/ ■U1 Ofo.EA THE JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History society INDEX AND TITLE PAGE ' ' ' • j ’ , ^ 4 ~ F'V VOL. XL1V NOS. 1 & 2 Price .... Rs. 2-4-0 MADRAS PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the following order when they are being bound : — Title page ... ... \ Contents of Nos. 1 and 2 of Vol. XLIV ... List of Contributors List of Plates ... Index to Illustrations Errata To follow frontis- piece in this order. Index to Species To go at the end of two numbers. THk JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society EDITED BY Rev Fr. J. F. CAlUS, S.J., F.L.S., S. H. PRATER, O.B E M.L.A., J.P. and C. MCCANN, P-L.s. VOL. XLIV Nos. 1 & 2 Containing 2 Coloured Plates, 30 Black and White Plates, 28 Text-figures, 1 Map and 2 Graphs Dates of Publication Part I. (Pages 1 to 158) ... August 1943 ,, 11. ( ,, 159 to 314) ... December 1943 LONDON AGENTS DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY) 212, Shaftesbury Avenue, LONDON, W.C. 2. PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS^ MADRAS 1944 CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIV No. 1 Page The Game Fishes of India. Part XVI. By Sunder Lai Hora, D.SC.j F.R.S. E., F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., F.N.I. ( With 0716 coloured plate and three text-figures ) . .«• I The Birds of Mysore. Part IV. By Salim Ali 9 The Larger Deer of British India. Part III. The * Sambar ( Rusa ). By R. I. Pocock, f.r.s. ( With three text- figures) 27 Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India and Burma. Part IV. By A. St. J. Macdonald. ( With 07ie plate ’, a map and three text-figures ) 38 On the Birds of the Karen Hills and Karenni found over 3,000 feet. Part II. By H. C. Smith, m.b.o.u., P. F. Garth waite and B. E. Smythies 60 Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. Part XIV. By N. L. Bor, M.A., d.s.c., f.l.s., i.f.s., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. ( With one coloured , two black and white plates a7id three text-figures ) 73 The Early Stages of Indian Lepidoptera. Part XI. By D. G. Sevastopulo, f.r.e.s.... 78 Fish Survey of Hyderabad State. Part II. By M. Rahimuliah, m.sc., f.z.s 88 The Medicinal and Poisonous Lindenblooms of India. By J. F. Caius, S.J., f.l.s 92 Tiger SnkRK—Galeocerdo tigrinus Muller and Henle, By P. N. Sarangdhar, m.sc. ( With three plates) 102 Review * Report of the Game and Game Fishes Preservation Committee on the existing species of Game in Bengal. S.L.H Ill Obituary: Mr. Hugh Whistler 112 Miscellaneous Notes : — I. The record skull of an Indian Clouded Leopard (. Neofelis nebulosa Griffith). By R. I. Pocock, F.R.S 113 II. Elephant and Bison on Roadways. By Lt.-Col. R. C. Morris 113 CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL IV Page III. Occurrence of the Himalayan Tahr {Hemi tragus jemlahicus)\n Sikkim. By Capt. C. J. T. Wrenicke 114 IV, Life span of some wild animals in captivity. By E. S. Simon, Curator, Government Zoological Gardens, Trivandrum 117 V. Breeding season of the Indian Sambar ( Rusa unicolor , Kerr) 118 VI. Small Game shooting in the Salem District. By Capt. Aubrey Buxton 119 VII. Woodpeckers feeding on fruit. By E. A. Storrs Fox... .o 122 VIII. The eggs of the Indian Bay-Banded Cuckoo (. Penthoceryx sonneratii). By Humayun Abdulali 12 2 IX. Green Pigeons in a Swamp. By Major E. G. Phythian Adams, i. a 122 X. Some notes on the common Sandgrouse ( Pterocles exustus Temminck) in Kaira District. By Herschel C. Aldrich, m.d. {With a plate) 123 XI. Occurrence of the Close-barred Sandgrouse {Pterocles lichtenstemi aiabicus Neum.) in the N.-W. F. P. By Major J. O. S. Donald 126 XII. Late stay of Snipe and weight of Pintail. By J. Beckett, i.p....... 126 XIII. The White-fronted Goose {Anser albiirons Scop.) in Assam. By D. J. Monta^non 126 XIV. Gynandromorphism in the Common Teal {Anas crecca Linn.) By Salim Ali 127 XV. Occurrence of Comb Duck {Sarkidiornis melanotus Penn.) in Mysore. By Major E. G. Phythian Adams, i.a., f.z.s 130 XVI. Red Crested Pochard {Net la ruiina Pallas) in the Madras Presidency. By Major E. G. Phythian Adams, i. a., f.z.s 130 XVII. Notes on the viviparity of the Common Indian Skink {Mabuya carinata Schneider). By J. L. Bhaduri 130 XVIII. The anatomy of the duodenal region of some genera of Apoda {Amphibia). By L.S. Rama* swami. {With two plates') 134 XIX. A note on fish mortality in the Sohan River. By K. R. Bagchi, d.sc..„ 137 CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL1V v Page XX. Papilio ardurus in the Himalayas. By William Harcourt-Bath 137 XXI. Control of Aedes egyptns (Slegomyia fasciata) or tiger mosquito, (the carrier of yellow fever) in the Bombay Harbour by a patent mosquito proof cap and tap. By Dr. J. D. Bana, m.b., m.r. C.S., D.P.H., d t.m. & h., i.p 139 XXII. Observations on a few cases of larval Ecdysis of the Indian Glow-Worm, Lamprophorus tene- brosus Wlk. By J. Samuel Raj 142 XXIII. The flowering of Strobilanthes callosus Nees. By C. McCann 143 Proceeding of the Annual General Meeting 145 No. 2 Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. Part XV. By N. L. Bor, m a.,d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. ( With one coloured , two black and zvhite plates and two text-figures) 159 The Game Fishes of India. Part XVII. By Sunder Lai Hora, d.sc., f.r.s.e., f.z.s., f.r.a.s.b., f.n.i. ( With one black and white plate and one text-figure) 164 The Larger Dear of British India. Part IV. The Chital (Axis) and the Hog-Deer (Hyelaphus). By R. J. Pocock, f.r.s. (With 4-8 text-figures) 169 A Note on the Feeding Habits of the Little Bittern (Ixobrychus minutus ). By Lt.-Col. R. S. P. Bates, m.b.o.u. ( With two plates) 179 ‘ Light-Win Dows’ in Certain Flowers (Asclepiadaceae and Araceae). By Charles McCann, f.l.s. (With a plate) 182 Circumventing the Masheer and other Sporting Fish in India and Burma. Part V. By A. St. J. Macdonald ( With five plates arid one text- figure) 185 The Birds of Mysore, Part V. By Salim Ali. (With one plate) 206 On the Birds of the Karen Hills and Karenni found over 3,000 feet. Part III. By H. C. Smith, m.b.o.u., P. F. Garthwaite, and B. E. Smythies 221 Breeding Habits and Early Stages of the Gourami (Osphronemus goramy Lacepede). By C. V. Kulkarni, b.a. (Hons.), M.sc,, ph.D. (With seven text-figures) 233 vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIV Page Some Common Indian Herbs with Notes on Their Ana- tomical Characters. Part XL By M. Sayeedud-Din. ( With three plates ) 244 Some More New Lepidoptera from S.-W. Iran, with Their Life Histories. By E. P. Wiltshire, f.r.e.s. ( With a plate ) 247 The Papaya, its Botany, Culture and Uses. By L. S. S. Kumar and A. Abraham. ( With four plates') 252 A Few Notes about the Five Rhinoceros of the World. By W. S. Thom 257 Effect of Different Foods on the Larval and Post- Larval Development of the Moth Prodenia litura Fab. ( Lepidoptera , Noctuidae). By A. C. Basil, m.sc. ( With two graphs) 275 Obituary : Hugh Whistler 289 Miscellaneous Notes : — I. An interesting Tiger shoot. By Thakore Sahib of Palitana 291 II. A Black Panther shot in Sind. By K. R. Eates, f.z.s., m.b.o.u 291 III. On the occurrence of the Yellow-headed Fantail Warbler (Cisticola exilis tytleri Jerdon) in the Kumaon Tarai. U.P. By B.E. Smythies 292 IV. Occurrence of the Golden Oriole and Common Cuckoo in Sind. By N. H. Menesse, i.S.e 296 V. The distribution of the Grey Hornbill ( Tockus birostris) and Tickell’s Flower-Pecker ( Pipri - soma agile?). By Capt. R. G. Hutchinson...... 296 VI. The European Common Partridge ( Perdix perdix) in Persia. By J. A. Cergh.. 297 VII. Description of chick, in down, of the Simla Hill Patridge {Arbor ophila torqueola miliar di). By A. E. Jones 298 VIII. Local movements of the Painted Patridge {Fran- colinus pictus) around Bombay. By F. C. D. Ogden 299 IX. Banding of the Lesser Florican {Sypheotides indica) in Bhavnagar State, Kathiawar. By K. S. Dharmakumar Sinhji , 299 X. Whimbrel and Fiddler Crabs. By M. R. Raut 300 XL The moulting of Duck after arrival in India. By Humayun Abdulali..., 300 CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL1V vii Page XII. Ducks of Kaira District. By Herschel C. Aldrich, M.D 301 XIII. The Arabian Large-crested Sea Tern ( Sterna bergii velox ) breeding off the Sind Coast. By K. R. Eates, f.z.s., m.b.o.u 302 XIV. The hatching of a Mugger, ( Crocodilus palustris). By C. Bone 303 XV. Specific identity of the ‘ Record mahseer.’ By S. L. Hora, d.sc.... 303 XVI. Strange breeding habits of the Cichlid Fish / ( Etroplus maculatus). By Lt.-Col. H. J. Rice... 304 XVII. A note on the transmission of Malaria at Ketti, Nilgiris, 6,300 feet. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth, m.a 307 XVIII. Butterfly migration. ( Danais melissa dravidarum and Euplxra c. core). By W. L. French- 310 XIX. Insects in fruit eaten by birds. By J. C. M. Gardner 311 XX. A trip to the Yala Sanctuary. By Lt.-Col. H. G. Rossel... 311 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS VOLUME XUV Nos, 1 and 2 Page Abdulali, Humayun ; The eggs of the Indian Bay* Banded Cuckoo ( Penthoceryx sonneratii) 122 — — — ; The moulting of Duck after arrival in India ... 300 Abraham, A. ; See Kumar, L.S.S 252 Adams, Major E. G. Phy- thian, i. a., f. z. s. ; Green Pigeon in a swamp 122 — — - ; Occurrence of Comb Duck ( Sarkidiornis melanotus Penn.) in Mysore 130 • Red Crested Pochard ( Netta riifina Pallas) in the Madras Presidency ... 130 Aldrich, Herschel, C., m.d. ; Some notes on the Common Sandgrouse ( Pterocles exustus (Temminck) in Kaira District. ( With a plate ) 123 — - ; Ducks of Kaira District 301 Ali, Salim ; The Birds of My- sore. Part IV. 9 — - — — ; Gynandromorphism in the Common Teel ( Anas crecca Linn.) 127 — ; The Birds of My- sore. Part V. ( With one plate) ... ... 206 BaGchi, K. N., d.sc. ; A note on fish mortality in the Sohan River 137 Bana, Dr. F. D., m.s.,m.r.c.s., D.P.H., D.T.M. & H., I.P. ; Control of Aedes egyptus (Stegomya fasciata) or tiger mosquito, (the carrier of yel- low fever) in the Bombay Page Harbour by a patent mos- quito-proof cap and tap ... 139 Basu, A. C., m.sc. ; Effect of different foods on the larval and post-larval development of the moth Prodenia litura Fab. (Lepidoptera, Noctui- dce ) ( With two graphs) ... 275 Bates, Lt-Col. R. S. P., m.b.o.u. ; A note on the feed- ing habits of the Little Bittern {Ixobrychus minutus) . (With two plates). 179 Beckett, J., i.p., ; Late stay of Snipe and weight of Pintail. 126 Bhaduri, J. L. ; Notes on the viviparity of the Common Indian Skink, (Mabuya cari - nata Schneider) 130 Bone, C. ; The hatching of a Mugger ( Crocodilus palustris) 303 Bor, N. L., m.a., d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s., and Raizada, m.b., m.sc. ; Some beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. Part XIV. ( With one coloured , two black and white plates and three text-figures) 73 Part XV. With one coloured , two black and white plates and two text-Hgures) ... 159 Buxton; Capt. Aubrey; Small Game Shooting in the Salem District 119 Caius, J. F., s.j., f.l.s. ; The Medicinal and Poisonous Lin- denblooms of India 92 Cergh, J. A. ; The European common Partridge ( Perdix perdix) in Persia 297 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS IX Page Dharmakumar SiNHji, K. vS. ; Banding of the Lesser Flori- can ( Sypheotides indica) in Bhavnagar State 299 Donald, Major J. O. S. ; Oc- currence of the Close-barred Sandgrouse ( Pterocles lich- tenstenii arabicus, Neum.) in the N.-W.F.P. 126 Eates, K. R., f.z.s. , m.b.o.u. ; A black Panther shot in Sind 291 ; The Arabian Large-crested Sea Tern ( Sterna bergii velox ) breeding off the Sind Coast ... 302 Fox, E. A. Storrs ; Wood- peckers feeding on Fruit ... 122 French, W. L., ; Butterfly migration 310 Gardner, J. C. M. ; Insects in fruit eaten by birds 311 Garth waite, P. F. ; See Smith, H.C., m.b.o.u., and Smythies, B. E. ... 60, 55, 221 Harcourt-Bath, W. ; Papilio arcturus in the Himalayas ... 137 Hora, Sunder Lal, d. sc., F.R.S.E., E.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., f.n.i. ; The Game Fishes of India. Part XVI. {With one coloured plate and three text- figures) 1 Part XVII. {With one black and white plate and one text- figure) 164 — ; Specific identity of the 4 Record Mah- seer * 303 Hutchinson, Capt. R. G. ; The distribution of the Grey Hornbill ( Tockus birostris) and TickelPs Flower-Pecker {Piprisoma agile) 296 * 1 Jones, A. E. ; Description of Chick, in down, of the Simla Hill Partridge {Arborophila torqueola miliar di) 298 Kulkarni, C. V., B.A., (Hons.), M. sc., ph. d. ; Breeding Habits and Early Page Stages of the Gourami {Osph- ronemus goramy Lacepede). {With seven text-figures)- ... 233 Kumar, L.S. S., and Abraham, A. ; The Papaya, its Botany, Culture and Uses. ( With four plates 252 McCann, Charles, f.l.s. ; The flowering of Strobilanthes cal- losus Nees 143 — ‘ Light Windows in certain flowers {Asclepidaceae and Araceae). ( With a plate) . 182 Macdonald, A. St. J. ; Cir- cumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India and Burma. Part IV. ( With one plate , a map and three text-figures) 38 Part V. ( With five plates and one text-figure ... ... 185 Menesse, N. H., i.s.e. ; Oc- currence of the Golden Oriole _and Common Cuckoo in Sind 296 I Montagnon, D. J.; The White- fronted Goose {Anser albi- frons Scop.) in Assam ... 126 Morris, Lt.-Col. R. C. ; Ele- j phant and Bison on Roadways 313 j Ogden, F. C. D.; Local move- ments of the Painted Par- tridge {Franco linns pictus) around Bombay 299 Pocock, R. I., f r.s. ; The Larger Deer of British India. Part III. The Sambar (Rusa) . {With three texU figures ... 27 — — — - - ■ ■ ; The record skull of an Indian Clouded Leopard ( Neofelis nebulosa Griffith) 113 ; The Larger Deer of British India, Part IV. The Chital {Axis) and the Hog Deer {Hyelaphus). { With 4-S text-figures) ... 169 Rahimullah, M., m.sc., f.z.s. ; Fish Survey of Hyderabad State ... ... ... ... 88 X LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Page Raizada, M. B., m.sc. ; See Bor, N.L., m.a., d.sc.,f.l.s., i.f.s 73, 359 Raj, J. Samuel; Observations on a few cases of larval Ecdy- sis of the Indian Glow-worm, Lam prophorus t ene brosus Wlk 142 Ramaswami, L. S. ; The ana- tomy of the duodenal region of some' genera of Apoda {Amphibia) . {With two plates) 134 Raut, M. R. ; Whimbrel and Fiddler Crabs 300 Rice, Lt.-Col. H. J. ; Strange breeding habits of the Cichlid Fish (Etroplus maculatus) ... 3‘) 4 Rossel, Lt.-Col. H. G. ; A trip to the Yala Sanctuary ... 311 Sarangdhar, P. N., m.sc. ; Tiger Shark —Galeocer do tigrinus Muller and Henle. ( With three plates) 102 Sayeedud-Din, M. ; Some Common Indian Herbs with notes on their anatomical characters. {With three • plates) 244 Sevastopulo, D. G., f.r.e.s.; The Early Stages of Indian Lepidoptera . Part XI. ... 78 Simon, E. S., Curator, Govern- ment Zoological Gardens, Trivandrum ; Life span of some wild animals in capti- vity 117 Page Sambar ( R u s a unicolor Kerr) 118 S. L. H. Report of the Game and Game Fishes Preserva- tion Committee on the exist- ing species of game in Bengal 111 Smith, H.C., m.b.o.u., Garth- waite, P. F,, and SmythiEvS, B E. ; On the Birds of the Karen Hills and Karenni found over 3,000 feet. Part II. 60 ; Part III ... 221 Smythies, B. E. ; See Smith, H.C., m.b.o.u. and Garth- waite, P. F 60, 221 ; On the occurrence of the Yellow- headed Fantail Warbler Cisti- cola exilis tytleri Jerdon) in the Kumaon Tarai, U.P. ... 292 Thakore Sahib of Palitana ; An interesting Tiger shoot ... 291 Thom, W. S. ; A few notes about the five Rhinoceros of the world ... 257 Wiltshire, E. P., f.r.e.s. ; Some more new Lepidoptera from S.-W. Iran, with then- life histories. ( With a plate) 247 Wrenicke, Capt. C. J. T. ; Occurrence of the Himalayan Tahr {Hemitragus jemlahi- | cus) in Sikkim 114 i Wynter-BlYth, M.A., m.a. ; A note on the transmission of ; Malaria at Ketti, Nilgiris, | 6,300 feet. ... ... ... 307 Breeding season of the Indian LIST OF PLATES VOLUME XLIV Nos. 1 and 2 PAGji The Game Fishes of India Plate Circumventing Burma Plate Barbus {Tor) klmdree Sykes (upper) ... ... 1 Barbus ( Tor) musullah Sykes (lower) the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India and (1) A typical ‘ Golden Mahseer’ , 50 lbs. Barbus {Tor) putitora (Hamilton). (2) Thick-lipped ‘mahseer’, 52 lbs. Barbus ( Tor ) putitora (Hamilton). With hyper-trophied lips, (3) The ‘ Black mahseer’. 26 lbs. Barbus ( Tor) putitora ( Hamilton ) . Melanie form . (4) Short gilled, deep-bodied type, 25 lbs. Barbus { Tor) tor (Hamilton) ... ... ... 38 Plate ‘ White water ’ where large fish are usually taken. Part of a bag taken in the rapid shown above. Two best 30 and 25 lbs. ... ... ... 48 Plate Sketch map of water likely to be met with in most hill rivers ... ... ... ... 49 Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs Plate XXV. The Trumpet Iioney-suckle {Lonicera sempervirens Linn.) ... ... ... ... 73 Plate Lonicera sempervirens Linn. New Forest, Dehra Dun ... ... ... ... 76 Plate Lonicera japonica Thunb. New Forest, Dehra Dun ... ... ... ... 77 Tiger Shark— Galeocerdo tigrinus Muller and Henle Plate I. A, female, 13 ft. 1 in. long, landed at Sassoon Dock, Bombay; B, under surface of head; C, typ cal teeth of same ... ... ... ... 102 Plate II. A, uterus partly opened to show arrangement of compartments ; B, spindle shaped, unfertilized egg within shell membrane ; C, compartment showing embryo within the water-filled sac in the shell membrane; D, embryo, 6*8 cms. long, with its umbilical cord and large yolk-sac. Note fila- ments in gill slits and spiracles ... ... 104 Plate III. A, embryo with yolk-sac and umbilical cord (advanc- ed stage). Note conspicuous tiger-like markings ; B, 42 embryos each weighing 1 lb. are seen spread out along the mother’s body. The white bag on the left is the shark’s stomach from which were taken several basketsfull of miscellaneous and quite fresh fish. (Inset top right.) .., 107 LIST OF PLATES Xll Some notes on the Common Sandgrouse ( Pterocles exustus Temminck) in Kaira District Plate 1. Female with one chick under her wing and two standing in front of her. 2. Male, female and three chicks attempting to es- cape by slowly creeping away The Anatomy of the Duodenal Region of some genera of Apoda (Am- phibia) Plate I. Anatomy of duodenal region of Apoda Plate II. Do. Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs Plate XV. The Cape Plumbago (Plumbago capensis Thu nb)... Plumbago capensis Thunb. New Forest, Dehra Dun Do. Do. India Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes. From Canara, Malabar A Note on the Feeding Habits of the Little Bittern (Ixobrychus minutus) Plate 1. Ixobrychus minutus ( Linn.) Plate II. Do. ‘ Light-Windows ’ in Certain Flowers Plate Plate The Game Fishes of Plate Plate Circumventing Burma Plate Plate ‘ Light- Windows ’ the Mahseer and other 1. Sporting Fish in India and Plate Plate Plate A panoramic view of the famous confluence look- ing down from the bungalow. 2. Famous rocks 22 miles north of Myitkyina 3. Mali Rapid into confluence F — G is excellent water 1. Golden or Himalayan Mahseer, Barbus (Tor) pntitora Hamilton, 25 lbs. Because of its long body referred to in Assam as the Greyhound type. 2. Black Mahseer. A colour variety of the Pulitor or Golden Mahseer. 3. Chocolate Mahseer, Barbus ( Lissochilus ) hexa- gonolepis. 4. Red Mahseer. Another colour variety of Barbus (L) hexagonolepis Chocolate Mahseer, Barbus ( Lissochilus ) hexagono- lepis , 16 lbs. (Left.) Golden Mahseer, Barbus tor putitora, 23 lbs. (Right.) Thick-lipped Mahseer, Barbus tor putitora Hamil- ton (Left.) Copper Mahseer, Barbus tor mosal Hamilton, (Right.) Note the pronounced adipose extension of the lips in the larger fish. It is a peculiarity not yet fully investigated The Sahman Chaung. 1. View through Finlay Fleming’s estate ; 2. Hill section, holding fish from 8-10 lbs. 3. Another view of Hill section. Typical B. bola. water Page 124 134 135 159 162 163 164 180 181 183 186 189 190 190 193 LIST OF PLATES xtii The Birds of Mysore Plate V. 1. Little Cormorants ( Phalacvocorax niger) and Small Egrets ( Egretta g. garzetta) on rocks in the Cauvery near Palahally Island (Seringapa- tam), the newly created Bird Sanctuary. 2. Nest and eggs (c/11) of the Spot-billed Duck {Anas poecilorhyncha) on a islet in Vanivilas Sagar (Marikanive). 6-1-1940 ... ... 216 Some Common Indian. Herbs with Notes on their Anatomical Characters Plate I. Fig. 1. — An association of Heliotropium zeylanicum Laruk. Fig. 2. — Heliolr opium zeylanicum Lamk ... 242 Plate II. Heliotropium zeylanicum Lawk ... ... 243 Plate III. Do. ... 244 Some more new Lcpidoptera from S.-W. Iran Plate Figs. I. — 14. New Lepidoptera from S.-W. Iran ... 247 The Papaya, its Botany, Culture and Uses. Plate I. Drawing showing female, hermaphrodite and male flowers ... ... .. ... 253 Plate II. A female papaya plant nearly one year old. Due to poor soil fertility and effect of seasonal variation the upper part is without fruit ... ... 254 Plate III. Female plant, ten months old, growing in good soil and bearing fruits right up to the apex, and from less than two feet from the ground. (Left.) A male plant also of the same age. Note the long pendulous inflorescences bearing numerous small flowers. (Right). ... ... ... 254 Plate IV. A male plant bearing a few female flowers and fruits at the terminal portion of infloresences pre- dominantly bearing male flowers. (Left.) A plant with inflorescences exactly similar to the male inflorescence in appearance, but with all flowers female. (Right.) 254 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS VOLUME XLIV Nos, 1 and 2 Page Anas poecilorhyncha PL V 216 Anatomy of duodenal region of Apoda Pl. I 134 Pl. 11 135 Axis axis Text-fig. 4 169 Text-fig. 5 170 Text-fig. 6 173 Text-fig. 7 175 Barbus {Lisso chillis) hexagonole- pis Pis 189, , 190 — mussullah Text-fig- 1 3 tor Text- fig. 1 - — — - mosal PI {tor) khudree PI. Text-fig. 3 Pl. Text-fig. 1 _. mussullah PL r- r- ■ » putitora PL Pis. 3 ... 191 1 7 ... 164 ... 166 1 ... 38 189, 191 - — — - tor Pl. Bawanny mahseer Text*fig 2 Black mahseer Pis. ... Cervus wallichii Text-fig. 5 Xretta g. garzetta Pl. V ... 38 4 ...186, 189, 193 170 216 Page Fishing for mahseer Text-fig. 1 ... 47 Pis. 48, 49 Galescerdo tigrinus PL I ... 102 Pl. II ... 105 PL III ... 107 Heliotrop ium zeylan icum PL I ... 244 PL II ... 244 Pl. Ill ... 245 Hyelaphus porcinus Text-fig. 7 ... 175 Text-fig. 8 ... 176 Ixobrychus minutus Pl. I ... 180 Pl. II ... 181 Larger Deer antlers Text-fig. 2 ... 31 ‘ Light-Windows 1 Pl. ... 183 Lonicera confusa Text-fig. 2 ... 76 - — japonica Pl. ... . 77 Text-fig. 3 ... 77 periclymenurn Text-fig. 1 ... 74 sempervirens Pl. XIV ... 73 Pl. ... 76 New Lepidoptera from S.W. Iran Pl ... 247 Osphronemus goramy Text-figs. 1-7 238,-242 Panolia eldi Text-fig. 1 ... 28 Phalacrocorax niger Pl. V ... ... ... 216 INDEX To ILLUSTRATIONS XV Page i Page Plumbago capensis PL XV ... 159 — capensis Pis. 162, 163 — rosea Text-fig. 2 ... 163 — • zeylanica Text-fig. 1 ... 161 Prodenia litura Graph A ... 280 Graph B ... 282 Pterocles exustus PL ... 124 Rucervus duvaucelii Text-fig. 1 ... 28 Rusa unicolor Text-fig. 4 ... 169 Text-fig. 5 ... .170 — nigra Text -fig. 1 ... 28 Text-fig, 3 ... 33 Silundia gangetica Pig. ... 192 Thaocervus sehomburgki Text-fig. 5 ... 170 The Papaya Pl. I ... 253 PL 11 ... 254 PI. Ill ... 254 Pl. IV ... 254 ERRATA VOL. XLIV— Nos. 1 & 2. I, The Early Stages of Indian Lepidoptera~—Pt. XL Page 80, line 3, insert ‘ Soc .’ after ‘ Hist* ,, line 10, read ‘ Crocale L.’ for ‘ Crocale Cr.’ „ 82, line 25, insert * 452 ’ after ‘...Moths, v,’ ,, 84) line 19, read ‘ Boerhavia ’ for ‘ Boerhaavia ’ „ 85, line 2, from bottom read ‘ somites ’ /zus Aythya f erica ferina luligula fuligula - — — — rufa rufa Bagarius yarcplii Bapta ... (Aleuci^) distincta... ... 231 ... 231 ... 298 ... 217 ... 217 ... 217 ... 232 ... 236 ... 245 ... 84 ... 61 ... 278 ... 17 ... 22 229 18 85 169, 171, 172 117, 169, 170, 171, 173 ... 178 171 177 220 220 220 198 249 249 XV111 INDEX OF SPECIES Bapta (Aleucis) distinctata — — — ( -) orientalis — _____ — —) pictaria Barbus bola curmuca — — dobsoni — hamiltonii. — khudree 2, 3, 6, 7, 164, — — kolus - — (Labeobarbus) hamiltonii (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis malabaricus 164, . ■ megalepis 4, 5, 164, — — — - mussullah 2, 5, — — — — - progeneius — — (Puntius) dorsalis — ) kolus —) sarana — ) sophore - ( - (• -) terio -) ticto 1, 6-8, tor — — mosal — — putitora - - — - khudree — — mussullah Barilius barna — — — bendelisis Batrachostomus hodgsoni Bhriaga remifer tectirostris Bibos frontalis gaurus Bindabara phocides moorei Blythipicus pyrrhotis pyrrhotis Boarmia ... Boerhaavia Bombax malabaricum Botaurus stellaris stellaris Boulengerula boulengeri Brachydanio rerio Brassica oleracea Bubo bubo bengalensis ... Bubulcus ibis coromandus Bucia athertoni ... Burhinus cedicnemus indicus ... Butastur teesa Buteo sp. Byblia ilithyia Page ... 249 ... 249 ... 249 192, 193 2 2 164, 166 165, 166 1, 150 164, 165 166, 190 165, 166 166, 304 164, 166 ... 164 ... 90 89, 90 89, 90 89, 90 ... 90 89, 90 188, 202 ... 190 ... 190 166, 304 1, 8, 304 189 89 89 198 227 62 272 271 309 222 250 84 293 217 136 135, 136 90, 91 278 18 217 13 211 21 229 309 Cacomantis merulinus passerinus querulus Callichrous biinaculatus malabaricus Page 9 . 223 . 89 Calliphora erythrocephala ... 287 | Capella gallinago gallinago ... 215 media 215 megala ... 215 nemoricola ... 214 • stenura ... 215 Capricornis sumatrensis ... 115 Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus — indicus ■ indicus — jotaka macrourus ambiguus * — atripennis monticolus monticolus Caragola ochripes Carduelis spinus Careya arborea Carica papaya Carissa carandas Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus Casarca ferruginea Cassia fistula Catla catla Catopsilia crocale pomona Cemus goral Centropus bengalensis bengalensis - sinensis intermedia ________ parroti Ceratophyllum Ceropegia Cervidae Cervulus cambojensis Cervus affinis — — = albicornis • — — — aristotelis - axis — major - — uni color eldi - - — elephus — equinus — — hanglu — hippelaphus _ — — jarai — leschenaultii . ~ malaccensis 17 227 17 227 227 17 17 ... 80 ... 128 ... 84 252, 278 ... 278 ... 66 218, 301 80, 86, 87 ... 40 ... 80 ... 80 ... 260 ... 224 ... 224 10 235, 241 183, 184 119 35 32 29 30, 35 171 29 29 260 30 35 32 30 30 30, 35 35, 36 INDEX OF SPECIES xix Page Cervus niger 30 nudipalpebra ... 171 — — porcinus ... 174 pumilio ... 175 - unicolor 27, 260 equinus 35 ■ wallichii 32, 170 Ceryle lugubris guttulata ... 225 — - — - rudis 14 Cestrum nocturnum ... 278 Ceyx erithaca erithaca 14 Chaetura gigantea indica ... 227 giganteus indicus ... 16 Chalcites maculatus maculatus ... 224 xanthorhynchus ... 224 Cbalcophaps indica indica 24, 230 Chamseleo pumilus ... 132 Chaptia senea senea 61 Charadrius dubius curonicus ... ... 212 — jerdoni ... 212 Charana jalindra macarita ... 309 Chaulelasmus streperns ... 302 Chela clupeoides ... 89, 90 Chelone mydas ... 103, 104 Chibia hottentotta hottentotta 62 Chilasa clytia clytia 78 Chilena ... 247 Chirocentrus dorab .. 104 Choriotes nigriceps ... 211 Chrysophlegma flavinucha flavinucha 221 Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus — — guttacristatus ... 221 Ciconia ciconia ciconia... ... 216 Cinnyris asiatica intermedia ... 70 Circaetus ferox 21 Circus seruginosus seruginosus 22 — - — — macrourus 22 melanoleucus ... 229 Cirrhina mrigala 40 reba 89 Cisticola exilis 294, 295 equicaudata ... 293 tytleri 292, 294 — juncidis ... 295 Citrus medica ... 278 spp 79 Clamator coromandus ... 224 jacobinus ... 224 jacobinus 9 Clarias batrachus 89 Clitoria ternatea ... ... 278 Page Clupea ilisha 104 Coilia dussumieri 104 Collocalia fuciphaga 16 Colocasia antiquorum ... 84 Columba agricola 25 — — elphinstonii ... 25 livia 24 Coracias benghalensis affinis 225 — indica 12 Corchorus acutangulus 92, 93 ... , . . asplenifolius 92 capsularis ... 92, 93 - — — depressus 93, 94 fascicularis ... 93, 94 __ olitorius 92, 93, 94 serraefolius ... 92 — - trilocularis ... 93, 95 Coronella ... 132 Corydon sumatranus ... 71 Coryllis rubropygialis ... 12 — — — vernalis 12 — — — — vernalis ... 2 25 Cosmophila sabulifera 85 Coturnix coromandelica ... 208 — - coturnix coturnix 208 Grocallis ... 247 Crocodilus palustris 303 Crocopus phoenicopterus chlorogaster 23 Cryptocoryne 183, 184 Cryptoplectron erythrorhynchum — — — ■ - erythrorhynchum ... 209 Cucullia anceps 248 barthse ... 248 — — — faucicola ... 247 lychnitis 248 notodontina ... ... 248 osthelderi 248 — — — stigmatophora 248 strigicosta 249 — verbasci 248 xylophana ... 248 Cuculus canorus 296 — — bakeri 223 — _ telephonus ... 223 micropterus micropterus ... 223 — poliocephalus polioceph- alus ... 223 Cursorius coromandelicus ... 212 Cyanops asiatica asiatica 222 duvauceli cyanotis ... 223 — franklinu ramsayi 223 XX INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Cynodon dactyl on ... 101 Cynopithecus niger ... 118 Cyprinus tor 164 Cypsiurus parvus infumatus ... ... 227 Dafila acuta 219, 302 Dalbergia sissoo ... 293 Danais melissa ... ... 310 — — — - — — — dravidarum ... 310 septentrionis ... 310 Dendrocygna fulva .. 218 ■ javanica 218, 301 Dendronanthus indicus 68 Dendrophassa pompadora affinis 23 Dermophis .. 135 — gregorii 135, 136 Dicaeum chrysorrheum chrysochlore 70 concolor olivaceum ... 71 — : cruentatura subsp 70 ignipectus ignipectus 71 trigonostigma rubropyginra 70 Dicerorhinus sumatrensis 257-274 Dichoceros bicornis ... 118, 267, 270 — bicornis ... .. 226 Dicrurus leucophaeus mohouti 61 ■ — macrocercus cathoecus 61 Dinopium javanensis intermedia .. 222 Dissemurus paradiceus rangoonensis 62 Dissoura episcopa episcopa ... .. 216 Dolichos lablab 11 Drepanoscelus gardneri .. 311 Drosophila melanogaster .. 287 Dryobates analis longipennis ... .. 221 ■ — macei atratus .. 222 — - nanus canicapillus .. 222 — — pistaciae .. 250 Ducula badia cuprea 24 — — - griseicapilla ,. 230 Dupetor flavicollis flavicollis ... . 232 Egretta alba 217 garzetta garzetta . 217 intermedia intermedia . 217 Eichhornia 236 Elaeocarpus ganitrus 95 — madepolatus 95 — — oblongus . 95, 96 photiniaefolia 95 serratus . 95, 96 — — tuberculatus . 95, 96 Elanus caeruleus vociferus 22 Emberiza aureola 67 — — —7 — fpcata fucata 66 Page Emberiza pusilla 67 — — rutila... 67 Entomothera coromanda coromanda 226 Eogenes alcides ... 251 Epitherina ... 249 pistaciae ... 250 Erannis bahmana 249, 250 — bajaria... ... 251 Erannus rhodopoleos 249, 250 Ericeia (Polydesma) inangulata 86 Eriolaena hookeriana 86 Erolia minuta minuta ... 214 Erranis ... 249 Erythrina 12 Esacus recurvirostris ... 211 Etroplus ... 241 maculatus ... 304 Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus 10 Eugenia jambolana 84 malaccensis ... ... 278 Eumenes 19 Euploea core core ... 310 Eupterote geminata 81 — undata 81 . Eurylaimus javanicus 71 Eurystomus orientalis orientalis ... 225 Eutropiichthys vacha ... 198 Falco peregrinus peregrinator 20 — subsp . ... 229 ■ -tinnunculus objurgatus ... 20 — — subsp . ... 229' tinnunculus 20 Felis pardus ... 260 tigris ... 260 Ficus 24 religiosa 85, 278 Francolinus pictus 209, 299 pintadeanus phayrei ... 231 — pondicerianus pondi- cerianus ... 209 Franklinia gracilis hodgsoni ... 62 — rufescens rufescens 62 Fringilla coelebs ... 128 Fulica atra atra ... 210 Galeocerdo tigrinus ... ...102 , 109, 130 Ga’linula chloropus indicus ... ... 210 Galloperdix spadicea spadicea ... 207 Gallus gallns subsp ... 231 sonneratii ... 206 Gecinulus grantia viridis ... 221 Gecinus occipitalis ... 12? INDEX OF SPECIES xf i 135, Gecinus squamatus Gegenophis ... carnosus Gelasimus sp Gennseus lineatus subsp. Glareola lactea ... Glaucidium brodiei subsp. cuculoides rufescens subsp. . radiatum radiatum Glossogobius giuris Glottis nebularia Glycosmis pentaphylla Goniozus indicus Gorsakius melanolophus melanolophus Gracula intermedia religiosa Graucalus macei siamensis Grevillea Grewia asiatica... carpinifolia - hirsuta — — laevigata microcos mollis - occidentalis . — paniculata populifolia — sclerophylla tenax tiliaefolia - — — villosa — — — umbellata Gyps fulvus fulvescens indicus Habrobracon juglandis Haematornis cheela burmanicus cheela _____ — — melanotis... 96 96 Halcyon pileata ... smyrnensis smyrnensis subsp. Haliastur indus indus Harpactes erythrocephalus erythroce- phalus fasciatus malabaricus — oreskios uniformis ... Heliopais personata Heliotropium linifolium paniculatum supinum — zejdanicum Page 122 136 136 300 231 212 228 228 228 19 89, 90 214 278 151 232 65 61 12 86, 97 96, 97 96, 98 86 97, 98 .. 96 .. 96 96-98 ,98,99 97, 99 97, 99 , 97, 99 96, 100 96, 100 19 19 287 . 229 21 21 14 14 , 226 21 226 15 227 232 244 . 245 .. 245 244, 246 244, Hemerophila (Megalycinia) engys Hemicercus canete canete Hemiprocne caronata Hemipus picatus picatus Hemitragus jemlahicus Herpele ochrocephala Heterobapta — — — plumellata Heteropnestes fossils Hibiscus cannabinus esculentis... Hierococcyx fugax nisicolor — sparveriodes — varius Himantopus himantopus himantopus 16, Page 251 221 . 227 60 .. 114 .. 136 135, 136 .. 249 249, 250 89 .. 278 .. 278 .. 223 9, 223 9 213 Hirundo arctivitta 68 daurica japonica 68 • striolata 68 * rustica gutturalis ... 68 — _ — — — tytleri 68 Hodgsonia 151 Homochlamys fortipes ... 64 ______________ pallidipes pallidipes ... 65 Huhua nipalensis . 228 Hydrilla 235 Hydrocissa coronata 15 Hydrophasianus chirurgus 211 Hyelaphus 169, 174 pumilio 175 ■ . porcinus 175-177 _____ oryzus 177 Hypacanthis spinoides ambiguus ... 66 Hystrix leucura H8 Ibis leucocephalus ... 216 Ichthyophis 136 glutinosus 155-137 monochrous ... 135-137 Ictinaetus malayensis perniger ... 21 Indicapus sylvaticus 16 I ole virescens ... 223 Ipomea 235 Irena puella sikkimensis 65 Ixobrychus minutus 179 Jussisea repens 84 Jussieua 84 Jynx torquilla 222 Ketupa zeylonensis leschenaulti ... 18 Labeo boggut .. 89 calbasu ... — fimbriata 2, 40, 89, 90, 198 89, 90 INDEX OF SPECIES xxii Page Page Labeo fimbriatus 2 Macaca sinica sinica 147 musundi 3 Macacus sinicus 118 - — — porcellns 2 Machilus duthiei 311 — - potail 89 Macropicus javensis 221 rohita 40 Macropodus cupanus ... 241 ■ tor 3 Macropygia ruficeps assimilis ... 230 Lacedo pulchellus amabilis ... 226 — uncball tnsalia 230 Lacerta vivipara ... 132 Malvaceae 151 Lactuca scariola ... 278 Mangifera indica 278 Lagerstroemia indica 82, 84 Mareca penelope 302 Lalage melaschistos melanoptera 61 Martula dasypus cashmeriensis 67 Lanius colluroides colluroides 60 — — — urbica whiteleyi 67 - cristatus cristatus 60 Mastacembelus armatus 89, 90 — nasutus tricolor 60 . — pancalus 90 schach nipalensis 60 Megalaima virens virens 222 Lantana ... 207 Megametopon 249 — — — — camara 81 Melocanna bambusoides 268 sellowiana 87 Melophus lathami subcristata 67 Lamprophorus tenebrosus ... 142 Merops leschenaulti leschenaulti ...13, 225 Larus sp. ... ... 212 = orientals birmanus 225 Lasiotampa quercifolia ... 287 — — — — orientalis 13 Leiolopisma himalayanum 132 — superciliosus javanicus 13 Lemnaceae ... 151 — — . phillippinus 225 Leptoptilus dubius ... 118 Metanastria hyrtaca 81 Leptosia nina nina ... 309 Metopidius indicus 211 Limnanthemum ... 236 Microdesmis puberula 101 Limonium ... 160 Micropus affinis 16 Litsea chinensis 80 — melba bakeri 15 — — — - polyantha 80 paci ficus subsp. 227 Lobipluvia malabarica ... 212 Milvus migrans govinda 22 Lobivanellus indicus indicus ... ... 212 Moringa pterygosperma 278 Lonicera ... 73 Motaciila alba subsp. ... 68 75 76 - AitlQTOn molotifmo 68 japonica 75, 76,’ 77 ' LUJitit'Cl llit-ICVlIvUt « o • flava subsp 68 — - periclymenum 74 Mulleripicus pulverulentus harterli 222 sempervirens 75 Muscadivora aenea pusilla 24 Lophotriorchis kieneri... ...20, 229 Muscicapa parva 64 Loris tardigradus nycticeboides ... 147 Mystus cavasius ... 90 Lusciniola melanopogon mimica ... 295 — — - vittatus 90 Lutra vulgaris ... 118 Nacaduba dana dana 309 Lygosoma indicum indicum ... ... 132 Nelumbium sp. 235 Lymantria monacha ... 286 Neofelis nebulosa ... 113 Lymnocryptes minima ... 215 Neophron percnopterus ginginianus ... 20 Mabuya aurata 132, 133 Netta rufina 130, 302 carinata 130 , 132, 133 Nettapus coromandelianus 218, 301 dissimilis ... 132 Nettion crecca ... 302 — . mabuya multifasciata ... 132, 133 Ninox scutulata hirsuta 19 — — macularia ... 132 Nisaetus cirrhatus limnaetus ... 229 Macaca sinica ... 147 Notopterus chitala 90 _ oiirifrnno 147 kopirat on — — , . opisthomelas ... ... 147 notopterus ...89, 90 INDEX OF SPECIES xxiii Page Notopterus sp. nov ...89, , 90 Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax ... 217 Nyroca ferina 302 rufa 302 Oenopopelia tranquebarica humilis 230 tranquebarica 26 Ophicephalus gachua 90 — marulius ...89, , 90 punctatus ... 89, 90 striatus 89 ,90 Oriolus chinensis tenuirostris ... 65 — oriolus kundoo 296 trailii trailii 65 — xanthornus xanthornus ... 65 Orthotomus atrogularis nitidus ... 62 sutorius patia ... 62, 65 Osphronemus goramy ... 233, 243 — _____ olfax ... 233 Otus bakkomoena ... 18 - — — lettia 228 — spilocephalus latouchii ... ... 228 sunia modestus 228 Pachyzancla aegrotalis 87 Pandion haliaetus haliaetus ... ... 19 Panicum jumentorum 235 — miliaceum 99 Panolia 172, 173 — — — eldi 28 Papilio arcturus 137, 138 demoleus mini 79 ganesa 138 krishna 138 paris ... 137 — - polyctof ... 138 polytes romulus 78 Papio hamadryas 118 Parhamatospiculum bubicola 18 — sp. ... 19 Passer domesdcus ... 66 — flaveolus ... 66 * montanus ... 66 — rutilans subsp. 66 Pa vo cristatus 206 Pelecanus sp. 215 Pelecituss^. .. 23 Penthoceryx sonnerati ... 9 — — sonneraii 122 — — — — subsp. ... 223 Perdicula argoondah salimalii 208 — asiatica asiatica 208 — - — — * — vidali ... 209 Perdix perdix ... Pericrocotus brevirostris cinnamomeus \ividus roseus roseus Solaris Solaris ~ speciosus elegans Pernis ptilorhynchus ruficollis — . — subsp. Phragmaticola sedon Phalacrocorax caibo fuscicollis niger Pbasianus colchicus Phodilus badius subsp. Phoebe lanceolata ... Phyllergates cucullatus coronatus Phylloscopus cantator... davisoni davisoni _ fuscatus — inornatus inornatus — - — maculipennis maculi- pennis ... — — magnirostris proregulus ehloronotus — pulcher pulcher reguloides assamensis claudias -- schwarzi .... — tenellipes — trochiloides plumbei- tarsus ... — trochiloides Page .. 297 61 61 61 61 61 23 229 63 .. 215 .. 215 118, 216 .. 128 Picus canus hessei — chlorolophus chlorolophoides ... 228 80 65 64 64 62 63 63 63 63 63 64 64 63 64 63 63 221 221 — erythropygius ... ... 221 viridanus... ... 221 xanthopygaeus ... ... 221 Pieris brassicae ... ... • •• ... 276 Piprisoma agile ... ... ... 296, 297 — modestum modestum 71 Pistacia khinjuk ... ... ... 250 Pistia ... ... ... 235 Pithecanthropus indicus ... ... 199 Pitta cucullata cucullata ... 71 — cyanea cyanea ... ... 71 — — ~ moluccensis ... 71 oatesi ... 71 Platalea leucorodia ... ... 216 Plumbago ... ... 159 capensis ... 160, 162 europaea ... ... ... 159 . xxU INDEX OF SPECIES Page Plumbago rosea 160, 162, 163 zeylanica 160, 16!, 163 Pluvialis dominicus fulvus ... 212 Podiceps ruficollis capensi ... 220 Porpliyrio poliocephalus poliocephalus 210 Porthelria dispar ... 287 Porzana pusilla pusilla ... 210 Potamogeton ... 235 Prodenia litura ... 275-288 Prunus ... 249 1 rzewalskinm albirostris ... 147 Psammopbis condanarus 21 Psarisomus dalhousise ... 72 Psoudibis papillosus ... 216 Pseudogyps bengalensis 20 Pseuddis nahoor ... 114 Psittacula columbo.des 11 cyanocephala ... 11 , 12 rosea ... 224 eupatria 11 himalayana finschii ... 225 — — krameri borealis ... 224 — — — - manillensis 11 Pterocles exustus ... 123 — — - ellioti ... 206 indie us ... 206 — * lichtenstenii arabicus ... 126 Pyrrhula pyrrhula ... 128 Pyrus malus ... 278 • — — -- sinensis ... 278 Querquedula querquedula ... 302 Quisqualis indica 81 Rallina fasciata .. ... 231 Rallus eurizonoides amuroptera ... 210 Rhamphalcyon capensis 14 — burmanica ... 226 Raphanus sativus ... 278 Rasbora buchanani 90 — — daniconius ... 89, 90 Rauwolfia serpentina ... 160 Rhinoceros bicornis 257-274 indicus 257-274 — simus 257-274 — __ sondaicus 257-274 — unicornis 257-274 Rhopodytes tristis subsp. ... 224 — — viridirostris 10 Rhyticeros spp ... 226 Riparia concolor sintaungensis 68 Rohtee belangeri ... 89, 91 Page Rohtee cotio var. ennma ... 89 Rostratula benghalensis benghalensis 211 Rucervus ... 27, 172, 173 duvaucelii ... 28 Rusa dejeani ... 35 unicolor ...27, 28, 32, 35, 118 , 169, 170 equina ... ... 28, 35, 36 nigra ... 28, 30, 33, 36 unicolor • •• ... 27, 29 Saccharum glumeosum 192 Salamandra ... 135 Sarcogyps calvus ... 19 Sarkidiornis melanotus... 130, 218, 301 Sarogiossa spiloptera spiloptera ... 66 Sasia ochracea subsp. ... ... 222 Sciaenoides brunneus ... ... ... 104 Scirophaga rhodoproctalis ... .. 151 vScolecomorphus 135, 136 uluguruensis 135, 136 Scolopax rusticola ... ... 211 — rusticola ... 232 Scopula cleoraria ... 86 Scrophularia ... 249 Seicercus burkii tephrocephalus ... 64 Selepa celtis ... ... 84 Serilophus iunatus lunatus ... 72 Shorea robusta .. ... ... 84 Silundia gangetica ... 192, 198 Simia satyrus ... ... 118 Solanaceae ... 151 Spatula clypeata ... „ 220, 302 Sphenocercus apicauda apicauda 230 __ — — . sphenurus sphenurus ... 230 Spinacia oleracea ... 278 Stachyris chrysaea ... 64 Statice ... ... 160 Stegomyia fasciata ... ... 139 Sterna anaetheta ... ... 148 - - ■ aurantia ... ... 212 ■ bergii 148 — velox ... ... ... 302 dougalli ... ... 148 —— — fuscata ... 148 melanogaster ... ... 212 repressa ... ... 148 Streptopelia chinensis suratensis 26 — — — decaocto decaocto ... 26 orientalis ... 26 • — agricola ... ... 230 erythrocephala ... 25 — — — - — - - orientalis ... 25 INDEX OF SPECIES XXV Streptopelia orientalis meena ... Page 25 Trichodesma indicum ... Page ... 245 — — senegalensis cambayensis Strix indranee indranee 26 18 Trichosanthes Tringa glareola ... ... 151 ... 214 ocellata 18 — — — ochropus... ... 213 — — orientalis orientalis ... 228 stagnatilis ... ... 214 Strobilanthes callosus Stromateus cinereus 143, 144 ... 104 • — — — totanus Triumfetta lappula ... ... 214 100 - niger Surniculus lugubris subsp. ::: 104 224 — ___ rhomboidea — — - — - semitriloba ... 100 100, 101 Suya superciliaris superciliaris Sypheotides indica Syrmaticus humiae-burmanicus Taccocua leschenaulti Tapirus indicus Tephrodornis gularis pelvica pondiceriana pondiceriana 65 211, 299 .. 231 10 273, 274 60 Terminalia tomentosa ... Thaocervus schomburgki Thera Thereiceryx viridis Theretra pinastrina pinastrina Threskiornis melanocephalus Thuya orientalis Thynnichthys sandkhol Tinola bisellella Tockus birostiis griseus Tor hamiltonii Trachylepidia fructicassiella Tribura sp. Trichirurus savala 15, 60 84 ... 170 ... 249 23 82 ... 216 .. 278 89, 91 .. 287 296, 297 15 .. 164 87 62, 63 ... 104 Tropidophorus Turnix dussumieri — suscitator taijoor - — — — sylvatica dussumieri ... tanki blanfordi Turtur erythrocephalus Upupa epops ceylonensis — subsp Ureotyphlus — — — — narayani Urodela Uroloncha striata acuticauda ... Verbenaceae Vipera Vivia innominata malayorum Wallago attu Wallagonia attu Xantholaema haemacephala indica Zosterops ery thro pleura — palpebrosa subsp. — — siamensis - ~ - simplex ... 132 ... 231 ... 210 ... 210 ... 231 26 15 ... 226 135, 136 135, 136 ... 135 66 ... 151 ... 132 == 222 ... 199 89, 90 ... 223 69 69 69 69 PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS (p.i.c. no. q.h. ms. 5)— 1,300 copies— 12-8-47. C5087 Vol. XLIV, No. 1 AUGUST, 1943. Price, Rs. 12 net. THE JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society. EDITED BY REV, J. F. CAIUS, S.J.. F.L.S. S. H. PRATER, O.B.E., M.L.A., C.M.Z.S., AND C. McCANN/F.L.S, PUBLISHED BY THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 6, Apollo Street, Bombay. London Agents i DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY) 212, SHAFTESBURY AVENUE LONDON, W.C. 2. THE SOCIETY'S PUBLICATIONS. Birds. Book of Indian Birds. By Salim Ali, 2nd Edition (Illustrated). Rs. 16. ( Price to Members Rs. 12/8). Game Birds of India, Vol. II. (Woodcock, Snipe, Bustards, and Sandgrouse) 1 st Edition. Rs. 42. x ( Price to Members Rs. 30). Game Birds of India, Vol. III. Pheasants, 1st Edition. Rs. 32. (Price to Members Rs. 21). Bird-Life in India, by Capt. R. S. P. Bates, M.B.O.U. Illustrated. Rs. 6. (Price to Members Rs. 3). Birds of Bombay and Salsette (Illustrated), by Salim Ali and Humayun Abdulali. Rs. 2. Indian Pigeons and Doves with coloured illustrations, by E. C. Stuart Baker, O.B.E., M.B.O.U., F.Z.S., etc. Rs. 37-8. (Price to Members Rs. 30). Cuckoo Problem (Illustrated), by Stuart Baker. (Price to Members Rs. 20.) Snakes. Identification of Poisonous Snakes — Folding Pocket Chart. 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The subscription of members elected in October, November and December covers the period from the date of their election up till the end of the following year. MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA. The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription, plus postage — in all Rs. 26-8-0 — to the Society in Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £ 2-0-6 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers — The National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIV , No. / 0 Page. The Game Fishes of India. Part XVI. By Sunder Lai Hora, d.sc., f.r.s.e., f.z.s., f.r.a.s.b., f.n.i, ( With one coloured plate and three text-figures ) ... ... ... ... ... ... i The Birds of Mysore. Part IV. By Salim Ali ... ... ... 9 The Larger Deer of British India. Part III. The Sambar ( Rusa ) By R. I. Pocock, f.r.s. (With three text-figures ) ... ... 27 Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India and Burma. Part IV. By A. St. J. Macdonald. (With one plate, a map and three text-figures ) ... ... ... ... ... 38 On the Birds of the Karen Hills and Karenni found over 3,000 feet. Part II. By H. C. Smith, m.b.o.u., P. F. Garthwaite and B. E. Smythies ... ... ... ... ... ... 60 Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. Part XIV. By N. L. Bor, m.a., d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (With one coloured, two black and white 'plates and three text-figures) ... ... 73 The Early Stages of Indian Lepipoptera. Part XI. By D. G. Sevasto- pulo, f.r.e.s. ... . . ... ... ... ... 78 Fish Survey of Hyderabad State. Part II. By M. Rahimullah, m.sc., f.z.s. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 88 The Medicinal and Poisonous Lindenblooms of India. By J. F. Caius, s.j., f.l.s. ... ... ... ... ... ... 92 Tiger Shark — Galeocerdo tigrinus Muller and Henle. By P. N. Sarang- dhar, m.sc. (With three plates) ... ... ... ... ... 102 REVIEW : — Report of the Game and Game Fishes Preservation Committee on the existing species of Game in Bengal. S. L. H.... ... ... 111 OBITUARY: . ... ... 112 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES I. The record skull of an Indian Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa Griffith). By R. I. Pocock, f.r.s. ... ... 113 II. Elephant and Bison on Road ways. By Lt.-Col. R. C. Morris 113 III. Occurrence of the Himalayan Tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus) in Sikkim. By Capt. C. J. T. Wrenicke ... ... ... 114 IV. Life span of some wild animals in captivity. By E. S. Simon, Curator, Government Zoological Gardens, Trivandrum ... 117 V. Breeding season of tt|f Indian Sambar (Rusa unicolor, Kerr) 118 VI. Small Game shooting in the Salem District. By Capt. Aubrey Buxton ... ... •• ... ... iiQ ii CONTENTS OF Vol. XLIV, No. 1 Page VII. Woodpeckers feeding on fruit. By E. A. Storrs Fox ... ... 122 VIII. The eggs of the Indian Bay-Banded Cuckoo ( Penthoceryx sonneratii). By Humayun Abdulali ... ... ... 122 IX. Green Pigeons in a Swamp. By Major E. G. Phythian Adams, i*a. ... ... ... ... ... ... 122 X. Some notes on the Common Sandgrouse ( Pterocles exustus Temminck) in Kaira District. By Herschel C. Aldrich, m.d. (With a plate) ... ... ... ... ... I23 XI. Occurrence of the Close-barred Sandgrouse (Pterocles lichten- stenii arabicus, Neum.) in the N.-W.F.P By Major J. O. S. Donald ... ... ... ... ... ... 126 XII. Late stay of Snipe and weight of Pintail. By J. Beckett, i.p. 126 XIII. The White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons Scop.) in Assam. By D. J. Montagnon ... ... ... ... 126 XIV. Gynandromorphism in the Common Teal (Anas crecca Linn.). By Salim Ali ... ... ... ... ... 127 XV. Occurrence of Comb Duck (Sarkidiornis melanotus Penn.) in Mysore. By Major E. G. Phythian Adams, i.a., f.z.s. ... 130 XVI. Red Crested Pochard (Netta rufina Pallas) in the Madras Presidency. By Major E. G. Phythian Adams, i.a., f.z.s. 130 XVII. Notes on the viviparity of the Common Indian Skink (Mabuya carinata Schneider). By J. L. Bhaduri ... ... ... 130 XVIII. The anatomy of the duodenal region of some genera of Apoda (Amphibia). By L. S. Ramaswami. (With two plates) ... 134 XIX. A note on fish mortality in the Sohan River. By K. N. Bagchi, D. SC. ... ... ... ... ... ... 137 XX. Papilio arcturus in the Himalayas. By William Harcourt-Bath 137 XXL Control of Aedes egyptus (Stegomyia fas data or tiger mosquito, the carrier of yellow fever) in the Bombay Harbour by a patent Mosquito-proof cap and tap. By Dr. F. D. Bana, M.B., M.R.C.S., D.P.H., D.T.M. & H., I.P. ... ... ... I39 XXII. Observations on a few cases of larval Ecdysis of the Indian Glow-Worm, Lamprophorus tenebrosus Wlk. By J. Samuel Raj ... ... ... ... ... ... 142 XXIII. The flowering of Strobilanthes callosus Nees. by C. McCann ... 143 Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting ... ... 145 TWO TYPES OF MAHSEER FROM THE POONA WATERWAYS. I ! Upper : BARBUS (TOR) KHUDRHE Sykes. * ca i/2. Lower : BARBUS (TOR) MUSSULLAH Sykes. * ca 1/4. The drawings were made from specimens and colour sketches supplied by Dr. M. Suter. .JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society. 1943. Vol. XLIV No. 1. THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA. BY Sunder Lal Hora, Disc., f.r.s.e., f.z.s., f.r.a.s.b., f.n.i., Director of Fisheries, Bengal. ( With one coloured plate and three text-figures.) ( Continued from page 169 of . Vol. xliii, No. 2) XVI. — The Mahseers or the Large-scaled Barbels of India. 9. Further observations on Mahseers from the Deccan. Contents. Page Introduction Barbus (Tor) inussullah Sykes Table of Measurements ... Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes ... ... Acknowledgments ... ... ... List of References Explanation of Plate ... Introduction. In the last article of this series (4)1, attention was directed to the specific identity of Sykes’s three species of Barbus from the Deccan, and it was shown that while B. kolas and B. khudree could be recognised as valid, doubts still existed about the identity of 1 Numerals in thick type within brackets refer to the serial numbers of the various publications listed in the bibliography at the end of the paper. d£c y 2 JOURNAL, bomRAy NAtUrAl hJst. society, Uol. kUf B. mussullah. From the evidence then available, it seemed possible that B. mussullah might be the same fish which Hamilton (3) had previously described from Mysore as B. curmuca and which was later recorded from the Deccan also. However, a detailed con- sideration of the systematic position of this species was deferred till Dr. M. Suter had an occasion to carry out further investigations at Sirur, the type-locality of B. mussullah. He has now completed his studies and favoured me with the following report ip his letter dated December 8, 1942. He writes : — - ‘I have now been to Sirur, Sykes’s type-locality for his Barbus mussullah mainly in order to ascertain as definitely as possible whether Barbus curmuca occurs in the Ghod river and whether it is known to the local fishermen. ‘The information elicited on hand of a preserved specimen and with the help of the excellent coloured picture from tne pamphlet of the Bombay Nat. Hist. Society “Game Fishes oi Bombay” proved entirely negative, i*e., neither the specimens nor the illustration were recognised as representing a fish of local occurrence, or at all known to local fishermen. A resemblance to B. holus was indeed remarked upon and 1 was asked whether this (B. kolus) was the fish 1 wanted to know about. ‘As you relate in your article in the August number of B. N. H. Society’s Journal, the same men, on a former occasion, picked a picture of B. curmuca ^out of the illustrated volume of Day’s Fishes of India) as representing “ mussullah ” out, when later on they showed me a catcli of very large higfi-backed mafiseer, iney assured me that tfiis was “ mussullah ” and admitted that their identification 01 Day's picture nad been an error caused mainly by tne fact tfiat tliey thougtit me snape of the head in tfie picture seemed to tnem a good likeness ot me head 01 “ mussullah ”, being somewfiat “roman nosed”. ‘They also criticised Syices’s drawing of “ mussullah ” as being correct for the head, but wrong lor tne body, tfie scaies being too small and 100 many. ‘Tfie position is now as follows : 1. Barbus curmuca is not known to the professional fishermen at Sykes’s type-locality for B. mussullah ; 2. Hie sturdy and high-backed species of mafiseer of the Deccan is the only fish known to these men by the name of “ mussullah ” and most of the men differentiate it clearly from the slenderer species oi mahseer ( Barbus khudree Sykes). 3. Sykes expressly relates having been given a specimen of “ mussullah ” weighing 42 lbs. at Sirur, and tfie local nsfiermen repeatedly stated to me that the high-backed mahseer was the only fish with large scales known to them, whicnever reached such a size, or exceeded it. . The only other big fish with prominent scales known to the men are, B. khudree, B. dobsoni {=jerdoni), Labeo calbasu, L. porcellus, and L. fimb riatus. 4. The designation “ mussullah ” is also used by the fishermen of the Bfiima and Idrayani rivers for large mahseer only, and many of the men use it for the high-backed species only, expressly differentiating it from the slenderer' B. khudree Sykes, for which they have other designation, such as khudchee, barsa, etc. Others, whilst quite aware of the difference between the two types of mafiseer, will apply the name of “ mussullah ” to large specimens of both types. The more observant ones, however, will not do so. ‘Faced by the above result of my investigations at Sykes’s locality I cannot but arrive at the conclusion, that the fish to which Sykes applied the name of B. mussullah, was none other than the stockily-built and high-backed mahseer of the Deccan. ‘The uncertainty prevailing for so long in respect of the identity of Sykes’s species was caused by his incomplete description in respect of scale counts, and by the undoubted incorrectness of the drawing prepared by his employee, in which the scales were filled in haphazardly without any count having been taken. ‘I have no doubt that you will arrive at the same conclusion and that thereby, the question will have arrived at its final elucidatipn.’ THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 3 All ichthyologists and lovers of sport will ever remain grateful to Dr. M. Suter for the great trouble taken by him in elucidating the taxonomic position of Sykes’s B. mussullah as there seems no doubt now that in describing this fish he intended to portray the high-backed mahseer of the Deccan waters. The difference in form between the two species of Deccan mahseers is clearly shown in the drawings on the coloured plate. Dr* Suter has found both species of the Deccan mahseer pretty foul feeders at times. During the rains, he found them at such unsavoury spots as the place of discharge of surplus municipal sew^ age and has repeatedly seen them consume fresh buffalo dung; Though the young of the various kinds of mahseer generally look alike, and the differences pointed out by Annandale (1) between the two species of Deccan mahseer are not very distinctive, it is quite possible that his musundi of the Upper Kistna may represent f vieWS of ^ung specimens of Annandale ’s two species of Mahseer from the Deccan. (a) Barbus tor (Hamilton), known near Satara as Kudis. x ca. 4. this is probably a young of B. khudree Sykes. (b) Barbus mussullah Sykes, known near Satara as Masundi , x ca. Bavbus mussullah and his B. tor , locally known as Kudis , may be B. khudree. To facilitate reference in future, I give here drawings of Annandale’ s young specimens of the two species. 4 Journal Bombay natural hist, society , Voi. xt'iv The remarkable shape of Sykes’s B. mussullah did attract the attention of later ichthyologists, but owing to his defective des- cription and figure they could not identify it correctly. For instance, in recording Barbus megalepis McClelland from South India, Jerdon (5) stated : — ‘I obtained a single small specimen of what I consider may be this fish in the Cauvery at Seringapatam. It was only a few inches long, but the fisher- men, who call it Kilche, said it grew to an enormous size.’ The fish that grows to an enormous size in the Cauvery and its tributary streams, such as the Bhavani River, is figured and des- cribed by Thomas (6, pp. 22, 23) under the composite name Barbus Text-fig. 2. — The Bawanny Mahseer of Thomas (Reproduced from Rod in India). tor in accordance with Day’s (2, p. 573) nomenclature, though he seemed to have been aware of the fact that ‘there are more Mahseers than have been named’. Thomas called it ‘The Bawanny Mahseer’ and noted that it is much deeper and more high backed than the other Mahseers. From his figure, reproduced here, it can be seen that the fish is pointed towards both ends. According to Thomas, it has a rich golden hue which shines on the gill-cover and forms predominant colour of every scale'. It is known as ‘Bom-min’. Some years ago, Mr. S. H. Prater of the Bombay Natural History Society sent me a colour sketch of a baby Mahseer, 16^ inches long and 1^ lbs, in weight, caught by Messrs Van Ingen and Van Ingen of Mysore in the Bhavani River. The local name of the fish was given as Kargolchi. Though the colouration of this specimen, as shown in the sketch* is different from that of the Poona examples of B. mussullah, there seems hardly any doubt about its identity. It would thus appear that Sykes’s mussullah is fairly widely distributed THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 5 in the rivers of the Western Ghats. This remarkable mahseer may be redescribed as follows: — - Barbus (Tor) mussullah Sykes. 1838. Barbus mussullah, Sykes, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 159. 1840. Barbus mussullah, Sykes, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., IV, p. 56. 1841. Barbus mussullah, Sykes, Trans. Zool. Soc., London, II, p. 356. 1849. Barbus megalepis, Jerdon ( nec McClelland), Madras Journ. Lift. & Set. XV, p. 31 1. 1897. The Bawanny Mahseer, Thomas, Rod in India, 3rd Edition, pp. 22, 23. D- 4/9; .4.3/5/-; P l6; v-9; C- 19 ; L.1.25-26; L.tr.^/sh Whereas the Khudree Mahseer corresponds with the Mosal Mah- seer of the Himalayan waters, Mussullah is similar in certain respects to the Tor Mahseer. In the Tor Mahseer, however, the head is always smooth, while in Sykes’s species there are series of small tubercles, sometimes indistinct, on the sides below the eyes. The head is considerably shorter than the depth of the body, more parti- cularly in older individuals, and the general build is stocky and heavy. The form is more or less spindle-shaped as both the profiles are considerably arched ; the dorsal profile rises considerably from the tip of the snout to the base of the dorsal fin and then sharply slopes down to the base of the caudal fin. The ventral profile is com- paratively gently arched. The head is pointed anteriorly ; in mature specimens its length is contained about 5 times in the total length and 4 times in the length without the caudal. The depth of the body is contained from 3^ to 3f times in the total length and little over 3 times in the length without the caudal. The eye is small and is situated in the anterior half of the hea:d ; its diameter is contained about 6 times in the length of the head. The mouth is small and slightly slanting; the maxillary barbels are longer than the rostrals. The relative proportions of different parts vary considerably with age as can be readily made out from the table of measurements. The dorsal fin is situated in the middle of the back and possesses a strong, bony dorsal spine. All the fins are more or less pointed. The scales are large and well set; there are about 26-27 scales along the lateral line and 3^ rows below it to the base of the pelvic fin. The colouration varies considerably. The young ones are rather silvery on the sides with pink reflexes, a creamy belly and slaty back and fins. In some large specimens the colour is very dark with bronzy reflexes. The bases of the scales below the lateral line are bluish gray while their margins are creamy. Generally the ven- tral surface is reddish cream. The dorsal surface is dark bronze. The bases of the scales in the upper half are mauvish gray while the bodies are reddish bronze with darker margin. The fin rays of the dorsal and caudal fins are reddish gray, while the interspinous membranes are bluish gray. The other fins are reddish gray, and all the fins are shot with bright blue streaks which are very pro- minent in the caudal. The colours are more golden and reddish orange in the specimens from the Bhavani River. It would thus appear that whereas the predominant colour of the two Mahseers of the Deccan is bluish in 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.'XLIV the Poona waterways, it is reddish in the specimens found in the Cauvery and Bhavani Rivers much further south, Table of Measurements. Measurements in millimetres and scale counts of Barbus (Tor) mussullah Sykes Total length .r. 148*0 270-0 275-0 622-0 750-0 Standard length ... 115-0 215-0 225-0 494-0 600-0 Length of head ... 33-0 580 60-0 125-0 149-0 Width of head 17-0 32-0 35-5 85-0 1020 Diameter of eye ... 8-0 9-0 10-5 17-0 28-0 Length of snout ... 100 21-0 22-0 46-0 45-5 Interorbital distance 100 23-0 22-0 51-0 61-0 Width of body 16-0 35-0 Evisc era ted 710 Depth of body 38-0 73-0 81*5 166-0 231-0 Length of caudal peduncle ... 16-0 35-0 33-0 91-0 106-0 Least height of caudal ped- uncle 15-0 29-5 ! 30-0 63-0 82-0 Length of dorsal fin 29-0 52-0 52-0 99-0 120-0 Length of pectoral fin 23-0 43-0 42-0 96-0 125-0 Length of pelvic fin 21-0 39-0 38-0 880 104-0 Length of anal fin 25-0 44-0 45-0 95-0 109-0 Length of rostral barbel 6-5 12*0 12-0 27-0 30-0 Length of maxillary barbel ... 9-0 15-0 16-0 37-0 42*0 No. of predorsal scales 10 10 10 10 11 No. of scales along L. 1. 26 26 26 27 27 No. of scales between L..1 and V. 3§ 3£ 3* Scales round caudal peduncle. 13 12 13 12 12 Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes. In the preceding article of this series (4), it was stated that the sketches and, specimens of B. khudree received from Dr. Suter would be dealt with later, but the transfer of the Zoological Survey of India to Benares for the duration of the war has made it impossible for me to comment in detail on them. It can, however, be stated with certainty that the material is similar to that collected by Dr, Fraser at Deolali and Poona, THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 7 A female mahseer, 5^ lbs. in weight, taken by Dr. Rishwortb on the 20th December, 1942, in the Uhlas, a small river about 40 Text-fig. 3. — Head and anterior part of body of Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes, showing hypertrophied lips; The specimen was collected by Dr. Rishworth in the Uhlas River, 40 miles north of Bombay. x|. (a) Lips and mouth closed; ( b ) Lips and mouth protruded. In the fresh condition, Dr. Rish worth found that the lips could be extended much further than shown in the drawings made from preserved specimens. miles north of Bombay flowing into the Arabian Sea from the west- ern slopes of the Ghats, has been identified as B. khudree. It is one of the few specimens of mahseer which have been collected from the cis-Ghat area and is characterized by greatly hypertrophied lips. The accompanying sketches show the lips and mouth protruded and closed. The colour of the specimen was similar to that found in the Deccan examples of this species, but the fins were tipped with 8 JOURNAL , BOMBAY -NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV yellowish pink. Its stomach contained green vegetable matter. The following further particulars about this specimen were supplied by Dr, Rishworth: — - Measurements in inches and number of fin rays. Total length ... 25*0 Standard length ... 20-0 Length of head ... 6-25 Depth of body v. ... 5-5 Height of caudal peduncle ... 2-25 Girth of caudal peduncle ... ... 5- 25 Dorsal ... 9 Anal ... 7 Pelvic ... 15 Ventral ... 9 From the observations on the colouration of the species made by Dr. Suter, it appears that in the Poona Waterways the colour is silvery bluish gray below the median line and almost creamy yellowish white on the ventral surface. The colour is darker above the lateral line, the bases of the scales being gray and their margin reddish gray. The colour of the back is dark olive. The head is dark olive above and creamy yellowish white below. The fins are bluish gray. The colour drawing of B. khudree reproduced here shows the general colouration of the species in the Poona Waterways as noted by Dr. Suter. Living fish as seen in clear water look reddish bronze in the back. Acknowledgments . I am indebted to Dr. M. Suter for specimens, colour sketches and observations on the Mahseers of the Deccan, and to the authorities of the Bombay Natural History Society for bearing the entire cost of the illustrations. I am also thankful to Babu B. Bagchi for the skill and care with which he prepared the illustrations under my supervision. List of References. 1. Annandale, N. — ‘The Fauna of certain small streams in the Bombay Presidency. V. Notes on Freshwater fish mostly from the Satara and Poona Districts.’ Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xvi, pp. 134-137 (1919). 2. Day, F. — Fishes of India, p. 573 (London, 1878). 3. Hamilton, F. — An Account of the Fishes found in the\ River Ganges and its branches, pp. 303-307 (Edinburgh, 1822). 4. Hora, S. L. — ‘The Game Fishes of India, XV. The Mahseers or the large-scaled Barbels of India. 7. On the specific identity of Sykes’s species of Barbus from the Deccan’. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xliii, pp. 163-169 (I942)* 5. Jerdon, T. C. — ‘On the fresh-water fishes of Southern India. ’ Madras Journ. Litt & Sci., vol. xv, pt. 2, pp. 302-346 (1849). 6. Thomas, H. S. — Rod in India, pp. 22, 23 (London, 1897). Explanation of Plate. Two types of Mahseer from the Poona Waterways. Upper : Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes. X ca. L Lower : Barbus (Tor) mussullah Sykes, x ca. J. The drawings were made from specimens and colour sketches supplied by Dr. M. Suter. THE BIRDS OF MYSORE. BY Salim Alt. With notes by Hugh Whistler. Part IV. ( Continued from Vol. xliii. No. 4, p. 595). Hierococcyx sparverioides (Vigors). The Large Hawk-Cuckoo. Specimens collected : Biligirirangans : Mq(H) J 10-3-34, M48(G) d 29-10-34 (5,000' — Honnametti). Not met with by the Survey. [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 1 6 ad. 30 224 — mm. 1 6 imm. 29 223 . — mm.— H. W Status? Evidently rare. Hierococcyx varius Vahl. The Common Hawk-Cuckoo. Specimens collected: 162 $ 24-11-39 Maddur (2,500'); 184 d 28-11-39 Antarsante (2,500') ; 263 4-12-39 Karapur (2,500') ; 460 $ 26-12-39 Dodballa- pur (2,900'); 641 $ 15-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000'); 682 9 20-1-40 Bababudan Hills (5,000' — Kemmangundi). Biliginrangan Hills : 21-12-32, M37(H) 5'4‘34 (4,ooo'-5,ooor — Honnametti). Elsewhere not noted. [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 3 6 6 ad. 25-28 193-199 168 mm. 1 9 ad. — 194 156 mm. 3 rfd imm. 25-27-5 183-189 1 60- 16 1 mm. 1 9 imm. 28 188 (missing) — H. W.] Evidently resident. Not common but frequent. Met with singly in both deciduous and evergreen biotopes and throughout the intermediate zone. Between November and March the birds were silent and no ‘ Brain-fever' calls were heard. Cacomantis merulinus passerinus (Vahl.). The Plaintive Cuckoo. Specimens collected : 383 9 (hepatic) 19-12-39 Maklidrug (2,800' — Bangalore Dist.). Elsewhere noted : Settihalli. (This or Penthoceryx sonnerati? Unconfirmed). [Measurements: 1 9 Bill 22, Wing 1 18, Tail 105.5 mm. This is an adult female of the ‘hepatic type.’ It is moulting the wings and body, and it is important to note that it is moulting from ‘hepatic’ to ‘hepatic’ plumage. — H. W.] Status? The specimen was a solitary in dry, deciduous, broken scrub-and- bush country. Clamator jacobinus jacobinus (B'odd.). The Pied Crested Cuckoo. Specimens collected: 91 17-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 298 9 8-12-39 (2,000' — Seringapatam) . Elsewhere noted : Kolar Gold Fields. 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail I 6 25 148 160 (worn) mm. I 9 26.5 137-5 164 mm. No. 91 3 is slightly larger than any other male of this race which I have examined. (Wing 138.5-146), but I think there is no doubt that it belongs to this race as there is no authentic record of the larger race below Bombay and the Central Provinces. — H. W.] Status? Met with in deciduous biotope — lightly wooded country about villages and cultivation. No. 91 was excessively fat, a circumstance which — in view of Mr. Whistler’s remarks above — suggests that it may possibly belong to the northern race pica (believed to winter in Africa) preparing, rather late, for emigration. Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceos (Linn.); The Koel. Specimens collected: 96 o? 18-11-39, 158 3 24-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 244 ? 3-12-39 Antarsante (2,500'); 506 3 29-12-39 Thondebhavi (2,500'); 635 3 15-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000') ; Biligirirangan Hills : Mi4(G) 3 I5_9~34> M28(G) 9 21-9-34, M49(G) 9 25-9-34 (2,000' — Satyamangala). Elsewhere noted : Namadachilume (3,000' — Tumkur Dist.). [Measurements : Bill 4 3 3 ad. 30-33-5 3 9 9 ad. 30-34 1 9 juv- — Wing Tail 188-202 I77-5-I95 mm. 192-203 192-193 mm. 188 188 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects lightly wooded country about villages and cultivation with large leafy green trees as of banyan and tamarind, interspersed. No. 96 (18 November) was very fat. Major Phythian-Adams has an egg taken from a crow’s nest at Gundlupet, 25-8-1929. Rhopodytes viridirostris (Jerdon). The Small Green-billed Malkoha. Specimens collected : 93 3> 94 3 18-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 228 3 1-12-39 Antarsante (2,500'); 345 9 I5-I2"39 Satnur (2,500'); Biligirirangan Hills : M4o(H) 3 5-4-34 (4,000' — Honnametti) ; Mi2(G) 9 8-8-34, M2i(G) 9 IO-7-34> M 60(G) 3 1 9-7-34 (3,000' — Gdahatti, Eastern base). Elsewhere noted: Jogimaradi (3,400' — Chitaldrug town environs); Hiriyur. [Measurements : Bill Wing 4 ^ 29-31.5 I3I-H3 3 9 9 28-32.5 131-135 1 3 juv. 29.5 133 Tail 202-246 mm. 220-225 mm. 213 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects thin secondary, and scrub-and-bush jungle. The ovary of No. 345 (15 December) was maturing ; largest follicle over 2 mm. Major Phythian-Adams has a c/2 taken near Gundlupet, 12-6-1935. Taccocua leschenaultii subsp. The Sirkeer Cuckoo. No specimen. Noted : Satnur. A pair in deciduous heavily thorn-scrubbed ravine, 15-12-39. Cenlropus sinensis parroti Stres. The Southern Crow-Pheasant. Specimens collected: 194 9 29-11-39 Antarsante (2,500'); 562 3 8-1-40 Marikanive (2,500'). Biligirirangan Hills : M2(H) 9 juv. 7~5-34, My6(M) 9 16-5-34 (4,000-5,000' — B'ellaji). 'Elsewhere noted : Edbuthi (Biligiris), Bandipur, Namadachilume, Settihalli. [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 2 9 9 ad. 38-42 180-203 247-260 mm. 1 3 juv. 38.5 181 248 mm. 1 $ juv. 35 170 18^ mm- THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 11 Both these juveniles are exactly like the adults in colouration whereas most if not all adults of C. sinensis sinensis in N.-W. India have a conspicuously different barred plumage. It will probably prove to be a racial characteristic. —H. W.] Resident. Not common ; occasional solos. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects lightly wooded and scrub-and-bush country, usually about cultivation. No. 562 was infested with the cestodes Railiettina ( Skrjabinia ) centropi (Southwell, 1922) in the body cavity (or intestine?). Psittacula eupatria subsp. The Alexandrine Parakeet. No specimens. Noted : Settihalli ( — A flock of 8 in teak and bamboo forest on 27 January, and again a small flock on" 2 February),; Kolar Gold Fields (Solo, 21=2-40). Psittacula krameri manillensis Bechst. The Rose-ringed Parakeet. Specimens collected: 438 24-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900'); 511 c? 31-12-39 Namadachilume (3,000'). Elsewhere noted : Heggadedavankote, Karapur, Kolar Gold Fields. [Measurements: 2 Bill from cere 23-25, Wing 167-172, Tail 218-238 mm. It is interesting to note that from the size of the organs (testes 12x6 and 12x5 mm.) both these males were about to breed in immature and female-like dress— H. W.] Resident. Not common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Found in fairly wooded country, usually around cultivation. The specimens, with testes 12x6 and 12x5 mm- respectively were either breeding or about to breed. Psittacula cyanocephala cyanocephala (Linn.). The Western Blossom-headed Parakeet. Specimens collected: 114 9 1 9-1 1-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 538 S 4-1-40 Namadachilume (3,000'); Biligirirangan Hills : 20 <$ 8-11-39 (3,500' — Bedaguli) ; Mi7(G) 9 IO-7-34 Mi 11(G) $ 3-8-34 (3,000' — Cdahatti, E. base). Elsewhere noted : Devarbetta Hill, Jagar Valley (Bababudans), Settihalli. [Measurements : Bill (from cere) Wing Tail 2 cf $ ad. 18-19 138-142 191-215 mm. 1 9 ad. 17 132 — 1 9 imm 16 133 H. W\ ] Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope, but it also extends far into the intermediate zone. In the Biligirirangans it was a notice- able feature that this species occurred in the deciduous and semi-evergreen forest (in the last coincident with columboides ) up to about 3,500 ft. elevation, but that it was entirely replaced by columboides higher up as the vegetation took on an increasingly evergreen aspect. Along with the next species this parakeet is very destructive to crops of jowari and the vetch Dolichos lablab (Linn.) (Canarese : aore-khai)1 cultivated in forest clearings. In specimen No. 538 (4 January) the testes measured 6x4 mm. and were evidently maturing. Psittacula columboides (Vigors). The Blue-winged Parakeet. Specimens collected: 350 <$ 15-12-39 Devarbetta Hill (3,000'); 61 1 S 13-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000') ; 769 9 29-1-40 Settihalli (2,500') ; 849 $ 8-2-40 Agumbe (2,500'). Biligirirangan Hills : 34 c? 10-11-39 (4,000' — Bedaguli); 6 18-12-32, Mn(H) (5 16-3-34, Mi7(H) s 24-2-34, M6i(H) 24-4-34, 1 The Forest Guard when asked whether this was used as food explained thgt ‘if is only used for putting intol bag and tying to nose of horse’ J 12 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV Mi3-i4(H) c? $ 8-5-34, M40-41 $0? n-5-34 (4,000-5,000' Honnametti) ; M82 (H) $ 18-5-34 (5,000' — Bellaji) ; M36(G) 14-7-34 (3,000' — Odahatti, Eastern base). Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Antarsante, Karapur, Bababudan Hills (Jagar Valley 2,500' ; Kemmangundi 4,500'). [Measurements : 9 6 d ad. 1 9 ad. 4 6 6 juv. i 9 juv. Bill (from cere) 22.5- 24 23 21.5- 23 20 Wing 1 43 • 5- 1 56 144-5 I4°-5"I52 H3.5 Tail 204.5-246 mm. 167 mm. 148-164 mm. 163 mm. This species has not been recorded before so far east as the Biligirirangan Hills and Devarbetta Hill.— H. W.] Resident. Common. Confined to evergreen biotope, but freely entering the intermediate zone to about the same limit as cyanocephala does from the deciduous end. The distribution of the 2 species overlaps at its seam. It is the only parakeet found in the coffee estates and may invariably be seen eating the nectar from the Greville'a and Erythrina flowers of the shade trees planted here. This species, prized by fanciers as the ‘Bababudan Parrot’ has acquired an almost universal reputation in Mysore State (and doubtless beyond) as a talking paragon. It is accredited with being an exceptional linguist and believed to address human beings in Arabic ! The foundation for this widespread belief appears to be that one Babuddin, a pilgrim from Mecca (and incidentally the originator of coffee-planting in South India) who settled on the hills that now bear a semblance of his name (Bababudan), kept a local parakeet (or several parakeets?) whom he taught to call to Allah and recite verses from the Koran. Whether some of his trained parrots escaped or were artfully released after completing their novitiate is not clear. But they were regularly fed and so kept near the abode of this holy man. To his glorification they caused open- mouthed wonderment amongst the devout who pilgrimaged to the saint periodically and who helped afterwards to broadcast the magical piety of Babuddin and the spell it had cast upon the parakeets of the locality. Coryllis vernalis (Sparrm.). The Indian Loriquet. Specimens collected: 113 9 19-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 250 <5* 3-12-39 Karapur (2,500'); 643 9 16-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000') ; 687 20-1-40 Bababudan Hills (Jagar Valley 2,500'); 791 11 31-1-40 Settihalli (2,500'); 858 <$ 11-2-39 Jog (2,000'). Biligirirangan Hills: ^55-56(0) 9 i9~7-34> M91 -92(G) $ <$ 25-7-34 (3,000'— Odahatti, E. base). Elsewhere noted : Bedaguli (3,500' Biligiris) ; Antarsante, Agumibe. [Measurements : Bill (from cere) Wing Tail 5 3 $ . 11-12 91-96 38.5-43.5 mm. 299 11 96.5-99.5 45-47 mm- In the Eastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N .H.S., xxxvii, 754) I expressed my hesitation at keeping up the race rubropygialis for birds of the southern distribu- tion of this species. The examination of this series and some new skins from Assam has satisfied me that the race cannot be maintained. The supposed differences on which it is based do not appear to hold good, being either individual or due to wear. — H. -W.J Resident. Common. Essentially an inhabitant of the intermediate zone, but wandering a good way into either extreme as prospects of food tempt it. The specimens of 26 "and 31 January and 11 February had mature testes : 6x4 (2), 5x3 (1) mm. Coracias fcenghalensis indica Linn. The South Indian Roller. Specimens collected: 333-335 S 6' 9 *5* — -3Q Satnur (2,500'); 459 $ 26-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900'); 779 $ 30-1-40 Settihalli (2,500'). Biligirirangan Hills: Mf 08(G) rT 1-8-34 (3.000' — Odahatti, E. base). Elsewhere noted : Hiinsur, Mandya, Namadachilume, Kolar Gold Fields, THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 13 [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 5 6 6 4x-45 180-184 119-128.5 mm. i? -41.5 174 117 mm. — H. W.J Resident. Not common and sparsely and patchily distributed. Confined to deciduous biotope. Frequents open, lightly wooded country and cultivated areas. Curiously enough not a single example was observed between 10 Nov- ember and 5 December at Bandipur, Antarsante, Mysore City environs, Kaken- kote or Karapur although appropriate facies were not wanting. The noisy, aerial pre-nuptial display was first observed on 15 December (Satnur). Specimens 459 (26 January) and 779 (30 January) both had maturing testes — 6x4 mm. Major Phythian-Adams has a c/2 in his collection from Nanjangud 2-1930, and another c/2 Gundlupet 7-4-1938. Merops orientalis orientalis Latham. The Common Indian Bee-eater. Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills : 41 9 io-ix-39 (3,500' — Bedaguli) ; M26(G) 9 12-7-34, M87(G) <3 25-7-34 (3,000' — Udahatti, E. base). Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Antarsante, Satnur, Marikanive, Settihalli, Agumbe, Kolar Gold Fields, Mysore and Bangalore City environs. [Measurements: 1 9 Bill 33, Wing 91.5, Tail 107 mm. Both the July birds are in moult. — H. W.] Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope, extending partly through the dry-inter belt. Affects open scrub-and-bush and cultivated country. Also found in forest taungya clearings. Merops superciliosus javanicus Horsf. The Blue-tailed Bee-eater. Specimens collected: 819 cf, 820 Elsewhere not noted. ( 3 4-2-40 Agumbe (2,500'). [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 1 $ ad. 46.5 135 130.5 mm. 1 ^ juv. 44.5 127 85.5 mm— H. Status? Apparently rare. The specimens were out of a small party seen near the Travellers’ Bungalow in open village outskirts on the edge of ever- green forest. Merops leschenaulti leschenaulti Vieillot. The Chestnut-headed Bee-eater. Specimens collected : 326 9 13-12-39 Shimsha (2,500'). Biligirirangan Hills : 30 9 9-1 1-39 (4,000' — Edbuthi). Elsewhere noted : Settihalli. [Measurements 129$ Bill 38.5, Wing 106, Tail 80-80.5 mm.— -H. W.J Status? Uncommon; occurring sparingly and sporadically. Apparently con- fined to deciduous biotope, principally to the dry-inter belt, but extending in small numbers throughout the intermediate zone. Affects well wooded country. Bucia athertoni (Jardine & Selby). The Blue-bearded Bee-eater. * Specimens collected : 309 3 1 9-1:2-39 Hunsur (2,000'). Biligirirangan Hills : Mi 6(G) 9 16-10-34 (5,000' — Honnametti) ; M39(G) 9 i3“9'34> M43IG) 9 24-9-34 (2,000' — Satyamangala). Elsewhere noted : Manchgowdanhalli, Namadachilume. [Measurements : Bill 1 6. 50-5 2 $ 9 50-57 Wing I43-5 138 Tail 137 mm. 128-137 mm. One of the Biligiri specimens is in heavy moult hence not measured. — H. W.] Resident. Uncommon and patchy. I believe this is really a bird of the dry-inter belt, but it wanders across into either of the terminal biotopes for some distance. It affects fairly well-wooded country with a sprinkling of large trees. 14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Ceryle rudis subsp. The Pied Kingfisher. No specimens. Noted : Karapiir (at tanks and Kabani river) ; Kolar Gold Fields (at Betmangala tank and Palar river). Not common. Major Phythian-Adams has a e/8, Gundliipet, 20-1-1929. Alcedo afthis taprobana Kleinschmidt. The Common Ceylon Kingfisher. Specimens collected : 327 9 13-12-39 Shimsha (2,900') ; 558 9 7-1-40 Marikanive (2,500'); 654 9 16-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000') ; 844 $ 7-2-40 Agumbe (2,000'); Biligirir angans : M 10(G) $ 8-8-34 (3,000— Odahatti, E. base). Elsewhere not noted. [Measurements : 1 6 3 9 9 Bill 44 43-44-5 Wing Tail 70 30-5 72-5 -73 33-33-5 mm- While these are not quite pure taprobanus they are .certainly closer to that race than to bengalenis. — H. W.] Resident. Not common. Seen singly on rivers and streams chiefly in deciduous biotope, but extending into the intermediate zone. Geyx erithaca erithaca (Linn.) The Indian Three-toed Kingfisher. Specimen collected : 283 c? 6-12-39 Manchgowdanhalli (2,500'). Elsewhere not noted. [Measurements : 1 Bill 36, Wing 58, Tail 24.5 mm. A very welcome record in view of my remarks in the Eastern Ghats Survey (J.B.N.H.S., xkxii, 761) about the paucity of records for South India. Mr. C. G. Webb-Peploe kindly informs me that about 1936 he found one of these beautiful kingfishers dead in a stream bed at 2,000' at Naraikkadu on the east slope of the Ashambu Hills in Travancore. — H. W.] The specimen — the only met with in Mysore — was solitary in dense deciduous bamboo jungle on the banks of the Kabani river. Ramphakyon capensis [gurial (Pearson)]. The B'rown-headed Stork-billed King- fisher. No specimens. Noted : Manchgowdanhalli (deciduous biotope. On Kabani river) ; Settihalli. Major Phythian-Adams has a c/3, Moyar river (Mysore-Nilgiris boundary) 31-3-38. Halcyon smyrnensis smyrnensis (Linn.). The White-breasted Kingfisher. Specimens collected: 341 $ 15-12-39 Satnur (2,500'); Biligirirangan Hills: M 10(G) 15-9-34 (2,000' — Satyamangala), and another without precise data. Elsewhere noted : Sakleshpur, Settihalli. [Measu^ments : 1 Bill 62.5, Wing 123.5, Tail 82 mm. In size and colour I cannot separate this from the typical race. The two birds from the Biligirirangans, however, both in complete moult, are very dark and would seem to be fusca. — H. W.] Resident. Not common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Frequents tanks and ponds as well as light secondary jungle. Halcyon pileata (Bodd). The Black-capped Kingfisher. No specimens. A solitary example was observed on rocks in the ‘cauldron’ at the foot of Jog (Gersoppa). Falls, 10-2-40. Humayun Abdulali ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxviii, 830)^ noted a solitary bird in this same spot in December 1935, as curiously enough did also Davidson exactly 42 years earlier ! ( J.B.N.H.S ., xii, 46). THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 15 Hydrocissa coronata (Bodd.). The Malabar Pied Hornbill. No specimens. A party of three was observed in deciduous forest with tall trees and bamboo at Manchgowdanhalli (near Antarsante) 3-12-39. This was the only meeting with the species in Mysore. Tockus birostris (Scopoli). The Common Grey Hornbill. Specimens collected : 321 9 13-12-39 Satnur (2, goo7). Biligirirangans : M3 (G) 9 14-9-34 (2,000' — Satyamangala). Elsewhere noted : Maddur, Gundlupet, Hiriyur. Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects secondary jungle, and wooded country and groves about cultivation. Tockus griseus (Latham). The Malabar Grey Hornbill. Specimens collected: 642 9 16-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000'); 675 3 19-1-40 Bababudan Hills (4,500' — Kemmangundi). [Measurements : Bill from skull Wing Tail 1 3 100 205 210 mm. 1 9 84 195 2°4 mm- — H. W.] Resident. Common. Confined to evergreen biotope, being the ecological counterpart here of the Common Grey Hornbill. Affects forest, especially where the various species of Ficus abound. Upupa epops eeylonensis Reichenbach. The Ceylon Hoope. Specimens collected : 101 9 18-11-39, 155 9 23-11-39 Bandipur (2,800- 3,300'); 399 <$ 20-12-39, 472 3 27-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900'); Biligirirangan Hills : M49(H) 3 10-4-34 (5>ooo' — Honnametti) ; M2(G) 3 _ 14-9-34 (2,000' — Satyamangala) ; M32(G) 3 14-7-34, M89(G) 3 25-7-34 (3,000' — Odahatti, E. base). Elsewhere noted : Hiriyur, Kolar Gold Fields. [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 6 3 3 52-61.5 120.5-143 83-98 mm. 2 99 SI-55-5 I27 84-88 mm.— H. W.j Resident. Not common. Confihed to deciduous biotope but extending in diminishing numbers through the intermediate zone up to its evergreen boundary. The December males had maturing testes : 7X4 and 5X3 respectively. Harpactes fasciatus malabaricus (Gould). The Malabar Trogon. Specimens collected : 612 9 13-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000') ; 741 9 26-1-40, 767-768 c? 9 29-1-40, 788 3 31-.1-40 Settihalli (2,500'). [Measurements : Bill 2 3 6 20-20.5 3 9 9 20-2 I Wing Tail 123.5- 128 156-162 mm. 122.5- 127 162-167 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Fairly common. Confined to evergreen biotope, extending across the moist-inter zone. Micropus me!ba bakeri (Hartert). The Indian Alpine Swift. Specimens collected: 532 9 3-l~40 Devarayadrug (4,000'— Tumkur Dist.); 857 9' 1 1-2-40, 861-864 3 3!3 9 12-2-46, also cT 9 25-12-35 (Humayun Abdulali), Jog (2,000' — Sagar Dist.). Biligirirangan Hills : o? 19-12-32 (5,000' — above Dodsampagi). Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Nandidrug. [Measurements : Bill Wing C. tail O. tail 4 3 3 14-16 204-212 59-62.5 74-77 mm. 5 99 i4-i5.s 200-206 58-61 72-76 mm. ife JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol xUV A very useful contribution to the verification of this interesting race disting- uished both by its small size and by its dark colouration. — H. W.] Resident and local migrant. Not common. Usually seen in the hills hawking winged insects about and above fissured crags and rock scarps. On the summit of Devarayadrug Hill I observed that the ibirds circled back and forth almost within gunshot before the sun had set, but that they steadily rose higher and higher after the sun went down. This was evidently due to the fact that their insect prey kept rising higher to remain in the warmth of the sunlight. The ibirds were usually seen flying about the hill until about 10-30 a.m. when some of them at least retired into the fissures of the rock (brooding?). There- after practically none were on the wing in this neighbourhood again before late afternoon, and they continued to feed till well after dusk high up in the heavens. Several pairs were observed in copula on the wing, the male treading the female in mid-air. During the act both birds whirled round and round as one unit and fell slowly through space parachuteuwise for about 100 feet or so on outstretched but motionless wings. They separated after this and flew off indi- vidually. All the specimens had maturing or fully mature gonads, and breeding was undoubtedly in progress. Testes 9X4 to 14x6 mm. ; ovaries markedly granular. The largest follicle in No. 532 (3 January) measured 4 mm. and its distended oviduct indicated that it had laid. Humayun Abdulali collected breeding birds at Jog, where the species is particularly numerous, on 26-12-35 ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxviii, p. 829). Strangely enough when Mr. C. McCann visited the Falls on 10 June (1938) he found these Swifts completely absent ( J.B.N.H.S ., xli, p. 450). Where they go away during the S.-W. Monsoon still remains to be discovered. Humayun Abdulali tells me that the birds were absent from this locality on 3 August (1939), but some were back by 7 September when the place was revisited by him. Micropus affinis [aff in is (Gray)]. The Common Indian House-Swift. No specimens. Resident. Confined to deciduous biotope. Evidently not common. Small numbers of these swifts were observed about Vanivilas Dam at Marikanive (9 January). Also about the old temples at Halebid (12 January) wherein they were nesting and making a nuisance of themselves. Several disused nests were also seen in the former locality. Ghaetura giganteus indicus Hume. The Brown-throated Spinetail. No specimens. Noted : Maddur (near Gundlupet), Sakleshpur, Bababudafi Hills (Jagar Valley). Presumably resident. Confined to evergreen biotope. Usually seen in loose flocks flying at terrific speed and hawking insects over grassy hilltops and forest clearings, especially where fired. tndicapus sylvaticus (Blyth). The White-rumped Spinetail. No specimens. Noted : Sakleshpur, Kadamane Estate, Settihalli. Resident? Sporadic. Confined to evergreen biotope. Like the preceding species it is usually seen in loose ‘flocks’ hawking insects above grassy hilltops and forest clearings ; frequently also in the intermediate zone. Coltocatia fuciphaga subsp. The Edible Swiftlet. No specimens. Noted : Karapur (Deciduous). A gathering of 30-50 birds hawking insects high above Kabani river, 3-12-39. Agumbe : (Evergreen. A few on 2-2-40 1). Hemiprocne coronata (Tickell). The Indian Crested Swift. Specimens collected: 120 121 20-11-39 Bafidipflr (3,3000. Elsewhere noted : Shimsha, Sivasamudram, Namadachilume, Settihalli. [Measurements : 2 $ ^ Bills damaged. Wing 153-154, C. Tail 44, O. Tail 109.5-117 mm.— H. W.J THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 17 Resident. Not uncommon. Confined to deciduous biotope. Met with in secondary jungle and about forest clearings for cultivation. Caprimulgus macrourus atripennis Jerdon. Jerdon’s Long-tailed Nightjar. Specimen collected: 147 <$ 23-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'). [Measurements : 1 $ Bill 23.5, Wing 189, Tail 133 mm.— H. W.j The specimen was hawking beetles at dusk on a motor road through decidu- ous and bamboo forest. Caprimulgus indicus indicus Latham. The Indian Jungle Nightjar. Specimens collected: 119 $ 20-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 249 9 3-12-39 Antarsante (2,500'); 627 <$ 14-1-40. Sakleshpur (3,000'); 747 cf» 748 27-1-40 Settihalli (2,500'). Biligirirangan Hills : Mi3(H) 9, Mi6(H) 4-3-34 (5,000' — Honnametti). [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 4C S d 20-23.5 192-198 129. 5-137 mm. 4 99. 23-24.5 190-195 129-13 1 mm— H. W..] Resident? Common. Confined to deciduous biotope ; occasionally found in the dry-inter belt. Affects teak plantations and bamboo facies. Perches on branches both lengthwise and across. No. 627 was shot at 10 a>m. perched lengthwise asleep on a branch of a tall shade tree at edge of coffee plantation. The call of this nightjar, commencing at dusk and continued far into and often throughout the night, (especially if moonlit) is Kruk . . . krii-kroo or Uk . . . krii-kroo repeated monotonously every 2 seconds or so for £ or even 5 hour at a stretch. Elsewhere I have recorded the call also as Chuck-ko, chuck- ko etc. about once every second. Caprimulgus monticolus monticolus Franklin. Franklin’s Nightjar. Specimens collected: 134 9 21-11-39 Gudalur Ghat (3,000' — near Kaken- halla) ; 148 . 9 23-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'). [Measurements: 2 9 $ Bill 19-26, Wing 187-190, Tail 108-113.5 mm. — H. W.] Usually seen on roads through deciduous forest at dusk. No. 134 was - perched on a telegraph wire (across). Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus Latham. The Common Indian Nightjar. Specimens collected : 231 $ 2-12-39 Antarsante (2,500') ; Biligirirangans : Mi 13(G) 9 4-8-34 (3,000' — Udahatti, E. base). Elsewhere noted : Marikanive. [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 1 19 143 — mm, 1 9 — 147 io3 mm- — H. W.j Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects open sparse scrub-and-bush country and fallow land. Testes of 2 December specimen 7x5 mm. [Asio flammeus flammeus (Pontoppidan). The Sliort-eared Owl. Specimens collected : 655-658 9 9 9 9' i 7-1 -40 Hebbale, Coorg (2,500'). [Measurements : 4 9 9 Bill 30-30.5, Wing 300-318, Tail 143.5-.146 mm.— H. W.J iA; These specimens were obtained actually a few miles beyond the western boundary of Mysore State, but are included here since there, seems no reason to doubt that the species also occurs within our area in the appropriate deciduous facies. The birds were shot from a loose ‘flock’ of about 20 resting amongst scrub and grass covered stony hillocks. One was observed sunning itself, belly to ground and wings outstretched. On the wing, and seen from behind, the birds were reminiscent of a party of Houbara bustards. At 3 o’clock in the afternoon, when shot, the stomachs of all the specimens were quite empty.] 2 18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Strix indranee indranee Sykes. The Brown Wood-Owl. Specimens collected: 168 $ 25-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'). Elsewhere noted : Satnur. [Measurements : 1 $ Bill 40, Wing 340, Tail 186 mm.— H. W.] lhe specimen was one of a pair up in a dense bamboo clump in deciduous forest. Its stomach was empty at 7-30 a.m., when shot, but for a single live Tscam-like nematode worm Seuratum sp., probably a ‘pseudoparasite.’ Testes 13x7 mm. Strix ocellata (Lesson). The Mottled Wood-Owl. Specimens collected: 135 $ 22-11-39 Bandipur (2,800' — near Hangala village). Elsewhere noted : Chamarajanagar, Gundlupet, Marikanive. [Measurements : 1 9 Bill 40.5, Wing 339, Tail 177 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects wooded country with large densely foliaged tamarind and similar trees around villages and cultivation. When flushed from its daytime retreat it can fly long distances in bright sunshine without apparent discomfort. As distinct from Bubo, this owl afights on the inside (more or less secluded) branches of a tree after a flight, and not on the outside or peripheral ones. Bubo bubo bengaiensis (Franklin). The Indian Great Horned Owl. Specimens collected: 136 ($ 22-11-39 Bandipur (2,800' — near Hangala village); 537 c? 4-1-40 Namadachilume (3,000'). [Measurements : 2 $ Bill 44-47, Wing 364-374, Tail 190 mm. These specimens are rather dark on the upper plumage, but I have already pointed out (J.B.N .H.S., xxxviii, 234) that this species is very variable in colour and I do not think that northern and southern races should be separated. — H. W.] Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects ravines and boulder hillocks in secondary forest and sparsely wooded country, as well as groves of large thickly foliaged trees in the neighbourhood of villages and cultivation. The specimens were both either breeding or about to breed: testes 18x10 and 15x10 mm. Under the skin of the nape of No. 136 were found embedded several examples of the. Nematode worm Parhamatospiculum bubicola Skrjabin & Petrow, 1935. A local belief current about the large owls was narrated to me by a Forest Range Officer. It appears that if a large owl (species not stated) is confined without food for 8 days and thereafter well beaten with a stick, it begins to talk fluently like a human (language unspecified !) and can be made to tell your fortune with infallible precision. Here is a tip for those waiting for ships to come home 1 Ketupa zeylonensis leschenaulti (Temminck) The Brown Fish-Owl. Specimens collected : 9 Biligirirangan Hills (without precise data). [Measurements : 1 9 Bill 51, Wing 402, Tail 200 mm. — H. W.] Noted: Antarsante (29-11-39 A pair by forest tank at dusk). Probably not uncommon in suitable localities — about tanks and streams. Otus bakkamoena sub-sp. The Scops Owl. No specimens. The characteristic call of this little owl ‘ Wut . . . wut’ &c was heard after dusk at Namadachilume and Settihalli, 1 and 30 January. Evidently somewhat uncommon. Athene brama brama (Temm.) The Southern Spotted Owlet. Specimens collected: 137 22-11-39 Bandipur (2,800' — Hangala village); 272 cJ 5-12-39 Antarsante (2,500') ; 386 9 I9-I2_39 Maklidrug (2,800') ; 395 9 20-12-39, 461 9 26-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900'). Biligirirangan Hills: M28(G) 9 I3-7_34 (3,000'— Odahatti M3o(G) rj 21-9-34 (2,ooo' — Satyamangala). Elsewhere noted : Chamarajanagar. THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 19 [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 3 d d 19.5-2© 148-156 68-73 mm. 4 9 $ 20.5-21 152. 5-154 69-72.5 mm. ' . . Vi All are dark birds. — H. W.] Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects groves of large trees in the neighbourhood of towns, villages and cultivation. No. 272 (5 December) was very fat. Glaucidium radiatum radiatum (Tickell) The Malabar Jungle Owlet. Specimens collected: 173 9> 174 9» 175 d 25-II-39 Bandipur (3,000' — near Kakenhalla) ; 210 9> 211 d 30-11-39 Manchgowdanhalli (2,500'); Biligirirangan Hills : Mi(H) <$ 10-3-34 (4,000'); Mi5(G) d I5-9-34 (2,000' — Satyamangala) ; M34(G) d 22-10-34 (5>ooo' — Honnametti). [Measurements : Bill 5 d d I7-5_I9 3 9 9 16-18.5 Wing 130-13 3 Tail 68.5-76.5 mm. 66-70.5 mm.— H. W.] Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope, occasionally entering the dry-inter belt. Its typical habitat is teak and bamboo forest. The stomach of one example contained a grasshopper and the viscera of a snail. Ninox scutulata hirsuta Temm. The South Indian Hawk-Owl. Specimen collected : 736 9 26-1-40 Settihalli (2,500'). Elsewhere noted : Edbuthi (4,500' — Biligirirangans). [Measurements: 1 9 Bill 22, Wing 212.5, Tail 121.5 mm. — H. W.j The specimen was shot off the roof of the Forest Lodge after dark. Two or three other birds were heard calling in the deciduous bamboo forest in this neighbourhood. The call of this owl is a distinctive, rather pleasant, Oo...uk, 00. ..uk etc. repeated once a second and 4 to 10 times running. A pause of half to one minute follows and then the calls are repeated. The ovary of the specimen was maturing ; largest follicles over 2 mm. A tangle of 13 round thread-like Nematode worms ( Parhamatospiculum sp. (Fam. Filariidae)], from 25 to 80 mm. long (mostly overdo mm.), were removed from under the skin of the skull above one eye-socket. Otherwise the bird seemed perfectly healthy. Its stomach (at 8 p.m.) was crammed with remains of what were apparently Potter Wasps (Eumenes) — orange brown in colour. Pandion haliaetus haliaetus (Linn.). The Osprey. Specimen collected : 287 d 8-12-39 Seringapatam (Palahally Island, Cauvery, 2,000'). Elsewhere noted : Marikanive (Solo on Vanivilas Sagar 7 Jan.). [Measurements: 1 d Bill 41.5, Wing 481, Tail 210 mm. H. W.J Winter visitor. Scarce. Sarcogyps calvus (Scop.). The Black or Pondicherry Vulture. No specimens. Noted : Bandipur, Marikanive. Occasional solos. Gyps fulvus fulvescens Hume. The Indian Griffon Vulture. No specimens. Noted (unconfirmed) at Jog where several pairs were nesting on ledges of rock scarp a few hundred yards downstream from the Gersoppa Falls (10 Febru- ary). Gyps iudicus [indicus (Scop.)] The Long-billed Viflture. Humayun Abdulali records a few pairs nesting on cliffs opposite Jog Falls at end December 1935. ( J.B.N.FI.S ., xxxviii, 830). 20 JOURNAL , £OMEAy iVATi7i?^L HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmelin). The Indian White-backed Vulture. No specimens. Noted : Settihalli, jog and elsewhere. A single nest with bird brooding was observed on a tall straight tree ca. 60 ft. up, in forest of moist-inter facies at Settihalli. No other nests were in the proximity, but the birds were here numerous, and it was evident from the dcid reek of their droppings and the dirty whitewashed appearance of the ground that they roosted in the adjoining area' at night. At Jog a number of nests with birds either brooding or perched in their proximity were observed on tall upright trees in evergreen forest. (10-2-40). Neophron percnopterus gingmianus (Latham). The Smaller White Scavenger Vulture. No specimens. . Noted : Biligirirangan Hills (about cattle sheds and coolie lines on coffee estates) ; Bandipur, Satniir, Chitaldrug, Mysore, Bangalore, Dodballapur, Kolar Gold Fields and elsewhere. Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Occasionally met with in the intermediate zone around human habitations. On 9 January a bird was observed carrying building material, and nesting was in progress on the bare rocky hills in the environs of Chitaldrug town. Major E. G. Phythian-Adams has one egg each from 2 nests at Nanjangud, 2-2-1939. Falco peregrinus peregrinator Sundevall. The Shahin Falcon. No specimens. Noted : Balmoorie Island (Cauvery river, near Krishnarajsaghr) ; Devaraya- drug (3,500' — Tumkur Dist.) ; Bababudan Hills (5,000' — above Kemmangundi) ; Jog (on cliffs flanking Gersoppa Falls). Solitaries or a pair were seen about cliffs and rock scarps in the hills. On 22 January a pair had their nest on an inaccessible ledge of rock in the Baba- budans (ca. 5,000' elevation). The owners were observed playfully stooping about the cliffs; at incredible speed, and performing a variety of amazing aerobatics. Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linn. The European Kestrel. Specimens collected: 144 $.’22-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 337 S 15-12-39 Satnur (2,500'); 396 $ 20-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900'); Biligirirangan Hills : M35(G) $ 22-10-34 (5,000' — Honnametti). [Measurements: Bill . Wing Tail 2 (S (S 21-22 234-253 161-166 mm. 2 $ $ 21.5-22 .249-255 163-170 mm. — H. W.J Falco tinnunculus objurgatus (Stuart B'aker). The Indian Kestrel. Specimens collected: 841 $ 7-2-40 Agumbe (2,000'). Biligirirangans : 6 <$ 6-11-39 M4o(G) $ 22-10-34 {5,000' — Honnametti) also 1 without precise data. [Measurements : Bill Wing 3 6 6 21.5-22 222-232 2 $ $ 22-22.5 242.5-253 Tinnunculus winter visitor ; objurgatus resident. Usually seen singly about grassy hillslopes and in bare open sparsely scrubbed country and fallow land, mostly in deciduous biotope. Tail 1 45-1 58, mm. 164-175 mm,— H. W.] Aquila rapax vindhiana Franklin. The Indian Tawny Eagle. No specimens. Noted only at Marikanive 7-1-40. Evidently rare. Lophotriorchis kieneri (de Sparre). The Rufous-bellied Hawk-Eagle. No specimens. Noted: Settihalli (2,500'— Shimoga Dist.). A solitary -bird perched, bolt upright in a -lofty bare tree on edge of forest clearing for teak plantation ; moist- inter belt. THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 21 Ictinaetus malayensis perniger (Hodgs.). The Indian Black Eagle. No specimens. Noted : Biligirirangan Hills 5,000'. Solo 19-12-32. Circaetus ferox (Gmelin). The Short-toed Eagle. Specimen collected: 154 $ 23-11-39 Gopalaswami Betta (4,800' — near Gundlu- pet). Elsewhere noted : Birur (Solo in dry scrub-and-bush country about cultiva- tion). [Measurements : 1 9 Bill 53.5, Wing 525, Tail 278 mm. This specimen is considerably darker above and has the markings on the lower surface both heavier and darker than in my series of North Indian birds. Unfortunately there are no other South Indian birds available for com- parison— except 2 unsexed skins marked vaguely ‘Madras’ in the British Museum — so it remains to be ascertained whether there is a dark southern race or whether the difference is due to individual variation. This eagle varies a certain amount in plumage. — H. W.] Resident. Apparently confined to deciduous biotope. The specimen was ready to breed. Largest ovum 6 mm. Its stomach contained a snake ( Psammophis conda- narus) 9" long, and loose snake scales. Strangely enough this is the first record of this snake from Mysore. Haeraatornis cheela melanotis (Jerdon). The Crested Serpent-Eagle. Specimens collected : 724 $ 23-1-40 Bababudan Hills (3,500' — below Kemman- gundi)j 816 9 2-2-40 Settihalli (2,500'). Elsewhere noted : Heggadedavankote, Namadachilume. [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail No. 724 9 46-5 497 294 mm. No. 816 9 43-5 424 260 mm. No. 816 is a perfectly typical example of melanotis in both size and colour. No. 724 on the other hand would pass both in size and colour as a specimen of H. c. cheela. One can either -consider if therefore as a vagrant wanderer of the typical race which has somehow reached South India, or as an aberrant specimen of the race melanotis varying towards the typical race. I prefer the latter explanation for I have already pointed out ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxviii, 426-427) how very variable this eagle is. — H. W.] Resident, Affects heavy forest both in evergreen biotope and in the inter- mediate zone. The ovary of No. 724 (23 Jan.) was maturing with many of the follicles ove.r, 2 ,mm. in diameter. It was very fat. Its stomach contained snake scales. The call of this eagle is distinctive and usually the first indication of its presence in any locality. It is a shrill kek-kek-kek-kek-kek-kek-kde — the final note prolonged and particularly shrill. This call is mostly uttered on the wing. Butasfur teesa (Franklin). The White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle. Specimens collected: 138 9 22-11-39 Bandipur (2,800' — near Hangala village) ; 199 9 2Q-11-39 Antarsante (2,500'). Elsewhere noted : Settihalli. [Measurements : 1 .9 ad. Bill Wing Tail 32 3®9 183 mm. 1 9 imm. 3i 278 158 mm.-H. W.] Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects open light secondary jungle and the vicinity of cultivation. Haliastur indus indus (Boddaert). The B'rahminy Kite. Specimen collected: Biligirirangan Hills: M 103(G) 9 29-7-34 (3,000' — Odahatti). Elsewhere noted : Antarsante, Jog, Kolar Gold Fields, Satnur, 22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope near tanks and rivers, 4>ut met with temporarily elsewhere in search of food. On io February a solitary example was observed flying up and down the Gersoppa Falls, stick- ing to the contours of the flanking crags, using the wind eddies to rise effortlessly without wing beats to the head of the falls. After circling round here in among the spray a couple of times the bird shot down (also along the contours) at great speed almost to the foot of the falls, with wings half pulled in like a Peregrine stooping. The entire performance was repeated again and again, its object remaining a mystery. At Antarsante a nest was observed, with bird brooding, in the top of a large peepal tree growing in the village (5 December). Milvus migrans govinda Sykes. The Common Pariah Kite. if; Specimen collected: 145 3 23-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'). Elsewhere noted: Chamarajanagar, French Rocks, Mysore, Bangalore, Thondebhavi, Marikanive. Almost ubiquitous. [Measurements: 1 3 Bill 38, Wing 452, C. Tail 221, Outer Tail 284 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Preferentially in deciduous biotope, but small numbers also in the moist-inter belt around human habitations in the low country, and ascending temporarily in search of food to the highest homesteads in the hills. All the time from 4 November to 6 January the breeding season was in progress. Many pairs were observed in copula and numerous nests with birds brooding or under construction were observed. The testee of the specimen measured 17x6 mm. Elanus caeruleus vociferus (Latham). The Black-winged Kite. Specimens collected: 75 9 15-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); Biligirirangans : M107 (G) 3 1-8-34 (3»ooo- — Udahatti, Eastern base). [ Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 1 c? 23 — 122 mm. 1 9 24 269 1 19 mm. — H. W. j Resident (presumably). Uncommon Confined . to deciduous biotope. Affects secondary and scrub jungle. Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin). The Pale Harrier. Specimen collected: 129 3 20-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'). [Measurements: 1 3 ad. Bill 26.5, Wing 345, Tail 213 mm. — H. W.] Winter visitor. Not common. Stomach of the specimen contained remains of a lizard, and a quail chick dbout 1 day old. Circus aeiUginosus aeruginosus (Linn.). The Marsh Harrier. No specimens. Noted : Sakleshpur (solo at swamp 15-1-40) ; Kolar Gold Fields (Betmangala tank 22-2-40. Winter visitor. Not common. Astur badius dussumieri Temm. & Laug. The Indian Shikra. Specimens collected : 288 9 8-12-39 Seringapatam (2,000' — Palahally Island, Cauvery river); 336 9 15-12-39 Satnur (2,500'); 468 $ 27-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900'); 507 3 29-12-39 Thondebhavi (2,500'); 515 3 1-1-40 Devarayadrug (3,500'); 756 d, 757 3 28-1-40, 805 9 2-2-40 Settihalli (2,500'); Biligirirangan Hills : M4o(G) 3 23"9“34 (2,000' — Satyamangala). [Measurements : Bill 20-21.5 23 21.5-22 Wing 176-192.5 201 193-200 Tail r33_I47 mm- 160 mm. 150-165 mm, 3 S3 ad. 1 9 ad. 3 9 9 imm- THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 23 In the Eastern Ghats Survey ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxviii, 432) I discussed the question of the races of this species at some length, and this fine series merely strengthens the views that I arrived at then. — H. W.] Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects wooded country and groves frequently in the neighbourhood of villages and cultivation. No 288 (8 December) was the only one of the Survey specimens that showed any gonadal development : ovarian follicles 2 mm. It was very fat. It dashed out of its ambush after a Rosy Pastor. No. 805 had all the primaries and some secondaries of one wing, and also the tip of its tail singed for about half their length. Presumably this was caused accidentally while hunting in a fired grass and scrub patch ( taungya clearing). Accipiter virgatus besra Jerdon. The Southern Besra Sparrow-Hawk. Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills: 35 9. 10-1 1-39 (4,000' — Bedaguli) ; M25(H) J 30-3-34 (5,000' — Honnametti). [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 1 cfimm. 18 155 127 mm. 1 $ ad. 22 183.5 142 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Shot in the moist-inter belt. The stomach of 288 contained remains of a Green Barbet ( Thereiceryx viridis). % Pernis ptilorhynchus ruf icollis Lesson. The Indian Crested Honey-Buzzard. Specimens collected: 189 9 28-11-39, 269 c? 5-12-39 Antarsante (2,500'): 252 c? 3-12-39 Karapur (2,500'). Elsewhere noted : Biligirirangan Hills 4,000-5,800 . [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 2 S3 ad. 41-41. 5 4 1 2-4 *7 ' 252-259 mm. 1 9 imm. 40 403 262 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Fairly common. Particularly plentiful in the neighbourhood of Antarsante. The stomachs, crops and gullets of the specimens were . crammed with wax and honey, and in one instance also some small bees (species?). No. 189 was very fat. 269 (5 Deer.) had maturing testes — 17x6 mm When incised for removal of tendons, it was noticed that all its 8 toes were infested under the skin with Nematode worms (Pelecitus sp.), especially at the base of the claws. Crocopus phoenicopterus chlorogaster (Blyth). The Southern Green Pigeon. Specimens collected : 195 c? 29-11-39, 268 c? 5"I2"39 Antarsante (2,500'). Biligirirangan Hills : M24(H) 9 I8-3-34, My2(G) (j1 22-7-34, M97(G) 27-7-34 (3,000' — Gdahatti Eastern base). [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 4 d'd' 21-23 185-192 116-118 mm. 1 9 ^4 184 — mm. — H. W.J Resident, but locally migratory (especially altitudinal) depending upon the ripening of the various fruits that comprise their food. Fruits ripen later on the hills than in the plains. This Green Pigeon is essentially a bird of deciduous biotope Out rt also occurs freely in the dry-inter belt. At Bandipur their food consisted largely of Ficus figs and gall-nuts (myra- bolans). Dendrophassa pompadora affinis (Jerdon). The Grey-fronted Green Pigeon. Specimens collected : 803 <$ 1-2-40 Settihalli (2,500') ; 818 9 4-2-40 Agumbe (2,500') 871 12-2-40 Jog (2,000'). Elsewhere noted : Bababudan Hills 3,000-4,500', 24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 2 66 18.5-20 141-5-142.5 85 mm. 1 -9 v 19 M9-5 84 mm. — H. W.J Resident. Fairly common. Locally migratory as above. Confined to ever- green biotope ; also found in the moist-inter belt. Affects shade trees (Ficus and others) in and about coffee plantations. Its call notes are like Crocopus, but somewhat shriller. I was informed by Mr. H. H. English, a coffee planter in the Bababudans, that on his estate these pigeons frequently dash into the walls of out-houses and get killed. I have recorded a similar case under the Bronze-winged Dove in the Travancore-Cochin Survey ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxix, 339). Ducula badia cuprea (Jerdon). Jerdon’s Imperial Pigeon. Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills : 9 9 7-1 1-39 (4,000' — Edbuthi) ; M47(H) 9 9-4-34 (5,000' — Honnametti). Elsewhere noted : Sakleshpur, Settihalli, Agumbe. [Measurements: 2 9 9 Bill 30-30.5, Wing 227-231, Tail 166 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Fairly common. Confined to evergreen biotope. Extends into the moist-inter belt. Met with in twos and threes on tall thinly foliaged trees. Call : a' deep, rather mournful Uk-ook...ook etc. uttered with tail slightly depressed, back arched and head lowered. The flight is attained by leisurely wing beats as in the House-Crow. The specimen of 7 November had a mature ovary with the largest follicle over 6 mm. in diameter. Muscadivora aenea pusilla (Blyth). The Ceylon Green Imperial Pigeon. Specimen collected: Biligirirangan Hills : M27(G) 9 2I-9_34 (2,000' — Satyamangala). Elsewhere noted : Antarsante. [Measurements : 1 9 Bill 27.5, Wing 216, Tail 138 mm. — H. W.J Resident. Uncommon. Confined to deciduous biotope, extending diminish- ihg'ly into the intermediate zone. Affects secondary jungle dotted with large Ficus trees. Chalcophaps indica indica (Linn.). The Bronze-winged Dove. Specimen collected : Biligirirangan Hills : M37(G) 9 juv. 23-10-34 (4,000' — Bellaji). Elsewhere noted : Bababudan Hills (4,500' — Kemmangundi) ; Settihalli. Resident. Uncommon. Confined to evergreen biotope ; partial to the moist- inter belt. It also extends to the more deciduous but well wooded portions of the intermediate zone. Frequents thick secondary forest and bamboo patches, and outskirts of forest clearings. Columba livia subsp. The Blue Rock-Pigeon. No specimens. Noted : Bhadravati, Jog. Resident. Patchily distributed and nowhere abundant except at Jog (Ger- soppa Falls). At the Mysore Iron Works, Bhadravati, I noticed (24 Jan.) that while the casting was in progress (8 p.m.) a number of pigeons roosted com- placently on the cross beams and rafters of the corrugated casting-shed roof, regardless of the terrific heat, glare and spluttering ‘fireworks’ from the molten metal, and only a few feet above the sparks from the gigantic blast furnace! About the scarps of Gersoppa Falls the number of these pigeons has to be seen to be believed. They are there literally in thousands and when flying to and fro across the rock faces, as they do all day long in vast flocks, the birds look like swarms of midges by comparison with their surroundings. There is a very widely current legend about the storing of grain by ‘birds’ obviously meaning these pigeons, in the holes and fissures of the rock behind and on the flanks of the actual waterfall at Gersoppa. This legend even had the distinction of figuring in a local political speech recently (Bangalore, 17- 1-40) but what its exact significance was in the context is not understood. It is THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 25 said that the birds hoard — or at least used to hoard in by gone days — paddy in such quantities that the right of collecting this grain was formerly auctioned out by the Bombay Government for as much as Rs. 500 annually. 20 candies (140 cwt.) or more are alleged to have been recovered at a time by a man lowered in a basket. Since the accident which terminated the career of this intrepid exploiter, no one else has ventured to tap the ‘granaries’. Needless to say there seems to be no one living at the moment who has any first hand knowledge of the matter. Enquiries in the relative Mamlatdar’s office, kindly made for me by the Divisional Fore'st Officer of Karwar, revealed that all records over 50 years old have been destroyed and the entries of revenue from the1 auction of the garnering rights cannot now be1 traced. It has not been explained how the pigeons could have transported such vast quantities of paddy to the granaries, and from where — since at the present time, at any rate, there is no extensive paddy cultivation, such as is implied, within many miles of the Falls. Of course, the legend will not bear scrutiny, but it would be interesting to learn how it originated and managed to gain such wide and ready credence. Columba elphinstonii (Sykes). The Nilgiri Wood-Pigeon. Specimens collected : Biligirirangan Hills : M43(H) 9 7-4-34 (4,000' — Bellajil ; M48(H) 9 9-4-34, M36(H) 9 1 0-5-34 (4,000-5,000' — Honnametti) ; Mii6(H) o? 25-5-34 (4,000' — Edbiithi). Elsewhere noted : Devarbetta Hill (3,000') ; Bababudan Hills (4,500'- — Kem- mangundi). [Measurements 13 9 9 Bill 27-28, Wing 199-205 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Fairly common but not abundant. Confined to evergreen biotope and partial to the moist-inter belt. Seen singly or in pairs, occasionally small parties, on trees in fruit. Strepfopelia orientalis erythrocephala (Bonaparte).1 The Indian Rufous Turtle Dove. Specimens collected: 792 9, 793 9 31-1-40 Settihalli (2,500'). [Measurements : 2 9 9 Bill from feathers 16, Wing 176-178, Tail 118-120 mm. The sight of these two skins has given me as much pleasure as any birds in the Survey, for at last Mr. S&lim Ali has produced specimens of the Rufous Turtle Dove which breeds in Peninsular India, a bird whose very existence I was almost beginning to doubt. Curiously enough about the same time I received a third specimen from the collection of the late Mr. E. A. D’Abreu2. a female (one of a pair) collected at Mahrajbagh, Nagpur, on 8 June 1938. In the Eastern Ghats Survey ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxviii, pp. 677-678) I discussed the whole question of these doves, but in the absence of satisfactory proof of the breeding of any form in peninsular India my conclusions were not altogether satisfactory. I am now satisfied that my ‘richly coloured form’ of that account falls into two races. The bird of the Eastern Himalayas and Assam is really an intermediate between S. o. orientalis (Manchuria, Korea, Japan and Tibet) S. o. meena (Western Himalayas) and the breeding bird of peninsular India which is distinguished by the vinous-red crown, nape and mantle and the deeper red of the edges of the scapulars, coverts and tertiaries. The vinous-red of the undersurface is also much richer. For the East Himalayan intermediate I propose to retain, as in my previous note, the name of Columba agricola Tickell, J.A.S.B. vol. ii (Nov. 1833) p. 581 — jungles of Dholbhum and Borabhum. The description is a poor one but obvi- ously refers to some form of Turtle Dove. There are no specimens available from these 2 localities, but Beavan obtained specimens at Manbhum, now in the British Museum, and these agree with East Himalayan birds. 1 Since this is the resurrection of an old existing name, Koelz’s sylvicola (type locality: Castle Rock, Proc. oj the Biol. Society of Washington, vol. . lii, pp. 61-82 [5 June 1939]) becomes a synonym of it. 2 It may be convenient to record the fact that Mr. D’Abreu ’s private collection of birds from Kumaon, Sikkim, Bihar and the Central Provinces has been very generously presented to me by his son and is now being incorporated in my own collection. The- labelling of these birds is a model to collectors,— H. W, 26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Specimens from Raipur, Seoni and North Kanara in the British Museum evidently belong to the same very richly coloured resident form as these Survey birds. For them I propose to use the name Turtuy erythrocephalus Bonaparte, Consp. Gen. Av. vol. ii (after April 15, 1855) p. 60 of which the type labelled ‘Cape of Good Hope’ is in the British Museum. The type locality is of course an error. — H. W. The specimens were shot on a cart road through forest in bamboo facies of the dry-inter belt. A number of other examples were observed and the species seemed to be fairly common in this locality. No. 792 had a soft ovarian egg 17 mm. in diameter, and the distended oviduct indicated that she had laid. The ovary of 793 was mature : largest follicle 6 mm. Streptopelia chinensis suratensis (Gmelin). The Indian Spotted Dove. Specimens collected: 533 534 <$ 3-1-40 Namadachilume (3,000'); 804 $ 2-2-40 Settihalli (2,500'); Mi3(G) c? 9-7-34 (3,000' — Cdahatti, Eastern base) Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Begur, Satnur, Sakleshpur. [Measurements: 4 $ $ Bill 18-19.5, Wing 135-145.5, Tail 118-134 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope, extending into the dry-inter belt. Frequents wooded country around cultivation etc. All the 3 specimens of January-Februarv had fully mature testes (14x5, 13X5 and 10X5 mm-) and they were certainly breeding. On 27 January a nest with c/2 was found 6 ft. up in a bamboo clump in secondary jungle (Setti- halli). In this locality it was the only dove besides S. orientalis. Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis (Gmelin). The Little Brown Dove. Specimens collected : 553 9 7-1-40 Marikanive (2,500'). Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Begur, Satnur, Thondebhavi, Namadachilume, Hiriyur, Kolar Gold Fields. [Measurements : 1 9 Bill 16.5, Wing 124, Tail 104 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects dry open country less wooded than that favoured by the Spotted Dove, but sometimes the 2 habitats overlap at the seam. These facies preferences are most noticeable in the dry season when their boundaries are better defined than during or just after the rains. The specimen had a mature ovary with the largest follicle measuring 3 mm. Streptopelia decaocto decaocto (Frivalszky). The Indian Ring-Dove. Specimens collected : 356 $ 16-12-39 Satnur (2,500') ; 425 23-12-39 Makli- drug (2,800'). Biligirirangan Hills : M25(G) 20-9-34 (2,000' — Satyamangala) , M37(G) c? 15-7-34 (3,000' — Udahatti, Eastern base). [Measurements: 4 ^ Bill 19. 5-21. 5, Wing 169-174, Tail 129. 5-133.5 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Prefers drier and less wooded facies than the Spotted Dove, and often met side by side with the Little Brown Dove. Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Begur, Thondebhavi, Marikanive. Both the December specimens were breeding: testes 17x6 and 17x7 mm. Major Phvthian-Adams took an egg at Gundlupet, 28-7-38. (Enopopelia tranqnebarica tranquebarica (Hermann). The Red Turtle Dove. Specimens collected : 366 c5* , 367 ^ 17-12-39 Satnur (2,500'); 554 $ 7-1-40 MarikanivS (2,500'). Elsewhere noted : Kolar Gold Fields. [Measurements: 3 $ $ Bill 16-5-18, Wing 136-140, Tail 84-89 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects dry, open, secondary and scrub-and-bush jungle, and the neighbourhood of cultivation. The preferential facies of this dove is nearer that of the Ring Dove than of the Spotted Dove. All the 3 specimens had testes enlarged to breeding size: 13x6, 16x5 and 17x6 mm. Major Phythian-Adams has taken eggs at Gundlupet 28-7-38. (To be continued .) THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA BY R. I. POCOCK, F.R.S., Zoological Department , British Museum, Natural History t Part III — The Sambar ( Rusa ), ( With 3 text-figures). ( Continued from Vol. xliii, No. 4 (1943), p. 572). Genus Rusa H. Smith. (The Sambar). Rusa, Hamilton Smith, Griffiths’ An. King., 5, p. 309, 1827, and of most recent authors as a genus or as a subgenus of Cervus. Type of the genus: — Cervus unicolor. Distribution from Ceylon and India eastwards to the Philippines and beyond. British Indian representatives of this genus are the largest of the typically Oriental Deer, approaching the Shou in size, but. differing from Cervus in external characters similar to those of Rucervus, namely the long, bushy tail, absence of rump-patch and more extensive rhinarium, the chief external difference being in the antlers which are much simpler and carry normally only two terminal tines, the anterior or outer of which represents the trez tine of Cervus and may be longer or shorter than the other. In the skull the auditory bullae are smaller than in Rucervus and closely resemble those of Cervus, (Fig. 1) only very seldom pro- jecting slightly below the level of the basioccipital bone ; but the chief cranial characteristic of typical Rusa lies in the great depth and size of the gland-pit, which far surpasses that of the other genera, and has a protrusible gland p the vacuity also is relatively longer. A further difference from Rucervus, but resemblance to Cervus, is the presence of the upper canine tooth in the female. Although the Sambars (Rusa unicolor ) of the British Indian Fauna are referred in recent literature to two subspecies, one, Rusa unicolor unicolor, from Ceylon and most of India, the other, 1 In some of the small Sambars from the Far East the gland-pit is relatively smaller and shallower and the gland is not known to be protrusible. 28 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV Rasa unicolor equina from Burma and Assam, distinguished from the first by its shorter antlers, I find evidence for the admission of three, the Indian form being separable from the typical Ceylonese form, R. unicolor. Fig. i. A. The small, flat left auditory bulla ( b ) of young-adult d Sambar ( Rusa unicolor nigra) from South Coorg (Shortridge). B. The relatively larger, swollen auditory bulla ( b ) of adult d Swamp Deer ( Rucervus duvauceiii) from? Barainga (Earl of Derby). C. The same of adult d Thamin ( Panolia elcli) from Burma (Zool. Soc.). The light, falling from the right, throws the1 inner half of the swollen bullae of B and C into heavy shadow, whereas in A the flattish bulla casts no shadow. They may .be briefly diagnosed as follows : — a. Tips of the antlers variable, the posterior-inner tine usually shorter, sometimes longer than the anterior-outer, some- times equal to it, the anterior-outer usually but not al- ways definitely continuing . the line of the beam. b. Antlers and skull on the average smaller, unicolor. bl Antlers and' skull on the average larger, nigra. THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 29 a 1 Tips of the antlers less variable, the pos- terior-inner tine always shorter than the anterior-outer, which always de- finitely continues the line of the beam. equina. Rusa unicolor unicolor, Kerr. Cervus axis unicolor t Kerr, Anim. Kingd., p. 306, 1792. Cervus axis major, Kerr, Anim. Kingd., p. 306, 1792. Cervus albicornis ; Bechstein, Allgemcin. Uebersicht vierfuss. Thiere, 1, 1799. Rusa unicolor unicolor , Phillips, Man. Mamm. Ceylon, p. 337, 1935. (excluding references to Indian specimens). Locality of the type: — Ceylon, as restricted by Hamilton Smith. Distribution : — Ceylon. Distinguished from the Indian Sambar, with which it has hither- to been united, by its average much shorter antlers which are not known to exceed 34 in. in length, and apparently by its smaller skull, although the evidence on this head is scanty. This race can be soon dismissed since there are hardly any Ceylonese specimens in the British Museum to describe. My information about the antlers is derived mainly from Phillips’s volume. He states that their general average length is 26 or 27 in., the longest recently procured being 32^ and 33 7/8 in. In Ward’s Records, 1935, p. 22, several are entered ranging from 27! to 32^ in. As regards the terminal tines Phillips states that they are generally approximately equal in length, but, if unequal, either may be the longer. On plate 35 he figures two heads. In the upper figure the antlers are of the primitive ‘rusine’ type, with the front-outer tine continuing the beam and greatly exceeding in length and thick- ness the hinder-inner tine. In the lower figure the two are short and subequal in size, resembling apparently rather closely the prongs of a hay-fork. On pi. 34 the two tines appear to be nearly inter- mediate between the previous two. No d skulls are available for description. But a $ skull from Aldie Patmas, C.P. (Phillips) is that of a youngish adult which had apparently attained its full length dimensions. Its total and con- dylobasal lengths are respectively 320 mm., about 12 4/5 in., and 315 mm., about 12 3/5 in., nearly 2 in. shorter than the average of five 9 Indian skulls referred to under nigra. But the second Ceylonese skull, collected for the Survey by Mayor at Durgali C.P., would have been a little longer than Phillips’s. Its condylobasal length is the same, namely 315 mm., and its total length a little greater; but it is a younger skull with the premolars of the first set still in use and its last molar just appearing in the bone. Since it had not quite reached its full length, it may be assumed that the two Ceylonese skulls would be about 1 in. shorter on the average than the Indian skulls, justifying provisionally the conclusion that the Sambar of Ceylon are smaller on the average than those from the mainland. The technical name of this race was given by Kerr to a Deer described by Pennant (Hist. Nat. Quadr., 1, p. 106, No. 48, 1781) 30 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV as the ‘Middle-sized Axis’, a species as large as the Red Deer, with the ground-colour like that of the Axis but never spotted, the antlers strong, rough and trifurcated, meaning three-pointed. From hear- say evidence, there being no type, he cited Ceylon, Borneo, Celebes and Java as its localities. The name was restricted to the Ceylonese Sambar by Hamilton Smith in 1827. I have included the names major and albicornis in the synonyms for the following reasons. Both were given to the ‘Greater Axis’ of Pennant (op. cit., No. 481) ; but in Pennant’s first description (Syn. Quadr. p. 52, No. 41, 1771), the species, based on a pair of antlers in the British Museum without the least trace of locality or history, was described as having the antlers of the same shape as those of the Axis and trifurcated, but large, very thick, strong, rugged and 33 in. long. Since this description fits the antlers of the Ceylonese Sambar as well as any other, the names may be con- veniently disposed of as synonyms of unicolor. In 1881 Pennant repeated this description, quoted by Kerr, but added the suggestion that the specimens probably came from Borneo or Ceylon. Acting on this Kerr definitely stated Borneo and Ceylon to be the homes of major, adding that its colour was ‘reddish brown’, both state- ments being unwarranted inventions. Gray complicated the question by identifying as the antlers Pennant described, a pair in the British Museum (No. 697 U) ; and this verdict was endorsed in 1915 by Lydekker, who entered them as the type of major and albicornis. This claim cannot be upheld. The antlers in question are those of a Sambar, without history, but are very aberrant and not the least like those of an Axis in shape. One only is trifurcate and in this the tine near the summit of the beam rises on its outer side and projects outwards and up- wards, a most unusual variation. In these respects the antlers entirely disagree with Pennant’s description of those of the Greater Axis. Rusa unicolor nigra, Blainville. Cervus niger, Blainville, Bull. Soc. Phil. Paris. 1816, p. 76; Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng., 11, p. 449, 1842. Cervus aristotelis, Cuvier, Oss. Foss., ed. 3, Vol. 4, p. 503, 1825 and of many subsequent authors either as Cervus or Rusa. Cervus leschenaultii Cuvier, Oss. Foss., ed. 3, Vol. 4, p. 506, 1825. Cervus hippelaphus , H. Smith, Griffith’s Anim. Kingd., 4, p. 105, 1827 and of several subsequent authors as Cervus or Rusa; but not Cervus hippelaphus Kerr, 1792 which is a European race of C. elaphus. Cervus jarai, Hodgson, Gleanings in Sci., 3, p. 321, 1831. Locality of the type of niger, unstated but probably somewhere in north India; of aristotelis , Nepal; of leschenaultii, Coromandel; of jarai, Nepal. Distribution: — India apart from the western desert and semi- desert areas, but not perhaps crossing the Brahmaputra in the north- east, the Assamese Sambar belonging apparently to the next race. Distinguished from the Ceylonese race by its potentially larger antlers and apparently larger skull. THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 31 In Rowland Ward’s Records, 1935, there is a long list of antler- measurements ranging in length roughly from 37 to 50 in., almost all of the specimens having been procured in parts of Central India. Variation in the length and direction of the two terminal tines of the antlers of the left side of the Indian Sambar. a the front-outer tine; p. the back-inner tine. A. Antler, 465 in., from Chanda, C.P. (Hume). B. Antler, 43 in., from Kh^ndwa, C.I. (Sharmon). C. Antler, 37 in., from Rohtas, Bihar, (Walker). D. Antler 42.J in., from Central India (Anderson). E. Antler, 36 in., from Bhopal. F. Antler, 27^ in., of the primitive type. Drawn from an example of equina from the Ruby Mines, Upper Burma, (Bruce). 32 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV The antlers vary greatly in the comparative lengths and in the direc- tion of the two terminal tines (fig. 2). As a general rule the front- outer tine is erect, definitely continues the line of the beam and is longer and generally stouter than the back-inner tine which inclines backwards, inwards and upwards. Almost equally commonly the two tines are subequal, forming a fork, and sometimes in this case neither can be said definitely to be a continuation of the beam. More rarely the back-inner tine is the longer of the two, sometimes much longer, and in this case also the front-outer tine cannot always be said to continue the line of the beam more than the other. Antlers of this rare type were figured by Blanford in 1891 and by Lydekker in 1915 as if they were characteristic of the Indian Sambar. Three are represented in fig. 2, A, B, D. In C, the much commoner type, the front-outer tine is longer and thicker than the other and mani- festly continues the beam. In E, also a common type, the two tines are subequal and the front-outer is in line with the beam. In F, is represented a type quite usual particularly in smaller antlers of the Indian Sambar and characteristic, with minor differences in details, of the races of Rusa unicolor found to the east of the Bay of Bengal, in Formosa, the Philippines, Borneo and Sumatra. Since, as above stated, nearly all the antlers of the Indian Sambar considered on account of their size, worth entering in Ward’s Records came from Central India or at all events from districts to the south of the Ganges, a few notes on those from the north of the river, about which little has been recorded, may be of interest. The specimens in the British Museum and the few recorded by Ward give the following length measurements. Eight from Nepal vary from 29 to 35 in., the average being 32 in., two from Oudh are 36^ and 40, with the average about 38; three from Dehra Dun vary from 32 to 40, with an average of 36; three from Garwhal vary from 35 to 46^, the average being about 40; and three from the United Provinces vary from 40 to 46^, with the average about 43. The total average of the series is about 38 in., probably approximately the average of mature antlers of the southern Indian Sambar, if anything a little over it. These northern antlers resemble the southern not only in size but also in the variation of the terminal tines which may be subequal or unequal, quite a large percentage having the back-inner tine the longer. An instance of individual variation is supplied by a pair from Dehra Dun (Hume) in which the right antler is 36 in. long, with the two tines subequal, the left 39I in., with the back-inner tine much longer than the front- outer approximately as in the head from Chanda, C.P., figured by Lydekker. It is perhaps surprising that none of the north Indian antlers described shows greater proximity to those of the Burmese race than do those from Central India. The skull of the <3 Indian vSambar exceeds in length the skulls of the other species of British Indian Cervidae, apart from Wallich’s deer ( Cervus waUichii) and the Shou ( Cervus affinis). But it is narrower than the skulls of Cervus. Although its total length is on the average over 20 mm. longer than in the Hangul ( Cervus hanglu ), the width across the orbit in the latter is on the average about 12 mm. greater, a feature which, combined with the shorter THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 33 length, gives the skull a more robust appearance. The skull is very much larger than the skull of the Swamp Deer and Thamin, has relatively considerably smaller auditory bullae and much longer vacuities and bigger gland-pits. In fourteen skulls the vertical diameter of the orbit varies from 47 mm. in a skull from Palamau to 61 mm., which is exceptional, in one from Nepal (Hodgson), the average being 52 mm. The c B Fig- 5- A. Orbital area of the skull with the vacuity and gland-pit of a Sambar (Rusa unicolor nigra ) from Rohtas in Bihar (Walker). B. Posterior end of the nasal bones, with the vacuity and inner portion of the gland-pit (dotted) of the same specimen. C. The same of a specimen from Palamau (Walker). length of the vacuity, which always exceeds the orbit, varies from 60 mm. in the type of heterocerus from Nepal to 80 mm., which is exceptionally long, in a skull from Garwhal (Burke), the average being 69 mm. The gland-pit, which is very deep, with well defined edges, usually exceeds in length the diameter of the eye, varies in length from 54 mm. in a skull from Kanara to 64 in one from Khandwa, the average being 58. The free edges of the nasals 3 34 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV where they border the vacuities internally are typically lightly convex but may be almost straight; they vary in length from 12 mm., which is exceptionally short, in the type of heterocerus from Nepal to- 34 mm. which is exceptionally long, in the skull from Garwhal, which has the unusually long vacuities. On the average the posterior angle of the nasals is about on a level with the posterior ends of the vacuities, sometimes slightly surpassing them, some- times falling short. But the nasals vary individually in nearby localities. In a skull from Rohtas in Bihar (Captain Walker), with the total and condylobasal lengths 420 and 408 mm., the nasals are much less than three times as long as wide, being 145 mm. long and 60 mm. wide at the widest point, their interfrontal penetration is comparatively short and the angle they form nearly rectangular and not quite reaching the line of the ends of the vacuities. But in> a younger, but adult skull from Palamau (Captain Walker) with the total and condylobasal lengths 416 and 397 mm., the nasals are considerably more than three times as long as wide, their length being 150 mm. and their greatest width 45 mm. ; they are corre- spondingly narrower (Fig. 3, B, C) throughout, with a deeper, inter- frontal penetration, the angle they form being acute and surpassing by about 6 mm. the ends of the vacuities. As regards the length of the entire skull, the longest two are those from Rohtas and Palamau above mentioned. Out of thirteen adult skulls nine surpass 400 mm. in total length, the shortest of this category being Hume’s skull from Chanda with a total and condylobasal length of 403 and 382 mm. The localities and total- length of four, which fall short of 400, are as follows : — Nepal 398, Kanara 395, Garwhal 394, Rajputana 390. In the last three of these the condylobasal length is not available; but another skull from Nepal (Hodgson) has the total and condylobasal lengths 405 and 386 mm. and in one from Ivumaun (Vanderbyl) those lengths are 407 and 390 mm. From these data it seems there is no differ- ence in the size of the skulls of the Sambars found to the north and south of the Ganges. The average total length of thirteen skulls ranging from Kanara to the Himalayas is 405 mm. ; and the- condylobasal length of ten is 392 mm. The particulars cited above apply only to 6 skulls collected by sportsmen not interested in hinds. But the collectors for the Mammal Survey of British India secured several adult 9 skulls in perfect condition. Three were from widely separated districts in India. Their localities and total and condylobasal lengths are as follows: — Sitabani, Kumaun, (Crump) 361 and 350 mm.; Maha- bleshwar, Satara, (Prater) 363 and 353 mm. ; Wottekolle, S. Coorg, (Shortridge) 367 and 350 mm. ; Nallamalais, (La Personne) 370 and 358 mm. Their uniformity in length is very close, the total length being about 367 mm. (14 3/5 in.) and the condylobasal length about 353 mm. (14 1/5 in.). A young 9 skull was also secured by Shortridge at Makut, Coorg. An adult 9 skull from Coimbatore (R. C. Morris) is a trifle larger than the largest of the preceding, its total and condylobasal lengths being 372 and 362 mm., but these measurements hardly appreciably increase the average length given, above, of the skulls of 9 Indian Sambar. THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 35 With regard to the names applied to the Indian Sambar, it is. unfortunate that niger, based by Blainville on a painting, is several years older than the frequently quoted name aristotelis given by Cuvier to a sketch of antlers from Bengal sent to him by Duvaucel who reported that the stag was common in Nepal and towards the Indus. Since Bengal in those days extended considerably to the north of the Ganges and Duvaucel collected to the north of that river, aristotelis } like niger , belongs to the north Indian Sambar. But Cuvier supplied the Central and South Indian form with the name leschenaultii, based on a sketch of antlers from Coromandel. The future may show that the Sambar found north of the Ganges- differ from those to the south of it; but since there is insufficient material to decide this point, I provisionally adopt the name nigra for all the Indian Sambars apart from those occurring in Assam. Rusa unicolor equina Cuvier. Cervus equinus, Cuvier, Oss. Foss., ed. 2, 4, p. 45, 1823, and of subsequent authors including Lydekker, Cat. Ung. Brit. Mus., 4, p. 78 containing bibliography under Cervus unicolor equinus. Cervus malaccensis , F. Cuvier, Hist. Nat. Mamm., 1, pi. 10, „ 1824. Cervulus cambojensis, Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. , 1861, p. 138. Rusa dejeani, Pousargues, Bull. Mus. Paris, 1896, 2, No. 1, p. 12, 1896; G. M. Allen, Mamm. China and Mongolia, 2, p. 1169, 1940 as Rusa unicolor dejeani. Rusa unicolor equina , Pocock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (11), IX, P* 5i8> i942* Locality of the type of equinus , Sumatra ; of malaccensis the Malay Peninsula ; of cambojensis Cambodia ; of dejeani Szechwan. Distribution:- — From Sumatra, through Malaya to Burma and Assam, Siam, Cambodia, Cochin China, Annam, Yunnan, Szechwan,. Hainan. Distinguished from the Ceylonese and Indian races by the terminal tines of the antlers being much less variable in their respec- tive lengths, the front-outer always definitely continuing the line of the beam and being longer and thicker than the back-inner which projects inwards, backwards and upwards from its inner side; the antlers also are much shorter on the average than in the Indian race, with the brow tine longer compared with the beam and there is some evidence that the skulls are a little shorter on the average. According to Peacock (Game Book for Burma, p. 124, 1933) the average length of the antlers in mature Burmese Stags is about 26 in., 30 in., or a little over, being considered large. This was confirmed by H. C. Smith (Wild Animals of Burma, 1, p. 39, T935). In Ward’s Records for 1935 the picked Burmese heads entered as trustworthily measured range from 29 to 33 in. In a skull from the Ruby Mines (Bruce) in the British Museum, the antlers are 27! in. ; a pair from the Garo Hills, Assam (Hume) are 28 in. ; but a pair labelled Assam (Cutler) are only 19^ in. From Malewoon and Victoria Island, Tenasserim Lyon (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 31, 36 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV p, 585, 1906) measured four heads with antlers ranging from about .23 to 33^ in., the average being 27 in., thus agreeing with the previous entries; and in Ward’s Records 1935 a few no doubt picked heads from various parts of Indo-China ranging from about 28 to 33 in. are entered, showing close agreement with Burmese antlers. There thus appears to be very little difference in the average size of the antlers in the Sambars of continental Asia to the east of the Bay of Bengal. For these the oldest available name is malaccensis . There is some evidence, however, that in typical equina from Sumatra the antlers may be smaller. For instance a pair in the British Museum (Robinson) from Korinchi is 22 in. and in a series of ten from eastern Sumatra recorded by Lyon ( Proc . U. S. Nat. Mus. 34, p. 633, 1908) the range is from about 15J to 20^ in., the average, being only 18 in. approximately. But although there is no evidence that all these specimens were fully developed, the data suggest that the typical form of equina from Sumatra may have on the average smaller antlers than those from the mainland, justifying the separation of the latter as a distinct local race, malaccensis. But since the evidence is unsatisfactory, I leave the accepted nomen- clature undisturbed. There are only two adult 6 skulls of this race in the British Museum. They differ a good deal in details. One from the Ruby Mines, Upper Burma (Bruce), with a total length of 421 mm. is a few mm. longer than the longest known skull of nigra from Rohtas, but its condylobasal length of 400 mm. is 8 mm. less. The vertical diameter of the orbit and the length of the vacuity agree tolerably ^closely with the average of the Indian race; but the gland-pit is exceptionally long, 74 mm., exceeding by 10 mm. the longest record- ed from India i.e. from Khandwa, which is 64 mm. The other .skull from Assam with a total and condylobasal length of 380 and 372 mm. is younger and much shorter, but appears to have attained its full length. Its orbit, 57 mm., is large, but the vacuity, 53 mm., is exceptionally short, whereas the gland-pit, 60 mm. long, is -approximately equal to the average in the Indian race. As regards the length of the skull of equina Lyon ( Pvoc . (J . S. Nat. Mus., 31, p. 585, 1906) recorded the basal length of three adult 6 skulls from southern Tenasserim. From these I compute their condylobasal lengths to have been approximately 370, 375 and 395 mm. respectively. Of one adult 6 skull identified as dejeani from Yunnan, G. M. Allen recorded the occipito-nasal length, from which its condylobasal length may be estimated to have been 384 mm. The average condylobasal length of these four skulls and of the two in the British Museum works out at 383 mm., about 10 mm. less than the average of nine 6 skulls of R. unicolor nigra. Three adult 9 skulls were collected by Shortridge for the Mammal Survey at Banlaw in Mergui, Thagat in Tenasserim and probably at Tenasserim Town, although labelled merely Tenasserim. They vary individually in details. The Mergui skull has the vertical diameter of the orbit 46 mm., the vacuity 70 mm. long and the gland-pit 48. In the Thagat skull the same areas are 44, 46 and 57 mm. and in the Tenasserim Town skull 49, 61 and 48 mm. The wacuity is exceptionally long in the Mergui skull and the gland-pit THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 37 in the Thagat skull. The averages of these areas in the three is 46, 59, and 51 mm. respectively, both the gland-pit and the vacuity exceeding in length the vertical diameter of the orbit. Both the orbit and the vacuity are smaller than the average of the five 9 skulls of the Indian race; but the gland-pit is a little longer. The three skulls similarly vary in length, the condylobasal being 353 mm. in the skull from Thagat, 345 in the one from Mergui and 332 in the one from Tenasserim Town. But Lyon recorded from the Malay Peninsula a much bigger 9 skull, which had a condylobasal length, I estimate, of about 373 mm. The average in the four skulls, works out at about 351 mm., only 4 mm. less than in the five 9 skulls of the Indian race. (To be continued) CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH IN INDIA AND BURMA. BY A. St. J. Macdonald, ( With 1 plate , a map and 3 text-figures). ( Continued from Vol. xliii, No. 4 (1943), p. 620). Part IV. FISHING FOR MAHSEER. 