is desired to cut sections, if the screw I be found
to be frozen tight’, back it a little, or put a drop of glycerine
between it and the collar; or if the tissue to be frozen be a
piece of large size, so that the plug H must be low down in the
well, put some glycerine in the well before you insert the plug,
This should never be done, however, if it can be avoided, for it
is very rare indeed that any great difficulty occurs in advancing
the screw I upwards. This screw has fifty turns in the inch,
and as, when the freezing is complete, it is quite easy to cut a

1 A simple method of preventing the screw being frozen is to drop a little

melted tallow over the travelling plug 1, so as to make its surface water-tight.

254 ‘MR LAWSON TAIT.

section when the screw has been turned only a tenth of a
revolution, five hundred sections may be cut from an inch of
tissue. Some of my sections I believe to be thinner than
this. I purpose having a ratchet drill-head arrangement adapt-
ed to the milled head of the screw, so that it may be more
easily moved and the thickness of the sections known precisely.
Twelve notches on the milled head would, by one movement,
give sections one six hundredth of an inch in thickness.

To cut the sections, any knife with a straight sharp edge may
be used, but continuous patient practice is necessary to cut
them well. I use an ordinary razor ground flat on the side and
straight on the edge, and I cant it a good deal so as to get a
smooth section. If a tissue is being cut of which parts may be
dislodged, such as an embryo, or an eye, the section must be
made rapidly, so that it curls up and does not thaw on the
knife ; and if slides be kept in readiness on a frozen bath, the
sections may each be leisurely arranged on a slide in the exact
position required, in a way which would excite the astonish-
ment of any one who has been grieved by seeing his best
sections torn in pieces by the adhering wax or paraffin.

If the tissue be homogeneous the section may be made
more slowly and allowed to thaw on the knife as it is made.
In this way much thinner and more uniform sections are
obtained, and they are easily floated off on to the slide by a
few drops of some indifferent fluid ; or they may be placed in
a staining bath.

Having secured perfect success in these details, and having
been convinced that if perfectly trustworthy results were to be
obtained the tissues must be examined fresh, I was almost
beaten by the unexpected difficulty that the freezing process
drives out the air which is contained in fresh tissue, in the
form of myriads of minute bubbles, which render the thinnest
section perfectly useless. They resisted all kinds of treatment
by needle and air-pump, until I remembered that boiled water
is a potent solvent for air, and I found that a few drops, or
a gentle stream of water so deprived of its air, at once re-
moved from my sections every trace of air-bubble: and I have
since found that no air-bubble, of microscopic size, will resist
this treatment. For delicate embryonic tissue, unless it is

’

THE FREEZING PROCESS FOR SECTION-CUTTING. 255

intended to stain the sections with silver, a solution of salt,
one or two per cent, and which has been recently boiled, had
better be used for this purpose. If the tissue has previously
been injected with Prussian blue, the water should contain
a little free muriatic acid.

Of substances which act as tissue-stains, I find that there
are two classes, one which simply colours the whole mass,
exclusive of fat, and the other which discriminates either
regularly or irregularly’. Fat is stained by alkannin only. In
the first class may be placed all the aniline colours and most of

the solutions of carmine, also several other colouring matters less

known. This class is comparatively useless for investigation, and
all, save carmine, can be used only when it is desirable to keep
structures from disappearing entirely from view, as when they
are mounted in some terebinthinate, such as balsam, dammar,
colophonium, sandarak, chian, &c. &c. But as all these vehicles
are quite incompatible with the more delicate demonstrations,
I have quite discarded them, and with them all the stains
belonging to the first class, almost including carmine. This
last substance is so uncertain, so liable to capricious alteration,
and its action really so crude, that I regard it as very little
better than aniline. Moreover, to be successful, the staining
must be very prolonged in a very dilute solution, a maceration
which sections of fresh and delicate structures cannot be sub-
mitted to with safety. For such as have been hardened it is
all very well.

The second class of stains are such as have ready power of
discriminating between nucleus and corpuscle—a power which is
dependent on their different behaviour in the presence of an
acid or an alkaline solution, Carmine shows this ditference to
a limited extent, for though in an excess of acid it becomes in
great measure insoluble, especially in the presence of acetic
acid, yet it does not become so entirely, and therefore it is that
I have never yet succeeded, nor have I met with any one else
who has succeeded, in obtaining a permanently successful in-
jection with Dr Beale’s acid solution of carmine. In the
presence of the most minute portion of free alkali carmine is

1 Gold stains so irregularly as to be useless, Silver nitrate is also somewhat
irregular, but silver lactate is almost perfect in marking intercellular divisions,

256 MR LAWSON TAIT.

readily diffused, therefore for successful injection it must be in
a state of absolute insolubility, as in Davies’ formula.

The investigation of this point has led me to the conclusion,
wherein I differ from most observers, that the nucleus of the cor-
puscle is faintly more alkaline than the body of the cell, the
general view, originating I think with Dr Beale, being that the
nucleus is more acid than the body of the corpuscle*. My first
observation in support of this was, that an ammoniated solution
of carmine stained much more differentially when the ammonia
was neutralized by hydrochloric acid, and the acid added in such
slight excess that a drop of litmus solution became slowly de-
colorised. I found that this was the secret of all the staining
processes, and I could predict the results of any new colouring
matter, just as I found it having a different behaviour with acid
and alkali; and I further found that the more delicate this be-
haviour the more delicate and beautiful were the results.
Therefore, the best stains are litmus and red-cabbage, but they
are the most difficult to work with. Hzmatoxyllin is very
good, but it is not adapted for the finest work, and in the
solutions of Klein and Kleinenberg it is very rough. The
former adds a quantity of alum, which makes the solution soon
deteriorate, and it is very erratic in its results, whilst the
solution of Dr Kleinenberg, containing calcium chloride and
alum, seems to me to destroy the sections.

My own experiments with logwood have been made with
the ordinary extract sold by the druggists, and the crystalline
heematoxyllin prepared by Eidenbenz of Dresden. Of the for-
mer I made a strong watery solution with the aid of heat,
filtered it, and added to it when cold about 10 per cent. of pure
spirit, or a drop of oil of cloves, to make it keep. A few drops
of this poured on to a fresh section will stain it a pale brown in
a few minutes, and the addition of a few drops of a ‘004 per
cent. solution of nitric acid in distilled water will display the
nuclei of a faint brown colour, whilst the rest of the tissue be-
comes a cherry-red. This is due to the fact that the faintly

1 Dr Beale seoms to think that the acid is set free after death, and that
more is set free in the nucleus than in the surrounding bioplasm, and more in
the nucleolus than in the nucleus. This view is at once met by the fact that I
have stained tho nucleus of living and moving cells, on a warm stage, by my
indifferent fluids.

THE FREEZING PROCESS FOR SECTION-CUTTING. 257

acid solution overcomes the faint alkalinity of the tissue and
alters the colour of the stain, except in the nuclei, where the
greater alkalinity retains the colour, and prevents its alteration
by the acid. Some practice is required not to use too much
acid.

Again, if a cherry-red mixture is made by adding my stand-
ard solution of nitric acid (4 per cent.) carefully to a quantity
of the solution of extract of logwood, the general tissue becomes
cherry-red, whilst the nuclei restore the brown colour to the
stain which enters them. The same experiment can be re-
peated with Klein’s solution. Let a section remain in that
solution till it is shrivelled, crumpled, hard, and almost black.
Then place it in a watch-glass with some distilled water, and
add the standard acid solution drop by drop, gently moving the
section about during the process, till it begins to get limp and
discoloured. Then remove it and wash it in ordinary water,
and it will be found that while the nuclei retain the brilliant
purple colour, the general tissue has become cherry-red or light
brown. A still better result is to be obtained in this way:
place a little distilled water in a watch-glass, and float on its
surface about half a grain of the feathery crystals of hama-
toxyllin, then add a very small quantity of strong ammonia on
the point of a thin glass rod, and stir till a brilliant purple so-
lution is formed. In this immerse the section till it is of a
deep lilac colour and wash it. It will then be found that while
the tissue is lilac, the nuclei are a deep purple. This stain will
be found to disappear as the ammonia evaporates; but it may
be completely fixed by placing the section for a few minutes in
a saturated solution of alum.

To make litmus-staining fluid I boil the powder in distilled
water, filter, and add some spirit to make it keep. In this the
section is allowed to remain till it is a deep blue, a minute por-
tion of ammonia being added, if the colour is not readily taken
up. The section is then placed in a large quantity of distilled
water, and a drop of the nitric acid solution is added. The mo-
ment the section begins to get red it must be removed and
placed in some filtered tap-water; and if the process be success-
ful, the nuclei will be seen to be a bright blue, and the general
tissue a pale pink. This process wants a great deal of care and

258 MRL. TAIT. FREEZING PROCESS FOR SECTION-CUTTING.

practice; but those who have the patience to wade through
failures will be rewarded by the results.

My experiments with the red-cabbage stain have not yet
been numerous, and not complete; but the results of some of
them have been brilliant, though whether they are permanent
or not I cannot say. At any rate they perfectly confirm my
view that the nucleus is alkaline.

I make a solution of the colouring matter of the leaves of
the red-cabbage by parboiling them in a glass vessel, or by ex-
tracting the colour by proof spirit. If the leaves be completely
boiled the colour is greatly deteriorated. The addition of a
little ammonia turns it into a brilliant emerald-green, which is
readily taken up by sections, and careful treatment by acid re-
stores the purple colour to the tissue, but leaves the nuclei
prominent by their vivid green colour’, I have found that
there are many other vegetable colours which give similar
reactions, and which may therefore probably be of use for
staining.

I mount everything in glycerine jelly, for I find that every
medium, except glycerine, distorts, contracts or dims the tissues.
Thus nucleated corpuscles stained by litmus, which are promi-
nent when mounted in glycerine, become hazy, indistinct, or
even wholly invisible when mounted in a terebinthinate. A
section mounted in glycerine and surrounded by a varnished
ring is never safe; but in glycerine jelly, with the same ring,
it is as safe as in balsam; and if a little oil of cloves has been
added to the jelly, just enough to make it taste of the spice, it
will be perfectly secure from confervoid growth.

1 If further proof of this alkalinity of the tissue were required, I might point
to the curious facts seen on injecting Seitel's Berlin blue. When a size injec-
tion, coloured with this material, is made, the colour disappears in great measure,
and to the unpractised eye the injection may seem a failure, But immersion of
the tissue for a few hours in a slightly acid solution will reproduce the colour
in its fullest intensity. The colour may always be destroyed by the addition of
a very slight excess of alkali and restored by excess of acid,

Again we know that cell-life, as in spermatozoa, is quite destroyed by a faint
excess of acid. :

NOTE ON THE CONSTRUCTION AND ARRANGEMENT
OF ANATOMICAL MUSEUMS. By W. H. Flower,
F.R.S. Conservator of the Museum of the Royal College
of Surgeons of England.

TuE Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, in Lincoln’s Inn
Fields, is considered by many to be a model of good construction
and arrangement, and its general plan has been more or less
closely followed in most of the buildings for similar purposes
which have been erected in this country during the last half
century, notably those in connection with our medical schools.
No doubt the general effect of the interior of the rooms is very
striking, and to the casual visitor, who can take in almost at
one glance a general view of the whole collection with an
evenly distributed light, it appears to great advantage.

- The defects in detail are only seen by persons who make a
serious and systematic study of any portion of the contents, and
most of all by those whose duty it is to arrange those contents
in the manner best calculated to afford information to students.
More than twelve years experience in the last-named occupation
having gradually forced upon me the conviction of the serious-
ness of some of these defects, I think it desirable to point them
out as a warning to those who are contemplating, as at Edin-
burgh and Manchester, the erection of buildings similar in
purpose and general design.

The Museum of the College of Surgeons is entirely lighted
from above, at the junction of the walls and the ceiling, and,
consequently, the whole of the wall-surface, rendered accessible
by two galleries, is available for the exhibition of specimens.
All round the ground-floor this is fitted with enclosed glass
cases, but in both galleries with open shelves, from nine to
twelve inches deep, and only calculated to carry specimens
in bottles. The consequence of this arrangement is that
every department of the collection has to be subdivided
throughout, according as the specimens are of a nature requir-

260 PROF. FLOWER.

ing their preservation in bottles or are more suitable for
glass cases. It results from this that if any one wishes to
examine, for instance, the series of diseases of bone, or any
subdivision of that series, say, examples of necrosis of a par-
ticular bone, he will have to look for some of the specimens
in the gallery, for others in the cases on the ground-floor, and if
there should be a cast or a drawing to illustrate any of the
specimens, it will have to be sought in quite a different
part of the building; so that to get a connected view of any
subject in systematic order, he must perpetually travel from
one part of the museum to another, and still has no opportunity
of directly comparing objects which must necessarily throw
much light upon each other. Even, in the admirable catalogue
of pathological specimens, drawn up by Sir James Paget, the
necessity of following the exigencies of the faulty construction
of the building caused the specimens to be primarily divided
into those preserved in bottles, and those preserved in a dry
state! The same observations apply with equal force to the
physiological, teratological, and other series.

As a contrast to this arrangement, that of the Museum of
the University of Bologna appears to great advantage. The
large collection of human and comparative anatomy, teratology
and pathology has recently been removed to a building, which
without any architectural display, either without or within,
being in fact nothing more than a disused hospital, is admirably
adapted for its purpose. It consists of about twenty rooms
of moderate size on one floor, and all freely communicating
with each other, lighted by large windows occupying nearly the
whole of one side, the other three sides being furnished with
glazed wall-cases, about two feet three inches in depth (from
before backwards), These cases are fitted internally with move-
able shelves and racks of various sizes, upon which are arranged
either bottles, dried preparations, or bones, casts or models, while
drawings can be hung at the back of the case, so that each
subject can be completely illustrated in one spot. Thus, in
teratology, a model or drawing of the object before dissection,
the dried skeleton, and the various soft parts, preserved in spirit,
would be placed all together in one shelf; in the same way the
history of pathological phenomena would be shewn in connec-

/

CONSTRUCTION OF ANATOMICAL MUSEUMS. 261

tion, the cast or model of the part before and after operation,
with the specimen removed, in spirit or dry, as the case might
be. In Comparative Anatomy also, instead of having a multi-
ple series, as with our Museum, the illustrations of each depart-
ment, whether wet or dry, are retained in juxtaposition.

The number and comparative smallness of the rooms has
the advantage of keeping the different subjects illustrated by
the preparations, more distinct from each other than in our
system, but on the other hand it has the disadvantage of ren- —
dering the necessary surveillance of visitors by the officials of
the establishment less convenient and more costly than in large
rooms, and also of presenting a far less imposing coup wil.

It would, however, be quite possible to apply the chief
advantage of this system of arrangement to the mode of general
construction most in favour in this country. All that is neces-
sary is that the traditional plan of fitting up a large part of the
wall-space with narrow open shelves should be entirely dis-
carded. Such shelves are quite unfit for the proper arrange-
ment of the specimens constituting an anatomical collection,
which when placed upon them are exposed not only to dust, but
_ also to the too free handling of casual visitors, especially since
anatomical museums have become places of general resort to
a far greater degree than formerly.

The galleries should be made rather wider than they are at
present, and all the wall-space in them fitted with glazed cases,
uniform with those on the ground-floor, about two feet from
before backward. The doors may be made to slide, instead of
opening outwards, if the space in front of them is limited.
Plate-glass shelves or open iron racks are very preferable to
opaque wooden shelves where the light comes from above, but
with a side light, as in the Bologna Museum, they are not so
necessary.

Of course the cost of enclosing the whole of the wall-space
with glass will be considerable, but when it is recognised as an
indispensable condition in the perfection of a Museum, this will
be provided for in the original estimate; and if funds are
deficient, it would be far better to wait till they are forth-
coming, or to make a smaller building thoroughly efficient for
its purpose, than a larger one with radical and often irremedi-

262 PROF. FLOWER. CONSTRUCTION OF ANATOMICAL MUSEUMS.

able defects. Moreover, a considerable saving will be effected
in the future expence of the Museum, as a large number of
bottles and separate glass shades now needed to protect dry
specimens standing on the shelves will no longer be required,
and the ever-recurring cost and trouble of dusting will be very
much lessened.

LOPSIDED GENERATIONS. By Dr HOL.ts.

THE question why we use our right-hand in preference to our
left will occasionally force itself upon the minds of thinking
men, and the answer is and always must be unsatisfactory.
The origin of dexterity or ‘right-handedness’ is lost in anti-
quity. The earliest biblical records bear testimony to its
prevalence among mankind at the date of their authorship.
We read that Joseph, for instance, expressed his displeasure
when Ephraim, the younger son, was touched by Israel’s right-
hand, and Manasseh, the elder, by his left’. In a later book
there is a striking passage, showing the superiority of the
right-hand among the semitic races over the left®, The ancient
stone sculptures which have been handed down to us afford
further, although indirect, evidence of this fact. One of the
oldest of these is the false door of the tomb of Teta, at Gizeh,
which dates back 2200 years before Christ. On this door we find
carved stone figures holding their right-hands across their breasts
in an attitude of supplication whilst their left are hanging
loosely by their sides. In the ancient bas-relief’ of the Assy- _
rians, the soldiers are-always depicted as using their right-hands
for all the more important manipulations with the sword and
other weapons. The Kouyunjik gallery of the British Museum,
with which the name of Layard will always be associated, con-
tains many proofs of this prevalence of right-handedness, notably
in the carvings illustrative of the battle between Assur-Bani-Pal
and the Susians. Other eastern nations bear important testi-
mony to the supremacy of the right-hand at a very early date.
Upon a fragment of the bas-relief of the great temple Angkor
Wat in Eastern Siam, illustrating the great epic, Ramayana,
and preserved in an engraving by Mr Frank Vincent*, the

1 Genesis xlviii. 13.

® Judges iii. 15 and iii. 21. Compare the Ethiopian P44, the Hebrew
WD), ‘yamin,’ the right hand. The word ‘yamin’ in Arabic also signifies an
oath. Cf. Tattam, Lexicon Egyptiaco-Latinum, 1835,

3 Land of the White Elephant, 1873, p. 218.

264 DR HOLLIS.

warriors hold their weapons in their right-hands. M. Mouhot
considers that “some of the oldest parts of Angkor may be
fixed at more than 2000 years ago, and the more recent por-
tions not much later.” Again, at Mundore there are very
ancient rock-sculptures of figures holding their weapons in
their right-hands’. It is not surprising under these circum-
stances to find the Sanskrit, the language of Ramayana, the
epic poem of ancient India, has a word to signify ‘left-handed-

ness’, Indeed the word 4T&, ‘left, meant frequently ‘crooked,
contrary, inverted’, the French ‘gauche’. We thus have
internal evidence fromthe language itself of the probable
superiority of the right-hand. There are many proofs that
the ancient Greeks at a very early period were right-handed.
On a terra-cotta dish belonging to the Greek archaic period’,
and preserved in the British Museum, Menelaos and Hector are
depicted as fighting over the body of Euphorbus. Each hero
is holding a spear in his right-hand. Again, we have internal
evidence from the language itself. Mancussetus illustrates my
meaning clearly, when he says, €xaXody adAnAovs amd Tov
atvxynuatov 6 apiotepoyeip, 6 mapaBray*. The metaphorical
use of defids as given by Pindar’ and other writers confirms
the hypothesis of the prevalence of dexterity in ancient Greece,
On the other hand, Sophocles, in the phrase ¢pevodev ém’ api-
otepa éBas°® signifies by ‘left’ a meaning closely allied to the
French gauche, ‘clumsy’.

It will be scarcely necessary to state that all modern nations
are dexterous, although Horne Tooke’ writes, “I remember to
have read in a voyage of De Gama’s to Kalekut (the first made
by the Portuguese round Africa), that the people of Melinda, a
polished and flourishing people, were all left-handed.” This
statement requires further confirmation, which it, as yet, has
not obtained. All modern languages (as far as I can ascertain)
have words to signify ‘left-handed’. The Hindoo ‘khabba,

1 Tod’s Annals of Rajast’han, 1. 728. 2 Sabda Sandherbha Sindhu.

% About n.c. 700 to n.c, 500. * Synes. p. 160 n.

© Betiov vow dvrlradov, Isth. v. 61 (Donaldson), Cf. Thue, m1, 82, gyrdv
dekids elvas, Aristoph, Nubes, 428,

6 Ajaz, 1838.

? Diversions of Purley, 1. cap. 1

~

LOPSIDED GENERATIONS. 265

labra’, the Arab ‘usrawi’, the Turkish ‘sdlAk’ mean the same.
The Russiau ‘Lyvpia’, the German ‘das linksseyn’ and the
French ‘gaucher’ are closely synonymous. A _ left-handed
‘person in China is said to be “yung tso show téth,” whilst the
Copts and Armenians have each a singlé word to express ‘left-
handedness’. The Italian ‘mancino’, ‘left-handed’, is derived
from ‘mancus’, ‘maimed’; this word however originally meant
‘left’, as the following quotation from Domitius Ulpianus will
shew: “Sciendum, sceevam non esse morbosum, preeterquam si,
imbecillitate dextree, validius sinistra utatur: sed hune non
scevam, sed mancum esse dicimus’.” In the above phrase
‘mancus’ clearly means ‘sceva’, a ‘left-handed’ person and
something more. Lastly, in close relation to the Latin ‘sinister’,
both by derivation and in meaning, is the Saxon ‘winstre’,
Danish ‘venstre’, Swedish ‘wanster’, Icelandic ‘vinstri’, Our
own ‘left-hand’ is that which is ‘leaved’ or ‘left’ when only
one hand of the two is to be employed*. I need not here
multiply instances of the universal prevalence of dexterity
amongst civilised nations of the present generation, as the fact
is too well known to require further support.
; The failure to ascertain the origin of ‘right-handedness’ in
post-historic times will lead us to search elsewhere for some
clue to its primitive introduction amongst mankind. Under
these circumstances let us turn our attention to the anatomical
mechanism of the human body, and enquire whether there be
any peculiar arrangement in its internal parts, which would
explain this onesided application of our two hands. In doing
so we must. carefully eliminate, by a reference to comparative
anatomy, such organic details as fail to throw light upon the
subject from others which can be made available for the
purpose.

The larger number of our organs are in duplicate, and even
such as are single in man have frequently traces of such
duplicate formation (e.g. the nose, heart, brain and liver). In
a paper of this popular kind it will be unnecessary to examine
this subject in all its bearings, and it will be sufficient for us to
know that our right lung, kidney, liver-lobe, and limbs exceed

1 Dig. 21. 1. 12.
® See Richardson's Dictionary under the word ‘ Left.’

VOL. TX. 18

266 DR HOLLIS.

in size those on the left side. This increased size of the right
organs implies both a greater amount. of tissue-structures in
their composition, and also a larger supply’ of nerves and
blood-vessels for their nutrition. It is a well-ascertained fact,
that a man overtaken by a deuse fog whilst walking on a
common or other open plot of ground, invariably figures with
his footsteps the segment of a circle. The direction he takes
is to the left, if he be right-handed, and is fixed by the cir-
cumstance that the right leg naturally takes a somewhat longer
stride than the left. In the ordinary course of life our eyes
unconsciously guide and regulate the length of our footsteps
and enable us to walk in a straight line. This increased length
of the right stride is probably due to a greater amount of
muscular development in the lower limb on that side, and
to an increased activity in its contraction. It frequently hap-
pens among blacksmiths and others accustomed to wield heavy
hammers with their right-hands, that the greater muscularity
of the limb causes the shoulder on this side to be consider-
ably higher than upon the other side, and gives such a man the
appearance (when stripped of his clothes) of having a lateral
curvature of the spine. The increased size of the right arm
is in such a case palpably due to the greater amount of
work it undertakes, and we might be disposed to fancy without
deeper investigations that dexterity, acting in accordance with
the laws of natural selection, has gradually brought about the
enlargement of viscera on the right side of the body, as is
shewn by anatomy—the reverse process is probably nearer the
truth, as I shall presently shew. .

Dexterity appears, as far as my observations go, to be con-
fined to the human race, The monkey tribes, the present
representatives of our Simian ancestry (if such they may be), use
their right and left limbs indiscriminately to grasp any object
offered to them. I have tried experiments with specimens of
the Rhesus monkey, the bonnet monkey (macacus radiatus),
the macacus silenus and the m. cynomologus; and I have been
unable to detect, as the result of several experiments in each
ease, any preference for the use of the right limb. The thoracic
viscera of some specimens of monkeys preserved at the Museum
of the Royal College of Surgeons clearly prove that the right

LOPSIDED GENERATIONS. 267

lungs of these animals bear about the same relations to their
left as regards their volumes as do our own. The marmot again
I have observed to use its left limbs as readily as its right, and
yet there is a greater difference between the proportions of its
right and left lungs than there is even in man, whilst in the
little musk-deer the right lung is twice the capacity of the left’.
On the other hand, a species of seal (Phoca vitulina), the zebra-
wolf (Thylacinus cynocephalus) and Manatus australis appear
to have lungs of about equal capacity on either side. The con-
clusion is, that the greater size of the right viscera, although
possibly determining in some way the primeval selection of the’
right-hand in man, does not necessarily conduce to dextgrity
as shewn by the actions of monkeys and other animals.
Dexterity is palpably confined to the higher and more ela-
borate muscular actions of the limbs, and this is another reason
why it can only be developed to any great extent in civilised
man. We can grasp an object as readily with the left-hand as
with the right, but most of us have experienced the awkward-
ness of attempting to use a pen or hurl a ball with the left-
hand. The cause of this peculiarity in man must be sought in
that part of his system, wherein he manifestly excels the lower
animals, and that is the brain. No other animal can so arrange
and modify the various muscles in a part of its body, as to

- thread a needle, or to articulate a rapidly followimg intelligible

series of words, for such sounds are produced by the careful
mutual adjustment of numerous muscular actions,

The left side of the brain in mankind is larger than the
right’, and it is this side which through a decussation or cross-
ing of its fibres at the upper part of the spinal marrow supplies
the right side of the body with volitional powers. The investi-
gations of pathologists, eonfirmed to a great extent by some
recent physiological experiments, have shewn that the power of
articulation in the right-handed is confined to a certain conyo-

1 Mivart’s Anatomy, p, 464. The right lung and kidney of the horse are
larger than the left. Chauveau et Arloing, dnat. Comp. 1871, p. 515,

2 The left hemisphere of the brain is ‘much larger than the right side.’
Brown-Séquard, Tonar Lecture, delivered at Washington, April 22, 1874. Medi-
cal and Surgical Reporter. See also Brit. Med, Joura. 1874, Vol. u. p. 16.
Kceker in his work on the Human Brain (translated by Galton, 1873), invariably
figures the left side somewhat larger than the right, e.g. fig, 2, p, 12 and fig, 3,
p. 24. i ;

18—2

268 DR HOLLIS...

lution on the left side of the brain. We thus arrive at the
curious fact, that in speaking and thinking (for we mostly
think in words) we use-the left side of our brain to the exclu-
sion of the right, just as we do when we write or throw a ball.
1 believe that I.can shew how unfair to ourselves and to others
is this result of dextral education.

Medical men of late years have had their attention fre-
quently directed towards certain peculiar brain-affections im-
plicating the powers of speech. A man whose intellectual
powers are otherwise apparently unaffected may suddenly be
attacked by a disease called ‘amnesia’, in which he loses his
memory of words, or by ‘aphasia’, and finds that although he
remembers the words, he cannot utter them. In such cases
we now know that such a man, if he be ‘right-handed’, suffers
from a lesion affecting the articulatory convolution of the left
side of his brain before mentioned. On the other hand, how-
ever, should the patient be left-handed, a corresponding spot
upon the right side of the brain is diseased’.

Further, we have the statements of two eminent physiolo-
gists* to the effect that such aphasic lesions can be recovered
from by exercising the opposite side of the brain for articulatory
purposes, The gradual return of the powers of speech in such
cases is frequently observed; if, therefore, we admit this expla-
nation of their recovery, and I think that it is the only probable
one, the inference is, that had these patients from their child-
hood upwards utilized both sides of their brain equally, the
disease would not have occurred when it did, Closely allied to
this disease is the hammer-palsy, observed, according to Mr.
W. Frank Smith, to affect knife-forgers and other hammermen,
It consists of more or less loss of power over the right limbs,
combined occasionally with symptoms of aphasia. A pen-
knife-forger frequently delivers as many as 28,800 accurate
strokes with his hammer in the course of a day*, “The rapidity
and accuracy with which these blows rain upon the slender
piece of iron is wonderful to the onlooker, Supposing him to

} Brown-Séquard, Tonar Lecture delivered at Washington (Med. and Surg.
Rep. April, 1874); Broadbent, Med, Chir. Trans, ww. p. 178 and others. f

® Brown-Séquard, ibid.; Ferrier, Abstract of paper in West Riding Lunatic
Asylum Reports (Journ, of Anat. viii. p. 154),

* Brit. Med. Journ, Oct. 81, 1874, p. 552.

LOPSIDED GENERATIONS. 269

work three hundred days in a year, and to continue this for
ten years, he will in that period have delivered eighty-eight
million four hundred thousand strokes; and just so many
discharges of nerve-force will have occurred in the motor
ganglia which are engaged in the action, and in the higher
ganglia which calculate the distance and judge of the amount
of force necessary to be evolved.” The palsy, which occasion-
ally follows this excessive wear and tear of nerve-tissue in
hammermen, is still more frequently seen as a result of much
writing. The scrivener’s palsy or writer's cramp, as the disease
is called, consists in a gradual loss of prehensile power, and in a
subsequent wasting of the muscles of the right arm and hand.
The clerk, who is affected by this paralysis, finds an increasing
difficulty in holding the pen, until he eventually becomes quite
unable to do so. In the earlier stages of the ailment to abstain
from writing for a few weeks will effect a cure; not so, how-
ever, when the wasting of the paralysed muscles has com-
menced ; the disease is then incurable as far as the right-hand
is concerned. There are still hopes for the patient, however, if
he learns to write with his left-hand he may continue his
previous employment’. We cannot doubt that had such a
person from his childhood learnt to write readily with either
hand, the paralytic seizure would have been postponed.

That many worthy lives have fallen a sacrifice to this
Moloch of education is undoubtedly true. A few weeks ago
Dr John Ogle, in a most interesting lecture*®, drew attention to
the fact that Dr Samuel Johnson suffered from aphasia before
his death. Writing to Mrs Thrale two days after his attack,
the great lexicographer observed, “I perceived that I had
suffered from a paralytic stroke, and that my speech was taken
from me. I had no pain and so little dejection, in this dreadful
state, that I wondered at my own apathy, and considered that
perhaps death itself when it should come, would excite less
horror than seems now to attend it.” He goes on to state that
he wrote a card to Mr Allen that he might have “a discreet

1 For an interesting case of this kind see Dr Poore’s paper on ‘ Writer's
Cramp,’ Practitioner, Aug. 1873, p. 97.

2 Brit. Med. Journ. 1874, u. p. 163: The quotations are from Boswell’s
Life of Johnson.

270 DR HOLLIS.

friend at hand, to act as occasion should require.” “In pen-
ning this note, I had some difficulty: my hand, I know not how
or why, made wrong letters.” Johnson did not die of this
attack, but he appears never to have recovered the full use of
his mental powers. His death took place about a year subse-
quently. Dean Swift is another instance according to the
same authority of this disease, he* “sometimes would try
evidently with pain to find words, but not being able, he would
fetch a sigh and remain silent.’ Upon one occasion when a
servant was breaking a large coal, he said, “That is a stone, you
blockhead.” These were the last words he uttered. He died
about a year subsequently*. In a bust or cast taken after
death, as well as one taken during life, there were indications
of paralysis of the right side of the face; Swift had, however,
palsy of the left limbs also. Spalding, the eminent German
scholar, is also mentioned by Dr Ogle, as having suffered from
aphasia. Dr Milligan, in his book On the Passions, quoting the
Psychological Magazine, mentions this case as it is recorded by
himself. It appears that his mind had for some time been
overtaxed, when, on the occasion of his writing a receipt for
some money, “as soon as he had written the first few words, he
found himself incapable of proceeding further. He strove all
he could and strained his attention to the uttermost but to no
purpose. He knew the characters he continued to make were
not those he wished to write, but could not discover where the
fault lay. He then desisted, and partly by gestures made the
person who waited for the receipt understand that he should
leave him. For about half-an-hour’ a tumultuary disorder
reigned in his senses, so that he was incapable of remarking any
thing very particular, except that one series of ideas of a trifling
nature and confusedly intermixed, forced themselves involun-
tarily on the mind. At the same time, his external senses
continued perfect, and he saw and knew every thing around
him. His speech, however, failed in the same manner as his
power of writing, and he perceived that he spoke other words
than those he intended. In less than an hour he recovered him-

1 Some particulars concerning Swift and Stella, Dubl. Quart. Journ. of Med,

Selence, 111, 884, :
2 A new and general Biographical Dictionary, London, 1798, article, ‘Swift.

LOPSIDED GENERATIONS. 271

self from his confusion and felt nothing but a slight headache.
On examining the receipt on which the aberration first betrayed
itself, he found that instead of the words ‘fifty dollars, he had
written ‘fifty dollars through the salvation of Bra—;’ the last
word being left unfinished and without his having the least
recollection of what it was intended to be.” Such cases as these,
to the exclusion of many others which might be adduced, shew |
how active energetic brains break down by overwork, or rather
by ill-balanced work. It is perhaps too much to say, that none
of these attacks would have taken place had the patients
allowed each side of their brains to participate equally in their
work, but speaking with some reservation, I believe it is
probable that the disease would have been indefinitely post-
poned had their education been other than ‘lopsided’. Physi-
cians have long since learnt to educate each eye and each ear
equally to aid them in the diagnosis of disease, and as workers
at the microscope or stethoscope they can testify to the relief
which is given to a wearied organ by employing for a while its
fellow. Why should we not thus educate our hands?

In the days of our forefathers when work was not performed
at the present high-pressure speed, and the struggle for exist-
ence was proportionately less, the dextral flaw in our education
was of little or no importance; now, however, the time has
arrived when our posterity must utilize to the utmost every
cubic line of brain-substance, and this can only be done by a
system of education which will enforce an equal prominence to
both sides of the brain in all intellectual operations. Our visage
must no longer be as the “semihominis Caci facies’”, and our
bodies cannot for the future assimilate with those ‘half-men’ of
Zulu story, who “found a Zulu maid in a cave and thought she
was two people, but on closer inspection of her admitted, ‘The
thing is pretty! But oh the two leys*!’” Let us for the
future change Horne Tooke’s definition of the left-hand as “that
which we are taught to leave out of use when one hand only is
employed’,” into “that which is left for us to use when the
right-hand is wearied by continued work.”

1 Virg. din. vii. 194. * Tylor’s Primitive Culture, t. p. 353.
3 Opus citat. 11. p. 10.

OBSERVATIONS. ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND
STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY. By Watrer Pyz,
London. (Pl. IIL).

I.

Riepeu', who has lately investigated the mode of development of
the kidney, concludes that the Malpighian capsule and glomerulus
originate in a somewhat complicated manner. His account differs

considerably from the original one of Remak, who described the °

capsule as formed by the dilated peripheral end of a urinary tubule
becoming invaginated by the embryonic vascular tuft.

Riedel’s conclusions may be summarized as follows :—

(a) The collecting tubules and these alone are developed as out-
growths from the ureters. (b) These tubules divide and subdivide in
the substance of the kidney and end at the periphery in dilated am-
pullez. (c) To these dilatations there is applied a round cellular
mass, developed from the indifferent tissue between the tubules, which
is connected with the capsule of the kidney, and grows by prolifera-
tion. (d) By a process of fission part of this mass becomes developed
into the glomerulus, while the rest goes to form the Bowman’s Cap-
sule ; thus between these parts a cavity is established. (e) The part
which forms the capsule becomes applied to the collecting tubule by
a short stalk, and subsequently the cavity becomes continuous with
the lumen of the tube. (f) Ultimately the stalk developes into the
tubuli contorti and loops of Henle.

It follows from this account that the Malpighian capsules, tubuli
contorti and loops of Henle are all developed, according to Riedel,
from the embryonal tissue between the collecting tubes, not as pro-
longations of such tubes.

As to the character of the epithelium of the capsule, the existence
in the adult of a delicate layer of cells, closely investing each division
of the glomerulus, and dipping down between each of these divisions,
has now been established by the researches of Heidenhain and others,
In the foetus it has long been recognized that the glomerulus is covered
with a layer of spheroidal cells, the cells lining the capsule being in
addition more prominent than in the adult,

Victor Seng* has given a detailed account of this epithelium. In
the kidneys of the fetal pig, dog, and man, he states that both the

1 “ Entwickelung der Stugethierniere,”’ Untersuchungen aus dem Anatomischen
Inatitut 2u Rostock, 1874,

* Aus dem txiy. Bande der Sitzd, der k. Akad, Wissensch, 11 Abth. Oct,
Heft. 1871,

Plate Hf

Journal of Anat: &: Phys. Vol. IK.

M® Farlane & Erskine, Lith? Bidin®™

W. Pye, delt

KIDNEY.

OF

DEVELOPMENT

MR PYE. DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY. 273

outside of the glomerulus and the inside of the capsule are lined at
first with embryonic round nucleated cells, and that further develop-
ment results in a transformation of the capsular cells into a single
layer of flattened nucleated ones, while those covering the glomerulus
remain polyhedral for a longer period,

I have recently examined the kidney of a human fcetus
(at about the 4th month) in which the structural characters
were shown exceedingly well.

This kidney was simply hardened in spirit and sections were
made in directions at right angles to each other. There was no
difference in the appearance presented by the two sets of sec-
tions in the points to which I directed my attention.

The conclusions I have come to with regard to the mode of
formation of the Malpighian capsules differ in many respects
from those of Riedel, and I hope to show that the process of
development he describes was probably suggested by sections
made somewhat obliquely to the axis of the tubule and
capsule. A section made through the whole thickness of the
kidney from papilla to cortex, if stained with hematoxylin, will
show, when examined with the microscope under a low power,
a number of straight tubules running from papilla to peri-
phery, diverging in their course, and branching dichotomously
at acute angles. At the periphery they will be seen to be in
connection with Malpighian capsules in process of formation,
but the manner of this connection can only be well seen under
a high power (not lower than an objective No. 7 of Hart-
nack).

These tubules, from their commencement in the papilla to
their termination close to the edge of the kidney, are evidently
those prolongations of the ureter, which become collecting
tubules, for they are sharply distinguished from the large
convoluted tubes among which they lie, by their straightness,
their small diameter, and the character of their epithelium,
which is small, sharply defined, and deeply stained by the
hematoxylin.

On examining the peripheric end of one of these tubes cut
in the direction of its long axis, with an objective No. 7 or 8 of
Hartnack, it will be seen to be in connection with the capsule
of the glomerulus in the following rather complicated manner.

274 _ MR PYE

The tube, lined with spheroidal nucleated cells, ascends
through the cortex to within a short distance of the kidney
capsule and is there greatly enlarged. This enlargement is
effected by one side of the tube being continued for a short
but variable distance in its original direction, while the other is
turned somewhat abruptly on itself. The first side then turns
‘and runs parallel to its fellow (see Fig. 11.) back into the depths
of the kidney.

The effect of the arrangement thus diagrammatically stated
is, that the tube presents a budlike projection towards the free
surface of the kidney and then turns to form what I will call
the descending limb. This limb, which is short and tortuous,
ends by curving round the embryonic glomerulus so as to
embrace it, and thus becomes its capsule. Here, as described
by Seng, the epithelium of one side of the tube becomes flat-
tened out, while that of the other side, which is applied closely
to the glomerulus, consists of one or more layers of deeply
stained cells, whose shapes vary from nearly round to. nearly
columnar. (See Figs. 1. 1.)

Out of many sections I have only found one doubtful case,
in which the tube ended in an enlarged blind extremity, of
which the apex appeared to be inflected, so as to form a covering
for the developing glomerulus in the manner described ap
Remak. Therefore, though this method of formation may
sometimes occur, it certainly is not common.

The descending limb, in addition to being more or less
tortuous, frequently has the plane of its axis at a considerable
angle from that of the tube itself. It will then easily be under-
stood that unless the axis of the collecting tube and its de-
scending limb, are in the same, or nearly the same, plane, and
the section is also made in that plane, part of the limb between
the tube and the capsule of the glomerulus will be cut away,
and the latter will appear to be placed by the side of the former
but quite separate from it. (See Fig. rv.)

This arrangement, modified in various degrees, is presented
by the great majority of instances, whilst only in a small num-
ber is it possible to see the continuity of the collecting tube
and descending limb, An independent origin of the Bowman’s
capsule, therefore, is likely to be suggested by the usual ap-

DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY. 275

pearances presented. This probably will account for Riedel’s
description of the mode of development.

The budlike projection at the peripheral part of the tube
appears to be the point at which it grows in length with the
growth of the kidney; for it hardly exists in those tubes which
are close to the periphery, and have a simple arrangement of
the parts going to form the Bowman’s capsule, that is in those
tubes in which this capsule has only just begun to be formed.
(Fig. 1.) Whilst on the other hand it is long in those tubes
where the glomerulus and capsule are at some distance from
the edge of the cortex, and are, therefore, of earlier formation.
(See Fig. 111.)

If in Fig. vit. A represent the collecting tubule with A’, A”
its farther growth from the budlike projection, while 8’, b”, 6°”
and ¢’, ¢”, c” represent the descending limbs and their termina-
tion sariaialile the glomerulus d, the parts b’, b” of the descend-
ing limb will correspond to the stalk, connecting the Bowman’s
capsule with the collecting tube, which Riedel describes, and
which he states becomes subsequently developed into convoluted
tubes and loops of Henle.

The Bowman’s capsules are generally formed in pairs, being
placed one on each tube just after a dichotomous division. They
are generally back to back. (Fig. Iv.)

This arrangement may be seen not only in the neighbour-
hood of the kidney-capsule, but also in the depth of the kidney,
though there it is not so frequent, the development of the con-
voluted tubes naturally soon causing a disturbance of the ori-
ginal symmetrica] arrangement.

With regard to the epithelial covering of the capsule and
its glomerulus the appearances are exactly those which Victor
Seng has figured. I have only further to state, that up toa
certain point I have been able to trace very distinctly the
manner in which the cellular investment of the glomerulus,
which at first spreads uniformly over the whole mass of the
embryonic vessels, gradually dips down between the subdi-
visions ef the vascular tuft, as those divisions become more
perfectly differentiated.

bo
~I
for)

MR PYE.

II.

Ludwig', in his account of the structure of the kidney tubules,
summarizes their division as follows :—(1) Primary convoluted tubes
commencing as the capsules of the glomeruli. (2) Henle’s loops with
their descending and ascending limbs. (3) Intermediary convoluted
portions which commence when the ascending limbs have regained
the cortex, and which end by coalescing to form straight collecting
tubules.

When describing more particularly the diameters of the various
parts of these tubules, he states that the convoluted tubes suddenly
narrow into the descending parts of Henle’s loops. This narrow part
generally occupies the descending and part of the ascending limbs,
while the remainder of the latter is formed by a somewhat larger
tube. :

These enlarged ascending limbs then run in the medullary pro-
cesses to the cortex, in which, after being slightly constricted for a
short distance, they again enlarge till their diameter is equal ‘to that
of the original convoluted tubes, that is until they are converted into
the intermediary convoluted ones.

The epithelium of the two convoluted parts is described by him as
composed of a cloudy granular matrix, containing nuclei and present-
ing fissures here and there, but no regular differentiation into cells.

The loops of Henle, as long as they retain their small diameter,
are lined by a layer of clear flattened cells, but when enlarged in the
ascending limbs, the epithelium, while still remaining clear, is com-
posed of separate columnar cells arranged in an imbricated manner.

According to Ludwig, therefore, the ascending limb of Henle’s
loops having once become enlarged, retains its size and the character
of its epithelium unchanged, during its upward course through me-
dulla and cortex, until just before it is further enlarged and becomes
convoluted a second time,

It is to the characters of these ascending limbs that I wish
to draw attention, and I shall endeavour to show that, from their
varying diameters and the changes which their epithelium pre-
sents in different parts of their course, they may fairly be
subdivided with somewhat more detail than has hitherto been
done.

Heidenhain? describes the substance of the nucleated epi-
thelial cells of mammalian kidney tubules (with the exception
of the flattened cells of the descending parts of Henle’s loops)

1 Stricker’s Human and Comparative Histology. Sydenham Society's Trans-
ation.
® Maz Schultze’s Archiv, 1878, p. 1.

<< —_=-S- eee

DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY. 277

as being composed of minute rods, usually arranged at right
angles to the long axis of the tube. |

Following a method of preparation similar to the one de-
scribed by him, I became satisfied of the correctness of his
statements. This method consisted in placing small bits of
fresh kidney in 5 p. c. solution of chromate of ammonia for 48
hours and then in water for from 5 to 8 hours more, they were
then left in spirit until they became sufficiently hard to allow
of sections being made.

The rod-like nature of the substance of the epithelial cells
lining the lumina of both kinds of convoluted tubes, and of the
larger ascending parts of Henle’s loops, may be demonstrated
with great ease in the kidneys of dogs and rabbits, if prepared
in the way just described.

With regard to the ascending limbs of Henle’s loops, I
have noticed in addition certain points which have not, I think,
been fully described by previous observers. These points con-
cern (1), their course, (2) variations in their diameter and size
of lumen, (3) variations of position of the nuclei and arrange-
ment of the rods in the cells.

Having imbedded. portions of the kidney, sections were cut
in planes as nearly as possible parallel to the course of the
tubes in the medullary processes and medulla, and were then
mounted in the usual way, after having been rather deeply
stained with hematoxylin.

From the appearances presented by these preparations, it
seems that the course of the ascending limb may be divided
into four parts, each differing in size and in the character of their
epithelium. These are (1) the part nearest the loop, lined with
clear flattened cells, as described by Ludwig, (2) the part where
the tube becomes broader, and has, as a distinctive feature,
cubical epithelial cells, (3) the part placed in the medullary

_ processes, and that part just below them, i.e. in the external

part of the “intermediate portion” of Ludwig; it is distin-
guished from the last-named by being narrower, and by the
characters of its epithelium, (4) the tubes when running in the
cortex,

In Fig. v. I have drawn the end of the first and the begin-
ning of the second divisions. With regard to the first, I have

278 MR PYE.

nothing to add to Ludwig’s description. The second will be
seen to be much the larger of the two, and to present the ap-
pearance of a straight tube possessing a large lumen, and with
an epithelium composed of pale cubical cells with rather indis-
tinct rods, and faintly marked nuclei placed near their centres.

Fig. vi. represents a horizontal and vertical section of the
third division, as described above. It differs from the pre-
ceding part in the following points: Its diameter decreases
throughout its whole length, the decrease being most marked
at its termination in the cortex. The rods of the epithelial
cells are much more distinct and are apparently coarser; and,
either in the whole length of the tube (not represented in the
figure), or in various parts of it, are very frequently, though I
think not usually, arranged in a sloping manner. They generally
appear, however, to be placed at right angles to the axis of the
tube. There is very little lumen in this division of the tube,
caused partly by an actual increase of the size of the cells,
partly by its decrease in diameter. The nuclei of the cells are
large and very distinct; they differ also from those of the second
division by being all crowded towards the centre of the tube;
and, lastly, the tubes, instead of being straight as before, are
slightly wavy.

In Figure vil. is represented the fourth division, and, ranning
by its side, a convoluted tube for the sake of comparison. It
differs from the preceding mainly in presenting numerous an-
gular bends and abrupt changes in diameter; where largest, its
diameter may come near to that of a convoluted tube, whilst
at its smallest part it is of about the same size as the cortical
end of the third division.

This whole division stains deeply with hematoxylin, the
nuclei are placed as in the previous division, and the fibrille
are still more evident and more generally imbricated than be-
fore. On the whole, however, the difference between divisions
3 and 4 appears to be one rather of situation than structure.
Placed among the convoluted tubes as the latter is, it seems to
be forced into abrupt change of direction, to which, perhaps
from the peculiar nature of its epithelium, or from some other
cause, it accommodates itself by angular rather than by curvi-
linear turns,

DEVELOPMENT AND STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY. 279

In conclusion, I have to render my thanks to Dr Klein,
under whose direction the above investigations were made.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

Figs L., II. Peripheral ends of the collecting tubes with their
descending limbs turning back to form capsules for the glomeruli.
(The glomeruli are not figured, they were in the position *), The
arrangement in Fig. I. is not quite typical, but rather unusually
simple. The bend of this tube being close to the capsule of the kid-
ney, there is no budlike projection. Fig. II. represents the usual
arrangement of parts, the “bud” being present but small.

Fig. III. Collecting tube, in connection with a Bowman’s cap-
sule, at some little distance from the edge of the kidney, and having
a well-marked bud-like projection below, This section not being made
exactly in the axis of the capsule and descending limb, a good deal of
each of these parts has been cut away, and their relations are not
quite clear. Had the Section been made through the centre of the
capsule and glomerulus (which is here figured), the former would have
been seen to envelope the latter much more completely and closely
than appears to be the case.

Fig. IV. illustrates the appearance generally presented by collect-
ing tubes, the descending limbs of which have been cut away in con-
sequence of the Section not passing through their long -axis. In this
Figure the capsule and glomerulus appear to be quite indepeudent of
the collecting tube, by the side of which they lie; there is also shown
the formation of the Bowman’s capsules in pairs, as described in the
text.

In all these Figures the difference between the epithelial cells
lining the capsule und those investing the glémerulus is shown.

References to Figures L—IV.

Collecting tube.

Bud towards periphery of kidney.
Descending limb.

Bowman’s capsule.

Embryonic glomerulus.

fas or

Figures V., VI, VII., VIIL, described in the text.

All the drawings are made under Hartnack’s No. 2 eye-piece and
No, 7 objective.

A NOTE ON THE MECHANICAL WORK OF RESPI-
RATION. By B. THompson Lowng, F.R.C.S., F.LS.,
AND Z.S., Lecturer on Physiology at the Middlesex Hos-
pital Medical School.

THE work of Respiration has been calculated by Professor
Haughton to be equal to twenty-one foot tons per day’; Fick
gives a very similar estimate, as he states that the work neces-
sary for the inspiration of 600 cc. of air is equal to 63 kilo-
grammeters. Dr Hutchinson, by measuring the force required
to inflate the chest after death with a quantity of air equal to
that contained during life, arrived at the same conclusion®.

These estimates are quoted in Carpenter’s Human Physio-
logy, and are usually received, at least by students, as correct.
Donders, without however criticising these results, which im-
ply the support of a pressure about equal to two inches of.
mercury, remarks, that the expiratory effort in normal tranquil
respiration is only capable of supporting about 3mm. of water
when the manometer is connected with one nostril, the other
remaining free, although the pressure rapidly rises to several
times this amount as soon as the discomfort attending the
experiment is felt. In my own case so rapid is this change
that the pressure rises with each successive respiration until
the difference of the level of the fluid in the two limbs of the
manometer attains thrée-quarters of an inch.

The work done during respiration is supposed by the above
authorities to bé chiefly done upon the elastic tissue of the
lungs and the elasticity of the thoracic wall, but it is evident
that any work done against elastic forces during inspiration
must? be done by those forces upon the air or upon muscle
acting antagonistically to elasticity during expiration: hence
all the work, except that which is lost by friction and the
imperfection of the mechanism, is either done upon the air
contained in the cavity of the thorax, or the elastic forces
brought into play are too great for the work required, and are

1 Brit. Med, Journal, 1868.
* Med, Chir, Trans, xxix, 205,

THE MECHANICAL WORK OF RESPIRATION. ~ 281°?

counteracted by absolute work done against them during both -
inspiration and expiration; an hypothesis which has no evidence
to support it, and one which is fundamentally opposed to all
that we know of the animal mechanism. No one, probably,
would hold that the inspiratory muscles are in activity during
the expiratory effort for the purpose of opposing the elastic
force of the thoracic wall: a force which they have them-
selves called into play. ae

I shall now endeavour to shew that the work done upon the
air in the cavity of the thorax is exceedingly small in com-
parison to the above estimates, and that the work of respira-
tion falls very far short of the amount stated.

There can be no doubt that the elastic force exerted by the
wall of the lung is considerable ; Donders' has estimated it at
15mm. of mercury, or about five ounces on the square inch,
when the lung is fully expanded with air; Hutchinson® gives a
still higher estimate, and mentions half-a-pound on the square
inch as a maximum value. During life, moreover, something
must be added to this force for the pressure due to the tone of
the muscular tissue of the bronchi (Donders).

Perhaps it may not be unnecessary, in this connection, to
call attention to the disposition of the elastic tissue of the lung.
This, as is well known, consists of numerous fine elastic fibres,
disposed in curves around or partly round the lobules, infundi-
bula, and air-cells. When the lungs are taken from the
thoracic cavity the contraction of these fibres diminishes the
capacity of the lung-cavity to a very great extent; when in the
thoracic cavity we may conceive the peripheral portion of every
curve as fixed by the absence of atmospheric air in the pleural
cavity, that is, we may consider that the elastic fibres take
their origin from the interior of the thoracic wall, so that if
these fibres were straight they would enlarge the lung-cavity
instead of diminishing it by their contraction; as however the
fibres are curved, their shortening must diminish the lung-
space and act as an expiratory agent, unless they were otherwise
counteracted. That the shortening of the fibres will cause the
_ lung-walls to-encroach on the air spaces, follows from the fact
: =" Physiology. Henle und Pfeuffer’s Zeitsch. Ba, m1. and rv.

lo Cy

VOL, IX. ; 19

282 . _ MR LOWNE.

that the sum of the work done by the contraction of these
curved fibres must be a maximum compared with that in all
other forms which the membrane that bounds the air-cells can
continuously assume.

That the elastic force of the lung-tissue is counteracted by
another and opposite force, follows from the comparatively
small minus pressure in the pleural cavity. According to the
most recent researches’, there is no doubt that the position
of the thoracic wall at the’ end of a normal expiratory act
is one of equilibrium; no muscles are then acting, hence the:
thoracic parietes, probably by virtue of the tone of the inspi-
ratory muscles and the elasticity of the rib-cartilages, tend to
expand to exactly the same extent that the lungs tend to
contract, and the two forces balance each other. In no other
condition would there be a minus pressure in the pleural
cavity and a condition of equilibrium. The minus pressure
in the pleural cavity must therefore be equal to the sum of
the two elastic forces, the inward tending elasticity of the lung
and the outward tending elastic force of the chest-wall. This
pressure has been shewn by Donders and others to equal about
6mm, of mercury, or two ounces to the square inch.