4 Wild and wide are my borders , stern as death is my sway , ‘And I wait for the men who will win me — and I will not be won in a day; ‘And I will not be won by weaklings, subtle, suave and mild, ‘But by men with the hearts of Vikings , and the simple faith of a child; ‘Desperate, strong and resistless, unthrottled by fear or defeat, ‘Them will I gild with my treasure, them will I glut with my meat’ . . R. S. The attributes of the good angler. (1), The Mahseer’s idiosyncrasies (2), Size no indication of age (3), Diet of Mahseer (4), Power of jaw (5), Spawning (6), Method of taking bait (7), Spoon versus other lures (8), Capt. F. Stonham’s Note on Plug bait (9), Spoon bait and scale effect (10), Hen fish attains greater -size ( 1 1 ), Spinning for Mahseer (12), Where to look for Mahseer (rapids) (13), Sketch of good water lettered (14), Pools (15), How to work water and the •cast (16), Known water (17), How Mahseer rise (18), Monotony of one bait (19), Point of rod (20), Selection of water (21), Lacey’s log of good and bad days with my summary (22), Wade cautiously (23), The element of luck (24), Water and temperature (25), Following in a boat (26). Other Methods of Fishing for Mahseer (27), The fly and fishing with fly (28), Gram fishing for Mahseer (29), Method of Fishing (30), Gram for bait (31), Hooks (32), Cast lines (33), Tackle (34), Other tips (35), Paste fishing dor Mahseer (36), Baiting with paste (37), Points relating to heavy fishing! (38). THE ATTRIBUTES OF THE GOOD ANGLER. i. The patience of Job; the eye and observance of the eagle; the perseverance of the termite ; the hands of an artificer; the touch of a musician; the temper of a saint; and, above all, an unsatiable ambition to learn. 2. The Mahseer' s idiosyncrasies. Before dealing with the actual fishing, it will be as well to consider a few important points about the mahseer which either directly or indirectly influence the methods to be adopted. The mahseer has certain idiosyncrasies, which are not in conformity with the salmon or trout. He likes clear water, in fact the clearer the better ; the rougher and whiter the more does he love it; thunder and rain may or may not subdue his capricious appetite. They are taken in the winter, summer, spring and autumn. His size is no indication of his wants, the little chap of 1 pound or Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. (i) A typical ‘Golden Mahseer’, 50 lbs. Barbus (Tor) putitora (Hamilton). (2) Thick-lipped ‘Mahseer ’, 52 lbs. Barbus (Tor) putitora (Hamilton) With hypertrophied lips. (3) The ‘Black Mahseer’. 26 lbs. Barbus (Tor) putitora (Hamilton) Melanie Form. ISote. Dr. H ora’s work on the Game Fishes of India has revealed that there is no reason to believe that 1, 2 and 3 are separated forms. (4) Short gilled, deep-bodied type, 25 lbs. Barbus (Tor) tor (Hamilton). 4. COMMON TYPES OF MAHSEER TAKEN IN MOST NORTH INDIAN RIVERS. | CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 39 less will ambitiously take a 4-inch spoon, with the same readiness as the monster of 30 or 40 pounds takes a half-inch fly spoon ; and most important of all when considering- mahseer fishing, we have to bear in mind a fish ranging from a few ounces to one of 5 score pounds or more. True, that in most rivers his size can be ascertained fairly accurately, but this is by no means the case with most of the larger rivers, which have the monsters mingled with the game little fel- lows of a few pounds. Few anglers who have fished the larger rivers have not experienced g-etting- into one of these iron-clads while indulging- in the gentle art with 9 ft. fly rod and fine gut casts, and many must be the recollections and regrets of good fish lost. 3. Size no indication of age. Fishing for large and small mahseer are things apart, and call for methods as widely separated as those used for the monsters of the sea of 100 pounds or more, with those employed for the game little trout of a pound or more, in ,a stream barely 3 feet across. The size of a mahseer is not necessarily any indication of age. A ten-year old fish in a small stream may only be 5 pounds, whereas a ten-year old fish in a big river may grow to 20 pounds or more. Like the salmon in Britain, the mahseer is the aristocrat of the Indian waters. His chief characteristic is the first rush As soon as he is hooked he may go 50 or 200 yards without stopping, depending on his size and the strength of the water. His choice for rapids ,and broken water makes him a strong fish, this is further illustrated by his area of fin. The mahseer, like most of the Indian fish, is not very tasty, and is inferior to the Butchwa and Murral; some people, however, prefer his flesh to any other. 4. Diet of Mahseer. He is a fish with a variety of tastes. He will take small fish with the same readiness as he will worm and paste ; a fig or berry on the surface; or a frog on the bottom; leaves and scum in a still backwater ; small birds or birds’ eggs; lizards, locusts, flying- ants, weeds and small fish. He will even de-tick an animal lying in water. The best and most convenient bait is the artificial spoon, which should always be the first course on the menu when fishing for him, unless, of course, it is known that he will not touch spinning bait, as is the case in some rivers. Persevere with dead or live bait and if these two produce no luck, then try baiting a. rapid with paste balls and fish with a similarly baited hook, the same applies to gram or fig berries. I have known of mahseer waiting under bridges over the Ganges canal near Hardwar, for young martins to fall out of their nests. A 40-pound fish was caught in this way. Eggs we will leave aside, because of the difficulty in mounting; flies, locusts, green caterpillars, etc., are easily fished with, and well known. 5. Power of Jaw. It is difficult to realise the crushing power of a mahseer. I have had a 3-inch copper spoon (one-eighth of an inch thick), and the treble crushed in a more convincing manner than if it were done in a vice. His teeth are located in the throat well back, and inlaid in rolls of muscle. Cutting out the teeth, con- vinces one of where the strength lies. I am inclined to believe that the damage is done by the teeth 40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV and not in the mouth chamber, as is commonly supposed. I am opposed to Thomas in this, but in defence can only quote two instances. In the first, I found the tail treble crushed, while the fish was hooked by the top treble of my mount inside the mouth. The throat was cut and bleeding, and the crushed treble had on it the white leathery lining of the throat. This was an n -pound fish. The second instance was when I found the tail treble broken off and in the throat, the fish being hooked by the top treble. This was a 2 1 -pound mahseer, the treble was one of Hardy’s improved types, and was bent out of shape. If the damage was done by the lips or in the mouth chamber, as stated by Thomas, and gener- ally believed, broken and bruised fingers would be common among fishermen and anglers : whereas the professional fisherman will readily put his hand down into the mouth of a fish (mahseer) to extricate a hook, which he would hardly do if these powers were in the mouth. I have never myself experienced a bite or met any- one who had. A horny pad on the roof or floor of the mouth would surely be provided by nature, were these phenomenal powers in the mouth. Dr. S. L. Hora writes to me on the subject as follows: — - ‘In the case of Cyprinoid fishes, the pharyngeal teeth are developed as a compensation for the loss of the teeth in jaws, and for this reason they perform all the functions of the ordinary teeth of fishes.’ (See B. N. H. Journal xli, pp. 790-94). 6. Spawning. Spawning is done two or three times in the year, chiefly during the monsoon, and just before, when the snow w&ter comes down. In April 1928 at the confluence of the Mali and N’Mai river in Burma, I took, with a friend, nearly 1,200 pounds of fish, and the majority were full of spawn. Different rivers though have different periods. Spring-fed rivers are probably later and not until the monsoon sets in properly. Fish then work up the smaller streams, and deposit their eggs. Mahseer are not always edible during this period, and cases of poisoning or colic have been recorded. Dr. Hamid Khan, Ph.D. (Cantab), writing in the B.N.H.S. Journal , Vol. xli. No. 1 dated August 1939, under the heading ‘Study of the sex organs of Mahseer’, deals fully with his collection and study over most of the Punjab rivers of mahseer throughout the year, and his conclusions, based on careful observation, would certainly indicate that in the Punjab anyway, mahseer have been found gravid three times in the year. His own words sum up the position fairly conclusively: — ‘There is thus strong .evidence to show that the mahseer spawns more than once during the year. Most of the Indian Carps, such as Labeo rohita, Labeo calbasu, Cirrhina mrigala, Catla catla and others spawn in June and July when the rivers are flooded with the monsoon rains and lay their eggs in one batch once in the year (Hamid Khan, 1924). The Mahseer, however, as a study of its sex organs reveals, seems to spawn firstly, in winter, in January and February, secondly, in May and June, when the snow melts and the rivers are- swollen and thirdly,, from July to September, when the rivers are flooded with the monsoon rains. It is for this Very reason that fry of the Mahseer of all ages; is seen during the whole of the year in the hill streams of Kangra, Hoshiarpurv Jhelum and Rawalpindi Districts/ CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 41 ‘There is, however, hardly any evidence to corroborate1 the views of Thomas (1897) that the Mahseer lays its eggs in batches, “just as a fowl lays an egg a day for many days.” The simile does not appear to be appropriate, as in the case of the Mahseer all the eggs contained in the ovaries seem to be laid at the spawning time and the ovaries become empty. At the approach of the next spawning season the ova reappear, increase in size, swell the ovaries and are laid again. It may, therefore, be said that the Mahseer does not lay its eggs in three batches, but that it spawns three times in the year, and that all the eggs in the ovaries are laid in each spawning season.’ This might well be taken to represent the conditions of the other river systems in India, which are snow fed, or such spring-fed rivers that join these larger rivers in the hills. The conditions in the case of the smaller rivers that are not influenced by snow water, and have to flow long distances over the plains before joining these rivers, will need further elucidation, and I think some variation may be found to exist. Though the mahseer is essentially a bottom feeder, his special choice being among rocks for stone loach, and shell fish, he will take below and on the surface, whatever dainty morsel is in season. I have seen them under a fig tree, almost jump out of the water to take a fig as it touched the surface; so when fishing for him, exploit all means and depths before abandoning your efforts with the poor assurance that fish are not on the feed. 7. Method of taking bait. From what I have been able to study of the Mahseer taking a spoon or small fish, they will either surprise it from below, or follow from underneath turning over the bait as they take it. That small fish come to the surface, as soon as a big fellow is signalled, partly substantiates this. I have also seen a fish take up a position in a small cove and dash out at passing fish with the same up and round movement; this also partly accounts for fish getting foul-hooked so often in the face, the hook catching them as they pass over the spinning bait. Whether. I am right or wrong, it was my belief in this that caused me to devise a special form of mount, — a small treble on top and a larger tail treble. The head treble I find, invariably hooks the fish, if it is hooked outside the mouth. I think also, that a mahseer takes or tries to take a bait head first, as a snake takes a frog or rat. This would also account for the smaller hook fouling the fish outside the mouth, the trace obstructs the fish taking the bait from the front end, ,and in failing as he turns over it, he is hooked in the cheek. I have often experienced fouling a fish with the hook shaft running away from the mouth, and the tail hook wrapped under and fast under the jaw. 8. Spoon versus other lures. Before we consider bait, let us first of all be agreed on the object of the bait. It is to attract and deceive. I have dealt in a previous chapter on the fish’s senses, as I understand them, that is that he is attracted to the lure by the vibrations set up, that he has detective rather than sharp vision, as a. secondary organ to his feeling, and to these two senses we may add taste or smell, as he is well equipped with barbels. How does the spoon fit these two points of attracting and deceiv- ing, as compared to dead bait, plug, spinners, etc. ? 42 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV The spoon of the Myitkyina type, certainly sets up more pressure waves than a dead bait, as it spins faster, and is not as well adapted in shape to the water as the dead bait (Fish), so setting- up greater pressure waves of a kind, the roughly hewn scale effect, on the convex side, must give additional aid in the water much as the teeth of a saw, in wood. The plug has a greater displacement than the large spoon, but has not the action or disturbing factor, in the water. The plug’s superficial area, though slightly larger than that of the spoon, has considerably less bearing surface, so that the action in the water is reduced. The whole surface area of the spoon grips the water and revolves, whereas the diving shield on a plug is only half an inch square approximately, and in the jointed types the rear section has about as much again. Spinners have even less than the plug. So that in ‘Attracting’, I am inclined to the belief that the spoon covers a greater range, and would register to a fish at greater distances than the other bait under consideration. We now come to the second point, ‘Deceiving’. Here the other two senses of the fish come into play to a greater extent. In a close-up vision of a spoon revolving, a fish is able to see no more than we can, probably less, as the sharpest perspective the eye can take in is, I believe, at one-fifth of a second. So that a spoon revolving fast, retains its deceptiveness to the eye of a fish, though the chemical senses of taste or smell would be to the fish’s advantage and consequently against the spoon ; but in the case of the plug the main portion is stationary in the sense that the body maintains the upright position with the hooks below, and consequently does not deceive the eye to the same extent that a fast revolving spoon would, the detection of the chemical senses is the same in both cases, but the hooks on a plug are not revolving but dangling from the body of the plug, and would show up if carefully scrutinised, and then as we must suppose a mahseer cannot recognise a treble hook as such, he may reasonably be expected to take it to be a pectoral fin- — if he is as inquisitive as all that ! The hooks on a spoon revolve with it. The spinner shares the advantage of the spoon in moving around its own axis, though not as fast. So that on the points considered so far, the spoon would seem to have an advantage over the plug and spinner, and the spinner a slight advantage over the plug, but the important point of how the action of each, in water, is conveyed to a fish, remains unsolved, and it is probably that in this the plug has its main advantage, though this is only surmise on my part. As has been pointed out previously fish are near sighted, so in fast water a mahseer has not much time to examine the bait, there- fore each of these would give results ; but in the slower water of pools and runs a fish is able to be more fastidious, and this is why dead bait is so much more killing than the other baits, as the chemical senses must be the fish’s convincing factor, unless of course there is competition in a shoal, when the boldest fish takes first. So that considering the spinning baits on these lines, I am left con- vinced that the spoon is the best lure, unless of course we know the fish of a particular river will not take it. But for the supporter CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 43 of the Plug Bait, I reproduce a note by Capt. Frankly n Stonham, I.M.S., who has very definite views on the merits of this lure, based on the excellent results he has had in the Donn and other rivers. Plug baits for Mahseer by Captain Franklynn Stonham f I.M.S. 9. ‘There is now little doubt that the plug has come to stay as a favourite bait for mahseer and other Indian fish. Not only has it “caught on” in the river round the Dehra Dun district but I have had reports of its success in Ceylon, and in other parts of India. Its advantages should be at once obvious. Its action in the water is the closest imitation of a genuine fish that has as yet been devised, and as the majority of plugs are lighter than water and only dive when pulled, they are seldom lost. The wriggling action in the water effectively disguises the hooks which are sent into vibrations, and the fact that they do not “spin” or rotate renders anti-kinking devices superfluous and besides there is very much less wear on the lines. ‘There are many makes of plug to be had, many types, and many finishes. For mahseer I find the finish is of minor importance provided that it is a natural scale finish. Those painted in more freakish manner such as white body and red head do not appear so attractive and to be a little dogmatic I may state that what I have found the best colours are Natural Perch, Natural Pike, Golden Shiner, Red side Scale, and Green mullet, the latter two being mv favourites. I have tried almost every conceivable type of plug and both from my own experience and that of my angling colleagues 1 consider that the “Pfluger” Pal-o-mine stands supreme. It is beauti- fully finished, the hooks can be easily changed or renewed, a very important point, and it darts through the water with a most con- vincing slight wriggle, close to the surface, and exactly mimics a ehilwa. Remember that when mahseer are “taking” they are feed- ing at or just below the surface, and the old motto slow and deep for big ones in no way is generally applicable to mahseer fishing.1 Next to the excellent products of Pfluger I would place the Heddon Company’s ‘ River Runt”. This has the same advantages of Pfluger’s Pal-o-mine, and is even more beautifully finished and can be had of translucent material. However, the diving plane is diffi- cult and they have some tendency occasionally to come out of the water. I do not think that the jointed plugs have much advantage over the straight ones except in quieter water and if they are not kept dry after use there is a slight though definite tendency for the wood from which they are made to crack. I almost invariably use the largest size, i.e. the 4! inch Pal-o-mine as small fish are not averse to tacking so large a bait, and I have taken mahseer as small as one pound on them, and besides they are easier to cast being heavier. The sinking type of plug such as the “Live Wire”, “Neverfail” and “T. N. T. ” minnows are good for occasional use in 1 I am afraid I cannot hold with this view, and unless, he fishes deep in some of the great rivers and pools of Burma and Assam, the angler would be destined to failure. 44 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV deep still water, when the fish are not rising. They have all occa- sionally brought me success. ‘A most important feature about plugs is the hooks. Those fitted to most American plugs are not quite strong enough to be relied upon for heavy mahseer, and after trying many varieties I find the best type to be those put up by Pflugers as “Extra strength’' size io tinned trebles. The conventional mahseer treble is not such a good shape and unnecessarily heavy. They upset the balance and movement of the plug and besides their absolute rigidity results in a greater tendency for the plug to lever them out of the mahseer ’s fleshy mouth. The hooks fitted to some plugs of English manu- facturers are far too small and besides the British firms so far do not seem to get the hang of plugs at all. ‘Plugs can be fished on any kind of spinning tackle, but their main problem is their extreme lightness, as the largest size only weighs 5/8— 3/4 oz. according to the type used. If the conventional type of heavy spinning tackle is employed a weight may have to be added to the trace which is not desirable as it has a tendency to make the bait go too deep and it interferes with its action, besides the risk of fouling the plug on the bottom, especially if one has an overrun and losing it. This practically never occurs if no lead is used. Overruns are fairly frequent if one attempts to cast light baits with heavy tackle. I have now completely abandoned the two handed rod in favour of what is known as the American bait Casting rod. These rods are conventionally about 5-5^ feet long and a standard 5 ft. rod weighs only about 5 ozs.' For all ordinary mahseer fishing such a rod is quite heavy enough and I have landed mahseer up to 45 lbs. quite easily on a 5 oz. rod. I prefer how- ever to use one a little more powerful when I expect heavy fish so tnat I can play them hard as I usually like to play the fish .against the maximum amount of drag I think the tackle will stand. For that reason I use a rod of 6^ ozs. to 7 ozs. 5^ ft. long which is, I think, perfectly adequate to land any mahseer. Using a rod weighing 6 ozs. 1 dram I once landed a 50-lb. fish in less than twenty minutes in heavy water.1 For heavy mahseer I advocate the use of a “Norka” reel carrying 200 yards of 24 lb. test braided silk line such as “Lignum Vitae” or a “Nonpareil”, and for lighter fishing I recommend the “Supreme” reel with 200 yards of 12 lb. test line.2 The trace should be one ft. of fine cabled steel or phosphor bronze wire with a “Cooper” or “Stronghold” snap, which works like a safety pin, to attach the bait, and a “Lyons” ball bear- ing swivel to attach the line to. The ball bearing swivel will always revolve no matter how hard it is pulled on, and though not essential for plugs it allows spoons or spinning baits to be employed as well if one wishes, and only one such swivel is required. Solid wires are not to be recommended for traces as they may very easily break 1 I think an average on fish over 20 lbs. would break this theory, and toy tackle would be next to useless for negotiating the really heavy water in most of the larger rivers in India and Burma. 2 I have quoted instances in this book, where 200 yds. of line has proved insufficient for the large fish, and 150 for light and medium fishing. CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 45 if kinked, though fine stainless piano wire exhibits this tendency to only a minor degree, if one wishes to make up one’s own traces. Solid wire can be twisted to attach it to swivels, but cable wire must be soldered, taking precautions not to let the wire become overheated by too hot a soldering iron. ‘The advantages of one-handed casting are numerous. The tackle being very light in proportion to its strength, may be used all day without the slightest fatigue, which is a very decided ad- vantage in hot weather. If one becomes proficient in over-head casting it is extraordinarily accurate, and using the reels mentioned above casts of thirty to sixty yards can be made with a little practice. The reels are multiplying and the plugs can be moved at any speed, and can be even cast upstream and worked down with' a strong current. The multiplying action saves much of one’s energy and is of the utmost advantage in playing a fish as slack line can be recovered almost immediately. Braking is done by thumbing the spool and is semi-automatic as a sudden rush on the part of the fish pulls the rod down and moves the reel away from the thumb, and besides this thumb pressure can be finely graded. Another very great advantage is that the rod can be held and the fish can be played entirely with one hand, leaving the other hand free to assist oneself climbing rough banks, or wading strong water with- out the aid of a cooly, and this feature is also an advantage if one wishes to gaff the fish oneself. ‘This type of tackle has been frequently criticised because it limits the length of the trace. My experience leads me to the conclusion that there is not the slightest disadvantage in a one-foot trace.1 2 One only needs the trace in the event of a fish with teeth, such as a goonch, being hooked, and to obviate the risk of the hook points accidentally fraying the line. Otherwise it is open to question if a trace is necessary at all, as the dull black colour of the two lines mentioned above makes them no less invisible than any ordinary wire trace. Another criticism is that these short rods do not allow the line to be lifted over bushes. This argument does not bear closer examination as the rod can be held high above the head and the fish played, and besides this, there seldom are any bushes close to a mahseer stream." In fact, there is often no vegetation within several hundred yards of the water except when it rises during the monsoon. One disadvantage is that weights of over i oz. such as a chilwa on a spinning mount are not easily cast with one hand as neither the rod nor one’s muscles will stand up to the strain, and for such heavy baits a two-handed rod is better. Still when one is accustomed to plugs one seldom wants to use chilwa. ‘Lastly, let us consider the reel. For this style of fishing the level wind anti-backlash multiplying reel is to be preferred. They are all American and many makes and types may be obtained. The only British example I know of, though an excellent reel, has too 1 In this connection I have expressed my views freely elsewhere. 2 I think this view is also a questionable one; in some rivers certainly. 46 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV small a line capacity to commend its use for anything- but light mahseer fishing. These reels are entirely automatic and do not , overrun but they are complicated and are easily put out of gear by careless .use. They require constant attention to give good service. The level wind mechanism is the most vulnerable part in dusty India and must be frequently oiled and cleaned. Still if one is careful with one’s tackle they give long hard service. On all the better ones the bearings etc. are adjustable for wear and the level wind pawl is supplied in duplicate and this spare is built into the reel, other spare parts are standardised and can be obtained from the makers if ever required. If one buys one of the better types and looks after it, will give almost unlimited trouble — free service. I have used a Norka solidly for four seasons and it is stni as good as new. It casts baits from -§-i oz. admirably, but the smaller reels work well and give satisfactory length casting even less than ^ oz. provided not too heavyHine is used. ‘In conclusion I may state that in my opinion the heavy two- handed rod and many of the methods now employed in mahseer angling are doomed to early obsolescence, and the short light rod and light tackle will appeal more strongly to anglers if only from their sporting features. These rods can be obtained made entirely of steel, and the superior grades of these are delightful to use and: besides they are quite unaffected by climate. ’ io. Spoon ■ bait and scale effect on spoons. It is difficult to- explain what a fish imagines a spoon to be. I am reluctant to say he thinks it a fish ; and it is a perfectly logical assumption to think that he, like most creatures, has a certain curiosity for new things, catches it. with his mouth, as we would with our hands, and so comes- to be hooked. Mahseer prey more on sick and damaged fish, or small fish at a disadvantage. A spoon may present a likeness to a wounded or sick fishj but I am afraid I can see no resemblance to a healthy fish more especially in still or slow running water. In a rapid it is quite another matter, for a feeding fish is an opportunist, and has no time to inspect h spoon dancing about in broken water. He darts out and takes it. This is substantiated by watching a fish in a pool while trolling. He will come up and even follow a spoon ; change over to a dead bait and he takes it, which might be the work of the barbels on the "mouth, referred to by fishermen as ‘coming short’. In the case of scale-marked spoons, I found I never had a blank day, when every other kind failed ; and with them I was, in 23 days,, able to catch 800 pounds of fish, the best being 75 pounds and then after having worked through many kinds and varieties. Try a spoon similar to the Myitkyina type as shown in the chapter on ‘Tackle’, get it to spin any speed in water below you, and see for yourself whether or not the scale effect shows up. it. Hen fish attain greater size. Fish, like falcons and eagles, appear to reverse the general laws of nature, in that the hen fish (spawner) attains a greater size than the cock fish (milter). It may be a provision of nature, to assure that the spawn of a hen fish can always be reached by the cock fish when she migrates up into small CIRCUMVENTING THE MAH SEER 47 streams. If the tables were reversed it might be possible that the cock fish through his size, could not always' get where the hen fish selected to deposit her eggs. Only a surmise on my -part,, and an assurance to my own curiosity ! 12. Fishing for mails eer : Spinning. I will start by assuming that the angler has now learnt the use of the tackle, can cast a bait, has seen to all the important factors of the reel working well, the joints of the rod firm, the trace correctly attached, the spoon bait and lead mounted, and the end of his line tested. 13. Where to look for mahseer : Rapids. The rapid will provide the best sport for spinning, as feeding fish invariably collect in the ‘bottle necks’ where small fish are to be had at some disadvantage. Small fish will collect in the quieter water of rapids, that is in A ( I u- f I ( f A' if , * h 1 i ’ ! ' ' A f A / I 1 1 r 1 7' 3). » i i ? / Fig. i. — Start at ‘A’ and work down to ‘B’ ; then come around to ‘C’ and work down to ‘A’ and up to ‘D’, and so on in each case. ‘feathers’ behind rocks; in the eddies and swirls by the edge of the fast water; or below falls where the force of the water is broken, affording them temporary rest from the fast rushing water of the main current. So that generally speaking this is the water we should consider and work thoroughly. 48 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Just above runs are spots where the water flows deep and strong, and where it gathers itself for the final plunge down the rapid. This is smooth and oily looking and should always be tried. Before starting to fish take stock of the water, and look for movements of fish, gulls, kingfishers, etc. Make a mental note of the likely places and number them off in your mind. Tackle each in turn. If the rapid is long and narrow quarter it off in your mind and fish each section thoroughly, starting from the top of the section each time. See diagram (A) overleaf. If on the other hand it is a wide and shallow rapid, and allows wading, quarter it off and wade in so many yards at a time, and work each section thoroughly. See diagram (B) overleaf. It is a sweat sometimes, but I assure you it pays. Work the edges first, then move in at suitable distances, and work down as far as you can. When you are taken or you move a fish fix the point in your mind at once by setting two points on the bank, a tree, boulder or brush wood, for future use and reference. Work all the water in a rapid from the head, where it breaks over stones and is shallow, to the point where it ‘fans’ out in the pool. Fish will take anywhere in such water, give the ‘white feather’ behind rocks and boulders special attention, and the ‘V’ formed by the fast and reverse water ; work these as quietly and with as little disturbance as possible. If the rapid is large, and a boat is necessary, follow the same procedure. Have the boat held at intervals to allow you to fish all the likely water, then move up or down ten yards or so and repeat the operation. A very good tip and one that frequently pays with dead bait, is to allow your bait down the rapid by degrees, past boulders, swirls and eddies, very often this attracts fish lying at the side or behind a sub- merged boulder. In fact, wherever the water is fast and narrow, flowing over large boulders, it is a good plan to fish it in this way first, or wherever the water does not allow of casting and spinning, owing to the narrowness of the run, or the ‘boil’ being under a large overhanging rock, or the many other similar conditions met with. Allow the bait to play about in such water for a minute or two, then move it down to the next place and so on. Very often it also pays to pause awhile after wading out into a rapid as, how- ever careful, one is sure to disturb the water and be detected by fish. Allow the water to settle down and get used to you, so to speak, so that the fish too will be assured that you are just part c£ the rapid. It is most extraordinary how this pays, and how fish will almost bump up against you, if you keep perfectly still. 14. In order to simplify these notes, I have included a sketch of a mile of ideal water and lettered the best places, to look for fish. The map is taken from my log book, and illustrates water likely to be met with in most hill rivers ( vide reverse of adjoining plate). (a) Is a large pool, 600 yards long, by 600 yards across with 30 ft. of water in the deepest parts. It is the first pool below where the river leaves the hills, always a good place if sufficient protection Is afforded by boulders. Trolling across from where the Jogi Khola joins (below and above would be likely water), also up the right bank, where the still water has banked up below the junction at (b). Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. part of a bag taken in the rapid shown above. Two best 30 and 25 ‘White water’ where large fish aire usually taken. Journ. Bombay Nat, Hist. See. CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 49 (b) The junction is not very imposing, the Jogi Khola has about 2\ ft. of water, where it runs over shingle into the main river, and falls over a steep bank abruptly into deep water. Below such banks, and in-the quiet water between the two channels, usually holds fish, but it must be approached very carefully, and is best fished from the island. (c) Is the ‘fan’ which is almost without exception good if boulders are present, as in (j). This is water B. bola (Indian trout) love, and I never failed to take two or three each time I fished it. (d) Is the best rapid in this stretch of water, from the junction of the two channels to the ‘fan’ into the pool, about 40 yards short of the junction (b). It is fast water over large boulders 5 ft, in diameter, with the main current about 40 yds. across and 10 ft. deep, shelving to the sides for about 20 yards where the water is 3 to 5 ft. deep, permitting wading. This is excellent water for big fish. (e) The point at the junctions of two streams, generally has a ‘ridge of boiling water running out for some distance, caused by the banking up of the lesSer streams by the stronger. This is generally a certain find for feeding fish. If the water is deep at the point, it should be fished from above, and the spoon or bait allowed to work down. Work all the water from the actual point to where this boil disappears.. Fish will take anywhere in such places. (f. h.) Are modifications of (e), and should be fished in the same way. ’ It is light water 4 or 5 ft. deep with boulders dotted about, and about 25 yds. wide. Best worked from (1) through (1), (h), (g) and (f), first from one bank then, after a rest, from the other, keeping the sun in front of you and wading #in where necessary. It is ideal fly spoon water. The ‘fans’ at (g) and (1) should be approached from above in each case. (g. 1.) Are ‘fans’ falling away into small rapids on either side of the island, and are best worked from the banks and above. (j) Is an ideal ‘fan’, defined by dotted line, and a certain find for fish, having plenty of ‘feathers’ behind large boulders. It is 50 yds.' across, 3 to 5 ft. deep, and connects the two large pools Gooncha and Nunthur. (k) Is ‘white water’, broken up by three huge boulders, forming ‘feathers’, and falling 5 ft. in as many yards. This is big water. (l) This is a ‘V’ formed by the reverse water and rapid, (marked in with a ‘V’). (m) Tail of rapid starting at (o), into deep pool below cliff. This is also a ‘V’, with slow water tailing into the pool. (n) Deep very fast water, narrow and deep over large rocks or slabs of sand stone. (o) Similar to (j), but without ‘feathers’ of boulders, running in a deep narrow channel over shingle. Gooncha and Nunthar are both huge deep pools, ideal for fish, The former is rocky at the head and sandy at the tail, the latter runs along a cliff, very deep with huge slabs of sand stone dotted about at intervals. 4 50 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XL1V 15. Pools. The water in a pool may be still and glass like, or slow moving with odd swirls caused by out crops of rocks, shallow banks, - bays, etc., so that I can only refer my remarks in a general way to the most suitable water. The really big fellows will usually be taken in the pools by fishing deep and slow, with a dead bait or spoon. I myself like to work a trolling bait diagonally across a pool, so that the bait is carried well below the boat, and at least 20 yards or so away. Work all likely water near rocks, swirls, over boulders, and along the edges of the flowing water formed with the still back-water where you will generally find froth and foam collected. Best of all is the tail of the pool where it shallows down, and just before it starts to flow down the next rapid. 16. How to work water. The following diagram shows how to work a promising bit of yater. Vary the length of cast each time, if possible, then move up or down stream, and repeat the same system of casts. The Ca$t A is the position of the angler — -(1) is the first cast, (2) the next and so on until (4). These are made out and into the rapid at right angles to the bank. Allow the bait to swing round and below you before winding in. Feel the spoon all the time it is making this arc of a circle through the water, as this is when one is usually taken. Try to reel in your bait up the side through swirls, by rocks and where the reverse and rapid water meet. This and behind rocks, is where big fish mostly lie when feeding. 17. Known water. If you are fishing water that is protected by a club, and a log book is kept, the first thing to do and before you assemble your rod, is to study the notes and any sketches there may be of the water you are going to fish, jot clown as many of these as necessary in your pocket book, locate the spots and always tackle the best water first. If it is a rapid, you should start at the bottom, if you want the big ones. The larger the fish the lower down he lies in the rapid, or he may be at the head of the pool, usually where the rapid tails into it. If you are on a new piece of water, of which you have no previous information, try to get out the evening' before' to see where fish rise. Fish lie with their heads up stream, and bait-spoon or natural, cast up stream,- is often more successful than casts made across or down. Method has to be suited to water conditions, and for these directly up-stream casts, reeling in has, to be more rapid, and a mutiplying reel is an advantage, almost a necessity. There are always back-waters on the edge of rapids, and the water works round in a circular movement, in the opposite way to the current. Sit and watch from some convenient spot or spots, with the assistance of an attendant if necessary, each taking a circumventing the Mahseer si section of water, to observe which looks the most promising. As ihe sun is beginning to set, you will usually see mahseer rising over the best places. 18. How Mahseer rise. They rise much the same as the dolphins and porpoises in the sea or large rivers, and are easily distinguishable. Their hog backs come right out of the water; but it is not always that you will enjoy such delectable sights. In many fine rivers the tish are not seen, or their presence known, until the reel screams out its music. Try all the good looking water on one side, before attempting to fish the other. It is always owing to that spirit of adventure which is in us, that the further bank is the better one. The rapids, if shallow, are best in the morning and evening, and the deeper quieter water during the day. Fish deep and as near the bottom as you dare, and don’t be satisfied until you have felt it once or twice. If however, you are losing your tackle each time, take off the hook mount, and survey the bottom with only the lead and spoon. Get the hang of your water in this way and then fish deep where you dare, and shallow only where you must. Some of the water is so deep in Burma rivers, that I know of a most experienced angler, who has caught some large mahseer of 70 and 80 pounds, who used to count ten after a cast with a 4-oz. lead on, paying out line the whole time before he started to wind in his bait. I am convinced that this is the secret of catching the really big fellows. Let us consider our grandparents and their lack-a- daisical mood. They are not moved by the latest hit in the town, to which the young ‘bloods’ flock. They are quite satisfied to sit in an easy chair and take the news and diet that is served on them, with as little trouble as possible to themselves. This is how I reason also for the grandmother mahseer. If you put your spoon near her into the depths, she will take it, otherwise she will let it go to the younger and more active fish. 19. Monotony of one bait. Here again if you strike or lose a fish at one spot, do not go on hurling your spoon at him the whole day. You know what poached eggs daily for chota hazri taste like ? -You are not altogether kindly disposed to the servant ! A fish with a torn or hurt jaw is going through much the same feel- ings, if you continue to serve up the spoon from which he has just escaped ! Rest the water and come back to it in a couple of hours. Remember your fish — the real big one — is generally a hen, and extend the psychological factor to our own kind. Women are ever inquisitive and easily caught, change the fashion in spoons, and hope the fish, like women, will bite ! ! ! It has been my experience when fishing, that as long as one lands the fish one strikes one can keep on fishing the same spot with success, but as soon as you run and lose a fish, they seem to go off the feed. Whether they have a means of communicating danger to each other or not, it is difficult to say. Let me here draw an analogy of the human ear and the lateral line of a fish. It is possible, that as certain sounds have adverse 52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. Xll V effects, such as the soothing- sound of music or the irritating yap- ping of a dog, or child crying; so, vibrations set up by the different lures, may have similar reactions on a fish. Which are soothing, and which are annoying or alarming, is what the angler must find out for himself. Remember these three big points when playing a fish. 1. Point of rod up. 2. Line always taut, and 3. Play a fish off the reel and through the rod. 20. Point of rod. The moment you are taken, and your reel screams, the first action should be to raise the point of your rod, as high as you can, of give him ‘butt’ as it is caned. 1111s puts both pressure on your fish as well as saves your line slacking, for even that fatal second. It also serves as an indication of when to reel in, for you will soon learn how the rod is forced down, and your arms pulled almost straight, by the first mad rush of a big mahseer. it is at the end of the rush that the critical time comes; for if the line is the least bit slack when the fish turns, the chances are that you lose him. This is the Commonest and easiest fault while playing a fish. By playing the fish off the reel and through the rod, I mean to imply that you should not use only the one or the other. If you overbrake your reel, you are putting all the strain on the rod, and likewise, if you point the tip of the rod in the direction of the fish, you are direct on the reel, and you lose the whole advantage of the rod ; compromise between the two and you get the correct pres- sure ; if your reel is large enough, and takes 300 yards of line, you can rest assured that you have enough line for the largest mahseer. Don’t brake a reel or foul the handle of the drum white it is revolv- ing. You will come to grief if you do; just study what you are doing. With a brake on you are unable to gauge what pressure you are applying, however expert you may be, and by putting your band in the way of the handles, you are sending out a succession of jerks which go down the line to your hook-hold, and furnishing the best way ol releasing your fish. We all know what it is like to pull a firm peg from the ground by gentle pressure, but a few taps and it comes away. Exactly the same applies to the hook hold, and what your hand is causing to the fish’s mouth by fouling the handles, 21. Selection of water. I am a firm believer, when on a short holiday, in sticking to a piece of water you know is good, rather than spending a week of leave by exploring new places; but if one has plenty of time on hand look for new water every time. 22. Lacey’s Angler’s Hand Book, gives the figures of his luck,, through a career of fishing for mahseer, and these are interesting, as he must have kept careful notes. He works it out over 10 days, in the following way (Inserted from Lacey’s Angler’s Hand Book). ‘I do not wish to discourage the beginner, but to take an average all round, say that out of ten days steady fishing, taking rivers and seasons about, the angler will, as a rule, have 5 days blank, 4 days on which he will have perhaps, moderately good sport, but the tenth will be the really good day, which should make up for all the rest. * CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 53 The above is an average, and such has been my own experience while fishing exclusively for heavy fish. I thank that 7 days out of ten, good fishing can be had with fly spoon, and something on the other three.. I like to reason this subject in the same way as heavy mahseer fishing compares with big game shooting, and light fishing with the ‘scatter gun’. In the first place blank days are to be expected; we do not get every tiger that kills, or every bison or tsine we track, but seldom do we go out with ‘scatter gun’ or fly rod and not get some- thing. I give as a matter of interest, the log for my last seven trips which are representative of the average river. (See p. 54). As will be seen no exceptional days were experienced, as is some- times the case when the small fish are running or the large fish are collecting. My companions on these trips were, with the exception of two, all new to the sport, so that we may justly conclude either that snort is better than it was when Lacey wrote his book The Angler’s Hand Book or modern methods are proving more successful. 23. Wade cautiously. Movement above where fish are feeding, causes some disturbance and displacement both of water and gravel while wading. This is connected with some unusual occurrence to fish, and they become alert. The hungry fish will look for food, the shy fish for danger. Adapt your methods to meet both cases. 24. The element of luck. It remains a mystery why on one day fish will feed ravenously, and the next day, (though even to the keenest observer both days appear identical) not a fish will move. Time in trying to study the causes is never wasted, and notes made, such as temperature of water and other cognate matters, always assist one. I have had equally good luck on cloudy and sunny days, windy or still days, and even thunderstorms have not disturbed the fish. They have their feast and fast days, as* we have ours, but the reasons for this are what every angler should try to elucidate. 25. Water and temperature. Unlike the English fish, the mahseer will take in gin clear water, in fact the clearer the better. Do not despair if water is running dirty; quite often fish will take a spoon in water so discoloured that you cannot see the bottom in a depth of 1 2 inches. If you know the water it helps, as fish will p'enerally be found in the same places as when the river was clear. I have taken fish with spoon in water a companion of mine refused to fish in. After all, if the lateral line has the function we attribute to it, whv should a spoon spinning in a good spot, not attract a fish? Dead bait used the same wav is also effective, and here suit your methods to the chemical senses. The functions of the eye in clear water, are replaced bv those of smell and taste in discoloured water. The temperature of water has its effect on fish. When the water is cold the river will seem quite lifeless. Falling water has its sup- porters, but I think we are, comparatively ignorant of the ‘whvs and wherefores’ of our scaly friend’s capricious appetites. Studv y^ood days as well as bad, both are equally important. Do not fall into a groove of supposition that it js useless to fish at any time, SUMMARY JOURNAL, BOl Crt •a oJ a ~h Go S Mostly fly spoon, ' with occasional q days with o Spinning Rod K! ^2 All light work with r" fly spoon. X Mixed work. Fly 5 spoon and spin- ning. •sAuq [njssaDons JO 9S'B;U90J9(J ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ !>. 00 CO o o o o LO CO 00 O 05 o o 1—1 I— 1 1— 1 sA^a quu[g 12 16 3 Nil 2 Nil Nil sAbq Suiqsig jo -o^ 28 50 18 16 20 10 15 spnnog ui Sng jsog s £ a £ £ CO — > Tjl PH [2? ^ HIM HIM CO him 22 A cm £3 r- o 3 ' 05 £ — C/3 .C •— 1 CO — 1 - JT .. R *H HIM " yH c/3 ^ .. 00 <£> ^ ^ rm - te O ^ ^ ""L ^ ^ a -g co“ ^ ^ ^ SOS'4-1 spog pH i— I pH CM pH CO Tt* Average ■ “ 16-25 lbs. 4- 3 lbs. 9-8 lbs. 5- 4 lbs. 4-5 lbs. •9 lb. 3-7 lbs. Weight a 3 C/3 c/3 C/3 C/3 . C/3 £5 jO .Q jQ Jg £ HIM -'Hi HIM HIM «H> ’ HIM pH O Hf 00 1>» CM If) co c>» uo o^o 00 00 CM LO CM PH CO Fish CO !>. 00 CM CD UO pH LO O CM O LO CO CM pH pH pH Locality Mali H’Kas 1 Burma ) Sarju and East Ramganga Kumaon U.P. Nepal Do. Do. Lashya Kumaon Nepal Date 11th April to 8th May 1928 4th April to 8th June 1935 10th to 27th -j October 1937 j Uth to 26th I April 1938 j 12th to 31st 1 March 1939 J 21st to 31st October 1940 23rd March to \ 6th April 1941 ) CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 55 except the morning's and evening's. More especially where streams meet, or when a river has been discoloured by rain water, the fish start to feed irrespective of the time of da}7, and the moment it starts to clear. They may be hungry from not having fed for three or four days, and are on the look out for food as soon as the water is clear enough to allow of it. There is no better way of meeting the local people than to talK to them in their own homes about sport and their crops. Play the gramophone to them, dress their sores, give the children a few sweets and keep both ears open for local ideas. The primitive people, such as one usually meets on a fishing trip, are largely dependent on their wits for fish and flesh, and have experience handed down to them for generations. Exploit and adapt their sug- gestions and ideas, and with your own knowledge you can very soon arrive at a killing method. This recalls to me an incident at Namti in Upper Burma, where I tried to catch some mahseer in a pool just below a villag'e by spinning ; the fish would not look at my bait. An old Burman saw my failure, and as I had been there before asked me if he should collect the fish, to which I gladly assented. He then started breaking up pumpkin leaves and throwing them into the slow water, which in a short time was alive with mahseer. 1 attached a hook and light gut cast, and with this leaf caught seven nice fish. The village feasted in my honour and we became very good friends for ever after. 26. Following in a boat. Boats, if available, are the best things in which to follow fish. One can concentrate on the fish the whole time, and not have to worry about where to put one’s feet, or how to climb over rocks while following down a bank. The Burmans. or better still the H’Kamti Shans, in fact all the fisherman tribes in India, are wonderful at manipulating a boat through the most treacherous water. They seldom if ever lose their heads, and have a wonderful sense of correction while the boat goes hurling down a rapid. If, as usually happens some time or other while on a fishing trip, the water is discoloured, baiting can be done quite successfully by getting rice or flour mixed with earth or any other ingredients, such as bran, oilcake, and the more foul tasting things, bad meat etc. and fixing it into two wicker baskets, tied over one another. This is placed in a run, where the water churns up and washes it out through the sides of the basket by degrees, when it works down stream and fish move up towards it. A live or dead bait should be anchored just below the basket. This gives very good sport, if one is driven to it with no other alternative. Dead bait fishing is done in the same manner as spinning, and does not call for any special explanation. OTHER METHODS OF FISHING FOR MAHSEER. 27. I have dealt chiefly with spinning for mahseer, which is quite the most pleasant of all, and the way most of the large fish are taken. I have also dealt with trolling, and dead and live bait fishing. 56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV It will suffice to say a few words on how to fish with fly, gram, and paste, which cover all the ways we know of circumventing this fish All these methods, with the exception of paste, might be considered under light fishing. 28. The fly and fishing with fly. A number and variety of flies are listed in the tackle books, and one must suit ones fancy to the local conditions and tastes of the fish prevailing, which is only picked up locally from experience. Manton’s list 12 of the best known, and be it a ‘Jock Scott’, ‘Blackamore’, or ‘Black Ranger’, must be your individual choice. Sea-trout flies, dressed with sufficiency of tinsel, the two hooks of stouter wire than the flies made for home use, are said to be effective lures for mahseer, Indian trout, Butchwa and other fly takers. They should be dressed to imitate the smaller minnows prevalent in the water being fished. It sometimes happens that flying white ants flutter in myriads over the water affording a great feast for fish. At such a time they will look at nothing else. The fly known as ‘Gibby’s Ant’ (A & N Stores Bombay) will then prove successful. In rivers the fly should be used in the same way as for salmon, pulling the fly with uneven speed and occasionally pausing, giving it a chance to spread and assume a life-like move- ment of opening and closing. Allow the water to play it about keeping the line taut enough to enable you to strike instantly. It is also a good dodge to drop your fly in fast water passing over a steep step, and where it suddenly falls away deep, pay out line by raising the top of your rod, and then lowering it, you must always feel the line or you will miss a rise. Such places usually hold feeding fish. Striking is the same for all fish, and is made by sharply lifting the point of your rod, with the line free. A strike off the reel is good enough for the leathery mouth of the mahseer. In comparison, I think the artificial fly is an inferior bait to fly spoon; and fewer fish, both in size and numbers are taken than with a very light spoon which is made from tin foil or aluminium. It starts spinning the moment it touches the water. Fly has a traditional love attached to it, and keeps your hand in for the home fish when the spot of leave comes along. So, brother angler, weigh its merits for yourself. 29. Gram fishing for mahseer. This form of fishing is almost exclusively practised in most of the C. P. rivers, where the mahseer prefers it to any other form of bait. Fish of ten pounds and under are taken in this way on light tackle, and afford excellent sport on a fine cast, and a small hook with a 9 or 10 ft. trout rod. The tackle for small mahseer is suitable. 30. Method of fishing. First select your water. The best places are runs into pools, waterfalls, and bathing ghats, or rocky gorges. This done the selected spot must be baited morning and evening with parched or roasted gram, and when it is thrown in to the water, especially in the case of slow or still water that is very clear, the man who is doing this for you, should be instructed to keep out of view (in the case of runs and waterfalls it is not so CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 57 important). If a suitable rock or bush be near-by, all the better, the arm too should not be flourished about in the air when fishing*, but the gram flicked from the hip, with as little movement as pos- sible. This is the most important thing about this form of fishing. If you are resident in a place and baiting can be done daily, the fish are in time educated and get accustomed to the sight of man, and will associate him with food, and little precaution will be necessary. I refer more to the visitor to the wild parts of rivers where he may happen to be shooting, and is intending to have an occasional afternoon’s fishing under these conditions. Fish may collect in one, two, or four days, depending on the size of the river. When they have collected in sufficient numbers, fishing should commence. The mornings and evenings are the best, the earlier and later the better. 31. Gram for bait. Selected grains should be drilled with a piece of wire beaten into a spear point, and large enough to take the eye of your hook. (Special gram hooks are sold by Messrs Verona and Mantons of Calcutta). An orderly or chaprassi can be put on to this job the- day before ; carry a small tin of drilled gram in your pocket for bait. 32. Hooks. As already mentioned special gram hooks are offered by tackle dealers. I like Hardy’s sharp loop-eyed hooks the best. They are very light and sharp and can be attached of removed from the cast in a moment, and the spring extension keeps the gram in position. Size 11 for one grain, or size 9 for two grains ; the eye can be passed through the drilled gram quite easily, and the cast attached by the loop. I am against any form of metal, other than the hook, on the cast or at the joining of the cast to line. This makes 3- your line and cast sink faster than your bait, and scares the fish. 33. Cast lines. Do not spare gut, and use a six foot cast of 2x. gut. 34. Tackle. A small Silex 3! inch or any other suitable reel serves the purpose. A g-ft. or 10-ft. fly rod that will throw a small spoon makes the ideal rod for this form of sport. (Hardy’s ‘Per- fection’ or ‘Gold Medal’. 35. Other tips. When your fish is hooked, if he makes either up or down stream, follow and shelve him, as far away from your baiting place as possible, so as not to disturb the water; for if you do not move away, he will surely return to the other hungry fish, and splashing and turning, as a hooked fish does, will spoil your sport for a time. Before leaving the place throw in more gram, so that the fish can again feed after the scare has worked off, and the bolder fish will attract the shy ones. Lightness of tackle and limited movements, with as little dis- turbance as possible to the natural elements of the water, are the three things to sum up the precautions to be taken in this form of fishing. 36. Paste fishing for mahseer. This covers a much wider range than the two preceding methods, and may be productive anywhere from north India to the south of Burma. It is a bait all varieties 58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV and sizes of fish will accept. Conditions must therefore be adapted to the rivers in which one is fishing. In coloured water, in the largest rivers, or in the C.P. rivers in the same place as gram fishing is practised, and under similar circumstances, paste will bring the mahseer and other sporting fishes of India to bag, provided the local conditions are taken into account. It is however a dull form of sport compared to the fore- going methods. I have mentioned paste in Chapter X. 37. Baiting with paste. This can be done along with gram* in the same places, so that when fish have stopped feeding on the surface, one may try the paste balls on the bottom, a method which generally produces carp, mahseer, or, as I have said before, perhaps any other fish or even a turtle ! ! The method of baiting with Atta is to make small paste balls the size of Dove’s eggs, and throw them in, in much the same way as gram. When you are going to fish with atta, the usual few pellets should be thrown in, to collect the fish. When you send down the baited hook amongst them, be it rapids or slow water, keep out of sight as far as possible, or if this is not possible, than as still as possible. As with all wild life it is movement, not form, that alarms. Baiting a hook for this fishing, can be done in no better way than with paste dealt within the manner I have mentioned in the Chapter ‘Scraps from my Note Book’. By boiling it it holds on to the hook, and is not washed off by the rapid water, or the small fish nibbling. I prefer a single hook to* a treble, though the treble holds the paste far better. A fair-sized hook, to take a lump of atta the size of a dove’s egg. Any shape of hook does, and is a matter of choice or fancy. ‘Killen wire’ for the heavy fish and gut for the medium-sized ones, meets the purpose. The awful snags that these C.P. rivers have, with the knife edge trap rock bottom or sides, gives a fish a distinct advantage over the angler for freedom. For attaching hooks and tying casts, see Chapter V. For paste fishing for the very large mahseer taken in the rivers of Mysore the bait is made from ‘ragi’, a staple grain of Mysore arid other parts of South India. This paste is strongly adhesive to the hook, and both the balls thrown in as ground bait, and those used on the hook, are the size of large hens’ eggs. December- January and September-October are the best months. Single hooks, size 4/0 are used, and the turned-down eye is best. Gut or wire trace is not advisable: line should be of dark colour. No float is used: strike should be hard, to drive in the hook, as soon as the fish begins to move. 38. Heavy Mahseer fishing. I will conclude this chapter with a few points which require mention, and which are more especially concerned with heavy mahseer fishing. 1. This is hard work and it is only perseverance that brings reward. 2. If you want to catch the monsters you must know where to look for them, and above all, you must get your bait down to the fish. 3. Get into your mind the ideal water for fly spoon work, then CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 59 try to find these conditions in a big way, that is, instead of the rapid being 4 feet deep and 40 yards across, find one 20 feet deep and 150 to 200 yards across. Here, or in deep pools, with slow runs into them, or in bays by the side of rapids. 4. Big water wants a great deal more fishing than does the ordinary rapid. The first cast may only tickle the fish, the second draw or attract him, the third or fourth will bring him to the bait. If your boatmen can ferry you across the smooth water above one of these rapids, and your nerves will stand it, your reward awaits you. I was taken above the ‘Rocks’ rapid in the Myitkyina District of (Burma, three times in three tries, by monsters. I saw them in the clear shallow water (8 ft. deep), but what with having to make the bank 100 yards away, and the roaring torrent below, either my nerves gave and deprived me of concentration on the fish, or the 300 yards of line proved inadequate. I gave these monsters best here, and never tried again as it was only asking for trouble. What tempted me to try at all was the monsters I saw rising the evening before. I camped on the bank opposite, and after showing the boatmen fins and tails, the like of which they had never seen, persuaded them against their wishes to try it. (An angler’s nightmare). In conclusion I would refer anglers to Col. R. W. Burton’s article in Vol. 41 No. 4 of the Bombay Natural History Society's Journal. ‘A Mahsir River in Southern India’. It is a complete guide to the Bhavani river, by an able and experienced angler. Also two articles by Major W. B. Trevenen ‘Mahseer fishing in the Deccan Lakes’ and ‘Fishing in the rivers of the C.P.’ (Vol. 31, No. 1, p. 120 and Vol. 34, No. 3, p. 700). A well illustrated article by Sir Reginald Spence and Mr. S. H. Prater entitled ‘Game Fishes of Bombay, the Deccan and the neighbouring districts of the Bombay Presidency’ appeared in Vol. 36. No. 1. of the Journal (pp. 29 to 66). It was written as a help to anglers in the Bombay Presidency, but contains information of interest to anglers in most parts of India. It is obtainable in pamphlet form on application to the Society. ON THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI FOUND OVER 3,000 FEET. BY H. C. Smith, m.b.o.u., P. F. Garthwaite, and B. E. Smythies, Burma Forest Service, assisted by The late Dr. C. B. Ticehurst, m.a., m.r.c.s., m.b.o.u. etc. (Continued from Vol. xliii, No. 3 (1942), p. 474). Part II. 711. Lanius c. colluroides. Burmese Shrike. Previous records. — Karen Hills ; Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Nattaung 1 9 . Noted. — Probably breeds in these hills. Not seen at Thandaung. 712a. Lanius nasutus tricolor. Burmese Black-headed Shrike. Previous records. — Karen Hills. Specimens. — None this year. Noted. — We did not meet with this species again. 716a. Lanius schach nipalensis. Grey-backed Shrike. Previous records. — Karen Hills 4,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Taho (Salva: dori). Specimens. — None. Noted. — One bird was seen in the tea estate at Thandaung on 1 1 October I94I* 719. Lanius c. cristatus. Brown Shrike. Previous reicords. — Karen Hills (Salvadori) ; Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Thandaung 1 9 • Noted. — This bird appeared in the tea estate in Thandaung on 7 May as a passage migrant ; others were seen on 9 and 10 October 1941. 724, Hemlpus p. picatus. Black-backed Pied Shrike. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Nattaung 1 9 . Noted. — Several parties were noted in Thandaung in September and October, but it is chiefly a bird of the foothills. 727. Tephrodornis gularis pelvica. Nepal Wood Shrike. Previous records, — Thandaung (Cook). Specimens. — None this year. Noted. — Occasionally seen both on Nattaung (where a pair was observed feeding young) and at Thandaung. 729. Tephrodornis p. pondiceriana Indian Common Wood Shrike. Previous records.— Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not seen, except for one party on Nattaung not identified for certain. fHE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI 61 734. Pericrocotus speciosus elegaas. Burmese Scarlet Minivet. Previous records. — Karen Hills ; Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Nattaung i($ ; Thandaung itf1. Noted. — Common. 739. Pericrocotus brevirostris subsp. Short-billed Minivet. Previous records. — Karenni 3,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; pine forests of the Salween (Davison). Specimens. — Nattaung 2(5'. Noted. — Not collected at Thandaung, but probably occurs. 742. Pericrocotus s. Solaris. Yellow-throated Minivet. Previous records.— None before 1939. Specimens. — Nattaung i^. Noted. — Not collected at Thandaung, but may occur. [744. Pericrocotus r. roseus. Rosy Minivet. According to the F.B.I. it has been recorded from the Shan States and Tenasserim and is therefore likely to occur in our area, but so far there are no records or specimens.] [746. Pericrocotus cinnatnomeus vividus. Burmese Small Minivet, Wardl&w Ramsay obtained it in Karenni, elevation not stated. We have not seen* it and doubt whether it occurs over 3,000 feet.] 754. Lalage melaschistos melauoptera . Pale Grey Cuckoo-Shrike. Previous records. — Karen Hills ; Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Nattaung 19 juv. ; Thandaung i9« Noted. — Common on Nattaung but at Thandaung noted only at the end of the rains. It is curious that the call-note : 4 notes' with the last two dropping in pitch, wee-wee-weyou-weyou : should differ from this bird’s call in Maymyo. 761. Graucalus raacei siamensis. Siamese Large Cuckoo-Shrike. Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None, Noted. — Not uncommon on Nattaung and also noted at Thandaung. 763. Artamus fuseus. Ashy Swallow-Shrike. Previous records. — None before 1939* Specimens. — None this year. Noted. — Not seen at Thandaung but may occur. 769. Dicrurus macrocercus cathoecus. Chinese Black Drongo. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Once only, at Thandaung on 22 October when it was probably on passage. 772. Dicrurus leucophaeus mohouti. Burmese Grey Drongo. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Nattaung 29* Noted. — Status uncertain. It seemed to be absent from Thandaung in September but was much in evidence in October ; after 1 May it again disap- peared, so that it may only winter in the hills. 780. Chaptia aenea aenea. Northern Bronzed Drongo. Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay), Specimens . — Nattaung i9- Noted. — Occasionally seen both on Nattaung and at Thandaung. 62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1 V 782. Chibia h. hottentotta. Indian Hair-crested Drongo. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Seen at Thandaung in October and March (when it was common), and on Nattaung in evergreen and pine forest up to 5,000 feet. 786. Bhringa remifer tectirostris. Indian Lesser Racket-tailed Drongo. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Common both on Nattaung and at Thanda'ung. [788. Dissemurus paradiseus rangoonensis. Burmese Large Racket-tailed Drongo. Recorded by Salvadori from the Karen Hills (elevation?); we have not seen it and doubt whether it occurs over 3,000 feet. Cook, who recorded it as common and breeding at Thandaung, must have' confused it with the preceding species.] 803. Acrocephalus agricola stevensi. Plains Paddy-held Warbler. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Nattaung 1$ , 1 0 > Thandaung 2 <5. Noted. — Not uncommon on Nattaung and noted up to 23 April ; several birds were observed in the tea estate at Thandaung in March, but they had all left by 24 April. We saw no signs of breeding, and the bird appears, to be either a winter visitor or a passage migrant. In the field it resembles PhyUoscopus ]uscatus, and has a similar call-note, but can be distinguished by the fact that it is much less active and more of a skulker ; it is also lighter in colour and has a noticeably longer and more ragged tail. It frequents thick undergrowth where there is little or no overhead cover, and though sometimes seen near the bank of a stream it was more often, and more surprisingly, observed on the driest of dry ridges, where it was wont to lie dormant most of the day and come to life only in the early mornings or evenings. It is most difficult to observe, and on one occasion it took a full hour of watching and waiting to get a glimpse of a bird calling in thick undergrowth. The fact that the first specimens were identified by us (incorrectly) as Tribura sp. indicates the difficulty of naming these skulking Warblers, even with the bird in the hand. 814. Orthotomus sutorius patia. Burmese Tailorbird. Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not seen by us. 818. Orthotomus atrogularis nitidus. Burmese Black-necked Tailorbird. Previous records.— -N one. Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not uncommon both on Nattaung and at Thandaung, where breed- ing* pairs were observed in May. It is very tame and I have watched a pair at a range of four feet ; the sexes are easy to distinguish in the field and the trilling call-note kri-kri-kri-, repeated a varying number of times, is quite distinctive. 827. Franklinia gracilis hodgsoni. Franklin’s Wren-Warbler. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens.- — None this year. Noted. — Franklinias were twice seen at Thandaung, but the species was not distinguished. 828. Franklinia r. rufescens. Beavan’s Wren-Warbler. Previous records.— Karen Hills 2,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens . — None. N oted.—^S&Q under preceding species. THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI 33 839. Phragmaticola aedon. Thick-billed Warbler. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Thandaung i 9 • Noted. — Several birds arrived in Thandaung on 8 May on passage, and birds were seen and heard singing up to 12 May, when I left. The song is mainly low in pitch and lacks power, but though thin is not unpleasant. [Note. — Some of the other migrant Warblers may occur in the hills on passage and should be looked for. Admail party that I strongly suspect were Acrocephalus arundinaceus , but of which 1 failed to obtain a specimen, was seen in Thandaung on 8 May. A species of Tribura has recently been obtained on Mt. Byingye and is likely to occur in our area.] 851. Phylloscopus schwarzi. Radde’s Willow Warbler. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Thandaung 1^, 1 9 > 1 o. Noted. — It probably winters in the tea estate and was very common there in March ; birds on passage were noted in April-May, the last on 9 May, and the first specimen was obtained on 3 November. It resembles P. juscatus in habits and makes a tschik tschik note in bushes, but is easily recognised by plumage. 864. Phylloscopus p. pulcher. Nepal Orange-barred Willow Warbler. Previous records. — Karenni, 3,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None this year. Noted. — Scarce and confined to the higher slopes of Nattaung. 871. Phylloscopus i. inornatus. Crowned Willow Warbler. Previous records. — None before 1939? Specimens. — Nattaung 1 $ . Noted. — Common and probably winters all through these hills. 871. Phylloscopus proregulus chloronotus. La Touche’s Yunnan Willow Warbler. Previous records. — Taho (Salvadori) ; pine forests near papun (Davison). Specimens. — None. Noted . — Not seen iby us. 863. Phylloscopus m. maculipennis. Grey-faced Willow Warbler. Previous records.^- None nearer than Mt. Victoria and North-East Burma. Specimens.— Nattaung 29, to. Noted. — Found only on Sosiko, 7,000-7,300 feet. It is easily recognised by small size, intense activity, and grey head contrasting with olive-green back and yellow rump. Those observed were working through the undergrowth in evergreen at 3 to 6 feet from the ground. No evidence of breeding was obtained. [878. Phylloscopus magnirostris. Large-billed Willow Warbler. Davison' obtained it at Thaton, and it is not unlikely to occur in the hills on passage though there is no record so far. The dark tip to the lower mandi- ble is probably the best field distinction from the next species.] 880. Phylloscopus t. trochiloides. Dull Green Willow Warbler. Previous records. — None? Specimens. — Thandaung 2 (25-9-39) and (7-5-40), 19 (28-4-40). Noted. — Probably winters in small numbers. 876. Phylloscopus trochiloides plumbeitarsus. Middendorff’s Willow Warbler. Previous records. — None.. Specimens. — Thandaung 2 <$ (25-9-39). Noted. — These two specimens were the only birds seen, and must have been on passage. 64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol xliY [879. Phylloscopus tenellipes. Pale-legged Willow Warbler. We did not meet with this species, which Davison obtained at Kyaukhnyat and which probably occurs in the hills on passage.] 884. Phylloscopus reguloides assamensis. Baker’s Willow Warbler. Previous records. — None before 1939? Specimens. — Nattaung 2 $ , 2 9 • Noted.— A male was shot off a nest on the top of Sosiko, 7,500 feet, on the edge of temperate forest. The nest was compactly made of moss and was built on the ground under a tuft of grass, and contained 3 young just ready to leave. Another nest, containing 2 young of about the same age, was found on a hillside under a tuft of grass ; it was made entirely of moss of a felt-like texture, and had a . dome of moss. The note of this bird is difficult to describe : pit-chew-a-pit-chew-a-pit-chew-a... the three notes slurred into each other to produce a continuous undulating wave of sound; the alarm-note is zip-aye... zip-aye , or cheep-it...cheep-it. Not collected at Thandaung but probably resident there also. 886. Phylloscopus reguloides claudiae. Pallas’s Himalayan Willow Warbler. ' Previous records. — None before 1939? Specimens.— None this year. Noted. — We were unable to detect any difference in the call-notes of assamen- sis, claudiae, and davisoni. All three/ are typical leaf Phylloscopi, frequenting the canopy and occasionally the understorey. 885. Phylloscopus d. davisoni. Tenasserim White-tailed Willow Warbler. Previous records.— Thandaung, breeding (Cook). Specimens. — Nattaung ij, 1 9 1 ° > Thandaung i_9 . N oted. — Common. [895. Phylloscopus cantator, Tickell’s Willow Warbler. Wardlaw Ramsay obtained it in the Karen Hills near Toungoo (elevation?), but we have not met with it east of the Sittang.] 890. Seicercus burkii tephrocephalus. Anderson’s Flycatcher-Warbler. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Taho (Salvadori), Specimens. — Thandaung 1 $ . Noted. — Not uncommon both on Nattaung and at Thandaung. It keeps to dense bamboo thickets and undergrowth, and often associates with Stachyris chrysaea. It has a chip-chip call-note. It was observed from September to mid-April, but none was seen after 24 April, and it either becomes very secretive in the breeding season or else, migrates. It is known to breed in the Chin Hills and North-East Burma and probably breeds in . the Shan States; proof that it breeds in our area would be of interest. 896. Abroscopus s. superciliaris. Yellow-bellied Flycatcher-Warbler. Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay); Specimens. — Nattaung 2 $ , 19 > Thandaung 1 ($ . Noted. — Common both on Nattaung and at Thandaung up to 4,500 feet in ponzo, bamboo and wet thickets. 910. Homochlamys fortipes subsp. Strong-footed Bush Warbler. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens i — Nattaung 1 9 5 according to Dr. Ticehurst this specimen pro» bably represents a new race. Noted. — The only bird seen was skulking in long grass beside the J^fawchi road qt 4,500 feet and uttering a call-note like that of Muscicapa parva cur- tailed. In the field it looks a small dark brown bird with a buff supercilium. THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI 66 913. Homochlamys p. pallldlpes . Blanford’s Bush Warbler. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Papun (Davison). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not' seen by us. 922. Phyllergates cucullatus coronatus. Golden-headed Warbler. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None this year. Noted. — It is common both on Nattaung and at Thandaung, but keeps low down in dense bamboo thickets ; one may wait half an hour or more close to a party calling busily without getting even a glimpse of a single bird. The call- note, not very well described in our previous notes, is most distinctive : a four note whistle, the first two notes on the same pitch, the third a trill (or 3 to 4 notes uttered very quickly) and. the fourth is either higher or lower in pitch than the first two. This call is repeated in a remarkable number of keys, high and low. Like Abroscopus it occasionally climbs 20 or 30 feet up a tall bamboo when feeding. 930. Suya s. superciliaris. Anderson’s Hill Warbler. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Thandaung, breeding (Cook). Specimens. — Nattaung 2 o; Thandaung i'<$ (30-4-41). Noted. — It is a common resident, both in the grassy undergrowth of the pine forests on Nattaung and in the grassy ponzo in the tea estate at Thandaung. Its song, chvuee-chwee-chwee 25 times in 10 seconds, is uttered from the. top of a bush or tall reed and closely resembles the song of Orthotomus sutorius patia, though no doubt differences in volume1 and pitch would be noticeable if the two were heard calling together. Its call-note resembles the song but is louder, slower, and higher in pitch pee-up, pee-up, pee-up, . Its alarm-note is a continuous reel, uttered by both birds at the nest. 950. Irena puella sikkiraensis. Fairy Bluebird. Previous records. — Western slopes of the Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — A bird is usually to, be seen on the road up to Thandaung, and on 26 September a party of 4 was seen at 2,500 feet; it is mainly a 'bird of the foothills and probably seldom exceeds 3,000 feet. It is confined to evergreen and was not seen on Nattaung. 955. Oriolus chinensis tenuirostris. Burmese Black-naped Oriole. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Thandaung itf'. immature. Noted.— Not uncommon. The r#ce diffusus has been recorded from Thaton (Davison) and probably occurs in our area. .958. Oriolus x. xanthornus. Indian Black-headed Oriole. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — None seen by us ; evidently scarce above 3,000 feet. 961. Oriolus t. trailii. Maroon Oriole. Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw R.amsay). Specimens. — Nattaung • 1 9 • Noted. — It is not uncommon on Nattaung and frequents both evergreen and the more open parts along the Mawchi road, where the specimen was obtained. A bird was observed carrying food in its bill on 21 April. The notes are similar to those of chinensis, but rarely heard. Seen occasionally at: Thandaung. 7 [964. Gracula intermedia religiosa. Indian Grackle. There seem to be no records from the area ; if it occurs it is probably eon- fined to the foothills.] 5 66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV 970. Saroglossa s. spiloptera. Spotted-winged Stare. Previous records.—' Tolerably abundant on the thickly wooded slopes of the Karen Hills’ (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not seen by us ; as all the Burma records are between December and February we may have been too late for it. Mynas. We saw none. Wardlaw Ramsay obtained in Karenni, Jerdon’s Myna ( G . burmanica ) and the Siamese Jungle Myna ( Aethiopsar griseus grandis )-, the latter at 3,000 feet. Mawchi, which we did not visit, is a likely place for them. 1024. Uroloncha striata acuticauda. Hodgson’s Munia. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay and Salvadori). Specimens. — N attaung 1 U • Noted. — A few parties were seen in the growth beside streams running through taungyas, and once at 5,500 feet in pine forest. In Thandaung they are common in large parties all round the tea estate, and are probably the birds recorded by Cook as punctulata, which we did not see. A pair was observed building a nest on 12 May. [1037. Atnandava a. flavidiventris. Burmese Red Munia. Obtained by Wardlaw Ramsay in Karenni, elevation not stated. It is un- likely to occur above 3,000 feet.] 1069. Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus. Hodgson’s Rose Finch. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay and Salvador!). Specimens. — Nattaung 1 9 • Noted. — Cook obtained one from the lower hills below Thandaung, but we have not seen it there. 1090. Hypacanthis spinoides ambiguus. Yunnan Green Finch. Previous records. — None. Specimens. — Nattaung 1 9 > 1 o. Noted. — Not seen at Thandaung and probably absent. It is common in the pine forests of Nattaung, in which it keeps mainly to the tree tops and frequently perches on the topmost point of small pines. The broad yellow band from base to tip of wing, dividing it into three roughly equal parts, is diagnostic in flight and the blackish head when perched. The call, freely uttered, is a thin metallic tinkle and quite distinctive. 1107. Passer rutilans subsp. Cinnamon Sparrow. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw iRamsay). Specimens. — Nattaung 2<$, too worn to* determine subspecifically. Noted. — Not seen at Thandaung. The specimens were obtained from isolated trees in taungyas, and one of them was singing something like chwe-cha-cha repeated over and over, a thin but pleasant song. One other male was seen but no females, which were probably sitting. 1108. Passer flaveolus. Pegu House Sparrow. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not seen by us ; may not occur above 3,000 feet. (Note. — We saw no ‘house Sparrows’ (P. domesticus & P. monianus) but they may occur at Mawchi). 1120. Emberiza f. fucata. Grey-headed Bunting. Previous records. — Yado (Salvadori). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not seen by us. THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI «7 1122. Emberiza pusilla. Little Bunting. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Yado (Salvadori). Specimens. — None. [Slated. — Not seen by us. Possibly it migrates early. 1131. Emberiza aureola. Yellow-breasted Bunting. Previous records. — Taho (Salvadori). Specimens. — Thandaung i o. Noted. — The specimens were obtained at Thandaung in the tea estate cn 2 8 April and g May, the male being one of a pair and the other a solitary bird. It does not winter at Thandaung, and these birds were passage migrants. 1135. Emberiza rutila . Chestnut Bunting. Previous records. — Described by Wardlaw Ramsay as the common Bunting of the higher Karen Hills, and recorded by Salvadori from Yado. Cook ob- tained one at Thandaung in April. Specimens. — None. Noted. — The only bird seen was a male on 20 March at 4,200 feet ia Thandaung, in unuergrowth at the edge of a small clearing. It seems to be more of a forest bird than other Buntings, and possibly migrates early. 1139. Melophus latiiani subcristata. Crested Bunting. Previous records.- — Described by Wardlaw Ramsay as ‘by far the commonest Bunting in the Karennee country, where the rocky scrub-covered hill-sides seem to suit it. It is particularly fond of the neighbourhood of tiny streams covered with bushes in open country. Their note, which is uttered on the wing, is a rather pleasing whistle quite unlike that of any other Bunting.’ Apparently he did not find it over 3,000 feet. Recorded from Yado by Salvadori. Specimens.— None. Noted. — It is curious that we did not meet with this bird at all. 1143. Martula urbica whiteleyi. Siberian House Martin. Previous records. — None. Specimens. — Nattaung i$. Noted. — As Stanford has commented (Ibis, Oct. 1938 p. b22) on the lack of authentic records of House Martins, the fonowing notes may be ol interest : — A party of House Martins, either M. u. whiteleyi or M. dasypus cash- meriensisy- was observed hawking insects over the summit of the Kambilu Taung, 2,634 feet; this hill is. in the Tharrawaddy district (Zigon forest division) a few hundred yards off the main Pegu Yoma ridge (Irrawaddy-Sittang divide), and is the second highest hill in the Pegu Yomas. The House Martins were in company with a large flock of White-rumped Swifts, and appeared little more than half their size. This was on 13 December 1935, but when I climbed the same hill on 7 December 1937 there were no House Martins. A party of M. d, cashmeriensis (1 (5 obtained and sent home to Dr. Ticehurst but unfortunately lost in transit) was observed hawking insects over the summit of a 5,208 foot peak in the Arakan Yomas close to the main Yoma , ridge (Irrawaddy-Bay of Bengal divide) ; the summit is on the boundary between the Thayetmyo and Minbu districts, and is one of the few peaks in these hills with a bare grassy top. The birds were seen on 4 and 5 December 1938. A large flock of House Martins was seen on Nattaung last year, but no specimen was obtained (vide our previous paper). On Nattaung this year large flocks, totalling hundreds of birds were seen almost daily throughout our visit, and the specimen obtained was M. u. whiteleyi ; they appeared at about 8 a.m. and hawked insects through the heat of the day over the pine forest, especially where the trees had been felled and the ridges and knolls were bare, until the early afternoon, when they disappeared. Finally a large flock appeared in Thandaung on 29 April, but was not seen again. It seems therefore that the Siberian House Martin is a regular winter visitor in comparatively large numbers, arriving early in November (when Livesey saw them at Taunggyi) and leaving in early May, and that it has been overlooked in the past only because it spends the winter over inaccessible 68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV mountain ranges, whence it is occasionally driven by bad weather. It would be interesting to learn where they roost at night. [1150a. Riparia coticolor sintaungensis. Dusky Crag Martin. This was obtained by Mr. H. C. Smith on Mt. Byingye in November 1938, and Davison observed Crag Martins in Tenasserim many years ago. We did not visit any rocky hill-tops, but observed some in the distance where these birds might occur.] 1153. Iiirundo rustica gutturalis . Eastern Swallow. Previous records. — None? Specimens. — None. Noted. — A flock appeared in Thandaung on passage on 30 April, a few of which stayed till 2 May. [1154. Hirundo rustica tytleri. Tytler’s Swallow. Wardlaw Ramsay found them common in the plains of Karenni, and they probably pass through the hills on migration, but have not been recorded thence up to date.] 1160. Hirundo daurica striolata. Chinese Striated Swallow. Previous records .■■ — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay, recorded as H. arctivitta). Specimens. — None. Noted. — On 8 April 1938 we saw a Striated Swallow fly out of small cave beside the Mawchi road, and when we investigated on 18 April we found the beginnings of a mud nest, which the bird had evidently abandoned. It seems likely that striolata is resident in these hills. 1161. Hirundo daurica japonica. Elodgson’s Striated Swallow. Previous records.— None. Specimens. — Thandaung 1 $ . Noted. — A large flock appeared on passage on 30 April and was not seen again ; the birds mixed freely with the Eastern .Swallows that appeared on the same date. Both species settle freely on telegraph wires. Another flock was seen on 22 March at Thandaung. 1166-73. Motacilla alba suibsp. White. Wagtail. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — A bird was seen in the tea estate at Thandaung on 8 October 1941. 1174. Motacilla cinerea melanope. Eastern Grey Wagtail. Previous records. — Karen Hills. Specimens. — Nattaung 1 rj • Noted. — It had arrived in Thandaung' on 30 August 1941 and was common thereafter, especially along the roads. Last seen on 29 April. 1176. Motacilla flava subsp. Grey-headed Wagtail. Previous records. — Karenni at 3,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not seen by us. 1183. Dendronanthus indicus. Forest Wagtail. Previous records. — None. Specimens. — Thandaung 1$ (24 September 1938). Noted. — Two birds were seen along the Leiktho mule path on 24 September 1939 and one bird on the Kemapyu stream at 3,000 feet on 10 April. Status uncertain. THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI 1186. Anthus h. hodgsoni. Indian Tree Pipit. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Cook, Salvadori). Specimens. — Thandaung i $ , i o. Noted. — It was not seen round Thandaung on 23-25 September, but was first noted on 8 October ; it was last seen on 9 May when a specimen was obtained. On Nattaung it swarms in the grassy undergrowth of the dry pine ridges, where it may be found in the heat of the day when most birds have retreated to the valley bottoms. The return migration must take place early in May. 1193-4. Anthus richardi subsp. Richard’s Pipit. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Several birds were seen on passage in the tea estate at Thandaung, 7-9 May. [ Anthus roseatus? I saw a very dark Pipit along the Leiktho road on 23 September and failed to collect it. Unlike A. h. hodgsoni it did not fly up into a tree when disturbed but settled further along the path.] 1247. Zosterops palpebrosa subsp. White-eye. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Karenni (Salvadori), recorded in F.B.I. as Z. a. mesoxantha. Specimens. — Nattaung 19 ; Thandaung 5(5'. Noted. — Common in parties, especially at Thandaung, where the parties were splitting up into pairs in May. [1252. Zosterops simplex. Pegu White-eye. Cook recorded this as common at Thandaung and also listed it from KalaWj but apparently did not collect any ; we did not meet with it and further evidence of its occurrence in the area is required.] 1253. Zosterops siamensi Si Siamese White-eye. Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni. Specimens. — Nattaung 3 c?. Noted. — In contrast to other White-eyes all those seen were solitary, fre- quenting open scrub along the Mawchi road and bushes near streams running through taungyas, 4,000-5,000 feet. It did not appear to be breeding. Its note differs from that of palpebrosa and is stronger. — Zosterops erythropleura. Chinese White-eye. Previous records. — None before 1939. Specimens. — Thandaung 1 9 • Noted. — A winter visitor. It was not seen in Thandaung in September and October : the specimen was obtained out of a party Seen on 2 November : a number of large parties were seen on 20-24 March, when the maroon on the flanks appeared much deeper than in November ; and none was seen after I returned on 24 April, though I looked for them daily. Several parties were seen on Nattaung, but not after mid-April. In habits and voice it is similar to palpebrosa. 1260-2. Aethopyga siparaja subsp. Yellow-backed Sunbird. Previous records. — None. Specimens. — None. Noted. — Except for a male seen in Thandaung on 1 November, uttering a very high pitched trilly song, we have not seen this species, which is more a bird of the foothills. 1271. Aethopyga gouldiae dabryi. Dabry’s Sunbird. Previous records.— Karen Hills ; Karenni 4,000 feet (Wardlaw RamsayA Specimens. — Nattaung 29; Thandaung 1 $ . 70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Noted. — Rather scarce ; in Thandaung' it was seen only in November and March, and on Nattaung two or three times. It seems to prefer fairly open scrub and bushes bordering streams, and has twice been seen just below the top of Thandaung-gyi. 1273. Aethopyga s. sanguinipectus. Walden’s Yellow-backed Sunbird. v Previous records. — Karen Hills; Karenni (type locality, Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Nattaung 2$ ; Thandaung 1^, iQ- Noted. — Fairly common up to 5,000 feet. It keeps mainly to evergreen and is very partial to streams running through this type of forest, where I have often seen them feeding along the bushes on the banks in the middle of the day. It also visits the more open country. 1276a. Aethopyga nipalensis karenensis. Na:taung Sunbird. Previous records. — None before 1939. Specimens. — None this year. Noted. — This appears to be confined to the Pine-Rhododendron association and temperate forest on the higher slopes of Nattaung ; it is common there, but none was seen below 7,000 feet. 1279. Cinnyris asiatlca intermedia. BurmesS Purple Sunbird. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not seen by us. May not occur above 3,000 feet. 1293. Arachnothera m. magna. Indian Streaked Spider.hunter. 1294. Arachnothera m. aurata. Pegu Streaked Spiderhunter. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Thandaung (Cook). Specimens. — Thandaung 1 9 (nearest aurata ) ; the specimen obtained last, year on Nattaung was magna. Noted. — The two races evidently intergrade in .the Karen Hills. The bird is not uncommon and there seemed to be an influx at the end of April into Thandaung. 1296. Arachnothera I . longirostra. Little Spiderhunter. Previous records. — Thandaung (Cook). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Scarce. Only observed in the tea estate at Thandaung in October, April and May. The flight is direct and strong, and a bleating note is uttered or the wing. 1298-9. Dicaeum cruentatum subsp. Scarlet-backed Flowerpecker. Previous records.— None. Specimens. — None. Noted. — Although it is common in Toungoo town we have seen only one in the hills, on 2 November at Thandaung. 1300. Dicaeum trigonostigma rubropygium. Tenasserim Orange-bellied Flower- pecker. Previous records.— Karen Hills 3,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not seen by us. 1302. Dicaeum chrysorrheum chrysochlore. Burmese Yellow-vented Flower- pecker. Previous records. — Karen Hills (common at 3,000 feet, F.B.I.). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Except for a pair in the tea estate on 10 May we saw none, and jt my9t be either local or a bird of the foothills, THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI 71 1303. Dicaeum i. ignipectus. Fire-breasted Flowerpecker. Previous records. — Karenni. Specimens. — Thandaung i<$ , i 9 • Noted. — This is the typical Flowerpecker of the area ; it keeps to the tree- tops and would escape observation but for its clicking note on the wing. I have seen a male utter a long continuous series of clicks from a perch, while swaying his body from side to side. 1306. Dicaeum concolor olivaceum. Plain-coloured Flowerpecker. Previous records. — Karen Hills, type locality (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not seen by us. [1312. Piprisoma m. modestum. It has been recorded from the Southern Shan States, Tenasserim, and the Pegu Yomas in the Toungoo district, though not as yet from ou*- area, in which it seems likely to occur.]. 1316. Anthocincla phayrei, Phayre’s Pitta. Previous records. — This bird was first obtained in the Toungoo district, ‘probably in the higher hills to the east of the Sittang river’. The F.B.l. states that Bingham found a nest at about 5,000 feet in the Karen Hills, whereas he actually found it near a Karen village in the Dawnas (Meple valley, Northern Tenasserim). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not seen by us. 1318. Pitta oatesi. Fulvous Pitta. Previous records. — Karenni 2,500-4,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Taho (Sal- vadori). Specimens. — Nattaung 1 9 • Noted. — This, the only bird seen, was in the bed of a stream running through evergreen at 3,500 feet on Nattaung, and was obtained at about 2 p.m. 1320 Pitta c. cyanea. Blue Pitta. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Thandaung 1 o. Noted. — A bird was given alive and apparently uninjured by a Karen to the durwan of the Circuit House, but it died a few days afterwards and the corpse was presented to me on 22 October ; seen once or twice near Pathi- chaung at about 500 feet. [1321. Pitta moluccensis Lesser Blue-winged Pitta. The F.B.l. gives this from the Karen Hills, based on Hume’s loose state- ment that it breeds from Arakan to Karenni ; all specimens and records indicate that it is a low elevation species.] [1325. Pitta c. cucullata. Green-breasted Pitta. A Pitta seen on the Leiktho mule path, the upper-parts of which appeared very dark as it hopped off into the bamboo thickets below, must have belonged to this species; it was certainly not P. moluccensis, P. c. cyanea, or P. oatesi .] [1328. Eurylaimus javanicus Horsfield’s Broadbill. Lloyd is said to have obtained it in the Toungoo hills, and the F.B.l. gives it from Karenni, but proof of its occurrence is desirable.] 1330. Corydoo sumatranus. Duskv Broadbill. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) Specimens. — None, 72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Noted. — Except for a bird seen in a tree-top beside the Leiktho mule path at 3,500 feet we have not met with this bird. The abroad reddish bill and red orbital skin contrasting with the black head are diagnostic. 1333. Serilophus i. lunatus. Gould’s Broadbill. Previous records. — Karenni 3,000-4,000 (Wardlaw Ramsay). Karen Hills, Taho (Salvadori). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not seen, by us. 1335. Psarisomus dalhousiae. Long-tailed Broadbill. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Yado (Salvadori). Specimens. — Nattaung itf, r$ . , Noted. — Fairly common, both on Nattaung and at Thandaung ; it keeps mainly to evergreen, but we have noted it in high regrowth. The . call is a loud piercing whistle of 5 to 8 notes with little if any change in pitch ; it occasionally utters a single weet note. A pair was observed building a nest on 15 April. The nest was quite typical, suspended from the tip of a branch overhanging a stream where the pine forest merged into evergreen. (To be continued ) Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate XIV. The Trumpet Homey-suckle LONICERA SEMPERVIRENS Linn. ( Nat size. ) SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. BY N. L. Bor, m.a., d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s-, Forest Botanist , AND M. B- Raizada, m.sc., Assistant Forest Botanist , Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Part XIV ( Continued from Vol. xliii, No. 4 (1943), p. 552). ( With 1 coloured and 2 black and white plates, and 3 text- figures). Lonicera Linn. The Honeysuckle or Woodbine. (A genus named in honour of Adam Lonitzer, Professor of Medicine in Mainz, 1528-86). Lonicera L. is a genus of the family Coprifoliaceae and comprises about 160 species which are distributed in the sub-tropical and tem- perate regions of the northern hemisphere, from the arctic circle southwards to the Malayan Archipelago, Southern Asia, North Africa, Madeira and Mexico. Characters of the genus. — Upright to twining, rarely creeping shrubs- Stems glabrous or hairy, often glandular, with fistulose (hollow) or solid branches. The leaves are opposite, petioled or sessile and often with opposite pairs connate at the base. Stipules usually opposite, but occasionally interpetiolar stipules are present. Flowers white or yellow, purple or scarlet, usually arranged in simple cymes which are 2-flowered by the suppression of the middle flower, or three-flowered, and sessile or whorled and collected in terminal spikes or panicles. Individual flowers subtended by bracts and bracteoles. Calyx tube short, adnate to the ovary, ovoid or sub- globose with a short, 5-toothed limb. The corolla is tubular to funnel-form or sometimes campanulate with a regular five-lobed limb or 2-lipped, in which case the upper lip is 4-lobed ; lobes long or short, imbricate in the bud. Stamens five, inserted in the tube, usually near the mouth, usually exserted. Ovary inferior, 2- to 3-celled ; each cell with 3-8 ovules pendulous from the inner angles. Style elongated, with a capitate stigma, usually exserted from the 74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV tube. Fruit a red or yellow berry, few-seeded. The receptacle at the base of the corolla tube secretes a nectar. Cross-fertilisation is accomplished by insects which come to take the nectar- Before we show how this cross-fertilisation takes place we shall describe the mechanism of a typical specimen of the genus, Lonicera periclymenum L. , a European species. Just before the erect flower buds open the stigma is receptive and the anthers have already dehisced. The pollen is sticky and as the stigma stands some distance above the anthers, self fertilisa- tion is avoided (A.). When the bud opens the flower sinks through an angle of 90° so that it comes to rest in a horizontal position. The positions of the stamens and style are shown in Fig. B. The style Fig. 1. — Pollination in Lonicera periclymenum Linn, after Kurth Xf. is well out of the way below the stamens whose dehisced anthers are turned upwards. Any insect visitor which now comes to get nectar from the flower is bound to touch the dehisced stamens and carry away pollen on its under surface. After pollen has been re- moved the filaments wither and sink down. The style at the same time curves upwards and comes to occupy the position indicated in C. It is obvious that in this state of the flower it is the stigma and not the stamens which will touch the undersurface of an insect- visitor. In stage B the flowers, are large and brightly coloured ; in stage C they have become smaller and duller. The process of cross fertilisation is as follows: — On any plant of L. periclymenum there will be found flowers in all stages of development from the bud to the fading fertilised bloom. When the bud opens an attractive scent is emitted and the flower itself is fresh and brightly coloured. Hence insects (hawk-moths) visit these flowers, which are in stage A, first. From the relative posi- tions of stamens and style it is certain that the visitor will carry away quantities of pollen. In stage B, the flower has faded and the scent is not so strong, therefore these flowers are visited later, and as may be seen from fig. C. it is the stigma this time which must touch the insect. In this way cross-fertilisation is ensured, SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 75 The Loniceras are deservedly popular on account of the fragrant pretty flowers and handsome foliage. Key to the species. Leaves connate L. sempervirens. Leaves distinct. Bracts subulate ; ovary hairy ; leaves and flowers larger. ... L. conjusa. Bracts ovate, leafy ; ovary glabrous ; leaves and flowers smaller. ... L. japonica. Lonicera sempervirens Linn. The Trumpet Honeysuckle- ( sempervirens means evergreen in Latin). Description. — An extensively climbing, glabrous, woody twiner. Leaves oblong or ovate, rounded at the tips, wedge-shaped or rounded below, opposite, exstipulate, glossy, green on the upper surface, covered with a white bloom below. 2-3 in. long. The upper one or two pairs of leaves are connate by their bases. Inflorescence a terminal, interrupted spike, the individual flowers being whorled in groups of 4-6, supported by bracts and bracteoles. Calyx adnate to the ovary ending above in five, short, blunt teeth. Corolla tube, 1-2 in. long, seated on top of the ovary slightly ventricose, glabrous outside, sparsely pubescent with white hairs within, scarlet, orange or sometimes yellow on the outer surface, yellow within, five-lobed ; lobes reflexed. On the inner surface near the base is an oval-shaped area which is slightly thicker than the rest of the corolla and is covered with stalk-like glands- Stamens five inserted on the tube below the mouth, alternate with the lobes. Ovary inferior, 2-3 celled. Fruit a red berry. The flowers of this species are not fragrant. Flowers. — February-March. Does not fruit in this country. Distribution.— Indigenous to Southern United States. Culti- vated in gardens in the plains. Gardening. — A beautiful twiner when in full bloom with its scarlet, though scentless flowers. It is best adapted for a trellis * or pergola. It is a common twiner in English gardens and is readily propagated by layers. Lonicera confusa DC. ( Confusa means confused or uncertain in Latin, and refers to the fact that this plant has often been mistaken for a closely allied species, L. japonica Thunb.). Description. — An extensively climbing* hairy species. Stems cylindrical, fistulose, covered with short, dense, brownish hairs. Leaves opposite, ovate-lanceolate in shape rounded at the base, petioled, 2-3 in. long, rather rough, glabrous or sparsely hairy on the upper surface, ciliate on the margins, softly and shortly hairy on the prominent nerves and reticulation of the under surface. Flowers in axillary, pedunculate pairs, or collected into terminal panicles or spikes of whorled pairs. Pairs of flowers supported by 76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV subulate, hairy bracteoles. Calyx adnate to the ovary, very hairy, ending- in five subulate hairy teeth- Corolla i in. long, two-lipped, softly and shortly hairy within and without, white fading to yellow; Fig. 2. — Lonicera confusa Dc. X^. tube as long as the lips; upper lip 4-, the lower i-lobed. Stamens five, alternate with the lobes of the corolla, long exserted. Style long, filiform. Ovary inferior. Distribution. — Found wild in China, Java and Borneo. Culti- vated in the plains and hills. Flowers. — March-April. Does not fruit in this country. Gardening. — An evergreen twining shrub similar to L. japonic.a. The flowers, at first white, afterwards fading to yellow, are produced in March and are quite effective. It is suitable for growing over an arch or trellis. Propagation is by cuttings or layers during the rains. Lonicera japonica Thunb. Japanese Honeysuckle. (The specific epithet indicates the origin of Thunberg’s specimen). Description. — A widely climbing twiner. Stems glandular-hairy, fistulose, cylindrical. Leaves opposite, petioled ; ovate to oblong- ovate, 1J-2J in. long, rounded at the base, acute or obtuse at the tip, glabrous or sparsely hairy on the upper surface, glabrous or Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Fhoto by M. N. Bakshi Lonicera sempervirens Linn. New Forest, Dehm Dun. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Photo by _ M. N. Bakshi Lonicera japonicu Thunb. New Forest, Dehra Dun. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 77 softly hairy on the under surface, ciliate on the margins; petiole i /4 in. long, covered with soft yellow hairs- Fig. 3. — Lonicera japonica Thunb. Xf. Inflorescence similar to that of L. confusa. The bracts are, however, foliaceous, instead of subulate, in shape. The corolla is somewhat larger and is hairy and glandular without. The calyx is glabrous. Flowers. — Cold season. Does not set seed in this country. Distribution. — Indigenous to China, Japan and Formosa, now commonly grown in gardens in the plains and hill stations. Gardening. — An evergreen twiner with white red or purple tinged flowers which are very fragrant- It is suitable for trellis work and grows readily from cuttings and layers. The form commonly cultivated in gardens is var. chinensis. THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. BY D. G. Sevastopulo, f.r.e.s. Part XI ( Continued from Vol. xliii, No. 3 (1942), p. 415). RHOPALOCERA Papilionidae Chilasa clytia L., clytia Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl, 393. 1938. Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind.} Butterflies (2nd edit.), i, 115, pi. 1, figs. 5, 6. 1939. I have bred this species yearly since 1931, and all larvae have been of the black and cream form first described. This year (1942) a^l larvae found have had the normally black areas an olivaceous grey dotted with black, not unlike Talbot’s figure referred to above, but with the spots larger and fewer. I am unable to account for this sudden change of form. Talbot, quoting Bell, gives the following description: — ‘Velvety black or dark green, with a dorso-lateral row of carmine circular spots. A creamy dorsal band on segments 3 to 7, narrowing at both ends and flanked by a broad, lateral, similarly coloured band ; also a broad creamy band on segments 11 to 14 externally. Two lateral rows of sharp spines on segments 1 to 4, and a single row on the other segments. Osmeterium a light watery indigo-blue. Length 55 mm.’ This description is incorrect in several details — the spines are subdorsal not lateral, the cream bands are wrongly placed, and there are three rows of carmine spots instead of one. My original description contains an error. It is the lower lateral series of spots that is complete from the 4th to nth somite, the upper series has spots on the 3rd, 4th, 5th, 7th, 8th and 9th somites only. Papilio polytes L. , romulus Cr. Moore, hep. Ceyl., i, 150. 1880-81. Davidson & Aitken, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc v, 366. 1890. Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind . , Butterflies, ii, 62. 1907. Jordan, Seitz Indo-Austr . Rhop., ix., 61. 1909. Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies (2nd edit.), i, 177, pi. 1, figs. 18a, 18b, 19. 1939. Immature larva — Head brown. Body dark olive brown, in some examples almost chocolate, with a diffused white lateral stripe on the thoracic somites, a white V-shaped mark, starting laterally on THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 79 the 5th somite with the arms joining dorsally on the 8th, and a broad white lateral band on the 10th and nth somites with a transverse bar across the dorsum of the 12th. A white sublateral line from the 6th somite backwards. 1st somite with a black-tipped, yellowish subdorsal spine. 2nd and 3rd somites with a transverse series of six very short blunt tubercles, barely visible without a lens. 5th somite with a similar lateral tubercle and a dorsal series of tour, the centre two in front of the others. 6th to 10th somites each with a similarly placed dorsal series of four, nth somite with a dorsal pair of slightly larger, pointed, white tubercles. 12th somite with a dorsal pair of still larger tubercles. 4th somite rather swollen. Osmeterium dark purple. Legs brownish. Prolegs greyish white. Full grown larva similar to that of Papilio dcmoleus L. (1939, inihi, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xli, 311) except that the osmeterium is more scarlet than orange; the ocellus on the 3rd somite consists of a black spot surmounted by two whitish dots and surrounded by a yellowish green ring ; the line joining the two ocelli is composed of black-ringed yellowish spots; instead of the lawn transverse stripe on the 4th somite there is a very sinuous white line edged behind by an olive green stripe ; the subdorsal spines on the nth somite very much smaller and whitish. Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of greyish silk. Head bifid, the horns rather longer than in P. demoleus , thorax keeled, the keel forming a short forward-pointing horn, the wing cases protruding, abdomen angled at base so that the thorax is bent back- wards, three pairs of small subdorsal spines on the abdomen, the hindmost pair smallest. Colour variable, usually green or mottled brown and grey. The green form with a fawn speck at the base of the wing cases, a bluish-white diffused stripe along their upper edge, which continues as a latero-ventral stripe along the abdomen. The anterior portion of the abdomen with a large subdorsal yellow-green triangular mark, with a small red-brown speck at the anterior angle. The brown and grey forms usually with a dark triangular mark on the wing cases. One specimen formed on white paper had a chalky white dorsal stripe on the apical somites of the abdomen. Food-plant — Citrus spp. and Aegle marmelos Correa. Described from a larva found in Calcutta, pupated 22-viii-42, and a male emerged i-ix-42. Moore’s description is as follows : — ‘Larva smooth, glossy -green much attenuated posteriorly, anterior segments swollen and scutel- lated, fourth and fifth segments with dorsal transverse cream- coloured fleshy crest, that on the fourth ending on each side in an eye-like spot ; a brown-streaked cream-coloured oblique band ascending from the base of seventh segment, and is nearly united with that from the opposite side on back of ninth segment ; a similar- coloured broken lateral band on the tenth segment, which is conti- nued round base of anal segment, the latter segment with two small pointed fleshy tubercles. Pupa curved anteriorly ; head flattened and slightly bifid, thorax conical in front, abdominal somites with short dorsal tubercles. Colour olive-brown.’ 80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV PlERIDAE Catopsilia crocale Cr. Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist., xl, 394. 1938. Talbot, Fauna Brit, hid., Butterflies (2nd edit.), i, 491. 1939. A large number of larvae bred in Calcutta in July 1942 all had the usual black lateral line expanded into a wide dorso-lateral stripe, varying both in width and in depth of colour. In some examples the dorsum was also suffused with blackish. Whilst not wishing to re-open the controversy of whether C. crocale L, and C. pomona F. are conspecific or not, it is worth recording that a number of larvae reared from ova found on Cassia fistula L., the reputed favourite food-plant of C. pomona, in the hope that they would prove to be this species, all turned out to be crocale. Also young crocale larvae, found on a small plant of one of the pink-flowered Cassias, fed up readily and well on Cassia fistula. HETEROCERA Lymantriidae Caragola ochripes Moore Gardner, Indian Forest Records, iii, 202, figs. 9, 20, 21. 1938. Head pale orange. Body with the dorsum pure white, minutely streaked and speckled with black. 1st somite with four crimson tubercles, the outer pair larger and tufted with longish white hair. 2nd and 3rd somites each with six small orange tubercles tufted with short white hair. 4th and 5th somites each with paired dorsal brushes consisting of a ring of short thick rose-pink hair surround- ing a dark tubercle with a pale glandular apex. 6th somite with a dorsal tuft of very short white hair and a minute orange wart with a rosette of short white hair. 7th to 9th somites each with two pairs of these orange warts with white hairs. 10th somite with similar warts but the hairs deep yellow. 11th somite with a dorsal tuft of short pale yellow hair. 12'th somite deep yellow. A series of sub- lateral yellow tubercles bearing fringes of long white hair, the area below these tubercles pale yellow. Legs and prolegs pale yellow. Venter pale yellow slightly tinged with grey. Dorsal glands yellow. Pupa under a few netted threads spun across the hollow of a leaf. Ivory white, the dorsum tinged with olive brown. A chestnut patch at the base of the wing case. Dorsum of abdomen, just be- hind the broadest part, with two pairs of blackish dorsal spots. A tuft of longish pale grey hair from the head, two groups of three long spatulate black hairs from the abdomen just above the wing cases, and another group towards the cremaster. Venter clad with longish white hair. Dorsum of abdomen with three paired tufts of short brownish hair and one of white. Wing cases slightly black- veined. Food-plant — -Gardner gives Litsea polydnlka Juss., L. chinensis Lam. and Phoebe lanceolata Nees, all Lauraceae. Described from a full fed larva found in Shillong 24-IV-41, pupated 13-V-41, and a female emerged 21-V-41. THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 81 Lasiocampidae Metanastria hyrtaca Cr. Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.f xl, 406. 1938. Subramanian & Anantanarayanan, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl. 257. 1938. Ovum almost spherical. Chalky white, the micropyle a dark chocolate-brown spot, and a large dark chocolate-brown spot on either side of the ovum. Laid in small batches. A fairly powerful hand lens did not reveal the fine sculpturing and the irregular dirty grey faint markings mentioned by Subrama- nian and Anantanarayanan. Eupterotidae Eupterote undata Blanch. Head dull black, the clypeus filled in with creamy-white and with a broad creamy-white stripe from apex of clypeus to vertex and extending along the back of the head ; a fringe of short, dark golden- brown hair above the mandibles. Body very dark brown, the inter- segmental areas almost black. A subdorsal and sublateral dark pinkish line. Clothed fairly thickly with longish, pale-tipped, dark brown hair, growing in spreading tufts subdorsally, laterally and sublaterally. The dorsal area on the abdominal somites clothed, in addition, with large patches of very short, black-brown hair. Spiracles pinkish. Venter dark brown, not hairy. Legs dark brown. Prolegs yellowish-flesh colour. Cocoon of dark brown, closely woven, rather papery silk, with an inner cocoon of dark brown silk interwoven with larval hair. Pupa dark mahogany, very shiny, the abdominal somites very minute- ly punctate. Cremaster closely covered with golden, short, hooked spines. The divisions between the leg, antenna and wing cases not well marked. Food-plant — -Quisqualis indica L., Lantana camara L., Alseo- dapline semicar pifolia Nees. and numerous other trees and shrubs. One larva was even found feeding on a coarse, ornamental Grass. Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta i6-xi-4i, spun i9-xi-4i, and a female emerged 29-VL42. Eupterote geminata Wlk. Penultimate instar — Head terra-cotta, a black mark on either side low down and a double black spot just above the clypeus. Body with a broad, pale brown, dorsal stripe with a double, darker, median line, and a broad, blue-grey, dorso-lateral stripe containing two cream lines. A subspiracular cream line. Clothed with long whitish hair. Venter cream with a purplish-black lateral stripe. Legs chestnut. Prolegs pink. Spiracles set in pink patches. Final instar — Similar to the penultimate, but the pale brown dorsal stripe obscured on the abdominal somites by a coating of short, dark brown, silky hair, and the subspiracular line absent. Lateral area brownish. Head with a wavy pale horizontal line above the lower black marks and below the upper, and with a pale inverted V-shaped mark with its apex on the vertex. 6 82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY / Vol. XLIV The larvae are gregarious, congregating on the trunk and branches of the food-tree in close packed, furry masses by day, and feeding by night. The larvae rest close together, the heads usually pointing in one direction, in slightly curved rows, and may cover an area of two or more square feet. The hairs are extremely irritat- ing and I know of a case where some syces had to desert their usual sleeping place because a tree close by was harbouring these larvae in large numbers. Pupa in a cocoon of dense greyish-brown silk interwoven with larval hair. Reddish chestnut, the wing cases rather paler. Surface dull, the cuticle densely punctate. The abdominal somites some- what contracted. Cremaster a fairly long, stout spine armed with a few short bristly hairs. Food-plant — Various trees and shrubs, among them Lager stro- emia indica L. Described from larva found in Calcutta 19-X-41, one of which spun 26-xi~4i, and a female emerged 8-V-42. Sphingidae. Thevetra pinastrina Mart., pinastrina. Butler, Proc. Zool . Soc. Lond., ix, 560, pi. 92, fig. 8. 1877. Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind,} Moths, i, 88. 1892. Mell, Biol. u. System, der Sudchin. Sphing., 310, pi. xi, figs.' 12- [8 (figs. 18-24), pi. xix, figs. 19-21. 1922. Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces , x, 567. 1929. Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind ., Moths, v, pi. vi, figs. 6, 7. 1937. Ovum — Jade green, of the usual ovoid Sphingid type. Laid singly on the upper or lower surface of a leaf of the food-plant. Hatched 23-viii-42. 1 st instar — -Head round, green. Body green, at the end of the instar with a yellowish white subdorsal line only visible under a lens. Horn shorter than in most first instar Chaerocampid larvae, straight, black, the base reddish-orange, the tip slightly bifid. Moulted 25-viii-42. 2nd instar — Similar but with a minute black dot on the sub- dorsal line on somites 4 to 9, the spot placed about one-third of the somite’s length from the anterior edge. An indistinct bluish dorsal line. Horn reddish. Moulted 27~viii-42. 3rd instar — Similar, but colour rather yellower green and speckled minutely with yellow. An additional black dot on the 10th somite, and all ringed with whitish later in the instar. Horn short, dark pink. Fore part of the body slightly tapered. Moulted 29-viii~42. 4th instar — Variable, the usual form similar to the preceding instars, but with the black spots enclosed in an oval ring, bluish white above and yellowish below, the whole edged with a black line. Horn shorter comparatively. Legs pinkish. Another form has a suffused reddish-brown stripe above the subdorsal line from the ocellus on the 6th somite to the base of the horn. A third form has the whole dorsum between the subdorsal stripes suffused with rufous. A fourth form has the green colour, including the head, replaced by rufous. These last three forms with the prolegs deep THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 83 pink. A fifth form has the head and body dark chocolate brown, a narrow, double, paler stripe on the dorsum and a paler lateral stripe. Ocelli with the pupil black, the iris whitish, the whole enclosed in a black ring. Horn blackish brown. Legs, prolegs and venter brownish pink. Moulted 3i-viii-42. Final instar — Bred green form — Head green. Body yellow green. 4th somite with a small round subdorsal ocellus, consisting of a round black pupil surrounded by a greenish-white iris, the whole ringed by a black line. 5th to 9th somites with larger, similarly coloured, but oval, ocelli, the upper edge more convex than the lower. 10th somite with the ocellus reduced to the black pupil only. Legs pink. Prolegs deep pink. Spiracles purple with the ends whitish. Llorn very short, straight, smoky at the sides, pinkish above, the extreme tip yellow. Bred dark form — Head dull brownish olive, with a darker stripe each side of the clypeus, and speckled with paler. Body purplish brown, a dark chocolate brown median line, a dark chocolate brown, broad subdorsal stripe from head to base of horn and narrowing at both ends ; the lateral area with a narrow whitish stripe above and below, tinged with chocolate brown on the thoracic somites and speckled throughout with whitish. Ocelli placed as in previous form and cut by the lower edge of the subdorsal stripe; the pupil black, the iris whitish and narrow above, deep yellow and slightly wider below, the whole encircled by a black line. Legs pink. Venter and prolegs very dark chocolate. Spiracles black with the ends yellowish. Horn with the upper surface orange, the sides dark chocolate, the extreme tip orange with a dark chocolate ring below. Pupated 5-ix'42- There is a considerable amount of variation in the tint of the ground colour and in the degree of contrast between the dark and pale areas. In some examples the chocolate colour is tinged with olive, in others with reddish chestnut. Normally the dorsal and lateral areas are the same colour but the lateral area may be suffused with chocolate ; in some examples the dorsal and lateral areas were cream-coloured. One specimen had the dark areas blackish purple, the light areas somewhat paler. The ocelli vary considerably in size. The contrast between the dark and pale areas is most marked early in the instar, later the contrast is reduced and the colours them- selves degraded to a muddy or yellowish brown. Wild green form — Wild green larvae are slightly different to the bred form. Head green. Body yellow green with minute yellow dots. Ocelli the same shape as in the other forms but the pupil blue-green, the iris of those on the 4th, 5th and 10th somites creamy yellow outlined by a black ring, of the remainder orange shading into yellow and outlined by a black ring. One had the ocelli on somites 6 to 8 only with the orange iris. Another had no orange round any of the ocelli and had the outlining black ring much broader above than below. Spiracles mauve with white ends. Legs pink. Venter and prolegs green. Horn green in some examples, pinkish in others, the extreme tip yellow. Wild brown form — Head golden brown. Body pale golden 84 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV brown, a dark dorsal line on the thoracic somites. A slightly darker golden brown subdorsal stripe, faintly streaked with dark brown, from head to base of horn and narrowing at both ends. The ocelli with the pupil black, the iris purplish shading into whitish above, and pale orange shading into yellow below, the whole ringed by a black line. Legs pink. Prolegs and venter pinkish brown. Spira- cles dark brown, the ends yellowish. Horn dark golden brown, the extreme tip orange. One bred example belonged to this form. Pupa in captivity in a slight cocoon among litter. In the field .a number were found spun up in growing leaves of the Arum on which they had been feeding. Colour pale yellowish bone colour, minutely streaked with dark brown, the abdominal somites with a dark olive dorsal line and a dark olive subdorsal stripe, traces of a dark spiracular stripe, a latero-ventral and median ventral stripe. Wing cases lined with dark brown. Tongue case forming a slight frontal keel. Spiracles protruding slightly. Cremaster short, black and pointed. Food-plant — Arums of various species. Bell and Scott give Jussiaea repens L. , Boerhaavia and Aroideae as food-plants. Described from larvae bred from ova or found in their first and second instar in Calcutta. Hampson describes the larva as ‘green, with the dorsal area red-brown; a subdorsal paler line with equal sized ocelli from 4th to 10th somites with green centres; horn red brown.’ Seitz writes ‘Larva green or earth-coloured with lighter lateral stripes, on the 4th to 10th rings dark-centred eyes surrounded by dark; horn small. It chiefly lives on Taro ( Colocasia antiquorum), also on Jussieua (sic)’. Noctuidae. Selepa celtis Moore. Moore, Lep. E. I. Co., 353, pi. 16, fig. 8a. 1858. Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, 370. 1894. Hamps., Cat. Lep. Phal ., xi, 298. 1912. Gaede, Seitz Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, xi, 396. 1937. Gardner, Indian Forest Records, vi, 276. 1941. Head black. Body greenish yellow, under a lens with indistinct longitudinal whitish lines. Some examples with traces of a black lateral line. A large black dorsal spot on 5th, loth and 12th somites. Clothed with longish, single, white hairs, in some examples the hairs on the thoracic somites black. Legs and prolegs greenish yellow. The black dorsal spots do not appear until the penultimate instar. Gregarious. Cocoon canoe-shaped of tawny silk, and covered with frass, etc. in captivity ; in nature probably spun on a branch and covered with bark fragments. Pupa slender, golden yellow, the dorsal area on the abdomen tinged with orange, the lateral with green. Food-plant — Lagerstroemia indica L. Gardner gives the fol- lowing list, Shorea robusta Gaertn., Eugenia jambolana Lamb., Carey a arbor ea Roxb., Terminalia tomentosa W. & A., etc. Described from a number of larvae found in Calcutta, one of which spun 29-vii-4 2, and a male emerged 7-viii-42. THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 85 Hampson, in the Catalogue, gives the following reference and description: — ‘Semper, Reise. Phil., Schmett ., ii, 529, pi. Q, figs. 12-14 — Yellow; head black; dorsal black patches on 5th, 10th and nth somites; a lateral reddish line with a series of black spots; hairs long and sparse; forms a cocoon covered with faeces.’ This description of Semper appears to be the basis of that in the Fauna and also in Seitz. Gardner correctly places the dorsal spots on the 2nd, 7th and 9th abdominal somites, but also mentions a smaller one on the 8th abdominal somite, this latter was absent in my specimens. Attatha ino Drury Hamps., Cat. Lep. Phal ., xiii 10. 1913. Head slightly flattened, pale green very slightly tinged with brown. Body pale green, very similar in colour to the young leaves of Peepul on which it feeds, a broad white subdorsal line. The dorsal chord is plainly visible as a dark, pulsating streak. Legs pale green. Prolegs pale green slightly tinged with brown. Spira- cles pale buff. The larva is somewhat flattened, particularly the thoracic and posterior somites. Before pupation the ground colour turns purplish pink and the lines fade. Pupa subterranean in a slight cocoon of earth and silk. Colour dark purple brown, the thorax and wing cases darker, a darker dor- sal stripe and the intersegmental areas. Cuticle punctate, the thorax and wing cases more so. Cremaster ending in a pair of divergent spines.. Food-plant — Peepul ( Ficus religiosa L.). Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta i6-iv-42, buried 18-W-42, and a male emerged 27-iv-42. Hampson gives the following reference and description: — ‘ Indian Museum Notes , v, p. 114, pi. xiii, ff. 6a, b. Yellowish white or dark pink above, yellowish white below; lateral lines pale, more or less distinct ; each somite with a few colourless bristles ; head dirty white, pinkish, or brown. Food-plant, Pipal. Pupates underground without cocoon’. Cosmophila sabulifera Guen. Gardner, Indian Forest Records , vi, 288. 1941. Head yellow green. Body olive green, a darker dorsal line due to the contents of the intestines, a white subdorsal line, a slightly sinuous white lateral line and a sinuous whitish sublateral line. In- tersegmental rings yellowish. 1st somite with two dorsal, a sub- dorsal, and a lateral black dot on the anterior edge and a second series of two dorsal, a smaller subdorsal and lateral immediately behind. 2nd and 3rd somites with a black dot just above the sub- dorsal line, one between it and the lateral line, and three below. 4th to nth somite with two dots above the subdorsal line, one between it and the lateral, and two below, the one above and anterior to the spiracles, the other below and posterior. 8th and 9th somites with 86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV an additional spot at the base of the proleg. 12th somite similar but with no spots below the lateral line. The black dots all ringed indistinctly with whitish and with a single, short, black bristle. Venter, legs and prolegs rather more silvery green. The first pair of prolegs reduced. Spiracles brown ringed with whitish. Pupa in a slight cocoon among leaves. Dull olive brown, a darker dorsal stripe on the abdominal somites, the intersegmental areas also darker. Minutely punctate. Cremaster ending in a bunch of golden brown hooked spines. Food-plant — Gardner gives Grewia tiliae folia Vahl, G. asiatica var. vestita Wall., G. laevigata Vahl and Eriolaena Hookeriana Wight and Arn. Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 25-viii-42, pupated 2 8-viii-42, and a female emerged 3~ix-42. Gardner gives the following description: — ‘Head dull yellow, body dull fairly dark green with two fine pale lines along each side. Setiferous rings on white spots themselves encircled by pink. Spira- cles white with black rims. Prolegs on A3 abruptly reduced. Labral emargination less than half deep. Length about 30 mm.’ Ericeia ( Polydesma ) inangulata Guen. Head pale brown, reticulated with darker, a white spot on each side of the vertex ; or in darker individuals blackish brown speckled with white and with two larger white spots on top of each lobe. Clypeus outlined with orange and with an orange line from apex to vertex. Body tawny brown, an orange dorsal stripe with a double central dotted line, a dark tawny subdorsal stripe sprinkled with minute dark dots and with a series of small white spots — -two to each somite, a slightly paler tawny lateral stripe speckled with darker dots, which are more numerous in the middle, below this a darker tawny, dark speckled stripe, and below this again a paler tawny, dark speckled stripe. Venter pale tawny with a dark brown central stripe. Legs orange brown. Prolegs tawny, the feet pinkish, the first pair obsolescent. Spiracles blackish. Head and body with very short, very sparse, black hairs. Some examples are very much darker, the dark tawny stripes being almost black. When young very Geometer-like. Pupa, in captivity, in a cocoon spun under a leaf and covered with earth. Rather slender, reddish brown, thorax and wing cases slightly darker, intersegmental areas darker. Pruinosed spiracles black. Apex of abdomen longitudinally wrinkled, the cremaster consisting of two longish, stout, hooked spines with a number of shorter and finer spines behind. Food-plant — Cassia fistula L. Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 29-VU-42, pupated 2-viii-42, and a male emerged io-viii-42. Geometridae. Scopula cleoraria Wlk. Head pale brown with a whitish subdorsal and lateral stripe. Body brownish green, with an indistinct darker dorsal stripe, more THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 87 noticeable intersegmentally, and a whitish lateral line. 4th and 5th somites with an irregular, dark brown, sublateral spot, in some examples, on the 6th and 7th somites also. The intersegmental divisions yellowish. Legs pale brown marked basally with darker. Shape very long and thin, slightly broader posteriorly. Rests extended straight out away from the support, or very slightly curved. The fore part is never coiled up. Turns crimson before pupation. Pupa in a slight cocoon between leaves, in a state of nature probably among litter. Pupa pale chestnut tinged with green, the wing cases olive green. Spiracles black. Cremaster ending in two stout, longish, divergent, hooked spines, with four finer spines ventrally, last segment of abdomen with a transverse dentate dorsal ridge. Food-plant — -A cultivated Lantana, L. sellowiana. Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 25-viii-42, pupat- ed 3i-viii-42 and a male emerged 7-ix-42. Pyralidae. Trachylepidia fructicassiella Rag. Head chestnut. Body greyish with a chestnut dorsal plate on the 1 st somite. Each somite with two pairs of minute black dots on the dorsum. A double lateral series of slightly larger black dots, one below and one above the spiracle. Anal somite marked with blackish. Legs chestnut. Venter and prolegs whitish. Spiracles chestnut ringed with black. A single colourless hair from each of the black spots. Pupa in a shuttle-shaped cocoon of dense white silk. Venter and wing cases honey colour shading into a very pale chestnut dor sally on the thorax and abdomen. 1st to 8th abdominal somites with two chitinous, blackish, dorsal teeth, those on the 1st to 7th somite slightly apart, on the 8th almost joined. The larvae live each in a separate compartment in the pod of Cassia fistula, but appear to congregate together to pupate, a com- partment being completely filled with cocoons and frass. Food-plant — Cassia fistula L. , living in the pod and eating the ripe seeds. Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta i9-iv-42, pupated 24-iv~42, and a female emerged 29-W-42. Pachyzancla aegrotalis Zell. Head brown. Body yellowish, appearing blue green from the contents of the intestines, a darker dorsal line. 1st and 2nd somites with a subdorsal black spot. A white spiracular ' line. A few colourless hairs arising from olive green spots, only visible under a lens. Legs colourless. Prolegs yellowish green. Lives in a spun together leaf. Pupa in a spun together leaf, reddish chestnut, slender. Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 30^*1-42, pupated 2-vii-42, and a male emerged 7-vii-42. [To be continued) FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE. Part II — Fishes of Hyderabad City and its suburbs. BY M. Rahimullah, M.SC., F.Z.S., Department of Fisheries , Hyderabad (Deccan). Hyderabad City and its suburbs, popularly known as Baida and Atraf-i-balda district, are situated about in the centre of the State. It is surrounded by the districts of Medak and Karimnagar on the north, Mahboobnagar on the South, Nalgonda on the east, Gulbarga on the west and Bidar on the north-east. Its total area is 3,399 sq. miles, including the city of Hyderabad (26 sq. miles). The country is mostly hilly with a few wooded hills, known as the Rajkonda range, extending upto Nalgonda district. Another is the Anantgiri range extending from Mahboobnagar to Dharur near Vikarabad. A large portion of this range is composed of high level laterite; and isolated granite hills are seen everywhere amongst which Moula Ali. the Golconda rock and the Black rock of Trimulgherry are of special interest. The most important river is the Musi, rising in the Anantgiri hills. It passes through the city and falls into the river Kistna near Wazirabad in the Nalgonda district. The river Manjra touches the district on the N.-W. side. Other smaller streams are the Sakalvani, Haldi, Deo, and the Eesi river. The geological formation is Archaean Gneiss ; tors and boulders of fantastic shapes are seen everywhere, composed of basalt and granite piled up in picturesque confusion. Series of dams have been formed in the Musi and Eesi, and there are 143 large and about 300 small tanks; but most of the tanks hold water only for about 8 months in the year, some are in disrepair and if properly maintained may become sources of peren- nial supply. Here, I will deal only with some important perennial reservoirs. The rainfall is only 30" and the temperature 62°-g6° but it some- times reaches even 108°. Population including Secunderabad is 16,53,249; number of fishermen 41,463. Himayatsagar, with a water spread of 14.7 sq. miles is situated south-west of the city about 12 miles away. It is a dam of the Eesi river and two big ‘nalas’ also fall into it ; its water is taken into the Meer-Alam tank by means of a channel and then supplied to the old part of the city. The margins are weedy, but the bottom is full of submerged boulders. The dam is 7,463 feet long with 17 automatic flood gates. The methods of fishing are very primitive and practised in shallow water; fishing is done by means of long lines also, but owing to the presence of otters very few fishes are found iptqct in the morning when the line is taken out; FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE 89 usually only the heads remain on the hooks. This reservoir contains much fish, and below is given the list of fishes obtained during the survey : Notopterus notopterus (Pallas). Notopterus sp. nov. Mastacembelus armatus (Lac4p.). Chela clupeoides (Bloch). Rasbora daniconius (Ham.). Barbus ( Puntius ) kolus (Sykes). Barbus ( Puntius ) sarana (Ham.). Barbus ( Puntius ) sophore (Ham.). Barbus ( Puntius ) ticto (Ham.). Cirrhina reba (Ham.) Labeo calbasu (Ham.). Labeo fimbriata (Bl.) Glossogobius giuris (Ham.). Ophicephalus marulius Ham. Ophicephalus striatus Bl. Heteropnestes fossilis (Bloch). Wallagonia attu (Bl.). Osmansagar (water spread area 16.22 sq. miles), about 11 miles west of the city, is the main source of water supply. The bottom is full of boulders ; vegetation is scanty. It is formed by damming the Musi river which is a tributary of the Kistna. The dam is 6,3000 ft. long with 45 flood gates. The water level in this reservoir has gone down considerably during the last five years owing to scanty rainfall. The predominant fishes are the two varieties of carps, Labeo calbasu Ham. and Labeo fimbriata (Bl.). It is not open - for netting ; only angling is allowed. List of fishes obtained : Notopterus notopterus (Pallas). Notopterus sp. nov. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacep). Chela clupeoides (Bl.). Barilius barna (Ham.) Barilius bendelisis Ham. Rasbora daniconius (Ham.). Barbus ( Puntius ) sarana (Ham.) Barbus ( Puntius ) ticto Ham. Cirrhina reba (Ham.). Labeo boggut (Sykes). Labeo calbasu Ham. Labeo fimbriata (Bl.). Labeo potail (Sykes). Glossogobius giuris (Ham.). Ophicephalus marulius Ham. Thynnichthys sandkhol (Sykes). Rohtee belangeri Cuv. & Val. Callichrous bimaculatus (Bloch). Mqer-Alam tank is about 4 miles south west of the city, and is a beautiful sheet of water ; it is 8 miles in circumference. The dam consists of a series of 21 semi-circular retaining walls with their convex sides facing the water; its total length is 1,120 yards, and it was constructed by French engineers at a cost of 8 lakhs, during the time of Nawab Meer Alam ; it is the main source of water supply to the old city. The margins are very weedy but the deeper parts are devoid of vegetation. It is noted for its rohu ( Labeo calbasu) Ham. and ‘phool-murrel’, Ophicephalus marulius Ham. Only angling is allowed, but being near the city it is a great attraction for poachers. Fishes obtained during survey : Notopterus notopterus (Pallas). Notopterus sp. nov. Mastacembelus armatus (Lac4p). Rasbora daniconius (Ham.). Barbus ( Puntius ) kolas (Sykes). Barbus ( Puntius ) sarana (Ham.). Barbus ( Puntius ) sophore (Ham.). Barbus ( Puntius ) ticto (Ham.). Labeo calbasu Ham. Glossogobius giuris (Ham.). Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day. Ophicephalus marulius Ham. Ophicephalus punctatus Bl. Ophicephalus striatus Bl. Callichrous malabaricus C.V. Heteropneutes fossilis (Bloch.) Clarias batrachus Linn. Wallagonia attu (Bloch). Hosainsagar is a large sheet of water which when full extends over an area of 8 sq. miles ; it lies between Secunderabad and Hyderabad. It supplies un- filtered water to the Osmania University and to gardens of Hyderabad and Secunderabad. The dam is 2,500 yds. long and forms the road between the two cities. It was built by Sultan Ibrahim Kutb Shah about 1575 A.D. It is fed by ‘Balkapur nala’ running from the river Musi near Shankerpalli, and a small feeder channel known as ‘Begampet nala’ brings flood water from the adjacent hills during the rains. The stocking of the reservoir is not satisfactory, and if artificial means are not resorted to the finny population will gradually diminish and the rentals will fall within a few years. If the fisheries of this reservoir are developed on proper scientific lines they can be a great source of supply to the city markets. 90 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV It contains much vegetation, and its ‘rohu’ ( Labeo calbasu Ham.) is of excellent taste. Other fishes are : Mastacembelus armatus (Lacep). Mastacembelus pancalus (Ham.). Chela clupeoides (Bloch). Rasbora daniconius (Ham.). Rasbora buchanani Bl. Barbus ( Puntius ) dorsalis (Jerdon). Barbus ( Puntius ) kolus (Sykes). Barbus ( Puntius ) sarana (Ham.) Barbus ( Puntius ) sophore Ham. Barbus ( Puntius ) terio (Ham.). Barbus ( Puntius ) ticto Ham. Brachydanio * erio (Ham.). Labeo calbasu Ham. Labeo fimbriata (Bl.). Glossogobius giuris (Ham.). Ophicephalus gachua Ham. Ophicephalus marulius Ham. Ophicephalus punctatus Bl. Ophicephalus striatus Bl. Mystus vittatus (Bloch). Mystus cavasius (Ham.) Wallagonia attu (Bloch). Danio aequipinnatus (McClelland). Young fry of L. fimbriata measuring i "-2 were obtained in the month of August from the upper reaches of ‘Begumpet nala’. Ibrahimpatan tank is about 20 miles from the city in the Baghat district, and has a water spread of about 6 miles when full. It was formerly fed by a channel from the river Musi but now this is in disrepair and hence the water level has gone down very low. It was noted for ‘Murrel’, but owing to the paucity of water it is being gradually overfished. At the time of the survey the water was very low and only about a sq. mile in area. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas). Rasbora daniconius Bl. Amblypharyngodon mola (Ham.). Barbus ( Puntius ) dorsalis (Jerdon). Barbus ( Puntius ) sophore Ham. Barbus ( Puntius ) ticto Ham. Ophicephalus punctatus Bl. Ophicephalus striatus Bl. Mystus vittatus (Bloch). Notopterus sp. nov. Notopterus sp. , Rahimullah and Das. Bull. Soc. Portug., Vol. XII, No. 18, pp. 135-141. It is found in large numbers along with Notopterus notopterus (Pallas) but differs from it in many characters. Below I give the fin formula and other characters which identify it as a new species. B = VII ; D = 8-io ; P=i4-i5; V = 5; A+C=ioi-ii7; Ll.%180. A distinct concavity on the head : (no concavity in N. notopterus) ; serrations exist along the lower surface of the preorbital, 28-31 serrations; the maxilla extends from \ to 2/3 of the diameter of the orbit, and below the latter; the dorsal fin commences much nearer to the tail fin than to the snout. The characters are intermediate between those of N. notopterus (N. kopirat) and N. chit ala Day. Labeo calbasu Ham. Labeo calbasu (Ham. Buch.) Day, Fauna Brit. Ltd., Vol. I, pp. 259-260. Day has described the colour as blackish ; sometimes, especially in examples from clear streams, many of the scales have a scarlet centre. The colouration was noted in fresh specimens from the same locality, and two varieties have been obtained ; one is more or less black and the spots on the scales are not very distinct, but in the other variety the colour is silvery with scarlet spots on the scales, whilst in L. fimbriata there are orange bloches on some scales, FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE 91 Brachydanio rerio (Ham.) Brachydanio rerio } Prashad and Mukherji, Rec. In. Mus., Vol. xxxi, pt. iii, pp. 206-208. Brachydanio rerio 3 Hora, Ibid., Vol. xxxix, pt. I, pp. 8 and 15. Brachydanio rerio } Bhimachar and Rau, J. Mys. Un ., Vol. 1, pt. xvi, pp. 146 and 152. The specimens were collected in large numbers from Hosain- sagar and its feeders. They agree in all characters with those de- scribed by Bhimachar and Rau. Lateral line and lateral line organs are absent. The fins are diaphanous. Upper half of the body is yellow and there are five steel-blue bands separated by yellow ones in the upper and by silvery bands in the lower half. Four horizontal bands on the anal, 3 distinct and two lighter ones on the caudal ; pectoral and ventral fins yellowish. It has proved to be a very good larvicidal fish. Thynnichthys sandkhol (Sykes). Thynnichthys sandkhol f Day, Fauna. Brit. Ind., Vol. I, p. 289. Length of head 4J, height of body 3! in the total length. Eye 4 in the length of the head, 2 diameters apart. In colouration and other respects it is the same as described by Day. Rohtee belangeri (Cuv. & Val.). Rohtee belangeri , Day, Fauna. Brit. Ind., Vol. I, p. 342. It differs in its measurements from those given by Day. Length of head 7, height of body 2f in the total length. Eye : head — 3J, if diameters from end of snout 2f diameters apart. This fish is commonly found in all parts of the dominions. Acknowledgement. I am indebted to the Revenue and P.W.D. authorities for help rendered to me during the survey work. I am also thankful to the Pro-Vice-Chancellor, and Professors B. K. Das and M. Sayeed- uddin for the loan of literature ,and to the Additional Revenue Secretary (Rural Reconstruction) for all the facilities, and to my colleagues of this department for constant help. For publication, I am grateful to the Bombay Natural History Society. References. Bhimachar, B. S., and Subba Rau, A. — /o«m. Mys. Un., Vol. I, pt. xvi, (1941). Day, F. — Fauna Brit. Ind. Fishes, Vol. I (1889). Hora, S. L. — Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. xxxix, pt. i (1939). Hora, S. L., Misra, K. S. and Malik, G. M. — Ibid, Vol. xli, pt. iii (1939). Mukerjee, H. K., Mozumdar, S. R. and Das Gupta, B. — Ind. Journ. Vet. Sc. and Anim. Hush., Vol. xl, pt. iii (1941). Prashad, B. and Mukerji, D. D. — Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. xxxi, pt. iii (1929). Webber, Max and Beaufort, L. F, De. — Fish, Indo- Austral, Arch., Vols, iii and iv (1936). THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LINDENBLOOMS OF INDIA. BY J. F. CAIUS, S.J., F.L.S. The TILIACE/E are trees or shrubs, rarely herbs.. Most of them are tropical; a few inhabit the temperate northern hemisphere, and some are found behind the tropic of Capricorn; but none extend into the Arctic Circle, or ascend to great mountain elevations. The 380 species are distributed into 35 genera. In general the leaves are mucilaginous and emollient ; the bracts and flowers are aromatic, antispasmodic, and slightly sudorific. The bark may be bitter and astringent. Among the products obtained may be mentioned : — (1) a volatile oil; (2) laevo-rotatory phytosterols ; (3) vanillin ; and (4) glucosides — capsularin, corchorin, tiliacin — . The medicinal and poisonous Lindenblooms of the world belong to i2 genera: Ancistrocarpus (tropical West Africa); Cistanthera (tropical Central and West Africa); Corchoropsis (Japan, China); Corchorus (warm regions) ; El^ocarpus (tropical) ; Glypklea (tropi- cal Africa) ; Grewia (Asia, Africa, Australia ; mostly tropical) ; Luehea (tropical America, West Indies); Sloanea (tropical); Sparmannia (tropical and South Africa) ; Tilia (northern temperate regions); Triumfetta (tropical). The medicinal and poisonous Lindenblooms of India belong to 4 genera : Corchorus, El^eocarpus, Grewia, Triumfetta. A. Anthers opening by slits. I. Petals usually foveolate or glandular at the base ; stamens springing from the apex of a raised torus. a. Fruit without prickles ... ... ... Grewia. b. Fruit prickly. Herbs or undershrubs. Fruit small ... Triumfetta. II. Petals not foveolate or glandular at the base; stamens springing from a contracted torus ... ... Corchorus. B. Anthers opening by a terminal pore. Petals sepaloid ... ... ... ... Elaeocarpus. Corchorus. The genus consists of 40 species widely dispersed throughout the warm countries of the world. The following are used medicinally in the Philippine Islands — C. acutangulus Lam., C. capsularis Linn. — ■; in Indo-China — C. capsularis Linn. — ; in Egypt— C. olitorius Linn. — ; in Gold Coast— C. acutangulus Lam. — ; in Southern Africa — C. asplenifolius Burch., C. serrcefolius Burch. — . A. Capsule globose, not beaked ... ... C. capsularis. B. Capsule elongated. 1, Beak 3-fid spreading ... ... ... C. acutangulus. 93 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LINDENBLOOMS II. Beak entire. 1. Capsule glabrous, cylindric, io-ribbed. Beak long, erect 2. Capsule scabrous or aculeate, 3-angled. Beak short, erect C. Capsule short, beak entire. I. Annual. Capsule pubescent, 3-valved II. Perennial. Capsule glabrous, 4-valved ... C. olitorius. ... C. trilocularis . ... C. fascicularis. ... C. depressns. 1. Corchorus acutangulus Lam. is found throughout the hotter parts of India and Ceylon. It is distributed to Australia, tropical Africa, and the West Indies. The bitter seeds are given by the Mundas of Chota Nagpur in pneumonia and stomach ache. In Gold Coast the whole plant, including the root, is used in the form of an injection for urethral discharges. Akim : Survabiri— ; Awuna : Lolui-tsu — ; Bengali: Titapat — ; Ewe: Have — ; Ibo : Aheheara, Ahihira — ; Krepi : Ademademaa, Adomadoma ; Krobo : Togatoya — ; Mende : Ndogbo-ngengele — ■; Mundari : Karigiri, Karijiri, Karijuri, Piritijudiring — ; Tubu: Koebulu — ; Twi: Padeedee, Siwabiri — ; Yoruba : Abojaga, Abo jaja— . 2. Corchorus capsularis Linn, occurs throughout the hotter parts of India. It is cultivated in most tropical countries. A decoction of the dried root and unripe fruit is given in diarrhoea. In cases of dysentery the dried leaves are eaten at breakfast time with rice. The cold infusion is also administered as a tonic in dysenteric complaints, fever, and dyspepsia. It is a common practice in the jute-growing districts of Bengal to keep a small stock of the dried jute leaves in the house, whereof an infusion — a so-called tea — is made and taken by those suffer- ing from any disorder of the liver. From the reports received by the Indigenous Drugs Committee it appears that the infusion is used as a popular domestic medicine for disorder of the liver and is of great value when there is a trouble with burning sensa- tion in hands and feet. It is also used as a bitter tonic, stomachic, laxative, carminative, stimulant to increase appetite and flow of saliva and gastric juice; also as an antiperiodic, anthelmintic, astringent and intestinal antiseptic. It has been reported as effica- cious in fever, bilious troubles, worms of children, dysentery, hepatic and intestinal colic, gastralgia and gastric catarrh, skin diseases especially itches, atonic dyspepsia, slight jaundice, and in the disorder of the digestive system. In Indo-China the flowers are given in epistaxis; the fruits are applied to swelling and abscesses, and prescribed in diseases of the bladder. Assam: Marasag, Titamara — ■; Bengal: Ghinalitapat, Koshta, Narcha Titthapat — ; Bombay: Chouchen, Ghinaltapat, Narcha — ; English: Jute — ; Formosa: Ma-p’i — ; French: Chanvre de Calcutta, Jute — ; Hindi: Ghinalita, Koshta, Narcha, Pat — ; Indo-China: Bo day, Floang ma, Ta ma — ; Marathi: Chaunchan — ; Mundari: Hatularita — ; Philippines : Patas, Ponglopongloan — Porebunder : Borachhunchh, Chhunchh — ; Portuguese: Juta — ; Sadani.: Larita — ; Sanskrit: Kalasaka, Nadikapatta — ; Sant all: Kaskomrau — ; 94 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HlST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV Shahjahanpur : Harrawa — ; Sinhalese: Jaladara — ; Tagalog : Pasaonabilog — ; Tamil : Pirattikirai — ; Vis ay an : Lamhay — ■. 3. Corchorus depressus Stocks is found in the Punjab, Sind, Baluchistan, Cutch, Gujerat, Deccan. It is distributed to Afghani- stan, Arabia, North Africa, Cape Verde Islands, and tropical Africa. The plant has tonic properties,. It is given as a cooling medicine in fever. The mucilage is used in Sind for gonorrhoea. The leaves are emollient. The Baluchis make a cooling drink out of them. In Jaisalmer and Jodhpur they ai*e applied to wounds, and a decoction is said to be efficacious in cases of skin eruption. The seeds in decoction, with milk and sugar, are given as a tonic. Arabic: Ueki — ; Baluchistan: Mandira, Munderi, Mundheri — ; English: Shrubby Jute — ; Gujerati : Bahuphali, Bethibahuphali, Chhikni, Chhunchh — ; Hindi : Baphuli — ; Marathi : Bahuphali — ; Punjab : Babuna, Bahuphalli, Bophalli, Kurana — ; Rajputana : Hadekakhet — ; Sanskrit: Bhedani, Chanchu, Katuka, Kshudra, Ksudrachanchu, Patupatrika, Shunakuchanchuka, Tvaka- sara — ; Sind : Mudhiri, Munderi — ; Uriya : Bojoromuli — . 4. Corchorus fascicularis Lam. occurs throughout the hotter parts of India. It is distributed to tropical Africa and Australia. It is very mucilaginous and somewhat astringent, and is valued as a restorative. In Bombay, a watery extract, mixed with sugar-candy, is taken as a nutritive tonic. Bengal: Banpat, Bilnalita, Janglipat— ; Bombay: Bhauphali, Hirankhori, Mothibahuphali — ; Gujerat: Chhunchhadi, Ubhibahuphali — ; Hindi: Banko- stoa, Janylipat, Khetapat — ; Marathi: Hirankuri, Motibuhuphali — ; Poona: Mayarmithi — ; Porebunder : Chhunchhadi, Ubhibahuphali — ; Sanskrit: Bhiru- patrika, Chanchu, Chanchuputra, Chanchura, Chhunchhu, Chincha, Diagh- patri, Kalabhi, Kshestrachhunchhu, Kshestrasambhava, Sushaka, Vijala — . 5. Corchorus olitorius Linn, is generally distributed by culti- vation in all tropical countries. The chief seat of its Indian culti- vation is near Kulna in the Burdwan district of Bengal. The dried plant, roasted and powdered, is used in visceral obstruction. In South India it is used as a demulcent. The leaves are demulcent, tonic and diuretic, useful in some cases of chronic cystitis, gonorrhoea and dysuria. The leaves and tender shoots are eaten, and in the dried state, known as nalita ; they are used in infusion by the natives as a domestic medicine, being tonic and slightly febrifuge, and hence used as a fever drink. The dried leaves are sold in the market. A cold infusion is used as a bitter tonic, and is devoid of any stimulating property. It can be safely given to patients recovering from acute dysentery to restore the appetite, and improve the strength. The seeds are purgative. In Egypt they are put into the eye to cause inflammation by way of malingering. Abeokuta : Eyo — ; Arabic: Melochia, Meloukhia, Meluhhije, Molochia, Molukhyia, Muluhhije — ; Awuna : Acleme — ; Bengal: Banpat, Bhungipat^ Phunjipat, Koshta, Lalitapat, Pat — ; Berar : Chooich — ; Bombay: Chhunchh, Motichhunchh, Tankla — ; Efik : Etinyon — ; Egypt: Melukhiye — ; Ekoi : Etin- yung — ; English: Jew’s Mallow, Jute, Long-fruited Jute — ; Ewe: Sigli, MEDICINAL and poisonous LIN den blooms 95 Singili, Singli — ; ¥ anti : Otoro, Oturo — ; French : Corete, Corette, Corette potagere, Guimauve potagere, Melochie — ; Fulani : Lolo, Lolo memel — ; Ga : Otoro, Oturo — ; Gambia : Alo — ; German : Gemuese Corchorus— ; Greek: CorchoroS' — ; Gujerati: Chhunchho — ; Hausa : Lalo, Malafiya, : Marafiya, Tungurnuwa — ; Hindi: Banpat, Koshta, Pata, Sanpat, Singinjanasha — ■; Ho: Hatempa — ; Ibo Owerri : Ahu hara — ; Ijebu-Ode : Ayo — ; Ilesha : Yoyo — ; Iraq: Malukhiyah — ; Kanuri : Darraba, Gamgaino — ; Katsina : Turgun- nuwa — ; Kissi : Yo-ngengeyo — ; Konno : Kokoe — ; Kratchi : Aposse — ; Lagos: Ewedu — ; Mandingo :■ Kiringere — ; Marathi: Chunch, Motichunch-— ; Mende : Gingere, Ngenge, Ngengele, Yengei, Yeingei — ; Mundari : Larita — ; Nimar : Rajan — ; North-Western Provinces : Banphal — ; Oloke Meji : Eyo-ganbi — ; Pore- bunder: Chhunchho, Chunchhdo, Motichhunchh — ; Punjab: Banpat, Banphal — ; Sadani : Larita — ; Sanskrit : Brihatchanchu, Dirghapatri, Divyagandha, Kalasa, Mahachanchu, Nadika, Patta, Singgika, Sthulachanchu, Suchanchuka, Vishari — \ Santali : Birnarcha — Senoufo : Sobo-- - ; Severe : a Koud: — ; Sherbro : Krinkrin-de — ■ ; Sierra Leone : Bush Okra, Crincra, Crincrin, Ingle — ; Sind: Banpat — ; Sinhalese : Wanuk — ; Sobo: Oyoyo — ; Susu : Surr — ; Tamil: Peratti, Perumpunnakhuppoondu, Punaku — ; Telugu: Parinta, P'arintakura — ; Timne : Kenkerin, Kirinkirin — ; Umu Ahia : Agheregha, Aheheara, Ahihira — ; Uriya: Jhoto, Jot.o, Kaunria — ; Wolf: Mbali — ; Yemen: Melochia — Yoruba: Ewedu-ga-nbe, Eyo, Eyo-ga-nbe, Oyo — . 6. Corchorus trilocularis Linn, is found in Bihar, the Deccan and Carnatic of the Madras and Bombay Presidencies, Khandesh, Gujerat, Cutch, Sind, Baluchistan; whence it extends to Afgani- stan, Arabia, tropical and southern Africa. The plant, macerated for a few hours in water, yields a mucilage, prescribed as a demulcent. The seeds are bitter and administered in doses of about 80 grains in fever and obstruction of the abdominal viscera. Arabic: Melochia, Molukhiya— ; Arago : Emakikoho — ; Bombay: Kaduchhunchh, Kuruchuntz — ; Canarese : Tanolassir — ; Egypt: Melukhiye — ; Fulani: Lalo — ; Gujerati: Kadvi-chhunchhdi — ; Hausa: Lalo, Turgunuwa — ; Hindi : Kadukosta, Kadvapat — ; Malay : Ramput haya roaza — ; Marathi : Kaduchunch — • ; Nasirabad : Datrab — ; Porebunder : Lambichhunchh — ; Raj- putana : Hardikeket, Kaglekitamaku, Karak— ; Sanskrit: Dirghachanchu. Kaunti, Nadika — ; Sinhalese: jahedara, Wanuk — ; Songhai : al Muluguia — ; Tamil : Peratti, Punnakkuppoondu, Talakkaippoondu — . El^ocarpus The genus numbers 90 tropical species, most abundant in the hotter parts of India and the Indian Archipelago; a few are found in some of the South Sea Islands, New Zealand, and Australia. E. madepolatus Pierre is used medicinally in Cambodia, E. photiniae folia Hook, and Arn. in Indo-China. A. Anthers not terminated by an awn. I. Drupe 5-celled E. Ganitrus. II. Drupe 1-3-celled. a. Anthers bearded. Filaments short, straight ... E. serratus. b. Anthers rarely bearded. Filaments long, twice bent E. oblongus. Anthers terminated by a long awn. Leaves obovate. Stone much tubercled ... E. tuberculatus. 1. Elaeocarpus Ganitrus Roxb. is found in the Western Ghats and the Konkan of the Bombay Presidency, Nepal, Bengal, Burma, Siam, the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago. 96 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLlV The fruit is used by Hindu practioners in diseases of the head and epileptic fits. Bengal : Rudrakya — ; Canarese : Rudraksha — ; English : Utrasum Bead Tree — ; Hindi : Rudrak — ; Malay alam : Rudraksham — ; Marathi : Rudraksh — ; Sanskrit : Amara, Bhutanashana, Harksha, Nilakanthaksha, Pavana, Pushpa- chanamara, Rudraksha, Sharvaksha, Shivaksha, Shivapriya, Trinameru — ; Tamil : Akkam, Irattaiyuruttirasham, Kaurichangamani, Uruttiradcham, Uruttirakkam — ; Telugu : Rudrachallu — Tulu : Rudraksha — ; Uriya : Rudrakhyo — . 2. Elaeocarpus oblongus Gsertn. occurs in the Western Peninsula, and in Malaya. The fruit is used as an emetic. Badaga. : Bikki — ; Canarese : Bikki, Hanaltadi, Hanillatade, Hennalatade — ; Malay alam : Kattakara, Malankara — ; Tamil : Kattukkarai — Visayan : Cabaite, Cabilte — . 3. Elaeocarpus serratus Linn, is found in the Western Penin- sula, Ceylon, and Malaya. The leaves are used in rheumatism, and as an antidote to poison. The fruits are prescribed in dysentery and diarrhoea. Bengal: Jalpai — Canarese : Bigada, Guddarenje, Perinkara — ; English : Wild Olive — ; Hindi : Jalpi — ; Malayalam : Avil, Karamavu, Nallakara, Perun- kara, Valiyakara — ; Sanskrit : Chiribilva — ; Sinhalese: Weralu — ; Tamil: Ulangarai, Uruttiracham — ; Tulu: Rahubija — ; Uriya: Jolopari — . 4. Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb. is found in the Western Peninsula, and in Malaya. A decoction of the bark is given in vomiting of blood, and in biliousness- The nuts are used in rheumatism, typhoid fever, and epilepsy. Badaga: Rudraksha — ; Canarese: Bhutali, Dandele, Dandla, Rudrak, Rudraksha, Rudrakshi — •; Hindi: Rudrak — ; Kadir : Navati, Pag-umbal, Pillahi, Pulandi — ; Malayalam: Ammakkaram, Kotuvasi, Maggara, Nakara, Navati, Pillahi, Pulanthi — ; Mysore: Danala — ; Tamil: Pagumbal, Rudrak- sham, Uruttracham — . Grewia The genus numbers 150 species spread over Asia, Africa and Australia, mostly tropical. Mucilaginous and demulcent, useful in the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery. The following are used medicinally in Indo China — G. paniculata Roxb. — ; in the Philippine Islands — G. paniculata Roxb-, G.umbel- lata Roxb. — ; in Australia — G. hirsuta Vahl — - ; in Tropical Africa — G- carpinifolia Juss., G. mollis Juss., G. populifolia Vahl, G. villosa Willd. — ; in South Africa — G. occidentalis Linn. — . A. Inflorescence terminal and axillary (sometimes extra- axillary). Flowers in umbellate cymes I. Scandent shrubs. Torus long. Drupes obscurely lobed, purple ... ... ... G. umbellata. II. Shrubby. Torus short. Drupes yellowish, gener- ally 2-lobed, lobes the size of a small pea, orange- red ... ... ... ... G. populifolia. MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LINDENBLOOMS 97 B. Inflorescence leaf-opposed and axillary. Leaves glabrous or nearly so G. tenax. Inflorescence axillary (rarely extra-axillary). I. Leaves usually hoary, at least beneath. Leaves 5-6-nerved 1. Stipules leafy, auricled ... ... G. tiliaefolia. 2. Stipules linear-lanceolate G. asiatica. 11. Leaves not hoary beneath, orbicular. Anthers glabrous a. Drupes with a crustaceous rind 1. Leaves 3-6 by 4 in. G. sclerophylla. 2. Leaves 3 by in. ; petiole | in. G. carpinifolia. 3. Leaves 1-3 in. ; petiole l-i in. b. Drupes fleshy. Flowers polygamous. G. villosa. Branched shrub. Stamens more than 40 ... G. hirsuta. Inflorescence terminal, in panicled cymes. Flowers involucrate. I. Petals oblong, entire or shortly emarginate. Thrice shorter than sepals G. Microcos. II. Petals entire, much shorter than sepals G. paniculdla. 1. Grewia asiatica Linn, is cultivated throughout India. The fruit is a well-known Ayurveda medicine credited with astringent, cooling, and stomachic properties. An infusion of the bark is used as a demulcent. The Santals use the root-bark for rheumatism. The leaf is employed as an application to pustular eruptions, and the bud is also prescribed by native practitioners. Ajmere : Dhamni — ; Arabic : Phalasah — - ; Bengal : Phalsa, Shukri — ; Burma: Pintayaw, Tagaw — ; Bombay: Phalasi — ; Canarese : Buttiyudippe, Jana, Tadasala — ; Central Provinces: Dharnru, Dhamun — ; Deccan: Phulsha, Pulsha — ; Gujerat : Phalsa — ; Hindi: Dhamin, Karra, Parusha, Phalsa, Phar- vah, Pharsa, Phulsa, Shukri—; Kohlu : P'istawan — ; Kolami : Gonyia, Sing' hindamin — ; Konkani : Phalsi — ; Kctra : Pharwan — ; Malay alam : Chadicha — Marathi: Phalsi — ; Nepal: Sialposra — ; Newari: Fussi — ; North-Western Provinces: Dhaman, Phalsa, Pharsiya — ; Parbut: Fulsa, Fursu — ; Persian: Falseh, Palasah — - ; Punjab : Phalsa, Phalso, Pharoah, Phalue^ — ; Pushtu : Pastaoni, SSiikarimaiwah — ; Sanskrit: Alpasthi, Dhanv anchhada , Giripilu, Mriduphala, Nagadalapam, Nilacharma, Nilamandala, Parapara, Paravata, Parusha, Parushaka, Porusha, Purusha, Roshana — ; Santal: Jangolat — ; Sind : Phalsa, Phalso, Pharaho, Pharoah — - ; Sinhalese : Dowaniya, Hin-dam- aniya— ; Tamil: Palisa, -Tadachi, Unnu — ; Telugu: Jana, Nallajana, Pedda- jana, Phutiki, Putiki — ; Urdu: Phalasah — ; Uriya: I’harosakoli — . 2. Grewia carpinifolia Juss. is found in the Western Peninsula and is distributed to Tropical Africa. In West Tropical Africa the plant is used medicinally or to combine with other medicines. Women use it in washing the hair to remove or prevent lice, and put the roots in soup when approach- ing childbirth. In East Tropical Africa the broth obtained by boiling the head of a kid in a decoction of the root is taken in cases of diuresis and polyuria. Ashanti : Ntabanu — ; Ewe : Gayalige, Tupoetupoe — ; Fanti : Nkukumbe, Ntaanta — - ; Ga : Asegetete-ntaata, Asegremi-tsho — ; Gosha : Donoi — - ; Krobo : Akpe-tsho — ; Somali : Debi — ; Yoruba : Itakun okere — . 7 98 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoL XLIV 3. Orewia hirsuta Vahl occurs in the sub-Himalayan tract up to 4,500 feet from the Indus eastwards, the Salt Range, Bihar, Orissa, Burma, the southern Provinces, and Ceylon.. It is dis- tributed to North Australia. I he fruit is employed as a medicine by the Santals, in diarrhoea and dysentery. The root pounded is also prescribed for the same diseases, and powdered in water is applied externally to hasten suppuration, and as a dressing for wounds. The paste dries and forms a hard coating, thus effectually excluding air from the raw surface, t his plant is used by the aborigines of North-Western Australia as a remedy for dysentery. Arabic : Karnafetusa — ; Australia : Plain Currant — ; Betul : Kharota — ; Bombay : Gowali, Gowli— ; Burma : Kyettayavv — ; Canarese : Chikkudippe, Jana, Udippe — ; Hasada : Setalele — ; Hindi: Gursukri, Kakarundah, Kukur- bicha — ; Kharwar : Gursukri — ; Kolami : Setaandir, Setabeli, Setakata — ; Marathi: Govli — ; Merwara : Phrongli — ; Naguri: Seta-bili, Seta-kata — ■; Persian : Karalasrumi — ; Porebunder : Khoddhramani — ; Queensland : Karoorn, Kooline, Ouraie — ; Santal : Setaandir, Setabeli, Setakata — ; Tamil : Tavidu — ; Telugu : Bidarachipuru, Budda, Cbinnachipuru, Chipuru, Chittijana, Jibilike, Muvalchu, Tellajana — ; Urdu: Kakarundehrumi — ; Uriya: Kulo, Sonaranga — 4. Grewia Microcos Linn, occurs in Eastern Bengal, Assam, Burma, the Western Peninsula, Mysore, and Ceylon. It is distri- buted to Java and China. The plant is much used medicinally ; it is given for indigestion, eczema and itch, smallpox, typhoid fever, dysentery, syphilitic ulceration of the mouth. Bombay: Ansale, Shiral — ; Burma: Myaza — ; Canarese: Abhhrangu, Biliyabhhrangu, Majjigesoppu — ; Malay alam *: Kottakka— ; Sinhalese: Keliya — ; Tamil: Kadambu, Visalam — ; Tulu . Abroni — . 5. Grewia paniculata Roxb. is common in the Malay Peninsula and in Indo-China, in open country. In the southern parts of Indo-China a decoction of the roots is given as a cure for cough. Indo-China: Co ke, Poplear thorn — ; Malay: Chenderai hutan — ; Visayan: Bangalad — . 6. Grewia populifolia Vahl extends from the arid tracts of the Punjab, Sind, Rajputana, and Western India, down to the Nilgiri Hills. It is distributed to Afghanistan, Arabia, tropical Africa, Mauritius. A mucilage of the bark is used by the women of West Tropical Africa to cleanse the hair of vermin. Somali women take a decoction of the roots to incite the foetus in the womb and thus ascertain that it is alive. Falor : Sonne — ; Gosha : Moris — ; Kohat : Shikari mewa — ; Kolami : Bursa — None: Sonne — ; Punjab: Ganger, Gangi, Kanger, Khircha, Inzarre — ; Pushtu: Khircha, Madzar — | Rajputana: Ganegam, Gangan, Gangerun — ; Serere : Nghel, Nguel — ; Sind: Gangi, Gango — ; Somali’ Morio — Telugu : Gundukadira, Kadadari, Kaladi, Kattekolupu — ; Tuareg: Tarkat — Tukulor : Keli, Kelli — ; Wolof: Kel — . MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LINDENBLOOMS 7. Grewia sclerophylla Roxb. occurs throughout the sub- Himalayan tract and outer hills of Kumaon, up to 3,500 feet, Sikkim, Assam, Chittagong, Ava. The root is prescribed in coughs and irritable conditions of the intestines and bladder. The decoction is also used as an emollient enema. Bengal: Phalsa — ; Burma: Petshat — ; Canarese : Darsuk, Kadukadele — ; Cutch : Susaka — ■ ; Dehra Dun Gurbheli — ; Gujerati : Padekado — ; Haldwani : Phalsa— ; Hindi : Pharsia — ; Kumaon : Pharsia — - ; Marathi : Khatkhati, Pandharidhaman — ; Mundari: Gaphni — ; Tamil : Kattukkadaii, Punaippiduk- kan — ; Telugu: Bankajana — ; Tharu : Dapher — . 8. Grewia tenax Fiori is found in the Punjab, the desert of Western Rajputana, Sind, Baluchistan, Cutch, Southern Maratha Country, the Deccan and Carnatic of the Madras Presidency, and Ceylon. It is distributed to Afghanistan, Persia, Arabia, tropical Africa, and Mauritius. It is most probably identical with G. popuLifoiia Vahl, A Baluchi medicine for all sorts of diseases and very highly esteemed. The berries are given for colds. in Jhalawan a decoction of the wood is given as a cure for coughs and pains in the side. Arabic: Chodar, Moucken, Nabba — ; Baluchi: Gwangir, Buzi putrunk — ; Brahui : Gwangir — ; jhalawan: Gwangi, Kango — ; Kalat : Rango — ; Mandi : Putrunk — ; Rajputana: Gangeran, Gangerun, Gangi, Gang'o, Kankeran — : Sinhalese < : Katuperatti— ; Tamil : Achu — ; Telugu : Gundukadira, Kadadari, Kaladi, Kattekolupu — . 9. Grewia tiiiaefolia Vahl occurs in the sub-Himalayan region from the Jumna to Nepal up to 4,000 feet, Central India, all the districts of the Madras Presidency, Bihar, Orissa, Burma, and Ceylon. It is distributed to East Tropical Africa. In the Konkan the bark, after removal of the tuber, is rubbed down with water, and the thick mucilage strained from it and given in 5-tola doses, with 2 tolas of the flour of Panicum miliaceum (warrij as a remedy for dysentery. The bark is also employed externally to remove the irritation from cow-itch. The wood reduced to a powder acts as an emetic, and is employed as an antidote to opium poisoning. Bengal : Dhamani, Pharsa — ; Bhil : Dhamnak — ; Bombay : Damana, Kara- kana — ; Canarese: Batale, Butale, Buttele, Dadsal, Jana, Tadagana, Tadasali, Tadasalu, Thadasal, Thadsal — ; Centra! Provinces : Damun, Dhaman, Dhamni — ; Ceylon : Chadachi — ; English : Dhaman—; Gond : Ainlubaranda, Kasul, Khesla — ; Gujerat : Dalmon, Dhamana — ; Hindi: Dhaman, Dhamani, Dhamin, Pharsa — ; Kadir : Chatachi, Una — ; Kharwar : Dhaman—; Khond : Kahal, Karkana — ; Kolami : Ahsing, Dhamin, Gonyer — , Konkani : Butale, Dadsale, Damoni — ; Kumaon: Pharsia — ; Kurku: Dhamni — ; Malay alam : Satchi, Una — ; Marathi : Daman, Damni, Dhaman, Karavai ani, Karakarani — ; Matheran : Dhaman — ; Mundari : Asin, Asindaru, Bengadaru — ; Mayurbhanj : Kultho — ; Porebunder : Dhaman, Dharman — ; Sanskrit: Dhamsi, Dlanuvriksha, Dharmana, Dharwana, Manabala, Pichhilaka, Pichhilatvaka, Raktakusuma, Rujasaha, Ruksha, Swaduphala — ; Santali : Janoolat, Olat — '; Saora: Inuputada — ; Sinhalese: Daminiya, Daminne — ; Tamil: Sadachi, Tada, Tarra, Una, Unnu— ; Telugu: Charachi, Ettatada, Jana, Nulijana, Tada, Tadajana, Udupai — ; Tulu : Kanapadi — ; Uriya: Bhangia, Dhaman, Dhamono, Dhamuro — . 100 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV io. Grewia umbellata Roxb. is found in the Malay Penin- sula, Siam, and Borneo. The leaves are applied to cuts and wounds. Malay : Akar chenderai, Akar kapialu, Akar sekapu, Akar -sempelas lida kuching — ; Philippines : Danloy — . n. Grewia yillosa Willd. occurs in the Trans-Indus, the Punjab, Rajputana, Sind, Gutch, Kathiawar, the Deccan and Carnatic of the Madras Presidency from the Kistna southwards. It is distributed to the Cape Verde Islands and tropical Africa. The juice of the fresh bark is used with sugar and water for gonorrhoea and urinary complaints attended with irritability of the bladder. The root is employed for diarrhoea in Chota Nagpur. East of Chad, in tropical Africa, the root is an ingredient in native prescriptions for syphilis and smallpox. The roots macerated and triturated with milk are a Somali cure for belly ache in babies ; the adults apply a poultice to the abdo- men, the roots are ground with as little water as possible. Ajmer e : Dhohan — ; Baluchi: P'achini putrunk — ; Canarese : Buttigaragale, Garakele, Sannudippe — ; Cutch : Luskano — ; Ewe : Adzadze — ; Falor : Lekit — ; Gujerati : Padekhado, Parekhado — ; Hausa : Gwiwar rak ’umi — ; Kamba : Mugu— ; Kolami : Gaphni— ; Mangu : Yumbu — ; Marathi : Kharmati — ; Merwara : Dhokelan — ; None: Ngomen — ; Punjab: Jalidar, Kaskusri, Tham- tlier — ; Pushtu : Inzarra, Pastuwanne — ; Rajputana : Lonkas — ; Santali : Tarsekolap — ; Tamil: Kullai — ; Telugu: Benta, Chenula — ; Tigre : Hafule, Khafule — ; Wolof : Horom sap — . Triumfetta The genus consists of 75 tropical species. All the species are mucilaginous, demulcent, bechic, and dieuretic ; but those more commonly used are T. rhomboidea Jacq. and T, semitriloba Linn, generally, and T. Lappida Linn, in Guiana. Fruit the size of a small pea; spines hooked, glabrous or ciliated ... ... ... ... ... T. rhomboidea. Fruit the size of a large pea; spines bristly or shaggy ... T. semitriloba. i. Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. occurs in tropical and sub- tropical India, Ceylon, the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago, from which it extends to China. It is distributed to Africa and America. The root is bitter and acrid, and used as a diuretic. The bark and fresh leaves are given in diarrhoea and dysentery. The leaves, flowers and fruits are mucilaginous and astringent. They are given in gonorrhoea. The fruit is believed to promote parturition. Zulu women take a hot infusion of the root to facilitate child- birth or to hasten the inception of parturition when it is delayed. In La Reunion and Mauritius the mucilaginous roots and flowers are used for their demulcent, bechic, and diuretic properties. MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LIN DEN BLOOMS 101 The pounded root is applied to sore eyes and to boils in Mada- gascar ; the leaves and the stems bruised .together are used for poulticing all sorts of tumours. In the district of Menabe the plant, associated with Cynodon dactylon , is applied to burns and sore eyes. In Brazil a decoction of the herb or of the fruit is used as an injection in inveterate gonorrhoea. In Northern Nigeria the leaves, along with natron and bran, are given to horses for internal troubles, Similarly in Sierra Leone the seeds are mixed with Guinea-corn and given to horses for worms, and constipation. Agolo : Abali oicha — ; Aguku: Abali ilenza — ; Akim : Betekuo — ; Ant- sianaka : Besofimbavy, Besofinantanana — ; Bakwiri : Toli — ; Bengal : Buno- kra — ; Betsileo : Besofina, Kihasinkasina — ; Bombay : Nichardi — ; Brazil: Carapicho, Carapicho da Canada — ; Ceylon : Aaiyooldi — ; English : Paroqueet Burr — ; Ewe: Bobui — ; Goa: Tupsado — ; Gujerati : Jhipato — ; Hansot : Bharvado — ; Hausa : ’Danka ’dafi, Suren fadama — ; Hindi: Banokra, Chikti, Chiriyari — ; Hova : Tsindailay, Tsitiamoty — ; Ibo : Udo — ; Ijebu : Epafo — : La Reunion: Herisson blanc — ; Madagascar : Besofina, Tsindailay — ; Marathi: Jhinjhira, Jhinjudi, Kutrevandare, Nichardi — ; Matheran : Nech- arda — ; Mauritius: Herbe a panier, Herisson blanc, Aadaye otti — ; Mende . Chobwe, Chohobwe, Sogbe, Sogbei — ; Mundari : Mindiat, Mindilata — ; Onitsha : Udo mberi — ; Owerri: Azuzo, Azu uzo, Oke udo, Udo mberi— ; Sakalave : Kisalenjy, Tsirrijy — ; Sanskrit: Jhinjharita, Jhinjhirita, Jhinjhurdi, Jhirpata, Kantaphali — ; Sinhalese: Epala — ; Tamil: Ottuppullu, Puramutti— ; Telugu: Chirusitrika, Tutturubenda — ; Timne : Agbint-marabana, Egbun- temoer, Ekboentemoer — ; Twi : Petekuku — ; Umu Ahia : Ngbo — ; Uriya : Bojoromuli, Jotojoti — ; Wolof: Douperei't — ; Yoruba: Ako-bolobolo, Boko-pupa, Ilasa-omde — ; Zulu: inDolaencane, iNorthwane — . 2. Triumfetta semitriloba Linn, is a tropical weed. The leaves and fruit are mucilaginous and astringent. The leaves are used in parts of Sierra Leone as a medicine for dysentery. In Cameroons a cold infusion of the leaves along with those of Microdesmis pub(*yula is taken as a remedy for diarrhoea. In Brazil a decoction of the herb or of the fruit is used as an injection in inveterate gonorrhoea. Aguku: Agamevumawo — ; Ashanti: Mfo — ; Bakwiri: Toli — ; Brazil: Cara- picho, Carapicho da Calqada — ; Cameroons : Okon, Okung — ; Duala : Wonge — : English: Burweed — ; Ewe: Bobui — ; Ibo : Udo, Udo ji — ; Koranko : Segbe — ; Limb a : Ubama-wuyeremi — ; Mende: Bongewuli, Bonhui, Chobwe, Kpolohui, Kponhui, Pohui, Sogbe — ; Nzima: Egurie — ; Onitsha: Udo umuaka — ; Owerri: Udo umuaka — ; Tagalog : Calotang-bilok, Colotan — ; Timne: E-boloni, Ka- boloni, Ka-bononi, Raka — ; Visayan: Daracot — ; Yoruba: Esura — , TIGER SHARK— GALEOCERDO TIGRINUS MULLER AND HENLE. Feeding and Breeding Habits. BY P. N. Sarangdhar, m.sc., Research Assistant, Department of Industries , Bombay. ( With three plates). An opportunity to amplify the existing- morpholog-ical description and other characteristics of Galeocerdo tigrinus was afforded to the author during- work on the extraction of oil from livers of sharks and rays. The tiger shark is fairly common off the Bombay, Ratnagiri and Kanara coasts. It is one of the terrors of coastal fishermen, who dread it on account of its extensive de- predations and the severe havoc it causes to their nets, often entailing loss of their entire catch. Fishermen do not go in deliberate quest of the fish, as there is no shark industry in our Province. WheneveY it is caught, it is accidental, being due solely to its being- enmeshed in the nets. The fish feeds indiscriminately and voraci- ously or^ most of our edible fishes such as pomfrets, eels, ribbon fishes, etc. This fact has been amply borne out by an examination of its stomach contents. The shark is generally common from November to May and is taken at a depth of 6 to io fathoms while attacking nets with edible fish. No systematic record of its life history is at hand and this deficiency, the author thought might partly be filled by a detailed in- formation of its external characters, feeding and breeding habits, so that it may contribute to a fuller knowledge of an important mem- ber of the elasmobranchs which visits our coast. Family ... Carcharhinidae, Genus ... Galeocerdo Muller and Henle. Species ... Galeocerdo tigrinus Muller and Henle. Local names : — Waghbeer or Waghsheer. (Plate i. Fig. A.). Description: — The genus Galeocerdo is characterised by the presence in both jaws of large, compressed and sub-triangular teeth, denticulated and externally notched. Each of the denticulations possesses serrations on its edges. The presence of such teeth, to- gether with the presence of minute spiracles, labial folds and pro- minent subcaudal pits, singles out this genus from the remaining genera of the family Carcharhinidae. The shark is locally knovrn as Waghbeer or Waghsheer t a name which describes the tiger-like Journ. Bombay Nat. Mist. Soc. Plate i Tiger shark, Galeocerdo tigrinus. A, female 13 ft. 1 in. long landed at Sassoon Dock, Bombay ; undersurface of head ; C, typical teeth of same* TIGER SHARK— GALEOCERDO TIGRINUS MULLER & IIENLE 103 marking's on the individuals of this species in young stages. The snout is shovel-shaped, with a rounded outline. The length of its preoral portion is slightly less than half the width of the mouth and nearly i / 3rd that between the eye and the first gill opening. The width of the snout beyond the nostrils is less than the general width of the head. There are grooves at the angles of the mouth, which extend along both jaws for a considerable distance, that on the uppper jaw being nearly thrice as long as that on the lower (Plate 1. Fig. B). Nostrils, with distinct, triangular flap-like valves are situated on the borders of the snout, rather nearer its tip than the apex of the mouth. The eyes, of a moderate size, are oval in outline, with dark iris and rounded pupils. The spiracles are small and oval and are situated behind the eyes at a distance which is nearly twice the horizontal diameter of the orbit. Each gill slit is almost thrice the size of the eye. 21-24 Teeth: . They are triangular in outline, with broad bases and with notches on their outer borders. The borders of the teeth are broadly serrated and each of the serrations has still finer serrations. The teeth on the upper jaw are slightly bigger than those on the lower (Plate 1. Fig. C). Fins : — The pectorals are falciform in outline and extend to beneath the hind end of the base of the first dorsal fin. The outer edge of each is four times the inner. The first dorsal originates slightly behind the axil of the pectoral. The second dorsal originates very slightly in advance of the anal and is a little bigger than that fin. The caudal fin is nearly one-fourth the total length, with a well-developed subcaudal lobe. Two prominent keels run along the lateral borders of the trunk, beginning some distance behind the pelvic fins. Also, a prominent mid-dorsal crest starts behind the first dorsal and ends slightly ahead of the second dorsal. Colour : — Bluish or yellowish grey above and white on the side and beneath, tinged with pink. The dorso-lateral surface in adults is marked by faint vertical bars or stripes. These markings fade with age and then the colour appears to be grey above and white underneath. Even then faint, dark, rounded spots may be dis- cernible on the sides of the caudal blade. The newly born young, however, are pale grey, marked with dark, more or less vertical bars all over the dorsal surface and over the dorsal fins. Size : — This shark attains a great size. Individuals measuring from 8 ft. to 13 ft. in length and weighing from 500 lb. to over a ton are frequently landed all along the western coast, from November to March. Habitat : — Red sea, seas of India to Japan and beyond. Feeding habits : — The shark is a nomad of the waters that surround our subcontinent — -a fact which is evidenced in its wide geographical distribution. It feeds on smaller sharks, fishes like eels, pomfrets, black pomfrets, ribbon fishes, silver bar fishes, mullets, etc. and prawns and crabs. It also feeds on rotting carcases and other offal. Two sea snakes were taken from the stomach of a specimen landed at Ratnagiri, while a turtle ( Chelone 104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV my das), wholly intact, was found in the stomach of one caught in Bombay waters. The diversity of diet is well illustrated by an enumeration of the motley creatures found in a shark landed at Bombay on 17-1-1942. The shark which measured 13' 1", had a most amazing miscellany of food recently swallowed, consisting of and a large quantity of prawns, crabs, squids etc. The pomfrets secured from the shark’s stomach were completely whole and wholesome, so much so that the fishermen washed them and sold them to the local dealers. Their appearance was such that none would have hazarded the view that they had been recovered from a shark’s stomach. (Plate 3. Fig. A). Swallowing of fish complete and untorn by such sharks is also commented on by G. P. Whitley, who writes as follows — ‘It would seem that the tiger shark is not a fierce or voracious man-eater, but a quiet scavenger which approaches its food and swallows it without tearing it in pieces, but it is perhaps not safe to judge too far from habits in captivity.’ The list of fish taken from its stomach clearly indicates the enormous havoc wrought by this shark with consequent loss to our fishermen. Unfortunately, the intensity of this menace cannot be abated in our Presidency in view of the total absence of a shark fishing industry, which would automatically have the effect of re- ducing the depredations of these monsters and minimising loss to the fishermen. Local fishermen catch sharks only incidentally while fishing for other varieties of fish for the market. Describing its mode of feeding, Dr. Jerdon, a keen observer of Indian fishes, notes that: — ‘this shark swells itself out so as to look like a floating mass of animal sub- stance and having thus decoyed its; prey, it immediately attacks it. Our fishermen, too, have observed this shark swelling out into a sort of floating mass but have been unable to explain its signi- ficance. To this extent, Jerdon’s observation appears to be correct. The tiger shark is known to attack man, and recently there was a report from Malwan, on the Ratnagiri coast, of a man being attacked and killed by one. The fishermen recognised the assai- lant as ‘waghbeer’. This shark also works havoc among fisher- men’s nets which are often carried away by it. Economics : — The shark is fairly important from an economic point of view. Its liver yields a high percentage of oil of fairly good vitamin A content, having a vitamin potency from two to three thousand Blue units per gramme. The maximum weight of liver recorded was 150 lb., which yielded 10 gallons of oil. The livers of adult sharks are not eaten, but those of newly born young Five white pomfrets .. One black pomfret Karli Palla 73 Ribbon fishes Koth Mandeli Stromateus cinereus Stromateus niger Chirocentrus dorab Clupe a ilisha Trichiurus savala Sciaenoides brunneus Coilia dussumieri Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate 2 A, uterus partly opened to show arrangement of compartments ; B, spindle-shaped, unfertilized egg within shell membrane ; C, compartment showing embryo within the water-filled sac in the shell membrane ; D, embryo 6.8 cms. long with its umbilical cord and large yolk-sac. Note filaments in gill slits and spiracles. TIGER SHARK— GALEOCERDO TIGRINUS MULLER & HENLE 105 ones are considered a delicacy by fisherfolk. The flesh is salted and consumed in inland districts and is considered exceedingly nourishing. The fins of this shark are not of much value. Breeding habits (early stage) Large females from io ft. to 13 ft. long and bearing from 26 to 44 young ones are frequently landed in Bombay. A female measur- ing 12 ft. in length and weighing about 800 lb. was landed at Sassoon Dock on December 15, 1941. Examination of the fish revealed that it was pregnant, both uteri being well developed, elongated structures, occupying nearly the whole of the abdominal cavity. Both ovaries were present, but did not contain prominent eggs. The oviducts were short and the nidamental glands, which were situated nearer the uteri, consisted of two coiled horns each, one of the horns being directed posteriorly and the other anteriorly. The uteri were long bag-like structures, not very broad and had thin vascular walls. They opened by a common aperture into the cloaca. Structure of uterus and disposition of embryos. (Plate 2. Fig. A). The outermost epithelial coat of the uterus and the fibro-serous coat next to it can easily be separated from the highly vascular spongy coat, which contains greatly relaxed circular muscular fibres. The uterine wall being carefully cut through, each uterus is seen to be divided by transverse partitions into about 22 trans- verse compartments. The mucous membrane lining the compart- ments is very highly vascular. The embryo in each compartment is placed rather obliquely, enclosed in a thin and rounded sac formed within an elastic, yellow, iridiscent shell-membrane and filled with a watery liquid in which it floats freely. In front of and behind this sac, there are two brownish yellow, wrinkled tuftSj formed by great folding and plaiting of the shell membrane. Only 18 out of the 22 compartments of the above-mentioned female contained developing embryos, while four contained unferti- lised, spindle-shaped eggs enclosed in thin pouches of the shell- membranes. Both the embryos and the unfertilised eggs, together with their shell-membranes, were closely examined in the laboratory. Shell membranes and unfertilised eggs. (Plate 2. Fig. B). Eggs that escape fertilisation receive the same treatment from the nidamental glands as fertilised eggs. These are spindle- shaped, transparent, gelatinous structures enclosed in shell mem- branes and lie obliquely in compartments in the same manner as the embryos. Tufts of the shell membrane are present, and on these being stretched out, the membrane extends into a thin, long quadr- angular sheet, in the centre of which a spindle-shaped sac is seen to be present. This has thin, transparent walls derived from the laminae of the membrane. When the upper wall of the sac is care- fully removed, a transparent, gelatinous, albuminous substance is seen surrounding a small quantity of pale yellow yolk in the sac. This substance and a little of the yolk also extend into the ends of the 106 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV spindle. There is, however, no watery liquid in these sacs as in the sacs containing- embryos. It is possible that the watery liquid in the sacs containing embryos originates from this gelatinous albuminous substance. Shell membranes and embryos. (Plate 2. Fig. C). The wrinkled and plaited tufts of the shell membrane enclosing the embryo afe stretched out and the membrane spreads out into a long, thin, elastic, hyaline and transparent quadrangular sheet, in the centre of which there is a thin-walled sac filled with a watery liquid. In this, the tiny embryo, with its umbilical cord and yolk- sac, floats freely. The upper wall of this central sac is seen to be formed by a very thin lamina rising from the centre of the shell - membrane. Embryos. (Plate 2. Fig. D). Dimension# : — (a) Total length of embryo — -6.8 to 7.5 cms. (b) Length of the caudal fin — 1.8 cms. (c) Length of longest branchial filament — 2.5 cms. (d) Length of umbilical cord — 4.3 cms. (e) Diameter of yolk-sac — ^5.6 cms. (/) Length of filament in spiracle — 1.1 cms. The embryos are semi-transparent, pale white or ivory, partly suffused with crimson, and have loose membranes hanging in the region of the fins. The myotomes can be seen through the trans- parent skin covering them. All the external features seen in the adult are developed, but are in a rudimentary condition. The head region is rounded and swollen dorsally, and the divisions of the brain can be seen through. The region of the snout in front of the mouth and below the swollen brain region is rounded in outline, its length being nearly equal to the width of the mouth at this stage. Large prominent eyes, with sparsely pigmented iris, are situated on the lateral margins of the head. Some distance behind the eyes are situated tiny spiracles, rounded in outline as contrasted with the oval spiracles of the adult form. Through each spiracle issues a bunch of crowded filaments similar to the branchial filaments. The presence of such filaments in the spiracles of early embryos suggests the possibility that they, too, may be serving the same function as the branchial filaments, viz. of absorbing the liquid in the sac, which is probably nutritive in nature. A bunch of crowded, crimson-coloured branchial filaments issues from each gill slit. Rudiments of all the fins are present, these being mere membranes, only partially covering the fin rays. The pectorals arise behind the last gill slit. The first dorsal fin is situated midway between the pectorals and the pelvics. The second dorsal and the anal fins are opposite each other. The sub-caudal lobe is not well developed. The umbilical cord pierces the abdo- minal \yall between the pectoral fins. Joum. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 3 B Plate 3 : — A, embryo with yolk-sac and umbilical cord (advanced stage). Note conspicuous tiger-like markings; B, 42 embryos each weighing 1 lb. are seen spread out along the mother’s body. The white bag on the left is the shark’s stomach from which were taken several basketsfull of miscellaneous and quite fresh fish (Inset top right). TIGER SHARK— GALEOCERDO TIGRINUS MULLER & HENLE 107 Yolk-sac : — This is a massive rounded bag, filled with heavy yellow yolk, and its walls have well developed blood capillaries which continuously unite to form larger vessels. A transparent, gelatinous disc is present at the upper pole of the yolk-sac. A single prominent vein courses vertically up along the yolk-sac wall towards the disc, and two horizontally placed arteries unite to form a single artery, so that it and the single vein eventually emerge from the disc to pass into the umbilical cord. Between these two vessels can be discerned passing upwards a very minute prolongation of the sac, and this represents the yolk-duct. The yolk-sac is enclosed in a very thin envelope of connective tissue which is con- tinued over the umbilical cord. Umbilical cord: — This structure originates at the upper pole of the yolk-sac and terminates by piercing the abdominal wall of the embryo between the pectoral fins. The cord consists of the umbilical artery, the umbilical vein and the yolk-duct between the two. The vein and the artery are formed by the union of the venous and arterial capillaries respectively, ramified in the meso- blastic tissue of the yolk-sac wall, while the yolk-duct is a mere prolongation of the sac conducting yolk granules. All these three structures are enclosed in a gelatinous, tubular sheath, which, in turn, is covered over by a prolongation of the connective tissue covering the yolk-sac. There are no appendicula on the umbilical cord. The exact arrangement of the umbilical vessels in the body of the embryo cannot be made out, but the yolk-duct is seen to give rise to an internal yolk-sac which joins the upper end of the colon on its dorsal aspect. Breeding Habits. (Advanced stage). (Plate 3. Fig. A). An outsize female, weighing over a ton, was landed at Sassoon Dock on January 17, 1942. It contained a liver weighing approxi- mately 150 lb. The monster was captured as it was attacking the bag end of a ‘dol’ net in which a great quantity of fish had been trapped. The shark was dead by the time it was landed. Its dimensions were as follows: — (1) Total length from tip of snout to tip of tail (2) Length of caudal fin (3) Girth round widest part of body (4) Width at angles of the mouth (0 Length of preoral portion of snout (6) Distance between the eye and spiracle (7) Distance between the eye and the first gill opening ... 13 ft. .1 in. ... 3 ft. .2 in. ... 6 ft. .8 in. ... 21 in. ... 6 in. ... 2.75 in. ... 16.5 in. Both the uteri in this female were distended structures occupying the entire length of the abdominal cavitv. The ovaries were rather small and did not contain ripe ova. The oviducts were, short. The wall of each uterus is rather thin. The spongy coat is hip-hlv vascular and the circular muscle coat not verv prominent. On carefully cutting through these, the transversely placed uterine compartments come into view. The mucous membrane in each com- 108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV partment is almost purplish crimson in hue, being highly vascular. Each compartment contains a large water-filled sac enclosing the embryo with its attached structures, viz., the umbilical cord and the yolk-sac. These water-sacs, which are formed within the shell- membranes, now assume such proportions as completely to obliterate the proximal and distal plaits and folds of the shell membrane present in the early stages of the embryonic development. A slight tilting of these sacs causes the embryos, with their attached structures, to move freely in the liquid, thus showing that the yolk- sacs do not enter into any connection with the maternal tissue. Each uterus of the aforesaid female contained 21 well developed embryos, but only one embryo out of the 42 was under developed and had undergone degenerative changes. Of the remaining- 41 embryos, 30 were female and 11 male. Embryos. (Plate 3. Fig. B). Dimensions Male Female 1. Total length • • • 20-5" ... 19" 2. Length of the caudal fin • • • 7*5" ... 7-25" 3. Length of the umbilical cord. 5-5" ... 5-25" 4. Diameter of the yolk-sac. ... 3-75" ... 4-75" The embryos at this stage are almost fully developed, but differ from the parent fish in having a totally different dorsal colouration and possessing the umbilical cords and yolk-sacs. The embryos possess the following morphological characters. The snout is semicircular in outline, its preoral portion being slightly more than half the width of the mouth. The nostrils, .with triangular valves, are situated midway between the tip of the snout and the apex of the mouth. The groove along the upper jaw is thrice as long as that on the lower, and extends below the anterior margin of the orbit. The spiracles are situated behind the orbits at a distance of about one-third the orbital diameter. The gill slits are without branchial filaments. The pectoral fin originates below a point slightly in front of the fourth gill slit. The first dorsal originates behind the posterior end of the base of the pectoral, and its hind tip does not reach the origin of the pelvic. The second dorsal originates slightly in advance of the anal. The bases of both these fins are nearly equal. The anal is situated midway between the posterior end of the base of the pelvic and the root of the caudal. The caudal fin is about one-third the total length of the embryo. Originating behind the skull and extending backwards on either side of the mid-dorsal line are two keels which assume a lateral position, a short distance ahead of the second dorsal, and continue behind as the lateral keels. In the region of the caudal fin, they turn upwards and continue on either side of the caudal blade. A narrow groove extends from behind the base of the first dorsal and stops short in front of the origin of the second dorsal. The scales are sparingly set all over the body. TIGER SHARK— GALEOCERDO TIGRINUS MULLER & HENLE 109 Colouration : — The head is grey. Roundish or oval black spots are visible behind the skull. The dorsal surface of the body is marked by black stripes or curved bars. There are dark trans- verse bars on the first dorsal, and the top of the second dorsal is black. Below and behind the second dorsal are darkish oval spots, above the lateral keels, and these spots become rounded on either side of the caudal blade. The upper margin of the caudal fin is light in colour, but the lower is darker. The ventral surface is ivory, as are also the pelvic and anal fins, although their tips show a very faint grey pigmentation. The Yolk-sac: — The yolk-sacs, are fairly big and contain a considerable quantity of yellow, granular yolk in the lower parts. Their walls are highly vascular, and the superficial blood capillaries in some of the yolk-sacs run parallel to one another, coursing vertically upwards. The capillaries ultimately join to form the um- bilical vessels. At the upper pole of the yolk-sac there is a slight bulge, marking the beginning of the umbilical cord. The large size of the yolk-sacs with plenty of yolk yet left in them, tne absence of any trace of foldings on their walls distally and their free positions in the water-filled sacs containing the embryos, point to the possibility that a yolk-sac placenta is not at all formed in this species, and that nutrition is supplied to the developing embryo in the form of yolk throughout its intra-uterine life. Umbilical cord: — It consists of the vitelline duct, the umbilical artery and the umbilical vein, enclosed in a smooth tubular sheath of connective tissue reflcted from the outer layers of the yolk-sac walls. On carefully opening this sheath, it is seen to contain a certain amount of a dark-brown or reddish serumlike liquid in contact with the vessels. This liquid is also found in the bulge at the top of the yolk-sac. It is probable that the yolk is converted into this liquid, which is finally absorbed by the umbilical vein and carried into the hepatic portal system of the embryo. The vitelline duct is seen to open into a fairly big internal yolk- sac lying on the dorsal side of the colon and opening into it dorsally, at its upper pole. The size of the internal yolk-sac is found to vary inversely with that of the external yolk-sac, being larger when the yolk in the external yolk-sac is small in quantity and vice versa,. The umbilical vessels are traced into the body of the embryo, and the vein is seen to join the hepatic portal vein before the latter bifurcates to enter the hepatic lobes, while the umbilical artery is seen to course along the posterior wall of the upper end of the internal yolk-sac to become the continuation of a branch of the coeliaco-mesenteric artery, the other branch of which supplies blood to the posterior wall of the small intestine. Comparison of the two embryonic stages of Galeocerdo tigrinus reveals the following noteworthy points: — (1) In both stages of development, the embryos are enclosed in water-filled sacs formed in the shell membranes. (2) The very small size of the embryo in the early stage necessitates great plaiting and folding of the shell-membrane both proximally and distally, whereas in the later stages the well-grown 110 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV embryo requires the covering of the entire shell-membrane, so that the proximal and distal foldings disappear. (3) 'I he branchial filaments are present in the earlier stages and tneir function appears to be to absorb the liquid in the sac, which is probably nutritive in value. The same function may be assigned to the filaments in the spiracles. In the later stages the branchial filaments as also the filaments in the spiracles are no longer present and the function of nutrition is carried out by other well developed structures, namely, yolk duct and the umbilical vessels. (4) dhe embryos in the early stages are of a pale ivory colour, no pigmentation being present. In the later stages, however, pig- mentation is perfect and the dorsal colouration of the embryo is characteristically tiger-like. (5) No trace of a serum-like liquid is noticeable when the umbilical cord is slit open in the earlier stages, whereas a reddish serum-like liquid can be seen lying in contact with the umbilical vessels when the sheath of the cord is opened in the later stages. Inferences. (1) The embryos of Galeocerdo tigrinus grow to a large size (nearly 2.5 ft. in length) before birth. At birth they have con- spicuous tiger-like markings on their bodies. (2) Extra protection seems to be afforded to the developing embryos by their envelopment in sacs filled with a watery liquid. The liquid must probably also be having a nutritive function in the earlier stages, at least, of the embryonic development. (3) The large quantity of yolk in the yolk-sac appears to nourish the embryo throughout its intra-uterine life. Further, the absence of any folding of the yolk-sac wall even in the advanced stages of development and the free • position of the embryo in the uterine compartment seem to suggest that a yolk-sac placenta may not at all form in the tiger shark. Acknowledgment. My best thanks are due to Dr. S. B. Setna, the Fisheries Officer, for his valuable guidance and criticism, both in the field and in the laboratory. He suggested the problem and the entire work was done under his supervision. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Day, F. — The Fauna of British India. Fishes; Vol. I — 1889. 2. Fowler, H. W. — Contributions to the Biology of the Philippine Archi- pelago and adjacent regions — 1941. Smith. Inst. U, S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 100, vol. xiii. 3. Garman, S. — Mem. Mus. of Comp. Zool. at Harward College, vol. xxxvi 19 *3- 4. Norman, J. R. & Fraser, F. C. — Giant Fishes, Whales and Dolphins — 1937. 5. Nichols, J. T. & Breder, C. M. — ‘The Marine Fishes of New York and Southern New England.’ — Zoological Sci. Contribs. N. Y. Zool. Soc., vol. ix, No. 1 — 1927. 6. Thillayampalam, E. M. — ‘Scoliodon’ Ind. Zool. Mem. ii — 1938. 7. Whitley, G. P. — The Fishes of Australia, Part I — Roy. Zool. Soc. N. S. Wales, Sydney — 1940. A REVIEW REPORT OF THE GAME AND GAME FISHES PRESERVATION COM- MITTEE ON THE EXISTING SPECIES OF GAME IN BENGAL. Com- piled by L. R. Fawcus, Esq., c.i.e., i.c.s., Pages i-iv + i-ii+1-53, Superintendent, Government Printing, Bengal, Government Press, Alipore, Bengal, 1943. Price — Indian, Rs. 3 ; English, 5s. 3d. The members of the Society and lovers of sport all over the world will be greatly interested to learn of the publication of the Report under review. The gradual decline of game in the Bengal ‘shikar’ areas, the likely chances of its reaching the vanishing point, and the concern felt by the Bengal Government in this matter, led to the appointment of the above mentioned Committee with the hope of finding means to arrest this decline for the benefit of future naturalists and sportsmen. At the outset, the Committee felt that it will be profitable ‘to take stock, so far as we can, of the game which still remains in Bengal and though no exact census is obviously possible, this Committee has done its best to gather from those1 best able to give it, as accurate! information as possible on the existing distribution in Bengal of the animals, birds and fish which are conventionally known as game’. In the absence of precise defini- tion of game animals, treatment of certain species, which the sportsman may not call game but which those with love for natural history would look on with interest, has also been included. No attempt has been made to compile a catalogue of names or give technical descriptions of species, but, section by section, some account is given of the game found in Bengal today, together with information of their numbers, habitat and distribution. The Committee has generally avoided to give exact specification of localities so as to save destruction of game by pot-hunters in Bengal. The first section of the Report deals with animals (mammals) such as Greater and Lesser Cats; Civets and their relatives; Mongooses; Hyaena; Dog Family; Weasels, Otters and Bears; Rodents; Wild Elephant in Bengal; Rhinoceros in Bengal ; Bison and Buffalo ; Serow and Goral ; Antelopes and Deer ; Pigs ; and Pangolins. A treatment of Birds is given in the 2nd section and such forms are dealt with as Pigeons and Doves; Sand Grouse; Peacocks and Pheasants; True Quails and Partridges ; Button Quails ; Rails, Cranes, Bustards and Floricans ; Plovers, Snipe and Woodcock ; Ortolans ; Ducks and Geese of Bengal ; and Semi-Sporting Birds. In the 3rd section larger Reptiles, such as Crocodiles, Python and Monitor Lizards, are dealt with, while the final section, dealing with the Game Fishes of Bengal, contains an account of the three Himalayan species of Mahseer, Katli, Indian Trout and Goonch. A key to the three species of Mahseer is given and their main distinguishing features are explained with the help of illustrations. The Report under review shows clear evidence of having been based on extensive material, which has been carefully sifted and ably edited. The thanks of sportsmen and naturalists are due to the Committee and especially to Mr. L. R. Fawcus, who compiled the Report, for the production of such a useful and interesting work. The volume is nicely bound in the usual style of Government publications. The printing and general get-up do considerable credit to the authorities of the Bengal Government Press. A few typographical mistakes have been noted but they were perhaps unavoidable in a compilation of this nature. S. L. H. 1 Sub-Section of the Report dealing with ‘Elephants and Rhinoceros’ was contributed by Mr. T. V. Dent, I.F.S., that on ‘Ducks and Geese of Bengal’ by Mr. W. A. S. Lewis, I.C.S. , and the one on ‘The Game Fishes of Bengal’ by Sunder Lai Hora, Director of Fisheries, Bengal. OBITUARY We regret to announce the death in England of Mr. Hugh Whistler, the well-known ornithologist — author of A Popular Hand- book of Indian Birds — early in July, 1943. A fuller obituary notice will appear in a later issue. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES I.— THE RECORD SKULL OF AN INDIAN CLOUDED LEOPARD (. NEOFELIS NEBULOSA GRIFFITH). Although in Rowland Ward’s Records for 1935 skin-measure- ments of the Clouded Leopard are entered, no mention is made of the skulls presumably because they were considered to be of no interest to Indian sportsmen. Since some of the readers of the Journal may be interested in the subject, I give the conventional dimensions of the skull of an adult 6 from Assam which appears to be a little longer than any skull of which the measure- ments have hitherto been published. It was figured by Gray in 1867, by Blanford in his Mammals of British India, p. 73 and by myself in vol. i of my edition of this work, p. 247, 1939. The skull itself, however, was not available to me when I drew up the table of measurements (p. 25 2). In that table the largest specimen entered was an adult d1 from Nepal which is appreciably shorter. But in the Appendix to vol. ii of the same work, 1941, p. 475, I gave the dimensions of an adult 6 from Sumatra which exceeded the Nepal skull. In the following table the length and breadth of 4 skulls are entered in English inches and in millimetres, the latter being in brackets: — • Locality T otal length Zygomatic width Assam (Zool. Soc.) ad. £ 7f (192) C\5 Nepal (Hodgson) ad. $ 7* (180) 4$ (121) Tista, Sikkim (Frost) just ad. ... 6| (167) 4 (102) Sumatra (Frost) ad. £ *<1 CD O 4'ru (125) It may be noted that the two largest skulls are longer than the 6 skull of a Snow Leopard entered on p. 242 of my vol. i and longer than several 9 skulls of Panthers entered on p. 230. British Museum (Nat. Hist.), R. I. POCOCK. London, S. W. 7. September 11, 1942. II.— ELEPHANT AND BISON ON ROAD WAYS. Two incidents recently occurred on the Ghat Road leading down from the Billigirirangan Hills. The first in connection with ele- phants and a cart-bull, and the second a solitary bull bison — obvi- ously sick — and a motor car. (1) A single cart-bull had been trotting in front of a car travelling from the Estate down the Ghat for some way, and eventually the 8 114 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoU XLIV car was stopped and H., a visitor to Honnametti, got out and ran after the bull in the hopes of turning it olf the road. On rounding the corner an extraordinary sight met his eyes : — An elephant group — a bull and 2 cows and a calf, had just come on to the road, and as the cart-bull trotted up to the party the 2 cows put their heads together and without hesitation pushed the cart-bull off the road down into the long grass below. Luckily it was not much of a drop and the cart-bull appeared to suffer no harm ! (2) While motoring up the road to Honnametti my wife came on a solitary bull bison walking slowly up the road in the same direction. The bison appeared to take no notice of the car behind it but heaved from side to side as though very ill. On my wife sounding the horn, however, the bull turned round, lowered its head and advanced slowly towards the car. The car was reversed none too steadily however and went into the bank ! The bull had in the meantime turned again and proceeded to walk up the road once more. It turned and repeated the performance every time the horn was sounded. Eventually the bull turned the corner and my wife gave it about 10 minutes before following slowly in the car, only to find the bull waiting expectantly round the corner facing her with its head down. Reversing back round the corner,, my wife waited for about 20 minutes before proceeding slowly forward again by which time the bull had left the road and could be observed moving slowly through the long grass below, every now and again staggering from side to side and giving every indi- cation of suffering from either a severe wound or disease. One may assume that sick as it was, the bull would have attacked the car, had my wife not reversed on each occasion; and had those in the car not realized that the bull was definitely not in its normal condition, the incident might have given rise to a record of another instance of an unprovoked attack by an unwounded bull bison. C/o Base Post Office, R. C. MORRIS, Ceylon. Lt.-Col. March 23, 1943. III.— OCCURRENCE OF THE HIMALAYAN TAHR (. HEMITRAGUS JEMLAHICUS) IN SIKKIM. As little appears to be known about the distribution of the Himalayan Tahr ( Hemitragus jemlahicus) in the eastern part of its range, the following note may be of interest. Unfortunately I lost my shikar diary during the withdrawal from Libya last year and this note is written from memory only, so the details as to elevations, distances, etc., may be slightly erroneous, but the main facts are correct. In November 1939, while waiting to join up, I decided to fill in time with a shooting trip in Sikkim as I was already living in the Darjeeling district, the original object being simply to bag a Burhel ( Pseuddis nahoor). While discussing passes etc. with the political officer at Gangtok, I was told that earlier in the year a German Natural History Ex- pedition, from I think, Munich, had discovered ‘a new kind of MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 115 animal on the slopes of Kancheng-junga’. This animal was describ- ed as a sort of goat or sheep and went by the local (Lepcha) name of ‘shepi’. There was no mention of it in the Sikkim Durbar’s list of game which may or may not be shot, and I could find out nothing more about it in Gangtok. It did not at that time occur to me that it might be a type of Tahr, as the Tahr was not included in the above mentioned list either, and although I believe the Tahr is known to occur as far East as Bhutan, I had only heard of one case of its being reported from Sikkim which was many years ago somewhere in the Talung Chu. In any case a German Natural History Expedition would presumably have recognised a Tahr on seeing one, and would hardly have described it as ‘a new kind of animal’, though it must be admitted I only had this information at second hand. The omission of the Tahr from the Sikkim game list may be due to confusion arising from the fact that in Sikkim and the Darjeeling district the local (Paharia) name for Serow ( Capricornis siwiatrensis ) is ‘tahr’ and the Serow is included in the list. I had more or less forgotten about the ‘shepi’ until I got to Chum Tang, a Lepcha village near where the Lachen and Lachung rivers join to form the Teesta; here I found one of the local Lepchas had joined the German expedition earlier in the year, and on enquiry he said he knew of the place where they had found the ‘shepi’, though he had not been with them at the time. It was many years since he had seen a live specimen himself. My time and stores being limited, I pushed on to Thanga after Burhel but made arrangements for the Lepcha ‘shikari’ to go to the ‘shepi’ ground straightaway and to report to me on my return journey as to the chances of finding any. On my getting back to Chum Tang about a fortnight later, the shikari met me and told me that after spending several days and nights in the jungle, he had located a flock of ‘shepi’. The ground was apparently situated some distance up a small tributary, the Pirn Chu, which joins the Lachen on its right bank about five miles above Chum Tang. The next morning we set off for the ‘shepi’ ground, travelling light; the shikari, two coolies and myself. The distance from Chum Tang turned out to be only about ten miles but the going was very bad. A cattle path led along the bank of the Lachen for two or three miles, but after that there was no track at all and kukris had to be used frequently to cut a path through the jungle to allow the laden coolies to follow. In many places ladders had to be made out of tree-trunks to help them to climb up steep banks and rock- faces and over some of the enormous boulders which completely blocked the bed of the stream. The range at the head of the Pirn Chu is some 12,000 to 14,000 ft. in height and the valley floor slopes very rapidly towards the Lachen, with numerous water-falls in its course. The hills on either side are extremely steep and clothed in dense forest, but where the bed of the stream reaches about 7,500 ft., the forest stops abruptly and above this the banks on either side are positively precipitous, while above the precipices there are steep grassy slopes dotted with patches of scrub-jungle and stunted bamboos. The 116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V whole area is cut up and broken by old land-slips and the surface is mostly very loose and gives but poor foot-hold. The rain fall during the monsoon must be fairly heavy, and at the time of year that 1 was there (early December) the sun never penetrates to the valley floor, leaving it cold and inhospitable. By about 3 p.m. we had almost reached the point where the jungle ends and the precipices begin, and as there is no flat ground or water available except in the bed of the stream, we decided to camp there on a patch of sand between the boulders, in spite of the obvious chilliness of the place. There was no alternative any- way ! The Lepchas proceeded' to build themselves a lean-to out of branches and leaves, backed by a large rock, and I had a forty- pound wind-proof tent. While putting up the latter the shikari suddenly said, ‘There they are!’ and pointed towards the grassy slopes further up the opposite (North) side of the valley. I could hardly believe him, as 1 was under the impression that we should have to go considerably higher before finding any ' shepi \ but on examining the slope through my binoculars, I could certainly make out two or three black animals grazing at the top of one of the cliffs. I was still somewhat sceptical however and thought they were probably only Serow after all, as we had noticed plenty of Serow tracks in the jungle on the way up from Chum Tang, but the Shikari swore that they were not Serow Tahr ’ in his language), but ‘shepi’. It was too late to begin a stalk that evening and the same night I had the misfortune to develop an attack of dysentery. The next morning we could see no ‘shepi’ from the camp, so we climbed up through the jungle on the north side of the Pim Ohu, and by about mid-day, reached the top of a rock slab over- hanging the slopes on which the ‘shepi’ had been grazing the pre- vious evening; the only living thing to be seen however, was a cock monal pheasant (L. refulgens ), and except for some tracks and droppings in the jungle, which might easily have been those of Serow, there was no sign of the ‘shepi’. We had something to eat and were resting on the top of the cliffs, high above the floor of the valley, when three or four black objects appeared, but this time on "the south side of the nullah, i.e., the side opposite to us, and well out of rifle-range. It was impossible to cross the valley at that point as the precipices on either side were quite unclimbable ; the only way was to return to the camp-site some distance back down the valley and to cross there. There was not time to do this before dark, so we just had to content ourselves with waiting in the hope that something might turn up on the slope below our rock where we had seen them the evening before. Nothing appeared however, but I had a good view through my binoculars of the ‘shepi’ grazing on the opposite cliffs, and I watched them for a considerable time. The following day we tried the cliffs on the south side and nearly got within range of a male with the best head I had so far seen, but the going was extremely bad and I was beginning to feel -weak with dysentery; the result was that I dislodged a stone which MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 117 went bounding- down the hill side and scared the ‘shepi’ who went off, with a shrill whistle of alarm, straight up the valley where the ground rapidly got worse, and we soon had to give up any attempt to follow them. We were making our way back to camp in the late afternoon when five f shepi ’ appeared on the far side of the nullah below the slope on which we had first seen them, but of course they were again out of range; I had another good view however. We tried the north side once more the next day, but by then I was feeling decidedly groggy and could not move without sending showers of stones down the hill sides, and again the only ‘shepi’ we saw were on the opposite side of the valley. The following day I was feeling slightly better, but provisions were running low, and as I still had a four-day treck back even to the comparative civilisation of Gangtok, and considering the state of my health, I thought it advisable to move back to Cham Tang, as I saw no more of the ‘ shepi' . During my four days in the Pirn Chu valley however, I had several good views of ‘shepi’ through field-glasses, and on one occasion without glasses, and I am convinced they are the same as the fTahr’ of the Western Himalayas, or possibly an eastern race of the same species. The Lepcha shikari said they were the same kind of animals as the German Expedition had obtained. I personally saw at least eight ‘shepi’ and there may have been dozen or more inhabiting that part of the valley, but curiously enough, a friend of mine who visited the same spot with the same shikari some two months later, was unable to find any at all ; the snow conditions would of course have changed by then; when I was there the snow was not lying below 10,000 ft., though it froze hard every night. On Active Servi.ce, C. J. T. WRENICKE, April 1943. Capt. IV. — LIFE SPAN OF SOME WILD ANIMALS IN CAPTIVITY. A Chital stag ( Axis axis Erxl) born in the Trivandrum Zoo in 1920, died of old age last December. For some time previous to its death it was showing unmistakable signs of old age. Veterinary examination also resulted in establishing old age as the cause of death. This deer has thus lived for 22 years. We have had others of the same species for periods ranging from 12 to 18 years. Would it be a record age for Chital in captivity, as it is so for this zoo? Incidentally, similar records of the age of some other animals may not be out of place. In spite of the curtailment of freedom involved in keeping wild animals in captivity, it has been the ex- perience of the staff of menageries and Zoological Parks, that most of the animals and birds live to a ripe old age. As we have no means to ascertain the span of life of animals in their wild state, it would only be possible to infer the years for which they would live, from the data available in zoos. Therefore, a few particulars 118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV regarding- the age of some of the animals kept here are added for what they are worth. Mammals. — Among Primates, an Orangoutan (Simla satyrus ) survived for 15 years and a Black Ape ( C.ynopithecus niger) lived for 21 years. A Baboon monkey (. Papio hamadryas) acquired as an adult, died after 22 years of captivity, while a Bonnet monkey (. Macacus sinicus ) died after 23 years. There have been some long lived ones among the carnivora too. A lion, born here in 1919 died last year at the age of 23. Another, born in 1923 is still going strong. The recorded maximum age for tigers and panthers is 16. We have not been able to ascertain the maximum age of the Himalayan Bear. One of this species, aged 10 at the time of acquisition has been here for the last 12 years. An important loss which this zoo had to sustain a few months back was due to the death of a bull Giraffe (G. Camelopardalis ) imported from Africa in 1927. It was a full-grown one then pro- bably 8 years old, and has lived here till September 1942 (15 years). Among other mammals, special mention may be made of a Porcupine (. Hystrix leucura ) and an Otter (Lutra vulgaris) both of which have completed 22 years of captivity. The former died in 1942 while the latter is still living. Birds. A recent newspaper report mentioned a 150 years old Cockatoo of the London Zoo as one of' the casualties during an air raid alert. We have had parrots living only for 33 years, not even attaining the half century. Eagles and vultures have lived for 40 years. An Australian Cassowary hatched out here 37 years ago is still living. Similarly a Hornbill ( Dichoceros bicornis) pur- chased for the zoo in 1905 (37 years) and an Adjutant crane ( Lepto - ptilus dubius) obtained in 1911 (31 years) are alive. A little Cormorant ( Phalacrocorax niger) died only last week after a period of 21 years of captivity. A curious feature about this bird was that for a long time before its death it had lost the use of both of its eyes and had to be fed by its keeper. There is another cormorant of the same age. One of its eyes is blind, but it is still alive. Govt. Zoological Gardens, E. S. SIMON, Trivandrum, Curator. January 12, 1943. V.— BREEDING SEASON OF THE INDIAN SAMBAR (RUSA UNICOLOR , KERR). It has been mentioned about the Indian Sambar ( Journal Bombay Nat. History Society, vol. xxxvii, No. 1 (1934), ‘Wild Animals of the Indian Empire and the problem of their preservation’, Part II, p. 77), that ‘there is much variation both as to the pairing season and the time at which the antlers are shed’. Again on page 78 it is said that ‘pairing takes place in November and December .... The young are born at the commencement of the rains in late May or early June’. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 119 Though there may be regional variations, observations made of a herd of Sambar, numbering over two dozen kept in the Trivandrum Zoo, have tended to establish definite periods with no wide range, as regards the seasons for the shedding of horns, mating or birth of the fawns. The seasons for these differ from those mentioned above. Unlike other Cervidae which have been seen with young ones or with shed antlers at all seasons, all the Rusa deer stags were observed to cast their antlers in May. Pairing took place in late June and early July. A dead hind in mid July last year, was found to contain a foetus of a few weeks development. Between the middle of December and the third week of January this year, eight young ones were born. Each hind has given birth to a single fawn and the period of gestation has been six months. Govt. Zoological Gardens, E. S. SIMON, Trivandrum, Curator. January 21, 1943. VI.— SMALL GAME SHOOTING IN THE SALEM DISTRICT. East of Salem, between the Shevaroys and the Chitteris and the hills to the South of them, a narrow neck of flat country broad- ens out into the great empty spaces which extend to the coast. At the eastern entrance to the gap, where thankfully there is always a welcome breeze a considerable variety of sport can be found with a scatter-gun, from jungle fowl in the hills to sandgrouse on the plains, and wild fowl on the tanks, all within a radius of five miles. By far the biggest item between October and March is wild fowl, which arrive in at times vast legions, until every tank (of which there are far too many) is solid with them. The impossibility of assembling flighting parties at the right moment, and the com- plete inadequacy of their strength when it could be arranged, was tantalizing with so many birds about, and many occasions went by when red-letter bags might have been made. I should like to know whether anyone has shot in this area in recent years. There were no indications of it, judging by the astonishment of the natives at our activities, local talk, and the inexperience of the duck them- selves when we first started operations. Before their arrival I had odd walks after sandgrouse. Only a few small parties inhabit the intermittent barren stretches of country, and there are too few, and too much water, to shoot them properly at flight. Two species occur, common and painted, the Common Sandgrouse predominating in the autumn, while after Xmas I saw only painted. They mixed together, and one ‘doublet’ I got out of a bunch of five contained one of each. Beyond the sandgrouse, only grey partridges which are common, presented a quarry, but not a sufficiently exciting one to justify the reduction of my previous ammunition supply. Jungle fowl are fairly abundant in the Chitteri Hills, but the organization required to shoot them in those impenetrable thickets did not make them a proposition. The snipe, too, were resisted, when they arrived early in October. 120 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV I was determined to save every round for the ducks. There were ten pintail to every common snipe and a few of those queer rail-like birds, painted snipe, which seem so inappropriately named. By now, thousands of migrants had arrived, most of them first seen in August, green and wood sandpipers, Temminck’s and little stints, stilts and greenshanks (grand to see old East Anglian friends again). But still there were no duck, beyond one or two dull pairs of spotbills. At last on October 3, I saw three garganey and after a skilful drive by my batman I got one, and should have had two. How- ever I had got a duck, my first East of Yarmouth ! During the ensuing days pintail and garganey poured in. I erected a hide on the nearest tank and went out for an hour one evening with another gun on the next tank. The pintail flew well between us, and I got seven, but after a time they cleared off, and went and sat on the other tanks. This paltry effort obviously did not meet the case, and I attempted to mobilize every gun in the area and organize a proper flight. But naturally much success was not possible, and the largest party we ever mustered was five. With twenty large tanks, not more than a mile between each, we could not hope to keep the birds on the move and the story was always the same. After a grand hour at day-break, during which we had excellent sport, every duck disappeared to find more peaceful sur- roundings in which to pass the day only a couple of miles away. At each flight I increased the number of ‘disturbers’ on surrounding tanks, but to do the thing properly I needed twenty guns and fifty disturbers — for which I fear this shoot must wait until the ‘pipings days, etc.’ But I recommend it to anyone then, if I am not here to partake myself (personally I hope it will be the desolate saltings of Essex, or the iced-f ringed creeks of the Solway !) The other problem was caused by the unsuitable nature of the tanks for shooting. They are large and round, with banks like golf greens : not a suspicion of cover. I put up the hides as far out as possible, but the duck were always near the middle, and just out of range, and not until I made my floating butt did I come to grips with them properly. This was an excellent answer, the butt being a simple construction of bamboo and petrol tins (now dutifully returned to their lawful occupation), tied together with string and covered with palm leaves. I cannot imagine why we never thought of this at home, where time and money has been spent building enormous erections on twenty-foot poles. When anchored, the new model is surprisingly steady, as a shooting platform, and is easily transported to any tank desired. It is the most important result of the season for me. Garganey and pintail were the most common throughout. I saw only one cotton teal, on November 12, and on that day the first tufted duck, which were fairly common all the winter. One or two big flocks turned up at every flight, circling round obligingly and giving every one a crack before they made off. Teal appeared early in November, but there were never very many. There were no pochard, but I saw big flocks of red-crested pochard further MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 121 to the east and nearer to the coast a single pigeon, a young cock. I shot one shoveller and again he was the only one I saw, until four appeared on March 21. On October 15 an enormous flock of nukta flew by while we were building hides for next morning; it was their only appearance. All these were isolated incidents and the only birds permanently present were pintail and garganey, always in large numbers, and sometimes tufted and teal, and of course a few spotbills. The duck effected a strange and total disappearance immediately after Xmas. Not a bird was to be seen during January and I assumed that our sport was over. But to my surprise and delight pintail and garganey appeared suddenly on February 5, followed by a few tufted and we had one perfect flight. I have no idea what caused their absence for six weeks, but in my experience at home such an event would merit some definite explanation. There was no drastic change in the water-level and nothing particularly interesting about the weather. I am at a loss. Most of the duck remained until the end of February and I saw the last garganey on March 31. Lastly the geese. Wild geese are my obsession, but I had never hoped to see any, as I assumed we were too far south to come within their range. There are no marshes and no big rivers, and as I associate geese with the gale-swept desolation of the waste and other similar scenes, I could never imagine them per- spiring in the heat of the day round a circular tank. However I was elated to a degree to see thirteen bar-headed geese, with a dozen spoon-bills, on December 3. They were padding about on the margin of a tank and I hurried home for my fowling piece and batman, by now an expert at driving the wily fowl. We sat long behind a rock, deliberating on our plan, and regarding them hungrily through a telescope. Finally I crawled out on to a spit at the far side of the tank, within range of which I hoped the breeze would swing them. But when they took wing they did completely the wrong thing, climbing in the opposite direction. I was about to emerge from my position, when they turned and headed back towards me, and actually glided straight over my head, at an absurd height for my No. 6 shot, all I had. However to my astonishment my bird fell like a stone, probably one pellet in its head — a fearful fluke ! But the local audience were suitably im- pressed, and I was delighted. One more lot came on January 20, this time about seventy. A drive was arranged for them and this time they came low and two- seemed already in the bag. But I had a dud cartridge in the right barrel, and so picked up one. It would happen with geese. Tactical School, Poona, April 14, 1943. AUBREY BUXTON, Capt . 122 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV VII.— WOODPECKERS FEEDING ON FRUIT. As within the last week or two I have noticed both the West Himalayan Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker ( Gecinus squamatus ), and the Black-naped Green Woodpecker ( Gecinus occipitalis) eating berries on the trees here in Murree, I should be glad to know whether such a diet is usual with these birds. St. Denys' School, E. A. STORRS FOX, Murree, Senior Chaplain, I.E E. (Retd.) December 12, 1942. [Woodpeckers are essentially insectivorous, a frugivorous diet is unusual. — :Eds.] VIII.— THE EGGS OF THE INDIAN BAY-BANDED CUCKOO (. PENTHOCERYX S ON N ERA Til). On page 7 2 of ‘Cuckoo Problems’, Stuart Baker writes of the Bay-banded Cuckoo ‘In the south of India Davidson, Bell and Stewart found them breeding fairly freely and took eggs in the nests of the Ioras, Red- whiskered Bulbuls, and small White-throated Babblers and saw these birds feeding young Cuckoos of this species. A few of the eggs I have seen from Travancore and the Western Ghats are certainly like some eggs of Red-whiskered Bulbuls, but none are in any way like those of Iora’. On the 3rd August, 1941, I shot a female at Khandala (Western Ghats) with a shelled egg in the oviduct. The egg was damaged by the shot, but the remains have been preserved and the egg agrees with an Iora’s — white background with sparse reddish-brown blotches and streaks heavier towards the thicker end. There were numerous enlarged ova together with this egg, and the bird (wing 128 mm.) was in heavy moult. I am sending you the egg herewith and I shall be glad if you will forward it either to Mr. Stuart Baker or anybody else who is interested, when transport is safer. C/o Messrs. Faiz & Co., HUMAYUN ABDULALI. 75 Abdulrehman Street, Bombay, 3. February 12, 1943. IX.— GREEN PIGEONS IN A SWAMP. One naturally associates green pigeons with banyan and similar fruiting trees, and it was therefore with some surprise that I put up a couple in a swamp near, the village of Munderi up the Kakod backwater and some 7 miles direct north-east of Cannanore, on 17th March last. I was at the time not too hopefully looking for belated snipe and was working with a line of men through a swamp MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 123 covered with short reeds. Here and there a small hole had been excavated and the black saline earth thrown up round the edge, it was from one of these waterholes close in front of me that two green pigeons rose and flew back over the line, to perch on a cocoanut palm some 200 yards away. I could not be sure of the species but think they were Grey-fronted (O. pomapadora) and not the Southern Green (C. phoenicopterus). Green pigeons so seldom visit the ground that this fact alone seems worth recording, but the incident raises another point of speculative interest. In ‘Birds of Southern India’ Col. Baker quotes Jerdon’s remark that large numbers of Imperial Pigeons annually visit a salt swamp in the neighbourhood of Cannanore in the hot weather, and adds that though he lived some years at various times at Cannanore he had never seen or heard of this swamp nor could he get any information about it. I also have tried without success for many years to locate it. May it not be that the place where I found these green pigeons is the swamp to which Jerdon refers and that they visited it for the salt earth on the analogy of deer visiting salt licks? True they were green pigeons and not imperials, but if the latter have acquired this habit there seems no reason why the former also should not have it. That imperial pigeons eat earth at salt licks is mentioned on page 359 of Smythie’s ‘Birds of Burma’. I would add that in 25 years’ experience of the country round Cannanore I have never seen a green pigeon before in the coastal area; but then I have never visited the swamps so late as mid-March. X.— SOME NOTES ON THE COMMON SANDGROUSE (PTEROCLES EXUSTUS TEMMINCK) IN KAIRA DISTRICT. I have kept notes on matters of shikar and natural history interest in Kaira District since 1930, and the following observations are based on these. Pterocles exustus is the only sandgrouse found in Kaira District. Distribution. — Found ordinarily only in small numbers along a relatively narrow belt bordering the western limits of the district. This belt widens both in its northern and southern extent ; especially in the south adjoining Cambay State where the character of the country is more suitable ; that is drier and barer sandy patches of land with scattered areas of cultivation near large barren plains. The common sandgrouse is a resident of the district, but the numbers to be found in any given year depend largely on the rainfall of the previous season. There seems to be a certain amount of local migration into and from the drier portions of Kathiawar, and the number breeding in the district varies considerably with the season. Ordinarily there must not be very many that nest in the district. Bangalore, April 10, 1943. E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, Major, I. A. (With a plate ) 124 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV During the period under observation the rainfall was average or above average from 1930 to 1934, and during these years sand- grouse were seen only occasionally. From 1935 to July 1941, each succeeding year the rainfall was increasingly below average; 1939, 1940 and 1941 being extremely dry. In April 1940 the Vatrak river, just above its point of junction with the Sabhrmati, was completely dry; the first time, according to the local villagers, that it had been so, since the famine year of 1900. At the same time many deep wells that had never been dry, went dry. It was during 1939, 1940 and up till the rains in 1941 that a marked increase in the numbers of sandgrouse in the district was noticed. During this period they were plentiful and some nests were found. In the following two years, 1941 and 1942 the rains were exceptionally heavy, above average for the district, and sandgrouse again scarce ; and they are still so at the present (April 1943). Nesting. — In. the months of December, January and up till the end of February in 1940 and 1941 grouse were found in enormous flocks of several hundreds. Sometime during the last week of February these large flocks could no longer be found. Those then seen would be in scattered pairs or small flocks of six or eight here and there. The question arises whether this increase in the size of the flocks during December, January and February, is con- nected with pairing and breeding or whether it represents a pre- paration for a local migration of a certain number over into Kathia- war and the northern drier sections of the country. The following are some extracts from my notes on nests and young : — March 20, 1940. Saw, while riding in our car, about noon, a pair of common sandgrouse out in an open plain near Radhu. The hen was sitting on a newly scrapped out shallow depression, with the cock standing nearby. We drove up cautiously until we were within about eight feet of the pair without disturbing them. Watch- ed them for some time from our seat in the car. (Unfortunately did not have the camera with us). It was only after my wife stepped out of the car that the pair flew off. The nest consisted of a simple depression in the ground, unlined, placed next to a lump of dried cowdung. There were no eggs. March 27, 1940. Went back to photograph the sandgrouse and nest seen on March 20th near Radhu. Found the nest deserted. There were a few pieces of egg shell lying in and around the nest. Robbed? May 22, 1940. West of Traj; saw a pair of grouse with two recently fledged young dusting themselves in an ox cart road. The wings of the young were fully feathered and they could fly. Feb. 12, 1941. West of Traj near the Vatrak river, saw several good-sized flocks of sandgrouse. Shot ten ; of these, two of the hens were found to be with fully matured, and hard shelled oviduct eggs. The testes, and ovaries of most of the others were enlarged. Febi 19, 1941. Wank. Saw several very large flocks of grouse coming to water between 10 o’clock and 11-30 in the morning. Shot 19 birds. All of the testes and ovaries of these were in an Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Common Sandgrouse (Pterocles exustus Temm.) i. Female with one chick under her wing and two standing in front of her. 2. Male, female and three chicks attempting to escape by slowly creeping away. [ Photos by Author. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 125 -enlarged condition. One hen was found with a soft shelled oviduct egg- April 30, 1941. Jakhara; while riding in our car, found a family of common sandgrouse, cock, hen and three chicks in down plumage. Was able to approach very closely to them by manoeuvr- ing the car carefully. Got some good photographs with the birds in various positions. Whenever we would attempt to drive up towards them, in gradually narrowing circles, they would slowly creep off away from the car ; always keeping their tails pointing towards us, changing their line of retreat with each change in the position of the car. They remained always in full view, and made no attempt to take advantage of any cover, though they several times passed clumps of dry grass and a small thorny bush. Throughout the manoeuvres the three chicks were constantly mak- ing an attempt to keep under the tails or next to the bodies of one of the parent birds. All of the birds seemed to suffer con- siderably from the heat while being shifted around in the bright afternoon sun ; especially the chicks which could be seen breathing rapidly through open beaks. The chicks though able to walk freely, and appearing to be at least five or six days old, were not able to walk very steadily. Two or three times one or the other would upset in some small crack or depression ; and they did not seem to be able to move very rapidly. (Partridge chicks of this age would have been very difficult to catch by hand). The parent birds fully appreciated the dangers their chicks were being exposed to from the air (hawks) ; they were constantly scanning the skies for a possible enemy. We did not get out of the car at any time. In all probability, the adult birds would have flown off to some nearby spot and the chicks would have perhaps ‘frozen. ’ ivfter taking several photographs from the car we left them undisturbed. May 7, 1941. West o£ Kaira across the Vatrak river. Found a sandgrouse’s nest out in an open patch between two uncultivated fields. The nest consisted of a small shallow depression, loosely lined with a few pieces of dried grass, and was placed between two small tufts of dry grass. It contained two hard-set egg's. The female bird was on the nest when discovered, but flew off immediately when approached. (The technical details of the two photographs ; enlargements of which are illustrated, are : — Taken at about 2 o’clock in the afternoon, very bright sunlight, with birds at a distance of about twelve feet from the camera. Camera Super Ikonta fitted wilh Zeiss Tessar F4.5, 10.5 cm. lens. Pictures taken on Panatomic — X film, at F16, 1/50 second. It should be noted that grouse are protectively coloured; and as they match their background so closely, are difficult to photograph satisfactorily, because of a lack of •contrast between subject and background). Xadiad, HERSCHEL C. ALDRICH, m.d. Kaira District, April 13, 1943. 126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V XI.— OCCURRENCE OF THE CLOSE-BARRED SAND- GROUSE (: PTEROCLES LICHTENSTENII ARABICUS , NEUM.) IN THE N.W.F.P. I am also sending- you the skin of a Close-barred Sandgrouse. This bird was shot near Alizai in the lower Kurram at an elevation of about 3,000 ft. above the sea level. It is described in Game Birds of India as being only found in Sind within Indian limits. Major Francis, Commandant of the Kurram Militia, who shot the bird, said that it was one of a small pack of 4 or 5 birds. They allowed the guns to approach quite close before getting up and even after being shot at came and settled quite close again after circling about a bit. I shot a specimen of this bird two years ago near the village of Mullazai in the Tank sub-Division of the Dera Ismail Khan District. It was one of a party of 6 birds and they behaved in much the same manner as described above. Mr. Emerson shot one near Sarwekai in Waziristan, as far as I remember, at about the same time. Parachinar, J. O. S. DONALD, Kurram Valley, N.W.F.P., Major. February 7, 1943. XII.— LATE STAY OF SNIPE AND WEIGHT OF PINTAIL. Yesterday i.e. , nth May 1943, close to Madura, I shot a snipe, a pintail, weight 5f ounces. He was with three Painters in rather dry stubble. This was a very late bird, and is possibly a record. He did not seem to be a wounded bird. I shot a number of snipe here also on 1st May 1942. Madura. J. BECKETT, I.P., May 1 2, 1943. D.I.G ■ of Police f S.R. (The heaviest pintail so far recorded is a bird weighing 12J tolas (about 7 oz.) shot by W. Gaye, at Secunderabad on the 6th January 1890. The average weight is about 4 oz- — Eds.) XIII.— THE WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE ( ANSER ALBIFRONS SCOP.) IN ASSAM. I am writing to you to record the occurrence of the white Fronted Goose in Assam. As Stuart Baker refers to this goose as a rarity in Western India and quotes no authenticated instance of its being shot in Assam, the record may be of interest to members. Some geese were reported to be down on the bheel near my bungalow (on the 7th of January) and on going out with the glasses I saw at once that the birds were neither grey lag nor bar-headed. It was the middle of the morning and three geese of a very dark MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 127 colour were standing- out in the sunshine on the edge of a pool, in the middle of the open bheel.. I could see no way of getting within shot and expected them to get up any moment and fly otf to the Brahmapootra. However, i left my labrador with a boy on the south side of the bheel to engage the attention of the geese, and making a wide detour crossed the bheel and got between the geese and the river. An exciting stalk then began ; the going was very soft and entirely exposed and the geese, I could see, were very uneasy — one, as usual, the sentinel, head up, was staring in every direction ; my only hope was a small herd of cattle grazing nearby, these I managed to work slowly towards the geese, creeping up when covered and crouching, still, when exposed. I had nothing but No. 8 — so a pot shot was my only chance, eventually the cattle drifted apart and I had to take a long shot ; he floundered about in the pool, but was retrieved in great triumph, one pellet had struck him in 'the head — his companions made off for the big river. He was in fine plumage and of course quite unmistakable, but the dark colouring was rather more dark ashey than dark brown as shown in Stuart Baker’s plate. I showed the goose to- Mr. Buckingham Jones of Dibrugarh, who is a keen ornithologist, and was greatly interested. My reference to the ‘big river’, the Bramapootra, reminds me of the derivation of the name given by the local ‘uneducated’ Assamese — who even today call it the Borompootar — in Assamese ‘hor’ is big and, of course, ‘ putra ’ spring or river. Sir Samuel Baker, in his books, always spells it (in italics) ‘Borrompooter’ — the name is understandable — the big river — the original inhabitants were animists and knew nothing of Brahma but it was easily corruptible into Brahmaputra, and, lately, German highly coloured prints used to be for sale in Dibrugarh for four annas depicting the ‘Brahma’-putra gushing from the head of the God seated on a throne and surrounded by people somewhat resembling Hitler & Co. Mothola Company Ltd., Dibrugarh, Assam, D. J. MONTAGNON. January 26, 1943. XIV.— GYNANDROMORPHISM IN THE COMMON TEAL (ANAS CRECCA LINN.) The Society recently received from Mr. H. W. Porter, Balu- chistan, the head of a Common Teal shot at Quetta on 26th Decem- ber 1942. The left side of the head shows the normal colouration and pattern of the adult male in summer and winter plumage ; the right side is that of the adult female (or of the male in eclipse). A detailed description is given below : Left side : As in adult male summer and winter plumage. Cheeks and lores chestnut. Thin cream-coloured lined from .gape upwards along base of upper mandible over and under eye to nape, enclosing broad band of metallic green. This band still with slight admixture of a few unmoulted . cinnamon- tipped brown feathers at its posterior end, near nape. Extreme point of chin (for 4 or 5 mm.) brown, the feathers tipped buff. Forehead, crown and nape 128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, V ol. 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I ^ 'Vi «<0 ca*§ § a ^ 02 d a ° cn "i-i 02 O > ^ a w t-H (U 02^ 0 >.s gE & 8 2d 02 -d C efi 5 82 S ° 02 (U ££ i® *1 > MH P' 'O t G 08 -w O 40 02 o «- o CQ 8 4h rQ 2 a U a « O tn i-i 4-> «-, c 4-. 02 0) W 82 £ 5g 02 ^ 55 08 C/2 cq 02 02 C2 > a O 08 £ "08 3 *C 82 CM Jd — 8> p <*4 ^ 02 trt o O 0 U +* X " gq g C2 n id o r s.2£ - ft.S-5) 5 a S .2 o !S§ 3 43 d+3 CQ (Sd.) A. F. FERGUSON & CO., (SdJ T E. SAV AIDES, Chartered Accountants, Auditors , Honorary Treasurer. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. REVENUE ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31st DECEMBER , 1942. i56 journal, Bombay natural hist, society, Voi. xliv Pi in o < mo $ SS K 10(0 cn so cm co o en COCOCOCNJinrH^HCO idncmom wi'i-i O C^cocm ■O1 QO * * CO* oCti S8. :og c'H w M It 3 AJ4 . _ ca o c o c/3 o u o w h'Orn SfflVrt c« o S'Oh . - 3 w c >1 - ■ CQ * ■ kmDi 2 03 o — ca ® Oitt2Uo« O s CQCQ ° u ® o a* 03 >s a w fl w ° a> .w. S'g *£ ooooooi- O^O^flN, 40001 i OO© : ONiDaoiDNOinincj Tii-^eoooocomoeM-* TP CO TT CO CO CM CM C30 03 o • o tn OjV.'O '£ 03 5 5- Sfi ca o co c/2 o * 6- ’ a> y □ . . ca 03 : : *s >3 « n 33 — 03 *3 ca B'SC ca a •« > 0.2 O 1 b » -rt _ £ 03^ ca c v. B'0« *-< o os a> o a a t; ^ a'SJ T3 .03 u ca o X} 0) 03 03 O £ T3 03 l-i t-i ca o o c n xs 03 03 O 03 y 03 03 C n ’a C £ ca m rt 03 *ca PQ to Q3 rt CQ rt cc to PQ ; * * CO co m I^Csl ^ CT) CO o ?S< «i§® 1 u5 G u" XiA jy; w % a blr-l u CM aco rjri; SO-OS S«Dlj‘ 2 ^ fl) u3£l §■§■§8 ^ ® ® 8 IS&Q CqHH o < g c flj = « § /« OQ > c/2 „ o ® a Cfl w 03 o II r CL. p- ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY ACCOUNT FOR THE YEAR ENDED 31st DECEMBER , 1942 . PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 157 'd . CQ c/2 5 O 1 . O « c n 8 £ S o o Pi O M -G fe c . -o < *8 G ^ Li PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. EDITORS I J. F. CAIUS, S. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, l8 CHURCH ROAD VEPERY, MADRAS H. PRATER AND C. MCCANN, 6, APOLLO STREET, FORT, ROMRAY Vol. XLIV, No. 2. DECEMBER, 1943. Price, Rs. 12 net . THE JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society. EDITED BY REV. J. F. CAIUS. S.J., F.L.S. S. H. PRATER. O.B.E., M.L.A., C.M.Z.S., AND C. McCANN, F.L.S. PUBLISHED BY THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 6, Apollo Street, Bombay. London Agents DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY) 212, SHAFTESBURY AVENUE LONDON, W.C. 2. THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS. Birds. Game Birds of India, Vol. II. (Woodcock, Snipe, Bustards, and Sandgrouse) i st Edition. Rs. 42. ( Price to Members Rs. 30). Game Birds of India, Vol. III. Pheasants, 1st Edition. Rs. 32. (Price to Members Rs. 21). Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali, with many colour and black and white plates, 2nd edition, revised and enlarged. Rs. 16. ( Price to Members Rs. 12-8). Cuckoo Problems, by E. C. Stuart Baker, illustrated. Rs. 20; Snakes. Identification of Poisonous Snakes — Hanging Wall Chart, 3o"X4o". (Revised in 1940). Rs. 8. Folding Pocket Chart. Re. 1-12. Snakes of Bombay Island and Saisette, by S. H. Prater, C.M.Z S. Re. 1. 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Such members should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription, plus postage — in all Rs. 26-8-0 — to the Society in Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £2-0-6 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers — The National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIV , No. 2 Page Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. Part XV. By N. L. Bor, m.a., d.sc. , f.l.s., i.f.s., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (With one coloured, two black and white plates and two text-figures) ... ... ... 159 The Game Fishes of India. Part XVII. By Sunder Lai Hora, d.sc., f.r.s.e. , f.z.s., f.r.a.s.b., f.n.i. ( With one black and white plate and one text-figure) ... ... ... ... ... ... 164 The Larger Deer of British India. Part IV. The Chital (Axis) and the Hog-Deer (Hyelaphus). By R. I. Pocock, f.r.s. (With 4-8 text-figures) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 169 A Note on the feeding habits of the Little Bittern (Ixobrychus minutus). By Lt.-Col. R. S. P. Bates, m.b.o.u. (With two plates) ... ... 179 ‘Light-Windows’ in certain flowers (Asclepiadaceae and Araceae). By Charles McCann, f.l.s. (With a plate) ... ... ... 182 Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India and Burma. Part V. By A. St. J. Macdonald. (With five plates and one text-figure) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 185 The Birds of Mysore. Part V. By Salim Ali. (With one plate) ... ^206 On the Birds of the Karen Hills and Karenni found over 3,000 feet. Part III. By H. C. Smith, m.b.o.u., P. F. Garthwaite, and B. E. Smythies ... ... ... ... ...» ... ... 221 Breeding habits and Early Stages of the Gourami (O sphronemus goramy Lacepede). By C. V. Kulkarni, b.a. (Hons.), m.sc., ph.D. (With seven text-figures) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 233 Some Common Indian Herbs with notes on their anatomical characters. Part XI. By M. Sayeedud-Din. (With three plates) ... ... 244 Some more new Lepidoptera from S.-W. Iran, with their life histories. By E. P. Wiltshire, f.r.e.s, (With a plate) ... ... ... 247 The Papaya, its Botany, Culture and Uses. By L. S. S. Kumar and A. Abraham. (With four plates) ... ... ... ... 252 A FEW NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD. By W. S. Thom ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 257 Effect of different foods on the larval and post-larval develop- ment of the moth Prodenia litura Fb. (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae). By A. C. Basu, m.sc. (With two graphs) ... ... ... ... 275 OBITUARA': Hugh Whistler ... ... ... ... ... 289 ii CONTENTS OF Vol. XLIV , No. 2 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES I. An interesting Tiger shoot. By Thakore Sahib of Palitana ... II. A Black Panther shot in Sind. By K. R. Eates, f.z.s., m.b.o.u III. On the occurrence of the Yellow-headed Fantail Warbler (Cisticola exills tytleri Jerdon) in the Kumaon Tarai, U.P. By B. E. Smythies IV. Occurrence of the Golden Oriole and Common Cuckoo in Sind. By N. H. Menesse, i.s.e. V. The distribution of the Grey Hornbill ( Tockus birostris ) and Tickell’s Flower-Pecker ( Piprisoma agile ) By Capt. R. G. Hutchinson VI. The European Common Partridge ( Perdix perdix) in Persia. By J. A. Cergh VII. Description of chick, in down, of the Simla Hill Partridge (Arbor ophila torqueola millardi). By A. E. Jones VIII. Local movements of the Painted Partridge ( Francolinus pictus) around Bombay. By F. C. D. Ogden IX. Banding of the Lesser Florican ( Sypheotides indica) in Bhav- nagar State. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji X. Whimbrel and Fiddler crabs. By M. R. Raut « XI. The moulting of Duck after arrival in India. By Humayun Abdulali XII. Ducks of Kaira District. By Herschel C. Aldrich, m.d. XIII. The Arabian Large-crested Sea Tern ( Sterna bergii velox ) breed- ing off the Sind Coast. By K. R. Eates, f.z.s., m.b.o.u. XIV. The hatching of a Mugger ( Crocodilus palustris). By C. Bone XV. Specific identity of the ‘Record Mahseer’. By S. L. Hora, d.sc. XVI. Strange breeding habits of the Cichlid Fish (Etroplus maculatus). By Lt.-Col. H. J. Rice XVII. A note on the transmission of Malaria at Ketti, Nilgiris, 6,300 feet. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth, m.a. XVIII. Butterfly migration. By W. L. French XIX. Insects in fruit eaten by birds. By J. C. M. Gardner XX. A trip to the Yala Sanctuary. By Lt.-Col. H. G. Rossel Page 291 291 292 296 296 297 298 299 299 300 3 00 301 302 303 303 304 3 °7 310 31 1 311 ■ Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc Plate No. XV The Cape Plumbago PLUMBAGO CAPENSIS Thunb. Size 2/3. JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society. 1943. Vol. XLIV No. 2, SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. BY N. L. Bor, m.a., d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s., Forest Botanist, AND M. B. Raizada, m.sc,, Assistant Forest Botanist, Forest Research Institute, Delira Dan. Part XV (Continued from Vol. xliv, No. 1 (1943), p. 77). i With 1 coloured and 2 black and white plates and 2 text-figures). Plumbago Linn. The name Plumbago seems to be derived from the Latin plumbum, meaning lead. Some authors assert that the name was given to the genus on account of the lead-coloured flowers of some species. There is, however, another explanation. Pliny and Dioscorides, who wrote on medicinal plants in ancient times, pre- scribe decoctions of the plant Plumbago europaea as treatment for an affection of the eyes known in Latin as plumbum. The sap of the roots is also said to leave lead-grey coloured flecks if applied to the skin. 160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV The family Plumb.aginaceae , to which our genus belongs, contains besides Plumbago, several genera which are valued in temperate countries for their pretty flowers. Limonium and Statice may be mentioned in this connection, both of which are represented by many species in the gardens of America and Europe. The family contains for the most part perennial shrubs or half- shrubs and also rosette plants. The leaves are entire, rarely lobed, and characterised by the possession of many-celled glands which secrete water, slime or carbonate. The inflorescence may be simple or compound with the flowers arranged in heads or racemes. Flowers gamopetalous ; corolla tubular with a spreading, 5-lobed limb. The calyx is gamosepalous, shortly 5-lobed and furrowed between the lobes. Stamens 5. The ovary consists of 5 carpels of which one only has a pendulous ovule on a basal funicle. The genus Plumbago , of which several species are commonly cultivated in the gardens of India, comprises shrubs and under- shrubs sometimes scandent. The leaves are alternate, entire, with the petiole sometimes auricled at the base. The flowers are arranged in terminal racemes. The corolla tube is long and slender and is divided at the top into 5 spreading lobes. The colour of the corolla may be white, rose-coloured or blue. The stamens are five in number opposite to the petals, and are free with oblong, dorsifixed anthers. Ovary superior, 1 -celled, 5-angled, and contains one ovule. The fruit is a capsule. The flowers are protogynous, that is, the stigmas are thrust forth from the corolla tube well above the maturing anthers. This is a device to ensure cross fertilisation which in the case of Plumbago seems to be accomplished by flying insects. Unwelcome visitors such as ants, are prevented from reaching the corolla by the rows of viscid glands found on the calyx tube. A bitter substance known as plumbagin is contained in the tissues of the. species of this genus. It is said to be identical with ophioxylin, which occurs in Rauwolfia serpentina, a species of Apocynaceae, which is well known in the Hindu pharmacopoeia. Plumbagin has vesicant properties, and is said to be widely used in tropical countries as an abortifacient. As the juice causes large and painful blisters, its use for this purpose seems to be not un- accompanied by danger. More legitimate uses for the drug are in its application to stimulate stagnant ulcers, as a counterirritant for toothache, as a purgative and as a palliative for rheumatism, glandular swellings and the like. This genus affords a good example of dispersal through the viscid hairs on the calyx. The calyx is persistent and contains the 1 -seeded capsule. Any animal which brushes against a Plumbago bush is certain to carry away ripe fruits, transporting the seed to- great distances. Key to the Species. Flowers white or blue. Calyx wholly covered with stalked glands Calyx glandular in the upper part only P. zeylanica . P. capensis - P. rosea. Flowers red SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 161 Plumbago zeylanica Linn. The Ceylon Leadwort. (zeylatiicus is a Latin adjective, meaning of Ceylon, and refers to Southern India or Ceylon as the country of origin of the species). Description. — A shrub or semi-scandent shrub with diffuse branches and ribbed stems covered with a scurfy, glandular exuda- tion. Leaves alternate, petiolate; petiole up to i in. long, slightly auriculate at the base; blade up to 3 in. long by 2 in. broad, ovate, acute or obtuse, suddenly narrowed into a cuneate base, dark green above, rather pale below, gla- brous ; margin entire. Flowers arranged in terminal simple or branched racemes up to 12 in. long; rhachis very glandular and covered with a viscid exudation. Flowers seated on a very short pedicel supported by a bract and two bracteoles. Calyx • 5-.6 in. long, conspicuously 5-rib- bed, each rib ending in an acute clayx-lobe. The ribs are covered all over with numerous stalked glands with spherical tips, very viscid. Corolla gamopetalous, white; tube slender .75 in. long, ending in 5 ovate lobes .3 in. long. Stamens 5 ; filaments green, as long as the tube slightly dilated at the base. Ovary shortly stipitate ; style long, divided at the tip into 5 stigmas. Fruit a capsule con- tained in the viscid, glandular, persistent calyx. Flounders and Fruits. — Cold season. Distribution. — Tropics of Asia and Africa, and east to Australia and Hawaii. Wild and extensively cultivated throughout India. Gardening. — A rambling, sub-scandent, untidy shrub with star- like, white flowers. It seeds abundantly but is usually propagated by suckers. It is capable of much improvement by judicious pruning and training. Medicinal uses. — The medicinal properties of the root of this plant are well known to Indian practitioners. It is said to excite digestion and promote appetite. It is also used in piles, diarrhoea, and skin diseases (Dutt). 162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V Plumbago capensis Thunb. The Cape Leadwort. (This species, which is indigenous in South Africa, was first collected by Dr. Carl Thunberg). Description. — A woody, sub-scandent shrub with striate -stems. The leaves are entire, oblong or oblong-spathulate in shape, obtuse or acute at the apex, glabrous, tapering downwards into a very short petiole, up to 2 in. long by 1 in. wide at the broadest part. The under surface is covered with a white scurfy glandular excretion. The inflorescence is a terminal raceme; rhachis puberulous. The flowers are seated on very short pedicels supported by bracts and bracteoles. The calyx is gamosepalous, about .4 in. long, with 5 acute, triangular lobes at the top, 5-ribbed, each rib rather fleshy and ending in the tip of a lobe. The calyx between the lobes is somewhat membranous.. In the upper half the calyx bears numbers of stalked glands with swollen, purple, viscid tips. The corolla is pale blue in colour; tube about 1.5 in. long, 5-lobed, each lobe about .5 in. long, obovate-obtuse in shape with a well-marked central vein of a darker blue. Stamens 5, blue, on long filaments the length of the corolla tube. Filaments dilated at the base into what appears to be five nectar-secreting glands. The ovary is shortly stipitate, 1 -celled, with 1 pendulous ovule. Style simple, as long as the tube, ending in 5 feathery stigmas, from a basal funicle. Capsule oblong-clavate, rounded above, tapering and pentagonal below. Flowers. — Practically throughout the year, but in profusion dur- ing July-October and December-March. Does not set seed in this country. Distribution. — Native of the Cape of Good Hope; now widely cultivated in gardens throughout the plains of India. Gardening. — An evergreen, sub-scandent or straggly upright bush with beautiful azure-blue flowers. It is one of the commonest as also one of the most ornamental plants of our Indian gardens. It is advisable to remove all dead wood and old stems, as it is on the new shoots that the best flowers are produced. In South California and elsewhere if planted against a tree it will climb up to 15 ft. or so. It is best suited for borders or as a bedding plant or even for pot planting. Usually propagated by suckers or division of roots, as cuttings are less successful. It is apt to be cut back by frost where it is severe. There is a white variety similar in every way to the blue except for the colour of the flower. Plumbago rosea Linn. Rose-coloured Leadwort. [roseus refers to the colour of the flowers of this species). Description. — A perennial shrub with obscurely striate scandent branches. Leaves alternate, shortly petiolate, broadly ovate or elliptic in shape, up to 8 in. long by 3 in. broad, glabrous ; entire, dark green above, pale below; petiole short, dilated and half- amplexicaul. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plumbago capensis Thunb. Photo by M. N. Bakshi. New Forest, Dehra Dun. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 163 Inflorescence a terminal raceme up to 2 ft. long*. Individual flowers spaced, often secund, seated on short pedicels, with bracts and bracteoles; rhachis glabrous. Calyx gamosepalous, .3 in. long, 5-ribbed and 5-lobed, the lobes short triangular acute, covered with very numerous gland-tipped stalked hairs. The corolla tube is 1.25 in. long; slender with 5 rounded lobes about .5 in. long, of a beauti- ful brick-red colour. Stamens 5, on long filaments. Ovary stipitate, i-celled, i-ovuled. Style long and hairy towards the base, ending above in 5 definite stigmas. Fruit a capsule contained in the glan- dular persistent calyx. Flowers.— Cold season, but also at other times of the year. Distribution. — Native of Sikkim and Khasia. Extensively culti- vated in the tropics of both hemispheres. Gardening. — A small shrub with pretty red flowers. It is an excellent subject for winter blooming in pots. Propagated by offsets. Medicinal uses.— It possesses medicinal properties similar to those of P. zeylanica. Plumbago rosea Linn. var. coccinea is a form with larger scarlet flowers and more common under cultivation than the type. THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA. BY Sunder Lal Hora, d.sc., f.r.s.e., f.z.s., f.r.a.s.b., f.n.i,, Director of Fisheries , Bengal. ( With one black and white plate and one text-figure.) ( Continued from page 8 of Vol. xliv, No. i.) XVII. The Mahseers or the Large-scaled Barbels of India. IO. ON THE SPECIFIC IDENTITY OF JERDON’s SPECIES OF MAHSEER FROM SOUTHERN INDIA. Under the genus Barbus Cuvier, characterized by ‘Dcfrsal short, preceded by a strong spine; 4 cirri’, Jerdon (8, pp. 311-314)1 de- scribed or recorded a number of species from Southern India, but he examined specimens of only a few of them. Of these, several -are provided with a serrated dorsal spine, and some of those in which the spine is entire the number of scales along the lateral line exceeds 30 and in all probability the labial groove is interrupted in them. Excluding fishes of these two categories from his list of 14 species of Barbus there are five, viz., B. hamiltonii, B. megalepis, B. malabaricus, B. mussullah and B. khudree, which may be con- sidered here. He regarded Barbus pro geneius McClelland as synonymous with Barbus ( Labeobarbus ) hamiltonii (Gray), which he described as follows : — ‘Head to the whole body as 1 to 3I; cirri long; a fleshy projection on both upper and lower lips ; body compressed ; its height is to total length as 1 to 3! — 26 scales along the lateral line, in 6 rows; green above, cheeks golden, silvery beneath ; fins tinged with orange red ; D. 3-9, 3rd spine simple, very strong; A. 2-5, etc.’ In recording Barbus khudree Sykes, of which no specimen was examined, Jerdon observed that ‘If Colonel Sykes had not given 14 rays to the dorsal fin I might have considered it the same as B. Hamiltonii.' I (4, p. 521) have discussed in an earlier article that Gray’s Tor hatniltonii ( — Cyprinus tor Hamilton) is the Tor Mahseer of Northern India, but in identifying the Peninsular form B. khudree, with McClelland’s B. progeneius , Jerdon seems to have been influenced by the character of the enlarged lips, which is pro- bably common to all species of Mahseer. He observed: ‘This fine fish is one which in the South of India most nearly resembles ihe Mahseers of Bengal, but I am not aware of its having been taken by fly 1 Numerals in thick type within brackets refer to the serial numbers of the various publications listed in the bibliography at the end of the paper. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 165 "here. It is found in the Cavery and all its tributaries, and grows to a size I am told, of 2 to 3 feet. It is a very handsome fish. I am not certain of its being McClelland’s fish, which appears to differ somewhat in colouring, in the size of the head, and in wanting the projection on the upper lip. The drawing in Gray and Hardwicke gives a very fair representation of our southern fish.’ In the last article of this series (6, p. 7), the head and anterior part of body of a specimen of Barbus khudree Sykes col- lected by Dr. Rishworth in the Uhlas River, 40 miles north of Bombay, were figured to show the greatly hypertrophied lips and there seems no doubt that Jerdon had a somewhat similar specimen which he referred to Barbus ( Labeobarbus ) hamiltonii (Gray). This fish is very much like the Mosal Mahseer of the Himalayas and, but for the tubercles on the cheeks, is almost indistinguishable from it. Jerdon recorded Barbus megalepis McClelland from South India with a query and stated : ‘ I obtained a single small specimen of what I consider may be this fish in the Cavery at Seringapatam. It was only a few inches long, but the fisher- men, who call it kilche, said that it grew; to an enormous size.’ He characterized it as : ‘Head is to body as 1 to 3 ; 25 scales along the side in 6 rows; D. 12, A. 7.’ In the preceding article (6) it has been shown that the Mahseer of Peninsular India that grows to an enormous size is Barbus mussullah Sykes and evidence was adduced to show that Jerdon’s B. megalepis is synonymous with it. Barbus malabaricus was characterized by Jerdon as follows: — ‘Head to whole body as 1 to 4; height 3! times in its length; 4 long cirri; 23 scales along the body in 6 row’s. D. 3-8. A. 2-8; pale brownish olive above; •silvery beneath ; fins tinged with red. ’ Pie further stated : ‘I have taken this handsome barbel only in mountain streams in Malabar. It rises to the fly sometimes, and will also take a bait of boiled rice. I have not s(feen it more than 10 inches long, but from the rapid growth of one I have 'kept alive for some months I imagine it attains a much larger size.’ Judging from the above description, the species is insufficiently characterized, and probably for that reason Day (1) did not even mention it in his ‘Fishes of Malabar’. Gunther (3, p. 82, foot- note) included it among the doubtful species of Barbus. In his ^Fishes of India’, however, Day (2, p. 569) gives a detailed de- scription of the species and includes it among those with 4 barbels. In which the last undivided dorsal ray is articulated, or if osseous very weak. He gives the distribution of the species as ‘From South Canara down the Western Ghats to the Travancore hills. Mr. Ballard has captured it at Courtallum with a fly. It attains at least 18 inches in length.’ As regards its colour, he stated: ‘bluish, becoming white on the abdomen. Fins usually blue. Eyes red. Sometimes the fish is brown : and the dorsal, pectoral, and ventral red. Or the front edge of dorsal and anal and upper and lower borders of the caudal may be dark.’ The variation in colour exhibited by the Malabar Mahseer is shown by Thomas (9) in the first three plates of the 2nd edition of his ‘Rod in India’. 166 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV I have examined Day’s specimens from Canara and found that though the dorsal spine is relatively very weak, they are in all other respects ( vide table of measurements given below) very similar to B. khudree Sykes (7, pp. 24-28), even in the presence of tubercles on the sides of the head (see plate). In the case of Barbus ( Lissochilus ) hexagonolepis McClelland (5, p. 82), it was pointed out that owing to great variation in the size and strength of the dorsal spine no reliance could be placed on it as a character of specific value. Further, I have examined only a few specimens of B. malabaricus and for the time being, therefore, I am unable to separate malabaricus from khudree specifically. It may, however, be noted that, as is the case of other Mahseers discussed in the preceding articles, the nature of the lips varies considerably even in this form. This is clearly shown in Day’s two- specimens of malabaricus from Canara (Text-fig.). Fig !• Ventral surface of head and anterior part of body of two specimens of Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes ( = B. malabaricus Jerdon) from Canara collected by Day (Z.S.I. Register Nos. 2380 and 2394), showing variation in the form and structure of lips. X 2/3, Thus among the five species of the Tor-type included by Jerdon in his list of South Indian fishes, we have the following two types: — 1. Barbus khudree Sykes —B. hamiltonii Jerdon nec Gray. = B. malabaricus Jerdon. 2. Barbus mussidlah Sykes =B. megalepis Jerdon nec McClelland. Both B. khudree and B. mussiillah have already been described in fair detail in the two preceding articles of this series. However, I give below measurements, etc. of four specimens of B. malabaricus Jerdon for convenience of reference in future. It will thus be seen THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA WT that throughout Peninsular India there are probably only two types of Mahseer which are widely distributed in all the principal rivers. Table of Measurements in Millimetres and Scale-counts Canara Tenmalai Total length 300-0 326 0 125-0 225-0 Standard length ... 233-0 256-0 98-0 179-0 Length of head ... 61-5 67-0 26-0 47-0 Height of head ... 45-5 48-0 17-5 34-0 Width of head 340 36-0 15-5 30-5 Diameter of eye ... 15-0 160 9-0 12-5 Length of snout ... 200 25-5 9-5 15-0 Interorbital distance 240 26-0 9-0 17-0 Width of body 355 36-5 16 0 30 -5 Depth of body 70-0 68-0 28-5 54-0 Length of caudal peduncle ... 42-0 48-0 19-0 31-0 Least height of caudal ped- uncle 29-0 31-0 12-0 230 Length of dorsal fin 57-0 54-0 22-0 39-0 Length of pectoral fin 49-0 51-5 19-0 350 Length of pelvic fin 44-5 . 44-0 15-5 30-0 Length of anal fin 50-0 48-5 18-0 33-5 Length of rostral barbel 15-0 16-0 5-0 10-0 Length of maxillary barbel ... 17-5 19-0 6-5 12-0 No. of predorsal scales 9 9 9 9 No. of scales along L. 1. 23 23 23 23 No. of scales between L.l. and V. W'. * 2| 2\ 2* 2 k Acknowledgments. As in the case of the previous articles, the entire cost of illustra- tions was borne by the authorities of the Bombay Natural History Society and to them my best thanks are due. I am obliged to Mr. K. S. Misra, Fish Assistant, Zoological Survey of India, for drawing up the table of measurements and to Babu S. Mondul for the execution of the illustrations. 168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV List of References. 1. Day, F. — The Fishes of Malabar (London, 1865). 2. Day, F. — The Fishes of India, p. 569 (London, 1868). 3. Gunther, A. — Catalogue of the Fishes of the British Museum, vol. vii, p. 82 (London, 1868). 4. Hora, S. L. — ‘The Game Fishes of India. IX. The Mahseers or the Large-scaled Barbels of India. 2. The Tor Mahseer, Barbus (Tor) tor (Hamilton). Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xli, p. 521 (1940). 5. Hora, S. L. — ‘The Game Fishes of India. XI. The Mahseers or the Large-scaled Barbels of India. 4. The Bokar of the Assamese and Katli of the Nepalese, Barbus ( Lissochilus ) hexagonolepis McClelland.’ Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xlii, p. 82, text-fig. 4 (1940). 6. Hora, S. L. — ‘The Game Fishes of India. XVI. The Mahseers or the Large-scaled Barbels of India. 8. Further observations on Mahseers from the Deccan.’ Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xliv, pp. 1-8 (1943). 7. Hora, S. L. and Misra, K. S. — Fish of Deolali. Journ Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xl, pp. 24-28 (1938). 8. Jerdon, T. C. — ‘On the Fresh Water Fishes of Southern India.’ Madras Journ. Litt. Sci., vol. xv, pp. 31 1-3 14 (1849). 9. Thomas, H. S. — Rod in India. 2nd Edition (London, 1881). Explanation of Plate. Lateral view of a specimen of Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes ( = B. mala- baricus Jerdon) from Canara collected by Day (Z.S.I. Register No. 2394) X4/7. Notice the weak and articulated dorsal spine ; series of small tubercles on the cheek, small number (23) of scales along the lateral line and i\ rows of scales (not as described by Day) between lateral line and base of pelvic fin. THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA. BY R. I. POCOCK, F.R.S. Zoological Department, British Museum , Natural History. Part IV — The Chital (Axis) and the Hog-Deer (Hyelaphus). The remaining . two species of Indian Deer to be dealt with, namely the Chital, Axis or Spotted Deer, and the Hog-Deer differ essentially from those already described in two main structural features: — (i) There is a long, deep, glandular cleft in the middle of the pastern of the hind foot, which is absent in the others (Fig. 4) ; (2) the crowns of the median lower incisor teeth, when unworn, are greatly expanded, the free edge considerably exceeding A. Anterior view of hind foot of a Chital (Axis axis ) showing the dilated orifice of the interdigital gland which is also present in the Hog-Deer ( Hyelaphus ). B. Section of the same foot showing the glandular pit and the layer of secreting cells. C. Section of the hind foot of a Sambar ( Rusa unicolor ), showing the absence of the glandular pit which is also absent in other large Indian Deer. in width the combined widths of the three teeth outside them (Fig. 5). Also the upper canine teeth are typically absent in both sexes. Lydekker, it is true, says, on unstated authority, that they are gener- ally absent in Axis and this is repeated, perhaps copied, by Phillips. They are entirely absent, however, in all the numerous skulls ( With text-figures 4-8). (Continued from page 37 of this volume). Fig. 4. 170 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV examined in the British Museum. The antlers, as is well known, are simple and three-tined as in the Sambar, the three species D A. Incisiform teeth of old d Wallich’s Deer ( Cervus wallichii ), the stag imported alive from Nepal. B. The same of Schomburgk’s Deer (Thaocervus schomburgki ), the age shown by the exposed roots of the teeth, as in A. C. The same of adult 9 Sambar ( Rusa unicolor) from Satara (Prater), much younger than A and B as shown by the unexposed roots. D. The same of adult 9 Chital ( Axis axis ) from the Nallamalai Hills (La Person ne). having- alike retained this primitive feature, which is not an indica- tion of affinity between them. THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA J71 Genus Axis, H. Smith. (The Chital or Spotted Deer). Axis, Ham. Smith, Griffiths’ An. King-., 5, p. 312, 1827, and of many subsequent authors, sometimes as a genus, sometimes as a subgenus of Cervus. Type of the genus. — Cervus axis Erxleben. Distribution. — India and Ceylon. In addition to the characters mentioned above, the distinguishing external features of this genus are the conspicuous pattern of white spots extending at all seasons over the upper side from the neck backwards; the smooth short coat, forming no mane on the neck; the legs are normally long and the brow tines are externally diver- gent and form a nearly rectangular junction with the beam. Axis axis, Erxleben. Cervus axis Erxleben, Syst. Regn. An., p. 312, 1777; and of most subsequent authors (based on the Axis of Pennant Syn. Quadr., p. 51, 1771). Cervus nudipaipebra Ogilby, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1831, p. 136. Axis maculatus Jardine, Nat. Libr., 3, p. vi and p. 167, 1935, and of several authors (substituted name). Locality of the types of axis, nudipaipebra and maculatus : ‘the banks of the Ganges’. Distribution. — Jndia and Ceylon. The only skin available for description is a mounted Indian specimen (Duke of Bedford). The general colour is brownish fawn, the darkening being due to the black tips of the hairs, which are more conspicuous on the nape and on the sides of the lower neck below the cheek, but die away on the lower side of the neck which is fawn except for a large white patch in front ; the spinal area is blackish and this extends as a black streak up the nape to the head; the upper part of the sides of the neck, the backs of the ears, the cheeks, sides of the muzzle and round the eyes is pale creamy buff, but the forehead is brownish fawn and this area extends as a dark angular V-shaped point in front of the eyes and is sharply set off by the pale hue above the eyes and on the sides of the muzzle; there is also a dark patch on the top of the muzzle, behind the rhinarium ; and another at the corner of the mouth, but the chin and lower side of the jaws are white; the breast, belly, scrotum and inside of the thighs and lower side of the tail are also white; the limbs externally become gradually whiter towards the hoofs. The pattern of white spots extends from the neck and shoulders but is absent from the head, throat, tail and limbs below the line of the belly ; the spots show a definite longi- tudinal lineal arrangement along the spine and low down on the flanks above the belly; elsewhere they are more irregular; but on the hinder part of the thigh they form a vertical white stripe. For the Ceylonese Spotted Deer, Lydekker in his Catalogue, Vol. 4, p. 51, 1915, adopted the subspecific name ceylonensis pro- posed by Fitzinger in 1874; and Phillips (Man. Mamm. Ceylon, p. 329, 1935) followed him and published three photographs of the 172 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV entire animal and one of a mounted head. According- to Lydekker the spots are smaller in ceylonensis and the forehead has no dark horseshoe mark. I am unable to distinguish the body-pattern shown by Phillips’s photographs from that of the Indian specimen described above and the horseshoe or V-shaped mark on the fore- head is clearly indicated, thus contradicting Lydekker ’s statement on that point and his amplification of it that the forehead is all brown. He also says that ceylonensis is yellower and paler fawn in its ground colour. That alleged difference I am unable to check ; but the description of the head was taken from his type of zeylanicus (Field, 1905, p. 147) which has the forehead more uniformly brown and the chevron-mark hardly differentiated ; but the brown patch behind the rhinarium above is continued laterally to the corner of the muzzle which is not the case in the Duke of Bedford’s Indian skin, but is apparently indicated in Phillips’s photographs. The character, however, to which Lydekker apparently attached the greatest importance was the alleged thinner antlers in Ceylon specimens. Phillips, who followed him in this claim also, states that the three stoutest Ceylonese antlers known to him had a basal girth above the burr of 5^, 6 and 6| in. In three skulls, collected by Mayor, and in the type of zeylanicus , the girth ranges from 4^ to 4J in., the average girth of the seven being about 5J in. In seven skulls from southern India the girth varies from 4J to 6 in., the average being 5 in., nearly the same as in the Ceylon skulls; and in fifteen heads from Garwhal, probably collected by St. G. Burke as being good trophies, the girth varies from 5 to in., agreeing very closely with Phillips’s three picked Ceylonese heads, the average of the fifteen being 5! in. From these data it seems that the subspecific status of ceylonensis is at present hardly admissible. The skull of Axis is on the average about 2 in. shorter than that of Panolia, the smallest of the Deer of the preceding categories, and has the face relatively shorter, the distance from the posterior edge of the orbit to the tip of the muzzle being about twice the postorbital width, whereas in Panolia f which has the postorbital area exceptionally narrow, the face, so measured, is much more than twice that dimension. In Rucervus also the length of the face is well over twice the postorbital* width. There is a large collection of adult 6 Indian skulls available from districts both to the north and south of the Ganges. Those from the north are on the average a little smaller than those from the south. The largest and smallest skulls from the north were collected by St. G. Burke in Garwhal. The total and condylobasal lengths of the largest are 286 and 275 mm. respectively and of the smallest 271 and 260 mm., the average of those dimensions in a large number of skulls, mostly from Garwhal, being 280 and 267 mm. The largest skull from the south, collected for the Survey by Baptista at Diguvametta in Kurnool, has the total and condylobasal length 302 and 290 mm. respectively: and the smallest collected for the Survey by Shortridge at Kanara, has those dimensions 277 and 269 mm., the averages of a considerable number from scattered localities being 286 and 275 mm. The average total in all the 6 Indian skulls is about 11J in., and the average condylobasal about 10 4/5 in. THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 173 Only two 6 skulls from Ceylon, both collected for the Survey by Mayor at Cheddikulam, are .available. Their total and condylo- basal lengths are 276, 2 66 mm. and 270, 256 mm., the averages being 273 and 261. Curiously enough they are noticeably smaller on the average than the southern Indian specimens, coming nearer the northern in size, although a little smaller. Their average total of just under n in. and average condylobasal of just under iof in. suggests that Ceylonese skulls may be a trifle shorter than Indian skulls; but the data from Ceylon are clearly insufficient. A. Orbital area with vacuity and gland-pit of adult <$ Chital (Axis axis) from Kanara (Shortridge). B. Nasal bones of the same specimen, with the vacuity and inner portion of the gland-pit (dotted) of the left side*. C. The same of adult $ Chital from Garwhal (St. G. Burke). Figs. B and C show approximately the extreme variations in the species in the length and width of the nasal bones. (Figs, two-thirds nat. size). As regards other skull-characters, the bullae are moderately inflated, about to the same extent as in Panolia and Rucervus, but 174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV show a good deal of individual variation, although always projecting below the surface of the occipital bone between them. The nasals are always expanded posteriorly between the vacuities ; their free edges at this place being usually about 15 mm. long, but varying from about 9 to 18 mm.; the interfrontal penetration of the nasals is usually about on a level with the posterior ends of the vacuities, but may extend as an acute angle some 15 mm. beyond. The vacuities are wide as compared with their length which in almost all cases is less than the vertical diameter of the orbit which averages about 43 mm. The gland-pit is moderately large, but rather shallow and, although varying to a certain extent individually, is always much shorter than the vertical diameter of the orbit (Fig. 6). Three adult $ skulls were collected for the Mammal Survey in southern India. Their histories and total and condylobasal lengths are — Dharmapuri, Salem (Baptista) 260 and 242 mm.; Nallamalai Hills (La Personne) 257 and 246 mm. ; Palkonda Hills (Baptista) 241 and 231 mm., the averages of these dimensions being 253 mm. (about 10 in.) and 239 (about 9 3/5 in.). They are thus about in. shorter respectively . than the 6 skulls from southern India. Genus Hyelaphus, Sund. (The Hog-Deer). Hyelaphus , Sundevall, K. Svenska Vet.-Akad, Handl., 1844, p. 1 81 and of many subsequent authors either as a genus or as a subgenus of Cervus or of Axis. Type of the genus. — Cervus porcinus. Distribution. — Northern India, Burma, Siam, Annam, some of the Philippine Islands ; also Ceylon, where it is believed to have been artificially introduced. Distinguished from Axis in external characters, as has frequently been recorded, by its colour, smaller size, shorter legs imparting a more crouching gait, and by the nearly erect brow tine diverging from the beam at an acute angle. In the skull the antler-pedicles are relatively longer, the gland-pit is at all events relatively larger, and deeper, not shallower as stated by Lydekker, the bullate portion of the auditory bone is actually larger, being more inflated in three dimensions, although the skull is smaller, and the nasal bones are less expanded between the vacuities, being typically nearly parallel- sided (Fig. 7). This diagnosis is taken from the typical British Indian species, the species or races assigned to Hyelaphus, and found to the east of Burma being too little known at present for inclusion. Hyelaphus porcinus, Zimm. (The Hog-Deer). Cervus porcinus Zimmermann, Spec. Zool. Georg., p. 532, 1777; and of later authors as Cervus, Cervus ( Axis ), Cervus ( Hyelaphus ), Axis, Axis ( Hyelaphus ) or Hyelaphus. (Based on the Porcine Deer, Pennant, Syn. Quadr., p. 50, 1751). THE LARGER DEER ' OF BRITISH INDIA 176 ' ? Cervus pumilio H. Smith, Griffiths’ An. King., 4, p. 120, 1827 ; id. op. cit. 5, p. 312, 1827, as Cervus (Axis).1 Locality of the type — of porcinus. — ‘India’; of pumilio unknown.' Distribution. — ‘The Indo-Gangetic plains of India from Sind and the Punjab to Assam and thence to Burma’ ; extending north of the Ganges to the United Provinces, Nepal and Bhutan Duars. B C Fig. 7. . A. Side view of the left bulla and surrounding bones of a Hog-Deer (Hyelaphus porcinus from E. Nepal (Baptista), showing the bulla ( b ) projecting below the level of the occipital .bone. B. Lower view of the bulla ( b ) and surrounding bones of the same specimen. C. The same of a Chital (Axis axis ) from the Palkonda Hills (Baptista), showing the relatively smaller, less inflated bulla ( b ) than in the Hog-Deer (. Hyelaphus ). The only skin available for description is that- of a mounted adult 6 from Burma (Evans)..' The general colour above and below is fawn brown, with very faint traces of some paler spots on the flanks, but more along the spinal area which has no dark median stripe; the sides of the neck, the cheeks and back of the ears are decidedly paler than the body, nape .and top of the head, but the muzzle is darker brown, especially on the corner of the mouth; the front of the upper lip and the chin are white and the 1 The type .of pumilio was the very young frontlet and antlers of some quite unidentifiable deer. It was in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons;; but since that historical collection was destroyed by ~a bomb.Jn 1940,, the., species will never be determined. To get rid of the name I follow Lydekker’4, lead and add it to the synonymy of porcinus. * 2 m journal, b6mray natural hist, society , Voi. xliv white from the chin extends backwards over the lower jaw to the front of the neck which, like the chest, is brown; the lower side of the tail, the inner sides of the thighs and the scrotum are white. This specimen agrees in a general way with the current descrip- tions of typical porcinus, mostly derived from Blanford who observed for a few’ years a seasonal change in living specimens the colour being pal^r in summer and showing spots especially on each side of the f spine. Some 'features of the skull were briefly alluded to under the generic diagnosis. Additional particulars are as follows : — The largest arid smallest complete d skulls were alike collected by St. B C V Fig. 8. A. Orbital area with vacuity and gland-pit of adult d Hog-Deer ( Hyelaphtis porcinus) from Bijnor (St. G. Burke). B. Nasal bones, with vacuity and portion of gland-pit (dotted) of right side of the same specimen. C. Nasals of another adult d Hog-Deer from Nepal (Baptista). D. Nasals, with vacuity and inner portion of gland-pit (dotted) of Hog-Deer from the Upper Chindwin (Bruce). G. Burke at Bijnor in the United Provinces. The largest has the total and condylobasal lengths 241 and 232 mm. respectively; the smaller has those dimensions 226 and 218 mm. The average total length of eight d skulls is 233 mm., about 9 1/3 in. and the average THE LARGER DEER OF BRITISH INDIA 177 condylobasal length of six is 224 mm., about 9 in. The skulls of Hyelaphus are thus on an average about 2 in. shorter than <$ skulls of A xis. Actually the shortest S skull, collected at Pani- chatta in Bengal, has a total length of 224 mm., about 9 in. The face is relatively shorter, as compared with the total length, than in Axis. In eight skulls the average length from the front edge of the orbit to the tip of the muzzle is 122 mm., a little over half the total length which exceeds twice the facial length by only 11 mm. The orbit and vacuity are about the same relative size as in Axis, but the gland-pit is on the average deeper, with better defined edges, and the nasals between the vacuities are narrower, the bones being typically nearly parallel-sided from the premaxillae to the frontals, although sometimes a little expanded where they abut against the vacuities (Fig. 8). The most noticeable difference however, between the two lies in the size of the auditory bones (Fig. 7). The oblique width of the bone from the auditory orifice to the inner anterior margin of the bulla is 40 mm. in an average of seven skulls, . approximately the same as in 'Axis-- with its considera- bly larger skull; and the swollen or bullate portion of the bone is more inflated vertically; transversely and longitudinally* its average total length, excluding the apical spike, being 26 mm., actually 5 or 6 mm. longer than in Axis. Apart from the absence of antler pedicles, the skulls of the 9 Hog-Deer differ from those of the 6 in being exceptionally 'narrower across the upper rim of the orbit behind and, as normally in the family, shorter. There are only four skulls available, two from Nepal, one from Bharnabari in Bhutan Duars (Baptista) and one from the Dibong River, Assam (Wells), the last two, collected for the Mammal Survey, being respectively the longest and -shortest. The total and condylobasal lengths of the one from Bhutan are respectively 232 and 222 mm., the same dimensions of the one from Assam being 213 and 206. The average total length of all the skulls is 222 mm., about 8 4/5 in. ; the average condylobasal of three is 8 3/5 in. The orbit and vacuities are about the same as in the d1, but the gland-pit is shallower and about 5 mm. shorter on the average. Hyelaphus porcinus oryzus, Kelaart. Axis oryzus Kelaart, Prodr. Faun. Zeyl. , p. 83, 1852. Axis oryzus Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Beng., 23, p. 217, 1854. Hyelaphus porcinus porcinus Phillips, Man. Mamm. Ceylon, P- 333) 1935* Locality of the type. — Ceylon. Distribution. — ‘The wet zone along the west coast from a few miles north of Kalutara southwards towards Kottawa, west of Gaffe' (Phillips). Distinguished from the typical race, on the evidence cited below, by its smaller skull and, on the average, smaller antlers and by the usual absence of any marked seasonal change of colour and the absence of spots in the adults. Racial status has hitherto never been granted to the Ceylonese Hog-deer. A remarkably small adult skull in the British Museum 178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Voh XL1V drew my attention to the possibility of its distinctness from the north Indian and Burmese race and some confirmatory items favouring this idea were found in Phillips’s account. As regards the colour, Phillips, after referring to Blanford’s description of the Indian Hog-deer, which says that the summer coat is paler and more rufous (than the winter coat) and more or less spotted with pale brown or white, the spots being sometimes restricted to one or two rows along the spine, states that in Ceylon he has ‘never seen any sign of such spotting in the adult’ and expresses the doubt about the occurrence of any marked seasonal change in colour. Similarly in connection with the antlers, he quotes some measurements of Indian specimens which, as stated above, may exceed 20 in. in length, and adds that in Ceylon ‘the antlers appear as a general rule to be much smaller,’ the largest of which he has a record measuring only 13 in. in length. Kelaart described the Ceylonese Hog-deer as about two-thirds the size of Axis maculata and light fawn brown with two parallel lines of small white spots along the medial line of the back and some white hairs interspersed on the sides arid upper parts of the limbs; the under side and lower side of the tail being whitish. This description fits the youngish hind referred to by Phillips as the only specimen showing spots seen by him. The horns, accord- ing to Kelaart, are small. The skull from Ceylon (Zool. Soc.) above mentioned, is that of an old 6. It is remarkably short, with a total length of only 218 mm. the length from the anterior edge of the orbit to the end of the muzzle only hi mm. and from the occiput to the tip of the nasals only 178 mm. It is considerably shorter than the shortest 6 Indian skull measured, one from Panichatta District, Bengal, in .which those dimensions are respectively 224, 120 and 206 mm. Its total length of about 8f in. is 1 in. shorter than the average total length of the Indian skulls measured. On the other hand it is a relatively broad skull, probably owing to its age, its postorbital and orbital widths of 82 and 97 mm. respectively being about the same as the average in Indian skulls. The size of its orbit, vacuity and gland-pit are also about average, but the length of the nasal edge of the vacuity, 17 mm. is exceptionally long, greatly sur- passing the average of Indian skulls. Although the antlers are very short, the right being only 10J in. long and the left 10 in., they show obvious age decadence, the inner branch of the beam being short and conical on the right and altogether lost on the left antler. Blyth first suggested that the presence of the Hog-deer in Ceylon is to be explained by artificial introduction ; and according to Phillips there is a tradition that this was effected either by the Dutch or the Portuguese. The purpose of importing a small deer into the island, already containing the Sambar and Axis, is not clear ; and Phillips says there is no record of when it took place_, but since the species has been well established for a hundred years dr more, it is entitled, he thinks, to rank as a Ceylonese animal. In this conclusion I fully concur, trusting that some zoologist on the spot will soon verify or refute the opinion that H. p. oryzus is £ distinguishable race. A NOTE ON THE FEEDING HABITS OF THE LITTLE BITTERN (IXOBRYCHUS MINUTUS ). BY Lt.