Hence it is quite clear that the elastic force of the lung-
walls must be counterbalanced in part during life. For a very
long time these facts puzzled me considerably, but I can easily
see now that the circulation of the blood upori the walls of the
lung-cells and in the pulmonary arteries must act as an op-
posing force to the elasticity of the lung-wall. When a fluid
is. contained under pressure in a series of extensile tubes it
is well known that the tubes undergo elongation, hence the
blood-pressure in the network of pulmonary vessels, by elon-
gating them, and more especially by extending the meshwork
of capillaries and minute arteries in the elastic lung-wall, must
supply an outward tending force, which to a greater or less
extent .counterbalances the contracting elastic fibres of the
pulmonary tissue. Experiments are however wanting to verify
these conclusions, although I am convinced of their accuracy.
I moreover believe that further investigation of these relations

1 Dr Burdon Sanderson, Handbook for the Physiological Laboratory,

THE MECHANICAL WORK OF RESPIRATION. 283

will aid the clinical investigation of some deranged conditions
of the lung.

The pressure exerted upon the air in the lungs must more-
over be always less than the endopleural minus pressure by the
amount of outward tending force exerted by the thoracic
parietes, and must vanish when the thoracic outward tending
pressure equals the inward tending pressure of the lung-wall,
that is, at the end of a normal expiratory act.

_ Hence neither the elasticity of the lung of the thoracic
parietes, nor the endopleural pressure, can be of any avail to
determine the mechanical work of respiration, unless we can
determine their resultant in the various positions of the tho-
racic wall.

Again, all experiments which require the application of a
manometer either to the mouth or to one of the nares, give
rise to abnormal respiration, and increase the normal pressure
of the air in the lung.

There is, however, another method of calculating the me-
chanical work of respiration, which has, I believe, been hitherto
overlooked—in the relation between the velocity of moving
gases and the pressure producing motion.

The general formula of this relation is well known:

H \3
ne P (pH + rH)”
where k=1398 feet, or the velocity with which gases rush
into a vacuum under the pressure of an atmosphere. In this
formula h=the height of a column of fluid equal to an atmo-
sphere, and H the height of a column of fluid producing the
pressure causing motion. In the case of the lung during
expiration, 7= the pressure of the thoracic wall upon the air
in the lung measured by the height of a column of fluid which
would be supported by an equal pressure.

When gases flow through tubes the quantity V calculated

by this formula is reduced in proportion to the work done in

each tube, and this work, or rather coefficient of work, =a “a

where a= the loss of velocity in a smooth standard tube of
unit length and radius, and 7 and p are the length and radius
of the tube in which we wish to calculate the velocity.

19-—2

284 MR LOWNE.

Hence, to obtain the velocity V' in any given tube, we have
only to divide V by this coefficient,

taf its
and Vato,
a

Numerous experiments shew that the value of a for a smooth
glass or metal tube ten yards long and one inch radius = 1°3,
and this coefficient is the same whatever the gas employed.

I have verified the above formule in the case of a fube
1°5 feet in length with a radius of +4, of an inch, and found it
absolutely correct. It is applicable to tubes-of various lengths
of one and three inch radius.

The above formula is also deduced from the first principles
of dynamics, since

V= 9 (2fs),

and the velocity varies inversely as the negative acceleration,
which equals a for every unit of length; therefore

a.s avs’
where s =the length of the tube.

Again, since the coefficient of work done in a tube is

directly as its surface and inversely as its area, it varies as .

In order to apply the above formule for the calculation of
the work of respiration, it is necessary to estimate the value of
V, or the velocity with which the air escapes from the trachea,
I have made a series of experiments with light paper vanes to
endeavour to estimate the velocity of the air as it passes from
the mouth and nostrils, and from these, as well as by obser-
vations made on the apparent velocity of the watery vapour
expelled, which is easily observed in frosty weather, I am sure
that about eight feet a second is a very fair average. The
same result may be arrived at by considering the narrowest
part of the glottis to have an area of about ‘25 of a square

THE MECHANICAL WORK OF RESPIRATION. 285.

inch, the average quantity of air changed at each respiration
at between 25 and 30 cubic inches, and the average duration of
inspiration or expiration ata second and a quarter. These
measurements are perhaps, with the exception of the last, too

great, calculating from a standard tube the value of a a for

the trachea and bronchi = 3:25 nearly, if we estimate their
mean length at two feet and their mean diameter at ‘2 of
an inch, This correction would need to be applied to the
calculation if the velocity of the current approached the velo-
city of the current at the aperture; but since this is a co-
efficient by which the velocity must be divided, it actually
almost vanishes when the mean velocity of the air in the
bronchial tubes, the united areas of which are many times
larger than the area of the orifice, is taken into account.

In order to establish the actual loss of velocity due to
friction in the glottis, I connected a larynx and trachea with
a vessel containing compressed air. The pressure of the air
was estimated by a manometer connected with the receiver,
and the quantity expelled under this pressure, which was kept
constant by a continuous supply pumped into the receiver, was
measured by a meter between the pump and the receiver’,
The quantity of air supplied to the receiver was 25 cubic
inches a second, and the pressure maintained by this supply
equalled *25 of an inch of water. As the orifice of the glottis
in the larynx employed measured only , of a square inch, the
velocity imparted to the air by this pressure at the opening
of the glottis was as nearly as possible 27 feet a second. The
calculated velocity for the same pressure may be set down at
37 feet a second, nearly, hence the coefficient of loss of velocity
=°73 nearly: and this correction will be a maximum correc-
tion, since the orifice was greatly contracted in the dead larynx
by the approximation of the vocal cords,

In accordance with this correction we may take the actual
pressure required, and give a velocity of eight feet per second
as that which would theoretically give a velocity of eleven feet
per second,

1 These experiments were made in the University College Laboratory, which
I was permitted to make use of by the courtesy of Dr Burdon Sanderson.

286 , MR LOWNE.

Since H is very small we may write

H
y=t,/2

without sensibly affecting the result, so that we have

Mee Sica) x 760 _ a

Bh? °° 1954404
in millimeters of mercury, and a pressure of 6°5 grains, nearly,
on the square inch, is the pressure required to produce the
velocity in question. This pressure appears to be quite com-
petent to give the resultant velocity if we remember that the
velocity decreases so rapidly in the trachea and bronchi that
the friction in these tubes can bear only a very small relation
to the friction in the trachea and glottis. If, however, we take
the largest possible estimate of this friction, and consider that
the air in passing through a series of parallel tubes having an
average diameter of } of an inch, with a velocity equal to that
at which it emerges from the glottis, the same calculation gives
us only 68 grains pressure on the square inch.

If we take the former estimate of pressure and neglect the
loss of volume due to this pressure, which is compensated for
many times by increased temperature, we shall have this pres-
sure 6'5 grains moved through a distance of 25 linear inches,
however the motion may be distributed on the thoracic walls,
to expel 25 cubic inches of air from the lungs; and taking
16 respirations a minute, we shall have in the inspiratory and
expiratory effort 6°5 grains moved through 50 inches, which
will give us

6°5 x 50 = 325 inch grains
16

$9 x 5200 per minute
5
7000 ) 26,000 foot grains per hour

3°7 foot pounds _,,
24

148
74
88'8 foot pounds per day,

THE MECHANICAL WORK OF RESPIRATION. 287

The larger estimate of work gives 936 foot pounds.as the
daily work of respiration, and this I am convinced is far too
large an estimate, since the corrections applied are very much
larger than the most probable correction,

The smoothness of the tube through which a gas is passing
makes some difference in its velocity, especially when the
velocity is high, but no appreciable difference with low veloci-
ties and a comparatively large area of tube, so that I think
the coefficient determined by my experiment for the loss of
velocity in the rima glottidis is a sufficient datum for all loss of
velocity due to friction.

The foregoing calculations give us the actual external work
done in moving the air during the respiratory acts for the
twenty-four hours; of course a certain amount of work is done
in friction in the moving parts, and this cannot be readily
determined, but can only be set down as so much internal
work producing heat; it is therefore done without loss to the
economy. The work done in moving the abdominal viscera has
likewise been neglected, but since the elastic forces, i.e. the
tone of the muscles forming the abdominal parietes and the
elastic force of the lung-wall are in equilibrium at the end of
expiration, the same work, with the exception of that lost in
friction, will be done by the descent of the viscera as is done
upon them in raising them during the ascent of the dia-
phragm.

The entire work, internal and external, of respiration, will
of course be some multiple of the external work, and may be
expressed by the formula

W=e(1+0),
where W=the entire work and e the external work. The
value of ¢ in this formula will of course depend entirely on the
perfection of the mechanism, and in the living organism we should
scarcely expect the internal work to exceed the external work
many times: that is, we should not expect the work done to

be many times greater than that which would be necessary in
a comparatively perfect machine.

CASE OF ATROPHY OF RIGHT HEMISPHERE OF
CEREBRUM AND LEFT SIDE OF CEREBELLUM,
WITH ATROPHY OF LEFT SIDE OF BODY. By
Jas. C. Howpen, M.D., Superintendent of the Montrose
Asylum.

S— C—. A woman, admitted into the Montrose Asylum,
6 July, 1868, xt. 30, unmarried; height 5 ft. 4$in., weight
112 lbs., has fair hair and blue eyes. On admission, her general
bodily health was good, nothing abnormal being discovered in
either the circulatory, respiratory, or digestive systems, and, as
far as could be ascertained, the various senses, sight, hearing,
&c. were normal, Her left side is paralysed, the flexors of the
fore-arm being very much contracted, drawing up, and partially
closing the left hand, which is very much withered ; left leg is
also withered and twisted, causing her to walk on the outside
of her foot.

Previous History. Her mother, who is a well-made woman,
states that there was no difficulty whatever during the ac-
couchement, no instruments being required or used. Nothing
particular was noticed about the child at birth. She suckled
properly, and did not shew any symptoms of being weak-
minded or more irritable than children generally are. At
about the age of 3 years and 9 months she commenced to
have fits, up to which time she never had an accident of
any kind or any severe illness. At school she was able to
learn fairly, but did not shew as much ability as the average
of her schoolfellows, She is stated to have had an ill-will at
children, running after them and threatening to injure them
when they annoyed her, but was always considered sane until
shortly before her admission, There is no hereditary taint,
and the principal reason for her being sent to the asylum
seems to have been because the neighbours made complaints
that she was dangerous to children.

September, She is at times quarrelsome and abusive, is
liable when menstruating to sudden attacks of excitement,
when she runs up and down the ward, but does not become
convulsed in any way,

ATROPHY OF RIGHT .HEMISPHERE OF CEREBRUM, &c. 289

———* Feb. 16, 1869. On the evening of the 4th she had a
regular epileptic seizure. It began at about 7 pM. She
became unconscious, fell, striking her forehead against a table,
and slightly cutting her eye-brow. ‘There was no cry, she
frothed at the mouth, bit her tongue severely, and was gener-
ally convulsed, the head and arms more so however, than the
lower parts of her body. The convulsions continued for 12 hours
with intervals of one minute in every three or four minutes.
During these intermissions however twitchings of the muscles
of the neck and face were observed. Although the convulsions
Jeft her at 7 A.M. on the 5th, she continued in a state of partial
stupor till the 6th. She is now well again, grumbling as
formerly about what she calls the ‘turns in her inside,” Her
feet and legs are slightly swollen, there is no albumen in her
urine.

July 1st. She has had no severe fit since last entry, but

often has her ‘turns,’ which seem tobe attacks of Petit Mal,

_after which she generally keeps her bed for a day or two, and

employs her time reading her bible and complaining about her

illness,

1872, April 30. Up to this date there has been no parti-
cular change in her condition, bodily or mentally.

May. Health feeble, often goes whole days without food.

-Is suffering from Phthisis.

July 21st. Died.

SecTIO CADAVERIS.

Description of Brain. On opening the Dura Mater a
marked difference in size was observed between the two
-hemispheres; the left hemisphere was apparently normal, while
the right had a small shrunken appearance. The membranes
were generally opaque, and in the meshes of the Pia Mater
over the right hemisphere there were numerous small blebs
of fluid which occupied the place of the proper cerebral matter.
These bullee were most abundant over the right anterior lobe.
On the left hemisphere there were a few small bullze over the
_posterior lobe. The convolutions of the tent hemisphere were
normal in appearance and size.

290 DR HOWDEN.

The right hemisphere was greatly atrophied, both as regards
its size generally, and that of the convolutions in the frontal,
parietal and occipital lobes. Its defects in size were especially
marked by its diminution in the vertical and transverse diame-
ters. ‘The vertical-diameter of the frontal lobe was ,§ths inch :
in the temporo-sphenoidal and parietal region 1,8; inch: in the
occipital region 1,1, inch.

The fissure of Sylvius, owing to the great atrophy of the
parietal lobe, mounted to the summit of the hemisphere in the
parietal region. ‘The fissure of Rolando was not recognisable.
The parieto-occipital fissure was distinct. The several convo-
lutions of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe could be recognized, and,
except at their posterior ends, had not undergone any material
diminution in size. The superior, middle, and inferior frontal
convolutions were present, but only a third the size of the cor-
responding convolutions in the left hemisphere. The ascending
frontal and parietal convolutions and the convolution of the
parietal eminence could not be defined with any accuracy.
The postero-parietal lobule and angular gyrus were greatly
atrophied. The three occipital convolutions and the annectant
gyri, though reduced in size, could be readily recognised. The
convolutions of the island of Reil were well marked. The
corpus callosum was greatly atrophied. In those lobes where
the convolutions were atrophied on the outer surface, a corre-
sponding atrophy had also taken place on the inner surface
of the lobe.

Depending from what seemed to be the anterior inferior
end of the corpus callosum were two pear-shaped pedunculated
bodies, of a brownish-yellow colour, each about 15 mill. in
length, and 12°5 mill. at their greatest diameter. The pedicle
of the one to the right side was 5 mill.; that of the left 15 mill.
in length.

The lateral ventricles of both sides were distended with
fluid, the descending cornu of the right lateral ventricle being
especially much dilated. At the anterior aspect of the corpus
callosum was found a small gritty calcareous deposit about
the size of a pea.

Cerebellum. The right lobe much larger than the left,
which is small and shrivelled, especially at its centre. Superior

“ATROPHY OF RIGHT HEMISPHERE OF CEREBRUM, &c. 291

vermiform process is of a triangular form, the angles being
nearly equal. The pons is twisted, so that the median groove
is more to the left side; a section of the pons shews the left
side to be larger than the right. The crus on the left side is
less covered by the lateral lobe of the cerebellum than on the
right. The sub-peduncular lobe is small, but distinct, on the
left side, and it is absent on the right. The amygdala, as
indeed all other parts of the cerebellum on the left side, are
small. The inferior vermiform process is compressed antero-
posteriorly and twisted to the left side. The left anterior
pyramid and restiform body are larger than the right.
Remarks. The interest in this case is lessened by the
details of the post-mortem examination being so incomplete.
The patient died when I was confined to bed by illness, and
my assistant, who had just entered on his duties, took but
imperfect notes, and though the brain was preserved, it was in
some respects so mutilated that it could be but partially de-
scribed*, Such as it is, however, it may be of some value for
comparison with similar cases recorded by Schroeder Van der
Kolk, and others. As in Van der Kolk’s case the atrophied
half of the cerebellum was on the opposite side to the atrophied
cerebral hemisphere. The small side of the pons Varolii cor-
responded with the left or atrophied side of the cerebellum,
while the small side of the medulla oblongata was the right,
corresponding with the atrophied’side of the cerebrum, Unfor-
tunately the spinal cord was not examined. The want of
symmetry of the skull externally was not such as to attract
much attention, or lead to the suspicion that there was such
atrophy of one half of the brain, the proportions being balanced
by thickening of the skull and the presence of a large amount
of serous fluid occupying the place of brain-matter. The
patient could scarcely be considered insane or even imbecile.
Were it not for her physical infirmities, there was no reason
why she should not have earned her living. She was much
deformed, being what is termed in Scotland an ‘object.’ The
irritability and violence which led to her being placed in the
asylum arose in part from epilepsy, and in part from her being

1 The brain is preserved in the Anatomical Museum of the Edinburgh
University.

296 DR HOWDEN. ATROPHY OF RIGHT HEMISPHERE, &c.,

a subject of ridicule, from her uncouth appearance, to young
children.

The history of the case does not throw much light on the
cause or duration of the atrophy. It may to a certain extent
have been congenital, but some of the changes, such as the
thickening of the skull, and the effusion of fluid on the atro-
phied side, must have gone on during the growth of the body.

I am not aware if there are any data to shew in what
manner, or how rapidly, the skull thickens in cerebral atrophy.
Van der Kolk thought it was only found in chronic cases,
What he means by chronic he does not state, but I have
certainly met with undoubted hypertrophy of the skull in
cases in which there was no reason to suppose that the atrophic
process had extended over more than three or four years, as in
general paralysis.

For the sake of comparison I have placed my measure-
ments side by side with those given by Van der Kolk of his
case,

-MEASUREMENT OF BRAIN COMPARED WITH VAN DER KoLk’s Cass.

Gf Smatu Srpz, || Lares Srve.

d Ay ;
$4 | § | $4] 8
Ey 3 aig E
> <7] > ise

Left | Right || Right | Left
. mil, m.) mil, m./mil, m,

Length of the Hemisphere
from Anterior to Pos- | -
$OKIOT LODO, ak vce secanetevans 1386 | 144 163 | 166

* Length of the Anterior lobe
to fissure of Sylvius...... 43 BD 61 534

Length of the Posterior lobe
to the anterior extremity
of the middle lobe......... 111 | 112 125 | 125

CEREBELLUM, Right} Left || Left | Right

Transverse diameter from
the marginof themedulla
oblongata to the outer
edge of the Hemisphere 45 87} 52 45

Meputta OBLONGATA, Right Left
Breadth of ant. pyramid at
junction with pons ...... 5 7

Breadth of do, at middle... 5 7

OBSERVATIONS ON THE SPINY SHARK (Echino-
rhinus Spinosus). By Proressor TURNER.

THOUGH the capture of several specimens of the Spiny Shark
on the coasts of England has been recorded by Yarrell, Couch,
and other writers on British Ichthyology, it is only within the
last few years that this species of shark has been recognised as
a denizen of the Scottish seas. The first naturalist to deter-
mine its presence as a Scottish species was the Rev. Professor
Duns, D.D., who obtained a specimen caught at Bo'ness on the
Firth of Forth, the stuffed skin of which he presented to the
Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. A second specimen
was shortly afterwards captured in the Firth, off Elie on the
coast of Fife, the stuffed skin of which is preserved in the
Museum of the Free Church College, Edinburgh. Dr Duns
communicated a notice of the capture of these specimens to the
British Association at its meeting in Edinburgh, August, 1871.

In the month of June, 1874, a female specimen of this
shark, caught on the lines with a herring-bait near the Bass
Rock, came into the possession of Mr Jameson, Fishmonger,
Edinburgh, who very kindly presented it to me for the Ana-
tomical Museum of the University, so that I have been enabled
to examine not only its external form, but various points in its
internal anatomy.

The figures of this shark, which have been published by
Dr Andrew Smith, Yarrell, Hamilton and Couch, differ con-
siderably from each other, not only in the general form of the
fish, but in several points of detail. Dr Andrew Smith’ figures
under the name of Z. obesus a male specimen of this shark,
which is thicker, especially at the root of the tail, than my
example, and his figure is copied by Yarrell (2nd ed. p. 534).
Yarrell also figures another example, the sex of which is not
stated (though from the appearance of claspers on the ventral
fins it would seem also to be a male), which is much more
slender than Dr Smith’s specimen. Hamilton’s figure? errs in
making the snout too long, the gill-openings of equal size, and

1 Zoology of South Africa. Pisces, Pl. 1.
2 *Ichthyology’ in Naturalist’s Library, Vol. v1. Pl. 28.

294 PROFESSOR TURNER.

in the relative size of the two dorsal fins. Couch’ also errs in
the relative size of the two dorsal fins, in the relative size and
position of the gill-openings, and in the shape of the tail;
moreover, the colour of the fish is much too pale. Neither he
nor Hamilton state the sex of the specimens which they have
figured. As no authentic figure of a female spiny shark has
been published, I have thought it not undesirable to reproduce
some careful drawings of my specimen, which were executed
under my superintendence by Mr. C, Berjeau.

The measurements of this specimen were as follows:

ft. in
PURETOMAG, TODWUS, varescsnndss bien ssvencdsaasadareaceane 6 6
ROE UO YOu sh kt st Echnts ex apnec has mond setenk av anna pe 0 6
PAS ope BPETACNS «vase canenssnckrguel ps weil Aayex shesque cnt eae
EE: TOMI IS: aes snacchaauesb eis ianevencnsany seine Ar oeean
fe wee TOUR, -f co ninsbarnndansud sks andsundaniaas Meee
freee $3 TSG PHl-OPCUAe ha snesensssaponsenee wie ange ke ae
tripe: anterior root of pectoral fin ............ 1 7
seen ereae anterior border of Ist dorsal fin ......3 8
Re ee anterior border of 2nd dorsal fin ...... 4 4
re phy h anterior border of root of ventral fin.. 3 54
Antero-posterior diameter of root of pectoral fin 0 6}
DGD OF BAO TA :csvuen st haart ess 5<thsecaccnscaspanth 0 8
Antero-posterior diameter of root of ventral fin... 0 9%
Length of anterior edge of ventral fin............066 0 8
Antero-posterior diameter of root of Ist dorsal ... 0 5
sibaascachaheutalwarascaet sybase eavedi tine 2nd dorsal ... O 44
FRGIghG OF LRG GOTHAL © vei. 55s c0esscnensacsegocnkeoses 0 5
Foseccqes DEL TINDL Saliss.so0'ss5y vseunehyaia tsi: acters cane
LONGED OF THU nececrocovanessessscosppeoesrrevedecseesas 1 104
Greatest breadth of tail .........s.c0005 sevceseseees 0 8}
Girth "Of TOOt OF Tho cik sec sescnesognacscscceweveshans 0.113
sesees in front of ventral fin ......s.ssccssssescceree L LIZ
pooegvoncapenevensnne POCHORAL UNE cssccsendcvvscospetenne we OF
Transverse diameter of head between eyes.......+. er §
Toinesoesdd ve cade semfaaetMeianaNesehnias tae nostrils ... 0 3}
Width Of mouth’ vo ccdescsesicccsvsevevccessvesecceveses 0 8

1 Fishes of the British Islands, Vol. 1, Pl. 12,

OBSERVATIONS ON THE SPINY SHARK. 295.

Head compressed from above downwards, almost flat on
dorsum, with a rounded, shovel-shaped snout. Eyes on side
of head. Spiracles above and behind the eyes, so small as to
be capable only of just admitting a dissecting-room blowpipe;
5 gill-openings, the vertical slits at right angles to anterior
border of pectoral fin, the 5th about twice the diameter of the
Ist. Nostrils transverse, each partially divided by a narrow
transverse membranous band, extending backwards from its
anterior margin. Pectoral fin broadly quadrilateral, its poste-
rior edge the shortest ; ventral fin quadrilateral and elongated,
its posterior border the shortest ; Ist dorsal opposite the ventral;
2nd dorsal opposite the interval between the ventral and caudal
fins. The girth behind the ventrals proportionally less than in
Smith’s and Couch’s figures. Lateral line very distinct. Colour
of back and sides darkish grey with an under tint of pink or
even purple. Belly lighter in tint than back and sides; under
surface of head yellowish brown. Fins closely similar in colour
to the sides of the fish, The ventral and dorsal fins lie behind
a vertical line drawn midway between the tip of snout and tip
of tail.

The tegumentary plates with their recurved spines were
irregularly scattered over the whole surface of the body, head
and fins, At the anterior part of the snout and near the free
borders of the fins they were much smaller than on the surface
of the body. Not unfrequently 2, 3 or 4 plates were blended
together; in one spot, indeed, I saw 8 and in another 13 spi-
nous plates fused together. The skin immediately behind the
posterior border of the ventral, pectoral and dorsal fins was
free from spines, so as not to obstruct the free play of these
organs. The tegumentary covers of the gill-clefts were almost
entirely without spines, except that in front of the Ist cleft,
which was thickly covered. Four rows of teeth were present in
each of the jaws; one erect and in position on the margin of
the jaw; three recumbent on its inner surface. The form of
the teeth corresponded with Dr Andrew Smith’s figure.

The ovaries, two in number, situated in the anterior part of
the abdomen, between 8 and 9 inches long, were separated from
each other by the meso-gastrium. Each became attenuated in
front and behind, was laterally compressed, with longitudinal

PROFESSOR TURNER,

296

-OBSERVATIONS ON THE SPINY SHARK.

Fig. 2, Under surface of head reduced sth. e, ¢ eyes, n, n nostrils,

Fig. 3. Spiny scales, natural size.

VOL. IX. 20

297

298 . PROFESSOR TURNER.

folds and reddish in colour. Ova barely visible to naked eye.
Oviducts about size of a crow-quill, each situated half-an-inch
external to its ovary, but extending forwards beyond it; the
left ended by a dilated mouth 3 inches in front of the left
ovary, whilst the right extended 9 inches in front of the right.
ovary, reaching the pericardium and curving somewhat down-
wards. A moderator band, 5} inches long, passed between the
anterior ends of the two oviducts. The oviducts extended back-
wards to the region of the cloaca, and in the hinder part of the
abdomen, where the kidneys became prominent, lay on the
ventral aspect of those organs.

The cloaca, 2 inches in its antero-posterior diameter, was
elliptical in form and surrounded by a muco-tegumentary fold.
The rectum opened by a wide orifice into its anterior part, and
at the posterior border of the muco-tegumentary fold two
abdominal pores, each so large as to admit a full-sized catheter,
communicated with the peritoneal cavity. In the upper wall
of the cloaca was a distinct papilla, at the summit of which an
orifice just visible to the naked eye was seen. When the
papilla was compressed a little brownish-yellow fluid oozed
through the opening. A very fine injecting-pipe was then
introduced into the orifice, and a blue injection passed into it,
which distended the two ureters and entered the substance of
the kidneys; the orifice was thus proved to be common to the
two ureters. The kidneys did not extend so far forward in the
abdominal cavity as is usual in fish. The anterior end of each
gland was opposite the posterior end of the ovary and was
broken up into scattered lobules, which only united together
into a compact organ in the hinder third of the cavity. The
ureter emerged from the gland about 6 inches in front of the
cloaca and extended backwards in relation to the inner border
of its kidney.

On each side of the cloacal papilla an elevated fold of the
mucous membrane passed forwards and outwards in the upper
wall of the cloaca to lose itself in a fossa in this wall. The
lower margin of this fold was free and enclosed a minute tube,
which was continuous with and formed the posterior end of the
oviduct. This I proved by injecting it from the intra-abdominal
part of the oviduct. This duct diminishes therefore so materi-

OBSERVATIONS ON THE SPINY SHARK. 299

ally in size in the cloacal wall, as to be little more than
capillary, and its orifice situated close to the common opening
of the ureters was so minute that it required the use of a
pocket-lens to see it. No appearance of a cement-gland was
seen in the course of the oviduct.

From the absence of a cement-gland the ova cannot receive
a horny case, and from the very minute size of the terminal
part of the oviducts and genital pores, unless the oviducts
become greatly dilated when the fish is sexually ripe, the ova
cannot attain any very great size, and in all probability are
impregnated after being extruded.

The heart, as in other sharks, consisted of an auricle, a ven-
tricle, and a muscular conus arteriosus. The conus contained three
tiers of valves, all the segments of which were small and semi-
lunar. In each of the posterior and middle tiers the segments
were two in number, but in the anterior three. Distinct inter-
vals existed between the segments in each tier. Moreover three
large semilunar valves were situated at the anterior end of the
conus, where the aorta arose from it. The aorta gave origin to
four pairs of branchial arterial arches, and each of the anterior
terminal pair divided into two immediately after its origin, so
that five pairs passed outwards to the branchiz.

As the liver and alimentary canal had been removed by the
fishermen before the shark came into my possession, I was
much disappointed at not being able to examine the alimentary
apparatus. Being in London however shortly afterwards, Prof.
Flower told me that he had recently placed in the Hunterian
Museum the alimentary canal of a female Echinorhinus spinosus,
caught at Mevagissy, Cornwall, in May, 1872, and kindly gave
me permission to éxamine and describe it’.

The stomach formed a capacious sac, from the posterior “ait
of which a pyloric tube proceeded, which ran forwards for 8
inches attached to the wall of the stomach by a peritoneal fold,
and then curving backwards, ended in the straight intestine.
The gastric end of the pyloric tube had a well-marked opening
bounded by a semilunar fold of mucous membrane: its duodenal
orifice was so constricted as only to admit a glass rod. The

1 From a drawing of this specimen made by Prof. Flower, there can be no
doubt that it closely corresponded in shape with the fish which I have figured.

20—2

300 r PROFESSOR TURNER,

straight intestine was 24 inches long, and ran almost directly
backwards to the cloaca; its calibre was about three times as
great as that of the pyloric tube, but the duodenal end was not
so dilated as the part which contained the spiral valve. No
“pyloric coeca” opened into the duodenum. The fold of mu-
cous membrane, which marked the commencement of the spiral
valve, began about 1 inch from the pyloric tube, and passed at
first almost longitudinally backwards; it then became more
oblique in its direction, and as it approached the rectum was
almost transverse. The anterior end of the straight intestine
is to be regarded as the duodenum, for the bile-duct opened
into it by a distinct orifice about 3 inches behind the pyloric
tube. The pancreatic duct had not been bristled, and its open-
ing could not be seen in the mounted preparation. The mucous
lining of the duodenum and of the spiral part of the gut was floc-
culent and villous. The rectum was short and had the usual
botryoidal gland opening into it, its mucous membrane was
smooth. The liver was bilobed, with a pyriform gall-bladder.
About 2 inches before the gall-duct reached the duodenum, a
small appendage, similar in appearance to what I have described
in the Greenland shark, was seen in relation to it. The reni-
form spleen, about the size of the human spleen and smooth on
its surface, was attached by peritoneum to the posterior end of |
the stomach. A second organ, about 4 inches long, flattened
and almost smooth on the surface, which Prof. Flower regards
as a supplementary spleen, was situated anterior and close to
the duodenum. A third organ, about 2 inches long, probably
a pancreas, lay in the concavity of the curve formed by the
duodenum and pyloric tube.

As Miiller and Henle in their great work on the classifica-
tion of the Plagiostomata (p. 96) had placed the genus Echi-
norlinus in close relation to Lemargus, owing to a certain
amount of correspondence in external characters, and as Duméril
(p. 458) and Giinther (vit. p. 356) have adopted a similar
arrangement, I examined the alimentary and genital apparatus
of the spiny shark with great interest in order to see if these
organs corresponded with the arrangement I have described in
the Greenland shark’. A comparison of the descriptions which

* Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, Vol. vit. p. 283, and Vol, viit, p.285.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE SPINY SHARK. . 801

I have given, will at once shew that these sharks differed very
materially from each other, for whilst in the Greenland shark
two large duodenal coca existed along with a well-developed
pancreas, in the spiny shark no duodenal coca were present:
and whilst no oviducts were recognised in Lemargus, a pair of
distinct ducts opening at the cloaca were found in Hchinorhinus,
It seems to me therefore that these internal differences in
anatomical structure so far outweigh in their morphological
importance the resemblances in external characters, that Lemar-
gus and Echinorhinus should no longer be included in the same
family.

ON THE PRESENCE OF SPIRACLES IN THE POR-
BEAGLE SHARK (LAMNA CORNUBICA). By Pro-
fessor TURNER,

ZOOLOGICAL writers differ in their statements as to the spiracles
in the Porbeagle,. Hamilton in the volume on Fishes in the
Naturalist’s Library, and Thompson in the Natural History of
Ireland, do not refer to them, Fleming in his account of
British Animals, Parnell in his description of the fishes of the
Firth of Forth, and Couch in his Fishes of the British Islands,
state that they are wanting. On the other hand, Miiller and
Henle say in their great work on the Plagiostomata that
they are present, very small and some distance behind the
eyes; they give the credit of the discovery to Dr Andrew
Smith, In the 2nd edition of Yarrell’s British Fishes they
are also said to be present and very small, Duméril in his
Histoire Naturelle des Poissons gives a minute description of
their position, but states that they are so small as easily to be
overlooked. Lastly, Dr Giinther in the 8th vol. of the Catalogue
of British Fishes, p. 389, 1870, says that they are absent in the
Porbeagle, though a minute pore-like foramen was present on
one side of an example of Zamna spallanzani.

In December, 1874, I purchased from one of the Edinburgh
fishmongers a young female Porbeagle, captured off the mouth

302 PROF. TURNER. SPIRACLES IN THE PORBEAGLE SHARK.

of the Firth of Forth, which measured 3 ft. 5}in. from the tip
of the snout to the tip of the tail. It was perfectly fresh, so
that I was able satisfactorily to enquire into the much-disputed
question of the presence or absence of a pair of spiracles. On
carefully examining the top and side of the head I found a
minute orifice 13in. behind the posterior border of each eye-
aperture, 54 in. behind the tip of the snout, and just above a
horizontal line prolonged backwards through the centre of the
eye-aperture, A vertical line drawn from this orifice down the
side of the head passed immediately behind the angle of the
mouth. The orifice just admitted a pig’s bristle, which could
be passed through it into a canal that ran almost vertically
downwards, to open by a wider orifice into a fossa, commu-
nicating with the cavity of the mouth, situated immediately
within the dental border of the jaw, about 1} in. in front of the
hinder end of the dental arch.

The opening of this canal on the surface of the integument
was coloured with a darker pigment than the surrounding skin;
and as its lining membrane was moister than the integument,
the light was so reflected from it as to attract my attention to
the aperture. There could be no doubt therefore that the pair
of symmetrically-placed openings and their canals were the
spiracles, so that these passages, though very minute, were yet.
present in this specimen of the Porbeagle.

”

_ NOTES ON THE GREAT SPLANCHNIC GANGLION.
By D, J. Cunninenam, M.B, C.M., Demonstrator of
- Anatomy, Edinburgh University.

By those authors who take notice of this ganglion it is described
as of rare occurrence, and few enter into any particulars as to
its Anatomy. Henle it is true mentions it (Handbuch der
Systematischen Anatomie, Band ut, p. 579), but his account
is brief, and he quotes Lobstein and Riidinger as his authorities,
The former, in his work upon the Sympathetic System describes
it on the strength of two cases, Riidinger, however, was more
familiar with the ganglion, and in one case in which it was
present on both sides of the body, he states that he was able
to trace fine twigs of communication passing from one to the
other behind the aorta,

Having met with a_ beautiful ponte of this ganglion
at the beginning of last session, whilst dissecting out the
splanchnic nerves in the Practical Anatomy Rooms of the
Edinburgh University, my curiosity was raised, and I pro-
ceeded to investigate the subject with the view of finding out
first the frequency with which it occurred, and second its con-
nections with, and relations to neighbouring parts, I have
made in all 26 dissections of the great splanchnic nerve, and
I now propose to make known the results.

Frequency of occurrence. In six of these 26 dissections I
failed to discover the ganglion. In three of the cases in
which it was absent, however, the nerve-trunk was slightly
swollen at the point where the ganglion is usually situated,
and gave off fine twigs to the aortic coats, and in one case
a long branch which passed down upon the aorta under cover
of the crus of the diaphragm. Although I did not in those
cases examine the nerve microscopically, yet it is not impro-
bable, from the fine twigs which arose from the nerve in this
place, that a minute ganglion—too small to be seen by the
naked eye—may have existed. Eleven of the dissections were
made upon the right side of the body, and in all those the
ganglion was present. Of the fifteen dissections made upon

304 DR CUNNINGHAM.

the left side the ganglion was absent in six cases. As far as
I could judge it occurred as frequently in the one sex as in
the other. On one occasion two ganglia were present upon the
same nerve-trunk—one occupying the usual position and the
other situated upon the body of the 10th dorsal vertebra at
the point where the root from the 8th dorsal sympathetic
ganglion joined the great splanchnic. This additional ganglion
was small in size, oval in shape, and gave off several twigs to
the aortic plexus.

Position and relation to the Splanchnic Trunk. In the
majority of cases the ganglion is developed upon that part of
the splanchnic nerve which is joined by the last root from the
sympathetic cord, and its position is very constant, viz. upon
the body of the 12th dorsal vertebra, or upon the intervertebral
dise, which intervenes between the 11th and 12th dorsal ver-
tebre. In one case it was situated upon the body of the
10th dorsal vertebra; but here the splanchnic nerve showed
even a greater deviation from its typical descriptive origin
than it usually does. It arose by three roots, one a very fine
twig from the 5th dorsal ganglion, another from the 11th,
and the third (a large branch which made up the chief bulk
of the nerve) from the 8th, and it was upon this root that
the ganglion was developed. The relation which the great
splanchnic ganglion bears to the great splanchnic nerve is
very variable, Sometimes the whole of the splanchnic fibres
_appear to pass through it; this, however, is rare. Perhaps
the most common form is where the nerve divides into two
branches upon the anterior of which the ganglion is developed,
whilst below this point the two branches unite, Again, we
may simply notice a marked bulging of the splanchnic. This
indicates the presence of a small mass of grey matter sur-
rounded on all sides by the fibres of the nerve, and which can
be easily enucleated by separation of these fibres the one from
the other. Occasionally the ganglion is placed in the interval
between the aorta and the nerve, and only connected with the
latter by numerous short communicating branches, In this
case it is generally very minute, and unless great care be taken
in the dissection, it is sure to be overlooked, 7

Shape and size. In both these respects the ganglion is

NOTES ON THE GREAT SPLANCHNIC GANGLION. 305

very variable. In shape, it may be semilunar, oval, fusiform,
or even linear. Occasionally, it is triangular, and connected
by its base with the anterior surface of the great splanchnic
nerve. Its size varies from that of an orange-seed to that of
a pin’s head. In one case, where the sympathetic system was
hypertrophied, it was almost as large as an almond. In all
cases its ganglionic character may be satisfactorily determined
by the microscope. Its cells are numerous, large, and ovoid
in shape.

Branches. The chief object of this ganglion seems to be to
furnish numerous delicate twigs to a nerve-plexus situated on
the lower end of the thoracic and the commencement of the
abdominal aorta. These are generally from 5 to 9 in number,
and after joining each other in a plexiform manner, they are
lost upon the coats of the aorta. In some cases branches may
be traced to the cceliac and superior mesenteric plexuses; and
once I even sueceeded in following a very fine twig into the
renal plexus, to reach which it passed down upon the bodies of
‘the vertebrae under cover of the crus of the diaphragm, Lobstein
states that certain branches may be found which end in the
muscular substance of the crus, I consider this very doubtful,
as I have never seen any branch from the great splanchnic
ganglion enter the crus to end there, Again, I have never
been able to trace filaments connecting directly the ganglion
of the one side with that of the other. Riidinger maintains
that such exist, but I am of opinion that the two ganglia are
in relation the one to the other simply through the medium
of the intervening aortic plexus. We sometimes find that the
great splanchnic entering the ganglion as a single trunk
emerges as two, both of which as a rule pierce the crus to
end in the semilunar ganglion. The posterior and smaller of
these branches however may join the small splanchnic nerve
close to its termination. This communication, whether it takes
place in the manner I have mentioned, or by an independent
branch from the ganglion, is by no means uncommon,

LATERAL CURVATURE OF THE SPINE IN CON-
JUNCTION WITH HYPERTROPHY OF THE
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM IN THE
LUMBAR AND SACRAL REGIONS. By D. J.
CUNNINGHAM, M.B., C.M. eager alien of Anatomy,
Edinburgh University.

A CASE of this occurred last session in the Practical Anatomy
Rooms of the Edinburgh University, and I am induced to
publish it as it presents a double interest—first, on account
of the peculiar nature of the curvature; and second, on account
of the curious relationship which dutstad between this and the
hypertrophied sympathetic system.

The subject in which it occurred was a man of, I should
say, between 40 and 50 years of age, and his spine showed
a well-marked lateral curve in the lower dorsal and lumbar
regions. This deviation commenced very abruptly at the
level of the 11th dorsal vertebra, included it, and extended
down to the level of the 5th lumbar vertebra—the convexity
of the curve being directed to the left side and the concavity
to the right. A cord placed on the right side of the spine
and held with its two: ends in contact with the piers of the
arch was distant about 14 inches from the point of greatest
concavity. A well-marked counteracting curvature was present
in the sacral region—the left margin of this bone being con-
siderably shorter than the right; and the point of greatest
convexity in this arch was represented by the right superior
corner of the sacrum. Moreover, there was a slight falling
back of the lumbar vertebree—the forward curve in this region
being less marked than it usually is. The uniformity of the
curvature was everywhere interrupted by nodular projections
varying in size from that of a hazel-nut to that of a hen’s egg ;
and it might be seen that these nodules sprang chiefly from
that part of the spinal pillar which corresponded with the
intervertebral discs. On examining the spine from behind, the
spinous processes in the region of the curvature did not exhibit
so marked a deviation from the middle line-as the bodies;

DR CUNNINGHAM. LATERAL CURVATURE OF THE SPINE. 307

this was due to the twisting of the vertebra around their long
axis towards the left side.

The periosteum investing the vertebra, implicated in this
curvature, was almost cartilaginous in consistence, and very
much thickened. In some parts it presented a thickness of
more than a quarter of an inch. On stripping it off, the bodies
of the vertebre were found to be considerably larger than
normal—their texture being much opened up and everywhere
presenting the enlarged orifices of the Haversian canals, into
which passed vessels of corresponding size. The majority of
these vessels had been filled during the injection of the arteries
with the ordinary coarse injection of lard and vermilion, and
some indeed presented a calibre almost equal to that of the
spermatic artery. The bodies of the vertebre were firmly
anchylosed, the one to the other, so as to form a solid osseous
pillar from the 11th dorsal to the 5th lumbar vertebra; and

the nodular outgrowths of new bone were in some cases so soft

as to crumble under the finger, but in others they were covered
by a thick and dense shell of osseous tissue. Posteriorly the
lumbar articular processes and laminz were also welded toge-

__ ther by osseous union, and projecting from the posterior aspect

of the solid bony arch thus formed were numerous large nodules
of new bone, similar in all respects to those present on the
anterior segment of the spine. The transverse processes in this
region were much distorted, enlarged and opened out in tex-
ture, and of the spinous processes several were united by anchy-
losis along their whole length so as to form a continuous osseous
plate projecting back from the lamin.

From this description it will at once be seen that the curva-
ture could not be due to caries, for in that case we should
expect to find a greater degree of angular deformity and a loss,
not an increase, of the substance of the vertebral bodies. It is
curious, however, to find true anchylosis of the posterior seg-
ment of the spine so well marked—this generally being a
prominent feature in. advanced caries of the bodies, in which
disease it constitutes a reparative process. That the condition
was the result of inflammatory action of some kind affecting
both the bodies and neural arches of the vertebre, is very
evident from the proofs which were everywhere present of

308 DR CUNNINGHAM.

excited action, viz. the thickened periosteum, the opening up of
the osseous texture, and its great increase in quantity. The
first stage must doubtless have been one of softening and
stretching of ligaments; this must have been followed by
bulging of the spine to the left side, and then the inflammation
seems to have abated and a healthy reaction to have ensued,
whereby the vertebree were welded together by new bone. In
caries we have a destructive process taking place in the ante-
rior segment of the spine, whilst a formative process is going
on in the posterior segment; in this case the formative process
has predominated in both segments.

Perhaps the most interesting feature of this case, however,
was the peculiar hypertrophy presented by the sympathetic
system in the regions corresponding to the curvature. The
accompanying diagram shows this enlargement as it existed in
the lumbar region—the nerves having been reduced one-half.

EXPLANATION or Fiaure.

I to V, lumbar spinal nerves. IL 1, 2, 8, 4, 5, lumbar ganglia of sympathetic,
1S, 1st sacral ganglion, LSC, lumbo-sacral cord. GO, genito-crural nerve,
IMP, branches to inferior mesenteric plexus, AP branch to aortic plexus,

This condition of the nerves was almost exclusively confined
to the left side of the body, or that towards which the con-
vexity of the curvature was directed. On the right side only

LATERAL CURVATURE OF THE SPINE. ' $09

-one ganglion was abnormally increased in size, and this was
situated on the summit of a large osseous nodule projecting
from the concavity. On the left side the hypertrophy extended
from the 11th dorsal ganglion to the 3rd sacral ganglion, and
was tolerably uniform in its character. In some parts the
sympathetic cord was completely embedded in the thickened
periosteum, and in cutting into this the cord was seen to occupy
a distinct tubular canal, the walls of which were in no way
connected with the sheath of the nerve, The enlargement was
more evident in the branches of the ganglia than in the
ganglia themselves. The ganglia which presented the greatest
increase in size were the 1lth and 12th dorsal, which were
fused together into a body about 2 inches long by } an inch
broad, and the 2nd and 3rd sacral, which were also amalga-
mated, constituting an elongated, thickened, and rounded body
14 inches long and 1} inches in girth. The great splanchnic
ganglion was one inch in length and # of an inch in girth at its
thickest part ; and proceeding from it were numerous branches,
of which two entered the semilunar ganglion and were as large
as the normal pneumogastric. As a rule, the nerves issuing
from the ganglia were uniformly enlarged; some, however,
presented a slightly moniliform appearance from the occur-
rence of oval swellings upon their trunks. The branches of
communication to the lumbar spinal nerves were relatively
more enlarged than the branches which passed forward towards
the aorta. Of the former some were as large, if not larger,
than the median nerve of the upper extremity, but the majority
presented a thickness corresponding to that of the pneumo-
gastric. Numerous fine sympathetic twigs could be traced
to the vertebral bodies, into the interior of which they passed
in company with the enlarged Haversian vessels; and thus by
means of this specimen a ready demonstration was afforded of
the entrance of nerves into bones, which is so difficult to prove
in cases where the nerves are of normal size.

This nerve-hypertrophy was undoubtedly due to great in-
crease of the connective-tissue-elements of the nerves. It was,
in fact, simply a great fibrous development of the sympathetic
system. Mr A. B. Stirling kindly made several microscopic
preparations of the 2nd and 3rd sacral ganglia. In these the

310 DR CUNNINGHAM. LATERAL CURVATURE OF THE SPINE.

neurilemma of the nerve-fibres is seen to be very much thick-
ened, and the nerve-cells are observed to be few in number,
much altered in appearance, and in many cases affected with
fatty degeneration.

At first I was inclined to believe that this case was fibro-
neuromatous in its character, and analogous to the case re-
corded by Berard in 1827, and quoted by Cruveilhier in his
work upon Pathological Anatomy. In Berard’s case it was the
cervical sympathetic which was enlarged, and the enlargement
showed itself in the shape of 4 number of tumours situated on
the left side of the spine and freely communicating the one
with the other, and also with the cervical spinal nerves. The
uniformity of the hypertrophy, however, forced me to abandon
this view, and I am now of opinion that the true cause is to be
found in the extension of the inflammation from the periosteum
to the nervous tissue. Why the condition should only have
occurred on the left side is more difficult to explain, but I think
that it was due to the stretching of the sympathetic over the
convexity of the curvature, and to the closer apposition, which
must have existed, between the inflamed tissue and the nerves
on the left side than upon the right. And this view is supported
by the fact, that the only point where hypertrophy was present
on the right side was where the sympathetic passed over a large
nodule of new bone.

I regret very much that I can give no history of this case.
This I regret all the more, as several cases of idiocy and cretin-
ism are recorded as being associated with fibro-development
of the ganglionic system.

In conclusion, I have to thank Mr A. H. Young, Assistant-
Demonstrator of Anatomy, for the great care he bestowed upon
the accompanying diagram, and also Mr Kirk, student of medi-
cine, for his kind assistance in the dissection of the sympathetic
system. The spine which I have described is now in the
Anatomical Museum of this University, and I have in my
possession careful drawings (executed by Mr Young) of the
sympathetic system from the 11th dorsal ganglion downwards.

REMARKS ON THE POSITION OF THE FEMUR AND

ON ITS SO-CALLED “TRUE NECK.” By Tomas

’ Dwicut, F.M.D., Boston, U.S. A., Professor of Anatomy
at the Medical School of Maine.

AMONG the most interesting points in the recent discussions
on the structure of the neck of the femur, is the signification
of the plate named by Prof. Merkel’ of Rostock, the Schenkels-
porn or Calcar Femorale, and by Prof. Bigelow’, of Boston, the
True Neck of the femur. The study of a large number of
human and of several other mammalian thigh-bones has led me
‘to conclusions other than those of either of these observers, as
well as to different views on the statics of the bone. I have
little to add to previous descriptions. The plate in question is
the result of a splitting of the posterior wall of the neck into
two layers, one of which continues to form the surface of the
bone, while the other runs downwards to the lower wall of the
neck, and outwards toward the external surface below the great
trochanter.. It varies greatly in degree of development; if
strongly marked, it runs for some distance as a distinct plate,
and then subdivides into several, some of which are continuous
with the cancellated tissue that surrounds the upper part of the
cavity of the shaft; if weak, it breaks up at once into diverging
laminz, which pursue the same general direction but have no
very definite terminations. The best section to show this struc-
ture is one parallel with the lower surface of the neck.
Professor Merkel shows that this plate is situated in the
part of the neck through which the chief part of the weight of
the body is transmitted to the leg, and holds that its significa-
tion is purely teleological. He states that sections through
the bones of animals show that it is present in such as need it,
and not in others. Prof. Bigelow considers it of little value
except in cases of uncommon development. From the appear-
1 Virchow's Archiv, 1874.

® Fhe Hip (Philadelphia, Henry C. Lea) 1869, p. 120; also the Boston
Medical and Surgical Journal, 1875, Nos, 1 and 2. |

312 DR DWIGHT.

ance such specimens present, he looks upon it as the true neck
to which the trochanters and the posterior intertrochanteric
ridge have been added for muscular attachments. He intimates
that the posterior wall of the neck of the femur of the sheep
would be analogous to this plate were a certain amount of
spongy tissue added to the hinder surface of the former.

If this view holds, we should expect, wherever a process
exists solely for muscular attachment and is out of the line of
support, to find under its cancellated tissue a continuation of
the compact substance of the shaft. Such an arrangement is,
indeed, found in some places. It occurs under the anterior
intertrochanteric ridge, and sometimes under the coronoid pro-
cess of the ulna and the tubercle of the radius. On the other
hand, it does not occur under several other prominences on the
human skeleton where it might with equal justice be expected,
Nowhere should we look for it with greater confidence than
under the third trochanter of the horse, but, as a cross section
shows, there is no trace of a partition between the spongy
tissue of the shaft and that of the process. Thus it appears
that there are serious objections to the name the “true neck”,
though it may be proper to retain it as it is the original one,
especially as “femoral spur” is.quite inappropriate.

If Merkel’s premises as to the position of the femur are to
be accepted as bearing upon the question, his conclusions may
also be agreed to with the modification that, as Bigelow declares
is the case, the plate can be of no great value unless exception-
ally developed. The question, however, arises, whether what
is called the usual position of the femur, namely, that which it
has when the knees and heels are together, can be made the
basis of correct calculations, This position is constrained and
unnatural, and is never voluntarily maintained for more than a
few moments, nevertheless it has apparently been assumed to
be the normal one by most observers, and it seems as if some
had made the greater mistake of assuming the shaft to be
vertical. This error invalidates Prof. Culmann’s elaborate cal-
culations’, for the shaft of his crane, the lines of which are
supposed to correspond to the plates in the neck of the femur,
is drawn vertically. No mathematical proficiency is needed to

1 Wolff, Virchow's Archiv, 1870,

REMARKS ON THE POSITION OF THE FEMUR. 313

know that what is true of an upright rod is not necessarily so
of an inclined one. It is essential, in considering the structure
of the femur in relation to the weight it sustains, to put the
bone, as nearly as possible, in the position it occupies when in
use as a support. This position is not a constant one, and
cannot be accurately defined; but it is one of greater inclina-
tion than is possible when the knees are in contact. When on
our feet we are almost always, if the expression may be par-
doned, more or less in motion. That is, we are rarely in abso-
lute rest, but, if not walking, regularly are, at least, slightly
changing position. In the walk, as is well known, the pelvis
at every step sways to the side of the supporting foot, thus
increasing the obliquity of the femur. When standing still, the
weight is very seldom equally divided between the legs, but one
bears almost the whole of it, while the other does little more
than maintain the balance. It would be absurd to attempt to
define the average inclination of the femur, varying as it must
with the length of the legs and the breadth of the pelvis, but it
must be appreciably greater than it is in the conventional
position. Now this is of advantage, not only by making the
neck more nearly vertical, but also by bringing the “true neck”
into play. If strongly developed so as to reach the outer side
of the shaft, it will evidently be of very great assistance, but
even if slightly marked it will be valuable as a brace between
the posterior and inferior surfaces of the neck.

A vertical section through both condyles and the lower part
of the shaft shows an arrangement of the cancellated tissue
calculated to strengthen, though but slightly, the bone in the
inclined position. If the shaft be held upright, a series of
layers is seen to be given off from each side of it and to run
directly downwards; but there is also a series of delicate plates
coming from the inner wall and running obliquely to about the
middle of the lower end. If both condyles be made to rest on
a table the plates of this set are nearly vertical, and if the bone
be more inclined they are the ones in the least disadvantageous
position. It is worthy of notice that this oblique series is not
found in the posterior half of the lower end which has less to do
with supporting the weight.

My observations in comparative anatomy (made mostly on

VOL. Ix, 21

314 DR DWIGHT. REMARKS ON THE POSITION OF THE FEMUR.

bones belonging to the Boston Society of Natural History)
are too few to be of much value, but, as far as they go, they are
opposed to Merkel’s statement that the “true neck” is of purely
teleological signification. A section made through the neck of
the femur of an adult female gorilla shows no distinct plate,
but a number of laminz are successively given off from the
outer half of the posterior surface of the neck and run out-
ward, presenting a decided contrast to the irregular network
anterior to them. In the mandrill the plate is fairly developed,
perhaps as well as in the average human femur. It is absent
in the tiger, the horse, and the beaver; very indistinct in the
bear, but quite clear in the goat and the kangaroo. It is
hardly possibly to trace in this series any relation between
structure and function, but it does not follow from this that
the plate in question is useless in man. The round ligament
of the hip is an instance of a structure of undoubted value to
man, but which is found variously developed and may be
wanting, while among animals it is absent in some nearly
allied to others possessing it.

THE CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCU-
LAR MOVEMENT. By Dr Huco Kronecker, from
Experiments done in conjunction with Wa. SrTrRiine,
D. Sc., M.B.C.M., Demonstrator of Practical Physiology + in
the University of Edinburgh’.