-Col. R. S. P. Bates, m.b.o.u. ( With two plates). Round about fifteen years ago I had my first experience of watching and photographing the Little Bittern from the hide. Tlie habits of this denizen of the reed beds are so extraordinary that the episodes I then witnessed have remained impressed most vividly upon my memory. It has consequently remained my fixed intention to complete the series of photographs I then obtained with a further series of the young in the nest.' I wished above all to depict the extraordinary manner in which the food is passed to them by their parents. Last summer I found myself at the end of June in a houseboat on the Dal Lake with four days of my leave to go, and a good number of plates still unexposed. In a little backwater off the Nagim Bagh amongst the floating gardens I spent a few delightful hours photographing the Whiskered Terns, and discovered just as I was about to move off that three yards behind the shikara from which I had been operating was a Little Bittern’s nest with 6 tousled youngsters in it. AH I had to do was to part a way through the reeds I had been anchored against and transfer the camera % the back of the hide. The chicks as usual were of very different ages and development, ten days probably separating the oldest from the youngest, for the eggs are generally deposited at 2-day intervals while incubation starts with the laying of the first one. I anticipated therefore that I might have some difficulty in obtaining the photo- graphs I required, as I knew from past experience that the chicks become wanderers as soon as they are strong enough to clamber out of the nest, and I have on occasion found an entire household distributed throughout the reeds in a circle some yards out from their home as if each one had started out on an independent voyage of discovery. True, I had also noted that they seemed to be in the habit of recollecting at the nest at night, in stormy weather, and often on being disturbed. On this occasion I had not been long in the hide before all beaks were turned expectantly in the same direction. The two largest young ones clambered a couple of feet from the nest and a moment later I caught a glimpse of the male parent who stalked deliberately and silently past as if he did not own it. The young ones gazed sorrowfully after him but soon returned to their usual practice of jostling one another and on occasions making vicious stabs at young brother or sister just to remind me what quarrel- some brats they always are. In a former paper I once remarked that I Ihought this aggressive spirit must be a special dispensation wherebv the smallest youngster by sheer ferocity should be enabled to obtain a share pf the food, 180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV After a short lapse of time the male suddenly appeared on the edge of the nest where he stood rigidly to attention. He was evidently ill at ease, for he took no notice of the family at all and started clambering hand over hand up one of the stout supporting reeds on reaching the summit of which he flapped away uttering a single harsh croak as he did so. It is hardly correct to say he suddenly appeared at the nest for a Little Bittern seldom does any- thing suddenly. Rather do they fade in or out of the picture, as their movements are always so deliberate, solemn, and silent: except, that is, for the lightning dart of the bill at an unwary dragonfly or a silvery sprat required for the offsprings repast. The young ones too are as silent as their parents, their bills opening and shutting when asking for food without the noisy infantile chorus of most young birds. The two wanderers had immediately come home on the arrival of the male, and there they remained until he at last made up his mind to come and feed them. There then ensued those incidents I had witnessed so often before, but which so interested me that in watching every phase of the routine I had always failed to record them. On arrival on the nest, for a space he remained with bill horizontal ; he then lowered it. This was the signal for an immediate attack upon his person by his seemingly ravenous horde. One of them seized his beak about halfway down but with a twist he freed himself. This, however, availed him nothing for the largest of the brood fastened on to him close to the base of the bill and there ensued a wrestling bout in the midst of which I took the accompanying photograph at a moment when his head was twisted right over but with no signs of his being able to break the aggressor’s hold. Upon this the other five at once ceased to participate in the struggle and subsided into an attitude of anticipa- tion with all eyes upon father. A moment later the latter forced his head down, his bill opening somewhat. A couple of heaves and there fell therefrom the semi-digested remnants, black in colour, of the regurgitated food for the brood. So broken up was it that on this occasion it was quite impossible to recognize its origin. It looked not unlike lumps, variable in size and crumbly in texture, of bazaar tobacco, and I was inclined towards the opinion that it was a jumble of insect remains. The main point of interest how- ever is what happened to it. I have seen the young one in posses- sion slide its own beak down that of its parent so that it was able to grab the food before it fell to the lot of one of its brethren. On this day however on all three occasions on which I witnessed the feeding process, not once did success crown the efforts of the bill- seizer, whereas the smallest member of the family was able to snatch up a sufficiency of fallen morsels for his needs. If the bill- seizer was generally successful in his attempts, one could readily understand the evolution of this curious habit. But a theory to fit in with its formation where the aggressor is more often than not quite unbenefited by his efforts, eludes me. Nature does not strike one as being philanthropic, so a habit on the part of the strongest which helps the weakest does not seem to fit in anywhere. Of course, a few intermittent observations from the hide at, widely" Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate I Feeding habits of the Little Bittern. Photo by author. Ixobvychus minutus (Linn.) Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate II Feeding habits of the Little Bittern. Ixobvychus minutus (Linn.) Photo by author. THE FEEDING HABITS OF THE LITTLE BITTERN 181 spaced intervals, such as I have been able to carry out, not only provide quite inadequate data for solving such a problem, but are very apt to lead to erroneous conclusions. Should one be blessed with the opportunity to watch the growth of a family from the hatch- ing of the first chick to the final departure of the whole brood, then perhaps some useful facts might emerge to guide one along the path to the correct interpretation of the Little Bittern’s amazing behaviour. I ‘LIGHT-WINDOWS’ IN CERTAIN FLOWERS. ( Asclepiadaceae and Araceae). . ; - BY Charles McCann, f.l.s. ( With a plate). The title of the paper may, at first sight, seem rather curious, but its true significance will soon become apparent from what follows. It is well known that in the great economy of Nature animal agents, directly or indirectly play an important r61e in the pollination of flowers and the dispersal of seed, so much so, that it is doubtful whether certain plants could survive without their animal ‘helpmates’. Most plants that employ carrion feeding* insects must appeal to the ‘aesthetic’ senses of their guests, and accordingly the ‘hosts’ produce flowers which resemble decomposing material in colour, form, or scent or better still, a combination of all three. Carrion and fruit flies ( Diptera ) are perhaps the chief guests. The flower may offer some form Of refreshment, by way of food or drink, or a temporary home for the visitors or their young, or it may lure its visitors by mere bluff, and what is more, imprison them for a while under ‘Act i of year o’ ! In return for whatever form of hospitality they receive, the guests must transport the pollen from one flower to another, and thereby effect cross-pollination. Some such flowers, keep ‘open house’ and the guests come and go freely, irrespective of ‘caste or creed’ ; others are more select in their choice of visitors, only the ‘chosen’ may enter and depart at will; lastly there are the ‘highbrows’ that are not merely highly exclusive in the choice of their guests, but are so overbearing in hospitality that they imprison the visitors, and only permit them to take their leave at their (the hosts’) pleasure. Flowers that invite carrion feeders generally range in shades of colour varying from pink, through purple, to almost black, mottled with green and yellow tints and finished off with a bluish gloss or bloom. The region in which the reproductive organs are situated is usually the deepest in colour, thus often making it quite dark within, especially in flowers which select and imprison their visitors. Carrion flies and fruit flies are usually diurnal insects and accordingly must have a certain amount of light to see and feed (remain active). Into such a darkened flower the flies would probably not enter, or if they did, would soon fall asleep. Nature in some marvellous way ‘anticipated’ this, and has invariably inserted a ‘window’ in such flowers, or rather, a translucent ‘window-pane’. The ‘window-pane’ is a light-coloured area which admits light. Viewed from within it merely appears as a light coloured area in the region, and its true significance is not immediately apparent. The ‘window’ is so arranged that the light is focussed on to the reproductive organs. What a marvel ! Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. ‘Light Windows’ [ For explanation see end of article. ‘ LIGHT-WINDOWS' IN CERTAIN FLOWERS 183 It is not my intention to pursue the subject of ‘light windows’ exhaustively in the plant world, but merely to draw attention to the formation of such ‘windows’ as observed by me in the course of studying certain plants in the field. My attention was drawn to this point particularly when engaged on the study of the genus Ceropegia f and subsequently I extended my observation to the genus Cryptocoryne, in which I knew of the existence of ‘closed’ flowers, darkened internally. Flowers which have developed ‘light windows’ have usually developed devices to exclude top lighting and for darkening the chamber containing the reproductive organs. This is achieved by modifications in the corolla as in Ceropegia (Figs. 1-5), or by modi- fications in the spathe as in Cryptocoryne (Figs. 6 and 7). In both instances there is a more or less inflated chamber formed round the reproductive organs. In Ceropegia the corolla is remarka- bly inflated at its base to form a chamber round the reproductive organs (corona). Above the chamber the corolla is strongly con- structed, and generally bent to form a funnel-shaped tube terminating in the five corolla lobes, which are united at their extremities. The chamber and part of the tube above are very deeply pigmented interiorly with purple. Thus it will be clear that, but for a ‘window’, the interior of the flower would be in darkness — the colouring of the inside, the bend in the corolla tube, and the union of the corolla lobes above the ‘funnel’ all contribute towards excluding direct light from the reproductive chamber. A glance at the accompany- ing figure will make matters clear. The inner surface of the corolla lobes, the throat of the funnel, and often the chamber itself are provided with stiff hairs, all pointing downwards. The amount of hairiness varies with the species. The hairs admit the visitors, but prevent their exit for they all face the visitors like so many spear heads — the intruders are trapped ! Following the maturation of the pollinia (pollen masses) the flower stalk bends downwards, the hairs break down, and light is admitted down the tube and the flies make good their escape carrying with them the pollinia fixed to their head like pairs of horns. In Cryptocoryne the construction is somewhat different. What appears to be the flower is in reality an inflorescence, and not a single flower as in Ceropegia. Nevertheless, the method of attracting visitors is much the same. The spathe, which may appear as a corolla, is converted into a reproductive chamber in its lower portion to contain the two groups of male and female flowers, the remaining upper part is twisted into a tube of varying length, according to the species. Externally the spathe is variously pigmented in dark hues, but internally it is a very deep purple, almost black at times. But for light windows the internal gloom would be further accen- tuated by the presence of a valve which separates the chamber from the tube above. This valve admits the visitors, but once in, there is no escape — it is a trap-door which will only open when the pollen is mature and the visitors are thoroughly covered with golden dust. The inner surface of the chamber is polished and may act as a reflector. The female flowers are situated at the bottom of the chamber and the males are fixed at the top near the valve. Both 184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV groups are connected by a thread-like process which may serve as a ladder. When the female flowers mature the spathe opens and gives off the necessary odour to attract visitors. These alight on the free end of the tube and in their ardour to discover the ‘goods’ advertised, enter the tube and finally press pass the valve into the chamber. The male flowers ripen next, giving out the pollen grains. The flies finding themselves trapped, fly round the chamber and towards the source of light, which in Cryptocoryne enters from two trellis-like grids at the top of the chamber, one on either side of the group of male flowers (Fig. 6), the polished surfaces of the walls probably reflecting a certain amount of the light admitted. The whirling of the flies in their frantic efforts to escape fills the chamber with clouds of pollen dust and the flies themselves are covered with it. The valve soon after breaks down and out go the flies with the new pollen only to enter another flower and effect the task assigned to them by Nature. The Cryptocoryne are more or less aquatic, or amphibious plants, and according to the species may be partially submerged when flowering or, as is the case with some less aquatic species, a greater portion of the reproductive chamber may be hidden from view. The flowers are produced deep in the axils of the leaves and con- sequently become slightly compressed. The windows are produced on the ‘shoulders’ of the chamber which are not covered by the petioles. In both Ceropegia and Cryptocoryne the reproductive chamber would be positively dark, but for the fact that Nature has provided Tight- windows’ in each case. In Ceropegia the position of the ‘window’ varies. In some species there exists a light-coloured ring around the top of the chamber, in others the ring of light is below, and in such a position as to light up the corona, while in yet others the ‘windows’ form longitudinal ‘pannels’ composed of dense and thin bands of tissue to admit light. Whatever may be the type of lighting arrangement, it is so constructed as to illuminate the corona in Ceropegia and the male flowers in Cryptocoryne. The accompanying drawing will explain the subject matter more explicitly than my pen. Explanation of Plate. Fig. i. — Flower of a Ceropegia. Figs. 2 to 4 show various types of fighting. Fig. 5.— Polien-masses. Fig. 6. — ‘Flower’ of Cryptocoryne. Fig. 7. — ‘Window’ of Cryptocoryne enlarged. (The figures are somewhat diagrammatic.) CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH IN INDIA AND BURMA. BY A. St. J. Macdonald, ( With 5 plates and i iextr figure). ( Continued from page 59 of this volume ) Part V. The Mahseer in Burma. Oh! Scaly monsters of the deep, or of the turbid stream, Reveal your secrets now and then, and fulfil the Angler's dream / Why do you accept my bait one day, disdain it on another? Though light and shade prevail the same, please what's the secret khubbar ?■ I cast my spoon and hide from sight, the same from day to day. Sometimes you take it at my feet, anon just swim away! Large sums I spend on rod and reel, all to beguile and fight, Hundreds of miles I go in search, to test your strength and might. Into the borulels of the Himalayas, to Burma, Assam, Mysore, And barren mountains and waters small, Quetta, Banu, Tor. Then to Trap Rock and Tiger Land, where only gram you take, Raipur, Saugor, Seoni, in Tapti Sone or Berach. Pride of place in my heart I give, to your Ava cousins all, Be they monsters of the Mali H'ka, or Barilius Bola small. Long may your secrets remain your own, and long may your haunts prevail, For this after all is the fun of the chase, to find you, lure you, then fail ! A.M. The Chindwin (1), The Irrawaddy (2), The Salween (3), Tenasserim (4), Size of Mahseer (5), Burma Record and Record Mahseer (6), Varieties of Mahseer (7), Golden Mahseer (8), Thick-lipped Mahseer (9), Black Mahseer (xo), Copper Mahseer (11), Chocolate Mahseer (12), Red Mahseer (13), Points to remember when fishing (14), Best season for catching fish (15), Fish destroyers (16). Fishing Small Streams in Burma. Isolation not a factor (17), Tackle (18), Summary of a Fishing trip in 1928 (19), Notes from Myitkyina and Seniku Fishing Notebook (19), Bait (20), Fishing conditions (21), Tackle (22), Quota- tions from Notes (23), Big Fish (24), A comparison of the Mali and N’Mai Khas (25), List of fishes to be caught (26), Extracts from the Myitkyina Fishing diary (27), Extracts from the Seniku Fishing Diary (28), More extracts from the Myitkyina Fishing Diary (29), Notes on the Mali K’ha (30), Notes on the N’Mai K’ha (31), Notes by Capt. Finch (32), Myitkyina Fishing Association (33), Mr. T. P. Dewar’s notes (34). The Mahseer in Burma. In devoting a special chapter to Burma I do so with recol- lections of perhaps some of the finest fishing waters in the Indian / 186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Empire, for they hold a variety of mahseer the study of which affords a most interesting subject. As a province it is, with Assam, the best and most adapted to the mahseer. This is on account of its net- work of rivers, forest clad, and for the most part unmolested by the ravages of man or beast. Sir George Scott writing in his book Burma and Beyond says: — ‘From the stretch of hill country between Assam and China a number of mighty rivers start to run southwards in nearly parallel courses. They supply all the water that is wanted for cultivation and irrigation in Indo-China. Thev begin near one another in a very narrow span of longitude, and gradually spread out in a fan, which covers the lands from the Yellow Sea to the Bay of Bengal. All of ihem run in deep narrow rifts, and the range's which separate them go on running southwards almost as far as the rivers themselves, and in China almost as sharply defined as the river Channels.’ ‘These mountain ranges fall away from each other as the river valleys widen, and they lose their height as tributary streams steadily cut through the ridges which form herring-bone spurs and spines. But they still keep the same north and south direction, though here and there spines re-enter and form the series of flat-bottomed valleys and wide straths which make up the Shan States.’ ‘Of all these rivers the Salween most steadily preserves its original character, for it flows swiftly down in deep channels, sometimes precipitous gorges between high cliffs, from its . source till it reaches the plain-land, which it has itself piled up over the sea in the course of ages. It runs down the centre of the British Shan States, and these lie towards the fringe, and nearly in the centre of the fan, which has for its ribs the Brahmaputra, the Irrawaddy, the Salween itself, the Mekhong and the Yangtzu.’ The chief rivers in the north are the Chindwin on the west, the Irrawady in the - centre and the Salween to the East, with the Tenasserim in the South. i . The Chindwin. — Fed from the west by the Manipur river and its smaller tributaries and from the east by the Uyu and its many affluents, all of which hold mahseer ; for some unaccountable reason the fish of this river are reluctant to take spoon or spinning bait. This has been the experience in the past, and it must for this reason alone be classed as an indifferent fishing river below Homalian. In the Hukawng valley, where the Chindwin rises, the fish run large and are game, taking spoon readily ; the upper reaches of the Uyu, coming from Mogaung and Karmaing in the Myitkyina dis- trict, also afford excellent sport. The circumventing of the fish in the Chindwin is an unfinished study in the case of the western rivers, though not to such an extent with the eastern tributaries. 2. The Irrawaddy. — Roughly dividing Burma lengthways has some 700 miles of course before it empties itself into the sea below Rangoon. It becomes the Irrawaddy 29 miles above Myitkyina, the most Northern district of Burma, where two rivers of equal size, the Mali and N’Mai H’ka come into confluence, forming a pictur- esque junction and an angler’s paradise. The fishing water mav be roughly defined as being above Katha. It is not really good till Bhamo, but is par-excellence above Myitkyina whence, from the confluence of the Mali and N’Mai H’ka to Fort Hertz up the Mali, and H’Tawgaw up the N’Mai, there is approximately 120 miles of water on each of these rivers. Fish run to any size, and many a monster is to be seen cruising in the backwaters of the Mali from the road above at Teing H’ka. At the actual confluence I have taken a 75 pounder and fought for two hours with another monster and then lost him. In the Myitkyina District there are numerous Famous rocks 22 miles north of Myitkyina. 3. Mali Rapid into confluence F — G is excellent watet\ CikCUMYktiTlNG THE MAllSEkk is7 large spring-fed rivers that make excellent junctions with these two rivers, the Mali and N’Mai, and some wonderful bags have been made in the past. 3. The Salween. — This great river, which is navigable for hundreds of miles inland, is hardly touched on in any books as a fishing river. 1 here again quote Sir J. G. Scott from his book : ‘The Salween is one of the most astonishing rivers in the world. Its sources are not accurately known, and throughout its whole course, in British territory at least, it preserves the character of a gigantic railway cutting or canyon. Though it runs from North to South, it has a variety of bends that prevent any very long view up or down its course. The banks rise to thousands of feet on each side, and often so sheer from the water’s edge that there is seldom room for any sort of camping ground on either side. In the dry weather there are what may be called ‘bays’ of blinding white sand, or a chaos of huge boulders strewn broadcast ; and here and there, where a tributary enters, a stretch of pebbly gravel. The rocks are of the hardest kind, siliceous and even vitreous, and yet they are ground and scored by the stones borne down by the current. The rocks for the most part are coated with a glistening polish, as if they were black- leaded, and when it is considered that the sun can only shine down into this great gorge when right overhead, and that blankets of mist lie over it every morning, its austerity may be imagined’. ‘A feature of the Salween is the extreme coldness of its waters, partly caused by the melted snows coming down from the sources, but partly also because of the lack of sunlight. In the cold weather the mist hangs over it densely like a blanket, but in the hot weather it rises half-way up the hills, and remaining there produces the phenomenon of sunshine above and a clear atmosphere over the river bed. This . blanket of fog is found by aneroid to measure a thousand feet with a clear atmosphere above and below’. The average difference between high and low water in the Salween level is sixty or seventy feet, and in some places as much as ninety feet. There are many rapids in the current, and many reefs of rock running across . In the time of high water all beaches and boulders are lost, and the water actually laps the steep slopes of the forest. The current varies extremely; there arer sluggish reaches, and then races. Native boats at certain seasons of the year can ply on it, but continuous navigation for any length would be impossible. ’ ‘There are many ferries for traders at various points, but in some the ferry- men live in villages high up on the hills above, and the steepness and the absence of proper landing-places make the working of these ferries both difficult and erratic.’ ‘The drenching mists would lead to fevers and ague, it might be supposed, but the Red Kerens, and others who live in the District, seem to be immune, from long acclimatisation.’ ‘At five miles below the Keren-ni border the busy part of. the river begins, with the Ta Taw Maw ferry, and from here the river is a regular trade route down to Moulmein and the coast.’ There is little to be desired more than this as a fitting* description of ideal mahseer water. Whether it is because the higher reaches, of this river traverse wild country out of the beaten track of the ‘White man’, or because of lack of enterprize by residents of the neighbouring stations, I have found it difficult to get in touch with any one who has fished it, or knows anything about the fishing this river offers; but that there are huge mahseer in it, is certain. A correspondent writes me that a nephew in the Bombay Burma Teak Corporation told him of having seen shoals of masheer 6 ft. in length cruising at certain places in the lower Salween, on the Siam Border. The rivers coming in on the left bank from China should cer- tainly hold mahseer, even though the rivers coming in on the right bank from the Shan States are almost denuded of fish life by the 188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol XL1 1/ extensive irrigation. This appears to have been the experience of most anglers posted in the Shan States: and we read in ‘The Mighty Mahseer’ that it is hardly worth wetting line in any of these rivers. An illustration of what poaching and extensive irrigation will do. 4. Tenasserim. — In the south this river has afforded excellent sport and the rubber planters have made some big bags. Trips are made by motor launch into the higher reaches where large fish of 50 or 60 pounds have been taken so that, generally speaking, we might justly conclude that the Mahseer is common throughout Burma; and one can reasonably expect to find him in any perennial stream which is rocky and rises in hills, irrespective of where it joins the larger rivers. As an illustration of this see Sahmaw Chaung further on in this chapter. 5. Size of Mahseer. —To what size we may expect fish in a river depends largely on the size of its waters. The larger the river the bigger do fish run. The limit of the size a Mahseer attains is put at nine feet. 6. Burma record and Record Masheer. — The best taken to date in Burma is 92 lbs., caught two miles below Myitkyina and a souvenir of the fish was in the Myitkyina Club. The record Masheer caught on rod and line is 119 lbs. This was taken in Mysore ; it was 64 inches long and had a girth of 42 inches. That this grand fish can be beaten in Burma I am convinced. I have myself seen fish nearly 6 feet long at Tiang-Kha, 40 miles north from Myitkyina, that must have been 150 lbs. At the con- fluence of the Mali and N’Mai Rivers also, I have seen fish rise that were 18 inches across the back, if an inch. This much suffices then, to show that we have in Burma Mahseer as large as anywhere else in the Indian Empire. 7. Varieties of Mahseer. — Burma in particular is fortunate in offering opportunities for studying the much neglected subject of the varieties of mahseer. Thomas in his ‘Rod in India’ of 1873 invited the attention of anglers to this study. To give up catching fish when they are on the feed, and write down copious notes and details of an unusual fish is not a very interesting occupation, still it is time well spent, and invaluable to Natural History. By doing this in 1928, I was able to open up the question of whether there are not at least 6 distinct varieties of mahseer to be caught. The photographs contained in this chapter show the difference but they are not conclusive enough. If anglers would only further note down the colourings and different characteristics of such fish, we may prove this by specimens packed and forwarded to the Bombay Natural History Society. (See specimen form elsewhere.) The six types of Mahseer that I caught are as follows; and though they differ all fit Doctor Day’s Barbus tor in the main points. 8. The Golderf or Himalayan Mahseer is the commonest and the same as the Indian fish, which are represented by two forms; — (a) Golden Mahseer. The Putitor Mahseer, Barbus tor putitora (Hamilton) known in Assam as the ‘Greyhound’ fish. It is usually long and narrow, with a distinct black line down his entire length, two and a half scales in width above the lateral line, head large and long, top half green, lower half pale green running into silver. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. i. Golden or Himalayan Mahseer, Barbus tor putitora Hamilton, 23 lbs. Because of its long body referred to in Assam as the Greyhound type. 2. Black Mahseer. A colour variety of the Putitor or Golden Mahseer. CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 189 Above lateral line from golden with a mauve tinge on silver grey background. Fins blend with colouring; dorsal green and dirty pink, ventral and pectoral pale green to olive with red fringe. Eye : iris golden, pupil black. Belly white. (b) The for mahseer, Barbus (Tor) tor (Hamilton). This is rather uncommon, and is generally taken with paste or dead bait, fishing on the bottom. The head and mouth is smaller, and body deeper than in the first type, the colouring is much the same as the lirst type. See photos opposite. The scientific names have been adopted from Dr. Hora’s article Game Fishes of India, from the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal, Vol. xli, No. 3, page 521 dated April 1940. 9. Thick-lipped Mahseer. — The thick-lipped mahseer has the same colouring as the Himalayan mahseer differing only in the head. Chief features are the thick lips with the adipose extension. Hora classifies this fish as a variation of the true putitor mahseer, the development of the lips not being as yet cleared up. 10. The Black Mahseer. — Two distinct types are taken, (a) Is stocky in build, head small and black, mouth small, barbels and eyes black. This fish is marked by a jet black line two half scales above the lateral line; scales above lateral line have a tinge of gold on the scale tips running to jet black on the back. Below lateral line scales are lighter but dirty white, almost shot black to the scales on the belly which are dirty white with a black fringe. Fins black with grey at base. It is fairly common in the streams which are heavily wooded, and is almost without exception a very game fish. (b) Is a melanic form of the putitor mahseer. 11. Copper Mahseer. — The copper mahseer is quite the most beautiful fish I have seen. He is bright copper all over with a sheen running into all the colours of the rainbow, he runs from the deepest shade of copper with the delicate mauve sheen through- out, to the more - delicate shades of copper with shell pink, on a background of shot silver and gold. The head is small and nose slightly concave, the lips are a modification of the thick-lipped variety. The adipose continuation of the lower jaw is clearly defined, but very much modified and not so pronounced as in the thick-lipped variety. Fins deep blue, except tail fin which has a red fringe. Belly delicate shade of yellow eyes bright copper; pupil deep indigo blue. Only three of this variety were caught in 1928 at the confluence of the Mali and N’Mai Rivers; best fish weighing 25 lbs. no black line down the side. 12. The Chocolate Mahseer. — Head round and square and small like a Labeo, colour bronze, running through delicate shades into purple. No black line above lateral line. Above the lateral line chocolate running into blue to dark chocolate on the back, with polished bronze tinge to scale tips. Below lateral line, running from faint silvery blue to white on belly to the extent of three complete rows of scales, with half row on either side, clearly defined, making four. Bright orange spots under lower jaw on chin; lips thin, mouth small. Fins sky blue ; iris chocolate; pupil black. Two fish of this kind taken, best 28 lbs. taken also at the conflu- ence of the Mali and N’Mai Rivers. iyo JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV 13. The Red Mahseer has a round and small head, top of which is shot gold and purple, also gill plates ; mouth small. Above Lateral Line, beautiful sea green shot with silver, tips of scales salmon pink. Below Lateral Line, mauve with silver, vermilion tips to scales; belly pink, fins all bright red; black line above the Lateral Line not present in this fish. Eye golden, pupil indigo blue. Took five of these fish at the same confluence, best 18 lbs. A study of the photographs will convince anyone interested, that these fish bear marked differences to each other both in colouring and shape. This is of no value to piscatology, but if fishermen are able to differentiate the varieties, my object will be fulfilled; and if further pursued, by specimens being sent to Bombay, we will have at least opened up this neglected but inter- esting study. From the recent work by Dr. Sunder Lai Hora, on the Game Fishes of India, appearing in serial form in the Bombay Natural History Society journal , and from correspondence I have had with him, he has identified these fish as follows : — The Chocolate Mahseer ... Stocky Black (0) ,, Red ,, The Golden Mahseer The Thick-lipped Mahseer. The Black (melanic) (£) Mahseer The Copper Mahseer ].B. ( Lissochilus ) hexagonolepis (McClellan) j only colour forms. ] B. tor putitora (Hamilton). 1-The hypertophied lips being only a peculiar! - j ty, not yet fully investigated. B. tor mosal (Hamilton). 14. Points to remember when fishing.- — Mahseer which have not been ‘educated’ by wielders of the spinning rod are not, so far as my experience goes, shy or difficult to catch; so we need only follow the usual rules of fishing, to be successful. There are, however, one or two points of importance which, if mentioned elsewhere, will also bear repetition here, as being of special value while fishing in Burma, where the dense forest that grows to the water’s edge of most of the rivers supplies various leaves, fruits and vegetation to form a diet to which these fish seem particularly partial. The large jungle figs, so abundant at certain seasons, are much sought after; also the larger forms of insect life. In the matter of spoon, fishing deep meets with success; in fact it is only by so doing that one hooks the really big fish. The use of as fine tackle as is compatible with the size of the fish, combined with the least conspicuous mounting and hook arrange- ments, amply repays the careful fisherman in these gin clear waters. 15. Best season for catching fish. — The general idea of the autumn and spring being the best seasons does not appear to fit most of the rivers of Burma. This is also the case in Assam. Langley’s famous catch of 1400 lbs. of mahseer in two days was made in November up the Mali H’ka, and good bags have been made by others at the same season. It is interesting to note that these cold weather catches have all been made at the junction of spring-fed rivers, with the N’Mai H’ka and the Mali H’ka, both of which are snow fed, and probably connected with the winter spawn. Joiirn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, pSpfl^S heft. Chocolate Mahseer, Barbus ( Lissochilus ) hexagonolepis , 16 lbs. Right. Golden Mahseer, Barbus tor putitora, 23 lbs. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Left. Thick-lipped Mahseer, Barbus tor putitora Hamilton,. Right. Copper Mahseer, Barbus tor. mosal Hamilton. Note the pronounced adipose extension of the lips in the larger fish. It is a peculiarity not yet fully investigated. CIRCUMVENTING THE MAH SEER 191 16. Fish destroyers , Crocodiles and Turtles. — The upper reaches of the Irrawaddy from Bhamo are free from crocodile and turtles, and the fish are assured this much immunity in having nothing larger than the otter to destroy them. This is a curious situation, and rather unaccountable as the Mogaung and Namyin, and the Uyit are all large, sluggish rivers, with rocks and sandy beds, especially adapted to tnese fish-eaters ; game also abounds for the mugger in the dense forest that grows down to the banks. Long may this remain foreign to these pests. The upper waters of the Chindwin also, I understand, are free from the crocodile, and the turtle is rare, though one was caught on a Victor rod by Mr. T. P. Dewer in the Hukawng valley, 87 lbs., while fishing with a spoon ! ! Otter. Otters abound and there is hardly a stream free from them. I have seen schools of as many as eleven, hunting together in small streams. They occasionally damage large fish, and are besides Man, practically the only destructive creature in these waters. Man. Even in Man we may count our luck as being well in, for the best fishing water in Burma is undoubtedly in the Hill tracts. These are administered by the Burma Frontier Service, whose officers are both policeman and magistrate. No settlement is allowed in these tracts by our Aryan brethren, so the country remains unspoiled and wild. Long may the policy last. I refer to Kachins chiefly, who fortunately for the' fish are a lazy easy-going people, and slow at exterminating fish. They have their primitive methods of trapping, shooting with arrows, cutting with dhas by night with the aid of flares, even poisoning the fish, but with all this, are not nearly as destructive as the fishing classes in India, who deplete a river in a short time. In some streams fish are partly protected, by the local Dewar, or chief of a group of villagers, who allows trapping to be done only after permission is obtained, or when he has a feast. So long as these Hill tracts are not thrown open to colonization, we may hopefully expect to see mahseer remain in the same great numbers as at present. Fishing small Streams in Burma. There is abundant opportunity for the Angler who wishes to try Fly, or Fly Spoon, in the innumerable small streams that drain this forest clad land. In fact, almost any stream, however small, will hold Mahseer and Trout ( B . bola), provided it rises in the hills, and is perennial. It seems immaterial where these streams meet the larger parent rivers, or whether the bed is shingle or: sand, fast or sluggish. Let me here describe just one such stream. 1 will take as an example the Sahmaw Chaung, in the Myitkyina District. I was resident on Finlay Fleming’s Sugar. Estate for 4 years. It was then in its embryo stage; I was employed in the process of opening up vast areas of grass land for sugarcane cultivation, so I was able to study the river fairly thoroughly. I had some 3 i92 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLlV 200 mahseer, ranging from 4 lbs. to a J lb., protected behind my bungalow, under a large concrete bridge. These were fed daily, and fishing was forbidden for a distance of 300 yards above and btelow. This little burn is no more than 15 miles over its total length, and about 10 yards across at its widest part, and is nowhere over its whole length more than 8 feet deep. The drop is considerable, and it is consequently a series of shallow runs and pools, varying in depth from 3 to 6 feet. The bed is shingle with small boulders 18" in diameter and the water gin clear. The banks, for the last four miles of its course, and where it flows out into the valley are covered with high grass (1 Saccharum glumeosum ) known locally as Kaing grass, but better still as tiger or elephant grass, growing about 12 ft. high. Two good Silund ( Silundia gangetica ) taken at the mouth of the Namti H ka : 22 and 15 lbs. I have taken Mahseer up to 7 lbs., out of this little stream, and B. bola of 3 lbs. It is full of fish, and a dozen or so small rnahseer may be taken any day, over a couple of miles of water. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, THE SAHMAW CHAUNG. i. View through Finlay Fleming’s Estate. 2. Hill section, holding fish from 8-10 lbs. Another view of Hill section Typical B. bola water CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 19 3 B. bola of good size and in plenty, may be had over the whole stretch of river. I give below two specimen days, with these fish : — Date Fish Bait and Tackle Remarks 12-4-1925 3.2.2.1f .li-.li.li li and 6 others = 17 lbs. Mahseer i" copper and silver Spoon Salt lick. Fished all day. Put 6 back. 5-7-1925 3.2.2.11. li. 1.1. 1, and 24 others = 19 lbs. B. bola 9 ) Below North align- ment from 9 a.m. to 11 ; put 18 back. 17. Isolation not a factor. — -The interesting feature about this iittle stream lies not so much in the fish it holds, as in its isolation and distance to the nearest Mahseer water. The Sahmaw stream flows into the Namyin Chaung. A slow sluggish river with a sandy muddy bed, draining the Mu Valley for 40 miles or so; and empty- ing itself into the Mogaung River 20 miles from where it takes in the Sahmaw Chaung. Over the whole length of its course it is free from rapids, and has no mahseer. The Mogaung River is a very considerable stream, but is also muddy and sluggish, and has no rapids or runs for 30 or 40 miles from where the Namyin joins; so that this colony of mahseer, in the -Sahmaw Chaung, is isolated and is at least 50 miles from the nearest suitable water, with no other smaller tributaries in between. I deal with this at length, in order to illustrate the possibilities of fishing in the many similar streams found in Burma. There is of course no doubt about any small streams that run into the rivers in the Hill tracts, as these are bound to hold fish. It is interesting to note that in the hills, where the Sahmaw Chaung runs through a small defile, two or three large pools have formed in which can be seen from above fish of 15 lbs. or more. It would be most interesting to know the age of these fish, as their size is out of all proportion to the size of the stream. They are resident there at all times of the year. 18. The tackle is the same as for all light fishing, but the lighter the gut and smaller the spoon, the better. I found 32s gut and a J" Fly Spoon answered best. Fly took well, but did not give the good results of the Fly Spoon, with either B. hola or Mahseer. A chapter on Burma cannot be considered complete, without some reference to the famous ‘Confluence’ and to the water above Myitkyina. I have included in this chapter notes from my own diary, with a summary of my bag, not with any object of exemplifying my results, but to illustrate to the would-be visitor what he may expect. For although this is wonderful water, it is by no means easy, nor does the reel sing at every cast. These are results of 10 hours of hard fishing- daily. For the condensed notes of the fishing round Myitkyina, I am indebted to Capt. Finch, who put in a great deal of hard work compiling them, when Hon. Secretary of the Club. They give any- one interested, all the details required, and should the reader wish to 194 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. X '.LTV satisfy himself further, of these two famous places ‘The Confluence’ and ‘SenikiC, I can only suggest his getting Sheets 92 to G/6, and 92 G/14, scale 1 inch to a mile, obtainable from the Govern- ment Map Depot, Calcutta, and studying these with the notes. It is to the co-operation of anglers in making notes in the fishing books at these places, that we owe all this interesting data. A great pity it is not done more by station clubs, all over India. TRIP TO CONFLUENCE OF THE MALI AND N’MAI K’hAS, 1928 Date Summary of Ba Locality g Weight 11th April, 1928 Confluence 12 th ,, > y Rocks 13 th ,, ♦ > y y Confluence 14th ,, y ) 6, 7, 3. 15th ,, y y y y 16th ,, y y y y Waishi 25, 30. 17th 18th ,, y y y y 19th ,, y y N’Sop Zup. 10. 20th ,, y y 41. 21st ,, yy ’’ 26. 22nd ,, 23rd „ y y Tiang Zup. 24th ,, y y 12. 25 th „ y y N’Sop Zup. 26th ,, y y Confluence 27th „ yy 75, 10, 48a, 3. 28th ,, y y 5 y 28, 6, 3, 3, 2b, lic, lb, lb,Ab, 29th „ yy y y 12, 13, 171, 18. 44, 25 , 5b, 4b, 2C, 34c. 30th ,, yy > > 1st May yy y y 23, 10. 2nd „ yy yy 28. 3rd ,, y y } ? 50, 181, 42a, 34, lc- 4th ,, 5th ,, y y y 1 > y 1 j 23, 16, 12, H. 6th „ y y y y 27, 24, 14. 7th ,, yy y y 21. 8th „ yy Rocks 21, 15, 9, 6, 6. These include tola*. Mahseer and other varieties, 7Butchwa, 2Goonch 53 fish weighing861 lbs. giving an average of 16*25 lbs. The best day 3rd May. 5 fish weighing 1451 lbs. The 4 best fish 75, 50, 48, 44 lbs. 2 Goonch = a. 7 Butchwa.= £. * B. bola=c. Seasons. Up to date 1932. 19. Condensed notes from the Myitkyina and Seniku Fishing Note Book . (By kind permission of the Hon. Secretary Capt. Finch and members of the Fishing Club.) Mahseer have been caught in every month of the year, but undoubtedly, both in the Mali and the N’Mai, the most promising' seasons are from late in February until the end of April or the middle of May, (depending upon the CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 195 incidence of heavy rain) and also parts of September, October and November. The majority of big fish have been accounted for from the upper Mali in the Autumn, and from the N’Mai in March and April during recent years. The earliest in the year that a catch is recorded is 13th January. One enthusiast landed fish in July and August, and accounted for a couple on 30th December, but this may be regarded as somewhat exceptional. During the Rains, tributary streams give some sport with small fish, both fly-spoons and flies being successful. In the Autumn, much depends upon the state of the water, a paucity of rain being conducive to sport with really large Mahseer. 20. 'Baits’, etc. — The most satisfactory ‘weapon’ for these waters is the Spoon. Opinions differ, of course, as to the size and type of spoon which is most killing-. A copper and silver spoon of almost any shape, mounted with a flying- treble hook is recommend- ed. Two experts, whose names fiq-ure as the captors of numerous monster Mahseer, employed home-made spoons not exceeding- about two inches in length. Many useful fish have been landed on spoons of four inches and over. (The writer landed a 65 lbs. on a if-inch spoon, and a if lb. on a 3-inch spoon from the same rapid, and the only things that he has hooked on 4-inch spoons during hours of soinning are: — (1) a submerged cabbage, and (2) portions of Asia. Chacun a son gout.) If fish are feeding or inquisitive they will take anything, even discarded cheroot ends. Prior to 1914, success was frequently achieved with dead bait; live bait has also been used, and these should be resorted to when the water is very dirty and spoons have failed to attract. Flies and fly-spoons have sometimes given amusing sport in tributaries. In certain places, wild figs, pieces of leaf and those cheerful little insects called bv the Burman ‘payit’, fished near the surface, have caught small Mahseer. ‘Phantom’ minnows have not proved a success in these waters. The record Mahseer for Burma was taken bottom-fishing with Atta from the Irrawaddy not far from Waingmaw a few miles below Myitkwna. The ‘chocolate’ mahseer is partial to a worm ! 21. Conditions for Fishing. — -Mahseer have been caught on bright days, on dull days, during rain, even during thunder storms, before noon, at noon, after noon, and after sunset. At any phase of the moon. Mahseer can be caught on ordinary tackle in dead clear water, in pale green water, in beer-brown water, in pea-soup. When the river is hipTi, when it is low, when it is rising, when it is falling. The ideal? Quien sahe? In the Spring-, I think, when the water is clearish, not trans- parent, but translucent to a depth of about three to five feet ; then good catches mav be hoped for. In the Autumn, when the sun has had a whack at the water, and the water is rather dirty and falling fairlv fast, fish may be hooked, particularly where a tributary adds clearer water to the main streams. When the temperature of the water is high, fish will be more numerous in broken water and close to falls. When the water is very cold and clear, a few mahsqer can be hooked usually in broken white water, 196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XLIV Fish may really be ‘on1 * the feed’ for most of the day, or perhaps for only half an hour. No definite rule can be laid down as to the best times for fishing. As an example of the impossibility of knowing whether morning or evening fishing will prove the more successful, the following catch, (from the N’Mai), is quoted: September Morning Evening 18th. 5 fish 19th 20th 5 fish 21st Best 30 lbs. Nil. Best 49 lbs. Nil. Not a touch. 5 fish, best 20 lbs . Nil. Nil. 22. Tackle. — In the Myitkyina District, the all-round angler should supply himself with an outfit to meet the following varieties of fishing: — (a) Spinning deep in fast water for fish up to ioo lbs. ( b ) Trolling from a boat or raft. (c) Casting a fly spoon and fly fishing. (These notes are given as a rough guide, in case they may prove of assistance to anyone who has not as yet fished in the East.) (a) ‘Heavy’ Spinning: — - Rod: — Should be of Greenheart, split cane sometimes fails in a tropical climate. Length n to 12 feet is enough. Reel: — Must hold over 200 yards of suitable line. Line: — ‘Lignum Vitae’, 36 lbs. strain, from Manton’s Calcutta is good. Traces : — Strong killin Wire. Leads: — ‘Jardine’ spinning lead type, up to oz. Spoons: — Get these made from samples by a lohar, or Indian artificier, and mount them yourself with a flying treble-hook. Good types: — -(all obtainable from Manton & Co.). Name Colours Sizes obtainable The ‘ Putao ’ Spoon. Special Hog- backed. The 4 Myitkyina ’ spoon. Hardy’s Hog-backed. Spoon.1 Dull copper and silver. Gilt both sides best. Brass and silver. Mahseer. Bright gilt and silver. 1|, 2, 2}, 3 ins. Sizes Nos. 4 to 10. Scaled, 4 inches. 1", 1|. 2, 2£, 3 ins. Dead bait tackle. — The Archer Spinner, to take a fish 3 to 6 inches long. Lacy’s chilwa tackle. (b) Trolling from a boat for big fellows: — A Sea Rod about 8 feet in length. A large reel to carry 300 yards of line, with an extra brake. (c) Fly Fishing : — Dark coloured flies seem to be the most killing, also white or yellow flies at times. Mahseer will probably take any fly occasionally, Suggested : — Watson’s Fancy, Blackamoor, Black Gnat; also 1 A good shape; Hardy’s wire mount is unreliable, sometimes fraying through from twisting when a fish is ‘on’, CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 197 Coachman, Smoky Dun and Yellow Spider, sizes 2, 6, 10; and 12 for barils. Gut casts as for equivalent weights of salmon and trout. Accessories :■ — One or two intelligent piadas or orderlies : a gaff or landing net is seldom needed. A Spring balance, to weigh by \ lb. up to 60 lbs. A pair of wire-cutting pliers; a small file. A baiting needle. A tackle box. Plenty of spares to replace those lost. 23. Quotations from Notes on Tackle. -—‘This fish’ (a 32 lbs.) ‘fought too much for my split cane rod and it has a bad kink just below the base ring'.’ ‘Have found no line to equal “Lignum Vitae” from Manton’ (Sk. P. 211). ‘For traces nothing but ‘‘Killin’’ wire . . . For spoons I prefer the old- fashioned bar-spoon.’ (SK.P. A.D.). ‘Do not have a “triangle” in the belly of the spoon, which may be crushed flat by a fish, resulting in oaths and loss. A fish making an attempt at the spoon will slip on to a single tail triangle and be hooked. Large mahseer have been caught on the following varieties of spoons : — li, 2|, 3, 3^, 4, 4£, 4\ inches copper and silver ; H, 2}, 3, 4. 4\ ,, all copper ; li, 2£, 3, 3£, 4, ,, brass ( or gilt) and .silver ; If, 3, 4, 4\ ,, silver. Spoons of many different shapes, ‘mistri’-mado, made by Farlow, Luscombe, Manton, Hardy, etc. There is so far no record of any mahseer having been hooked on a ‘Phantom’, ‘Devon’ or similar toy, in local streams. Further Notes on Tackle ; contributed by two successful anglers. Spoons. — (a) ‘A two-inch copper and silver spoon, with a treble hook flying mount. I have also found useful a silver and brass about three inches and rather narrow- — this in very strong water.’ (b) ‘I prefer the “Myitkyina” shaped spoon, sold by Manton. Dull outside, bright inside.’ Lead. — (a) ‘I have always used a 2| oz. lead — triangular shape.’ ( b ) ‘I use as much as the rod will stand in most places, and let the lot sink as far as I dare. You lose a lot but it pays: about 4 oz., I think.’ Dead bait. — (a) ‘Dead bait I have tried on a few occasions with success usually at a junction where one stream was dirty and the other clear. Bait just on the margin of the dirty.’ Line. — (b) ‘I use waterproofed plaited cutty hunk or similar. Silk is too ex- pensive and rots, breaking strain about 20 lbs. I rub it with Cereline (Hardy’s) every day or so and dry carefully every evening. Backing, Undressed cutty hunk, very strong. ’ 24. Big Fish. — Undoubtedly the keen angler who is determined to go ‘one better’ than his predecessors stands the greater chance of landing a record if he concentrates upon the warm waters of the Mali H’ka, or the Mali at the ‘Confluence’, which have surrendered more fine fish in a shorter period than those of the chilly N’Mai. Nevertheless, the fortunate fisherman who has worked hard and been blessed with good weather conditions, may hope for a catch from the N’Mai which will rival those given up by the Mali. For comparison, a list of large mahseer caught from both rivers is given on the next page. 198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV 25. List compiled from notes in the Myitkyina and Seniku Fishing Diaries up to 30 th June 1931. Mali H’ka and Confluence Fish weight over 80 lbs. 70 lbs. 60 50 40 1 1 ... Total 2 Prior .to 1915 1915 Spring f Autumn | 1916 S. j A. 1 1917 S. j A. j 1918 S. f A. t 1919 Spring 1920 1921 Autumn 1922 S. J A. t 1923 Spring 1924 „ 1925 S. f A. t 1926 and 1927 1928 Spring 1929 S. / A. t 1930 1931 Totals ... Weights over... (а) Includes 6 fish of 50 lbs. and 3 fish of 40 lbs. (б) The 3 fish over 80 lbs. were all caught by L. Lacy Langley. (c) All caught at the ‘ confluence.’ (rf) All caught from the Right back ‘ Triangle.’ The Mali is far more fished than the N’Mai, being more accessible. N’Mai H’ka 80 70 60 50 40 Total 2 ... 2 4 3 11 Prior to 1915 2 2 2 J 1 7 ... 1 1 1915 ... 2 1 9 "a! 00 ... 1916 *3 "2 1 2 4 ... j L(*) r 12 1 1 2 1917 1 ”l] \ 2 1 1 2 1918 "i 1 2 4 Best Recorded 32 lbs. 1919 No Record ... ... 1 1 1920 Bad Year 1 1 Best Recorded 37 lbs. 1921 1 1 1 ... 1 \ 3 ... ••• > 1922 ... 3 **2 5 No Record "i 2 3 6 ... • •• ••• ••• • r. ) 1 1 1 1 ' f 4 d No Record |i# |§t ;i# mJ 1927 ... 1 ... 2 1 (c) 4 ... 3 2 (d) 5 1928 ... ... ... 1 11 \ 3 ... 1 1 1929 Best Fish 30 lbs. Not fished 1930 Bad season 1 1 ... 1 ... 1 2 1931 4 6 8 31 23 72 2 ... 5 9 9 25 Total 80 70 60 50 40 80 70 60 50 40 A. M. 26. List of Fish to he caught in the Mali and N'Mai H'kas. (Will members of the Myitkyina Fishing Association please add to this list any other species caught while angling for Mahseer). Mahseer ( Barbus tor.) At least six easily recognisable varieties. The Common The Thick-lipped The Black The Chocolate The Copper The Red j- The largest varieties. | Small mouthed. Indian ‘Trout’ ( Barilius bola). Reported to weigh as much as 5 lbs. but seldom taken over 3 lbs. Other Lesser Barils occur but do not exceed a few ounces in weight. Bachhwa ( E ut r o pitch thy s vacha (Hamilton). Two varieties, up to 6 lbs. Take spoons of any size, also natural bait. Goonch ( Bagarius yarcelli). Two varieties, running to over 150 lbs. ‘Kalabanse’ ( Labeo calbasu). (Labeo). Up to 30 lbs. or more; occasionally taken on a spoon. Silund (Silundia gangetica). Run to over 20 lbs., occasionally taken. Taken Silund'of 15, 23 at the mouth of the Narnti H’ka, they run up to 100 pounds and over and are very game fish. CIRCUMVENTING THE MATISEER 199 Freshwater shark ( Wallago Attu). Pithecanthropus indicus, sometimes hooked when fly fishing. Other varieties of Fish caught in the Myitkyina District. Species Weight Where Caught Date Bait * The Indian \ lb. N’Mai Hka July Worm on No. 6 Gudgeon (gobius (between Ladai Limorick sp.) and Chipwi) * Entry by author. 27. A f&vti extracts from the (old) Myitkyina Fishing Diaries. When to fish. ‘My experience has been that the best time for fishing is the afternoon between 2-30 and 6 p.m.’ (Myitkyina book, p. 49). ‘ .... it is worth fishing the Mali however dirty the water may be’. (P- 57). Fly fishing. ‘Except in the very cold months all rivers in the (Putao) district yield, probably, “B. Bola, Pakan” ; and many an evening can be put in at Lungsawt or the Nam Khamti Zup with a small fly-rod : the “black gnat” is, I think, the most killing fly. Have taken as many as 27 of these small fish in one evening and several times over 20.’ (P. 43). ‘I have found most of the Salmon Flies, about Lake Trout size and smaller, good, noticeably the “Jock Scott!” also the “Butcher”.’ In the Hukawn Valley. ‘In the winter months in the Hukawn I never caught anything big on a fly, but one can get quite a big bag of tiddlers in almost any stream of an evening. For these small fish I found a touch of red or other bright colour with dark wings and a fair amount of tinsel, preferably silver, effective. ‘Fly fishing for the bigger mahseer commences after about 1st April. ‘Generally fished in the evening only and used a single fly. ‘My largest on a fly was an eleven pound black Mahseer which put up a very fine fight, landed several five and six pounders.’ (With fly.) (P. 76). Some good catches : — From the Mali H’ka : — 22- 11-16 ... 20 fish weighing 489 lbs. (Langley) (afternoon). 23- 11-16 ... 16 fish ,, 387f lbs. (Ditto). (P.38). 14-4-24 ... 12 fish, best 52 lbs. weighing 228 lbs. at Namlang-MaL Zup. (between 11*30 and 4-30 p.m.). At the * Confluence ’ : — April 1928, in one day, 5 fish, best 50 lbs., total 142^ lbs. From the N’Mai Hka September 1929, in 'three days, 15 fish, best 49 lbs. (Seniku Book, p. 218). From the Namli Hka (from Seniku) May 1903, in 2£ days, 32 (small) mahseer. (Seniku Book, pp. 76-9). 28. Brief Extracts from the Seniku Fishing Diary. Tumpang Zup. ‘Fishing at the junction is not much good after the middle of April as the N’Mai K’ha then begins to come clown very dirty. The Tumpang is fishable up to the end of May, though thei river is frequently unfishable for a day or two after rain has fallen’. (P. 3, 1900). This is not in accordance with my experience, I should say when the N’Mai comes down coloured, the mouth of these: spring fed rivers should be at their best, I think a visit late April, when the snow water is down the Zup should be excellent, until the monsoon breaks. Fish will then collect in the warm clear water of the Tumpang. ‘The fishing in the small streams (Namli and Tumpang)’ from 26th April to 21st May 1903 was A. I. Between these dates I got in the Namli and Tumpang 75 fish, total weight 415 lbs. My advice to a successor is : — Be at N’Mai — Tumpang jtn. with good heavy 200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV tackle and dead bait on ist February .... ‘After February the! fishing at this big junction seems very poor and in the first half of April and in March the small streams are poor also. Remember that February is the month for big fish (Pp. 84-85). (The above is not true of zups up stream from Shingaw.) In April 1927 I got 5 fish in half an hour on a visit by cycle from Tanghpae at the Con- fluence, I punctured both tyres and thel rain had made the road impossible ; so I chucked and returned. Heavy rain spoilt the trip. The Mali was coloured when I got the .... 23, 17, 17, 12, 11. Chipwi Zup : — ‘Tried the river on ist and 2nd November, (1918) but saw and touched nothing. It is obvious that I have missed the Autumn fishing: anyhow in places north of the Tunpang-N’Mai junction.’ ‘At Chipwi on 13th March I found the temperature of the water of the N’Mai Hka 60 degrees, and of the Chipwi itself 64^ degrees, astonishingly high temperature as compared with 50 of the Chenab river where I killed II fish in one day last December.’ (P. 182, 1919.) Conditions : — ‘The fish were landed under weather conditions varying to such an extent that there can not be any hard and fast rule about feeding fish.’ (P. 203). 29. Brief extracts from the Myitkyina Fishing Diary. (1915-31). Near Putao. ‘A nice hack out to Maneu village leaving Putao about noon arriving Maneu 1.15 p.m. Troll if miles down stream to a deep still pool — the river down as far as this only yields Pangyin, but there must be some good fish in this pool. I took one of 57 lbs. out of it and have had several runs from big fellows — right in the centre between the 2 rocks is the place they lie. You can get back to Putao in comfort by 7 p.m. “The Namlang- Mali zup needs no eulogising, it is a first rate spot-get about 50 yards up the Mali and your spoon into that smooth Triangle’’ if possible.’ (P. 42.) ‘About \ a mile above the Kankin pagoda there is a big pool near a lot of rocks — a small pagoda on one of them. I lost a monster here which I had played for nearly an hour. I am certain there are big fish in it. ‘Another good spot where I lost a big fish is about a mile below Nam Sati.5 (P. 49). ‘On the 18th March I caught a 47 lbs. and 60 lbs. in the pool “(Namlang)’’ before 10-30 a.m. The 60-lber I got on casting where the water begins to gather speed and though I breaked as hard as I could. I could not keep him off the silk backing which broke. As I looked at the end rushing through the rings I felt a tug again on the rod. The end of the line had caught in a snake ring I had put on the night before. I put the rod down hurriedly and jumped into the water and got the line, calling to the Shan to hold it while I put it through the rings and tied it round the reel above the backing. This took about 20 seconds (?) during which time the Shan said the fish had gone, but on reeling in a yard or two I found him still there and eventually coaxed him into slack water. He took more than his 60 minutes to bring to gaff. The line must have given at the ve^y end of his rush and he must have turned because he was in very swift water. Both these fish I got on with a silver-copper 3-inch hog back spoon.” ‘Newnkhai, was taken in “Pickthall’s Pool” by a fish which took out 250 yards line at first rush and smashed me at the drum. I breaked with fingers on line drum and was badly burnt. ‘I have tried “Langley’s Pool” many times but have never touched a fish there.’ ' (P. 57). From the Confluence. ‘The N’Mai I tried on three days and had no luck in it; it is so very much colder than the Mali Hka that the chance of doing really well in it is small.’ The ‘Confluence’ : — ‘I lost a number of strong fish, one of them taking 200 yards of line up stream where I was unable to follow him. I had on also a large fish from 6 p.m. to 7.45, which twice1 taxed my last few coils of line on the drum of my reel. The main spring broke in his second rush. . he made another rush for the actual zup, when the reel jammed and . . . lost the fish. The fish took us 400 yards down stream. This was the heaviest fish I had on. My 75 lb. fish took 40 minutes, and did exactly the same thing. CIRCUMVENTING THE MAH SEER 201 They all make for the ist opening into the large still pool behind the large rock island, and if one is run, out to this one can generally expect a good fish.’ (P. 69), (1928). Upper Mali Hka (Read the type-written Appendix at the end of the (old, club diary ; full of information.) ‘Pickthall’s pool, or “The” pool. Fishable whenever it is possible to get to it, but is at its best in the autumn. The easiest way to fish this pool is from the rocks at the head. Cast into the main current and let the spoon swing round into the Pool beware, however, of sunken snags under the bank . . . ‘Langley’s pool is just below the suspension bridge on the right bank. This has been fished assiduously by many fishermen without any success since Langley’s departure . . . His secret went with him’. (Appendix, pp. 3 & 4). ‘In afternoon At once taken by a very heavy fish, which sailed away, taking out all but two or three coils of 200 yards of line. . . .’ (P. 65. c). Lengths of time recorded from hooking to landing of fish — 82 Iber. ... ‘ about 1 5 minutes.’ (Langley). 86 lber. ... * about 12 or 13 mins.’ ,, 41|lber. .. ‘2 hours.’ ,, 59 lber. ... ‘ If hours.’ ,, 60 lber. ... ‘ more than 60 minutes.’ ,, 50 lber. ... ‘ about \ hour.’ ,, Note. — This almost confirms the weight Cock and Hen*fish run to a reasonable belief and example that the 41|, 59, 60 pounder were Cock fish. 30. Notes on the Mali H’ka. — From the point of view of accessibility for fishing", the river is divisible as follows: — 1. From the Confluence of the N’Mai to Tiang Zup, (about 27 miles) the river is within a short distance of the P.W.D. road, which is motorable in the open season, weather permitting. 2. From Tiang Zup to Nawng Hkai : — Corresponds to about 150 miles of road and is mostly sufficiently far from the P.W.D. road to necessitate pitching a camp. 3. The vicinity of Fort Herts. (Putao) : — The confluence near the Inspection Bungalow at Nawng Hkai, 13 miles from Fort Hertz, is the best water, but other places have been fished with success in the neighbourhood. Facilities etc. for fishing the most easily accessible stretch of river from Myitkyina : (viz. 1 above) : Transport : — From October to May motor cars and vans traverse the road. During the Rains, only bullock carts and pack animals can be utilised. Accommodation : — Inspection Bungalows, furnished, with crockery and cook- ing utensils, exist at Weshi (33rd mile). Nsopzup (42nd mile) and Tiang'zup (55th mile). Boats, etc. : — Sometimes can be hired at the Kwitao Ferry, 2 miles down- stream from Weshi. The only certain means of having a boat in this section is to hire in Myitkyina and send it on ahead. Kachins will make rafts locally but they are of little use. Supplies : — Should be taken out from Myitkyina, as only a limited number of fowls and eggs can be obtained on the spot. Good fishing water From Weshi ‘dak’ bungalow : — • Downstream: — For 4 miles to the ‘Confluence’ is fairly fast running with few rocks, pools or bends. Good fish have been landed, (a) at Kwitao, ( b ) from the Triangle side, from the rapid above the Confluence. A boat is very useful here. A large freshwater shark has been caught near the Weshi bungalow, 202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV Upstream ' The Hpungin confluence, where fish other than mahseer have been landed on the sandy spit on the downstream side of the Hpungin Hka, as well as Barbus tor. A boat is not essential. From Nsopzup, downstream from 2 miles from the bungalow as far as the Hpungin zup, 4! miles by road. Upstream : — disappointing for 2 miles, after which there is good water up to Njip zup, 7 miles by road. There is a deep pool at the Njip confluence, from the top of which is a rapid, good fish have been taken. Tiangzup: — Upstream: — The river leaves the road here and it is not easy to get more than a mile or so upstream. From a mile upstream down to the head of the rapid half a mile downstream, including the Tiang zup, is good. This confluence has given up numbers of small fish, and several mahseer over 40 lbs. have been grassed- just above the rapid. Two miles downstream towards Njip zup (6 miles from Tiang zup), many fish have been hooked from the Triangle side. Between Tiang Zup and Nawng Hkai : — ' The Mali lies one or more days’ march from the P.W.D. road. Few people have had opportunities of trying this stretch, which must include good places for angling. A tent and pawlins a necessity. The best sport in the Putao area has been obtained from Nawng Hhai Bungalow. MALI HKA Actual Distances from Poly metrical Tables {1930) Myitkyina to Mankrin 5 miles * , , Watugyi 19 ,, # , , Confluence 28 Mule Road : — Confluence to Weshi 3i ,, Weshi ,, N’sop zup 7 „ Hi N’sop. ,, Njip zup 6 Njip zup ,, Tiang zup 5 Hi Tiang zup , , Daru zup 10 Hi Daru zup ,, Waship zup 9i „ Cast Road - Myitkyina to Alam 12-5 „ Total distance from Myitkyina : — ) > ,, Chinghran Hka 21 ,,- Hi ,, Weshi 33T Weshi ,, N’sop zup 8‘7 ,, * 41*9 miles. N’sop. ,, Tiangzup 13-1 * 55* „ - Tiang zup ,, Supkaga 9-0 „ Supkaga ,, Kadrangyang 11-5 Kadrangyang , , Kawapang 9*0 Kawapang ,, Tingpai 10-3 Tingpai ,, Maitkon Hka 12-0 Maitkon Hka . , Wasat Hka 14-8 „ 122*6 Wasat Hka , , Machega 6*0 (to Sumprabux) 7*2 ,, Mule Road Wasat Hka to Hpungin Hka 16-6 *,, * 138*2 Hpungin Hka , , Hpunchan Hka 10-9 * 149-1 Hpunchan Hka ,, Tutuga 11-1 Tutuga ,, La-awn-ga 7-0 La-awn-ga ,, Masum zup 13-8 Masum zup ,, Hkamho 13*0 *(Namlang, etc.) Hkamho ,, Nawang Hkai 12-5 *(Namlang) 205-5 ,, Nawng Kai ,, Fort Hertz 13-0 (Putao) 219*5 ,, 31. The NJ Mai Hka. — Accessibility : — From November till May, (weather permitting) by motor car and light lorry from Waingmaw via. Nausaung (11 miles) to Seniku (32 miles). The Namyin-Namlao Hkas at Wausaung are not worth fishing. * The better fishing spots marked, circumventing the mahseer 203 From Seniku (good Inspection Bungalow), the confluences of Namli and Tumpang streams can be reached on foot within an hour, and the -Tumpang confluence with the N Mai is then best arrived at by bamboo raft. All necessary information can be obtained from the Fishing Diary (1900-31), kept in the Dale Bungalow. Beyond Seniku, Pack Transport or coolies must be resorted to. Only a very few of the latter are available near Seniku. If the Tumpang area proves disappointing, move on to: — Shingaw, not a bad spot. Then on to Tamu Zup, the best angling place on the left .bank of the N. Mai. Give Tanga Hka a miss; poor for fish; a paradise for biting insects. Chipwi Zup, 49 miles from Seniku, is very variable ; the Maru’s poison the water above the bridge on and off in the spring and autumn, thus making spinning at the Zup a waste of time. General : — Virtually no supplies available anywhere. Bring up everything from Myitkyina. The occasional chicken and a few eggs are all that can be expected. Include a rifle, tiger are quite plentiful and have taken quite a lot of mules etc., within shouting distance of Tenga, Tamu and Chipwi 1. B.S. From February to November, a sandfly net and plenty of ‘Flit’ are essential; (From November to February the fishing is a wash-out, anyway, at Chipwi and upstream from there). The N’Mai is less reliable than the Mali for Mahseer; a very rough general guide as to seasons is : — Spring: — SeniKu ; end of February till the first big rise of the N’Mai, (which may be in March). famu confluence; second week of March till beginning of May. Autumn: — N’Mai and Tributaries: — Odd periods of a couple of days or so between the second week of September and the first few days of N o vember. Atter heavy rain, the Tamu Hka be expected to clear sufficiently for spinning within 36 hours ; the Chipwi Hka does not clear for 3 or 4 days after a down- pour. If leave is short, previous application to the A/S. Sadon, for a raft to be made ready near Seniku (and at Shingaw) and for cooies, if required, is (or advisable). Where to Fish in the N’Mai Hka. (with rough sketenes;. (Maps of the Mali Hka are to be found in the Myitkyina Club Fishing Book). (1) From a Raft, drifting down the j Hkm^ } t0 the Tumpang Zup. In the N’Mai a mile below the Tumpang Zup. (2) Shingaw Hka and Zup. and small fish ; vide sketch. (3) Tamu Hka and Zup. Good for both large and small fish ; vide sketch. (4) 37th mile (from Seniku). 3 miles from Tamu I.B. (5) Laima Zup. From Chipwi I.B. (5 miles by P.W.D. route, 35 miles by short cut. ^6) Chipwi Hka and Zup. Vide sketch. (7) Any other small zup. (Reference maps 92 G/14., and 92 K/i.) 32. Notes by P. W. Finch on the Fishing in Myitkyina : — - ‘1931, At the Mali Hka and the Confluence, and in the N’Mai Hka was a bad year, and 1932 so far giving no sign of being a better one. There was one 60 lbs. fish caught in the N’Mai Hka in 1931, and one of 40 lbs., each in the same river and at the Confluence. In 1932, W. caught fish, of 383 and 403 lbs. in the Mali Hka, and J. was lucky enough to get two of 12 and 14 lbs. at Alam Village. The Governor’s party recently working really hard for 3 days, managed to get a 9-pounder. R. T. who did very well before here, has just come along for a month’s fishing and it will be interesting to see what he gets. I will make a point of letting you know when he comes back. 204 journal, Bombay natural hist, society, Voi. xliv There is a very good camp at the Confluence now. Run by the Fishing Association, I am enclosing a copy of the new rules for your information.’ Also the Myitkyina Association Club Rules. No note received. 33. Myitkyina Fishing Association. It was decided at a meeting at the Myitkyina Club to form a Myitkyina Fishing Association. Every year many keen fishermen visit Myitkyina for the mahseer fishing in the Mali and N’Mai rivers and particularly at their Con- fluence 30 miles from Myitkyina. A very comfortable and picturesque camp has recently been built at the Confluence and it has been decided to maintain this as a permanent fishing camp if sufficient funds are forthcoming. There must be many keen fishermen in Burma who have been deterred from coming to Myitkyina to fish owing to the difficulty of obtaining information as to the places to fish and the difficulties of transport and bandobast. With the advent of motor cars and lorries at Myitkyina the fishing is within easy reach. At the meeting Lt.-Col. A. Lethbridge, I. A. was voted to the Chair. His Excellency Sir Charles Innes, k.c.s.i., c.i.e., I.C.S., Governor of Burma, has very kindly consented to become Patron of the Association. After discussing the question of ways and means it was decided : — 1. That the Association should be run in connection with the Myitkyina Club. 2. That the Annual Subscription should be Rs. 10 for all members of the Association. 3. That the camp at the Confluence should be maintained and a small fee should be charged to members making use of it. 4. That the Honorary Secretary, Myitkyina Club, should be ipso (this is not the case at Keduent) facto Honorary Secretary of the Fishing Association and would supply members with all information and arrange for hire of boats, etc. 5. If sufficient support is obtained it will be possible to extend the activities of the Association so that members wishing to fish localities further afield will then be enabled to do so with as little inconvenience as possible. The present proposals cover the Irrawady and Mali Kha from Myitkyina to the 55th mile on the Putao Road. 6. Donations to give a start to the Association will be of great assistance. Myitkyina, (Sd.) Honorary Secretary, April 5, 1930. Myitkyina Club. 34. T. P. Dewar's Notes. — Putao and Myitkyina. T. P. Dewar, Esq., writes on the 'Best Time lu Fish in the 14/4/28 Putao District’. Also on the Confluence. 12/4/32. Notes on the Chindwin District. ‘Best Time to Fish in the Putao District ’. Your query, as to which is the best time to fish in the Putao District April and May and again September and October. The Fishing during these months is absolutely dependent on the climate conditions. One can only be absolutely certain of clear water in November and December, January and early February. During these months one catches fish but has to work a good deal. Personally I prefer fishing in the winter to any other time of the year as there are no bugs and it is ever so much pleasanter. ‘ I shall be interested to know the result of your fishing. I am inclined to think, with the dry weather wie have been having, that the snowrs will have melted and that you will find the confluence too discoloured. Don’t forget *o sink your spoon deep and get down to the big ones. You ought to do better in the bru, though I don’t think you will get any thing over 30 lbs. in that stream. Your small rod ought to come in very useful. If you havfe time try the Mogawy R. from Wakawng. There are some lovely pools, and l have seen some very big fish up to 50 lbs. It has been a very good year in circumventing the mahseer 20£ the Hukawng, but I was away in the Naga Hills for the best time. However 1 had a few afternoons in the Tarwg, my biggest landed being 40 lbs. I lost several other big fish, Hardy’s special mahseer hooks snapping in the first big rush. Have been using the fly and have had good times. Here too I have had several weeks with big fish up to 10 lbs. 1 have just come back from a village where I lost five, however I landed fifteen, biggest t\ lbs., two others ij lbs. each. Its great fun using light tackle and a tish weighing 5 lbs. feels like a monster and makes a small reel sing. I wish I had a 16-ft. salmon rod with a 45 reel, I am sure I could have accounted for many a 15-20 lb. fish with fly this season.’ 12-4-32. Notes on the Chindwin District. ‘You will see that I am in the Chindwin area and I have much to say about this river, one of the very worst lor fishing. The feeders are just as baa. I have just returned from a trip up the Hyu which rises from the Jade mines. Myitkyina District. A splendid stream for mahseer in these higher reaches but where it enters this District hopeless. I used a fly exclusively but took nothing beyond a one-pounder, and even this was not a mahseer. I only caught two tiny mahseer in the Uyu and was told by the local people that they do not exist. I believe it to a limit, so few it may well be said that in these lower clay bottom reaches they are non-existent. 1 have really never made any lengthy; notes except it be the killing of a 37-pounder mahseer and an 85-pound turtle on a victor rocf (7 oz.) ; and a remarkaole experience which befell a. companion fishing with me in the Mole R. Bhamo District. He hooked a one-pound mahseer on a salmon fly and out of the depths suddenly arose several long and hungry shadows the largest of which seized and swallowed that one-pounder the reel hummed for a space. My companion was so taken aback that he shouted out for instruc- tions but these were unnecessary so hung on tight and after a while the fish came out again and the big feller got off. Not quite Jonah and the whale as if I recollect weight Jonah had much to say after his experience whereas the one-pounder looked as if he had had an experience with a threshing machine. Were these and other similar experience in your book I am afraid your reading public would fling the epitaph “Liar” after you. I am getting quite garrulous but then this is only possible while writing to you; were you before me now I expect I should be considered a very good listener. On this last trip I tried for bison but was unfortunate to hurt my leg before getting to the ground with the result that I lost one fine bull and could not get up to another and had to leave a herd of 30 odd alone. In that area I heard of one of those freaks of nature which occur in a, decade. An albino bison the lord of a large herd. He has been frequently seen. I did not have the pleasure of seeing him, but should I be here next December I shall see what I can do. In the mean- time I have reported the matter to the powers that be.’ THE BIRDS OF MYSORE. BY Salim Ali. With notes by Hugh Whistler. Part V. ( With one plate). (Continued from Vol. xliv, No. i, p. 26). Pterocles indicus (Gmelin). The Painted Sandgrouse. Specimen collected : 561 8-1-40 Marikanive (2,5oo/). [Measurements: 1 U Bill 17.5, Wing 165.5, Tail 72 mm. — H. W.] Status, Uncommon. Small numbers — pairs or small parties — were seen in sparsely scrubbed, stony country (deciduous biotope) in the environs of Vanivilas Sagar Reservoir. The testes of the specimen measured 8x5 111m. Pterocles exustus ellioti (Bogdanow). The Common Indian Sandgrouse. Specimen collected : 555 <3 7-1-40 Marikanive (2,500'). [Measurements : 1 <3 Bill 16, Wing 182.5, Tail 129.5 mm- — H- W.] Resident. Uncommon. Small Hocks in the open, stony semi-desert in this locality. Drinking at accustomed spots at 9 a.m. The testes of the specimen measured 7x5 mm. Major Phythian- Adams has taken eggs in the Mysore District on 9-4-37 and 17-3-38. Pavo cristafus Linn. The Peafowl. No specimens. Noted : Bandipur, Manchgowdanhalli, Balmoorie island (in Cauvery R., near Krishnarajsagar), Namadachilume, Marikanive. Resident. Not uncommon in certain localities, but on the whole rather scarce. Confined to deciduous biotope; occasionally met with in the dry-inter belt. Affects secondary forest with bamboo, in the neighbourhood of streams and rivers. On 19 November (Bandipur) a hen accompanied by 4 (or 5?) chicks about the size of a partridge was observed. Another hen (Marikanive, 6 January) had 5 (or 6?) chicks with her, of the size of f grown country pullets. When come upon suddenly far from cover in open grassland hardly tall or thick enough to shield her from view, the mother crouched along swiftly with lowered head and outstretched neck, taking advantage of every little unevenness of the ground, and leading her brood vanished from sight in a most amazing manner. Galius sonnerafii Temminck. The Grey Jungle Fowl. Specimens collected: 1 18 <3* 20-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'); 238 9 pull. 2-12-39 Manchgowdanhalli (2,500') ; 735 $ 24-1-40 Bababudan Hills (4,500' — Kemman- gundi) ; 837 <3* 5-2-40, 842 <3 7-2-40, 847 U 8-2-40 Agumbe (2,500'). Biligiri - rangan Hills: 2 9 6-11-39, 10 9 7-1 1-39 (4,000' — Edbuthi) ; <3 19-12-32, M69 (H) 9 25_4"34 (Sioou' — Honnametti). Elsewhere noted : Antarsante, Devarbetta Hill, Namadachilume, Balmoorie island (Cauvery R., near Krishnarajsagar). THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 207 [Measurements : Bill 2 (Sd ad. 32-36 4 c 3 6 Ist winter 33-36 3 9 9 ad- 29.5-32 1 9 juv. No. 238 9 juv- is in the first feather plumage which I do not find described anywhere. It resembles the adult female fairly closely — so that a separate description is not required — but the shaft streakings of the upper plumage and the lanceolate markings of the lower plumage are as a whole much less dis- tinctly defined. The black stippling on the wings and tail also tends to coalesce into barring on the edges of the tertiaries and tail feathers. Nos. 735, 837 and 842 and the Biligirirangan bird of 29 December are in what I call first winter plumage as described by Mr. Stuart Baker ( Game Birds, iii, 154). They differ inter se however in a manner that suggests that the moult to adult plumage is gradual and irregular. — H. W.] Resident. Common. I should place this jungle fowl as primarily of the intermediate zone. But it extends freely into the adjoining* biotopes at either extreme, practically throughout the evergreen at one end, and up to the limit of light secondary and scrub-and-bush facies at the other. Chicks in all stages, from slightly bigger than a quail to those in first winter plumage were met with during the period November to March. An adult cock (No. 118, 20 November) had testes enlarged to 12X6 mm. In another (847, 8 February) they measured 16x7 mm- A Kuruba game tracker, with intimate and fairly accurate knowledge of the local animals, asserted that the Grey Jungle Fowl is polygamous, each cock having 4 or 5 hens. According to him breeding continues throughout the year as in domestic fowls, the eggs being laid at different times as each hen becomes physiologically mature. From my own observations I am inclined to agree with this view and it is probably correct in the main, but confirmation is desirable. Adult cocks frequently utter a loud bellicose challenging Kliek...kluck+kluck repeated almost continuously often for over half an hour at a time, and more or less from the same spot. I have not been able to ascertain what this signifies. The crop of a specimen was crammed with Lantana berries, some small tubers, and 41 fly larvae. ( Muscidae ) about rb mm. long each. Wing Tail 235-24o 3i6-350 mm- 143-227 143-201 mm. 189-190 118-123 mm. 144 86 mm. Gallopefdix spadicea spadlcea (Gmelin). The Red Spur-Fowl. Specimens collected: 196 9 juv. 29-11-39, 247 3 3-12-39 Antarsaffte (2,500'); 693 3 20-1-40 Bababudan Hills (2,500' — Jagar Valley); 744 9> 745 9 27-1-40, 794 d\ 795 9 31-1-40 Settihalli (2,500'); Biligirirangans : M38(G) 3 !6-7*34 [3,000' — Udahatti Eastern (deciduous) base]. Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Manchgowdanhalli, Karapur, Devarbetta Hill* Sakleshpur, Bhadravati. [Measurements : Bill 4 (S3 22-24.5 3 9 9 21.5 I 9 juv. — — Wing 156-161 M5-I5I-5 128.5 Tali 120-130 mm. 109-121 mm. 102 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Common. Confined to deciduous biotope ; extending into the dry- inter belt. Typical habitat : Stony, broken hummocky country with ravines etc. covered with scrub, bamboo clumps, sprawling fallen bamboo thickets and brushwood with decaying logs here and there and plenty of mulch littering the ground. Breeding was in progress throughout the period of the Survey (November to February). No. 196 (29 November) was a juvenile apparently about a month old. On 4 December a hen accompanied by a brood of 3 (or 4?) downy chicks, with wing quills sprouting and about 5 to 7 days old, was observed at Karapur. The ovaries of 744 and 745 (27 Jan.) were mature with the largest follicles 4 208 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XL1V measuring 3-4 mm. In the pair of 31 January the gonads were maturing : testes 8x4 mm. ; ovary granular. Coturnix coturnix coturn ix (Linn.). The Common or Grey Quail. Specimen collected : 574 9 9-1-39 Jogimaradi (3,400' — Chitaldrug town en virons). Elsewhere not noted : [Measurements: 1 9 Bill 14, Wing 115, Tail 36.5 mm. — H. W.] Winter visitor. Uncommon. Shot on open, grass-covered hillside. One of the only pair seen in Mysore. Coturnix coromandelica (Gmelin). The Black-breasted or Rain-Quail. Specimens collected: 270 9 5-12-39 Antarsante (2,500'); 357 9 16-12-39 Satnur (2,500'); 550 3, 551 9, 552 <$ 7-1-40 Marikanive (2,500'). Elsewhere noted : Chamarajanagar, Mysore City Environs. [Measurements : Bill 2 us . 13-13-5 3 9 $ H Resident and evidently in part also local migrant. Common. Restricted to deciduous biotope. Typical habitat: Flat open grassland, and grassy bands and edges of fields in cotton and other cultivation. I believe that the population of resident Rain-Quails is augmented in. the winter months (?) by an influx of visitors. Thus I make it that at: Antarsante and Satnur the birds were largely (at any rate) resident. They had paired off, and breeding was in progress in December. No. 270 had a mature ovary with some follicles over 2 mm. ; 357 held a hard-shelled oviduct egg. Males in these localities were calling on every hand early in the morn- ings and at evening dusk, and sporadically throughout moonlit nights. As against this the birds at Marikanive, which I assume to be immigrants, kept in loose coveys, were silent and had undeveloped gonads. The call of this quail is the well-known double note Which-which repeated every half second or so, 3 to 5 times running. Perdicula asialica asiatica (Latham). The Jungle Bush-Quail. Specimens collected : 384 3 juv. 1 9-1— 39 Maklidrug (2,800') ; [6^662 9 juv., 9 juv., 9 juv.. 3 juv. 17-1-40 Hebbale (2,500' — Coorg)]. Elsewhere noted : Satnur. [Measurements : Wing Tail 2 6 d juv. 82 37-41 mm. 3 9 9 juv. • 70-5-80 33-37-5 mItu Nos. 384 and 660 are in juvenile plumage and it is interesting to note that No. 384 is evidently starting to moult the secondaries before the outer primaries are fully grown. Nos. 659, 661 and 662 are moulting from the juvenile to the adult plumage— a complete moult — but all retain the 4 outer juvenile pri- maries on each wing. — H. W.J Resident. Common. Restricted to deciduous biotope. Typical habitat : Flat, stony sparsely grass-covered scrub-and-bush country. Perdicula argoondah sllltnalii subsp. nov. The Laterite Rock Bush-Quail. Specimens collected; 563 <3 8-1-40, 587-590 3, 9 juv., 3,3 10-1-39 Marikanive (2,500'). [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail Tarsus 2 3 3 ad. I3‘I4 80-85 37-5-41 23-26.5 mm. 2 3 3 imm. 14-5 83 38-41.5 22 mm. 1 - 9 juv. — 76-5 39-5 — mm. Wing Tail 93-95.5 30-32 mm. 90-94 28-30 mm. — H. W.] THE BIRDS OF MYSdRE 209 This is quite the most interesting series obtained by the Survey. In the Eastern Ghats Survey ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxviii, p. 686) I described a deep reddish race of the Jungle Bush-Quail from the South Konkan as Perdicula asiatica vidali. Now Mr. Salim Ali has produced this series of bright brick-red specimens of the Rock Bush-Quail from Marikanive in the Chitaldrug District which are even brighter and redder than the red race of the other species. The dis- covery is made more interesting by the fact that with his usual care Mr. Sdlim Ali preserved a sample of the bright brick-red soil on( which the new race was found and with which it agrees perfectly. The series consists of two adult males with the organs in breeding condition, two immature males which have largely assumed the adult plumage, and a juvenile female. The adult males have the whole upper plumage wings and tail bright brick- red, agreeing with the colour of the forehead in the typical race ; the forehead and a line above the buff superciliary streak are unmarked ; the rest of the upper plumage is irregularly barred with black and dark brown and streaked and mottled with buff in the irregular manner, defying precise description, which is typical of this species. The lower plumage is similar to that of the typical race but is slightly warmer in tint, being washed with brick-red on the flanks, lower abdomen and undertail coverts. The juvenile female has the upper parts very similar to the two adults, but the dark barring is largely absent and the buff shaft lines terminating in triangular buff terminal spots on the mantle, scapulars and tertiaries are more conspicuous ; the whole lower plumage is warm buff tinged with brick-red, the throat and breast being irregularly barred with dark brown. The type of this new race is No. 587 <$ adult, 10 January 1940 Marikanive, and it has been deposited in the British Museum. — H. W.J Resident. Confined to deciduous biotope. Typical habitat : About the same as that of asiatica, but perhaps somewhat stonier ground with brick-red laterite soil. These specimens we^e shot on laterite and moorum scraggy grass-covered stony terrain, and I noted in my diary at the time on the remarkably apatetic colouration of the birds. The testes of 587 and 589 were enlarged to 7x4 and 9x6 respectively. They were, however, members of a covey containing several juveniles, so had presu- mably lately finished breeding. Cryptoplectron erythrorhynchum erythrorhynchum (Sykes). The Painted Bush- Quail. Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills : 61 9 12-11-39 (5,000' — western slopes) ; M9o(H) 9 17-5-34 (4,000': — Magoolibetta). Elsewhere noted : Bababudan Hills (4,000' — Kemmangundi). [Measurements : 2 9 $ Bill 14-15, Wing 82-83, Tail 33-40 mm. — H. W.J Resident. Fairly common. Confined to evergreen biotope, extending into the moist-inter belt. Affects the grass-covered hillsides and ridges, mixed with scrub, that separate the sholas . When flushed it utters a short whistle like the Grey Quail. The specimen of 12 November was breeding. Ovary mature : largest follicle 6 mm. Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby). The Painted Partridge. Not met with by the Survey. Anderson ( Stray Feathers, x, 428) records it from Chitaldrug, Tumkur &c, Francolinus pondicerianus pondicerianus(Gmelin). The Southern Grey Partridge. Specimens collected: Biligirirangan Hills : Mtog-i 10(G) 9 2-8-34 (3,000 — Ddahatti, E. (decid.) base). Noted : Bandipur, Maddur (near Gundlupet), Begur, Satnur, Marikanive, Punjur. 210 jOukkAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 25 M3 77 mm. 24 142.5 78.5 mm. — H. W.J Resident. Not common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Typical habitat : Flat, dry scrub-and-bush country about cultivation. Turnix suscitator taijoor (Sykes). The Common Bustard Quail. Specimen collected : 596 9 10- 1-40 Marikanive (2,500'). Flsewhere noted : Devarbetta Hill, Hiriyur. Resident. Not common except at Hiriyur. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects short grass covered flat scrub-and-ibush country. Partial to grass and thickets on the edge of cultivation. Seen singly or in pairs. The specimen had a mature ovary with several follicles ca. 2 mm. Tnrnix sylvatica dussumieri (Temm. & Laug). The Little’ Button Quail. No specimens. Apparently uncommon. Noted once (and the only !) in dry grass and scrub country (T. taijoor facies) at Marikanive 6-1-40. Porzana pusilla pusilla (Pallas). The Eastern Baillon’s Crake. Specimen collected: 488 9 28-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900'). Not noted elsewhere. Winter visitor. Evidently rare. Shot at a swamp (deciduous biotope). Rallus eurizonoides amuroptera (Jerdon). The Banded Crake. A specimen killed by Col. R. C. Morris on the Biligirirangan Hills (5,700 ft.) in August 1938 (J.B.N.H.S., xl, p. 763). No other Mysore record. Amaurornis phoenicurus phoenicurus (Pennant). The AVhite-breasted Waterhcn. Specimens collected : b26 _9 14-1-40, 648 9 16-1-40 Sakleshpur (3,000'). Elsewhere noted : Bandipur, Palahally island (Cauvery R., near Seringa- patam). [Measurements : 2 9 9 Bill 36, Wing 159-164, Tail 67-71.5 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Solos or pairs met with about swamps, amongst bushes and Pandanus thickets. Both the specimens were vet y fat. Gallinula ell l or opus indicus Blyth. The Indian Moorhen. No specimens. Noted : Bandipur, Heggadedavankote. Resident (?). Small numbers observed on weed-choked tanks. ' Porphyria poliocephalus poliocephalus (Latham). The Indian Purple Moorhen. No specimens. Noted : Hiriyur— Several , at a reedy tank 9-1-40 1 Resident. On 9 January a local villager brought me 2 eggs from amongst the reedbeds at the above tank which he said belonged to, and evidently were of, this species. The eggs were pinkish -grey, stippled with purplish-red. Major Phythian-Adams took a clutch of 5 eggs at Bannur (Mysore Dist.) on 22-11-36 and another c/3 at Nanjangud 14-12-30. He notes that the Purple Moorhen is common on suitable reedy tanks in the Mysore District and he has often found nests with (average) c/5 in November and December. Falica atra atra Linn. The Coot. No specimens. Noted : Hiriyur, Hassan, Kolar Gold Fields (Betmangala tank). Small numbers were also observed on the tanks along the motor road from Sakleshpur to Chikmagalur. Resident, but may partly also be a winter visitor. Major Phythian-Adams notes it as common on suitable reedy tanks in the Mysore District. He took a c/5 at Nanjangud on 12-12-36 and 2 eggs from the same locality on 14-12-30. THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 211 Metopldi us in dicus (Lath.). The Bronze-winged Jagana. No specimens. Noted : Heggadedavankote, Karapur. Resident (presumably). Single birds were seen on each occasion on vegeta- tion covered tanks. According to Major Phythian-Adams it is fairly common in the Mysore District. Hydrophasianos chirurgus (Scop.). The Pheasant-tailed Jagana. Not met with by the Survey. Major Phythian-Adams records it as fairly common in the Mysore District. Rostratala benghalensis benghalensis (Linn). The Painted Snipe. No specimen. According to Major Phythian-Adams the Painted Snipe is fairly common about suitable reedy tanks at Gundlupet and Chamarajanagar in the Mysore District. He has also seen it at Bannur near French Rocks, and near Seringa- patam. He has 2 eggs taken at Gundlupet 6-8-35. Anthropoides virgo (Linn.). The Demoiselle Crane. No specimens. Winter visitor. Major Phythian-Adams states that flocks totalling several thousand visit the Kabani River above and below Nanjangud annually between about 20 December and March. Latest date 5 March. They feed on the paddy stubbles mornings and evenings and pass the rest of the day [and night?] on sandbanks in the river. He has also seen them on the Yellandur tanks and at the junction of the Cauvery and Kabani rivers at T. Narsipur. Anderson (5. F ., x, 428) met the Demoiselle on the Tungabhadra river at Harihar, south to Chitaldrug and Suliker6 lake. Choriotes nigriceps (Vigors). The Great Indian Bustard. No specimens. Resident. Uncommon. Major Phythian-Adams has shot 3 in the Mysore District during the last 15 years, and seen several. One was shot by Mr. Van Ingen near Nelamangalam (40 miles distant from Mysore City) early January 1940. It is said to occur sparingly on the dry, open, sparse scrub-covered undulating plains in the Hiriyur-Chitaldrug locality. I have seen eminently suitable terrain around Huliyar also. Sypheotides indlca (Miller). The Lesser Florican or Likh, No specimens. Evidently very rare. Major P-A has only seen one example in the past 15 years some 30 miles north of Mysore City. Barhams oedicnemus indicus (Salvadori). The Indian Stone-Curlew. Specimens collected: 153 23-11-39, 167^ 24-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'). Elsewhere noted : Antarsante, Marikanive. [Measurements -.2 Bill 40.5-45, Wing 205-220, Tail 105-106.5 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Fairly common, but locally distributed. Confined to deciduous biotope. Affects open secondary bamboo and scrub jungle interspersed with clearings, in small parties of 3 or 4. Frequently met with on motor roads through this habitat at night. Major P-A has a c/2 from the Mysore Dist. 28-6-36. Esacas recarvirostris (Cuvier). The Great Stone Plover. No specimens. Noted: Palahally island (Cauvery R., near Seringapatam), Krishnarajsagar (‘Circuit House’ island). m JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. XL1V It is said by Major P-A to be common — in pairs — -on rocky islets in certain sections of the Cauvery river. He took an egg at Yeddatore (Mysore Dist.) i 1-4-37. Cursorins coromandeiicus (Gmelin). The Indian Courser. Not met with by the Survey. According to Major P-A locally distributed. He has observed it near Gundlu- pet and Mysore City where it frequents bare waste lands and stony plains with scattered scrub. He collected eggs c/2, c/2 in the latter locality on 9-6-36, and c/i 28-6-36. Glareola lactea Temminck. The Small Indian Pratincole or Swallow-Plover. Not met with by the Survey. Very local, according to Major P-A. He took eggs (c/2) on an island in the Cauvery river below Talakad (Mysore Dist.) 10-4-37. Lams sp. Gull. Several gulls were observed on Krishnarajsagar Reservoir on 10-12-39, but they were too far away for identification. Sterna aurantla Gray. The Indian River Tern. No specimens. Noted : Palahally island and about Seringapatam (Cauvery river), Krishnaraj- sagar Vanivilas Sagar (Marikanive). Major P-A notes : ‘Common and widely distributed, frequenting tanks as well as rivers. A colony of 100 or more pairs was found in April nesting on an island in the Cauvery a short distance below the Krishnarajsagar Dam, the clutches varying from 1 to 3 eggs.’ He has several clutches in his collection taken below Kanambadi (Krishnarajsagar) Dam, 7-4-36. Sterna melanogaster Temm. The Black-bellied Tern. Specimen collected : 355 <$ 16-12-39 Satnur (2,500'). Elsewhere not noted. [Measurements : 1 $ Bill 42, Wing 230, Central tail 66.5, Outer tail 149 mm.: — H. W.]. Major P-A considers this species scarcer than the River Tern. He observed several pairs on the Cauvery river below Talakad (Mysore Dist.) in April which were apparently breeding on an island in the river, but he failed to find their eggs. Charadrius dubius jerdoni (Legge). Jerdon’s Little Ring Plover. Specimens collected: 260 9> 26i c 5 4-12-39 Karapur (2,500' — Kabani River, B'egur). [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 1 d 14 108 55 mm. 1 $ 16 108.5 58 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Not common. Major P-A found it breeding in company with the Small Swallow-Plover on islands in the Cauvery river below Talakad in April 1937, and he has 2 eggs collected there on the 10th. Charadrius dubius curonicus Gmelin. The Little Ring Plover. Specimens collected: 150 o? 23-11-39 Bandipur (2,800' — Hangala) ; 467 $ 27_12"39* 484 <$; 485 c ? 28-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900'). Elsewhere noted (subspecies?) : Vanivilas Sagar (Marikanive). [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 2 d $ _ imm. 16.5-17.5 116-118 59-5-63.5 mm. 1 9 imm. 17 120.5 62.5 mm. THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 213 These 4 specimens are all immature, but their size leaves no doubt of . their identity and the specimens afford a welcome confirmation of one of the winter quarters of this race, — H. W.] Winter visitor. Small numbers observed on wet grassy tank margins and shingly river banks. Pluvialis dominicus fulvus (Gmelin). The Eastern Golden Plover. Not met with by the Survey. Major P-A notes : ‘Though this bird is a common cold weather visitor to Malabar, I have only once seen it in Mysore when I shot one from a party of 4 at Halladamadhahalli between Gundlupet and Begur (on the Mysore road) on 5-11-1937’. Lobivanellus indicus indicus (Bodd.). The Red-wattled Lapwing. Specimens collected: 436 <$ 24-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900').; 559 $ 7-1-40 Marikanive (2,500'). Elsewhere noted : Palahally island (Cauvery R.), Seringapatam, Bandipur, Maddur, Bhimanbid (P-A.). [Measurements: 2 $ <$ Bill 34.5-35, Wing 220-231, Tail 118-123.5 mm- — H. W.] Resident. Chiefly in deciduous biotope, but sparingly also in the intermediate zone up to the fringe of evergreen. Small numbers seen in appropriate habitats i.e., on river banks and margins of tanks. Also by pools and rain puddles in forest clearings or open glades. Usually pairs. Lobipluvia malabarica (B'odd.). The Yellow-wattled Lapwing. Specimens collected: 267 $ 5-12-39 Antarsante (2,500'); 372 <$ , 373 9 17-12-39. Satnur (2,500'). Biligirirangan Hills: M58(G) 19-7-34, M101-102 (G) (S 9 28-7-34 (3,000' — Udahatti, Eastern (deciduous) base). Elsewhere noted : Marikanive, Gundlupet, Mysore City environs. [Measurements: Bill 4 d<5 25.5-29 299 29 Wing Tail I93'I97 79~S2-5 ram- 189-196 73 . 5-7 o mm. — H. W.] Resident. Fairly common. Confined to deciduous biotope. Small loose parties affect dry, stony, open sparsely scrubbed country and fallow land about cultivation, unlike Lobivanellus often far from water. Major P-A has taken a number of clutches of 2 or 3 eggs each near Gundlupet and in the environs of Mysore City on 14-6-35, 4-7-35 and other dates in June and July. Of these one c/2 (Mysore City environs, 9-6-36) was of the erythristic type. One of his Gundlupet clutches is of a colouration inter- mediate between the normal and the erythristic. (See J.B.N.H.S., xli, 899). No. 267 was very fat. Himantopus himantopus himantopus (Linn.). The Black-winged Stilt. No specimens. Noted: Hangala tank (near Bandipur), Hiriyur, Hadinadu (near Nanjangudl. Winter visitor. Fairly common at tanks, in flocks of up to 20 or so. According to Major Phythian-Adams it is one of the last migrants to leave Mysore, his latest date being 11 April (1931). Tringa ochropus Linn. The Green Sandpiper. Specimen collected : Biligirirangan Hills: M47(G) 9 25~9'34 (2,000' — Satya- mangala). Elsewhere noted : Jogimaradi, Kolar Gold Fields, Hangala. Winter visitor in small numbers. Usually seen singly at tanks, pools and puddles. 214 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV Tringa stagnatilis (Bechst.). The Marsh Sandpiper. No specimens. Noted : Heggadedavankote, Begur (Kabani R.), Kolar Gold Fields (Bet- mangala tank). Also at Kalale tank near Nanjangud (P-A.). Winter visitor. Fairly common. Seen in flocks, occasionally of up to 30 or so. Actitls hypoleucos (Linn.) The Common Sandpiper. No specimens. Noted : Hangala tank (near Bandipur), Heggadedavankote, Krishnarajsagar Reservoir. Winter visitor : fairly common but not abundant. Usually met with singly. One was seen by Major P-A at Gundlupet as late as 27 July (1938). I have pointed out elsewhere that occasional individuals stay behind in their Indian winter quarters all through the year. Tringa glareola Linn. The Wood Sandpiper. Specimens collected: 149 23-11-39 Bandipur (2,800': — Hangala); 226-227 9 9 1-12-39 Antarsante (Kabani R. near Begur) ; 450-451 $ 9 26-12-39 Dod- ballapur (2,900'); 575-578 6 ^6 6 9~^o Hiriyur (2,500'). Elsewhere noted : Heggadedavankote, Kolar Gold Fields (Betmangala tank). [Measurements : Bill Wing Tail 5 6 6 30-35 122-126 47-52 mm. 4 9 $ 32-35-5 121. 5-127 49-52.5 mm.— H. W.] Winter visitor. The commonest sandpiper in Mysore State. Flocks of up to 20 or so seen at tanks and on swampy ground in open country such as inun- dated ploughed fields for paddy cultivation. Tringa totanus subsp. The Redshank. Not met with by the Survey. Major Phythian-Adams shot 7 from a flock at Kalale tank (near Nanjangud) on 3-1-30 and thinks that it is perhaps a commoner winter visitor than this one record indicates. Glottis nebularia (Gunnerus). The Greenshank. No specimens. Winter visitor. Rare. Noted only once — a solo at a tank, Satnur 16-12-39. According to P-A. ‘Occasionally seen’. Erolia minuta minuta (Leisler). The Little Stint. Specimens collected: 579-581 <$ 9 d> 9"I_4° Hiriyur (2,500). Elsewhere not noted. Winter visitor. The specimens were shot from a flock of about 15 at a tank. Scolopax rusticola Linn. The Woodcock. No specimens. , , . Winter visitor. Rare. Col. R. C. Morris informs me that he has seen only 3 examples in the Biligirirangan Hills during the past 27 years, the last in 1938. It is evident that the majority of these birds pass over Mysore to their winter quarters in the Nilgiris without stopping. Capella nemoricola (Hodgson). The Wood Snipe. Not met with by the Survey. Lt.-Col. J. M. Anderson (S.F., x, 428) says he ‘shot 2 in the jungles of Mysore west of Shimoga and heard of 2 others that were shot in the Manjera- bad (Manzeerabad^Sakleshpur) district’. This was in about the year 1883. Since then one more has been recorded shot near Bangalore on 14-12 -1911 {J.B.N.H,S., xxi, p. 677). THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 215 Capella gallinago gallinago (Linn.). The Common or Fantail Snipe. No specimens. Winter visitor. According to Major Phythian-Adams the Fantail generally arrives in the Mysore District in October and is very locally distributed. This species formed about 28% of his total bag of snipe made during the past 15 years, the first place being taken iby Pintail (70%) and the third by Jack Snipe about (2%). For details of his seasonal bags see his informative article ‘Small Game Shooting in Mysore’ ( J.B.N.H.S ,, xli, 594). Capella media (Lath.). The Great Snipe. A specimen — one of the 3 hitherto recorded within Indian limits — was shot by Capt. A. Boxwell near Bangalore on 28-10-1910. It was put up ‘from a piece of loose mud on the edge of a stream which divided some sugar cane from a rice field’. The bird weighed 7 oz. ( J.B.N.H.S xx, 1155). Capella slenura (Bonaparte). The Pintail Snipe. Specimens collected: 201 $ 29-11-39 Heggadedavankote (2,500'); 602 cJ 11-1-40 Hiriyur (2,500'). [Measurements: 2 $ <$ Bill 63-66, Wing 131. 5-137, Tail 47-48 mm. — H. W.] Winter visitor. According to Major Phythian-Adams this species is consi- derably more numerous in Mysore than the Fantail (see percentage of bags above). It arrives in September and most birds have left by 15 April, some staying on till early May. It is heavier in weight than the Fantail, averaging over 4 oz. against the latter’s 3! oz. At Namadachilume (Tumkur Dist.) several solos were flushed amongst very dense tangles of Lantana on dry moorum soil, away from water. The birds after, zig-zagging overhead for some distance kept dropping into the Lantana thickets again and again. A pair of Pintails was shot in a swampy forest glade in the Biligirirangan Hills at about 4,000 ft. on 1-1-1933. Capella megata (Swinhoe). Swinhoe ’s Snipe. Major Phythian-Adams shot 3 examples in the Mysore District during the season 1938-39 — the only 3 in the past 14 years, so evidently very rare and erratic, but no doubt often passed over in bags as Pintail. Umnocryptes minima (Brunnich). The Jack Snipe. Not met with by the Survey. Winter visitor. ‘Distinctly uncommon, but their numbers vary from year to year without any obvious reason’ (P-A). Interesting notes on the arrival dates of snipe in Mysore and on the com- parative frequency of Fantail, Pintail and Jack Snipe near Bangalore appear in Vols. xxxi (p. 1033) and xxxv (p. 900) of this journal. Pelecanus sp. The — Pelican. Major Phythian-Adams saw 6 or 7 of these birds at Mandya in February 1940 and says he generally sees a few each year. Phalacrocorax carbo [sinensis (Shaw & Nodder)]. The Indian Large* Corm- orant. No specimens. Noted : Marikanive. Small numbers on Vanivilas Sagar Reservoir, 6-1-40. Phalacrocorax fuscic ollis Stephen. The Indian Shag. No specimens. Noted as fairly common, in association with flocks of the Little Cormorant, on islets and rocks in the Cauvery, between Seringapatam and Krishnarajsagar Reservoir. Also on Vanivilas Sagar at Marikanive (unconfirmed). 216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot). The Little Cormorant. No specimens. Noted as_ plentiful on islets and rocks in the Cauvery near Seringapatam and Krishnarajsagar. Also on Vanivilas Sagar. Anhinga melanogaster Pennant. The Indian Darter or Snake-Bird. No specimens. _ Noted : Seringapatam, Palahally and other Cauvery islets ; Vanivilas Sagar ; B'etmangala tank (K.G.F.). Small numbers. P/atafea leucorodia Linn. The Spoonbill. Not met with by the Survey between November and March. Evidently resident as Major Phythian-Adams writes ‘Flocks up to 20 have been seen at Gundlupet in July-August, but I have not yet discovered where they breed*. Threskiornis melanocephalus (Latham). The White Ibis. No specimens. Noted : Palahally island and another small islet in the Cauvery near Seringa- patam, 27-11-39. Only 2 or 3. According to Major P-A. it is less common than the Black Ibis. Possibly breeds here during the S.-W. Monsoon. Pseudibis papillosus (Temm, & Laug.). The Black Ibis. No specimens. Noted: Hangala tank (near Bandipur, 22-11-39) — a pair! Major Phythian-Adams writes ‘Frequently seen round Gundlupet — a flock of a dozen on 26-7-38 — and evidently resident though I have not yet found any nests.* Ciconia ciconia ciconia (Linn.). The White Stork. Specimen collected: 603 S n-1-40 Hiriyur (2,000'). Elsewhere not noted. [Measurements : 1 <$ Bill from feathers 202, Wing 603, Tail 234 mm. The bill is bright red. — H. W.] Winter visitor. Rare. The specimen was one of a pair. Another pair was observed on rocks in the river near Nanjangud (January). Dissoura eplscopa episcopa (Bodd.). The White-necked Stork. Not met with by the Survey. Major P-A. has seen it sparingly at Gundlupet and Chamarajanagar in July- August but has not yet discovered where they nest. Ibis leucocephalus (Pennant). The Painted Stork. Not met with by the Survey. Major Phythian-Adams’s remarks above apply also to this species, but it is evidently seen in larger numbers. Anastomus oscitans (Bodd.). The Open-billed Stork. No specimens. Noted : Palahally and neighbouring islands in Cauvery River near Seringa- patam ; at tanks between Chennapatna and Satnur ; Huliyar. Resident. Not uncommon, in small numbers. Usually seen in scattered pairs and parties of 3 or 4. On 8 December (39) a nest was observed on the top of a small tree on an islet in the Cauvery near Palahally Bird Sanctuary, containing 3 full-fledged young which fluttered out of the nest on a shot being fired nearby. Plate V. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Photo by Sir Charles Todhunter 1. Little Cormorants {Phalacro corax niger) and Small Egrets ( Egretta J. garzetta) on rocks in the Cauvery near Palahally Island (Seringapatam), the newly created Bird Sanctuary. Photo by Salim Alt 2. Nest and eggs (c|ll) of the Spot-billed Duck ( Anas poecilo- rhyncha ) on an islet in Vani vilas Sagar (Marikanive) . 6-1-1940. THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 217 Ardea purpurea [maniilensis Meyen]. The Eastern Purple Heron. No specimens. Noted: On small islets in the Cauvery near Seringapatam 27-11-39; Betman- gala tank (K.G.F.) 21-2-40. Not common. Solos ! Ardea cinerea [rectlrostris Gould]. The Eastern Grey Heron. No specimens. Noted : Begur (Kabani River 1-12-39) ; Krishnarajsagar (‘Circuit House’ island 23-2-40). Uncommon. Solos ! Egretta alba subsp. The Large Egret. No specimens. Noted: Huliyar 12-1-40. 2 solos at tank. Egretta intermedia intermedia (Wagler). The Indian Smaller Egret. No specimens. Noted: On islets in the Cauvery near Seringapatam; on rocks in Kabani river near Begur ; on shoals and islets in Vanivilas Sagar ; at Betmang'ala tank (K.G.F.). In small numbers. Egretta garzetta garzetta (Linn.). The Little Egret. No specimens. Noted : in same localities as above. Fairly common. Seen in parties and flocks. Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Bodd.). The Cattle Egret. No specimens. Noted : Kolar Gold Fields. A small scattered flock by grazing cattle on grassy margin of Betmangala tank. Ardeola grayii (Sykes). The Indian Pond Heron or Paddy-Bird. Specimen collected : 456 $ 26-12-39 Dodballapur (2,900'). [Measurements : 1 Bill from feathers 61, Wing 214, Tail 74 mm. — H. W.] Elsewhere noted : Seringapatam and Palahally (Cauvery River) ; Heggadeda- vankote ; Karapur. Resident. Common. Single birds or loose scattered parties seen at rivers, tanks and puddles. Major Phythian-Adams’s collection has an egg (fresh) taken near Mysore City, 7-9-36. Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linn.). The Nigbt Heron. Specimens collected : 289-291 9 ($ 9 Seringapatam (Palahally island). [Measurements : Bill from feathers Wing Tail 1 74 291 104 mm. 2 9 9 72-72.5 277-281 100-101.5 mm. — H. W.] A colony of 3 to 4 hundred birds among bushes and dense Pandanus brakes covering islets in the Cauvery between Seringapatam and Krishnarajsagar Re- servoir. The tops of the bushes and small trees here were covered with hundreds of old nests, some presumably of this species. The breeding must have finished months ago since the colony now contained no juvenile-plumaged birds. All the 3 specimens were excessively fat. Botaurus stellaris stellaris (Linn.). The Bittern. A specimen was shot by Major Phythian-Adams at Hadinadu near Nanjangud (Mysore Dist.) on 12-12-36 ( J.B.N.H.S. , xxxix, 870). This is the only record for Mysore so far. 218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV Sarkidiornis melanotus (Pennant). The Nukta or Comb-Duck. Not met with by the Survey. Major P-A. has seen only 2 (near Gundlupet) during his 16 years in Mysore and shot his first in S. India 50 miles W. of Bangalore on 14-1-43 ( J.B.N.H.S. , xliv, 130). He thinks that Theobald’s record of it from Kollegal must refer to the Yellandur tanks in Mysore State which were favourite shooting grounds of Theobald’s. One of a party of 4 was also obtained by Mr. R. F. Stoney near Gundlupet on 30-1 1-41 (ibid, xliii, 525). Evidently rare. Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin). The Cotton Teal. No specimens. Noted : Betmangala tank (K.G.F.). A scattered flock of about 15. Major P-A describes it as common throughout the Mysore District in flocks °f 5 to 500. He has. frequently seen as many as 15 pairs in July, but thinks that while some certainly stay on throughout the year, the great majority must be migrants. Anser indicus (Latham). The Bar-headed Goose. No specimens. Noted : Vanivilas Sagar (Marikanive) 6-1-40. Two or three flocks of about 20 each. Very wild. Winter visitor. According to Major P-A. nowhere common but generally distributed in the Mysore District, the gaggles varying from half a dozen indi- viduals to 150 (exceptional). A favourite locality is between Chamarajanagar and Gundlupet. He has also frequently seen them near Nanjangud. In the past 14 years he has shot 28, the best day producing 8 birds. They feed in the paddy stubbles. Dendrocygna javanica (Horsf.). The Lesser or Common Whistling Teal. Specimen collected : 200 29-11-39 Heggadedavankote (2,500'). Elsewhere noted : Bandipur. [Measurements : 1 $ Bill from feathers 39, Wing 189, Tail 50 mm. — H. W.] Resident. Common. Found on weedy tanks and sometimes rivers. Small flocks of 6 to 10, but according to Major PhythiamAdams occasionally number- ing over a hundred. He once 'counted 25 pairs on a tank near Gundlupet in June. A pair of adults with 7 ducklings were seen by him on a roadside tank near Hampapura on 21-12-32, and ducklings in another locality on 13-12-36. There is a c/9 in his collection taken from a nest among reeds on a Cauvery island above Seringapatam 15-8-38. At Bandipur on a weed covered tank, I observed an adult bird accompanied by 5 (or 6?) downy ducklings a few days old, 19 November. The duck- lings swam on the far side of their parent, slightly to the rear all strung in a bunch extending beyond the - tail. To the naked eye it looked exactly as if the duck was towing a bunch of floating weeds ! Dendrocygna fulva (Gmelin). The Large Whistling Teal. Not met with by the Survey. Major P-A has only once shot a single specimen during 14 seasons’ shooting in Mysore, from a small flock on the Kabani river behind the Travellers’ Bungalow at Nanjangud. Casarca ferruginea (Vroeg). The Ruddy Sheldrake. Not met with by the Survey. Winter visitor. ‘Not common. The most seen were 20 on a sandbank in the Cauvery River’ (P-A). Anas pcecilorhyncha poecilorhyncha Forster. The Spotbill or Grey Duck. Specimens collected: 546-547 S 6 6-1-40 Marikanive (2,500' — Vanivilas Sagar). Elsewhere noted : Chamarajanagar, Hangala tank (near Bandipur). [Measurements: 2 CS Bill from feathers 52.5-59.5, Wings moult. Tail 97-99 mm. THE BIRDS OF MYSORE 219 One of these birds is quite flightless with all the primaries and secondaries in short quill ; the other has dropped the outer primaries and would soon be in the same condition. — H. W.J Resident, but according to Major Phythian-Adams its numbers are certainly increased by visitors during the cold weather when flocks numbering upwards of ioo are sometimes found on the larger tanks in Mysore District. He has found oviduct eggs on 15 October and 24 November, and ducklings in January (i93i)* Out of a flock of 6 (from which the survey specimens were shot) only 1 bird could fly. All the rest were, like the specimens, in heavy moult and higntiess. On the approach of our boat the birds made for the shore of a scrub-covered stony islet and shuffled along the ground over the loose stones with astonishing celerity, cunningly concealing themselves amongst the sparse bushes and every little unevenness of the surface. Curiously enough the testes of the specimens showed considerable development. They measured 18x7 and 17x7 mm., and breeding was in progress. A nest was found under a bush on the stony edge of this island about 3 ft. away from the water. It was a pad of grass with some feathers in the lining, and contained 11 green ish-white eggs. While I am unable to assert definitely that it belonged to one of these flightless moulting birds* the probability of such being the case is great. On the other hand it is possible that all the 6 flightless birds were, like the specimens, males, and that the brooding duck was as yet free from moult. Anas strepera (Linn). The Gadwall. Not recorded by the Survey. Winter visitor. Rare. Major Phythian-Adams has got only one example in the Mysore District during 14 seasons’ shooting. Anas penelope (Linn). The Wigeon. No specimens. Noted : Kolar Gold Fields. A few on Betmangala tank 23-2-40. Winter visitor. In the Mysore District, Phythian-Adams finds it uncommon. Its numbers are said to vary greatly from year to year, and it is erratic in its occurrences. Anas crecca crecca (Linn.). The Common Teal. Specimens collected: 584 9 9-1-40 Hiriyur (2,500). Elsewhere noted : Huliyar, Chamarajanagar, Heggadedavankote, and on tanks in the Hassan, Kadur and Kolar Districts. [Measurements: 1 $ Bill from feathers 33, Wing 170.5, Tail 61 mm.— H. W.] Winter visitor. According to Major Phythian-Adams ‘Not common [in Mysore Dist.j and seldom found in flocks of over 20. More abundant some years than others. ’ Anas querquedula (Linn.). The Garganey or Blue-winged Teal. No specimens. Noted: Hangala tank (near Bandipur); Chamarajanagar, Huliyar, and on tanks in Hassan and Kadur Districts. Winter visitor. According to Phythian-Adams ‘the commonest duck in Mysore, outnumbering even the Pintail and Cotton Teal, the flocks varying from 25 to 200 or more’. Dafila acuta (Linn.). The Pintail. No specimens. Noted : Bandipur (Hangala tank), Huliyar, Hiriydr. Also on tanks in the Hassan and Kadur Districts. Winter visitor. Fairly common in small numbers on tanks. In the Mysore District Major P-A says ‘Large flocks, numbering anything up to 400, visit all the bigger tanks during the cold weather. They first arrive in November . . .’ i20 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. ±LIV Spatula clypeafa (Linn.). The Shoveller. No specimens. Noted : Hangala tank (near Bandipur), Hiriyur, Huliyar and on other tanks in the Hassan and Kadur Districts. Winter visitor. ‘A few birds are generally to be found on most tanks (in the Mysore Dist.) in the- cold weather, and at times flocks of up to a dozen or more occur’. (P-A). Aythya ferina ferma (Linn.). The Pochard or Dun-bird. No specimens. ‘An irregular winter visitor ibut by no means as rare as indicated in ‘Birds of South India’ (P-A). In January 1938 at a tank near Bannur the same observer saw a flock estimated as from 3 to 4 hundred in number — the largest he has seen. Aythya rufa rufa Linn. The White-eyed Pochard. No specimens. Noted: In small numbers on tanks at Hiriyur, Huliyar and elsewhere. Curiously enough Phythian-Adams seems to have found it very rare in the Mysore District. His game record for the past 14 years shows only a single bird of this species shot. Aythya fuligula fuligula (Linn.). The Tufted Pochard. No specimens. Noted : A few on Betmangala tank (Kolar Gold Fields)., Winter visitor. ‘Somewhat rare’ (P.-A.). Podiceps ruficollis capensi Salvadori. The Indian Little Grebe. Specimens collected: 171 cf, 172 pullus 25-11-39 Bandipur (3,300'). [Measurements : 1 <$ ad. Bill 24.5, Wing 101, Tail 33, Tarsus 35.5 mm. — H. W.j Resident. Present in small numbers on most tanks. No. 171 was shot off a nest which besides 172 (downy hatchling a few hours old) contained 4 hard- set eggs ready to hatch. The nest was a small cone of rubbish in shallow water amongst sparse floating weeds. When approached, the brooding bird got up, hurriedly covered the eggs with leaves etc. and dived away from its proximity. Major Phythian-Adams has collected c/ 3, c/3, c/i on 12-11-26 and c/3 on 1 1-9-27 near Maddur (GLndlupet). THE END ON THE BIRDS OF THE KAREN HILLS AND KARENNI FOUND OVER 3,000 FEET. BY H, C. Smith, m.b.o.u., F. F. GartHwaite, and B. Ef Smythies, Burma Forest Service , assisted by The late Dr. C. B. Ticehurst, m.a., m.r.c.s., m.b.o.u., etc. (Continued from page 7 2 of this 1 volume ). Part III, Woodpeckers. Remarkably few species of Woodpecker were seen in the area ; the follow- ing are all more or less common species of the foothills (Pegu Yomas), but their elevation ranges appear to be more restricted than one might expect. We saw none of them. 1339. Picus xanthopygaeus. Little Scaly-belliec^ Woodpecker. 1341. Picus viridanus. Burmese Scaly-bellied Woodpecker. 1345. Picus canus hessei. Burmese Black-naped Green Woodpecker. 1352. Picus erythropygius. Red-rumped Green Woodpecker. (а) 1357. Geciaulus grantia viridis. Southern Pale-headed Woodpecker. (б) 1372. Dryobates analls lougipenuis. Siamese Pied Woodpecker. 1404. Chrysocolaptes g. guttacristatus. Tickell’s Golden-backed Woodpecker. (£)1409. Hemieercus c. canente. Heart-spotted Woodpecker. 1413. Macropicus javensis. Great Black Woodpecker. ' Notes .— (a) Karen Hills 2,500 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay). ( b ) Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). (c) Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay). Dr. Heinrich in his paper on the birds of Mt. Victoria comments on the remarkable decrease in the number of Woodpeckers with increase of height, and traces it to a corresponding decrease in the number of ants. 1348. Picus chlorolophus chlorolophoides, Burmese Small Yellow-naped Wood- pecker. Previous records. — Karenni 3,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Nattaung i^, 1$. Noted. — Not seen at Thandaung. Not common. 1353. Chrysophlegma f. flavimucha. Large Yellow-naped Woodpecker. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens.- — None. Noted. — ^Not uncommon both on Nattaung and at Thandaung. 222 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV 1369. Dryobates macei atratus. Stripe-breasted Pied Woodpecker. Previous records. — Karen Hills 3,000-4,000' (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Nattaung 19, 10. Noted. — This and the next are the common Woodpeckers of the area, frequently seen solitary or in pairs in all types of forest. 1379. Dryobates nanus canicapillus. Burmese Pigmy Woodpecker. Previous records. — Karenni 4,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Nattaung i9* Noted. — Usually seen in pairs, but a party of three was observed at Thandaung in April. 1383. Blythipicus p. pyrrhotis. Red-eared Bay Woodpecker. Previous records. — Toungoo hills (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Thandaung 1 9 • Noted. — Fairly common and observed up to 7,000 feet. In addition to the harsh churra-cha-churra-cha-churra call it has a loud piercing cuckoo-like call of 7-8 notes dropping slightly in pitch at the end; it is a shy bird, usually seen in bamboo thickets or evergreen, keeping fairly low down and sometimes feeding on the ground. The large size and massive light yellow bill tinged greenish are diagnostic ; the red neck patches of the male are conspicuous, and the female has the head noticeably lighter than the rest of the plumage. 1399. Diuopium javanensis intermedia. Burmese Golden-backed Three-toed Woodpecker. Previous records. — Very abundant in Karenni (Oates). Specimens. — None. Noted. — A party of 3 birds was seen in pine forest at 4,000 feet on Nattaung. 1411. Mulleripicus pulverulentus harterti, Indian Great Slaty Woodpecker. Previous records.— Abundant in Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not seen by us. 1417, Vivia innominata malayorum. Malay. Speckled Piculet. Previous records.— Karen Hills 2,000 feet (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Common both on Nattaung and at Thandaung and partial to bamboo thickets. 1419-21. Sasia ochracea subsp. Rufous Piculet. Previous records.— None? Specimens — Thandaung irf. Noted.— Seen on Nattaung also, but it is less common than the Speckled Piculet. 1423. Jynx torquilla subsp. Wryneck. Previous records. — Karenni, plains and hills (Wardlaw Ramsay). Spe cimens .- — N one. Noted. — Not seen by us. 1426. Megalaima v. virens. Chinese Great Banbet. Previous records. — Karen hills and Papun district. Specimens. — Nattaung 1 9 • Noted. — Common at Thandaung also. 1436. Gyanops asiatica asiatica. Blue-throated Barbet. Previous records.— Hills east of Toungoo, common (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens . — None. Noted. — Once on Nattaung at 3>°°b feet on the Kemapyu stream, and fairly common at Thandaung in May ; probably commoner lower down. i 'Me birds of the kAren hills and kArenni TIS 1441. Cyanops duvauceli cyanotis. Blue-eared Barbet. Previous reicords. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — None seen by us. 1445. Cyanops frankiinli ramsayi. Ramsay’s Golden-throated Barbet. Previous records. — Karenni, type locality (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — Nattaung ireasted Hill Partridge. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Wardlaw Ramsay) ; Taho (Salvadori). Specimens. — Thandaung i 9 • Noted. — The specimen was obtained out of a covey of 5-6 birds at 3,500 feet in a bamboo thicket. Other coveys seen may have been this or the preceding species. 1981. Francolinus pintadeanus phayrei. Phayre’s Burmese Francolin. Previous records. — Karen Hills and Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Heard calling at Thandaung on 24 September and noted last year on Nattaung. It seems to call throughout the year. [2003. Turnix dussumieri. Little Button Quail. A very small Quail seen solitary on the Leiktho path on 7 October 1941 was probably this.] 2004. Turnix tank! blanfordi. Burmese Button Quail. Previous records. — Karen Hills (Salvadori) ; Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens.— N attaung 1 $ . Noted. — Common in small parties or pairs on dry pine ridges with grassy undergrowth, and seen at Thandaung in open grassy country round the tea estate. 2015. Rallina fasciata, Malay Bonded Crake. Previous records. — Meteleo, Karen Hills (Salvadori, in August). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not seen iby us. 2025. Amaurornis bicolor. Elwes’s Crake. Previous records. — None. Specimens. — N attaung 1 . 232 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Noted. — Only the one bird was seen, in a small clearing in ponzo where a spring trickled onto the ground from the usual Karen bamboo aqueduct, forming a small muddy patch of a few square yards. Elevation 4,500 feet. 2030. Heliopais personata. Masked Finfoot. Previous records. — Karenni (Lloyd). Specimens. — None. Noted. — Not seen by us. 2167. Scolopax r. rusticofa. Woodcock. Previous records. — None. Specimens. — Nattaung 1 ^ , i9- Noted. — One of the sights of Sosiko (7,500 feet) was the flighting of Wood- cock at dusk from the Wrens’ Paradise out into the open. In early April 6 or 7 birds were seen nightly but by 12 April only one remained, the rest having presumably migrated in the meantime. Others were seen on the Kolo and Kemapyu streams ; the former was seen on two days feeding in the bed of the stream, where it ran through open country with a fringe of trees and bushes, in the middle of the day. Not seen at Thandaung. 2229-30. Ardeola sp. Pond Heron. Previous records. — Karenni (Wardlaw Ramsay). Specimens. — None. Noted.— One bird was seen on the Kemapyu stream at 3,500 feet. 2234. Gorsakius m. melanolophus. Malay Bittern. Previous records. — None. Specimens. — Nattaung itf. Noted. — Obtained on the Kemapyu stream where it runs through evergreen ; one if not two others were seen on the same stretch but after a day or two they departed, probably, resenting disturbance. 2239. Dupetor f. flavicollis. Black Bittern. Previous records. — Taho (Salvadori). Specimens. — Nattaung !<$. Noted. — The only one seen was obtained at 3,500 feet on the Kemapyu stream. (To be continued ) BREEDING HABITS AND EARLY STAGES OF THE GOURAMI ( OSPHRONEMUS GORAMY LACEPEDE).1 BY C. V. Kulkarni, b.a. (Hons.), m.sc., ph.D. Piscicultural Assistant, Department of Industries , Bombay. (Communicated by Dr. S. B. Setna, m.sc., f.r.m.s., ph.D. (Cantab). (With seven Text-figures), Contents. Pages Introduction ... ... ... ... 233 Acknowledgement ... ... ... 234 Breeding habits of O. goramy ... ... ... 234 Breeding season ... ... ... 234 Material for nest ... ... ... 235 Site for nest ... ... ... 236 Nest ... ... ... ... 236 Embryology and larval development of O. goramy ... 237 Eggs ... ... ... ... 237 Newly hatched larva ... ... ... 238 Two-day old larva ... ... ... 241 Four-day old larva ... ... ... 241 Seven-day old larva ... ... ... 241 Ten-day old larva ... ... ... 242 Introduction. The cultivation of gourami as a substitute for marine fish where this is not readily available, is being increasingly undertaken in tropical countries, including India. Literature on the bionomics of the fish is thus always growing. Papers describing aspects such as the nesting, breeding and feeding habits of the fish have, from time to time, been published by various authors, including Carbonnier (as quoted by Jones), Gilbert (1894), Jordan (1905), Sundara Raj (1916), Villadolid (1936), Roxas and Umali (1937), and Jones (1939b The last-mentioned paper shows that as late as 1939 there was considerable misunderstanding regarding the nest building habits of gourami. Further, the papers compiled by the Philippine authors 1 The Genus * Osphromenus' (Commerson) Lac£p&de mentioned by Day (p. 369) is probably a misnomer. According to Max Weber (p. 344) Lac£p£de described genus Osphronemus and not Osphrompnus. Osphronemus goramy Lac6p£de and Osphromenus olfax (Cuv. & Val.) are, however, synonyms and Lac6p£de’s panic is retained because of its priority. 234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Villadolid (1936) and Roxas and Umali (1937) which give exhaustive information on the breeding of gourami, are not quite complete, as they omit certain details about the nesting habits and descriptions of early larval stages. The form described as a newly hatched larva by Roxas and Umali (op. cit.) is, according to the present author, a fry 10 days old. Moreover, there are three earlier stages of the larva which have, apparently, not been recorded so far. It is hoped that observations recorded in this paper will remove certain misapprehensions about the earliest stages of the fish and be of some help in furthering our knowledge of gourami, which has of late been increasingly popular. Acknowledgement. The author takes this opportunity of expressing his best thanks to Dr. S. B. Setna, Fisheries Officer, for his valuable guidance and constant encouragement at every stage of the investigation. Breeding habits of O sphronemus goramy Lacepede. Breeding Season. — A fairly representative account of the breed- ing habits of gourami is given by Villadolid, who, in a memoir published in 1936, observes as follows: — ‘From time immemorial the gourami has been pond-raised in Java. Accord- ing to Mr. Delsman, of Batavia (Delsman, 1926) the gourami in Java make their nests nearly the whole year round, but most, frequently in July and August. He further states that the wet season is the least favourable. According to Theodore Gill (1874), however, the spawning season of gourami in Mauritius and Bourbon falls in the autumn (March and April) and spring (September and October). In the Philippines spawning gourami were first noticed in the Bureau of Science ponds in April 1930. Gourami reared in the Escudero farm were reported to have spawned for the first time in September 1934. The indications are that gourami may spawn at any time during the year.’ Sundara Raj (1916) states that the breeding season in Java is March and in Madras about May, but in the official bulletin of the Department of Fisheries, Madras, dated December 18, 1939, he describes gourami as breeding twice a year, in February and March and again in September to November. Roxas and Umali (op. cit.) affirm that the fish breeds throughout the year and Aquino (1935) also concurs “with them. In Bombay, however, my observations during the past four vears have shown that the fish breeds through- out the year except during the monsoon from June to September. The interruption in breeding may be due to the rapidly changing levels of ponds at this time, which makes it difficult to build a nest at a particular depth from the surface. The peak period of breed- ing being April and May. These observations appear, in some degree to be corroborated by those of Roxas and Umali (1937), who state that ‘The peak of the breeding season occurs during the warm months from March to May’. There is one instance how- ever, when fry of Gourami were found in one of the ponds in Bombay as early as November. The fry, which measured about in. to 1} in. in length, were first noticed in November, 1941. BREEDING HABITS AND EARLY STAGES OF THE GOURAMI 235 To attain this size the fry must have hatched at least 2 months previously, i.e. in August or September. A factor which may perhaps explain this apparently unseasonal hatching of the fisn is that scarcely any rain tell after the middle of August. The level of the pond must nave been almost static and this comparatively still condition of the water must have induced the fish to build its nest and to breed earlier than usual. The varying records of breeding habits, although from different quarters of the Asiatic continent, are from nearly the same tropical climatic zone, and provide no obvious reason for the disparity in the characteristics of the gourami. Even in India there is no agreement between the records from Bombay and Madras. The fisli is known not to breed in Madras during the cold weather. As a matter of fact, the cold weather at Madras is not so sharp ~as to inhibit this activity. If low temperatures were at all to bring about such an effect, it should have been more pronounced in the Philippines, where, on the contrary ,_ the fish has been observed to breed throughout the year. The climate of Bombay does not vary greatly from that of Madras, and accordingly the habits of the gourami should manifest greater similarity than divergance at these two places. Material for the nest * — Gourami is fairly well known for its habit of building a nest in the water for the reception of its eggs. Sundara Raj (op. cit.) who described the habits of gourami, quoted Jordan’s view (1905 p. 369) that ‘the nest was of a spherical form, composed of plants,, preferably tufts of a peculiar grass • {Pamcum jumentorum) which- grows on the surface of the water’. He gives, however, in the administrative report of the Madras Fisheries Department for 1932-33 a list of quite different hydrophytes which are used to build nests. Roxas and Umali (op. cit.) give yet another list of plants and articles used for this purpose and state that ‘it (nest) is composed of plants, mud and other available floating and submerged material’. The authors have rightly noted that the fish uses for its purpose whatever is available in the pond. It is unnecessary to introduce in a pond the typical grass and materials which the gourami might previously have used for nidification. Once the fish has chosen a particular material, it ah ways manifests an instinctive preference for it as long as it is available. This was well illustrated in a tank at Bandra, Bombay Suburban District, where the gourami always employed hitherto unlisted material to build nests in preference to other commonly used plants. Observations of the fish bred in the tank during the last four years show that gourami manifests a special preference for long peals and fibres of lotus stocks (Nelumbium sp.) left over in the pond after the decomposition of the pulp, although the tank may be and is actually littered with such common hydrophytes as Ceratophyllum, Hydrilla, etc., which are generally recorded as plants used in nests built by this fish. Probably, the softness of the lotus fibres, their binding qualities and the ease with which they may be carried through the water makes the first choice with gourami for nest building. Ceratophyllum and Hydrilla were used by the fish to only a limited extent. Ipomea, Pistia J Potamogeton , &i(j JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . XLIV Eichhornia, and Limnanthemum , though available in the pond, were rarely utilised. These plants, along with some hbrous roots and tutts of grasses, were used by the fish for nidification in other ponds, this fact proves that gourami has definite likes and dis- likes in regard to the choice of material for the building of its nests. The fish does not, however, limit itself to any particular material, so that when occasion arises it can build its nest from whatever material is available. Site joy the nest. — As the breeding season approaches, the parents search for a site for a nest. The place selected is generally at the edge of a pond, but an additional factor in the choice of a site is that the selected place should have ample free space below the nest so that the fish can go right below to lay eggs and also to produce currents in the water by moving it with the fins. For this reason steeper sides of ponds lined either by irregular stones and crevices or by firm grass affording support to the nests are generally favoured. Sides of ponds with gradually sloping banks are not quite suitable. Such sites, although unfrequented by people and affording the necessary stillness, were found to have been disregarded by the fish in preference for steeper sides, although these adjoined busy thoroughfares. In the Administration report of the Madras Fisheries Department for 1933-34, Sundara Raj while describing the habits of gourami in the construction of nests observes ‘to begin with they scoop a hole in the muddy margins of the pond among the grass or bulrush’. This habit of making a hole may as well be for the same purpose of securing space below the nest as pointed out above. Nests have also been observed in the centre of the ponds wherever rocks or any other structures hejd out suitable support near the surface of the water. Nests have also been found hung on the entangled shoots of Ceratophyllum right in the middle of tanks, and their secure position in such surroundings was due to their being intertwined with lotus stalks. In Java tutts of fibres of palm, Arenga saccharifera are suspended in ponds to induce the fish to build nests in the tufts. In Madras the same practice has been reported to be successful at some places l1 933-34). Roxas and Umali (op. cit. page 442) record nests built in the floating roots of Eichhornia in a cement concrete tank in Manila. It should be remembered, however, that such precarious places as the floating roots would be used by the fish only as a last resort when nothing better was available. The ready manner in which the fish adapted itself to the unfamiliar conditions and exploited them to the utmost advantage was indeed noteworthy. Nest : — To start with, the parents carry the building material in their mouths and fix it on the selected spot with the help of their thick snouts. If a crevice between stones is to serve as a starting point the material is firmly rammed into it, and additional material is entangled to form a nest. As with the nests of birds, the softer material on which the eggs are deposited is placed in the centre. The nest is generally about half a foot below the sur- face of water or at times even touches it. The opening is usually on the lower side or slants slightly towards the centre of the pond. According to tlie Philippine authors the fish takes about a week to BREEDING HABITS AND EARLY STAGES OR THE GOURAMI ffli build the nest. Sundara Raj’s observations show, on the other hand, that it takes about a month to complete. The size and shape of the nests do not appear to be uniform in all cases and depend mostly on the size of the fish and material of which it is made. It can, however, be said to resemble a bird’s nest. Occasionally when the building material is merely - wedged in between stones on the border to obtain a support, the nest be- comes more elongated or drawn out and has no particular shape. If the material is not very pliable and if the support is firm and easy, the nest becomes compact and shapely. The one observed at Sun- kesula farm (Madras) in March, 1937, was made of roots of bulrush and dried blades of grass and appeared quite elegant — almost like a bird’s nest. ‘The nests’ described by Sundara Raj (1932-33) ‘measure 6 inches in diameter 7 inches in height’. Roxas and Umali (op. cit.) record bigger nests of about 30 cms. (12 inches) in length and 18 cms. (7.2 inches) in width, but our observations showed that most of the Bombay nests were bigger than the Philip- pine nests and measured on an average about 15 in. in length and 12 in. in diameter and were placed lengthwise in the ponds. Embryology and larval development of Osphronemus goramy. Eggs.-— Eggs are laid in batches. The female goes below the nest, inspects it, then lies on her broad side, lays a cluster of eggs and retires. The male waiting close by then discharges his semen on the eggs to fertilize them and withdraws. This process is re- peated several times till all the eggs are laid. A few fibres are then pulled out from the sides of the nest, and the eggs covered with them, so that they are well protected and no intruder can have access to them. Both parents guard the nest in turn, inspect the eggs occasionally and stir the water with their fins to produce a current to help oxygenation. Records from the Philippines, as well as from Madras show that gourami is known to lay about 800 to 1,000 eggs at a time, but my observations show that the number of eggs laid at a time may be much bigger. On February 21, 1940, a nest in the Bandra tank was found to contain about 3,000 larvae, which had just hatched out, all being nearly of the same age. This observation led the investigator to assume that the eggs might have been laid not only by one but two or more females. This assumption proved, however, to be incorrect as in the subsequent year two other nests in the same tank on April 17, 1941, had each about 2,200 and 2,000 larvae.. This fact makes it clear that gourami at least in the pond at Bandra lay eggs prolifically. The eggs are of a fine lemon yellow colour, glistening remark- ably on top owing to a quantity of oil at the upper pole, which occupies more than 1/3 the size of the egg and is comparatively Very large. The diameter of the egg is about 2.2 to 2.4 mm. Due to the large quantity of oil in the globule the eggs are buoyant if left free but being always in the nest they are never seen floating ^38 Journal, bombAy natural hist, society, voi xliv in the water. They are very soft, delicate and unadhesive. The egg membrane, being very tender, collapses even if slightly touched (fig. i. a). Text-fig. i.— Egg and early embryonic development of Osphronenius gotamy (Lacepede) X iS. (a) Egg- (&) Egg with embryonic ridge. (c) Egg with developing embryo. ‘The eggs hatch in about 10 days’, according to Roxas and Umali, and in about 15 days according to Villadolid. The time varies* however, according to the season, being shorter in summer and longer in winter. Figures ib and ic- in the text represent some of the embryonic stages. Fig. 1 b shows only the embryonic ridge being formed, while fig. 1 c represents an embryo with the cephalic region in the process of formation and the optic region marked out, The caudal portion is also complete. N&wly hatched larva. — Roxas and Umali (op. cit.) record newly hatched fry as being 9 mm. in length and describe it as follows. ‘A newly hatched fry is about 9 mm. long, the body bein^ BREEDING HABITS AND EARLY STAGES OF THE GOURAMI 239 somewhat elongated. The head measures 5 times in the total length, while the eye is contained 3 times in the length of the head. Although somewhat short, the caudal fin in fully formed. Only the beginning of the soft dorsal and anal fins are evident as fleshy projections, there being as yet no distinct ray formation. The pectoral and the ventral fins are entirely absent, although fleshy indications of the former are already visible. The pigmentation is still wanting ex- cept as scattered patches in some parts of the head and body’. My observations show that the first hatchling of Gourami (fig. 2) is much smaller and quite different from what has been described above. Text-fig. 2. — Newly hatched larva of Osphronemus goramy (Lacep&de) xCa. 20. Its (newly hatched larva) total length is about 5.3 mm. It has a comparatively large yolk-sac of about 3 mm. in length and 2.0 mm. in breadth and the latter is closely attached below the head by the longer axis. The length of the head is contained about nine times, and the height about 8.5 times, in the total length of the larva. The anterior end (snout) is almost rounded. The mouth is not perceptible. The sclerotic coats and the lenses of the eyes are developed, but there is no pigmentation as yet. The pectoral and ventral fins are not developed at all. The dorsal, caudal and the anal fins also are not present, but, in their stead, a thin vertical fold starts dorsally from about 1/3 the total length of the larva from the head and is continued venffrally round the caudal end to meet the yolk-sac at about half the total length. Two or three small chro- matophores are seen on the dorsal side of the larva posterior to the head, and numerous ones of the same size are distributed on the yolk-sac dorsally and posteriorly. These chromatophores are not visible to the naked eye and can be seen only through a magnifying lens. The oil globule is yet persistent and is quite visible, occupying the rear end of the yolk-sac. A remarkable feature about the newly hatched larva is the manner of its suspension immediately below the surface of the water. The larva at this stage assumes a supine position with its tail directed 6 240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV upwards and forms an angle of about 30 degrees with the plane of the water (fig. 3). Text-fig. 3.— Early hatchlings floating in inverted position (diagrammatic). The concentration of oil at the end of the postero-ventral side of the yolk-sac perhaps acts as a buoyant agent which causes the larva to float towards the surface film of the water. The larva at this stage is almost quiescent and, unless disturbed, prefers to remain motionless near the surface. On disturbance it swims away swiftly in the same inverted condition and again resumes its original position elsewhere. In the natural environment this quiescent stage is always passed in the nest and the larva does not come to the surface of the water in spite of its buoyancy. Text-fig. 4. — Early hatchlings attached to weeds under water (diagrammatic). BREEDING HABITS AND EARLY STAGES OF THE GOURAMI 241 Two-day old larva : — Late on the second day pigment begins to appear in the eyes. Fleshy indications of the pectoral fins and a minute slit in place of the mouth are also visible. An interesting fact noted at this stage was that, despite the buoyancy due to the oil globule, the larva descended to the bottom of the observation tank and rested on the weeds, the general appearance of its position being the same as when it was floating immediately under the surface film of water (fig. 4). Cement glands such as those recorded by Jones (1940) on the head and nape of Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. & Val.) and on Etroplus by the same author (1938) appeared to be absent from the head of the larva of gourami. Four-day old larva : — -On the fourth day the larva (fig. 5) has the usual pigmentation in the eyes and the oral slit is replaced by a normal mouth. The pectoral fins also have assumed shape, but there is no ray formation in them. Text-fig. 5. — Four days old larva of O. goramy (Lac6p&de) xCa 16. The larva is about 6.4 mm. in total length, with a yolk-sac of nearly the same size as on the first day. The head is contained about 8.5 times in the total length and the eye only about twice in the length of the head. The dorsal, caudal, anal or ventral fins are not developed. Only the vertical fin fold is present as before. The position of the vent is somewhat defined. A small pulsating heart, with coursing red blood corpuscles is visible below the throat. The chromatophores increase in number and occupy wider areas on the body. On the fourth or fifth day the larva corrects its inverted position and swims in the normal manner of a fish. The movements are greatly restricted, however, and the larva prefers to shelter in the entangled fibres of the nest or on the bunches of Ceratophyllum , amongst which it remains motionless for a day or two. The duration of different stages depends on the conditions in the observation tanks. Some of these stages are earlier if conditions are favour- able and later, if otherwise. Seven^day old larva. — The larva acquires after about seven days a fish-like appearance, with its characteristic snout, eyes, 242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV trunk and tail (fig. 6). It is about 7 mm. in length and has an elongated form. The yolk-sac is not absorbed, but appears to be partially incorporated ‘in situ’ in the body of the larva. This makes the anterior half of the body thick and the caudal portion slender. The head is contained about 7 times in the total length of the fish and the eyes are proportionately of the same size as in the former stage. They are prominent and are oblong as in many larval forms. The height of the head is slightly more than its length. The snout is bluntly pointed and is about \ the antero-posterior diameter of the eye. The height of the body is contained about 3.5 times in the total length. The membranous pectoral^ fins are clearly marked out. The vertical fin fold has proportionately the same length as was described in respect of the newly hatched larva and extends round the caudal end. The positions of the dorsal, caudal and the anal fins are, however, roughly marked out by the margin of the vertical fold sinking and approaching the body at spaces intervening between the fins concerned. The caudal fin appears to develop more rapidly and the rays appear in the process of formation. The ventral fins are as yet completely absent. The Chromatopnores, which have increased both in number and size, are distributed all over the body, including the caudal region. They are more numerous on the ventral surface (yolk-sac) and on the head. The number of these chromatophores is not, however, sufficient to lend any general colour to the larva which, to all purposes, appears almost white to the naked eye. Ten-day old larva. * — The characteristics of the larva (fig. 7) when it is 9 or 10 days old generally tally with the description given by Roxas and Umali (op. cit.) of newly hatched fry {vide infra p. 238. In some respects, however, even their description would seem to require certain modifications. BREEDING HABITS AND EARLY STAGES OF THE GO U RAMI 243 The two authors (loc. cit.) record, ‘The pectoral and the pelvic fins are entirely absent, although fleshy indications of the former are already visible’. My observations have shown ( vide infra p. 241) that the fleshy indications of the pectorals are visible on the second day, when they are quite distinct and well developed. Another point of difference is that although the rounded abdomen of the larva appears to these authors as a portion of the original yolk-sac, yet it would not be proper in my opinion to consider the yolk-sac as still in existence, because it has by now been almost incorporated in the body of the larva. A description of the later stages of Gourami is not included in these notes as the same has already been fully dealt with by Roxas and Umali. References to Literature. 1. Amirthlingam, 1940. — The nesting habits of the Gourami ( Osphronemus goramy). Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. xli No. 2 1940 pp. 436 to 437. 2. Aquino Benigno, S., — Goramy culture in the Philippines. Dept, of Agriculture and Commerce Div. Fish Bull. 3. Day F., 1878-88. — The Fishes of India. London. 4. Day, F., 1889 — The Fauna of British India — Fishes, Vol. II. London. 5. Gilbert, Charles F., 1894. — The breeding of the Gourami. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist, viii pp. 435-438. 6. Jones, S., 1939. — On the nesting habit's of the Gourami ( Osphronemus goramy Lacepbde). Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. xl pp. 766-72. 7. Jones, S., 1938. — On the origin and development of cement glands in Etroplus maculatus (Bloch). Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. vol. vi B. 8. Jones, S., 1940. — Notes on the breeding habits and early development of Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. & Val.) with special reference to the cement glands on the early larvae. Rec. Ind. Mus. xlii 2 pp. 269-76. 9. Jordan, D. S., 1905. — Guide to the study of fishes. New York. 10. Roxas, H. A., and Umali, A. E., 1937. — Fresh water fish farming -in the Philippines— Philip, Journ. Sci. vol. 63 pp. 433-68. 11. Sundara Raj, B., 1916. — Notes on the fresh water fishes of Madras. Rec. Ind. Mus. xii pp. 249-294. 12. Sundara Raj, B., 1931 .—Osphromenus gourami. Bull. Dept. Fish. Madras. 13. Sundara Raj, B., 1933. — Admi. Rept. Dept. Fish. Madras for 1932-33. 14. Sundara Raj, B., 1934. — Ibid for 1933-4. 15. Thomas, H. S., 1881. — The Rod in India. London. 16. Villadolid, D. V., 1936.— The Gourami its cultivation in the Philippines. Dept, of Agri. & Com. Manila. Popular Bull. 7. 17. Weber Max & de Beaufort, L. F., 1923.— Fish Indo. Austral. ArcUpel iv pp. 344-345- SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON THEIR ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS. BY M. Sayeedud-Din, Prof, of Botany, Osmania University , Hyderabad — Deccan. ( With three plates). ( Continued from page 4 77 of Vol. xliii, No. 3). XI. — PI eliotr opium zeylanicum Lamk. (Boraginaceae). SYNONYMY AND SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION. H eliotr opium zeylanicum Lamk. Encycl. Method iii, 94 (not of Wall., nor of H. F. B. I.); Duthie FI. upper Gang. PI., II, 93; Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras, Pt. v, 896. Syn : Heliotropium panicul- atum R. Br. Prod. 494 (not of Roxb.); H.F.B.I., IV, 1 5 1 ; Cooke, FI. Pres. Bomb., V, II, Pt. 1. 212. Heliotropium linifolium Lehm. ; Wt. Ic. t. 1391. An erect herb, 1-2 ft. high, with stout root stock and numerous ascending branches; stem and branches more or less strigose or sometimes quite glabrous. Leaves alternate, nearly sessile, linear, very narrow, acute, clothed on both sides with appressed hairs or the upper surface glabrous, margins recurved. Flowers shortly pedicellate, in slender simple or forked racemes ; bracts linear, hairy. Calyx 5-partite, strigose outside. Corolla hairy outside, limb white, tube yellow; lobes ovate-deltoid, with plicate sinuses between. Stamens 5, inserted rather low down in the corolla tube; pollen cylindrical with longitudinal ridges and furrows. Style very short, stigma conical, a little longer than the style, stigmatic ring con- spicuous. Ovary more or less perfectly 4-celled, ovules 1 in each cell. Fruit sub-globose, nutlets hairy on the back, acute at the apex, (plates I and II). Flowers June to September. Habitat. S. Deccan and Ceylon (Hooker, 3) ; not very commbn in the Bombay Presidency (Cooke, 1); confined to the N.-W. portion of Gangetic Plain (Duthie, 2) ; very common in Hyderabad, growing in patches (Plate I, Fig. 1), (Sayeedud-Din, 6). Distrib. — S. India, Ceylon, Siam and Australia (Hooker, 3). Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, Plate Fig. i. — An association of Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk. Fig. 2. — Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate IL Sayeedud-Din : He liotr opium zeylanicum Lamk. [ For explanation see end of article . Jo urn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate III. Sayeedud-Din : — Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk. [ For explanation see end of article . SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS 245 Anatomical Notes. Structure of the leaf. (Plate III, Figs, i and 3). The epidermis consists of large cells with their outer walls greatly thickened, and arched convexly outwards. The stomata occur more on the lower than on the upper surface.. They do not belong to any special type, but, according to Strasburger and Vesque (Solereder, 7) they belong to the Cruciferous type which is frequently obscured. Hence no special arrangement of the epidermal cells around the guard-cells is recognizable. The mesophyll consists of palisade tissue on the upper side and of arm-palisade tissue on the lower. Sabnis (5) records the same in Heliotr opium supinum , H. paniculatum Linn., Trichodesma indicum, and Arnebia hispidissima. Internal secretory organs occur in the form of cells containing tanniniferous contents in the middle of the mesophyll. Oxalate of lime is present in the form of solitary crystals in the leaf as well as in the axis. The clothing hairs on the axis and the leaves are unicellular, elongated, and gradually tapering towards the apex. Their walls are verrucose, and in many a cystolith-like body is developed in the basal portion which is bulbous. (Plate III, Fig. 2). Glandular hairs are not present. Structure of the axis. (Plate III, Fig. 4). The epidermal cells are large, with their outer walls thickened and cuticularised. The primary cortex consists of colourless parenchyma, and chlorenchyma. The endodermis possesses granular contents. Scattered groups of stone-cells occur in the pericycle. The pith consists of thin-walled cells with granular contents. Conclusions. The anatomical study of Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk.. reveals the following characteristic features : — 1. Stomata do not belong to any particular type. 2. Oxalate of lime occurs in the stem and leaf in the form of solitary crystals. 3. Cystolith-like bodies are developed in the basal bulbous portion of some of the clothing hairs. 4. The clothing hairs are unicellular, elongated and verrucose. Glandular hairs do not occur. 5. Internal secretory organs occur in the form of cells holding tanniniferous contents in the middle of the mesophyll. 6. The mesophyll consists of palisade tissue on the upper side and of arm-palisade tissue on the lower. 7. In the axis, scattered groups of stone-cells occur in the pericycle. Acknowledgements. I am thankful to Mr. Sri Ramloo for preparing th£ photograph and the drawings. 246 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV Literature Consulted. 1. Cooke, T. — The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, vol. ii, pt. i, p. 212 (1904). 2. Duthie, J. F. — Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain, ii, p. 93 (1911). 3. Hooker, J. D.—The Flora of British India, vol. iv, p. 151 (1885). 4. Gamble, J. S. — Flora of the Presidency of Madras, pt. v, p. 896 (1923). 5. Sabnis, T, S. — ‘The Physiological Anatomy of the Plants of the Indian desert.’ J-I.B., Vol. ii, No. 3, pp. 61-66 (1921) 6. Sayeedud-Din, M. — ‘A further contribution to some of the common flower- ing plants of the Hyderabad State ; their distribution and economic importance. Dicotyledons. J.B.N .H.S., Vol. xl, No. 2, p. 204 ( 1938 ) 7. Solereder, H. — Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Engl. Ed., Vol. i, PP- 554“56i (1908). 8. Wight, R. — leones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis, p. 33, t. 1391 (1838-53). Explanation of Plates I-III. Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk. Plate I. Fig. 1. Photograph of an association of Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk. Fig. 2. Photograph of a single plant. Plate II. Fig. 1. Black and white drawing of Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk. (Nat. size). Fig. 2. Corolla opened out. (x 10). Fig. 3. Pollen grain, (x 300). Fig. 4. Pistil with calyx attached, (x 10). Plate III. Fig. 1. Leaf-epidermis, showing stomata, (x 300). Fig. 2. Trichome, showing the cystolith-like body in the basal bulbous portion. (X300). Fig- 3- T. S. Leaf, showing, s, secretory cell containing tanniniferous con- tents. (x 300). Fig. 4. T. S. Stem, showing, ep, thickened epidermis ; chi, chlorenchyma In cortex, chloroplasts not shown ; st, stone-cells in the pericycle. (x 300). Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Some more New Lepidoptera from S. W. Iran. Figures 1-6 are on same scale and show comparative size and shape of various Fars "winter moths”. Fig. 1. Epitherina rhodopoleos Wli., pale specimen. Fig. 2, 8. Cuc-ullia jaucicola Wilts., type, cN Fig. 3. Erannis probably bajaria Schiff., ssp. cf- (Fars, November). Fig. 4, 5, 11. Heterobapta plumellata Wilts., types, cf $ • Fig. 6. (?) Erannis bahmana Wilts., type, c? Fig. 7. (?) Epitherina pistaccioe Wilts., type , $ . Fig. 9. Hemerophila engys Wli., type, c? (Berserini, Kurdistan, October). Fig. 10. Eogenes alcides clama Wilts., type, cf underside (Maidan-i- Naftun, 6.V.1938 : See "Mesopotamian Desert Lepidoptera”, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. XLII. No. 4. Dec. 1941. p. 833). Fig. 12 (?) Erannis bahmana larva. Fig. 13, 14. Cucullia jaucicola larvae (Fig. 14 also shows food-plant leaf.) SOME MORE NEW LEPIDOPTERA FROM S.-W. IRAN, WITH THEIR LIFE HISTORIES By E. P. Wiltshire, f.r.e.s. ( With a plate). A previous article (‘New Lepidoptera from S.-W. Iran, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. xlii, Aug. 1941) introduced various new species taken in 1940 in Fars, and mentioned that others were still sub judice. One of these is now here brought forward, together with three other new species bred from caterpillars found in Fars in 1941. The present article, dealing with the life histories of the three latter, may be considered as No. 6 in my series ‘Early Stages of Oriental Palearctic Lepidoptera’, of which No. 5 appeared in Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. xliii, p. 621, April 1943. I am indebted for useful advice to Mr. Louis Prout regarding the three Geometridae here described ; he has examined a paratype of one of them and seen photos of the others. The genera, to which the two latter are here tentatively attributed, have not yet been authoritatively diagnosed; but since there is little doubt that the species are new, and the early stages can be described and illustrated, I felt it perhaps permissible to publish the discoveries to the best of my present ability, rather than, by waiting till the end of hostilities, run the risk of losing both the material and my records of it. Present world conditions naturally prevent inter- national consultation of the sort possible and advisable before such a publication in peace time. The present paper, however, by no means exhausts the tally of new species which could be brought forward from my Fars material. In particular, I have in mind a Crocallis and an autumnal Chilena (?), of whose early stages also I have notes and photos. I omit them here because I have been given to understand by Dr. Wehrli that W. Brandt has described or will shortly describe the former, and, in the latter case, because I have not been able to consult a Bombycid-specialist and I lack a male specimen too. The plate illustrating the new species here described also illu- strates the larvae of two of them and in addition illustrates the types of two previously described species or forms from my col- lection, and two Fars ‘winter moths’ for comparison with the three Geometridae here described. The previous article mentioned in the first paragraph above should be consulted by readers interested in the floristic character of the Fars mountains where these discoveries have been made, Cucullia faucicola sp.n. In introducing this distinctive addition to the lychnitis-verbasci group of the genus Cucullia, a few words on the distribution of the group will not be amiss. The group is characterised by a similarity in facies of the adult, by the strictly vernal phenology of the moth, by association of all its members with yerbascum or scrophularia as foodplant, by the comparatively small difference 248 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV discernible in the male genitalia of its different species, by the specific dis- tinctiveness of the larvae, "and by the occurrence of distinct species with a limited range scattered here and there over the wide range of the two com- monest and most generally distributed species, viz. : — lychnitis Ramb. and verbasci L. From India I know of only one species having been previously recorded, namely stigmatophora Hamps., which is probably a close relative of faucicola ; the type of the Indian species was taken at Simla. But I am able here to add for India a second species of this group, namely the common species verbasci L. which ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific of the Old World ; I observed its unmistakable larvae on verbascum in Kashmir at 5000 to 7000 ft. in May-June 1942. For the differences between stigmatophora and the Central Asian species notodontina Bours. and the Trans-Caspian species Zerkovuitzi Bours., see Boursin — ‘Contribution & l’Etude des Noctuidae-Trifidae, No. XII’ ( Revue Frangaise dJ Ent., 1 (1934). Quite possibly lychnitis also occurs in Palearctic India. In the Middle East, the group is represented by both lychnitis and verbasci , and a number of more local species : — lychnitis occurs1 from the Mediterranean coast-level up on to mountains and plateaux of the hinterland, usually accom- panied by verbasci. These two species have not been noted from the low lying Mesopotamian desert, which however produces the rare species strigicosta Bours., so far only taken from the Khaniqin region of Iraq. Both the com- moner kinds occur in North Persia, but in the south of that country some climatic factor seems to limit their range, for I failed to find verbasci at all in Fars, and only found lychnitis in Fars in the 7,000 ft. high region of Ardekan, which is the southernmost point to which many species distinctive of the Middle East reach on the Zagros range. Barthae Bours. ranges from the Elburz range through Anatolia and Syria to Italy. Xylophanat Bours. only occurs in Central Asia, together with notodontina, while anceps Stgr., originally described as ranging from Syria and Turkey as far as Turkestan has yet to be proved to occur so far afield, and at present it is best described as a species Confined to the high mountains of N. Persia, Syria and Turkey. Osthelderi Bours. is only known from the Taurus Mts., Turkey. The mention of the other local Palearctic members of the group that occur further west is not necessary here. Faucicola is easily distinguished in the imago from all the foregoing species and from the more westerly members of the group also by the clear delineation across its forewing of both the ante-median and post-median lines. It resem- bles stigmatophora in that the orbicular stigma is clearly visible by its paler colouring against a greyer background, but differs in that its reniform stigma is similarly clearly visible. Its larva is also easily distinguished from all the Midde East species of which the early stages are known ; its nocturnal habits separate it from all others so far recorded from Persia except perhaps anceps , of which the early stages are still unknown ; it is probably extremely local because of its close attachment to a foodplant of a very specialised habitat. Male : Fore- wing : — whitish buff, heavily dusted with brown, especially along the cell, where the reniform and orbicular stigmata are left paler. 1st line, zigzag, dark brown with a whitish inner edge. Central shade, running from costa between stigmata, to inner margin, diffuse, regularly curved, visible throughout its length ; outer line, curving inwards between the nervures, dark brown with whitish outer edging. Costa, dark grey except for whitish marks, which continue across the wing as the paler edging of the lines already described and for whitish dots marking the termination of nervures 10, 11 and 12. Hindwing : — sooty brown; the nervures darker; darker grey towards the termen. Span : — 41 mm. Holo -Type: — ditto. Both, in coll. mea. Para -Types: c3'd'9.9$> Sineh Safid, (C. 6,500 ft.), 27-10-40, Fars. One of these para-types has been seen by Mr. Prout ; all are in my collection. The early stages are not known to me. (?) Erannis bahmana sp. n. I should not be surprised if the female of this species proved to be fully winged, and in that case the species would have to be attributed to Heterobapta or Epitherina (see above), or a new genus and not to Erannis. Bahmana can be distinguished from plumellata by its being vernal, and also, in facies, by the weaker definition of its cell-spot and other markings and its straighter-running post-median line. It flies at the same time as rhodopoleos but differs from it in foodplant : — I described the early stages of rhodopoleos in ( Early Stages of Oriental Palearctic Lepidoptera’ ( Journ . Bombay Nat. Plist. Soc., April, 1943) ; its foodplants are Prunus and Amy gdalus ; bahmana is about the same size and shape as rhodopoleos but can be distin- guished by the starting of the straighter running postmedian line nearer the apex of the forewing. Male : — antenna, penicillate. Fore-wing, dirty brownish-white densely speckled with black, thus appearing grey. First line, indicated by slight grey shades on the costa and inner margin only. Postmedian line, dentate, with a blackish 250 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV outward point on each nervure, clearest near the apex, where it has a whitish outer edge, and running fairly straight across the fore-wing. Discal spot (cell-spot), faint. Termen, black, whitish edged. Fringes, grey, paler basad. Hindwing, paler grey, with one rather straight dentate line, most clear near the anal margin. Termen, black, interrupted. Fringes, brownish grey. Under- side : — both wings, paler, with discal spots faint but traceable ; forewing, postmedian-line clearly marked in black on costa near apex, where it starts at right-angles to the costa, then curves parallel to the margin and disappears; hindwing, postmedian line, dentate, traceable throughout. Termen, interrupted. Span, 27 mm. A non-descript, weakly-marked little moth. Holo -Type: — cf, hatched on 2-2-42 from a larva found at 6,000 ft. on Muk Pass (Gir-i-Bahman), Fars; (south of Shiraz), in coll. m. Larva: — slender, grey, with small head; dorsal, subdorsal, and lateral lines, broad, darker grey, with darker edges. Dots black. A dorsal series of dark grey ,x marks. Spiracles, white, grey-rimmed, inconspicuous, placed above a whitish line edged below with a heavy black interrupted line. Underside, grey-dappled and less strikingly lined and marked, but with a pale sublateral and ventral line. Head, small, rather flattened, grey, dotted with black. (Figure 12). Foodplant, the wild pistacia trees of the Fars steppe- woods ( Pistacia (?) khinjuk) ; on the leaves. The larva is full-grown in May ; the moth emerges the following February, and probably also in March and April at high altitudes. Several larvae of this species were extracted from the> bill of an immature Dryobates syriacus, which nests in the wild pistacia trees ; proof, if any were needed, that this Pied Woodpecker feeds not only on what it may find in the bark but on what it finds on the foliage of the trees. Epitherina pistaciae sp.n. Until a male be forthcoming,, one cannot be sure to what genus to attribute this striking species. It agrees with rhodopoleos Werhli in season, in general shapQ, of wings and in the female’s being full-winged, but differs in foodplant and facies. The bold markings recall a Boarmia and at once distinguish it from the other Fars spring or autumn moths, rhodopoleos, plumellata, and bahmana, which resemble each other to some extent superficially. Its larval structure as well as that of the imago’s thorax, etc., rule out the possibility of its really being a Boarmia. Female : — antenna, simple. Forewing, pale buff, freckled with grey in median field. Basal line, heavy, black, with two sharp angles, one on the cell, the other actually touching the antemedian line, near the inner margin. Ante- median line, heavy, black, zigzag, but less extremely angled, and with its angles not conforming with those of the basal line. Postmedian line, curving basad between the nervures, which each here bear a fine white dot on the tooth edge of this line. Submarginal area, heavily shaded with grey, but the white dentate submarginal line running from apex to inner margin is distinctly traceable and is placed just posteriorly to a straighter dark shade. Termen : — a disconnected series of black circumflex marks. Fringes, grey, with a white middle line parallel to termen, but blacker basad. Hindwing, pale buff, heavily freckled with grey, more so towards anal margin. First line, darker grey, vaguely defined ; second line, dark grey, curving basad between the nervures, and edged outwardly with whitish. Submarginal line, as on forewing, if rather more interrupted. Termen, as on forewing, but less interrupted. Fringes, as on forewing. Discal spot, weakly indicated. Under- side :— whitish buff, freckled with grey, especially in submarginal area near forewing apex ; discal spots visible on both wings, less clearly marked on hind- wing. Span : 27 mm. Holo-Type 9 , hatched on 28-2-42, from a larva found in May at 6,000 ft. on the Muk Pass, south of Shiraz, Fars. Larva : — slender, with small head ; green, finely and faintly lined with yellow. Somital joints, yellow. There is a distincter white sublateral line just below the inconspicuous yelloxt spiracles. The lips of the anal orifice have a fine white edge. Head, small, rather flattened, glossy, pale green. Foodplant, wild pistacia op th$ leaves. Full-grown in May. SOME MORE NEW LEPIDOPTERA' FROM S.-W. IRAN 251 The Plate. Besides the above four new species, the plate also shows : — Fig. i. A pale example of E. rhodopoleos. This species varies considerably, and melanic exam- ples occur occasionally (I took one at Shapur Gorge on 28-2-41 (3,000 ft.) The commonest form was illustrated by Brandt in his article which appeared in the Ent. Rundschau 1938-9; Wehrli’s original description appeared in the same periodical, in 1938, No. 31 (p. 354). Fig. 3 is of a species which flies together with H. plumellata but cannot be confused with any other Fars ‘winter moth’ ; its provisional determination is a South Zagros race, probably not named yet, of Erannis hajaria Schiff. The female is wingless, and I have bred several examples of this form. In captivity its emergence extends from November into January. Fig. 9 is of the only known specimen of Hemerophila ( Megaly cinia ) engys Wehrli, of which this rather poor photo was taken by me before transmitting it to Switzerland, where it still reposes. Being a Zagros autumnal moth, though from the North Zagros, it may be. useful to readers to have an illustration of it in this article. The original description appeared in Mitt. Munch. Ent. Ges. xxix Jahrg. 1939. Heft. 1. Fig. 10. Eogenes alcides ssp : elama mea ; a preliminary description appeared in Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., December 1941; at the time of writing (October 1942) I believe the longer description has not yet' been published. THE PAPAYA, ITS BOTANY, CULTURE AND USES. BY L. S. S. Kumar and A. Abraham. (College of Agriculture, Poona.) ( With four plates). Carica papaya, commonly known as the Papaya, is a native of tropical America, where nearly all the other forty and odd species of the genus Carica are to be found. With increase of facilities in navigation, the species spread to nearly all parts of the tropical world and is now a well established fruit tree of importance in most places where it can be successfully grown. It is believed on good authority (vide story, 1941) that the papaya first came to India from Malacca as early as the sixteenth century. At present it is found in cultivation in all tropical countries and extends into some sub-tropical areas also in America. Frost completely destroys the plant; and so it cannot be grown in areas subject to extreme cold during any part of the year. As an easily cultivated plant with a very profitable and continuous yield of tasty fruits, having health- giving properties, the papaya deserves wider recognition in India. General Description. The botanical relationship of the genus Carica has been rather doubtful and it has variously been classified with the families Passifloraceae, Cucurbitaceae, Bixaceae and Papayaceae, though now it is placed under Caricaceae. The papaya is a large, almost herbaceous, dicotyledonous plant consisting usually of a rather fleshy, though firm, erect stem surmounted with a crown of large leaves. The stem and the leaf stalk are hollow. The plant does not normally branch unless the main bud is damaged, in which case a few; branches arise, one each from the axil of any of the lower leaves. The flowers are borne in modified cymose inflorescences in the axils of leaves. One of the most interest- ing and at the same time puzzling features of the plant is the production of a variety of sex types possessing various flower types. Cytology of Carica. Chromosome studies on papaya as well as related species of Carica (vide Kumar and Abraham, 1942a) have shown that all the. investigated species have a chromosome number of ti = g and 2n = 18 and the morphology of the chromosomes also suggest close relationship between different species. Studies in progress in our laboratory on the cytology of the different sex types of papaya1 have shown no differences in the morphology or behaviour during cell division of their chromosomes. x Flowers. The flower types vary from the male, with a pistillode and ten functional stamens attached to the tubular corolla, to the female flower with free petals, functional ovary and no stamens. Various intergrades appear between these, the hermaphrodite flower with functional pistil and stamens coming mid-way between the two extreme sex types. The functional flowers have a structure 1 Scheme of research financed by the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate l Kumar and Abraham — Papaya. Drawing showing female, hermaphrodite and male flowers. Note the difference in cross section between the female and the hermaphrodite. In the latter flower there are five stamens while in the male there are ten. 253 THE PAPAYA , ITS BOTANY / CULTURE AND USES well adapted for pollination both by wind and by insects. Flowers, and con- sequently fruits, develop progressively from one foot above ground level to the apex of the stem. This guarantees a continuous supply of fresh fruits (except in regions subject to great seasonal fluctuations). Sex types and flower types. Papaya is erroneously considered as a dioecious plant. Actually it is polygamous and there are three main sex types : (i) pistillate or female, (ii) hermaphrodite or bisexual, and (iii) staminate or male. True monoecious types are also not lacking, as occasionally we find male plants having a few female or bisexual flowers at the ends of inflorescences. Higgins and Holt (1914) described thirteen sex forms in the papaya. But genetical studies and extensive observations on the flowering characteristics of a large number of plants in Hawaii have shown that there are only four distinct heritable sex forms, one pistillate, one staminate and tw;o hermaphrodites (Storey, 1941). Seasonal effects may cause minor changes in these basic types, and casual observations on such forms have apparently led to the recognition of a large number of sex forms. Pistillate or female tree. This tree bears only female flowers having functional pistils (see photo, PI. III). Occasionally late in the season or due to unfavourable conditions it produces pistillate flowers which drop off. The fruits are spherical and oblong in shape and usually borne singly in the axils of leaves. Hermaphrodite I. This is a type which continuously produces functional flowers, having both pistil and stamens. Slight variations in the type of flower, however, occurs due to seasonal change. This variation takes the form of irregularities in the ovary, with varying distortions of the carpels as a result of which distorted fruits are formed. Some of the lateral flowers are non-functional. Hermaphrodite II. This is similar to the above in flower morphology, but the plants are summer-sterile. The flowers produced during the summer do not have func- tional pistils and the male • element is better developed. As a result of this variation the stem has alternating lengths of fruit-bearing and barren regions. Staminate or male plant. The male plant is easily recognised by the long pendulous inflorescences borne on it and the small flowers with narrow tubular corollas (Plate III). Occasionally a male plant may bear a few bisexual or female flowers, at or near the terminal portion of the inflorescences and these may give rise to a few fruits (Plate V). Genetics of Sex in Papaya. Independent investigations carried on at Hawaii by Dr. W. B. Storey, and at Nelspruit, South Africa, by Dr. J. D. J. Hofmeyr have thrown interest- ing light on the genetics of sex in papaya. Sex determination has been shown to be based on simple Mendelian factors. The male and the hermaphrodite are heterozygous for sex, while the female is homozygous, having 2 doses of m, the recessive factor for femaleness. Crosses between female and male give progeny which shows an equal proportion of female and male. Crosses between female and hermaphrodite give a progeny with an equal proportion of female and hermaphrodite. Hermaphrodites selfed gives a proportion of 1:2 of female and hermaphrodite. The occasional flower with functional pistil enables selfing of the ‘male’ and this gives a 1 ’.2 ratio of female and males. Hermaphrodites crossed with male gives progeny showing equal proportion of females, hermaphrodites and males. 2S4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V From the above summary of the results of genetical studies we see that the usual condition in nature is pollination of female by males, as the progeny from open pollinated flowers in plantation with a large number of males gives a i : i ratio of female to male. From a commercial point, the best cross is female x hermaphrodite, which gives rise to plants which are all fruit yielding. Because the hermaphrodite is always heterozygous, no race pure-breeding for sex could be obtained. The best that could be achieved is to eliminate males by using pollen from hermaphrodite to pollinate female flowers. For such artificial pollination, the female flowers should be covered with butter paper bags in the bud stage and the day the flower opens the stigma should be dusted with anthers removed from hermaphrodite flowers (also bagged in bud stage to avoid contamination with foreign pollen). Anthers should be taken from flowers just prior to opening, as the pollen is shed at that stage. - A single hand-pollinated fruit of good size may give nearly thousand seeds and as all the viable seeds would give rise to fruit yielding plants, the trouble taken to ensure controlled pollination is really worthwhile. But if the demand for seeds is very large and production of reliable seeds has to be made on a commercial scale the method suggested below might be followed by com- mercial nurseries. Grow a small area, say about an acre', of papayas at a safe distance of at least half a mile from any other papaya plant. Use the best available seed for the nursery and plant three or four seedlings, one foot apart, in each pit. As soon as flowering commences remove all the males and retain as many females and hermaphrodites as possible, keeping only one plant per pit. After the final weeding of the male plants are over, remove the few young fruits on the trees retained, as these might have received pollen from some male pants. The fruits developing after this on the female plants may be collected for seeds, while the fruits on the hermaphrodites may be sold off. In choosing the fruits for seeds note the following further points : — The plant must be vigorous and a good yielder ; the fruit must be of a large size with good shape and ripening into an attractive colour ; the flesh must be thick and deep yellow when ripe, and the taste of the fruit must be the best in the variety. The crop produced from this first- selection will necessarily be variable though approximately equal numbers of females and bisexuals may be obtained from the seeds collected in this manner, if no contamination from stray males has taken place. From the second plantation onwards it is not necessary to plant more than two seedlings per pit, as the chances of male- plants appearing decrease with each successive selection. If this method of selection is persisted in, male plants could be eliminated and a fairly uniform crop with desirable qualities could be obtained. However, it must be stressed that for success in this method there should be no male papaya plants in the near vicinity of the plantation as otherwise wind or insect pollination might lead to some contamination. The only sure method, is bagging the flowers and pollinating artificially as described earlier. Another point to be remembered is that while for seed purposes the best cross is female x hermaphrodite, in open-pollinated conditions presence of a few male plants guarantees larger quantities of pollen, which is necessary for good seed setting, which appears to have some favourable effect on the development of the fruit. So in large plantations it is best to allow a few male plants also, as this would ensure better fruit production. Seedlings for these males can be separately raised from seeds obtained from the occasional, fruits of a male plant. These would normally give rise to more than sixty per cent, of male plants and a few of such seedlings can be added on later to the plantation raised from seeds obtained by controlled pollination. Fruits. Papaya fruits are extremely variable in size, shape, colour, flavour, etc., and even in the same variety there is no uniformity regarding all these characters. Generally it is spherical to oblong in shape and is made up of five carpels fused together by their margins to form a hollow cavity inside which a large number of seeds with parietal placentation are found. In all the varieties except the Travancore papaya1 (Kumar and Abraham, 1942b) 1 In the Travancore papaya the whole plant is yellow and the flowers and fruits are markedly yellow. The leaves are yellowish green and the fruit on ripening changes to a reddish yellow and has an agreeable flavour. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate II A female papaya plant nearly one year old. Due to poor soil fertility and effect of seasonal variation the upper part is without fruit. Kurrtuf ana Abraham — Papaya, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate III 9 Kumar and Abraham — Papaya. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Left. A male plant bearing a few female flowers and fruits at the terminal portion of inflorescences predominantly bearing male flowers. Right. A plant with inflorescences exactly similar to the male inflorescence in appearance, but with all flowers female. The flowers are only as large as the male flowers but the terminal flower is much larger and usually functional. THE PAPAYA, ITS BOTANY, CULTURE AND USES 255 the skin of the fruit is green when immature and it turns to a fine yellow colour with varying tinges of orange or crimson. The colour of the ripe fruit depends on the climate also. Thus, it is noted that while the climate of Travancore is quite suitable for a luxuriant growth of the papaya plant, the fruits when they ripen have a pale green colour with only a tinge of yellow at the bottom. In a colder and slightly drier climate like Poona the fruits usually assume an attractive yellow colour on ripening. Similar observa- tions on the effect of climatic conditions on the colour of the fruit have been made by Hofmeyr (1939). The taste of the fruit is independent of the external colour of the skin and it has been also noted that the colour may be improved by selection. But the market value of fruits depend to a great extent on its colour. Culture of the Papaya. Any well drained soil is suitable for papaya cultivation, though it comes to its best when grown in deep rich soil. Under the best conditions of soil, moisture, light, and heat the plants mature at an early age and produce an abundance of fruits from as low as one foot from the ground. In shaded jplaces or under less favourable climatic or soil conditions the plants show a tendency to be slender and the bearing is very poor. Propagation is entirely done by seeds. Seeds are sown in well prepared seed beds. The best time to sow the seed is from June to August. Sow the seeds in rows nine to twelve inches apart and allow one to two inches between seeds. Then cover the seeds lightly with a mixture of soil and river-sand. Water immediately after sowing and once a day till the seeds germinate, after which less frequent watering will suffice. Seeds germinate within a fortnight. Thin out the seedlings so as to allow 4 to 5 inches between plants. Within two months the seedlings reach a height of 6 to 8 inches and are ready for transplanting. The planting pits should be spaced 8 to 10 feet in either direc- tion (which allows about 500 plants per acre) and should be 2 feet deep and 2 feet on the sides. Fill1 the pits with a mixture of soil and farm-yard manure in equal proportion and 2 lbs. bone meal per pit. Transplanting should be done carefully and the seekings shaded till they establish properly. Put 3 to 4 seedlings, one foot apart, in each pit. If seeds used are from controlled pollination (female |X hermaphrodite) one or two seedlings per pit will do. Within four to six months plants begin to flower, usually the males coming to flower earlier. As soon as the earliest detectable male inflorescence is seen on a plant, cut it off and dig it out without damaging the roots of the neigh- bouring plants. A dozen male plants per acre is sufficient for normal pollina- tion, though if a good number of hermaphrodites are present, male plants are not necessary (see earlier part). Retain only one plant per pit. During the rainy season care must be taken to see that the water is well drained off; otherwise whole plantations might be lost due to rotting of the roots. About two months after transplanting a top-dressing of some easily available nitrogenous fertilizer such as sodium nitrate or ammonium sulphate should be given and its application repeated after another three months. If this is not possible a top dressing of good farm-yard manure may be given every three months. Uses of the Papaya. Papaya is mostly consumed as ripe fruit, either for breakfast or as dessert. It is a highly nutritious food and is an economic source of vitamins A and C and of calcium besides possessing smaller quantities of vitamins B and D. In Hawaii, the country where papaya is extensively cultivated, in addition to consumption of fresh fruits, some are canned as papaya juice, and quite a good quantity used for preparation of jam, marmalade, pickle, cocktail, etc. In Western and Upper India it is usually consumed as ripe fruit, though its use as a vegetable is well known. In the Bombay market a large-sized ripe fruit may fetch up to one rupee. In Southern India there is some prejudice against the fruit, and it is very rarely cultivated ; though in the backyards a stray plant or two may be occasionally met with. In Travancore also people have not taken to papaya cultivation though the fruit is generally liked. There :it is more used as a vegetable, for which raw green fruits are picked. It is 7 256 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV cooked in a variety of ways, the commonest of which is to rerpiove the skin and seeds and chop the fruit into very small bits and' then boil it, later adding grated cocoanut, salt and some light spices. It is well known that tough meat may be rendered tender by cooking it with green papaya fruits. This must be due to the protein-splitting activity of papain. Papain. All the parts of the papaya plant, except the roots, contain a thin milky latex which flows freely when any part is wounded, but on exposure coagulates and hardens into a white mass. This latex contains a high percentage of papain, which is one of the most valuable of plant proteolytic enzymes. Com- mercial papain is prepared by drying the latex collected by tapping the green fruits. The method of collection of latex is very simple. Large, nearly mature green fruits are selected, and three or four shallow, lengthwise incisions are made on each fruit with a non-metallic knife. Latex flows rapidly and pro- fusely at first, but coagulation soon checks further flow. The coagulated latex is carefully scraped off and then dried in the sun. As soon as the latex is dried and ground into a powder, it should be enclosed1 in air-tight containers, as exposure to air inactivates the enzyme. Unfortunately, in India no attempts have been yet made to produce papain on a commercial scale, though immense possibilities lie in that direction. In 1938, the United States alone imported nearly 230,000 pounds of papain. Other foreign markets too are available for papain. The fruits from which papain has been collected are too much scarred to be of use for marketing, though the taste is not affected. But it could be used for making jams, jellies, etc. Thus, the collection of papain could be made more profitable if side by side manufacture of other by-products like canned juice and pulp, marmalade, jam, etc., could be developed. This is a commercial possibility which needs careful exploring. References. Higgins, J. E. and Holt, V. S. (1914). — The Papaya in Hawaii. Hawaii Agr. Expt. St. Bui. 32, pp. 44. Hofmeyr, J. D. J. (1938). — Genetical Studies of Carica papaya I., South African Dept. Agr. and Forestry Sci. Bui. 187, pp. 64. Hofmeyr, J. D. J. (1939). — The Culture1, of the Papaya. Farming in South Africa. Reprint No. 86, pp. 10. Kumar, L. S. S. and Abraham, A. (1942a). — Chromosome number in Carica. Curr. Sci Vol. xi, No. 2, p. 58. Kumar, L. S. S. and Abraham, A.— (1942b). — A new variety of Papaya from Travancore (under publication). Storey, W. B. (1941). — The Botany and Sex Relationships of the Papaya, Hawaii Agri. Expt. Bui. 87, pp. 5-23. A FEW NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD. BY W. S. Thom. In this article I propose giving- a brief account of how many years ago I came upon and shot in Burma my best double-horned rhinoceros, the species known as Dicer orhinus sumatrensis. Before doing so, however, I trust I may be pardoned for first recording somewhat in detail, not only something interesting about this rare animal, but also a few facts about the other four remain- ing species of rhinoceros, all of which are as a matter of fact rapidly heading for extinction. There are in the world only five species of rhinoceros in existence at the present time, namely the two species in Africa, both of which are double-horned, that is to say, the black rhinoceros, R. bicornis, and the so-called white animal R. simus. Both of these animals are, as a matter of fact, of a dark grey colour and stand about six. feet in height at the shoulder. Then there are two species that are said to exist in Burma, namely the Lesser one- horned rhinoceros, R. sondaicus, which stands about five feet at the shoulder or a little higher and is now probably extinct in Burma and Dicer orhinus sumatrensis , the Sumatran double-horned rhinoceros, the smallest and the most hairy of all rhinoceroses, which seldom exceeds a height of more than about four feet six to eight inches. Finally there is the Great Indian one-horned rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis , or Rhinoceros indicus as it is sometimes called. Rhinoceros sondaicus , the Lesser one-horned animal which must, I suppose, be considered to be the rarest of all the rhinoceroses was once found in Bengal, Assam, Burma, Malaya, Siam, Borneo, Sumatra and Java, but there are now pro- bably only about twenty left in Java, and four or five in a remote corner of Malaya. I have never seen this animal R. sondaicus the Lesser one- horned rhinoceros anywhere in Burma, although I have travelled and shot over almost the whole of this country, nor have I even come across any traces of it or even met anyone who had shot or even seen one. Some years ago it was said by the officers of the Burma Forest Service to exist in the Kahilu Forest reserve in the Thaton District of Burma.1 I disputed this at the time and am still inclined to think, with all due deference to the views of all of the Forest officers concerned, that they are wrong and that the only rhinoceros in existence there or anywhere else in Burma is the double-horned species, namely Dicer orhinus sumatrensis and that as stated above R. sondaicus is extinct so far as Burma is concerned. I have not the least doubt that this animal, R. son- daicus, probably existed in this country for a considerable period in bygone years but that it has since become extinct. 1 The skull of a Lesser One-horned Rhinoceros ( R . sondaicus) secured from a decomposing carcase found in this area was sent to us by the Forest Depart- ment and is now in the collection of the Society. — Eds. 258 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV C. B. C. writing in the Illustrated Weekly of India of March 1939 stated that Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, the double-horned rhinoceros, once had the same habitat as R. sondaicus, the Lesser one-horned rhinoceros, except that it was not found in Java; now however, according to C. B. C. D. sumatrensis survives only in Malaya and Borneo where perhaps some fifty animals still remain, but I can state on very good authority that this statement of C. B. C’s is incorrect as this animal survives also in Burma where I have shot several of them during the past fifty years, and where there must be at least forty or fifty more of them still in existence. In fact I am of the opinion that there were always more of the double-horned species of rhinoceros in Burma than there ever were of the single-horned animal, namely R. sondaicus. Probably the reason for this is that D. sumatrensis have always been more difficult to get at, being essentially hill climbers invariably found only in very inaccessible places in the hills, and therefore more difficult for hunters to get at; whilst R. sondaicus invariably inhabit the plains and flat country, where naturally enough they are more easily followed and shot than if they had been inhabitants of the hills ‘like D. sumatrensis. The latter, namely the double-horned rhinoceros, is also a much more active, sturdier, and more cunning animal than is R. sondaicus , but it is also one of the most harmless wild animals in existence. I consider also that of all the difficult and exasperating animals to follow through dense jungle D. sumatrensis easily takes first place. C. B. C. states also in his article that Rhinoceros unicornis , or R. indicus as it is sometimes called, the great Indian one- horned rhinoceros, was never found outside India, Burma and the Nepal foothills, and that at the present moment less than two hundred of these animals still survive in Northern Bengal, Assam and Burma’. I personally have never heard of this animal’s existence anywhere in Burma and I do not believe that it ever existed in this country. In fact I have never met anyone who had ever shot an R. Unicornis, or even heard of one being shot in Burma. With regard to the two African species, C. B. C. says , in his article that the black rhinoceros R. bicornis is still fairly numer- ous. It is the only species still found in anything like decent numbers but even it has already died out in certain tracts which knew it in thousands a few decades ago. C. B. C. also states that the white rhinoceros, R. simus, is so called from its habit of wallowing in the white mud of African river beds. It is much better tempered than the black rhinoceros, feeds on grass instead of shrubs and lives on open plains,. It curls up its tail on the rare occasions when it charges and the more frequent ones when it runs away.’ Its timidity has made it an easy prey to human cupidity. In 1936 Sir A. Smith saw nearly two hundred of this white rhinoceros on a single day’s march in the Transvaal. Several decades later it was still so common that men like Cotton-Oswell and Gordon-Cumming — two of the greatest pioneers of African sport in which category perhaps Selous and Sir Samuel Baker might also be included — got tired of shooting it. There are now, how- NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 25$ ever, only about a hundred survivors in Uganda, some forty in Zululand, and a few in the Belgian Congo and the Sudan. They do not breed until twenty-five years old, and then produce single tons at intervals of six or seven years. These remarks regarding the breeding period of the white rhinoceros apply almost equally to Dicerorhinus sumatrensis , the double-horned rhinoceros, except that I would say that twenty years is probably nearer the period when these two animals begin to breed, instead of twenty-five years, whilst seven months is about the period of gestation, so far as D. sumatrensis is concerned. I have no doubt the same obtains in the case of R. sondaicus , the Lesser one-horned rhinoceros, as well as to its relative the Great one-horned Indian rhinoceros, R. unicornis!, or R, indicus , so far as the periods of breeding and gestation are concerned. It is not generally known by the way that both R. unicornis and R. sondaicus have so called ‘foot glands’ embedded in the inte- gument of the foot. In Dicerorhinus sumatrensis the double- horned animal, however, these glands are absent. In Africa as in Asia, horn smugglers were responsible for much illicit rhinoceros destruction. These smugglers used to operate from the coast buying surreptitiously from those who kill the beasts, and then ship the horns away in Arab dhows. The traffic is very difficult to suppress but occasionally a record haul is made. Only a few years ago for example, five men were detected in an attempt to smuggle one-hundred and eighty-seven out of Kenya in one boat. The Chinese prize the blood as well as the horn of the Burmese, the Malayan, and the Javanese species wherever found. As a matter of fact, in all the countries named above, there are only two species namely the D. sumatrensis, the double-horned animal, and R, sondaicus, the single-horned rhinoceros, except that as previously mentioned the last-named is extinct in Burma, so far as I have been able to ascertain. The Chinese use the blood and horns of the animal for medicinal purposes as well as for an aphrodisiac, whilst the horns are sometimes carved into ornaments. Strips of the hide of the African species are also converted into whips. All rhinoceros horns are of the same texture, being simply agglutinated hair which, if cut in a thin transverse section and placed beneath a microscope exhibit the capillary tubes glued together into a solid body by a horny substance. There is no material that can equal in toughness the horn of rhinoceros, and it has always been in request from time immemorial for various useful and other more imaginary purposes. The skin of the rhinoceros is exceedingly compact and dense. When stretched over a block of wood and dried and then rubbed down with sand paper and oiled, it becomes semi- transparent like clouded amber, and is also much esteemed when a square of it is mounted as a top for a tea table. The belief that a cup formed of rhinoceros horn will detect poison is both ancient and common and is thoroughly accepted by the Arabs of the Soudan. The horns of the rhinoceros are not attached to the skull, but are merely seated upon the hard thick bone which forms a founda- tion slightly convex, above the nose. The skin is immensely thick 260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV at the base of the horns and it appears bristly and rough, to a degree that would suggest gradual development into horn, which is actually the case. When a rhinoceros has been killed, and the head has been exposed in the sun to dry, the horns will fall off on the third day if struck lightly with a stick, and they expos- ing the foundation upon which they rested; this closely resembles the bottom of an artichoke when the prickly leaves have been removed. Although the horns would appear unsuitable for rough work, being merely attachments to the skin they are most powerful weapons of offence. It has been asserted that the two African species and the Indian rhinoceros, R. unicornis , all three of which are very bulky animals and which stand much higher than either D. sumatrensis or R. sondaicus , will kill an elephant; this is highly probable if the rhinoceros had an opportunity of striking the elephant in the stomach or the flank with its horns by an unexpected attack ; but no rhinoceros would have the remotest chance in actual conflict with an ordinary full-sized bull elephant as the weight and strength of the latter would be unmeasurably superior, in addition to the length and power of the two tusks. Elephants are much afraid of rhinoceros, but they are almost equally timid with other animals. A rhinoceros, again, although a sullen stupid brute is usually afraid of nothing. I am referring of course only to four out of the five species of rhinoceros and totally exclude D. sumatrensis as it is quite a harmless animal. We, hunters in the nineteenth century, were not presumably aware of this until we had been hunting them for some time. I possess two small square tea tables made from the hide of. a Dicerorhinus sumatrensis shot by me, which were mounted in fumed English oak by Peter Spicer or Leamington, England, a well known taxidermist. The base or pedestal of each of these square rhinoceros hide tea tables is composed of a single foot of the same animal. In the case of one table the hide com- posing the top has been denuded of the bristles, and polished and is semi-transparent like clouded amber, whilst the top of the other table is composed of the natural hide of the animal with the stiff bristles of hair left on it. I also possess three other rhinoceros feet that have been mounted by the same taxidermist, two as rose bowls, and the third as an inkstand. These articles like other trophies of mine are now no doubt in the hands of the Japanese with my house and all my other property including my trophies, negatives, and photographs. In the nineteenth century nearly every sportsman in India, Africa and Burma vied more or less with his neighbour as to who should first shoot the animals with the finest trophies, the result being that in many cases more animals were shot than was perhaps necessary. I happen to have the luck to hold five records so far as Burma is concerned namely (i) tiger, Felis tigris (2) Sambar, Cervus unicolor (3) Thamin, Cervus eldi} the brow antlered deer of Burma (4) Goral Cemas goraly and (5) Leopard, Felis pardus. The fact that I did get these five records does not mean that I went all out to get them and that in consequence I shot more NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 261 animals than I was entitled to shoot. Not at all. It is a fact that the shooting- of record heads is entirely a matter of luck and nothing else. It is of no earthly use trying to tell, an experienced hunter, that it is anything more. You can boast to yourself, and to your friends that it is merely a question of perseverance, but it is nothing of the sort. 1 had a long conversation with the redoubta- ble F. C. Selous in Perth, Scotland, on the subject of big game shooting, in the year 1900, when 1 went home on leave for eighteen months for the first and the last time. He was by the way the original of Rider Haggard’s Allan Quatermain and one, if not the greatest, of all African sportsmen ; alas, long since gone west to the happy hunting grounds. In all the years he hunted big game in Africa and elsewhere, and amongst all the thousands of animals he must have shot, never had a single record head or record pair of elephants tusks to his name. These exploits of course may easily be decried by the present generation of sportsmen, some of whom may not have had the luck to encounter all the thrilling experiences that have fallen to the lot of old timers such as myself for instance. A writer in the Burma Police Journal, Volume III, 1940 (see bottom of page 274) writing about rhinoceros said, ‘I should like to mention the extraordinary behaviour of two Sumatran rhinoceros with which I have been in contact during the past two years. In the first case a Sumatran rhinoceros walked into the middle of my camp in the Shwe-U-daung sanctuary’. (This sanctuary is situated in the Ruby Mines District of Upper Burma where I did a good deal of shooting in the eighties and nineties) ‘at two o’clock in the afternoon and stopped at a range of ten feet to look at a camp follower chopping firewood. The rhinoceros showed no alarm at the sight or scent of human beings. In the second case, which concerns the rhinoceros I recently photographed in the Kahilu F'orest reserve of the Thaton District, Burma, it was only after much shouting on my part, at a range of less than ten yards, that 1 was able to induce the rhinoceros to leave his wallow and within five minutes of driving him from the wallow he returned again and resumed his bath. Ah one stage of my attempt to obtain pictures I approached so close to the animal that I could have hit him with a long stick, and it is certain that a poacher could easily have killed the animal with a spear. ‘These experiences’, the writer goes on to say, ‘incline one to believe, that the rhino- ceros shooting exploits of nineteenth century sportsmen in this country’ (namely Burma) ‘were in reality stark butchery and almost devoid of any skill in tracking or approaching their quarries.’ As I was a nineteenth century sportsman whose exploits so far as the shooting of rhinoceros was concerned, could in no way be disputed, I could hardly allow that statement to pass unanswered. I accordingly wrote to the writer in question who is a forest official in Burma and asked him whether he included me as one of the nine- teenth century sportsmen referred to in his article. In his reply to me he stated that he did not as a matter of fact, include me, so far as rhinoceros shooting was concerned, and that his own department (namely the forest department) was not blameless in this respect, but that he considered that Colonel F. Pollok (the 262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol, XLIV joint author with me of the book, Wild sports of Burma and Assam which was published by Messrs. Hursh and Blackett in the year 1900 and which is now out of print) to be one of the most guilty persons; see the stories of rhinoceros shooting in the book in question which shooting was almost always done by him from the back of an elephant’. ‘However, as the writer continues truly to remark in his letter to me, ‘All the writing in the world will not restore the rhinoceros population especially the Rhinoceros sondaicus, the single-horned rhinoceros, which must be considered to be extinct in Burma.’ I am glad in a way that he concedes this point namely that Rhinoceros sondaicus does not exist anywhere in Burma even in the Kahilu Forest reserve, anyway that is what I presume he means. From the very beginning of the controversy as to whether there were any of these animals in the Kahilu forest reserve I had stated that I did not think that any of them existed there at all now, although I wish it were otherwise, and that I was of the opinion that the only rhinoceros in existence there now must be the double-horned species. Colonel Pollok should not of course have shot rhinoceros in any country from the back of an elephant, although I have no doubt they were difficult to get at in Assam as well as in some parts of India and the foothills of Nepal where there are large stretches of high dense elephant grass quite twenty and even thirty feet high which cannot be penetrated unless one is mounted on the back of an elephant. In Burma of course rhinoceros did not so far as I am aware enter high elephant grass and therefore in Colonel Pollok’s days, namely in the fifties and sixties, would easily have been shot by a sportsman following on foot. As a matter of fact it is as much an offence for a sportsman to shoot rhinoceros from the back of an elephant, as it would be for him to shoot an ele- phant in any country in the world, from the back of another elephant, the reason being that a vital spot cannot be reached as easily by a bullet fired from a howdah, or from the pad of an elephant, as would be the case if the shots were fired from the ground, where he could put in his shots much more accurately. More animals are likely to get away wounded by the sportsman firing at them from unsteady positions such as on a howdah, or on the pad of an elephant, than would be the case if he had fired at them shooting from a stationary position on the ground. I regret to say that in this Way probably Pollok wounded many more rhinoceros that he never succeeded subsequently in getting. I have never shot any animals, at any time from the back \ of an elephant, particularly an elephant, or a rhinoceros, nor did I at any time do any shooting accompanied by Colonel Pollok anywhere in Burma, Africa, Ceylon, India or Assam. Colonel Pollok, who crossed the ‘great divide’ many years ago, was a well-known sportsman and, no doubt, did a very great deal of big game shooting in the countries referred to above. He was a very keen and experienced Shikari and a very good shot, but he did all his big game shooting in the fifties and sixties when muzzle loaders even were still in use, long before I came out tO' NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 263, Burma. The temptation to shoot off the back of an elephant at any kind of game was naturally enough very great in those days especially as Pollok always had a large number of Government elephants at his disposal. As a matter of fact an immense amount of shooting at tiger and other large and dangerous game was done in India, Assam, and Ceylon by many well-known European and Indian sportsmen. In those days moreover there was very little written or said about the preservation of large or small game and the formation of game reserves. It is all very well to talk about these things now a days therefore and condemn or criticize the shooting exploits of old timers. There is no doubt that a great many more animals were shot in those bad old days, or shall I refer to them as the good old days, than now a days, by many well-known sportsmen shooting in every country in the world. Many of them also shot some animals from the back of elephants without realizing they were doing wrong. In the circumstances therefore a considerable amount of allowance should be made for their supposed deliquencies in this respect, if needed we can call them deliquencies. Now with regard to Rhinoceros Dicerohinus sumatrensis , the double-horned species, the smallest living rhinoceros in the world and the most hairy. My shooting of these animals in Burma was done on foot in the last century by the sweat of my brow, and let it not be forgotten that I shot them before the year 1917 when they came under the protection of the law. In the nineteenth century rhinoceros were so relentlessly pursued wherever they were to be found throughout the world, for the sake of their horns and blood, that it was an extremely difficult business following and tracking up one of these animals to its lair, in Burma at any rate. They were always so very much on the alert and continually on the move, and were also usually found in the most inaccessible places in the hills, except on the very rare occasions on which they were come upon in their wallows. In a matter of fifty years of big game shooting I think I came only four times upon D. sumatrensis, the double-horned species of rhinoceros, in their wallows, and this after I had carried out, in nearly every case, very long and arduous treks after them. Now, since these animals have been protected by law for the past twenty-four years, is it not reasonable to suppose that they have become in consequence more tame and unsophisticated than they were before, and that incidents of the kind such as has been related in the Police Journal by the writer referred to, were bound to occur? Surely this is obvious? Cases have often occurred even in the nineteenth century as well as in the present century when animals have been found and shot at very close range by experienced sportsmen who have travelled miles on their tracks and who have also naturally exercised a great deal of skill in getting so near the animal before shooting it. This surely does not mean, however, that by so doing, it was ‘sheer butchery and devoid of all skill in tracking and approaching on the part of the hunter.’ On another occasion in the eighties, after a very hard trek, I came upon a rhinoceros ‘a Dicerorhinus sumatrensis' lying so 264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV deeply immersed in its mud wallow on the Shwe-U-daung range of hills in the Ruby Mines District of Upper Burma, that although I was within a few feet of its wallow I was unable to distinguish which was the head and which was the animal’s hind quarters, and although I succeeded in shooting it finally, I could easily have poked it with a bamboo pole before doing so, so utterly oblivious was it of my presence and the presence of at least three of my men. It goes without saying that considerable skill in tracking and approaching so near this animal had to be exercised, and that therefore, one could hardly say, in this case either, that the animal’s death constituted sheer butchery, or that it was devoid of all skill In approaching and tracking. To revert to some other animals that I have shot at close quarters. Early one morning many years ago, in 1889 to be precise, some miles from a place called Wapyudaung a village that is situated -on the Thabeitkyin Mogok road a solitary bull gaur or bison standing about twenty hands at the shoulder at which I had fired and missed at a distance of about fifty yards. I was using a double barrelled hammerless 8-bore rifle by James Tolley, the cartridges of which took a charge of ten drachms of black powder. I continued tracking this animal with my men all day after missing it in the morning, and finally came up with and shot it dead, with a right and left, at a distance of only about five yards. It was standing stock still on a hillock broadside on to me amongst some bamboo jungle, feeling as weary no doubt as were my hunters and I. However, had this bull sighted or scented me and my hunters first, the tables might easily have been turned upon us. I remember on that memorable occasion, marching all night by the light of a full moon, and it took me and my companions till six o’clock in the morning to reach camp. That will give the reader some idea as to how far my men and I followed the animal before we came up with it. It was indeed one of the longest and most arduous treks I have ever undertaken after big game. My success in bagging this fine twenty hand bull at such close quarters was entirely due to the skill and untiring perseverance of my hunters and trackers, and also in part to my own dogged determination to keep on at it till we came up with the animal once more, or until the light failed and forced us to give it up, and camp for the night. The death of this animal could also hardly be described as being sheer butchery and devoid of all skill in tracking and approaching. A well known sportsman from Malaya made a true statement the other day when he said that as the years pass, the actual killing of large animals for sport becomes more and more distaste- ful even to the most ardent followers of big game and although the urge for the excitement of the chase, may not be at all diminished, still the climax is no longer accepted with unmixed feelings. Besides tough and arduous treks become more and more difficult until the time comes, when ageing muscles will no longer respond to intensive effort. But one’s energies can still be utilized in a mild form and one’s active interest in large wild life need not become a memory. Although I do not consider for a moment that by any means it NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 265 replaces big game shooting, for sheer danger and excitement, may be photography of large wild animals will fill the blank, and will provide not only a certain amount of excitement, but also should be productive of much knowledge of the habits of animals which, now that the rifle is laid aside, can be watched moving about without let or hindrance. I do not wish to imply that wild life photography is an old man’s recreation, or that it replaces the excitement obtained from big game shooting, far from it, but it is a recreation worthy of any one, and can be enjoyed after long jungle journeys are things of the past — I have heard people refer to those who have given up the rifle for photography or to hunters who now take an active interest in photography and wild life conservation as the ‘penitent butchers,’ an attractive catch phrase, showing the entire ignorance of those who use it. I believe that unless a man has hunted a good deal in the jungle he would find the greatest difficulty in adapting himself to the art of jungle photography. Although the technique of the sport of jungle photography is the ground work for the success in either, it must rest on the knowledge of the jungle and the habits of the animals with which you wish to get into contact. In other words to be a successful jungle photo- grapher you should be, or should have been, a successful jungle hunter. Rawdon Malet in his well-known book on big game shooting Unforgiving Moments, says, that Big Game photography is a very fine sport if indeed it is a sport at all, in the strict sense of the word. But it is no more a mere, an immediate, alternative, to shoot- ing, than is watching a grouse’s nest from a hide with a camera, the immediate alternative, to grouse shooting. They are two different pastimes, and when not abused, both extremely worthy, and as it happens readily interchangeable. But to suggest that the one is ousting the other among the young sportsmen of today is untrue. Many I think, try to take good photographs on their shooting trips but the number of young men who say, ‘I will not take a rifle this time but a camera’ are few and far between. I deprecate the idea that photography and shooting are identical except for the click of a trigger or a shutter. They differ funda- mentally because in the one case, one sets out to kill, a primitive instinct, in the other to make a picture by modern scientific methods. I cannot see, however, any chance whatever of humani- tarian feeling reaching such a pitch in the next hundred years that killing for sport will cease to be. The desire to take part in blood sports will not alter. The way in which they are carried out will. Man is a hunting animal — how often has that truism been made? Books of the Trader Horn variety find a wide public; films ‘of the wild’, some of them cruel and unsporting to a degree, draw a large and enraptured audience. No — there is no sign that in the next hundred years public opinion will stop the shooting of big game by fair sporting methods. I may rebark here that besides shooting several Dicerorhinus sumatrensis , the double-horned rhinoceros of Burma, which as pre- viously stated are the smallest and most hairy of all the five species 266 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV of rhinoceroses in the world, I think I can safely say that I have also seen at close quarters more of these animals in their wild state in Burma than any other living European or Asiatic sportsman. I might also add that I could have shot many more of these animals than I did, as I was given many more opportunities than I availed myself of. My experiences of the double-horned rhinoceros over a great number of years during which period I suppose I have seen between twenty and thirty of these animals, have been that they are as active as goats and are also expert hill climbers. They will negotiate country that neither elephant nor bison could possibly surmount. Year in and year out I have frequently found them at the tops of the steepest of hills drinking and wallowing in clear hill streams at heights varying from 1,300 feet to 1,400 feet, with not a vestige of mud or muddy water to be found anywhere except in wallows in low ground at the foot of the hills, miles away near permanent streams, which proves what I have said before, that this rhinoceros is an extremely active beast. Another example of their activeness is that rhinoceros get to their feet when disturbed and dash away at a much greater speed than would appear to be possible for such a clumsy looking animal. I found that the double- horned Sumatran rhinoceros generally fed along steep well wooded valleys and also along the steep banks of well wooded mountain streams, most difficult country to get at, as a matter of fact, so far as the Arakan Hill Tracts District of Burma is concerned. The majority of these streams at the sources of which rhinoceros took up their abode are full of rocks, large boulders, high water- falls, and dense cave and bamboo jungle. In these rocky hill tracts •there are, with one or two rare exceptions, no mud wallows or mud baths of which these animals are so fond. The only other wild animals of Burma that love to wallow in mud and water, are, the elephant, tapir, pig and sambar, Cervus unicolor. I noticed, however, that the Sumatran rhinoceros invariably had their baths in natural pools which had been hollowed out by the water at the foot of waterfalls. Fine gravel, stones and rock form the beds or foundations of these pools but there is no mud as is ordinarily found in most wallows used by D. sutna- trensis, whilst there is usually about two or three feet of water in them. When feeding near these mountain torrents, rhinoceros just bathe where it suits them, that is to say, wherever there is sufficient water to cover their bodies when they roll about in it. The approaches to these mountain .pools are in most cases very steep and inaccessible. The climbing one has to do also when hunting these animals in these out of the way hilly localities is really prodigious and one has to be in the pink of condition to be able to keep going all day over some of the most trying country to be found any where in the world. One had often to make long detours to get round a succession of precipitous waterfalls as it was quite impossible to ascend or descend most of the beds of these hill streams. My hunters and I invariably carried about fifty of sixty yards of stout coir rope to enable us to surmount these waterfalls and steep ascents. NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 267 These remarks apply more particularly . to the ranges of hills which skirt the Ru, the Lemro, and the Peng rivers in the Arakan Hill Tracts of Burma where, the D. sumatrensis' is still fairly plentiful and where the hoarse bark of the ‘gyi’ or barking deer, the hoot of the gibbon, and the harsh calls of the larger horn bill Dichoceros bicornis may be heard intermittently from morning till night to the exclusion of all other sounds. The only other parts of Burma besides the Arakan Hill Tracts, and the Ruby Mines Districts where I found D. sumatrensis fairly plentiful were along the tops and slopes of the Yomah hills, along either side of the watershed running between Arakan, that is to say the Kyautpyu and Sandoway districts, and the Thayetmyo District, but neither in the hills, on the watershed, and slopes be- tween Arakan and Thayetmyo nor in the Shwe-U-daung range of hills in the Ruby Mines District did I find these animals in such inaccessible places as I found them in the Arakan Hill Tracts, especially among the steep hills which skirt the Peng and Lemro rivers near Pengwa where the Peng river joins the Lemro. I sup- pose they had been hunted so persistently and ruthlessly in these places by the hardy Chin hill tribes who occupy that part of the world that they were finally driven to occupy these inaccessible places. When I was hunting big game in the nineties along the above- named watershed between Arakan and Burma I noticed that D. sumatrensis invariably had their wallows at the sources of streams and in springs as near the top of the watershed as possible. I noticed this more particularly during the months of September and October during the rains. Discarded wallows at lower elevations, dry, during the hot weather, that is to say from the beginning of March, till the beginning or middle of June are also used again during the wet weather. A D. sumatrensis may have half a dozen or more wallows which it knows of and which it visits at odd times, according to their dry or wet condition, but it does not necessarily have a daily mud bath. It depends a great deal on the general weather conditions and whether also a wallow exists near the ground it happens to be feeding on, but sometimes these animals also travel long distances to get to a wallow if the weather is hot and the horse- or gad-flies are troublesome. From the end of April and onwards until the rains set in, is the worst time for these pests. A rhinoceros like a pig and a buffalo must have its bath periodically, be it of mud or only pure clear water. I have seen elephants rolling about in the mud of a wallow to give their bodies a coating of it so as to protect their sensitive skins from the bites of insects. Rhinoceros often feed on anything green they can get in the parts of the country about the Peng and Lemro rivers in the Arakan Hill Tracts. They must have been hard put to it at times to get anything at all succulent to feed upon in those steep inhospitable bamboo clad hills. Except for an occasional small patch, here and there, all evergreen forest in these areas seems to have been destroy- ed for cultivation purposes by the hill people by their wasteful -system of felling timber and burning it. If it were not that the 268 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV bamboo is a strong healthy shrdb there would soon be none of this left either. Nothing can be seen for miles around but the ‘Kayin wa’, ‘bamboo’, Melocanna bambusoides. D. sumatrensis like most herbiverous animals, however, are very fond of the flowers and fruit of this bamboo as well as of the young shoots. A rhinoceros is just like a big pig. It wanders about every- where, north, south, east and west, as the spirit moves it. Once it has been disturbed or decides to change its feeding grounds, it is sometimes almost impossible to overhaul it. It travels at a quick pace for miles over the most abominable country imaginable, often in a straight line, until it reaches the desired spot which may be a luxuriant growth of dense jungle or a wallow. Rhinoceros make a peculiar subdued, humming, rumbling, or buzzing sound when submerged in their wallows, especially when they have had to undergo a long journey during the heat of the day, or are tired. The sounds are made by the animal through having a feeling of contentment and pleasure at being immersed in the cool mud of the wallow. There is no mistaking the sound once it has been heard. The sound is always the same, it is never varied. I have heard it as a matter of fact on several occasions and it has been permanently impressed upon my memory, as well as upon the memories of my hunters and trackers, for we always made a point of discussing these sounds again afterwards every- time we heard them as they were so uncommon. They were doubt- less made by the animal breathing or passing air through its throat and nostrils as a sign, presumably, of its pleasure at being immersed in the cool liquid mud of its wallow after doing a long journey in the sun. Naturally enough when it entered the wallow the animal’s body would get cool again very quickly, whilst the coating of mud with which its body would get plastered after entering the wallow would protect it at once from the attacks of that dreaded pest of all animals the gadfly, or horsefly as it is sometimes called. It is only when they have been disturbed by human agency that they travel long distances by day, and it is because of an enforced journey of this kind, during the heat of the day that their entry into a mud wallow causes them so much pleasure which they give vent to by making the sounds referred to. At other times rhino- ceros usually feed and travel at night or in the very early hours of the morning. Although I was, I suppose, the first European sportsman to refer many years ago, in the year 1900 to be precise, to these peculiar sounds emitted by D. sumatrensis when in their wallows I see that another writer, (in future in this article I shall refer to him as the ‘other writer’ when mentioning this and other subjects on which he and I have touched, and not quite seen eye to eye, when discussing matters connected with D. sumatrensis, when referring to this subject in the year 1939, seems to have found it a little difficult to describe these sounds with sufficient clarity, and certainly not at all like the sounds heard and described by me. I will therefore have a friendly exchange of views with him on this matter in this article. He, I may say, is the only writer excepting myself who has ever touched on the subject of the noises NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 26$ made by a D. sumatrensis rhinoceros when in its wallow. He, the ‘other writer’, says, ‘there is a peculiar noise that a rhinoceros makes when in a wallow. This is a distinctive sound and not at all like a rhinoceros. The first time I heard it I was with the old Datok Raja and we could hear a rhinoceros splashing- about in the wallow but could see nothing-. Presently I heard a noise which I took to be made by a monkey evidently close to the wallow who had spotted the rhinoceros and that we must be careful that he did not spot us too. The old man smiled and shook his head. That is the rhinoceros, they make that noise when enjoying- them- selves in a wallow.’ This statement of the Raja’s it can at once be seen explains everything clearly and agrees with my conclusions and those of my hunters and trackers that these sounds (although the description of them as given by ‘the other writer’ are hardly correct) were uttered by the rhinoceros because the animal was extremely pleased at being submerged in the cool mud and water of its wallow. The ‘other writer’ goes on to say that he often heard that noise on other occasions and was often hard put to it to believe that it was really the rhinoceros and not a gibbon. ‘The sound (he states) was low and rather plaintive, something like the low note of a White-handed Gibbon also with a resemblance to a bird. A noise impossible to describe accurately.’ This is a very vague description, and I am afraid I can hardly agree that the sounds made by a D. sumatrensis rhinoceros when in its wallow in Burma at any rate, resemble any noises emitted by either a gibbon or a bird except by the wings of the birds as mentioned by me in my book Wild Sports of Burma and Assam, and further on in this article. The ‘other writer’ does not even hint as to the kind of noises emitted by the bird referred to by him or the kind of bird. It is just possible of course, though highly improbable that the noises emitted by a D. sumatrensis when in its wallow in the country where ‘the other writer’ hails from, may differ somewhat from the sounds emitted by the same species of rhinoceros when it is disporting itself in its wallow in Burma. Another explanation may be that when ‘the other writer’ heard the sounds emitted by the animal when it was making them in its mud bath in his part of the world for some reason or other he did not hear them as clearly as I did when they were being uttered by the same species of animal when in its wallow in Burma. In that case naturally enough he would not be able to give as accurate a description of them as has been given by me. As I stated before, I was probably the first European sportsman to write about these peculiar humming and buzzing sounds made by this rhinoceros when in its wallow. I had heard it on many occasions and as the sounds had been impressed on my memory I had no difficulty subsequently in describing them clearly on paper. All my hunters and trackers also knew them very well having often heard them in the jungle when out after rhinoceros and other big game. They had also discussed the matter among themselves and had heard the sounds described and repeated to one another so often that they became as familiar with them as I did, not only through hearing them so often in the jungle 270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol XLIV myself, but also through hearing them described and explained so frequently by my men. If the reader will look at the foot of page 167 of the book Wild Sports of Burma and Assam by Colonel Pollok and W. S. Thom and which was published in 1900 and is now out of print, he will see recorded there the following, ‘Should the rhinoceros be in his mud bath the sportsman will sometimes be made aware of the fact by hearing peculiar low, rumbling, humming sounds, the noise being very similar to that made by a species of large born bill when soaring through the air, or like the sounds made by a vulture’s wings when stooping to earth.’ Surely there can be nothing clearer than this description? Then again on the top of page 176 of the same book see the sentence beginning with the words, ‘patience is however usually rewarded in the end, and after many twistings and turnings, going over the same ground twice, we came upon fresh tracks and were suddenly startled by hearing the peculiar low muffled sounds repeated at intervals in our im- mediate neighbourhood which Maung Hpe my hunter at once recognized as proceeding from the rhinoceros’. Further on the same page namely 176, at line sixteen see the sentence beginning with the words, ‘the peculiar low buzzing or humming noises became more distinct and as we rounded a rocky ridge which overlooked a shallow ravine wooded with bamboo and an undergrowth of prickly cane, a large mud wallow, in a small clearing bordering the cane jungle, came into view, and in this two rhinoceros were disporting themselves. One animal the larger of the two, was standing half in and half out of the slushy mud ; the other was lying in it half sub- merged rolling about from side to side and uttering the peculiar noises which had attracted our attention’. On page 178 of the same book, line 9, read the sentence beginning with the words ‘whilst in the middle of our well-earned meal we were suddenly startled by hearing the peculiar muffled, humming sound, already referred to, and which seemed to proceed from no great distance. It ought to be apparent from these extracts that I was the first sportsman to record in detail my impressions of the sounds heard by myself and my hunters emanating from a D. sumatrensis rhinoceros when in its wallow enjoying its mud bath. Has the reader ever heard the low subdued, rushing, humming, singing, or buzzing sounds made by the feathers of a vultures wings as they are spread out when the bird is soaring through the air at some speed and stooping and about to land on the ground, beside some dead animal ; or an exactly similar noise made by the air passing through the feathers of the wings of the large horn bill, Dichoceros bicornis, as it passes over the tops of the trees In the jungle when soaring overhead with outspread wings? It is of course the wind passing through the tips of the feathers in the wings of both birds that causes them to vibrate and produce the low humming or singing noise one hears, which is so exactly like the sounds made by the rhinoceros when in its wallow. Perhaps the reader has not had the same opportunities that I have had of ‘ hearing them, as I have spent much leave and many happy days NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 27f in the jungle alone with my hunters and trackers over a stretch of fifty years and was able to see, hear, and experience many strange things pertaining to the ‘wild’ that have not been vouch- safed to everyone. There is no mistaking the sounds which are always alike and can therefore be easily described. I can only repeat that it is only when the wings of both birds are outspread and they are soaring or planing through the air at some speed that the sounds are made by the feathers of the wings and that these sounds are identical with the noises made by the rhinoceros when it is in its wallow. Surely some people must have heard the vibrating noises made by the wind passing through the wing feathers of the two birds referred to ; and if they had heard the noises made by the rhinoceros as well they would immediately have come to the con- clusion how exactly alike the two sounds were. These noises made by the rhinoceros when in its wallow besides being an expression of its satisfaction at being there are also made by the animal when it is either expelling or inhaling air through its nostrils, mouth, or throat. It stands to reason also that the animal must make some noise when clearing it’s nostrils and mouth of mud, as its head reaches the surface from beneath the mud after it has been submerging itself in it. It is only when it is carrying out these performances in the mud that these low deep muffled humming or buzzing sounds are heard. These sounds as I have stated before so completely resemble the sounds made by the wind passing through the wing' feathers of both the vulture and the hornbill when they are soaring or planing at high speed through the air that I cannot think of, or find anything else which so completely resembles them. No other sportsman except myself and ‘the other writer’, to my knowledge, has ever referred to this subject. Although the matter is not really of such paramount importance, I trust I may be pardoned for going somewhat into detail and en- larging on it to the extent that I have done in this article. My reasons for doing so were because I was not altogether satisfied with the description of the sounds emitted by the rhinoceros which were heard and recorded by ‘the other writer’ in 1939. With regard to the other noises made by a rhinoceros apart from those made by the animal when it is enjoying itself in its mud bath the rhinoceros also1 utters a piercing long-drawn-out scream when it is about to expire after being fatally shot. When a rhinoceros is also hard-pressed and has been thoroughly alarmed by the hunter coming upon it suddenly at close quarters I have heard the animal dash off at a great speed uttering a succession of loud whistling, braying sounds, in different keys, not unlike the braying of a donkey. At other times when I * have followed and came up with the animal that has suddenly got my wind, it usually uttered a terrific snort not unlike that emitted by a large boar or gaur Bibos gaums before galloping off. Here is another matter on which I regret to say ‘the other writer’ and I disagree and about which I propose having another friendly discussion with him in this article in the hope of being able to convince him that I am right and that he is wrong. 8 272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY-NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol XtlV Burman hunters have informed me, and. I have verified their conclusions, that they can easily distinguish between a male and a cow rhinoceros when following their tracks by noticing the way young saplings, creepers, or the branches of bushes have been twisted by the animal’s horns as it moves along when feeding. My experience also is that a male or. a cow with short horns cannot do much, twisting of creepers, twigs and branches as compared with a male with good sized horns as they cannot get a proper grip or hold with their short horns and the branches and saplings would then be more likely to slip off than if the. horns were long. So far as I have been led to understand from my own observations and those of my hunters and trackers the more twisted the creepers, bamboos, and branches appear, the better are the chances of com- ing upon a male with a good anterior horn. Another way of distinguishing sometimes between the tracks of. ia female and a male (there being very little difference in their size and appearance so far as D. sumatrensis are concerned) is by carefully noting the position of their droppings or dung. In the case of a male the ordure and urine will usually be found on the ground .exuded one behind the other, a foot or two apart, at least, whereas in the case of a cow rhinoceros they will be found more or less together scattered over the bushes in the immediate vicinity at heights of from three to four feet. The urine of a cow as seen by me on numerous occasions was of a pale pinkish colour. According* to the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal , how- ever, it would appear that both sexes urinate from behind and be- tween their legs for some distance so that the leaves of the sur- rounding trees and shrubs are sprinkled and it is evident that both sexes share the habit by which they may become aware of each other’s presence in the dense recesses of the forests. The male rhinoceros when twisting bamboos, young saplings, and creepers with its horns does so doubtless with the object either of cleaning or sharpening them or simply because of the pleasing sensation gained by the scratching. Perhaps it may be done as a challenge, or from cussedness or sheer ‘joie de vivre’. Bison, or rather gaur, and Tsaing Bibos frontalis , or wild cattle, and ordinary domestic cattle, often tear up the ground with their hooves and horns or rub the latter on the branches of trees or saplings for no apparent reason; as do deer occasionally even when they have no velvet to get rid of, simply, I take it because the rubbing sensation pleases them. It may be of course a sex desire. Burman hunters have often told me that all big game are more aggressive when the moon is on the increase and nearly full. Many races in India even believe that a human being is at his or her best when the moon is fullest. To continue with the subject of the twisting of saplings and branches by a rhinoceros when feeding, ‘the other writer’ who also discussed the noises made by a rhinoceros when in its wallow and who gave a different description of them from that given by me has again differed from me as to the sex of the animal engaged in this wisting work and the why and wherefore of sapling twisting by rhinoceros in general with their horns when they are on the NOTES ABOUT THE FIVE RHINOCEROS OF THE WORLD 273 move, feeding. He, ‘the other writer’, says: ‘A favourite trick of the rhinoceros when feeding is to get a sapling behind his front horn and twist it round and round until it is thoroughly decorticated and covered, with mud from his head. I do not know exactly how this is done never having caught a rhinoceros ‘flagrante delicto’, but it is generally supposed this is done by a rhinoceros which has sufficiently long horns to enable it to twist the sapling between the two horns’. (This peculiarity of branch twisting by D. sumatrensis was also referred to by me in my book, Wild Sports of Burma and Assam and 1 suppose ‘the other writer’ and I are the only two sportsmen who have ever discussed this subject, as well as . the subject about the noises made by a D. sumatrensis when in its wallow.) ‘The other writer’, goes on to say, however, that he found that this was not the case, for in one instance he was following a rhinoceros which had twisted a number of saplings but discovered that it had a very poor and stumpy posterior horn.’ He says further, ‘I believed for the same reason that a female rhinoceros could not twist saplings, and, when following rhinoceros spoor and finding twisted saplings, I concluded I was on the track of a male which had a good horn. I disproved this by finding saplings, twisted in the approved style by a cow rhinoceros which was accompanied by a calf. I do not now believe that the length of the horns has anything to do with the thoroughness of the twistings, and such indications are. no guide either to the sex of the animal being fol- lowed or the size of the horns.’ From this it will be seen that ‘the other writer’ and I disagree entirely in the conclusions arrived at by us. In any case it is not worth continuing the argument further and, right or wrong, the ‘other writer’ is just as much entitled to his opinions in this matter as I am to mine. It is obvious, nevertheless, whatever one may say to the contrary, that a male rhinoceros with a longish anterior and posterior horn is much more likely to make a better job of sapling twisting with its long horns than an animal like a cow rhinoceros or a male with short stumpy horns, neither of which would allow of a proper grip or hold being taken of any saplings and branches in order to twist them. They would in fact be more inclined to slip off. Surely this is obvious. Anyway I think I have discussed this matter quite long enough. Besides I daresay my readers have been bored stiff from what they have already read on this subject as well as on the other one. The . tracking up of rhinoceros is often very difficult especially in the hills when the ground is dry and hard or when it is covered with a thick layer of dead bamboo leaves. Should tracking be interrupted by a heavy shower of rain the bamboo leaves swell out, then the front or centre toe nail impressions of the forefeet which are usually the only marks that are visible on the ground are in- variably almost obliterated, when the utmost skill of the tracker is called into play. All rhinoceroses have three toes on the fore and hind feet unlike the tapir Tapirus indicus which has four toes on the front and three on the hind feet. . One rarely comes across a young rhinoceros. During the fifty odd years I have spent in the jungles of Burma I think I have only once seen the tracks of a young rhinoceros. Burmese hunters say 274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XL1V that a rhinoceros bends its head to clear its path of obstructing jungle, and leaves dead logs and branches over its back as it proceeds. These fall on the youngster following on the heels of its mother and so kill or maim it. Hence the scarcity. This of course is a myth and cannot be accepted as a true reason. I relerred to this subject in the Indian sporting paper the ‘ Indian Field’ in a long article entitled ‘Notes on the Tapir’, Tapir us indicus and ‘ Rhinoceros sumatrensis ’ some 35 years ago. The 4 Indian Field’ became defunct a number of years, ago. The real reason I suppose why rhinoceros are so scarce is because they have been so systematically hunted down now for many years past in all parts of the country where they exist that they have no time even for breeding. The people are also well aware of the great value of the animal’s blood and horns. The result is that the male are shot more frequently Tor their horns which are longer than those of the females which have small inferior horns; and, as I have stated before, rhinoceros were never prolific breeders, the female producing only singletons about one in twenty or twenty-five years, it can be understood that their chances of producing young ones are considerably lessened in consequence. Deterioration in horn development is also probably due to the persistent persecution and the killing off of better-horned animals and the breeding of poorer stock. The males consort with the females from the middle to the end of the rains, that is to- say any time between July and October whilst the period of gestation is just a little over seven months. I came upon and shot a very good specimen of D. sumatrensis rhinoceros on a range of hills bordering the Lemro river in the Arakan Hill Tracts of Burma at an elevation of above sea level pf about 3000 feet. I was informed that there was a small pond or pool of water about two acres in extent which was situated on the top of a range of steep hills above the Lemro river. I was armed with a single 500 bore cordite rifle by Westley Richards which took a charge of 80 grains of cordite. After a fairly stiff climb through a nasty stretch of leech infested country we came upon a large pool of water where sure enough I saw a Sumatran rhinoceros with a good anterior horn standing beside the pool. I crept up to within twenty-five yards of the animal and let it have a raking shot through the small of the ribs in the hope that I would find the lungs if not the heart. The animal lurched for- ward on receiving the bullet and swung quickly round in my direc- tion as if to charge. I then moved forward to a position some fifteen paces from the pool and as the rhinoceros reached the edge of the water on my side 1 dropped it with a broken shoulder and finished it off with a third shot. It had a very fair anterior horn of about sixteen and a half inches in length. The posterior horn was only from two and a half to three inches long. After my men had cut up the animal with the idea of returning on the following day to fetch away all the meat we hurried back to camp which was reached in inky darkness at about 9 o’clock at night after a desperate scrumble through the jungle and undergrowth, the leeches crawling all over us en route in battalions. EFFECT OF DIFFERENT FOODS ON THE LARVAL AND POST-LARVAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE MOTH PRODEN1A LITURA Fb. (LEPIDOPTERA, NOCTUIDAE) BY A. C. Basu, m.sc., Calcutta. ( With two graphs). ( University College of Science and Technology, Calcutta). Introduction. The larva of the moth Prodenia litura Fb. (Noctuidae, Lepidop- tera) is an important pest of cauliflower in Bengal ; it is called kafipokay the cauliflower worm, by the peasantry. In the Tamil areas of the Madras Presidency the larva is known as arakkan. The depredation of the larva is not confined to any particular crop but extends over a number of economic plants and fruits in India as well as other parts of the world. In Egypt the larva is a great pest of cotton, and is known as the cotton-worm; in Nyassaland, the larva chiefly injures tobacco, and is popularly called the tobacco- caterpillar ; in Rhodesia, it is known as the tomato-caterpillar ; in Mauritius as the bean-enemy-worm. The moth P. litura has been the subject of investigation by a number of authors : Wilcock (1905) furnished a list of hosts devastat- ed by this caterpillar. Fletcher (1914) gave a short account of its bionomics, and published a list of plants which might be injured by the species. Janish (1930) made experiments on this moth under different temperatures and humidities. Bishara (1934) gave an elaborate account of the general morphology and bionomics of this species and also added a list of plants, fruits and flowers which are injured by the larva of P. litura. From the list furnished by the previous authors it is seen that the larva of P. litura can grow on fifty-four different types of vegetable food-stuffs. So, a knowledge of other plants which are likely to harbour this pest, will be useful in checking the spread of its infestation from one plantation to another. I have endeavoured, therefore, in this paper to furnish a fresh list of hosts which are subjected to attack by P. litura. Further, since the pests have a 276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV wide range of host plants, it is important to know how far the duration of the life cycle as well as the size of the insect are influ- enced by the various food-stuffs, other factors such as temperature and humidity being kept constant. The present problem was, therefore, undertaken with a view (i) to supply an additional list of hosts which can be infected by the larva of P. littira, and (2) to report variations in larval growth and period, pupal size and period, and the size of the adult caused by varying the food-stuffs. The feeding experiments were carried under room conditions during the winter months as well as under a constant high temperature of 30°C in an insectary fitted with a temperature-control apparatus. The main food-stuffs used in the experiments were cauliflower, green banana fruit, mulberry leaf, fresh cabbage, green papaya fruit, lettuce leaf, and the leaf of the silk-cotton tree. Acknowledgments. I take this opportunity to express my gratitude to Dr. D. P. Raichaudhury, Lecturer in Zoology, for his constant help in this work, and to Mr. D. D. Mukerji, Lecturer in Zoology, for the general improvements of the paper. I also express my indebtedness to Prof. H. K. Mookerjee, for allowing me to carry on the work of research in the University College of Science and Technology, and financing the necessary expenditure to perform the requisite experiments ; my thanks are also due to Mrs. D. P. Raichaudhury who allowed me to collect materials from her garden at Ballygunge Park. Experimental. 1. Materials. The specimens used in these experiments were reared in the laboratory. They were first obtained in the larval stages from an infected field at Ballygunge Park. They were also collected from Dhapa, situated on the outskirts of Calcutta. A few were obtained from cauliflowers sold in the market. 2. Methods . For raising the stock, the moths were reared in the laboratory for several generations, the larvae being fed with cauliflower. Round glass jars measuring 4 inches in diameter and 6 inches in depth were used for all the experiments. The mouth of the jar was tied with muslin. Each jar was thoroughly cleansed and washed with sodium carbonate solution followed by lysol lotion. To make a correct operation in the performance of the experiment, special precaution was taken against any chance of sudden shortage of food by providing each jar with large quantities of fresh leaves picked from the gardens, also with chips of the same. Evans (1938) noted that the larvae of Pieris brassicae , fed on cabbage leaves which were grown under bad conditions of light, behave differently from those fed on leaves grown under natural conditions of light, and Wiggleswortll reported '^(1939) that increase of temperature stiniulates metabolism . leading to food shortage and death. At the initial stage of the experiments the food-stuff in each jar was changed twice till the advanced stage of the larva, when the change was made thrice daily. ) EFFECT OF FOODS ON THE PRO DEN I A LIT UR A FB. 277: Since this species pupates under earth a little below the soil surface as reported by Fletcher (1914) and Bishara (1934), saw-dust was put at the bottom of all the experimental glass jars for pupa-formation under artificial condition. In the experiment No. 1, twenty kinds of vegetable food-stuffs were tried. Sixteen of these which are not star marked (vide list D) were found growing in close proximity to the plantation infested by the pest. For drawing this fresh list (vide list D) of plants subjected to the attack of P. litura larvae, with the exception of the star marked foods namely radish, apple, nashpati and papaya (where roots and fruits were fed) in all the cases, experiments were made with the leaves of the listed host plants. To economise the glass jars and check the results, the experiments ' were arranged in three sets, with seven glass jars in each set. A number of twenty larvae of P-. litura were kept in each jar. The larvae were kept under observation until - the pupal stage. ~ . In experiment No. 2 the larvae were fed with the eight kinds of food^ stuffs such as ‘cauliflower, green banana fruit, mulberry leaf, lettuce leaf, cotton leaf, palam leaf, green papaya fruit and cabbage ; and then the variations, in the size of the larva with their ages, pupal size and adult size were recorded. And also the durations of the larval period and pupal period were noted. These observations are given in different tables (Tables I — VII) and the rates of the different larval growths have been represented by Graphs A & B. To conduct the experiment No. 2 under room conditions, twenty-four glass jars were employed. The jars were put in three different sets, each set con- taining eight jars. Food of one type was ' contained in three jars, one in each set, and eight kinds of food-stuffs were altogether tried. The object of having three sets is to ensure the continuation of experiments, if accidentally specimens in any one set die for one reason or other. As it was observed ;that if more specimens are kept in the limited space of a single jar, overcrowding occurs and they do not thrive well; hence in each of these jars ten freshly emerged larvae of the same parents were kept. The variations observed in these sets are given in tables. For comparison of the different larval sizes, they were measured at an interval of five days, till the larva attained the prepupal stage. Further, for recording the pupal duration, as soon as the pupae were formed in the eight respective foods, they were transferred in different jars, but having identical environmental conditions, and the time at which the imago emerged was correctly noted. This gave the duration of the pupal life. To conduct the experiment No. 2 under high temperature the same method was followed, but with the difference that in this experimentation the larvae were measured at intervals of four days instead of five, since the rate of the larval growth was accelerated due to the rise of the temperature. The results have been tabulated in different tables. For the different tables, the linear growth of the larvae and the size of the pupae and imagoes were measured by an ordinary scale. But in case of the newly emerged larvae which were too small to be measured by a scale, they were measured by stage micrometer. The different measurements .shown in tables are the average of ten readings. The full length of a larva and pupa means dis- tance from tip to tip and the breadth shows the maximum width of the fourth abdominal segment. In references to the procedures provided by Lefroy and Howlett (1909) and Fletcher (1914), the body length and the abdominal size at the greatest diameter of the imago were recorded. And the . expansion of the wings (fore and hind) was measured from the distal end of the one side of the wing (fore and hind) to the distal end of the other side of the wing (fore and hind). The distal width of the individual fore and hind wings was noted from the greatest distal area of each wing. To have a single standard of measurement, the fore wing was measured along the subterminal line as referred by Torre-Bueno (1937) ; and the hind wing was measured from the greatest width at the posterior terminal area of the hind wing. 3. Observations. To the list of vegetables and plants, damaged by P. litura, reported by pre- vious authors (shown here in columns A, B, C) — twenty more are added by the present author and these are shown in column D. The fact that this insect also attacks such fruits as apple, papaya, etc. shows the wide range of host plants. 278 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV List of hosts. The following is the list of vegetables, foliages, fruits, etc. damaged by the moth Prodenia litura. Wilcock’s list Bishara’s list Fletcher’s list (A) (B) (C) 1. Cotton. 1. Wheat. 1. Castor. 2. Rersin (Egyptian 2. Rice. 2. Tobacco clover) . 3. Bledi beans. 3. Maize. 3. Lucerne. 4. Soya beans. 4. Tomato. 4. Maize. 5. Fenugreek . 5. Colocasia. 5. Pea-nut. 6. Egg-plant. 6. Agathi. 6. Beet. 7. Water melon. 7. Jute. 7. Sweet potato. 8. Cucurbit. 8. Indigo. 8. Colocasia. 9. Cabbage. 9. Lucerne. 9. Potato. 10. Onion. 10. Brinjal. 10. Leaf beet. 11. Mandarines. 11. Cabbage. 11. Mallow. 12. Guava. 12. Elephant yam 12. Jew’s mallow. 13. Pig- 13. Pea. 13. Spinach. 14. Poplar. 14. Plantain. 14.' French bean. 15. Banana. 15. Grass. 15. Leamia ( Hibiscus 16. Rose. esculentus) . 17. Mint. 16. Til ( H . cannabinus) . 18. Viola. 17. Red pepper. 18. Tomato. 19. Grape vine. 20. Sweet orange. 21. Plum. 22. Mulberry. 23. Crysantheraum. 24. Castor. Writer’s list of additional food-stuffs. (D) 1. Jamrul {Eugenia malaccensis, Lin.). 2. Karamcha {Carissa carandas, Lin.). 3. Jack tree { Artocar pus inte gri folia, Lin.). 4. Sajna ( Moving a p terygosperma , Gaertn.). 5. Aswatha ( Ficus religiosa , Lin.). 6 . Lettuce ( Lactuca scariola , Li n . ) . 7. Celery {Apium graveolens, Lin.). 8. Cauliflower {Brassica oleracea, Lin.). 9. Shaddock ( Citrus me die a , Lin.). 1 0 . Palam ( Spinacia oleracea , Lin . ) . *11. Radish {Kaphanus sativus, Lin.) *12. Apple ( Pyrus ?nalns , Lindi.). *13. Nashpati {Pyrus sinensis, Lindi.). 14. Aparajita ( Clitoria ternatea, Lin.). 15. Hasna-hena {Cestrum noctutnum, Lin.). 16 . Thusa ( Thuya oriental is , Lin . ) . 17. Ata (Anona squamosa, Lin ). *18. Papaya {Carica papaya, Lin.). 19. Mango tree ( Mangifera indie a, Lin.). 20. Ashshaeorah {Glycosmis petitaphylla, Corr.). Are root and fruits,. the sizes were recorded at intervals of five days EFFECT OF FOODS ON THE PRO DEN I A LITURA FB. 279 O o lO 05 si S a> a> ■ aJ u a> > x/i S3 O c? TO tn co 05 © CO >> LC >b >b ib • b cj 1 X X 1 X 1 X X rO o to ' o © LO o cp IX) © co T lb oc ib lb db co CO co co co So aj •TO TO lO 43 ^ c n *0 sag o o as m Cfl © (—1 © CO CO CO © CO >» cb 4*1 ib cb cb ib rf 4*< ctf X X X X X X X X © © © © © © © to CO <© © CO CO CO © co rH 1 05 LO cb © 05 do >b cb CO CM CO T*l co CM CM So a3 .O 40 CJ W) So rt- e, a5 Oh after 3 days, because the larvae reached the prepupal stage earlier. - Specimen pupated. GROWTH IN 280 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY t Vol. XLIV The effect of different food-stuffs in inducing variation in the larval sizes, under room conditions are shown in table I. It may be seen from the table that while the variation on the 5th day of observation is negligibly small, that on the 10th day is large ; further variations become appreciably large in the case of cauliflower and cotton leaf. On the 15th day, the increase is noticeable in four examples— cauliflower, mulberry leaf, lettuce leaf and palam leaf. These sizes are distinctly larger than with banana fruit, cabbage and papaya fruit. Further it is worth noting that the largest larval size is attained in case of cabbage, while papaya comes next. The sizes reached by the larvae ^vhen fed respectively on banana, lettuce and cotton are more or less equal. The smallest larval size is found with mulberry and the palam. The cauliflower as diet occupies an intermediate place so far as its effect on size is concerned. The rate of larval growth is shown in graph A. It may be noted that the rates of the larval growth as fed on different foods are practically identical for the first five days. Differences become observable onwards from five to ten days. During these periods the growth in case of cauliflower is highest, while it is smallest in the case of cotton. Further it is seen that the lines in the graph representing the larval growths for cauliflower, mulberry, lettuce and palam bifurcate at the 10th to 15th as these slope up. On the other hand the Graph A Graph A, showing the variations in the rate of the larval growth, in P. litura, when reared under room conditions (average temp. ig.$°C) on various foods. The growth means linear size. rates of growth at this period with papaya, banana and cabbage are com- paratively small ; hence they shift downwards as shown by the growth lines in the graph. The line representing the rate of the larval growth in cotton stands last. Taple II shows the different sizes attained by the larvae of P. litura while kept under high temperature, other conditions being equal. This table shovvs that the variation in the larval sizes on the 4th, 8th, 12th day, etc-, EFFECT OF FOODS ON THE PRODENIA LITURA FB. 281 CD J- 3 > cd fC! So cd Td CM 3 M'S g &Cd •£3 u > C Q® ISJ 33 >> rS CD fcuo cd ,Q D cd V CM CD 05 to o o CO w uo CM H CM H H cb IO cd X X X X X X X X no CD co O o o o , — 1 o 00 CD ,00 © CM o to o 05 rH CD 05 CM ■H © 05 CM rH CM CM CM CM i — 1 lO rH © pH o © © 00 to - 5^ CM r— ( CM CM Ph CM CM rH cd X X X X X X X X nd ID r— I CO t—4 i— 1 CO o H< 1^ t^. co H* 00 o cp o © H 05 00 H CM 00 00 cd cd a. iO Ph after 2 days, because these larvae reached the prepupal stage earlier. - Specimen pupated. GROWTH IN ' 282 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV occurs in proportion to their growth sizes under the room condition, only the sizes at the different ages of the larvae reared on palam indicate their rapid growth at high temperature. This table also shows that the larvae maintained on cabbage attain the greatest size as in Table I, but at the final stage, the larval size attained with papaya, banana, lettuce, cotton, cauliflower, palam and mulberry as given in this table (Table II), does not follow the order seen in Table I. It is also found that at the final stage the sizes of the larvae are comparatively smaller than the respective sizes noted under the room condition. Graph B shows variations in the rates of the growth of larvae, four days old, reared on the different diets. The rate of the larval growth in this period is appreciably greater with palam leaf and cauliflower, and less with banana and cotton. Between the ages of four and eight days, the rates of the larval growth with cauliflower, lettuce and mulberry are more accelerated than Graph B Graph B, showing the variations in the rates of the larval growth in P. litura, when reared in a high temperature (at 30°C) on various foods. The growth means linear size. in other cases. The graph in general coincides with the previous graph but the lines representing the rates of growth are more straight, specially the ones representing the rate of the larval growth with cauliflower, lettuce, mulberry and palam Which slope rapidly up as compared with cabbage, papaya, banana and cotton. The growth with cotton shows periodicity. Table III shows the durations of the larval stadium as observed under the room condition and under the high temperature. In the experiment under room condition,- the duration of the larval period with cauliflower is the shortest, while with cotton it is relatively prolonged. Results under high tempera- ture too follow this order, Here also the margin between1 the larval durations EFFECT OF FOODS ON THE PRO DEN I A ElTURA FB. 283 TABLE III Effect of different roods on duration of larval life of P. litura , under the room condition (average temp. 19*5®C) and in a high temperature (30°C) experiments. Food Larval duration in days, under Room condition (19*5®C) High temperature (30°C) Cauliflower | 18 11 Banana fruit (green) ... 26 17-19 Mulberry leaf 20-21 12 Lettuce leaf 18-19 12 Cotton leaf 27-28 19-20 Palam leaf ... 19-20 12 Cabbage 25 17 Papaya fruit (green ) ... 26 17 respectively experimented with cauliflower and cotton is very broad. It may be pointed out that as the effect of high temperature the duration of the larval period is shortened on an average by 7-8 days. Table IV shows the variations in the size's of the different pupae as observed under room condition and in a high temperature experiments. In the experiment under room condition, the largest pupal size is obtained with larvae fed on cauliflower and next in order come lettuce, palam and mulberry. TABLE IV Effect of different foods on the pupal sizes of P. litura , under room condition (average temp. 19’5°C) and in a high temperature (30°C) experiments. Food Sizes of the pupae in mm. under Room condition (19*5®C) High temperature (30°C) Cauliflower 19-22x7-8 18-19x6-7 Banana fruit (green) ... 17-18 x 5-6 16-17x5 Mulberry leaf 19-20 x 6-7 18-19 x 6 Lettuce leaf 1 20-21 x 6-7 1 18-19x6 Cotton leaf ... 14-16 x 4-5 15x5 Palam leaf ... 19-21 x 6-7 18-19 x 6 Cabbage 19-20 x 5-6 17-18 x 5-6 Papaya fruit (green) ... 19-20x5-6 17-18x5-6 284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Tot. XLIV The sizes of the pupae experimented with cabbage and papaya are equal, but they are larger than with banana, the smallest pupal size being with cotton. Pupae TABLE V Effect of different foods on the duration of pupal life in P. litura , under room condition (average temp. 22*2°C) and in a high temperature (30°C) experiments. I Pupal duration in days, under Room condition ! High temperature (22-2°C) j (30°C) Cauliflower 9 6-7 Banana fruit (green) ... 11 9 Mulberry leaf 10 X 8 Lettuce leaf 9 7-8 Cotton leaf 12 10 Palam leaf ... 9 7 Cabbage 11 8-9 Papaya fruit (green) ... n 8-9 reared under high temperature, but with identical : food-stuffs, show a general reduction in their sizes as compared to those under the room condition. Table V shows the durations of the pupal period as observed under both the experimental conditions. This table reveals that the durations of the TABLE VI Effect of different foods on the sizes of the moth, in P. litura , when reared in a room condition (average temp. 190-22°C)._ * Food Body length Abd. width Fore wing Hind wing Expanse Distal width Expanse Distal width ’ mm. mm. mm . mm. I mm. mm. Cauliflower 19-22 6-7 38-40 8-9 30-32 11 Banana fruit (green). 17-18 4-5 34-36 7-8 26-28 8-9 Mulberry leaf 19-20 5-6 36-38 8-9 28-30 10-31 Lettuce 20-21 5-6 40 9 30-32 10-ii Cotton leaf 14-16 T-4 32-34 7-8 24-26 8 Palam leaf 19-21 5-6 38-40 9 | 30-32 11 Cabbage ... 19-21 4 5 34-36 7-8 26-28 8-9 Papaya fruit 19-20 4-5 34-36 8 26-28 ; 8-9 285 Effect of foods on the pro deni A litura fr. pupal life .is slightly variable. Under room conditions the duration if pupal life is shortest with cauliflower, lettuce and palam. The mulberry leaf stands next in order. The pupal durations with banana, cabbage and papaya slightly exceed these and are more prolonged with cotton. The results observed in the high temperature experiment .also, indicate that the shortest duration occurs with cauliflower, palam, mulberry and lettuce. The durations . of pupal life... with cabbage, papaya and banana are practically th(e same; with cotton however it is maximum. Table VI shows the variations in the sizes of the different moths - as observed under the room condition, . This table shows, that under such condition, the largest size of the moth, i's obtainable if reared on cauliflower, mulberry, _ lettuce and palam. The next sizes are obtained with banana, cabbage and papaya ; while those reared on cotton are the smallest in size. Table VII shows the variations in the sizes of the different moths, observed under the high temperature, other conditions being the same as befoVei The size of the different moths stands in the same order as ; in the previous table. Further it is seen that in the high temperature condition the sizes of the different moths are smaller as compared to those bred under the ordinary- room condition. TABLE VII Effect of different foods on the sizes of the moth, in P. litura , when reared in a high temperature (30°C). Food Body length Abd. width Fore wing Hind wing Expanse Distal . width Expanse 1 - Distal width mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. mm. Cauliflower 18-19 5-6 36-38 8 26-28 10 Banana fruit (green). 16-17 4-5 32-34 8 24-26 ; 9 1 Mulberry leaf ... j 18-19 5-6 34-36 8 26-28 10 Lettuce leaf ... ! 18-19 5-6 36-38 8 26-28 10 Cotton leaf ... j 14-15 4 30-32 7 24 8 Palam leaf 18-19 5-6 36-38 8 i 26-28 10 Cabbage 17-18 5 34-36 8 j 24-26 9 Papaya fruit (green). 17-18 5 34-36 8 I 24-26 9 Finally with regard to time for completing the life cycle, i.e., the period from the hatching of larvae to the emergence of imago, under the room con- ditions, was 27 days with cauliflower, 37 days with banana and papaya, '31 days with mulberry, 28 days with lettuce, 40 days with cotton, 29 days with palam, 35 days with cabbage; while in the high temperature the period covered 18 days with cauliflower, 28 days with banana, 20 days with mulberry and lettuce, 30 days with cotton, 19 days with palam, 26 days with cabbage and 29 days with papaya. It is interesting to note that by comparison with the temperature of room con- ditions the heat factor has uniformly reduced the duration on an average by 9-10 days. Discussion. Certain species of lepidoptera can live on different varieties of food-stuffs, while others thrive only on some specific plants. The larvae of the moth P. litura belong to the first category, according to the information given by 286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XUV Wilcock (1905), Fletcher (1914), Bishara (1934) and the additional list provided by the present experiments. To inquire into the influence the various food substances exert on the different stages of development of P. litura, experimental feeding under room conditions was arranged during the winter months. But owing to diurnal and seasonal temperature fluctuations, the investigation was also conducted at a constant temperature. Further, as the room condition experiments were per- formed during the winter season they were practically at low temperatures. It was thought therefore necessary to hold the experiments at a high tempera- ture too. Now as to the effect of temperature on the life of the moth, Janish (1930) found that at 29°-30°C, P. litura develops rapidly and reaches its physiological death within the shortest time. He considered this temperature as the optimum temperature. Bishara (1934) however reports that high temperature begins at 28°C. The temperature 3o°C was therefore preferred for the high temperature experiments. From Table I and Graph A, it is seen that the course of the larval development is affected by the different food-stuffs. It is particularly proved between the two sets of the larval sizes on the 15th day, in Table I. Here the larger sizes of the larvae fed on cauliflower, lettuce, mulberry and palam food, are for reaching the last larval stage earlier, due to the rapid growth induced by the respective food-stuffs. Whereas papaya, banana and cabbage made smaller size larvae respectively, by prolonging the larval stages due to the slow growth induced by these food-stuffs. Apparently for these in Graph A, the lines representing the larval rate of growth in the former set of foods, between the ages of ten to fifteen days, move quickly upwards, while the lines showing the larval rate of growth in the latter set of foods in the cor- responding period, comparatively shift downwards. These facts suggested there- fore that the food ingredients, needed for the larval growth were' different in these two sets of food-stuffs. A similar' observation was made by Sattler (1939) on the nun moth, Lymantria monacha. By feeding the larva with oak, larch and spruce, the larvae showed rapid development. The rate of the larval growth slowed down when fed with beach, apple and pine ; while adler prolonged con- siderably the larval period. Again from the sizes attained by the different larvae at the last stage in Table I, it follows that the food has a very little effect on the final size of the larvae. But the fact, that in case of the food substances such as mulberry leaves, the size dwindled down below the average, shows however that nutrition does affect the final size. But on careful thought the explanation suggest itself that the size is n,ot adversely affected, because, all the different food substances may contain the same essential ingredients needed for the final size, while the size is affected where these essentials are lacking in the food-stuffs. From Table II, it is seen that the high temperature in different food- stuffs, causes appreciable variations at the age of 4, 8, etc. days. The marked variations in size of the 4th and 8th day, as compared to results obtained in the experiment, conducted at room temperature are evidently due to acceleration of growth induced by high temperature. This is why in Graph B, the lines representing the different rates of larval growth are' straight in comparison with those in Graph A. As it is known that heat within the) vital limit increases the rate of all metabolic processes, and in the developmental stages, the extra energy is expended on growth which is correspondingly accelerated (U varov 1931, Wigglesworth 1939), the slight irregularities in the position of the larval last stage sizes, in the different' food-stuffs in this table, in comparison to Table I, suggest that in the high temperature experiment the developing larvae did not utilise the respective food reserves satisfactorily for the rapid larval growth, due to the rise of temperature. Moreover in general the reduction of the larval sizes in Table II, in comparison to Table I, is explained by the fact that, decidedly in low temperature, the percentages of food absorbed and utilised by the different larvae for building up the tissues, are greater than those at the high temperature. These are not only theoretical considerations, but facts proved exactly by U varov (1931) from the results of various authors. From Table III it is proved that the duration of the larval period under- goes variations, and this is entirety dependent on the type of food the larva utilises during its larval period. The quick growth of the larvae with cauliflower accelerated the usual rate of growth in P. litura, and consequently the larval duration was shortened; and similarly the reverse effect occurred in Effect of foods on the prodenia litura fb. 287 the fate of the larvae fed on the cotton leaves and apparently their larval period is prolonged. Further the general shortening of the larval periods at the high temperature is accounted for since the food-stuffs remained constant in both the experiments. U varov (1931) has forwarded a considerable number of experimental results from different authors. According to him Standfuss (1896) recorded that, by the application of a high temperature, the larval period of Lasiotampa quercifolia L. can be shortened from the normal 22-26 to 7-12 weeks. From Table IV it is seen that the size of the pupae is affected by the different foods. The pupal sizes in P. litura are therefore solely dependent on the nutritive effect of the individual food. In view of this table it is proved that cauliflower stands first, next lettuce, palam, and mulberry ; cabbage and papaya are equal, but richer than banana; and cotton is very poor. Further it is seen from the table that the high temperature in general reduces the sizes of the different pupae from the different foods, in comparison with their respective sizes noted in the room condition. Again from both the results recorded, it is interesting to note that the. largest size larva is not the producer of the greatest size pupa. From Table V it is seen that the food-stuffs cauliflower, lettuce,, palam and mulberry have got the greates.t food values for the shortening of the pupal period ; the food values are ordinary for banana, . cabbage and papaya, and very poor in the case of cotton, leaves. Further it is seen in this table that there is a general reduction of the pupal period in the high temperature obviously due to the rise of the experimental temperature, since the food-stuffs remained constant in both the experiments. From Table VI it is proved that the size of the moth depends on the type of nutrition during its larval period. In view of the present results it is evident that the best nutrition in P. litura is derived from cauliflower, lettuce, palam and mul- berry, and then from banana, cabbage and papaya. It is w;orth mentioning that cauliflower has produced the greatest body length and abdominal breadth of the moth. Further, the expansion of the fore wings and the hind wings are greatest in the moths with cauliflower, lettuce and palam, but they are comparatively smaller with mulberry. Regarding the greatest distal width of an individual fore wing and hind wing, it is marked that the variations are like the variations in the body length, abdominal breadth and expansions of the wings. Also it is worth noting the fact that the greatest size larvae do not produce the greatest size moths, as in Table I the greatest sizes are found associated with cabbage, but here (Table VI) with cauliflower. A similar observation has been made by Alpatov (1929) in his thyroid gland feeding experiment with Drosophila melanogaster Mg. He found that the larvae in the hog muscle and thyroid are larger than the larvae in the hog muscle and yeast, but finally observed that the imagos of the former are smaller than those of the latter. From Table VII it is proved that in the high temperature, the sizes of the different moths become more reduced than their respective sizes noted in the room condition (Table VI) with the respective food-stuffs. As foods remained constant in both the experimentations, this is certainly due to the heat effect. While high' temperature has a certain effect on the larva and pupa in their sizes and durations, now it is seen that it affects also the sizes of the moths. A brief review of similar results has been forwarded by Uvarov (1931). According to Uvarov, Titschak (1925-27) in his experiments on the clothes moth, Tinola bisellella Hum., demonstrated that at lower temperatures, larger and heavier moths are produced. Similar conclusions as to lower temperatures producing insects of larger size have been reached by a number of other investigators, e.g., Alpatov and Pearl (1929) with Drosophila melanogaster Mg., by Schlottke (1926) in the case of Habrobracon juglandis Say., by Musconi (1924) with Calliphora erythrocephala Mg., by Dewitz (1913) with Porihelria dispar L., and by Standfuss (1896) with various species of lepidoptera. Now in ending the discussion it is well to mention that, since it is proved that the larval growth, larval duration, pupal size, pupal duration and the size of the moth in P. litura are entirely dependent on the qualities of the food it utilises during its larval period it would be unwise to criticise or evaluate the results forwarded by the previous authors such as Fletcher (1914), Janish (1930) and Bishara (1934). 9 288 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV Summary. 1. Experiments were conducted for observing the infestation of the P. litura larva ; it was noted that the larval food selection was very plastic, including leaves, fruits and roots. 2. Experiments were also arranged to observe the effect of eight different foods upon the life of P. litura under the room condition in the winter months and in a high temperature at 30°C. It was found that under the ordinary room condition and in the high tem- perature (3o°C.) experiments, when the larvae of P. litura were fed with eight different selected foods, they underwent variations in the larval growth, larval period, pupal size, pupal period and the size of the moths. When fed with cauliflower, mulberry, lettuce and palam the larval growths were most rapid, the larval durations shorter, the pupal sizes largest, the pupal durations hastened, and larger size moths were produced ; when fed on banana, cabbage and papaya, the larval growths were ordinary, larval durations prolonged, pupal size medium, pupal durations lingered and medium size moths were obtained ; when fed on cotton leaves, the condition of the larval growth was very poor, larval duration much delayed, pupal size very small, pupal duration comparatively prolonged, and very small size moths were produced. It was also proved that there was a comparatively rapid larval growth, shorter larval duration, smaller pupal size, faster pupal duration and a smaller size moth in the high temperature experiment. Conclusion. The larvae of P. litura can devastate seventy-four types of different food- stuffs. The larval growth and duration, the pupal size and duration, and the size of the moth in P. litura are dependent on the type of the food the larva utilises during its larval period. Quick growth shortens the life cycle and the processes are more hastened in the high temperature. Decidedly low temperature produces bigger size larva, pupa and imago, and the high temperature has an adverse effect on the different sizes. The largest size larva in P. litura is not the producer of the biggest size pupa and moth, but the latter are solely due to the type of ingredients contained in the food utilised by the larva. References. 1. Alpatov, W. W., 1929, Proc. Acad. Sc. 15 (7), 578. 2. Bishara, I., 1934, Bull. Soc. Ent. Egypt, 18, 228. 3. Evans, A. C., 1938, Ann. Appl. Biol. 25, 558. 4. Fletcher, T. B., 1914, Some South Indian Insects, Madras. 5. Janish, E., 1930, B. Morph. Okol, Tiere, 17, 339. 6. Lefroy, H. M. and Howlett, F. M., 1909, Indian Insect Life, Calcutta. 7. Sattler, H., 1939, Z. angew. Ent., 25, 543. 8. Torre-B'ueno, J. R., Dela., 1937, A Glossary of Entomology, Brooklyn. 9. Uvarov, B. P., 1931, Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 79, 1. 10. Wilcock, F. C., 1905, Year Book Khedivial Agri. Soc., Egypt. 11. Wigglesworth, V. B., 1939, The Principles of Insect Physiology, London. OBITUARY HUGH WHISTLER The death of Hugh Whistler at the early age of 53, is a serious blow to the study of Ornithology in India, and a great loss to the Society. He was born in Lincolnshire On 28th September 1889. In 1909 he was appointed to the Indian Police, and went out to India in December of that year. His first station was Phillour, and he afterwards served at Rawalpindi, Ferozepore, Jhelum, Gujranwala, Ambala, Jhang, Kangra, and Simla; while on short leave he visited Dalhousie and Kulu, as well as Kashmir. By the time he retired Whistler had very wide knowledge of the whole of the Punjab and its avifauna. Wherever he went he noted and collected birds, and the great store of knowledge he accumulated was communicated to the Journal and the Ibis. While stationed at Rawalpindi he received a letter from the late Dr. C. B. Ticehurst, and this was the beginning of a long correspondence and intimate friendship. This friendship did much for Whistler, since it was through his acquaintance with Ticehurst he had his first introduction to systematic ornithology. In later years he also owed much to his help and guidance, which was always readily admitted by Whistler. On the other hand, it was through Whistler that Ticehurst took up the study of Burmese birds with such valuable results. Shortly after the last War three of our oldest members, W. S. Millard, Sir George Lowndes, and the late F. J. Mitchell, agreed amongst themselves to guarantee the publication of a popular illustrated work on Indian birds, if a suitable author could be found. Whistler was approached to under- take the authorship and a happier selection could not have been made, for he had the requisite knowledge with a plevasing literary style. The success of the book is shown by the fact that it has now passed through three editions. Early in 1925, Whistler married Margaret Joan, second daughter of Lord Ashton of Hyde. A little later he and his wife went out to India and for some months were stationed at Simla, and later trans- ferred to Rawalpindi. In April 1926 he took leave pending retire- ment, and left India. Two years later he again returned on a visit to Kashmir with the late Admiral Lynes and B. B. Osmaston. Shortly after the party had left Srinagar, Admiral Lynes was recalled home, but he insisted that his companions should continue with their collecting as originally planned. The trip was a great success and some of the higher and less known parts were visited. For the next few years Whistler settled at Battle, Sussex, where he worked at his birds. Nearly every year both he and Dr. Ticehurst made short collecting trips to some part of the continent ; sometimes Mrs. Whistler was included in the party, and when Ticehurst was unable to accompany them Whistler went alone. When the Society was carrying out the Survey of the Eastern Ghats, Whistler was asked to work out the collections. He threw himself wholeheartedly into the work with the result that his series of papers were practically a review of the birds of the Peninsula ; he also worked out the birds 290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV of the different State Surveys. In 1928 he was approached by the Society to contribute a series of articles on the study of Indian birds. To do justice to the subject meant a great deal of prepa- ration, and few who read the articles realised how much time Whistler spent in preparing them. But the results, judging by the many appreciative letters he received, fully justified the trouble. It was about this time that Ticehurst and Whistler began to write a Hand- book of Indian Birds. The second edition of the Fauna had several obvious shortcomings, and in the new work the authors intended to pay special attention to plumages, differentiation of the sexes, and distribution. Whistler had hoped to complete the book after the death of Ticehurst, but his increased civil duties left him little spare time and only a small part of the work has been completed. A few years before the War the British Museum and Colombo Museum had together carried out a survey of the birds of that island, and Whistler prepared a report on the collections, but owing to the difficulties during the War he did not live to see it published. Hugh Whistler was careful and painstaking in his work, and had no use for the careless observer or slip-shod worker. He was always ready to help brother ornithologists, whether a beginner or a fellow worker. In his civil life in Battle it was the same ; he was consulted by everyone and was greatly respected by his large number of friends and fellow councillors. In 1941 he was elected Vice-Chairman of the Battle Rural District Council, and was responsible for the civil defence and other matters over a large part of East Sussex adjoining the Coast. He will be sadly missed by his many friends both in India and at Home. N. B. K. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES I.— AN INTERESTING TIGER SHOOT. During- my recent visit to Sirmur State, a shooting camp was arranged for me at Majra about twenty miles from Nahan, the Capital of the State. A bait ( pada ) was killed on the night of May the 6th and I sat upon the machan at 5 p.m. next day. At 7-10 p.m. monkeys began chattering and the tiger appeared at 7-25 p.m. It was bowled over with a shot in the neck before it reached the kill. (Female, 7 ft. 11 in.). I sent a shikari early next morning to see what had happened to the bait and he reported that another tiger had eaten part of it, so I sat up at 6 p.m. and exactly the same performance as on the previous day was repeated, monkeys began chattering at 7-10 p.m. the crackling of twigs announced that the quarry was near, and the tiger appeared from a different direction at 7-25 p.m. and it was bowled over with a shot in the middle of its forehead as it put its head down to the kill. (Male 8 ft. 8 in.). I sent the shikari again early next morning to see the bait and he reported that another tiger had eaten part of it. Things were getting too good to be true, but I took a chance and sat up this time at 6-30 p.m. As soon as the monkeys began chattering at 8 p.m. I was on the qui vive, and ten minutes later the tiger showed itself and I tum- bled him over with a shot in the, same place and in the same manner as the second animal. (Male, 8 ft. 2J in.). Just for curiosity, I once again sent the shikari early next morning to see the bait and he appeared all smiles to say a fourth animat had eaten practically all of it. As there were fresh pug marks, I sat up but it did not appear which I put down to there being nothing left of the bait. In all my vast experience of big game shooting, I have never come across such an unique incident, and I wonder whether any person has been fortunate enough to have had such Shikari’s luck to bag, three tigers, in three successive days, in three shots, from the same machan, on the same kill, and about the same time. II.— A BLACK PANTHER SHOT IN SIND. A fully grown male black panther was shot near Rerhi, a coastal fishing village about 18 miles S.-E. of Karachi, on the 4th April Early in April the pi dog's of Bramhyderi, a large fishing village about 9 miles S.-E. of Karachi, began to disappear mysteriously. The villagers thinking that a hyaena was responsible organised a hunt and followed pug marks to a cave in a nullah in the low hills near Rerhi. Finding the hyaena, as they thought, ‘at home’, The Palace, Palitana, September 23, 1943. BAHADURSINH, Thakore Sahib of Palitana. r939- 292 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V ol. XLIV a mohana of Bramhyderi named Suleiman volunteered to enter the cave with a light and a length of rope, a common practice in Sind, to catch the hyaena alive. On entering the cave Suleiman was badly mauled by the animal inside. He was taken to hospital but his wounds turned septic and he died of blood poisoning. In the meanwhile a strong fishing net was placed over the mouth of the cave and information sent to the police station at Malir, about 6 miles away. On the arrival of the police, some zamindcirs and a horde of men armed to the teeth with guns, spears and clubs the animal was driven out of the cave and shot, speared and clubbed almost to pieces. The cave contained besides many old bones the remains of a freshly killed pi dog. The skin of the panther which was secured through the courtesy of Mr. Maqbul Khan, measured 6 feet 8 inches from tip of nose to end of tail, the tail measuring 2 feet 6 inches. The skin which was seen by Captain Alec Salmon, h.l.i., shortly after it came into my possession in April 1939 is now with H. O. Wood of the Sind Police. Karachi, K. R. EATES, July 20, 1943. Indian Police. F.Z.S., m.b.o.u. Note. — This, so far as I am aware, is the first record of a black panther occurring in Sind. According to Sind District Gazetteers, 21 panthers have been killed in Sind from 1896 to 1915, and all except 2 of these were killed in Karachi district. Since 1920 several panthers have been shot in the Pabh hills in Las Bela State about 30 miles from Karachi, the last 2 falling to the gun of G. Grosenbacher on the 24-12-36. As pi dogs were disappearing from Mangho Pir, about 10 miles north of Karachi in the direction of the Pabh hills, in March 1939, it is likely that this black panther was responsible and came from the Pabh hills, moving S.