“THE induction-current of weakest strength which produces a
contraction of the heart, does not produce the weakest of pos-
sible contractions, and the extent of the latter also does not
exceed an impassable maximum, when the intensity of the
exciting current is increased. On our object (the ventricle of
the frog’s heart) the induction-current either produces a con-
traction, or it does not; and when it does the former, it causes
at the same time the most extensive contraction which the
induction-current at a given time can produce. It therefore
follows directly that the cause why the apex of the heart con-
tracts to different extents is to be sought in the variable pro-
perties of its muscular fibres.”

This fundamental law of the movement of the cardiac
muscles is one of the most important results of the investiga-
tions of Bowditch, “Ueber die Eigenthiimlichkeiten der Reiz-
barkeit, welche die Muskelfasern des Herzens zeigen.” (Arbei-
ten aus d. physiologischen Anstalt zu Leipzig, Jahrgang, 1871,
p. 174.)

Now in the course of these important experiments several
remarkable phenomena, constantly recurring under quite dis-
tinct conditions, appeared, to whose interpretation it appears
necessary to limit the fundamental law.

But just as the disturbances in the course of the planets,
instead of threatening the universality of Newton’s law of
gravitation, as often as their cause was discovered, confirmed
this most beautifully, so have—st parva licet componere magnis
—the peculiarities which appeared to disturb the simple view
of the irritability of the heart, by continued testing, with the

1 This paper was originally published in German as one of the Beitraege zur
Anatomie wu. Physiologie, als Festgabe Carl Ludwig zum 15 October, 1874,
gewidmet von seinen Sehiilern, Leipzig, 1875,

21—2

316 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

help of the improved experimental methods of Bowditch and
Luciani, proved themselves as completely supporting the fun-
damental law cited at the beginning.

The essential task of the following paper shall be to give
this proof. |

As experimental aid we employed the frog’s heart mano-
meter, at first with the modifications which are given in
Luciani’s paper, “Eine periodische Function des _isolirten
Froschherzens” (Arbezten aus d phys. Anstalt zu Leipzig, 1872),
later, connected with a system of tubes employed by Bowditch,
which permitted, by means of three glass stop-cocks with T-
formed perforations, the placing of the ventricle at one time in
connection with the reservoir feeding the same, at another in
connection with the manometer, whilst at another it could be
brought in connection with the outflow tube by which the
heart could empty its contents externally.

We have employed a small new arrangement in order to be
able to wash out the ventricle conveniently and very com-
pletely with the desired fluid. The German-silver “double-
channelled cannula” for the frog’s heart is here figured of the
natural size (Fig. 1). The slightly thickened end d is insinuated
through the incised sinus venosus of a large frog’s heart into
the ventricle, after this has been previously
carefully cleared of blood coagula by
twisted filtering paper. The ring placed on
the chief tube 4mm. above the opening,
serves as a point for fixing the ligature,
with which at first the auricles near to the
sinus venosus are firmly tied round the
tube. Now one can, without the cannula
being liable to slip out of the ventricle,
place a ligature below the atrio-ventricular
sulcus around the ventricular muscular
fibres, and therewith, according as one de-
sires, suppress the automatic cardiac move-
ments. The cannula divides into two
tubes a and 6, A partition which passes
from the point of bifurcation to the chief orifice divides the
chief tube into two unequal sections; in this way, that the

Fig.- 1.

eer ta

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 317

transverse section e is divided into two segments, of which the
one occupies one-third the other two-thirds of the contents of
the circle. Thus the cylinder is divided into two separate
longitudinal sections, of which the larger communicates with
the forked tube a, whilst the smaller one communicates with
the tube b.

The caoutchouc tube on b, according to the position of the
glass stop-cock in the system of tubes, serves to conduct the
nutrient fluid from the reservoir through the narrow section
of the tube into the heart, or allow the contents of the ven-
tricle to flow out.

The wider section of the tube a is intended to establish a
communication between the interior of the heart and the
mercury-manometer. The float of the mercury-manometer,
bent from a fine glass thread, weighted with a luted small glass
ball, marks exactly the form and size of the heart-beats upon
the smoked glazed-paper covering of a very regularly rotating
kymograph cylinder. The German-silver wire soldered to the
cannula, conducts on the one hand the rhythmically produced
induction-currents from a large induction-apparatus to the
heart, whilst a gold-plated brass vessel filled with the nutrient
fluid in which the heart is bathed, is connected with the other
pole of the secondary spiral.

We regarded it as our first task to respond to the wish
indicated in the paper of Bowditch, where the dependence of
the work of the heart on the strength of the stimulus is dis-
cussed (loc. cit. p.175). It was shown that minimal stimuli,
4.@ those which are just capable of producing a cardiac con-
traction, do not do this every time, and that, in spite of a regular
rhythmical succession of stimuli, the pulsations are discontinued
in an irregular manner. “The falling out of the contractions
may be explained in two ways; either that the susceptibility
of the muscular fibres for the stimulus becomes smaller...or
that the stimulus itself loses its strength. In that, during
poisoning with muscarin, the induction-current, in order to
remain infallible as a stimulus, need not be strengthened, so
it inclines one to the view, as if thereby it was decided in
favour of the second of the mentioned possibilities...... It is to
be remembered that in my experiments the gradation of the

318 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

stimuli was not nearly so nicely carried out as it was capable
of.” By this view we were encouraged to undertake a new
testing of the irritability of the ventricle, and at the same
time admonished to pay special attention to the equality of
the stimuli.

We soon remarked that the mercury contact of the relais
which served for closing and opening the primary current was
very difficult to keep clean.

The layer of oxide formed from the opening spark disturbed
the conduction seriously, even after a few interruptions. The
opening spark could not be sufficiently removed by introducing
secondary closures. We tried to keep the surface of the mercury
clean by means of a ‘washing apparatus,’ described by W. Stirling
in another place (Arbeiten aus d. phys. Anstalt zu Leipzig, 1874).
This succeeded tolerably well. But we reached our object
more completely by means of an arrangement employed by
Dr E. Tiegel. The mercury into which the platinum stilette of
the relais ought to dip to close the primary circuit was placed
in a capillary glass tube, above whose mouth it projected with
a strong convex head. The mercury tube was sunk in a glass
filled with alcohol. When the platinum stilette fell into the
projecting head of mercury the layer of oxide of mercury was
ruptured, and the effete particles flowed down from the slope of
the mercury.

A more handy form of the “capillary-contact” is shown in
Figure 2, of natural size.

A glass T-tube with a lumen of about 1°5 mm. is provided
at the crossing point with a moderately wide opening a, The

Fig. 2.

vertical tube b is bent in the form of a U, and filled so full
with mercury that the head of the mereury projects within the

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 319

lumen of the transverse tube c. The one end is united by
means of caoutchouc to a Mariotte’s flask, which contains di-
luted alcohol, whose pressure-niveau remains at the same height
as the hole a. A stop-cock regulates the supply to the. trans-
verse tube, from whose other end a longer narrower tube con-
ducts away the washing fluid.

This suction-tube accelerates the current and draws through
the opening a bubbles of air, which produce eddies, and thus
help to cleanse the surface of mercury. The platinum stilette
e at the end of the relais is united by the collar f with the
transverse bar of the relais (and hereby with the positive pole
of the battery). Still it is easily attracted. Such an arrange-
ment permits of the removal, without any loss of time, of any
film of oxide which may be adherent to the point of contact.

The platinum-wire d formed the circuit to the negative pole
of the battery through the primary spiral of a du Bois-Rey-
mond’s induction-apparatus (secondary spiral 10,000 turns)
graduated into current-unit (from 1 to 900). (Compare Unter-
suchungen aus dem phys. Laboratorium d. Ziiricher Hochschule,
A. Fick, Wien, 1869, p. 38). If successful by means of the
above-described arrangement in obtaining a sure closure of the
primary circuit, we were unable to observe any interrupted
“ (“aussetzenden”) beats. very stimulation was either followed
by a beat, or the stimuli remained quite without effect. Minimal
stimuli were at the same time mawimal. When weakened
only a little they remained ineffective. The ineffective stimuli
appear to be without influence on the heart. It was therefore
not necessary, when employing moderate opening induction-
currents, that the closing shocks should be blended. .

That adequate (hinreichende) stimuli in the series often
become infallible seems to speak against the assumption that
the cause of the inconstancy in the action of the stimulus does
not lie in the animal tissues, but’in the apparatus (Bowditch,
loc. cit. p. 152), whilst still it may be assumed that the
contact becomes always more imperfect by the continually
increased products of decomposition. It is easy to prove how-
_ ever that the irritability of the heart is considerably increased
by its movement, so that previously ineffective stimuli suffice
to sustain the pulsations of the, as it were, wakened heart.

320 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

(A similar result was observed by Hoffa and Ludwig, “ Ver-
suche iiber Herzbewegung.” Zeitsch. f. rat. Medic. 1850, p. 135.)
A pulse-beat renders more easy for some time the occur-
rence of the next one; rest of the heart renders its excitation
more difficult. Sometimes the differences of the irritability
before and after a few beats are very considerable, as in the
experiment from which the following piece is taken (Fig. 3).

Here 200 current-units (#) were at first necessary to pro-
duce beats, then these did not fall out when the stimulus sank
to 23 £, and ceased first at 22; were later first produced by a
strength of current of 60 #, and continued even with 20 Z. For:
the first pulse after a short pause 125 # were necessary, for the
second only 30 units. ;

.In by far the most cases however, the differences between
the intensity of the stimuli sufficient for the excited heart,
and of those acting upon the heart at rest, were very small;
have often been only a fraction of a unit, as in Fig. 4.

Here the limits varied between 46,2 and 46,3 Z; later 45,4
and 45,5 £. The heart therefore had increased in irritability,
although the capability of energising (height of the beats) had
fallen considerably. This can often be observed. These ex-
amples show, that the beats without passing through irregular
ones, disappear at once completely, when the stimulus falls only
a minimum below the infallible. The following continuous
piece of curve may serve as an example of this (Fig. 6).

It can easily be shown that it is not a peculiar effect of the
electric current which exalts the irritability of the ventricle,
whereby previously inadequate stimuli become infallible, but
that every impulse which produces a cardiac contraction can
do this, Even heart-beats, produced by mechanical impulses,
can restore to minimal electrical stimuli their already lost
effect. In near relation to this is the observation of Luciani,
that weak electrical stimuli, which were ineffective during the
pause of a periodically spontaneous beating heart, were ineffec-
tive, but after the appearance of the first spontaneous beats of
the next group, were effective. (Arbeiten aus der phys. Anstalt
zu Leipzig, 1872, p. 183.)

From the fact that a beat of the heart renders the next one
more easy of accomplishment, the conception lies near at hand,

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 321

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322 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

that the excitement lasts for a time, and during this time can
be brought over the threshold (“iiber die Schwelle”) by gentle
impulses,

The following picture may serve to show what is meant. Just
as a bell can be at once caused to resound by exercising great
force, but if moved by moderate traction of the bell-ringer, it
only gradually becomes more easy, till at last the clapper beats
against the side. The first single tone resounds, and perhaps
still one more, and now the full tone is sounded in measured
rhythm. Not at once, however, when the ringing has ceased
does the heavy mass come to rest. Onice, or it may be several
times, the clapper reaches the wall, and weak, well-timed
impulses may cause the sound to be continued. If the vibra-
tion be not sufficient however, or becomes inactive, then sounds
are only again produced by powerful pulling.

So the isolated frog’s ventricle can always be caused to beat
by strong stimuli. Only just adequate impulses, frequently
after a prior beat (sometimes after a repeated one), cause an
» isorhythmical succession .of beats, as is to. be seen in Figs. 6
and 7. After the movement has once been set agoing, currents
previously of insufficient intensity are capable of sustaining
the pulsations, If however the impulse is too weak for this,
the molecular movement can no longer be perceived, either at
once or after a few beats. Up to this point the comparison
holds good. The heart, however, is a living tissue of change-
able properties. Small causes often produce important changes
in structure.

The mobility of the muscular plasma and of the spinal cord
are essentially influenced by the temperature of the organ, con-
dition of the surrounding fluid, and in consequence also by the
tissue changing and heating activity itself. As the effect of
this last factor, we have already observed that the frog’s ven-
tricle in the course of its work became more easily excitable.
Gradually the ventricle, again loses its greater mobility, and
reacts towards the end of its life only on employing strong
stimuli. Also with the temperature the irritability of the
heart increases within moderate limits. One can therefore
make an inadequate stimulus effective by warming the heart.
The processes then occur exactly as wpon increasing the stimulus.

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 323

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324 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

In serum heated to about 25°C. the heart appears to reach
the maximum of its mobility. Heated more strongly it be-
comes less sensitive; if cooled, however, it may again recover
its high susceptibility for stimuli.

If the temp. of the ventricle is raised to 42°, it becomes
rigid, loses its irritability completely and for ever. (Fig. 9.)

If a cold heart is warmed rapidly it may pass into lethal
heat-tonus even at 30°. In what way the pulse-curve of a
warmed heart differs from that of a cooled one, first Cyon
(Arbeiten aus der phys. Anstalt zu Leipzig, 1866, p. 101), and
later Luciani (loc. cit. p. 166), sufficiently investigated. A fresh,
warm (23°—27°) heart contracts very rapidly and equally; its
dilatation occurs so suddenly that the column of mercury sinking
in the manometer, not being hindered by the resistance of the
wall of the ventricle, passes with considerable rapidity the
position of equilibrium, and now “over-stretches” the cardiac
muscles, just as Kronecker has observed in the muscles of the
skeleton ( Ludwig’s Arbeiten, 1871, p. 252). The beats of a
heart cooled to 15° are lower and slower. If the temp. falls
to 10°, not only does the pulse-wave become flatter and longer,
but weak stimuli lose their infallibility. The heart’s beat be-
comes constantly irregular.

Only every second stimulus meeting the ventricle in inter-
vals of 4” or even 5” is replied to. Stronger shocks cause
isorhythmical beats; these again give way to the rhythmus },
when the heat is further diminished. Even now considerably
increased strength of stimulus can also produce continuous beats,
but only for a short time. ;

In the stimulating tempo of 12 per minute the heart willingly
reacts to each second weak shock (30 E), even when the tem-
perature has sunk to 5°, The beats are thereby not so flat as
when the cold heart is forced to an unusually high pulse fre-
quency. With the temperature, the height and steepness of the
wave increase, At 11° and 12° the beats regain the rhythm of
the stimuli.

The above results leave the question open, whether the
cooled heart makes a contraction after every second stimulus,
because it requires two summed impulses, or whether the first
stimulus only passes away without effect, because it finds the

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sluggish organ not yet ready to beat, but that the second
stimulus is itself active.

We have seen that we succeeded even with weak currents
in producing half the number of beats, and that regular
results were first obtained by very much more intense shocks.
This seems to render probable the second of the above cited
possibilities. On the other hand, however, we saw also that
by more rapid time of stimulation (4”) every second shock
was followed by a beat. This seems to speak for the first
alternative.

The second view is supported by the following, the result of
many observations. ‘The cooler the heart becomes, the slower
are its movements, the more seldom are the beats which it
tends to produce. Jf the contractions of the heart are desired in
intervals of time which are greater than the pulse-periods cor-
responding to its present condition of mobility, then comparatively
weak stimuli produce infallible contractions ; if moderate stimuli
meet the heart before it has completed its pulse-period, then they
remain without effect.

For a cold heart therefore whose pulse-period is longer
than 5” it is quite the same whether it is stimulated at inter-
vals of 5” or 10”; it contracts every 10”; 7.e. at every impulse,
or at every second, according to the frequency of the shocks,

If we employ minimal stimuli, then it is to be observed
that the afore-mentioned diminution of excitability with the
temperature always falls below the formerly observed limits.
Stimuli which were previously adequate become ineffective.
With the induction-shocks made stronger, every second pro-
duces a beat.

It scarcely requires to be remarked that the different
strengths of the current which are infallible for different
hearts, vary very much; just as the strength of the current
employed was not from experiment to experiment constant,
because the two Grove’s elements in the primary circuit of the
induction machine were not filled with fresh acid before each
experiment, 7.e, did not always produce currents of equal inten-
sity. Only the relations of the strength of the stimulus during
an experiment are to be regarded as constant, and are tolerably
exactly defined by the current-units. To give an idea of

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 327

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328 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

the absolute strength of our current-units, it may be stated,
that 1000 units represent the maximum intensity of an induc-
tion-current which can be obtained from the largest (secondary
spiral 11,000 turns) induction-machine armed with two Grove’s
elements, and that our apparatus gives induction-shocks of 70
units, when the beginning of the secondary spiral stands at the
end of the primary.

The same heart which gave the original for Fig. 12, exe-
cuted when cooled to 3° the curve shown in Fig. 13, and con-
tinued to retain its beating-tempo of 6 per minute, although
the stimuli were increased to double the frequency and to
quite an extraordinary strength. Strong induction-currents so
injure the ventricle, that its beats soon become very flat.

Sometimes a ventricle which has been rapidly cooled, and
which cannot follow the tolerably strong stimuli, passes into
convulsive contractions, interrupted by periods of rest, which
present quite the appearance of dicrotous and tricrotous beats,
and with measured moderate stimulating-tempo resolve them-
selves into regular, more seldom single beats. These then -
remain, even when the stimuli again reach the former frequency.

If the temperature is lowered to near 0°, the heart frequently

reacts first at the third of the stimuli given in intervals of
5 seconds. * Of the stimuli applied every 10 seconds, it replies
to every second; by stimulation at 15 seconds interval, to every
one.
Seeing that in this case the duration of an extraordinarily
slowed cardiac contraction does not exceed more than about
8 seconds, one must assume that the cooled heart is not,
at once after completing a contraction, capable of again con-
tracting, or, to keep to our former simile, that a vibration of a
molecule displaced from its equilibrium in the cold semi-fluid
mass lasts longer than the visible movement.

In order to discover the pause necessary for the heart
between the beats, or in other words, to find the pulse-rhythm
adequate for it, one can either seek for the interval between
the stimuli which just acts as infallible, or stimulate the heart
with so rapid successive stimuli, that the duration of the in-
terval does not come into count, and estimate the frequency
of the beats,

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT, 329

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330 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

If strong, relatively very frequent stimuli (1” interval) are
applied to a pronouncedly cooled frog’s ventricle, then it
beats in rapid, frequent,.quite regular tempo (10—9 times per
minute), and in this way, that it only responds to every sixth
or seventh stimulus. Considerably warmed (20°—380°) it willingly
follows even weak stimuli in accelerated tempo (1”), even
when this does not permit it to complete its diastole. 7

If the intermittent stimuli, which are produced by an
induction-machine, provided with a Wagner’s (Neeff’s) hammer,
vibrating rapidly and regularly, are allowed to act on the
ventricle, then we obtain results which vary with the strength
of the stimulus and with the temperature. A very excitable
heart (warmed above 20°), stimulated with moderate stimuli,
begins its activity at once with a single systole corresponding
to its energizing power, the systole remaining only a little
longer on the height than an isolated one of a similarly
warmed heart. It then relaxes a little, to produce afterwards
a series of very frequent, incomplete pulsations, which gradu-
ally show more effective diastole.

If the stimulus is allowed to act for many minutes together,
the beats become separate, at last distant, irregularly grouped
together, of course simultaneously lower, and this the quicker
the more frequent they are. Weak stimuli have immediately
at the beginning the same effect as strong ones during the
series.

The moderately cooled heart reacts to middle strong stimuli
at one time with a series of very seldom beats, which corre-
spond exactly in form and size to those obtained by single
stimuli from analogous hearts.

If the considerably cooled cardiac apex is exposed for a
length of time to tolerably strong stimuli of a tetanomotor,
it remains after a few sluggish contractions at rest. If, how-
ever, we allow it a short time to recover after a moderate period
of stimulation, then it reacts at the beginning of each new
period of stimulation with single, or may be, with dicrotous
beats. If the heart is thereafter warmed, it again gradually
regains its former excitability, and executes a series of very
frequent incomplete beats.

Alternating induction-currents of as great intensity as could

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT, 331

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332 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

be obtained by our arrangement, do not cause the fresh heart
(not cooled) in connection with our apparatus to execute
higher contractions than the weaker stimuli, but, on the con-
trary, the curve diminishes from the first systole, as was to be
observed in the formerly figured heart-curves. From this low
level (frequently one-half of a single beat) the jagged curve
sinks considerably, with a longer period of rest it becomes more
toothed, till at last incomplete beats clearly appear and gra-
dually separate into complete ones. The curves of the strongest
stimulation by alternating currents are tolerably analogous to
each other, whether the heart has its ligature under the sulcus
or higher, whether it contracts at a moderate temperature of
the room, or heated to 30°. If it is cooled below 15°, the curve
obtained under such conditions assumes a form similar to those
of the moderately stimulated heart. The apices of the systoles
become broader with diminishing temperature, corresponding
quite in form to single beats executed soon afterwards.

The pieces of curve copied in Fig. 18 are taken from the
tracing of a ventricle, to which a part of its auricles was still
attached, washed out with bloody solution of salt, and which
pulsated spontaneously and rhythmically. (Compare Rossbach,
Ueber die Umwandlung der periodisch aussetzenden Schlag-
folge des isolirten Froschherzens in die rhythmische. Berichte
d. math.-phys. Cl. d. k. sdchs. Ges. d. Wissensch. 1874, p. 197.)

If the heart is observed in a transparent bath during the
strongest stimulation, tumultuous peristaltic movements of the
ventricle are to be observed, in. the manner which R. Heiden-
hain (Miller's Archiv, 1858, p. 493) has described, This in-
vestigator, however, “sah in manchen Fiillen den Ventrikel in
eine vollkommen stetige, tonische Contraction gerathen, in
einen exquisiten Tetanus.” |

Eduard Weber also (Article Muskelbewegung in Wagner's —
Handwérterbuch d. Physiologie, Bd, 111. Abt. 11. p. 35) had
already observed that the heart by means of the rotation
apparatus could be thrown into a continued tonic spasm, from —
which it gradually returned to its rhythmical movement. :

Ludwig on the contrary, and in unison with him Eckhard, —
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CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT, 333

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334 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

the influence of the electro-motor the cardiac beats become
greatly accelerated, “but every single beat is so weak, that in
spite of its innumerable beats the heart becomes more dis-
tended, till at last it stands still. In this way it is easy to kill
an animal.” (Lehrbuch d. Physiologie d. Menschen, Bd. 1.
2. Auflage, pp. 91 and 92.)

Goltz supports the view of the existence of a “true cardiac
tetanus” (Virchow’s Archiv, Bd. xx. 1868, p. 493). He says:
“Verlangt man von dem Herztetanus, dass er die chronisch
gewordene normale Form der Systole darstellt, so durfte aller-
dings den langst bekannten Formen von Tetanus ihre Legiti-
mation als solche bestritten werden...”, for in consequence of
electrical or mechanical stimulation, “one scarcely ever observes
an actual absolute quiet condition, but generally one observes
here and there irregular fibrillar contractions.” “Nevertheless,
all these forms, according to my view, represent an actual
genuine tetanus, caused by stimulation of the central organs,
and their irregularities are sufficiently explained by the ine-
quality of the stimulus employed,” loc. cit. p. 496. “It has often
been thought that tetanus could be produced by increasing the
frequency of the pulsations. It was hoped that a condition
would be reached in which the change from systole to diastole
would no longer be obvious and that a continued systolic spasm
would be developed.” “I hold this conception as erroneous.
The tetanus of the heart occurs at once as a tonic equal spasm,
which is capable of an increase to the most complete fixation
in the most extreme contraction, After cessation of the extreme
tetanus there is not enormous frequency of the rhythmical
movements, but solely inereasing difference in form between
the systole and diastole with normal tempo.” “The long sought
for method, to produce a general equal tetanus of the ventricle,
corresponding to a chronic normal systole,” consists, according to
Goltz, in this, that the ventricle of the frog’s heart tempora-
rily be over-distended, ‘iibermiissig’, and powerfully so by
means of the blood forced into it.”

In Fig. 9 we have already seen a long tonic cardiac con-
traction produced by strong heating. Such heat-tetanus has
also been described by Luciani (loc. cit. pp. 171 and 172), and

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 335

before him also was observed by many physiologists. Similar
contractions are sometimes exhibited by a frog’s heart poisoned
with atropine, without its being essentially injured by such
spasm (loc. cit. p. 188, Fig. 86). Beats follow, whose diastoles
are at first incomplete, but gradually appear quite perfect.
Even frogs’ hearts washed out with fresh arterial blood some-
times pass spontaneously into tonic spasm (Rossbach, loc. cit.
p. 200).

Are we justified in characterising all these conditions by
the name of tetanus ?

E. du Bois-Reymond first introduced “ Tetanisirung auf
electrischen Wege,” (1842), into the investigation of muscular
contraction, as a means “of securing the evanescent character
of these phenomena, in order to obtain explanations, incapable
of being obtained from a single contraction” (Untersuchungen
diber thierische Electricitdt, Bd. 0. p. 39). Ed. Weber succeeded
(1846), with the aid of a magneto-galvanic rotation apparatus,
“in producing for a long time continued muscular contraction
and in equal completeness, as we see arising in a natural way
through the influence of the will, or in rigor mortis.” “If the
galvanic shocks which one communicates to a muscle or its
nerve are allowed to follow each other so rapidly that the
muscular contractions thereby produced, in spite of their short
duration, are linked to each other so completely that the next
following one begins before the previous one has ceased, then the
contraction of the muscles becomes so lasting and so complete,
that not even with the microscope can movements or quiver-
ings of the individual muscular fibres during its continuance
be detected.’ “But we can also produce continued contractions
of muscles by other means than the galvanic apparatus, e.g. by
mechanical stimuli, provided that the actions producing the
contractions follow each other with sufficient rapidity” (loc. cit.
pp. 11 and 12). E. du Bois-Reymond defines tetanus in the
following way : “Tetanus produced electrically is discontinuous.”
“The continually produced contractions of the second (second-
arily excited) muscle, every contraction of which must corre-
spond to a variation in the current of the first, show that the
apparently ever so constant contraction consists of a discon-
nected series of frequently recurring, exceedingly rapid actions.”

336 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

“Tt is on the whole questionable whether an apparently con-
stant contraction is actually of this nature or not, like the
electrical, composed of a series of momentary actions rapidly
following each other. It is to be assumed that even with
the most rapid turning (of the interrupting wheel) a shock
may correspond to each closing and opening of the primary
current, like an induction current (loc. cit. Bd. 1. p. 89
and 90).

This view is supported by Helmholtz (Miiller’s Archiv,
1850, p. 277), and he regards “continued contraction of a
muscle as a series of simple contractions following each other
so rapidly that each previous one at the appearance of the
following has not perceptibly relaxed.” Later, he enunciated
the law by which tetanic shortening follows the summation of
single contractions (Monatsberichte d. Berliner Akad. d. Wis-
sensch. 1854, June).

From the above, it is clearly shown that the founder of
muscular physiology wished to designate with the name teta-
nus (from analogy with the tetanus of disease) a condition of
muscle which is kept regular by the superposition of a number
of shocks. The absolute duration of the contraction does not
distinguish whether it is to be regarded as simple or tetanic, but
the experimental analysis into single contractions. We cannot be
in doubt that a contraction of a gastrocnemius of half a second’s
duration is tetanic, as soon as we can prove that it is higher
and longer than one of the simple contractions whose rapid
succession had made it continuous, or that it produces on a
normal muscle a secondary tetanus whose duration is greater
than that of a simple contraction. Contractions however such
as are given by strongly-cooled muscles (Marey, Mowvement
dans les fonctions de la Vie, 1868, p. 346), or muscles poisoned
with veratrin (Fick and Bohm, Arbeiten aus d. physiolog.
Laborat. d. Wiirzburger Hochschule, 1872, p. 154), with a dura-
tion of half a second or longer, we must regard as simple,
because we cannot prove the “oscillatory character” of the
same,

The heart’s beat is shown, by means of the physiological
rheoscope, to be a simple contraction (K6élliker and H. Miiller,
Siteungsberichte der physiol.-medicin, Gesellsch. in Wiireburg. —

a

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 337

Bd. vir. Heft ii. 1856. Marey, Journal del Anatomie et de la
Physiologie, 1866, p. 403). Under the influence of cooling one
may observe that the duration of the contraction of the ventricle
of a frog’s heart may be gradually lengthened from half a second
to five seconds. The long contraction of the sluggish cold heart

is at the same time very low. Why should not poisons, just as

extreme electrical, thermal and mechanical stimuli, also abnor-
mally lengthen the contraction, without this having therefore to
assume the character of tetanus ?

The graphically represented heat-tetanus (Fig. 7) and the
maximal height of such contractions indicated by Luciani (loc.
cit. 171 and 172) do not reach the height of simple beats; just
as the maximal value of the elevation which Luciani observed
to occur (loc. cit. p. 188), after poisoning with atropine, remains
below the previous and following contractions. Schmiedeberg
(Ueber die Digitalinwirkung am Herzmuskel des Frosches.
J. Schmiedeberg, from Beitrdge zur Anatomie u. Fhysiologie, als
Festgabe Carl Ludwig von seinen Schiilern, Leipzig, 1875) com-
municates a fact which is calculated to strengthen in a very
substantial manner the proofs against the existence of cardiac
tetanus; digitalin throws the heart into contraction, which is
however only lasting because the changed aggregate condition
of the heart renders its distension more difficult. The poisoned
ventricle conducts itself like an excessively fatigued muscle,

“which preserves with dough-like toughness the form which it

has assumed.” (H. Kronecker, Arbeit. aus d. phys. Anst. zu
Leip. 1871, p. 258.)

How then are to be explained the continuing contractions of
the heart, which have been observed under the influence of
alternating electrical currents, ¢.e. under the same conditions as
the tetani obtained on the muscles of the skeleton?

E. Weber (loc. cit. pp. 35 and 36) observed that the heart of
the frog, after it had been exposed for “several seconds” to the
action of the strong currents of the rotation-apparatus, “gradu-
ally contracted and continued so,” “so that the contracted parts
(around the nearly-approximated electrodes) took no more part

in the rhythmical movement.” The stimulated part of the

heart “continued also after interruption of the current for a
long time completely motionless, and only very late and very

338 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

gradually did the rhythmical movements return, the tonic spasm
lastly disappearing.”

Hoffa and Ludwig (Henle and Pfeufer’s Zeitsch. f. ration.
Medicin, 1850, p. 129) remark that “the most powerful elec-
trical stimuli are unable to throw the heart into general tetanus.”
With very excitable hearts “a small pale elevation” forms
between the electrodes placed on the heart. “Beyond this
point the heart passes into extraordinarily rapid quite irregular
movements of very slight intensity.’ “The individual ana-
tomical elements separate in their relations one to another and
cease to contract simultaneously. Hereby a complexity in
relation to rhythmus and intensity is produced...... during which
the beart becomes pronouncedly larger and fills with blood.
These movements always lasted longer than the stimulus, and
this the longer the stimulus was allowed to act.” “Lastly, more
and more parts cease their rapid movements and pass into the
condition of complete rest; when the pause has become general,
and after it has lasted a short time, there suddenly arises a
powerful general movement of the heart, which again begins
the rhythmus.”

“By the gradual passage of the electrodes over the whole
organ one can extend the intrapolar condition over the whole
heart (loc. cit. p. 131), Rossbach calls this change a “shrivel-
ling” (“Schrumpfung”) (Verhand. d. Wiirz. phys.-med. Gesellsch.
N.F. Bd. v. p. 189), which “appears immediately as an after
effect of local, mechanical, or electrical stimulation of the ven-
tricle of the frog’s heart.” ‘This shrivelled part shows no more
activity and is completely robbed of its vital properties.” It
happens only to the muscular fibres immediately affected by the
stimulus. Similar results are to be observed on hearts poisoned
with ecbolin (loc. cit. Bd. vi. p. 24).

A different explanation is given by Heidenhain in A/iller’s
Arch. 1858, p. 493, of his essentially analogous results on the
electrified frog’s heart. Intense induction-currents of the
magnet-clectromotor brought the ventricle into “a vibrating,
quivering, heaving movement,” which Heidenhain would
represent “as a tumultuous tetanus.” “In many cases he
observed the ventricle pass into a complete continuous tonic
contraction, into an exqnisite tetanus.” He therefore cannot

WS ee eet

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 339

assent to the assumption of Eckhard that the heart knows no
tetanus.

The graphic method which Ludwig introduced also into
this province of physiological investigation (Arb. aus d. phy.
Anst. in Leipzig, 1866, p. 80), gave us the means of measuring
the mechanical effect of the contraction of the isolated heart.
' Then was one first able to decide, what from mere observation
of the organ could only be guessed at, that the so-called tetanic
cardiac contraction raised the column of fluid in the manometer
to a less height than the simple beat.

The cardiograms of frogs’ hearts stimulated with alternat-
ing currents show, that (1) just in the same measure, as by
weak effective stimuli the frequence of the beats increases, so the
heights of the beats become smaller ; (2) under the influence of
moderately strong stimuli the very frequent beats run together
incompletely, but do not, like the contractions of incompletely
tetanised muscles of the skeleton, sum up their mechanical effect,
but are able to support the column of fluid only at the height
of a simple systole, frequently even below this, within varying
limits; that, lastly, (3) the cardiac delirium which is produced by
the strongest currents communicates many small, but only weak,
impulses to the float of the manometer, so that it remains
quivering at a height above the diastolic position. The move-
ment ceases at once with the stimulus, and after a period of
rest, from one second to a minute, the heart begins again to
beat in the ordinary manner.

The appearance of a curve, written by a moderately excited

heart, reminds one forcibly of the figures which Kronecker
(compare Die Gesetze d. Muskelermiidung, Monatsb. d. k. Akad.
der Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1870, August, p. 639) sometimes (in
winter) obtained from lightly-weighted (20 grms.) still non-
fatigued muscles, which, stimulated in moderate intervals (4’),
produced maximal contractions. Such muscles, during the whole
time between two series, remain ‘somewhat contracted, in rare
cases even at the highest point of a simple contraction. Stronger
weighting (40 grms.) overcame the tonus, which again became
obvious, as soon as the surplus weight was removed. With
increasing fatigue this peculiar phenomenon disappeared.

The objection, that it is only the irregularity of the tetanic

‘DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

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CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 341

contraction which conceals the collective effect, even contains
the concession, that the contraction of the heart is not analogous
to that of a muscle of the skeleton, whose individual fibrilla
do not contract non-simultaneously when tetanising stimuli are
applied to the whole organ. The view of Goltz (loc. cit. p. 494),
however, that the “fibrillar, irregular contractions” of the con-
tinually electrified heart “represent an actual, genuine tetanus,
caused by stimulation of the central organs, the irregularities of
the tetanus being sufficiently explained by the inequalities of the
stimuli employed,” we cannot admit to be correct ; for we have
seen that the ventricle of the heart cannot be brought to a
constant tetanus, even when, instead of electrodes placed upon
it, regular equal alternating induction-currents are passed
through the fluid which bathes the heart within and without.
What electricity cannot do, cannot be accomplished by other
means of stimulation. Of the poisons, strychnine, which throws
the muscles of the skeleton into reflex tetanus, delphinin (Wey-
land in Eckhardt’s Beitr. 2. Anat. u. Phys. Bd. v. 1870, pp. 51
and 68), which so acts upon the muscles that a momentary
stimulus produces long-continuing tetanus—the former does
not stimulate the heart at all (Hoffa and Ludwig, loc. cit.
p- 132), the latter causes irregular pulsations (Bowditch, loc. cit.
p. 169).

The violent mechanical stimulus, which is caused by blowing

up the heart, appeared to Goltz (loc. cit. p. 493), as already
_ mentioned, fitter to produce a true cardiac tetanus, and its
. author maintains, “that it represents the chronic normal form
_ of the systole, and that after a certain time it permits the
return of the normal condition.” That the terms ‘long con-
traction’ and ‘tetanic contraction,’ according to the generally
adopted physiological technology, are not synonymous, has been
already sufficiently pointed out. Here it is only necessary to
mention, that the simple contraction of a stretched muscle of
the skeleton is much longer than that of a normal muscle
(Marey, Mouvement, p. 363).

It is necessary to prove a series of observations which can
be included as an important proof of the existence of “cardiac
tetanus,” the complex movement described by Luciani (loc.
cit. p. 24) as “tetanischer Anfall des Herzens,” which is exhi-

342 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING,

bited by the isolated frog’s heart, when a new ligature is placed
round its auricles, whilst its contents (rabbit’s serum), commu-
nicated by means of a cardiac-cannula with the mercurial
manometer. The “effect of the act of ligaturing” consists in
an immediate elevation of the column of mercury, often twice
as high, sometimes four times as high as the previously marked
beats (loc. cit. p. 25). At first, on the height very frequent and
small beats are written by the float, the beats gradually become
more seldom and larger, whilst the pressure sinks to the
original value. “Several times the periods were to be ob-
served during the course of a tetanus curve, so that single
contractions alternated with pauses, whilst the tetanus curve
followed its continuous course” (loc. cit. Fig. 11). “The dura-
tion of the tetanus was sometimes a few seconds, more fre-
quently several minutes, with equal and regular decrease of the
curve to the abscissa.” The height of the tetanus is the more
pronounced the nearer the ligature is placed to the ventricle,
but stands in no distinct relation to its duration. “If the
ligature is untied whilst the tetanus still continues, the pres-
sure sinks at once to the normal value, the beats become again
more numerous, at first still frequent, and gradually become
more seldom, and at the same time higher. If now a new
ligature is placed above the ligature spot, tetanus can no more
be produced.” Luciani remarks expressly that “the tetanus
of the heart does not consist of single contractions placed one
above another like an ordinary muscular tetanus.” “The con-
tinual condition of contraction appears to be quite independent
of the individual beats, and can be called a muscle-tonus in a
certain sense of the word.”

Dr Kronecker was at first inclined to accede to this expla-
nation of Luciani, and that the more so, as he could obtain
somewhat similar curves from the voluntary muscles upon
throwing them into tonic contractions by strong constant
currents, and applying single induction-shocks in rhythmical
sequence to the corresponding nerves (Wundt, Arch. f. Anat.
und Phys. von Reichert u. du Bois-Reymond, 1859, p. 549). The
single contractions appeared upon the tonic curve. Upon our
removing the membranous valve from the Mariotte’s flask, and
replacing it by the system of stop-cocks already deseribed, the

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN. OF CARDIAC MUSCULUR MOVEMENT. 343

appearance of the “ligature-tetanus” altered ina manner which
excited our suspicions, When he shut off the cavity of the
heart completely by means of a stop-cock towards the pressure-
vessel, so that the fluid could only pass towards the manometer,
and now placed a ligature upon the auricle or ventricle, the
column of mercury rose at once just as with Luciani, but it
remained, after it had fallen only a little, at a high point
until we opened the stop-cock, and slowly allowed the pres-
sure of the Mariotte’s flask to govern the whole system of
tubes. From this it appeared as if the continuing elevation of
the diastolic pressure lay in the arrangement of the experiment.
The process could then be explained in the following manner:
as soon as the ligature begins to tighten round the heart,
systoles follow as frequently as possible, which empty the
auricles and ventricles into the manometer. If now the loop is
drawn tight round the auricles, the part above the ligature is
no longer passable for the fluid streaming back during the next
diastole. The thereby diminished cardiac cavity contains, in
the condition of diastole, only a part of the blood or serum
previously present in the larger section of the heart. The
remainder, which must remain in the manometer, is therefore
greater; the more the cavity of the heart is limited, the deeper
the ligature is applied. The original tolerably rapid sinking of
the manometer column could be explained by the assumption
that the wall of the auricle, folded under the ligature, yields some-
what to the high pressure. If the ligature is loosened, the blood-
pressure falls at once to the old level. The beats, which had
become very small under the influence of the abnormally high
_. pressure, became again larger. A new ligature close above the
previously ligatured spot causes no new stimulus more. The
fluid is distributed on both sides of the ligature; the tetanus
does not appear.

This view of the peculiar increase of pressure is supported
by Bowditch, whose views upon “cardiac tetanus” correspond
essentially with the above. The reason why, in the experi-
ments of Luciani, the diastolic pressure did not continue at the
height, but by gradually sinking gave the impression of a
slowly-sinking cardiac tetanus, must, in consequence of our new
control-observations, be placed in the apparatus itself. The

344 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

ingenious arrangement of the membranous valve, which during
the short increase of pressure from the cardiac side was quite
sufficient to shut off the Mariotte’s flask from the manometer,
was not sufficient to prevent continually the hydrostatic equi-
librium between the manometer and the flask from being
gradually restored. The distended membrane covered origin-
ally with its central part the orifice of exit from the flask. But
“the membrane is at one part of the wall finely perforated”
(loc. cit. p. 117), in order to render possible the access of the
nutrient fluid to the heart. In the closed space filled with
serum (loc. cit. p. 116, Fig. 1a) in which the valve was placed,
no fluid could pass through the hole in the membrane, if an
exit was not furnished somewhere, or the surrounding wall
could be widened at one part. On all sides the space is
bounded by rigid walls. Only the membranous valve itself,
which closes the space above towards the Mariotte’s flask, and
below towards the manometer, is itself moveable. Rendered
tense by virtue of the pressure in the manometer, it favours the
exit of fluid through the puncture, in that it becomes less and
less tense, and makes room in the valve-space for the drops
coming from the side of the heart. Lastly, the outflow from
the Mariotte’s flask is free, and the equilibrium is restored in
the whole system, exactly as suddenly occurs when the mem-
brane is pressed down (Luciani, loc. cit. p. 181).

To this explanation of the “cardiac tetanus” there is op-
posed a deduction of Luciani, which is based upon observations
on hearts which were ligatured apart from the apparatus, and
thereafter brought in connection with the manometer, and
which wrote a series of contractions whose extent increases
gradatim. Such a series of beats he characterised as “auf-
steigende Treppe” of the “Anfallsgruppe” (loc. cit. pp. 128
and 124), He regarded such a “treppe” as a masked tetanus,
Now, in that the single beats which appear upon the sinking
tetanus-curve always become larger, (and with opened valve
the position of the abscissa is only estimated by the posi-
tion of the pressure-bottle,) immaterial whether the heart
on its being attached to the apparatus is contracted or
relaxed, so the series of beats projected from the tetanus-curve
to the abscissa represent a “treppe.” At first, almost com-

a

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 345

pletely contracted, the heart cannot expel a sufficient amount
of serum to close the valve and raise the column of mercury.
“When, however, the tetanus, as it usually does, gradually
yields, then fluid penetrates into the cavity of the heart
under the pressure of the bottle, just in proportion as the
yielding of the cardiac wall increases, ¢.e. as the (tonic) con-
traction present in it has diminished. If, while this occurs,
a new stimulus to rhythmical contraction again returns, then
the first of these stimuli will meet a heart filled with a small
quantity of fluid, and therefore propel only a little into the
manometer, whilst the following ones act upon a heart more
and more filled, and accordingly will produce elevations of
the mercury successively increasing in size” (loc. cit. p. 180).
According to this, the systoles would only really increase,
because the diastoles become deeper, and the process would
have a certain analogy with the tonic condition which we have
observed in mobile hearts, which, irritated by intermittent
stimuli, contracted so frequently, that their diastoles remained
incomplete ; only that in this case the high point of the tonus
did not exceed the highest point of the first systole.

After satisfying ourselves of the increase in pressure, and
having seen that we could obtain an “aufsteigende Treppe,”
when we allowed the heart, shut off from the Mariotte’s flask,
to beat, we must look somewhere else for an explanation of
the remarkable phenomenon.

Bowditch had already followed this carefully under very
varying conditions, and showed that the ventricle of the frog’s
heart filled with rabbit’s serum was distinguished from other
transversely striped muscles, in that a contraction executed
after a pause of some minutes, is not larger, but smaller than
the previous ones. “Each (in intervals of several seconds)
successive one increased in extent, in this way however, that
with the increasing number of contractions the increase becomes
smaller and smaller, till it at last disappears ” (loc. cit. p. 156).
From the maximum when reached, the “curve of fatigue”
falls with its convexity directed towards the abscissa, and this
‘the steeper the smaller the interval chosen between the
stimuli (loc. cit. p. 161). The fatigued apex of the heart can,
to a certain extent, be again strengthened by replacing the

VOL. IX. 23

346 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

used serum with new serum. The energising power of the
heart is lessened as well by long rest, as by continued work.

The remarkable discovery of Luciani, that a heart filled
with serum, and ligatured round the auricles, executed spon-
taneously periodical groups of beats, and pausing for a time
between these groups, afforded an opportunity of observing
under varied conditions, the course of a series of beats after
pauses of different durations. It was shown that the first groups
of a simple ligatured heart, after pauses of one or more minutes,
seldom show the “treppe,” whilst the later groups on the
contrary, or even those of a heart twice ligatured (loc. cit. Tables,
p. 148, &c.), especially under the influence of a higher tem-
perature, presented the phenomenon in a pronounced manner
(pp. 163, 168, &c.). The treppe-like increase was never to
be observed on the seldom pulse-groups of the cooled (4°—7’)
heart.

If fresh serum is supplied to the registering heart after the
effete stuff is removed, it is seen “that the beats within the
groups become more numerous and frequent, that the medium
height of the excursion increases considerably, that the de-
scending ‘treppen’ fall more steeply, and the pauses become
shorter” (loc. cit. p. 162).

The fact that the groups of the fatigued heart show the
“treppe” unequally more frequently than those of the fresh heart,
engendered the wish to test whether the changed serum in the
heart diminished the productive power of the organ. Haller
had already made the observation (Zlement. Phys, 1762, Tom, Iv.
p. 546) that the muscles of the skeletons, in which the blood has
stagnated through ligature of the veins, become paralytic. If
we assume that the heart decomposes its contents very rapidly,
and that it suffers from the spoiled fluid, but is very easily
restored by small quantities of fresh stuff, we can conceive
that after long injurious rest the first small contraction expels
some of the effete serum from the heart; that this is mixed in
the glass tube with fresh serum, and of this, at the next dia-
stole, new particles are brought in contact with the muscles
of the heart, which being hereby strengthened renders the
next high pulse possible, which again procures fresh material,
until the mixture in the heart and the ascending tube has

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 347

become tolerably uniform, and places a limit to further reco-
very. To prove this assumption we have sought to perfect
the renewal of the contents of the heart, and for this purpose
have employed the “double-channelled cannula” already de-
scribed (p. 316).

The effect of such a method of transfusion, which permits of
the heart being fed with a continual current of nutrient fluid,
is of much greater importance, than was formerly supposed.
We succeeded in obtaining beats, by means of bloody rabbit's
serum, from hearts which had beat for a long time, and which
had already become weak. The beats were higher than those
of fresh hearts simply filled with analogous serum.

When we fatigued the apex of the frog’s heart by succes-
sive rhythmical induction-shocks, then allowed several minutes
rest, and then transfused serum or solution of salt mixed with
rabbit’s blood, the next stimuli caused beats, which were con-
siderably higher than the last ones before the pause. The
“treppe” disappeared sometimes completely. (Fig. 20.)

Old serum, used two days previously, but preserved in the
ice-cellar, rapidly diminished the energising power of a heart
filled with it.

The next figure illustrates the latter part of an experiment
in which a heart’s apex, after it had been periodically stimu-
lated for several hours, and was almost completely exhausted
(height of pulse 2,5 mm.), through transfusion (Tf.) of fresh
rabbit’s serum was again completely strengthened, so that the
height of the beats rose to 13,5 mm., whilst the heart taken
from the living animal and attached to the apparatus with the
same serum wrote only 10,5 mm. high beats. (Fig. 21.) The
“treppe” appeared now, by stimuli in 5" interval, flat, ascending,
after 1 minute’s rest; short but distinct after 1,75’ rest, whilst
serum was transfused through the heart; no longer after 2’
rest, whilst during the latter transfusion was performed; it
appeared very markedly after 2’ rest, without transfusion,
~ In warmed hearts (25°-30°) the serum very soon loses its
restorative properties, After a short pause a distinct “treppe”
appears. Still the heart recovers again very perfectly on
fresh nutrient stuff being supplied; when washed out it
regains during the pause the temporary maximum of its capa-

23—2

DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

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CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 349

bility of energising; no “treppe” being manifested. A fresh heart
at the ordinary temperature of the room, as already shown, can
without essentially suffering, tolerate serum for a few minutes
(2), even when this is not quite fresh, but has not yet been
used for circulation. The beats following in moderate intervals
(5”) are then nearly equally high. _ If during a pause of 2’ the
heart is washed out with bloody serum, then the next beats
are considerably higher than those before the pause, and form
a “descending treppe” (“absteigende Treppe”). (Fig. 22.)

This phenomenon corresponds to the result of Luciani. The
first groups after the onset (Anfall) are characterised by the
“descending treppe.” Its most frequent form (with greater
frequency of beats) is that of a curve which has its convexity
directed towards the abscissa; sometimes it is completely or
nearly a straight line (loc. cit. p. 141).

If on the contrary the heart is no longer fresh, but the
serum fresh and nutritious, the current through the passive
heart cannot cause the “treppe” to disappear, although it begins
from a higher level than the “treppe” after a pause without a
current, (Fig. 23.)

Frequently one beat in a richly nourished heart is sufficient
to produce for the heart its maximum of energising power.
After a short pause (half a minute), the next beats then appear
descending without transfusion; but with a maximum height
which is lower than that of the previous beats.

If we would explain the partial persistence of the “treppe”
without transfusion, we must assume that the fresh nutrient

- fluid cannot expel the injurious fluid which accumulates in

the muscular tissue, out of the passive heart, but can only
accomplish this when these stuffs have been pressed into the
cavity of the heart, out of the spaces, by the contraction itself.
(Fig. 24.)

Our next task would have been to investigate at which
period of rest the recovery of non-transfused hearts is great-
est. This question however has been sufficiently answered
in the case of the apex of the frog’s heart filled with rabbit’s
serum, by the exact results of Bowditch (loc. cit. p. 160).
From this experiment it is shown “that the highest elevation
which the apex of the heart filled with fresh serum can

DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

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CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 351

accomplish, appears at an interval of between four and five
seconds; if the interval is lengthened, the height of the eleva-
tion diminishes continually, until it, according to the individu-
ality of the heart, with a pause of five minutes, reaches a
minimum, below which even longer rest cannot diminish it;
and not Jess does the extent of the contractions sink, when the
interval is shortened from four to two seconds.”

The fatigued muscle of the skeleton without the circulation
conducts itself qualitatively similarly (Ueber die Ermiidung und
Erholung d. Muskeln, Arb. aus d. phy. Anstalt, 1871, pp. 217 and
218). “The interval which permitted the maximum of recovery
was three minutes. The maximum recovery is however not
nearly so complete, when we take into account only the muscles
of dead animals.” The contraction in the example cited
increases “rapidly with the interval increasing to 30 seconds,
then lowers to 3 minutes, remaining nearly equal, when the
periods of rest increase to 4 or 5 minutes, probably because after
exhausting work death rapidly proceeds.” Already C. Ludwig
and Schmidt concluded from their investigations that in every
stage of the fatigued muscle (a warm-blooded animal) there is
in the course of its activity a diminishing maximum contrac-
tion reached by rest and blood, but which is not exceeded. It
has also been shown that just as the amount of the possible
capability of energising of a muscle diminishes with every new
tetanic contraction, so in a similar manner the duration of
resistance to want of blood diminishes with every interruption
of the circulation (Arbeit. aus d. phy. Anstalt zu Leipzig, 1868,
pp. 26 and 24).

We can now prove from the results obtained, whether it
is reliable to regard the “treppe” as the expression of an in-
creasing process of recovery.

We know that the beats of the registering heart otome
larger :

(1) When the nutrient fluid is renewed to a heart already
fatigued (Hoffa and Ludwig, loc. cit. p. 135; Cyon, loc. cit. p. 89;
Bowditch, loc. cit. p. 162; Luciani, loc. cit. p. 163).

(2) When short periods of rest increase. Bowditch showed
this with the heart’s apex stimulated electrically, and Luciani
observed it in groups of spontaneous beats (loc. cit. Fig. 20,

p. 141).

352 DR: KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

(3) When after a longer pause the heart begins again to
beat, sometimes after injury :

(a) By mechanical violence (ligature). (Bowditch, loc.
cit. p. 172.)

(6) By chemical lesions (treatment with muscarin and
delphinin (Bowditch).

(c) By increased decomposition at higher temperature
(Cyon, Bowditch,-Luciani).

(d) By continued activity (Luciani).

All these results may be grouped together, regarded from
one point of view; the cardiac muscles can only act equally with
the help of continually new nutrient material. According to this
(2) and (3) are subdivisions of (1).

Luciani regarded the “treppe” as a sign of diminished
activity of contraction (increasing relaxation, if not as a sign of
increased activity in the sense of diastole).. The following results,
however, speak against this view; one obtains the increasing
series of beats, even when the heart, which has executed a
“treppe,” is completely shut off from the reservoir, and stands
in connection with the manometer alone. If now the diastoles
instead of the systoles increased, the heart must register nega-
tive pressures ; or if it was not in a condition to aspirate, certainly
no positive ones. That during most extensive diastoles, it sucks
through its muscular walls fluid from the bath, in order to
propel it into the manometer at the following systole, no
physiologist can really believe; and whoever is inclined to do so,
can easily convince himself that even without a serum bath the
heart registers its “treppe” when it has a tendency to this mode
of beating.

Bowditch was led by his experimental results to the neces-
sary assumption “that during the pause between the con-
tractions of the heart in opposition to the conditions, which
(after short rest) increase the extent of the contraction, still
other conditions arise which diminish the extent of the contrac-
tion.” The extreme rapidity, with which the heart, even when
filled with serum, in comparison with the muscles of the skeleton,
loses its capability of energising, leads one to conjecture an
extinguishing caused by nervous influence; and this view is
confirmed by the fact that atropine, which is known as a poison

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT, 353

which paralyses the vagus, can diminish the injurious influence
of rest upon the heart.

On the relations of the atropinised heart during active cir-
culation we have collected no results, still it is not impossible
that this poison, in that it renders the tissues more lax, acts
beneficially on nutrition.

Under such a supposition there is nothing to set aside the
fundamental laws from which our experiment began ; “that the
reason why the apex of the heart contracts to different ex-
tents, is to be sought for in the changeable properties of the
muscular fibre itself.” Kronecker, in muscles of the skeleton
excised from a winter frog, has observed a phenomenon analo-
gous to the “treppe,” for which the modification of irritability
of Wundt cannot be made to account, in that, the stimuli
employed were maximal (loc. cit. p. 204).

The knowledge which we have obtained in an analytic way
has also been confirmed by us synthetically. If the heart is
deprived of its nutrient material it rapidly loses its capability
of energising, and regains it quite as quickly when it is fed

anew.