-E. through broken country to Rerhi where it was killed as related above. The occurrence of a black panther in Sind or even in the Pabh hills, where conditions in no way favour melanism, is most remarkable and indeed a rarity. K. R. E. III.— ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE YELLOW-HEADED FANTAIL WARBLER ( CISTICOLA EXILIS TYTLERI JERDON) IN THE KUMAON TARAI, U.P. The distribution of this species is given by Stuart Baker ( Nidif . Ind. Birds, ii, 378) as ‘from the Bhutan Dooars to Eastern Assam, Bengal, Manipur, Lushai, Chin and Kachin Hills to Yunnan from the foothills and plains up to about 2,500 feet.’ Lalkua (Kumaon district) is a junction in two senses : it is a railway junction 14 miles from the well-known rail-head of MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 293 Kathgodam ; and it is close to the junction of those two ecologically very different types of country, the Bhabar and the Tarai. The Tarai here consists of high grass with a few Semal trees ( Bombax malabaricum) dotted about, and occasional clumps of high forest. Two miles along the Forest Department road to Dauli, and just on the northern fringe of the Tarai, is an open grassy space about 400 yards long by 200 yards wide; it is separated from the road by a strip of forest about 50 yards wide, and on the western and southern sides also is bounded by high forest, but to the east the ground falls away down a bank to the open park-like Shisham ( Dalbergia sissoo) forest fringing the Gola river. The altitude is about 700 feet above sea level, and the map co-ordinates Lat. 290 03 ft. N. Long. 790 33 ft. E. It is a quiet and peaceful spot, this grassy cliaor.1 The grass grows to a height of about 8 ft. during the rains, and then is gradu- ally burnt back by a succession of fires that sweep through the area in the hot weather, the last of them as late as the end of May, or early June; the first showers bring up the young grass amongst the dead and blackened stems of the previous year. On this fresh green growth the cheetal love to graze, and there one may watch them of an evening and listen to the hoarse wheezy mating call of the stags in the surrounding forest. It was while watching some cheetal that a peculiar note, unknown to me, attracted my attention : a soft churr followed after a short interval by a musical or fluty bell-like note, exactly as described by Stuart Baker ( Nidif . Ind. Birds ii, 379) except that I could not detect any ventriloquial quality in it. To my ear it was quite obvious that both notes were made by the same bird : a tiny bird perched on a dead grass-stem ; the whole head and under-parts appeared buff or bleached straw-colour, closely matched by the colour of the dead grass stem, except for a buffy-brown half collar on the nape and sides of the neck; the upper-parts were streaked brown and the short tail blackish. Then the bird took flight and I knew at once what it was, though I had never seen it before. To explain how this came about a short digression may perhaps be permitted. Oates ( Birds of Burmah i , 118) wrote ‘The Golden-headed Fantail-Warbler’ ( Cisticola exilic equicaudata Stuart Baker) ‘occurs plentifully in the plain lying near the Pegu Canal and also along the embankment running from Myetkyo to the Tunghoo Road. It is not universally distributed over the plain, but occurs in a few places only’. No ornithologist has found it since in the above area, though Mackenzie is said to have found it breeding in the Prome district (Nidif. Ind. Birds ii, 381). Stanford, who worked the Sittang plain, did not meet with it; H. C. Smith and I spent some days at Myitkyo ( = Myetkyo) in early July 1941, and though we searched the banks of the Pegu Canal right down to Waw, and also the embankment running to the Toungoo road, we failed to discover a single bird. Much of the area that was high grass in Oates’s day has long since been converted into paddy fields, and we concluded that C. e. equicaudata no longer Local term for an open area of grass in the forest- 294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV occurs in its old haunts (whereas we were able to prove that Chrysomma a. altirostris Jerdon, another species found by Oates in the same area and not since recorded, is still to be found in some grassy swamps north of Myitkyo). Although our hunt for exilis proved unsuccessful we had learnt by heart the description of this bird and its musical note; and here was this elusive species cropping up where it had no right to be at all, hundreds of miles from its nearest known haunt, the Bhutan Duars ! I was much puzzled by the pale and bleached appearance of the bird, very different from the yellow bird depicted in the plate given in vol. ii of the F.B.I. I first saw it on the 30th May, and thought perhaps it was moulting and would turn yellow a week or two later; but when I was next able to revisit the chaor, on the 8th July, the bird presented exactly the same appearance, so I reluctantly decided I should have to try and obtain a specimen; unfortunately I had nothing but no. 6 shot, and spent an extremely hot 2 hours on the 9th, and again on the nth, before I eventually succeeded. The two specimens obtained were sent to the B.N.H.S., where the Curator kindly examined them and confirmed the identi- fication as C. exilis ; in a letter he remarks that to all appearances the birds belong to the race tytleri, but as there are only two speci- mens available in the Bombay Museum for comparison the race can only be properly determined at the British Museum. There were certainly 3, possibly 4, pairs of birds in the chaor, each with a well-defined territory. The male bird would circle over his territory in a characteristic flight. The ‘take-off’ would be straight, but rising steadily for 50 yards or so, after which the bird commenced to circle, rising steadily to a considerable height: I estimated 150 feet was about the average. At this height he would circle for varying periods, ^sometimes for 5 minutes or more, until he had had enough or until he saw another bird tres- passing over his territory. In either case the descent was most dramatic: an almost vertical nose-dive at astonishing speed, so fast that the eye could scarcely follow him, flattening out when only a few feet above the earth and returning to his perch with swift darting erratic flight. Twice I saw him dive at a trespasser, the first time at a swallow and the second at another C. exilis, and chase him out of the territory, twisting and turning with great rapidity, after which he rose again to continue his flight. Normally however he dropped back to the grass, sometimes down out of sight but at other times alighting on a conspicuous perch. Throughout the flight the male utters his characteristic note, a wheeze or nasal bleat followed after a momentary interval by a musical note with a noticeable T’ or roll in it; the nasal bleat is sometimes monosyllabic, at other times bi-syllabic with a drop in pitch. During the take-off, and again when he ha^ made up his mind to descend, a series of short staccato nasal bleats on a monotone is uttered. The soft churr followed by the musical note uttered from a perch is, I think, an alarm note : a warning to the female to leave the nest. This fl ight of -the male may be a display flight, but my impression was that its main function was to enable him to protect his territory. _ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 295 My observations did not extend over a sufficient period to give reliable data as to the frequency of the flight, but I noted (a) that there was nearly always at least one bird out of the 3 or 4 on the wing, and that a bird seemed to rest for about io' minutes between flights if not disturbed (b) that the flight is carried out both morning and evening, and probably throughout the day (I visited the chaor from 9 to 11 a.rn. and from 5 to 8 p.m.). By g'ood fortune there were 1 or 2 pairs of Cisticola juncidis breeding in the same chaor , so that I was able to compare the flights and songs of the two species. The songs are of course entirely different, that of juncidis being merely a series of sharp clicks, and no one who has once heard both could possibly confuse the two. The display flights are also noticeably different, though the authorities content themselves with saying that they are much the same; in actual fact the display flight of exilis is faster, smoother (not nearly so jerky and undulat- ing), and the circling is done at a considerably greater height. Also it is generally much more sustained : or so I thought, staring up at a small speck in a blazing sky for what seemed an eternity, to mark where the bird eventually came to earth. The flight-action of exilis consists of a series of very rapid wing-beats followed by a period with wings closed, giving* rise to a gentle undulation. The female I saw but seldom. As Stuart Baker writes ( Nidif . Ind. Birds ii, 380) she usually gets up, flies straight and low for 50 yards or so, and drops back into the grass; but I did on one occasion see the female rise up to the male in the course of his display flight and after they had flown side by side for a short period, both uttering the characteristic note, they both dropped back to the grass close by, where I shot the female after missing the male (I assume it was a female, but the specipien was too badly damaged to be sexed). It would round off this account to describe the finding of a nest but in this I failed. By the nth July the grass was dense and 5 ft. high, and it might have taken days to track down a nest; that the birds were breeding there can be little doubt. In the first week of August I saw and heard several birds calling over the high grass east of Kichha station, about 10 miles south of Lalkua, in an area I had worked carefully in the cold weather without seeing exilis. It may therefore be a summer immigrant from further east ; people seldom visit the Tarai (notorious for its malaria) in the rains, which would account for this species having been overlooked in this area in the past. I suspect that it is local but widely distributed in the Tarai during the rains. Another interesting species breeding in the chaor is the^ Eastern Moustached Sedge Warbler ( Lusciniola melanopo gon rnimica Madarasz). According to Stuart Baker many specimens have been obtained from Etawah, but there seems to be no record of its breed- ing in the U.P. I saw only one bird, but from the way it fussed round me with a grub in its bill it obviously had a nest-full of young closeby. As it worked round me in a quarter circle at a distance of about 10 yards, scolding gently the while I had excellent views with glasses at different angles in a good light ^ and although I 296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV had never previously seen this species I had no difficulty in identi- fying it as the Sedge Warbler from its distinctive colouration. There were several reed-like clumps of grass nearby, and if I had had the time to search I believe the nest would have been found in one of them. C/o Imperial Bank of India, B. E. SMYTH I ES, Naini Tal, Burma Forest Service. August 8, 1943. IV. — -OCCURRENCE OF THE GOLDEN ORIOLE AND COMMON CUCKOO IN SIND. Both the Indian Golden Oriole and the Common Cuckoo occur in Sind at the time of seasonal migrations. As they rarely come under observation, may I add the following to the few existing records. 1. Indian Golden Oriole (Oriolus oriolus kundoo) lathonia issoea Argyreia cuneata — nellygherrya ... — sericea Arisaema barnesii Leschenaultii . peltatum — — tortuosum Artamus fuscus Artemisia parviflora Arthocnemum indicum Artocarpus integri folia... Asio flammeus Asota caricse Asparagus gonociados ... — racemosus ... Aspidoparia morar Page 448 455 430 449 449 420 443 443 405 405 405 405 405 405 420 546 539 540 582 582 407 445 391 517 391 391 548 601 446 446 446 459 459 459 459 98, 472 444 434 451 580 417 457 457 409, 410 INDEX OF SPECIES xvi Page Page Astur b. badius... 584 Brachystelma laevigatum ... ... 495 Asystasia violacea ... 448 Breynia patens ... 451 Atella alcippe mercea 549 Bridelia retusa ... 451 phalanta 548 Bruguiera conjugata ... ... 432 Athene brama brama 581 — __ cylindrica ... 432 Atylosia rugosa 441 Bubo bubo bengalensis ... 580 Avicennia alba 431 — nipalensis ... 581 — marina 432 Buchnera hispida ... 447 — — officinalis 432 Bucia athertoni ... 578' Bagarius bagarius 409 Buettneria herbacea 439 yarellii 326 Bulbophyillum fusco-parpureum 452 Ban alia thrysi flora 450 Bupleurum virgatum ... 443 Barbus jerdoni 409 Burmannia caelestis ... 451 — ■ — - — (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis... 523 Butastur teesa ... ... 583 (Puntius) carnaticus 521 Butea frondosa ... 441 chagunio 524 Byblia ilithyia ... 549 chillinoides 522. Byronopsis laciniosa ... ... 442 — curmuca 525 Caesalpinia hirsuta 441 526 44.1 524 ‘ill 433 (Tor) khudree var. " " ilUgCt . e sepiaria ... 441 malabaricus — 527 Calandrella brachydactyla ... 405 — -mussullah 409 Calanthe masuca 453 Barilius bendelisis 409, 410 Calceolaria mexicana ... ... ... 447 — — gatensis 409, 410 Callicarpa arborea ... 420 (Opsarius) bola 533 lanata 449 — — — tileo 534 Campanula fulgens ... 445 Barleria Gibsoni 448 Canscora angustifolia ... ... 446 - in vnl iipt*53 t 44q oncimVincQ 246 ; HI VUiU^iata • •• ««• ••• ‘*•±8 448 446 1 aMUX ilOiCVilCt. etc 1 • • • m t> Batrachostomus javensis hodgsoni ... ‘±‘±0 593 — : — diffusa ... ... 446 Bauhinia variegata 441 --.-—minor ... 446 Baza jerdoni ... ... 584 — trichotoma ... ... 446 Beiamcanda chinensis 457 Cappais aphylla ••• 408 Begonia malabarica 442 Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus 580 Belenois m. mesentina 539 — — — indicus indicus ... 580 Bibos banteng birmanicus 374 • — - macrourus ... 580 — gaurus ... 374,587,590 Caralluma (Boucerosia) lasiantha 446 Bidens pilosa 444 Caramus gamblei ... 459 Biophytum Candolleanum 439 Cardamine africana ... 438 439 T-» ir-t'llfo 438 '.1UL11 tec • •• Bischofia javanica 451 Carica papaya var. flava ... 602 Blepharisperma snbsessile 444 — — — var. travancorica 603 Blumea membranacea ... 444 Carissa carandas ... ... 419 Boga pitia 327 Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus 403 Bombax malabaricum 439 Caryota urens ... 459 Borreria ocymoides 444 Cassia curiculata ... 408 — stricta 444 — grandis .., ... ... . 486 Brachypternas benghalensis, Castilloa elastica ... 468 puncticoliis 575 Catia catia ... 532 Brachypteryx major albiventris 393 Catopsilia crocale ... ... 539 INDEX OF SPECIES xVii Page Cayratia pedata ... ... 440 tenuifolia ... 440 Celosia sp. ... 450 Centropus bengalensis (bengalensis ’)• 577 Centropus sinensis parroti ... ... 577 Cephalostigma flexuosum ... 445 Cercomela fusca ... ... 472 Cere us ... 315 Ceriops Roxburghiana ... ... 432 Ceropegia candelabrum ... 446 elegans ... 446 — - — — fimbriifera 446 pusilla 446 Certhia himalayana limes 518 Ceryle rudis ... 578 Cethosia nietneri mahratta ... 549 Chsetura gigantea 579 Chaptia aenea malayensis ... 399 Charadrius dubius ... 474 Charaxes fabius fabius 486 polyxena imna 545 Chasalia curviflora 444 Cheela argentea 535 Chenopodium album 423 Chilades laius 417 Chilasa clytia clytia 537 Chilochista pusilla ... ... 454 Chlorophytum laxum ... 457 malabaricum 457 Chloropsis aurifrons 392, 471 — — jerdoni 392 Chomelia asiatica 443 Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus cherso- nesus • «« 575 Chrysoglossum maculatum 453 Chrysomma sinensis 392 Cinclus cinclus leucogaster 519 pallasii tenuirostris 519 406 . 406 407 407 419 . 440 583 583 584 583 584 58 i 531 Cinnyris asiatica asiatica lotenia ... minima — zeylonica Cinnamomum camphora Cipadessa baccifera Circaetus ferox ... ... ■ gallicas Circus aeruginosus — macrourus — ■ — - melanoleucus ... — ■■ pygargus, Cirrhina cirrhosa Page Cirrhina mirgala ... 530 reba 409, 410 Cirrochroa thais thais 548 Cirrhopetalum fimbriatum ... 452 - — Gamblei 453 • — — — — — Proudlockii ... 453 Cissampelos Pareira ... 438 Cissus pallida ... 440 Cisticola exilis erythrocephals... 399 juncidis salimali ... 399 Clamator coromandus ... 576 — jacobinus jacobinus 576 Clematis gouriana ... 438 wightiana ... 438 Clerodendron infortunatum ... 449 inerme 432 _ — =. — — - serratum 449 spp 420 Cochiospermum gossypium 438 Coelogyne nervosa 453 odoratissima 453 Colebrookia oppositifolia ... 420 Coleus < 420 — *■ — - barbatus 449 — malabaricus 449 Colias hyale nilgiriensis 540 Collocalia fuciphaga 593 — unicolor ...' 579 Colocasia antiquorum ... 459 Colotis amata modesta 540 Commelina attenuata 458 — . — benghalensis 458 clavata 458 indehiscens 458 Kurzii 458 obliqua 458 — — undulata 458 Convolvulus flavus 447 Conyza stricta 444 Copsychus saularis 394 Coracias benghalensis indica ... 577 Corvus corax lawrencei 512 cornix sharpei 513 — corone orientalis ... 512 frugilegus frugilegus ... ... 513 macrorhynchus 390 monedula soemmeringii • •• %J 1 0 514 — — — spendens 390 — - splendens 474 - — — - — zugmayeri ... ... 513 xviii INDEX OF SPECIES Costus speciosus Crepis acaulis Crinum lati folium Crotolaria calycina — dubia laevigata mysorensis — ovalifolia umbellata Cryptolepis Buhanani Cryptotegia grandiflora Cuculidae Cuculus canorus micropterus Culicicapa ceylonensis ceylonensis Cupha erymanthis maja Curculigo orchioides Curcuma neilgherrensis pseudomontana Cuscuta reflexa ... Cyanosylvia sueicica Cyanotis arachnoidea cristata ... fasciculata _ — - — tuberosa — — villosa ... Cynbidium aloi folium Cynanchum pauciflorum Cynoglossum denticulatum var. ze lanicum Cynthia erota saloma ... Cypsiurus parvus Cyrestis thyodamas indica Dalbergia spinosa Danais aglea aglea Datura Decaschistia crotonifolia Deilephila nerii Delias eucharis Dendrobium heterocarpum — — — — macrostachyum — nanum - nutans Dendrocitta leucogastra vagabunda Dendronanthus indicus Denis uliginosa Dermochelys coriacea .. Desmodium gangeticum — — — - evrans parvula Page 456 444 457 440 440 440 440 440 440 445 408 473 576 576 396 548 457 456 456 447 472 458 458 45g 458 458 453 445 446 548 579 547 433 541 420 439 420 539 452 452 452 452 390 514 390 404 433 427 441 441 Desmodium laxiflorum — polycarpum Scalpe triquetrum Dicaeum concolor concolor ... erythrorhynchos erythr hynchos Dichoceros bicornis Dichoptera cuneata Dicrurus coerulescens coerulescens longicaudatus rnacrocercus Didymocarpus tomentosa Dillinia retusa Dioscorea bulbifera oppositifolia — pentaphylla tomentosa Diplocentrum recurvum Discophora 1. lepida Disperis neilgherrensis Dissemurus paradiseus malabaricus Doleschallia bissaltide malabarica Dopatrium junceum Dorstenia indica Dracaena terniflora Drosera peltata Dryobates hardwickii cinereigula m. mahrattensis Dryophis mycterizans Dumasia villosa Dumetia hyperythra albogularis Dysophylla auricularia Elaeagnus Reloga Elanus coeruleus Elephantopus scaber Elephas maximus indicus Elettaria Cardamomum Elymnias hypermnestra caudata Embelica officinalis Emberiza melanocephala Emilia scabra sonchifolia Entada scandens Epipogum nutans Erechthites valerianifolia Eremopteryx grisea grisea Ergolis ariadne indica Eria baccata Dalzelli INDEX OF SPECIES Page Page Eria panciflora ... • •• 453 Garrulus Ianceolatus ... 515 polystachya ... 453 Gentiana pedicillata ... 446 Eriboea athamas agrarius 486, 546 Geodorum densiflorum ... 454 Eriocaulon collinum ... 459 Geokichla citrina 395 - i i 459 . wardii thwaitesii • • • 459 Girardinia zeylanica sJsJsJ 451 Eriolaena Hookeriana ... 439 Glareola lactea 474 Eriopetalum laevigatutn 495 Glaucidium radiatum 581 Erythropus amurensis ... 582 Globba bulbifera 456 Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus 474, 576 Glochidion velutinum ... 451 Eugenia bracteata 442 Gloriosa superba 457 javanica 468 Glyphodes unionalis ... 425 Eulophia nuda 453 — — vertumnalis ... 425 pratensis ... 453 Glyptothorax annandalei 409, 411 Eumyias albicaudata ... 396 madraspatanum. 409, 411 — thalassima ... 472 Gomphocarpus laevigatus 495 Euonymus dichotomus ... 440 Gomphostemma Heyneanum ... ... 450 Eupatorium glandulifera ... 445 Gracula religiosa indica ... 401 Euphorbiaceae 315 Graphium doson ... 415 Euphorbia bojori 316, 319 Graucalus javensis ... 398 oristata 451 Grewia tiliaefolia ... 439 — — — — euphorbia ... 315 Guizotia abyssinica ... 445 — — — — — — officinarum ... 315 Gymnorhis xanthocoilis ... 473 1 pViAn iti o 320 ... _____ xaniiiucoms. Rothiana ... 451 Gyps fulvus ... ... 581 Euploea core core ... 541 — — - indicus ... 581 Euproctis lunata ... 419 Habenaria affinis ... ... 455 Euripus consimilis meridionalis ... 546 — barbata ... 455 Euthalia garuda meridionalis ... 487 — digitata ... 455 __ lepidea miyana ... 546 — — Heyneana ... 455 — — telchinia ... 549 _ longicalcarata ... 455 Exacum bicolor ... 446 _____ ovalifolia ... 456 Excoecaria agallocha ... ... 433 — Perrottetiana ... 456 Falco chicquera 582 plantaginea ... 455 jugger ... 581 — rariflora ... 455 peregrinus ... 581 — — — sp. nov ... 455 — — tinnumculus ... 582 Haematornis cheela ... 583 Ficus arnottiana ... ... 451 Halcyon smyrnensis 475, 578 — glomerata ... 451 Haliastur indus ... 583 giomerosus ... 408 Harpactes fasciatus malabaricus ... 579 Flemingia grahamiana ... 441 Hebomoia glaucippe australis ... 540 nilgheriensis ... 441 Hedychium coronarium ... 456 strobilifera ... 441 Helichrysum buddieioides ... 444 Fodina pallula 424 Helicteres Isora ... 439 Fragraea obovata ... 446 Heliotropium Curassavicum ... ... 434 Franklinia gracilis albogularis . . • 400 Hemicircus canente cordatus ... ... 575 Galerida malabarica ... 406 Hemiprocne coronata 473 , 579 Gardneria ovata ... 446 Hemipus picatus ... 472 Garra bicormuta 409, , 411 — _____ picatus ... 397 — 1 — gotyla 409, 411 Heracieum candolleanum ... 443 Garrulax delesserti 391 Herpestes vitticollis ... 592 2 INDEX OE SPECIES XX Page Hestia lynceus malabaricus ... 541 Heteropoda sepunctata 493 — — venatoria ... 493 Hevea brasiiiensis ... 317 Hibiscus abelmoschus ... 439 angularis ... 439 . — ... .--Lampas ... 439 Solandra 439 Hieraetus fasciatus 582 pennatus ... 582 Hierococcyx sparverioides 576 varius 576 Hippolais caligata 400 Hippotion boerhaviae ... ... 421 Hirundo daurica 404 javanica domicola ... 404 — rustica 403 smithii ... 404 Holostemma annulare ... 445 Hemonoea riparia ... 451 Hoploplerus duvaucellu 474 Hoya pauciflora ... 437, 445 pendula ... 445 Huphina nadina remba ... 539 - — nerissa evagete 539 Hydrocotyle javanica ... 443 Hypericum japonicum ... 439 mysorense ... ... 439 Hypocolius ampelinus orientalis 517 Hypolimnas misippus ... ... 547 Hypothymis azurea styani 397 Hypoxis aurea 457 Ichthyophaga iclithygaetus 583 Ictinaitus malayensis ... 582 Ilattia octo 423 llysanthes hyssopioides ... 447 — veronicaefolia ... 447 Impatiens Balsamina ... ... v 439 - — — — cuspidata 439 — fruticosa 439 Goughii 439 — scapiflora ... 439 Indicapus sylvaticus ... 579 lndigofera pulchella ... 441 lole icterica 393 Iphiginia indica ... 458 Ipomaea spp. ... 420 Irena puella puella 401 Ixias marianne 540 Ixora Notoniana 443 lynx torquilla ... 575 Page Jasminum brevilobum ... ... 445 flexile ... 445 Ritchiei ... 445 — Rottlerianum ... 445 Jatropha ... ... 316 gossypifolia ... ... 502 multifida ... 504 pandurifolia ... ... 502 — — podagrica ... 502 J uncus prismatocarpus ... 459 Jussieua suffruticosa ... ... 442 Justicia Betonica ... 449 diffusa ... 449 procumbens ... 449 — — - — nilgherrensis ... ... 449 simplex ... 449 Kalanchoe Bhidei ... 442 glandulosa ... ... ... 442 — - — laciniata ... 442 olivacea ... 442 Kallima horsfieldi ... 487 philarchus horsfieldii... ... 548 Ketupa Zeylonensis ... 580 Kittacincla malabarica • •• 394, 472 Klugia Notoniana ... 448 Knoxia mollis ... 443 - — Wightiana ... 443 Kydia calycina ... 439 Labeo ariza 409, 411 — calbasu ... ... 529 kawrus 409, 410 — rohita ... 527 Lagenaudra toxicaria ... ... 459 Laggera alata ... 444 Lagostroemia Flos-reginae ... ... 424 indica ... 419 Lalage sykesi sykesi ... ... 398 Lanius cristatus ... 397 — schach caniceps ... 497 — vittatus ... ... 397 Lantana Camara ... 420 indica ... ... 449 Lasianthus coffeoides ... ... ... 444 Laubuca laubuca ... 409, 410 Leea crispa ... 440 Lemna polyrrhiza • 0. ... 459 Leptosia nina nina ... 538 Lethe europa ragalva ... ... 543 Leucas hirta ... 455 marrubioides ... 450 montana ... 449 INDEX OF SPECIES xxi Page Leucas prostrata ... 450 zeylanica ... ... 449 Leucocirca aureola ... ... 397 — pectoralis ... ... 397 Libium neelgherrense ... ... 457 Libythea lepita lepitoides ... ... 549 Ligustrum Perrotetti ... 445 Limenitis procris undifragus ... 546 Limrophila gratioloides ... ... 447 — hirsuta ... 447 Linocera intermedia ... 445 Linum mysorense ... 439 Liparis atropurpurea ... ... 452 odorata ... ... 452 platyphylla ... ... 452 — Wightiana ... 452 Lobelia excelsa ... 445 nicotianaefolia ... .. 445 trialata ... 445 — - — - trigona ... 445 Lonicera Leschenaultii ... 443 Lophophanes melanolophus ... 516 rubidiventris ... ... 474 — r. rufonuchalis ... 516 Lophotriorchis kienerii ... ... 5S2 Loranthus bracteatus ... ... 450 cordifolius ... ... 450 coutallensis ... 450 — - intermedius ... ... 450 neelgherrensis ... 450 recur vus ... 450 — — tomentosus ... ... 450 Wallichianus ... 450 Luisia tenuifolia ... 454 teretifolia ... 454 Lumnitzera racemosa ... ... 433 Lymantria nigra... ... 417 Macaca silenus ... 591 Machlolophus xanthogenys travancoreensis ... 390 Mallotus Beddomei ... 451 Mangifeia indica 419, 468 Manihot glaziovii ... 317 Manis crassicaudata ... 592 Mappia oblonga ... 440 tomentosa ... 440 Melanitis leda ismene ... 486, 544 ■ phedima varaha ... 601 Meliosma Arnottiana ... ... 440 Melothria amplexicaulis ... ... 442 ’ leiosperma ... ... 442 Melothria perpusilla Merops leschenaulti orientalis — superciliosus javanicus Meyenia Hawtayneana Michelia Champaca Micropternus brachyurus Micropus affinis — melba bakeri ... Microscelis psaroides ganeesa... — p. psaroides Microtarses poioicephalus Mieranthus oppositifolius Milvus migrans ... Mirafra affinis ceylonensis - — ■ javanica Miscrostyiis sp — - — - stocksii ■ — ■ - vericolor ... Mola mola . Mollugo pentaphylla Molpastes cafer cafer leucogenys bumii ... — — leucotis... Monochloria vaginalis Monticola cinclorhyncha — solitaria Motacilla alba cinerea citreola flava beema — maderaspatensis Motacillidae ... Munia malacca malacca Munronia Wallichii Murraya exotica Musa superba Muscicapa parva albicilla Muscicapula pallipes pallipes — — rubeculoides tickellise tickelliae Musssenda laxa ... Mycalesis anaxias anaxias Myophonus horsfieldii Myriophyllum intermedium ... Myriostachya Wightiana Mystacoleucus ogilbii Mystus aor bleekeri montanus Naia tripudians Page ... 442 ... 577 473, 577 ... 577 ... 448 ... 438 ... 575 ... 579 ... 579 ... 393 ... 518 ... 393 ... 448 ... 583 ... 406 ... 406 ... 452 ... 452 ... 452 ... 429 ... 442 ... 393 ... 518 ... 518 ... 458 395, 472 ... 395 ... 404 ... 404 ... 404 ... 404 ... 404 ... 473 ... 402 ... 440 ... 440 ... 456 ... 395 ... 396 ... 396 ... 396 ... 443 ... 542 ... 395 ... 442 ... 434 ... 409 ... 409 ... 409 409, 401 ... 480 INDEX OF SPECIES Page Page Nacaduba congregates ... 492 Parnassia mysorense ... 442 Nemachilichthys ruppelli ... ... 409 Parthenos sylvia virens ... ... 546 Nemachilus anguilla ... 409, 411 Pares major bokharensis 515 AOQ 411 516 Neophron perenopterus ... 581 LaoviiiiiU cubib — intermedius ... ... 516 Neptis columella nilgirica ... 547 — — - — — stupas 390 Nervilia aragoana ... ... 455 ziaratensis ... 515 — biflora ... ... 455 — — palustris korejewi 516 monantha ... 455 Parvetta breviflora var. glaberrima ... 443 Nicotiana tabacum ... ... 420 — — ~ — - tomentosa ... 443 Nisaitus nipalensis ... ... 583 Passer domesticus ... ... 403 Notonia grandiflora ... 444 Passiflora edulis ... ... 442 Nucifraga caryocatactes multipunctata 515 Pastor roseus ... ... 401 Nyctanthes arbor-tristis 420 Pathysa antiphates naira ... 538 Oberonia Brunoniana ... ,,, ... 451 — - nomius nomies 00 co LO ,601 iridifolia 451 Pedicularis zeylanica ... 447 ■ — - Lindleyana 451 Pediculoides ventricosus ... 465 verticilla ta ... 451 Pellorneum reficeps ... ... 392 Ochromela nigrorufa ... ... 396 Peperomia dindigulensis 450 Oenothera rosea ... 442 ■ ■ — — Heyneana ... ... 450 Oldenlandia dichotoma... ... ... 443 portulacoides ... ... 450 herbacea ... ... ... 443 Pernis ptilorhynchus ... ... 584 Olea gland ulifora ... ... 445 Pericrocotus flammeus ... ... 398 Ophiorrhiza hirsutula ... ... 443 — » peregrines ... 398 Ophlopogon intermedius ... ... 456 — speciosus ... 472 Oreocincla dauma neilghiriensis ... 395 Peristylus aristatus ... 456 Orioles oriolus ... 472 — goody eroides... ... 456 — kundoo ... ... 401 — spiralis 456 xanthomes maderaspatensis 401 - — • — — Stocksii ... 456 Orsotrioena medus mandata ... ... 544 Phaseolus Mungo ... 441 Orthosipon diffusus ... ... 449 Phcenicopterus ruber ... 476 Orthotonius sutorius ... ... 399 Phoenicurus ochurus ... 394 Osbeckia cupularis ... ... 442 Phoenix humilis... ... 459 Osteochilus nashii ... 4 09, 411 Phyllanthus simplex 451 Otocompsa jocosa ... ... 393 Phylloscopus affiris 400 Otus bakkamcena ... 581 ■ — magnirostris 400 Oxalis corniculata ... ... 439 — — occipitalis occipitalis ... 400 — pubescens ... 439 trochiloides viridanus ... 400 Pancratium parvum ... 457 Pica pica bactriana 514 Pandanus tectorius 459 Picus chlorolophus chlorigaster 574 Pantoporia nefte inara... ... ... 546 — vittata ... 473 Papilio buddha 537 ™ xanthopygfeus ... ... 574 — — — crino 537 Pieris canidia can is ... ... 538 — demolion liomedon ... 538 Pilea trinerva ... 451 d. demoleus ... ... 538 Pimpinella monocia ... ... 443 — dravidarum ... ... 537 Piper hymenophyllum ... ... 450 - — ■ — ■ helenus daksha... ... 538 Piprisoma agile 407 — paris tamilana . . . ... 537 Pitta brachyura 407, 473 — — p. polymnestor ... ... ... 537 Plantathera Susannae ... 456 - polytes romulus ... ... 538 Plectranthus Coetsa ... 449 Pareronia c. ceylanica ... ... ... 540 coleoides ... ... 449 INDEX OF SPECIES xxiii Page Plectranthus nilgherricus 449 Plectronia didyma ... 443 Ploceidae 472 Ploceus philippinus philippinus ... 402 Pogostemon parviflorus 606 — pubescens ... 449 ■ speciosus ... 449 Poinsettia pulcherrima ... 320 Polydesma umbricola ... 424 Poly gala a rill at a 438 chinensis 438 persica riaefolia 438 rosmarinfolia 438 Polygonum barbatum ... 450 chinense 450 flaccidum 450 glabrum 450 plebejum 450 punctatum ... 450 Polystachya purpurea ... 454 Pomatorhinus horsfieldii 471 — maderaspatensis 39 L — — travancoreensis 391 Porthesia xanthorrhcea 418 Portulaca oleracea ... 438 Precis hierta hierta 548 Prinia inornata franklinii ... 401 socialis socialis ... 400 sylvatica sylvatica ... 401 Prioneris sita ... 540 Procris Wightiana 437, 451 Procutropiichthys taakree 409 Pseudogyps bengalensis 581 Psittacula columboides 577 - cyanocephala cyanocephala 577 — • krameri manillensis... ... 577 Psychotrla bisulcata 443 elongata ... 443 Thwaitesii ... 443 Pterocarpns Marsupium 441 Pukki ranga ... 327 Pycnonotidse 472 Pycnonotus gularis 393 luteolus luteolus ... 393 xantholaemus 393 Pycnospora hedysaroides ... 441 Pyrrhocorax graculus forsythi ... 515 — — p. himalayanus ... ... 515 Radermachera xylocarpa ... 448 Ramphalcyon capensis 578 Rana crassa ... ... ... ... 480 Rana hexadactyla tigrina Randia Brandisii Ranunculus Wallichianus Ranzania — laevis Raphidophora pertusa Ratufa indica maxima Rauwolfia densiflora Reidia floribunda Remiz coronatus Remusatia vivipara Rhinacanthus communis Rhineodon typus Rhizophora mucronata aemulorum ... agapetum apodectum arizelum asperulum Beanianum Beesianum bullatum — butyricum calcipbila calostrotum ... campylogynum cephalanthum cerasinum chamaetortnm — ■— chrysaeum — chrysolepis crassum — crebreflorum ... — — crinigerum decorum — Delavayi — — dendricola dendrocharis ... eclecteum eriogyrum eucbaites — — — — facetum — — — • — fulgens — — Genestierianum — habrotrichum — — - — hylaeum hypalepidotum — — imperator * insculptum — kasoense Page 484 480 443 438 428 429 459 591 445 451 516 459 449 426 432 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 571 5 7\ XXIV INDEX OF SPECIES Page Rhododendron keleticum 571 Kyawi 571 — — leptolhrium 571 , magnificum ... ... 571 — — — manipurense 571 ,. martinianum ... ... 571 — — megeratum ... ... 571 megacalyx 571 -• microphyton ... ,. 571 micromeres 571 . myrtilloides ... ... 571 j neriiflorum ... ... 571 ■ niphargum ... ... 571 __ — notatum ... ... 571 . — — — pankimense 572 . — — praestans 572 protistum ... ... 572 pruniflorum 572 ; — pumilum ... ... 572 - — — repens 572 _____ rhaibocarpum ... 572 riparium 572 — — — saluenense 572 — — seinghkuense ... ... 572 selense 572 — — — sidereum 572 simsii 572 — sino-grande 572 sino-nuttallii 572 stenaulum 572 — — Stuartianum 572 — * suaveolens 572 Taggianum 572 — tanas tylum 572 - — — tarorensese 572 — telopeum ... ... 572 — tephropeplum ... ^72 timeteum ^72 trichocladum 572 — triflorum 572 — tsarongense 572 _____ vaccinioides 572 j vesiculiferum 572 — virgatum 572 — — xanthostephanum (aureum) 572 Rhopocichia atriceps bourdilloni ... 392 Rhopodytes viridirostris ... ... 576 Rhynchosia cyanosperma 441 — rufescens 441 Rhynchostylis lati folia 454 Ricinus communis Riparia concolor — rupestris Rita hastata — — puvimentata Rohtee vigorsii Rubia cordifolia ... Rubus ellipticus fulvus Ruellia Beddomei Rungia parviflora Saccolabium ierdonianum — — -- — - — pulchellum sp. nov. ... Salicornia brachiata Salmo gairdnerii ... ... — iridens — — irideus ■■ rivularis shasta Sanogyps calvus Sarcolobus carinatus ... Sarcostemma Brunonianum Satyrium nepalense Saxicola caprata nilgiriensis Saxicoloides fulicata fulicata Schefflera stellata Wallichiana ... Schiomatorhynchus nukta Schoenicola platyura ... Scilia indica Scutellaria Colebrookiana violacea Senecio corymbosus — Edgeworthii intermedins Sesuvium Portulacastrum Shuteria vestita Sid a shombi folia Slderidis yu Siegesbeckia orientalis ... Silonopangasius childrenii Sinoxylon sudanicum ... Sitta-caesia cashmirensis frontalis Sitla frontalis frontalis • l.leucopsis neumayer subcoeruleus tephronota Smilax aspera prolifera index of species XXV Page Smithia gracilis ... .... 441 — - — — hirsuta ... 441 Solanum spp ... 420 denticulatum ... 447 giganteum ... 447 • indicum ... 447 — nigrum ... 447 — torvum ... 447 Sonneratia acida ... ... 432 apetala ... 432 Sopubia trifida ... 447 Spathius critolaus 461, 465 Spathodea campanulata ... 420 Sphodropsis cnesipus ... ... 595 Spilanthus acmelia ... 444 Spizaelus cirrhatus ... 533 Stacliytapheta indica ... ... 420, 449 Stephania japonica ... 438 Stereospermum ... 420 Sterna albifrons ... 474 melanogaster = ... 474 Striga euphrasioides ... 447 — lutea ... 447 Strix indranee ... 580 — — - ocellata ... 580 Strobilanthes callosus ... ... 605 foliosus ... ... 448 Heyneanus ... 443 — — — — — - ixiocephalus ... 606 kunthianus 448, 494 - lurid us ... ... 448 perfoliatus ... 606 — — pulneyensis ... 448 Sturnia malabarica blythii ... 401 malabarica ... 401 Sturnidae 472 Suaeda maritima • •• ... 434 ■ nudiflora ... 434 Sylvia hortensis ... 400 Symitha nolatella ... 423 Symplocos spicata ... 445 Tabernaemontana coionaria ... 425 Taccocua 1. leschenaultii ... 576 Tajuria cippus ... ... 487 Tarsiger brunnea brunnea ... 394 Tchitrea paradisi paradisi ... 397 Tecoma grandiflora ... ... 420 Tectona grandis ... 420 Telchinia violae ... 549 Temenuchus pagoda lum ... 401 Tephrodornis gularis sylvicola ... 397 Page Tephrodornis pondiceriana pondiceri- ana ... 398 Tephrosia tinctoria ... 441 Terias hecabe simaluta ... 602 libythea ... ... 539 Terminalia arjuna ... 468 orenulata ... ... 442 — tomentosa ... ... 419 Terpsiphone paradisi ... ... 472 Thaiictrum Dalzellii ... 438 saniculaeforme ... 438 Thereiceryx viridis ... 575 — Z. Zeylanicus ... 575 Thunbergia fragrans ... 448 Tichodroma muraria ... ... ... 518 Tockus birostris ... ... 578 . — griseus ... 578 Trewia nudiflora ... 468 Trichodesma zeylanicum ... ... 446 Trichosanthes villosula ... 442 Tridax procumbens ... 444 Trochalopterum jerdoni fairbanki ... 391 Troglodytes troglodytes subsp ... 519 Troides helena minos ... ... ... 537 Tros aristolochiae ... ... 537 hector ... 537 jophon pandiyana ... ... 537 Turdoides somervillei malabaricus ... 391 Turdus simiiimus ... ... 472 - bourdilloni ... 394 Tylophora capparidifolia ... 445 fasiculata ... ... 445 Tyto alba stertens .... ... 580 longimembris ... 580 Upupa epops ... 578 Urenalobata • o« 439, 465 Uroloncha kelaarti jerdoni ... ... 402 - — — malabarica ... ... ... 403 — - — - — — punctulata lineoventer ... 403 — — - — — - striata striata ... ... 402 Ursus arctos istabeliius ... • 0# ... 585 Utricularia graminifolia... ... ... 447 — — — — — striatula ... ... 447 • — uliginosa ... ... 447 Vanda parvifl ora ... ... 454 Vandellia pedunculata ... ... ... 447 V anessa cardui ... ... 548 Varanus minitor 479, 600 Ventilago bombaiensis ... • •• ... 496 madraspatana 00. ... 497 Vernonie cinrerea ... ... 444 xxvi INDEX OF SPECIES Page Page Vernonie divergens 444 Wenlandia Notoniana ... 443 Monosis ... 444 Xantholaema haemacephala indica ... 575 Vespa cincta 486 rubricapilla ... 576 orientalis 486 Xylocarpus obovatus ... 433 Vicoa indica ... 444 Yptbima asterope roahratta ... ... 543 Viola serpens 438 Zetides sarpedon teredon ... 538 Viscum angulatum 450 Zeuxine longilabris ... 455 articulatum 450 Zingiber Cassumunar ... 456 4 Cf) ——————— fimPitlfl lie Vitex altisimum 449 - LI cilio ••• ••• zerumbet *1«JU ... 456 — Negundo 420 Zipoetis satis ... 544 Vivia innominata ... r. . 575 Zizyphns rugosa ... 440 Wallangonia attu ... ... 409 } Zosterops palpelrosa nilgiriensis ... 406 PRINTED AT 111E DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS (P.T.C. NO. Q.H. MS. 5)— 5-12-47. C1091 Vol. XLIV, No. 3. APRIL, 1944. Price , Rs , 12 net THE JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society. EDITED BY REV. J. F. CA1US. S.J., F.L.S. S. H. PRATER, O.Q.E.. M.L.A.. C.M.Z.S., AND C. McCANN, F.L.S. PUBLISHED BY THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 6. Apollo Street, Bombay. London Agents : DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY) 212, SHAFTESBURY AVENUE LONDON, W.C, 2. THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS. Birds. Game Bird* of India, Vol. II. (Woodcock, Snipe, Bustards, and Sandu rouse) i st Edition. 42 (Price to Members Rs . 30). Game Birds of India, Vol. III. Pheasants, 1st Edition. R*. 32. (Price to Members Rs. 24). Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali, with many colour and black and white plates, 3rd edition, revised and enlarged. (Now in the press.) R*. |g, (Price to Members Rs. 12-8). Cuckoo Problems, by E. C. Stuart Baker, illustrated. R8, 25. (Price to Members Rs. 20). Snakes. Identification of Poisonous Snakes— Hanging Wall Chart, 30^X40". (Revised in 1940). Rs. 8. holding Pocket Chau. Re> \.\2t Snakes of Bombay Island and Salsette. by S. H. Prater, C.M.Z.S. Re. 1. Miscellaneous. Game Pishes of Bombay, the Deccan and the Neighbouring Districts. By Sir Reginald Spence, Kt., F.Z.S., and S. H. Prater, C.M.Z.S. With coloured and black and white illustrations. R#. 2. (Price to Members Re. 1-8). Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jackal, etc. Rs. 2*8. Wood-Destroying White Ants of the Bombay Presidency, by Joseph Assmuth, S.J. Re, 1, Back Numbers of the Journal. Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application. TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP. Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 10 and a Life Membership fee of Rs. 350. Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 10 and an annual subscrip- tion of Rs. 25. The subscription of members elected in October, November and December covers the period from the date of their election up till the end of the following year. MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA. The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers xtu pay the amount of the subscription, plus postage— in all Rs. 26-8-0 — to the Society in Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £2-0-6 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers — The National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLIV , No. 3 Page Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. Part XVI. By N. L. Bor, m.a., d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (With i coloured, 3 black and white plates and 3 text-figures) ... ... ... 315 Circumventing the Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in India. Part VI. By A. St. J. Macdonald. (With 4 plates and 2 text-figures) ... ... 322 Notes on Some Indian Birds. Part VIII. By E. H. N. Lowther, m.b.o.u., f.z.s. (With 12 plates) ... ... ... ... ... 355 A Black Leopard, an ordinary Leopard and a Good Bull Tsaing. By W. S. Thom ... ... ... ... ... ... 374 Where the Rainbow Ends. By Lt.-Col. R. B. Phayre, m.c. (With 2 plates) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 380 Occurrence of Birds in Madura District. By Edward G. Nichols ... 387 New Records of Fish from Poona. By M. Suter, d.sc. ... ... 408 The Early Stages of Indian Lepidoptera. Part XII. By D. G. Sevastopulo, f.r.e.s. ... ... ... ... ... ... 415 Some Whale Sharks and Sun Fishes captured off Ceylon. By P. E. P. Deraniyagala, m.a. (Cantab.), a.m. (Harvard), f.c.p., f.l.s., f.z.s. (With a plate and 2 text-figures) ... ... ... ... 426 The Estuarial Flora of the Godavary. By V. Venkateshwarlu, m.sc. (With- a map and 2 plates) ... ... ... ... ... 431 Notes on the Flowering Plants of the Billigirirangan Hills. By Edward Barnes ... ... ... ... ... ... 436 Biological Notes on Sinoxylon sudanicum Lesne and its parasites in * S. India. By P. N. Krishna Ayyar and V. Margabandhu. (With 2 graphs) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 460 OBITUARY : — Lt.-Col. A. H. Mosse ... ... ... ... ... ... 466 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES I. Occurrence of the Lion in Persia. By Lt.-Col. G. F. Heaney. 467 II. Tiger Claw Marks on Trees. By E. S. Simon ... ... 467 III. Wild Dogs attacking a Tiger. By W. Connell ... ... 468 IV. Elephants at Salt-Licks. By P. D. Stracey, i.f.s. ... ... 471 V. Additional Notes on the Birds in Betul District and surround- ing areas in the Central Provinces. By C. Hewetson, i.f.s. 471 VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. CONTENTS OF VoL XL/V, No . 3 Late Breeding of the Common House Crow ( Corvus splendens splendens). By S. N. Sen On the occurrence of the Rufous-bellied Crested Tit ( Lopho - phanes rubidiventris ) in the Simla Hills. By A. E. Jones. Food of the White-breasted Kingfisher ( Halcyon sniyrnensis fused). By S. N. Sen ... Green Pigeons in Swamp. By Capt. J. A. Hislop ... The Common Flamingo ( Phoenicopterus ruber ) An Appeal ... Notes on the evening flight of Geese and Duck. By Major General G. de La P. Beresford ... Moulting of Duck after arrival in India. By R. E. Parsons. The ‘Courtship’ of the Monitor Lizard ( Varanus monitor ). By Salim Ali. ( With a plate ) ... The Breeding Habits of the Cobra ( Naia tripudians Merrem) and the Green Whipsnake ( Dryophis mycterizans ). By E. S. Simon A Note on Rana crassa Jerdon, with extension of its range. By J. L. Bhaduri Further locality records of Rana hexadactyla Lesson in Bengal, with brief notes on its Tadpoles. By J. L. Bhaduri. Sap-drinking Butterflies. By M. Suter, d.sc. Black Ants raid honey bees. By K. R. Eates, f.z.s., m.b.o.u. Dragonflies in migration on the West Coast of India. By V. M. Vasu The Castor^ Plant ( Ricinus communis Linn.) and Lepidopterous larvae. By D. G. Sevastopulo, f.r.e.s. ... Hunting Wasp preying on Butterflies. By Capt. J. A. Hislop Re. Occurrence of the House Spider (H eteropoda venatoria) in the field. By T. V. Subrahmanyam, b.a. Flowering of Strobilanthes. By J. L. H. Williams ... The Genus Brachystelma R. Br. : An addition to the Flora of the Bombay Presidency. By C. McCann, f.l.s. (With a plate) ... ... ... .... Ventilago bombaiensis Dalz. By H. Santapau. s.j. ( With a plate ) Page 474 474 475 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 484 486 488 491 492 492 493 493 494 496 Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate XVI The Christmas Flower POINSETTIA PULCHERRIMA Grab. (£ nat. size ). TO MEMBERS It is regretted that owing to present-day conditions there has been unavoidable delay in publishing this Journal. Every effort is being made to maintain the standard of the Journal and to issue it to members as regularly as possible. The Index to Vol. XLIIS, Nos. 3 and 4, has been lost at sea and will be published later. EDITORS 2*138 M3M OT .noL’ibnoa ;sb-3ns-i n <\ os . niwc Kd :nhrvp *1 21 if c ;H gnldiHduq ni xfsb - ■ ■ b:... i '•-.•* aisn* ^d* nanism 03 abarn gnl^J- zi riofto viov.'i Jsfnuol zs giddmam c* Ji 3utz i bn.> .' 'Zo-sl J i f J X ,::oV ot xxbnt sril .19? ■.; borl ' iiduc 9C IHw xns css tis 2$OTIG3 JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society. 1944. Vol. XLtV No. 3. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS BY N. L. Bor, m.a., d.sc., f.l.s., i.f.s^ Forest Botanist AND M. B, Raizada, m.sc., Assistant Forest Botanist , Forest Research Institute , Dehra Dun . Part XVI [Continued from Vol. xliv, No. 2 (1943), p. 163), ( With 1 coloured and 3 black and white plates and 3 text-figures )» { Euphorbiaeeae. Pliny relates in his Natural History how this family got its name. It appears that the medicinal plant, now known as Euphorbia officinaruni, was called euphorbea by King Juba of Numidia, in honour of his favourite court physician Euphorbus. This enormous family, which contains about 200 genera and more than 4,500 species, extends over the whole of the surface of the earth with the exception of the arctic regions. The characters of the family are as follows : — ? The family includes large and small trees, undershrubs and herbs. Some species are succulent and resemble the genus Cereus of the Cactaceae. The juice is often milky, opaline or watery, sometimes acrid. The leaves are alternate, rarely opposite and whorled, petioled or sessile, nearly always simple, rarely trifoliate or pinnate, entire, 8id JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol JiUV toothed, lobed, varying considerably in shape, texture and indumen- tum. Inflorescence various, usually made up of unisexual flowers, often very inconspicuous, gathered into heads or profusely paniculate. Calyx of valvate or imbricate sepals are completely absent. Petal's absent or rarely present and sometimes united ( Jatropha ). Stamens 1-1,000 ; filaments free or connate. Anthers 2-eelled, sometimes 3-4 celled, erect or indexed in the bud, opening lengthwise by slits rarely by pores; rudimentary ovary usually present in the male flowers. Ovary superior, mostly 3-celled, styles free or united at the base, often again divided and papillose above ; ovules solitary or paired in each cell, pendulous from a funicle which is often enlarged. Disk usually present, circular or of separate glands. Fruit a capsule or drupe. Seeds often decorated with a fleshy appendage called a caruncle. The family is remarkable for a peculiar type of inflorescence called a cyathium which is often, and quite pardonably, mistaken by students for a single flower. In its typical form it consists of an envelope containing inside a number of stamens and a stalked 3- celled ovary. If each stamen is examined carefully with a lens it will be seen that it consists of a short stalk upon which is joined a filament carrying the anther cells. This structure is to be regarded as a single flower consisting of a single stamen seated upon a pedicel. Calyx and corolla are entirely absent. ries and coloured floral bracts Fig. i.—A. Inflorescence of E. Bojeri: are certainly adapted for cross- A typical cyathium showing one female fertilisation. in the tropics. In the evergreen forests the members of the family occur as lofty trees, shrubs and climbers. In the drier parts of the tropics they occur as out-and-out xeromorphs, resembling some cacti in form. A number of species of Euphorbia belong to the latter At the micropyle end of the ovary is to be found a fleshy growth called the obturator, another peculiarity of this family. The obtur- ator is a placental outgrowth whose purpose is to assist in conducting and to nourish the pollen tube. It disappears after fertilisation. Fertilisation is believed to take place mainly through the agency of Diptera, but there is little doubt that many other insects assist in the process. Some plants are anemophilous ; but those that possess necta- flower surrounded by many male flowers. B. of a filamem ,JHH ^uvio, upon a pedicel ; there is no floral envelope. As already stated this family has representatives over almost the whole of the surface of the earth, but it reaches its greatest luxuriance SOME BEAUTIFUL iEDIAN CUMBERS AND SHRUBS 3i? class and anybody who is familiar with the drier parts of India will remember the arborescent forms of this genus, which are so con- spicuous on the arid foothills of the Punjab and United Provinces and in other parts of Central and North-western India. These species of Euphorbia, with their prickly fleshy stems full of a white milky juice, are favourite hedge-plants in the more arid parts of Longitudinal section of the ovaries of two species of Euphorbiaceae showing : A . — obturator. B. — placenta. C. — ovule. The obturator is an outgrowth of the placenta and serves to guide the pollen tube to the micropyle. India. Their prickly stems and branches protect them from sheep, cattle and camels, and in heavily grazed areas they are often the only vegetation left upon the ground ; so that in certain parts of India they come to form a characteristic community of vegetation. Euphorbia antiquorum , a leafless thorny representative of this class* which is found all over India is known as ‘ Maharrik sha ’ in Sanskrit, apd is mentioned in the Old Testament. Euphorbiaceous plants are the source- of numerous substances and raw materials without which it is difficult to imagine life as we know it today. In the first place comes natural rubber which is obtained almost exclusively at the present time from the South American tree Heuea brasiliensis. The ‘Para’ rubber of commerce is that produced from this tree and it forms about 85 per cent of the world’s trade in this substance. Another tree of importance in this respect is Manihot glaziovii which is the source of Pernambuco or ‘Ceara’ rubber. m JouMAL, bo Mb Ay natural hist, society, v0i. xliV A close relation of the last named species is the Cassava or Tapioca tree, Manihot utilissima, which is of great importance in South America, its home, in parts of Africa, and in the Naga Hills, Assam on account of the swollen roots which contain a large quantity of starch. The remarkable fact about the swellings is that they contain sufficient hydrocyanic acid to render them extremely poisonous. This poison is liberated by the action of an enzyme on a glucoside, phaseolunatin, particularly when wilting occurs. Thus a fresh root which is free from hydrocyanic acid may be- come deadly poisonous if allowed to become stale. When a tuber is boiled the enzyme is destroyed and the hydrocyanic acid being soluble in water is carried away. As the acid is found chiefly in the cortical layer, peeling the tubers removes the danger of poison- ing to a large extent. Another plant of importance is the tree Emblica officinalis , the myrabolan tree. The fruit of this tree is much used in India where the juice of the fruit is taken internally for dyspepsia, dysentery and as a diuretic. It is used externally for conjunctivitis. Re- cently it has been discovered that the fruits of this tree are very rich in Vitamin C. Castor oil is obtained from Ricimis communis, another member of the family. It is believed that its native home is in Africa but it is cultivated for its oil in all the warmer parts of the earth. Besides the oil the castor oil seeds contain a very poisonous substance which is called ricin. Ricin is the substance which causes death when the seeds are eaten, its action being that of a coagulant in the blood. It is known that death has followed the eating of four seeds. The German chemist, Ehrlich, discovered an interesting fact about this poison. When ricin is introduced into the blood stream an antitoxin (antiricin) is produced in the blood, so that the body can acquire a certain immunity towards the poison. It is now known that several other substances as well as the bacterial toxins act in the same way. Fowls appear to be unelf ected by the poison and horses can consume considerable quantities of it. Castor oil is used (apart from its use as a purgative) as an illuminant and as a lubricant for aero engines where its viscosity and low freezing point render it particularly valuable. Several other species contain poisonous elements in the seed or latex. Excoecaria agallocha , a seashore shrub or small tree, contains a substance in the juice which can blister the skin and has been known to cause blindness. The most poisonous of them all is said to be the ‘machined’ tree, Hip po mane mancinella, which is a tall tree of Tropical America. As was the case in other poisonous trees, this particular species was credited with the most extravagant pro- perties by early explorers of the nineteenth century. For example, to sleep in its shade meant death, and even to go near it was certain to cause erysipelas if nothing worse. AH these fables were dis- proved by one brave soul, J. Jacquin, who stood naked under the tree for several hours and took no harm. A number of species of the Euphorbiaceae are cultivated in gardens, either for the striking colour of the floral bracts or for their variegated or handsome foliage. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 319 Key to the Genera i. Euphorbia. ... 2. Jatropha. PART I 1. Euphorbia Linn. A very large genus, the majority of the species of which are herbs, but there are a few shrubs, some of which are grown in gardens. All species possess a copious milky juice. The leaves are alternate, opposite or verticillate, stipulate; stipules often glandular or spiny. Inflorescence of cyathia which are entirely male or sometimes dioecious. The involucre is cupular or campanulate, often provided with nectar-secreting glands, and containing the closely packed male flowers, each consisting of an antheriferous filament jointed on a pedicel. Interspersed are a number of sterile pedicels usually lacerate or hairy. The stamens are 4-30 or even more in number. The anthers are two in number, i-celled, one on either side of the tip of the filament, at first depressed, eventually erect at dehiscence. Female flowers seated on a pedicel, naked, 3-lobed, 3-celled; one ovule in each cell ; ovules pendulous ; styles three in number, con- nate or not, dividing above, into two stigmatiferous arms. Fruit a capsule consisting of three cocci. Key to the Species. Stem spiny and prostrate : flowers without long red bracts. Stem spineless, erect ; flowers supported by long red, pink or white bracts. Euphorbia Bojeri Hook. Crown of Thorns. (named in honour of Wenzel Bojer, 1800-1856, an Austrian botanist who wrote a flora of Mauritius). Description. — -A low sprawling shrub with long-spined, livid- coloured, fleshy branches and small leaves. Spines on the branches in pairs up to 1 in. long or more, very sharp. In between each pair of thorns is a reduced branch which bears pairs of small spines t/8 in. long. In between each pair of small spines a leaf is developed. The spines may therefore be regarded as stipules. The leaves vary much in size, from .25 in. to 1 in. long, obovate-oblong, smooth and glabrous, green with a narrow border or red on the margins, entire, apiculate at the apex, attenuate at the base. The inflorescence is compound and consist of cyathia grouped dichotomously and seated upon glabrous peduncles which emerge from the axils of the uppermost leaves, The peduncle is divided into ... E. Bojeri. ... E. pulcherrima (Poinsettia) Flowers contained in a bowl-shaped structure : no calyx or corolla. Flowers with a distinct calyx and conspicuous red corolla. 320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV two successively three times and the cyathia are seated upon the ultimate peduncles. Each cyathium is supported by two, petaloid, crimson, orbicular, apiculate bracts which have become fused to the in- volucre in their lower part. The orbicular or broadly elliptic bracts are glabrous and smooth and are a deeper shade of crimson inside than out, and are .3 in. broad by .25 in. long-, often emarginate at the tip instead of apiculate. The involucre itself is about .1 in. long and bears at the top margin five broad, rounded glands which are almost parallel to the long axis. Alternate with the glands is a scale, reddish in colour, and laciniate on the1 margins.. Inside the involucre there are many male flowers, in all stages of development, interspersed with hairy organs which look like sterile stamens. The male flower consists of a pair of anthers attached to a filament which is jointed to a pedicel. The ovary is glabrous, sessile, and is wholly concealed within the involucre, 3-celled, 3-lobed, with one ovule in each cell. Styles, three, connate for half their length, each divided at the apex into a pair of short stigmas. Flowers .- — Practically throughout the year. Does not set fruit in this country. Distribution.— A native of Madagascar, very common in gardens throughout the country. Gardening — A small xerophytic under shrub, armed all over its stem with sharp, long spines. The red bracts and the green leaves on the sinuous spiny stems are very striking. It is well suited for a ‘rock-garden’, in dryish soil and in exposed and sunny situations. It will, however, grow anywhere but thrives best in a mixture of charcoal, leaf-mould and brick rubble. Propagation by cuttings. Poinsettia pulcherrima Grah. (Euphorbia pulcherrima. Willd.) Christmas flower. (pulcherrima in Latin means ‘most beautiful’). Description. — A shrub reaching 10 ft. in height with a thick short trunk covered with brown bark and numerous slender, un- branched, green branches. Sap copious, milky. Branches cylin- drical, smooth and glabrous, green, bearing alternate leaves. Leaves petiolate (petiole 2.5 in. long, slender, curved, smooth and glabrous, crimson on the upper surface), stipulate (stipules glandular), up to Photo by M. N. Bakshi The Christmas Flower. Poinsettia pulcherrima Grab. New Forest, Dehra Dun I? pins ettict t>ulcberri ma Grab. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 321 6 in. long by 2-3 in. broad, ovate-lanceolate or elliptic in outline with 1-2 blunt teeth on either side, acuminate at the tip, cuneate or even rounded at the base, smooth and glabrous above, covered with short hair on the lower surface; mid-rib reddish above. Inflorescence terminal to the branches, consisting of groups of cyathia on stout peduncles supported by bracts, which are usually of a beautiful crimson colour but they may be pink or even white. Bracts oblanceolate in shape, acuminate at the tip, long attenuate at the base, up to 6 in. long by 1-1.5 in. at the widest part. Cyathium seated on a stout peduncle; .25-. 5 in. long, ellipsoid-truncate in shape, smooth and glabrous, obtusely 5-ribbed, lower three-fourths green then banded with yellow and finally crimson at the laciniate mouth, or entirely orange on the gland side, decorated at the side with a large compressed conical gland, orange in colour; upper half inside covered with silky, multicellular hairs, glabrous in the lower half. Inside the cyathium there are many male flowers packed closely together, many sterile male flowers, one or no female flowers, and none to several sterile female flowers. The male flowers consist of one stamen, the glabrous filament of which is jointed to a glabrous pedicel, there is no floral envelope. The two 1 -celled anthers are, before dehis- cence, depressed on either side of the tip of the filament. After dehiscence they come to stand erect like a pair of discs at each side of the tip of the filament. The sterile male flower consists simply of a filament ending in a reddish tip and covered with multi- cellular woolly hairs. The female flowers consist merely of an ovary jointed to the tip of a glabrous pedicel; ovary hairy or glabrous, eventually erect and thrust out of the involucre, 3-celled, uniovulate; styles 3, joined almost for the whole of their length and then each divided into two stigmatic lobes. Sterile females on glabrous pedicels. Flowers. —Cold season. Distribution. — Native of Mexico and Central America, now one of the most commonly cultivated plants in gardens. Gardening.— A A tall, unarmed, soft-wooded shrub, 8-10 ft. high. It bears during the cold weather knobs of insignificant flowers sur- rounded by deep crimson floral bracts (with variations to shades of pink or even white) which are the chief ornamentation of this plant. It is important among ornamental shrubs as it flowers at a time when practically very few flowers are available in the garden. It is suitable for planting in the open in all areas and is not particular as to its soil requirements. It should be rigorously cut back after flowering, since it is on the current years shoots that the flowers are produced. It is a popular plant for the Christmas season. Readily multiplied by cuttings. Euphoria pulcherrima Wild. var. alba Hort. is a variety with cream-coloured bracts but comparatively of little beauty. CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH IN INDIA. BY A. St. J. Macdonald, ( With 4 plates and 2 text-figures). (Continued from page 205 of this volume) Part VL Mahseer Fishing in Assam and the Dooars. Varieties of Mahseer and other sporting fish in Assam (1), Goalpara and Kamrup districts (2), Darrang district (3), Lakhimpur and Sadiya Frontier Tract (4), Sibsagar district (5), Nowgong district (6), Garo Hills (7), Sylhet and Cachar (8), Lushai Hills (9), Manipur (10), Peacock’s account of Sarasati — Garo Hills (11), Laour on Puna Teet — From The Angler’s Hand Book (12), Notes by Gyles Mackreel (13), Anonymous account on Darrang district (14), Notes on Cachar by Mr. Cooper (15), Further notes on Cachar by Mr. Ewing (16), Notes on Manipur (17), Notes on dark variety of Mahseer (18), Fairweather’s notes on Mahseer in Bengal and Assam Dooars (19), Notes by Mr. O. M. Martin (20), Mr. Ritchie’s notes on fishing the Teesta river (21). Assam is a province of hills and mighty rivers, and is, with Burma, the best suited for mahseer in the Indian Empire. It is intersected from the north-east to the south-west by the great Brahmaputra, which takes in along its course the many fine tributaries from the north, rising in Bhutan, and those rising in the Garo, Khasi, Rengama, Naga and Patkai hills from the south. Further south, the Barak or Surma with its many smaller tri- butaries drains the districts of Cachar and Sylhet, all good mahseer water. It has not come within my good fortune to fish in this province, so I am unable to offer any first-hand notes. I had hoped to solicit the aid of one of the resident anglers, to write a chapter on the excellent fishing enjoyed by the local community, but my attempts failed. So that what should have proved to be one of the most inter- esting chapters of this book, must now simply be the compiled notes of a few fishermen, who have so generously contributed notes within their own experience. The hill tracts are almost entirely given up to tea growing, and have in consequence a fairly large European community of planters, amongst whom are a number of keen anglers. Some of the best rivers are protected or leased by clubs, so that before anyone intends visiting the water, he should first of all make full enquiries, and get the goodwill and permission of the local club. From correspondence I have had, it would appear that unless one did this, or had a friend to help, it would be difficult to get to the best water, as boats and transport are almost impossible to obtain, the best places being considerable distances from rail and road head, CIRCUMVENTING THE MAH SEER 323 The fishing-, though excellent, has become a monopoly of the local community, and it would hardly be worth while undertaking a long rail journey, for any but those fortunate in having friends to help. I am indebted to Mr. Giles Mackreel for the excellent plate of the teeth of the mahseer, with his interesting notes and photos of fish. He records similar types of mahseer from Assam, to those listed by me, in the Burma chapter, pt. V. His notes on the teeth of the different types of fish, are both interesting and instructive. I am also most grateful to Messrs. Cooper and Ewing for their inter- esting notes covering years of experience. It is interesting to note how the opening up of the country has affected the fishing in certain rivers, over a period of years. I also thank the gentleman who has sent me the note on fishing at Darrang, but who prefers to remain anonymous. Last but by no means least, I have to thank Mr. Inglis for allow- ing me to reproduce here certain articles from his excellent journals of the Darjeeling Natural History Society. I have listed for convenience, and purely by the aid of the Gazetteer, the districts with the larger rivers in them. Perhaps if this book runs to a second edition, anglers will correct or send me up-to-date notes on water within their own experience, so that I can include them in a chapter on Localities. 1. Varieties of Mahseer and other Sporting Fish in Assam. — The Mahseer in Assam attains a great size, and appears in many varieties, or more correctly in conspecific forms, as we learn from Dr. Sunder Lai Flora’s interesting articles ‘The Game Fishes of India’ in the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journals, Vols. 41 and 42. Besides the Mahseer, the Bokar [B. hexagonolepis) frequents most of the rivers, and affords excellent sport on fly, with the sporting little Barilius bola (Indian Trout) and the Butchwa ; besides these all the big Silurids are represented, common amongst which are the Goonch, Silund, Wallago attu, and Tangra. In the tanks the Rohu, Mirgil, and Catla are taken, along with the Murrel in his weedy haunts. 2. Goalpara and Kamrup Districts.— In the west the Gadadhar river bounds the district, and is formed by the two Bhutan rivers, the Raidhak, and Muchu. The Goalpara district is further inter- sected from north to south by the Champamati, and two other smaller rivers (names of which are not available). The Manas is a stream of considerable size and is snow-fed, and must be excellent up in the hills and at junctions with feeder streams. ‘A number of rods go up the Manas each year, and usually have good results. But others are doing immense damage.3 * 5 3. Darrang District. — The Dhansiri is a stream of considerable size and must have excellent water in the hills. The Bhareli is a snow-fed river that joins the Brahmaputra in this district and in size is equal to the Manas. ‘Mahseer are to be found in the Boanuddy which is the boundary river between Kamrup and Darrang. They are found in large pools in the gorge near the Bhutan border. They are also found in the Borelli near Tezpur and the Manas- Ip the latter rivers they run up from 40 to 60 lbs,’ 324 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V 61. XLIV 4. Lcikhimpur District and Sadiya Frontier Tract. — N. Lakhimpur itself is on the Ranga, and about 10 miles from the hills. ‘Here two rods fishing caught a 50 pound Mahseer on Xmas day on a No. 8 spoon.’ Further east the Subansiri, a large stream, flows through the district and is fed by many large tributaries in the Miris country. ‘This is a very fast river and contains some huge fish. I got a 26 pounder in March and then my boat was upset in a rapid, and I lost all my rods and tackle. Two Europeans have been drowned in it, in comparatively recent years. There is a forest bungalow at Dabing Mulch, and a number of rods go up every }'ear. Silvery and beautiful.’ Further east we come to the Sadaya frontier tracts which have probably the biggest water in the province, and where enormous fish lurk in the waters of the Dihang Sesiri, Dibang, and Luhit rivers. ‘The Dihang is really the upper water of the Brahmaputra, huge fish can be seen in some of the gorges, but there are sheer cliffs to the water’s edge. The water is not cold.’ In the south or left bank the Noa Dihang and Buri Dihang join in, with the Disang and Jhamdi. 5. Sibsagar District — 'The Dhansiri is the largest river flowing through this district, and should offer good sport above Dimapur on the A.B.Ry. Besides this there are other smaller streams that provide sport with small fish. ‘Notably the Doiang which can be joined from Jamguri station A.B.Ry.’ 6. Nowgon 2 District. — The Jumna which rises in the Rengma hills has provided excellent sport with small fish, also the Kaoili. Lumding is a convenient railway station for this water, from where trekking must be done. 7. Garo Hills. — There are a number of rivers that rise and hold good fish in these tracts. Chief among which are the Krishnai which flows north and the Bhogi, Kangsa and Someswari which flows south. All excellent Mahseer rivers (from old notes). 8. Sylhet and Cachar. — 'The Surma or Barak, with its tributaries, drains these districts and affords excellent sport in the higher and iungly reaches to the members of the fishing club at Silchar, who lease the river from the Government to protect it from poaching. This club protects the Loobah, Barak and Jumtrapai rivers. Sunamganj is on the Surma, and it is from near here that Laour is reached on the Punateet. (See notes from ‘The Angler’s Hand Book’.) q. Lushai Hills. — Here some excellent rivers run and very good fishing is to be had almost without exception in the Dheleswari, Sonai, Tipai, Kaladan and Langai Rivers (but no recent notes are available). 10. Manipur. — Good sport can be had with fair sized fish, in the Barak, Northern Hills; in the Thopal Eastern Hills ; and in the Chakai Southern Hills. Large Mahseer are to be had in the Barak and its larger tributaries the Idang and Makru in the Western Hills. ‘The largest fish taken in recent years was a 56 pounder, caught- by me (Gyles Mackreel) on a Myitkyina Macdonald spoon, in December 1928.’ The Manipur river itself rises in the north of this state, and after running into a large lake (Loktak Lake) flows south and opt pf the State ipto the Chin Hills apd Burrnp. CIRCUMVENTING THE MAH SEER 325 Besides the rivers I have mentioned there are many others of which only local knowledge can assist, and the ways and means of getting to them, must of necessity be obtained locally. The notes in parentheses are by Mr. Gyles Mackreel, and the note on Boanuddy by J. L. 11. Recent Notes on fishing and localities in Assam and the Dooars hy F. Peacock , Esq. ‘Garo Hills, 36 miles north from Mymen singh railway station. River Sarasati near a place called Durgapur, the best fishing to be had about 22 miles from Durgapur between two villages, Ryuk and Seejoo, and about 2 miles beyond the latter place. The water is well known in the neighbourhood. The best way to reach the water is by rail from Calcutta to Goalundo, hours ; thence by steamer to Narayangunj, iof hours, thence by rail to Mymensingh, 7 hours. From Mymensingh to Durgapur is a road good for driving part of the way and for riding the whole way. The place was visited in February with good results. In 1877, 48 fish, weighing 877 lbs., or over, an average of 19 lbs. per fish, were killed by two rods Jn days all Mahseer. The best way to fish is with a spoon, from a boat moving. On hooking a fish it is best to land and play him from the shore. ’ 12. Laour , Assam from ‘ The Angler’s Hand Book*.—' ‘The river is called the Punateet and runs out of the Khasia hills at Laour. To get to it, you have to branch off at Sunamgunge (on the Soormah) and go by boat to a village called Elamgao ; here you can get dingies and boatmen to take you up the gorge, where vou must rough it in a grass hut. It is a beastly unhealthy place. Every time I go there all my servants are knocked over with fever. I got it once, but on that occasion I was there for 6 weeks. * ‘ Extracts from my Diary ‘ November 19th got nil, lost 4 fish. r y > 20th ,, 1 , lbs. 19, lost three. y ; 21st ,, 2 „ 30, 36. > > 22nd „ 6 ,, 46, 31, 41, 25, 13, 12. y y 23rd ,, 2 44,30. y y 24 th „ 2 ,, 24,32. y y 25th „ nil, gave the good pools a rest, and water. yi 26th „ 3 lbs. 18,58,55. 1 y 27th ,, 3 29. 29, 62. y y 28th ,, 8 „ 16, 54, 20, 33, 7, 32, 33, 26. y y 29th ,, 2 ,, 28, 26. y y 30th ,, 1 ,, 28, tried new water again. December 1st ,, 1 ,, 21.’ Col. H. S ;. Wood writing in the Journal of Natural History Society, Vol. VIII, No. 1 of the June issue of 1933. ‘When I left the Military I was fortunately posted to Svlhet. In this district Ommaney, mentioned in Thomas’ “Rod in India’’, made his fabitlous bags of Mahseer. I soon found out the best places, they were the Ponatite at the N.W. corner of the district where the river debouched into the plains through a lovely gorge in the Sunam- gunj sub-division. I shall never forget my amazement, when I - Probably means the Somes>yari. 326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV first gazed on this fisherman’s paradise. There was a huge pool, several hundred yards long, now and then I saw the red fin of a Mahseer protrude above the water and the Chilwa scuttled along the water as one of those fish rushed for them. ’ ‘Consequence was that after each mighty rush, traces and line gave way and I lost all my fish and most of my spoons. I threw away the remainder of that tackle and ordered a new lot from Hardy, Manton and Luscombe. On my next visit to this place I got some nice fish and secured a Goonch ( Bagarius yarellii ) of 67 pounds with which I had great fun.’ ‘This Ponatite was a fascinating place. In the higher reaches the cliffs rose abruptly from the water’s edge and the rocks assumed all sorts of fantastic shapes. On some of them I noticed writings in Urdu and visited a wonderful cave, full of bats. The higher reaches are difficult for boats as there are rapids, up which a dug-out cannot pass. There is also no path along the edge to reach the pools beyond, a folding boat is of no use, so the Mahseer is safe in those higher pools. Hard by the Ponatite is the Tangour Haor, which at one time swarmed with Sambhur, Hog-deer, Pig, Buffalo and Tiger, but like all places in India the game has been decimated by Zamindars, and slaughter during heavy floods.’ ‘Mr. Gyles Mackreel writing of this River, points out that the course of time appears to have changed the name of the Ponatite. He writes “I think this must be the ‘Gohairi ’ or the ‘Piyain’ of modern maps.” 9 13. Notes by Mr. Gyleg Mackreel. — ‘The only rivers I have fished personally are Loobah, Barak & Tepi, Kinshyiang, Goomra, Toorsa, Jaldacca, Malangi, Soobansiri. The Loobah runs up into the Khassia Jaintia Hills, past a tea garden of the same name. As the fish pass up and down there is fair fishing in the lower reaches, but the Mahseer all make for the top, and in Oct. and Nov. one will hardly get a fish down below, as those that are going down have gone, and the ones remaining are three days’ journey up into the hills. I have been up several times and my best fish is a 32 pounder. They run larger, as I have found two of the short gilled variety killed by Otter which must have been over 50 lbs when fresh as they weighed nearly that putrid. You will see, the gills are far shorter than the common Mahseer. My theory is that it is a bottom feeder that lives, when large, on crabs and large water snails as the teeth are quite different to those of the ordinary Mahseer. I am having a photograph made to show this difference and will send it to you. Is it a big carnatic carp?f I have caught these up to is lbs. but never bigger. In Assam the carp is called the Boka. It fights very well indeed. In Cachar and Sylhet they call it the Maugri. Ihe Mahseer being the Mahoal and the variety of Mahseer I have marked X being the Pukki ranga. This latter fish is (vour copper fish?) deep and thick. It does not seem to go above 20 lbs., or at any rate * Between Mr. Peacock’s note, and Col. Wood’s it should he possible to locate the famous spot, and further notes prove interesting. Neither the ‘Gohairi’ or the ‘Pivain’ are mentioned on my maps. . + This is B. (Tor) tor (Hamilton). 'The common grey normal type is B, lor putitora , as identified by Hora, Jcurn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. ' CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 327 to take a spoon when over that weight. It is a beautiful bronze above, with red fins. The one in my photograph has thick red lips, but 1 have caught a fish that seemed exactly similar but with ordinary lips. I have found that the Carp all have teeth similar to those in the big fish on the unprinted film, i.e. one huge molar and the usual number of small teeth, the older the fish the more these teeth are ground down. In the Pukki ranga the teeth are the same. In' the ordinary Mahseer the teeth are sharp, even in big fish. This I think points to the diet, fish and vegetable matter very largely in the ordinary long, gilled Mahseer, crustaceans, etc., in the case of the others. (The lips enlarged through turning over stones in search of Crabs, etc. ?) Huge short gilled fish are occasionally caught on a it a in tiie Brahmaputra at Amingaon and Gauhati. One caught last year weighed 90 lbs. This was the Boga pitia or white Mahseer of the Assamese as distinct from the Lai pitia or ordinary (red) common long gilled Mahseer. What the Boga pitia is like when small I do not know. I have never caught a big one; and when small he may be the Carp or the Pukki ranga both of which are rather like your Chocolate Mahseer. ’ ‘I am going off on a two months fishing holiday in Oct.-Nov. and will then send you, or the Bombay Natural History Society, whichever you like, skins of the various types. I will simply take the insides out and stuff them with salt and straw. I will of course send the description of the colour of the eyes, etc. ‘Loobah. This river runs into the Khassia-Jaintia Hills. On entering the hills one comes to a huge gorge pool some three quarters of a mile long. This is full of huge rohu, etc., but I have never taken a big Mahseer out of it although it looks ideal. Upstream from this pool the river ascends the hills in a series of rapids and pools. About 8 miles into the hills it becomes the Lunar. The latter forms a series of lime-stone pools and rapids and has no very big fish in it in the cold weather. The other branch, called on the map the Luka but locally the Singlai, dries up at the junction for a matter of some three quarters of a mile, as the river enters a cave higher up and flows under ground for that distance, joining the Lunar and the Loobah under the surface of the latter. This means that fish that have not passed over this barrier while it is still under water in September, remain above for the whole of the cold weather. There are some fine pools, but otter are very plentiful, and the fish get killed off as the water drops. The best fishing is therefore as soon as the water clears in October. Carp are very plentiful and take a fly readily. One rod took 39 fish in one day, nearly all on fly and averaging about 4 lbs- My best bag, fishing with a No. 7 spoon was 13 fish in two days averaging 11 lbs. At that time one could have got a very large numerical bag by the use of a yellow spider or small fly spoon as the smaller fish were taking very readily. I took one coal black Mahseer weighing 1 1 lbs. The tips of the fins were £old' ‘The Kinshyiang is the name given to the Jadhukata where this river enters the Khassia Jaintia hills not far from the border of the Garo Hills. This river had not been fished for some years when I went up it at Christmas 1931. This was the worst time to go as the lower reaches had all been poached, and netting was in progress JOURNAL, BOMBAY nAtuLaL Hist, society, Voi. XLi V in the upper reaches, when 1 got there. I have applied J&r Government protection for this river. 1 found one good pool where the poles for netting were lying ready. It was full of good Mahseer and on Xmas day and Boxing day, with the temp, at about 390 and the water like ice, 1 got 11 fish averaging 20 lbs. the best fish was 41. There were some very large fish to be seen but I had not got any dead bait and could not get Hold of any, and I was fishing with spoon all the time. A No. 7 gave the best results, heavily leaded to get to the bottom. All these nsh were the ordinary long giiled red finned mahseer. They fought well. ’ This river is difficult of access and 1 used 100 gals, of petrol getting there and back in a motor boat ; and one is liable to get all the way there and find the pools have been cleaned out by poachers. The Subansiri is a direct tributary of the Brahmaputra in North Lakhimpur. It is fished by the Local Government Officials and by Planters in Assam. It is very fast and contains some large fish. One has to hire dugouts from the local Miris who are far from trustworthy. On my last trip some of these experts upset a dugout in a bad rapid and I lost all my rods and reels and a 12 bore gun. Mr. Aitken of Tezpur, a well known Assam sportsman, hooked a huge fish the following day but it broke him after 40 minutes without having shown itself. The lower pools of the river are rather a favourite fishing' ground for people who want to fish in comfort, as there is a forest bungalow on the river bank. The fish are therefore quite used to all kinds of baits and spoons being trailed from behind a boat and act accordingly. The fishing trips seem to become river picnics. Knowing this I thought I would try something that the tish had not perhaps seen recently so I mounted 3 six inch fish in a spinner so that they appeared to be swimming in echelon together. The result was a 26 and a 16 pounder in half an hour from water that 7 rods had been fishing a few days before with no result. A fluke:’ Probably. But worth trying again. The Toorsa and Jaldacca are both Dooars rivers. The typical Dooars Mahseer seems to be golden brown backed, silver belly, and orange or pale lemon fins. A lovely fish. The other fish is the ‘ Kut.lL which is very much like the Assam carp and is probably the same fish under slightly different conditions. He is like your Choco- late mahseer to look at but only goes up to 10 lbs. I am told. My best is 8 lbs. 1 will send you a picture of one, side by side with a Mahseer. He has the flattened teeth of the carp. The Barak is a finished river. Poached from end to end. Two years ago 500 Lushais came down and netted and poisoned all the pools within a few hours of Silchar, dried the fish and went off into the hills again. Ichabod ! The river used to be full of magnificent fish and my best bag was thirty pounders and a number of smaller fish in one day. ‘The last time I went up I got one four pound fish, and the trip entailed 8 days leave and cost about Rs 300. * ‘The Malangi used to be good but the Toorsa has now cut into it and all the shingly pools are now sand and the fish do not stay. The Goomra is a small river in the Cachar hills parallel with the Kalain. It holds fish up to 8 and 10 lbs. in the late rains, but in the cold weather there is nothing big to be taken. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate II Fig. i. — Teeth of Mahseer in Assam. Illustrating the sharp teeth of the large- headed variety, and the blunt teeth of the short or small-headed variety. big 2.— Variation of the teeth of the varieties of Mahseer in Assam, as observed by Mr. Gyles Mackrell. (The short gill or small heads have blunt teeth. The long-head or the ordinary variety stand alone in sharp pointed teeth.) CIRCUMVENTING the MAJtisEER ll am afraid this is very disjointed but I will endeavour to write vou more later. ' The Manas is one of the famous Assam rivers. It is in a game reserve and a special permit is required. 1 am going- up this year but as yet I have no first hand knowledge of it. It is a direct tributary of the Brahmaputra, like the Rydak and Sankhos. ‘5-8-’32 1 send you some photographs of fish teeth. The point is that the long-gilled Mahseer seems to stand alone as far as teeth go. lie is the only one with the sharp teeth. The big short gilled fish (1 sent you a film of a 50 pounder and I took a photo last month of a 64 pounder but it was in a part of a cine picture and 1 have not had a print made yet) the short gilled fish has blunt teeth with the one big molar. The carp or Cutli of Assam, the Dooars and Sylhet (Assam, Bo lia, Dooars Katli , Cachar and Sylhet Maugri) all have the blunt teeth. So has the copper fish and the thick Upped fish. The black Mahseer (simply a melanic example of the true long gilled variety) has teeth, scales, etc., exactly as the ordinary coloured one. By black Mahseer I mean black. Tou will see one in one of my pictures. ‘I was talking to a man who came down the Manas recently from the upper reaches in Bhutan and he tells me he watched them catching Mahseer there with strips of a scaly gourd off the trees. He was not a fisherman, but he had photographs of the fish, I have caught them on a scaly spoon but seldom. * Up the Sonai, Cachar, one fisherman finds the best thing to use is a No. 8 spoon with a treble mounted on a 7 in. length of gimp. The shank is bound with a little red wool. The fish come short at the spoon in gin clear water and seem to suddenly see the little red thing spinning at the end of it and go for it. I have tried it once and caught a fish, but personally 1 prefer my treble in the centre of my spoon and one flush with the end.’ 14. Darrang, Assam . — By an Angler who prefers to remain Anonymous, 7-6- ’32. Darrang, on the north bank of the Brahma- putra holds some very fine rivers, and water can be found to suit the taste of any fisherman. Tezpur is the only town in this district and is approached by a daily service of river mail steamers up and down the Brahmaputra from Amingaon ; these steamers continue up stream past Tezpur, touching at various Ghats or Mukhs, to the terminus Kokilamukh; reference will be made later to the various Ghats at which the intending' visitor should disembark should he wish to visit a particular river. I would say at the outset that it is useless to come to this part without a full camping outfit. Stores can of course be obtained in Tezpur, and there is ample accommodation to be had either in the dak bungalow or the floating residential flat at Tezpur ghat. From this temporary base, the intending fisher- man would have to make arrangements to approach the Bhoroly river, which is the largest in Darrang; I would advise him; in fact it is essential to write to the Political Officer, Balipara Frontier Tract, Charduar, 'Lokra P.O., which is some 20 miles from Tezpur, informing him of his desire to fish and shoot on the Bhoroly. As a matter of fact a Fishing and Shooting Association is in the process of formation in this district, and should it become a going concern, the Political Officer would put the visitor in touch with the Secretary. In any case the next move should be to Charduar from where a ‘political’ road runs for 22 miles into the foot hills practically along 330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: X L1V the banks of the Bhoroly. Either of the above gentlemen would help the visitor to obtain dug-outs, without which it is useless to attempt to fish this river. One boat for each fisherman is definitely necessary, for which he will have to pay at least Rs. 3 per day ; the IViiris who work and hire the boats are very knowledgeable as to the best water and times to fish; also as regards the game, which at certain times is plentiful in this part; I should make it clear that atter leaving Tezpur, which can be done by rail to Balipara, within a few miles of Charduar, the party should be entirely selt-supporting and camping out will be the order of the day, as there are no dak bungalows or shops in this direction, after Tezpur. The way, par excellence , of working this part, or the whole of Darrang tor that matter, would be to bring a car, preferably with a trailer for baggage ; every river would then become accessible, especially the Bhoroly, as the ‘political’ road is always in excellent order, the fisherman is then completely independent of that terror in Assam, and probably elsewhere, the gharry-walla. I strongly urge this course to be adopted should any one think of a fishing trip in Darrang-. Presum- ing the party to have safely got into camp on this river, with the requisite numbqr of boats, they will find plenty of good pools wherein the only method of fishing is by trolling. Anything up to 60 lbs. (I am speaking of Mahseer), may be expected, while for this a No. 7 or 8 spoon is the usual thing and a local secret is to attach a piece of red wool or ribbon to one’s spoon; live bait is also a successful lure. Good spinning water will be found every quarter mile or so Fly fishing is not much use on this river, but up its tributaries, especi- ally the Namri, a fly fisherman will obtain good sport, I treat on hy fishing separately however as the Bhoroly is essentially a trolling and spinning river, but subsequent remarks on fly fishing, would apply to most of the tributaries. The Bhoroly is affected by snow water after about the first week in May. The best times to fish would be from November on to March. The first month or two 1 believe to be the best; but the latter period, if not quite so good for fishing, is balanced by the better prospect of seeing game, any- thing from bison and buffalo down to barking deer may be met with ; and if the party hire an elephant, which would be quite possible, some very good big game shooting could be obtained; in any case, a fairly heavy rifle should be part of one’s equipment. As all this country is within the Balipara Frontier Tract administered by the Political Officer, his permission must be obtained before any shooting or fishing is contemplated. ‘Another typical river of Darrang, also in the Balipara Frontier Tract, and one of which I have far more intimate knowledge, is the Boroi ; a small stream issuing from the Daffla foot hills. It is far smaller than the Bhoroly. This again is quite easily accessible by car, either by road from Tezpur, some 55 miles, or by disembarking from the steamer at Gomirighat, but there are no dak bungalows worthy of the name, nor is it possible to obtain stores, Tezpur being the nearest place. The Boroi is a delightful river, wooded banks, short rapids, many deep pools, and as one goes up stream, the river runi through beautiful gorges. This river is ideal for fly fishing, both from the banks and more especially from a boat; after a little practice it is quite easy to stand up in the dug-out, and drift down circumventing the mAhseer 331 one of the beautiful gorges casting a fly on the water which laps the precipitous sides. The fish, which 1 believe to be true Carnatic carp, local name “Boka,” can sometimes, when feeding, be seen on the surface, and it is wonderful sport to select a large one and put the lly over him. 1 have caught up to 16 lbs. on a very light fly rod. You can sometimes see the hsh lazily open its mouth and gently suck in the fly, then a quick strike and away he goes. Sometimes these fish take a lure with a rush, but more generally as above described, then again the rapids hold large mahseer, easily up to 40 lbs; and some very pretty sport, spinning, with anything from a No. 6 spoon, can be had. A fly spoon in some of the lesser rapids sometimes produces good baskets ; altogether the streams in Darrang of this type provide some delightful fishing. December is not a good month tor these smaller rivers, I would say late October, if the cold weather has set in early, and November and February-March, especially the latter, as these smaller streams are unaffected by snow water. All through the hot weather good fishing may be had, provided there is no thunder about, which seems to send the fish clean off the feed* As regards fly, No. 6 hooks Limerick scale. The Coachman is a never failing lure, also the Zulu, in fact any sea-trout fly will do, mounted on a Salmon cast, with about 100 yards of line. ‘The fishing rivers of Darrang may therefore be divided into two categories, A and B. A. The Bhoroly, a river suitable for a large party and fairly easily worked, within reach of Tezpur, if the party is provided with a car; and B., the Boroi ; a typical example of which I have described, suitable for one hand or at most two, where they must be entirely self-supporting ; but again not too inaccessible if the party have a car. It must be understood, although I have not marked them on the sketch map, that the district is thickly dotted with tea gardens, all round Tezpur and east to the Boroi, beyond which there are a few gardens, and the intending visitor may safely rely on getting help and advice from the planters.’ ‘40 miles further east lies the district of North Lakhimpur in which several fine rivers are to be found, but. of which I have no personal experience. One in particular, the Subansiri, which is far larger than the Bhoroly, is I believe a wonderful river for large Mahseer. On the whole the Mahseer and Boka (Carnatic carp) are the two principal fish to be found in all these rivers ; the latter takes fly well, also spoon, the former is essentially a fish to be caught on the spoon, and only occasionally takes a fly.’ The Bhoroly is a large snow-fed river suitable for a party of 3 or 4 rods, and approached as above described.’ B. ‘The Bor Dikrai, although a tributary of the Bhoroly, deserves to be classed by itself, or rather in the Boroi class.’ ‘Borgang river and its tributary the Dikal. Means of approach either by road from Tezpur or by river steamer to Behalimukh, or Kathnibrai ghat, P.O. Borgang ; suitable for 1 or 2 rods, boats not essential but would be very useful. Good big game shooting, no dak bungalow.’ The Boroi. Means of approach by road from Tezpur or steamer to Gomirighat, P.O. Halem , suitable for 1 or 2 rods, boats essential ; good big game shooting. ’ 2 m JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV 15. Notes of Fishing in Cachar by Mr. Cooper. — Mahseer fishing in Assam Cachar. I have done some little during the last 30 years. My personal experience only, extends to one district of Assam-Cachar and before dealing with the headings you have given in your question- naire— -I must explain that there is practically no good fishing to be obtained without making an expedition up one of the various rivers into the hills in Manipur Lushai country. This means that one must have boats and a crew, with outfit and generally the use of a motor boat to cover the lower reaches of the river, if one is to get to one’s fishing water in a reasonable time. You will therefore understand that it is difficult for any one not a local resident to make a bandobasi to get to the best water as there are no roads or accommodation of any sort when one gets there. In my young days, the smaller rivers used to provide us with very good fly fishing in October and November and one could reach these on a horse; but increasing population, cultivation, and netting, have made these rivers hardly worth a visit. I will therefore confine my remarks to rivers that I have fished in recent years. Those are the Barak with its tributaries the Jheeri and Tepi; the Sonai, the Loobah — the higher reaches of which are leased from Government at a nominal rent and protected as well as possible by the Surma Valley. Angling Association during the cold weather months.’ ‘An expedition starting up any of these rivers would have. to outfit in Silchar, which is anything from 50-100 miles from the best water. Membership of the Surma Valley Angling Association can be obtained from the Secretary at Rs. 10 per annum. None of the rivers are snow fed.’ ‘The Barak holds big fish, which are caught by trolling or spin- ning— with a dead bait or spoons from No. 7-9. Most of the big fish are caught trolling and one rarely gets anything over 15 lbs. spinning. (Probably because Anglers do not fish deep enough. A. M.)’ ‘The Tepi is, . early in the season, good for fly and small spoons, big fish caught spinning have been rare in recent years. The Jheeri is far the best river for fly — those I have been most successful with Yellow Spider, Claret and Mallard, Blackamore, all large size. Fish up to 15 lbs. are caught spinning. All fly fishing is done from a boat. The Loobah can be reached by boat from the Surma and is probably the easiest to get at, it also holds fish up to 50 lbs. both Spoon and Fly do well at the right time. ’ The Sonai. ‘Some excellent bags have been made up this in recent years chiefly by Mr. Ewing, the Secretary of the Surma Valley Angling Association. Like other rivers in Cachar one must be prepared to camp and travel 3 or 4 days in small boats before getting into really good fishing water. ‘All these rivers fish best as soon after the water clears as possible i.e. ^November and December — -the Barak which is a larger river, 1 have done well on in February.’ ‘One can generally shoot enough for the pot in the way of jungle fowl, pigeon, odd duck, an occasional deer and serow. Gharial are still fairly numerous on the Barak. Dense jungle down to the river bed makes stalking impossible. Very unhealthy, and feverish between November and March.’ Plate III Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Fig. i. — Two ordinary Barak Ma'hseer : 30 lbs. Fig. 2. — The Barak record : 56 lbs. Length 49J ; Gill 29J. A snap out of Mr, Cooper’s Notes. Fig. 3. — Short gill Mahseer : 30 lbs. Cachar and Sylhet : ‘Pukki Ranga’ Flattened Teeth, Jouni. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate IV (2) A stone lashed between the jaws of a split bamboo. (After smoothing the edges with a knife.) Very useful in 8 or 10 feet of water to rescue a hook from a .boat, (t) Opening gorge of the Loobah. tlRCUk VENTING THE MAhsEeE 333 ‘Supplies can be obtained from the Manager, Cachar Club, who could possibly arrange for boats and men; but as you will gather from what 1 have written before — this is not an easy bandobast for any non-resident, or to be undertaken unless one has a month or more to spare. ‘There are two or three distinct varieties of Mahseer caught, also what is locally known as a “Carnatic Carp” the Boka of Assam. Butchwa up to 2 lbs., also take a fly well at times.’ ‘Bags' Barak. In 1928 two of us landed 51 fish weighing 388 lbs. in live days actual fishing — largest fish 56 lbs., which is a record for the river. In 1931 we only managed to land 35 fish weighing 185 lbs. largest 15 lbs. in about the same time.’ ‘Jheeri. In 1930 two of us in 5 days actual fishing landed 104 fish averaging just under 3 lbs. — all mine except one 12 pounder were caught on 10 ft. rod, on Flies.’ ‘I cannot give you any recent “bags” on the Sonai or Loobah. Mr. C. E. Ewing has done very well up the former, i but in recent years the Loobah “bags” have been very poor and it becomes necessary to go higher and higher every year to get good fishing, which adds considerably to the expense and time required. ’ ‘I doubt if you will find in these notes much to encourage any one to make an expedition into Cachar for fishing purposes, but trust they will be of some interest to you. I fancy the country and fishing are very much like Upper Burma on the other side of the watershed, but are being ruined from a fisherman’s point of view by increasing population.’ 16. Burt her notes on the Cachar District by C. E. Ewing , Esq.f 3-5- ’32. — ‘My personal experience only extends to one district ot Assam-Cachar and 1 have only experience of fishing one small river, the Sonai, a tributary of the river Barak. Mr. W. E. D. Cooper, I understand, is writing you regarding fishing prospects in other rivers in Cachar of which he has had considerable experience, so I will confine myself to the Sonai river which I know best. Before dealing with the details of the Sonai river, I would like to say that good fishing is only obtainable by several days journey up the river from Silchar and no organisation exists whereby outsiders can receive help in arranging boats, crews, etc.; and boats are essential, as no other means exist whereby one can reach the fishing waters. With the increase in population more land is being opened up along river banks, which means that one has to go further and further up the rivers each year to reach good undisturbed fishing water. ’ ‘The Sonai is a small river rising in the Arrakan Hills, its course South to North, when it eventually joins the river Barak at Sonai Mukh, 12 miles from Silchar. This river suffered badly during the severe floods in 1928, from landslides but is improving again gradually. The best time of the year for fishing is between the months of November and February; during the rains the river is high and extremely muddy. I have had very good sport indeed on this river for several years. Dense jungle growing down to the river bed makes fishing only possible from a boat. Fly fishing, with Yellow Spider, Clavet and Mallard, and Blackamore, and underhand casting with spoons (Nos. 7 and 8) have been found to 334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XLlV be most successful. Being only a small river it does not hold very big fish, the largest landed was a Mahseer of 26 lbs., but several have been caught between 12 and 20 lbs. The only draw- back to the river is that it abounds with snags — trees and logs that have slipped down into the river in the course of years, and any angler going up this river must be prepared to lose a lot of fisli and tackle, so should have a good supply with him. The biggest bag made was in 1925 when two of us landed 100 fish weigffing 550 lbs. in 5 days actual fishing — the largest fish 26 lbs. To an Angler who is not out for big fish lots of sport can be had with fish of 5 to 20 lbs. in the Sonai. The fish obtainable in this river are Mahseer, Carnatic Carp, Butcha and Fresh-water Sole. ‘There is also lot of shooting available — jungle fowl and pheasants, pigeon, and duck and deer, both sambhur and barking. 1 have had very good shooting- indeed up this river and can usually secure more than one’s requirements every day for the pot. In fact for expeditions up this river take little in the way of stores and rely on success with the gun. I doubt whether you will find in these notes much to encourage any outsider to make an expedition up this river, but I trust that these notes will be of interest to you. ’ ‘ Locality . Cachar Rivers. Silchar is the jumping off-place for all of these, viz. : — Barak, Jhiri, Sonai and Loobah which are the principal protected rivers under the Surma Valley Fishing Association of which Mr. C. E. Ewing of Chingoor T. E., Binnakandv P.O., is Secretary. ’ ‘Barak. This is the largest river and rises in Manipur. Small boats can be engaged in Lakhipur, distance by road from Silchar 18 miles and by river about 50, taking 2 or 3 days for small boats to get there. There is a rest house at Lakhipur, also a post and telegraph office. The best plan is to go by motor car or lorry to Lakhipur taking all kit and stores, which can be purchased at very reasonable prices at the Cachar Club Stores; stay the night in the rest house and start off early in the morning. There are good ‘camping places’ but it takes 3 or 4 days to get to the fishing parts'. Once away from Lakhipur there are no post offices or rest houses. All information can be had from the Secretary of the Cachar Club. The best months for fishing the river are November to February.’ ‘There are large Mahseer in this river and the record Mahseer was about 60 lbs. (Gyles Mackreel’s 56 pounder). Most of the pools give beautiful spinning, and the long ones can be trolled as there are few snags.’ ‘It takes 8 days to get to the Hatti Rocks which is usually as far as boats go, but it is possible to go beyond and the keen man is well rewarded. ’ ‘Jhiri. This is a tributary of the Barak half a day beyond Lakhipur; but the bed is filled up very much with sand and very slow progress is made. It affords excellent Fly Fishing. October and November are the best months, as after that the water is short. The remarks given, under Barak about arrangements apply here.’ ‘Sonai. This is another tributary of the Barak and goes into the Lushai Hills. Good catches have been made and there is CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 335 excellent spinning-, but is spoilt by the number of Snags. The same remarks apply as given for the Barak/ ‘Loobah. This is a very interesting tributary of the Barak and unsurpassed for scenery. October and November are the months as water is short later on.’ ‘Boats can be arranged at Loobacherra by the manager of Loobah T. E., Kanaighat P.O. Stores can be provided at Silchar and then kit can be taken by train to Badarpurghat Station and by a 200 maund boat to Loobagnat where fishing boats are arranged. ‘Two days up the river the junction of the Singli is reached and if there is plenty of water the Singli will give good fishing.’ ‘The Loobah is blocked by large rocks and the scenery is magni- ficent: both tributaries go into the Cassiya Hills. ‘There is good Fly Fishing to be had, chiefly Carp on “Yellow Spider”.’ ‘Mahseer and Carp are the only fish in these rivers except a very occasional trout. Any kind of spoon will do.’ 17. Notes on Manipur f 13-4-’ 32. — A correspondent from Manipur State writes as follows : — ‘I am afraid I am not a fisherman and cannot give you much assistance. ‘There are no really big rivers in Manipur. Small “Bofea” Caro (Assamese name) and a few Mahseer can be caught in the Barak (Northern Hills), Thoubal (Eastern Hills), and Chakoi (Southern Hills,) and in some of the tributaries of the Barak in the South Western Hills. Best bait fly, small spoons or dead bait. Large Mahseer can be had in the Barak, and its larger tributaries, the Irang and Makru, in the Western Hills.’ The following notes are very kindly sent to me by the Curator of the Darjeeling Natural History Museum (Mr. Inglis) from his excellent journal. These interesting notes deal with most of the varieties of fish to be taken, though some confusion arises in expression, by the different contributors, and it is as well to list the correct names of the fish referred to. (1) The Greyhound type of Mahseer of Assam, my ‘Golden Mahseer’, is identified by Hora as the Putitora Mahseer ( Barbus tor ) putitora (Hamilton). • (2) The short gilled Mahseer as shown in the illustration of 30 lbs.. ‘ Pukki Ranga ’ is identified bv Hora as the Tor Mahseer Barbus tor tor (Hamilton). (3) The fish known as the Boka or Katli by some, and referred to as the Carnatic Carp by others, is Barbus hexagonolopis, probably my ‘Chocolate Mahseer.’ 18. Notes on a dark variety of Mahseer bv E. O. S. (Journ. Darjeeling Natural History Society , Vol. VI. No. 2. Oct. 1931). — The sketches show : — -( 1) The head of an 8| lb. fish of the dark variety of Mahseer reduced to half size for comparison with the sketches of ordinary Mahseer sent recently. This is a thick lipped fish. (2) An outline sketch to scale (A) of an 8 lb. ‘greyhound’ Mahseer (above), and the 8^ lb. dark fish below. I comoared the dark fish with other Mahseer (‘greyhound’ and ‘ordinary’) at the same time (Sankos, 22nd February 1930) and with Kath. The impression which this comparison made on me, at the 336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV time, is best described by saying that: — If the dark fish had been compared with a Mahseer alone, it might have been taken for a Fig. i. — Head of Mahseer (dark variety) x^. This is a thick-lipped specimen X -J. Fig. 2. — A. Outline of ordinary Mahseer, 8 lbs. B. Outline of dark variety; 8-| lbs. x§. (, Journ . Darjeeling Nat. Hist. Society Vol. VI, No. 2, Oct. 1931-) Katli and if with a Katli alone it would undoubtedly have been pro- nounced a Mahseer. The dark fish, in other words, is in appearance, as nearly as possible, half way between what we believe to be the typical Barbus tor and what we believe to be Barbus hexastichus. The dark fish, or this specimen at any rate, was in shape far more like a Katli than a Mahseer. The fins were partly the yellow of the Mahseer and partly the slate colour of the Katli — the general colour of the fish was intermediate but the eye was golden, as in the Mahseer; only one spot on one iris was copper as in the Katli, but this may have been blood-shot, There were no tubercles on the upper lip. CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 337 ’I do not remember to have seen this variety with thick lips before, and this is one of the reasons which makes me believe that this is a seasonal sexual change. My other reasons are: — 2(i) That in fish which seem exactly alike in all other respects, the mouth parts of one may be swollen out of all proportion. (2) That, I think but am not sure, I have only seen these thick- lipped fish caught late in the season from February onwards. O’Donel, however, says he has caught them in the Nunai River as early as November. (3) That thick-lipped fish usually have a lot of red on the fins. This apparently does not apply to the dark variety. 3That the swelling is not uniform in different thick-lipped fish. The lips are always thickened but in some fish the swelling extends to the snout while in others it seems to affect the Tower lip more, causing a sort of flap of flesh like an imperial. A still more pro- nounced type, which I have never seen myself, has these flaps apparently on both lips, as shown in one of the illustrations facing page 32 in Thomas’ ‘Rod in India’. At present I feel that the distinction between what I have called ‘Greyhound’ and ‘ordinary’ Mahseer is a far less fundamental one than that between either of these varieties and the dark form — but possibly further observations, on the rivers, may cause me to change my opinion. I should be very glad of the observations of other fishermen. E. O. S. [The head of a ‘greyhound’ type of fish may be seen on page 89, Vol. IV, No. 4 of this Journal. — -Editor]. 19. Mahseer Fishing in the Bengal and Assam Dooars, hy C. E. S. Fair-weather, I.P. ( Journ . Darjeeling Nat. Hist. Sac., Vol. VI, No. 4, April 1932). — Mahseer have no shaply defined spawning season like salmon and trout. They are, as the late H. S. Thomas ('Rod in India ’ by H. S. Thomas, i.c.s.) said, like the barnyard Fowl : they lay their eggs a few at a time and they are never in better condition than when spawning or looking for an opportunity to spawn.4 It is this search for spawning grounds that regulates our fishing seasons. Mahseer can be caught at any time of the year, provided one knows where they are to be found, but the other im- portant proviso is that in order to catch them the condition of the river must be suitable. It is hardly of any use fishing for Mahseer 1 The ‘Copper’ variety have modified thick lips. See illustration in Burma chanter. •2 This is the thick lip variety. 3 I have taken some hundreds of these thick-lipped fish, in all sizes from \ lb. to 40 lbs., and in every month from Feb. to Oct. from the Mahl River and Thelum in the north-west along the Himalayas, through Nepal to Burma, but I have never yet seen one with, so pronounced an adipose extension, as shown by Dr. Day’s plate produced in the ‘Rod in India.’ The plate of the Thick lip Mahseer in the Burma Chapter is representative, and there is no ‘flap’ or adipose extension on the upper lip, at least I have never seen one. A. M. 4 I disagree with Mr. Thomas that Mahseer. are1 * 3 4 at their best while spawning. In late April and May in some rivers, when the main spawn begins, fish will be taken that offer no sport whatever. T say ‘Main spawn’, because all the varieties of fish are then found giavic].. 338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV (except with live bait) unless the water is clear — the clearer the better. Unless one can see the pebbles on the bottom in four feet of water, fishing- for Mahseer is likely to be a heart-breaking business.1 I refer of course to spinning- for Mahseer. The Mahseer, according- to such observations as anglers have been able to make, apparently requires certain conditions for spawning. ( a ) The water should be warmer than that of the usual glacier-fed river. (b) The water should be shallowish and sheltered. In the big rivers like the Teesta, Sankos and Monas the water is cold, even in the plains, for a considerable distance below the gorges. These ri'vers begin to rise early in April when the snows melt; Mahseer which have found the shallow backwaters among the chars (miles below the gorge) — -ideal places for spawning — now find the chars submerged and begin to move up towards the hills, where they find excellent spawning grounds in the various hill streams which have begun to flow again with the early rains. These small streams too are warm, coming off the hot sides of the lower ranges of hills. The fish apparently travel up these small streams to spawn when a spate comes down and drop back to the main river when the spate clears off. The Teesta. The Mahseer hang about round the mouths of the Sevoke, Kalijhora, Reang and Gill Jhora, which run into the Teesta. There are perennial spawning places. As I said above, fish are there to be caught all the time. The difficulty is to find the water in proper trim. The Teesta itself is foul and unfishable from April until January or February and it remains clear only for a few weeks before the snow water again begins to come down. When, however, there is a break in the rains, the small hill streams clear and where they join the Teesta there is a belt of clear water for a considerable distance before it merges into the Teesta and gets ‘sicklied over with the pale hue of chalk’. In this belt of clear water one can catch really good fish. It may happen that one gets a spell of rainless weather in July or August but one can never count on this. The best season therefore is from mid-September onwards, when the rains are beginning to stop and the hill streams are yet still fairly full and clear. The peculiar thing about these large rivers like the Teesta, Sankos and Monas is that away from the mouths of tribut- aries Mahseer are very hard to find. This is particularly the case with the Teesta but the Sankos and Monas, too, away from tribut- aries, are almost impregnable except under the most favourable conditions. The fish move upwards as soon as these rivers rise in April and move down again from the end of September. In the early season, March-April, the only mouth worth fishing is Reang. There is sufficient water here to keep the fish. In the September season they are good, i.e. there is enough clear and warm water flowing’ in the river to attract the spawning fish. As I said before, one can fish all the year on the Teesta but conditions from July to mid- 1 This has not been my experience, and I am inclined to agree with Mr. Martin, though clear water is of course the best, CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 339 September are so uncomfortable and uncertain that few people would care to bother: torrential rain, wet jungle, fever, leeches, etc. and the difficulty of choosing a time when the small stream is likely to clear. For those living at a distance this is impossible. Fishing these tributary mouths is not very exciting. There is only one spot fishable, and generally out of 12 days fishing one has 5 or 6 blank days. When one gets a fish it is usually a good one and puts up a tremendous fight, aided by the full force of the Teesta current. No flimsy tackle is any good here. One needs almost 200 yards of line — ‘Y’ stout Tiger traces and a stout rod and line. For rod a Hardy’s, Murdoch or something similar is about right. Spoons up to 3" or 4" seem best, although I have seen some pretty sport on a Castle Connel Salmon rod — gut trace and fly spoon. This latter at Sevoke : at Reang and Kalijhora, however, one needs to hold the fish a bit harder. On a really good day, if two rods get 3 fish from the pool in the morning and perhaps one or two in the evening they have done very well indeed : next day they will probably come back from the river with nothing but a brace of backaches. The Sankos. On the Sankos conditions are very much the same. There is a bund 011 the Sankos to the north east of Sankos Tea Estate, where a side stream comes in. Morning and evening one can get 2 or 3 fish and good fish too. About \ mile below this spot a small overflow runs into the river again and here too a few fish can be had. I have however fished many other pools on the Sankos, where there is no tributary of warm water running in, without finding any traces of fish. Opposite Barabisha there is a tributary which comes in from the Assam side of the Sankos — some great catches have been recorded here, I believe. The Monas. On the Monas my experience was the same. Away from the streams of warm water running into the big river, fishing seemed a mere waste of energy. Where, however, one did find a good spot with a ‘run in’, the fish seemed to lie about in shoals — large fish. It is however not much use trying to fish the Sankos or Monas before February unless one knows a place where a good stream of clear water runs in. These two rivers are also not so accessible as the Teesta. JThe ideal fishing conditions are: — (1) A clear sky. (2) No wind. (3) Good clear water. 2Wind is the Mahseer fisherman’s worst enemy. I attribute the difficulty of fishing these big rivers chiefly to the howling wind, which blows almost ceaselessly down or up the river day after day. On these rivers the wind starts generally about 9 or 10 a.m. and in the most favoured spots one should be on the water just after dawn. 1 For ideal conditions, yes ! ! I took the largest Mahseer I have caught (75 lbs.) during a thunder storm when a gale was blowing. 2 This occurs in N. India and Burma, too, on the large rivers, but blows down stream in the morning and up stream in the evening. The days are quite often calm. It is known as the ‘Dadu\ 340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV The wind starts about 9 or 10 a.m. and does not drop till about l-J hours before dusk. These last hours are generally good. From 10 a.m. till 3 p.m. one’s best plan is to eat and sleep. To fish is mere waste of energy, as the fish seem to go right down the mo- ment the wind starts. It will be gathered from the foregoing that I am not particularly enamoured of these big rivers. The most enjoyable fishing of all is in the smaller rivers like the Jaldaka, Torsa, Rydak, Champamati and the Aie. They all have their peculiarities but they have the advantage of being fishable from the gorges far down into the plains until sand and shingle give way to mud. One can fish with a light rod and fly spoon or use a medium rod — spinning reel and 2 " or 2J" spoons, or both alternately, wander- ing down from pool to pool. The Jaldaka and Torsa. The Jaldaka and Torsa have not fished well for years. This is due, I think, to excessive netting in the lower reaches and poaching in the higher reaches. The fish too are very shy. In the Jaldaka ‘Catli’ seem to predominate. The ‘Catli’ (Assam Boka.) is of the carp tribe, like the Mahseer. He has a smaller mouth and smaller scales, while the iris of his eye is red and not yellow like the Mahseer’s. He takes a fly spoon well. Some good fish have been taken at the junction of the Jaldaka and Murti above Ramshahi Hat. The Jaldaka was a famous river at one time but nowadays I would never make a special trip there to fish. The Torsa is a fairly big river and does not clear properly before November. By that time the weather is getting too cold for the best fishing. When one is getting good Mahseer fishing, one is generally in a ‘lather of sweat’. If one is not, then conditions are not at their best. The Torsa has not fished well from all accounts since it left its old bed, which runs past Madarihat Railway Station. I have not heard of any one making any good bags for a long time. Mr. Webb of Hasimara Tea Estate, I believe, catches good fish during the rains with a live bait picketed. Spinning of course is im- possible at that time. The Torsa can be fished from either Madarihat or Nilpara Forest bungalows. The Malang. At Nilpara there is a fascinating little stream called the Malangi, where one can have a really good time with a trout rod, fine gut trace and small fly spoons — fishing is not too easy, as the banks are heavily wooded. Surprising bags of fish up to 5 lbs. or over can be made. The Rydak. The Rydak is one of the best streams I know. It can be fished from Bhutan Ghat (at the gorge), from Dumpara Ghat (on the Jainti-Kumargram Road) or farther down at Teamaree Ghat. It does not clear much before November but excellent fishing can be had from then onwards until the snow water comes down again in Aoril. It holds very good fish up to 40 lbs. — fish of 7 to 10 lbs. are fairly common. In November-December-January, the reaches below Bhutan Ghat are better but when the river level falls in February, March, April, the best fishing is above Bhutan Ghat in the deep rocky pools of the gorge. One requires a medium spinning rod — the best spoon seems to be about 2 ins, or 2|- ins, CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 341 The movements of Mahseer in this river are fairly well known, owing* to the fishing- trap used by the Bhutias. Every year they put a slanting barricade across the river, which allows the water to get past gradually through the slats but keeps back all fish of any size. These soon find themselves at the end of the barrier, where the water is led on to a platform of split bamboo; there the fish are left high and dry. If they are not dry, then the Bhutias, who kill them in thousands, soon see that they are dried and taken up the hill for food. They intercept the fish in this way just after the rains when they are making their way down to the chars and other spawning places. Fortunately for the fish and for other fishermen it is not always possible for the Bhutias to get this trap across in time to intercept all or even most of the fish. Still, the destruction is immense and I consider that the Rydak is beginning to deteriorate rapidly. I cannot of course say how long this fish trap has been used by the Bhutias. This trap is called a ‘teep’ and there are two places where it is generally located — about 3 miles and 5 miles respectively above the boundary line. This trap, I am sure, has a lot to do with fishing conditions in the Rydak, which fluctuate astonishingly. On ‘my last visit to the Rydak I found no trap at the lower site. I did not know then about the upper site. While I was fishing there a friendly Bhutia came along and told me that ‘teep’ had been fixed at a site higher up and that none of the big fish could get down below it. He offered to take me to some fine pools above the ‘teep’ and seemed to think that I was only wasting time below. The Rydak however will always get a certain number of fish from the Monas, into which it flows; the number of fish coming up depends a great deal on the angle at which it strikes the Monas, whether it runs in over shallows or whether it runs into the deep side of the Monas. As these conditions vary from year to year, this is another important reason for fluctuations in fishing conditions. Till 1923 both channels of the Rydak joined at Teamaree Ghat but in that year the Eastern Channel thrust its way across country directly towards' the Monas and threw up a large bank of shingle bet- ween itself and the Western Channel. Since then fishing has never been so good. Apparently the mouth of the Western Channel used to provide a better entry for fish. In 1923 the Western Channel almost dried up, so that fish which had dropped down must have found the entrance silted when they tried to get up again. There is a similar case to this in the Isla and the Tay in Scotland. The mouth of the Isla used to present a direct line to incoming salmon and sea trout, and many, if not most, of the fish used to go up the Isla in preference to the Tay. The mouth of the Isla was then artificially altered, so that nowadays not more than one or two fish seem to enter the Isla. The Champamati. Another delightful river as we proceed east- ward is the Champamati. It is about half the size of the Rydak. It does not clear properly until Christmas. The best months are March and April. Mahseer up to 25 lbs. are caught now and again but the chief sport is got with ‘Cutli’, which in this river are the finest fight- ing fish I have met in India. At Ranikhata a 2 in. gold and silver spoon seems best but down below at Gorubasha an all silver 2\ in. spoon seemed to do best. The average for bcfth Mahseer and ‘Cutli’ 342 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV seems to run about 4 lbs. The ‘Cutli’ spin round at such a rate and twist up mounts and traces so badly that I had to contrive a mount attached to the spoon ring- with a swivel. This seems the only effective way of dealing- with these doughty fighters. The banks are heavily wooded, and casting is not always easy but some very fascinating- fishing can be had with a light rod and fly spoons used with a dressed silk line. Hardy’s 11 ft. ‘Wye’ rod (for Sea trout and small salmon) seems about right for this work. For spinning, the Corbett No. 1 rod is most suitable here. The Aie. Still moving eastward one comes to the best river of •^11, the Aie, which provides about 30 miles of the most delightful fishing in a succession of runs and pools. The best of the fishing (about 14 miles) lies in the forest area from the gorge down to Burree Jahr. The water of this stream is distinctly warm. It clears almost invariably from mid-October or immediately the rains cease. It is almost impossible to have a blank day on this river. The fish are not very big — the biggest I ha\Ie heard of are about 21 and 22 lbs. rPerree caught a fish over 30 lbs. in a pool known as Perree’s pool Editor']. Later on I will give a few sample catches. The fishing is best in October-November before the cold winds start. If the rains are late one should fish the upper reaches in October-Novem- ber, as the bigger fish are now down much more than 10 miles from the gorge by then. In February, March, April one must fish either near the gorge and above Dausri or well below Burree Jahr, as the river between Dausri and Burree Jahr disappears in the hot weather completely. Where one starts to fish this river in the hot weather two days spent exploring' are not wasted, as owing to frequent changes, of bed one can never be quite certain where one is to find the fish. This applies however to most of these Indian hill rivers. Indian rivers have their good and bad days just like the more civilized streams of the West. All the fish seem to make up their minds at the same moment to stop biting. The theory is that this is due to some sudden deficiency of oxygen in the water. This defi- ciency may be due to several causes : — (a) Low barometric pressure, which causes a sudden decrease of oxygen. 1 (b) A heavy fall of rain, which washes dead leaves and 'rotten vegetation into the river. (c) Snow water, which drives out oxygen. Lack of oxygen paralyses the fish and they simply lie still under stones on the bottom. In such conditions Mahseer very often leave deep pools and go into the shallows, where the water rushing over boulders and pebbles is slightly aerated. They also lie right up under a waterfall. These observations are purelv guess work and are meant only to provide some sort of Rule of Thumb to guide one to likely spots on a ‘real bad day.* When a wind is blowing it is no use fishing on wide wind-swept stretches of river — -seek sheltered corners, if they are to be found. As one moves along from corner to corner one can pick up a fish here and there and can spot likelv places when travelling up the river which one can fish when conditions are more promising. CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 343 Now as regards the kind of sport one can expect. I give below a few extracts from my records : — No. of No. of Year River days fishing fish caught Total weight Biggest fish Dates 1919 Aie 23 154 406 20 lbs. 20.10 to 11.11 1920 Monas 19 18 203 37 lbs. 18.3 to 5.4 1921 Teesta 11 11 140 32 lbs. 6.10 to 16.10 1922 Teesta 15 29 179 21 lbs. 23.9 to 7.10 1923 Torsa 15 21 25 6 lbs. 13.10 to 27.10 Water not clear } > Rydak 7 33 133 26 lbs. 27.11 to 3.12 1924 Rydak 28 80 236 13 lbs. (Various dates) 1925 ? J 43 94 507 40 lbs 1 38 lbs. ] -19.2 to 14 . 1926 Aie 14 125 280 10 lbs. 24.10 to 5.11 1927 Aie 10 103 353 19 lbs. ) 9! lbs. f ■*6.11 to 15-11 Some 8 catches, which would be considered quite good days on the various rivers. 1919 — Friday 31st October — Aie(Burree Jahr) 32 fish weighing 89! lbs. and lot about 20 others. 1924— March (early) — Peddie’s Catch— Aie (Hatishar). (1) Ma — 20-5-4-li-l-l-f-l|-6-li. (2) ,, — 22-21-3-3-3-1-f. 1920 — Thursday -March 1st — Monas — 1 Mahseer — 37 1 „ -15 1 ,, —16 1 „ -5 1 „ ~ 1 Total ... 5 ,, —74 lbs. 1920 Friday March 2nd — Monas Mahseer — 19-19-41 Total 3 Fish = 42! lbs. 1921— vSunday October 9th— Teesta (Reang) Mahseer — 16-14 Total 2 Fish = 30 lbs. It22 Wednesday September 27th— Teesta (Sevoke) Mahseer— 2-4-6-3-1-3-64-2 Total 9 Fish = 31 lbs. ' 1922 Tuesday October 3rd— Teesta— 2 hours fishing (Savoke) (afternoon) Mahseer — 18-8-3-2 =4 fish = 31 lbs. 1923 November 28th — Rydak (Teamaree Ghat) Mahseer— 26-61-6-4-3-2-1 Cutli— 4-3! Total 10 = 56 lbs. 1925 February 24th — Rydak (Bhutan) (Ghat) Mahseer — 40-38-6! Cutli ... 3! Total 4 = 88 lbs. 1927 — February 23rd — Champamati [Gorubhasa] Mahseer — 9!-9-4-2-2 ) 11 fish. Cutli- 7-54-3-2-2 f 49! lbs. 1927 — November 3rd — Champamati [Gorubhasa] Caught by Nelson — 1 Cutli = 25 lbs. [This is a specimen Cutli for this part of the world. ] 344 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATukAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLlV River Av. No. of fish caught Av. weight of fish caught Biggest Aie per day 8 per day 21 20, 17 Rydak ... 3 11* 40, 38, 26, 16 32, 24, 21 Teesta 1} 12 Monas 1 Mf 37, 21, 19, 19 Torsa 1* If 6 lbs. Champaraati— My figures not worked out. But in April 1926, 5 rods [Godden, Hulton, Bor, Brunbes, Burke] got 147 fish = 450 lbs. in 4 days. A.L. Godden himself got 67 = 220 lbs. in these 4 days on 73 Victor Rod with fly spoon. Champati [A. L. Godden]— Best day 17 = 85* lbs. 20. Note on Mr. Fairweather's Fishing Notes by O. M. Martin. [Joiirn. Darjeeling Nat. Hist. Soc.} Vol. VI, No. 4, April 1932). — I don’t agree that very clear water is necessary for Mahseer fishing. All the Mahseer I have caught in the autumn have been caught in water in which the pebbles could not be seen more than a foot deep. When the water got clearer than this, the Mahseer refused to bite. I caught one fish of 12 \ lbs. on a spoon in very muddy water at Reang this October. I got two fish and lost another at Singla in water by no means clear in the same month. The water should be (1) warm and (2) not too muddy for the Mahseer to see the spoon. I believe that the Mahseer in the cold weather start to take when the water temperature rises and that a sudden drop in water temperature puts them off their feed at any time of the year. They also go off condition after spawning — as other fish do. They are in better condition in November than they are in October and are at their best in March-April — ^at least in the Teesta and Rungneet. They are so vigorous in March at Singla Bazaar that they will on occasion jump out of the water like salmon. Darjeeling, i6-i2-’3i. 21. My. Ritchie's Notes on Fishing on the Teesta River. Complete Summary of the Teesta River. Nat. ITist. Soc.y Vol. VI, No. 1, Total fish caught 266 fish weighing 2,269* lbs., best fish 54 lbs. Summary by Localities. Rungneet-Teesta Bridge portion Riyang Area Kaliihora Sevoke Duars and Jalpaiguri portion Summary by Years. 1909. 4 fish 14 lbs . best 1910. 1 1 9 1* 9 9 1911. 3 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 1912. 1 32 9 9 1913. 5 9 9 19* 9 9 9 9 1916. 1 9 9 14* 9-9 1917. 2 7* 9 9 19 1918. 18 115* It >1 1909-1930. ( fourn . Darjeeling June 1931). Average weight per fish, (in lbsd 8.5 ' 6 fish 35* lbs., best 14* lbs. 5.9 133 ,, 3,481* „ „ 54 ,, 11.1 13 „ 142* „ „ 37 „ 10.9 104 „ 495* „ „ 14* „ 4.8 10 „ 114* „ „ 45i „ 11.4 7* lbs. 5 6 lbs. 4 * lbs. 14* „ Circumventing the mAiisee.r 346 Average weight Summary by Years (coni.) per fish 1919. 46 fish 220? lbs. best 29* lbs. 1920. 7 > ? 120* 9 9 9 9 38 9 9 1921. 47 436* 9 9 9 t 54 9 9 1922. 15 1 » 160 9 9 9 9 33f 9 9 1923. 35 9 9 187f 9 9 9 9 32 9 9 1924. 6 28 9 9 9 9 24 9 9 1925. 26 99 283| 9 9 9 9 45* 9 9 1926. 12 86* 9 9 9 9 18 9 9 1927. 6 9 9 57* 9 9 99 16* 9 9 1928. 10 i 9 7H 99 9 9 36 9 9 1929. 8 91i 9 9 ,, 18* 1930. 13 307* 9 9 9 9 39 9 9 Summary by Months. Jan. 4 fish 27* lbs. best 15* lbs. 6.9 Feb. 17 9 9 84* 9 9 9 9 13* 9 9 5.0 Mar. 40 175* 9 9 9 9 14* 9 9 4.4 Apr. 33 302* 9 9 45* 9 9 9.2 May 15 9 9 246f 9 9 9 9 38 9 9 16.4 June 1 9 1 5 9 9 15.1 July 3 9 9 45* 9 9 9 9 21* 9 9 Aug. 23 202* 99 9 9 54 9 9 8.8 Sept. 47 9 9 343* 99 9 9 34* ) 9 7.3 Oct. 65 747 9 9 9 9 39 9 9 11.5 Nov. 6 39 9 9 9 9 11* 9 # 6.5 Dec. 12 ,, 51* 9 9 9 9 7 9 9 4.3 Summary by Baits. Spoon ... 236 fish 1,649* lbs. best 54 lbs. 7.0 Natural Bait ... 9 ,, 156 ,, ,, 40 ,, 17.3 Artificial Baits ... 4 ,, 71 ,, ,, 35 ,, 17.8 Atta ... 17 „ 393* „ ,, 45* ,, 23.2 Spoon Analysis. No. 3 or 1 in. size- all silver 3 fish i lbs. best 1* lbs. 1.0 No. 4 or 1* ins. size — all silver brass and silver 5 fish 6 „ 12* lbs. qi. >> best 9 9 8 lbs. 3 4 9 9 11 „ 15* „ 9 9 8 „ 1.4 No. 5 or 1* ins. size- all silver brass and silver silver and brass 8 fish ... 24 „ 4 „ 18* lbs. 71 4 „ 20 £ „ best 9 9 9 9 4 lbs. i, 12* „ 36 „ HOf ,, 9 9 12* ■„ 3.1 No. 5* or If ins. size — all silver brass and silver 3 fish Q • • • ^ 9 9 28* lbs. 28f „ best 9 9 14* lbs. 13 „ 12 „ 57* „ 9 9 14* „ 4.8 No. 6 or If ins. size- all silver brass and silver silver and brass ... 14 fish 2 „ 1 „ 77* lbs. 17* „ 11* „ best 9 » 12* lbs. 12 ,, 17 „ 106* ,, 99 12* „ 6.3 No. 7 or 2 ins. size- silver and brass all silver copper and silver 8 fish 3 „ 14 „ 47* lbs. 5* , , 61f „ best 14* lbs. >> 2* ,, » 7 „ 25 „ 114* „ 9 9 14* 4.6 346 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Spoon Analysis ( cont .) No. 1\ or 2\ ins. size — silver-scaled and copper No. 8 or 24 size — all silver silver-scaled and copper silver and copper brass and silver silver and brass brass- scaled and silver No. 84 or 2f ins. size- all silver No. 9 or 3 ins. size- all silver silver and brass brass and silver silver-scaled and copper No. 10 or 34 ins. size- silver and brass all silver No. 11 or 4 ins. size- all silver all scarlet Spoon Summary. Light spoons, Nos. 3 to 7 Heavy spoons, No-. 74 to 11 Best Days. Oct. 10, 1930. Riyang. Aug. 23,1921. Oct. 8, 1930. ,, April 4, 1925. Jalpaiguri. Dec. 8, 1925. Sevoke. Oct. 14, 1928. Riyang. Oct. 12, 1930. Oct. 6, 1930. Average weight per fish. 2 fish 23 \ lbs, best 14f lbs. 11.6 54 fish 4984 lbs. best 38 lbs. 15 „ 173 ,, }} 54 ,, 4 „ 294 „ )) 14 „ 14 „ 954 ,, J ) 25 „ 10 ,, 571 „ t > Hi „ * „ 54 > 1 > ) 4 „ CD CD 8594 ,, ) J 54 „ 5 fish 45g lbs. best 18 lbs. 5 fish 23f lbs. best 9 lbs. 4 ,, 31f ,, y ) 14 „ 1 ,, 54 >> 3 ,, 70 „ y y 37 ,, 13 „ 131 y y 37 „ 7 fish 1461 lbs. best 38 lbs. 3 „ 9 y y 5 „ 10 „ 155 ,, y y 38 ,, 1 fish fib. 2 „ 264 >> . best 214 lbs. 3 274 „ ,, 214 „ 104 fish 407 lbs. best 144 lbs. 3.9 132 ,, 1,242| ,, ,, 54 ,, 10.2 2 fish of 31 and 24 lbs. 1 ,, 54 lbs. 1 2 ,, 35 and 124 lbs. 1 „ 45| lbs. 8 ,, 41 lbs. best 7 lbs. 2 ,, 36 and 5 lbs. 2 ,, 244 and 154 lbs. 1 ,, 39 lbs. Recent Fishing. Result of a month’s fishing at Riyang, September 15th to October 14, 1930. 13 fish weighing 307f lbs., best fish 39 lbs. Average weight per diem 10.6 lbs. Average weight per fish 23.7 lbs. Total fish hooked — 31, or an average of about one per diem. Number of fish lost — 18. Number of absolutely blank days (no sign) —7. Best day — 55 lbs. (24 and 31). Next best — 174 lbs. (124 and 35.) Maximum number of fish hooked on any one day (not mere rises)— 3. Large Mahseer. Altogether 42 fish of 15 lbs. and over were taken, viz., 54, 45i, 39, 38, 37, 36, 35, 344, 33J, 334, 32, 32, 31, 30 J, 2 9I, 28, 244, 24, 24, 23, 23, 214, 20, 20, 19!, 194, 19, 1 84, 184, 18, 18, 18, 164, 164, 16, 16, 15J, 154, 154, 154, 15 & 15. Of these two (454 & 32) were caught at Jalpaiguri and Barnes Ghat, and two (37 & 18) at Kalijhora. The rest were all caught at Riyang. tlkCU M f ’ E iV T1 N G THk MAHSMk 347 As regards localities for large fish, Riyang is certainly the best. There are perhaps larger fish at the Rungeet junction, but they are not there at the time the water is clear, at least I have never clone any good at that time. In the spring when the water is still clear the fish have not yet come up from below, and by the time the water has cleared in the autumn the fish have passed down. The Rungeet is similar to the Teesta and remains permanently dirty during the high water season. I think it likely that anyone trying this spot in May, June, August and September with atta or live-bait would stand a good chance of booking some enormous fish. The water would always be too dirty for spinning at that time. Heat and rain are also further drawbacks. Nevertheless I believe the biggest fish in the river are to be had there at that time. Large Mahseer may be occasionally taken at Kalijhora in the autumn, and also at Sevoke in September, but at the latter place it is then impossible to follow the fish down the bank and anything over 15 lbs. will usually clear the reel out and break away. I have been broken at Sevoke in September many times and never succeeded in landing anything big there. Large Mahseer may also be taken on atta at Jalpaiguri and Barnes Ghat during April and the first week in May, and smaller fish at other times. I have never tried there during the autumn. It is not much use trying for large fish in the hill section of the river during the clear water season. The best fishing is at the mouths of the tributaries when the Teesta itself is dirty and there is a sufficient head of water in the tributary to give- a good stretch of clear water in the Teesta below the mouth of the tributary. Large Mahseer should be sought when they are passing down in the autumn, and the largest fish are the last to pass up but the first to pass down. Late spring and early autumn are therefore the best times for big fish. Summary of Light and Heavy Fishing Average weigh! per fish Fish under 15 lbs. 224 fish 1,214* lbs. best 14* lbs. ... ... 5.4 Fish of 15 ,, 42 „ 1,055* „ 54 ... ... 25.1 and over. Summary of ilie Rungeet * Teesta Bridge portion of the Teesta River , 1909-1929 Average weight per fish lota! Caught 6 fish weighing 35f lbs. best fish 14* lbs. ... *.. 5$ By Localities Rungeet River. 3 fish 28 lbs. best l4f lbs. ... ... 9.3 ,, Junction, 2 ,, 5 ,, ,, 3* ,, ... ... 2.5 Teesta Bridge. 1 ,, 2f,, By Years 1909, 1 fish of 2f lbs. 1918. 1 ,, ,, 3* „ 1919. 1 „ „ 12 „ 1921. 1 „ „ If „ 1923. 1 „ „ 14 „ 1929. 1 „ „ 14* „ 3 348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V By Months March. 4 fish 20* lbs. best 14* lbs. April. 1 „ 12 „ November. 1 ,, 3* ,, By Baits Spoon 5 fish 33 lbs. best 14| lbs. Atta 1 ,, 2 1 ,, Spoon Analysis No. 5 or 1* in. size- silver and brass No. 7 or 2* ins. size — silver-scaled and copper No. 8 or 2* ins. size- all silver No. 9 or 3 ins. size 1 fish of 1$ lbs. 1 *, „ 14* lbs. 2 „ ,,12 and 3* lbs. 1 „ „ 1* lbs. Best Days March 16 1929. 1 fish of 14* lbs. April 19 1919. 1 ,, ,, 12 „ Large Mahseer None. Summary of the Riyang area of the Teesta River 1918 - Total Caught 133 fish weighing 1,481* lbs. best fish 54 lbs. ... By Years 1918. 2 fish 13 lbs. best 7* lbs. 1919. 24 9 9 122* 9 9 29* 9 9 1920. 4 9 9 102* » 4 38 99 1921. 31 9 9 358* 9 9 9 9 54 9 9 1922. 13 9 9 146* 9 9 99 33* 99 1923. 23 9 9 146 9 9 9 9 32 99 1924. 1 9 9 24 9 9 1925. 4 9 9 77* 99 9 9 40 9 9 1926. 4 9 9 34* 9 9 9 9 18 99 1927. 6 9 9 57* 99 9 ; 16* 9 9 1928. 5 99 56* 99 9 9 36 99 1924. 3 9 9 32* 9 9 9 9 18* 9 » 1930. 13 9 9 307| 9 9 9 9 39 9 9 By Months Jan. 2 fish 17* lbs. best 15* 9 9 Feb. 2 9 9 7 9 9 9 9 5 9 9 Mar. 21 99 98* 9 9 14* Apl. 26 9 9 177* 9 9 ,, 32 May 15 9 9 246* I 9 9 9 38 9 9 June 1 9 9 5 9 9 July 1 9 9 21* 9 9 Aug. 6 9 9 116* ,, 9 » 54 9 9 Sept. 16 • 9 208* 9 9 9 9 34* 99 Oct. 43 99 583f 9 9 9 9 39 99 By Localities Gil Jhora Mouth. 3 fish Rilli Mouth. 6 ,, Riyang River. 14 ,, Riyang Mouth. Area 97 ,, 23* lbs. best 14* lbs, 13* „ ,, 4* ,, 19* , , , , 8 , , 99 9 9 Average weight per fish ... 5.1 ... 6.6 ... 7.8 ■1930 Average weight per fish ... 11.1 ... 8.6 ... 3-5 ... 4*7 ... 6‘S ... 16*4 ... 19*4 ... 13 0 ... 13*6 ... 7.9 ... 2.2 ... 1.4 ... IV 3 1141* 54 ‘cik'CUM ‘vEfcTlk'G THfc MAHSEeM Lower Pool and Reach. Timber Pool near 21st mile. 12 fish 274f lbs. best 39 lbs. 1 9 „ By Baits Spoon Natural Bait Artificial Bait. Atta 112 fish 8 „ 3 „ 10 980 151| 64 286 lbs. best Recent Fishing Please see third page. Spoon Analysis No. 3 or 1 in. size- all silver No. 4 or 1| ins. size- all silver brass and silver No. 5 or li ins. size- all silver brass and silver No. 5|- or If ins. size- brass and silver all silver No. 6 or If ins* size No. 7 or 2 ins. size- silver and brass No. 8 or 2-1 ins. size- all silver silver-scaled and copper silver and copper brass and silver silver and brass ,, No. 9 or 3 ins. size — all silver ... silver and brass brass and silver silver-scaled and copper No* 10 or 3i ins. size- silver and brass No. 11 or 4 ins. size — all scarlet Best Days 54 40 35 39 lbs. Average weight per iish. ... 22.9 8.8 18.9 21.3 28.6 i fish of jr lb, !* 3i 8 lbs. of i lb. >, 14 45f best 9f lbs. 2 fish 1 „ 3 JjL 1 5$ lbs. best i i i 4 1 lbs. if of b. 647* 54 2 fish 13 1 „ 1 1 „ 5j 2 33 lbs. best 9 lbs. 23 23 7 fish 146i lbs. best 38 lbs. Oct. 10, 1930. 2 fish of 31 and 24 Aug. 23. 1921. 1 91 „ 54 lbs. Oct. 8, 1930. 2 99 „ 35 and 12f Oct. 14, 1928. 2 „ 36 and 5 Oct. 12, 1930. 2 9 > „ 24| and 15 £ 26-? lbs m 1.5 3,3 1*9 7 fish 40f lbs, best 14J lbs, 5.8 36 fish 40 If lbs. best 38 lbs. 12 „ 151f „ „ 54 ,, 3 ,» 18 1 ,, >, 14 ,, 9 ,, 68f ,» ,, 25 j., 2 I, 7 ,, j, , 6f , . 62 10.4 8.8 21.0 13.3 Summary of the Riyang Area of the Tees ta River. 1918-1930, Large Mahseer. Altogether 38 Mahseer of 15 lbs. and over were taken, viz., 54, 39, 38, 36, 35, 344, 33f , 33a, 3 3i 3°t> 29I, 350 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. xLlV 28, 24^, 24, 24, 23, 23, 2 i£, 20, 20, 19J, i9i, 19, 18, 18, i6|, 16^ it>, ib, i5f, isi, 15J, I5i> !5 & I5* The best times of the year for large Mahseer are from the middle of April to the middle oi May, when the fish are passing up, and again from the middle of September to the middle of October when tney are passing down, and the autumn fishing is decidedly the better of the two. I have had no recent experience of the spring fishing, but there is not much water in the tributary at that time and it is soon eaten up by the Teesta. In the old days there was a good deep pool and run at the mouth, but with the present choked-up mouth it is doubtful whether there would be sufficient clear water in the Teesta, the Teesta itself at that time being dirty. The 54-lber. caught in August was a stray fish and should not be taken as a guide. The time taken in landing most of these large fish was very much under the regulation time of a minute to the pound. This is usually the case at Riyang, where large Mahseer do not put up the fight that might be expected of them. There is, however, one time in the year when exactly the opposite is the case, and that is during the latter half of September, when the very largest fish appear to be on the move and the water is still high and current swift. Anyone hooking a fish of 30 lbs. and upwards at that time will find it quite the exception to land it. Even an experienced hand will lose two out of three. The beginner has absolutely no chance. I lost quite a number of fish at this time this year (1930), and on one occasion had a fish on for exactly an hour (16-20 to 17-20 on the 23rd Sept.), which took me quite a long way downstream, when the hook broke on my attempting to put on a greater strain, not being able to follow any further, and not having up to then made any apparent impression on the fish. During the whole of that time I never once saw the fish, although I was most of the time opposite and slightly below him, so that he was fighting a very strong current in addition to my pull on him. In September, 1921, I also lost a number of very large fish and had the almost identical experience of having one on for exactly an hour. The period referred to above lasts about a week and occurs in the latter half of September when the water is still high. Once the water falls, a marked change takes place and matters go from one extreme to the other, quite large fish being landed in a disappointingly short time. Seasons . It should be remembered that this is. the hill section of a river, and the fish are mostly ‘travellers’, Riyang being merely a port of call on their annual voyage up and down the river for spawning purposes. They pass up in the spring during the period when the river begins to permanently rise till the rains are well established ; and they pass down again in the autumn during the period when the rains begin to break up till the river has permanently settled after the rains. In the height of the monsoon they are mostly as high up the hill as they can get, and in the middle of the dry season they are mostly in the rapids and pools clear of the hills. It is therefore not much use starting to fish in the spring till the river has become well disturbed from its dry season setting and begun to permanently rise or continuing to fish in the autumn once the river has permanently fallen and become settled. It is also not much CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 351 use fishing" in the height of the monsoon, or in the middle of the dry season. Fish may occasionally be caught at these periods, blit such are not the ‘seasons’ for the locality. Reflection on these facts should dispel the not uncommon fallacy that it is no use B fishing one day because A has ‘cleaned the place out’ the previous day. A fresh lot of fish may have arrived. In fact it will be found that even when the fish are most on the move there are days on which there are practically no fish about. The reason is that those that were there have moved on while a fresh lot have not yet arrived. In the dry season, however, when the fish have settled in localities mostly clear of. the hills for their dry season home, it is of course different. One man can ‘clean the place out’ for another who follows. As I have stated elsewhere in these notes the largest Mahseer are the last to pass up in the spring but the first to pass down in the autumn, and the best times for really big fish are therefore late spring and early autumn. Anyone who is keen on beating my 54-lbs. at Riyang is advised to try, either as late in the spring as the conditions will permit (the very end of the spring run is the time) or as early in the autumn as the fish first begin to appear (the very start of the autumn run is the time.) These periods vary a bit with the season. The former is seldom before the first week in May and may even run into the beginning of June. The latter is almost always in September, seldom before the middle of the month, and usually about the third week. As I have said before, the 54-lber. caught in August was a stray fish, which is clear from the fact that it was a female fish with roe and therefore still going up to spawn, and not an autumn fish returning. Summary of Fishing at Kalijhora Teesta River. 1909-1925 Average weight By Years 1909. 2 fish 10£ lbs. best 7£ lbs. 1916. 1 „ m „ 1918. 1 „ m ,, 1919. 1 ,, „ 1921. 4 ,, 261 „ „ 12 „ 1925. 4 „ 76 „ „ 37 „ By Months Mar. 4 fish 28k lbs. best 14| lbs. 7.1 Aug 4 ,, 26J „ ,, 12 ,, 6.3 Oct. 4 ,, 76 ,, ,, 37 „ 19.0 Nov. 1 ,, Hi ,, By Baits All on spoon. Spoon Analysis No. 6 or If ins. size — brass and silver ... ... 1 fish of 12 lbs. No. 8 or 24 ins. size — Total Caught 13 fish weighing 142^ lbs. best fish 37 lbs. per fish. , 10.9 all silver brass and silver silver-scaled and copper 5 fish 40 lbs. best 14| lbs 2 1 » 10* ,, „ 6 ,, 2 ,, 37 „ 13 „ 352 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , FoZ. XLIV Average weight per fish No. 8* or 2f ins. size- all silver ... ... ... 2 fish 26 lbs. best 18 lbs. 13,0 No. 9 or 3 ins. size— silver-scaled and copper ... 1 fish of 37 lbs. Best Days Oct. 3, 1925 1 fish of 37 lbs. Oct. I, 1925 1 ,, „ 18 ,, Large Mahseer Two fish of 37 and 18 lbs. Summary of Fishing at Sevoke , Tees fa River. 1913-1929 Total Caught 104 fish weighing 495 f lbs. best fish 14* lbs. By Years Average weight per fish 4.8 1913. 3 fish n lbs. best 4 lbs. 1917. 2 >> n 99 99 4* 9 9 1918. 14 99 87* 9 9 9 9 14* 1 9 1919. 20 82£ 9 9 99 12* 9 9 1920. 3 )} 18 99 9 9 13* 99 1921. 11 9 t 40* 99 9 9 13 99 1922. 2 99 13* 99 99 9* 9 9 1923. 11 ,, 40 \ 9 9 99 7* 99 1924. 5 9 9 4 99 9 9 H 99 1925. 17 9 9 84* 99 9 9 13* 9 9 1926. 7 99 38 99 9 9 9 9 9 1928. 5 9 9 18 99 99 6 19 1929. 4 99 45 99 99 14 99 By Months Jan. 2 fish 10* lbs. best 6* lbs. 5.1 Feb. 14 ) 9 71 1 9 9 9 9 13* 9 9 5.1 Mar. 5 9 9 11 9 9 99 4 99 2.2 Apl. 3 9 9 21f 9 9 9 9 m 9 9 7.2 July 2 » 9 24 9 9 9 9 13 9 9 12.0 Aug. 13 9 9 59* 9 ) 99 13* 9 9 4.6 Sept. 31 9 9 135 9 9 9 9 14 9 9 4.4 Oct. 18 9 9 87* 9 9 9 9 14* 9 9 4.5 Nov. 4 24 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 6.0 Dec. 12 99 51 9 9 ,, 7 9 9 4.3 By Baits Spoon ... 102 fish 484* lbs. best 14* lbs. 4.7 Natural Fa;t ... ... 1 „ 4* „ Artificial Baits ... . 1 „ 7 „ Spoon Analysis No. 3 or 1 in. size— all silver 2 fish 2* lbs. best 1* lbs. 1.3 No 4 or 1* ins. size- all silver ... ... 2 fish 2 lbs. best If lbs. 1.0 No. 5 or 1* ins. size — all silver ... 7 fish 18 lbs. best 4 lbs. silver and brass ... 3 „ 18* >> >> 12* „ brass and sfiver ... 11 „ 26* 8 „ 21 „ 63* >> »» 12* „ 3.0 CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 353 No. 5! or If ins. size— - ail silver brass and silver No. 6 or If ins. size — all silver silver and brass brass and silver No. 7 or 2 ins. size- all silver silver and brass copper and silver No. 7! or 2\ ins. size— silver-scaled and copper No. 8 or 2| ins. size- all silver silver and brass silver and copper silverrscaled and copper » brass and silver brass-scaled and silver ... No. 8! or 2f ins. size — all silver ... ... No. 9 or 3 in. size — all silver silver and brass Best Days Dec. 8, 1925 ... 8 fish 41 Aug. 18, 1929 ... 3 ,, 31 Oct. 12, 1918 ... 2 ,, 25| Sept. 29, 1918 ... 