If the blood or serum present in the cavity of the heart is
displaced by non-injurious solution of salt (0,6 per cent.) the
beats sink very rapidly till they are not obvious ; soon there re-

main only weak peristaltic movements; and lastly the heart

stands still in diastole, quite incapable, even after the strongest
stimuli, of executing the smallest movement. If the relaxed organ
ts thoroughly washed out with blood serum containing oxygen, it
soon begins to make fibrillar contractions, then to beat feebly,
until at last it works quite as powerfully as in the fresh con-
dition.

If after the heart has become empty of blood and seems to
be dead, the system of tubes is filled with serum or bloody salt

solution and the stopcock to the reservoir be closed, one may

observe the most beautiful “treppe” arise. The negative picture
of this process one cannot obtain so completely. When the heart
containing blood is brought into connection with the system of
tubes filled with pure solution of salt, the small amount of

blood, in spite of its rapid dilution with the moved indifferent

fluid, can preserve the heart capable of doing a moderate

354 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

amount of work, for a considerable time. Every further trans-
fusion diminishes the store and the production. Of course this
result is valid quite as well for the artificially stimulated ven-
_tricle as for the spontaneously beating heart. Not only on the
hearts of frogs (whose hearts, so long as they are sound and well,
do not permit solution of salt [0,6 per cent.] to transfuse), but
also on those of tortoises we have performed the experiment.
The following three pieces of curves, obtained from the heart of
a tortoise, may serve to exhibit the above formulated rule. The
heart was provided with two cannule. The first one was tied
into one of the cave and attached to the end of the system of
tubes communicating with the Mariotte’s flask; whilst the
other cannula was placed in the aorta and in connection with
the manometer end of the tubular system. So the heart took up
the nutrient fluid into the right auricle through the vein, when
the passage to the pressure-bottle was opened, and allowed it
to flow by the aorta through the outflow-tube, or forced its
contents into the registering manometer, when the outlet from
_ the outflow-tube was closed. After the heart had been washed
out for some time with bloody rabbit’s serum it marked beats
of which the first piece of Fig. 25, 1, gives an example. After
a short washing out with solution of salt it made contractions
such as are given in the second group (I). When it was transfused
for 14 minutes with salt water the height of the beats (111) sank
rapidly in irregular degrees, till they almost disappeared. (Fig. 25.)

Longer than 12 minutes, the heart showed fibrillar move-
ments, whilst the level of the column in the manometer re-
mained unchanged, After this, solution of salt mixed with
blood (5:1) brought the beats again to their former height,
and after this, pure solution of salt caused them to disappear.
Afterwards, when the heart was again washed out with blood,
it wrote off the curve copied in Fig. 26.

Two further small washings out with the bloody fluid
brought the heart to continuing equable work. The beats,
of which a series is figured in Fig. 27, 11, are equal in height
to the most powerful (sub. 1. repeated) of the quite fresh
heart. (Fig. 27.)

We have, therefore, four times completely extinguished
the heart’s capability of energising, by transfusion of an_

4
4

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 355

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CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 357

indifferent fluid, and equally as often completely restored it by
the supply of blood. Astonishingly small quantities of blood
are sufficient for this. A few cubic centimeters of a solution of
salt, which contained about 0,5 per cent. of old rabbit’s blood,
brought the pulse-heights of a heart of a tortoise in a few
seconds, from 0 to 12—14mm., and maintained them for a
long time as high. Thus it is explicable why excised frogs’
hearts often beat for a long time without any new supply
of material. The weak contractions require little expendi-
ture. The weak cold heart acting under pressure conducts
itself similarly, whilst the warmed one, rapidly exhausts its
nutrient material by powerfully energising. In addition, the
decomposition of the contents in the passive heart is accelerated
by heat, and hindered by cold; therefore, in the first case, the
restimulated ventricle begins its work with a steep “treppe,”
in the latter with a flat or almost invisible one. After these
results it will not appear wonderful, that injections of solu-
tion of salt after transfusion of blood, often at the begin-
ning have a restorative effect, although the system of tubes
was previously freed from blood. The blood-corpuscles remain-
ing in the cannula and the cavities of the heart itself, as above
shown, are able to give back to the muscles of the heart washed
out with a rapid current, a part of the material employed for
work, If these residues, however, which sometimes remain
longer in the trabecular work of the heart of the tortoise than
in that of the frog, are removed by solution of salt, then the
remainder of the force rapidly disappears. In this respect

also, we find a resemblance between the heart and the muscles

of the skeleton in which Kronecker “found the circulation of
solution of salt’ completely indifferent before a highly produc-

_ tive transfusion of exceedingly dilute solution [0,01 per cent.] of

permanganate of potash,” whilst after the injection of the restora-
tive ozone-carrier, transfusion of pure (0,5 per cent.) solution of

salt, “showed such a small restorative activity, that one might

ascribe it to the remainder of the permanganate of potash dis-
placed from the supply-tube” (Arb. aus d. physiolog. Anstalt
zu Leipzig, 1871, p. 183). Also on Plate rv. of that paper the

“minimal effect of a solution of salt circulating through a frog’s

muscle, in comparison with the action of blood, is represented

358 DR KRONECKER AND DR STIRLING.

from nature ; on Plate v. complete inactivity of the neutral solu-
tion. Johannes Ranke reckons me wrongly, in the last edition of
his Physiology, among the supporters of his doctrine of effete
stuffs.

We have always till now silently presumed, that the recovery
by blood-transfusion is due to an increase of the capability
for energising, and not to an increase of the excitability. It is
easy to prove on a ventricle not pulsating spontaneously, that
the strength of the minimal stimuli by no means increases with
the heights of the beats. With the same stimuli which the fresh,
powerful heart requires for its great contractions, the salt heart,
as a rule, continues to beat until its movements are extin-
guished. Strengthened stimuli do not help it—according to
the fundamental law of the movement of the heart confirmed by
our experiments—to increased energy. For a fatigued cardiac
muscle, filled with old blood or serum, much weaker impulses
are often sufficient to cause it to energise, than are necessary
for the fresh heart. For the cardiac ventricle, already strongly
fatigued, which yielded the curve given in Fig. 5, 46 units were
sufficient to produce beats, whilst when it was strengthened by
transfusion it required 120 units in order to write off the curve
given in Fig, 24,

Bowditch also remarked that “in order to obtain a certain
effect, it was not necessary to increase the intensity of the
induction-currents, when the extent of the contraction was
increased by muscarin, or the size of burden had diminished by
fatigue.” On the contrary he found that the susceptibility
“was increased by a series of contractions” and diminished by
long rest (loc. cit. p. 175). The meaning of this peculiarity
we have already pointed out at the beginning of this paper.

We have recognised the heart as an organ, with whose
energising powers no manufactured machine can in the most
remote degree be compared. So small in size, that a con-
sumption of particles of tissue as the material for work—as
many physiologists assert of the muscles of the skeleton—
would completely consume it within a short time, it is almost
immediately capable of energising as soon as it is nourished,

i

ET ROAR

ea ee
f

CHARACTERISTIC SIGN OF CARDIAC MUSCULAR MOVEMENT. 359

and employs the forces at its disposal, in the most complete and
most careful manner for work. It completely loses its property
of energising as soon as it is deprived of food, does not nourish
itself therefore from its own substance, but continues without
wasting, when well nourished and not maltreated, for an un-
limited length of time. _Not every most gentle impulse is
sufficient to cause it to act, but when it has once been set in
action, then less powerful impulses are sufficient to continue its
movement. It always works with full force, and in fitting
tempo ; little disturbed by untimely impulses, not at all affected
by a change in the strength of the stimulus, as its destiny
to constant regular exactions of relatively greater weights
demands. _Under the same conditions (heat), which increase
the decomposition of the nutrient stuffs, the mobility of
its parts increases. The external conditions (cold), which
diminish metamorphosis, make it at the same time more
sluggish. On the contrary, the heart is of little use as a reser-
voir. Even when at rest it extracts from the contents touching
its walls, a part of their work-material, and is, therefore, at the
beginning of its activity, not in complete possession of its capa-
bility of energising, without being supplied by new material.

DIGESTION-OVEN WITH A DIFFUSION APPARATUS’.
By Dr Huco Kronecker.

In the Chemical Laboratory of the Pathological Institute of Berlin,
in the year 1856, under W. Kiihne’s direction, I made experi-
ments on the digestion in-the stomach, and tried to separate the
stomach-ferment by diffusion from the peptones mixed with it,
Graham’s dialyser appeared to me to be inconvenient, and not easily
kept free from impurities, and, further, was not suited to hold together
the small quantities of gastric juice which I had at command—as

Fig. 1.

’ From Beitriige zur Anatomie und Physiologie als Festgabe Carl Ludwig
gewidmet von seinen Schiilern, Leipzig, 1875.

FO Pia al ee ocala cs ae a

DR KRONECKER. DIGESTION-OVEN. 361

I wished to compare the amount of pepsin contained in horizontal
sections of the stomach of the pigeon made at different heights. My
desire was to possess a dialyser, whose form gave the largest surface
with small contents, and thereby remained free from constituents
which are easily proved to contain impurities. Vegetable parchment
and glass supplied the best materials. After many attempts in
trying to make the diffusion-paper into tubes, the most simple and
convenient form was found to be the folded filter.

If it is placed in a glass funnel, and is filled with the solution to
be diffused, there only remains the task of keeping the outer fluid
which should take up the diffused stuffs, at the same level as the fluid
within. This was obtained at first by another vessel, which was
united by means of a caoutchouc tube to the tube of the funnel, and

_ allowed the fixing of the level of the diffusion-fluid. Later, the

instrument was perfected in Leipzig.

The collective apparatus is intended to complete as rapidly as
possible the digestion of a comparatively large quantity of nutrient
material, to render the product of the same easily drawn off, and
to retain the active ferment as undiminished as_possible. For this
purpose the following arrangement was found to be most effective,
Fig. 1 gives a view of the whole apparatus.

A cylindrical tin vessel, 7, 18 Ctm. in height, and 20 Ctm. in
diameter, is filled with water, whose temperature must be kept con-
stant by a temperature regulator, 4. A brass stop-cock, g, renders the
emptying the vessel more convenient. The lid has two openings.
In the central one of about 9°5 Ctm, diameter there hangs a tubular
glass, e (Fig. 2), 10 Ctm. in height and 9 Ctm. lumen, and held firm
by means of margins bent out to 10 Ctm. in width.

The other narrow opening is for the mercury-vessel of the regu-
lator.

The outflow tube with the glass stop-cock, f is fixed in the tube of
the glass, and penetrates at / (Hig. 1) the wall of the digestive
oven, and is kept water-tight by means of a cork.

In the glass is suspended an acute-pointed funnel with the tube cut
off, and whose wall, 2 Ctm. below the upper margin, is perforated by
a number of holes (dd) of the sizeof a farthing. In the funnel, Fig. 2,
lies loose a folded filter of parchment paper, which reaches to the
margin. The directions given by Wolffhuegel (Ueber Pepsin und
Fibrinverdauung ohne Pepsin, Pfliiger’s Arch. fiir Physiologie, Bd. vir.
1873, p. 189) for the use of my dialyser are worthy of note; not to
allow the folds to run to the apex, to avoid cracks, to moisten the
paper previously, but to leave the upper margin of the filter dry, so
that the inner fluid may not go over externally.

If it is intended to accelerate the digestive process, it is, as is
known, advantageous to remove as rapidly as possible the peptones
already formed from the solution.

__ The dialyser does this when one keeps the fluid bathing it. free

from peptones. ‘To render this as convenient as possible a Mariotte’s

flask, c, whose bottom contains three holes, is placed on the glass; one
hole near the centre, the other two near the periphery. Through

VOL. IX. 24

362 -DR KRONECKER.

one of the marginal holes a glass tube, a, 5 Ctm. wide, is passed water-
tight, so that it projects 2 Ctm. into the funnel between the glass wall
and the parchment filter. In the tube is a moveable tapered glass
rod which acts as a valve. The pointed end of the valve projects
below beyond the tube, so that it is supported by the wall of the
funnel as soon as the flask is placed on the diffusion-glass. An
ascending tube, 6, fills the second marginal hole and ends in an
obliquely ground opening 2 Ctm. below the bottom of the flask.

Fig. 2.

When the flask is filled with fluid and placed upon the diffusion-

funnel in such a way that the ascending tube remains as a valve —

outside the filter, then the contents run into the funnel and glass,

> a en

FER AE OF at las

DIGESTION-OVEN WITH A DIFFUSION APPARATUS. 365

until the opening of the ascending tube is closed by the level of
the fluid.

The fluid is then hindered from escaping by the valve-tube,
through the pressure of the outer air, which cannot equalise with that
contained in the flask, until the level is caused to fall, and permit
bubbles of air to rise through the ascending tube. Thus the level of
the fluid under the margin of the filter is kept constant at the series
of holes; through these holes the interchange of fluids outside and
inside the funnel in the glass is favoured. During the diffusion a
vigorous circulation takes place, in that the fluid within the funnel,
because of the absorbed peptones, is heavier than that outside, and
passes away by the lower opening of the funnel and permits more
dilute solution to enter by the series of holes. If it is desired to
renew completely the fluid outside the filter, one only requires to
empty the diffusate through the outflow tube f. It is filled with
dilute HCl from the Mariotte’s flask-system. A thermometer which
projects into the Mariotte’s flask permits of the temperature in the
digestion-chamber being regulated.

The method of obtaining pure albuminous bodies by dialysis as
practised specially by Alexander Schmidt and his scholars, made it
desirable to change the water outside the dialyser very often. For

' this purpose our apparatus is easily arranged. One has only to see

that the used supply of water in the Mariotte’s flask can at every
time be renewed. Remove the thermometer, cork up the hole in the
bottom of the flask, and place a funnel tightly into the neck of the
same, and close air-tight the tube of the funnel from above by a glass
rod covered with a piece of caoutchouce.

If the flask is empty and the level of the water somewhat fallen
in the diffusion-glass, raise the glass rod which acts as a stopper and
filter the former through the funnel in a few seconds. One has to
take care that the funnel for filling is closed, before the fluid in the
diffusion-funnel has risen so near to the margin of the filter, that it
is likely to pass over into the already diffused material.

24—2

ON A LARGE ORGANISED CYST IN THE SUB-DURAL
SPACE. By J. C. Ewart, M.B., late Junior Demonstrator of
Anatomy in-the University of Edinburgh, and now Curator of
the Museum, University College, London.

On removing the skull-cap of a male subject in the dissecting-
room of the University of Edinburgh, the dura mater of the left side
was seen to vary greatly in colour. The inner portion from half an
inch to an inch and a half in breadth, bounded by the superior
longitudinal sinus internally, and by a wavy line externally, was of a
pale and somewhat milky appearance. The outer portion, extending
from the wavy line as far as the cut margin of the bone, was dark
brown, mottled with green. On reflecting the dura mater towards
the right side it was found to be. quite normal in appearance, and the
dark colour to be due to a large cyst occupying the sub-dural space
extending along the whole length of the left cerebral hemisphere,
By raising the upper border of this cyst it was found to vary from a
quarter of an inch in its transverse diameter at the edges, to an inch
and a quarter in the centre, and the outer surface of the hemisphere
on which it was lying to be so compressed as to be concave antero-
posteriorly and from above downwards, and slightly displaced towards
the right side. There were no adhesions between the wall of the
cyst and the membranes under it, nor was there any appearance of
disease of the part of the cerebrum which had been thus compressed,
but the dura mater adhered slightly to the outer surface of the cyst
and required to be separated from it by the handle of the scalpel.
The cyst nearly occupied the whole length of the left side of the
cranial cavity, but did not extend into the base. A thin vascular
membrane extended from the margin as far as the superior longi-
tudinal sinus above and to the crista galli and over the greater part
of the tentorium cerebelli below. After removal it was found to be
oval in shape, about the size of a kidney, measuring seven and a half
inches anteroposteriorly, two and a half inches transversely at the
broadest part, and varying in thickness from four lines at the margin
to an inch and a quarter in the centre, The surface lying on the left
hemisphere was paler but more vascular than the one in contact with
the dura mater. The vessels radiated from a central plexus towards
the vascular membrane already mentioned, and passing through it
were connected with those of the dura mater, The walls were firm
and fibrous, and measured from two to three lines in thickness except
at the margins, where they were from four to six lines. The sac
contained a dark brown fluid in which were numerous soft fibrinous
masses resembling softened and broken down blood-clots. Adhering
to the inside of the sac was a thick fibrinous layer, firm externally,
but soft and friable towards the centre. :
On microscopic examination the fluid contents were found to be |
chiefly composed of blood-corpusecles lying amongst a large quantity —
of granular matter, The red corpuscles were shrunk and very

{

1 ——

eR

MR EWART. ORGANISED CYST IN THE SUB-DURAL SPACE, 365

irregular, and many of them seemed as if in the act of breaking down
into granules similar to those around them. The soft masses were
chiefly composed of fine fibrous bands forming a network, in the
spaces of which were blood-corpuscles and blood-crystals. Numerous
groups of blood-crystals were seen amongst the granular matter and
between the layers of connective tissue forming the wall of the cyst,
thus accounting for its dark colour. The soft layer lining the sac
only differed from the fluid contents in containing more fibrinous
matter and having scattered through it or aggregated together
numerous white blood-corpuscles, resembling in section a lymphatic
gland or a mass of adenoid tissue.

The proper wall of the sac was composed of fibrous tissue in
different stages of development. The inner layers were most vascu-
lar. Outside the vessels were numerous white blood-corpuscles, also
spindle and branched cells apparently derived from these corpuscles,
some of which were arranged in rows as if to form capillary blood-
vessels, External to this layer fine fibres were lying amongst the
cells, increasing in number as they approached the outer surface,
where well-marked bundles of connective tissue with numerous
nuclei around them, probably the nuclei of their cellular sheaths, were
visible. On teasing the most external layers of the sac a number of
fine elastic fibres were found between and around the bundles of
connective tissue, some of them connected with nuclei, thus support-
ing the view that elastic fibres are developed from the processes of
branched cells. The smallest vessels lying in the inner layers of the
wall of the sac were larger than ordinary capillaries, and had very
thin walls ; those in the outer layers were small and less numerous,
owing to the compression produced by the shrinking of the newly

_ formed fibrous tissue.

The vessels on the surface of the hemisphere lying under the cyst
were empty and contracted, those between its margin and the middle
line were distended and engorged with blood. On removing the
membranes a small portion of the cerebral substance about half-way
up the ascending frontal convolution was found softened. This
softening only extended about a quarter of an inch into the substance.
On slicing the brain no clots or softened parts were found, but the
left lateral and third ventricles seemed to project a little beyond the
middle line towards the right side.

I obtained the following history from the physician who had
charge of the case :—

J. H., wt. 64, bargeman, was admitted into hospital for the
treatment of a large abscess on the internal aspect of the left thigh.
The abscess was opened and in three weeks after admission was
nearly healed, and the general condition of the patient much im-
proved, when he suddenly became insensible and comatose, as if
suffering from compression of the brain, in which state he remained
for nearly three days, On the evening of the third day he died, but
for a short time before death he regained his consciousness. There
was no exciting cause for this attack, which came on suddenly while
he was lying quietly in bed. The patient had often been in hospital

306 MR EWART. :

before, suffering from cold and general debility, the effects of ex-
posure and intemperance, but there was no history of any special
disease, nor of any previous attacks in any way resembling the one

above described which so rapidly proved fatal. The only abnormal —

condition noticed by the physician was indistinctness of speech with
a tendency to “mouth” his words. From this history and the post-
mortem appearances it seems evident that death resulted from the
pressure produced by the cyst lying on the Jeft cerebral hemisphere.
But as the walls of the cyst were composed of well-developed fibrous
tissue it is also clear that it must have existed for some time previous
to the attack. The conclusion then is that at some period—months
or years—before the fatal attack a thin membrane was formed,
which increased gradually at first, but three days before death, by a
sudden extravasation of blood into its substance, caused compression
of the brain. This membrane may either have originated from blood
extravasated into the sub-dural space or from lymph effused, the
result of inflammatory changes not uncommon in the cerebral mem-
branes of drinkers. It may in the first place have originated from
exuded lymph which afterwards was organized into connective tissue,
the outer layers of which being most developed would by their
shrinking compress and strengthen the superficial vessels, while those
in the centre with thin dilatable walls lying amongst the soft organ-
izing cells would be liable to distension and rupture when the blood
pressure was increased. In this way small quantities of blood would
be extravasated into the membrane from the inner vessels, separating
the firmer layers of tissue on the surface from each other, and form-
ing them into the walls of the sac. As the extravasations increased
the sac would gradually become larger, and at the same time the
walls would also increase in thickness through the migrating /ewco-
cytes finding their way towards the periphery, and mingling with the
already formed spindle-cells gradually get converted into connective
tissue. While the sac continued to increase in this gradual manner
there would be no sudden compression of the brain, and hence there were
no marked symptoms nor any change except perhaps slight difficulty
in articulating words. This might’ have been due to the pressure on
the left frontal convolution, or to the want of teeth in the upper jaw.
That considerable displacement of the brain if done gradually is
possible without producing any symptoms is well known—the brain
having time to accommodate itself to the circumstances ; whereas,
when there is sudden compression, the symptoms are very decided and
unmistakeable. In this case, when three days before death the
patient became insensible and comatose, a larger amount of blood
than usual must have suddenly been poured into the eyst, leading to
sudden compression, the effects of which only for a short time dis-
appeared when the brain had so far recovered from the shock as
again to carry on to some extent its wonted functions.

If instead of being the result of inflammation the cyst originated
from blood extravasated from one of the meningeal arteries, the
formation of the walls would be almost identieal with that described
above, and with what takes place in an antiseptic blood-clot, In

<a

LARGE ORGANISED CYST IN THE SUB-DURAL SPACE. 367

a blood-clot there is nothing living and active but the white blood-
corpuscles ; it is thus a very low form of tissue, and under ordinary
circumstances very easily breaks down, but when treated antiseptically,
as Prof. Lister’s cases prove, instead of breaking down, the leucocytes,
though comparatively few in number, have not only sufficient vitality
to prevent the breaking down of the clot, but tend gradually to
become developed into connective tissue, which as it shrinks aids in
drawing the edges of the wound together. The red corpuscles partly
escape in the discharge and partly are absorbed, leaving in their
place crystals of blood-pigment. Besides the protection afforded by
the antiseptic dressing, a thin layer of young epithelial cells is after
some time found covering the exposed part of the clot. What here
takes place under the naked eye we may conceive to take place in a
clot lying on the surface of the brain. In this case the cranial bones
with their coverings, together with the dura mater, take the place of
the antiseptic dressing, and if there are no unfavourable conditions
present in the system of the patient, the white blood-corpuscles are
developed into a membrane, firm at the surface, but soft in the
centre. The outer firm layer, like the epithelium over a blood-clot,
becomes an extra source of protection for the less active red blood-

- corpuscles and fibrin within. In this case, as before, the occasional

rupture of the inner vessels would lead to the gradual increase: of
the cyst.

Taking the previous history and post-mortem appearances into
consideration, we must conclude that a cyst had occupied the sub-
dural space without producing any apparent symptom till three days
before death, when by its sudden increase in bulk the brain was so
compressed that it was unable to perform its usual functions. How
this cyst originated it is difficult to say. It may have been from
extravasated blood, or from inflammatory changes of the dura mater
leading to exudation of lymph which was afterwards organized into
connective tissue.

THE DECOMPOSITION OF UREA. By James Reocu,
M.A., M.B. Newcastle-upon-T'yne.

In the Lancet for Oct. 17, 1874, I described some experiments on
the alkaline fermentation of urine, which went to prove that urine
gradually decomposes from the moment of emission until it reaches
the point of alkalinity in about 10 days or more. From further
experiments, however, I am inclined to believe that these results are
true only of the height of summer, that being the time when the
former experiments were made. From about 100 urines which I
have followed towards and beyond alkalinity, I shall adduce evidence
to shew that the urea is changed into carbonate of ammonia by the
action of a fungus whose germs are contained in the atmosphere. This
fungus is developed much more quickly by heat, and therefore in
summer it commences its growth at once and completes it speedily,
while in winter it takes a much longer time to gather sufficient
strength to begin its work. The following is an example of a winter
urine kept in a tall glass jar.

Ist day + 16°3 48th day + 35 69th day — 160°3
8th ,, +18-0 55th ,, = — 12:3 76th ,, —437°5
27th ,, +117 58th ,, top — 94 83rd ,, —4525
34th ,, +17°7 bottom— 22°6 . 90th ,, —397:1
41st , + 5:0 62nd ,, — 198 97th ,, —350-0

My method of experimenting was to use small pieces of litmus
paper, which were stirred round in the urine by a glass rod. I had
two standard solutions, oue of sulphuric acid, and the other of soda
purified by alcohol. A weighed quantity of soda was dissolved in a
litre of water so as to make a standard solution of about 7—10 mgms,
per cc., and the H,SO, was diluted to correspond, or rather to be
somewhat stronger, say about twice this strength. I invariably
operated on 10 ce, of urine, and if 2 cc. of soda of strength 10 mgms,
to 1 cc. were required to neutralize the tint of the litmus paper, I
put it down as + 20, but if lee. of H,SO, of strength = 20 mgms,
soda in 1 ce. was required, I still expressed it as soda, but with
a minus sign, thus —20, All positives therefore are to be understood
as acid urines, and all negatives as alkaline, and the numbers are the
expressions of acidity or alkalinity in mgms. of soda per 10 cc. I
may also mention that I call the day when urine is voided, the first
day, although only an hour or two may elapse before it is examined.

The following urine was kept.in a tumbler during the winter,

as

ell SS << - _

MR REOCH. THE DECOMPOSITION OF UREA. 369

Ist day + 15-9 49th day top —19°8 65th day — 129-2
4th ,, +191 bottom — 19°8 72nd ,, —180°8
23rd ,, +22°9 51st ,, top —21°3 79th ,, —281°0
30th ,, +22°6 bottom — 19°4 86th ,, —190°4
37th ,, + 3°9 54th ,, top —33°8 93rd ,, — 93-1.
44th ,, — 66 bottom — 30°2 100th ,, — 468

59th ,, — 59-4 107th ,, — 27°5

The general results of my experiments are expressed in the above
instances, where in a tall urine-glass holding 60z. and exposing 1 sq. in.
of surface alkalinity is reached in about 15 days in summer, but in
winter in not less than 50 days, while in a tumbler urine may become
alkaline in 10 days in summer and in less than 40 in winter. I
believe these results are due to the different amount of surface ex-
posed to the development of the germs of the fungi, but would
merely observe here, that the form of vessel must always be taken into
account in experimenting on the fermentation of urine; for I shall
give an example of a urine kept in an uncovered basin, to shew the
absolute impossibility of obtaining accurate results without the most
minute attention to the conditions of the experiment.

Ist day + 15-9 34th day — 348°3

6th ,, + 4°6 4st ,, — 119-9
13th ,, + 4:2 48th ,, — 60-2
20th ,, — 16-5 55th ,, — 77-4
29th” 601 |

Now on comparing these three typical cases it will be observed that
in a basin urine quickly turns alkaline, and as quickly the alkalinity
increases and then diminishes, doubtless from the fact that not only
does it offer a large surface for the development of the fungus spores,
but also a large surface to carry away the CO, and NH, which are

roduced, while in a tall glass the urine remains long acid and then
still longer alkaline; in fact, I have urines which are still considerably
alkaline though kept without cover for nearly two years in these tall
glasses.

It will also have been observed that the amount of alkalinity is
by no means always the same at the top and bottom of a urine
decomposing in a tall glass or in a tumbler. From some urines
examined last autumn, I give the following as examples.

Top. Bottom.

I. 48thday | — 43:9 | - 57-7

Il. 47th , |— 11:1 | — 28:3| , A long and slender
III. 43rd ,, | — 107-7 | — 107-2 | Pipette or burette is

IV. 42nd ,, | —191-5 | — 250-8 | ed down to the bottom
V. 4ist ,, | — 844 | — 123-2 | of the urine and a suffi-
VI. 40th ,, | — 187-0 | — 220-9 | Clent quantity drawn up,
VII. 38th ,, | — 700|— 64-6 which may be examined
VIII. 37th ,, | -— 144:3 | — 249-4 | either as it is, or after.
IX. 36th ,, | — 141-2 | — 168-4 | filtration.

X. 35th ,, | — 115-9 | — 163-2

370 MR REOCH,

The first 6 of these cases are from tall glasses, and the last 4 from
tumblers, basins being obviously unsuitable for such experiments; but
I think they shew conclusively that in the great majority of cases
decomposition goes on much more actively at the bottom than at the
top of a normal urine. Of course carbonate of ammonia is a volatile
salt, and would tend to lose both its CO, and its NH, at the surface,
and would therefore in solution become naturally stronger at the
bottom than at the top, supposing it was originally of the same
strength throughout; but this is insufficient to explain the great
amount of the discrepancy, for direct experiments shew that the
diffusive power of carbonate of ammonia is very slight: thus a lump—
weighing 6°167 grms. being placed in a tumbler and 200 cc. H,O
added, it was found next day that nearly all had dissolved; but even
on the third day the difference between top and bottom was consider-
able; while after being stirred round on that day it presented only
slight differences from day to day between the top and bottom,

| Top. | Bottom. Top. Bottom.
Qnd day — 34:9 —560-0 || 7th day | — 124-4 | — 133-9
3rd ,, | — 35°83 | — 400-6 || 14th ,, | — 886 | — 96-4
stirred total | — 149-9 21st ,, | — 307 | — 303
4th ,, .| + 141-4 | —1433 |] 98th ,, | — 51
bth | 1405 | — 144-2 |

I shall attempt to shew afterwards that the true reason of this
is that the fungus spores are somewhat heavier than water, especially
when thoroughly wet, and they tend therefore to sink to the bottom
and continue their work there, though originally coming from the
atmosphere. But it must now be asked, what reason there is for sup-
posing it to be a fungus at all which causes the decomposition? and to
this I would first answer, that the cause, whatever it is, cannot be a
liquid body or a body in solution, for if a putrid urine be filtered and
the filtrate added to fresh urine no effect follows more than if so much
distilled water had been added, but if the precipitate be added to fresh
urine decomposition quickly follows. And here must be noted the
superior advantage of conducting these experiments in cold weather,
for at that time the urine normally requiring 40—50 days for decom-
position, it is easily seen that if it turns alkaline in 24 hours a power-
ful ferment has been added, while if no change follows for more than
a month it may be safely said that the reagent used has no effect
whatever. Now | have several times added filtrate from putrid urine
to fresh urine without any effect, and I have allowed the filtrate to
stand some time before adding it, and yet obtained no result. If there
be any exception to this rule it arises from imperfect filtration. In
the following case, for example, a tall jar containing urine more than
a year old was inverted, all that would flow out of it was received in
a filter and some fresh urine was divided into two parts, 4} oz, being .
put into the dirty jar, and 4} oz. into a clean jar to which 3 ce. of the
filtrate from the putrid urine were added.

THE DECOMPOSITION OF UREA. 371

Dirty Jar. | Clean Jar.

Ist day | + 189 | + 18-9
6th ,, 00 | + 184
25th , | — 67°77) + 145
32nd,, | —1278 | + 17:7
39th ,, | —2314 |] - 14
46th , | —2205|-— 47
53rd ,, | —314:9 | — 50-9
57th ,, | — 3414 | — 848
60th ,, | — 358-3 | — 133-9
67th ,, | — 337-7 | — 287°6
74th ,, out — 360-1

Again, 4 cc. of the filtrate after standing for 34 days were added to
9 oz. of urine in a basin with the following result:
Ist day + 15°9 26th day — 468
5th ,, + 14:1 33rd ,, — 268°7
12th , + 13:0 / 40th , — 93:3
18th ,, _ acid | ‘7th. -..43°3
19th ,, — 14:1 - + 54th ,, — 52-2
aa ita a

In this latter case the urine simply followed its usual course in
the basin, and it would therefore appear that the filtrate from putrid
urine not only does not cause decomposition itself, but cannot under-
go that change upon standing which would cause it to act as a fer-
ment when afterwards introduced into urine. But the same thing
is proved in another way. If urine be allowed to stand in a tumbler
it will gradually decompose, and a fungus similar to ordinary mould
will form upon its surface, while a precipitate is formed upon the
bottom, consisting largely of earthy phosphates, but containing also
fungus spores *, amorphous masses, and particles undergoing molecular
or Brunonian movements. It is a very simple matter to divide the
urine roughly then into the scum at the top, the fluid body, and the
grumous precipitate; and if these three be added separately to quanti-
ties of fresh urine it will be found that the middle or body of the
urine has very little effect; and I don’t believe that it would have any
if it were possible to prevent some of the precipitate from mixing
with it when poured out. Thus, a urine four months old having been
taken, the fungus at the top was washed in a gallon or two of water,
and added to one urine, 6 oz. of the middle part to another, and 6
drms. of the pp. to a third.

1 These spores are smaller than those on the surface perhaps from the
action ofthe salts of the urine contracting them by osmosis,

372 MR REOCH.

A. 20}0z. fresh urine {| B. 250z. +602. putrid.| C. 184 0z. +6drms.
+scum, putrid pp.
Day Day Day
¥ + 116] 1. mae A Vee + 67
2. Top s+ 67 52... Toptl — . 635.2, Top. = .28%
Bottom + 2°8 Bottom— 6°3 Bottom — 42-4
6. Top —-— 12:1] 6 Top — 339] 6 Top — 99-9
Bottom — 114:1 Bottom— 37:7 Bottom — 278:1
7. Top — 226] 7. Top .— 47:1) 7. Top -—1179
Bottom — 120-7 Bottom— 81:1 Bottom — 308-4
16. Top -— 2338 |17. Top -—1886|16. “Top -— 2962
Bottom — 369-6 Bottom — 224:4 Bottom — 398-7

From this experiment as well as from many others I conclude that
the precipitate from putrid urine is the most efficacious ferment to
fresh urine, and next to that the fungus and scum from the top, while
the middle, though constituting the great bulk of the urine, comes far
behind; and this very fact seems to shew that vibriones are not the
cause of this fermentation, for they exist most largely in the body of
putrid urine and on the surface, while it is the precipitate at the
bottom which acts most speedily. I believe that the cause of this is
that on the surface the fungus spores are matted together by the
development of much mycelium, while at the bottom they are more
numerous and much more free, and therefore able to act on a larger
scale. If urine be examined microscopically, it will be found that
these fungus spores invariably appear after a few days, and are much
more numerous at the bottom than at the top of the urine, because
they sink readily, but gradually they shrink up to a much smaller size.
Before proceeding more directly to this fungus, two causes of the
alkaline fermentation must be discussed, as they are the only two
which have been urged with force, the bacteria theory being merely
hypothetical. The first of these attributes the decomposition to
mucus, but in reply to this I would remark, from more than 50 cases, .
that however carefully urine may be filtered, it invariably undergoes
the alkaline fermentation at the usual period, and that if the same
urine be partly filtered and partly not there will be no difference in
the time of decomposition, or if there is, it is as likely to be the other
way as not. The other theory attributes the decomposition to nitro-
genous material fermenting. This expression is extremely vague, and
is met by the assertion that this material has by no means the power
which is ascribed to it, for I have added the most putrid nitrogenous
material to fresh urine, and always found it required nearly a week
to turn it alkaline, whereas the ferment from putrid urine itself in-
variably acted in Jess than 24 hours; and moreover, it was as likely
as not that the nitrogenous material contained some spores similar
to those which I believe are the real cause of the alkalinity of
urine. ‘To return to the fungus, If the mould from the top of putrid
urine be well washed, it will be found to present little else than fun-
gus spores when examined microscopically, but these are matted to-
gether, partly by mycelium which entangles earthy phosphates, and

+ cee

THE DECOMPOSITION OF UREA. 373

partly by a homogeneous material. When this mould is sown in fresh
urine it becomes an active ferment. The following example is
interesting for several reasons.

20 oz. URINE + WASHED Mou Lp.

Day. Top. | Bottom, || Day. Top. | Bottom. || Day. Top. | Bottom.
l. + acid acid 10. -— 17°9| —149°0 || 20. —215-0 | —320°6
2. acid | acid |} 11. — 37-7 | —151°8 || 22. —215°0 | —320°5
3. + 6:7) — 92:4//13. -— 44:3 | —163-1]| 29. — 247-0] —325-2
4, + 67)/— 86°6)/15. — 86:7 | —156°5|| 36. —191°0 | — 233-6
5. + 2°38} —105°6|) 16. —142-4 | —166°9 || 43. —160°1
6. + 2:5 | —126:3|| 17. —197-0 | —264°9|| 50. - 108-3
8. - 75 | -—137°6|/ 18. -—177-2 | —319°6|| 57. -— 63-9
9. —11:3 | —153°7| 19. -—209°3 | —344:1|| 62. - 46-4

In this case nothing could be clearer than that the cause of the
decomposition lay in the mould, although the latter had been well
washed, for the decomposition began at the bottom, and went on for
several days before the upper part of the urine lost its acidity, But
another curious fact must be noticed: the alkalinity remained nearly
stationary at the bottom after the first week. Suspecting that the
cause of this was due to the earthy phosphates precipitating them-
selves on the top of the mould and preventing its action, I stirred
the urine vigorously on the evening of the 15th day, and next day
there was of course a large increase of alkalinity at the top, but it
developed itself at the bottom each day thereafter in quite a remark-
able degree. Were this a solitary case nothing could be inferred from
it, but having several times obtained these results, and never any con-
tradictory, I infer that the atmospheric oxygen is not necessary for
the alkaline fermentation of urine outside the body any more than
inside the bladder, for I have often found urine becoming alkaline at
the bottom when certain ferments were added, while still acid at the
top; and moreover this action requires contact between the ferment
and the urea in the solution, for how otherwise can the cessation of
the process be explained when the fungus is covered up by the earthy
phosphates? and the same fact which shews that the fungus cannot
act through the phosphates shews also that the latter have no part in
the fermentation, which conclusion is confirmed by direct experiment.
It is quite possible that there may be subordinate causes for the alkaline
fermentation, but it appears to me that they are chiefly of use in de-
termining the greater or less rapidity of growth of the fungus, which
is the real agent. Thus soda, potash and ammonia have no influence
whatever unless added in quantity sufficient to make the urine alkaline,
and even then they act more by affording a nidus to the fungus than
by their own power; for true decomposition, as indicated by a great
increase of alkalinity, does not occur much before the usual time, but
when it has begun it goes on faster, especially if ammonia or its salts

374 MR REOCH.

be used. The following from a basin to which soda was added and a
jar in which carbonate of ammonia was placed may serve as examples
of these facts,

Basin 17 oz. urine. Jar 12 oz. urine.

+ 1-040 grms. Na HO + 1-680 grms. Amm., Carb.
2nd day— 2°03 6th day— 4°7
wth , - 38 8th ,, - 47
9th ,, — 26-0 16th ,, — 30-1
15th ,, — 588 27th ,, — 190-4,
20th ,, — 102-7 30th ,, —239°5
25th ,, — 1556 4Ist , —1161
30th ,,, —179-1 48th ,, -— 62:3
44th ,, — 44:3 69th ,, — 19°6
58th ,, — 43:8

There appears to be a considerable difference between the action
of H,S and (NH,),S, principally I believe owing to the large quantity
of alkali in the latter; and this illustrates very well a point which is
often forgotten, that a foetid smell has no connection with the alkaline
fermentation in the sense of cause and effect. Some imagine that
putrid matter of any kind, provided it be very fetid, will set up fer-
mentation, but I have several times added flesh that had been rotting
in water for more than a year, and yet the urine remained acid for a week
afterwards. Since the ferment from putrid urine invariably acts in
less than 24 hours, it is evident that the ferment from other nitro-
genous putrid matter is feeble by comparison, and probably depends
on some fungus spores being present. It appears that H,S instead
of hastening delays the decomposition considerably, probably owing
to its acid nature and its poisonous influence on low forms of animal
and vegetable life.

15} oz. urine had H,8 2123 oz, urine + 3j. Amm. Sulphide.
passed in all night. ’
Top. Bottom. Top. | Bottom.

4th day | +127 | +138 5th day | —- 466 — 489
llth , | + 78)+ 78 12th ,, - 336 | -— 341
18th ,, | + 92) + 95 19th ,, ~ 83:1 | -—195:°0
25th , | + 57 | + 53 26th ,, —227°5 | —415°7
32nd ,, | + 28) + 3°5 33rd _,, —250°8 | — 4155
39th ,, | + 25) + 28 40th ,, —225:-4 | — 3746
46th ,, | —140 | - 140 44th ,, | -206-2 | - 3489
53rd ,, | 23:2 | — 232

These two examples shew the difference which I have found to exist
between these two putrid substances, depending, as I think, on the
large quantity of alkali in the latter. According to my experiments
phosphate of lime has little effect on the alkaline fermentation
beyond probably that of forming a nidus like ammonia in which the

a

ks soe

5 PS A ies

THE DECOMPOSITION OF UREA. 375

real ferment may deyelop itself more quickly. Glucose has no effect
whatever, nor has yeast, either the ordinary fluid kind, or that which
is known as German yeast—for I have added them all to urine—and
yet the urines did not become alkaline in less than three weeks or a
month.

I have also mixed a large quantity of gamboge with urine because
its particles very readily undergo Brunonian movements: if therefore
the alkaline fermentation was caused by a molecular movement
among the particles of urea this might possibly hasten it, but the
result was negative, as indeed might be expected from the fact that
HS did not quicken decomposition, although the particles of sulphur
which it deposits undergo these movements very distinctly.

After having thoroughly satisfied myself by numerous experi-
ments that the solids of putrid urine, either as precipitate or as scum
on top, were the real cause of alkaline decomposition, I strove to
separate this fungus as much as possible from extraneous matter, and
then sowing it in urine and in solutions of pure urea observe the result.
Some urea being thoroughly dried, weighed, and then dissolved in water
so as to make a 2 per cent, solution, was titrated with a solution of

: 171 mgms.+ 9°3 cc, H,O ; 715.
nitrate of mercury, 995 - +10:3 cc. H.O required 99.9 nitrate
solution. The urea being thus shewn to be sufficiently pure the
following experiments were performed. Into 8 bottles some weighed
urea was put and enough water added, to make a 2 per cent. solution,
then into the first three a weighed quantity of dried fungus was put,
into no. 4 6 drops of ordinary yeast, into no, 5 12 drops of yeast, and
into the rest the residue of a putrid urine which had dried in the
air after the most of the liquid had been poured off, though in the last
bottle the putrid residue was somewhat liquid. The following table
gives these experiments.

376 MR REOCH.

=
~~ 4 a. aS oe Ce wa ih
a an KO Se SLI ee
> iphbe acon: Lagtostnebt
oD Pt. a my. na PS ce
set DR Om
os onowrr
HOC SO oooceo
oS H19 aA

q o

3 5

eS 2

nm 3

n

o

—_—

= 2

2 g
nm 2 —
Ep ey =

oa 3
| a yd 2

a & “mM

a A re
2 ae E
ey ies ee a ee ao)
iit Spa we 3
3 mp =¥
= Bd = A mM
sot if P *s 8 5
Ne a aa lagers 4
ANBDON | 5 Osc.
aaa as gSgq
te te ee ae hk
©
Hosanna p
5 > 19 16
21> > W219
G19 63 co oo ts
AHANENOWM AwHO
RAS See (on BA oe |
$tt ttt +t+s
=]
ey)
R 1919
INOMmMOMDA DON
AiO H19 9 OD WHOS
AAHMOANMHD NADA

1
2
3
+
5
6
/£-
8.
9.
10.

Now since urea = UN,H,O = 60 it is evident that if urea becomes
carbonate of ammonia by assuming two molecules of water, CN,H,O +
2 H,O =(NH,),CO,, it is evident that as much dilute sulphuric acid
will be required for neutralization as if every 60 parts of urea con-
tained 17 x2 of ammonia; but it is much easier to equate the
sulphuric acid with soda NaHO = NH_HO and NaHO = 40 ; it fol-
lows that if all the urea be decomposed into carbonate of ammonia
and nothing else, 60 parts of urea will equal 80 of soda, and therefore
every milligram of urea when decomposed will require as much H,SO,
solution as corresponds to 1} mgm, of soda, Bearing this in mind we

—_ Se

—

THE DECOMPOSITION OF UREA. 377

can understand the results in the last column of the above experi-
ments, where the dried fungus, acting for 13 days, effected a variable
amount of decomposition of the urea: the yeast had no effect, and in
no. 4, where 256 mgms. urea were used, 23 cc. nitrate of mercury solution
gave no yellow with solution of carbonate of soda, 25 cc. gave a tran-
sient yellow, and 25-6 the ordinary yellow indicating excess of the
nitrate. In the last 5 cases the decomposition was complete, and
even more H,SO, was used than theory required, because of the

”
’
”
”
~ 99
”

Ce ee .O.. O-. all
a a ce wer see ~

,, and gave 24 mgms. dried pp.
”
”
”
”
”
”

os ee et a oe, ae

”
”
”
”
”

’
”

5 sulph. acid,

’
”
”
”
’
?
99

”
”
?

5)
os)
5

Lee gnats is sh “ied peer

a ae. ee ok eh oe

1. 100 mgms. urea + 5ece. H,O + 323 mgms. fungus req. 1°3
+ 30
+37
+ 45
+ 36

Sos th
VOL. IX.

ho
u

-

378 5 MR REOCH.

alkalinity of the putrid precipitate, which however could not have
increased the result by more than 5—10 per cent., because only a
small quantity was added. These results indicating that the urea is
completely decomposed into an ammoniacal salt, it was desirable to

-inquire whether the fungus increased in weight; for it is evident that

2. 30 mgms. fungus calc. at 40 per cent. = 12 mgs., but obtained 24 mgm
3 37 ,, ” ” =148 ,, ” 24 5,
4, 45 ,, ” ” =18 ” ” 22 55
h, 36 ,, ” ” = 144 ,, ” ee
6, 7 ” ” ” = 2.8 ” 9 85 ”?
7. 73 ” ” ” = 29:2 ” ” 21 ”
8 29 ” ” ” = 116 ” ” 18 ”

some of the carbon might possibly be fixed in the process, and thus
carbonate of ammonia might not be the only result. As the fungus
did not appear to stand drying very well, I pressed it between fol.!s
of blotting paper, and estimated, by drying two specimens in the
water-bath, that they contained from 40—46 per cent. of solid matter.
The solutions after standing for 12 days behind a stove were titrated
with sulphuric acid, and a drop of tincture of litmus, and then the
fungus was received on a weighed filter and dried in the water-bath.

Now each ce. of sulph. acid corresponds to 114 mgms. of soda, and
calculating the fungus which was added at 40 per cent. of its weight,
we read the above table thus :

1. 100 mgms. urea = 133-3 mgms. soda, but 15-2 found
2. 9, ” = 132 ” ” 1231,
B75, oe ee ee 1202,
4. 87 5, bx ze 116 ” ” 908 ,,
8 10S! ee i4be
6. 63 ,, ie Bro 84 ” ” 902,
To Ake a ee 1382,
8 Yl ote Bs 1903 ,,

In the majority of these cases the urea was completely decomposed,
the slight excess of alkali obtained being due to the alkalinity of the
fungus, as I shall afterwards explain, but in the first two there was
lexs decomposition because the tungi, after being weighed, had been
dvied to a considerable extent in the water-bath before immersion.
The results of the experiment as regards increased weight of the
fungi were less complete, owing mainly to the hypothetical deduction
I was compelled to make from not being able to dry them completely

before use.

The great majority of these shew an increase of small extent, but
still a pereeptible increase ; yet as one shewed a considerable decrease
which could not possibly have taken place, it was plain that the
method was defective, aud as one of those fungi which I had dried in
the water-bath had acted pretty well, I made four experiments with
fungi thoroughly dried before use.

sh iis ieee

j
4

‘
3

THE DECOMPOSITION OF UREA. 379

‘1. 12 mgms, fungus+10 ce. of soln. urea (2 per cent.)
2. 14 ” ” 10 ” ” ”
3, 10 ” ” 10 ” 3? ”
4, 18 2 ” 10:1 ” ” ”

These were left behind the stove for twelve days and then ex-
amined, but each of them proved a complete failure, a drop or two of
sulphuric acid being sufiicient to acidify the litmus. It was evident
therefore that though the fungi might act after being put into the water-
bath, yet when kept there for three or four hours till thoroughly dry
their efficacy is destroyed. The only method open therefore was to
repeat my former experiments, drying the fungus as carefully as
possible between folds of blotting-paper until it appeared as thoroughly
dry as this plan could leave it. The following experiments therefore
were performed,

ce, sol. urea + 345 mgms. fungus req. 12°15 cc. H,SO,, and gave 21 mgms. fungus
23

oat a RS 7) ” do tabee isd ” ” ”
gh ypriies © PAB gy ” meth Ad ” R2. » ”
wis yp al ” ” ee) +: BE 0s ”
6 ab! ot 29 ” ” il MD St ae y Sea ”
i) eee oo 8 ” ” Pee © is Hare ” 26 45 ”
PW £4511) 359 FRB ny ” yok SD tgp. c-05 90 2 ” ”
| Of pe cise) PLB yy ” aig POCO Scgeisisiap A ees ”

These results were obtained after the bottles had been left behind
the stove for seven days: as each ce. of the sulph. acid solution was
equal to 22'1 mgms, soda, 10 cc. of a 2 per cent. solution of urea
ought to have required 1271 cc. H,SO,, which was very nearly what
they all required, but in nos. 7 and 8 a rather less amount was
needed, because there was not room enough behind the stove to
arrange all the bottles in line, they therefore stood a little further off
than the others; and this is what I have always found, that the
fungus was the more active the greater the heat to which it was
| exposed, unless the heat was near the boiling point. When 58 and
69 mgms. of the fungus such as was used in the above experiments
were dried-in the water-bath they became 31 and 35 respectively, and
after long drying lost rather more than 1 mgm. between them, We
may therefore consider 58 +69 becomes 31+35-1, that is 100
_ megms. of fungus became 51 mgms. when dried. Calculating the
_ undried fungi therefore at 51 per cent. the above table becomes

1, 344 mgms. fungus = 17-6 dried, but obtained 21, increase 3-4
BLAG- >: 4 6sKiti FR oR Oe ye 23 0-0
3.44 ,, » =224 ,, a 32 9°6
£41 5; 5 is) SD ote * 26 5:1
5.-29 ,, 9:0 HEB ee - 17 2-2
«6 38 ” p im IOS Sy ” 26 6-6
Ye ii ROE 4 pe 21 . 26
gS: ae ot eae ks oe i 11 33
25—2

380 MR REOCH.

The great majority of these cases shew an increase, but as it was
impossible to free the filter from the sulphate of ammonia without
washing so freely as to carry away some part of the precipitate
which might have been soluble, the point must still remain doubtful ;
but it is perfectly evident that the increase of the fungus, if it takes
place at all, is only trifling, and utterly out of proportion to the
quantity of urea which it causes to become carbonate of ammonia.

We must now inquire into the chemistry of urea itself, to see if it
will help us in explaining its decomposition by the fungus. The
formula of urea is CN,H,O, and it is isomeric with cyanate of
ammonia, but its rational formula is still unknown, Some have
regarded it as identical with carbamide, but this is quite uncertain. I
wish, however, particularly toinsist upon the fact that it is quite different
from cyanate of ammonia, and does not behave like an ammoniacal salt
at all, because though no one asserts that it does, yet many chemists
scem to imagine that its decomposition into carbonate of ammonia is
a very simple matter. They say a molecule of urea simply assumes
two molecules of water and becomes carbonate of ammonia, and if you
ask for an explanation of the process, you are informed it is diastatic
or catalytic; but this explanation is merely verbal. I shall give two
reasons why urea is not to be regarded as a salt of ammonia, because 1
shall have to refer to them afterwards. First, it gives no precipitate in
the cold with Nessler’s reagent, whereas ammonia and all its ordinary
salts give a dense pp. Secondly, it gives no murexide coloration with
a mixture of alloxan and alloxantin, whereas all the ordinary salts of
ammonia do so, If, therefore, powerful chemical reagents which can
act on ammonia in presence of such a comparatively strong acid as
phosphoric acid will not reveal the presence of ammonia in urea,
how can its decomposition be regarded as a simple matter?

The fact is, solution of urea will remain unaltered for an indefinite
period. I have boiled it and evaporated it to dryness in the water-
bath, and yet it gave no trace of ammonia whatever. It is commonly
said that heating it with alkalies in solution changes it into CO, and
NH,, but if by this is meant that it is caused to assume H,O and
become carbonate of ammonia, it is an entire mistake. I have re-
peated the following experiment several times: 5 cc. of a standard
solution of caustic soda were evaporated in the water-bath with some
urea and the residue dissolved in 5 ec. H,O; no ammonia was recog-
nizable by Nessler’s test if it had been. thoroughly dvied, and the
solution was found to be not caustic soda but carbonate of soda, The
following therefore is the true reaction, since the action of KHO is
the same: CN,H,O+2KHO=K,CO,+2NH,. This however does _
not take place ‘when ammonia is used instead of KHO or NaH.’
I have already said that the formation of murexide is a very delicate
test for distinguishing carbonate of ammonia from urea, and when I
evaporate some urea with liq. ammon, fort, in the water-bath I get
urea only, and no trace of carbonate of ammonia, It is evident
therefore that the formation of the latter salt by the fungus cannot
be explained by supposing a slight formation of NH,, that taking CO,
from urea and water, and liberating as much NH, to go on in con-

a

ee Ae a

-

eer =

ER

apa RIT

a

THE DECOMPOSITION OF UREA. 38L

tinuous action. Inasmuch however as KHO or NaHO when boiled
with solution of urea gives rise to ammonia and carbonate of the alkali,
it is evident that CO, and NH, are potentially though not actually
present in urea. And here I may observe that Nessler’s reagent does
not give such a large precipitate as might be expected, for the carbo-
nates exert a peculiar action upon it. If four test-tubes be taken and
solution of the carbonates and bicarbonates of soda and potash poured
into them, and then the same quantity of very dilute ammonia added
to each, it will be found that with the bicarbonates no pp. at all is
obtained by Nessler’s reagent, even on boiling; with carbonate of soda
it does not come down till it is boiled, and though it comes down in
the cold with carbonate of KHO, yet it doos not seem to act so
thoroughly as in the case of distilled water.

Another supposition which might be put forward by some to
explain the decomposition of urea by the fungus, is that the latter
being composed of spores which consist of a cell-wall and very fluid
contents, there might be a continual endosmose and exosmose, in the
course of which the urea was changed. We know that osmosis has
been explained by a hydration and dehydration of the membraue of
the septum, and it might therefore happen that in the course of such
an action the urea was united with water. To test this ] put some
solution of urea in two experiments into a piece of bladder, whose
outside was placed in distilled water. After remaining 24 hours
each side gave a copious pp. with nitrate of Hg, indicating that urea
had passed copiously through ; but no trace of NH, was observed in
either. I conclude, therefore, that this will not explain matters.
It appears to me, however, that there is one very simple and satis-
factory explanation of the decomposition, if only it be the true one.
I suppose that the fungus develops ozone or nascent oxygen, and
that in urea ON,H,O ‘the CO is picked out, the C fixed by the
fungus, and the O given off. What would happen ? CN,H,O+0
+2H,O=(NH,),CO,+ 0. In other words, the oxygen forms CO,
and the amidogen seizes H, from water, liberating O to go on as
before. Thus with a minute point of C fixed by the fungus there
would be given off a minute portion of oxygen sufficient theoretically
to decompose any amount of urea. Practically of course a larger
quantity would be required than what would suffice in theory, just
as in the sulphuric acid and etherification processes the theoretical
quantity of reagent acting continuously is always exceeded. But this
theory must have a better foundation than mere plausibility, and I
have therefore made many experimeuts to ascertain if ozone is given
off in any part of the process of decomposition. Thus six bottles
being tuken, 5 ce. of a 2 per cent. solution of urea and some fungus
were pak into each, along with 2 drops of starch solution and 3 ce.
up to 2 ce, of a solution of KI, consisting of 879 mgms. to 10 ce. H,O.
No result appeared for two days, but it is well known that iodide of
starch is soluble in alkalies, and therefore Fresenius recommends the
addition of dilute H,SO, Accordingly, to the second bottle I added
tee. of H,SO, ofa strength 1 ce, = 22°1 mgms. soda, without any result ;

to the third, Fee, with immediate production of iodide of starch, which

382 MR REOCH,

dissolved again in a short time ; to the fourth, 3 cc., and to the fifth,
lec., with production of intense blue. Two days afterwards the blue

had disappeared from the fourth bottle and -had nearly gone from the

fifth, but on adding 2cc. H,SO, to each of these bottles the colour
came out well, as also in the third bottle; but when nos. 1 and 6
had H,SO, added to them there was no result whatever. Nor could I
afterwards obtain any result from them at all. These results are ano-
malous, but as far as they go they tend to shew the production of
ozone or nascent oxygen. The fungus may act on the starch as well
.as the urea, and the reactions of iodide of starch to complex organic
bodies are by no means thoroughly understood. Thus sulphurous acid
destroys it entirely, and alcohol greatly; and as it is impossible to
know what becomes of it in the course of the decomposition of urea,
seeing that carbonate of ammonia is produced in which the iodide
is abundantly soluble, it appears to me that a few positive examples
in which it has been found outweigh others in which it has not been

found. I have performed other experiments, but though I obtained -

the. blue in some cases, in others I was unsuccessful. My experiments
when there was no urea with the fungus, but only water, starch and
KI, were all unsuccessful, for in none of these cases was the blue
iodide of starch produced even on adding dilute H,SO, We may,
therefore, infer that in the decomposition of urea it is not the water
which is first decomposed by the fungus, but the urea itself.

I made some observations to find if this process of decomposition
in the urine itself was attended with any increase or absorption of
heat, but with a result which as yet is negative. The comparative
thermometry of the urine is by no means easy. The temperature of
the air is always changing, and the urine following that change
exhibits the temperature not of the air as it is at any moment, but
that which it had an hour or two before, the specific heat of a mass
of fluid being very considerable. ‘The quantity of urine therefore,
as well as the vessels containing it, must be exactly similar, and the
most minute precautions be attended to, for I have found the tempera-
ture of the top and bottom of the same urine at the same time to
differ by more than 1°C. After observing a healthy and a decompos-
ing urine for a week the vessels are cleaned out and a fresh healthy
urine put into the vessel which formerly held the decomposing urine,
and vice versa, ‘To get rid of any difficulty from the thermometers
being unequal they should be reversed from day to day. After some
experiments conducted with the above precautions, I think it beyond
doubt that the difference in temperature between a healthy and a
putrefying urine does not amount to }th of 1°C. Whether there is
any difference at all I believe can scarcely. be made out by the
ordinary thermometer, but at any rate it is very slight. As to the
constitution of the fungus itself it is very difficult to pass an opimon,
from the difficulty of obtaining it free from extraneous matter. A
large surface is required to develop a large quantity, but the liability
to contamination with dirt is much increased, In the urine the

triple phosphate clings to it with remarkable tenacity; its crystals —
become imbedded in the masses of mycelia and spores, so that how- —

i

ee a
napa !, ,

Oo meomeeny

THE DECOMPOSITION OF UREA. 383

ever long the fungus is washed it retains them in considerable
quantity. After drying the fungus in the water-bath they appear as
white spots upon it, and if the fungus be burnt with soda-lime in a
combustion tube they make it appear to contain a considerable
quantity of nitrogen ; but that the fungus itself contains no nitrogen
is evident, because while liq. potass, evolves ammonia from it, how-
ever often it has previously been boiled in water, yet if boiled in very
dilute HCL no ammonia is obtained on subsequent boiling with liq.
potass., and yet the spores appear unchanged when examined micro-
scopically after treatment with dilute HCL. Further, that the N H, is
wholly due to the triple phos. and not to urate of NH, is proved, in
that evaporation with HNO, and further treatment with K HO gives
no trace of murexide. They consist, therefore, of carbon united with
hydrogen and oxygen, but how far they are allied to other species of
moulds is a very difficult question in the present imperfect state of our
knowledge on the whole subject. I have sown the green mould
scraped from an old pair of boots in urine, It lay at the bottom for
some days and then the urine decomposed from below upwards,
Top. Bottom.
2ist day + 70 -—416:2
28th ,, —134:0 —604-4
33rd ,, —465°2 -—4571°3
39th ,, -—558°7 -—575°9

In this case the urine was “urina sanguinis,” and therefore very
acid and loaded with urea; perhaps this may account for the delay
in commencing action, but it certainly appears as if the mould were
the cause when the alkalinity was so great at the bottom while it was
still acid at the top. In another case I sowed the mould scraped
from the leather thong of a whip and from the surface of the dried
excrements of a cat. In this case many of the spores were different
from the usual shape, and decomposition was extremely rapid.

Top. Bottom.
5th day + acid —175-7
10th ,, — 475 —306-1
12th ,, -— 86:2 —285°7
16th ,, —265°2 -— 331-5

In other cases I have sown mould from carrots and baskets, &c.,
but I have not in all cases obtained the same results. It appears to
me that in many cases the white mould is composed almost entirely
of mycelium and the green almost wholly of spores. Now the my-
celium never seems to act in decomposing urine, and therefore the
spores alone ought to be added. Further, it is just possible that
there may be great difficulties in the growth of the fungus in the
acid urine, as I have invariably found that the progress towards
alkalinity was very much slower than the progress afterwards in the
full development of the alkalinity already established. If the acidity
of urine be regarded as 1, its full alkalinity when all the urea is
decomposed is considerably above 20, but it seldom takes more than

384 | -MR REOCH.

twice or thrice the time in undergoing this last process that it took
to undergo the first. In all cases, however, the decomposition is
progressive, and they greatly err who imagine that all at once the
urea begins to turn into an ammoniacal salt, and that the whole of
it turns all at once like a precipitate forming on the addition of a
reagent. Not only is the decomposition always progressive, but even
in the most favourable cases in a vessel it takes about a week to
effect it thoroughly. I don’t speak of cases where the urine is
continually subject to agitation and consequent renewal of fresh
particles exposed to the decomposing influence, but of cases where
the urine is left at rest in a jar. When a large quantity of the
grumous precipitate from putrid urine is added to fresh urine, it
always turns alkaline in less than 24 hours, but the urea is never
completely decomposed under a week, as the following case, among
many others, will clearly shew:

16 oz. urine +11 drms. putrid pp.
Top. Bottom.

2nd day— 39°6 — 108-4

4th ,, — 73:5. - 312-1

7th ,, —154:6 — 389-4

13th ,, —241:3 — 448-8
16th ,, —283-9 —461-9
23rd ,, —263:-4 -—441°5
30th ,, —261:7 —370-7
37th ,, —256-5 —340:8
44th ,, —178:0 —280°9
5lst ,, —170°2 —227°6

In this case though there was a much larger quantity of alkali
developed by the second day than the urine originally had of acid,
yet the alkali increased pretty fast for some time, and then more
slowly, as if it formed at first when in small quantity a stimulus to
its own development, but when more largely developed a hindrance.
I have already mentioned the influence which the form of the vessel
in which the urine is placed has upon the development of ammonia,
and I may here give an example of the length of time in which it will
remain in a vessel of the decanter shape with a pasteboard cover
simply to protect it from dust,

Top. Bottom,
Istday + 13 + 13
Sth ,, — 104 — 10-4
10th ,, — 64:1 — 924
15th ,, —1480 —243°2
18th ,, ~—2168 —260-2
26th ,, —2941 —2922
57th ,, —209-0
78th ,, —154°7
84th ,, ~—136°6

eee Oe Se ee eee
.

6-3 at

THE DECOMPOSITION OF UREA. 385

In this case some putrid urine was added. I have not given all
the figures, for it was examined more than thirty times ; but between
the 18th and 57th days both top and bottom gave 200 and odd
mgms. of alkali without a single exception, shewing no variation to
speak of for fully 40 days. The important question of how urea is
decomposed within the body I must leave untouched, because I have
made no experiments on the subject, but if the facts which I have
described throw some insight into the probable nature of those
processes which go on in the paralyzed bladder, they will not have
been without some service.

NOTES ON THE PRESENCE OF TWO PRECAVAL
VEINS IN A DOG. By Magnus R. Simpson, Student of
Medicine, University of Edinburgh.

In the dog, as in the human subject, the blood from the head, neck,
and pectoral limbs is normally returned to the right auricle of the
heart by a single precaval vein, formed by the junction of the right
and leit innominate veins.

In man, as is well known, owing to the persistence of the left
duct of Cuvier of the embryo, two superior, or precaval, veins
are occasionally met with. A few months ago, whilst dissecting
a young puppy, which had been drowned, so that the veins were all
gorged with blood, I found, on raising the sternum, and removing the
thymus gland, two distinct precaval veins, each formed by the
junction of the jugular and subclavian veins of its own side, so that ~
there was no left innominate. The right vena cava ran its natural
course by the side of the innominate artery to open into the right
auricle, being joined shortly before doing so by the vena azygos
major. The left vena cava lay at first over and almost parallel to
the thoracic portion of the left subclavian artery, then gradually
crossing it, passed backwards over the root of the left lung, and
reached the dorsal surface of the heart, where it opened into the
coronary sinus, which was of considerable size. A small vertebral
vein opened into it close to its origin, and nearer the heart it was
joined by a small superior intercostal vein. In this specimen, as in
the abnormal disposition of the great veins occasionally occurring in
man, the presence of a left precaval vein was due to the persistence
of the left duct of Cuvier.

NOTICES OF BOOKS.

Lecons sur la Physiologie et ? Anatomie Comparée. By H. Minne
Epwarps. Vol. x. 2nd part, and Vol. x1. lst part. Paris, 1874.

Proressor Milne Edwards has ‘published, during the past year, two
additional parts of liis great work on Comparative Anatomy and
Physiology. In the 2nd part of his 10th volume he descrises the
locomotory apparatus, and in the Ist part of the 11th volume he
treats of locomotion, and commences the description of the nervous
system.

Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden Embryologie der Wirbelihiere. By
Dr 8. L. Scuenxk. Vienna, 1874.

Proressor Schenk’s treatise on the Comparative Embryology of the
Vertebrata, though extending to no more than 198 octavo pages,
gives a clear and interesting account of the series of complicated
changes, which, taking place in the fertilized vertebrate ovum, result
in the production of various forms of vertebrate structure. The
book is not a mere compilation, but embodies a considerable amount
of original work. More especially may we uotice the numerous
excellent woodcuts, which have a softness not usually met with in
illustrated German works on Anatomy, and large numbers of which
are for the first time published. We can recommend the work as a
most useful compendium of the subject.

An Introduction to Human Anatomy, including the Anatomy of the
Tissues, Part I. By Wm. Turner, M.B., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, 1875.

As stated in the Preface this Introduction to Human Anatomy
was prepared as the article “Anatomy” for the ninth edition of the
Encyclopedia Britannica. It has no pretence to be an exhaustive
treatise, and the object the author had in view, when writing, was to
give an exposition of the principles on which the human body is
constructed, rather than to put befure the reader a detailed descrip-
tion of the several organs. Part I. contains an account of the
Organs of Locomotion, of the Simple Tissues, of the Nervous System,
and of the Organs of Sense, It is illustrated by 114 woodcuts, most
of which are original,

LE TL DN NEES

NOTICES OF BOOKS. 387

Studien iiber die Verknicherung und die Knochen des Schddels. By
Dr A. J. Vrourk. Haarlem and Leipzig, 1873.

Tue third part of the Niederldndisches Archiv fiir Zoologie, June,
1873, edited by Prof. Selenka of Leiden, consists of a series of papers
by Dr A. J. Vrolik on the bones of the skull. In the first of these
papers the author discusses the names which have been given to the
bones of the skull in the osseous fishes by different authors, and
compiles a useful table of synonyms, In the second and third papers
he describes the skull in several Physostoma and Gadidwe, with
especial reference to the pro-otic, epiotic and opisthotic elements of
Huxley, and concludes that these are not to be regarded as integral
parts of the cranium. In the last paper he describes the ossification
of the temporal bone in man and several other mammals. He finds
four points of ossification in the human petrous bone and two in the
mastoid part, but in no other mammal has he seen the same number.
He considers that it is not yet proved that in mammalia generally
the number of ossific centres in the petro-mastoid cartilage is constant,
and that consequently it cannot definitely be said whether they have,
or have not, a constant type of arrangement. We join with Prof.
Selenka in an expression of regret at the early death of this promising
young anatomist.

The Mind of Man. By Aurrep Smeg, F.R.S. 8vo, George Bell
and Sons, London. 1875.

THis is a natural system of Mental Philosophy, comprising, as
stated in the preface, either in detail or in principles, nearly every-
thing which the author has ever written on the subject. It traces
the ideas from simple impressions derived through the senses, and
goes on to the elucidation of the more complex mental phenomena,
including the subjects of religious thought, faith, mental fallacies, the
voltaic mechanism of the nervous system, and concludes with the
relation of man to the universe and the Author of all things.

Unsere Kérperform und das physiologische Problem ihrer Enstehung.
Von Witnetm His. 8yvo. F.C. W. Vogel, Leipzig, 1875.

Tus is in the form of a letter to a naturalist friend. It gives a
general, rather than a detailed, account of embryology, comprising

the views of the author, and enters into the bearing of the subject

upon the great questions of evolution, heridity, adaptation, &c. It
is, as might be expected from the reputation of the author, an able

and interesting treatise.

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY’,
By Prof.'Turner and D, J. Cunnineuam, M.B., C.M.

Ossrous System.—Henry E. Clark notes (Glasgow Med. Journ.
July, 1874) acase of Cervicat Riss. On the right side were 12 ribs,
11 dorsal, and one cervical which was narrow and round. On the left
side 12 dorsal ribs with a rudimentary rib attached to the last cervi-
cal vertebra. R. Hensel makes some comparative observations on
the OssA INTERPARIETALIA of the human skull (Reichert u. du Bors
Reymond’s Archiv, 1874, No. v.). A. Heuberger, a pupil of Kolli-
ker’s, writes an inaugural dissertation on the NoRMAL ABSORPTION
AND IntTerstiT1AL GrowtH or Osseous Tissue (Wiirzburg Verhandl.
1874). His observations are made with especial reference to the
arrangement and use of the osteoklast cells described by Kolliker
(Reports, May and November, 1872 and May, 1874), and to the anta-
gonistic observations of Strelzoff. Heuberger confirms Kolliker’s
views. Julius Wolff (Virchow’s Archiv, uxt. 417) also discusses
the GrowrH or Bone with reference to the observations of Kélliker
and the other anatomists who have recently written on this subject.
Z. J. Strelzoff replies in Archiv fiir Mikrosk. Anat. Nov. 1874, to
Kolliker’s criticism on his Observations on the growth of bone.
Ranvier (Arch: de Phys. Janvier, Fevrier, 1875) contributes a short
paper upon Preparations oF Osseous ‘lissuE with ANILINE BLuE
INSOLUBLE IN WATER AND SOLUBLE IN ALcoHOL. He first describes
the method he has adopted in preparing the bone. A portion of the
diaphysis of a long bone is removed from the body and immediately
immersed in water, In this it is allowed to lie for a year or more,
and during this time the water of maceration must be frequently
changed. It is important that it should at once be placed in the
water, because if it be allowed to remain exposed to the air for a
short time the moisture of the osseous tissue will evaporate and its
place will then be taken by the grease contained in the medullary
canal and large Haversian canals. When this grease gets access into
the canals and substance of the bone, it is impossible to get rid of it.
After the maceration is completed, sections are made with a saw, and
then ground down and polished to a proper fineness, During the
polishing, a thick paste is formed by the dust of the bone mixed with
particles separated from the stone. This paste is applied to the
surface of the section and penetrates the canaliculi for a short distance,
and to get rid of it the section must be scraped with a scalpel on both
surfaces, The section thus prepared is placed in an alcoholic solution
of aniline blue concentrated by heat, It is left in this for two hours,
and then it is thoroughly dried by evaporation in a vapour-bath,

? To assist in preparing the Report Professor Turner will be glad to receive
separate copies of original memoirs and other contributions to Anatomy,

2

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 389

- The section is then ground upon its two surfaces upon a hone

moistened by a 2 p.c. solution of chloride of sodium, washed in the
solution, and mounted as a permanent preparation in a mixture of
glycerine and a solution of salt in equal parts. In addition to the
ordinary appearances presented by transverse sections of bone, these
preparations demonstrate three facts which are not recognizable in
the usual preparations of osseous tissue. First, amongst the corpus-
cles comprised in the Haversian systems some are represented by a
simple chink the breadth of which does not much exceed that of a
primitive canaliculus. To these thin corpuscles Ranvier has given
the name of ‘Confluents lacunaires” of bone, and he considers that
they represent corpuscles in the process of atrophy. The second
fact relates to the most peripheral canaliculi of a Haversian system.
These proceed on towards the circumference of the system in a straiglt
line, and appear as if they were on their way to anastomose with cana-
liculi in neighbouring Haversian systems or intermediary systems ;
but on reaching the limit of the system to which they belong, they
bend back upon themselves, and after a short course anastomose with
canaliculi belonging to their own system, Ranvier has called these
canaliculi “canalicules réeurrents,” and he states that they form a very
elegant border to the circumference of the Haversian system. The
third fact relates to the distribution of the corpuscles and canaliculi
in the islands of osseous tissue which lie between the Haversian
systems. In these islands may be observed circles the diameter of
which is very variable, aud which correspond to the fibres of Sharpey
cut transversely, Wenzel Gruber publishes (J/ém. de ? Acad, Imp.
de St Petersb., Jan., 1875) a monograph on Sesamorp Bones pre-
formed in hyaline cartilage in the tendon of origin of the gastroc-
nemius. He concludes that a true sesamoid bone in man only forms
in the outer head of this muscle, but in many mammals in both
heads.

Muscutar System.—E. Weber (Arch. de Phys., July and Sept.,
1874, 489) contributes an article upon Tue Nucier or Srriarep

’ Muscue IN THE ADULT Frog. He begins by referring to the views

held by Kélliker and Schultze wpon the nature of these bodies. The
former, he states, considers that they are nuclear in character because
he failed to discover any limiting membrane corresponding to a cell-
wall—the space in which they lie being simply bounded by the fibril-
le. From this therefore he concludes that Kolliker still looks upon
a cell as necessarily consisting of cell-wall, contents, nucleus and
nucleolus. Schultze, on the other hand, maintains that the muscular
corpuscle is a cell, inasmuch as it consists of a nucleus surrounded by
a granular mass of protoplasm— this latter being most evident at the
two extremities of the nucleus owing to the pressure exercised on the
surface of the cell. Weber then gives the results of his own investi-
gations, first as regards the shape of the nucleus, and second as
regards the existence of the protoplasmic surrounding. The nuclei,
he states, are flat, ovular when seen from the front, and rod-shaped
when seen in profile. They contain in their interior one or perhaps

390 PROFESSOR TURNER AND MR CUNNINGHAM.

more nucleoli, and their contents ave homogeneous or slightly granu-
lar. Such is the form they present when treated by alcohol, picro-
carminate, and then acetic acid; but in certain cases, especially when
the muscular fibrille are cansed to swell up rapidly by the action of
strong acetic acid, they have the form of rectangular plates of a
greater or less size, On one of their borders he has often observed a
line or stria which is found to consist in a projection of the margin—
a crease advancing towards the eye of the observer, and analogous to
the “crétes 7impreinte” of Ranvier in the flat cells of tendon, Other
nuclei present like strie on their two sides, and the author asserts
that he has been able to satisfy himself that these creases exist as a
normal condition. In transverse sections the nuclei are seen to have
a rod-shape, and they are arranged irregularly in the interior of the
circle which represents the cut muscular bundle, Moreover one of
the extremities of the rod is often bent back upon itself—this corres-
ponding to the crease. Some of these nuclei are triangular in form
with concave sides as if they had been compressed between three
cylindrical bundles, for being of a soft consistence they are naturally
moulded into various shapes by the interstices between the fibrille
in which they lie. Lastly, the author affirms that in none of the
numerous investigations, which he has made with the view of dis-
covering the true form of the nucleus, has he ever been able to recog-
nize the existence of protoplasm surrounding the nucleus. The nuclei
were always sharply defined, ovular, and more or less elongated.
Sometimes they were lodged in a fusiform crevice of which they only
occupied the central part. In this case however the rest of the
crevice was always homogeneous, and shewed nothing like proto-
plasm. Ranvier (Arch, de Phys., Nov., Dec., 1874, 774) writes
upon THe Srecrroscopic Properties oF Striarep Muscres. This
article, he tells us, is supplementary to a note upon the same subject
which he communicated to the French Academy of Science. He
gives in detail the method by which the spectrum is obtained, and
explains that this property of muscle depends upon the transverse
strie of the muscular fibres—these acting on the light in the same
way as a series of parallel lines traced upon glass, With the muscu-
lar spectrum, he states, we are able to recognize in blood the spectro-
scopic characters of the hemoglobin, and he has constructed an in-
strument for this purpose. The muscles of organic life, and also,
curiously enough, the striated muscular fibre of the heart, are not en-
dowed with this property. Lastly, he gives the application of the
spectrum of muscle to the physiology aud pathology of muscular
tissue. W. Gruber describes (Reichert u. du Bois Reymond’s
Archiv, 1874, 467) a case in which a Muscutus PLAntAris Bicaupa-
rus ended by its supernumerary tendon in the ligamentum popli-
teum, EK, Von Teutleben gives a description (Archiv fiir Natur-
geschichte, 1874, 78) of the museles and mechanism of MasricaTtion
in the vertebrata,

Bioop-vascuLan System.-—Ranvier (Arch. de Phys,, July and
Sept., 1874) writes upon the DeveLopment AND Growrn or Bioop-

a!

OEE SO RE

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 391

vessets. He first points out that the phenomena of development
and growth are two distinct processes, which must not be confounded
the one with the other. He then traces the development of blood-
vessels in the rabbit. He states that at the great curvature of the
stomach the vascular network is close and compact, but as the vessels
extend into the membrane the meshes widen and open out, and near
these, in all transparent parts, circular or elongated opalescent spots
may be distinguished. Some of these are almost microscopic in size but
others have a diameter varying from a half to two or three millimetres.
To these spots he has given the name of “taches laiteuses,” or milky
spots. Itis in the middle of these spots that the first elements of the
vessels appear. They are of two kinds, viz., vascular and non-vascu-
lar. The latter possess an endothelial covering upon each surface
with bundles of connective tissue and cells of various kinds in their
interior. The endothelium is very irregular, and this he believes to
be due to its frequent penetration by lymphatic cells (see Abstract of
his paper upon the formation of the apertures on the great omentum ).

The bundles of connective tissue in the “taches laiteuses” do not

belong to them alone, but are simply fibres pursuing their course
and thus crossing through the spots. he cel/s are of three kinds,
(1) lymphatic cells, (2) connective-tissue cells, (3) vaso-formative cells.
The first are similar in all respects to the lymphatic cells which exist
free in the peritoneal cavity, and they exhibit amceboid movements.
Some, smaller than others, and possessing in their interior granules
very susceptible to picrocarminate and hrmatoxylon, occupy the
centre of the spots, and shew very lively movements under favourable
conditions. When the spots are large, however, they are seen in
groups, and become slightly angular from the pressure of the one
against the other. The connective-tissue cells are not endowed with
ameeboid activity, and they differ from the cells of the stroma in
other parts of the membraue only in having more numerous ramifica-
tions. They are generally laid flat upon the connective-tissue bundles
and surrounded by lymphatic cells. Zhe vaso-formative cells are the
first rudiments of the blood-vessels, and they differ from the other
cells mentioned. They do not exist in the adult rabbit, but are
found in rabbits varying in age from 15 days to 6 weeks. They are
irregularly branching, finely granular bodies, varying much in size
and in the number of their prolongations. The branches frequently
anastomose so as to form a network which covers the entire extent of
a non-vascular “tache laiteuse,” and presents the appearance of a
vascular network. The author states that he has not determined the
number of vaso-formative cells which enter into the formation of such
a network, but he considers that it is not great, and that a single cell
can by itself form a network. These cells are not gifted with ame-
boid activity. By fine injections of Prussian blue and gelatine and
other means, Ranvier states that he has been able to satisfy himself
that the vaso-formative networks in the non-vascular “taches lai-
teuses” are quite distinct from the vascular networks. - In preparations
coloured by carmine after the action of Miiller’s fluid, the body of the
vaso-formative network appears to be formed by cylindrical anasto-

392 PROFESSOR TURNER AND MR CUNNINGHAM.

mosing branches. In the midst of the granular protoplasm, which
forms the mass of all the branches, elongated rod-shaped nuclei are
disposed in the line of the long axis of the branch which they occupy.
These nuclei are often larger at one end than the other, and some-
times they shew signs of approaching division, or perhaps two are
seen lying close to-each other—the sign that one has already divided.
Ranvier affirms that it is easy to shew that these vaso-formative net-
works ultimately develope into capillary networks. In certain cases
a vascular branch may be seen to penetrate a non-vascular “‘tache lai-
teuse,” and place itself in relation with a network of which the half
or three-fourths is permeable to injection. He states that he is not
in a position to assert with confidence the origin of the vaso-formative
cells, but that it is his impression that they are derived from the
connective-tissue cells. Lastly, the author points out the mode of
growth of vessels, and shews that this is accomplished by cellular
buds or offshoots which, at first impervious, are hollowed out one
after the other so as to receive the blood. The expansion of the
vascular system, he states, may take place either by the growth of
old vessels or by the independent formation of capillary networks,
which by degrees come into relution with the general circulation.
—Julius Arnold gives (Virchow’s Archiv, ux11. 157) the first part of
a memoir on the RELATION OF THE BLoop AND LYMPH-VESSELS TO THE
Jute Canats. His observations are in barmony with those of
Carter, published in this Jowrnal, tv. p. 97, and previously communi-
cated to the Royal Society of London, 1864. C, Giacomini writes
an elaborate memoir (Turin, 1874), illustrated with five plates, on
Hieu Division or THE BracwiAL ARTERY. H. Frey describes
(Reichert u. du Bois Reymond’s Archiv, 1874, 633) the Nerves sup-
PLYING THE BLoop-vEssELs oF THE Urrrr Limp, ‘The rule appears
to be that the venous and arterial trunks of the limb receive nerves
from the nervous trunk immediately contiguous to them. Duret
(Arch. de Phys. July, Sept. and Nov., Dec., 1874) writes upon
THe ANAToMY OF THE ENCEPHALIC BLOOD-VESSELS, and traces the
relations which cerebral hemorrhages and softenings have to the
distribution of these vessels. At the end of each article he places
the results of his investigations before us in a tabular form, Refer-
ence may also be made to the first article of the series which appeared
in the January number of the same Journal; and in our last Report
was given an abstract of another paper by him on the same subject,
also published in the Archives. G, Gulliver records (Proce, Zool.
Soe., Nov. 3, 1874) measurements of the Rep Bioop-Corpusctirs. In
Hippopotamus amphibius the average diameter is gyzy9th inch; in
Otaria jubata goygth inch: in Trichecus rosmarus xfgyth inch.

Connective Tissur,—Le Goff and Ramonat (Journ. de [’ Anat. et
dela Phys, Jan, et Fey, 1874) contribute a memoir upon THE CeL-

LuLAR ELements or Tenpon. After a brief résumé of the different —

views that have been advanced on these cells, they describe very fully

the various methods they have adopted in preparing tendon for —
microscopic investigation, and then they give the results of their —

:

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 393

own researches, They state that embryonic tendon is formed by
nuclei placed closely together, of which the long axis corresponds to
that of the tendon. At this stage they are separated merely by a
small amount of amorphous material, but later on each is surrounded
by a slender cellular body, which is most marked at the two ex-
tremities, so as to give it the appearnce of a fusiform cell. In the
same preparation both nuclei and fusiform cells may be observed,
but at a more advanced stage only rows of fusiform cells can be
recognized, The extremities of these cells are in some cases drawn
out considerably so as to form long prolongations, The authors
believe that certain of these cells enter into the formation of the
fibres of tendon and disappear, whilst others are shut up in the
intervals which are formed between the primitive bundles of these
fibres, These fusiform cells, which are thus enclosed, are arranged
in parallel rows, and in the course of their development they present
very diverse appearances. Similar rows of cells may also be met
with in adult tendons, as in those of the eye of the sheep, &e. Here
the cells are arranged in several layers which cross each other as
they follow the arrangement of the primary bundles. Moreover, on
changing the focus, other rows may be observed, having a perpen-
dicular or oblique direction to the first. They describe a different
arrangement in the guinea-pig and mouse. Here also the cells are
fusiform and in parallel rows, but some are observed to be in the
process of segmentation or already segmented, forming others which
are themselves beginning to divide. Again, certain of the cells may
shew a constriction borne alike by the cell and the nucleus, or per-
haps the nucleus is divided into two or three, whilst the surrounding
protoplasm is entire or shews only a constriction. It is thus that the
~ cells of tendon multiply, and in such numbers that in one preparation
_ the authors state they have seen as many as twenty cells placed end
to end, with the ends of the row terminating in spindle-shaped
extremities. In the young guinea-pig long rows of quadrangular
cells, arranged end to end, may be seen. These are slightly flattened
_ by the pressure exercised on them by those which are above and
below, and they present a nucleus in their centre. In the mole the
cells, also placed end to end, are spherical with a large nucleus, and
- frequently they are enclosed in a sheath of amorphous matter.
Again, this sheath may be observed to be dimpled with cavities, in
each of which is placed a cell which does not fill it completely.
They state that the last phase in the evolution of the tendinous cells
is to be found in the filiform tendons of the rat and mouse. Here
on each side of the cell very distinct processes may be observed.
They believe that these processes are produced by the cells being
compressed by those above and below them. The cells cannot there-
fore develope in their long. axis, and thus they are forced to send
processes into the spaces between the primary fasciculi. They state
that nucleoli are generally present in the cells of tendon. When
one is present it is central, but when there are two they are excentric,
and one is larger than the other. In none of their preparations have
they ever seen the cells applied upon the bundles, although this is

VOL. IX. 26

394 PROFESSOR TURNER AND MR CUNNINGHAM.

an appearance described by many histologists. In this memoir the
_ authors also give the results of some investigations, which they have
made, into the structure of the sesamoid nodule of the tendo-
Achillis, In horizontal sections they state that numerous cells,
varyipg in appearance according to their age, are observed lying in
large spaces cireumscribed by partitions of laminated tissue. In the
tadpole only, large nuclei, some of which are already converted into
veritable cells, are to be found, and the laminated tissue which
surrounds them is analogous to the embryonic tendinous tissue.
Following this same nodule in its evolution the nuclei are observed
to become surrounded by protoplasm, which increases rapidly. Fibro-
plastic bodies are developed, and these give birth to the fibres, which,
compressed and united in groups, take in the adult nodule the ap-
pearance of large partitions circumscribing roomy spaces which are
occupied by masses of cells. These cells are mostly spherical, or
rather lenticular, but their form is evidently subordinate to that of
the mesh in which they lie. Some by reciprocal pressure come to
resemble pavement epithelial cells, and all are not uniform in size,
as side by side may be seen a small cell and one three or four times
larger. Some of the cells may even resemble the fusiform cells of
tendon, but they are considerably larger, and others may be prism-
atic with a nucleus near their large extremity. They state that it
is by no means rare to find two nuclei in one cell, thus presenting
nn analogy with the cells of tendon. The nucleus is generally in the
centre of the cell, and may contain one or two nucleoli. The nucleus,
however, is sometimes seen near the wall, and it may even cause the
wall to protrude in a hernial fashion. The cells are surrounded by
an amorphous material, which often forms for them a complete
and isolated bed. Lastly, they point to the great analogy which
exists between this nodule and tendon, and more especially when we
compare it with the tendons of the mole. In both we have large
cells with nucleus and nucleolus embedded in an amorphous material,
Moreover, a study of the development and the manner in which
reagents act on these two structures bears out this analogy.
G. Thin gives an abstract (Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Jan, 21, 1875)
of his observations on Tur Connective Tissues, more especially in
connection with the presence of flat and quadrangular cells in the
cornea, in addition to the stellate cornea corpuscles; the presence of
large flat cells on the surface of tendon; of smaller quadrangular cells
investing the secondary and tertiary bundles of a tendon in double
layers, and of Jong, narrow, flat cells covering the primary bundles ;
of the presence of a double layer of quadrangular and hexagonal cells
in the perimysium and neurilemma; of the existence of branched
cells in the neurilemma; of flat, ribbon-shaped bands in the fibrillary
tissue of the neurilemma, and of extremely fine but sharply contoured
fibrille in the fibrillary tissue of skin and tendons, The author
infers, from appearances presented by the rods of the retina after
prolonged maceration in aqueous humour, that the rods and cones are
composed of fibrillary tissue in its simplest form. W. Waldeyer
makes, in Archiv fur Mikrosk. Anat. Nov. 1874, some observations

-REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 395

on the CELLS or THE ConNECTIVE Tissue. He discusses the characters
of the so-named flat cells of the fibrillary connective tissue of the
cornea corpuscles, and of large round cells rich in protoplasm, which
belong to the connective tissue, such as the cells of the interstitial
substance of the testicle, the cells of the coceygeal and iutercarotid
bodies, large round cells not unfrequently found as an adventitious
investment of the cerebral vessels, the cells of the supra-renal bodies,
of the corpus luteum, and the serotina cells of the placenta. '

SynoviAL Mempranes.—J. G. van der Sluys writes his in-
augural dissertation on the Structure of the Synovial Membranes,
Leiden, 1875. He comments on the recent observations of Hiiter,
Reyher and Tillmanns, relates his own researches, and .sums up the
results of his investigations as follows ;—1. The synovial membrane
consists of connective tissue which is, on its free surface, very rich in
cells. 2, These cells belong to the group of round connective-tissue-
cells distinguished by Waldeyer. 3. The hollows in which they lie
are most probably lymphatic spaces. 4. The capillaries of the
synovial membrane never lie uncovered (naked) on the surface.
5. The markings of Hiiter are artificial products which take place
from the action of nitrate of silver upon the synovial fluid.

Great Omentum.—Ranvier (Arch. de Phys., July. and Sept.,
1874) writes an interesting paper upon THE ForMATION OF .THE
Mesues or tHe Great OmentuM. He begins by disputing the view,
advanced by Rollett, that these meshes are surrounded by a bundle
of fibrous tissue arranged in the form ofa ring. He asserts that they
are formed simply by the separation of bundles of connective tissue

_ the one from the other. The meshes are thus each bounded by two,
_ three, or a greater number of bundles, which continue their course
_ and go to concur in the limitation of other meshes. The boundaries
_ of the meshes are clothed by a layer of endothelium continuous upon
_ the two surfaces of the membrane. The author states that the rela-
tion of the endothelium to the completely-formed holes is both varied

_ and peculiar, but three principal types may be recognized:—(1) a
_ black line marks the circumference of the aperture, and at this line
_ the cells terminate both on the superior and inferior surface; (2)
_ there is no such line, and a cell clothing the border of the hole belongs
y to the superior and partly to the inferior surface of the memi-

rane; (3) an aperture is surrounded by a continuous excentric line,

_ limited by an endothelial cell; wpon the other surface of the mem-
brane several lines diverge from the hole, and these are the limits of
several cells. This disposition of the endothelial cells has led the
author to adopt the following theory upon the formation of the
apertures. The lymphatic cells, which exist free in great numbers in
the cavity of the peritoneum, have the power of piercing and passing
through the membrane in a manner similar to that in which a blood-
‘corpuscle passes through the vascular wall. _One of these lymphatic
cells fixes itself between two of the endothelial cells, separates
them, and then places itself in relation to the deep surface of
: an endothelium-cell on the opposite surface of. the membrane.

26—2

|

396 PROFESSOR TURNER AND MR CUNNINGHAM.

It pursues its course, perforates this cell, and finally disengaging
itself becomes free once more. It will leave behind it, however,
an opening bounded on the side by two cells of the endothelial
investment, and on the other by a single cell presenting in its
centre a loss of substance or aperture. The author also shews how
the same hypothesis applies to the first arrangement of endothelial
cells indicated. The piercing lymphatic cell having set out from an
endothelial interline gains the opposite side at the point of separa-
tion of several cells of that surface. Ranvier affirms that his theory
is likewise supported by a study of the distribution of the holes, and
by the observation of the holes in the process of formation. The
apertures are mostly found at a distance from the vessels, where the
membrane is thin, and where there is little provision for the nutrition
of the part. In addition the distribution is quite irregular, and from
this may be inferred that the membrane plays a passive part in the
phenomenon which converts it into a network. Lastly, he states
that in the process of formation some of the holes contain a globular
cell, similar in form and size to a lymphatic cell, and separated from
the circumference by an unequal black border, which is formed by the
fixation of the nitrate of silver by the albumen. In some places also
a lymphatic cell may be observed fastened between two endothelial
cells; but all cells found in this position have not the characters of
lymph-cells, as many are small, and have an analogy to endothelial
cells,

Mucovs Mempranes.—M. Debove (Arch. de Phys., Jan. 1874)
shews the existence of a SuB-EPITHELIAL EyporHEtium 1n Mucous
Mempranes. He states that on the surface of the intestinal mucous
membrane there are two layers, of these one is superficial, and is com-
posed of cylindrical glandular epithelium, It clothes the villi and is
prolonged into the glands. The other is subjacent to this and presents
all the characters of an endothelium lining a blood-vessel or a lymphatic
cavity. It envelopes the villi, is prolonged into the glands, is com-

posed of thin cells, the sinuous irregular margins of which dovetail

into each other, and it forms their membrana propria. But the presence
of a sub-epithelial endothelium is not confined to the intestine, for he
has also demonstrated its existence in the mucous membrane of the
bladder and trachea, and he is of opinion that the endothelial cells of

the latter are continuous with the cells lining the pulmonary vesicles. —

Tonaur.—A. Hoffman describes the DisrriBuTION OF THE GUSTA-—

rory Bopres in the human tongue (Virchows Archiv, ux, 516). He

finds them on all the circumyallate papille; on the fungiform papillae ; _
on the papille foliate, or gustatory lamelle, as they have been named |

.

by W. ‘Turner, i.e. the lamellated arrangement of the mucous mem- :

brane of the tongue situated at the sides of the root of the organ; on
many of the larger papillae of the soft palate, especially at the upper
partof the uvula, They are found in all places where gustatory sen
sutions can be excited.

b

Larynx.—P. Coyne (Arch. de Phys., Jan. 1874) gives the results

of his researches into the Anaromy or THE LaryNcEAL Mucous

Q

q

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 397

Memprane. He affirms that this membrane is formed in a layer
subjacent to the epithelium by a reticulated tissue analogous to lym-
phoid tissue, and that it thus approaches the structure of the muconts
membrane of the small intestine. In the superficial part of the
mucous lining there are lymphatic organs which correspond to the
closed follicles of the small intestine, and he considers that these
have some relation to the laryngeal ulcerations so common in the
course of certain fevers. Upon the free border of the inferior vocal
cords, vascular, and probably nervous papille may be found, and these
are best developed on the anterior half of the cord, or that part which
is the most frequent seat of papillomata. Lastly, he directs attention
to the existence of groups of glands which, by their secretion, keep
the papillary surface of the vocal cord moist, and thus maintain the
integrity of its function. W. Gruber describes (Reichert u. du
Bois Reymond’s Archiv, 1874, 454) two larynges in which Super-
NUMERARY CRICO-THYROID ARTICULATION existed, and on p. 463, cases
in which a supernumerary median process was present on the upper
border of the posterior part of the cricoid cartilage, and where super-
numerary lateral tubercles were found on the same cartilage. Also on
p. 606, a human larynx in which a pair of Exrra LarnyGear Saccutt
communicating with the interior of the larynx projected between the
hyoid bone and thyroid cartilage. They are analogous, he says, with
the extra-laryngeal sacs in the Gorilla and Orang.

TEETH.—Oscar Hertwig contributes (Archiv fiir Mikroskop. Anat.
x1. 1874, Supplement) an elaborate memoir, extending to 208 pages,
with five plates, on the skeleton of the buceal cavity, and on the
dentary system of the Amphibia. C. 8. Tomes (Proc. Roy. Soc.
London, Dec. 10, 1874) describes the development of the Teeth of the
Newt, Frog, certain Lizards and the Ophidia. He holds that there
is no dental groove in these animals, but that the development of
the teeth takes place beneath an unbroken surface of epithelium,
neither is there a stage of free papilla. His description of the mode
of formation of the tooth-germs is not unlike that given by Wal-
deyer of their development in mammals, an inflection of epithelium
forming the enamel organ, whilst an elevation of the sub-epithelial
tissue forms the dentine organ. There is no cementum, he says, upon
the teeth of snakes——-E. Magitot describes (Jowrn. d’Anat. et de
la Phys., Jan. 1875) various anomalies of nwmber in the dentition of
the mammalia, as regards congenital absence, numerical diminution
or increase,

Mate Urerus.—Ropin and Capiat (Journ. d’Anat. et de la
Phys., Janv. et Fev., 1875—Mars et Avril, 1875) write upon THE
ConstiTuTION oF THE Mucous MempraneE OF THE MALE Uvrerus, oF
THE VASA DEFERENTIA, AND OF THE TRUMPET-SHAPED ENDS OF THE
Fatxorian Tupes. They describe (1) the elastic system enveloping
the male uterus, and the ejaculatory ducts, (2) the structure of the
male uterus, its mucous membrane, and its alveoli, (3) the calculi of
the male uterus and verumontanum, (4) the structure of the ejaculatory

398 PROFESSOR TURNER AND MR CUNNINGHAM.

ducts, of the vasa deferentia, of the trumpet-shaped ends of the Fallo-
pian tubes.

Uvrerus.—John Williams describes (Proc. Roy. Soe. London,
April 30, 1874, and Obstetrical Journal, March, 1875) the Structure
oF THE Uterrne Mucosa, and its periodical changes. The object of
the research is to trace the changes which take place in the mucosa,
between the cessation of one menstrual flow and the cessation of the
next following. The uteri of twelve women, who had died in different
stages of the menstrual or intermenstrual period, were examined.
During menstruation the mucosa is destroyed by a process of fatty
degeneration of its anatomical elements, and the muscular coat is
exposed. Three days after the cessation of the flow the mucosa
reappears as a very thin pale layer limited to the lower two-thirds of
the body of the uterus, and covered by a columnar epithelium the
cells of which were soto inch in length; glands also were visible, and
a layer of round and fusiform cells intervened between the mus-
cular coat and the surface. Six days after the cessation of the dis-
charge the mucosa of the body of the uterus is very thin (about one
line at its thickest part), congested, glands in great part without
epithelium, and only in their deep ends can columnar epithelium be
seen: no epithelial lining to uterus. At a longer interval after men-
struation the mucosa is thicker and well demarcated from the mus-
cular coat, and its glands distinct. When menstruation is imminent
the mucosa is thick, smooth, very soft, and contains innumerable
vessels. When menstruation has existed one day, the mucosa
exhibits excavations, its surface is pale and flocculent, the vessels
highly congested and torn across, glands disintegrated, epithelium
absent or fatty. On the fifth day of menstruation the mucosa had
been in great measure removed, beginning, as in the other specimens,
at the os internum, and spreading to the fundus. In another case
where the menstrual flow had not quite ceased at the time of death
the mucosa above the os internum was entirely absent. The menstrual
flow, according to Williams, is not a process complete in itself, but
the terminal change of a cycle of changes which begins at the cessa-
tion of the period, passes through the developmental changes of the
mucosa, and ends with the cessation of the flow next following.
Hence there is no period of uterine rest. The flow of blood is due
to the vessels of the membrane undergoing fatty degeneration, and
then giving way, the membrane then disintegrates, and is removed
cell by cell, beginning at the os internum and proceeding to the
fundus. The new mucosa begins to form near the os internum and
gradually proceeds to the fundus: it proceeds from the inner layer of
the muscular wall by proliferation, the muscular fibres producing the
fusiform cells, the connective tissue the round cells, and the groups of
round cells in the meshes formed by the muscular bundles the gland-
ular epithelium,

Ovany.—Jas, Foulis communicated, as a graduation thesis pre-
sented to the Medical Faculty, University of Edinburgh, April, 1874,
and to Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb., Dec. 21, 1874, a paper on THe

ee
ee

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY, 399

DEVELOPMENT OF THE OVA, AND THE STRUCTURE OF THE.OVARY, IN
Man AND orHeR Mamas. After an historical introduction, in the
course of which the author gave an abstract of the important observa-
tions of Pfliiger and Waldeyer, he proceeded to state his own observa-
tions on the development of the ova and structure of the ovary in
calves, kittens, and the human female. The corpuscles of the germ
epithelium are derived by direct proliferation from those columnar
corpuscles which invest the median side or surface of the Wolffian
body, and which are continuous with the layer of columnar corpuscles
that lines the pleuro-peritoneal cavity of the embryo in the early
stages of development. The stroma of the ovary in the early stages
of development is produced by a direct growth out from the intersti-
tial tissue of the Wolffian body immediately beneath the germ epithe-
lium on the median side of the Wolffian body. The germ-epithelial
corpuscles proliferate by fission. In the human fetal ovary of 7}
months they measure 7;55 — z¢o0 Of an inch in their longest diameter,
and about x59 of an inch in their shortest diameter. Each germ-
epithelial corpuscle is a nucleus surrounded by a thin film or invest-
ment of clear protoplasm. The nucleus of each germ-epithelial cor-
puscle becomes the germinal vesicle of the mature ovum; and every
germ-epithelial corpuscle is potentially an ovum. In the act of be-
coming primordial ova, the nucleus of each germ-epithelial corpuscle
swells up into a spherical corpuscle with dark granular contents,
within which is generally seen a nucleolus, and around which is pro-
duced clear homogeneous protoplasm, which subsequently forms the
yelk of the ovum. Germ-epithelial corpuscles are seen in all stages
of developmert into primordial ova. In each primordial ovum the
spherical germinal vesicle presents a sharply defined limiting membra-
nous wall, Within the germinal vesicle is the nucleolus or germinal
_ spot. All the ova in the ovary are derived from germ-epithelial cor-
_ puscles. In all parts of the ovary processes of vascular connective
- tissue stroma grow in, between and around certain of the germ-
_ epithelial corpuscles, whereby the latter become more and more em-
_ bedded in the stroma of the ovary. Germ-epithelial corpuscles are
_ being constantly produced on the surface of the ovary, to take the
place of those already embedded in the stroma. The embedded cor-
_ puscles increase in number by division, and the nucleus of each swells
up into a spherical germinal vesicle, around which is gradually pro-
duced the yelk of the ovum. In all parts of the young ovary under
the germ-epithelium, groups of germ-epithelial corpuscles become
embedded in meshes of the stroma. As each individual in the group
swells up the nucleus or germinal vesicle of each becomes very dis-
tinct as a round or spherical body.- From the swelling out of each
germ-epithelial corpuscle in the group, the whole group expands and
becomes more or less spherical. Such groups of developing corpuscles
are called egg-clusters. Each egg-cluster is enclosed in a mesh or
capsule of vascular stroma of the ovary. The stroma of the young
ovary consists for the most part of fusiform connective-tissue corpus-
cles and blood-vessels. The walls of the young blood-vessels in the
young stroma consist of connective-tissue corpuscles. These connec-

400 PROFESSOR TURNER AND MR CUNNINGHAM.

tive-tissue .corpuscles are direct offshoots from the ovarian stroma,
and are found in contact with the yelk or protoplasm of each primor-
dial ovum situated among the germ-epithelial corpuscles on the
surface of the ovary. Wherever we find primordial ova we see con-
nective-tissue corpuscles in contact with the yelk of each. In all
parts of the ovary we find the nuclei of connective-tissue corpuscles
dividing. Sometimes these corpuscles are swollen out into round
bodies containing three to four nuclei. In each egg-cluster several of
the included germ-epithelial corpuscles are in a much farther advanced
stage of development than their fellows. From the walls of the
meshes enclosing the egg-clusters, delicate processes of vascular con-
nective tissue grow in, between, and around individual corpuscles in
the egg-clusters, and by a continued intergrowth of the young stroma
in this manner each individual of the group becomes at last enclosed
in a separate mesh or capsule. These last-formed meshes are the
Graafian follicles. As a rule, each Graafian follicle is occupied by
one young ovum. The protoplasm or yelk of each ovum is in close
contact with the wall of each Graafian follicle. In contact with the
yelk of each young ovum, and indenting it, are connective-tissue cor-
puscles, which form part of the wall of each Graatian follicle. In the
formation of the membrana granulosa, these connective-tissue corpus-
cles in the wall of the Graafian follicle, and in contact with the yelk
of the contained ovum, increase in number by division, their nuclei
swell out into little vesicles, and at last a perfect capsule of such
corpuscles is produced round the ovum. This capsule is the mem-
brana granulosa or follicular epithelium of the follicle. At first the
membrana granulosa consists of a simple layer of cells lining the
follicle. The individual corpuscles of the membrana granulosa
measure about sj55 inch. As the ovum becomes mature, the cor-
puscles of the membrana granulosa proliferate, and then many layers
of small corpuscles are produced between the ovum and the follicular
wall. The cells of the membrana granulosa are thus derived from
the corpuscles of the connective-tissue stroma, and not, as Waldeyer
states, from the germ-epithelial corpuscles, The follicular space is
formed by a breaking down and probable solution of certain of the
corpuscles of the thickened follicular epithelium in the middle parts
of the same. The discus proligerus consists of follicular epithelial
corpuscles, which are in contact with the zona pellucida of the ovum.
The zona pellucida or vitelline membrane is formed by a hardening
of the outer part of the yelk or protoplasm of the ovum, and is not,
as Reichert, Pfliiger, and Waldeyer stated, a product of the follicular
epithelium, At birth the human ovary contains not less than 30,000
ova, few of which reach maturity. In the human ovary at birth the
germinal vesicles measure ysho — yobo Of an inch. Most of them are
about the same size, and also present a sharply-defined membranous
wall, In some germinal vesicles two or three germinal spots are
seen, ‘The tunica albuginea is the thickened stroma growing round
the ovary. At the age of 2) years all formation of ova from the germ-
epithelium has ceased, Graafian follicles are not formed from tubular
structures in the manner described by Pfliiger, Spiegelberg, and

REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 401

Waldeyer. The appearances of tubular structures in the human
ovary passing into its stroma are produced by sections through
furrows and depressions between irregular prominences on the sur-
face of the foetal ovary. The irregularities of the surface of the
foetal ovary are produced by the expansion of egg-clusters upwards
under the germ epithelium. When the walls of furrows and depres-
sions come in contact, egg-clusters are formed by the embedding of
germ-epithelial corpuscles in that situation, just as in other situations.
Egg-clusters are formed in connection with the germ-epithelium
lining the furrows and depressions. Among the germ-epithelium
_ corpuscles lining the furrows, &c., we find large primordial ova, and
corpuscles in all stages of development into the same, just as in other
situations among the ordinary germ-epithelial corpuscles. In the
kitten and bitch strings of ova still communicating with the super-
ficial germ-epithelium have been interpreted by some observers as if
they were tubes filled with cells. At the age of six years the epithe-
lium on the human ovary consists of very small flat hexagonal-shaped
corpuscles, measuring y759 — yzb0 Of an inch. The corpuscles are seen
dividing. This layer can be stripped off without difficulty. At the
age of twelve the epithelium has little difference in appearance from
the above, the small size of the epithelial corpuscles being remarkable.
The epithelium is beautifully seen in old cats, and must be regarded
as homologous with the peritoneal epithelium. In old cats the epi-
thelium on the surface of the ovary consists of very small distinct
cells, measuring from y_gyp5 th to epyo th inch, with granular oval
nuclei. A. Kdlliker concludes (Verh. der Wiixzb. phys.-med. Gesell.
vit., May, 1874), from recent researches made on the ovaria of newly-
born and a few-days-old bitches, that the Memprana GRANULOSA
HAS A DIFFERENT ORIGIN FROM THE Ova. The ovaries of 1—2 days-
old bitches present two very different constituents. Round about
the cortical zone are found heaps of primordial ova (Pfliiger), in
longish, oval and round clusters, simply surrounded by stroma ovarii,
egg near egg, without any structure between them. In the interior
of the ovary a large number of slender strings of cells are found
separated here and there, of a mean diameter of 20—30 pw, and com-
posed of roundish cells without nuclei, which proceed everywhere
from the locality of the mesovarium towards the cortex of the ovary.
On following up the above-mentioned cellular strings towards the
cortex ovarii, Kolliker arrived at the clear conviction that they
were connected with the groups of primordial eggs of the cortex,
the egg-tubes of Pfliiger, and that in these places the cells of the
medullary strings formed envelopes around large and small numbers
of primordial eggs, in such a manner that this cellular covering
was completely developed around the deepest-lying eggs, whereas
around the outermost eggs it became more and more imperfect, till at
last the small cells disappeared amongst the primordial eggs. The
observations which he made regarding the connection of the medul-
lary strings with the egg-tubes, or clusters of primordial eggs, and
the gradual appearance of the membrana granulosa at the bottom of
the tubes, he interprets in this way, that the cells of the membrana

402 PROFESSOR TURNER AND MR CUNNINGHAM.

granulosa are furnished by the medullary strings, and that these
strings by continued increase of their elements are pushed forwards:

gradually to the superficial egg-cells, surrounding the latter with cells;
consequently ovum and membrana granulosa have a different origin.
Kolliker concludes by stating his opinion that these cell-strings have
their origin in the Wolffian body.