2 ., 241 Average weight per fish 2 fish 28 lbs. best 14! lbs. 7 „ 23! »> >» 13 „ 9 „ 51! .. „ 14| „ 5.7 13 fish 77 lbs. best 12! lbs. 1 „ HI 1 „ 5* „ 15 93f „ „ 12! ,, 6.2 3 fish 54 lbs. best 2! lbs. 1 „ 6! „ 14 „ 6 if „ „ 7 „ 18 „ 73| „ „ 7 4.1 1 fish of 9 lbs. 11 fish 414 lbs. best 10 lbs. 8 „ 50* „ „ 11! „ 1 „ 11 „ 1 „ 4 ! ,, 3 ,, 16| ,, „ 9! „ 2 „ 5! n )i 4 „ 26 „ 129 „ „ 111 „ 5.0 3 fish 19| lbs. best 13| lbs 6.5 2 fish 1 94 lbs. best 7| lbs. 3 „ 31 „ „ 14 „ •■5 401 „ ,, 14 „ 8.0 lbs. best 7 lbs-. „ 111 „ „ „ HI „ Large Mahseer None were landed. These fish are usually on the move in the autumn, when the Teesta is high and the fishing is all at the mouth of the Sevoke river and just below. At the end of the run there is a heavy rapid in the Teesta and a crumbling bank, full of snags and covered with jungle. A fish of 15 lbs. and over will usually be able to get into this rapid, when it clears the reel out and breaks away, it being impossible to follow down the bank. I was broken some six or eight times in this way and never succeeded in landing any fish of 15 lbs. and over. The mouth of the tributary in the autumn of 1930 was much higher up the Teesta than it has been for many years and there is now much more room below the mouth for landing fish, but I did not fish at Sevoke in 1930. Summary of the Dnars and Jal aiguri portion or the Teesta River. 1909-T26 . Total Caught Average weight per fish If fish weighing 1141 lbs, best fish 45| lbs, ... ••• H'4 354 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol XLIV Arrange weight per fish By Localities Phulbarrie Ferry ... 3 fish 9 lbs. best 5 lbs. ... 3.0 Ne ora Junction 1 „ 6 „ Barnes Ghat 3 „ 52 „ ,, 32 ,, ... 17.0 Jalpaiguri Ghat 3 „ 47| „ ,, 45J „ ... 15.0 By Years 1909 1 fish of fib. 1910 1 „ ,, If lbs. 1911 3 „ ,, 9 ,, best 5 lbs. 1912 1 „ ,, 32 ,, 1925 1 „ ,, 451 „ 1926 1 „ „ 14 „ 1913 By Months 2 „ » > 12 ft >> 6 ♦> . Feb. 1 fish of 6 lbs. Mar. 6 „ ,, 171 n best 6 lbs. ... 2-9 Apl. 3 „ >1 I^IJ; ,, , , 451 II ... 30.4 By Baits Spoon ... 4 fish of 9# lbs. best 5 lbs. ... 2.4 Atta 6 „ „ 101} „ „ 4Si „ ... 17.5 Spoon Analysis No. 10 or 31 ins. size— all silver 3 fish of 9 lbs. best 5 lbs. ... 3.0 No. 11 or 4 ins. size- all silver ... 1 fish of f lb. Best Days April 5, 1925 ... 1 fish of 45| lbs. April 30, 1912 ... 1 „ „ 32 ,, Large Mahseer Two fish of 45| and 32 lbs. (To be continued) NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS. BY E. H. N. Lowther, M.B.O.U., F.Z.S. VIII — By Tank and Jhil. ( With 12 plates from photographs hy the author). ( Continued from page 401 of Vol. xliii. No. 3). A tank or pond, formed by the earth having- been removed to make the homes of the simple folk that constitute the majority of India’s four hundred millions, occurs on the outskirts of many a village throughout the length and breadth of the land. Overlooking these tanks one or more large trees frequently have their roots — generally pipal, banyan, tamarind or nim. To these, often, a number of species of birds resort for nesting purposes, as soon as the south-west monsoon breaks, towards the end of June. Where one village gives sanctuary to openbill storks, with, perhaps, some cattle egrets and pond herons nesting on a neighbouring tree, another is favoured only by white ibises, while a third may act as host to one or two pairs of grey herons and darters, and a few spoonbills, A fourth, again, may have its trees tenanted by a number of species, including little cormorants, little and lesser egrets and, later, a considerable colony of painted storks. It is at ‘heronries’ such as I have described that my observations have been made and my photographs taken; and if these miniature heronries lack the grandeur of such famous waterfowl breeding haunts as the Keoladeo Ghana in Bharatpur State, they possess this advantage that the observer, having fewer species before him, is in a better position to watch each more closely than might be the case if there were several. Withal he will find that he has not a single dull moment, that something is happening the whole time, whether he be studying the birds with field glasses from the comfortable ease of a charpoy kindly produced for his special benefit by some villager, or photographing them from the shelter of a hide. But let us go back a little; let us try and obtain a picture of what the Indian plains look like, feel like, at this season of the year ; of how the average mortal fares. It has been a real ‘corker’ of a hot weather and the maximum shade temperature recorded 122.6 degrees. At times the loo — the burning, scorching- wind so dreaded in the United Provinces — has blown throughout the night as well as during the long hours of daylight. Indians have been going about with cloths to their faces, mouth, ears and nose stuffed up so that the heat shall not enter into their bodies. No wonder the oldest resident is said to have remarked that he had not known a hot weather like unto this during the fifty-five years he has lived in our station. The countryside is as 356 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , FoZ. XL/F bare and brown as can be ; not a blade of grass for the painfully lean kine, many of which succumb to these famine conditions. Ponds and jhils have long since dried up and a number of sarus cranes whose beats are familiar to us, have betaken themselves elsewhere, possibly to the river’s margin; there, I fear, to eke out a frugal living. Other marsh birds also are absent from their wonted haunts. Man too has been hard put to it and many a good soul — European as well as Indian — has been removed from our midst by the Great Reaper. We tell ourselves this cruel heat cannot last; we look forward with the keenest anticipation to the 25th of June when (so the Old Stagers say) the monsoon may be expected to break. At last, when we are at the extreme end of our tether, clouds gather, and on the 24th afternoon the rain comes down in buckets and continues to do so till the late evening. (The Old ’Uns knew what they were talking about, after all). For the next two days we are treated to real monsoon weather and where before the countryside looked the abomination of desolation, everything is now a lovely, fresh green, and the new-grown grass soon provides luscious keep to starving cattle. Man no longer suffers the tortures of prickly heat as he did a few days ago, and once more is fit to applv himself with zeal to ‘the daily round, the common task’. The altered weather conditions have not passed unnoticed by the feathered world either — even in our gardens a marked change is at once noted. Where previously the ashy wren-warbler slid about quietly in the bushes, he now pro- claims his presence ; and there is a ring in his notes which sug- gests the joy of living. Tailor birds to-fweet-to-'eweet louder than ever, and pied mynahs add their cheerful notes to the bird chorus. The house crow more than any other species hails with unalloyed delight the advent of the monsoon. At once he and his mate have busied themselves with domestic duties and on all sides now their stick nests are to be seen. But it is not of garden birds I would write : let us instead visit one of the heronries described earlier, one that has been in existence for years and was referred to manv decades back in Hume’s Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds. It is occupied entirelv by white ibises, of which there cannot be less than one hundred oairs in residence. But the ‘mighty tamarind tree’ of which Major Bingham wrote, no longer exists. We are told it was blown down twenty-five or thirty years ago, since when the white ibis have made their nests on two pipal trees on either side of the Grand Trunk road, on the outskirts of the village: such is the attach- ment of this species to an old breeding haunt. We learn also that the tree in question was used bv these birds for nesting pur- poses right up to the end and that it crashed in the cold weather when the ibis were no longer concerned with family cares : which was fortunate, as if they had been nesting at the time the pro- bability is that this village would have been abandoned by the birds as a breeding haunt. Before we reach our ‘ibiserv’ we know we must be in the neighbourhood of one because numbers of birds fly across our Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate I Photo by E. H. N. Lowther Nest of the Indian Black Ibis. Pseudibis papillosus Temm. 88' above ground. NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 357 field of vision with twigs in their beaks. On arrival at the site we find that although nesting operations are well in hand not a single ibis is sitting* on eggs. We note that the fine sticks or twigs with which the nests are being made, are almost always brought in by one bird — from some distance too, methinks, as they are from babool trees, of which there is not an example within a considerable radius of the village — -while the other remains at the nest, to incorporate each addition in the structure. Very rarely both birds bring materials to the nest ; even then only one seems to be concerned actively with its construction. The majority of nests are in the most exposed parts of the tree, open to the sky ; quite a few, however, rest on the lower branches, and are there- fore more sheltered. When next Ave visit the breeding colony we do not see a single pair of ibises engaged on nest construction. On every nest — they are small for the side of the bird, about ten inches in diameter — -the females are now sitting hard, their mates often besides them, but absent in the majority of cases, the loose skin below the chin vibrating at an alarming rate in this humid, hot- house atmosphere. Inspection of a number of nests shows that they each contain three eggs, very light green in colour, without any mark- ings, in size about 2*5" x 1*7". The garb of some of the ibis at this colony interests us greatly. Two males, with white-feathered necks, stand by their wives. Can it be that the white ibis does not acquire the adult plumage until after the second or third moult? Or are these birds of the year, born in South India, where nesting takes place very early in the year? Another bird has a bare, red triangular marking on the head, the feature so characteristic of the black ibis. Yet another has the head completely red. The white ibis, though normally an unusually silent species, is guilty of producing at the nesting tree a subdued, asthmatic grunt. The young too, like young egrets and the young of the different species of heron, keep up an incessant, quickly repeated, chick- chick chatter throughout the live-long day, and even during the hours of darkness ; in the latter case this portends the arrival of a parent with food. When well-feathered the call becomes a piping squeal, uttered at meal times. The young are fed by regurgitation, the parent bringing the black-looking* food up to the tip of the mandibles and giving this very tenderly to the callow brood. When they are a little older the chicks help themselves to the ‘pigeon’s milk’ by putting their bills into the adult’s beak and obtaining what they want at its base. This seems rather a rough process and the attempts of three young ones to feed simultaneously can obviously prove painful to the old birds, judging by the manner in which the parent ibis sometimes turns its back on the offspring and hurriedly leaves the nest, after a youngster has made an extra violent jab to obtain more food. The nestling white ibis has a white downy body, black head and neck, pink feet, and the slightly curved bill similarly coloured. The young, when they go out into the world, lack the red mem- brane under the wing, the feature so characteristic of the adult, 358 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV One might imagine that as the white ibis is such a marsh-loving species the black ibis must be similarly inclined. Such, however, is not the case, the two species going their different ways. True, in the winter months the black ibis is often to be seen in canal beds, where the squidgy silt seems to provide it with an abundance of food, but normally it haunts fallow land and the edge of cultiva- tion, subsisting either on insects, or on any grain it can pick up. I have even seen it seize a frog. In their breeding arrangements also the two species differ, the black ibis nesting singly though it is not averse to other species making their homes in the same tree. Nor is the presence of water necessary for this purpose — indeed the nest is usually built well away from marshy ground, though it is, perhaps, most often placed on some seesum tree by a canal bank. It is constructed from fine twigs, has a marked depression and is invariably built at a great height — that figured here was eighty- eight feet from the ground. The eggs, usually three in number, are very pale blue in colour and average 2.4.5" x 1*7,/ ’m size. Not only do the white and black ibis differ in their nesting and with regard to their general habits but there are marked differences inter se. Whereas the white ibis has the head and neck devoid of feathers, only the head and nape are bare in the case of its black relation. The black ibis’ head, moreover, has pitted or tattooed on it, a large, deep red triangular mark. In addition its legs are brick- red in colour and it utters a screaming, clanging note, both when flying and perched. At the roost this species is sometimes very noisy. The next heronry we visit is occupied mainly by openbill storks, of which there must be at least forty pairs nesting on the old banyan tree. As storks go the openbill is a small bird, standing about two and a half feet in height. At the beginning of the breeding season the plumage is white, with much black in the wings, and the tail black also, the black glossed dark green and purple. About a fortnight or so after the eggs have hatched, the white begins to change to a sullied grey. The legs are long and of a flesh colour. But it is the bird’s bill which is most striking and unlike anything we know — -when it is closed it is open ! This is not really the case, of course, as the tips of the mandibles meet. The bill, however, has the appearance of being open of the prominent gap from about its centre to nearly the tip of the mandibles. Even now we do not know why the openbill stork’s beak is so fashioned. The openbills are all incubating their eggs and either give us a dirty look as we examine them closely with the glasses, or take no notice of us. From time to time a member of the colony comes in to the nesting tree, dropping its legs and then opening and depress- ing the tail before finally settling. Owing to a gale that is blowing, one alights too "near a neighbouring* lesser eg'ret’s nest, whose out- raged owner quarks menacingly and then jabs its dagger-like bill at the trespasser, who is glad to remove his offending presence, to fiyoid real trouble. Both sexes incubate by day, the one off duty NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS ^59 frequently standing by the nest and preening itself very thoroughly for long minutes at a stretch. Then, otten, the bird departs suddenly, sometimes merely to fly in wide and ever increasing circles over the heronry, or disappearing out of sight, probably to attend to the ‘inner man’. The nests are considerably larger than those of the white ibis and differ also from those of that species in being lined with lumps of dry grass, or small twigs with leaves still attached. These are added to from time to time as incubation advances ; more particularly does this occur during the fortnight after the young first make their appearance. Up to five eggs are laid, creamy-white at first but soon turning to a muddy-brown. After the eggs have hatched a tree tenanted by a number of nesting openbills is most emphatically one to avoid, especially on a wet day; the branches and foliage are then covered with guano and the stench is over-powering. Painted storks nest later than the majority of species dealt with in this article, the time of their breeding depending on whether the monsoon is a bad or good one; if the former, the pelican-ibis (as the bird was known in Hume’s time) begins to build its nest high up in a pipal tree about the end of August. When the rains have been good, nesting operations are deferred for a fortnight or three weeks, so that we may expect to find young in the nest even during the first half of December. Sometimes, however, the monsoon fails completely. When this has been the case, I have known spoonbills and painted storks, as well as white ibises and sarus cranes, make no attempt to bring up families. Of course, it may be argued that the birds betook themselves elsewhere, where conditions were more favourable for nesting purposes. I am sure such was not the case as there was no falling off in numbers among the resident birds during the months that they should have been nesting, throughout a long stretch of country extending roughly from Benares to Delhi, with which, for many years, I was thoroughly familiar. It is nothing unusual to find thirty or more painted storks’ nests in the one tree. These are about the same size as those of the open- bill. Some are considerably smaller. The nests are made of fine twigs, and almost, invariably lined with long*, coarse grass or weeds which the birds pull up from the shallow water or its margin. Both sexes share in building the nest, incubating the eggs and feeding the young. Three, four or even five eggs are laid, dull white in colour and about 2.S" x 1.9" in size. I have photographed the painted stork by the simple if trying method of climbing a nesting tree and chasing the bird about with a reflex camera, but the pictures obtained are not particularly pleasing, lacking that something which makes all the difference between a good and a mediocre picture. It is far more satisfactory to study the bird from a hide super-imposed on a lofty machan built up against a convenient tree, a remark which applies equally to all these tree-nesting marshland species. The construction of a suit- able watch-tower will involve considerable labour and expense, but the trouble taken will be amply repaid by the results obtained and the observations made possible from the hiding tent. 3(50 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLlV Painted storks return quickly to their nests and can be studied at ease. What a pulse-quickening picture the bird presents as it arrives with a crash to feed its young — -no grunt, no vocal sound, thoiigh often the mandibles are clapped together particularly if the mate be at the nest, when both birds sometimes bow to each other and then raise their bodies and heads, perhaps repeating the per- formance two, three or four times before assuming a nonchalant pose. The young, who in the meantime have been attending to their toilet, lighting among themselves, or just doing nothing, now galvanised into action, worry the adult bird, bobbing up and down and spreading their wings. Soon their wants are attended to, the parent stork putting its bill down so that the tips of the mandibles rest on, or almost on, the floor of the nest. After a little effort, when the bill is opened wide, giving the impression that the bird is going to be sick, up — or should I say down ? — come a dozen or more chilwa or other small fry which are promptly swallowed whole by the young. Should, however, the catch have been something more substantial, a nine- or ten-inch sized fish for instance, greater effort may be required to disgorge the meal. The wings then come into play a good deal, while the bill is opened wider and the neck shaken, before ‘vomiting’ occurs. A great scramble ensues for the prize, which changes from beak to beak frequently, before disappearing down a storkling’s throat, not however, without some difficulty. Then, satisfied, the fortunate youngster rests on its tarsi till the ample repast has been well and truly digested. Sometimes it happens that in the competition to secure such a fine mouthful the fish is knocked over the nest. Though lost to the young birds it must not be supposed that the parent stork’s angling has been a fruit- less venture as Chamar children wait for and collect these ‘bless- ings from above’ .and eat them, thereby demonstrating that very little is allowed to be wasted in this ‘Land we live in’. Mongooses and pi dogs too take their quota of the windfalls, the storks making no effort to retrieve any food that drops overboard. We have two other resident storks, the white-necked and the black-necked. Neither nests in colonies, though the former some- times shares the same tree with egrets or even an odd grey heron. Its nest, usually built at a considerable height from the ground, is a flattish structure of sticks and twigs, with leaves often used , as lining. Three to five eggs are laid, of the usual stork colour. In northern India, white-necked storks’ nests with fresh eggs may be found towards the end of May. The breeding season is prolonged, as 1 have come across hard-set eggs at the end of July, and young* still in the nest, two months later, I cannot say from personal knowledge whether both sexes incubate but they both certainly help in constructing the nest and later feeding the young. Feeding time — when the young are well grown there is often an interval of two or three hours between meals— is anxiously looked forward to by the storklings, and either parent, as soon as it alights at the nest, is set on by the young who endeavour 10 grasp the adult’s beak what time the old bird does its best to ‘bring- up’ from its capacious maw a pish-pash of digested remains Plate II White-necked Stork Black-necked. Stork NOTES ON stiME INDIAN klRpS 36 1 bf frogs, iish, possibly a snake, and other such savoury items. When the photograph reproduced here was taken the five young ones were almost ready to leave the nursery. They were not fed individually, the brownish-looking ‘porridge’ regurgitated by the adult being deposited instead in tne bed of the nest. Unappetising, indeed revolting though it looked to me, the young, obviously, considered the meal provided ‘good tucker’, judging by the manner in which they jostled each other to get at it; in fact the way they ‘scrummed’ would have done credit to a first class ‘rugger’ side. The black-necked stork is a large and remarkably handsome bird, black and white in general appearance, with much green and purple glossing, long coral-coloured legs, and a colossal black beak — about twelve inches in length. It does not nest around village tanks but on the summit ot some gigantic pipal tree stand- ing oy itself in the middle of cultivation, frequently at a considerable distance from water. The nest, a huge affair, three to five feet in width, is made of quite substantial twigs, with finer twigs and dry grass for lining, the twigs and branches invariably of a thorny nature. Three to five creamy-white eggs are laid, in size about 2. 90" by 2.10". The photograph of the black-necked stork alighting at its nest having earned some notoriety — it was hung at the International Exhibition of Nature Photography held towards the end of 1935 at the South Kensington Natural History Museum, London, and appeared in Nature in the Wild (Country Life) which was advertised as containing the World’s finest nature photographs — -it will not be out of place to explain how it was obtained. The nest was situated exactly sixty feet from the ground, and was built on the crown of a pipat tree growing alongside the Lower Ganges canal a few miles distant from Etawah. An upturned table was secured at the top of the tree, on a level with the nest and only seventeen feet away from it. This served both as a platform for myself and the camera, and provided the necessary supports for the hide. The tent, camouflaged on the outside with branches from the tree, was left in situ for a number of days before photography was attempted. In all I spent twenty-eight hours, spread over a period of five days, studying and photographing this black-necked stork. During the whole of my vigil the male neither visited the nest nor were the young fed at all. (It is a simple matter to distinguish between the male and female ; the latter has a lovely golden-coloured eye, while the male’s is dark brown, almost black). The female stood on the nest throughout, not once attempting to brood. Certainly she flew away occasionally, as a rule after I had made enough noise to awaken the dead ; otherwise she did exactly nothing except watch her two children playing on the nest — tug-of-war with a very dead and dried-up frog. Not far away, on another pipal tree, was a Pallas’ fishing eagle’s nest. On the rare occasions that the black-necked stork was absent from her nest, the male eagle circled round the stork’s free and twice I had to go all out to prevent it removing one of 36i JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XLlV the young- storks. The presence of only two nestlings was pro- bably due to the eagle having previously carried off one or more of the squabs. My observations lead me to believe that young black-necked storks are fed only between sunset and sunrise. Probably both parents share in this task. As one watches a party of spoonbills working a strip of shallow, inundated ground, the slightly open bill sweeping right and left alternately, one cannot help regretting that this species no longer breeds in Britain. It did so, in the Fenland, until about three hundred years ago, and to this day nests regularly in Holland. Why then did the bird desert its ancient breeding stronghold in East Anglia? It is difficult to believe that this was due to drain- age—the excuse too often put forward to explain the disappearance of a rare species. Far more likely the spoonbill’s disappearance as a British breeding species was due to persecution during many generations at the hands of our forefathers, the memory of which has been handed down through the centuries. Clearly the ‘good old days’ were ‘not good enough’; which is a pity as the spoon- bill is a grand fowl. It is, however, shy and does not allow of a close approach when feeding. For this reason it is often passed by for one of the commoner marshland birds. If, however, we carry a pair of binoculars regularly we soon discover how generally the spoonbill occurs in suitable country. In Holland, and elsewhere in Europe, the spoonbill builds its nest on the stumps of last year’s reeds, only one or two feet above the water ; with us, however, the bird makes its nursery on the tops of tall trees, as it did in England before, I believe, sometimes at the edge of a village tank, on other occasions in more remote parts, but invariably; in well-watered areas. It breeds in colonies which may be large or consist of only one or two dozen pairs. The breeding season is late, from the middle of August till the end of October. The nest is a large stick affair, with a considerable depression, and is usually lined with coarse grass. Three or four eggs are laid. These are white when fresh, with some sepia markings, but often become soiled from the mud adhering to the spoonbills feet after foraging expeditions. To sit in a hide, with half a dozen spoonbills before one, less than fifteen feet away, is a thrilling experience. Both parents incubate the eggs and feed the young who are clothed in thick, white down and have the bill and legs flesh-coloured. The bill, though some- what swollen, shows no signs of becoming spoon-shaped and is not yet unduly long in proportion to the size of the head. Like other ‘blondes’ the nestlings are affected by the heat. This probably ciccounts for one of the parents invariably standing over the young during the first ten or fourteen days of their lives, while the other is absent in search of food. The adult spoonbill’s arrival at the nest is heralded by a great rush of wings accompanied by a grunt, a grunt different in tone from the asthmatic effort of the white ibis. The young, who indulge in much squealing and have for sometime been soliciting without success the other parent, now become even rpore vociferous. Soon their pressing demands for further rations Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate IV Photo by Spoonbill. Platalea leucorodia Temm. E. H. N. Lowther NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 363 are met. The new arrival lowers its head and allows the young to help themselves, each in turn, to the tasties secreted at the base of the bill. All the food is not delivered at once, but is given in two or three helpings, with a distinct interval between each. Occasionally it is dropped on to the floor of the nest. What its nature is I have not been able to ascertain, but it seemed to be ‘very liquid. ’ A spoonbill I photographed dribbled all one very hot after- noon till I felt inclined to say, ‘get away, old man, get away\ Another spent a good half an hour spring-cleaning, again and again picking out something from the floor of the nest. This was thrown with a jerk over the shoulder, and as it left the tip of the long bill burst into a cloud of dust. A third, a male, occupied much of his time bringing beaks full of grass to the female. These were grate- fully received by her and incorporated in the nest which contained three small young. 1 have not photographed the small cormorant from a hide, the few pictures I possess of this species having been obtained by the method deprecated when dealing with the painted stork. There is therefore very little I have to say concerning its private life. Two or three dozen pairs may on occasion be found breeding in these small village heronries in company with white ibises, openbill storks and lesser and little egrets. Always they seem entirely engrossed in their own affairs and appear to find life well-worth living, judging by the gusto with which they shake themselves and Tap their wings after feeding the young who, along with baby darters, are the timidest creatures 1 have come across. The diet given seems to consist entirely of small fry, more diminutive even than chilwa. In Kashmir, as in Britain, the grey heron builds in colonies, but nowhere on the plains have I come across more than two nests of this species on a tree though it usually breeds in company with numbers of white ibises, spoonbills and other species, with whom, however, it does not otherwise concern itself. Always the very top of a high tree seems to be selected for the nest site so that photography from a hide is not an easy matter. I was fortunate with a grey heron I once worked on as the camera was rather above the level of the nest; in consequence, instead of looking beyond on to a brazen sky, we are presented with a vista of fields and crops and distant trees. It was a particularly sticky day that I spent in the tent, and although I felt sorry for myself, for at one time I almost collapsed frpm suffocation, my sympathies were even more with the baby herons who could not have been more than three or four days old and felt the heat greatly during the old birds’ absence. The young had been fed about half an hour before I went into hiding at 9, and were not visited again by either adult until 3-30 p.m. When, therefore, the female alighted at the edge of the nest, the young showed their annoyance at this long neglect by darting- their bills savagely at the parent who, not to be intimidated, responded several times in like manner. Neither, however, touched the other. After a few minutes of this display of bad temper harmony reigned and the adult ‘brought up’ a number of tiny fry which were 4 3(>4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLlV deposited on the floor of the nest. Pieces were torn oft' these and given very tenderly to each of the three nestlings who, satisfied for the time being, were then shielded from the fierce heat by the mother bird standing between them and the sun, she even spreading out one wing to afford them greater ease. Later, two of the young ate on their own initiative, tearing off small pieces just as the parent had done. The third member of the family, rather smaller than the others, was again fed by the old heron. No attempt was made to give a whole fish, small though they were, to the young. In the same tree was another grey heron’s nest containing five' young almost ready to fly. In addition to gasping with the heat they spent much of their time wandering about among the branches in the immediate vicinity of the nest, always, however, re- turning to their home as soon as they sighted either parent. Invariably the latter announced their return by calling frank. Once at the nest, the male and the female were immediately mobbed by their offspring, the young reaching up and ‘stroking’ the parent’s bill — rather roughly at times, it must be admitted. I did not obtain the impression that as a result of this action they expected to have the food put into their hungry mouths; rather I felt they were helping the old bird to part with the meal — a number of small fish usually, and a frog as well on two occasions. One youngster seemed to take no part in ‘stroking’ the parent heron’s bill: instead it kept its head well down in the nest while the tamasha was being enacted and was usually the first to make contact with the regurgitated food. Whether this was the reward of intelligence or of being the dullard of the family, its end was tragic. A veritable ‘bun scramble’ ensued as the food was dropped into the nest, everything being gulped whole. Once a large fish was brought up. The competition to obtain it was keen. In the end, however, it was knocked over the side of the nest. The young were very upset at having lost this treat, and as they gazed dismally down towards the ground below 1 laughed so incontinently that the old heron opened its wings in a hurry and left in alarm, uttering its familiar call as it departed. Although common about jhils and marshy places the purple heron can quite easily be overlooked on account of the manner in which it ‘freezes’ when danger threatens or its haunts are invaded. There are records of this species making its home in trees, but the purple heron breeds normally in remote, dense reed beds, a number of reeds being bent over to form a platform as it were, on which the nest proper is built. This is of considerable size and is made of fine, thorny twigs wrenched from babool and other similar trees by the birds themselves. There is a fair depression to hold the three to five large light greenish-blue eggs, these often resting on pollen from bulrushes and ‘cotton’ from sarpat grass. Only one breeding haunt of this species is known to me, and that confined to about twelve pairs of birds. The stagnant water in which the reed bed is situated was alive with leeches, and a miserable time my shikari and I had when erecting the sleeper crib from which the bird was eventually photographed, two or three of these scourges seeming to attach themselves to us for every one we succeeded in removing. The purple heron sits closely, but is of an inquisitive disposition : Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate V Photo by Common Grey Heron. Ardea cinerea Linn. E. H. N. Lowther Tourn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate VI Photo by Eastern Purple Heron Ardea purpurea manillensis Blanf. & Oates. E. H. A7. Lowther NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS $65 which fact lead to my discovery of its breeding colony. A railway embankment rather overlooks the site in question, and while I was examining it through the field glasses, one long bill and neck, and then others, peered cautiously over the waving reed tops, the better to watch me. Very attenuated they were and by most people the birds would have been mistaken for the bulrushes surrounding them. Young purple herons, like the young of the different species of bittern, wander about a great deal among the lower parts of the rushes during their parents’ absence, probably in order to avoid the direct rays of the scorching sun. Invariably, however, they rush back to the nest on the arrival of the old birds. Great care should be exercised in approaching them as all are capable of inflicting serious wounds with their long, dagger-like bills. My shikari received a nasty gash in the hand from a young purple heron as a result of not exercising due caution. The night heron appears to be distributed very irregularly. Round about Calcutta it is common, and almost every evening at dusk the bird may be seen as it makes its leisured way from its diurnal roosting haunts — usually quiet, well-timbered areas — to the feeding grounds, while its loud and far-reaching call — quark — is familiar to all bird lovers. In other parts of Bengal too the species is general, as also it is in many districts in Bihar, In Delhi 1 used to see it regularly about the public gardens at nightfall ; but in those parts of the United Provinces with which I am best acquainted the night heron is decidedly rare, and I cannot remem- ber having found a single nesting coiony there. When stationed at Dhanbad in the iVfanbhum district, Bihar, the opportunities afforded of watching this species were legion as about eighteen pairs established a breeding colony in my garden. Nest construction commenced with the setting in of the soum-west monsoon, both sexes helping to build the nest which was constructed from fine twigs torn from neighbouring trees. The nests, which were somewhat flimsily constructed, were invariably well shaded and never contained unore than three light greeny-blue eggs each. Both the male and the female were seen to incubate, and the nestlings were clad in long scraggy hairs of a shade I failed to note and which I cannot now remember. The young were fed at long, irregular intervals during the day, but it was at sundown, and throughout the night and early morning, that their appetites were chiefly catered for. The noise that they made when hungry or being fed — chick-chick-chick , repeated time and again— had to be heard to be believed. Many a sleepless hour we spent on their account, but as we listened to the chattering my wife and I could visualise exactly what was happening in the tree tops. The stench at a nesting colony is appalling because of the decaying fish and other animal matter that falls from the nests, and it speaks volumes for our love of birds that we allowed the night herons to return year after year to breed with us. About five miles from our ‘house on the hill’ was another nesting 366 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV colony of this species — -one of considerable size. Here breeding started earlier and the young invariably left the nest a fortnight or so after the rains commenced. Young night herons when they leave the nest look a drab-grey and brown — not unlike young terns and gulls at the same age — and give no indication that they will soon don the fine garments their parents wear — white underparts, greenish-black back, grey wings, black nape and crested crown, with white streamers from the latter falling along the back, and that bibulous red eye so characteristic of the bird. Cattle egrets, little and lesser egrets', also pond herons, alias paddy birds, frequently breed together or near one another ; and there is nothing concerning the nidification of one which does not apply equally to the rest. All build flimsy twig nests with a slight depression in which are laid three to five spotless greeny-blue eggs. In all four species both sexes help in constructing the nest, but as has already been recorded of the white ibis, more often one bird brings the material while the other’s business is to incorporate it in the structure. In every instance both sexes also share in incubating the eggs and feeding the young. During the breeding season all four species don the most wonderful ‘ospreys’ or aigrettes. Many people seem to experience difficulty in identifying the different egrets. The following particulars will, it is believed, help to name each correctly : — - Little egret — plumage pure white but beak black at all times. In the breeding season has a drooping crest of two narrow plumes and grows long ‘aigrettes’ on the back as well as the breast. Lesser egret — plumage pure white at all seasons; bill black in breeding season but yellow, with a dark tip, at other times. In the breeding season also the facial skin is a vivid green or bluey- green. Then too the bird wears a long train on the back and long- plumes on the breast. Cattle egret — in the non-breeding season the plumage is pure white, but when nesting the bird acquires long golden-buff delicate plumes on the head, neck and back. Beak yellow at all seasons. Pond heron — in the non-breeding months is of an earthy-brown colour when at rest, when it harmonises remarkably with the floating vegetation which it usually haunts. In flight appears almost entirely white. In the breeding season the back becomes a beautiful maroon in colour and from it grow hair-like plumes of the same shade, while a long white drooping crest is also worn. The bill is black at the tip, yellowish in the centre and blue at the base. The large egret, not referred to hitherto, cannot be confused with the other species as not only is it appreciably larger, its size approximating to that of the grey heron, but it is a recluse in its habits. On the 13th of September one year I spent a most entertaining day in my hiding tent photographing lesser egrets at their nests. There .were two nests before the camera lens. Each was the home NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS ■367 of four young ones and in both cases one squab was noticeably smaller than the rest of the family. The larger young ones spent much time wandering' about amongst the branches close to their nests but at once returned to them when either parent arrived. All possessed nasty tempers and jabbed fiercely with their dagger- like bills at other young birds which ventured near, on one occa- sion even attacking an adult openbill stork. The young appeared to be fed unnecessarily carefully, each in turn, the runt ushally last of all. The method employed was different from that adopted by the spoonbill, the lesser egret putting its bill down the young one’s the latter in turn seizing the parent’s bill with its own. As a result it was not possible to judge the nature of the food. The beak of the young bird when almost ready to leave the nest was seen to be yellow but with a greenish tint at the base; and the feet and skin about the abdomen greenish in colour. More interest- ing still, I noted that now, at the end of the nesting season, the bill of the adult was black at the tip but otherwise dark yellow, that is to say it had taken on the non-breeding aspect before nidification was ended. Other interesting things I saw this day were numerous thefts of building material from neighbours nests while the latter were absent, and the manner in which those birds that had small, and even large young, renovated and strengthened their nests from time to time. One word of advice to those who would visit these heronries. Crows are ever present, to rob both eggs and small young ones from nests from which the owners are absent if even for a minute or two. Therefore take a gun with you always, not with the okject of discharging it, but in order to frighten away the crows and so give the egrets, etc., a better chance to bring up their families. Crows are far more afraid of a gun than are egrets. There is one other bird that haunts village ponds that we cannot fail to observe. Already, by its loud diabolical grunts, groans and chortles, it has made itself known to our ears, but being a shy species the white-breasted waterhen only emerges from the bushes at the tank’s edge when human peace and quiet reign. Then it makes its nervous way along the water’s margin, twitching its tiny tail to show the brick-red underparts. Otherwise the white- breasted waterhen is of a dark slate colour above, with white face, neck and breast, and the abdomen the same colour as the under- tail coverts. The breeding season is from the beginning of July to the end of August, and the nest, which is made of light twigs, lined with rushes, is commonly built in the thick bushes surround- ing a village tank, often only two or three feet above the water though more than once I have seen a nest situated quite ten feet from the ground. Four or five eggs are laid, smaller and of a lighter shade than those of the moorhen, but otherwise generally resembling the eggs of that species. Those who have attempted to photograph the moorhen at its nest in India agree that it is a foe worthy of their steel. To my mind the white-breasted waterhen is an even more difficult subject and the few pictures I possess of the bird are among the most treasured in my collection. The individual I photographed invaria- bly approached the nest in a very stealthy manner and always 368 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XL1V made its way up to it from the water under the bush, climbing gradually to the nest. The chick of the white-breasted waterhen is a delightful creature clad in black down and is not only surprisingly active but the young family are wizards at diving and dispersing when hunted. We have now made contact, as it were, with almost all those species which nest in colonies around many a village tank, and with some others also. Let us then proceed to a jhil, or lagoon, which, dry or almost so, during the hot weather, now, at the begin- ning of August, holds water three or four feet deep. In parts a fine crop of wild rice waves its feathery tops some few inches above the water, while in another direction an aquatic creeper spreads its convolvulus-leafed tentacles over the mere’s surface. On the far side of the jhil is a small island — really the remains of a narrow bund or bank. On this a sarus crane, largest of Indian birds, is incubating her two greenish- white eggs blotched slightly with brown. The nest is a collection of weeds and rushes. For a radius of twenty feet around the island there are no signs of vegetation ; it is clear the saruses have pulled it up for their nest — we have actually seen them, or rather the male only, busy on the job else- where. He first clears the immediate vicinity of the nest of all the rice or other weeds, breaking them off under the water and throwing them in the same movement over the shoulder in the direction of the nest. At this early stage the female does not have to leave the dry ground, she just picking up what has been cast almost at her feet, to lay the foundations of the nest. Later, as the male’s task takes him further away from the bund, when the vegetation he has pulled up lies in the water, his mate wades into the element and carries the weeds to the nest, a matter in which he also takes his fair share. But just as the male does not appear to take any part in the actual making of the nest so too we have not observed the female assume her partner’s role in tearing up the weeds required for the nest. Both sexes certainly incubate — we have watched the ‘change over’ take place — but our watchings go to show that this task is mostly performed by the female. In the LTnited Provinces the sarus is a common species and a pair are to be seen in the vicinity of most large stretches of water, and often in cultivation where, it is feared, the birds must do a consider- able amount of damage to the ripening crops. During the hot weather too, manv foregather by our larger rivers. Wherever found they are a notable asset to the landscape. Their slow, rhythmic flight is the poetry of motion, while the loud trumpet-like call, uttered both on the wing and from the ground, and during the hours of darkness as well as by day, never fails to excite even the most blas4 of human beings. And who is there who is not enthralled by the sarus’ courtship display, when he and his wife, standing opposite each other, bow to one another and jump excitedly up and down, the while opening wide their enormous wings and closing them again, and uttering the far-reaching note to which we have already referred? This display may be witnessed also when incuba- tion is taking place, sometimes when the male arrives af the nest to see Tourn. Bombay Mat. Hist. So c Sarus Crane NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 369 how matters are progressing-, but more particularly when both birds return to the nest after the female has been disturbed from it, 'and find their eggs are still there. Verily are they Darby and Joan, and it is in the fitness of things that the sarus is a life- paired species. There is another display by the sarus which may be seen during the chota barscit and the last days of the hot weather, a performance which seems to express more than anything else the joy of the devoted lover when his betrothed names the wedding day. A sarus calling in the distance may provide the necessary urge, or it may be human intrusion, or the sight of his wife at the far end of a maiclan. Whatever the cause, the male opens and closes his wings, jumps up and down, calling as he does so, and then runs some distance — not the somewhat awkward mien of the bird sham- bling away when alarmed, but a smooth, gliding movement as though he were taxi-ing on ice. This beautiful performance may be repeated two or three times in as many minutes, the bird some- times running about in any direction but ending up where his wife is, when she also may join him in this ‘sliding’ act. By virtue of its size alone the sarus demands our first attention, and continues to do so far some time ; but even while the binoculars are glued to the bird strange avian calls are wafted to our receotive ears; although, at first, we imagined there was no other bird life on the jhil. When, however, we finally tear ourselves away from viewing the sarus — -can we ever really do so? — we soon spot a black and white bird about the size of a chicken, with a long cock-like tail, apparently walking the water’s surface. Then it springs into the air, uttering a musical me-onp. The refrain is taken up by others also. They are pheasant-tailed ja^anas. The abnormally long claws and toes which the water-pheasant (as it is often called) possesses cause its weight to be distributed over a large space, thus enabling the bird to walk with ease on the weeds amongst which the nest also is built — usually a sketchy collection of rice stems and weeds. Four eggs, deep bronze in colour and shaped like pegtops, are laid. Their lower surface often rests in the water. The only wav to photograph birds nesting in such situations is to dig four stakes deep into the mud and on these erect a platform at water level the next day, covering the whole with weeds. On the third day the tent can be put up, the uprights stuck into holes bored for the purpose in the planks. The work must be done graduallv as if the pheasant-tailed ja^ana should become alarmed the odds are she will build another nest a few feet further away and remove the eggs to it. This is accomplished by the egg being pressed between the bird’s bill and breast and the ja^ana walking backwards with them to the new nest. It is important that the uprights for the machan be dug deep as otherwise with the weight of the photographer on it the whole may, in the course of a couple of hours, topple over: as happened on one occasion with me when, apart from receiving a very good ducking, I damaged the camera considerably in mv efforts to extricate myself from the tent. From the hide one obtains a very good idea of the beauty of 370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XL1V the water-pheasant as she proceeds to the nest — -it is believed that the female alone incubates. Particularly noticeable are the slaty- blue bill, rather paler at the tip, the pale bluish-grey-coloured legs and feet, and the lovely golden-yellow band down the back of the neck, bordered narrowly with black to separate it from the \ white of the head and fore-neck. We, in India, are fortunate in having with us, in the moister parts of the country — Bengal, Bihar and Oudh, for example — another lily-trotter, as the jaqana is called in East Africa : the bronze-winged jacana. Viewed from a distance the bird appears all black but when seen at close range one realises how handsome it is with its bronze-coloured wings shot with green, chestnut rump and stumpy tail. Otherwise the plumage is black glossed with purple. In addition there is a conspicuous white line from the eye to the nape, and the bill is of a striking tri-colour, red, green and yellow. More retiring than the pheasant-tailed jacana, with a note I can only liken to a piping squeal, this species is somewhat crepuscular by nature and frequents the more weedy parts of a jhil, amongst which it builds a floating nest after the manner of its kind. This is more substantial than that of the pheasant-tailed jaqana. Four eggs are laid, very handsome objects, dark olive-brown with ir- regular black hieroglyphics and scrawls much like Arabic writing. On one occasion I had a strange experience while dealing with the bronze-winged jaqana. The bird’s nest was about seven feet away from the lens and I had taken four or five photographs when the roller blind cord came away in my hand as I was resetting the shutter — the second time this happened that season. Cursing my luck I decided to ‘wait and see’, to watch the bird’s behaviour and learn (if I could) whether both sexes incubate. The more I gazed on the bronze-coloured wings and the green and purple glossing, the more certain I became that no photographic plate could give even a fair idea of the different shades in the jacana’s plumage : I felt that once again the reward for my labour would only be another set of glary-white pictures giving a totally wrong impression of the bird’s colouring. While still pondering the matter and wishing I had waited till the sun was obscured before attempting photography, my thoughts were broken upon by a buffalo wading into the water about twenty yards away, and the resounding whacks of a child upon another animal. This made the jaqana sit up at. once. Presently she slipped off the nest but went only a short distance before squatting down in the weeds, amongst which she became almost totally immersed. After a few minutes she returned to her eggs. When the offending buffalo got up to go away, once more the bird left the nest. More buffaloes came and went, to the accompaniment of much childish shouting. Many times did the bronze-wing leave the nest, sometimes in a hurry, on other occasions in not such great haste ; as often she returned to it. Each time this happened the bird looked more annoyed than before. When, however, four or five buffaloes arrived and three children competed with one another as to which could make the most noise, the confusion created was more than the jaqana could bear : with her beak she pushed one egg after the other into the water and then tore the .PLATE Vlil Pheasant-tailed Jagana Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate IX Photo by E. H. N. Lowther Bronze- winged Jagana Photo by NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 371 nest to pieces and threw the weeds forming it in every possible direction. A delightfully attractive whinneying note proclaims the presence of the dabchick. The bird is obviously in a straggly reed bed but presently comes out into the open water, swimming and diving alternately. Its nest is a floating pile of dead and decaying aquatic plants, moored usually amongst rice stems, reeds or rushes, wher- ever the growth is not too heavy. Few would suspect that this collection of dead weeds is a bird’s nest. Five to seven eggs are laid, much pointed at both ends and white when first laid but shortly turning to a dark brown colour owing to the soggy state of the nest material. Once, on the Rhotas plateau in Bihar, I came on a nest containing eight eggs. Normally this species breeds singly, and usually the eggs are covered over with a pad of weeds kept handy for the purpose whenever the dabchick leaves the nest, but in 1931, near Shadipur in Kashmir, on a piece of water about half a mile square, I counted no less than eighty-three nests containing eggs of the little grebe. During the three days that I spent on this lagoon, I noticed forty-one cases where the birds made no attempt to cover their eggs : it was not that the birds were taken by surprise and had no time to cover them — it was a perfectly open stretch of water and I could be seen all the time from the instant I embarked on the tiny shikara from which the census was made. In a number of instances I observed the dabchicks leave their nests. I attributed this departure from the normal to the total absence of crows here. Kites certainly flew overhead but were feeding on small fish which basked on the water’s surface and often on the lotus leaves. The dabchick approaches its nest by a series of dives, the bird having a good look round each time it comes to the surface. Finally, instead of clambering up onto the nest, the bird heaves itself upon it, a matter in which very great energy must be expended. On one occasion a little grebe I was photographing was somewhat reluctant to return to the nest. The arrival, however, of a beautiful male Hodgson’s yellow-headed wagtail on the sodden pile very soon brought the dabchick to her eggs, accompanied by the equally hurried flight of the wagtail which had already started uttering its twittering notes, perhaps to express satisfaction at finding such a fine landing- ground on the lake’s expansive surface. In no book that I have redd can I remember reference being made to the ivory-coloured marking which appears in the breeding* season at the base of the upper and lower mandibles of both the male and female dabchick. This is verv clearly brought out in the photograph reproduced here. Another species which builds a floating nest moored to weeds in open water is the whiskered tern. Very common in summer in the Vale of Kashmir, this tern also breeds in the United Provinces where I found a nesting colony in the Etawah district, and in Bihar where three or four breeding jhils are known to me. It is greatly given to stealing building material from neighbours nests, and Qolonel B. T. Phillips tells me he has seen the bird upset a whole 372 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV clutch of eggs into the water when removing a lily stem from another whiskered tern’s nest. In the dense reed beds yellow bitterns and chestnut bitterns pass their secluded lives, only leaving them by day if absolutely compelled to do so. The chestnut bittern is considerably darker than its yellow cousin and is distinguished from it also by the absence of black in the primaries and secondaries, and by the yellow bittern possessing in addition a black crest and having some black on top of the head. Both species are rare in the United Provinces but not uncommon in Bihar ; in Bengal they occur more numerously, particularly the chestnut bittern. The thick reed bed mentioned earlier in which I discovered a small nesting* colony of the purple heron was also the home of a pair each of chestnut and yellow bitterns. I failed to locate the former’s nest but succeeded in finding that of the yellow bittern. (This was in the Etawah district). A number of reeds had been bent down to form the base of the nest. On this base were pieces of reeds and rushes, woven cunningly, the whole making a pad about seven inches in diameter. Over the nest other reeds were drawn together, to create an awning, the eggs thus being invisible from above. The nest contained five eggs of a very pale skimmed- milk-green colour. I have photographed both these species at the nest but found them comparatively uninteresting subjects ; both sat very tight and obviously trusted to the remarkable manner in which they faded into their surroundings, to avoid detection. When, however, my shikari came to let me out of the tent, the birds walked very quietly off their nests on his close approach and made good their escape by keeping to the reeds just above water level. Not on one single occasion did Pokhi hear them moving* away. Many other species of marsh birds there are, some common, others not so general. A few of these I have photographed and have found the nests of others. But it is not my intention to write of these as already this article has assumed alarming proportions and I can almost hear the Editors asking whether I am unaware of the fact that there is a paper shortage. Nevertheless as earlier on I quoted a nesting site of the white ibis referred to in Hume’s Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds it will not be inappropriate to conclude by recording my experiences when photographing another water-bird, the black- winged stilt, at the Sultanpur salt works about thirty-five miles south of Delhi, almost the only nesting haunt of this species known for very many years and concerning which elaborate details are also given by Hume in his classic. These works have since the time of my visit been closed down and I like to feel I was probably the last ornithologist to study the stilt here. The time of my visit was the 31st of May, IQ23. The technique of salt manufacture is not known to me but what I saw were numbers of large, shallow evaporating pans about 150 feet or more square, separated from each other bv narrow strips of ground about two feet wide. On these the stilts had their nests, slight depressions lined with tiny pieces of kanker and each con- taining four eggs, very similar in appearance to those of the red- Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate XI E. H. N. Lowther Photo by Chestnut Bittern Ixobrychus cinnamomeus Gmelin. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc Plate XII Lowther NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 373 wattled lapwing but rather smaller. Most of the birds, I was told, had already hatched off. Anticipating a long day, I had arranged to catch the 5 p.m. train from Garhi Harsaru back to Delhi, but so confiding was the bird near whose nest I put up the hiding tent that by 12-45 I had used up all the plates with me. Then it was that I decided to make a bid for the train due to leave in fifteen minutes time. Not only had I to dry my feet and put on my boots and stockings, but the camera and tripod, and the hide, had to be ‘put away’ ; and we were a mile from the station. My shikari and I shared the load and ran the whole way, but when I presented myself at the booking office for our tickets not a word could I articulate; consequently dear old Pokhi had to explain instead. The mineral water vendor on the train, seeing my condition, placed half a dozen bottles of lemonade in my compartment and brought in ice at every station. All these and many more were finished before we reached Delhi, but it was not until after breakfast the next morning that my thirst was quenched ! Of course, I know now that I was very, very near collapsing from heat exhaustion, as apart from the run I had spent two hours in the tiny tent. Hume says the temperature of the stilt’s nest at this time in the full sun probably averages 140° Fahrenheit, but then, as Noel Coward observed : — * Mad- dogs and Englishmen Go oat in the mid-day sun’ . A BLACK LEOPARD, AN ORDINARY LEOPARD AND A GOOD BULL TSAING BY W. S. Thom. Leopards were fairly plentiful round my camp and I had to keep a careful eye on my two bull terriers, especially when it got dark, to see that they were not carried off. The villagers residing in a small village of about twelve houses not far from where my camp was situ- ated in the jungle, informed me that quite a number of their dogs, as well as some of their pigs and calves, had been killed by leopards. The pug* marks of two leopards that had been seen in the vicinity of the village on being examined by me appeared to be about the same size; so I came to the conclusion that a couple of these animals must be hunting in pairs. I had left my headquarters to go out into the wild on a month’s shoot to see, as I had not shot anything for a long time, if I could account for a good bull Tsaing ( Bibos banteng birmanicus) the true wild cattle of Burma, as well as bag a leopard or two. I was told that there were several herds and some good bulls among them. Some very fine solitary bulls had also been seen feeding on the neighbouring low-lying bamboo-covered hills and ridges, but that they were all very wary and difficult to get at, especially when lying up in thick cover during the heat of the day. Most sportsmen who have had any experience of Tsaing and Gaur ( Bibos gaums), are aware that a solitary bull gaur is much easier to stalk than a solitary bull tsaing. The success or otherwise of a stalk depends a good deal on whether the ground that is to be covered is damp or dry; whether one’s trackers, and the sportsman himself are experts at the game; whether they understand the art of travelling through the jungle as noiselessly as possible until near enough to shoot the quarry in a vulnerable spot. What is of the utmost importance however is that the wind must be carefully tested and should be entirely in one’s favour till the shot is about to be fired. I need not go into details of this kind as most sportsmen with any experience of big game shoot- ing know how to cover the ground without making any noise when tracking up an animal. Needless to say the sportsman’s sight and hearing should also be very good. When out after big game, my senses were always at the utmost tension especially when about to fire at an animal that I had been stalking, whilst I could invariably tread as noiselessly as a cat when moving through the jungle. Years of practice and experience of big game shooting brought my sense of smell, touch, hearing, sight and my tread to a very acute and highly developed condition. My weapons on this shoot consisted of a single 500-bore high velo- city rifle by Westley Richards taking a charge of 80 grains of cordite, a 423 Mannlicher Schoenauer magazine rifle, and a double 12-bore, hammerless ejector shot-gun with S,S,G. buckshot cartridges, BLACK LEOPARD, OkDY. LEOPARD, GOOD BULL TSAING 375 1 have used many different kinds of weapons when shooting' large and small game in Burma from the year 1887 to the end of the year 1940 and their use always gave me very great pleasure. Let me describe some of them in this article. Three of these weapons seldom, if ever, failed me when in a tight corner. They were a double hammerless 8-bore Paradox, a double hammerless 8-bore rifle and a single trigger 577 ejector rifle by Westley Richards which took a charge of 100 grains of cordite. The two 8 bores each took a charge of 10 drachms of black powder. Later on 1 came into posses- sion of a single take down 577 cordite rifle by Westley Richards which took a charge of 100 grains of cordite. This was a very serviceable and perfect weapon. I could sprint a hundred yards carrying it easily in one hand as I ran to overtake any animal that I had wounded. Then I owned a double hammerless 303 Lee Enfield rifle, sighted up to 300 yards. This was a most accurate weapon for all thin-skinned animals such as sambar, serow, goral, barking deer, pig, wild dog. On several occasions I also accounted for several leopard and bear with this weapon, using soft nose as well as service bullets. What a wonderful weapon the 8-bore Paradox was to be sure. 1 seldom failed to bring down any animal with my first shot. The conical bullets used in the cartridges of this weapon were heavy and they invariably set up beautifully. Only on one occasion, did 1 fail to bring down at once a bull that I had fired at. I was walking alone ahead of my men along a ridge, on the water-shed on the top of the Yoma mountains, which overlooks Arakan and Thayetmyo District at a height of about 4,000 feet. Away down in the valley I could see the steamers coming up and down the Irrawaddy river on my right and on my left the sun setting with a glitter over the sea on the Arakan coast miles away. Then I came suddenly on a solitary bull gaur, a very large animal, which was walking in my direction along the ridge. When it saw me it stopped dead and threw up its head. The animal was then about 30 paces from me. I fired at what I took to be its chest with the Paradox, but the animal turned round as if on a pivot and galloped off at a great pace for a distance of about 400 yards as if it had not been hit. Then suddenly after hitting the burnt stump of a large tree it collapsed with a crash, stone dead. I found after- wards that my bullet had hit the animal’s nose and after travelling down its gullet had lodged in its stomach after badly raking its lungs and internal organs. The bullet was afterwards picked out and handed to me by one of my men when the animal was being cut up. The double 303 Lee Enfield was, as I have stated before, a perfect weapon for most animals except elephant, tiger, gaur, and tsaing. As a matter of fact, it really was not quite good enough for leopard, sambar or bear. I got two bull gaur and a tigress also with it. Those were however special occasions and picked shots. In the case of the two gaur I used cartridges loaded with service bullets. The tigress was shot with a single cartridge and a soft nose bullet, the latter passing through both its lungs. It is not however, what a weapon will do on certain occasions, but what it should do on every occasion, and a good big ‘un’ is always better than a good little ‘un’. I also possessed a beautiful 236 W.S.N. magazine rifle which accounted for a good many thin-skinned animals such as 37ci Journal, ho MR A y Natural hist, society, Vol. xLi v serow, goral, pig, barking deer and wild dogs. I had at different times, two double 12-bore hammerless ball and shot guns both of which took a charge of about 4I drachms of smokeless powder, these weapons are all right when used in beats, when the jungle is being driven for such animals as bear, pig, sambar, leopard and barking deer, but they are not powerful enough for tiger, although 1 bagged the record tiger of Burma at Smbo in the Myitkyina District using one of them. It was what is known as a ‘Cosmos' ball and shot gun by Cogswell and Harrison but, as I have said before, it should never be used on a tiger, and certainly not on elephant, gaur or tsaing as the powder charge is quite insufficient, it is quite a different matter when a 12-bore magnum ‘Explora’ gun is used on some of the large animals as it is a very powerful weapon witn a powder charge good enough to kill most animals. One night at about 9-30 p.m., when about to turn into bed, a Burman hunter from a neighbouring' village arrived at my camp to inform me that a leopard had attacked one of his dogs tne same night at about 7-30 p.m. The dog had escaped with a nasty scratch along its back which it received as it leaped into the house. Although several persons had heard the dog yelp loudly once, no one had seen it or the leopard. I informed the shikari that I would see what could be done on the following day. Next day 1 decided to have a machan erected at a spot near a thicket about 250 yards from the village — a site which .1 had chosen before. I hung up a leg of a doe sambar, killed several days before by wild dogs, which my men had brought in. It was hung from a stout branch with a strong piece of rope, about ten to twelve feet from the ground. At about 5-30 p.m., armed with my 12-bore shot gun and S.S.G. cartridges and the 423 magazine rifle I entered the machan alone, it was not more than about eight feet above the ground. At about 7 p.m., when the light was just beginning to fade, a magnificent black leopard stepped out of the thicket and began walking slowly towards the bait, lucking its tail from side to side. When it got exactly beneath the bait, it stopped. The animal then began to sniff the surrounding air uttering a succession of peculiar purring sounds, al ter which it lay down on all fours in a crouching position as if about to spring on the meat hanging above its head. I did not wait to see any more and let the animal have one shot from the 423 with a soft nose bullet, which got it luckily through the vertebrae of the neck. The animal, on receiving the shot turned a complete somersault and remained perfectly still except for a few spasmodic movements of its tail. It certainly was a lucky shot to have hit it where I did, and I was just going to get down from the machan to inspect the dead animal when, to my utter surprise, two ordinary leopards sprang out of the same thicket. After trotting up to the dead animal together they sniffed at it once or twice and then looked up at the sambar’ s leg that hung so temptingly above their heads. After reading this some people might be inclined to think that I am drawing the long-bow and making up this yarn. Well believe it or not as you like. I finished off one of the two leopards with one shot from the choke or left barrel of my 12-bore shot gun. The choke took a number of the S.S.G. buck shot together which entered the brain of the animal through its left ear. The black leopard turned out Black LEOpAkb, ordy. leopard, good bull tsAing ■£?? to be a very fine male measuring G\" in length. The second ordinary leopard bagged by me taped ^ 3" in length and, as it was the cold weather at tne time, both animals nad very nne coats. When the villagers and my hunters arrived on the scene and saw the black leopard tney were very astonished but all of them agreed that this must have been the animal that had killed and carried oft their calves. Tsaing, the true wild cattle of Burma, are very fine game looking animals for their size, a good bull often standing as high as seventeen hands at the shoulder. I have shot quite a number of old bulls during the past 50 years of my stay in Burma, some of them with very tine heads. I have found irom the many experiences I have had with these fine animals that, when wounded or at bay at close quar- ters, they are never really as pugnacious or as dangerous to tackle as some ot the solitary bull gaur ( Bibos gaums ) tnat i have shot, in fact I have had more narrow escapes from death through being charged and struck by the horns of wounded gaur than from any bull tsaing. I do not believe either that a bull tsaing, although generally speaking a more active animal, can travel any faster when charging tnan a bull gaur. I am inclined to think in fact from the many experiences 1 have had, that a bull gaur when it means business, ancl is really charging after being wounded, usually travels much taster than a bull tsaing. To say also that a bull gaur seldom charges at all is utter nonsense, i have been charged by them on four separate occasions, two of which nearly finished me oft. I have no recollec- tion of ever having been charged in a business-like manner by a bull tsaing. Although I have been in several nasty situations with several wounded animals. I have always considered a wounded bull gaur to be very dangerous indeed when it is being followed up. 1 nere is not the slightest doubt about this in my opinion. Experience has shown me that a wounded gaur is more likely to charge a sports- man that is following him up than an unwounded animal, although I remember very well being charged on two occasions by two solitary bulls that had got my wind and had not even been seen or fired at by me. Some solitary bull gaur are of course more cantankerous and savage than others. It often depends on whether the animal is a cunning old stager, or a bull that has been made cantankerous and fierce through having been fired at and wounded frequently by Burman hunters using inferior weapons, or whether it Las- been attacked by tigers on different occasions and is therefore always on the look out lor danger and ready to charge on hearing anything approaching it. I once shot a very savage old solitary bull gaur that was minus its tail, and blind of its right eye. I was tracking him on foot as he was about to cross the railway line into the Pidaung plain in the Myitkyina District of Burma. Some gangway linesmen, or railway coolies, coming along the line disturbed him, so he turned back along his tracks and was passing me at about 15 paces, I being on his right or blind side. I was using a single take down 577 rifle by Westley Richards burning 100 grains ot cordite. He tried to get at me though floored him with my first shot- — a soft nose bullet which passed clean through his body, but as I happened to be on his blind side, where he was unable to see me, I dropped him again with a second shot clean through his body, but as he struggled hard to regain his feet to get at me I killed him with a ’M JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY , Vol XLIV third shot which got him in the neck. It took a lot of doing- of course, and I thought at one time that it might be able to get at me. 1 certainly was a bit shaken when it was all over. I had opened out a fresh tin of twenty 577 cartridges that morning so they were fresh and in splendid condition. A twenty hand bull gaur sometimes takes a lot of lead before he can be properly accounted for, unless he is hit in the right place with the sportsman’s first shot. I consider that next to a wounded tiger, and then a wounded leopard, no more dangerous animal can be followed on foot than a wounded null gaur. it is very difficult to choose the best bull tsaing when one comes upon a herd as there may be two or three good bulls equally worth snooting. It is necessary for the sportsman to bring a powerful pair of binoculars with him to discover at once which animal carries the best head. It does not necessarily follow that the biggest animal in a herd possesses the finest pair of horns. I have shot some very big gaur running up to 20 hands, and also some very large tsaing, and found that they had indifferent heads, whilst other animals, gaur of 18 and 19 hands, had very much finer heads. The same remarks apply to the size of the tracks of an animal that a sportsman may be following up. I have tracked several solitary bull gaur as well as tsaing that had enormous tracks and then found that their heads were most disappointing. This is the case however more often with gaur than with tsaing. I may be wrong of course, but the conclusions arrived at by me is that what an animal gained in the size of its body it seemed to lose in the size of its horns. My men turned up one morning and informed me that they had come upon the tracks of a herd of about thirty tsaing and asked me whether I would follow them. I agreed to do this taking only my single 500-bore cordite rifle, which took a charge of 80 grains of cordite. After following up the tracks till about 6 p.m. we came upon the herd scattered over a ridge covered with dwarf bamboo jungle. Some of the animals were feeding on bamboo leaves, others were cropping the grass. I picked out with my binoculars two good bulls. They were standing alone together apparently doing nothing for they certainly were not cropping the grass or browsing- off the bushes, or feeding on bamboo leaves. I could see them shake their heads occasionally and whisk their tails from side to side though there did not appear to be many flies about, it being then the cold weather, but a good many flies always follow herds of gaur as well as tsaing throughout the year. In the hot weather and beginning of the rains gad flies worry these animals dreadfully. I once came upon a solitary bull tsaing trotting along through the jungle. He passed without taking any notice of me, at a distance of only about ten yards, surrounded by a dense cloud of gad flies that were punishing him dreadfully, for he shook his head from side to side as he covered the ground. I killed him with one shot using an 8- bore rifle. The bullet passed through both his lungs. Fortunately for my hunters and myself the wind was in our favour as we approached the two bulls standing alone. I only had two trackers with me. The fewer followers you have when following an animal the better, especially when approaching such wary animals as tsaing. Well to cut a long story short, I managed LEOPARDS And is AIN G 37§ to get within about forty yards of the two bulls and then let the one that appeared to have the better horns a raking shot forward through the small of the ribs with a soft nose bullet from the 500 bore. The animal stumbled and lurched forward slightly on receiving the shot as if it were coming down, but recovered at once and made off followed by the other bull. The rest of the herd dashed away in different directions on hearing the report of my rifle. It took my trackers and I another hour and a half steady tracking before we came up with the wounded animal, which beyond shak- ing its head and snorting at us, could not do anything as it had been rendered more or less hors de combat. I then finished the bull off with a second shot which perforated both lungs and brought him to the ground after he made a gallant effort to keep himself from collapsing. The bull’s horns were well corrugated and taped 70 inches from point to point across the forehead. I saw the companion of the dead bull standing under a bamboo clump not more than 150 yards from where my trackers and I were standing, alongside the animal I had shot. I had no desire however to shoot another animal as I considered one good bull accounted for in a day’s shoot was quite enough, in spite of my trackers’ earnest request that I should shoot this animal also. All that Rurman villagers, hunters, and trackers usually think of when they accompany a European sportsman on a shoot is how much meat they can become possessed of at The end of a shoot. Nothing would please them more than shooting half a dozen tsaing in a day and allowing to carry off all the meat. 39 Lytton Road, Dehra Dun. 5 WHERE THE RAINBOW ENDS.* BY Lt. Colonel R. B, Phayre, m.c. (Rtd.) 'Great big1 fish of a variety unknown to us, with red cheeks like those of an English master.’ This was the somewhat astonishing report sent by an old Sinhalese village fisherman to the Secretary of the Ceylon Fishing Club, after some strange fish had been breaking up the villagers’ lines, tackle and nets at a spot many miles below the Club waters. These fish were subsequently identified as ‘Rainbow trout/ with which the upper waters had been stocked. To reach the lower waters, they had to negotiate a series of most formidable falls, in- cluding leaps of ioo feet, while in some places, the river dropped 1,530 feet in 800 yards. What is the exact definition of a rainbow trout? These elusive fish, which have a mysterious habit of disappearing completely, have always been the subject of great interest and controversy among keen anglers. Even the experts disagree. Although screeds have been written on the salmon, brown trout and sea trout, there is surprisingly little literature on the subject of the rainbow, and it is worth while examining some of the evidence on the subject. Origin. — The rainbow originated in the River McCloud, a tri- butary of the Sacramento in California. The indigenous fish was known as Salmo shasta , This trout was purely a non-migratory river fish and it is important to note that it has about 160 scales along the lateral line, and 63 vertebrae. In the same river there was another very similar fish, known as the steelhead ( Saltno rivularis ) or gairdnerii, but described by some writers as S. widens and also widens. It is definitely an ana- dromous fish, i.e> it is migratory, like the salmon and makes its way down to the sea* The count of scales along the lateral line comes to approximately 130, with 60 vertebrae. Dr. Kendall, the scientific assistant to the United States Department of Fisheries, described shasta and rivularis as ‘two entirely separate fishes’, but others disagreed. Up to two pounds in weight, it took an expert to differentiate between these two species. Accepting the statement that these two species are distinct and Interbreeding took place, the hybrids also produced progeny but on a reduced scale and inferior to their parents* These hybrids were termed by some writers S. widens. In habits and appearance they more closely resembled the steelhead (migratory) than S> shasta (the purely river and nommigratory fish). * Reprint from July 1943 No* of United Service Institute journal (India) by Courtesy of the Editor* Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. RAINBOW TROUT. BROWN TROUT, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate II One of the Kulgam trout streams (formerly the preserve of H.H. the Maharajah of Kashmir) : some very heavy rainbow and brown trout have been killed on these beats. The rank at the ancient Moghul gardens . at Verinag containing springs which feed the trout stream of that name, WkkRE THE RAINBOW ends. 381 Dispersion,— Rainbow were first exported from the U.S.A. to the United Kingdom in 1882, They also went to other, countries in Europe and to the Dominions, and reached New Zealand, Ceyion and India. It is quite possible that among them were the true S. shasta, but many must have been the cross between N. shasia and the steelhead. The same stories of mysterious disappearances came in from all these countries. Many admitted that tney were battled, so all sorts of theories were put iorward to explain how they eifected their vanishing trick, when they appeared to be thriving in suitable localities. Further reports were received later from the countries which had imported these so-called rainbow. Germany, for example, des- cribed them as voracious feeders which, having cleared out all the natural food in a pool, would move downstream in search of more food. They did not, however, appear to suspect any migratory tendencies to be connected with a natural move towards the sea. [a) Notes from the United Kingdom confirmed that they were heavy feeders and ate nearly twice as much as the brown trout ; consequently, if brown trout and rainbow inhabited the same pool, the brown trout stood a small chance of thriving; (h) their livers were about three times larger than those of the brown trout; ( c ) given favourable conditions, they gained in weight about one pound a year ; (d) they did best in alkaline water; (ej when netted in, they did their best to escape; (/) they were aftected by very cold water and invariably tried to escape, they have been known to bury themselves in the muddy bottoms where many died, either from suffocation or from the effects of marsh gas ; (g) they did quite well in water of about 770, a temperature that would probably kill brown trout (other writers do not agree, and consider that 7ou is reaching the danger mark); (h) the average life was about five to six years, when tney were inclined to go blind. Several have been dug out of the mud in this condition or caught in nets among the weeds. Most keen anglers will be able to quote cases from their personal experience regarding the complete disappearance of these fish from a favourable locality a year or two after stocking. The writer recalls a stream-fed lake of about five acres in England, which, had a good food supply, but was very deep and cold. It was stocked with rainbow from Blagdon and did reasonably well for two. seasons; after this the fish began their vanishing trick, so the lease was ter- minated. Curiously enough, three seasons after the vacations, orie rainbow of about 2 lbs. was taken on a fly. A friend of the writer diverted a small stream running through his garden into a series of small pools, erecting wire netting at the exit from the garden. Although on high ground near a moor, and thus rather cold, the site was a sunny one; rather shallow with a rocky bottom. Besides natural food, artificial food, . such as snails, shrimps, insects and liver, was supplemented. It. was stocked- with a strictly limited supply of 9-inch, rainbow.. The owner amused himself by inviting his guests to catch one on a .fly. . for. lunch. The rate of growth was far higher than mentioned in para, (c) above, some of the fish attaining 7 lbs. in .weight in 2 J years. No casualties from natural causes were observed. It was always a matter of interesting conjecture as to what was going to happen to rainbow 3*2 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol xLlfr after they attained a weight of over 7 lbs. Unfortunately, the sudden sale of the property, owing to the untimely death of the owner, prematurely terminated the writer’s observations. the most illuminating and fascinating account of rainbow culture in the East comes from the pen of Mr. Philip Fowke, a former Superintendent of the Ceylon Fishing Club Hatcheries in Newara Ehya, whose research work regarding rainbow places him in the very highest rank of pioneers. The author gratefully makes acknowledgment to him for his kind permission to disseminate some of the valuable information which he has discovered after years of study and practice. The facts are of such importance that every reader who is interested in rainbow is strongly recommended to acquire his masterly pam- phlet, reprinted from the ‘Ceylon Journal of Science,’ Section C. Fisheries, Vol. VI. Here are a few salient facts: — - Although brown trout were introduced into Ceylon in 1882, rain- bow were not imported until 1899 and 1902. They were bred success- fully at heights ranging from 7,200 feet to 5,800 feet; below the latter height they were affected by the heat, and it has been found that they will not breed freely below 5,500 feet. They thrived well, and four years after their introduction, large numbers of really good fish were being killed on fly. They then moved to Lake Gregory, which checked their downward progress and, from the lake, went up to the smaller streams to breed. Those fish, however, which had ready access to the river passed away downstream. In 1903, in the same lake, the biggest rainbow killed (on a worm) was 10 lbs. 9! oz. Another, found partly eaten by an otter, was judged to be 18 lbs., but its weight was not officially recorded as it could not be properly weighed. The conclusion drawn was that the more or less pure S. shasta were content to stay in the rivers, whereas the Steelhead variety invariably made for the sea when they had attained a weight of about 5 lbs. Later, indisputable evidence was received that large rainbow (so-called) were being caught miles away in the lower reaches of the rivers down to 1,500 feet, negotiating as they went most formidable falls in which one would expect a fish to be dashed to pieces. The point is that they survived ; consequently, it may be assumed that these fish would have little difficulty in overcoming the rapids of such rivers as the Beas or Jhelum, where the dangers would be infinitely less, even during the heavy spates; besides which the tem- peratures, especially during the cold weather, would be considerably lower than those pertaining in Ceylon. It has already been mentioned that scale and vertebrae counts of Dr. Kendall were: — (a) True (river) rainbow (S. shasta) lateral line count of scales 160 — vertebrae 63; ( b ) steelhead scale count 130— vertebrae 60. In order to test the new theory, Mr. Fowke went to the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, and asked the authorities to show him a marine-run steelhead trout; he was shown a perfectly preserved Ceylon ‘rainbow’ trout ! He next asked Mr. Donald Carr to give him a scale-reading of some of the famous rainbow at Blagdon* The lateral line count of scales given was 139, 139, 140, 140 and one of 145. Finally, he sent three Ceylon rainbow for WHERE THE RAINBOW ENDS 383 scientific examination; the result of the scale count was 138, 127-128 and 132- 134, with the vertebrae never more than 60. To check this point, Mr. Fowke wrote to America asking whether the so-called rainbow in Ceylon were not really steelheads. The reply confirmed that it was very difficult to differentiate between the two, up to a pound or two in weight, but that the average size of the true steelhead seldom exceeded 6 to 8 lbs. in weight. This confirmed Mr. Fowke’s experience, for he put the weight of the average river (Ceylon) rainbow at 6 lbs., and had been unable to trace any river rainbow being taken over 7 lbs. The result of these tests seems to prove that all these so-called rainbow were really steelheads, hence their migratory propensities. Mr. Fowke also mentions that, in 1935, Dr. H. S. Davis, of the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, wrote to him saying that they were rearing several strains of rainbow in America, hoping to establish one whose habits would be no more migratory than those of the biown trout. If this enterprise succeeds, it should be very interesting indeed to all fishermen. Unfortunately, in these days it is very difficult to get up-to-date information in India, but it is quite possible that these experiments may have been crowned with success. Should this be the case, it would be interesting to stock some virgin water with these non-migratory rainbow. All evidence received hereto- fore seems to confirm that hybrid stock having any connection with the steelhead rapidly adopts migratory tendencies until the whole stock is lost, unless it inhabits some land-locked lake. If this theory is correct, then the very distinctive markings of the steelhead should make recognition an easy matter, even to un- sophisticated villagers. Further, if these fish really are going down to the sea, stocks put down in Kashmir, Kulu, the Nilgiris and elsewhere should be filtering into the larger rivers of India, and already may have been netted hundreds of miles away from their hatcheries. In order to produce further evidence, the writer corresponded with various Game Wardens and Pisciculturists in India, to whom he makes grateful acknowledgment for the trouble they have taken in sending him the following details. Kashmir . Characteristic disappearance was observed, although rainbow did well in the deep pools near the stewponds at Harwan Hatcheries up to from 5 lbs. to 7 lbs. In certain streams where they were put down, they were prevented from moving downstream by grids and gratings. In such cases the fish became emaciated, and some deformed. In other cases they did well, fish of from 4, lbs. to 5 lbs. being taken. There was a tendency for them to move down to the deep, low-level lakes (such as the Dal, Anchar and Wullar lakes). Some of the Kashmir stock was sent to Kulu. The opinion of Mr. G. M. Malik, m.sc. , the Pisciculturist at the Achabal Trout Culture farm, is that the Kashmir rainbow resembles 5. gairdnerii. This point was confirmed when a specimen was sent home to Mr. J. R. Norman of the. British Natural History Museum. Confirmation has later been received that the so-called rain- bow is being caught miles below the streams in which they were liberated or bred. In 1942, one rainbow of 3 lbs. was caught on rod and line three miles below Barn mull a ; consequently the com 384 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol XL1V firmatory evidence which was anticipated, is now coming to hand. Further enquiries are, however, being made, and it is hoped that in a few years’ time, much more data will become available. Scale counts of rainbow at Achabal and Harwan gave the following details: (a) Lateral line: vary from about 132 to 138. ( b ) Vertebrae 60. These figures have been taken from the measure- ments of a large number of fish at both the above hatcheries. Nilgiris .—In the Nilgiris the same difficulties were encounter- ed in breeding brown trout as those experienced in Ceylon, name- ly the spawning* of the hens never synchronized with the milt of the cock fish; consequently rainbow were introduced. l am indebted to Mr. P. W. Davis, M.c., i.f.s., Hon. Secretary of the Nilgiris Game Association, for the following notes : — ‘Regarding migration, it may be assumed that rainbow do (or did) get over the falls into the Bhavani and Moyar rivers, but — as purely negative evidence counts — I believe that no trout has been picked out of the rivers in the low country. There are also mahseer in both the above rivers which eventually join the Cauvery and flow across Southern India to Tanjore. I doubt that the Nilgiri trout finds its way very far to the sea. The Pykara Hydro-Electric Works now tend to prevent any fish getting below, as they are held in the Mukerti and Glen Morgan Reservoirs. “I and a Committee member, separately, counted the lateral (line) scales of two fish — one a 2-pounder and the other about lbs. The extraordinary thing is that they came out differently ! The .scale count of the larger fish was 126 or 127 and the vertibrae count was 61. The smaller fish was more difficult, even under a glass, as scales were small and indistinct, but different counts totalled 147 and 149 (vertebrae not mentioned.) ‘Mr Fraser, for many years Fisheries Superintendent of the Nilgiris Game Association, writes to me: “I took it (scale count) up with the experts in California, and we sent sample fish to California in formalin for identification. I cannot, however, remember the number of scales, but there is no doubt that the fish, in the Nilgiris rivers is the ‘steelhead '-—Salmo irideus . ” * Kulu. — -To Mr. T. Tvson, of Katrain, one of the best-known resident fishermen in Kulu, and who has long experience of those waters, I am grateful for the following notes: ‘Years ago, I fished the river (Beas) almost down to Mandi, but caught no trout of any description below Bajoura (about 12 miles below the fishing reserve). ‘Rainbow have now practically disappeared from the Beas. Up to about 12 vears ago, I occasionally caught them around Katrain, but during the whole of the last season (1942), T don’t think any were landed in the fishing reserve. ‘From my experience of rainbow in Kulu, the fighting Quali- ties of the species gradually deteriorated. Years ago, shortly after they were introduced into the Beas. one could almost invariably “sense” a Rainbow while playing it. In more recent years, however, there was very little to distinguish its fight with that of a brown trout. 5 (A most interesting observation; corroboration fr°m other waters would be of value, — yl ufh or.) WHERE THE RAINBOW ENDS 385 i I also appreciate the help given me by Dr. Hamid Khan Bhatti, m.SC.j Ph.D., Game Warden of the Punjab, who writes: — ‘It has been found that rainbow trout does not exist in the lower reaches of the River Beas beyond the Kulu Valley. It is, therefore, doubtful whether these fish have made way to the sea or have otherwise disappeared. The lateral line count is 134. ‘It is sad to relate that a very heavy flood swept through the Valley in August, 1942, and killed thousands of trout, both in the river and in the hatcheries. The extent of the damage was very marked throughout the 1943 season and again in March 1944. ’ Travancore. — Mr. W. S. S. Mackay also kindly sent some very interesting notes on the High Range Angling Association of which he is Honorary Secretary. This is a purely private Association, and is not open to the public. As in other places in South India and Ceylon, brown trout having failed (introduced 1906) owing to the male and female not coming into season together, rainbow were introduced from stock taken from the Nilgiris, and also from Ceylon. Some of this strain ori- ginated from Germany, New Zealand and Kashmir, so there is a good mixture of blood. Mr. Mackay states that the scale counts have never exceeded 140, and that the fish are steelheads and not rainbow. There have been considerable losses of stock in the past, as these trout seemed to make their way down to the warmer waters of the foothills, and to die there. Lt.-Col. Stockley, however, states that rainbow will live in waters at 2,000 feet in Africa. There were the usual setbacks and failures at the initial stages, but Mr. Mackay relates that when these rainbow were put into a small pond or lake, where the food supply was good, they had a phenomenal increase in weight from 2 lbs. to even 3 lbs. a year; but they ceased to rise to fly after the first year and usually died prematurely. They did very well in clean, running water where there was plenty of space. Their voracious and migratory tenden- cies were very marked. Mr. Mackay attributes the failures in breeding to the high tem- peratures, it being clearly established that they would not breed well much below 5,000 ft. They did well, however, at Hamilton’s Plateau (7,500 ft.), and Mr. Mackay has now had the satisfaction of hatching out his own trout. Some nice fish are being taken weighing from 3 to 5 lbs. Mr. Mackay, later, sent me a photograph of a two-vear- old rainbow, length 25-! inches, girth 15J inches, weight 8 lbs. This seems to be very exceptional growth. He remarked that the fish was spawn-bound, and picked up dead. An Air Force officer records that some rainbow were being taken in a river above which was a waterfall having a sheer drop of 400 ft., only the upper waters had been stocked, so this falls into line with the reports emanating from Ceylon. Here, then, is some of the evidence on the rainbow-steelhead controversy, regarding which the reader can draw his own conclu- sion s. Probably a great deal more could be discovered concerning the migration of these so-called rainbow. Members who are keen anglers are scattered over the length and breadth of the country. It seems quite possible that, if enquiries were made on rivers perhaps 386 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV hundreds of miles below preserved trout waters, they might result in the identification of these wanderers, either after being trapped in the village nets, or even caught on rod and line. If such an event did occur, it would be of considerable interest to other anglers, and a communication to the author would be greatly appreciated. The problem to be solved is: where does the rainbow end? The answer seems to be : in the sea, if he can ever get there — poor devil. OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT, BY Edward G. Nichols. This is the first attempt to make a list of all the species of birds known to occur in Madura District, South India. The books on the subject are all vague with regard to distribution and relative abun- dance and altitudinal range, I hope these notes, which are a digest of many volumes of notes, will help compilers of future books to be a little more specific on. some of these matters. Madura District has seen few ornithologists. The great pioneer of South Indian birds, Dr. T. C. Jerdon, seems to have visited Madura City once or twice on his way from Trichinopoly to Tiru- nelveli, but he did not stop to collect here. Rev. S. B. Fairbank and Capt. Horace Terry did good work collecting on the Palni Hills, and the former also took a few specimens on the plains. Mr. Salim Ali’s Travancore Survey worked along our western border, and from his list I have borrowed all records for Kumili and for Periyar Lake and its environs, because Madura District has about half a mile of shore-line on the lake at a place called Thekadi near Kumili. Others who have done bird work in the District and whose specimens or records have helped me are : Major Campbell, on the Palni Hills in the 1830’s; J. P. Cook, on the Palni Hills, at Kuruva- nutthu, and at Thekadi from 1893 to 1896; R. F. Stoney, at Kodai- kanal in 1899, and on the plains in 1903-4, 1915, and 1917; Dr. C. B. Harrison, at Madura in 1907 ; S. H. Prater, on the High Wavy Mts. in 1917; and C. McCann, on the Palni Hills in 1921. There are some local specimens in the Zoology Dept, of the American College, Madura. Mrs. Cantlay has sent me a good list of species observed on the High Wavy Mts., and various friends have given me occasional sight records. My own observations started in 192 1-3, mostly at Kodaikanal. Since 1930, I have lived on the plains, stay- ed at Kodaikanal several weeks each year, and visited briefly most parts of the District. In my spare time I have accumulated all the records I could with the use of binoculars. Madura District is in the middle of Tamil Nadu. It extends from 90 3P to io° 44' North, and its southern point is for a bird only 102 miles from Cape Comorin. On its eastern side it is at one point only 42 miles from Palk Bay. And its western point is 58 miles from the Indian Ocean. While they are not sharply cut off from one another, there are different kinds of bird habitat in the District, which we may dis- tinguish as follows : 1. The Coromandel plains sweep into Madura District from the north and east and south, and flow like a dry sea around the base of the hills. Roughly two-thirds of the District is plains, almost flat, but rising gently from 300 ft. above sea near Tirumangalam to oyer 1,300 ft. at Kudalur in the Kambam valley. There is very 388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XLI V little difference between the bird-life in different localities on the plains, but four kinds of habitat may be noted : (a) For a large part of each year, the plains are fairly dry. Trees of many kinds are thinly scattered over them. The rainfall averages as low as 26 inches at Palni, and much of it falls from September to November. A bird partial to the dry plains only, is the Yellow- wattled Lapwing. (b) There are small areas of scrub jungle and bushy waste-land on the little hills that rise here and there out of the plains, and at the base of the large mountain masses. Most of the birds of the dry plains are found in the scrub jungle in numbers, but the latter is particularly the home of the Jungle Warbler, the Malkoha, the Jungle Quail, and the Gray Partridge. (c) Next there is the wet zone. If the north-east rains are good, much of the area of the plains comes for the season temporarily under this head, and all the irrigation tanks will have water in them for three or four months. But, the rains are irregular, and so the best place to look for the wet zone is on the lower Vaihai plains near Madura City, which is served by the Periyar irrigation system from about June 15th to March 15th every year. The wet rice fields attract such birds as the Streaked Warbler, the Greater Spotted Eagle, and the Marsh Harrier. (d) A few large tanks within the irrigated area have water in them for more than nine months of the year. Toward the end of this period, they have a thick growth of lotus, water-weeds, and sedges. Most of the water-birds naturally seek out such places, and there we find the Water Hens, Cormorants, Storks, large Herons, and Teals. But I have not yet found a heronry in the District. 2. Leaving the plains, we start up through the dry hill slopes , including the lower slopes of the Palni Hills where trees are small and few, and also the Varusha Nadu or upper Vaihai valley, the Andippatti Hills, the Sirumalai slopes, and the lower hills flanking the Sirumalai. Peculiar to this zone are the Sirkeer Cuckoo and the Pea Fowl. 3. Higher up, we come to the tropical rain-forest. It surrounds Periyar Lake at the south-western corner of the District, and occurs on the High Wavy Mts. It folds itself around the slopes of the Kannan Devan Hills High Range, where Madura District includes a corner of that range. From there north-eastward there are larger or smaller blankets of forest on the Palni Hills, but the Lower Palnis, on their 4,000-foot plateau, show the forest at its best. And it jumps across the ten-mile gap of plains to rest again on the summit of the Sirumalai. Where it is cultivated, this zone has plantations of plantains, coffee, cardamoms, oranges, tea, etc. Birds peculiar to it are numerous ; the Spotted Babbler, the Gold- fronted Chloropsis, the Black-naped Flycatcher, the Malabar Wood Shrike, the Racket-tailed Drongo, the Fairy Bluebird, the Grackle, and the Trogon, are a few of them. 4. Finally, there are the temperate hill-tops. From about 5000' up to the highest level in the District (8724' on the edge of the Kannan Devan Hills) there are open downs varied with small patches of woods called sholas. The rainfall is 65 inches yearly at 389 OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT Kodaikanal. To this zone are confined such birds as the Kodai- kanal Laughing* Thrush, the Shortwing, the Blackbird, the Red- headed Warbler, the House Swallow, the Jungle Nightjar, and the Painted Quail. Considering the variety of life-zones in the District, it is not sur- prising to find that 331 species occur here out of a possible total of about 490 species in the whole of South India. Our great de- ficiency is in water-birds, for Madura District has 77% of the land- birds of South India, but only 45% of the water-birds. The number of species found at each elevation in the District is approximately as follows : 5,000' and above ... 141 3,000' to 5.000' ... 187 1,000' to 3,000' ... 195 Plains ... 204 Out of our 331 species, I guess that 210 are permanent residents in some part of the District, 109 are winter visitors, and 2 (the White Ibis and Black-necked Stork) are summer wanderers. Of the winter visitors, some are water-birds that breed in winter, and so the number of species that breed in the District is probably over 220. There are curious gaps in my records of some of the Munias and Swifts, which may perhaps leave the District for part of the year. The length of stay of our winter visitors varies greatly. A few species have been noted only in passage to and from Ceylon or Tirunelveli District, and these swell the figures for March. It is surprising to find that in an area so near the Equator the majority of winter visitors spend 5J months in Madura District, from mid- October to the latter part of March. The total number of winter visitors found in the District during each half-month is: July 2nd half 6 Dec. 2nd half 65 Aug. 1st 13 Jan. 1st 99 66 „ 2nd >» 16 1 9 2nd 99 67 Sept. 1st >> 28 Feb. 1st 99 65 ,, 2nd 32 99 2nd 9 9 62 Oct. 1st >» 40 Mar. 1st 99 63 „ 2nd 9 9 55 * 9 2nd 99 62 Nov. 1st »> 54 Apr. 1st 99 50 ,, 2nd »» 61 ,, 2nd 27 Dec. 1st 9 9 62 May 1st 9 9 9 In the following list, the English names are the briefest I could find to distinguish the birds in our District from one another. Tamil names have been printed only once, but apply to several species in most cases. If a species has no Tamil name next to it, the next previous Tamil name may be found applicable. The most helpful man on this suhiect is Mr. Bonavis Bonnell, m.a., Lecturer in Zoology at Madras Christian College. In each case where I have used the third scientific name, I have done so to indicate that specimens have been taken in Madura District and the subspecies has been determined, Since the pub- 390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V lished lists are not always clear on this point, I cannot vouch for the accuracy of the determination in all cases. If no specimen from Madura District has been scientifically determined, I have added a note to show the nearest place where the subspecies has been deter- mined from specimens. Records in parentheses are those from nearby Districts which improve upon the Madura District records, either in altitudinal range or in duration of stay. The following ‘farthest south’ records are found in this list: Gray Babbler, Redstart, Orphean Warbler, Wire-tailed Swallow, Short-toed Lark, Singing Bush Lark, Griffon Vulture* and Tawny Eagle. Corvus macrorhynchus. Black Crow. Tamil : Andan kakai, Karun kakai. The subspecies is probably culminatus, which has been secured in Salem Dist. and in Travancore. Plains, and around Thekadi, 3000'. Fairbank also found this crow around some of the villages of the Upper Palni Hills as high as Vilpatti, 5800 1. (In the Nilgiris up to 7200'.) Resident. It ranks 8th in abundance among the plains-birds, and is about one-fourth as numerous in my records as the House Crow. It avoids dense jungle, but is more a bird of the open country and the edge of the village. Its voice is lower in pitch than the House Crow’s. Corvus splendens. House Crow. Maniyan kftkai. Specimens of splendens have been taken in Trichinopoly Dist., and of protegatus in Travancore. Plains only. (It ascends the Nilgiri hills.) Resident. Ranks first among the plains-birds. It is found not only around houses, but also in remote fields and along the shores of tanks. Deodrocitfa vagabunda parvula. Indian Pie. Val kakai. The subspecies vernayi has been taken in Salem Dist., and I suspect our plains-birds belong to it. Plains, and lower hills as high as 5000'. Resident. Fairly common, wherever there are sizable trees. As many as 10 may be seen together. Its trumpet-like calls are various, most often of 2 or 3 ascend- ing notes : ku-hee or ku-lo-hee. Dendrocitta leucogastra. Southern Pie. J. P. Cook took a specimen at Thekadi, 3000'. (In other districts, it occurs in damp forests up to 5000'.) Parus major stupae. Gray Tit. Pattani kuruvi. From iooo' up to 7000/ in all the hills. (From sea-level at Madras.) Resident. Rare, usually found in tree-tops on the edge of forest. Its clear, loud notes are somewhat less shrill than a Sun-bird’s, usually 3 notes in a phrase. ' Machlolophus xanthogenys travancoreensis. Yellow-cheeked Tit. From 3000' to the top of the western hills. (Down to 2000’ elsewhere.) Resident. Fairly common, in parties up to 10 in number, in trees. Its notes are loud and cheerful, usually of 3 syllables, much like the Gray-headed Flycatcher’s in quality. *P|-obnbly Long-billed Vulture ( G , indicus) Eds. dccuihtkkCE of birds in Madura district 391 Sitta frontalis frontalis. Velvet-fronted Nuthatch. Pasai edukira kuruvi. Hills, from the base (Fair bank), to the top. Resident. Common in forests of the lower hills, fairly common at the top. Often found in groups of about 12, on the bark of large trees. Garrulax delesserti. Wynaad Laughing Thrush. Pun kuruvi .. The late Mr. F. Dawson found a nest near Pillar Rocks in 1935, and was sure that the bird was a Laughing Thrush without a white eyebrow, J have only one imperfect observation, also above 7000'. (Occurs in thick forest at all elevations in other districts.) Trochalopterum jerdoni fairbanki. Kodaikanal Laughing Thrush. Western hills, from 3500' up. (As low as 3000' in the Anaimalais.) Resident. Abundant, ranking 3rd among Kodaikanal birds. Rev. S. B. Fairbank dis- covered this subspecies at Kodaikanal in 1867. It skulks in thick shrubbery. The notes are loud and ringing. The laugh is a deliberate har, har, liar. . . A common call is ku-hi-yu , repeated several times. A low-pitched scolding resem- bles that of the Red-whiskered Bulbul. ‘ Turdoides somerviilei malabartcus. Jungle Babbler. Thavittu kuruvi , Pandri kuruvi. 1 Birds of the eastern plains are noticeably paler, and probably belong to the race orientalis, which has been taken in Mysore. , Plains, and up to 6100' in the hills. (In other districts up to 6500'.) Resident. Terry found a nest at Pallangi, 5500'. Fairly common. Flocks of about 7 are found where there are plenty of shade-trees and bushes on the plains. In the lower hills I have seen flocks of about 25. On the plains, 1 have heard little screams, and a series of squeaky whistles in descending scale. In the hills, the notes are much louder and harsher, and remind one of fruit-bats. Argya eaudata eaudata. Long-tailed Babbler. Plains, and up to 1200' in the hills. Found near Atthur, near Nilakottai, and scattered from these points south-westward to the foot of the High Wavy Mts. (As high as 2500/ in Mysore.) Resident. Uncommon, in flocks of about 10, in scrub jungle or rows of bushes bet- ween fields. Argya malcolmi. Gray Babbler. Lower Palni Hills, from 2800^ to 5000k This is the southern limit of the species. Resident. Fairly common. Terry obtained a specimen on the northern slope near Palni. In small flocks in open bushy places. Argya subrufa. Rufous Babbler. A specimen has been taken at Thekadi, 3000k Bunker and I saw three at Pallangi, 5400k (In other districts it is resident from 200k) Pomatorhinus horsfieldii travancoreensig. Scimitar Babbler. Possibly our Sirutnalai birds belong to the form maderaspatensis , which has been taken in Salem Dist. From 1500' to the top of all the hills. Resident. Common at Kodaikanal. Found in underbrush and the lower branches, in thick forest, often in parties of about 5. The 3 or 4 notes on the same pitch are almost Barbet-like in tone. The call is a rattling note louder than that of the Laughing Thrush. 392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol . NLIV Dumetia Jiyperythra albogutaris. White-throated From 1200' up to 4600' in the Palni and Sirumalai Hills- (In other districts it occurs lower, and also as high as 6ooo'.) Resident. Uncommon, in small groups in dense thickets. 1 have heard a clear whistled song of 7 notes, a tittering call, and a soft tac.k-tack like two pebbles tapped together. Chrysomina sinensis, Yellow-eyed Babbler.' Specimens taken in Salem Dist. belong to the typical sinensis. From the base of the hills up to 3800'. (In the JNilgiris as high as 0500k) Resident. Uncommon, but a little more common than the White-throated. Found in parties of up to 8 birds, in scrub jungle. I have heard a low-pitched twittering warble, some clear Iora-like whistles, and a low chirping. PeUorneum rulicepg. Spotted Babbler. Saruhunni kuruvi. Travancore specimens belong to the race granti, but those from Salem Dist. are of the typical ruficeps. From the base of the hills up to 6200k Resident. Fairly common. They are shy birds, seen singly in thick undergrowth usually on the ground. A common call: ‘I’m right here’, is tiresomely repeated, like an Iora. A song consists of loud clear notes in descending scale : ‘He did, he did, he did do that’, repeated two or three times. Alcippe poioicephala poioicephala. Quaker Babbler. In the western hills from 2200' to 6000k (From the plains to 7000’ in other districts.) Resident. Fainy common in my records, common on the High Wavy Mts. according to Mrs. Cantlay. As many as 8 together, among the branches on the edge of dense forest. The song is a cheerful, clear warble of about 10 notes, almost oriole-like. ‘ ; - ?■■■■• Rhopocichla atriceps board il look Black-fronted Babbler. Hills, from iooo' to 5oook (In other districts as high as 6000k) Resident. Uncommon, found in groups of about 12, in dense thickets. Aegithina tiphia multicolor. Iora. Mdmbala chittu. The Central . Indian race, huinei , has been taken in Salem District) and probably occurs on our plains. Plains, and in the hills as high as 4800k (In other districts. as high as 55QP-) Resident. Common, in shady trees. Chloropsis aurifrons. Gold-fronted Chlorppsis. Pachai kuruvi. Salim Ali took specimens of the Ceylon race, insularis, in Travancore; Western hills, from 1800' to 4000k (Elsewhere, from 200' to 4500k) Resident. - Rare, in thick trees. Chloropsis jerdouL Jerdon’s Chloropsis. Plains, and up to 4800' in _ the hills, where Fairbank obtained a Specimeri •and I also "have observed them well. ■ ' : Resident. -- - - ; ... -Uncommon. Found usually in small flocks ill groves of -mango and other thick trees. Occurred ck ok kikbs in maHura bisikict f\ imtcOis i uioidcs gancesa* Karuppu kondai kuruvi. Black Bulbul. Western hills, from 2400' up to the hill-tops. (In other districts, as low as the foot of the hills.) Resident. Common, in flocks of up to 40, in the tops of tall trees far from houses. One call often heard is : chirp, chee-chee-chee. Molpastes cafer cafer, Ceylon Bulbul. Kondai kuruvi. Plains, and up- to 6500' in the hills near Kodaikanal. Fairbank, Terry, and Dawson found it occasionally at the top.. Resident. Abundant, ranking 4th among our plains-birds. Found wherever there are small trees and bushes. Otocompsa jocosao Red- whiskered Bulbul. Specimens from Rameswaram and Travancore indicate that our subspecies is juscicaudata. At all levels on the hills only. (In Ramnad and Chingleput Districts it occurs also at sea-level.) Resident. Abundant on the higher hills, being first on the, list at Kodaikanal. More numerous than the Ceylon Bulbul in most places in the lower hills. At the base, I have found it rarely in winter. Occurs in bushes in open places; lole icterica. Yellow-browed Bulbul. From 1000/ to 7200/ in the hills. (A specimen has been taken at sea-level on Rameswaram Island by Biddulph.) Resident. Fairly common, in flocks of about 40, in tree-tops in forests. Pycnoootus xantholaemui. Yellow-throated Bulbul. Lower Palni Hills, from 2000' to 4000'. (As high as 5000' according to Stuart Baker.) Probably resident! I had a good observation of a group of 4 in thick undergrowth on Sep. 18. Rare. Pycaonotus guiaris. Ruby-throated Bulbul. Western hills, from 2400' to 3500'. (Records in other districts range front the foot of the hills up to 3750'.) Resident. Rare, in thick undergrowth. ....... — ^ PycnotlotUS luteofus luteolus* Whited-browed Bulbul. Manjat- kondai kuruvi. At Palni, I have seen this species on the plains 5 miles away from the foot of the hills. On the thinly-wooded slopes of the Sirumalai, it is found nearly up to 4000'. (Occurs at sea-level at. Madras.) Resident. Common in dense scrub, though it avoids observation by staying in the center of bushes. The whistled notes are loud, tumbling,;, almost - explosive. Microtarsus poioicephalus. Gray-headed Bulbul. On the .Palni Hills between 2400^ and 3500 .{ (From 2000' to 40007 in other districts.) Resident. Rare.. I have only 3 records, in the densest thickets. Brachypteryx major albiventris. Shortwing. Kurun Jettai kuruvi. From 5400' to the top of the Palni Hills. (In. Travancore. . it ..uccyrs . as low as 3 Q0CL. ) - Resident. - . 394 Journal, Bombay natural hist, society, Voi. xiiv Fairly common at Kodaikanal, where Rev. S. B. Fairbank discovered the subspecies in 1867. It occurs in dense forest, in bushes, rarely higher than 10 feet above the ground. About sunset it comes out into the open more. The song is higher and lighter than the Blackbird’s. In contrast with the tame, mechanical effort of the Nilgiri Flycatcher, the Shortwing’s song is wild and woody. Tarsiger brunnea brunoea- Blue Chat. My own record was at 1400' on the slope of the Lower Palni Hills. Salim Ali took a specimen at Kumili, 3000'. (In other districts it occurs up to 5000'.) Winter visitor. My record was on April 10. (Elsewhere it stays from mid-October to May.) Rare. Saxtcola caprata nilgiriensis. Tied Bush Chat. Kallu kuruvi. Specimens of the typical caprata have been obtained in Salem District, and so it may occur in the north-eastern part of Madura District. 1 have seen birds on six occasions on the plains as low as 700', between July 7 and September 12 only. Otherwise, it is confined to the hilltops, and the open grassy slopes. (In Chingleput District, this species is found at sea- level all year.) Resident on the hills. Abundant at Kodaikanal, ranking 6th in my records. Rare below 4000k Phoenicurus ochruros. Redstart. A specimen from the Nilgiris is assigned to the form rufiventris. Plains, and up to 2800' in the Lower Palni Hills. (2900' in Mysore.) Winter visitor, from Nov. 4 to Feb. 1. This is the southern limit of the range. Kare. The call is a rapid series of about 6 chattering notes with a little squeak in them. Saxicoloides fulicata futicata. Indian Robin. Kan kuruvi . Fairbank secured a specimen at the eastern base of the Palni Hills. The Pondicherry form, ptymatura, may perhaps occur on the plains in the eastern part of the district. Plains, and up to 2000' in the hills. (Up to 6000/ in other districts.) Resident. Common, especially in scrub jungle. The song is of 4 to 8 notes, shrill whistles gliding into each other, more wiry and less varied than the Magpie- Robin’s. Gopsychus saularis. Magpie-Robin. Pdtkdri kuruvi. Specimens from Salem District belong to the typical saularis, while those from Rameswaram and Travancore belong to ceylonemis. Plains, and up to 7000' in the hills, where a few are found at Kodaikanal. Resident. Common at the foot of the hills and in the lower hills, rare on the plains. Found among heavy trees in well-watered places. Kittacincla malabariea. Shama Thrush. Solai pddi . Specimens from Salem District and from Travancore belong to the typical form. / , . Between 1000' and 2000k (Stuart Baker says 4000 is the upper limit.) Resident. Uncommon, in damp, dusky glades,— for example, along the pilgrim path on Alahar Malai. The song has the strength and vivacity, and much of the sweetness, of the Nightingale’s. Tardus simillimus bourdiUooi. Blackbird. Harm kuruvi. Palni Hills birds have the bill orange-red, the. eye-ring a little duller, and the legs dusky-orange. Mr. Whistler says they are nearer to the Travancore OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT 395 than to the Nilgiri race, simillimus. Dr. T. C. Jerdon said he had a speci- men given to him by Major Campbell, who shot it on the Palni Hills, which did not differ from the typical simillimus. Terry thought he observed also the ' Black-capped subspecies, mahrattensis, and this is possible as a winter visitor, because specimens have been taken in Travancore. From 3000' to the top of the hills. (In other districts down to 2500'.) Resident. Abundant on the higher hills, ranking 9th at Kodaikanal. Found in trees near houses, and also in remote sholas. One form of song begins with 5 descending notes at intervals of half a tone. Often there is a combination of a long syllable next to a short one, as coo-leeee or Eva. ; > Geokichla wardii. Pied Thrush. From 4000' to 7000' on the western hills. (May occur also on the plains.) Noted only in March in migration. (Judging by records from other districts it should be found in October on its southward journey. Till April 7 in Mysore.) Rare. Geokichla citrina. White-throated Thrush* The subspecies cyanotis has been taken in Salem District and in Travancore. With S. K. Bunker, I saw one singing in a cardomom forest at 4200' in the Lower Palni Hills. (From 2oof to 5000/ in other districts.) Probably resident. The song is clear, loud, and vigorous, with some phrases very high-pitched. Oreocincla dauma neilghiriensis. Mountain Thrush. Western hills from 5000" to 7000'. (From 2000' up in the Nilgiris.) Resident. Terry found a nest at Kodaikanal on June 7th. Mrs. Cantlay heard one singing on the High Wavy Mts. Rare. I have seen only one. Monticola cinclorhyncha. Blue-headed Thrush. Western hills, from 3000' at Thekadi up to 7800' near Kodaikanal* (Down to 2000' in N. Kanara.) Winter visitor : October 23 to February 29. It should stay from early October to March 25.) Rare. Monticola solitaria. Blue Thrush. Travancore specimens belong to the panaoo race. From 900' to 7000' in the hills. (I have seen it at sea-level at Cape Comorin.) Winter visitor, from September 28 to April 6, the latter by Bates. (April 21 is the departure date in Travancore.) Rare. Single birds are fond of perching on rocks on the open slopes. Myophonus borsfieldii. Whistling Thrush. Sikdram. Western hills, from 1500' to 7500'. (In Travancore it occurs down to 500'.) Resident. Very common on the High Wavy Mts., according to Mrs. Cantlay. Fairly common along streams in the lower hills elsewhere. Muscicapa parva albicilla. Red-breasted Flycatcher. I pidippon. Plains, and up to 7000' in the hills. Winter visitor, from October 26 to April 4. Rare in my experience, but Biddulph found it frequent. It is seen making short dashes from the lower branches of trees in open places. I have heard a long, somewhat squeaky, whisper-song ; also, a low chattering trill ; and a double cluck like hitting together two stones. 6 896 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HlST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLlV Muscicapula paiiipes palUpes White-bellied Flycatcher. I have a few records in a dense grove along the Vaihai River near Karup- patti, elevation 500', from November 10 to February 14. In the lower hills it is found as high as 5500'. (Outside our district it has been noted as high as 6ooo'.) Resident in the hills. Uncommon, in undergrowth in thick woods. The song is high-pitched, so emphatic it is a little squeaky, divided into phrases of as many as 9 notes. I have heard 2 soft, tremulous notes, the second slightly lower in pitch ; also a double call a little like the nasal call of the Paradise. Muscicapula rubeculoides. Blue-throated Flycatcher. The typical form has been obtained in Travancore. I have seen only one bird, at 1500' on the northern slope of the Lower Palnis, April 10. It was in woods, close to the ground. (In Ceylon it occurs on plains and hills.) Migrant. (Arrives in Ceylon in October.) Muscicapula tickelliae tickelliae. Indian Blue Flycatcher. 1000^ to 5400^, and Fairbank recorded it also at the top of the Palni Hills. (Elsewhere, it has been found down to 200' elevation.) Resident. Uncommon, in thick bushes in or hear forests. Its shrill song consists of 8 or 10 notes, a little richer in tone than the Gray-headed ’s, with a tendency to rise toward the end. Eumyias albicaudata. Nllgiri Flycatcher. From 4200' to the top of the western hills. (In other districts it occurs as low as 2000'.) Resident. Common at Kodaikanal, in the lower branches of large trees, and in bushes in sholas. The call is a series of 4 or 5 sharp chip's. Alseouax latirostris. Brown Flycatcher. Plains, and up to 5000' in the hills. Winter visitor, from July 29 to April 10 and rarely resident. Fairly common, in trees. I have heard a weak whisper-song full of trills and squeaks. The call is 3 or 4 chick’s in rapid succession, or a small, shrill squeak. Alseonax ruficaudus. Rufous-tailed Flycatcher. Salim Ali took a specimen at Thekadi, 3000'. (In Travancore, the range is from 2000^ to 3500' elevation, and the stay is from November 27 to February 28.) Alseonax ffluttui. Layard’s Flycatcher. Specimens from Travancore are assigned to the typical race. I have one probable record, in the Lower Palnis on April 10. (In Travancore from 200' to 5500', between October and June.) Ochromela nigrorufa. Black and Orange Flycatcher. Western hills, from 4500' to the top. (As low as 2500' elsewhere.) Resident. Fairly common, in undergrowth in dense woods. Culicicapa ceylonensis ceylonensis. Gray-headed-- Flycatcher. From 2600' to the top of the hills. (In other districts down to 1000'.) Resident. Common. Active in the middle branches and open glades of forests. The head is not gray but dark-blue. 397 OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT T.chiirea paradisi paradisi. Paradise Flycatcher. Val kuruvi. Winter specimens from the Nilgiris have been assigned to the Himalayan form, leucogaster. Plains, and as high as 5500', where Terry found it at Pallangi. (In other districts as high as 8ooo\) Winter visitor, from September 21 to April 13. (September 18 to April 23 in Tanjore District.) In July and August I have found a few at the base of the Sirumalai and Alahar Hills, where it is probably resident. F'airly common, wherever therQ are shady trees. I have heard a song of 6 or 8 notes, somewhat low-pitched and squeaky. The call is a low, grating, nasal note : queenk. Hypothymis azurea styani. Black-naped Flycatcher. I pidippon. Western hills, from 1200/ to 4300^. (In other districts from the plains up to 5000'.) My records fall between March 30 and June 22, but it is probably resident. Uncommon, in thick undergrowth in forests. The song is clear but not loud, consisting of about 8 notes, of which the 7th is the highest and most emphatic. The call is a loud, excited, double squeak. Leucocirca aureola. White-bro.wed Flycatcher. Visiri kuruvi. Specimens taken in S. Arcot and Travancore belong to the race compres - sirostris. Paini Hills from 2700' to 4200'. (In other districts up to 6000^.) Probably resident. Rare, on thinly-wooded slopes. Leucocirca pectoralis. White-spotted Flycatcher. Specimens from Salem District and the Nilgiris belong to the typical form. Terry called this far from common in the Putthur valley on the north slope of the Paini Hills, but Mr. Whistler thinks this observation is unlikely to be correct. (Up to 6000' in the Nilgiris.) Lanius vittatus. Bay-backed Shrike. Kichdn kuruvi. Plains, and up to iooo' on Naha Malai. (In Mysore as high as 3300'.) Resident. Fairly, common, especially among thorny bushes in dry open places. The grating, scolding note is not as loud as the Rufous-back’s. Laoius schach caniceps. Rufous-backed Shrike. At all elevations. Resident. Common in open places, most numerous in cultivated areas on the piains and in the upper hills. Seen mating on February 12 ; young birds well grown on March 18. Lanius cristatus. Brown Shrike. The typical form has been taken in Salem District and in Travaneorefi Plains, and as high as 7100' in the hills. Winter visitor, from August to April 23. (April 27 in other districts.) Fairly common, especially during migration, when as many as 10 may be seen in a day. Perches conspicuously in open places. The harsh scolding notes are louder and more persistent than the Rufous-back’s. Hemipus picatus picatus. Pied Shrike. Western hills from 2000' up. (Down to 500' in other . districts.) Resident. Fairly common, in tree-tops in forest. As many as 6 in a flock. ; Tephrodornis gularis sylvicola. Malabar Wood Shrike. . 'Western hills from 2400^ to 4500^. (In districts to the west, it occurs from the plains to 6000'.) &>8 Journal, Bombay natural hist, society , Voi. xliV Resident. bncommon, in flocks oi: about 12, in thick trees. The call is of 2 whistled notes followed by a. soft snarl on a lower pitch. Tephrodornis pondiceriana pondiceriana. Small Wood Shrike. Plains, and up to 1200' in the hills. (Elsewhere up to 5000'.) Resident. Fairly common in leafy trees, singly or in small groups. Pericrocotus llammeus. Orange Minivet. Pot kuruvi , Mdmbala kuruvi. Western hills, from the base to the summit. (Down to 200' elevation in Travancore.) Resident. Common in the lower hills, fairly common at Kodaikanal, rare at the base. Flocks are found in tree-tops in forests. Pericrocotus peregrinus. Small Minivet. Salem District specimens are the typical peregrinus, but those from Travan- core are malabaricus. Plains, and up to 5000' in the hills. Resident. Fairly common, in flocks of about 10, in tamarind and other leafy trees. In flight, they give a constant chorus of high, feeble whistles. Lalage sykesi sykesi. Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike. Plains, and up to 4000' in the Palni Hills. (7000' in the Nilgiris.) Winter visitor, from October 24 to April 14. Rare resident. (Arrives October i5 at Tambaram.) Fairly common in shady trees. The call is a lazy, buzzing snarl. Graucalus javensis. Large Cuckoo-Shrike. Specimens of the subspecies macei have been taken in Salem District and in Travancore. Plains, and up to 4000' in the Palni Hills, the latter according to Fairbank. Probably resident. In the hills my records are from Jan. to July, on the plains from November 12 to Feb 13. (Biddulph observed one on Rameswaram in October.) Uncommon, in trees. I have heard a call somewhat like a paroquet’s. Artainus fuscus. Swallow-Shrike. Plains, and at any elevation on the hills. Resident. Uncommon on the plains, fairly common between 4000' and 6000' in the Palni Hills. Flocks of about 12 perch on open branches and soar in the open. Dicrurus macrocercus. Black Drongo. Kari chan , Karuvattu vdli. The subspecies peninsularis has been taken in Trichinopoly District, on Ram- eswaram, and in Travancore. Plains, and open slopes up to 4000' in the Putthur valley according to Terry. (On the Nilgiri plateau it is probably a winter wanderer.) Resident on the plains. Abundant on the plains, ranking 3rd in my records. Terry found it common on the slopes of the Palni Hills. Found in open country on conspicuous perches. Dicrurus longicaudatus. Gray Drongo. Plains, and hills as high as 7100'. Winter visitor, from October 5 to March 30. Uncommon, in mango groves, scrub jungle, and forests. The song, ku-kwik. ku-ku, kwik, is less varied than the other Drongos’. OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT 399 Dicrurus coerulescens coerulescens. White-bellied Drongo. Most records from the foot of the hills up to 4300'. (To 7000" in other districts.) Resident in the hills. Uncommon, usually found in scrub jungle. The notes are sweeter than the Black’s, but not as loud or pleasant as those of the Bronzed. Chaptia aenea malayensis. Bronzed Drongo, Western hills, from the base to 5000'. Resident. Fairly common, in moderately heavy forest and along roads. Dissemurus paradiseus maiabaricus. Racket-tailed Drongo. Erutthu valan, Kondai kari chan. Hills, between 2000' and 4000'. (Up to 7000’ in the Nilgiris.) Resident. Fairly common, but not as numerous as the Bronzed. Found in open spaces under the leafy roof of the forest. Some of the notes are squeaky, but others remind one of the Magpie-Robin or even the Shama. Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens. Great Reed Warbler. Kosu kattai, Nunni chirai. Plains, and up to 6100' in the western hills. Winter visitor, from September 24 to May 2. (Resident in Ceylon.) Fairly common in bushes near water. Acrocephalus dutuetorum. Olive Reed Warbler. Plains, and up to 7000^ at Kodaikanal. Winter visitor, from August 27 to April 20, but Terry’s Putthur specimen was taken on June 26. Fairly common, and more generally distributed than the preceding, in grain fields as well as near water. Though not as loud as the chattering calls of the Great Reed, the notes of the Olive Reed are more emphatic than the similar calls of the Tree Warbler. Orfhotomus sutorius. Tailor-bird. Thaiyal chittu , Pon chittu. Specimens from Rameswaram and Salem District are placed in the Indian race, guzurata, but those from Travancore' are closer to the Ceylon race, sutorius. Plains, and up to 5500' in the hills. (To 8ooo' in Ceylon.) Resident. Common in scrub jungle and plantations on the hills. Found only in moist places on the plains. Cistlcola exflis erythrocephala. Red-headed Warbler. Vayalan chittu. Upner Palni Hills above 5500^. (As low as 3500^ in Mysore.) Resident. Fairlv common on grassy downs where there are few cattle, as around the Kodaikanal reservoir. The first syllable is a nasal note like the twanging of a taut rubber-band ; this is followed by a sweet double whistle. Cisticola juncidis salimalil. Sveaked Warbler. In the Wynaad and eastern plains, cursitans is the subspecies found. Plains, and Salim Ali obtained the Travancore form at Kumili, 3000'. It is possible that Terry also saw this species near Kodaikanal. (In other dis- tricts as high as 7000'.) Resident. Fairly common, almost always seen in rice fields, 400 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Foh XLJF Frankllnia gracilis albogularis. Gray-breasted Warbler. Kosu kattai, Nunni chirai. From 2700' to 4800' in the hills, and also one uncertain record on the plains near Dindigul. (From sea-level in Geylon it ranges up to 5000' in Travancore.) Resident. Uncommon, in tall grass or bushes near jiungle. The song is a series of loud single chirp’s. Schoenicola platyura. Broad-tailed Warbler. Western hills, from 3000^ at Kumili up to 6800^ at Kodaikanal. Resident. Rare, on steep bracken slopes. Hippolais caligata. Tree Warbler. A specimen of the typical form has been taken at Cape Comorin. At all elevations. Winter visitor, from September 3 to April 30. Common, in trees and shrubbery, usually singly. I have heard a low- pitched, tuneless, chattering warble. The calls are a low chack, a chatter, and a throaty rattle. Sylvia hortensis. Orphean Warbler. The subspecies jerdoni has been taken at Bombay. I have observed several well, in scrub jungle on the plains near Them, October 5 to March 22. This is the southern limit of its winter range. Phylloscopus afflnis . Yellow-bellied Warbler. 5500' to 7100' on the Palni Hills. (As low as 2800^ in Mysore.) Winter visitor, November 16 to April 25. . Fairly common in some seasons, in trees. The call is a chack somewhat like a Tree Warbler’s. Phylloscopus trochiloides viridanus. Greenish Warbler. The Green Warbler, trochiloides , has also been taken in Salem District and Travancore. Plains and hills at all elevations. Winter visitor, September 21 to May 20. (The Green Warbler has been collected in Travancore in July.) Common in tree-tops, especially during migrations. The song is a loud, clear warble, ‘willowy, willowy, willowy*, up to about 16 notes. Phylloscopus tnagnirostris. Large-billed Warbler. Salim Ali found it at Periyar Lake, 3000'. (In other districts, from 2000' to 4000'.) Winter visitor. (November 15 to March 7 in Travancore.) Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis. Large Crowned Warbler. Western hills, from 3000' at Kumili up to 7000' at Kodaikanal. (In Salem District it has been recorded also on the plains.) Winter visitor, from February 28 to April 21. (Arrives November 19 in Mysore.) Rare, in trees. Prinia socialis socialis. Ashy Warbler. Plains, and up to 7000' in the hills. Resident. Fairly common in grain-fields on the plains, common on bracken slopes just below Kodaikanal, OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT 401 Prinia sylvatica sylvatica. Jungle Warbler. Plains, and up to 4700' in the Palni Hills. Resident. Common in scrub jungle at the base of the hills, rare elsewhere. A loud triple note repeated several times, more emphatic than the similar double note of the Tailor-bird. Prinia inornata franklinii. Indian Warbler. Specimens of inornata have been taken in Trichinopoly District- Plains, and up to the top of the hills. Resident. Very common in grain-fields on the plains, and also on bracken slopes on the Palni Hills. The song is rougher and more insect-like than that of the Ashy; is usually starts with a little click : tlik. . . . Irena puella puella. Fairy Bluebird. Pana kdra kuruvi. Western hills, from the base up to 4200^. (To 5000/ in other districts.) Resident. Uncommon, in tree-tops in thick forest. The notes are loud and clear. One bird repeated, ‘chip her’, over and over. Orioius oriolus kundoo. Golden Oriole. Manjal koluppan. Plains, and up to 4400' in the hills. (In other districts as high as 6000'.) Winter visitor, from October 24 to April 13. (From September to June in Cochin State.) Fairly common, in trees along roads or in gardens. The song is a clear, liquid rendering of the name ‘oriole’, but there are often 5 syllables and some harsh notes as well. A single grating note is the one most often heard in winter. Oriolus xanthornus maderaspatensis. Black-headed Oriole. Hills, from the base up to 5000'. (From sea-level at Madras it ranges up to 7000' in the Nilgiris.) Resident. Fairly common in heavy trees. A common call may be written krark. Gracula religiosa indica. Grackle. Naiydndi kuruvi. 2500' to 5000^ in the hills. (Found also in the low country of Ceylon.) Resident. Common in tree-tops in plantations and light forest. In addition to the loud clear cries, there are conversational notes which sound like Donald Duck’s voice in the talkies ! Pastor roseus. Rosy Starling. Surai kuruvi, Cholam batchi. Plains, and up to 3000' at Kumili. Winter visitor, from October 21 to April 12. (In other districts the species arrives in August and stays until May.) Dense flocks contain up to 400 birds, and are found in open country and fruiting trees. Fairly common. Sturnia malabarica malabarica and S. m. blythii. Gray-headed Myna. Specimens of both subspecies were taken by Cook at Thekadi. Winter visitor to the plains from November 6 to March 10. (The Northern form stays until April 9 in Travancore.) Probably the Southern form, blythii, is resident at Periyar Lake. Compact flocks are found in trees, like Starlings. Uncommon. In winter, the commonest call is a mild single whistle, a little tremulous. Temenuchus pagodarum. Brahmany Myna. Pdppatthi ndhanavay. Plains, and occasionally on the High Wavy Mountains up to 5000'. (In the Nilgiris the upper limit is 7000'.) 402 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Foh XL/F Resident. Fairly common in the Wetter portions of the plains, sometimes near houses. Flocks of up to 60 are sometimes seen with Rosy Starlings in winter. The song is soft and rambling, made up mostly of pleasant, warbling notes. Acridotheres tristis tristis. Common Myna. Nahanavay. Plains only. Fairbank thought that this species was common about villages in the Lower Palnis at 4000', but I have found only Gray Mynas there on frequent visits. (In Coorg the Common Myna wanders up to 3750' in company with Gray Mynas in winter.) Resident. Second only to the House Crow on the plains, about houses and in remote fields. Its falsetto laugh is a little sharper than the trill of the White-breasted King- fisher. The syllables kee^dle often recur in the song. Aethiopsar fuscus. Gray Myna. Kattu nahanavay. The subspecies mahrattensis has been taken in Salem District and Travan- core. From 1000' at the foot of the hills, up to 7600' at Kodaikanal. In 1023 the species had not yet reached Kodaikanal but was found at Kavunji, 6400'. By 1931 it was found as high as there are houses at Kodaikanal. (In Travan- core it occurs down to sea-level.) Resident. Fifth in abundance in my Kodaikanal list, and abundant also in the lower hills. It is a bird of villages and open places more than of jungle, and nests in buildings as much as the Common Myna does. The notes are rougher and less pleasant than those of the Common. Ploceus phUippinus philippinus. Weaver-bird. Thiikkanan kuravi, Thonganat- than. Plains only. (The Travancore form ascends the hills to 3000'.) Resident. Common in many places, usually nesting in colonies, in coconut or thorn trees. When grain is ripe, flocks of weavers give employment to many small boys. Seen building nests from June 27 to September 19. Carrying flying termites to nests on October 7. The most distinctive of its notes is a long, wheezy whistle, as if the bird were drawing its. breath in. Munia malacca raalacca. Black-headed Munia. Thinai kuruvi. On the plains, at Dindigul and near the base of the Palni Hills ; and as high as 7000' in the upper Palni Hills. Resident, probably mainly in the hills. My plains records are on March 23 and between July 27 and Nov. 28. Uncommon on the plains, fairly common according to Terry on the lower slopes of the hills toward Palni, rare on the upper hills. In flocks in grain fields. The flight-call is a triple chirp ; another note is a mild, plaintive, little ink . Uroloncha striata striata. White-backed Munia. From 1000' in the rice fields at the base of the hills, up to 4700'. (From the plains to 6000' in other districts.) All my records fall between February 14 and November 20. Probably resident in the lower hills. Fairly common, in flocks of as many as 40. Uroloncha kelaarti jerdoni. Rufous-bellied Munia Plains, and up to 7000' at Kodaikanal. Probably resident. I have seen only three flocks on the plains, in June, December, and January. My records on the hills are in March, May, and June. Uncommon, in flocks up to 20. Call : a high-pitched, nasal squeak. OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT 403 Uroloncha tnalabarica. White-throated Munia. Plains, and up to 6500' at Kodaikanal. Resident. Seen building nests on Feb. 13. The commonest of the plains-munias, occurring in flocks of as many as 60 birds. More fond of dry fields than other munias. Its notes are a twittering cheeping, a plaintive little whistle, a sharp chip, and a triple chirp. Uroloncha punctulata lineoventer. Spotted Munia. Plains, and western hills as high as 6600'. (In the Nilgiris it occurs up to 7000'.) Resident. Seen carrying nest material from May 19 to August 27. Fairly common, especially near water. The call is a brief, mild, rather husky whistle : t’hee. Amandava amandava. Red Munia. The typical form has been taken in Mysore. 5500' to 6900' in the Palni Hills. (As low as 2000/ in Mysore.) My four records and Terry’s one were all between April and June. Rare. The largest flock contained 20 birds. I have heard a high-pitched, musical twittering, and a husky squeak. Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus. Rose Finch. 3000' to 8000' on the western hills. (Also on the plains in other districts.) Winter visitor, from February 1 to May 1. (Other districts, November 22 to May 2.) Rare. I have heard a thin squeak gliding upward. Gymnorhis xanthocollis xanthocollis. Yellow-throated Sparrow. Plains, and up to 900' on the Naha Malai. (Ascends to 4500' in other districts.) Resident. Fairly common, in trees in farming areas. Flocks of hundreds gather in ripening grain fields. Passer dotnesticus. House Sparrow. Ur kuruvi, Adaikala kuruvi. Specimens from Trichinopoly District and Travancore are of the race indicus. Plains. Fairbank recorded the species in villages up to 5000', but I have not seen it above 1200' in the hills. (Occurs at all elevations in the Nilgiris.) Resident. Ranks .fifth in abundance among the plains birds. Found about houses except when large flocks raid the grain-fields. Riparia rupestris. Crag Martin. Thahaivildn kuruvi, Ney kuruvi. Terry saw some at Putthur, about 6000' elevation in the Palni Hills. I have only one doubtful record. (As low as 2000' in other districts.) Perhaps a rare winter visitor. Riparia concolor. Dusky Martin. At Dindigul Rock, elevation 900', on the Naha Malai, and in the western hills up to 6850'. (At all elevations in Travancore.) Resident. Uncommon, in groups of about 12 birds. The call is a soft grating sound. Hirundo rustica. Eastern Swallow. Subspecies gutturalis has been taken in Travancore. Plains, and hills up to 1150' only. (In Mysore it occurs as high as 2900'.) Winter visitor, from September 1 to April 19. Common, flocks of thousands being seen on wires in October and April. 404 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV Hirundo javanica domicola. House Swallow. 3000^ to the top of the western hills. (As low as 2000/ in other districts.) Resident. Common, ranking 10th in order of abundance at Kodaikanal. Often nests on verandahs. Hirundo smithii. Wire-tailed Swallow. A specimen from the Nilgiris belongs to the race filifera. Plains only. (In other districts it occurs up to 5000'.) Winter visitor, December 20 to March 19. Rare. I have seen it near Madura City, which seems to be the southern- most record of the species. Hirundo daurica. Red-rumped Swallow. The subspecies erythropygia has been taken in Trichinopoly District and Travancore. Plains, and as high as 6000' at Top Station. (In other districts as high as 8000'.) Resident. Uncommon, but sometimes as many as 60 in a flock, over towns or in wild places. I have heard a loud, low-pitched note like che&r , and a sparrow-like chirp, and a more nasal queenk. Motacilla alba. White Wagtail. Vannatthi kuruvi, Kulatthu kuruvi. The race dukhunensis has been obtained in Travancore. Plains only, at Dindigul and Batlagundu. (Up to 5000' in other districts.) Winter visitor, December 1 to March 4. (Arrives in November in other districts.) Rare, beside tanks. Motacilla maderaspatensis. Pied Wagtail. Plains, and up to 7500' in the hills. Resident. Fairly common at tanks and ponds. When there is no water elsewhere, they enjoy even the iron water-tanks at railway stations. The clear whistled notes are sometimes run together rapidly in a brilliant song. Motacilla cinerea. Gray Wagtail. The race caspica has been taken in Salem District and Travancore. All elevations. Winter visitor, from August 27 to May 7. On the plains, it occurs chiefly during migrations. (In neighbouring districts, August 21 to May 22.) Common on the hills. Motacilla Hava beema. Gray-headed Wagtail. A local specimen seems to be beema , the Blue-headed, race. The Grey- headed, thunbergi, and the Short-tailed, simillima, have both been taken in Travancore. Plains. (J. B. Primrose saw a flock of the Short-tailed at 5000' in Travan- core.) Winter visitor, September 15 to April 26. Abundant in wet fields. Flocks contain up to a thousand birds. I think most of them are Gray-headed. The notes are rougher than the clear, shrill whistles of the Gray Wagtail, and also a bit plaintive. Motacilla citreola. Yellow;-headed Wagtail. Specimens of M.c. werae have been taken in North Kanara. Plains, at Batlagundu, December 20. (Up to 2000' in other districts.) Rare winter visitor. Dendronanthus indicus. Forest Wagtail. 