. Ensryonrocy.—A. Kolliker communicates (Verh. der phys.-med.
Gesellsch. Wiirzburg, Jan. 1875) observations on the GrerminaL LAYERS
IN THE Hen’s Ecc. From observations made on the blastoderm of the
impregnated ovum and on the white yelk, more especially from the
behaviour of the nuclei to osmic acid, acetic acids, and carmine, he
concludes that they are quite different and definitely distinct forma-
tions. The increase in thickness in the superficial part of the blasto-
derm is due to repeated fission of its cells; this increase leads in the
10th—12th hour of incubation to the formation of the middle
germinal layer. He does not agree with those authors who describe
the middle layer as arising from the edge of the blastoderm, but he
regards this layer in the middle of the blastoderm, in the neighbour-
hood of the later-appearing primitive streak and embryonic axis,
as arising from the ectoderm, by an increase of the cells of the same ;
the mesoderm, having become more strongly developed, represents
the inferior part of the so-called primitive streak. He considers that
in this streak the ectoderm and mesoderm are not grown together,
but from the first appearance of this axial thickening form one mass,
which subsequently resolves itself into two layers ; the entoderm has
eertainly no share in the formation of the primitive streak. From
repeated inquiries Kélliker has come to the conclusion that the
whole of the mesoderm at its first appearance arises at the expense of
the cells of the axis-plate, the deeper parts of which grow at its
borders between ectoderm and endoderm towards the border of the
area pellucida, When the axis-plate has been separated into chorda,
medullary plate, primordial vertebral plates, the entire growth of the
mesoderm on the surface and in thickness is due to an uninterrypted
increase of its elements, The determination that no part of the
mesoderm arises from the endoderm has cost much labour, as at first
sight there is much to say in favour of such a development at the
borders of the mesoderm ; but the invariable appearance in the first
instance of the mesoderm in the middle of the area pellucida, its
slow growth towards the border of this area, its separability at all
stages from the endoderm, lead to the conclusion that the middle
germinal layer has no genetic connection with the endoderm. The
thickening or ‘‘ Keimwulst” at the edge of the area pellucida belongs
to the endoderm, and presents a division into an inner thicker and
an outer thinner portion ; the cells of the “‘ Keimwulst” are distinetly
nucleated, A surrounding or penetration of the elements of the
white yelk by these cells does not take place, both parts remain
distinct; the appearance of a blending is due to the cells of the
“ Keimwulst” soon after incubation containing large granules and
globules like those of the globules of the white yelk ; but the globules

Le ee

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REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 403

of the cells of the “Keimwulst” are produced within them. Hence
the elements of the “Keimwulst” are simply cells of the endoderm.
The blastoderm of the chick is a two-layered disc. The dise is then
converted into a closer vesicle by the growth of the ecto- and endo-
derm around the yelk. This vesicle is the homologue of the ‘‘ Keim-
blase” germ-vesicle in the mammalia, and like it becomes three-
layered by the development of the mesoderm. Hans Virchow,
who has worked with Kolliker, contributes (Virchow’s Archiv, LX11.,
566) some observations on the THIRD GERMINAL LAYER in the region

‘of the yelk-sac in the hen’s egg, from the middle of the Ist to the 8th

day. E. Ray Lankester details his observations (Quart. Jowr.
Microse, Se. Jan. 1875) on the DevELOpMENT oF THE CEPHALOPODA,

Hisrotocican Processes.—Ranvier (Arch. de Phys., Nov., Dec.
1874) contributes observations upon Tue AppLicaTions OF PuR-
PURINE to Hisrotogy. This material is a colouring principle ob-
tained from madder. He gives the following instructions for its
preparation for microscopic purposes. A half per cent. solution
of alum in distilled water is boiled in a porcelain capsule, and a
small quantity of powdered purpurine, with a little distilled water,
added to it. Ifany of this remains undissolved it must be removed
by filtration. Alcohol is the next ingredient, and this must be equal
in quantity to one-fourth the volume of the whole mixture. He
has employed this solution for the tinting of cartilage, bone, cornea,
connective tissue, nervous tissue, and the retina, and he gives the
results of each of these investigations in detail. In cartilage the
nuclei were coloured red, the matrix presented a delicate rose tint,
and the cellular protoplasm was transparent. He states that during
the growth of cartilage the purpurine shews very plainly the signs of
multiplication of the nuclei. In the cornea the fibrillary substance
and the cellular protoplasm were not coloured, whilst the nuclei
assumed a red tint. Here then, he points out, is a great advantage
which the purpurine has over carmine, for the latter colours the
fibrillary substances so deeply that the nuclei are obscured. He
gives a minute description of these nuclei and also of their mode of
multiplication by segmentation in artificially produced inflammation
of the cornea. In muscular aponeuroses the flat nuclei applied upon
the surface of the bundles were alone coloured, and in bone the
osseous corpuscles, but not the basis substance. He obtained, how-
ever, the most remarkable results in the nervous system. In
sections of the spinal cord, hardened in bichromate of ammonia, the
nerve-cells and their poles, the axis cylinder, and the connective-
tissue fibres presented no coloration, whilst on the other hand, the
nuclei of the epithelial cells lining the central canal, the nuclei of the
connective tissue, and the nuclei of the capillaries were culoured red.
These nuclei are rendered so distinct that he has been able to count
them. and give their relative numbers both in the grey and in the
white matter of the cord. He states that in every square mm. of
grey matter there are 1875 nuclei of the connective tissue and the
capillaries, whilst in a similar area, of white matter we only find 625.

404 PROFESSOR TURNER AND’ MR CUNNINGHAM.

Tn the retina the granules of the external and internal granular layers
were coloured bright red, and he is thus led to believe that these are
not composed of nervous elements properly so called. Ranvier,
in the same number of the same Journal, contributes a memoir upon
THE Use or Diture Axconon in Histotocy. He states that
alcohol diluted with two parts of distilled water has a most important
action on the cellular protoplasm. It fixes the cells in their proper
shape, and increases their solidity by coagulating their albuminoid
protoplasmic contents. Its action upon the intercellular elements is
different. These are softened and macerated, and thus the hardened
cells can be isolated with the greatest ease without destroying their
original shape in the process. Further, the dilute alcohol modities
the optical characters of the coagulated protoplasm, and brings into
view very distinctly the nuclei which this protoplasm contains. It
also fixes these nuclei in their original shape. Lastly, he shews that
dilute alcohol does not change the affinity of histological elements for
colouring materials, as we can obtain after its action the best results
with the most delicate colouring agents, Gustav Fritsch describes
(Reichert wu. du Bois Reymond’s Archiv, 1874, 442) a new modifica-
tion of the Microrome of Rivet. E. A. Schiifer describes (Quart.
Journ. Microsc. Sc. Oct. 1874) an apparatus for maintaining a
CONSTANT TEMPERATURE under the microscope.—In the same Journal,
Jan, 1875, Golding Bird recommends the use of ELDER PITH as an
imbedding material for cutting sections.

CoMPARATIVE ANATOMY.

Ayturoporip Aprs.—Alex. Macalister describes (Proc. Roy. Irish
Acad, 1873) the muscular anatomy of a young female gorilla.

Lemurs.—In a paper on Lepilemur and Cheiro-galeus (P. Z. 8.
May 20, 1873) St George Mivart figures and describes the skull and
other parts of the skeleton. He reviews the evidence and opinions
recently advanced regarding the zoological rank of the Lemuroidea,
and maintains that the order Primates is natural and definite, and
that it would be a questionable step to raise these animals to a
higher value than that of a sub-order.

RopentiaA.—W. OC. H. Peters describes Dinomys (Festsch. der
Gesellsch. Naturf. freunde zu Berlin, 1873), a new genus of rodents
from Peru,

Ceracea.—J. E, Gray (Ann. Nat. Iist, Nov. 1873) objects to
the interpretation placed by van Beneden on the drawings of two
Cetacea from the Cape of Good Hope.——P. J. van Beneden
makes some observations (Acad. Roy. de Belgique, June, 1874)
on the Baleen Whales of New Zealand.———E. van Beneden describes
(Mém, de Acad, Roy. de Belgique, xuI) by the name of Sotalia
brasiliensis, a new dolphin from the Gulf of Rio Janeiro,
Julius Haast records (Proc. Zoo’. Soc. May 5, 1874) a new species
Luphysetes pottsii, a remarkably small species of Catodont whale on
the coast of New Zealand. A. W. Malm communicates (Kongl.

ao

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REPORT ON THE PROGRESS OF ANATOMY. 405

Vet. o Vitt. Samhiillets i Goteborg Hand. 1873) some zoological observa-
tions which contain notices of Delphinus phocena, with a figure
of a gravid specimen. C, F. Liitken describes (Vidensk. Selsk.
Skr. Copenhagen, 1873) the Cyami which infest the Cetacea.

Pinnepep1a.—Jas. Murie continues his researches.on the Descrip-
tive Anatomy of Otaria Jubata (Trans. Zool. Soc. yuu.). This memoir
contains an account of the skeleton and the changes in the form of
the skull ; the nervous system ; sensory apparatus ; vascular system ;
hyo-laryngeal and respiratory organs; digestive system; urino-
generative organs. As with the previous memoirs by this author on
the Pinnepedia, it is beautifully illustrated by well-executed plates.

~——J. W. Clark discusses (Proc. Zool. Soc. Nov. 18, 1873), the
characters of the Seals of the Auckland Islands. J. E. Gray de-
scribes (Proc. Zool. Soc. Dec. 1873) the crania of seals from Japan,
and refers one specimen to a new species Lumetopias elongatus.

Carntvora.—J. W. Clark. records the finding (Proc. Zool. Soe.
Dec, 2, 1873) of the skull of a Marten in Burwell Fen, Cambridge-
shire. A. Macalister describes (Proc. Roy. Irish Acad, 1873) the
muscular anatomy of Viverra Civetta, which he compares with that
of the Tayra (Galera barbata): also an account of the myology of
Aonysx leptonyx.

Epentata.—Jas. Murie describes the anatomy of the three-
banded armadillo (Tolypeutes conurus), (Trans. Linn. Soc. XXX.).
After some introductory remarks on its habits, he gives the external
measurements, describes the apparatus for drawing the body together,
and then gives an account of the viscera, the muscles and the
skeleton, Seven well-executed quarto plates illustrate the memoir.

PacuypEeRMATA.—Alex. Macalister describes (Proc. Roy. Trish
Acad. 1873) the anatomy of the Liberian hippopotamus (Cheropsis
Liberiensis).

Birps.—W. Dinitz describes in Reichert u. du Bois Reymond’s
Archiv, 1873, 357, the cervical vertebree of birds of the genus Prous.
St George Mivart describes (Z'rans. Zool. Soc. vit.) the axial
skeleton of the ostrich (Struthio camelus)——J. Maurie, in Proc.
4ool. Soc. June 16, 1874, shews that the sacs vomited by hornbills
consist of the epithelial lining of the gizzard ; and on the same date
he describes the skeleton of Mregilupus varius, which he com
with that of allied genera, and comes to the conclusion that this bird
has a close alliance with the Pastoride. A. H. Garrod describes
(Proc. Zool. Soc. May 6, 1873) the arrangement of the carotid
arteries in birds, with the view of forming an estimate of their
significance in classification ; and on June 17th, 1873, and Feb. 3,
1874, he examines certain muscles of the thigh of birds with reference
to their value in classificaticn. The muscles are tensor fasciz, biceps
cruris, semitendinosus, semimembranoxus, ambiens, and femoro-
caudal. On June 3, 1873, Garrod describes the anatomy of Steatornis
caripensis, and on May 5, 1874, some points in the anatomy of

406 PROFESSOR TURNER AND MR CUNNINGHAM.

Columba. R. Owen continues (Z7'rans. Zool. Soc. vu. part 6) his
researches on the Osteology of Dinornis. The memoir contains a
description of a femur indicative of a new genus of large wingless
bird (Dinornis Australis) from a post-tertiary deposit in Queens-
land, Australia.

Reprites.—In a paper on the genera of turtles (Oiacopodes)
J. E. Gray communicates (P. Z. S. April 1, 1873) observations on
their skeletons and skulls, and on p, 392 a note with figures on the
skull of Séernothaerus. Alfred Sanders describes the myology of
Phrynosoma coronatum (Proc. Zool. Soc. Jan. 6, 1874), and illustrates
his observations with a number of excellent woodcuts.

Barracnia.—T. H. Huxley describes (Proc. Zool. Soc. Mar. 17,
1874) the structure of the skull and heart of Menobranchus lateralis.

Fisu.—R. H. Traquair describes in Geological Magazine, Dec.
1873, a new genus (Ganorhynchus Woodwardii) of fossil fish allied to
the order Dipnoi: and in the same Magazine, June, 1874, he de-
scribes Cycloptychius carbonarius from the Staffordshire coal-mea-
sures. He also gives an account, in Ann. Nat. Hist. April, 1875, of
the structure and systematic position of Cheitrolepsis, and describes
some fossil fishes from the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, as Nemato-
ptychius Greenockii, Wardichthys cyclosoma, Rhizodus Hibberti.
The Bakerian Lecture on the Structure and Development of the Skull
in the Salmon, by W. Kitchen Parker, is in Zrans. Roy. Soc. Lond.
1872.——Ranvier (Arch. de Phys. Jan. 1874, 17) contributes a short
memoir upon THE Muscies or THE Dorsat FIN oF THE HippocamPvs.
He states that the peculiar vibratory movement of this fin is satis-
factorily explained by a study of its muscular apparatus. The bony
case which contains the muscles is divided into two lateral parts by a
longitudinal partition, upon each side of which small conical muscles
are placed. On removing one of the sides of this bony case these
muscles with their nerves and vessels are readily seen, as they are
embedded in a perfectly transparent mucous tissue, The primitive
fasciculi, of which the diameter is at least y§> of a mm., possess a
sarcolemma which is placed at some distance from the mass which
constitutes the bundle, and in the space intervening between the two
there is a granular material containing large nuclei Each muscular
bundle is provided with a distinct tendon, and the tendon of the
entire muscle is formed by the union of all these little tendons. He
states that the muscular fasciculus terminates in a blunt cone with an
irregular surface. The tendon, which is much smaller in diameter
than the fasciculus, enlarges at its extremity into a hollow cone,
which fits exactly upon the solid cone formed by the muscular bundle.
The granular mass within the sarcolemma stops abruptly at the point
of union of the tendon and muscle, and he points out that it is
probable that the sarcolemma ends with it,

a

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Do ot it eh

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. By Wixiuram Srrrune, D.Se.,
_ M.B., C.M., Demonstrator of Practical Physiology in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh’.

Nervous System.

On THE ExvecrricaL ExcrraBILity OF THE SURFACE OF THE CERE-
prum.—O. Soltmann, in a preliminary communication to the Central-
blatt, No. 14, 1875, sums up his results thus. (1) No muscular
movements are produced by electrical stimulation of the surface of the
cerebrum in newly-born dogs. (2) These movements were first
noticed several days after birth (9—11 days). (3) The extent and
form of the motor areas vary, they are different in young animals
from those in the adult.

Moror Functions or tHE Ceresrum.—M, Schiff, Arch. f Exp.
Path. Pharmak. 1874, 11.171. According to Schiff the so-called motor
centres of the cortex of the cerebrum are reflex centres. Supporting
this view is the fact that when the animal is deeply narcotized,
galvanic stimulation of a “motor centre” is without effect, even when
with decrease of the narcosis painful stimulation produces movements.
By keeping up artificial respiration and rapidly increasing it, one can
throw the animal into a condition resembling death; the reflex moye-
ments cease, and the stimulation of the cortex is without effect.
After the return of the spontaneous respiration the stimulus again
acts. According to Fritsch and Hitzig induction currents do not
produce tetanic contractions in the muscles dependent upon the
stimulated area, and this, according to Schiff, shews that one has to
deal with a sensory centre. In opposition to the action in motor
parts, on stimulating the centres in the cortex the closing inductive
shock acts before the much stronger, but much more rapid opening
shock. On interrupting a galvanic current with an interrupting-wheel,
and on stimulating the lumbar spinal cord, a contraction was pro-
duced when the duration of the current was 39/59 th of a second, whilst
for the cortex of the brain s}sth of a second was necessary, 7. e.
a duration of the current ten times longer. It was also found that on
stimulating the centres in the cortex, seven to eleven times longer
time elapsed before the muscles dependent upon the ischiadic nerve
contracted, taking simply the greater distance into account, than
ought to have elapsed if it was simply a motor part, 7.e, when com-
pared with the time which elapsed between stimulation of the roots
of the Nv. ischiadicus and the contraction resulting therefrom.
Lastly, Schiff confirms the fact observed by the first experimenters
(F. and H.), that extirpation of single cortical centres is followed by
loss of the “muscular sense.” The author does not believe in the

1 To assist in rendering this Report more complete, authors are invited to
send copies of their papers to Dr Stirling, Physiological Laboratory, Edinburgh

University.

408 DR STIRLING.

existence of motor centres for the muscles of animal life in the cortex
of the brain, but he thinks we must assume their existence for the
movements of the heart, in that stimulations of, till now not previously
defined parts of the cortex, influence the movements of the heart, that
this influencing seems to be the expression of a direct excitability,
and no reflex phenomenon.

ON THE Functions oF THE LumMBAR PorTIONS OF THE SPINAL
Corp or THE Doc.—Eckhardt concluded from the fact that erection
could be produced by electrical stimulation of different parts of the
brain that the centre for erection lay in the brain (Journ. of Anat.
and Phys. vin. 186). F. Goltz and A. Fretisberg (Pfliiger’s Archiv,
Vol. vi., and abstract in Centralblatt fiir die Medicinischen Wis-
senschaften, No, 41) shew, however, that in dogs several days after
section of the spinal cord at the limit between its lumbar and
thoracic portions, that by certain stimulations of different peripheric
portions of the body erections occur reflexly, and this very regularly.
If, however, the lumbar spinal cord be destroyed, the erection does
not take place. Just as the activity of other reflex centres can be
inhibited by strong stimulation of the central ends of sensory nerves,
so also is the lumbar centre for erection. Of course this centre
can be inhibited as well as excited through fibres which pass to it
from parts higher in the spinal cord or from the brain, Thus is
to be explained the fact that after peripheral stimulation erection
does not occur so. promptly in intact animals as in those with
divided thoracic spinal cord; and on the other hand the observa-
tion of Eckhardt and others, that erection follows stimulation of
certain parts of the brain, is also explained. According to the
authors there is also present in the Jumbar spinal cord a reflex
centre for the evacuation of the urinary bladder. For, when in dogs
the spinal cord is destroyed at the limit between its lumbar and
thoracic portions, gentle tickling of certain peripheral parts of the
body produce evacuation of the urine, The authors also believe that
even in the waking state in man, originally the activity of the bladder
is excited, not by the will, but reflexly from the mucous membrane
of the bladder, whereby the first drop of urine enters the urethra,
The further evacuation, however, can be continued afterwards by
stronger innervation of the constrictor partis membranacee urethre.
This centre also stands in connection with the brain through inhibi-
tory and exciting fibres. By analogous experiments, the authors shew
that the sphincter ani can also be excited reflexly to peculiar rhyth-
mical activity, whilst the rectum exhibits peristaltic movements, and
that the centre for these reflex acts also lies in the lumbar spinal cord.
Goltz shewed, ten years ago, that in the frog the spinal cord exerts
an influence on the tone of the blood-vessels. Legallois observed the
same fact on rabbits, though he explained it incorrectly. The
authors confirm the observation on the dogs on which they had
experimented, that immediately after section of the spinal cord the
hind feet become warm, but several days later, after the wound of
the operation had quite healed, gradually the former tone returns,

+

eS

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 409

According to the authors this can only occur under the influence of
one or more centres placed in the lower part of the spinal cord, which
become paralysed immediately after the operation, but gradually
again become active. If the lumbar spinal cord be now again injured,
an increase of temperature in the hind-feet is again observed.
After complete destruction of the lumbar spinal cord, the circulation
is so affected that the animal dies. In a supplement, the author
adds the remarkable fact, that section of one ischiadicus in a dog also
produces, in the leg supplied by it, increase of temperature, even
when the spinal cord is completely destroyed. In another communi-
cation on ‘The Dilating Nerves of Vessels, Goltz and Freusberg
(Pfliiger’s Archiv, Vol. 1x.) deduce from their experiments: 1. The
existence of local nervous mechanisms placed at the periphery, which
govern the tonus and which regulate to a certain extent the blood-
circulation; 2. The presence of vasu-dilator nerves in the sciatic nerve,
which can be set in activity, either by simple section alone, and then
by electrical and chemical stimulation. These facts lead Goltz to
regard the increase of temperature which follows section or stimula-
tion of the nerves or of the spinal cord, not as a passive phenomenon,
or produced by paralysis of the nerves, but as an active phenomenon.

Drs F. Putzeys and F. Tarchanoff, at Goltz’s request, undertook
to investigate this subject (Centralblatt, No. 41).

A. The first point these authors investigated was: In what rela-
tion does the condition of the vessels stand to the temperature of the
paralysed limbs?

1. When one sciatic nerve is divided in the thigh in a dog, and

_ the toes on both hind-feet are then cut off, one sees at once that the

current of blood which flows out from the paralysed side is very con-
siderable, whilst that on the sound side is very weak or scarcely
present, The same result was obtained on young ducks and frogs.
The same result was obtained in a frog on division of the roots of the
sciatic nerve as they come out of the spinal cord.

2. Onstimulating the peripheral ends of the nerves in the animals,
these phenomena are completely reversed; the current of blood stops
on the paralysed side, and becothes very obvious in the other. Sti-

- mulation with common salt gave the same result. These phenomena

might be explained by the muscular contraction and tetanus in con-
sequence of stimulation, but the same phenomena were observed in

_ curarised dogs and frogs, but in the frog complete standstill of the

outflow of blood did not take place. Direct observation of the vessels

immediately after the operation shewed in the duck widening of

the vessels, the blood was redder than in the sound foot. Stimu-

_ lation of the nerves of the paralysed side caused narrowing of the

vessels of this side. Microscopic examination shews, that stimulation
of the sciatic nerve after its section, either in the thigh or in the
pelvis, causes a narrowing of the arteries, which may even go on to
complete occlusion of the vessels.

3. If the stimulation be continued for several minutes as under 2,
the narrowing disappears, and is followed by widening, which the
authors regard as a phenomenon of exhaustion.

VOL. Ix, 27

410 DR STIRLING.

On stimulation of a part of the nerve lying more peripherally,
the contraction of the vessels can be observed again.

B. 1. Section of the nerve in a dog yielded, just as in Goltz’s
experiments, considerable increase of the temperature in the corre-
sponding extremity. When, however, the peripheral end was stimu-
Jated in a curarised dog, they did not obtain an increase, but a
diminution of the temperature, which did not go so far that the
paralysed side became as cool as the sound one, but still was 15° to
2° ©. (2°7° to 3°6° Fahr.). In a duck the sinking was 2°5° C. (4°5°
Fahr.).

iy The temperature of the paralysed side in dogs was found after
three weeks to be the same as the sound side (corroborating Goltz).
The widening of the vessels corresponds to the increase of tempera-
ture, and the narrowing to sinking of the same.

c. On dividing the sciatic nerve in a frog; and cutting off the
toes of both hind-feet, the blood flows out in greater quantity from
the vessels of the paralysed side. After ten days, if a new section
of the webs be made, blood drops out from both feet, in about the
same quantity. When, however, the spinal cord is divided in the
middle of the back, or its lower part destroyed, it is observed that
very little or no blood flows out of the paralysed foot, whilst from the
other it flows out richly. After several days, the difference between
the two sides has almost disappeared. If the section of the spinal
cord be repeated in this way, that always several days elapse between
the individual operations, then a new increase of outflow of blood is
observed from the leg, which still stands in nervous connection with
the central organ. These experiments support those of Goltz, and
prove that a complete accordance exists between the conditions of
filling of the vessels and the heat of the corresponding part of the —
body, and that the gradual return of the temperature to the normal is _
the consequence of the restitution of the tonus. The authors derive
the following conclusions from their experiments :—-

1. The restitution of the tonus of the vessels, which have lost
their connection with the automatic centres placed in the brain and
spinal cord, cannot be otherwise explained, as Goltz has already sug-
gested, than by the existence of local peripheral arrangements, perhaps
of a nervous nature, which they are not disinclined to compare to
those which exist in the intestines; the tonus will therefore, in the —
first instance, depend upon this local mechanism, and secondly, upon
the centres in the spinal cord.

2. The sciatic nerve contains vaso-motor fibres.

3. It is not yet proved that it also contains vaso-dilator fibres
(after the meaning of Goltz), nerves which, according to the above
authors, are unnecessary for the explanation of the different phe- —
nomena, .

4, Section of the nerves and spinal cord produce, without doubt, —
a stimulation, whose effect is very evanescent, and which is followed —
almost immediately by paralysis,

5. The widening of the vessels and the increase of the tempera-

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 411

ture, which are sometimes observed immediately after the stimula-
tions, are the effects of over stimulation.

6. One might also add, that the vaso-motor fibres after their
section, are in a state of latent irritation, which, in consequence of an
energetic stimulation, makes way for exhaustion. One does not there-
fore require the aid of vaso-dilator nerves to explain the increase of
temperature which is observed after stimulation of a divided nerve,
or of repeated division of the same.

[In these various papers the authors do not cite the observations
of Mr Lister, “On the Parts of the Nervous System regulating the
Contraction of the Arteries.” Philosph. Trans, Part u., 1858, 607,
Rep.]

ON THE ‘SpAsM-CenTRE’ OF THE FrRoG AND ITs RELATION TO
ceRTAIN Drues.—F, Heubel (Pfiiger’s Archiv, Vol. 1x., and Abstract
in Centralblatt fiir die Med. Wissenschaften, No. 59, 1874) remarks
that the tonic form of contraction occurring in the frog has been
more studied than the more seldom-occurring clonic convulsions,
Former investigations had not rendered it certain whether there
existed in the central nervous system a circumscribed spot whose
stimulation was followed by general clonic spasms, The exposed
nervous centres of strong frogs were stimulated by simple, more or
less gentle, contact with the head of a needle, Stimulation of the
cerebrum, of the thalami optici, of the cerebellum, never gave muscu-
lar contractions ; that of the corpora quadrigemina produced move-
ments of the eyes, of the membrana nictitans, and bending of the head

forwards and downwards. If one touch, by means of the head of a
needle, the anterior broad part of the upper surface of the medulla
oblongata (sinus rhomboideus), the frog shews, as ‘an unmistakable
sign of pain,’ a sudden powerful contraction of the whole body, so
that after removal of the needle the animal lies spasmodically flat
upon the table. It remains for a longer or shorter time in a comatose
condition, which sometimes passes into death. More sensitive by the
same method of stimulation was the posterior angle (that nearer to
the spinal cord) of the sinus rhomboideus. Upon touching this spot,
the animal constantly uttered a loud ery, followed by trismus, general
convulsions, clonic mixed with tonic spasms, whereby all muscles
were thrown into action, the animal being caused to roll over, and it
continued to contract upon the table. After the spasmodic seizure
had passed off, the frog remained a short time in the very re-
markable position, until almost completely motionless, and reflex
sensibility had almost disappeared. If the animal recovered, the
collective symptoms could again be produced, but not with the same
intensity. The same results were obtained if, before the stimulation,
the medulla oblongata, cerebrum, thalami optici and corpora quad-
rigemina were removed ; sometimes also by a simple section through
the medulla oblongata, which probably acted as a stimulus to the
hypothetical spasm-centre (Krampf-centrum). As the anterior limit
of this centrum may be indicated an imaginary line which divides the
sinus rhomboideus into an anterior and posterior half, whilst the

27—2

412 DR STIRLING.

terior limit certainly does not lie more than one or one and a half
millimétres (‘04 or ‘06 inch) behind the calamus scriptorius. Concen-
trated solution of chloride of sodium also produced general bodily
convulsions, which passed into tetanus. It could be proved that the
centre for these muscular contractions is to be sought in the medulla
oblongata. After the assumption of a special ‘spasm-centre’ (Noth-
nagel) was capable of being regarded as probable, the idea that the
action of picrotoxin, nicotin, and other bodies upon the organism is
caused through this centre, lay at hand. The author corroborates the
proofs already offered by Réber, that picrotoxin, in that it produces
the characteristic spasms, acts as a stimulus to the ganglionic appara-
tus of the medulla. The same is also true (contrary to the ordinary
assumption) for nicotin. After careful separation of the brain from
the spinal cord in the frog, it is said that nicotin spasms no longer
take place ; on the spinal cord this alkaloid acts only as a depressant,
and to such a considerable extent, that always (when the medulla
oblongata is retained) only a single spasmodic seizure is produced, and
repetition and increase of the dose do not cause a second attack as by
mechanical irritation, and by chloride of sodium, picrotoxin and
nicotin. So also by caustic ammonia, carbonate of ammonia, bromide
of ammonia, and chloride of ammonium could general clonic spasms
be produced whose point of origin was undoubtedly placed in the
medulla oblongata. In all the above experiments it remains doubtful
whether the spasms were produced reflexly or directly. Several
circumstances support the latter view. In all experiments the reflex
sensibility was considerably diminished, whilst in undoubtedly reflex
spasins (e.g. those produced by strychnin) the reflex-sensibility is
almost always increased. Further, artificial respiration was without
effect on the spasms produced by nicotin, whilst reflex spasms, as is
known, are cut short by apnea. The author adverts to the fact that
under strong stimulation of peripheral sensory nerves certain actions
of the large nerve-centres are inhibited. Corresponding to this he
explains the diminution of the reflex sensibility and of the sensory
activities during and after stimulation of the ‘spasm-centre,’ ‘this
most sensitive point of the whole cerebro-spinal axis,’ as a direct
consequence of stimulation of the medulla itself.

“Effects of Alcohol on the Nervous System.” Hammond, Abstract
in Lond. Med. Reed., No. 98, 1874. * Recent researches on Vaso-
motor Nerves.” H. P. Bowditch, Boston Med. and Surgical Journal,
Jan. 1875. “Physiology and Pathology of the Pyramids of the
Medulla Oblongata.” Benedikt, Wiener Medizin, Presse (Abst. in

Lond, Med. Recd., No. 118).——“ The development of the powers of —

thought in Vertebrate Animals in connection with the development
of their Brains.” D, Byrne, Jour. of Anat. and Phys. 1x. 97.

“OHANGES OF COLOURATION IN VARIOUS ANIMALS UNDER THE INFLU-

eNCE oF Nerves.” Pouchet, Comptes rendus, Dec. 21, 1874 (Abst. in —

Lond, Med, Rec., No, 106), Operation chiefly on fishes, e.g, turbots,
The colour of several species was observed to change when they were

a a

irritated, or on simple sight of an external object. And since the ~

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. ; 413.

changes depend on the greater or less colouration of light by the
bottom, they must be regarded as reflex acts, having their centre in
the brain and their starting point in retinal impressions. The funda-
mental experiment of M. Pouchet is that of suppressing the ‘chro-
matic function’ by removing the eyeball, or simply cutting the optic
nerve. The blinded animal loses its power of changing colour
according to the bottom. Neither the spinal nerves nor lateral
nerves govern this chromatic function. The trigeminus has an effect,
The great sympathetic is the great governor of this function, and it
forms the route of transmission for the influences going from the brain
to the cutaneous chromoblasts. The same function exists in some
articulata, as Palemon serratus.

ON TROPHIC AND VASO-DILATOR Nerves.—Cl. Bernard (Gazette
Méd. de Paris, 1874, No. 13) divided the trigeminus between the
Gasserian ganglion and the brain, and obtained the ordinary neuropa-
ralytic ophthalmia, without his being able by the most exact microsco-
pic examination to detect the slightest degeneration of the nerve-fibres,
The trophic disturbances are therefore to be ascribed to conditions in
the circulation; the Nv. trigeminus encloses a large number of vaso-
dilator fibres, whose section causes paralysis and consequent disturb-
ance of the circulation. With the trigeminus divided as above, even
after eight days a considerable secretion of saliva could be produced
upon stimulating mucous membrane of the tongue; the stimulus,
which in this case affected the lingual nerve, could only be conveyed
to the chorda tympani through the intact remaining gang. sub-
maxillare. Former experiments shewed the author that the property
of the sub-maxillary ganglion to act as a reflex centre only lasts two
or three days after section of the lingual nerve.

General Physiology of Nerves.

“The Polar Action of Electricity in Medicine.” John J. Mason,
New York Med. Jour., Dec. 1874. “ Note on the so-called Auto-
genic Regeneration of Nerves.” A. Vulpian, Archiv. de Physiol.
1874, 704.

On THE TERMINATIONS OF THE GusTaTORY Nerve.---E. Sertoli
(Gazetta Medico-Veterinaria, Anno iv., Abstract in Centralblatt fiir die
Medicin. Wissenschaften, No. 55, 1874) investigated the papilla foliata
of the tongue of the horse. For the investigation, the author employed

-a very interesting modification of the gold method. Small pieces

of fresh tissue were placed in a relatively large quantity of gold solu-
tion (4 to 4 per cent.), and allowed to remain therein for eighteen or
twenty-four hours, then washed out with water, and placed for eighteen
to twenty-four hours in a 2 per cent. solution of bichromate of potash.
They were then washed out with water and placed in absolute alcohol,
in which they were completely hardened, and in which the colour
already begun in the bichromate of potash appeared perfectly. The

‘colour can be accelerated by exposing the preparation in bichromate

414 DR STIRLING.

of potash to a temperature of 30° Cent. (86° Fahr.). The papilla
foliata is very richly supplied with nerves. In the subepithelial
connective tissue the nerves form a very dense network, and end in
the two following ways: (1) in the gustatory bulbs, which are present
in extraordinarily large numbers in the folds and furrows of the papilla
foliata ; (2) in an intra-epithelial network of fine non-medullated
nerve-fibres intensly coloured by chloride of gold. In addition to this
network stellate bodies coloured dark violet by chloride of gold lie
between the pavement epithelium, the bodies being similar to those
described by Langerhaus from the human epidermis. Sertoli is
inclined to regard them as non-nervous. As this intraepithelial
nervous network lies deeply imbedded and protected in the furrows
of the papilla foliata, it cannot, according to Sertoli, be regarded as
the anatomical substratum of the sense of taste, and he also claims it
as a gustatory organ, as the form of termination of the specific sensory
nerves of the tongue. In fact, this same intraepithelial nerve-ending,
which often penetrates to the most superficial layers of the epithelium,
occurs quite commonly in the papille fungiformes of the horse’s
tongue. These papille are distributed in great numbers and with
great regularity over the whole dorsum of the tongue, and it is very

tempting to regard this form of ending as the anatomical condition of ©

the gustatory sense distributed over the whole surface of the tongue.
The conclusion of the paper is occupied with the consideration of the
minute anatomy of the gustatory discs (which are rendered a very
characteristic dark colour with chloride of gold),

Eye.

“On the dependence of perception of Colour on the time.”
M. Kunkel, Pfluger’s Archiv. 1x. 197 (Abstract in Lond. Med. Reed.
No. 97, 1874). “On susceptibility in different parts of the Eye for
different colours.” Raehlmann, Graefe’s Archiv fiir Opthalmologie,
xx. Heft. 1 (Zbid.). “On simultaneous Light-contrast.” E. Hering,
Sitzungsb. d. Wiener Acad. No. 68 (Abst. in Lond. Med. Reed. No, 101).
“Transplantation of rabbit's conjunctiva to the human con-
junctiva.” Otto Becker, Wiener Medizin. Wochenschr. No. 14, 1874.
“Method for measuring the refractive power of the crystalline
lens.” Hirschberg, Centralblatt, No. 49 and 52, 1874. Reply to the
foregoing, by E. Cyon, Centralblatt, No. 50. Meyer’s experiment,
J. Hoppe, Deutsche Klinik, 1874, No. 32. “The Colour of the
yellow spot in Man,” H. Schmidt, Centralblati, No. 57. “State

of the pupil during chloroform anmsthesia.” Budin, Gas. Méd. de —

Paris, 1874, No. 38. “Pulsatory phenomena within the Eyeball.”
Jacobi, Centralblatt, No. 2, 1875. “On the action of Muscarin in
accommodation and on the pupil.” W. Krenchel, v. Graefe’s Archiv. fiir
Ophthal. 1874, xx. 135 (Abst. in Centralblatt, No, 4, 1875). “On
the oblique passages of the rays of light through the lens, &e.” L, Her-
mann, p. 24, pl 1, Ztirich, 1874 (Abst. in Centralblatt, No, 11, 1875).
“On the Theory of Colour-blindness.” F. Holmgren, Upsala Lakarefor

forhandl. 1874, 1. 119, 11, 187 (Abst. in Centralblatt, No, 15, 1875), —

—

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 415

_ CONSEQUENCES OF SECTION OF THE Optic NERVE IN THE F Roc.
W. Krenchel, v. Graefe’s Arch. 1874, 127.—Berlin found that after
section of the optic nerve in the frog, degeneration of the nerve-fibres
to their most extreme intra-ocular terminations occurred. Berlin sug-
gested that this was not due merely to the section of the nerves, but
to the division of the blood-vessels by his method of operating. The
author confirms Berlin’s results completely, and shews further, by
intra-cranial section (whereby the vessels are uninjured), the correct-
ness of the above assumption. K. found that in frogs, six months
after the operation, no change in the eye either macro- or micro-
-scopically was to be detected ; on the contrary, he found that several
times in the almost always completely divided optic nerve, degenera-
tion of the nerve-fibres for 1 to 2 mm. from the point of section had
taken place. It is very remarkable that the mobility of the pupil for
the action of light is not in the least diminished by intra-cranial
section of the optic nerve,

INFLUENCE OF SECTION OF THE TRIGEMINIS ON OCULAR PRESSURE.
—Hirschberg (Centralblatt, No, 6, 1875) confirms the view of Donders
and Snellen, that section of this nerve in man produces after a time
decided diminution of the intra-ocular pressure.

On Traumatic Keratitis,—Walb (Centralblatt, No. 7, 1875)
employed the method of Lieberkiihn, viz. the injection of a freshly
prepared neutral solution of carmine into the cornea of the rabbit.
This causes little or no disturbance, and if the cornea is examined in
from 10 to 11 days, the corneal corpuscles are found splendidly
coloured and lying in a perfectly colourless ground-substance. After-
wards the cornea can be irritated by chloride of zine, nitrate of silver,
&c,, and the changes in the corpuscles, &c., noted.

GoLDZIEHER ON IMPLANTATIONS IN THE ANTERIOR CHAMBER
oF THE Eyvz.—W. Goldzieher (Archiv fiir Experiment. Pathol. und
Pharmak, 1874, Band xi., Abstract in Centralblatt fiir die Med.
Wissenchaften, No. 52) has adopted a method similar to that of
Zielenko, who placed in the lymph-saes of frogs different tissues, and
observed the changes they underwent. The author used the anterior
chamber of the eye of rabbits, and placed in it conjunctiva, nasal
- mucous membrane, nerves, cornea, &c., the advantage being that
_ the coarser changes could be continually observed and controlled
through the cornea, which almost always remains transparent. He
found that the body introduced very soon became attached and
vascular, either by the iris or by the conjunctiva, by means of the
cicatrix in the limnus cornee. They became either encapsuled, the
iris encircling them like folds, whereby cysts may be formed (so-
called epidermoid iris-cysts), or they increase by adhering to some
structure in the interior of the eye, and either shrivel or develop
further, either in all parts (tuba, which even shewed peristaltic move-
ments), or only in one (epithelium of the nasal mucous membrane).
The proliferating epithelial cells do not conduct themselves in the
foreign tissues as irregular developing tissues, which destroy the

416 DR STIRLING.

texture of adjoining parts, but conduct themselves after their physio-
logical type.

Ear.

Anatomy of the Ear. Politzer, Allgem. Wiener Med. Zeitung,
October 20th, 1874———“‘On the Physiology of Audition. A.M. Meyer,
Abstract in Lond. Med. Recd., No.101. “On the use of the Mem-
brana Tympani as a phonautograph, Boston Med. and Surg. Jour.,
1875 (Absts. in Lond. Med. Recd., No. 115.) “On section of the
Semicircular Canals and the hypotheses founded thereon.” A. Bot-
cher, Arch. f. Ohrenheilkunde, 1x. 1—71. (Absts. in Centralblatt,
No. 48, 1874). “ On the connections of the Ossicles of the Ear.”
G. Brunner, Knapp and Moos’ Archiv., 1874, m1, 22. “ Tem-
perature of the External Auditory Meatus.” E. Mendel, Kirch. Arch.
xi, 132, finds, that im the healthy subject the temperature is
always 0,1 to 0,3° C. lower than that of the rectum. During apo-
plectic or epileptic seizures the temp. of the ext. auditory meatus
in comparison with that of the rectum is increased. Injection of
morphia or narcosis produced by chloral produces considerable dimi-
nution of temperature.

Skin.

“On the reflex phenomena connected with the vessels of the
skin, and on reflex sweating.” Botkin, Berlin Klin. Wochensch.
Nos. 7 and 8, 1875.

Circulatory System.

“The Blood and Glycemia.” Claude Bernard, Revue Scientifique,
Noy. 28, 1874. “ The phenomena and functions of Transudations
in the animal organism.” fF. Pacini, Lo Sperimentale, Oct. and Nov.,
1874. “ Direct stimulation of the Heart in Mammals.” 8. Mayer,
Sitzungsh d. Wiener Akad. wxvitt., Heft. 1 to 3. (Absts. in
Lond. Med. Reed., No. 104, 1874).——-‘On the action of Nitrite
of Amyl on the Blood-corpuscles.” Ladendorf, Berlin Klin. Wo-
chensch, No, 43, (Absts. in Lond, Med. Recd., No. 106, 1875).
“‘On the function of the Spleen.” Tarchanoff, Lond. Med. Reed.,
No. 107.) “ Modifications of the Blood in its passage through the
Spleen.” Malassey and Picard, Comptes rendus, Dec. 21, 1874,
(Absts. in Lond. Med. Recd., No. 117). “On some points connected
with the Circulation of the Blood, arrived at from a consideration of
the Sphygmograph-trace.” A H. Garrod, Proceeds of Royal Soc.,
No. 157, 1975.“ Peristaltic Arterial Action.” Objections to this
theory. J. J. Mason, New York Med. Jour. 1873 and 1874.——
“ Position of the Heart’s impulse in different postures of the body.”
Ransome, Jour. of Anat. and Phys. 1x., 1387. “Action of
Chloral on the Blood,” W. Feltz and E. Ritter, Comptes rendus,
ixxix, 1874, 324.—“ Transfusion of different bloods,” L, Landois,
Centralblatt, No. 1, 1875,——* Condition of the blood-pressure on
respiring compressed Air,” Drosdoff and Botschetsch Karoff, Cen-
tralblatt, No, 5, 1875,.——* Transfusion of heterogeneous blood.” —

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 417

L. Landois, Centralblatt, No. 1, 1875.——“ Mode of action of the
Auriculo-ventricular valves.” Mare Seé, Arch. de Physiol., 1874
(Abst. in Centralblatt, No, 14, 1875).——“ Influence of Alcaloids on
certain properties of hemoglobin.” Ed. Schiir. Ber. d. d. Chem. Ges.,
vir. 1873, 362.

On THE CrrcuLATION oF Bioop 1n Excisep Orcans.—(F2x-
periences sur la Circulation du Sang dans les Organes Isolés.)
Par Dr Paul Heger, Bruxelles, pp. 69, 8vo. 1873.)—Dr Heger,
professor of physiology in Brussels, in an able monograph, cites
the results of his researches on the above subject, made under
Ludwig’s direction. The author shews clearly that the alkaloids
have an action, entirely local, upon the walls of the vessels, and that
this action is independent of the nerve-centres.

Artificial Cireulation. An organ, such as the liver or kidney, is
removed from the body as soon as the animal is killed, and a stream
of blood passed through its vessels. The study of its function is
therefore very greatly simplified. The blood employed ought to be
defibrinated, carefully filtered, and brought to a proper temperature,
and be taken from an animal of the same species from which the
organ, whose function is to be studied, was taken. In certain cases,
however, the blood of other animals may be employed, as the blood of
the rabbit or the frog, &c. A description is then given of the manner
of making articial circulation of defibrinated blood in the lungs of a
dog. The lungs are placed in a glass case, hermetically sealed, to
represent the thorax ; within which the pressure on the surface of the
lungs is easily regulated and graduated by a pressure-bottle. Similar
instructions are given for artificial hepatic secretions, just as was
practised by Asp (Journ. of Anat. and Phy. 1x. p. 430). The
changes that the defibrinated blood undergoes in its passage through
the different organs experimented on are then considered.

General Modifications observed in Artificial Circulation. Gene-
rally the blood in its passages loses its red arterial colour and takes
on a venous character; but if the rapidity of the circulation be con-
siderable, it passes through without alteration of colour. The absolute
quantity of oxygen absorbed and of carbonic acid produced is con-
siderable, the relative quantity less. As the chemical modifications
are dependent on the rapidity of the current, it is important to study
the causes that vary the duration of passage, and establish the relation
between pressure and velocity. If organs be devoid of all the
properties of living tissues, the pressure being equal, then the quantity
of blood obtained at the orifice of outflow will be equal in equal
times, save those slight differences which are observed upon operating
on inert tubes of small diameter (Poisseuille). But it is not so ina
fresh organ in which we cause a current of defibrinated blood to
circulate under, e.g. a constant pressure of ten millimétres of mer-
eury. The quantity of blood which traverses the organ becomes less
from minute to minute, with, however, some oscillations. If, at the
moment of cessation of the flow, the pressure in the entering vessels
be suddenly elevated by several millimétres, the afflux augments

418 DR STIRLING.

immediately at the orifice of outflow, and, after having attained a
maximum, gradually declines. If at the end of the outflow, before it
has ceased, the pressure within the entering vessels be suspended,
then the current ceases immediately; then, upon restoring the
pressure, the current is more considerable than before the interrup-
tion. It is seen, then, that (1) every oscillation of pressure causes
oscillations in rapidity ; (2) under the same pressure the quantities
' delivered are not equal, since the rapidity diminishes constantly, and
a momentary interruption suffices to determine an augmentation of
the current. Whilst under a constant pressure the current is estab-
blished without interruption. On comparing the quantities delivered
during two minutes (e.g. from the lungs). it happens that the second
is larger than the first; there are oscillations such that the rapidity
rises, diminishes, rises again and diminishes, until it falls more and
more towards zero. In a dead organ the rapidity does not undergo
the same oscillations as in a fresh one; in a dead organ (e.g. lungs,
twenty-four hours after death) the rapidity, at first constant, abates
gradually and progressively ; there are no oscillations of the current ;
the quantity obtained during one minute is equal or inferior, without
recurrence, to that obtained during the preceding minute. Cidema,
although it does contribute to lessening the rapidity of the current,
is equally, with the idea of capillary embola, incapable of explaining
the oscillations observed. The changes undergone by the blood after
its passage through excised organs, e.g. muscle, lungs, &c., have
already been studied by J. J. Miiller, Ludwig, A. Schmidt, and
Genersich. In experiments on excised lungs the author finds that,
all other circumstances being equal, the rapidity of the blood-eurrent
traversing the lungs is proportional to the pressure exerted in the
pulmonary artery. With the same pressure in the pulmonary artery
the quantity of blood which traverses the lungs is much greater when
they are dilated by the pleural cavity, With the same pressure in the
pulmonary artery, the quantity of blood which flows through the
lungs is much less when they are dilated by inflation through the
trachea. The blood is attracted to the pulmonary vessels during
inspiration.

Circulation in the Excised Liver, The author points out that
the oscillations in the current are again found in the liver, where the
vena porte in its ultimate ramifications contains no muscular fibres,
but only connective tissue and elastic fibres. The following, the
results of Belz’s experiments under Ludwig, on the circulation of a
solution of gum in the liver, are then stated; and as they are not
generally known they may be introduced here, Taking into view
the diameter of the hepatic artery and that of the vena porte, the
portal circulation has a greater rapidity than the arterial hepatic one.
The circulation in the hepatic artery is facilitated by the absence of a
current in the portal vein; it is interfered with by a simultaneous
current, The retention of bile in the biliary canals is a serious
obstacle to the circulation of blood in the portal vein. If two
different pressures succeed each other, the current varies, not only
with the pressure under which it penetrates, but also with that

as OF an ee ee ee ee ae

Py See eee eee er

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 419

which precedes it. If at the beginning of a current the pressure be
constant, the quantity of fluid which passes through the liver is at
first variable, and it is only after about ten minutes that equal quan-
tities are received from minute to minute. With the same pressure
in the vena porte the rapidity diminishes proportionally to the
pressure exercised on the surface of the liver. The immense import-
ance of these observations, both clinically and practically, is at once
obvious. .
Influence of Toxic Agents on the Blood-current in Artificial
Circulation.—lIf a few drops of an alkaloid be added to defibrinated
blood, the current of blood which passes through the organ is im-
mediately modified. Thus, nicotin added to defibrinated blood, cir-
culating through excised lungs, greatly increases (to three times) the
rapidity of the current. As soon as normal blood is admitted, the
action of the alkaloid is effuced, the slowing of the rapidity (as
expressed by the quantity which flows out from the pulmonary vein
in a given time) which succeeds the toxic action is regular as in a
dead organ ; it shews no oscillations, yet a new dose of the alkaloid
produces again an acceleration. The modifications in the rapidity
are proportional to the dose of nicotin employed ; the larger the dose,
the greater the rapidity. Nicotin has, therefore, a special action,
entirely. opposite to that of cyanide of potassium, which causes
arrest of the circulation by cedema. Exactly the same is true of the
liver. In thus experimenting on excised organs we eliminate all
effects of the central nervous system, to whose influence too many
phenomena in the physiology of the circulation are too apt to be
ascribed. Nicotin when added to blood produces a change in its
colour and constitution ; but this is not the cause of the action, for
large doses of nicotin added to blood passed through dead organs had
no influence whatever on the rapidity of the current. By the aid of
Poisseule’s formula, it is shewn that there are modifications in the
calibre of capillaries under the influence of certain toxic substances,
but whether due to contractility proper or not, the author leaves
undecided.-—[Zond. Med. Reed., No, 115, 1875.]

INFLUENCE OF THE BRAIN ON THE BLooD-PRESSURE IN THE
Putmonary ArTerRyY.—Badaud (Verhandl. d. phys. Medicinisch.
Gesellsch. zw Wiirzburg, vil. 1) has investigated this subject in Fick’s
laboratory. The blood-pressure was not measured directly in the
pulmonary artery itself, but was estimated from the pressure in the
right ventricle, the pressure during the cardiac systole being the
same in the right ventricle as in the pulmonary artery. The thorax
was not opened, but a catheter was passed through the jugular vein
into the right ventricle, the catheter being connected with a new
manometer devised by O. Fick. The pressure in the pulmonary
artery is very much less than in the aorta, e.g. in the former 48 mm.
Hg., in the latter 102. On division of the spinal cord the pressure
sinks in both, but so much more in the aorta than in the pulmonary
artery, that it becomes almost exactly the same in both, e.g. 18 mm.
Hg. in the pulmonary artery, 20 in the aorta, Stimulation of the

420 DR STIRLING.

divided spinal cord causes a marked rise in the pressure as well in the
pulmonary artery as in the aorta, though the rise is much greater in
proportion to the normal pressure, in the pulmonary artery, than in
the aorta. ‘Stimulation of the splanchnics raises the pressure in the
pulmonary artery very slightly. Compression of the aorta did not
raise it at all.

Action oF LoBELINA ON THE CirrcuLaTion.—J. Ott (Boston Med.
and Surg. Journal, Jan, 1875) working in Bowditch’s laboratory,
experimented chiefly on rabbits. Lobelina in small doses increases
the blood-pressure by acting as an excitant on the peripheral vaso-
motor system. It seems to be mainly a respiratory poison, and in
the cat it greatly reduces the temperature.

Ow THE Iron IN THE System. Picard (Comptes rendus, Nov. 30,
1874) investigated this subject in Cl. Bernard’s laboratory. The
animals operated on were chiefly dogs. The dogs got no food on the
day of the analysis, and the analysis was made on defibrinated blood.
In 100 cc. of blood the following quantities of iron were found.
Young, very fat dog 0°092; adult dog 0:065; dog weakened by pre-
vious bleedings 0-041. These are the extremes. As to the mean-
ing of these variations, the author compared the quantity of iron in
100 cc. of blood with the quantity of O, which 100 cc. saturated
with this gas, liberated in vacuo. This table shews that the two
quantities vary in a parallel manner, and that their relation is
sensibly constant and equal to 2:3, He finds further that the spleen
under ordinary circumstances contains a much higher percentage of
iron than is to be found in the blood, e.g. in spleen, dog 0:24; ox
0°15; cat 0°34. The liver comes next, but the proportion never
exceeds that in the blood, and is rarely equal to it.

On THE RétE or GAsEs IN THE COAGULATION OF THE BLOOD,—
E. Mathieu and V. Urbain (Comptes rendus, LXx1x. 1874, 665, Absts.
in Centralblatt, No. 60). (Jour. of Anat. and Phys, vin. 408, for
results of previous experiments) proceed from the view that fibrin is
dissolved pre-formed in the blood, and is simply excreted on coagula-
tion taking place. The cause of this coagulation they see in the
union of fibrin with CO,. If two portions of blood are caught directly
from the artery in the receiver of the air-pump, and their gases re-
moved before and after coagulation, then more COQ, is obtained in the
former case, 100 vols, of blood gave

Before coagulation, ’ After coagulation,
48-05 eem.CO, 39°38
a ie ee 44°85
49°00 5; os 40:95
EPRO se 42°50

Blood deprived of CO, does not coagulate, but the excretion of coagula
occurs at once when a current of CO, is passed through it, The
authors prepare blood free of CO, by adding a few drops of NH, to
prevent coagulation, and then displace the O by CO, and lastly

in

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 421

remove the CO, and NH, by pumping. Such blood does not by itself
coagulate, but does so on CO, being passed through it. The authors
observe further, that some venous blood coagulates with difficulty, e.g.
renal venous blood. According to the authors, this blood contains
little CO,, the urine, on the contrary, an obvious amount; they refer
this phenomenon to the diffusion of CO, Proceeding from this
observation the authors made fast a piece of moist intestine to a
divided artery. The blood therein remained fluid, when it was kept
in motion (in the other case CO, increases in quantity which causes
coagulation). Venous blood contains more NH, than arterial, and
therefore coagulates more slowly. 100 ccm. venous blood from the
dog gave 15,85 com. NH,, 100 ccm. arterial 10,62 (7). The fibrin
obtained by beating the blood, on being heated with acids, and on
being pumped out, yielded [10 grms. dried fibrin (=60 moist)]
80—90 ccm. CO,

Piosz anD GyorGyaAl on CoacuLatTion oF BLoop IN THE Liv-
inc AnimaL.—Plosz and Gyorgyai (Archiv fiir exper. Path. und
Pharmak., Band ii. 1874) confirm the assertion of Naunyn, that in-
jection of lake-coloured blood into the veins of a rabbit is followed in
most cases by death, through thrombosis of the right heart and pul-
monary artery. Of fourteen rabbits only two survived the injection,
In every case where death resulted thrombosis was proved to be the
cause of death. Outside the body the addition of lake-coloured blood
to normal blood greatly accelerates coagulation. The second part of
the paper is occupied with the question of the injection of foreign
blood. Fourteen rabbits received varying quantities of defibrinated
blood from hens and turkeys; only one of these survived, two were
killed intentionally, eleven died in consequence of the injection, some
of these on the sixth day after the injection. As to the cause of death,
in three cases extensive thrombosis in the right heart, in the large
veins of the right heart, and in the pulmonary artery, were found; in
five cases the section was not made early enough to determine
whether the thrombosis took place intra vitam or not; in three cases
the presence of thrombi was distinctly ascertained, so that to the
blood as such a poisonous action is to be ascribed. [ Vide the experi-
ments of Creite, who asserted the poisonous action of the serum of
the blood of the bird in the rabbit.] The blood-corpuscles of the bird
could be discovered several hours after the injection, but they gradu-
ally broke down, in that the stroma became discoloured, and
the nuclei became free. [Vide the results of the experiments of
Landois, Journ. of Anat. and Phys. vu. 405.] Blood-colouring
matter appeared in the urine. In the frog the solution of the
foreign blood-corpuscles occurs much quicker than in the rabbit.
[See also the results of W. Miiller’s, where no thrombosis was observed
after the injection into the veins of dogs of very large quantities of
defibrinated dog’s blood. Journ. of Anat. and Phys. 1x, 222.]

ZIEGLER ON THE EXPERIMENTAL PRopUCTION OF GIANT-CELLS
FRoM CoLouRLess BLoop-corpuscLes.—Ernest Ziegler (Centralblatt
fiir die Medicinischen Wissenschaften, Nos. 51 and 58, 1874,) cut

429 DR STIRLING.

from mirror-glass, small glass plates of different sizes, partly quad-
ratic, partly long rectangular, ground off the edges carefully, and
affixed to each with porcelain glue a fine cover-glass of the same size,
so that there remained between the glass lamelle an empty capillary
space, accessible from all sides, with the exception of the corners.
These plates were brought under the skin and periosteum of dogs and
rabbits, or were introduced into one or other of the large cavities of
the body, This was done under the impression that the colourless
blood-corpuscles would penetrate into ail the spaces, would wander
under the cover-glass, and there, independent of the organism, be
nourished by lymphatic fluid, and undergo this or that metamorphosis.
The author met with many failures, and recommends the following
method. Small plates of glass must be used 10 to 20 millimétres
(004 to 0-08 inch) long, and 10 millimétres (0-4 inch) broad, Large
ones easily occasion profuse suppuration. The plates were generally
left from ten to twenty-five days in the spot operated on, The best
field for operating is the inner side of the thigh of not too old dogs.
Rabbits gave no satisfactory results. After the plates were removed
they were slightly washed, and at once placed in a 1 percent, solution
of perosmic acid, and allowed to remain there for two days. They
were then placed in spirit with glycerine, then in pure glycerine,
The following were the results of sixty-five experiments. An in-
wandering of colourless blood-corpuscles took place in all cases. The
changes of the same in the first ten days varied according to the direc-
tion of the development. After several days a flattening of the cor-
puscles and the formation of a cellular mosaic was often to be observed,
After this time the author found the following—up to the twenty-
fifth day. In the greater number of cases only retrogressive changes
were observed. The progressive processes shewed the different de-
velopmental directions.

lt. The formation of a Reticular Tissue with Enclosed Epithelioid
Cells and Rich Development of Giant-Cells.—This is, without doubt,
the most interesting result. The giant-cells consist of finely granular
protoplasm and certain numerous large oval nuclei and distinet
nucleoli, sometimes with round sharp contours, at others provided
with processes. They lie in the above-mentioned reticular tissue,
surrounded by cells which in their immediate neighbourhood are of
considerable size, but diminish towards the periphery. The size of
the giant-cells is very various, and it can be seen, on one and the
same microscopical preparation, how they are developed from the
colourless blood-corpuscles by increase of the protoplasm and simulta-
neous increase of the nucleus, till they reach the dimensions of the
largest known giant-cells, In preparations in which giant-cells were
present the author never observed the development of blood-vessels. _

2. Development of Connective Tissue and Vessels.—Similar appear-
ances to those of developing connective tissue were found. The pre-
parations incline the author to lean to the paracellular origin of the
reticular tissue. As the first stage in the development of the vessels
there is clearly observed a network of peculiarly changed colourless
blood-corpuscles ranged one on another, which increase considerably

eS a

i i el ee

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 425

on the surface, and are firmly fixed on the edges, and gradually
assume an endothelial character. In addition to this so-called
secondary formation of vessels, the author observed at a later date
bud-like formations from the wall of existing vessels. Still even here
the auther thinks that these bud-like formations are formed by the
apposition of neighbouring lymph-corpuscles. The author draws the
following conclusions :—1, Real giant-cells can develope from colour-
less corpuscles. 2. Under similar conditions eytogeuous connective
tissue with epithelioid cells are formed. 3, These formations are to
be placed equal to certain forms of tubercle; or, in other words,
tubercle with its giant-cells is an inflammation focus in which the
colourless corpuscles heaped up at any spot (probably intracanalicular
—Rindfleisch, Schiippel) undergo a development. This, according to
the author, is caused by imperfect nutrition of the cells, in so far as
this is not sufficient to furm a new connective tissue. According to
this view giant-cells are to be regarded as imperfect new cell-forma-
tions. 4. The formation of intercellular substance in reticular tissue
is paracellular, arising anew by a cutting off from the sides of the
cells,

Purves oN THE PLack WHERE THE Wuite Bioop-CorpuscLes
WANDER OUT OF THE VESSELS.—L. Purves (Onderzoekingen gedaan in
het Physiol. Labor., Utrecht, 1873, 11.), to investigate the place where
the white blood-corpuscles pass through the wall of the vessel in
Cohnheim’s inflammation experiment, injected a solution of silver
into the vessels of a frog prepared after the manner of Cohnheim.
The colourless corpuscles, without exception, wander out between the
boundaries of the endothelial cells. They never pass through the sub-
stance or through the nucleus of an endothelial cell. According to
the author the red corpuscles only pass out by those channels which
have been previously made for them by the colourless corpuscles,
The author found no stomata of any kind on the epithelium of the
vessels,

On THE INFLUENCE OF THE CONCENTRATION OF THE BLOOD AND
TissuE-JUICES ON THE CHANGES OF Form AND PLACE OF THE
CotourtEess Bioop-Corruscies.—R. Thoma (Virchow’s Archiv, Vol.
Lxxt. Heft 1), on this subject :-—

1. Influence of the Concentration of the Surrounding Fluid on
the Amcboid Movements of the Colourless Blood-Corpuscles removed
from the Body.—Blood of the frog, placed in the gas-chamber, and
from which water was removed by the passage through it of a stream
of air, shewed, that in the portion of blood poor in water, the number
of round motionless colourless corpuscles surpassed considerably the
number of those shewing changes of form. In blood in which the

- quantity of water was increased, the greater number of the colourless

corpuscles shewed the branched forms, such as are produced by the
flowing movement of protoplasm. Those corpuscles which adhere
to the cover-glass are more spread out, shew clearly three or four
nuclei, and bear more richly branched processes, contain oftener
vacuoles, and shew more lively changes of form than those floating

424 DR STIRLING.

free in the fluid. This is, without doubt, due to the action of the
surface, and produced by strong adhesion of the body of the cell to
the surface of the glass. This property also belongs to a series of
other solid bodies, and also to the intima of the vessels. The white
blood-corpuscles become more sluggish in their changes of form with
the increase of the concentration of the fluid, and the greater number
change into rounded cells, which sometimes have fine processes on
their surface. This is not due to death of the corpuscles, for by
increase in the quantity of water they again became lively in their
movements, and resume the properties of freshly drawn white-blood-
corpuscles, These observations were made in the blood of Rana
temporaria and esculenta; but the same is also true for that of
Salamandra maculosa, and Triton cristatus, and also for that of
warm-blooded animals ; at least for the guinea-pig and dog. Under
the influence of water the contents of the white corpuscles may be
increased four times, and this can only be regarded as an imbibition
phenomenon. 2, Kaperiments on Colourless Corpuscles circulating
in the Blood, produced by injection of water into the circulation of
the frog.—Besides unchanged colourless corpuscles there are a
large number which shew forms such as can be produced upon blood
under the influence of water outside the body. Those which lie upon
the walls of the vessels exhibit very lively changes of form. In an
opposite experiment frogs were exposed for several days to evapora-
tion. Microscopic observation shewed that under these conditions
in the tongue, no amceboid movements were to be observed in the
corpuscles circulating in the blood, and also in those touching the
walls of the vessels, and the injection of a 3 per cent. solution of
common salt into the veins shewed that increase of the quantity of
salts acted quite in a similar manner'to the regular concentration of
the blood by evaporation of water from the surface of the skin.
3. Haperiments on the Wandering Cells in Living Tisswes.—The
question was whether colourless corpuscles which have wandered out-
side the vessels are influenced in a similar manner by differences in
concentration of the tissue fluids. The cells which have wandered
out into the tissue shew the lively ameeboid changes of form and
place, whilst by infusion of a 3 per cent. salt solution and evapora-
tion from the skin, the amceboid movements of the wandering cells
become slower and very soon cease altogether. The same is observed
with a 1-5 per cent solution, the colourless corpuscles becoming round
and shining, and changes of place could no longer be observed of
them ; whilst with a 0°5 per cent. solution the changes both of form
and place were very lively. Irrigation of the frog’s tongue with
various strengths of salt solution also produced important changes in
the calibre of the blood-vessels, and therefore in the rapidity of the
blood-current. Under irrigation by a 0°5 per cent, solution, a very
plentiful out-wandering, specially from the small veins, takes place,
while in the same organ with a 1:5 per cent. solution, the wandering-
out of the colourless corpuscles is completely suppressed. This
solution acts first on the blood-vessels, producing a pronounced dilata-
tion of the arteries, and therewith an acceleration of the blood-cur-

ee —
ee

Se) ae —-

eye Se ae

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 425

rent in the arteries, capillaries and veins, as Wharton Jones had
already proved, and which H. Weber, F. Schuler, Buchheim,
Vierordt, etc. shewed, depends essentially on the diffusion of the
blood-plasma with the salt solution. The acceleration of the blood-
current is so considerable that the venous current takes on part
of the characteristics of the arterial one. Specially, the marginal
position of the colourless corpuscles disappears. The second effect of
the 1:5 per cent. solution of chloride and common salt is its influence
on the changes of form and place of the colourless corpuscles. The
chief results of this investigation are, first, that changes in the
quantity of the salts and the concentration of the blood and tissue-
juices, within those limits which are compatible with the existence
of the animal organism, exercise a powerful directing influence on
the changes of form and place of the colourless corpuscles. Con-
centration of the tissue-juices causes these corpuscles to lose their
property of changing their form and place, so that they become round
and shining. These phenomena may last for days, until a dilution
of the tissue-juice is again produced, when the lively changes of
form and place of the corpuscles begin again. Thus they shew
a tolerably wide similarity with vegetable protoplasm, as pointed out
by Kiihne on the myxomycete. Secondly, it is proved that the
wandering-out of colourless corpuscles from the vessels of the frog’s
tongue, in spite of a large loss of substance, can be completely
hindered by the irrigation of the wound with a 1°5 per cent. solution
of common salt, that it is hindered by the thickening and increase of
the salts of the blood. By irrigation with salt solution, of the
above concentration, the action depends upon the acceleration of the
rapidity of the current caused by the continuing dilatation of the
arteries, and of the direct influence upon the protoplasm of the
colourless corpuscles of the blood. The acceleration of the venous
current prevents the marginal position of the colourless corpuscles,
and in this way extinguishes the first condition for the out-wandering
of the same from the veins. The influence of a 1-5 per cent. solution
of common salt stops, during the irrigation, change of form of the
protoplasm of the colourless corpuscles, and simultaneously their out-
wandering from the vessels, and every obvious change of place in the
tissues,
Respiratory Systems.

“Influence of Food on the consumption of oxygen and the excre-
tion of CO, in Man.” OC. Speck, Arch. f. exp. Path. u. Pharmak. 1874,
m1. 405 (Absts. in Centralblatt, No, 9, 1875). Paralysis of the
Diaphragm after section of the phrenic nerves.” Alyschewsky,
Berlin Klin, Wochenschr. No. 35 (Abstract in Lond. Med. Reed., No.
97, 1874). “On the absorption of CO, by solutions of neutral
phosphate of soda.” 'T. Setschenow, Centralblatt, No. 3, 1875.

Alimentation.

“Phenomena of Deglutition as studied by the graphic method.”
Arloing, Comptes rendus, Noy. 2nd, 1874 (Absts. in Lond. Med,

VOL. IX. 28

426 DR STIRLING.

Reed., No. 99). “On the intestinal Juice.” Dr Leven, La
France Médicale, Oct. 21st, 1874. “ On the Physiology of Vomit-
ing and the action of anti-emetics and emetics.” T. Lauder Brunton,
Practitioner, Dec. 1874. “Pepsine in commerce.” C. Symes,
Lond. Med. Recd., No. 108.——‘“ Estimation of the nitrogen of
albuminates.” W. Kreussler, Zeitsch. fiir Anal. Chem. x11. 354, and
J. Seegen and J. Nowak, Pfliiger’s Arch. 1874, rx. 227. “On
Fermentation in the Stomach and the formation of gastric gases
which burn with a yellow flame.” A. Ewald, Reich. und du Bois’
Arch, 1874, 217 (Absts. in Centralblatt, No. 6, 1875).——-*On the
acid of the Stomach,” Ralfe, Lancet, 1874, July 4; R. Maly,
Annal. de Chem. u. Pharm., Bd. 173, 227; and Laborde, Gaz. Méd.
de Paris, Nos. 32, 33, 34 (Abstract of all three papers in Central-
blatt, No. 12, 1875).

On THE GASES PRODUCED DURING ARTIFICIAL PANCREATIC
Digestion. Kunkel (Verhandl. d. Phys.-Math. Gesellsch. zu Wiirz-
burg, vit.) arrived at the following results:—1. In artificial pan-
creatic digestion of pure fibrin by means of the pancreatic fluid,
CO,, H, hydro-sulphuric acid, N, and CH, appear, and traces of
other hydro-carboids. 2. The proportion of CO, increases, and
that of H. diminishes with the duration of the experiment. 3.
Hydro-sulphuric and marsh-gas only appear towards the end of the
experiment, 4, Nitrogen is present in small quantity. It is not
due to admixture of atmospheric air. 5. Oxygen was never to be
found, Also G. Hiifner, Journ. f. Pract. Chem. N. F. x. 1874, i.

Formation ‘oF Aspartic ACID DURING PANCREATIC D1GESTION.—
8. Radziejwski and Salkowski, Ber. d. deutsch. Gesellsch. 1874, vu.
1050. The authors confirm the supposition that aspartic acid is
formed when the pancreas ferment acts upon albumen (blood-fibrin),

HEIDENHAIN ON THE SALIVARY GLAND.—R. Heidenhain (Pfliiger’s
Archiv, Vol. 1x., and Abstract in Centralblatt fiir die Medicin. Wissen-
schaften, No. 1, 1875) says that Rossbach questioned the antagonistic
action between atropin and physostigmin in relation to the secretory
fibres of the chorda tympani, as asserted by Heidenhain. To estab-
lish his results the author atropinised curarised dogs by injection into
the blood, until stimulation of both chorde no longer produced
secretion, ligatured both subclavian arteries to control the circulation
in the submaxillary glands, and injected a solution of physostigmin
under previous occlusion of the carotid into the branch of submental
artery going to the hilus of the gland. The immediate consequence
was that on the side where physostigmin was employed, the chorda
became again excitable, whilst stimulation of the other chorda gave
no result, when, in order to make the conditions of the experiment
alike in the two glands, a solution of an indifferent salt was injected
into the artery of the other gland, Gianuzzi shewed, in 1865, that
when the salivary secretion was arrested by the injection of dilute
acid or solution of soda into the excretory duct, stimulation of the
chorda produced a very considerable edema, and he concluded from

ror a " =
OE a

“aa a Fe Re

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 427

this that the secretion normally consists of two acts, of the increased
transudation of lymph by paralysis of the vessels, and of the forma-
tion of saliva from this material by stimulation of the secretory
nerves, The author shews that this hypothesis is untenable, in that
after the injection of atropin into the gland stimulation of the chorda
caused acceleration of the blood-current, but never pronounced
cedematous swelling. The latter is also absent on injecting an in-
different fluid into the excretory duct after atropinising, but occurs
at once when a dilute acid or soda solution is used instead of the
indifferent fluid. The author suggests that the edema arises from
diffusion, caused by the differences of the blood-fluids and the injected
acid or soda solution bathing the vessels,

ZWEIFEL ON ‘THE Digestive APPARATUS OF NEWLY-BORN
CuiLpren.—Zweifel, in a series of researches “On the Digestive
Apparatus of Newly-born Children” (pamphlet, Berlin, 1874, pp. 47,
Abstract in Centralblatt fiir die Medicin. Wissenschaften, No. 59,
1874), carefully investigated the bodies of newly-born children, or
those a few weeks old.

Salivary Glands.—Parotid and submaxillary glands were ex-
tracted, either simply with water or after Wittich’s method. The
parotid extract always changed starch rapidly into sugar, as was
proved by Trommer’s and the fermentation tests, and by the polari-
scope. All experiments with extract of the submaxillary, on the con-
trary, gave only negative results,—a very striking phenomenon in
relation to the condition of these glands in the adult. The ordinary
diseases of children (diarrhea, vomiting, etc.) produced no essential
change, only the fermentative action was less and slower. On the
contrary, this action during the fetal period appears to be absent till
near to its termination.

Stomach.—The whole organ was finely chopped up, extracted
with water and hydrochloric acid added to the filtrate to the extent
of one per 1,000; in many cases also the glycerine extract of the
stomach was used. As the test, well-washed fibrin and casein as free
from fat as possible were employed. In all cases there was a tolerably
large production of peptones, not far behind that produced by an
adult stomach which was used as a control. On the contrary, in a
fetus of six months the results were negative, Casein proved
specially digestible.

-Panereas.—The diastatic ferment is absent from an infusion of
this gland till up to the end of the first month of life, as shewn by
Korowin and corroborated by the author. It, however, possesses the
property of converting albuminous bodies (casein and fibrin) into
peptones, and of splitting up neutral fats. In two cases of diarrhea
it had also lost this property.

Glycogen was detected by Briicke’s method in the liver of a four
months’ foetus which was examined a few minutes after the heart had
ceased to beat.

Biliary matters (colouring matter and acids) were found in the
intestinal canal of a three months’ fetus.

28—2

428. DR STIRLING.

ErziINGER ON THE DIGESTIBILITY OF GELATINE-YIELDING TIsSUES.—
J. Etzinger (Zeitschrift fiir Biologie, 1874, Band x., Abstract in Cen-
tralblatt fiir die Medicinischen Wissenschaften, No. 45, 1874) tested, on
the one hand, the action of artificial gastric juice on the ligamentum
nuche, tendon, cartilage and bone, and on the other, fed with the
proper substances, a dog, whose excretion of nitrogen was diminished
to a constant low value by being allowed to hunger for several
days, The increase in the quantity of nitrogen after the supply of
the above substances is taken as the standard for their utilisation in
the body.

1, Bones.—Bone-powder, prepared by rasping the compact sub-
stance of ox-bones, dissolved tolerably richly in hydrochloric acid
(0°3 per cent.). After ten days’ digestion of 10 grammes (150 grains)
of the powder, with in all 1,200 cubic centimétres (rather more than
40 ounces) of dilute acid, only 1:83 grammes remained undissolved.
The residue was richer in organic substance than the original sub-
stance, organic substance, however, being plentiful in the solution.
The dog experimented on shewed, after taking 150 grammes of bone,
an increase in the excretion of urea of about 8 grammes per diem.
An absorption of lime from the bones could not be proved; on the
contrary, the quantity of this mineral in the urine shewed a dimi-
nution. The author supposes that the cause of this phenomenon lies in
the diminished decomposition of the tissues of the body through the
supply of gelatine. The phosphoric acid shewed a small increase.
Corresponding to this the feces evacuated during feeding with bones
contained 308°5 grammes of ash, 7.e. somewhat more than the sup-
plied bones.

2. Cartilage.—Costal cartilage of a calf dissolved in not incon-
siderable quantity in a 0°3 per cent. solution of hydrochloric acid
(e.g. 24°3 per cent.), but much more on the addition of pepsin (74-9
per cent.). After feeding with cartilage, the feces only contained
traces thereof, the excretion of urea shewed an increase of about 11
grammes after feeding with 72-2 of dried cartilage (at 100° Cent.).

3. Tendons were affected little by the action of a 0°3 per cent.
solution of hydrochloric acid, After eight days’ digestion the amount
dissolved in the pepsin mixture was 12:05 per cent. ; on the contrary,
after three days they were broken up and dissolved, and 94 per cent,
had gone into solution, The solution did not form a jelly after neu-
tralisation and evaporation, The ligamentum nuche of an ox con-
ducted itself similarly ; on digestion for ten days it disappeared
completely, only an unimportant residue remaining. The dog, after
hungering for several days, received in one day 367:1 grammes of
tendon, on the next 360°3 grammes, corresponding to 245°8 grammes

of the dried substance. In the fieces only a very minute quantity of |

tendon could be proved, The excretion of nitrogen in the urine rose
to 21°2 grammes (the tendon contained 46-4 grammes). All gelatine-
yielding tissues are therefore capable of digestion and utilisation;
most extensively tendon, then cartilage, and lastly bone, of which less
organic substance is absorbed, probably on account of its rapid passage
through the intestinal canal. The author confirms the’ results of

fj

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REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 429

Frerichs and Kiihne, that gelatine, by digestion with pepsin and
hydrochloric acid, loses its property of gelatinising.

ON THE SIGNIFICANCE OF GELATINE-YIELDING TISSUES FOR
Nurrition.—C. Voit, Zeitsch. fiir Biolog. x. 202 (Abstract in Central-
blatt, No. 13, 1875) has extended his observations upon this subject
by employing gelatine-yielding tissues instead of gelatine. As such,
he used the cartilage of bones prepared by boiling with HCl. The
dog hungered at first for 5 days, the excretion of urea was thereby
reduced to 10 grms, On the three following days it obtained 1032,3,

_ 1076,9, 1136,5 grms, moist cartilage, and each time 50 grms, fat, and

then followed three hunger days. Urine and feces were analysed
throughout the whole time of the experiment. In all 1071,4 grms.
dried osseine with 169,6 grms. N. were introduced ; on the three feeding
days 159,58 grms. N. were excreted, still the action of the osseine
continued over the two following days. The whole quantity of N.
arising from the osseine was 185,2 grms. To this is to be added the
excretion of N. per anum on the same days = 9,68 grms., in all there-
fore 194,9 grms, N. excreted, against 169,6 grms. introduced; per
diem 8,4 N. in opposition to 10,17 grms. during hunger. Of sulphuric
acid, in urine and feces together, 10,43 grms. were excreted, whilst the
osseine introduced contained 11,14. This coincidence shews, that
osseine, and not albuminous substance, is decomposed in the body, for
this should have given 47,8 grms. H, SO, in the urine and feces. As
osseine contains still less phosphoric acid, the quantity of phosphoric

_ acid in the urine also increases. It is therefore proved that the

gelatine-yielding tissue acts as directly in the body as gelatine itself,
only that it is better tolerated in larger quantity by the intestine.
No matter how one may increase the quantity of osseine, more N.
always appears in the excreta than is contained in the osseine intro-
duced, consequently always more albumen is given off from the body,
whilst in feeding with albumen a limit is very soon reached by
which the income and expenditure are equally great. One is not
able to construct a diet for the animal organism out of osseine, fat,
salts and water ; the albumen cannot be dispensed with, it is neces-
tary for the new formation of cells. The author then replies to the
attacks of Heppe Seyler upon “organ albumen” and “circulating
albumen,” and against the view (of Voit) that the greater part of the
albumen supplied is decomposed without previously becoming tissue
constituents (Jour. of Anat. and Phys. vit. 206). Liebig supposed
that a previously organised albumen in the animal body was decom-

‘posed with the production of work, and that the albumen of the food

only served to build up the destroyed organs, It was however found
that large quantities of albumen were very rapidly excreted as urea ;
it was assumed that they were directly burned in the blood, and this
process was named ‘“ Lusus-consumption.” The author had in con-
junction with Bischoff partly proved that this excess of albumen
increased the albumen in the organism; that it is not a “luxus,”
and chiefly on this ground denied the luxus consumption. 2. It
is quite another question, however, in what part of the body the

430 DR STIRLING.

destruction of albumen does take place, and whether thereby only
organised or non-organised albumen is decomposed. The author is
of the opinion that the albumen contained in and circulating with
the nutrient fluids is chiefly decomposed ‘circulating albumen.” The
organ albumen is as a rule not used, but it can however under
circumstances, as by hunger, be employed. 3. When the decom-
position of albumen increases with rich supply of albumen, this effect
arises by the absorbed albumen reaching the place where favourable
conditions for its decomposition are present—an exchange with the
organ. The author regards the cells as the chief place of this decom-
position. 4. According to V. the albumen of the food in contact
with the living tissues decomposes, without itself having become
more organised; according to Hoppe Seyler, on the contrary, the
cells and tissues are continually in a state of decomposition and
reconstruction, and the extent of the transformation is governed
by the quantity of albumen supplied. Voit is therefore of the
opinion that a destruction of the organised form of albumen only
occurs exceptionally, and that as a general rule the destruction of
albumen imbibed by the tissues and organs takes place under the
influence of the cells.

Liven.

Asp on THE ANATOMY AND PuysioLogy or THE Liver.—G. Asp
(Ludwig’s Arbeiten, Vol. viit.), in his experiments on the secretion of
bile, was led to make a histological examination of the liver of the
rabbit, to ascertain why and how fluids excreted from the blood were
divided between the lymphatics and bile-ducts. The paper is divided
into a histological and a physiological part. Although it is well
known that the nucleus of the hepatic cells is often double, still it is
not a necessary part of these cells, and although, as is generally the
case, it is present, it has not always the same appearance. The author
has found that the nucleus may be absent from the hepatic cells, and
has treated such a liver by all the methods at present known to
histologists for this purpose, but has not been able to render a nucleus
visible. This condition does not depend upon food having been pre-
viously withheld from the rabbit. Even in a piece of such a liver,
which was placed for a long time in often changed 10 per cent. solu-
tion of common salt, no nucleus was observed. (The 10 per cent.
solution of common salt is a very valuable isolating medium.) The
author also insists on the facility with which the hepatic cells are
altered by pressure, Even under 50 mm, Hg, for injecting the portal
vein, these cells assume the most varied and singular shapes. With
regard to the structure of the walls of the smaller bile-ducts, the
authors find that as long as the cylindrical epithelium is present,
several layers of a striped tissue are visible between, by which, at
regular intervals, numerous fusiform bodies are enclosed. The stripes
and long axes of the spindles lie in the long axis of the ducts. These
stripes disappear completely on boiling fine sections of the interlobular
tissue in hydrochloric acid and alcohol (1 in 1000), They thus conduct

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REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 431

themselves differently from the middle layer of the small arteries,
which is not affected by boiling in the alcohol and hydrochloric acid
mixture. This fact supports the view that the stripes are composed
of several layers of collagenous fibrille. The spindles have the ap-
pearance of nuclei. According to this view the tissue surrounding
the epithelium of the fine bile-ducts would belong to the layers of
connective tissue (Bindegewebshduten) which consist of fibrils and
cells, so that the muscles which Heidenhain ascribes to these ducts
would be absent. Even if muscles are present they can only lie in
the long axis of the ducts, for the spindle-shaped nuclei always run
parallel to the duct. Asp recommends the injection of a 0-5 per cent.
solution of chloride of palladium into the ductus comm. choledochus, in
order to obtain good preparations of the bile-ducts. The tissue is
then placed for eight days in a concentrated solution of bichromate of
potash. The cells are then easily brushed away, and the remaining
stiff framework consists essentially of the interlobular tissue. The
bile-ducts in penetrating into the lobule lose at the same time their
cylindrical epithelium and their striated investment, their walls being
composed only of fusiform nucleated plates disposed in spirals.
EK. H. Weber has already shewn that a solution of alkannine in
turpentine penetrates into the interior of the cells; and the author
has satisfied himself, by the injections of gutta percha dissolved in
alcohol, and afterwards by the non-passage of a watery solution of
Berlin blue iuto the cells, that there is no rupture of the cells pro-
duced by the injections, and that therefore this passage of alkannine
and gutta percha into these cells must take place by filtration.
MacGillavry, as is known, injected intralobular perivascular spaces,
both by injection of the lymphatics in the liver of a dog, and also by
the ‘puncture’ (Hinstich) method. Frey and Irminger confirmed the
existence of these spaces for the liver of the rabbit. E. Hering, how-
ever, denied that these spaces were the origin of the lymphatics, and did
not succeed in injecting them in the liver of the rabbit. Asp has suc-
ceeded in injecting them in the rabbit, by forcing serum fora long time
into the vena porte, under a pressure of 30 to 50 mm, Hg. 2. Schmule-
witsch, under Ludwig’s direction, found that poisoning with curara’
slightly diminishes the secretion of bile. Asp corroborates this state-
ment. From a series of experiments the author shews that a liver, from
which the blood-current has been cut off for longer than ten minutes,
can again form bile, when blood is admitted to it. If, however, blood
is excluded for an hour or longer, then the secretion is only re-
established in a very incomplete manner. The condition of the
secretion of bile was tested in a liver when the rapidity of the blood
was diminished below the normal; first, by ligature of one branch of
the vena port, whilst the corresponding branch of the hepatic artery
remained open ; secondly, narrowing of the trunk of the vena porte ;
and thirdly, section of the spinal cord. The first of these methods
was already employed by Schmulewitsch, who shews that the quantity
of blood carried by the hepatic artery is sufficient for keeping up the
secretion of bile, but this secretion by no means necessitates the
properties of arterial blood, for it is known that the fluid, flowing

432 sy DR STIRLING.

through the hepatic artery, loses its bright red colour before it passes
into the hepatic lobules, into the first capillary system. Closure or
narrowing of the vena porte and section of the spinal cord diminished
very materially the quantity of biliary matter secreted. All these
three conditions then diminish the secretion of bile. The injection
into the jugular vein of a curarised rabbit of several quantities (30 to
40 centimétres) of a 0°75 per cent. solution of chloride of sodium,
heated to 38°C. (100°4° Fahr.), did not exercise any notable influence
on the biliary secretion. The quantity of solids in the bile, however,
after the injection of common salt solution, shewed a manifest
diminution. These experiments, therefore, shew that the blood can
undergo very considerable changes in its composition without losing
its bile-forming property. The life of a rabbit could not be sustained
by substitution of defibrinated dog’s blood for its own blood. The
cause of death the anthor ascribes to coagulations which were pro-
duced in the remainder of the rabbit’s blood by the addition of that
of the dog. The author then attempted to establish a circulation of
blood in a liver which had been excised from the body. This is a
field which is likely to yield many new results ; and already Professor
Heger, of Brussels, under Ludwig's direction, has performed similar
experiments on the excised lungs (Artificial Circulation in Excised
Organs. P. Heger: Brussels, 1873). The liver of a rabbit was taken
and kept at a temperature of 38° C. in an apparatus constructed for
the purpose (we must refer to the original for details), and as it was
impossible to obtain the necessary amount of defibrinated rabbit's
blood, the defibrinated blood of dogs, which had fasted for a consider-
able time, was employed and diluted with a solution of chloride of
sodium, so that it could circulate in the vessels of the rabbit. This
artificial circulation outside the body, and under as normal conditions
as possible, was kept up for two to three hours, and a quantity of
fluid, though a very small quantity, was obtained, which in all its
properties, physiological. and chemical, exactly resembled bile. The
quantity obtained in the most favourable case was 0:5 centimédtres,
i.e. just as much as was obtained from the living liver in ten minutes
with strong closure of the vena porte. This bile is not derived from
a store in the liver, for if only serum is employed (at a pressure of 30
millimétres of mercury), bile is only excreted at the commencement ;
soon it secretes none at all, and if the pressure is much elevated (50

millimétres of mercury), the fluid excreted has not the properties of
bile,

Vow Wirticn on tue Lympnatics or tHe Liver.—Von Wittich
(Centralblatt fiir die Medicinischen Wissenschaften, No. 58, 1874), like
Sikorski, has been able in the living rabbit to inject from the trachea
an exceedingly but narrow-meshed network lying partly in the
pleura, partly in the sub pleural tissue, and partly in the interstitial
pulmonary tissue, and accompanying the blood-vessels ; the author
regards this network as consisting of lymphatics. In the freshly-
killed animal he succeeded in injecting not only this network, but
also the intercostal spaces, and even the external thoracic muscles

———— Se ee Or

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 433

when artificial respiration was performed. If a rabbit be killed by
bleeding, and whilst artificial movement of the thorax is kept up,
there is injected into the trachea, under moderate pressure, a concen-
trated solution of sulph-indigotate of soda, one is struck with the
quantity of fluid employed, and with the fact that the whole animal
becomes of an intense blue colour. The skin, the coverings of the
eye, the tendons, the muscles, and the abdominal viscera, all become
more or less blue, just as by injection into the blood. In only two
places has Von Wittich been able to follow exactly the blue-coloured
channels in the choroid and in the liver. In both organs the blood-
vessels were almost completely empty, or only partially filled with
blood. The blue colour of the choroid arises from a blue layer lying
around the vessel (Morano’s lymph-sheath of the choroidal vessels) ;
in the liver a fine injected network surrounds the portal vein and the
branches of the hepatic vein, from which exceedingly fine, delicate,
blue injected processes penetrate into the hepatic lobules between the
blood-capillaries and the hepatic cells. Strongly injected vessels,
evident to the naked eye, pass from the hilus, run parallel to the
large vessels and the bile-ducts, and surround these, their finer
branches passing towards the branches of the portal vein; but the
author observed no direct communication between these and the
perivascular network. These vessels are not to be confounded with
the blood or bile-capillaries, and Von Wittich can only recognise
them as lymph-capillaries, Further particulars as to the method
employed are promised.

FLEIscHL ON THE LympH AND THE LyMPHATICS OF THE
Liver.—E. Fleisch] (Ludwig's Arbeiten) finds that if the lymphatics
which proceed from the porta hepatis to the receptaculum chyli
be exposed shortly after ligature of the ductus choledochus, it is
observed that their usually colourless contents are tinged yellow.
This formed the point of origin of the present investigation.
The supposition that the yellow colour exhibited by the liver-
lymph was due to the admixture of bile, was confirmed by experi-
ment. A few drops of the fluid gave distinctly with nitric acid
Gmelin’s reaction for the colouring matter of the bile. To ascertain
whether it also contained the bile-acids, for special reasons (to be
seen in the original) the lymph was not collected directly from the
liver, but on a large curarised dog the ductus choledochus was
ligatured through a small wound in the linea alba, and then the
wound was sewed up. The thoracic duct was then exposed in the
neck, and a cannula placed in it. In a few hours a sufficient quan-
tity (100 to 200 cubic centiméters) of lymph was obtained. In about
five hours afterwards the dog was bled from both carotids. From
this blood a completely clear serum was obtained by means of the
centrifugal apparatus. The serum of the lymph was also separated
from the fibrin clot which formed in it upon standing. The analyses
shewed that the lymph contained a considerable quantity of the bile-
acids, whilst the blood did not contain a trace of them. The bile,
therefore, when its natural outlets are occluded, passes into the

434 DR STIRLING.

lymphatics of the liver, and thence exclusively through the thoracic
duct into the blood. If, in addition to the bile-duct, the thoracic
duct be also ligatured, the bile does not pass at all into the blood,
or only its traces. The second part of the paper is devoted to the
consideration, what anatomical arrangements in the liver favours
the passage of the bile into the lymphatics. In this part of the
paper many new methods for the study of the structure of the liver
are described :

1. All injections of the bile-ducts were made on the liver of
the rabbit, before rigor mortis set in, and the pressure under which
it was done was measured exactly. Alkannin in turpentine was
employed for the injection of the bile-ducts, and the red colouring
matter, just like Berlin blue, passed into the lymphatics. A.
filtered solution of asphalt in chloroform offers many advantages
over this mixture. For this mass, the pressure required is at
least 30 mm. Hg. With this asphalt solution the author often
succeeded in injecting from the bile-ducts, not only the trunks of
the lymphatics which run with the vena portarum, but also the
network which covers the diaphragm.

2. The author found that the lymph also leaves the liver by
a channel other than those already known, In the connective tissue
which binds together the strongest branches of the hepatic vein
lie lymphatics, which empty their contents into those of the
diaphragm.

3. The author then describes the connective tissue of the liver.
For its preparations two methods were employed. A one per cent.
solution of chloride of palladium was injected into the hepatic vein,
and then the liver was hardened in bichromate of potash. The
finest branches of the hepatic vein can then be easily isolated. The
tissue forms a network composed of fibrillee and enclosed cells ; the
meshes are about as long as they are broad. The smaller bundles
of connective tissue cut the finer branches at right angles, so that
the long axis of the meshes becomes increased, In the mesh-work
of the larger fibres is a very fine network with exceedingly fine
meshes, On this second network the hepatic cells sit fast. To
obtain the very fine network which stretches from the adventitia
of the vena hepatica, this vessel is washed out with a half per cent,
solution of chloride of sodium, and then injected with a dilute
solution of nitrate of silver. This preparation is treated similarly
to the last, being first hardened, and then the hepatic cells are
brushed away. ‘The bile-ducts are then injected with a one per cent,
solution of perosmic acid under a pressure of 20 to 25 millimétres
of mercury. Afterwards a watery solution of Berlin blue may be
thrown into the bile-ducts, and the whole liver hardened in bi-
chromate of potash solution. The very fine network of exceedingly
delicate connective tissue which is brought into view by this process,
seems to be a means of keeping the hepatic cells in situ. Its relation
to the blood-capillaries has not been definitely made out. From the
perosmic acid preparations, the author believes that the bile-capillaries
are by no means mere furrows between the hepatic cells, but are

as

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REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 435

independent structures with a proper wall. These bile-capillaries
stand in no recognisable relation to the connective tissue.

Feirz AND Ritrer ON THE INFLUENCE OF THE INJECTION OF BILE
ON THE ORGANISM.—V. Feltz and E. Ritter (Comptes Rendus, LXXviil.
1874) injected fresh bile into the veins, and observed the following
phenomena, 1, Tetaniform convulsions occurred, which were fol-
lowed by coma, insensibility, and death from a large dose. 2. There
was slight decrease of the pulse, and diminution of the bodily tem-
perature by 1° or 2° Cent. 3. There were pronounced salivation,
vomiting of biliary masses, bilious, sometimes blood diarrhea. 4.
The bloody shewed fat granules, increase of fat and cholesterin.
The blood-corpuscles shewed a tendency to flow together. The
quantity of oxygen was diminished, and that of carbonic acid in-
creased, On shaking with oxygen the blood did not absorb so much
of it as normal blood. 5. The quantity of urine was increased,
and only with very large doses of bile did it contain albumen and
bile-pigment ; on the contrary, it contained regularly a substance
which had many resemblances to indican, Only when the animal
died rapidly was the urine blood-coloured from dissolved blood-
colouring matter,

On THE Formation oF THE BitEe-Picments.—Schiff had proved
that the liver possesses the property of attracting from the blood
absorbed bile-acids injected into the alimentary canal, and again of
excreting them in the bile. The same property is possessed by the
liver with relation to the bile-pigments. According to J. Fiirst
Tarchanoff (Pfliiger’s Arch. 1x. 329, Abstract in Centralblatt fiir die
Medicin. Wissensch. No. 2, 1875), the bile excreted in equal intervals
of time from a permanent fistula shewed quite an enormous increase
of bile-pigments, when a solution of hemoglobin or water was in-
jected into the blood of the animal (dog) ; on the contrary, a relative
diminution in the fixed constituents. It can either be assumed
that the liver forms and excretes a large quantity of bile-pigments
from the increase supplied dissolved hemoglobin, or that this trans-
formation has already occurred in the blood, and that the liver, in
virtue of an increased attractive property, had only extracted and
excreted the colouring matter already present in large quantities in
the blood. The latter view is favoured by the fact, that after in-
jection of a solution of bilirubin the colouring matter of the excreted
bile is correspondingly increased. So rapidly and completely does
this elimination occur, that neither in the bladder nor in the urine
obtained from a fistula of the ureter present at the same time,
could the presence of bile-pigments be proved. <A similar experiment
had already been made by Feltz and Ritter (/Jowrnal de l Anatomie
et de la Physiologie, 1870, p. 315), who injected four grammes of
bilirubin into the blood of a dog, whilst the author only injected
0-1 grammes. If it be remembered that bile-pigments can be formed
in the blood outside of the liver, and further that the liver possesses
a very pronounced property of absorbing and excreting bile-pigments,

436. DR STIRLING.

then the hypothesis that this pigment is formed outside the liver
becomes very probable. The above experiments also shew why in
hematogenous icterus a tinging of the tissue does not occur. As a
symptom of this icterus, an abnormally strong colouration of the
feces is to be observed. Lastly, the author remarks that after the
injection of large quantities of distilled water or weak solution of
hemoglobin, the urine of the bladder as well as the ureter shew
Gmelin’s reaction in nearly equal intensity, from which is shewn that
the bladder does not possess the property of taking up and retaining
bile-pigments in the urine.

On THE Formation or Bite-PicMent FROM H2&MOGLOBIN IN
THE ANIMAL Bopy.—J. F. Tarchanoff (Pfliiger’s Arch. 1x. 53, 1874,
Abs. in Centralblatt, No. 48). The cause of the differences in the
results of Kiihne and M. Hermann on the one hand, and Naunyn
and Steiner (Journ. of Anat. and Phys. vitt. 420) on the other, on
the formation of bile-pigment in vessels from the hemoglobin, the
author thinks lies partly in the choice of the animal operated on.
Hermann employed dogs exclusively, the two last-named authors,
principally rabbits. Gmelin’s reaction was used as the test for bile-
pigment. The test was not done with the urine directly. The urine
was treated with lime-water, and then CO, driven through it till
the lime was saturated. The precipitate so obtained carried with it
the greatest part of the bile-colouring matter; a part remained in
solution, but this can be obtained on adding to the filtrate some
phosphate of soda. The precipitate of lime was dissolved in acetic
acid, and with this the reaction was proved. The arrangement of
the experiment was the following. Chloroform having been adminis-
tered, cannule were bound into the ureters of dogs, and these
cannule were brought into connection with vessels, The urine
collected (about 14 hours) was specially tested for bile-pigments ;
100 cem. of a solution of hemoglobin (saturated at 30°) were gradu-
ally injected in the jugular vein. The urine collected during the
injection was strongly bloody; gradually the bloody colour diminished,
and the urine collected at this time gave a very strong bile-pigment
reaction. By special control experiments the author convinced
himself that neither injection of water alone, nor sufficiently long-
continued narcosis by chloroform alone, caused the urine to contain
bile-pigments, A large secretion of bile-pigment by the urine cannot
be expected, as the greater part is probably excreted by the bile.
To test this supposition, the author made an experiment on a dog
with a biliary fistula, From this dog, at intervals of half-an-hour,
three portions of bile were collected, then 150 ccm. of the hemo-
globin solution was injected into the jugular vein, and four
portions of bile collected at intervals of half-‘an-hour, Each por-
tion was mixed with 30 em. absolute alcohol, the quantity of
bile-pigment estimated from the colour, and beyond this the bile-
acids were estimated, A very considerable increase in the bile-
pigment resulted, beginning at once after the injection from four
to sixty-seven times. The secretion of bile has increased, but,

oe eg ee

_—

SES ——E—————————— ee ee a

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 437

apart from bile-pigment, this depends on increased excretion of
water, The urine passed half-an-hour after the termination of the
experiment contained neither hemoglobin nor bile-pigment. The
author is of the opinion that bile-pigment is secreted in the kidneys,
but is again absorbed into the blood. “« Changes in the Liver after
Artificial Occlusion of the Portal Vein.” A. Solowieff, Virch. Arch.
“xu. 195,

On THE Rapm Preparation or Giyco-cHotic Aciy.—G. Hiifner
(Journ. of Pract. Chem. N. F. x. 267). Fresh bile is placed in a
tall glass and covered with ether, and strong HCl is then added
(to 40 cem, of bile, 2 ccm. HCl). A milkiness occurs, then the
whole mass passes into crystalline glyco-cholic acid. Pour off the
ether, shake the residue well with water, and extract with cold water.
A single crystallization enabies one to procure the acid colourless.
The produce is rich, The washings contain the taurocholic acid
and the other biliary constituents.

Bitrrusin.—R. Maly (Wiener Sitzwngsb., 1874, Band xx,
3 Abth., Abst. in Centralblatt, 1874).

1. Analysis of an Ox-gall Stone.—Almost one-third of the stone
consisted of bilirubin. It contained in 100 parts soluble biliary
matter, 1809; etherial extract, 5-28 ; phosphate and bilirubin-lime,
1:41; bilirubin, 28-1: residue and loss, 47:13. The residue was
olive-coloured, contained still some lime with bilirubin, earthy-looking
stuffs, and inorganic salts. According to Maly, bilirubin has the for-
mula C,,H,,.N,O,; according to Stideler, C,,H,N,O,. Maly has
prepared biliverdin from perfectly pure, previously analysed bilirubin,
and convinced himself of the correctness of his formula. A further
proof of the correctness of Maly’s formula lies in the following.
When the formation of biliverdin from bilirubin occurs by the
simple addition of oxygen, as Maly’s formula expresses, then 100
parts bilirubin must give 105°6 parts of biliverdin. By adding the
remaining dissolved portion, the author actually obtained from 100
parts of bilirubin, 104-3 of biliverdin, so that there is no doubt of
the correctness of his formula,

Pink AND HeErpeNHAIN oN DriABeres MELLITUS AND THE For-
MATION OF GLYCOGEN IN THE Liver.—H. Pink (Jnaugural Dis-
sertation, Koningsberg, 1874; Abstract in Centralblatt fiir die
Med. Wissensch., No. 3, 1875) investigated how long a rabbit
must hunger in order to be certain that the liver contains no
glycogen; and in this way, by testing one part of the liver for
glycogen, digesting the second with saliva, and then analysing
the sugar contained therein, he found that five days were suf-
ficient to remove every trace of glycogen. A solution of ordinary
grape-sugar (two to three grammes) was injected into the vena
meseraica of a rabbit which had hungered for five days, and the
animals investigated in from half-an-hour to an hour and a half
afterwards. The investigation .of the liver was carried out in the

438 nea DR STIRLING.

same way as formerly, only the weight of the piece of liver in boiling
water was estimated, and the sugar also estimated in the first portion.
The quantity of glycogen was now estimated. In all cases glycogen
was found in the first piece of liver, and only traces or little sugar ;
in the second piece plenty of sugar. In that the sugar in the second
piece can only have been derived from glycogen, the experiments
confirm the results of Schéffer, that sugar injected into the vena
meseraica passes into glycogen. Made aware that the grape-sugar
contained dextrin, the author repeated the experiments with pure
sugar, and once with glycerine, and arrived at a completely different
result, the first piece of liver contained no glycogen, the second not
more sugar than the first. Afterwards the author injected pure
sugar as well as glycerine into the stomach, and found a plentiful
formation of glycogen. The author concludes that sugar as well as
glycerine are changed in some way by the stomach, and their change
into glycogen rendered more easy. In the experiments of Heiden-
hain (Inaugural Dissertation, Konigsberg, 1875; Abst. in Central-
blatt fiir die Med. Wissensch., No. 3, 1875), chemically pure grape-
sugar was injected into the vena meseraica of ‘hungered rabbits, to
settle the question whether sugar actually passes into glycogen. The
author investigated a piece of liver each time before the operation,
or a few minutes after the injection ; the second larger piece of liver
after the animal had lived from twenty to forty-five minutes. As
with Pink, the weight of the piece of liver was taken, and the glyco-
gen estimated quantitatively, the result, with one exception, was at
one time more, at another less increase in the glycogen. Thus far
his results stand in direct contradiction to those of the former paper.
Nevertheless, the quantities of glycogen were always relatively
smaller in proportion to the quantity of sugar injected. This was
four to nine grammes (61 to 138 grains); the glycogen obtained
was only 0:05 to 0°156 grammes (0:2 to 2°34 grains), Schipfer’s view
that the liver can change 0°12 grammes sugar into glycogen in a
minute, cannot therefore in this form be correct, The small quantity of
glycogen led the author, like Pink, to the assumption that sugar under-
goes some kind of change in the stomach or intestine, which renders it
more fit to be transformed into glycogen, To test this idea the author
ligatured the pylorus of rabbits (6) and then injected sugar, intact
avimals serving as a control (a). In fact the quantity of glycogen
became markedly less after ligature of the pylorus, the urine con-
tained no sugar, whilst it generally contained sugar. The quantity
of glycogen in a was 0°119, 0°636, 0°206 ; in b, 0-014, 0-015, 0-075,
0-099, 0°085 grammes,

Formation or Gtycogen 1x tHE Liver.—Salomon (Virchow's
Arch, uxt. Heft 3, Abst. in Lend. Med. Rec., No. 98, 1874) con-
tributes a long paper upon the above subject. The following are his
conclusions :

1. The liver contains sugar during life.

2. Gelatine is a glycogen-former,

3. So is olive-oil in a less degree.

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 439

4, Milk-sugar and grape-sugar are also glycogen-formers. Man-
nite is apparently not so.

The primary acetyl-derivative [Monacetyl saccharose = C, ,H,,
(C,H,O)O,,] of cane-sugar is decomposed in animal bodies into
acetic acid and sugar; the former is probably burnt up, the latter
acts in the ordinary way as a glycogen-former. “QUANTITY OF
GLycoGEN IN THE LIVER OF NEWLY-BORN CHILDREN.” G. Salomon
(Centralblatt, No. 47, 1874) obtained the bodies of fetuses where
perforation or cephalotripsy had been performed. From the liver
of one fetus the author obtained 1:2 grms. of glycogen. “ Liver-
Glycogen,” v. Wittich, Centralblatt, No. 8, 1875.

Genito-Urinary System.

“Daily Excretion of Urine in health.” Rabuteau, Gazette
Méd. de Paris, Jan., 1875 (Abs. in Lond. Med. [ec., No. 115).
“On the excretion of Nitrogen in the Urine.” B. Power, Dublin
Jour. of Med. Science, Feb., 1875. “On a modification of Trom-
mer’s test for Sugar.” G. B. Fowler, Lond. Med. Reed., No. 111.
“On the urine-pigments.” J. Reoch, Jour. of Anat. and Phys., 1x.
176, “On the appearance of Acetone in Diabetes mellitus.” F,
Rupstein, Centralblatt, No, 55, 1874. “On the Presence of the
Bile-Acids in physiological Urine.” Joh. Hine, Inaug. Dissert. Dorpat,
1873, pp. 72 (Abs. in Centralblatt, No. 55, 1874). “ Contribu-
tions to the Albumen in Urine.” H. Obermiiller, Inaug. Diss,
Wiirz., 1873, 23 pp. (Abs. in Centralblatt, No. 8, 1875).——*‘ Colour-
ing matter of Urine from the indigo group.” R. Niggeler, Arch. f.
exp. Path. u. Pharmak., ui. 1874, 71.——* Colouring Matter of
Urine.” Bogomoloff, Centralblatt, No. 14, 1875. “The early
Stages of Urea.” B. Kiissner, Inaug. Diss., Kénigsberg, 1875 (Abs. in
Centralblatt, No. 14, 1875). * Kstimation of Urea by interbromi-
ate of soda.” Schleich, Jour. f. pract. Chem., N. F, x. 261.

ExcrETION oF UREA IN A Huncerep Doc.—F. A. Falck,
Habilitationsschrift, Marburg, pp. 22, 1874 (Abs. in Centralblatt,
No. 45, 1874), withheld from a well-nourished bitch of 8,960 grms.
weight, all solid and fluid food, and estimated every six hours, till the
death of the animal, the quantity of urine removed by the catheter,
its specific gravity, its colour, and the quantity of urea. The animal
was weighed every six hours and the temperature taken, The author
found that with continued inanition the body-weight gradually suf-
fered less loss, that from the second hunger-day onwards the daily
decrease in weight (reckoned as percentage of the body-weight) re-
mained tolerably equal till death. The animal died when it had lost
48-08 p. c. of its weight. The urine had always an acid reaction, the
colour was reddish yellow, and had a mean 8.G. of 1051. During
the first hunger-days the quantity of urea excreted sank considerably ;
afterwards it increased, so that for several days more urea was ex-
creted than on the second hunger-day ; first, during the last days of life,
the quantity of urea excreted was small. The author explains this

440 a DR STIRLING.

change thus, that at first the fat was preferably oxydised for the

sustenance of the temperature necessary for life, and later the albu-
minous bodies. The final diminution in the excretion of urea cor-
responds in time with the diminution in the temperature. From this
it appears that the quantity of fat in the body of organisms totally
deprived of food, limits essentially the duration of life.

PRESENCE OF Biue-PieMENTS IN THE Urine.—L. Lewin (Cen-
tralblatt, No. 6, 1875) remarks that Gmelin’s reaction sometimes fails
when instituted in the ordinary way. In a case of icteric urine the
author could not get satisfactory results either by Huppert’s method
or by the ordinary Gmelin’s reaction, though by other signs it was
very probable that the urine contained a large amount of bile-pig-
ment. The urine was allowed to stand in ice for twenty-four hours,
when a deposit, intensely reddish-brown in colour, separated out,

which proved to be uric acid salts. On applying Gmelin’s test to a

solution obtained by gently warming the sediment, the characteristic
reaction was at once obtained, The filtrate did not give the reaction.
The bile-pigment was in this case united either mechanically or chemi-
cally to the urate. The author therefore recommends the precipitation
of the uric acid salts by the action of cold, and then to institute Gme-
lin’s test with the dissolved sediment.

“ EXPERIMENTAL Stupres ON Drapetes.”—C, Bock and F, A.
Hoffmann (Berlin. Oliven, 1874, 8vo. pp. 70) communicate the
results of their experiments on the normal quantity of sugar in
blood of rabbits. Well-nourished animals simply tied down always
shewed, in their blood taken from the heart or from the artery, from

0:07 to 0°11 per cent. of sugar, which was estimated by Fehling’s ©

solution. Only when artificial respiration was kept up by pressure on
the abdomen (on the liver) did the quantity rise in the cardiac blood
to 0-2 per cent. By an ingenious experiment the authors shew that
the sugar found arises from the liver and from the lymph of the
intestinal canal. From other experiments it is very probable that
glycosuria depends upon increased activity of the liver. After
puncture of the fourth ventricle the quantity of sugar in the blood
rose abnormally high during the first hour (to 0°29 p.c.) If in the
second hour, where already sugar was distinctly found in the urine,
the liver was excluded, in six out of eight experiments the diminution
of sugar was quite apparent, and the increase of sugar after the punc-
ture is not to be ascribed to diminished destruction of sugar in the
organism, but to a greater supply in the blood, probably arising from
the liver. “ Formation of Sugar in the foetus and adult,” Morrigia,
Reale Accademia d, Lincei, Estr, d, sess., 11., Ith Feb,, 1873 (Abs.
of both papers in Centralblatt, No. 10, 1875).

“ SimpLe Preparation or Urinary Pigment From H2MoGLosIN.”
¥. Hoppe-Seyler (Ber. d. deutsch, chem. Gesellsch., 11. 1065) for-
merly observed that on heating hematin in alcoholic solution with
tin and HCl, i.e. by reduction, a splendid colouring matter is
formed, This colouring matter is identical with hydrobilirubin

EEE =

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY, 441

(Maly) and urobilin (Jaffes’), Hemoglobin itself similarly treated
yields the same colouring matter, and it is shewn that urobilin is a
changed decomposition product of hemoglobin, and that bilirubin and
biliverdin are intermediate stages in this transformation. The quantity
of urobilin excreted within a certain time is the measure of the destruc-
tion of red blood-corpuscles.

THE SPERMATOZOA OF CERTAIN VERTEBRATES.—F’. Miescher, Ver-
hand. d. naturf. Ges. in Basel, v1., 1874, 138.—The sperma, easily
to be obtained from the enormously enlarged testicles during the
period of heat, consists exclusively of spermatozoa suspended in a
weak solution of salt, which only contains traces of alkali-albuminate.
The spermatozoa are best obtained by acidulating the fluid weakly
with acetic acid, whereby a thick powder-like precipitate falls, which is
then well washed with water. The quantity, of alkali-albuminate in
ripe semen is exceedingly small. A similar effect to that of the acetic
acid is produced by a ‘5 to 1 per cent. solution of chlor. calcium or
chlor, barium. The fresh sperma dried in vacuum contains 18°78 per
cent. N, 11:31 percent. P, estimated as P,O, and 0°278—0°288, The
quantity of phosphorus is higher than in lecithin, that of N
is higher than that of albumen, and that of § less than any other
cellular tissue. The fixed solid in the glands was 22°8 per cent., in a
completely ripe testicle 25-5. In 100 parts of dried semen there
were 13-72 to 14°72 pts. of substances soluble in ether, and 82°28 to
86°5 insoluble therein.. 100 pts. of the etherial extract contained
52-46 of lecithin, the remainder being cholesten and fat. The sper-

- matozoa, exhausted with watery hot alcohol and ether, contained in

three analyses, 5°34—5:46 p.c. P, 0°2 p.c. 8, 20°7—21 p.c. N.
The great constancy of 8 shews distinct combinations. In fact the
exhausted spermatozoa consist exclusively of a compound of a base, of
*‘protamin” with nuclein, which here plays the part of an acid.
Protamin is obtained by extracting the sperma exhausted of fat, with
1 to 2 p.c. HCl. Evaporate the greater part of the excess of the
acid, and precipitate with platinum chloride. A precipitate at first
resinous, afterwards gritty and crystalline—of chloride of promatin-
platinum-chloride—is obtained. By washing out with water, decom-
posing with HS, the chloride of protamin, which crystallizes with
difficulty, is obtained. One can also employ HNO,, when the
crystalline nitrate of protamin is obtained. The analysis shewed the
composition of protamin to be C,H,,N,O(OH). On treating pro-
tamin with concentrated HCl, a xanthine-like body is formed.
The protamin appears first in the testicle at the time of heat—it is
absent four or six weeks before this time.

Nuclein is obtained from the residue after extraction with 1 p. c.
HCl, by treating it with weak soda solution in the cold. After a
few minutes it must be filtered, so that albuminous bodies do not go
into solution. The nearly colourless and clear solution is neutralised
with HCl, and in order to get the nuclein better precipitated, alcohol
is added. Standing for several days under absolute alcohol, on wash-
ing out with water to remove the salts, and after extraction with

VOL. IX. 29

442 : DR STIRLING.

alcohol and ether, the nuclein is obtained pure. It is amorphous,
colourless, easily soluble in soda, ammonia and phosphate of soda
(compare W. Miiller, Jowr. of Anat. and Phys. vut. 431). The
solutions exhibit—-so long as some undissolved nuclein is suspended
in them—an acid reaction. Nuclein is therefore an acid. Nuclein
does not belong tothe class of albumens; it neither gives Millon’s
reaction, nor the violet coloration with copper sulphate in alcoholic
solution, nor the xanthoproteine reaction, and it contains no sulphur.
From the analysis of the baryta compound, and also from that of the
fresh nuclein, its formula is C,,H,,N,P,O,,. The phosphorus therein
is contained exclusively as phosphoric acid; by continued boiling of
nuclein with concentrated HCl, one obtains in the fluid quite as
much phosphoric acid as on burning with saltpetre. The nuclein in
the sperma is not completely saturated with the protamin. The com-
pound of nuclein and protamin conducts itself very curiously with a
10 per cent. solution of NaCl; it swells up, and the individual particles
have a double contour. There is a chemical decomposition between
the NaCl and the nucleo-protamin ; protamin goes into solution, and
the Na of the NaCl unites with the nuclein. As the mean compo-
sition of pure spermatozoa from the vas deferens we have

FASO age ace ecm cease
POI, ny 2 bau Gece Ghent eee

i ff a9 No protamin was found
hi sail cehlinaeae was in the sperma of the

Oholetaine ce a ek Oe
PG see kik as. chks:!tanet < ee ee

Also “On the Chemical Composition of the Spermatozoa.” The same
author finds that after digestion for 6 to 10 hours in gastric juice the
tails of the spermatozoa disappear, and the heads’ can be isolated in
this way. -The heads contain 4:7 to 4:8 per cent. P, and 1:7 to 1:78
per cent, 8. The head contains nuclein, and in addition albumen,
and a substance very rich in N. The nuclein obtained from the
heads contains 7 per cent. P and 16:-41—17°8 per cent. N, and is free of
8. The nuclein obtained from pus regularly contains S.—Also “On
Protamin, Guanin, and Sarkin as constituents of the Sperma of the
Salmon.” Picard at Miescher’s request reinvestigated this subject
(Ber. d. d. Chem. Gesell, vi. 1714). P. found a large quantity of
guanin and sarkin (about 5 per cent. of the dried sperma) which
were not noticed by M. He finds further, that the salts of protamin
are not crystallizable ; the above finer crystallizates were compounds
of guanin and sarkin (Abst. in Centralblatt, No. 17, 1875).

Muscle.

DANILewskY oN THE Resprration or Muscir.—B. Danilewsky
(Centralblatt fiir die Medicin. Wissenschaften, No, 46, 1874) has
investigated this subject in Sczelkow’s laboratory. It is a well-
established fact that muscular activity causes an increased consump-

tion of oxygen in the muscles. As to the significance of this fact, —

physiologists differ in their opinions (Hermann and Ranke), The

ee

eee

Ce ae ea

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 443

absorption of oxygen, as well as the excretion of carbonic acid, both
of the active and passive muscles (gastrocnemii of a frog), at different
temperatures, were carefully measured by means of a special apparatus
devised for this purpose. The muscles were weighted with one
gramme. From a table of the gas analyses, which were conducted
after the method of Bunsen, he observed that: 1. The quantity of
carbonic acid excreted by the tetanised muscle, in comparison with
that of the passively moved one, is smaller the higher the temperature.
2. The absorption of oxygen by the active muscle always remains
behind that of the passively moved one. It may, therefore, be con-
cluded that this does not stand in direct connection with the process
of muscular contraction. This is explained by the unequal greater
contact of the passively moved muscle with new air than of the
tetanised one. ‘The increased absorption of oxygen by the passively
moved muscle produces almost no corresponding increase in the
excretion of carbonic acid. One must, therefore, assume that both
factors in the respiration are, within certain limits, independent: of
each other; that muscle can take up a very large supply of oxygen
and conceal it for a long time in its plasma without excreting it in
the form of carbonic acid. The absorption of oxygen increases in
active muscle with the temperature,

“ConTRIBUTIONS TO THE Exasticiry or Muscie.”—M. Blix,
Upsala liken for Forhand. 1x. 555, employed for reinvestigating this
subject a new apparatus, the details of which are to be seen in the
original, The author confirms the well-known view of Weber that
the active muscle possesses less elasticity than the passive one. The
tension-curve of caoutchouc is also given, coinciding with results of
Horwath, viz. an 8-form curve.

Bone.

“On the Normal and Pathological Growth of the Long Bones.”—
G. Wegner, Virchow’s Arch. uxt. 44 (Abstract in Lond. Med. Rec. No.
96). “On the Formation and Transformation of Bone.”—R.
Virchow, Berlin. klin. Wochensch, Jan. 4 and 11, 1875 (Abstract in
Lond. Med. Rec. Nos. 107, 108 and 109), “ Artificial Production
of Rachitis and Osteomalacacia.”—Heitzmann (Wiener Medic. Presse,
1873, No, 45) produced the above results in dogs and eats, by sub-
cutaneous injection of lactic acid and simultaneous diminution in the
supply of lime. “On the Cohesion ‘of Bones.”—A. Rauber (Cen-
tralblatt, Nos. 56 and 60). “On Normal Resorption and the
Interstitial Growth of Bone.”—A. Heuberger, Wiirzb. Verhandl.
vur. 19, “Pathological Growth of Bones.”—O. Haab, Cenéral-
blatt, No. 13, 1875.

“‘ ACTION OF ALIZARIN ON THE TissuES oF THE AnrmAL Bopy.”—-
N. Lieberkiihn, Sitzungsb. d. Marburger Geselisch. z. Befird. d. Gesam.
Naturwissensch. 1874, 33 (Abstract in Centralblatt, No. 7, 1875),
employed a neutral five-per-cent. solution of the soda compound
of alizarin prepared synthetically, which is soluble in water. As
feeding with this solution was without results, 5—10 cc. of it

29—2

444 ; DR STIRLING.

were injected into the ext. jugular vein of a young dog, which had just
cut its milk teeth. In from 10—15 mins. the bones were coloured, but
not with the well-known red madder colour as occurs after feeding
with ‘madder root, but more of bluish-red, of the colour of alizarin-
lime; alizarin alone does not colour the bones in feeding with madder,
but at the same time the purpurin. An excellent animal for these
experiments is the frog; if a 2 per cent. solution of this substance is
injected into a lymph-sac, or into the peritoneal cavity, in a few
hours the whole skeleton is tinged bluish-red. Macerated bones also
become bluish-red in an alizarin solution. If placed in HCl, they
become yellow, from decomposition of the alizarin compound. The
injection of this substance is therefore very valuable for studying the
growth of bones. Other tissues besides the bones are tinged, e.g.
the heart, muscles of the skeleton, stomach and intestinal canal,
brain, spinal cord, nerves, retina, &ec.; alizarin was also present in
the urine, saliva, bile and feces.

Joints.

“ JoinT AND ATMOSPHERIC PressurE.”—Chr. Aeby (Centralblatt,
No. 15, 1875) shews that for by far the greater number and most
important joints of the human body, the atmospheric pressure alone
after section of all the soft parts, including the capsule, is quite
sufficient to retain the surfaces of the joints in contact ; and thereby
to hold together the part of the skeleton dependent upon the joint.
The shoulder, elbow, radio-carpal, hip, knee, the talo-tibial and talo-
navicular joints are all completely alike in this respect.

“On the Form and Mechanics of the Hip-joint.” Fr. Schmid,
Deutsche Zeitsch. f. Chirurgie, v. 1874, 1. “On the articular
Muscles of Man.” R. Martin, Preisschrift, Erlangen, 1874, pp. 48,
8vo. “On the Mechanical Conditions in the Structure of the
Ankle-joint.” Reder, Allgem. (Wiener) Militéraratl. Ztg. 1874, Nos.
47 and 48 (Abst. in Centralblatt, No. 18, 1875).

Temperature.

“On the daily range of Temperature in India.” Crombie, Jndian
Annals of Medical Science, No. Xxx11.

On tue Tueory or Fever.—A. Murri, Sulla Teoria della Febbre.
Fermo, 1874, 8vo. 132 pp. (from Abstract in Centralblatt fiir die
Medicin. Wissensch, No. 1, 1875). The fact that dogs with divided
cervical spinal cord cool more rapidly in cool air than healthy dogs,
whilst in warm air they become warmer than the latter, led Naunyn,
Quincke, and Von Dubezcanski to the supposition that, after section
of the cervical spinal cord, the amount of heat given off in consequence
of paralysis of the vessels is increased, and simultaneously, the amount
of heat produced is increased, and this latter, by the removal of
influences inhibitory of the production of heat—these inhibitory in-
fluences proceeding from the brain. Substances which produce fever
were said to act in a similar way. It is questionable, however, as
Riegel has already pointed out, whether dogs with divided spinal

a

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 445

cord have not much more lost the capability of giving off more heat
in a warm atmosphere. This view is favoured by the absence of the
so-called heat-dyspnoea and the influence which heat exercises op the
pulse and the blood-circulation in animals not operated on. It has
been generally assumed, without any estimation, that the dogs
operated on give off more heat in cool air, than the healthy ones,
Murri shews that the reverse must be the case ; if, for instance, in a
comparatively small part of the body (e.g. on one ear) there arises
vasomotor paralysis, then this part, through increased supply of
blood, becomes warmer ; when, however, al/ the vessels of the body
have been paralysed, it is not obvious how, upon the whole periphery,
an increase of blood-supply and giving off of heat should arise. The
diminution in the blood-pressure must on the contrary lessen the
quantity of blood flowing through the capillaries in the unit of time,
and thereby the radiation of heat. In addition to this, the absolute
quiescence of the muscles in consequence of paralysis leads to serious
stasis, and so a part of the blood is removed from the circulation.
From the experiments of Goltz and Naumann upon the influence
of vascular tonus on the circulation, it equally follows that section of
the spinal cord must greatly injure the circulation ; the simultaneous
paralysis of the splanchnici permits of the greater part of the blood
accumulating in the abdominal vessels. As a clinical proof that
interruption of the spinal cord retards the circulation, the author
cites a case of sudden circumscribed compression of the spinal cord in
consequence of the penetration of pus; in this case edema occurred
in the paralysed lower half of the body, without either at the bedside
or at the sectio there being found any disease of other organs, or any
circumstance other than disturbance of the circulation. The experi-
ments of Murri, made upon: dogs, shew in fact that after section of
the cord the skin is less warm, and gives off less heat than normally.
Simultaneously with measurement of the rectal temperature, the
temperature of the skin was taken with mercurial thermometers,
which were either bound to the skin, or (generally) introduced
through a wound, under the skin. The temperature of the skin sank
after the operation in large as well as in small dogs, in a cool atmo-
sphere as well as in a temperature of 30° Cent. (86° Fahr.). On
increasing the temperature of the air, in the course of an experiment,
to 40°2° Cent, (104°36° Fahr.), the temperature of the skin rose only
to its original value of 39-6° Cent. (103°3° Fahr.), whilst that of the
rectum rose to 416° Cent. (106°88° Fahr.) against 40-4° Cent. (104-7°
Fahr.) before the operation. Cooling of the skin also takes place
when, the temperature of the room being about 25° Cent. (77° Fahr.),
the internal temperature rose after the operation. And when, in
course of the experiment, the temperature in the rectum had risen
above the normal, in spite of regular, frequent, repeated measure-
ments, the skin was never observed to become warmer. It is not to
be thought of that the skin, always cooler than normal, should give
off greater quantities of heat than normally ; it must give off less.
The direct measurements of the heat given before and after section of
the cord were carried out in the following way. The dogs were

446 DR STIRLING.

placed in a wooden box, at a constant temperature of the room of 24°
Cent.; the increase in the temperature which the air in the box
underwent, at distinct intervals of time, through the presence of the
dog, formed the measure for the amount of heat given off by the dog.
It was shewn that the dogs warmed the air of the box much more
before the operation than after it. Now, in spite of the diminished
giving off of heat, the interior of the animals became colder ; they
must therefore have produced less heat after the operation. Further,
this diminution of production can be explained by the paralysis of
the muscles, by the disturbance of the circulation which leads to
imperfect supply of oxygen to the organism, by the diminished
muscular work of the heart, and by the diminution of the internal
friction of the blood-current, etc. Now in opposition hereto in fever
more heat is produced than normally under the same conditions ; the
result of section of the spinal cord cannot therefore be drawn in for
the theory of fever. In that, further, no experimental lesion of the
nervous system by itself increases the production of heat in the
tissues,*so falls the theory of the neuro-paralytic nature of fever.

And even if septic fever actually had this origin, the generalisation —

for all fevers is not established.

Murri further divided the cord of dogs in which he had produced
septic fever ; here the operation had not the above-mentioned cooling
influence.

In other experiments the author divided first the cord (which
produced a cooling) and then injected foetid pus under the skin of the
dogs, whereby their temperature rose quite as in the non-operated-on
auimals, These operations, whereby the hypothetical “heat-inhibiting
centre” in the brain is excluded, speak against the supposition of
Quincke and Naunyn, according to whom pyrogenic substances pro-
duce an increase of temperature by paralysing the heat-producing
inhibitory centre lying in the brain. On the contrary they are easily
explained from the point of view of the bio-chemical theory of fever,
according to which pyrogenic substances equally with ferments produce
abnormal, chemical, decompositions, (This theory is supported by
Murri.) Septic fever can be produced even after destruction of the
whole lower section of the spinal cord. The observation of Sapalski,
confirmed by Von Dubezcanski and Naunyn, that feverish animals
in a cool atmosphere cool more rapidly than sound ones, Murri
cannot corroborate throughout, the experiments being analogous, and
in a somewhat modified form, and performed only on rabbits. Some-
times the feverish (septic) animals cool more, sometimes the sound
ones. However, to accede to this analogy between feverish animals
and animals with divided spinal cord, still this analogy is no identity,
for then the winter-sleep, which also shews this analogy, would be
identical with “fever.” Further clinical observation shews that not
in all feverish diseases do the patients cool more rapidly than healthy
individuals,

Senator (and Heidenhain) considers that in fever the cutaneous
actions are more excitable than normally, and by frequent contractions
limit the amount of heat given off. ‘The author believes that he is

«

i : ~
i it bd

a ee _—

er

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 447

enabled to refute this opinion, from observations on typhoid and pneu-
monia, where continually and for a long time a regular warm skin is to
be found (although Senator himself had shewn that in spite of a hot
skin the arteries do not require to be widened ad maximum, and can
even be narrowed, Filehne). In a patient with pneumonia, Murri
measured the temperature under the toes; it remained for hours
constant, 37:8" to 37°9° Cent. (100-04 to 100°22° Fahr.), with an
axilla temperature of 40°5° to 40°6° Cent. (104°9° to 105-08° Fahr.):
the relation of these numbers is quite the same as exists in health.

Murri further questions the difference between feverish and

healthy individuals which Senator proposed, viz., that the regulation
of heat is insufficient. The muscular work of a healthy person lasts
only a limited short time, and first during the pause the body rids
itself of the surplus heat ; if here the heat-forming process (muscular
exercise) was constantly continued, then the healthy individual would
also no longer be able to regulate. The fever process goes on without
a break, and it is not proved that the fever patient would not regu-
late his condition of heat quite as quickly as a sound person, if the
feverish excess of production gave him the necessary pauses. The
above-cited experiment of Sapalski, together with Senator’s view,
that his feverish dogs cooled considerably in cool calorimeters, supports
the view that in septic fever the capability of giving up heat is
not diminished, or that this is quite a secondary matter for the
theory ; and appears to the author to prove that the higher temperature
is chiefly dependent simply upon the increased production, without,
however, admitting the reliability of Senator's deduction for all
cases.
_ Maurri further shews how all clinical processes (incubation, pre-
disposition, immunity, spontaneous origin, etc.) are throughout
explicable with the light of the bio-chemical fever theory, whilst
from the neuro-paralytic point of view they are quite inexplicable.
The latter also does not explain the qualitative metamorphic changes
in fever.

The author then enlarges upon his views of fever, already fully
explained in the London Medical Record, November 26, 1873, and
replies to Hiiter, who had made as the outset of his theory a single
observation on frogs, although he had not proved in his frogs the
essential phenomena of fever, e.g. increased heat, whilst notwithstand-
ing these animals, as former investigations have shewn, have a tem-
perature which is slightly higher than their surroundings, 7.e. shew
a proper production of heat. In addition, this or that phenomena
might be present in a certain fever (septic) and absent in another
kind, so that “globulése Stase,” as such, does not belong to fever.
Murri regards Hiiter’s theory as laid aside.

Milk.

“ Quantitative estimation of the Fat of Milk.” M. Liwit, Pfliiger’s
Arch, 1x. 65. “Investigations on Human Milk and the Milk of
the Cow as food.” Ph. Biedert, Virch. Arch. 1874, tx. 352 (Abst.
in Centralblatt, No. 5, 1875).

448 ; DR STIRLING.

On THE GtLopuLes or Mitx.—De Sinéty, Arch. de. Physiol.
1874, 479, has repeated the experiments of Kehrer, and also those of
Schwalbe, both with positive results. This apparent contradiction
is explained thus: absolutely fresh milk taken from the mammary
gland (of a woman, and from a guinea pig) shewed considerable
changes after it had stood for one to two hours. The globules of
absolutely fresh milk can be caused to flow together under the
microscope, which certainly speaks against the existence of a mem-
brane. Ifa watery solution of aniline-red is added to this milk all
the milk-globules remain colourless, which would not be the case
if they had an albuminous envelope. After standing an hour, the
milk contains a not inconsiderable number of corpuscles, which refract
light less strongly and are coloured by aniline-red. With longer
standing the number of these corpuscles increases. If the butter is
removed from fresh milk, then the butter-milk contains numerous
. globules which take up aniline, but never the remains of these
corpuscles. The butter also contains those corpuscles together with
others which do not become coloured. The author concludes that
the milk-globules in the animal organism are devoid of a membrane,
that all those structures described by authors as membranes and caseous
envelopes of the milk-globules are secondary productions, due either
to the physiological changes which the milk like the blood under-
goes outside the organism, or to the coagulating reagents of the
investigator,

Miscellanea.

“ Physiological action of Jaborandi.” Carville, Biolog. Society
of Paris, Nov. 28th, 1874 (Abst. in Lond. Med. Recd. No. 103,
“ Action of Jaborandiand Atropia on perspiration.” Progrés Médical,
Feb. 13th, 1875.——* On the action of Jaborandi,.” J. N. Langley,
British Med. Journal, Feb, 20th, 1875 (Abst. of both papers in
Lond. Med. Reed. No. 113).——Action of Jaborandi bark.”
Galippe, Progrés Médical, Feb. 13, 1875,——“On Jaborandi.”
S. Ringer and P. Gould, Lancet, 1874, 1. No. 5.——“ Physiological
Spectrum Analysis”—of certain yellow colouring matters, indigo in
the urine, colouring matters of the bile, etc. K. Vierordt, Zeitsch.
J. Biologie, 1874, x. 21,——* Bacteria and putrefaction.” A, Hiller,
Centralblatt, Nos. 53 and 54, “Action of ammoniacal salts on the
animal organism.” Lange, Arch. f. exp. Path. u. Pharmak., 1874,
11, 364 (Abst. in Centralblatt, No, 14, 1875), “On the action of
chloral and trichloracetic acid.” A. Tomaszewicz, Pjliig. Arch. x.
35 (Abst. in Centralblatt, No. 16, 1875).

Harnack on Tur Action o AromoreHIN ON MAMMALS AND
Tuk Froc,—E. Harnack (Archiv fiir experiment. Pathol. und Phar-
mac., 1874, vol. 11, from the abstract in Centralblatt fiir die Med.
Wissensch. No, 11, 1875) says that, from the previous investigations
on the action of apomorphin, it was believed that in this substance
we possessed an emetic which, apart from its emetic action, did not
exercise any important secondary effect on the organism, From the

ee a ey

REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY. 449

author’s experiments, however, it appears that this substance acts on
certain parts of certain animals in a very intensive and deleterious
manner, To exclude the act of vomiting, and to obtain as clear a
view as possible of its secondary effects, the author experimented on
rabbits, which do not possess the faculty of vomiting. It was shewn
that even 10—30 millegrammes (0°4 grs. to 2 grs.) of apomorphin
produce death in the rabbit, whilst 4 to 10 millegrammes (0:2 to 0-4
grs.) are sufficient to produce important changes in certain bodily
functions. The smaller doses threw the animals into the highest
excitement and uneasiness ; they ran to and fro in the room, crawled
into dark corners, and were very frightened. In addition, in most
there was salivation. This condition ceased after a few hours, and
the animals returned to the normal. If the doses employed are greater,
unsteadiness of gait soon sets in, the posterior extremities being first
affected ; the animal suddenly falls over in convulsions, the respiration
ceases, and death occurs, and cannot be averted by artificial respira-
tion. The frequency of the respiration is at first enormously in-
creased, and, according to the author, this increase is to be ascribed
to stimulation of the respiratory centre, and it occurs even after
division of the vagi.’ This stimulation is followed by a diminution
of the excitability, and ultimately by paralysis of the centre. Regarding
the question, whether the convulsions are simply the consequence of
the disturbance of the respiration, or are dependent on stimulation
of certain central organs, the author seeks to decide by experiments
on chloralised animals. These experiments shewed, first, that in
such animals convulsions are absent, and secondly, that animals
narcotised with chloral can bear much larger doses of apomorphin, and
that death is accelerated by the occurrence of convulsions. The absence
of convulsions the author seeks to ascribe to the paralysis by chloral
of those central organs, upon whose stimulation by apomorphin the
convulsions depend ; he assumes a direct stimulation of the central
organs, and so it appears to him possible that conversely there would
be difficulties in diminishing or paralysing by narcosis of the motor
centres stimulated by apomorphin. The author then touches the
question as to the identity of the vomiting and respiratory centres,
and from experiments on narcotised dogs decides against this view.
He says, “Proceeding on the assumption of the identity of the
respiratory and vomiting centres, one must expect that in such
narcosis aporrorphin is able without hindrance to produce vomiting,
in that the respiratory centre has not lost its excitability, and we
have seen that in rabbits in this condition also, the centre under-
goes a powerful stimulation by apomorphin. One cannot, however,
produce vomiting during the narcotic condition.” In the frog the
author observed first a stimulation, and then a complete paralysis of
the centre of voluntary movement ; later the irritability of the trans-
versely striped muscles is diminished, and with large doses com-
pletely paralysed, without their becoming rigid. This paralytic
action on transversely striped muscles, apomorphin possesses in
common with several other emetic substances, e.g. emetin, tartar
emetic, cyclamin, and asclepiadin—from Radix Vincetoxici, a sub-

450 DR STIRLING. REPORT ON PHYSIOLOGY.

stance which, in its action, according to Harnack, is analogous to
apomorphin. Lastly, the author attempts to establish, experimen-
tally, in what way the increase in the frequency of the pulse ac-
companying vomiting arises ; whether it owes its origin to a diminu-
tion in the tonus of the vagus, or is due to stimulation of the
accelerating apparatus of the heart. Supported by the fact that

stimulation of the accelerating nerves produces increase of the

frequency of the pulse without increase of the blood-pressure—that,
on the contrary, diminution of the tonus of the vagus is accompanied
by increase of blood-pressure—the author observed the pulse and
blood-pressure after injection of apomorphin into dogs, and found
that increase in the frequency of the pulse produced by the act of
vomiting is not accompanied by an increase of the blood-pressure ;
therefore that the relations existing during the act of vomiting are
analogous to those which are produced by artificial stimulation of the
accelerating nerves.

“ Action of Apomorphine,” C. David, Comptes rendus, Aug. 24,
1874 (Abst. in Centralblatt, No. 17, 1875).

THOMA ON THE CEMENT-SUBSTANCE OF EprrHELium.—R. Thoma
(Centralblatt fiir die Medicin. Wissenschaften, No. 2, 1875), in study-
ing the physiological and pathological changes in the epithelium of
the frog’s tongue, discovered a method by which in the living animal
an excretion of indigo in the cement-substance of the above organ, as
well as in certain parts of the alveolar mucous membranes, could be
produced. This cement-substance appears as a fine deep-blue
coloured network, stretching regularly over the whole tongue,
between the colourless epithelial cells, and lying somewhat below the
level of the free epithelial surface. The method is the following.
A solution of pure sulph-indigotate of soda is prepared by diluting,
with an equal volume of distilled water, a saturated and filtered
watery indigo solution, This is injected, under a constant pressure,
into the median abdominal vein of a frog, so that in the course of
two to four hours, from four to six cubic millimétres of the indigo
solution are introduced into the body of a medium-sized rana tem-
poraria or esculenta, Simultaneously the tongue is irrigated by a
1‘5 per cent. solution of chloride of sodium, in consequence of which
pronounced widening of the vessels occurs, specially in the arteries,
together with great acceleration in the blood-current. The micro-
scope shews, that the blood is coloured slightly blue. After a short
time the connective-tissue becomes blue, whilst muscular fibres and
epithelium shew no obvious coloration. First, after two or three
hours, does the cement substance shew a deep-blue coloration.

Text-Books.

Legons sur |’Appareil vaso-moteur reer er tg et Pathologie).
Tome premier, par A. Vulpian, Paris, Librairie Germer Bailliére,
1875. Chimie appliquée & la physiologie, 4 la pathologie et a
V'hygiéne, par E.-J. Gautier, 2 vols, Paris, F’. Savy, 1874.

INDEX TO VOLUME IX.

A.

Abiogenesis, 240

Adamiewicz, physical properties of
muscle, 245

Aeby, atmosph. pressure on joints, 444

Albert, E., investigations of fever, 247

Albert and Stricker, temperature of
heart and lungs, 247

Alcohol dilute in histology, 404

Alimentary canal, minute account of,
204; size of in animals, 204

Alimentation, reports on physiology of,
2339425 E

Alizarin, action on tissues, 443

Alkalies, removal from body, 242

Alkaloids, action of, 248

Ammoniacal salts, action of, 448

Ananoff, oxygen on reflex excitability,

. 218

Anesthetics, influence on vaso-motor
centres, 216

Anatomy, reports on, 190, 388

Anomalies and abnormalities,
‘¢ Variations”

Aonyx, myology of, 405

Apomorphin, action of, 448

Arloing and Tripier, cut nerves, 218

Armadillo, anat., 405

Arnold, Julius, relation of blood and
lymph-vessels to juice-canals, 392

Arteries, innervation of, 213; blood-
pressure in, 222

Asp, anat. and phys. of liver, 205, 430

B

Bacteria and putrefaction, 448

Badaud, influence of brain on blood-

. pressure in pulm. art., 419

Balfour, F.M., Elements of Embryology,
186; development of sharks, 204

Bartholon, experiments on brain, 212

Baumstark, new constituent of urine,

8e0

241

Bellamy, E., absence of quadratus fe-
moris and spine with six lumbar
vert., 185

Bendikt, med. obl., 412

Beneden, cetacea, 404

Bernard, Cl., trophic and vaso-dilator
nerves, 413

_Bernstein, the nerves, 218

Bidder, hypertr. of ear after inj. to
sympathetic, 214

Bile, movements of, 239; gasometric

_. analysis, 239; spectrum of, 240;
action in promoting absorption of
fat, 240; formation of pigment, 435,
from blood, 241, from hemoglobin,
436; influence injected on organism,
4353 Pigments in urine, 440

Bilirubin, 437 :
Bird, Golding, elder pith for cutting
sections, 404 i
Birds, cervical vertebre, 405; carotid
arteries, 405; muscles of thigh, 405

Blix, elasticity of muscles, 443

Blood, reports on physiology of, 221,
416; corpuscles, influence of gases
on, 229, measurements of, 392 ;
formation of fibrine from corpuscles,
230; formation from marrow, 244;
role of gases in coagulation, 420;
coag. in living animals, 421; influ-
ence of concentration on white cells,

2

Mi FRE injection of air into, 224;
resistance of walls, 228; develop-
ment and growth, 390; relation to
juice canals, 392; nerves of, in arm,

392

Boek and Hoffmann, studies on dia-
betes, 440

Bogoljubow, gasometric analysis of
bile, 239

Béhm, resuscitation after poisoning,
248

Bone, reports on physiology of, 244,
443; action of alizarin on, 443

Bones, growth of, 190, 244, 388; effect
of food on, 244; architecture of, 190,
244; Sesamoid, 389

Born, development of mare’s ovary,

207

Bouchut, new signs of death, 248

Bowditch and Minot, anesthetics on
yaso-motor centres, 216, 412

Braam-Hougkeest Van, stimulation of
splanchnic nerves, 215

Brain, development in relation to
thought, 97; blood-vessels, 201, 392;
fissures and variations in mammals,
203; anat. of post. commissure, 203 ;
histology of morbid, 204; functions
of, 208, 210, 212, 213; preponde-
rance of left side, 267; atrophy of,
288; excitability of surface, 407;
influence on blood-pressure in pulm.

art., 419 :
Braun, excitability of cerebrum, 210 °
Brown-Séquard, localization of brain
function, 213; cerebral power of
man, 213; retina and brain, 219
Brunn, ossification, 190
Byrne, Dean, development of powers of
thought in connection with develop-
ment of brain in vertebrates, 97

C. ;
Cartilage, reports on anatomy of, 190
Carville and Rochefontaine, removal

452

of first thoracic ganglion of sympa-
thetic, 213

Cells, artificial. production of, 421;
escape from vessels, 423

Cephalopoda, development, 207, 403

Cerebrum, excitability of, 210, 407;
motor functions, 407

Cetacea, anat. of, 404

Charles, J. J., abnormalities in arte-
ries of upper extremity, 180

Children, new-born, digestive appa-
ratus in, 427

Chloral and trichloracetic acid, action
of, 448

Circulation, in excised organs; 417;
action of lobelia on, 420

Circulatory system, reports on physio-
logy of, 221, 416

Clark, H. E., cervical ribs, 388

Clark, J. W., Seals of Auckland Isles,
405; marten in Burwell fen, 405

Colour, changes under influence of
nerves, 412

Columba, anat. of, 405

Connective tissue, reports onanatomy,
190, 292

Convolutions of brain, functions of, 208

Cornea, traumatic infl., 415

Corpus striatum, stimulation of, 209;
absence of, 212

Coughing, 218

Coyne, laryngeal m. membrane, 396

Crombie, temperature in India, 444

Crustacea, hypnotism in, 213

Cunningham, Dr, great splanchnic
ganglion, 303; lateral curvature of
spine with hypertrophy of sympa-
thetic, 306; Reports on the progress
of Anatomy, 190, 388

Custor, size of alimentary canal in
animals, 204

Cyst in subdural space, 364

Czermak, hypnotism in crustacea, 213

dD.
Dalton, spectrum of bile, 240
Danilewsky, respiration of muscle, 442
Death, new sign of, 248
Debove, mucous membranes, 396
Dentition, anomalies, 204, 397
Deutschmann, elastic tissue, 190
Development, of sharks, 206; of eye of
cuttle-fish, 207 ; ofmare’s ovary, 207;
of tympanum, 220; of kidney, 272;
of ble -vessels, 390; of ova, 399
Diabetes, 244, 437, 44°
Digestion oven with diffusion appa-
ratus, 360
Dittmar, vaso-motor centre of medulla,
ai
Doge influence of soda on, 237
Dinitz, cervical vert. of birds, 405
Dumont, lauching, 212

INDEX.

Duret, blood-vessels of brain, 201, 392
Dwight, T., true neck of femur, 311

E.

Ear, hypertr. after inj. to sympathetic,
214; reports on physiology, 220, 416

Eckhardt, functions of lumbar part of
spinal cord, 408

Edwards, Milne, Lecons sur la Physio-
logie et V Anatomie comparée, 386

Egg, germinal layers of, 402

Elastic tissue, 190

Electrotonus, 218

Emminghaus, dependence of lymph-
secretion on blood-current, 231

Ewald, gases in transudations, 227

Ewart, Dr, structure of retina and
vitreous humour, 160; cyst in the
subdural space, 364

Epithelium and endothelium, 197

Epithelium cement substance, 450

Etzinger, digestibility of gelatine-yield-
ing tissues, 428

Excised organs, circulation in, 417

Eye, anatomy of, 166; reports on phy-
siology of, 219, 414

F.
Falck, excretion of urea in hungered

08, 439

Fallopian tubes, 397

Fat, formation of, 234

Feltz and Ritter, infinekse of injection
on organism, 435

Femur, true neck of, 311

Ferments, 236

Ferrier, Dr, localization of functions
of brain, 208

Fever investigations, 247; theory of,

Fin, formation from blood-cor-
puscles, 230

Fick, colour blindness, 219

Finkam, terminations of nerves, 204

Fish, new genus of fossil, 406 ; skull of,

406

Fleischl, lymph and lymphatics of
liver, 433

Flower, Prof., construction of museums,

25

Vai. abnormal, dissection of, 182

Fotus, digestive fluid in, 235

Foster, Dr M., Elements of abet bc
logy, 186; epithelium and endothe-
lium, 197

Foulis, J., ovary structure, &¢., 398

Frey, Heinrich, The Histology and His-
to-chemistry of Man, 189; nerves of
vessels of arm, 392

Frog, nerves of, 145

G,
Galton, J, 0., epitrochleo-anconeus, 169

INDEX,

Garrod, carotid arts. and muscles of
thigh in birds, 405; anat, of Stea-
tornis and Columba, 405

Gelatine-yielding tissues, digestibility
of, 428 ; significance for nutrition, 429

Genito-urinary system, reports on phy-
siology, 241, 439

Giacomini, high division of brachial
artery, 392

Gierke, the respiratory centre, 217

Glycho-colic acid, rapid formation of,

2

Goldaicher, implantationsin ant.cham-
ber of eye, 415

Goltzand Freusberg, vaso-dilators, 213,
410 ; functions of spinal cord, 408

Goodhart, J. F., malf. of spinal col., 1

Gorilla, anat. of, 404

Gray, J. E., cetacea, 404; crania of

- seals, 405; anat. of turtles, 406
Greve, the act of vomiting, 237

Gruber, Wenzel, variations in osseous
system, 190, in muscular, 390; sesa-
moid bones, 389; supernumerary
crico-thyroid art., 397; extra-laryn-
geal sacculi, 397

Grunhagen, post, membrane of iris, 219

Griitzner, estimating quantity of pep-
sin, 235 Y

Gscheidlen, reducing power of active
muscle, 245

Gulliver, measurements of red blood-
corpuscles, 392

Gustatory nerve, terminations of, 413

H.

Hammond, alcohol on nerv. system, 412

Harker, John, dissection of abnormal
foetus, 182

Harnack, action of apomorphin, 448

Haussmann, utricular geval Wg 207

Hayem, changes in spinal cord follow-
ing lesions of nerves, 213

Heart, position of impulse, 137; effects
of nerve influences on beat, 225 ;
movements of, 230 ; muscular move-
ment, sign of, 315 “

Heat, regulation of, 245

Hecker, on laughing, 212

Heger, circulation in excised organs, 417

Heidenhain, the salivary gland, 426

Heifner, rapid formation of glycho-
colic acid, 437

Helmholtz, model of ear, 220

Hensel, ossa parietalia, 388

Hering, sense of sight, 219 ; secreting
pressure in submax. glands, 234

Hermann, electrotonus, 218 ; blemma-
trope, 219

Hertwig, the teeth, 397

Heubach, quinine on nervous system,
212

Heubel, the spasm-centre, 211, 411

453.

Heuberger, absorption and growth of
bone, 388

Hippopotamus, anat. of, 405

Hirschberg, section of trigeminus on
ocular pressure, 415

His, von Wilhelm, Unsere Kérperform
und das physiologische Problem ihrer
Entstehung, 387

Hitzig, functions of brain, 208 ; physi-
ology of brain, a

Hoffmann, gust. ies in tongue, 396

Hollis, Dr, lopsided generations, 263

Hoppe-Seyler, preparation of urine
pigment from hemoglobin, 440

Howden, J. C., atrophy of right side of
cerebrum and left side of cerebellum
with left side of body, 288

Huizinga, abiogenesis, 248

Huxley, skull and heart of Meno-
branch, 406

Tris, effects of removal of first cerv.
gangl. on, 214; post. membrane, 219
Tron in system, 420

J.
Jaborandi, action of, 448 2
Jehn, extravasation of blood in lungs
of insane, 232
Joints, report on physiology, 444; at-
mospheric pressure on, 444

K.

Kemkel, gases produced in artif. pan-
creatic digestion, 426

Key Axel, and Retzius, subarachnoid
spaces, 198

Kidney, struct. and development of, 272

Klug, conduction of heat by skin, 220

Knoll, effect of nervous apparatus on
heart’s beat, 225; action of vapours
in trachea, 233

Koht, on coughing, 218

Kélliker, germ, layers and ovary, 401,
402

Kowalewsky, movements of bile, 239

Kowalewsky and Wyssotsky, injection
of air into blood-vessels, 224

Krauspe, innervation of arteries of
brain, 213

Krenchel, section of optic nerve, 415

Kronecker, sign of cardiac muscular
movement, 315; digestion oven with
diffusion apparatus, 361

Kumezoff, cells containing blood-cor-
puscles in spleen, 231

Kurtz, removal of alkalis, 242

IL.

Landois, influence of gases on solu-
bility of blood-cells, 229 ; formation
of fibrin from blood-cells, 230

Langerhans, architecture of bones, 190;
struct. of prostate, 207

454

Lankester, E. R., development of eye
of cuttle fish, 207, 403

Larynx, mucous membrane, 396; ab-
normalities, 397

Laughing, 212

Le Goff and Ramonat, cellular ele-
ments of tendon, 392

Legros, epithelium of bile-ducts, 205

Lemurs, anat. of, 404

Lewin, bile-pigments in urine, 440

Lieberkiihn, action of alizarin on tis-
SUCS, 443

Lister, vaso-motor nerves, 411

Liver, epithelium of bile ducts, 205 ;
anat. and phys., 205, 430 ; formation
of glycogen in, 237, 437, 438; re-
ports on physiology, 238, 430; lym-
phatics of, 432, 433

Lobelia, action on circulation, 420

Lomikowsky, bicarb. sod. on dogs, 237

Lopsided generations, 263

Lowenberg, semicircular canals, 220

Lowne, R. T., mechanical work of re-
spiration, 280

Lubimoff, researches into nervous sys-
tem, 204

Luce, the ear, 220°

Luchsinger, formation of glycogen in
liver, 238

Lungs, extravasation of blood in, 232

Liitken, eyami, 405

Lymphatic system, 193; relation to
juice-canals, 392

Lymph-secretion, dependence on blood-
current, 221

M,

Macalister, anat. of gorilla, 404 ; anat.
of viverra, 405; myology of aonyx,
405; of hippopotamus, 405

Mach, sense of equilibrium, 220

Magitot, anomalies of dentition,204,397

Major, histology of morbid brain, 204 |

Malformation, of spinal column, 1;
pharynx, 134 ,

Malinverni, abs. of corp. striatum, 212

Malm, cetacea, 404

Maly, bilirubin, 437

Mandelstamm, optic chiasma, 219

Mason, J. M., polar action of electr., 413

Mastication, mechanism of, 390

Mathieu and Urbian, réle of gases in
coagulation of blood, 420

Medulla, vaso-motor centre, 215, 216;

phys. of pyramids, 412

Mindel, temp. of ext. aud, meatus, 416

Menobranch, skull and heart, 406

Michel, optic chiasma, 219

Miescher, spermatozoa of vertebrates,

4

Mihalkovios, anat, of testis, 207

Milk, report on physiology, 447; the
globules of, 448

INDEX.

Mivart, skeleton of lemurs, 404; of
ostrich, 405

Moriggia, digestive fluid in foetus, 235

Mucous membranes, subepithelial epi-
thelium, 396

Miiller, Worm, dependence of art. blood-
pressure on quantity of blood, 222

Murie, pinnepedia, 403; anat. of three-
banded armadillo, 405 ; sacs vomited
by hornbills and skeleton of fregi-
lupus, 405

Murri, theory of fever, 444

Muscle, minute anat., 193, 195; re
ports on physiology of, 245, 442;
physical properties, 245; reducing
power of, 245; effect in reducing
albumen in body, 246; reports of
anatomy, 190, 389; respiration of,
442; elasticity, 443

Musculus, test-paper for urea, 241

Museums, construction of, 259

N,

Nasse, the ferments, 236

Nawalichin, vaso-motor system, 217

Nerves, minute anat., 193; termina-
tions of, 204, 413 ; vaso-dilator, phys.
of, 214; splanchnic, stimulation of,
215; inner mechanism of, 208; sec-
tion of, 218; reflex excitability, effect
of oxygen on, 218; cut, 218; currents,
effect of temp. on, 214; junction of
sensory and motor, 219; changes of
colour under influence of, 412; auto-
genic regeneration, 413

Nervous system, researches into histo-
logy, 204; reports on physiology,
208, 407; effects of alcohol on, 412

Neumann, lymph-vessels of skin, 206 -

Nothnagel, functions of optic thalami,
and of brain, 210

0.

Obersteiner, brains of insane, 213
(Edema, origin of, 227
Omentum, great, formation of meshes,

395
Optic chiasma, 219
Optic nerve, section of, 415
Osseous system, reports on anatomy,

190, 388
Ott, action of lobelia on circulation,

420
Ova, development of, 399
Ovary, development, 207 ; struct., 399
Owen, osteology of dinornis, 406
Oxy-hemoglobin, 230
P.

Pancreatic digestion, gases in, 426;

aspartic acid in, 426
Parker, J, K., skull of fish, 406
Pavy, Dr, diabetes, 244

INDEX.

Pawlowsky, post. comm, of brain, 203

Pepsin, quantity estimated, 235

Peters, W. C. H., new genus of ro-
dents, 404 y

Pharyngeal diverticulum, 134

Phoca Greenland., 163

Phrynosoma, myology, 406

Physiology, reports on, 208

Pia mater, art. innervation, 213

Picard, iron in the system, 420

Pink and Heidenhain, diabetes melli-
tus, and formation of glycogen in
liver, 437

Pinnepedia, 405

Plosz and Gyorgyai, coagulation of
blood in living animals, 421

Poisoning, resuscitation after, 240

Poore, electro-therapeutics, 218

Pouchet, changes of colour under nerve
influence, 412 ;

Prevost, effect of muscarine on secre-
tions, 240

Prostate, struct. of, 207

Purpurine, application to histology, 403

Purvis, escape of corpuscles from
blood.-vessels, 423

Putnam, phys. of cortex cerebri, 213

Pye, Walter, development and struc-
ture of kidney, 272

Pyloric glands, 236

Quinine, action on nervy. syst., 212

R.

Radziejwski and Salkowski, aspartic
acid in pancreatic digestion, 426

Rana esculenta, nerves of, 145

Ransome, Dr A., position of heart’s im-
pulse, 137

Ranvier, struct. and development of
tendons, 190, of osseous tissue, 388;
spectroscopic properties of muscle,

p90 ; development and growth of
blood-vessels, 390; formation of
meshes of great omentum, 395; ap-
plication of purpurine and alcohol
to histology, 403; muscles of dorsal
fin of hippocampus, 406

Reich, phys. of tears, 219

Reichert, C. B., human uterus and
embryo, 207

Reoch, James, urine pigments, 176;
decomposition of urea, 368

Respiration, mechanical work of, 280

Respiratory centre, 217; system, re-
ports on physiology of, 232, 425

Retina, structure of, 166

Retzius and Axel Key, subarachnoid
spaces, 198

Ribs, cervical, 388

Riegel, regulation of heat, 247

Right-handedness, 265

455

Robin and Cadiat, struct. of urethra,
206; male uterus, vasa def. and cells
of Fallopian tubes, 397

Rodents, new genus, 404 ;

Rossbach, action of the alkaloids, 248

Rott, origin of cedema, 227

Runge, electrical contributions, 218

8.

Salivary gland, Heidenhain on, 426

Salomon, formation of glycogen in
liver, 438

Sanders, A.,myology of phrynosoma, 405

Sanderson, Dr B., electr. stimulation
of corp. striatum, 209

Schiifer, constant temp. under micro-
SCOPE, 404

Schenk, effect of muscular work on
decomp, of albumen, 246; Lehrbuch
der vergleichenden Embryologie der
Wirbelthiere, 386

Schiefferdecker, spinal cord, 203

Schiff, motor functions of cerebrum,
407 ; formation of bile-pigments, 435

Schmidt, dissociation of oxy-hemoglo-
bin, 230

Seals, characters of, 405

Section-cutting, Lawson Tait on, 249

Sertoli, terminations of gust. nerve, 413

Shark, spiny, 297; porbeagle, 301

Simpson, M., two precaval veins, 385

Sinéty, the globules of milk, 448

Skin, lymph-vessels of, 206; conduc-
tion of heat by, 220; reports on
physiology of, 220, 416

Sluys, struct. of synovial memb., 395

Smee, A., The Mind of Man, 387

Sokglow, section of nerves, 218

Soltmann, electr. excitability of cere-
brum, 407

Spasm-centre, 211, 411

Spectrum analysis, 448

Spermatozoa of vertebrates, 441

Spinal column, malformation, 1

Spinal cord, fibres of, 203; functions
of lumbar part, 408

Spine, lateral curvature with hyper-
trophy of sympathetic, 306

Splanchnic ganglion, notes on, 303

Spleen, cells containing blood-corpus-
cles in, 231

Steatornis, anat., 405

Stirling, Dr, sign of cardiac muscular
movement, 315; reports on phy-
siology, 208, 407

Strelzoff, growth of bone, 388

Struthers, Prof., variations of verte-
bre and ribs, 17

Submaxillary glands, secreting pres-
sure in, 234

Sympathetic, removal of first thoracic
ganglion, 213 ; influence of removal
of first cervical ganglion on iris,

456

214; effect of injury on ear, 214 ; hy-
pertrophy with spinal curvature, 214
Synovial membranes, struct. of, 395

» ie

Tait, Lawson, freezing process for cut-
ting sections, 249

Tarchanoff, formation of bile-pigment
from hemoglobin, 436

Teeth, 397

Temperature, reports on, 247, 444; of
heart and lungs, 247; range in
India, 444; in fever, 444

Tendons, minute anat., 190, 195, 392

Testicle, anat., 207

Teutleben, E. von, mechanism of mas-
tication, 390

Text-books of physiology, 248, 450

Thalami opt., functions of, 210

Thin, conneciive tissues, &c., 193

Thoma, concentration of blood on
changes in blood-cells, 423; cement
substance of epithelium, 450

Thought, development of powers in
vertebrates with that of brain, 97

Tomes, teeth of amphibians and rep-
tiles, 397

Tongue, gustatory bodies in, 396

Trachea, action of vapours on, 233

Transudations, gases in, 227

Traquair, fossil fish, 406

Trigeminus, section on ocular pressure,

415

Troitzsky, temperature effect on nerve-
currents, 218

Tuke, J. B., histology of brain, 201

Turchanoff, formation of bile-pigment
from blood, 241

Turner, Prof., Phoca Greenlandica,
163; obs. on the spiny shark, 297 ;
spiracles in porbeagle, 301; Jntro-
duction to Human Anatomy, 386;
and Mr Cunningham, reports on
anatomy, 190, 388 ;

Turtles, anat., 405

‘ U.

Urea, test paper for, 241; decomposi-
tion of, 368; excretion in hungered
dog, 437

Urethra, struct.,- 206

Urinary system, report on physiology,
a4

Urine, new constituent, 241; bile-pig-
ments in, 440; pigments, 176; pre-
pared from Lemogiobin, 440

Uterus, glands, 207, 398; male, 397

Vv.
Variations of vertebrm and ribs, 17,

INDEX.

185; arteries, 25, 180, 392 ; muscles,
23, 169, 185, 390; Osseous system,
190, 388; dentition, 205, 397; veins,
two precaval, 385 ; brain, 203; spine, 1

Vasa deferentia, 397

Vascular syst., reports on anatomy, 390

Vaso-motor system, 214, 215, 216, 217,
410, 411, 412, 413

Virchow, Hans, germinal layer of egg,
493 ;

Vitreous humour, struct. of, 166

Viverra, anat. of, 405

Voice, report on physiology of, 232

Voit, significance of gelatine-yielding
tissues for nutrition, 429

Vomiting, the act of, 237

Vrolik, Studien tiber die Verknéche-
rung und die Knochen des Schddels,
387

Vulpian, effects of removal of first cerv.
ganglion on iris, 214; physiology of
vaso-dilator nerves, 214, 216; june-

_ tion of sensory and motor, 219;
movements of heart, 230; autogenic
regeneration of nerves, 413

Ww.

Wall, traumatic ceratitis, 415

Watney, Herbert, minute anat. of
alimentary canal, 204

Watson, Prof., anatomy of Indian
elephant, 118; case of pharyngeal
diverticulum, 134

Watteville, Baron de, nerves of rana
esculenta, 145

Weber, E., nuclei of striated muscle,
38

Wanker. growth of tubular bones, 190

Weiske and Wildt, formation of fat,
234; effect of food on-bones, 244

Wendt, H., tympanum of foetus, 220

Wilder, Burt G., cerebral fissures and
variations, 203

Williams, C. H., action of bile in pro-
moting absorption of fat, 240

Williams, J., uterine mucosa, 399

Winiwarter, resistance of walls of
vessels, 228

Wittich, von, the pyloric glands, 236;

* lymphatics of liver, 432

Wolff, Julius, growth of bone; 388

Z.

Zanijer, constitution and growth of
bones, 190

Ziegler, production of giant-cells from
blood-corpuscles, 421

Zweifel, digestive apparatus in new-
born children, 427

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