3000" at Kumili up to 7000' at Kodaikanal. (As low as 200/ in Travancore and Cochin.) OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT 405 Winter visitor. My only record is October 23. (Arrives September 19 in Mysore; departure date in Travancore is April 21.) Rare. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni. Indian Tree Pipit. Pul kuruvi. 5200' to the top of the Palni Hills. (As low as 2000' elsewhere.) Winter visitor, October 25 to May 4. (Arrival date outside our district is September 19.) Fairly common under thick trees into which it flies when alarmed. Anthus nilghiriensis. Nilgiri Pipit. 4000' to the top of the Palni Hills. (Down to 3000' in Tinnevelly District.) Probably resident. Fairbank and Terry called it common and secured specimens, but I find it hard to identify. Found on the open downs. Anthus similis. Rufous Pipit. The typical form has been taken in Travancore. 6000' to the top of the Palni Hills, according to Hume, but neither Fairbank nor Terry found it here. I have only 3 probable records, above 5500^. (In Travancore it occurs as low as 3500'.) Probably resident. Rare. In 1937, I called this species fairly common, but I now think most of the Kodaikanal birds are Indian Pipits. Anthus richardl. Siberian Pipit. Specimens of the typical form have been taken in Travancore. Plains only. (Also in the hills in adjacent districts.) Winter visitor, October 21 to April 12. (In other districts until May.) I suspect it to be fairly common, but do not often dare to identify it unless native pipits are present for comparison. Anthus rufulus malayensis. Indian Pipit. Specimens were taken by Fairbank. The form found on the plains is more likely rufulus , specimens of which have been taken in Salem District and on Rameswaram. Plains, and as high as 7000' at Kodaikanal. Resident. Common in grassy meadows and open fields. The song is a series of 5 to 20 clink's, often given in flight. The call is a thin, high whitsle. Anthus thermophilus. Daurian Pipit. Plains only. (As high as 2500^ in Mysore.) Winter visitor, from November 22 to March 27. Uncommon, on the ground in fallow fields and waste places, in flocks of about 20. Alauda gulguta. Sky Lark. Vanambadi. Specimens of australis have been taken in Travancore, and of gulgula in Ceylon. On the plains, it is found throughout the better-watered parts of the Vaihai and Kambam valleys. On the hills, it occurs on grassy hill-tops. Resident. Fairly common where found on the plains, common on the downs on the upper hills. The song has trills, long-drawn whistles, rapid staccato passages, metallic clinks, all in a continuous stream of sound lasting several minutes, during which the bird is fluttering slowly upward on a slant. Calandreila brachydactyla. Short-toed Lark. The subspecies dukhunensis has been taken on the Godavari delta. Plains, near the Vaihai River. This is the southern limit, 406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Fairly sure records extend from October 31 to March 8. Uncommon. I have several times seen large compact flocks that were too shy to approach. I have heard a brief song of 6 or 8 chip's, slightly musical. The call is a single, soft, querulous note. Mirafra javanica. Singing Bush Lark. The race cantillans has been taken in Bhopal. Plains, where I have one record near Viruppakshi, latitude io° 28'. (Stuart Baker says the species occurs as far south as Travancore, but Whistler finds no definite records south of Mysore.) Winter visitor, February 12. Mirafra affinis ceylonensis. Madras Bush Lark. Pul vanambadi. The specimen which Fairbank secured at Periyakulam belongs to the Ceylon raee, but the birds of our eastern plains may be affinis, the eastern Madras form. Plains. (In other districts as high as 5000'.) Resident. Common in open grassy fields. The song consists of about 12 thin notes on one pitch. Qalerida malabarlca. Crested Lark. Kondai vanambadi. 5500' to 7500' on the Palni Hills. (As low as 2000^ in other districts.) Resident. Uncommon, on open downs. Ammomanes phoenicura. Rufous-tailed Lark. Vanambadi. The typical form has been taken in Trichinopoly and Coimbatore Districts. Plains, and small hills up to noo'. My southernmost record is at Kalluppatti near Tirumangalam. (Rameswaram is the only place where the species has been recorded farther south. As high as 2800^ in Mysore.) Winter visitor, September 12 to April 19. (Biddulph’s Rameswaram records cover the period from May to October, suggesting that our birds migrate east- ward to the coast during the southwest monsoon. Resident in Mysore.) Uncommon, found in dry, rocky places, often singly. I have heard a flight- song of about 10 syllables, a bit husky and low-pitched. The calls are a sweet, thrush-like tee-hoo, and a low, husky whistle, and a low chirp. Eremopteryx grisea grisea. Ashy-crowned Lark. Manal vanambadi. Plains, and up to 1200' on rocky hillocks. (In Ceylon it occurs up to 7000'.) Resident. Common on the ground in dry places. A prolonged, mournful, clear whistle, together with a sweet little trill, make up the song, given while the bird soars and dips over a limited area. Zosterops patpebrosa nllgiriensis White-eye. Kannadi kuruvi. Specimens of the race salimalii have been taken on the Shevaroys. 1200' to the top of all the hills. (In Ceylon it occurs also in the low country.) Resident. Abundant on the upper hills, coming second only to the Red-whiskered Bulbul. Common on the lower hills. One flock at the foot of the hills in December. Found in flocks in trees and bushes. The song is a very light, fairy-like warble with a slight huskiness in it. Cinnyris lotenia. Maroon-breasted Sunbird. Pun chittu , Then chittu. Plains. (Elsewhere the species occurs up to 5500^.) Fairbank secured a specimen years ago at the foot of the Palni Hills on June 5, and I saw one at Dindigul on November 26. Cinnyris asiatica asiatica. Purple Sunbird. Plains, and as high as 5300' in the hills. (To 8000' in the Nilgiris.) OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT 40? Resident. Common around flowering trees and bushes. , Cinnyris minima. Small Sunbird. 2400' to 7200' on the western hills. (In Travancore the species descends to the toot of the hills.) Resident in the lower hills. At Kodaikanal all my records come after May 13. Fairly common. The call is a shrill chirp. Cinnyris zeylonica. Purple-rumped Sunbird. Plains, and into the hills as high as 7000' at Kodaikanal. Resident, at least on the plains. Very common on the plains, fairly common on the lower hills, one record at Kodaikanal. I have noted as . many as 60 in a day. Arachnothera longirostra longirostra. Spider-hunter. 1300' to 7000' on the western hills. (On the west coast it is also found in the low country.) Resident. Uncommon, in undergrowth near the edge of forest. The call is a loud, shrill cheep. Dicaeum concolor concolor. Plain Flower-pocker. Fun kotthi. On the plains, I have one record at Periyakulam, 3^ miles from the foot of the hills. It occurs at all elevations on the western hills. Resident. Very common, ranking 7th among Kodaikanal birds. Found in tree-tops, especially where there are parasitic plants. In addition to its familiar check calls, it sometimes gives a rapid series of tick's. Dicaeum erythrorhynchos erythrorhynchos. Pink-billed Flower-pecker. Plains, and Fairbank collected one on the side of the Palni Hills. I have seen a few at 6900' at Kodaikanal. Resident. Fairly common in thick trees. I have heard it give a high-pitched series of notes like mouse-squeaks. Piprisoma agile. Thick-billed Flower-pecker. Specimens of the typical race have been taken on the Nilgiris and in Travancore. Plains, and lower hills up to 4000'. (In other districts up to 7000'.) Resident, but March 16 is my only plains record. Rare. Pitta bracbyura. Pitta. Am mani kuruvi. Plains, and up to 5000' in the hills. (To 7000' on the Nilgiris.) Winter visitor, from October 10 to April 10, but Mrs. Cantlay reports that cne spent most of a hot season in her garden on the High Wavy Mountains. Rare, on the ground near thick trees. (To be continued) NEW RECORDS OF FISH FROM POONA. BY M. SUTER, D. SC. In the last April issue of the Journal (Vol. xliii, No. i, pp. 79-91, 1942), Capt. A. G. L. Fraser, I.M.D., published the first part of his account of the fishes found in the waterways at Poona, and, besides a general account of the extensive collections made by him in 1936-1937, gave descriptions of localities with lists of fishes collected from each. Dr. S. L. Hora very kindly sent to me the type-scripts of the remain- ing two parts3 of the series and suggested that I should supplement Fraser’s list by making further collections of fishes from different localities at various seasons. I was further informed that special efforts should be made to collect small, bottom-dwelling forms from among the rocks. Although Fraser had collected representatives of 54 species, including Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton) which was collect- ed but not sent to the Indian Museum for determination owing to the large size of the specimens obtained, the expectation of ample scope for further collecting was fully justified by the 17 new records of species from this area. In the course of my collecting, the following localities were repeatedly visited : 1. The part of the Mutha river between Kadhakwasla Lake and the village of Wadgaon, forming a stretch of about 3 miles of rocky oh gravelly runs alternating with pools of some size. The banks of the latter are partly loamy, partly rocky, the bottom being mostly hard and often bouldery. The right bank is covered with heavy bush and tree vegetation, partly orchards, whilst the left bank is more open. Some of the pools are fairly weedy along the banks. 2. The part of the Moola river between Fitzgerald bridge and the village Kharadi, about 4 miles further east;^ this being in the main a rocky and bouldery stretch, with several broad pools, shallow in the dry season and intersected by little rocky runs. 3. The stretch extending between a point 1 mile above the confluent of the Bliima and Moola rivers to Wadgaon village, some 5 miles east of the confluent, i.e., downriver. This region is a succession of large and partly deep pools, united by shallow runs and ending in the great pool of Wadgaon, over 2 miles long and 100- 150 yards wide, after which the river runs through a rocky chasm or ‘Khund’ about a mile long. Through this the river runs with a terrific turmoil during the rains, but, at the time of my visit, this rocky part was SQ dry as to be unsuitable for collecting. The banks on this stretch are high and much eroded by floods. They are partly composed of sandy loam, partly they are Deccan trap rock, and the bottom is sandy in parts, rocky or bouldery in others. The high banks are fairly densely covered with babul jungle, interspersed with such typical Deccan plants as Cappari* aphylla, Cassia auriculata, Cryptotegia grandi flora , Ficus glomerosus, Nim and Tamarind, the latter forming shady groves, planted by the Forest Department. The dry weather shoreline shows the usual mixture of Tamarisk, sedges, lillies and coarse grass. There is little aquatic vegetation, as this would be swept off annually by the floods. 4. A visit was paid to the Indrayani river at Kalumbre village, below the sacred pool of Dehu, a fish sanctuary teeming with large carp and mahaseer. These have since been published in Vol. xliii, No 2 of the Journal (p. 218). NEW RECORDS OF. FISH FROM POONA 409 It may be stated at the very outset that no attempt at general collecting was made in the localities i and 2; this having already been done by Capt. Fraser. Attention was, however, focussed on the procuring of species not contained in his collection. Locality No. 1 produced Barillas gatensis (Cuv. and Val.), new to Poona, Barilius bendelisis (Ham.) as well as Glyptothorax madras - patanum (Day) and Osteochilus nashii (Day). The latter two were mainly procured by dismantling, under a net, large heaps of stones or ‘killas’ laboriously built by the local Kolis. Cirrhina reba (Ham.) was also collected here, as well as Garra gotyla (Gray),. Locality No. 2 yielded the interesting novelty Mystus bleekeri (Day), numbers of Glyptothorax madraspatanum (Day) and a speci- men of Nemachilus evezardi (Day), several examples of Nemachilus anguilld Annandale were also collected in this stretch, all being supplementary to the Fraser collection. A general collection, yielding over 40 species, was made in the locality No. 3, as the large and deep pools were expected to provide an asylum for many species, which habitually retire from the vicinity of Poona, where rivers become very shallow after the rains. This assumption proved to be correct, in as much as. the pools were found to be well stocked with large specimens of various Labeos, notably Labeo kawrus (Sykes), Barbus jerdoni (Day), Silonopangasius childrenii (Sykes), Murrels., Proeutropiichthys taakree (Sykes), Rohtee vigorsii (Sykes), Bagarius bagarius (Ham.), and plenty of various Chelas and Rohtees, all of which were caught in large numbers. Curiously enough, Wallangonia attu (Block) did not materialise, but is undoubtedly present.1 From the point of view of my collection, the locality yielded the following interesting species : Garra bicornuta Rao, Schismatorhynchus nukta (Sykes), both very uncommon and curious fish; Glyptothorax annandalei Hor a and Mystus montanus (Jerdon); all in rocky and bouldery situations where there was a flow. The pools contributed Aspidoparia morar (Ham.), Labeo ariza (Ham.), Labeo kawrus (Day) and Laubuca laubuca (Ham.) as addi- tional novelties. Mystacoleucus ogilbii (Sykes) occurs in numbers. Mystus montanus frequents rocky places, where it is said to reach enormous size. The local Kolis have traditions of epic fights between such giants and the local croc, here called ‘soosir’, which they relate with great jgusto. The local opinion attributes the cause of these contests to competition for the possession of under- water caves, of which both these monsters are said to be fond. The pools are richly stocked with Rita hastata (Val.), Rita pavimentata (Val.) and large Mystus aor (Ham.); but this season few Mahaseer were caught, all of the stocky and high backed type, now classified by Dr. Hora as a separate species, Barbus (Tor) mussullah (Sykes.). The gravelly runs yielded specimens of the two Barilius already procured at Poona and large numbers of Nemachilichthys ruppelli (Sykes) and Nemachilus anguilla Annandale. 1 It fias since been collected. (M.S.) 410 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV to 8 8 d a a a a £ a M £ tn i CO 8 N» •§ 8 2 Ctf C .2 ‘Si , § 1* O nd q * co a «« q 03 y 3 a> q q 1 .1 .h ^43 h §^2> fru'S’* nil -0Q o ffl £ a s a a 8 s 3 P be-2 be ®”"2 ^ Tj JZ & U £ a* i a § wo cO ffi >> 9*3 3 l W ' — ■ tfl.cn 3 a to 3 cO >, o 3 s •a 83 S s 09 «4 a 42 « os .5 p Cfl © •Si •3 bfl W tfl b 03 8* 3 3 ^ ES si © rs 1 2 ® 3 C9 M* “ 3 •M *3 CQ CQ * < * CQ * W-J NEW RECORDS OF FISH FROM POONA 4ii a U2 on tS #* . £ m 1; a£ § >>'0 US •, s §2 I o o g o ° p O CQ . a> taJ .> H3 *-* 5*3 £> U tS O rO C/2 CQ P V S> p . £ # ® * p p £ g > fll * •§ *- a eS .s^geQ^j «i§i a - «j «. o *-* 60 P S>*5 g.'S sill « p > a> cs ^ a 3 ^.s “ §2" cS ^ cS &J0*^ s a © eS S 2 KS a o cS W) TJ cS £ S p o o Oh cS cS 1J sg HP - a n cs o p cS SO 4> ge cs a> WfQ cS 2 a cS r>, 3 a & _, M 2 > 25 Pl, «S 3 b ns «js . p> © >, :P a cs a S3 H <3 O < s a a % B a © © 5 ■* © © >» >►* 5$ 7 4i2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V The material was very kindly examined by Dr. Hora thus permitting the compilation of the list of species supplementing those contained in (Japt. Fraser’s collection, Species marked with an asterisk (*) are novelties, not having- been previously recorded from the Poona region ; the others, though not obtained by Fraser, are already known to occur in these waters. I am aware that this number does not cover the entire fish fauna of Poona, which may yield further surprises, quite apart from being known to embrace various species not yet collected by Capt. Fraser or by myself. I allude, amongst others, to such species as Barilius evezardi Day, Rasbora rasbora (Ham.), Barbus parr ah Day, Nemachilus moreh (Sykes) and other previous records. Significance of new finds. My attention was drawn by Dr. Hora to the zoo-geographical significance of some of the species collected, especially of the novel- ties now recorded for the Poona region, which enable a hydrographic link to be established with some far distant regions. Alluding to such species as Osteochilus' nashii (Day), Barilius gatensis (Cuv. & Val), Garra bicornuta Rao, Glyptothorax annandalei Hora, Mystus montanus (Jerdon), Dr. Hora pointed out; ‘Your collections have brought to light an organic palaeo-hydrographic con- nection between the faunas of the bombay section of the Ghats and its southern portion. From a zoo-geographical point of view it is of very great interest indeed and supports the views I have been recently expressing regarding the origin of the fauna of Peninsular India.’ Commenting on the distribution of certain species collected by Capt. Fraser, Dr. Hora and Mr. Misra remarked : ‘The occurrence of Schizmatorhynchus Bleeker and Mystacoleucus Gunther is of special significance; besides in the Western Ghats, the former is found only in the Malay Archipelago, while the latter is found in Burma, Siam, Malaya, etc., but nowhere else in India. These two genera show the Malayan affinities of the fauna of this part of the Western Ghats. Labeo boggut (Sykes) has also been recorded from tfie Malaya, but this requires further confirmation.’ The extended distribution of Laubuca laubuca (Ham.) and Mystus bleekeri (Day) gives further support to these views. It is intended to continue collections and eventually to draw within their scope the headwaters of some of the local rivers in the Ghat region, where interesting material might be expected. Remarks to Dr. Fraser's articles on Fishes of Poona. The following comments and addenda to these articles may be of some interest: Part i. Fish of Lake Fife. The secret of catching mahaseer in this lake is to drag a 2-3 inch spoon through a shoal of fish, as they chase chilwas on the surface.. They do this most often on a calm day before noon and after 4 p.m. Mere blind trolling is not conducive to results, besides being extremely boring. I have caught mahaseer upto 12 lbs in this lake and seen larger ones. Catches of netting by fishermen I inspected consisted of the following : Barbus (Tor) khudree , Barbus dobsoni-jerdoni , Rohtee vigor siit W allagonia attu. Chela phulo and Chela boopis, Labeo boggut and Cirrhina reba. Murrel are also present. NEW RECORDS 6t FISH FROM ROOF A . 413 Floating aquatic plants in the Mutha-Moola rivet'. Water cabbage (, Pistia stratiotes) and water hyacinth (Pptenderia eras sipes) sometimes form compact meadows above dams and rocky places, or in quiet bays, but get swept away by the iirst monsoon tlood. Number of species in the region. r I agree with Dr. Fraser that the number of 143 species, said to be recognised by local fishermen, is highly exaggerated. These men often nave separate designations for juveniles and adults, and make other arbitrary distinctions. The total number of species is probably well under 100. Pari 111. Chela. Judging by many catches of professional netters during a period of 8 years, Chela phulo is the most abundant species and is often caught by many hundredweights. This is never the case with Chela clupeoides. After a violent thunderstorm these fish swim about in dense shoals on the * surface in a semi dazed condition, f together with other fish, when very large catches are made by netters. The fish are very distressed and are finally washed ashore in a dying corn dition in many hundreds. On such occasions I have found amongst the defuncts quite large specimens of B. kolas , B. dobsom-jerdoni f B. sarana and W allagona attu as well as various labeos, Danio aequipinnatus , Past) ora daniconius and Barbus lie to are numerous in pools of the Mutha river 5 miles below the lake. Here Barbus ticto is generally pale golden yellow with bright red fins, and often a bright pink gloss over the body, Garra mullya is indeed a very common bottom fish, but the designation Nukta mullya does not correctly apply to it, but to Garra bicornuta and sometimes is used also for Garra gotyla . Schismatorhynchus nukta (Sykes). The Indian name would be more correctly spelled Dotondee i.e. ‘two-mouthed’ from ‘tond’ = mouth. This remarkable fish is indeed not common. It frequents by preference very bouldery spots with some current, where they are very difficult to net. Its maximum weight appears to be about 3 lbs. Old males can be very gaily coloured, every scale having a bright pale pink gloss and an apple green margin. Some of the scales may have a bright red centre. The tips of the snout and of the nose are bright vermilion and the inside of the ‘Schisma’ is also bright red. The upper parts of the liead are dark purple and the sides of the head have zones of lemon yellow and apple green, with a golden gloss on the gill covers, a remarkably gaudy com- bination* Cobitidae. Most of these appear to dig themselves into fine gravel with the greater part of their bodies, and are there often caught in large numbers by the ‘locals’ who pronounce their taste as excellent, but complain about their intestines being often full of sand. Silonopangasius childrenii (Sykes). These fish retire with various others after the monsoon floods into large pools 30-40 miles 414 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. NLIV below Poona, where I have seen specimens weighing upto 15 lbs. They will occasionally take a spoon. Xenentodon cancila (Ham.) I have observed these in lake Fife. The commonest name for this fish is ‘Kutta’. Ambassis ranga. Is very common below Fitzgerald bridge when the river is in flood. The pools of the Mutha river hold this fish at any time in fair numbers. Acknowledgments. Above all, my gratitude is due to Dr. S. L. Hora for very kindly examining and classifying the material collected, in spite of his heavy and pressing engagements, and for much valuable advice and information. Warmest thanks are also due to Mr. S. H. Prater, Curator, Bombay Natural History Society, whose valuable advice and help were ever readily given. Most of the success in practical collecting is due to my shikaree Haribhao Koli, whose expert knowledge of the habits and habitat of the local fish is considerable, and whose help in securing the willing co-operation of local fishermen was invaluable. j | ^ ; ■ i;mgm ;mm- | B *Hg THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. BY D. G. Sevastopulo, f.r.e.s. Part XIL ( Continued from page 87 of this Volume) RHOPALOCERA pAPILIONIDAE Graphium doson Fldr., eleius Fruhs. Davidson & Aitken, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., v, 364, pi E, figs. 2, 2a. 1890. Moore, Lep. Ind.f v, 1 and 4, pi. 467, figs. 1, xa, pi. 468. figs. I, 1 a. 1903. Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind.y Butterflies, ii, 107. 1907, Jordan, Seitz Indo-Austr . Rhop.y ix, 96. 1909. Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind.y Butterflies, i, (2nd edit.), 222, pi. t, figs. 20, 21. 1939. Half-grown larva—Head honey colour. Body a velvety nigger brown, rather darker at the beginning of the instar and paler at the end. A sublateral white stripe from 6th to anal somite, where the stripes on each side are joined by a wide transverse band. Thoracic somites each with a black, short-branched, subdorsal spine. 12th somite with a white, short-branched, subdorsal spine, but closer together than the thoracic series. Legs nigger brown. Prolegs and anal claspers white. Venter pale nigger brown from 1st to 6th somite and whitish thereafter. Shape with the thoracic somites much swollen, the 3rd largest, and then tapering towards the tail. Penultimate instar-— -The spines on the 2nd and 3rd somites unbranched, otherwise similar to previous instar. The colour often a pale bronzy green. Full-grown larva— Head pale bluish green, slightly retractile. Colour leaf green, a sublateral white stripe from 6th somite back- wards, but not joined by a transverse bar across the anal somite. Legs, prolegs and venter pale bluish green. A distinct sublateral fringe of short, white bristles. Spiracles whitish edged by a fine black line. Shape similar to previous instars, but the spines on the 1st and 2nd somites absent and that on the 3rd reduced to a raised black dot in the centre of a black-ringed, yellow spot. 1st somite with a transverse black line across the osmeterium pouch, which is slightly angled subdorsally. Osmeterium pale bluish green and only extruded reluctantly. Some larvae are a distinct bronzy green, in which case the tubercles on the thorax ^nd anal somite seem slightly larger. 416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XLIV Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of white silk. Shape head truncate, with a very short conical projection in front of each eye. Thorax with the keel developed into a forward-pointing horn, extending frontally to above the front edge of the head. A slight projection at the origin of the wing cases. Body fairly wide across the wing cases and then tapered to the cremaster. Colour pale watery green. A dark purplish median line from the posterior edge of the head to the apex of the thoracic horn. A raised yellow line from the tip of the thoracic horn along the upper edge of the wing case and then continued to the cremaster as a sublateral line. A slightly curved, whitish, subdorsal line from the cremaster to the origin of the thoracic horn, where the two lines join, this line edged above with dark green which gives it the appearance of being raised. The cuticle very coarsely and deeply punctate, the punctures above the sublateral lines filled in with dark green and forming faint, oblique, dark stripes between the sublateral and subdorsal lines, the punctures on the dorsum also filled in with dark green but not forming stripes. A pupa found wild under the coping' of a white- washed wall, had the ground colour a greenish-grey, the subdorsal and sublateral lines brownish purple, the oblique lateral stripes brown- ish purple, an indistinct brownish purple dorsal line and brownish purnle specks on the head, thorax and wing cases. Food-plant — Polyalthia longifolia W all, and Michelia champaca L. Talbot gives Cinnamomum, Polyalthia and other Anoriaceae. Described from a number of larvae found in Calcutta in October 1942, one of which pupated 13-X-42 and a female emerged 24-X-42. The first of the two references of Moore is for the Southern Indian and Ceylonese race, then known as jason Lv the second is for the race axion Fldr. from Kumaon to Burma. Jordan’s description applies to the species generally, and is as follows : —/Larva black or green, the spines of the mesonotum absent and those of the third pair reduced to tubercles. Pupa varies in colour according* to its environment ; angles of the head distinctly projecting, thoracic horn bent forwards, gradually pointed, the tip itself rounded, the carinae of the horn sharp and straight.’ The same description bv Davidson & Aitken is quoted under eleius by Talbot and under jason by, Bingham, this is as follows: — -‘larva very like that of G. agamemnon L. , but the second pair of spines is entirely wanting and the third pair, which in agamemnon is rather long, curved and sharp; is reduced in this species to mere knobs encircled with a black ring. The colour is generally black or smokv until the last moult and then dull green, inclining to rusty brown on the sides, but some of our specimens remained quite black till the end. Pupa — the distinguish- ing mark of the pupa is again in the frontal horn, which is straight as in agamemnon, but directed forward instead of being almost erect. Its colour is normally green, but varies with that of the object to which it is attached.’ Bingham adds, under axion. that the larva and pupa are very- similar to those of jason, but that Moore figures the larva with a red lateral spot on the 3rd segment. Talbot’s figures, are not very life-like. My pupae were formed on leaves and on the dark, rusty sides of a large tin, but, in spite of the remarks quoted above, all were pale green. THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 417 Lycaenidae. Chilades laius Cr., laius. Moore, Cat. Lep. E. I. Co., i, 21, pi. 12, fig", ia. 1857. Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, ii, 366. 1907. Pupa of the usual Lycaenid shape, short, head and anal end obtuse, the thorax and abdomen rounded with a slight depression between the two. Formed on a leaf of the food-plant on a mat of white silk and supported by a girdle. Colour bright leaf green, a dark dorsal line on the abdomen, pro-thorax with a median black streak, a black dot in the centre of the meso-thorax and another lateral dot above the edge of the wing case, a lateral black dot on the meta-thorax and 1st abdominal somite above the edge of the wing case. Spiracles white. Described from a pupa found in Calcutta 12-X-42, from which a female emerged 18-X-42. Bingham, quoting a description by de Niceville, writes Pupa green; of the usual Lycaenid shape, with a dorsal and lateral series of somewhat obscure conjoined brownish spots on the upper-side. Attached to the underside of the leaves of its food-plant in the usual manner.’ My specimen was attached to the upper surface of an orange leaf. HETEROCERA Arctixdae. Asoia caricae Bsd. ( alciphron Cr.). Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl, 402. 1938. Gardner, Indian Forest Records, vi, 295. 1941. Although the pupa of this species is usually formed in a slight cocoon on, or just below, the surface of the soil, in October 1942 in Calcutta I found a number of pupae in slight cocoons in spun-together leaves of the food-plant; in several instances these spun-up leaves contained two pupae in the one cocoon. My original description of this pupa is somewhat brief, a fuller one is as follows. Pupa dark reddish brown, very shiny. Noctuid in shape. The cremaster consisting of a transverse row of four very short spines, with a second row of four spines, considerably further apart, behind the first row. These spines barely visible with- out a lens. Lymantriidae. Lymantria nigra Moore. Gardner, Indian Forest Records , iii, 194, pi. iv, figs. 32, 33. 1939. Head dull black, marked with dull greyish brown on the vertex on each side of the median suture, and in the middle of, and on the lower edge of, each cheek; the clypeus containing a dull pink line. 3ody browpish grey, 4 double black dorsal line from the 5th to anal 418 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol XLIV somite, and an oblique black subdorsal line on each somite from 4th to 12th. 2nd and 3rd somites each with a velvety black, transverse dorsal fold, edged behind with very short crimson bristles mixed with longer black ones. 1st somite with a pair of blue-grey dorsal warts armed with black bristles and a subdorsal tubercle tufted with long, blue-black, simple hairs, a fringe of pale buff hair projecting over the head. 2nd and 3rd somites with a transverse series of four dorsal blue-grey warts armed with black bristles immediately behind the dorsal fold. 4th to nth somites each with a dorsal pair of small blue-grey warts, a larger subdorsal wart posterior to the dorsal pair and a lateral wart, all armed with black bristles. A lateral and sub- lateral series of brownish grey tubercles tufted with longish plumose and simple pale brown hair. 12th somite with a backward pointing fringe of pale brown hair. A pale diamond-shaped dorsal mark extending from the posterior half of somite 7 to the anterior portion of 9. Dorsal glands black. Spiracles greyish brown ringed with black. Legs pale greyish brown. Venter and prolegs brownish grey tinged with greenish. Under a lens the ground colour is seen to be marbled with darker and paler. Pupa in a few netted threads of brown silk. Dark reddish brown, the wing cases darker. Head, thorax and the dorsum of the abdomen thickly clothed with curly buff hair, intermixed on the head, pro- and meso-thorax with red-brown. Wing cases bare. A subdorsal, lateral and ventro-lateral series of tufts of short whitish hair on the abdominal somites. Thoracic spiracle set in a large black spot. Cremaster a stout spine terminating in a cluster of golden-brown, hooked bristles. Food-plant Maneo ( Mangifera indica Linn.). Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta xi-xi-42, pupated 14-X1-42, and a female emerged 2X-XL42. Porthesia xanthorrhoea Koll. Gardner, Indian Forest Records , iii, 205. 1938. Head black, the clypeus outlined with white and with a trans- verse white bar above the mouth parts. 1st to 3rd somites deep yellow. 1st somite with a double longitudinal black dorsal streak, a subdorsal black tubercle tufted with longish black hair, and a sub- dorsal black band. 2nd and 3rd somites with a black dorsal line, a subdorsal series of short transverse black streaks, and a transverse series of six warts tufted with short black and grey hair, the two centre and the outer warts yellow, the others grey. 4th somite black, with two orange subdorsal spots, slightly humped — 4he hump sur- mounted by a double tuft of short black hair, a black subdorsal wart tufted with black hair. 5th somite similar, but without the orange subdorsal spots and the hump and wart giving rise to palmate white scales instead of black hair. 6th to 10th somites orange with a black dorsal line and indistinct black subdorsal stripe, a subdorsal and lateral series of black warts armed with palmate white scales and a few black hairs, nth somite similar, but with a broad black band across the dorsum and the warts without white scales. 12th somite orange with a black dorsal line and subdorsal spot, a trans- verse fringe of long black hairs. A sublateral series of scarlet warts from the 2nd to nth somite, with a fringe of outward pointing o-rey THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 419 hair. Dorsal glands red. Legs black banded with whitish. Prolegs yellowish. Venter yellowish with a blackish median stripe. Pupa in a cocoon of orange-brown silk mixed with larval hairs. Colour yellowish brown, the thorax somewhat darker and with a diffuse subdorsal stripe from 4th to 9th somite. 4th to 7th somites with a double subdorsal series of swollen blotches. Spiracles black. Food-plant — Lager sir oemia indica L. in captivity. Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 20-X-42, spun 24-X-42, and a female emerged i-xi-42. Euproctis lunata Wlk. Forsayeth, Trans. Ent. Soc., pi. 14, figs. 5a-c. 1884. Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind ., Moths, i, 474. 1892. Gardner, Indian Forest Records , iii, 206. 1938. Head brownish olive, marked with white above the mouth parts. Body blackish. A broad white dorsal stripe with a black median line, interrupted between the somites, from the 6th to nth somite, an interrupted pinkish lateral and whitish sublateral line, the latter much broader on the 10th and nth somites. A transverse white dorsal band on the 12th somite, xst somite with a dark red sub- dorsal tubercle tufted with grey hair and a dorsal fringe of grey hair projecting over the head. 2nd and 3rd somites with a transverse dorsal series of four greyish warts tufted with forward-pointing grev hair. 4th and 5th somites slightly humped dorsallv and with paired dorsal tufts of short black hair, a broad white subdorsal stripe on these somites only. 6th somite with a double dorsal tuft of white hair. 6th to 10th somites with a subdorsal series and 4th to 11th with a lateral series of small black warts bearing very minute orange spines and longish blackish hairs. A sublateral series of reddish pink warts tufted with grey hairs forming a fringe from 1st to nth somite, nth somite with a small dorsal tuft of white hair. 12th somite with a transverse fringe of grey hair. A few minute white spines scattered throughout the white dorsal stripe. Dorsal glands white. Legs pink. Prolegs and venter pinkish grey. Pupa in a cocoon of brown silk mixed with larval hair and spun in a leaf. Olive brown, the abdomen tinged with blackish except for a dorsal stripe on the 3rd to 7th abdominal somites. Clothed with short brownish hairs except on the wing cases. Food-plant — Carissa carandas L. Gardner gives Terminalia tompntosa W. & A. and Cinnamomum camphora F. Nees. Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 16-X-42, spun 18-X-42, and a female emerged 29-X-42. Hampson’s description is ‘larva brown, with anterior, posterior, and lateral tufts of long hair; thoracic somites with dorsal quadrate white marks; the third somite with paired dorsal tubercles; fifth to anal somites with paired dorsal quadrate white marks. Spins a hairy cocoon on twigs.’ Gardner’s description deals mainly with structure. Sphingidae. Acker ontia lachesis F. Moore, Lep. Ceyl.} ii, 6, pi. 77, figs, lb, ic. 1882-83. Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, i, 68. 1892, 420 JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, _ Vol XLIV Mell, Biol. u. System . dey Sudchin. Sphing. , 10, pi. xxi, fig. i, pi. xv, figs, i, 2. 1922. Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces , x, 526. 1928. Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit,. Ind., Moths, v, 56, pi. i, figs. 1, 2, pi. vii, fig. 8, pi. xiii, fig. 1. 1937. Head green with a broad black lateral stripe. Body yellowish green, venter and subspiracular area bluer. 4th to 10th somites with oblique lateral stripes, composed of an upper violet stripe shading into blue above and a lower cream stripe shading into yellow beneath the posterior stripe continued faintly to base of horn. Dorsum from 4th to 10th somites dotted with dark blue along the middle of the secondarv divisions. Legs black. Prolegs same as venter. Spiracles black. Horn fairly thick basally, tapering to a point, downcurved slightly with the end curved strongly upwards and forwards, studded with large tubercles, colour yellowish green shading into yellow at the tip. The thoracic somites with the secondary rings forming dorsal ridges, most pronounced on the 2nd somite. There are also brown and yellow forms of the larva but I have not met with them in Calcutta. Puna in a hollowed out subterranean cell, the walls apnarently secured by pressure as there is no trace of silk. Dark mahogany brown, the wing cases and venter slightly paler. Proboscis sheath short and with prominent transverse ridges. Spiracles on the 8th to 10th somites with a ridged patch immediately in front of them. Meta-thorax with a pair of dorsal, pear-shaped, sunken patches sur- rounded by a raised ring. Cremaster black, the dorsal surface with large raised warts, terminating in two inwardly curving spines. Both the larva and pupa make a squeaking noise. Food-plant — -Bell & Scott give the following : — Ery thrina spp. , Jasminum spp., Nyctanthps arbor-thstis L. , Tpomaea son., Solamim sop., Datura, Nicotiana Tabacum L., Tecoma grandidora Loisel., Stereospermum, Spathodea campanulata Beauv., Lantana Camara L. , Stachvtarpheta indica Vahl., Tectona grandis L. , Vitex Netrundo L. , Clerodendron spp., Callicarpa arborea Roxb., Coleus , Colebrookia oppositifolia Sm., Anisomeles ovata Br. , Antidesma. Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta i8-ix-42, buried 2o-ix-42, and a female emerged n-x-42. Moore’s figure is much too blue-green in colour. Seitz’ descrip- tion is ‘adult larva green, yellow or brown, with thick white oblique stripes bordered with blue, not being contiguous, however, on the mesodorsum’. Hampson states that the ‘larva differs from styx in having blue streaks above the yellow ones’. Deilephila nerii II Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc ., xl, 407, 1938. Yellow form — Head and ground colour of body mustard vellow. The ring of the ocellus on the 3rd somite deep purple shading* into paler, instead of dark blue, the blue stripe below the Dale lateral line verv bright. A slip-fit fuscous suffusion above the lateral line and rather more noticeable suffused fuscous patches below. Legs bri°*ht rpagenta. Prolegs and yenter distinctly suffused \yitfr fuscops. Th? THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 421 white spots on the lateral and dorsal area ringed with olive instead of dark blue. Two larvae out of a batch of some thirty-five bred from ova in darkness and in very crowded conditions in Calcutta in November 1942. This form is evidently very rare and is possibly produced by unsatisfactory conditions, as these were the only two bred out of several hundred larvae reared during the last eighteen years. Bell & Scott write : — ‘In another form of larva the ground-colour of head and body ochreous, with fuscous-grey oblique lateral patches on segments 6 to 12; ocellus darker than in the green form and ringed with black ; true legs black. There are also forms with intermediate colouring.’ The larvae of this species were extremely common in Calcutta in November 1942 and a few were found which had the legs blue and the usual green colour replaced on the abdominal somites, with the exception of a narrow stripe above the lateral line, a ring round the spiracles, the venter, and claspers and flap, by pale blue grey. Bell & Scott describe the typical larva as having the 1st somite soiled green, the 2nd, 3rd, 12th and 13th bright yellow and the rest of the body bluish green suffused with glaucous except on the venter, but all my previous larvae have had the green colour almost uniform all over. Hippotion boerhaviae F. Hamps., Fauna Brit. Inci., Moths, i, 86, fig. 50. 1892. Hamps., III. Het ., ix, 56, pi. 175, fig. 1. 1893. Mell, Biol. u. System, der Sudchin. Sphing.y 281, pi. ix, figs. 19, 20, pi. xix, figs. 1, 2. 1922. Seitz, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces , x, 564. 1929. Bell & Scott, Fauna Brit. Ind . , Moths, v, 425, pi. v, figs. 9, 10, xi, 12. 1937. Head dark olive brown. Body dark olive brown, streaked minutely with darker except on the 1st to 4th somite. A black dorsal line from 1 st somite to base of horn. A diffused pinkish buff subdorsal stripe, almost obsolete from the posterior part of the 3rd somite to the posterior edge of the 10th, then stronger and less diffused to the base of the horn and thence to the end of the anal flap. A very diffused pinkish buff sublateral stripe from 1st to 1.1th somite. 4th somite with a large subdorsal ocellus, almost straight above and very convex below, consisting of a black pupil shading into chestnut brown above and with a few white dots on the upper part, the whole sur- rounded by a creamy line, broader above and narrower below, and then by a black ring. 5th to 10th somites each with an oval subdorsal ocellus, the lower edge more convex than the upper, consisting of a purple brown spot with a transverse horizontal buff bar, ringed with black. A darker patch immediately above each ocellus, the edges diffused and shading into the general ground colour. 5th to 10th somites each with a pale buff subdorsal dot on the posterior portion just above the level of the ocelli. Horn straight and pointing back- wards, short, thin, pale greyish buff, the tip cream. Legs pinkish. Venter and prolegs slightly paler olive brown than the dorsum and 422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol XLIV sprinkled sparsely with white dots. Spiracles whitish. The thoracic somites slightly tapered. Pupa in a slight cocoon spun among litter. Pinkish bone colour, speckled from dorsum down to the spiracles with olive brown. A diffused olive brown dorsal stripe on the abdominal somites. Meso- thorax with a diffused olive brown subdorsal spot. Venter speckled with black, the speckling more concentrated on the ventro-lateral area and forming a broad stripe. Spiracles black and set in small black spots. Leg and wing cases rather pinker than the rest of the body, the wing cases with a stripe composed of black specks along the costal edge and extending on to the leg sheaths, and with rows of black dots along the veins, a diffused greyish black stripe along the outer margin. Tongue case projecting slightly ventrally and rather more frontally. Cremaster a long, stout, black spine with tip minutely bifid. Food-plant — Boerhaavia repens L. Bell & Scott give, in addition, Impatiens balsamina L., Knoxia mollis W. & Arn., Spermacoce spp. Glossostigma spathulatum Arn., Boerhaavia diffusa L. My specimens refused cultivated Impatiens. Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 21-X-42, pupated 26-X-42, and a female emerged 8-xi-42. The references to previous descriptions of the early stages are not easy to follow. Hampson, in the Illustrations of Heterocera, gives a recognisable figure under the name of theylia L., but also figures under the name of rafflesii Btlr. the same larva as is figured by Bell & Scott in their fig. 9, but which they suggest is a different species. It is not rajflesiif whose larva is also figured by Hampson, but under the name of vinacea Hamps. The food-plants of both theylia and raffle sii are given as Rubiaceae of several species. In the Fauna, Hampson repeats the descriptions given in the Illus- trations, but groups them all as forms of theylia. Seitz gives a very incomplete description and mentions Morinda umbellata (Rub- iaceae) as food-plant. Bell & Scott give a rather washy figure of the usual brown form and the resulting pupa, and also' a figure of the so-called black form, which Hampson, as mentioned above, figures as rafflesii , with its pupa ; they suggest that, in spite of the apparent similarity of the imago, it is really another species in view of the larval and pupal differences, but no description is given. In the description of the brown form, they mention that all the ocelli have a crescent of pale blue above the upper edge and that there is a round blue supra-spiracular spot on segments 6 to 11. My speci- mens did not exhibit these. The pupa is described as ‘livid bone colour’. * Noctuidae. ( Sideridis yu Guen. ( exempta Wlk.) Head olive brown. Body olive brown, with an underlying orange tint, minutely speckled with darker. A diffused orange subspira- cular stripe, edged above from 1st to 6th somite with white, starting as a broad line on the 1st somite and gradually narrowing until it dis- appears on the 6th. A double subdorsal series of white specks from THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA iM‘ the 2nd to nth somite, on the 2nd and 3rd somites these specks in a transverse line, from the 3rd to 10th with an anterior inner and a posterior outer pair, on the nth somite with the anterior and pos- terior pairs in line with each other. 12th somite with one sub- dorsal speck. A supra-spiracular and spiracular series of similar specks. All these specks giving- rise to a single, very short, black bristle. Spiracles black. A dark purple-brown spot just above the base of the 2nd and 3rd pairs of legs. Legs greenish tinged with brown. Venter and prolegs similar to the dorsum but slightly paler. Shape stoutish. The larva is quite different to that of any other Sideridis or Leucania that I have seen or read of, as there are not even traces of longitudinal stripes. Pupa subterranean in an earthen cell. Bright orange chestnut with traces of a darker dorsal stripe. A dark, dentate, transverse, dorsal ridge on the anterior edge of somites 7 to 10. Apex of abdomen blackish, rugose, with a few short spines. Cremaster a stout spine with bifid tip, F ood-plant— ^Grasses. Described from a full fed larva found in Calcutta 18-X-42, buried 25-X-42, and a male emerged 5-xi-42. Ilattia octo Guen. Gardner, Indian Forest Records , vi, 274. 1941. Head green, with a few minute black specks. Body green, a very fine, irregular, double,, whitish, dorsal line, a similar subdorsal line and another similar line just above a narrow whitish lateral stripe. Legs green. Venter and prolegs green, the first two pairs obsolete, A few fairly long single black hairs. Shape long and slender. Becomes tinged with purple before pupation. Pupa subterranean in an earthen cocoon. Slender. Colour olive brown, the thorax and wing cases more tinged with olive, a dark dorsal stripe on the abdominal somites, the intersegmentai rings darker. Cremaster a double spine. Food-plant —Amaranthus sp, Gardner gives Chertop odium album L., so would possibly eat other members of the families Amarantaceae and Chenopodiaceae. Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 22-X-42, buried 23-X-42, and a female emerged 31-X-42. Gardner, after giving the structural characteristics of the genus, gives the following description : — ‘ Head and body green, sometimes with a darker line above the spiracular level along the body; legs pale; spiracles pale with a fine dark rim. The granules on the head not as sharply defined as in natalisN Length about 23 mm,’ Symitha nolalella Wlk. Head yellowish green. Body pale green with traces of a dark dorsal line. A double dorsal, a subdorsal, a double lateral, and a sublateral series of whitish specks giving rise to single, longish, white hairs. A pale spiracular line between the two lateral series of specks. Legs and prolegs pale green. The larvae live semi-gregariously on young shoots of the food- plant, which they cover with a slight silken web. m Journal, Bombay natural hist, society, Vot. xLi V Pupa in a canoe-shaped cocoon of pure white silk, the top flattened and surrounded by an erect fringe of short, coarse threads. Pale green, an olive-brown dorsal stripe from head to cremaster, the intersegmental rings also olive tinged. Later the ground colour turns to whitish and the dark markings become chestnut. Apex of ab- domen blunt, with three dark chitinous teeth laterally. Spiracles chestnut. Cuticle coarsely punctate. Food-plant — r Lagerstroemia Flos-reginae Retz. and L . indica' L. Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 4-X-42, spun 6-X-42, and a male emerged 12-X-42. Polydesma umbncola Bsd. Head dark brown with a pale, inverted, wide-armed, V-shaped mark. Body mottled with dark and pale brown, the colour actually consisting of dots and streaks on a creamy ground. The pale areas distributed as follows: — -a dorsal stripe on the first three somites; a dorsal blotch on the posterior portion of the 4th somite; a dorsal stripe, somewhat irregular in outline, from the posterior half of the 5th to the anterior halt of the 7th somite; a similar dorsal stripe from the posterior half of the 8th somite backwards; and the subdorsal and lateral areas of the 8th and 9th somites. A blackish dorsal V-shaped mark on the forepart of the 4th somite, and the pale dorsal stripe on the forepart of the 5th somite with a blackish line on either side. A double blackish spiracular line, below which the colour is slightly paler, nth and 12th somites with very small, black, paired, dorsal tubercles. Legs pale brown with wide rings of dark. Venter and prolegs greenish, the first pair reduced slightly. Spiracles black. A few short colourless hairs arising from dark specks. Rests with the fore part of the body slightly humped. Pupa in a thin cocoon of tough, rather papery, white, silk, spun in an angle of the box in captivity and covered with a leaf ; in nature possibly in a chink in the bark of the tree on which it has fed. Pale chestnut, so thickly covered with white bloom that the colour is obscured. Shape slender. Cremaster a small bunch of hooked spines. Food-plant— A Ibizzia sUpulata Boiv. Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 15-X-42,. spun 18-X-42, and . a male emerged j-xi-42. Fodina pallida Guen. Head pale green. Body pale green. A whitish dotted dorsal line, a whitish subdorsal line and a double whitish dotted lateral line. 1st to 5th and nth somites each with a black dorsal dot on the anterior portion, the 1st somite with an additional black dot below the origin of the subdorsal line. Spiracles whitish with a brown speck at the lower end. A few short black hairs. Legs and prolegs very pale green. Anal claspers rather long. The dorsal and lateral dotted lines fade when completely full fed, and the larva turns purple before pupation. Pupa subterranean in a slight earthen cocoon. Dark purplish brown, the ventral area of the abdomen slightly paler. Thorax and abdomen rather coarsely punctate. Cremaster two down curved THE PARLY STAGES OP iPDlAti LEPibOPi'ERA -Y25 Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta r8-ix-42, buried 2 i-ix-42, and a female emerged 2-X-4 2, Pyralidae. Glyphodes unionalis Hbn. Head yellow green. Body jade green, a dark dorsal and a white spiracular line. 2nd somite with a minute black subdorsal speck. A few colourless hairs. Legs and prolegs colourless, glassy. .Lives in a silk-lined, folded leaf. As in most green Pyralid larvae, it is probable that the skin is unpigmented, the colour being due to the Dlood, fat and contents of the intestines shewing through. Pupa in a slight cocoon between leaves. Olive brown, the wing cases and venter greenish. A distinct raised dorsal keel on the anterior abdominal somites. Cremaster a stout spike armed with minute hooked spines. F ood-plant-— J asmine. Described from a lull-fed larva found in Calcutta 2o-ix-42, pupated 2i-ix~42, and a male emerged 27~ix-42. Glyphodes vertumnalis Guen. Head yellow, mouth-parts black. Body blue-green, a white spiracular line, below which the body is yellower. The blue tint chiefly due to the contents of the intestines. 1st somite with a black dorsal plate with a median pale green line. 2nd and 3rd somites each with one anterior and two posterior raised black dorsal spots with a subdorsal spot between them and a larger spot external to the subdorsal, two spots immediately above the spiracular line. 4th to nth somites each with two pairs of black dorsal spots, a lateral and sublateral, also a ventro-lateral spot situated at the base of the prolegs on somites 6 to 9. 12th somite with a large round black dorsal spot, a lateral and a sublateral. Anal plate edged with black and with a black streak across the base. Legs whitish ringed with black basally. Venter and prolegs yellowish. All the black spots raised. Except for the black spots the skin is unpigmented, the blood and fat are yellow, and the blue-green colour of the living larva is due to the contents of the intestines. Lives in a silk-lined, folded leaf. Turns yellow before pupation. Pupa in. a slight cocoon either in chinks of bark or under the coping of a wall near the food-tree. Chestnut brown, paler on the venter. Leg and proboscis sheaths projecting slightly beyond the wing cases. Head produced into a slightly upturned snout. Cremaster a stout spike terminating in a few hooked spines. Food-plant — Tabvrnaemontana coronavia. Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta i5-ix>42, pupated i7-ix~42 and a male emerged 25UX-42. (To he continued) SOME WHALE SHARKS AND SUN FISHES CAPTURED OFF CEYLON. BY P. E. P. Deraniyagala, m.a. (Cantab.), a.m. (Harvard), F.C.P., F.L.S., F.Z.S. Director of Museums, Ceylon. ( With one plate and two text’ figures) The present article briefly describes some captures of whale sharks and sun fishes of the family Molidae from the vicinity of Ceylon. The earliest record of what is probably the whale shark is by Baldeus a Dutchman who had travelled extensively in the East. In his book of travels (1671) he states that the waters around Ceylon abound in various fishes and among’ the forms mentioned are ‘Galleon- fishes, Sharks, Grades’, etc. The first named might well be the Whale Shark, Rhineodon typus Smith, which has recently attracted considerable attention (Gudger 1934, and Prater 1941). Rhineodon typus Smith On 1 6th January 1942 the local press described the capture of a large spotted shark ‘about 25 feet long and weighing nearly two tons’ from off Kalutara on the west coast of Ceylon. Some days later a collector of the Colombo Museum who was sent out to investigate returned with the following information: — The shark, a male, was captured at about 150 yards from the shore in a seine net at 11 a.m... on 15th January 1942. The animal was noosed and towed to the estuary of the Kalu ganga and thence down the lagoon to Katukurunda by fifty men. The head was as large as that of an ‘elephant’ with a mouth resembling the slit in a Tetter box’, the jaws were toothless. The intestines contained quantities of minute shrimps (probably Euphausiids) massed into boli. The depth of the sea at the site of capture is about 2 fathoms. No shark of this species was known from Kalutara before, but the writer saw a specimen about 15 feet long by the road side near Beruvala about 8 miles south of Kalutara, in December 1930. The dried pectoral and caudal fins of the Kalutara specimen were ob- tained on the 30th of January. They were bluish brown with white spots ; the pectorals were more strongly spotted than the caudal and white below. A pectoral fin measured 3 feet 5 inches along the outer edge and was 2 feet 1 inch wide across its base. There were 13 spots along the longest part of the fin, 11 spots along its broadest part (pi. I. 6). The caudal ha was 5 feet 3 inches along WHALE SHARKS AND SUN FiskES I CAPTURED OFF CEYLON 4,27 its upper lobe, 2 feet 7J inches along its lower lobe, the tips of the lobes were 5 feet apart. Its spots were fewer and less prominent than on the pectorals, the most conspicuous being 18 in a row along the upper lobe and lateral to the vertebral column (pi. L a ). Comparison of these measurements with those given by Prater (1941) suggests that the specimen was about 24 feet long. The body ridges of Rhineodon and its pigmentation of white spots on a slate background are somewhat reminiscent of the oceanic leathery turtle Dermochelys coriacea (Linne) while the arrangement of the white pigment into alternate transverse bands and rows of spots occurs on such oceanic Pisces as tunnies and certain sail and spear fishes which are never taken in shore seines. The entry of whale sharks into shallow water and the fact that specimens have been rammed by vessels at considerable distances a 428 - jaU.RNAL , BOMBAY -NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XUV from Ceylon are of interest. With two exceptions the various individuals noted from Ceylon (Prater- 1941) were taken in water under 20 feet deep. The locality where a 40-foot specimen was rammed by the Japanese ship ‘Katori Maru’ en route To Singapore was described by Captain Matsukura in the daily press {Daily News , August 6, 1935) as follows : — ‘We left Colombo on the after- noon of July 9th at 2.30 p.m.; the following day I was having my siesta in my cabin. We were about 300 miles out in the Indian Ocean. Suddenly I heard a noise which seemed to come from beiow.’ . . . ‘Presently I discovered it was a large fish, about 40 feet long, and with a big gash just behind its head. ’ . . . ‘From the symme- trical shape of the tail and the sharp fins we could tell that it was not a whale but a tiger shark. Also the fish was turned on its side and 1 saw the gills’. Doubtless the captain termed the fish a tiger shark owing to its markings. The other such occurrence was on November 23, 1932, when the Dutch ship ‘Johan van Oldebarne- velt’ struck a whale shark in lat. 70. 5' N., long. 770. 51' E., about 150 miles west of Colombo (Gudger 1937). A study of the , steam ship routes shows that both occurrences are approximately between 6° and 70 N. latitude. The first collision would be in water oyer 2000 fathoms deep, the second in water between 1000 and 2000 fathoms deep. All whale sharks from the coastal waters of Ceylon were captur- ed or noted between January and March. Those from the deeper waters off Ceylon were noted in July and November. The list is as follows — January— 3 sharks* February— 2 do, July— 1 do. November— 1 do. December — 1 do. (Beruvala)* Although the whale shark exceeds 50 feet in length individuals over 22 feet are rarely taken from the coastal waters of either India or Ceylon. The ramming of two individuals in July and November at 300 miles to the east, and 150 miles to the west of Ceylon respectively, suggests that the shark is not uncommon in the deeper waters of the tropical Indian Ocean. The fact that one of these specimens was 40 feet long suggests that generally only adolescents about 20 feet long venture close to land. These are probably attracted by the unusually rich supply of plankton resulting from the monsoon rains. y**' ' ~ Family Molidae. This family comprises three monotypic genera ; of these the genera Ranzania Nardo 1840 and Mola Cuvier 1798 are known from Ceylon ...waters and have been captured in February, May,, and June.- The number of individuals known from Ceylon is five; three of these are Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, Plate I. B. Pectoral fin of Whale Shark taken at Kalutara, Ceylon. WHALE SHARKS AND SUN FISHES CAPTURED OFF CEYLON 429 Rumania. , one is Mola , the fifth which was taken- off Colombo in; 1885, was unidentified. . . : Fig. 2. kanzahia taevis - captured oft Pesalai, - north west Ceylon in 1941, Drawn by P. Deraniyagala from a photograph and cast. Ranzania laevis (Pennant.) Whitley (1933) has shown that this is the correct name for the truncate sunfish. If this species is to be subdivided into sub- species the ‘forma typica’ is the Atlantic fish, and the Indian Ocean form is Ranzania laevis varius (Shaw). In 1798 Pennant described a specimen from Ceylon as Batistes truncatus in the Outlines of the Globe , vol. i, p. 213. On May xoj 1910, a specimen (66.04 cm.) 26 inches long, (33.02 cm.) 13 in. deep was captured in Kayts harbour, north Ceylon (Pearson 19! t) and on February 6, 1941, another 580 mm. long, 320 mm. deep, With a head length of 230 mm. distance from tip of dorsal to tip of anal fin 550 mm., was captured off Pesalai, north west Ceylon (fig. 2). It was photographed by the Colombo Museum and a cast obtained. Mola mola (Linne.) The specimen in the Colombo Museum was taken off Chiiaw to the north west of Ceylon in June 1914 (Pearson 1914). Its dimen- sions are as follows : — * Standard length 740 mm., depth 550 mm., head length 210 mm., distance from tip of dorsal to tip of anal fin 1270 mm. As this fish 430 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV is known to attain to a length of eight feet and a weight of 1200 pounds, the Ceylon specimen is an immature individual. Conclusion. The general tendency for immature specimens of oceanic fishes to enter the coastal waters of Ceylon needs further investigation. If they are transported from common spawning grounds as newly hatched young, as in the case of the eel Anguilla bicolor , this line of enquiry is likely to yield results of value regarding the move- ments of the nektic fauna of the Indian Ocean. References to Literature. Baldeus, P. 1671. — A description of East India , Coasts of Malabar and Coromandel and of the Empire of Ceylon, Chap. LI., p. 826 (English Edition;. Gudger, E. W. 1934. — The Geographical Distribution of the Whale Shark ( Rhineodon typus). Proceedings of the Zoological Society , London, Pt. 4. Gudger, E. W. 1937. — A Whale Shark rammed by a Steamer off Colombo, Ceylon. Nature , March 27. Prater, S. H. 194:0 — The Whale Shark ( Rhineodon typus Smith) in Indian Coastal Waters. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society , xlii, No. 2. Pearson, J. 1911. — A Sun Fish caught near Jaffna. Spolia Zeylanica, vii, p. 208. 1914.— -Administration Report of the Director , Colombo Museum . Whitley, G. 1933. Studies in Ichthyology, No. 7. Records of the Australian Museum , xix, No. 1, p. 108. Explanation of Plate. Plate I — -Fins of Rhineodon typus Smith from Kalutara. a . Caudal, b. Pectoral. Jearn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, Plate S Venkateshwarlu—Map of the Lower Godavary. THE ESTUARIAL FLORA OF THE GODAVARY. BY V. Venkateshwarlu, m.sc., Department of Botany , P. R. College , Cocanada . ( With a map and two plates ). Introduction. Hooker (5) remarks : ‘The four chief estuarial floras of India occupy the deltas of the Ganges, Irrawady, Mahanady and Indus ; but minor ones, notably those of the Kistna and Cauvery, occur at intervals commonly -along- the eastern shores, more rarely on the Western.* The estuarial flora of the Godavary } which Hooker, how- ever, omits to mention, consists of a number of mangroves with an undergrowth of perennial woody climbers, followed by the halophytes on the exposed mud-flats towards the landside. The Lower Godavary branches into the Vasista Godavary and the Gowtamy Godavary, and the mangrove forests are the gifts of the latter (Cornwall, 2). These forests are situated on muddy flats formed owing to the silting activity of the Go'wtiamy Godavary for over a century and more, before it reaches the sea at Coringay once called the Coringa Bay. (Plate I). There is a sort of zonal distribution among the species of the mangrove forest. The pioneer species are Avicennia alba and A. marina which pave the way for the species of Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Sonneratia, etc. The species of Lumnitzera, Aegiceras and Excoecaria prefer shallower waters towards landside. Finally, the bare and the much-exposed regions are occupied by the halophytic Chenopodiaceae. The undergrowth of plants is made up of the spinous Dalbergia, the prickly Caesalpinia and the twiners, Derris and Sarcolobus. The network of the canals is lined by Acanthus ilicifolius and the- tall grass Myriostachya Wightiana (Plates II & III). As quite a number of details regarding many of the mangroves have been long ago given by the late Fr. Blatter (1) repetition will be avoided in the following description. Systematic Account. In the following list of twenty-six plants which have been arranged in their respective families I have as far as possible given their vernacular names, and have also added a few notes on their economic importance, even though these plants are mainly valuable to people of the localities as fuel. 1. Rhtzophoraceae. 1. Rhizophora mucronata Lamk., F.B.I., ii, 435. Syn : R. Candelaria W, & A. Vern. Names : Uppa-Ponna (Tel.) ; Kandal (Tam.). Habit : A glabrous evergreen tree of the swamps buttressed by long stilt roots, forming more or less the outermost fringe of the vegetation towards the sea. 432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV Uses : The bark is brown, with vertical clefts, and is used as a valuable tanning material; wood is hard and is an excellent fuel. 2. Ceriops Roxburghiana Arn., F.B.I., ii, 436. Vern. Names : Gatharu (Tel.); Chiru Kandal (Tam.); Goran (Hind.). Habit : A small evergreen tree with many buttresses at base and rounded scaly reddish pneumatophores. Uses : The bark yields a good red-orange dye which is used for colouring the fishing nets of the local villagers to make them last long ; the wood also serves as a good fuel. 3. Bruguiera conjugata . Merr. Syn : B. gymnorhiza Lam., F.B.I., ii, 437. Vern. Names' Thuddu ponna (Tel.-)-; Kankra (Hind). Habit : A rather large evergreen tree with a short stout rugose radicle and kneed* pneumatophores. Lises. : Wood red, extremely hard, used for building and fuel. The radicles form an article of diet for the local villagers. 4. Bruguiera cylindrica W. & A., ■ Svhs : B. c ary ophyildides Bh, Bg malabarlca Arn.-, F.B.I., ii, 438. Vern.. Name : Vurudu (Tel.). Habit: A small tree of the tidal forests. Use : Wood useful as fuel. II. V ERBENACF.AE. 5. Avicennia officinalis Linn.. F.B.I., iv, 604. Vern. Names: Nalia Mada (Tel.); Upatha (Tam.); Orei (Mai.). Habit: A small tree with leaves obtuse at. apex, elliptic-oblong or obovate, attenuate at base ; anthers exerted ; capsule ovoid. 6. , Avicennia alba Be. Svn : A . o fficinalis van alba. , C. B. Clarke., F.B.I., iv, 604. Vern. Names : Vilava Mada, Gundu Mada (according to Gamble J. S.) (Tel.). Habit: A shrub with leaves lanceolate, very acute or acuminate; capsule when young conical and beaked, when old ovoid, ■7. Avicennia marina Vierh. 1 Vern. Names. : Mada (Tel.) ; Venkandan (Tam.). , Habit : A . large, shrub with leaves acute at apex, anthers included, capsule- ovoid.,' ' ... The various species and varieties of Avicennia form the bulk of the mangrove forests here and make up the principal source of the supply of fuel in these regions. The flowers of A* officinalis are chewed along with betel leaves by the local people. 8. Clerodendron inerme Gaertn., F.B.I., iv, 589. Vern. Names: Pisung (Tel.); Pinchil, Sangam (Tam.); Batraj (Hind.). Habit: A straggling shrub occurring among the- plants of the tidal forests. III. SONNERATIACEAE. , 9. Sonneratia apetala Buch.rHam., F.B.I., ii, 579. Vern. Names: Kalingi (Tel..); Marama (Tam.),. Habit : A moderate-sized evergreen tree, giving out upright round excrescences. 10. Sonneratia acida Linn, f., F.B.I., ii, 579. Vern. Names : Pedda Kalingi (Tel.) ; Blatti, Thirala (Mai.). Habit : A small evergreen tree With large' showy pink-petalled flowers and large ^depressed : globose fruit. I Venkateshwarlu — Estuarial Flora of the Godavary. THE ESTUARIAL FLORA OF THE GO DAY ARY 433 IV. Meliaceae. 11. XyJocarpns obovatus A. Juss. Syn : Carapa moluccensis Bedd., FI. t., F.B.I., i, 567. Vern. Names: Chenuga (Tel.); Somunthiri (Tam.); Pussur (Hind.). Habit : A moderate-sized evergreen tree with stout and flat excrescences resembling those of Heritiera fomes. The fruit is a large globose 4-celled capsule. Use : Wood dark-red and valuable. V. COMBRETACEAE. 12. Lumnitzera racemosa Willd., F.B.I., ii, 452. Vern. Names : Kadavi (Tel.) ; Tipparathai (Tam.). Habit: An evergreen tree of shrubby growth with rather small leaves and white flowers. Uses: Wood hard, greyish brown with a darker heartwood, used as posts and fuel. VI. Myrsinaceae. 13. Aegiceras corniculatum Blanco. Syn : A. majus Gaertn., F.B.I., iii, 533. Vern. Names: Guggilam (Tel.); Narikandam (Tam.); Halsi (Hind.). - Habit : A common and pretty small tree with white flowers and an elongate curved fruit 1 in. long. Use : Mostly used for fuel, and the wood, it is said, burns quickly when raw. VII. Euphorbiaceae. 14. Excoecaria A gal loch a Linn., F.B.I., v, 472. Vern. Names : Thilla (Tel.) ; Tilai (Tam.) ; Komatti (Mai.). Habit : A dioecious evergreen tree. Uses: The latex of this plant is poisonous and causes blisters on the skin, and if it falls in the eyes brings about blindness. Due to the excessive smoke that issues' out while burning it is not so much valued as fuel. VIII. Acanthaceae. 15. Acanthus ilicifolius Linn., F.B.I., iv, 481. Vern. Names : Alchi (Tel.) ; Hargosa (Hind.). Habit : A gregarious shrub with spinescent leaves reaching 5 ft. in height lining the tidal creeks. IX. Leguminosae. 16. Dalbergia spinosa Roxb., F.B.I., ii, 238. Vern. Name : Chillingi (Tel.). Habit: A stiff, often climbing shrub with small white flowers and the tips of the branches modified into spines, which are said to be poisonous. 17. Derrls uliginosa Benth., F.B.I., ii, 241. Vern. Name : Nalla Theegi (Tel.). Habit : A large evergreen climbing shrub with rose-coloured flowers and rather large leaflets. 18. Caesalpinia nuga Ait., F.B.I., ii, 256. Vern. Name : Mulutige (Tel.). Habit : An evergreen prickly plant. Uses: Pods, roots and leaves- medicinal. . .«» v, 434 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Fol. XLIV X. Asclepiadaceae. 19. Sarcolobus carinatus Wall., F.B.I., iv, 28. Vern. Name : Pala boddu theegi (Tel.). Habit 1 An evergreen twiner with fleshy follicles. Use : The fleshy fruits are edible. XI. Boragxnaceae. 20. Heliotropium Curassavicum Linn., Gamble, FI. Pres. Madras, Pt. v, 896. XII. Aizoaceae. 21. Sesuvium Portulaeasfriim Linn., F.B.I., ii, 659. Habit : A fleshy prostrate rooting stout stemmed herb. XIII. Chenopodiaceae. 22. Arthocnemum indicum Moq., F.B.L, v, 12. 23. SaHcornia brachiata Roxb., F.B.I., v, 12. 24. Stiaeda marltlma Dumort., F.B.L, v, 14. 25. Suaeda nudiflara Moq., F.B.T., v, 14. XIV. Gramineae. 26. Myrlostachya Wightiana Hk. f., F.B.L, vii, 327. Habit : A tall grass reaching 6-10 ft. in height, and lies on the edges of the creeks. Use : The leaves are used for thatching. Acknowledgements. I am indebted to Mr. P. Nagabhushana Rao of our college for all the drawings in Indian ink. My thanks are due to Mr. S. N. Chandrasekhara lyyar, Lecturer in Botany, Agricultural College, Coimbatore, and to Dr. S. K. Mukherjee, m.sc., ph.D. (Edin.), Curator of the Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, for identifying some of mv collections sent to them. Above all I am much obliged to Prof. M. Sayeedud-Din, m.a., b.sc., f.l.s., Head of the Department of Botanv, Osmania University, for kindly going through the manuscript and offering useful suggestions which have been incorporated in this paper. Literature Consulted. 1. Blatter, E., S. J. — ‘The Mangrove of the Bombay Presidency and its Biology.’ J.B.N.H.S., vol. xvi, No. 4, pp. 644-656 (1905). 2. Cornwell, R. B. — The working plan of the Lower Godavary, (1937). 3. Kirtikar, K. R., & — Indian Medicinal Plants, (1918). Basu, B. D. 4. Gamble, J. S. — Flora of the Presidency of Madras, (1915-31). 5. Hooker, J. D. —1 sketch of the Flora of British India , (1906). 6. Hooker, J. D. — The Flora of British India, vols. 1-7, (1875-1897). Explanation of Plates I- — III. The Estuarial Flora of the Godavary. Plate I. Map of the Lower Godavary . THE ESTUARIAL FLORA OF THE GOD AV ARY 435 Fig. i. Fig. 2. Fig- 3- Fig. 4- Plate II. Xylocarpus obovatus A. Jus. Ceriops Roxburghiana Arn. Rhizophora mucronata Lamk. Sonneratia apetala Buch-Ham. Fig. 5- Fig. 6. Fig. 7- Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Plate III. Bruguiera cylindrica W. & A. Bruguiera conjugata .Merr. Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. Sarcolobus carinatus Wall. Caesalpinia nuga Ait. Fig. io. Dalbergia spinosa Roxb. Fig. ii. Aegiceras corniculatum Blanco. NOTES ON THE FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRANGAN HILLS. BY Edward Barnes. The Billigirirangan Hills are situated at the S.E. corner of the Mysore Plateau. They may be described approximately as consisting of two ridges rising to nearly 6,000 ft., running north and south, and surrounded by lower hills. The western ridge slopes down on the west to an undulating plateau a few miles wide and about 4,000 ft. in elevation, locally known as the Malaikadu; this, after again rising in places, falls to the Mysore Plateau (Chamrajanagar District). The eastern ridge is longer, rather higher and more com- plex than the western, a number of spurs running out to the east. It falls on the east to an extension of the Mysore Plateau in the Kollegal Taluk of the Coimbatore District. There is a gap in this ridge at Bella ji. Politically these hills are about half in Mysore State and half in Coimbatore District, the border running on the north along the western ridge and on the south along the eastern ridge, and crossing the valley near Moskal. On both ridges above about 5,000 ft. there are considerable areas of shola and short grass. The valley between the two ridges is largely filled by dense evergreen forest, part of which has been planted with coffee. The Malaikadu and most of the rest of the area at and below about 4,000 ft. is covered with deciduous forest with areas of coarse grass and some evergreen forest along the streams. The lower parts of the eastern and northern slopes are very dry. Apart from the five not very large coffee estates, these hills are almost un- inhabited. A few Sholagars make clearings in the forest and raise crops, and timber is extracted from the more accessible areas, but much of the country remains virgin. The sparsity of population is due to the fact that except for the areas above about 4,500 ft. the whole reeion is malarious and infested with elephants. The Billigirirangan Hills are a little over a hundred miles from the west coast, but between them and the sea, that is between the Nilgiris and Coorg, the Western Ghats are not high. Consequently these hills receive a considerable amount of rain and much mist during the S.-W. monsoon period. They are about 140 miles from the east coast and they receive also the N.-E. monsoon rains. In addition there are frequent thunder-storms during April and May. The first three months of the year are dry, but on the higher parts of the hills a rainfall of 60 to 80 inches is distributed through the rest of the year. References to these hills in botanical literature are extremely few. Parts of these hills are included in the area covered by the collections of Mr. C. E. C. Fischer, which were described by Fr. E. Blatter in his Contribution to the Flora of North Coimbatore (/. Bomb. Nat. Hist: Soc., Vol. xviii, No. 2, 1908). This contribution, however, although giving elevations at which plants occur, does not give exact FLO WERING PLANTS OF THE BI LL1 GIRI RAN GAN HILLS 43? localities and covers a much wider and more diversified area than the Billigirirangan Hills alone. The collections on which the following- notes are based were made during- the hot weather of 1938 and 1939 and during short visits in September and December. No attempt was made to form a complete collection of the plants of these hills, but special attention was paid to a limited number of groups of plants such as the Monocotyledons other than grasses and sedges, and the Geraniaceae, Gentianaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Acanthaceae. Most herbaceous plants found in flower were collected, but trees and ferns could not be dealt with. The following abbreviations have been used in the list : — Mai. = Malaikadu, the area of deciduous forest at about 4,000 ft. on the West of the hills. Pun. Gt. ^Punjur Ghat. This ghat runs from Punjur (c. 3,000 ft.) at the foot of the hills on the north to Bedaguli (c. 4,500 ft.) at the north end of the valley between the two ridges. Dod. = Doddasampagi Reserved Forest, but only the portion between Honnametti and the Big Tree was visited (3,000-3,500 ft.). E. si. — eastern slopes of the eastern ridge (5,000-3,000 ft.): Dup. — near Dupabari on the eastern ridge (about 5,200 ft.). At. = Attikan. on the western ridge (about 5,500 ft.). (K) refers to the fact that specimens of the plant were sent to Kew where they were identified, or their identification by the writer confirmed, by Mr. C. E. C. Fischer or (in the case of the orchids) Mr. Summerhayes. The following statements appear to be justified by this partial survey of the flora of these hills. The area is remarkably rich in orchids. Sixty-six species of orchids were collected in flower, or have subseqpently flowered on being transplanted to the writer's garden at Tambaram (Chingleput District, South India), and a num- ber of others were found, but their identification is uncertain as they have not been seen in flower. Further, two or three which seem to be new species have been sent to Kew for identification and des- cription, but owing to war conditions work on them has had to be postponed. This means that more than one-third of the known S„ Indian orchids occur in this small area. Other epiphytic plants such as Aeschynanthus Perrottetii, Hoy a pauciflora, Procris Wight? aria, Peoeromias and numerous ferns and club mosses also occur profusely. Ferns in general appear to be very abundant. Parasites of the Loranthus and Vis cum genera are very noticeable. On the other hand marsh plants appear to be rather scanty. Soecies of Xv ns , Imfiatiens rufescens , J. chinensis, Drosera rotundifolia, D. indica, snecies of Torenia and most of the common Utricularias were not found in spite of careful search. In view of the limited elevation of these hills it is not surprising that such plants as Rhododendron nilagiricum, Rosa Leschenaultiana , Anemone rivularis and Geranium nobalense should not occur, but it is remarkable that such common plants as Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Cotoneaster bixifolia, Berberis tinctoria and all shrubby species of Osbechia should be absent. This is the more remarkable in view of the fact that these plants are common at lower elevations and in drier situations on the neighbour- ing Nilgiri Hills, and of the fact that manv alpine plants such as Genfiana ppdicillata, Drosera peltata) Pedicularis zeylanica, _ C4X0-., pegia pusilla, Parnassia mysorense and Viola serpens are common " on the Billigirirangans. ^ 438 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV The serial numbers given after some species (e.g\ Thalictrum saniculae forme DC. . . 1979) refer to mounted specimens in the writer’s herbarium. Ranunculacece. Clematis 1. C. gouriana, Roxb. Bel. fl. Dec. 2. C. Wightiana, Wall. Margins of sholas, At., Honnametti, fl. Dec. Thalictrum 1. T. saniculaeforme, DC. (K) On shaded wet rocks, At., fl. Sept. 1979. 2. T.Dalzellii, Hook. (K) On wet rocks, At., Miskatikal, fl. Sept. 1983. Ranunculus Walilchianus, W. & A. In sholas on both ridges, fl. May. Apparently the only buttercup on these hills. Dilleniaceae DUIenia retusa, Thunb. At. Magnoliaceae M Schells Champaca, Linn. Doddasampagi in moist deciduous forest. A gigantic tree of this species, doubtless hundreds of years old, is venerated by the Hindus and is a place of pilgrimage from the Rangaswami temple on Bellikal Betta at the north end of these hills. Menispermaceae Stephaaia japonlca, Miers. Common, evergreen forest, 4,000-5,000 ft., fl. Dec. Ciggampelos Pareira, Linn. E. si. fl. June. Cmciferae Cardamine 1 . C. afrlcana, Linn. At, 2. C. htrsuta, Linn. Vtolaceae Viola serpens, Wall. Common, sholas 5,000 ft. and above, fl. and caps. May. The only violet collected on these hills. Bixaceae Cochloipermusn gossypium, DC. Below Bel., fl. Dec., near Punjur, caps. April. Polygalaceae Polygala 1. P. arillata, Ham. Common, evergreen forest above 4,500 ft., Moskal, fl. and fruit Sept. 2. P. rosntarinifolia, W. & A. Common, grassland 4,500 ft., and above, fl. May, Sept. Plants may be 20 in. high. 3. P. chinensis, Linn. Pun. Gt., 3,500 ft. fl. May. 4. P. persicariaefolia, DC. Devakeri, Mai., amongst tall grass, fl. Sept. Near Pun., fl. April. Portulacaceae Porfuiaca oleracea, Linn. Dup. 5,000 ft., fl. May. .FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRANGAn HILLS 439 Hypericaceae Hypericum 1. H. mysorense, Heyne. 4,500 ft. and upwards, fl. May. 2. H. japonicum, Thurb. In marshes, 4,500 ft. and above, Moskal, fl. May. Malvaceae Sida rhorabifolia, Linn. Mai., Dod., caps. Dec. Urena lobata, Linn. Mai. fl. Dec. Kydia calycina, Roxb. Common, Dod. Decaschistia crotonifolia, W. & A. Pun. Gt. 3,500-4,000 ft., fl. June, Dec., caps. Dec. Hibiscus 1. H. Abelmoschus, Linn. E.sl. 3,000 ft., fl. June, Sept. 2. H. angularis, Mast. Miskatikal, fl. Dec. 3. H. Solandra, L’Herit. N.sl., deciduous forest 3,000-4,000 ft., fl. and caps. Sept. 4. H. lampaS, Cav. Mai, caps. June. Bombax malabaricum, DC. Common, Dod., fl. April. Sterculiaceae Helicteres Isora, Linn. Below Bedaguli, fl. Sept. Eriotaena Hookeriana^ W. & A. (K) Open deciduous forest, Mai. fl. June* caps. Dec. 1978. Buettneria herbacea, Roxb. Pun. Gt. 3,500 ft., fl. May. T iliaceae Grewia tilisfolla* Vahh Common, Pun. Gt., Dod., Mai., fl. June, Linaceae linum mysofense* Heyne. Common, grassland, fl. Sept. Geraniaceae Oxalis corniculata, Linn. Throughout the ared. 0. pubescens, H. B. & K. and 0. latifolia, H. H. & K. hdve run wild, and ate especially prolific on and near the two higher estates, Attikan ahd Honnametti. Biophytuth 1. B. €andoUeanume Wl Frequent above 4,000 ft., Dod., fl. Mdy, June, Sept. 2. B. Reinwardtii, Edgw. & Hook. f. E.sl., fl. Sept. 2193. lmpatiens 1. !. scapiflofa, Heyne; Common on wet rocks and branches of trees exposed to the S.W. monsoon at 5,000 ft. and above, fl. Sept. Some flowers seen in May. 2. I. cuspidata, Wt. Frequent in sholas, 5,000 ft. and above, Honnametti, Dup., fl. and caps. June, Sept. Fl. slightly fragrant. 3. I. Balsamloa, Linn. Common 4,000-5,000 ft. Mah, At,, Bel., fl. Sept. 4. I. fruticosa, DC. Slopes of Kataribetta at 5,000 ft.}# Nagamanpadabetta at 5,500 ft., fl. Sept. 5. LGoughii, Wt. Along streams on the eastern ridge, 5,000 ft. and above* fl.’ Sept. m JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Rutaceae Murraya exotica, Linn. Common in sholas, E. ridge 5,000 ft., fl. May. Petals up to 1.25 ins. long. (F.M.P. gives .5 in.) Alalantia Meliaceae Munronia Wallfchii, Wt. Common in moist deciduous and evergreen forest 4,000 tt., fl. and fruit May. Cipadessa oaccifera, Miq. E.sl. 4,500 ft., fl. May. I cacinaceae Mappia 1. M. oblonga, Miers. Near Bel., fl. June. Flower foetid. 2. M. tonivntoia, Miers. Dod., fl. June. Leaves simply tomentose beneath, corolla yellowish-green strigosely hairy, very foetid. Celastraceae Euonymus dichotjmus, Heyne. Near Bedaguli, fl. May. Rhamnaceae Zizyphus rugosa, Lamk. Common in grassland and deciduous forest 4,500 ft. Citaceae Ampelocissus 1. A. tomeotosa, Planchi. Pun. Gt. 3,500 ft. Mature flower and fruit not seen. 2. A. araneosa, Planch. Near Bedaguli, fruiting Sept. Cissus pallida, Planch. Common in deciduous forest, E.sl. 4,500 ft., fl. June. Cayratia . 1. C, pedata, Juss. Dup., fl. June. 2. C. tenuifolia, Gagnep, At.* fl. May. Leea crispa, Linn. A large herbaceous shrub. Leaves rather furry and not glabrous as stated in F.M.P. Petals green, column white, anthers purplish. A very conspicuous element in the undergrowth in deciduous forest of the Malaikadu, fl. June. 1986. • Sapindaceae AUophyllus Rheedii, Radik. 4,500 ft., fl. May. Sccbidce&£: ‘ . . ; ■ ; _ : . Meliosraa Arnottiaoa, Wqlp, Dup., fl. May. Leguminosae PapiUonatae ... Crotalaria — • .. 1. C, ovali folia, Wall. At., grasslands, fl. May and June. - . :... 2. C. umbellata, Wt. Mai., caps. Dec. (7 seeds). 3. ,C. mysorensis, Roth. Mai., fl. Dec. 4. C; calycina, Schwank. Gr. 4. At. grasslands, caps. Dec/ ’' ..V ' C. diibja,.. Grah..Dod,,. fl. Dec^ fl, C. laevigata, Lamk. Pun. Gt. 4,000 ft., fl. Sept., Mai., fl. and caps. Dec, FLO WERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRANGAN HILLS 441 Indigofera pulehella, Roxp, Mai., E.sL, fl. Dec. Tephrosia tlnctoria, Pers. Pun. Gt. 3,000 ft., fl. Sept.. Smithia 1. S. gracilis, Benth. (probably) Marshy places in grasslands, fl. Dec. 2. S. hirsuta, Dalz. Summit of Anaibetta, fl. May. Pycnospora hedysaroides, R. Par. Pun. Gt. 4,000 ft., Mai., fl. May. Alysicarpus racemosus, Benth. Grassland near At., caps. Dec. Desmodium 1. D. laxlflorum, DC. Dod., fl. Dec. 2. D. Scalpe, DC. At., fl. Dec. 3. D, triquetrum, DC. Mai. 4. D. gaogeticum, DC. Mai., Pun. Gt. 4,000 ft. in undergrowth, fl. May. White-flowered, stamens 9+1. 5. D. polycarpum, DC. (probably) var. trichocaulon, Bak. Mai., . fl. Sept. 6. D. gyrans, DC. Mai., fl. Sept., pods Dec. Shuteria vestita, W. &. A. Mai., fl. and pods Dec. Dumasia villosa. Dp. At., fl. Sept. Butea Irondosa, Koen. Pun. Gt. 3,500 ft., fl. August. Phaseolus Mungo, Linn. Mai., pods Dec. Atylosia rugosa, W. & A. Grasslands 5,000-6,000 ft., fl. Sept., pods Dec. Rhynchosia 1. R. rufescens, DC. Mai., fl. and pods Dec, 2. R. cyanosperma, Benth. Mai., fl. Dec. Flemingia 1. F. strobilifera, R. Br, Mai., fl. Dec. 2. F. Grahamiana, W. & A. Fl. Dec. 3. F. nilgheriensis, Wt. Rataribetta,' fl. Sept. Pterocarpus Marsupium, Roxb. Dup., Moskal, Mai., fl. May. Sophora glauca, L'esch. Common 4,000 ft. and above, fl. May. CAESALPINOIDEAE Caesalpinia sepiaria, Roxb. Pun. Gt., margins of sholas 5,000 ft:, fl. Dec., pods- May and June. . . .. 'L, .. y. . : . .. . Cassia C. hirsuta, Linn, (or laevigata?) near Bedaguli, fl. and pods June, Sept. 2. C. Leschenaultiana, DC. Grasslands 5,000 ft., fl. Sept. - • Baubinia variegata, Linn. Pun. Gt. 3,000 ft.,- fl. Dec. M IMOSOIDEAE • ' Entada scandens, Benth. N:ear Bedaguli. ■- Acacia concinna, DC. Pun. Gt. Bedaguli, fl. June. c.-..-.: - Rosaceae . _ . . _ Rubus 1. R. fulvus, Focke. Common, margins of sholas, 5,000 ft., fl. and 'fruits May, June. ........ _ jduRNAL, BOMBAY NATukAt HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLlh 2. R. ellipticus, Sn. Common, margins of sholas, 5,000 ft., fruit Dec. Saxifragaceae Parnassia mysorensc, Heyne. Very common in wet places amongst rocks above 5,000 ft., fl. June-Sept. Crassulaceae Kalanchoe 1. K. glandulosa, Hocket, (K) Mai., on rocks, fl. Dec, Identified by C. E. C. Fischer, but calyx lobes divided to base. 2087. 2. K. olivacea, Dalz. At., on rocks, fl. Jan. Calyx and corolla lobes with short curved tails. 3. K. Bhidei, T. Cooke. Below Bel., on rocks, fl. Dec. 2078. 4. K. laciniata, DC. (K) E.sl. 4,000 ft., fl. Dec. 2089, 2091. Leaves with three leaflets only. Droseraceae Drosera peltata, Sm. Very common, grassland and on wet rocks, 5,000 ft. and above, fl. June, Sept. Haloragidaceae Myriophyllum intermedium, DC. Attikan Tank, Devakeri, fl. Dec. 2003. Combretaceae Terminalia crenulata, Roth. Moskal, Mah, fl. May. Myytaceae Eugenia brad eat a, Roxb. ?, below Bedaguli, fl. May. Mclastomaceae Osbeckia cupularig, Don. Grassland, 5,000 ft. and above, fl. Sept. Onagraceae Jussieua suffruticosa, Linn. In marshes and along streams, 4,000 ft., Dod., below Bedaguli, fl. and ®eed June. OeQataera rosea, Ait. A very common weed at 5,000 ft. Passifloraceae Passiflora edulis, Sims. Run wild and very common above 4,000 ft. Climbing to and pendant from the tops of tall trees on edges of sholas. Ripe fruit May- Sept. Cucuvbitaceae Tdchosantbes villosula, Cogn. (K) Dup., fl. Sept., Bel., fl. May, 1980-3. Nand. At., fl. May. Byronopsls laciniosa, Nand. At., fl. May. Melothria 1. M. perpusilla, Cogn., Dup.-Moskal, fl. June. 2. M. amplexkautis,Cogn. At., fl. May. 3. M. leiosperma, Cogn. (probably) Dup., fl. Sept. Begoniaeeae Begonia malabarica* Lamk. Frequent along streams in evergreen forest at 4,500 tt., fl. May and June. Aizoaceae Mo.lugo pentapbyUa, Linn. Devakeri, 5,000 ft., fl. May. FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRAN GAN HILLS 443 Umbelliferae Hydrocotyle javanica, Thunb. Sholas, 5,000 ft. and above, fl. May, June, Sept. Buf-kurutn vir^atum, W. & A. Margins of sholas, 5,000 ft, and above, At., fl. May. Plmpindla monocia, Dalz. Grassland, Dup., fl. Sept. Heracieuw Candolle anum, Gamble. Grassland, 5,000 ft. and above, fl. Sept. Araliaceae Schefflera 1. S. stellata, Harms. E.sl. 4,500 ft., fl. June. 2. S» Wallichiana, Harms. Dup. Caprifoliaceae lonicera Leschenaultfi, Wall. Dod., Mai., fl. June. Rubiaceae YVendlandia Noloniaoa. Wall. Common, margins of sholas, grasslands at 4,-5,000 it., fl. May. Oldenlandia 1, 0. herbacea, Roxb. Dup., fl. Sept* 2. 0. dichotoma, Koen. Forest undergrowth and grasslands, 5,000 ft., Devakeri, fl. June-Sept. Anotis 1. A . quadriloeularis, Benth. & Hook. Devakeri, fl. Sept. 2. A. monosperma, Benth. Kataribetta, fl. Sept., above Dup., fl. May. Flower white. Ophiorrhiza hirsukila, Wt. Moist banks in evergreen forest, 4,500 ft., fl. May. Usuany semiprostrate and herbaceous, sometimes erect and sufirutieose. 1949. Mussaenda laxa, Hutch, (or glabata?) In thickets along streams in deciduous forest at 4,500 It., fl. and fruit June. Chumelia asiatica. O. Kze. var. rigida, Gamb. Margins of sholas, E. ridge, fl. May. Randia Brandish*, Gamble. Common, deciduous forest 3,000-4,000 ft., fl. and iruit May and June. Flowers first white, then bright yellow. Knoxia 1. K. mcllis, W. & A. Mai., fl. June. 2. K, Wightiana, Wall. Plectrcnia didyma, Kurz, var. umbellata, Gamb. Shola forest, 5,000 fti Ixora Notoniana, Wall. Shola forest, fl. May. , Flowers red on trees in the open, e.g. near summit of Anaibetta, white on those in sholas. Pavetta 1. P breviflcra, DC. var. glaberrima, Brem. Dod., fl. May. Very fragrant. 2. P0 tomentosa, Linn. Common, open deciduous forest, 4,000 ft., fl. May. Psychotria 1. P. Thwaitcsii, Hook. f. Common in sholas, Dup. fl. May. Calyx lobes very small and oblique. 2. P. elongala, Hook. f. Common, sholas 5,000 ft., Dup., fl. May. 3. P. bisulcata, W. & A, Sholas, 5,000 ft., fruit June. 9 1-44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLlV Chasalia curviliora,Thw. Sholas E. ridge, fl. May and June. 2138. The mechanism for cross-fertilisation is interesting. The corolla tube is long and the lobes are short, valvate and bright yellow. On first opening, the lobes remain attached at their tips but separate below so that there are 5 wide slits. The 2-lobed stigma is opposite these slits but the anthers are within the upper part of the tube. Later the corolla lobes separate completely and become recurved and the tube splits for some distance down one side. The anthers that thus become exposed then curve outwards. lasianthus coffeoides, Fys. Dup., fl. May. Borreria 1. B. sfricta, K. Sch. Fl. Sept. 2. B. ocymoides, DC.? Caps. June. Rubia cordifolia, Linn. E.sl., fl. Sept. At., fl. Dec. Compositae Vernonia 1. V. Monosis, C. B, C. Very common in sholas on the eastern ridge, 5,000 ft*, fl. April, seeds May. 2. V. divergens, Edgw. Common, fl. Dec. 3. V. einerea, Less. Common, fl. May. Elephantopus scaber, Linn. Mai. Conyza stricta, Willd. Grasslands, 5,000 ft*, fl. Sept. Blumea membranacea, DC. Fl. Dec. Laggera alata, Sch.-Bip. Fl. Dec, Blepharisperina subsessile, DC. Pun. Gt., 3,00c) ft., fl. June* Anaphalis 1. A. subdecurrens, Gamble. Kataribetta, fl. Sept., May. 2. A. Lawii, Gamble. Grasslands, Dup., fl. Sept., Dec. Helichrysutn buddleioides, DC. At., fl. Dec. Vicoa indica, DC. Mai., fl. Dec. Siegesbeckia orientalis, Linn. Dod., Mai., fl. Dec, Spilanthes acmella, Murr. Mai., fl. Dec. Bidens pilosa, Linn. A very common and troublesome weed, 4,000-5,500 ft. Trldax procumbens, Linn. Pun. Gt. 3,000 ft. Artemisia pafviflora, Buch. -Ham. Very., common on grassland, fl. Sept., Dec. Emilia 1. E, scabra, DC. Anaibetta and other hilltops, 5,500-6,000 ft., fl. May. 2. E. Sonchifolia, DC. Grasslands, 5,000 ft., fl. Sept. Notonia grandiilora, DC. E.sl., 4,000 ft. Senecio 1. S. Edgeworthii, Hook. L Slopes of Kataribetta, 5,500 ft., fl. May. Mai. on rocks, fl. Dec. 2. S. corymbosus, Wall. At., fl. Dec. 3. S. intermedius, Wt. At., fl. Dec. Crepis acaulis, Hook. f. Anaibetta. Erechthites valerlanifoiia, DC. Dod. below Honnametti, fl. May. F LOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRAN GAN HILLS 445 Guizolia abyssinica, Cass. Cultivated by the Sholagas and run wild. Eupatorium giandulifera has invaded the western ridge, especially common near Honnametti and At., 5,000 ft. and above. Campanulaceae Lobelia 1. L. trigona, Roxb. In marshes, Bel., Dod., 11. May and June. 2. L. trialata, Buch.-Ham. On wet rocks, Moskal, Devakeri, Honnametti, 11. Sept. 1920. 3. L. oicotianaefolia, Heyne (probably var. tricbandra C.B.C.) In deciduous forest, Mai., fl. Dec. 4. L. excelsa, Lesch. On the borders of sholas, 5,000 ft. and above, At., May, Dec. Leaves glabrous above, softly hairy below, corolla tube purplish, lobes white or yellowish. Cephalostigma flexuosum, Hook. f. Mai., 11. Dec. Campanula fulgens, Wall. Frequent in grassland, east ridge, 5,000 ft., 11. Sept. Myrsinaceae Ardisia solanacea, Roxb. Common, evergreen forest along streams at 4,000 ft, Dod,, Moskal, 11. May, Dec. Sylnplocdceae Sympiocos splcata, Roxb. Common iii sholas, Dup*, fl. June, Oleaceae Jasminum 1. J. Rottlerianum, Wall. Near At., fl. May. 2. J. Ritchiei, C.B.C. Mah 3. J. brevilobum, A. DC. fl. Sept. 4. J. flexile, Vahl. Mai., 11. Dec. Very sweet-scented, Linocera intermedia, Wt. Pun. Gt., 4,000-5,000 ft., fl. June. Olea giandulifera, Wall. Sholas, At. Ligustrum Perrotetti, A. DC. Common on margins of sholas, 5,000 ft., fl. May. Apocynaceae Rauwoifia densifiora, Benth. Margins of sholas, At, Aganosma cymosa, G. Don. Asclepiadaceae Cryptoiepis Buehanani, R. & S. Common above Bedaguli, 4,500 ft*, fl. May* Holostemma annulare. K. Schum. Pun. Gt., 4,000 ft., fl. Sept. Cynanchum pauciflorum, R. Br. Near Honnametti, 11. Dec. (probably ; follicles not seen). Sarcostemma Brunonianum, W. & A. E.sl», Gundimala up to 5>00° ft-, fl. Sept. Has a heavy scent. Tylophora 1. T. fasiculata, Ham. Grassland near At., fl. May. 2. T. capparidifolia, W. & A. At., 11. June. Hoya paucitlora, Wight. Common on . shola trees 4,500-5,500 ft., fl. May, seeds Sept. 2223. Hoya pendula, Wt. ? Dup., fl. May. 446 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XUV Ceropegia 1. C. pusilla, W. & A. Common on the eastern ridge 5,000-6,000 ft. usually in rock crevices on hilltops, Kataribetta, Dup., fl. May and June, follicles Sept. 1876-7. 2. C. ffmbriifera, Bedd. Mai. 4,000 ft. in pockets of earth on slab rock, E.sl. below Dup. 5,000 ft., fl. June, 1874-5, 2220. The flowers are described as solitary in F.M.P. There is a peduncle with two buds only one of which matures. Corolla lobes bright green insiae, outside and up to about 3 of the tube dark purple, tube outside light green, glab. inside dark purple with vertical white stripes. 3. C. elegans, Wall. Mai., fl. Sept. 2105. 4. C. candelabrum, Linn. E.sl., fl. Sept. 2221. Corolla lobes greenish- yellow below, purpie at tips, ciliate within. Carailuma (Boucerosia) lasianiha, N.E. Br. Amongst rocks at 4,000-5,000 ft. E. sl., fl. June. Flowers not strictly umbelled, but inflorescence repeatedly branched so as to form a head. Bracts slender cylindrical ciliate on upper 1/3, yellowish. Corolla at back glabrous subgiossy, white at centre deepening to crimson almost black at tips of lobes, upper surface crimson-black velvety with straggling hairs, outer surface of corona cream, lobes and inner surface blackish- crimson. Smell very offensive. Loganiaceae Fragraea obovata, Wall. Common and conspicuous in sholas, 4,000-5*000 ft,, fl. May, June. Gardneria ovata, Wall. Common on margins of sholas, 5,000 ft., fl. May. Gentianaceae Exacnm bicolor, Roxb. Common and conspicuous in grassland, 5,000 ft., fl. Sept. Caps. June. Corolla white and purple. Gentiana pedicellata, Wall. var. Wightii, Kusn* Common, grassland at 5,000 It. and above, fl. June, Sept. Canscora 1, C. diffusa, R. Br. Western slopes, 4,500 ft., fl. Dec. 2. C. decussata, Roem and Sch. Mai., Pun. Gt., fl. Dec. Swertia 1. S. minor, Knobh Frequent in short grass above 5,000 ft., fl. Sept, Flolvers blue. 2. S. angustifolia, Buch.-Ham. var. pulchella, Burk. Mai. 4,500 ft., fl. Dec. Petals white marked with dark blue, scale of nectary green. 3. S. tfichotoma, Wall. At. on grasslands, Petals smaller than given in F. M.P. but acuminate. No scale on nectary. 4. S. corimbosa, Wt. At. 5,000 ft., fl. Dec. Boraginaceae Trichodesma zeylanicum, R. Br. Near Dup., fl. Sept. Cynoglossutn denticulafum, A. DC. var. zeylanicum C.B.C. Common, deciduous forest and margins of sholas, 4,000-5,000 ft., fl. June. Convolvulaceae Argyreia 1. A. cuneata, Ker.-Gawl. Common Pun. Gt., fl, May. 2. A. nellygherrya, Choisy. Pun. Gt. 4,500 ft., fl. June. Flower rose-purple* 3. A. sericea, Dalz. & Gibs. Dup., fl. Sept. 2,222. FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIR1RANGAN HILLS 447 Cnovolvulus flavus, Willd. Common on grassland near Dup. 5,500 ft., fl. May, Bel. Cuscuta reflexa, Roxb. Common on Strobilanthes, At., fl. Dec. Solanaceae Solanum 1. S. nigrum, Linn. Dod., fl. May. 2. S. dentkulatum, Blume. Margins of sholas, E. ridge, fl. May. 3. S. giganteum, Jacq. Common, margins of sholas. 4. S. torvum, Swartz. E. ridge, 4,500 ft., fl. and fruit May. 5< S. indicum, Linn. Pun. Gt., fl. May. Scrophulariaceae Limnophila 1. L. hirsute, Benth. Marshes near Bel. 4,500 ft., fl. May. 1987, 2108. 2. L. gratioloides, R. Br. var. elongafa Benth. At. pond 5,000 ft., fl. Dec. 2075. Dopatrium funceum, Buch.-Ham. Devakeri, fl. Sept. Vandellia pedunculate, Benth. In elephant swamps near Dod. 4,000 ft., fl. June. 2107. Ilysanthes 1. 1 hyssopioides, Benth. Pool near summit of Anaibetta (5,700 ft.) Devakeri (5,000 ft.), fl. May, Sept. 2118. 2. I. veron Icaefolia, Urban. Common along streams 4,500-5,500 ft., fl. May, Sept. 1951, 2109. Buchnera hispida, Ham. Common, deciduous forest 4,500 ft., Mai., fl. Dec. 2069, 2070. Striga 1. S. lutea, Lour. Common amongst grass throughout the area, fl. June, Sept. 2. S. euphrasioides, Benth. E.sl. 5,000 ft., fl. Sept. Ismail form). Pun. Gt. 3,500 ft., fl. Sept, (very scabrous form up to 13 ins. high). Sopubia trlfida. Ham. Common amongst coarse grass at 5,000 ft., fl. June, Dod., fl. Mav. This plant does not appear to have been recorded as parasitic. An examination of the root system of a number of plants found on these hills showed it to be a root parasite on cotton grass and several other grasses. Pedicillaris zeylanica, Benth. Common, grasslands at 5,000 ft., fl. Sept. The plant found is the diffuse form with white or very pale pink flowers ; the erect form with deep pink flowers does not appear to occur. Calceolaria tnexicana, Benth. is common in damp places above about 4,000 ft. Lentibulariaceae Utricularia 1. U. uliginosa, Vahl. Moist places in grassland, fl. June, Sept. 2. U. gramlnifolia, Vahl. Margin of stream, Moskal, fl. June, Dec. 3. U. striatula, Sm. On wet rocks, Moskal — At., fl. Sept. Gesneriaceae Aerchynanfhus Perrottetii, A. DC. Very common on trees in sholas at 5,000 ft. and above, fl. Sept., caps. Dec. Corolla tube scarlet, lobes dark purple marked with yellow : glandular hairs on margins of lobes only. 448 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV Didymocarpus tomentosa, Wt. In rock crevices on hilltops, 5,000 ft. and above, fl. May, caps. June. Klugia Nntoniana, A. DC. Along streams at 4,000 ft., and above, Bedaguli, At., fl. May, Dec. Bignoniaceae Radermachera xylocarpa, K. Schum. Mai., fl. April Acanthaceae Thunbergla fragrans, Roxb. Common, 4,000-5,000 ft., fl. June, Sept., Dec. Meyenia Hawtavneana, Nees. Pun. Gt. at 3,500 ft. on stony hillside, fl. May, ripe caps. Sept. Three forms with differently coloured corollas were found grow- ing together: (1) tube orange, lobes white; (2) tube orange, lobes violet; (3) tube orange, lobes mauve. Ruellia Beddomei, C. B. Clarke, Pun. Gt. 3,500 fit., fl. Sept. Not previously reported from S. India. Mieranthus oppositsfolius, Wendl. Dod., fl. Dec. Strobilanthes 1. S. Kunthianus, T. And. Very common in grassland at 5,000 ft. and above. Considerable areas of grassland are almost completely occupied by this plant. 2. S. pulneyensis, C.B.C. Frequent as undergrowth in sholas and evergreen forest at 4,500 ft. Dod., Bel. General flowering June 1938, plants dead 1939. 3. S. Heyneanus, Nees. Common in sholas and evergreen forest, growing with the above. In full flower Sept. 1938. 4. S. luridus, Wt. Forming a dense undergrowth in many sholas at 4,500- 5.500 ft. Not seen in flower in 1938 or 1939. 5. S. foliosus, T. And. (probably, not in flower). In shola forest above 5,000 ft. forming an impenetrable undergrowth and becoming a small tree. Andrographis 1. A. ala fa, Nees. Near Pun., fl. April. 2. A. Neesiana, Wt. Pun. Gt., 3,000-4,000 ft., fl. June. 3. A. iineata, Nees. Pun. Gt. 3,500 ft., fl. June. Margins of sholas 5,000 ft., fl. Dec. 4. A. serpyllifolia , Wt. Pun. Gt. 3,000-3,500 ft., fl. May, June. Barleria 1. B. involucrata, C.B.C. Margms of sholas on both ridges Nees. var. elata, C.B.C. at 5,000 ft., At., fl. Dec., Dup., fl. Sept. A very beautiful shrub up to 10 ft. high in favourable places. 2. B. sp. (very near B. Gibsoni, Dalz., K.i Pun. Gt. 3,500 ft., fl. Sept. Corolla tube 1*5 in. or more, dark purple, white at base, more or less dilated below and narrowlv funnel-shaped above, finely glandular, lobes quite white, ovate *75 in- long. A branching undershrub up to about 2 ft. high. 3. B, Morrisiana, Barnes and Fischer (Kew Bull. No. 10, 1939) Pun. Gt. 3,000-3,500 ft., fl. April and May. Leaves dull green above pale below, mid-rib reddish, margin reddish hispid. Stem dark red sparingly hispid. Outer pair of calyx lobes reddish-brown, green near mid-rib. Corolla tube white, lobes mauve, 5 stamens all fertile, pollen profuse. Asystasia viofacea, Dalz. Margins of sholas 5,000 ft. Along streams 4,000- 4.500 ft., fl. and caps. May and June. Flowers mauve. The leaves often have crenulate margins and it is very difficult to decide whether this plant should be classified as A. violacea, Dalz. or A. crispata, Benth. Rungia parviflora, Nees. var. pectinata, C.B.C. Mai., fl. Dec, Dichoptera cuneata, Nees, Mai., fl. June. FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRANGAN HILLS 449 Justicia 1. J. Belonica, Linn. Pun. Gt. 3,000 ft., fl. Sept. 2. J, nilgherrensis, Wall. In dry stony ground, Pun. Gt. 3,000-3,500 ft., fl. and caps. May and June. 3. J. procumbens, Linn. (?) Mai., fl. Dec. 4. J. simplex, D. Don. (?) Dup., fl. Sept. ; Mai., fl. Dec. Diffuse, silvery hairs. 5. J. diffusa, Will. Dup., fl. June. Rhioacanthus communis, Nees. Deciduous forest, Mai., fl. Dec. Verbenaceae Lantana indica, Roxb. E.sl. 4,500 ft., fl. May. Stachytapheta indica, Vahl. Bedaguli, stream bank, fl. Sept. CalHcarpa ianafa, Linn. Common on margins of sholas on .both ridges, 5,000 ft., fl. May. Clerodendron 1. C. serratum, Spreng'. Common in deciduous forest, 4,000 ft., fl. June. 2. C. infortunatum, Linn. Common on margins of sholas, At., Sept. Vitex altissima, Linn. Pun. Gt. 3,000 ft., fl. May. Labiatae Orthosiphon diffusus, Benth. Pun. Gt., 3,500 ft., fl. May, Sept. Flectranthus 1. P. nilgherricus, Benth. E.sl. 4,500 ft., fl. Dec. 2. P. Coetsa, Buch.-Ham. Very common in grassland at 4,500-5,000 ft. In places the grassland has been densely invaded. 3. P. coleoides, Benth. Mai. in moist places, 4,000 ft., fl. Dec. Coleus 1. C. barbatus, Benth. Anaibetta, 5,500 ft., fl. Sept. 2. C. malabaricus, Benth. Dup., fl. Dec. Anisochilus 1. A. carnosus, Walk Mai., on rocks in deciduous forest, E.sl., 3,000 ft., fl. Dec. 2. A. dysophylloides, Benth. Hilltops above Dup., fl. Dec. Pogostemon 1. P. pubescens, Benth. E.sl. 4,500 ft., fl. Dec. 2. P. speciosus, Benth. Mai., fl. Dec. Dysophylla aurieularia, Blume. At., fl. Dec. Scutellaria 1. S. violacea, Heyne. In sholas, 5,000 ft. and above, fl. May-Sept. 2. S. Coiebrookiana, Benth. (K) At. and the western slopes in grassland, fl. Dec. 2074. Flowers crimson. Leucas 1. I. zeylanica, R. Br. At. £. I, monfana, Spreng. (K) Bel., fl. June. A shrubby plant up to £ ft. high. 450 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV 3. I marrubioides, Desf. (K) Below Bel., fl. Sept. 4. I. hirta, Spr. Pun. Gt. 3,500 ft., fi. Sept. 5. L. prostrata, Gamble. Dup., fl. May. GomphoEtemma Heyneanum, Wall. var. Rottleri, Prain. Mai., fl. Sept. Amarantaceae Celosia sp. Devakeri. Banalia thyrsi.ljra, Moq. Dod., fl. May. Polygonaceae Polygonum 1. P. plebejum, R. Br. Devakeri, fl. April. 2. P. glatrum, Willd. Devakeri, in water, fl. May. 3. P. barbatum, Linn. Near Punjur, fl. June. 4. P. flaccidum, Meissn. Mai., Dod., fl. May. 5. P. punctatum, Buch.-Ham. Devakeri, fl. Sept. 6. P. chinense, Linn. At., fl. May, Sept., Dec. Piperaceae Piper hymenophyllum, Miq. Marshes near Bedaguli, Mai., At., fl. May, June. Peperomia 1. P Heyneana, Miq. Dup., At., fl. June. (or Wightiana in F. N. C. ?) 2. P. portulacoides, A. Dietr. Bedaguli, fl. June. 3. P. dindigulensis, Miq. On rocks along stream below Bedaguli. Elceagnaceae Elaeagmrs Keloga, Sch. Margins of sholas, At., fl. Dec. Very sweet-scented, Loranthaceae Loranthus 1. L. Wallichianus, Sch. Dod., fl. June. 2. L. intermedius, Wt. Dup., fl. May. 3. L. cordffolius, Wall. Below Dup., fl. June, on Grewia tilaefolia, Vahl. 4. L. bracteatus, Heyne. E.sl. 4,000 ft., fl. June on Grewia sp. 5. L. tomenfosus, Heyne. Dod. On Viscum orbiculatum which was on Pavetta tomentosa. 6. L. recurvus, Wall. Dup.-Moskal, fl. Sept, 7. L. courtallonsfs, Gamble. Dod., Dup., fl. June on Grewia tilaefolia, Vahl. 8. L. neelgberrensis, W. & A. Dup., fl. Sept. Elylranthe lon:ceroid:s, Engler. Mai., fl. May, on Grewia tilaefolia, Vahl. Viscum 1. V. orbicu!a*um, Wt. (?) Dod., fl. May, on Pavetta tomentosa. Most flowers of triads 9 only, occasionally one S in centre of triad, and other two flowers not open. Used as host by Loranthus tomentosus. 2. V. angulafum, Heyne. At., fl. June, on Olea glandulifera., Wall. 3. V. articulatum, Burm. var. dichotomum, Kunz. Dimbam Ghat, fl, April, FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRANGAN HILLS 451 Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia 1. E. cristata, Heyne. Pun. Gt. 3,500 ft., fl. June (erect form 10 ins. high). 2. E. Rothiana, Spr. On margins of sholas, 5,000 ft., fl. May. Bridelia retusa, Spreng. E.sl. 4,000 ft., fl. April. FhyHanthus, simplex, Retz. E.sl., fl. Sept. Re'dia floribunda, Wt. Banks of stream below Bedaguli, fl. May. Embelica officinalis, Gaertn. Common up to 5,000 ft. Breynia patens, Rolfe. Pun. Gt., fl. May. Gfoch'dian velutinum, Wt. Blschoffa javanica, Bl. Used as shade for coffee. Mallofus Beddotnef, Hook. f. Fl. May. Homonoia riparia, Lour. Stream bed near Bedaguli, fl. May. A small shrub 2-3 ft. high. Acalypha bracbystacbya, Hornem. At,, fl. Sept, Moraceae Ficus 1. F. Arnotfiana, Miq. E.sl. between rocks, 4,000 ft. 2. F. glomerata, Roxb. Common in sholas, At^ Receptacles mature Sept. Artocarpus integri folia, Linn. Sholas, 5,500 ft., At. apparently wild. Oorstenla indica, Wt. At., fl. Sept Urticaceae Girard’nla zeylanica, Dene. Dod. in swamps, fl. Dec. Procrs Wight'ana. Wall. At., fl. Dec. Growing on trees, the stems be- coming flaccid and hanging down in the dry months. Pilea irinerva, Wt. Along streams in sholas, Dod., Dup., fl. June. Burmanniaceae Burmannia caelestis. Don. In marshy places, not frequent, Moskal, fl. June, Sept., Dec. 1967, 2064. Flowers blue, stems up to 4,5 ins. long, sometimes branching from near the base. Orchidaceae Oberonia 1. 0. iridifolia, Lindl. var. denticulata, Hook. f. On shaded branches of trees along streams at about 4,000 ft., Mai. Bedaguli, fl. Sept., caps. June. 1931, iq 39. F’owers have pedicels as long as the ovaries, and are not sessile as stated in F.M.P. 2. 0 verflcillata. Wt. On exposed branches of trees at 5,000 ft., Devabetta slopes, fl. Sept. 1930. 3. 0. Brunon’ana, Wt. Common on trees and shrubs at 5,000 ft. At., fl. Sept, and later. 1940. The leaves are usually very thick and dull brownish. 4. 0. Lindleyana, Wt. On branches of trees in sholas at 5,000 ft., At., fl. Sent. 2083. 2104. Sepals, petals and lip straw-coloured excent the concave hemispherical disc which is orange-bro\yn. 1 Transplanted to Tambaram, where if flowered Dec., Jan. 452 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL FUST . SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV Microstylis 1. M. versicolor, Lindl. Common in sholas at 5,000 ft. upwards, fl. Sept. Plants are usually scattered but in places dense patches were found occupying exclusively several square feet of ground. 2. M. Stocks!!, Hook. f. In sholas at 5,500 ft. Dup,, fl. June, caps. Sept, 1906. Flowers pale amber, 3. Microstylis sp. ? On big rock on Attikan-Moskal bridlepath, fl. Sept. Sepals and petals dark crimson to liver-coloured; lip bright chrome yellow, column pale yellow. Scape bright purple. Bracts purple becoming green at tip. Capsule purple. Liparis 1. L. platyphylia, Ridl. In deciduous forest, western slopes 4,000-5,000 ft., fl. Sept. 1902. Sepals and petals pale orange, lip dull orange to pale olive green, surface dull except for a glossy central area, Flowers somewhat unpleasant- smelling. 2 L. Wightlana, Thw. In rock crevices on summit of hill on east ridge, 5,500 ft., fl. Sept. 2181-2. Scape dark crimson, square with 2 smaller ribs on each face. Leaves bright green. Sepals and petals very pale green or yellow ; lip dull purplish, central area glossy and greenish, calli green. Pokki Betta, fl. Aug., lip yellowish-gieen. 3. L. odorata, Wt. (Lindl.) Indeciduous forest, western slopes, 4,000-5,000 ft., fl. July, caps. Sept. 1880-81. Sepals, petals and lip liver-coloured to dark crimson ; column whitish, 4. L. atropurpurea, Lindl, 4,000-5,000 ft., fl. Sept. 1961. Belagi, At., fl. Aug. Common. Dendrobium 1. D. nanutn, Hook. f. At. Very common at 4,500-5,500 ft. on branches of isolated trees especially Wendlandia N otoniana , fl. June-Sept,, caps. June. 1927- Sepals and petals white. Mid-lobe of lip greenish with a white-fringed margin, a pale green strap-shaped palate with a toothed end running along the upper side of the claw and ending near the middle of the lobe ; side lobes greenish spotted and veined purple, margins toothed. Flowers honey-scented. 2. D. nutans, Lir.dl. On branches of trees on margins of sholas on the eastern ridge at 5,500-5,800 ft., fl. April and May. 1883, 2126. Sepals and petals deep yellow, lip orange, with 3 wavy ridges. 3. 0. macrostachyum, Lindl. On trees near Moskal, 4,500 ft., fl. May. 1884. Sepals and petals pale greenish-yellow, lip yellowish with crimson veins, margin fimbriate, hairy on veins. Flowering stems covered with the silvery grey-veined leaf bases. Flowers scented. 4. D. heterocarpum, Wall. Frequent throughout the area on tree trunks at 4.500- 5,500 ft., fl. Dec. and Jan. 1939, 2076-7, 2082. Sepals and petals pale yellow or greenish-yellow, disc of lip covered with chocolate or brownish-purple gland-like hairs with round white tips. Flowers very delicately sweet-scented. Flowers only on branches from which the leaves have, disappeared, 2 or 3 at a node, very shortly racemed. Bulbophyllum 1. B. fusco-purpureum, Wt. Very common on branches of trees in shola forest, at 5,000 ft., fl. May. 1897. Sepals dull yellow and purplish, lip dark purple, lighter on under side, lateral petals purplish. Pseudobulbs up to 7 cms. X 4 cms., leaves up to 19 cms. X 5 cms. Cirrhopetalum 1. C. fimbriatum, Lindl. Locally common on rocks and branches of trees at 4.500- 5,000 ft. Moskal, Devakeri, fl. April and May, caps. June. .1911-12, 1925-6. FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRANGAN HILLS 453 Scape purplish with two scarious bracts. Lateral sepals dark crimson to liver- coloured; dorsal sepal and petals similar in colour but fimbriations yellowish or greenish. Lip concave or longly boat-shaped, almost black on the margin, be- coming pale greenish near the centre. The lateral sepals of older flowers may be dull yellowish flushed with dark crimson by bleaching. 2. C. Gamblei, Hook. f. Common on shaded tree trunks at 4,-5,000 ft. Moskal, At., Dup., fl. May and June. 1934-5, 1936-7. Some plants have the sepals, petals and lip all clear lemon yellow, others have the large lateral sepals yellow and the dorsal sepal and petals heavily streaked with brownish-crimson, and other plants have all the sepals and petals heavily marked with dull crimson. Pseudobulbs finely wrinkled, yellowish to dark green, glossy. Flowers have a carrion smell which suggests fly fertilisation. 3. Ce Proudlockii, King and Pantl. Near Moskal, fl. June. 1993. Chrvsoglossum 1. C. maculatum. Hook. f. East ridge along streams in shola at 5, <00 ft. Bel. fl. May and June. 2127, 2130, 2149. Grows in association with Calanthe Masuca. Sepals and lateral petals green spotted purple, lip white, mid-lobe acute with margins turned in, spotted purple, side-lobes erect, spotted purple, base of mid-lobe with a raised palate with 2 keels, narrowing and becoming 3-keeled below, claw auricled, mentum yellow, ovary green. Eria 1. E. baccata, Lindl. Verv common on branches of trees and rocks at 5,5oo-6,ooo ft. on both ridges, fl. June. 1941. 2. E. Dalzelli. Lindl. At., fl. Aug. 3. E. nana, A. Rich. 4. E. polystachya, A. Rich. Frequent on tree trunks at about 5,500 ft. on both ridges, fl. Sept. 1891-2. Sepals and petals pale straw-coloured. Lip with deep yellow margin and 4 dark brown ridges on upper surface. 5. E. pauciflora, Wt. Frequent on tree trunks 5,000-5,500 ft. on both ridges, fl. Sept. 1914-5. Often grows in very large masses extending for several yards up the trunk or along the larger branches of trees. Sepals and petals pure white. Lip cream-coloured with a raised yellow Y on the upper surface. Coelogyne 1. C. odoratissima, Lindl. Dup. Flowers not seen. Identified by its characteristic pseudobulb and leaves. 2. C. nervosa, A. Rich. Frequent on trees on both ridges at 5,000 ft. and above, fl. June-Sept. 1913. Calanthe C. Masuca, Lindl. Frequent in sholas at 5,000 ft. and above, fl. June-Sept. Scape and inflorescence up to 120 cms. long. Lip bright purple, petals and sepals white flushed with purple, calli on lip orange becoming reddish-purple. Eulophia 1, E. pratensis. Lindl. Amongst grass at 5,000 ft., Dup., fl. June. 2174. Not common. 2. E. nuda, Lindl. In deciduous forest at 4.000-4,500 ft., fl. April and May. 1989. There appear to be two colour forms of this species : (1) corolla yellowish- green. sepals and,, to less extent, petals marked purplish Jbrown on back, spur and lip yellowish-green, disc pale purple, only slightly tubercled on veins ; (2) sepals and backs of petals dull, dark purple, inner side of petals and disc of lip bright purple to pink, lower part of lip pale, spur more acute. Cymbidium . C. aloifolium, Sw. Eastern slopes 4,000-4,500 ft., June, caps. June. 2145, 2150. Sepals and petals cream-coloured with a brownish-red median stripe. Side 454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol NLIV lobes and apical part of mid-lobe of lip dark crimson, basal part pale yellow, whole surface velvety. Leaves thick, erect, bright green, glossy. Bracts at base of scape pale brown. Geodorum G. densiflorum, Sch. In evergreen forest 4, 000-4, 500 ft., Mai. Bedaguli, fh June. 2154, 2197. Sepals and petals pale mauvish-pink, lip broadly boat-shaped, margin of lip purplish-pink, disc yellow, laminated. Polystac'hya P. purpurea, Wt. Frequent on trees and rocks 4,000-5,000 ft., fl. May and June. Luisia 1. L. tereti folia. Gaud. Frequent on trees, E.sl., Pun. Gt. 4,000-4,500 ft., fl. and caps. June. Sepals and petals gree-nish-yellow ; lip yellow heavily blotched dark purple, the side lobes and base becoming almost completely purple. 2. L. tenuifolia. Bl. E.sl. 4.500 ft., fl. June. 2144. Basal part of lip tri- angular, very dark crimson, glossy; apical part fiddle-shaped heavily mottled deep crimson on a whitish ground, velvety. Sepals and petals dull greenish- yellow, lateral sepals with pointed concave tips, Rhynchostylis R. latifolia, Fisch. ? Moskal, on trees 4,500 ft., fl. Oct., caps. Sept. 2151. Leaves 9.5x2. 5 cms. oblong slightly unequal at tip, thick and fleshy, very slightly keeled. Spikes dense-flowered, flowers sessile, base of ovary in a pit in the spike, about 4 mm. long. Sepals ovate brownish -green on back, two lateral sepals keeled. Lateral petals pale green. Scrotum pale green, epichyle triangular with a large conical appendage on underside, white with crimson calli above and a pit between the calli. Chilochista Co pusilla, Sch. ? On small branches of trees and shrubs in shola and damp deciduous forest, 4,500-5,000 ft. Dup., Bedaguli, fl. April-May. 2162, 2176. At the beginning of the monsoon rains a few lanceolate leaves up to about 1 in. long develop. Aerides 1. A. cylJnd"?cum, Lindl. Very frequent on trees At.- Bellaji 4,000-5,000 ft., fl. May. 2110. Mid-lobe of lip vellow blotched purple, side lobes white streaked purple. Sweet_scented. Transplanted to Tambaram, where it flowered Jan._ 2. A. rfngens, Fisch. Frequent, E. si. on trees at 4,500-5,000 ft., fl. July. 2198. Flowers white, Vanda V. parviflora, Lind,? Dod. on trees, 4,000 ft., caps. May. 2146. Saccolabium 1. S. Jerdonianum, Reichb. Evergreen forest below Honnametti on trees, fl. Sept., caps. June. 1894-6, 1966. Bracts not longer than pedicel and ovary, spur often as long as the lateral sepals. . 2. S. pulcheflum. Fisch. Frequent Moskal-Bedaguli on trees, fl. May- Sept. 1928. Transplanted and grown at Tambaram, fl. Dec. Sepals and petals green outside, inside pale green heavily mottled brownish-crimson lip white with a yellow centre, mentum whitish with pale reddish markings. Column reddish brown, ovary pale green. S. so; nov. East ridge at 5,500 ft. on trees in shola, fl. Sept., caps. Dec. 1889, 1890. Diplocentrum D. recurvutti, Lindl. Very frequent throughout the area at 4,000-5,000 ft. op frees, fl. May and June, caps. Dec. 1933? FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE B1LLIGIRIRAN GAN HILLS 455 Aneochtochilus elatior, Lindl. Frequent in sholas on the east ridge at 5,000 ft., fl. Dec. 2071. Sepals olive green on back, whitish within, becoming brownish near tip. Petals and lip pure white. Spur .white-streaked green. Ovary olive green and brownish. Zeuxine Z, longilabris, Benth. Near Bedaguli in deciduous forest. Open flowers not seen. Nervilia 1. N. biflora, Schltr. Near Cubbongundi in bare patches amongst tall grass in open deciduous forest 4,5oo ft., fl. May. 2112. Scape and sheaths purplish- brown. Sepals and petals pale cinnamon. Lip almost white below, heavily veined with purple above, mid-lobe folded along a median line so as to form a keel on the upper surface. Sepals and petals fully expanded during the day, folded round the lip at night. Sweet-scented. The leaf appears a month or so after flowering. Upper surface of leaf yellowish-green mottled with bright green and brownish-red in the hollows to uniformally dull dark purple, under-surface purplish. Two reddish ovate cataphyls at the base of the very short stem. Tuber white. 2. N. Aragoana, Gaud. Frequent at 4,000-4,500 ft. in deciduous forest. Mai. , Minchiguli, fl. April and May. Leaves June and later. 1932, 2113, 2115. Scape and bracts white to purplish. Sepals and petals greenish-yellow at base, side lobes whitish with dark purple veins, mid-lobe with longish white and purple hairs on upper surface. Ovary 6-keeled yellowish-green, keels purplish. 3. N. monantha, Blat. Frequent throughout the area from 4,000-5,700 ft. in open patches amongst tall grass in shola and moist deciduous forest, fl. May, caps, and leaves June and later. 1904.1905, 2114. Scape purple to brownish- green. Bracts pale. Sepals and petals pale green above, tinged with dull purplish- brown below. Lip whitish, fimbriations and hairs violet or purple. Cinnamon- scented. Epipogum E. nutans, Reichb. f. Dod,. Mai., 4,500 ft., fl. May. 1898, 2142. Habenaria 1. H. barbata, Wt. E.sl. 4,000 ft., Moskal 4,500 ft,, fl. Sept. 2199. 2. H. digitata, Lindl. var. foliosa, Hook. f. Amongst grass on both ridges at 5,000-5,500 ft., fl. June-Sept. 1878, 1907. Leaves pale green beneath. Lateral sepals quite white, dorsal sepal green. Petals and lip white near middle be- coming green at tips. Has an unpleasant sour smell. 3* H* sp. nov. At. in evergreen forest, fl. July-Sept. 2194, Leaves very pale below almost white-glaucous, upper surface yellowish-green, margins finely waved, tip curled back. 4. H. rarifbra, A. Rich. Frequent on rocks at 5,000-5,500 ft. and descending on the eastern slopes to about 4,000 ft., fl. Sept. 1908-1909. Plants from lower altitudes are larger and have much more fleshy leaves than those from higher elevations. 5. H. plantaginea, Lindl. Pun. Gt. 4,000 ft., E.sl. in bamboo thickness, 3,500-4,000 ft., fl. Sept. 1896. 6. H. longiealcarata, A. Rich. Common in grassland at 4,500 ft. and above, fl. Sept. 7. Hi Heyneana, Lindl. Common in marshy places in grassland at 5,000 ft. and upwards, fl. Sept. 1900-1901. The lateral petals and lip are quite white; lip and petals turn yellow before fading and whole flower dries 'blackish. 8. H» affiois, Wt. Locally common in tall grass in open forest, Moskal, Mai., fl. Sept. 1916-17, 1922-3. Dorsal sepal grass-green, rest of flower light yellowish- green. Flowers slightly fragrant. im> JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY t Vol. XLIV 9. H. ovalifolia, Wt. E.sl. in deciduous forest, 4,000 ft., Mai. 4,500 ft., fl. Sept. 2183. 10. H. Perrottetiana, A. Rich. Very frequent in grassland at 5,000 ft. and above, Dup., fl. Sept. 1899. Sepals green; petals and lip yellow, column whitish- green. Peristylus 1. P. spiralis, A. Rich. Very frequent in wet places in grassland at 5,000 it. and above, fl. Sept. 1910. 2. P, aristatus, Lindl. In evergreen forest at 5,000 ft. At., fl. Sept. 1893. 3. P. Stocksii, Krzl. Sholas At., fl. Sept. Whole flower green, spur paler. No scent noticed. 4. P. goody eroldes, Lindl. In deciduous forest at 4,000 ft., E. si., Mai., fl. Sept. 1903. Sepals yellowish-green; petals and lip white; spur yellowish; ovary pinkish-brown. Cinnamon-scented. Plantathera P. Susannas, Lindl. Frequent in tall grass. At., Dup., Mai., fl. Sept. Satyrium 5. nepalense, Don. Pink-flowered form frequent in grassland at 5,000 ft. and above, fl. Sept. Disperis D. neilgherrensis, Wt. Very frequent in deciduous forest and tall grass at 4,000 ft. and above. Dod., Mai., E.sl., fl. May and June. 1879. Lateral sepals mauvish-pink ; petals and dorsal sepal deep pink becoming brownish, veined purplish. Zingiberaceae Qlobba bulbitera, Roxb. Common in undergrowth in moist deciduous and ever- green forest, 4,000-4,500 ft., Mai., Bedaguli, Bel. E.sl., fl. Sept. 2200. Curcuma 1. C. neilgherrensis, Wt. Very common in grassland above about 4,500 ft. fl. May. 1885. 2. C. pseudomontana, Grah. Evergreen forest, 4,000-4,500 ft., Bedaguli, fl. May. Only overed flowers seen. Hedychium coronarium, Koen. In marshes at about 4,500 ft., Mai., Bedaguli, fl. June, caps. Sept. Most plants are white-flowered and have villous calyces, but the yellow-flowered form also occurs. 1886-7. Zingiber lo Z» Zerumbet, Sm. In deciduous forest at 4,500 ft., Minchiguli Valley, caps. Sept. 2« Z. officinalis, Roec. Deciduous forest, apparently wild. Dod. Flowers not seten. 3. Z. Gassumunaf, Roxb. Frequent amongst tall grass at 4,500-5,000 ft., fl. June, caps. Sept. 1882. Cosfus speciosus, Sm. Mai. in moist forest. Flowers not seen. Elettaria Cardaffiomutn Maton. Cultivated in evergreen forest and may also be wild. Musaceae Musa Superba, Roxb. On rocky slopes near Bedaguli. Leaf with about 80 pairs of prominent veins, midrib channeled above, rounded and red below, oily. Haemodoraceae Ophiopogon intermedius, Don. Very common in sholas and evergreen forest, 4,500 ft. and above, fl. June-Sept. 1942. P LOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRAN GAN HILLS 457 Iridaceae Beiarncanda cliinensis, Lehm. (K) Devakeri, fl. Sept. A not very common plant from the Far East that has run wild. A maryllidaceae Hypoxis aurea, Lour. Frequent on grassy slopes at 5,000 ft. and above, fl. and caps. May. 2201-2. Curculigo orchioides, Gaertn. Common throughout the area, fl. June-Sept. Crinutn latiiolium , Linn. Amongst rocks, E.sl. 4,500 ft., fl. April. 2141. Pancratium parvum, Dalz. Common on grassy hilltops of the eastern ridge 5,000-6,000 ft. and extending down the Punjur Ghat to 3,500 ft., fl. April, caps. May. 1974, 2072, 2124-5. This plant is leafless when in flower, the leaves appearing a little later and persisting during the moister months. Only one peduncle is produced by each bulb in a season, and there are 2-4 flowers to a ’peduncle. The flowers open in the late afternoon and wither next morning. This nocturnal flowering and the long slender corolla tube (up to 10 cms. long) suggest pollination by moths. Usually the flow;ers on the same plant open singly on successive days but sometimes two flowers on the same peduncle open together. The flowers are dimorphic ; in some the style is short, the stigma being near the base of the staminal column ; in others the style is long and extends up to 2 cms. above the mouth of the staminal column. Each plant has flowers of one form only. Plants at lower elevations have much longer and stouter peduncles than those on the hilltops. ; Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea 1. D. bulbifera, Linn. Common, Mai., Pun. Gt., 4,000-4,500 ft., fl.. Sept. Female plants much more robust. Bulbils in axils large, leaf cordate, perianth lobes pinkish. In this genus the direction of twining is regarded as a constant character. This species . normally twines to the left. At least one specimen collected by the writer was twining to the right. 2. B, tomentosa, Pun. Gt., 3,500 ft. , E.sl. 4,000 ft., fl. June. 3. D. pentaphylla, Linn. E.sl. 4,ooo_4,5oo ft., caps. Sept. 4. D. oppositifolia, Linn. Common, deciduous and evergreen forest, 4,000-5,000 ft. New leaves end of April. Liliaceae Asparagus 1, A. racetnosus, Willd. Mai., E.si., Bedaguli, fl. May. 2. A, gonociados, Bakers. At., fl. May. Srnilax 1. S. aspera, Linn. Common, Mai., Pun. Gt., 4,000-4,500 ft., fl. June-Sept. 2. S. prolifera, Roxb. Near Moskal, fl. Dec. Qloriosa superba, Linn. Common, Mai., Pun. Gt., 4,-4,500 ft. , fl. June-Sept. Drac&oa terniflora, Roxb. In evergreen forest at 4,000 ft. Dod., fl. and berries May. Lilium neelgherrense, Wt. Growing in striking profusion amongst tall grass on the western slopes at 4,000-5,000 ft. Also in grassland on the eastern ridge at 5,000 ft. Fl. Sept., caps, shedding May. Chlorophytum 1. C. malabaricutn, Baker. Moist deciduous forest Pun. Gt. 3,500-4,000 ft. fl. May-Sept. Not typical. Leaves falcate, 1.5 ins. wide, glaucous. Anthers and filaments about equally long. Perianth lobes 5-nerved, -33 in. long. 458 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V 2. C . laxum, R.Br. Common, grassy slopes and hilltops, 4,500*5,000 ft. fl. May. 1921. Sell la ind.ca, Baker. E.sl., Pun. Gt. 4,500 ft., fl. May. Iphigenia indica, Kunth. Frequent throughout the area 4,000-6,000 ft., fl. June. Pontederiaceae Monochoria vaginalis, Presl. var. plantaginea, Solms.-Laub. Devakeri, 5,000 ft., fl. June-Sept. 2143. Commelinaceae Commelina 1. C. clavata, Clarke. Very common along streams and in moist places in grassland at 5,000 ft. and above. FL May, Sept., Dec. 2134. 2. C, attenuata, Koen. 4,000-4,500 ft., fl. Sept. 3. C, benghaknsis, Linn. E.sl. 4,500 ft. and below, fl. Sept. 4. C. obliqua, Ham.* In swamps in evergreen forest at 4,500 ft., fl. Dec. 1975, 2067. Leaves up to 6 cms. wide. Seeds oblong, surface smooth, black with grey crusty patches. 5. C, unduiata, R.Br. var. setosa Clarke. E.sl., 4,000 ft. and below in rock crevices, fl. May. 6. C. Kurzii, Clarke. Very common amongst grass and in thickets at 4, 000 J3, 000 ft., fl. May, Sept., Dec. Plants at lower levels semi-erect and about 2 ft. high. 7. C. indehiscens, Barnes. In swamps in evergreen forest, 4,000 ft., Minchi- guli Valley, Bedaguli, fl. and caps. June. Resembles C. beng'haJensis but produces cleistogamous flowers and underground capsules. Aneilema 1. A. dimorphum, Dalz. Amongst grass 4,500-5,000 ffl, and caps. Sept. 3 stamens with filaments bearded about the middle, anthers dark purple with line between the cells ; 3 staminodes with cream-coloured 3-knobbed anthers and light purple practically unbearded filaments. 3 petals mauve, 3 sepals brownish purple. 2. A» spiratum, R.Br. Pun. Gt. 3. A» sinicum, Lindl. Common in grassland at 5,000 ft. Fl. May, Sept. 4. A. giganteum, R Br. Mai. amongst tall grass in moist deciduous forest at 4,500 ft., n. and caps. Sept. 1947-8. 5. A. paniculatum, Wall. Common amongst moss in hollows in rocks, usually on hilltops, 5,000-6,000 ft., fl. Sept. 1946. Plants not exceeding 5 cms. high. Sepals red, petals mauvish-blue. Filaments naked. Anthers dark red with black margins. Staminodes with white 3-knobbed heads. Pollen cream- coloured. 6. A. montanum, Wt. In swamps and along streams in evergreen forest at 4,500 ft., fl. May, June, Sept. 7. A. ovalifojum, Hook. f. Dod., fl. May. Cyanotis 1. C. cristata, Sehult. f. 4,000-5,500 ft., fl. Sept. 2. G. tuberosa, Sehult. f. Very common amongst grass 4,500 ft. upwards, fh April, Dec. 2205. At 4,500 ft. in tall grass it attains a height of about 3 ft. 3. G. villosa, Sehult. f. Common in evergreen forests and shola 4,500 ft. up- wards, fl. June, Sept. 4. C. arachnoidea, Clarke. Common between rocks and in grassland oil hilltops 5,000-6,000 ft., fl. June, Sept. 1943. Leaves red, short and blunt at tip. C. fasciculata, Sehult. f. Between rocks at 5,000 ft., fl. Sept. F LOWERING PLANTS OF THE BILLIGIRIRAN GAN HILLS 4 60 Juncaceae Juncus prismatocarpus, R.Br. Devakeri, 5,000 ft., fl. May. Palmaceae Phtenix humilis, Royle, var. pedunculata, Becc. Common in grasslands up to 5,000 it., fruiting May. Caryota urens, Linn. In shola forest at 5,000 ft. At. Calamus Gamblei. Dec. Frequent in evergreen forest 4,000-5,000 ft. Dod., fl. and Ir. May and June- PancLanaceae - Panda ms tectorius, Soland. In swamps at 4,000-4,500 ft., unripe fruit June. Flower not seen. Araceae Lagenandra toxicaria, Dalz. var. ilarnesii, Fisch. In streams and marshes in evergreen and deciduous forest 4,500 ft., ♦Mai., near Bedaguli, fl, June. 1950, 1968. b heaths with 2 keels. Chamber and base of limb whitish, upper part of limb dull pate greenish, tip dark .brownish-green, inside limb pinkish with purple processes, inside of chamber dark purple with darker lines. Stigmas white dusted brick red. Colocasia antiquorum, Schott. In swamps, Dod., Mai., E.sl., fl. June. Leaf blades up to 24x14.5 ins. Spathes 12 ins. long. Remusatia vivipara, Schott. Frequent throughout the area above 4,000 ft. on rocks, in forks of trees and in the ground. Fl. about March. Arisaema 1. A. tortuosum, Schott. Frequent throughout the area above 4,000 ft. 2. A. Ltschenauitii, Bl. Frequent in shoias on the western ridge and in the Doddasampage evergreen forest at 4,500 ft. and above; less frequent on the eastern ridge. 3. A. narnesii, Fisch. Same distribution as (2) and more common than it in the Doddasampagi Forest. 2139, 2140. The plants of this species growing round Bellaji have long, stipitaie flat leaflets giossy below, long acuminate tips, numerous veins and a very clear intramarginal vein. Peduncle and petiole green with some dark purple mottling, cataphyns dark purplish green with some rather obscure scarlet mottling. 4. A. peltatum, Fisch. In shoias on the western ridge. All the above plants flower in May and June and form ripe berries in Sept, and Oct. Amerphophailus mysorensis, Fisch. and Bar. Bamboo forest, Pun. Gt. 3,500 It., fl. April, berries ripen June. Peduncle 18 ins. long, mottled pale and olive green. Spathes purple, glossy. Lowest 1 in. of spadix with female flowers, ovaries spherical, yenowish green, stigma irregularly spherical a little smaller than ovaries, buff-yellow warty. One row of neuters consisting of rounded spongy bodies much larger than the ovaries. 2\ ins. of male flowers, anthers 4-celied opening longitudinally, corrugated and warty, tapering upwards. Raphidopliora pjrtusa, Schult. Climbing on large trees in evergreen forest, Moskai, fl. Oct. Lemnaceae Lenina polyrrhiza, Linn. Dod., in swamps. Eriocaulaceae Eriocaulon 1. E. Thwaitesii, Koett. At., fl. Sept. 2. E. melaleucum, Mart. At., fl. Sept. 3. E. CoLinum, Mart. ? Moskai, fl. June. 19 BioLogicAl notes on sinoxYLon subAmtMM LESNE AND ITS PARASITES IN S. INDIA. BY P. N. Krishna Ayyar and V. Margabandhu, Agricultural Research Institute, Coimbatore. ( With two graphs .) Introduction. In November 1935, in the course of an investigation into the possibilities of the biological control of Pempheres affinis Fst., the senior author had occasion to collect a few Bostrychid adults from tunnels especially bored into the stems of green cambodia cotton plants taken directly from the field. These were sent to the Imperial Institute of Entomology, London and were identified as Sinoxylon sudanicum Lesne. Little did the author suspect, at the time, that the insect would have such an intimate bearing on the problem in hand, as revealed by subsequent studies. Bostrychids as a group appear to have attracted little attention in S. India in the field of Agricultural Entomology. They are known to be of great economic importance as borers of various kinds of wood. Apart from brief references to their biology and habits from time to time by Forest Entomologists, comparatively little is still known or has been published on the subject. Although special studies on this economic group would, therefore, be highly desirable, it has not been possible for the writer to do so. But some useful observations in the course of other studies have been made from time to time during the last four or five years on one of the economic species namely Sinoxylon sudanicum Lesne and it is the purpose of this paper to present a connected account of the same, so as to supplement what is already known of the species. Review of previous knowledge Sinoxylon sudanicum was first described by Lesne (1896) and further in 1906. In spite of its common occurrence in S. India, it seems that little is known of its biology or habits. The first record of the species in South India appears to be by Fletcher (1914) who says that its life history is not known. He suggests its probable occurrence in the .whole of South India particularising Bellary, Coimbatore and Chingleput. According to him it attacks dry stems of Agathi, dead Cambodia stalks, and almost any dry soft wood. Gardner (1933) has described and figured the mature grub. The latest reference is by Beeson and Bhatia (1936) who record it as widely distributed in Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Central Provinces, Madras, Mysore, Punjab, Sindh, United Pro- vinces, and N. Africa. Their list of host plants includes Acacia sp., Albizzia sp., Balanites roxburghii, Bamboo, Butea frondosa, Casua- rina sp., Dalbergia sp., Ficus palmata, Mallotus sp., Mangifera ■in o Logical notes on sinox ylon su danicu m lesne ,46i indica , Pongamia glabra , Pfosopis spicigera , Quercus sp., Rhus parvi- jlova , Shorea robustaf ierminaiia tomentosa , and several unidentified woods.. They also record that the emergence period is prolonged, 40% of the population emerging in May and 4370 in April, June and July with a suosidiary pean at the end of juiy and They, in fact, make out mainly two broods in a year. Economic Status of the species in S. India. The discovery of this insect as a useful and abundant alternate host of an important Bracomd parasite Spatnius cntoiaus 61 the cotton stem weevil served to bring it into prominence in S, India, its presence is a common phenomenon in the weakened or wilting green plants, of cambodia. Almost every wilting plant in the heid may show its tunnelling, and this becomes prominent in the season October to January wnen considerable numbers of cotton plants are killed or weakened by stem weevil attack. At the close ol Tie Teuton season, the cotton plants pulled out and stacked from April to August display heavy miestation which serves to bring about a conjunuiiy in ureedmg throughout the year. It may be evident, thereiore, thac the conditions of cambodia cultivation provide exceptionally lavOuiable facilities for breeding and multiplication, it is no wonder, then, that the insect, in virtue of its habits and abundance, constitutes an excellent alternate host for an important stem weevil parasite. Description. The adults are robust beetles of a deep brown to daik colour, varying in lengtii irom nun. io 5 mm. As is uie case wun must oosury- chitls me body is ol a cylindrical lorm. 1 he sexes are so simnar that it is very difficult to distinguish the males from me females except by the smaller size of the lormer. Trie only character by wmcn these may be distinguisned lies in me compaiative length ot me silky bands on the internal aspect of me posterior tarsi. These iians appear to oe. somewhat longer in the mate than in me iemaie. .Numerous counts ol daily collections have been made to ascertain the pro- portion of the sexes, and it has been observed that me lemaies invariably out- number the males. Activity. The beetles do not appear to be active within the cages but for the incessant and untiring tunnelling of the stalks. On sunny warm days, particularly late in the afternoon the adults can be seen hying from a distance and dashing against large wire gauze out-door cages filled with cotton staiks. iheur acti- vity appears to be governed by temperature and sunlight. They seem to possess great powers of flight although they seldom take to their wings even when exposed indoors, but have often been seen to crawl from staik to : staik. Their powers of flight are of great importance for dispersal and spread of infestation. Their activities, are best observed near large out-door wire gauze cages containing cambodia cotton .< stalks. They are seen flying from afar and fluttering about the cages. -After dashing against the cages they can often be seen rolling on the ground beside the cages. Detailed observations have been made continuously for several months to determine the time of their greatest activity. Records of daily collections in relation to the prevail- ing weather conditions have been maintained for the months of June July" 1936, September-October 1936, December 1936 and January 1937 (vide table and curve appended) which will afford an insight into their behaviour 'during different hours of the day. The hours of greatest activity as seen from the maximum hourly catches appear to be. between 4 and 5 p.m. in the evening. The adults' : are seldom .seen ,, in the forenoon or after 7 p.m. Their activity commences by about 2 p.m. and 462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV attains the maximum by about 5 p.m. after which a definite decline can be noted. Bright sunshine seems to be an important factor inducing flight and activity. The BOSTRYCHID EMERGENCE DURING DIFFERENT HOURS OF THE DAY catches during dull weather have been extremely poor. The adults boring into stalks inside cages also display the same tendency on bright sunny days; the adults may be seen resting inside on the sides of the wire gauze cage facing the sun. The daily collections made in December and January are depicted in the form of a curve. BOSTRYCHID INCIDENCE IN 1936 DEC, It may be seen that there are two peaks comparatively well marked, one of which is about the 19th and the other about the 27th of December. The adults BIOLOGICAL NOTES ON SINOXYLON SUDANICUM LESNE 463 commenced to appear in larger numbers towards the end of the month ; out of about 788 collected more than 500 were obtained during the last week of the month. In January there was a distinct fall in the collections as seen from the figure 314 for the whole month with a maximum of 38 per day as against 128 of the previous month. Number of Generations. Beeson and Bhatia (1Q37) have recorded only two broods in the year under North Indian conditions. Systematic observations for nearly four years have revealed the occurrence of four distinct broods under South Indian con- ditions. As judged from the length of life cycle undar these conditions it Is possible to have even five generations per year. The biggest is obtained in September-October when large quantities of pulled out cotton stalks of the previous season are available for breeding. Another generation which ranks second in magnitude occurs in December- January when plenty of suit- able breeding material may be available in the shape of wilting cambodia plants. Others have been recorded in April-May and in July-August when systematic collections of adult beetles have been made. Congenial Conditions for Attack. It has been observed that normal cambodia plants in a vigorous state of growth are not suitable as hosts of Sinoxylon. The other extreme of unsuit- ability is reached in the case of plants completely dead and dried up which are also equally unattractive to the insects. Between these two extremes there is a wide range of conditions under which the host is suitable for successful attack. A number of trials to test the conditions of suitability was carried out. Two lots of cambodia plants — one consisting of 100 plants and another of 50 - plants — pulled out from the field were exposed in the open near the cages on 7th December 1036 for attracting the beetles. On the third day of exoosure the first attack by the beetle was observed and the material continued to be attacked for about 23 days, i.e. till the 28th of the month. No fresh attacks were observed after that date, though the observations were continued up to the 1st January of the next year. Another lot of 82 uninfested plants nulled out on the 24th of November, was exposed on the 5th of December. The attack was observed on the 7th and i’t continued up to the 10th with no further attacks after that date. Several other lots of plants in different stages of wilting were also experimented with and the results were in conformity with previous observations. In one lot of plants with the bark peeled off, the infestations were not as numerous as in others. It will be seen from these trials that while certain conditions, particularly moisture contents, render plants suitable, no pathological conditions are needed tq make the plants attractive. Number and Nature of the Attacks. Detailed observations were made regarding the nature of infestations in a collection of qi attacked planks. In 76 cases the entry was through nodes, in 7 cases the tunnelling was a little away from the nodes, and in 8 cases the entry was effected on or about the hypocotyl region. In some cases the beetle prefers to attack the cut ends of Stalks. The insect also bores into leading side branches of plants. Regarding th£ number of attacks, out of Q3 plants examined, 86 showed single attacks, the remainder having double attacks. In all cases of double attacks the tunnels were seen bored near each other indicating that males of the species make separate entrance holes only occasionally. The Course of Tunnelling. The female beetle commences its operations by gnawing a neat circular aperture often through the bark or rarely at cut ends, and throws out heaps of saw dust. The tunnel may be at a varying angle from the surface. This entrance tunnel descends deep into the stem and enlarges into a neat roomy chamber known as the pairing chamber from which two or three narrower tunnels branch off generally encircling the stem the outer surfaces of which 464 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV are covered only by the thin bark. Slight deviations from this typical example have .been encountered and these are illustrated in the figures attached. The male either utilises the same entrance aperture or constructs another close to it and communicating with the same. Not infrequently two females or even three have been observed in the pairing chamber. A bit of stem with one entrance aperture, a pairing chamber and two egg tunnels when examined revealed one dozen newly formed adults, six pupae, two full-grown larvae, six shrivelled up and dead larvae. Life History. Accurate1 determination of the life cycle with the rate of growth and dura- tion of the several stages is extremely difficult in the case of these wood borers and therefore only approximate estimates of the same have been attempted. Immature Stages. Copulation has been noted on several occasions and has been seen to occur repeatedly, the process lasting roughly for a minute. Oviposition has not been observed nor has any estimate of the egg capacity been made. The female after eating Out an egg tunnel round the stem, deposits its eggs at the bottom of the tunnel. Fertilised females caged with uninfested cotton stalks on 7-9-36 were examined on 17-9-36 and early stage grubs of approxi- matelv one or two days growth were observed in larval galleries. The con- struction of the egg chamber roughly occupies three to four days. The grubs on hatching feed entirely on the wood and eat out larval galleries along the long axis of the stems. These galleries are filled with wood duSt and excreta and the grubs themselves are seen buried in the dust. The egg and larval periods were roughly determined from data obtained as follows: — Fresh cotton stalks were caged .with mated females and the material was examined at intervals to note the development of the grubs. The average period occupied varied between 30 and 32 days. The white curved grubs are somewhat active in their movements and go into pupation in a slightly enlarged 'neat chamber. The puna is white in colour and has a similar shane as the adult. The duration of the pupal stage was determined by the isolation of mature pupat- ing grubs. The period occupies roughly 13 to 14 days. Life Cycle. The data on entire life cvcle are presented in the table below. Copulating pairs of adults were introduced into cages containing wilting cotton stalks and the first appearance of adults was recorded. Adults introduced in cage on Fresh adult obtained on Life cvcle in days •]0_G_10e(5 p_8-1938 48 days in_C_ip3Q 8-8-1936 49 „ 19-6-1926 10-°-1936 52 „ 27-7-1938 42 „ 7_7_k)36 21 -9- ’936 45 „ p_ 7_i 53 „ 23-7-’ 936 9-9-^936 47 47 „ The life cycle period averaged about 48 days. The longevity of adults was tested by means of a few trials and this ranged from 4 to 23 days averaging 12.6 days. BIOLOGICAL NOTES ON SINOXYLON SUDANICUM LESNE 465 Host Plants. With a view to test the comparative attraction exercised by different host plants a series of experiments was carried out. Stalks of other species of plants such as Acacia, Agathi and Mango were presented along with those of cotton in cages having Bostrychid adults. Among 30 stalks of Acacia only eight showed attacks. The adults apparently find it more difficult to tunnel into these than in cotton and do not traverse to any distance beyond their own body length. Agathi stalks supplied were left entirely untouched. Other trials where Agathi stalks alone were presented to the beetles yielded the same results. Mango stems showed better results in that three stalks out of 30 exposed displayed attacks. The beetles in this case seem to tunnel with greater ease than in Acacia. The adults appear to live for about a month when left with mango or cholam stalks. The striking preference to cambodia cotton shown by these insects was also apparent from various observations made in outdoor cages, wherein various other plants such as Urena lobata, country cottons, Bam- boo, Triumfetta plants, several species of Sida and Hibiscus were kept on several occasions, the beetles were never observed to be attracted to such cages but were found fluttering about or resting on the cambodia cotton cage alone. Parasites. Pediculoides ventricosus Newpt. : — This globular mite was a regular source of trouble in laboratory cages. These often suddenly appeared and devoured the immature stages of the beetles together with any parasite larvae attack- ing them. Spathius critolaus Nixon : — This Braconid which is an important parasite of the grubs of the cotton stem weevil finds an excellent alternate host in these Bostrvchids. The parasites confine their attentions to the advanced grubs of Sinoxylon. They attack mature grubs, also medium-sized grubs. Generally one egg, sometimes two eggs are placed externally on the grubs after their complete paralysatiqn. The larva that hatches feeds, grows and consumes the entire contents of the host before cocooning in the host tunnel. The life cycle varies from 13 to 24 days. The males have a shorter life cycle than the females. The Bostrvchid was, therefore, utilised as an alternate host for mass breeding of these parasites and five to six thousand parasites have been bred in the course of four years. Various other species of parasites of the genus S-bathius. particularlv Spathias sp. near labdacus, and three undetermined chalcidoids have been observed to be parasitic on this host. Acknowledgements. The writer wishes to record his thanks to the. assistants and fieldmen of the. scheme who have all contributed to the collection of data presented in the paper. Particular mention has to be made of Mr. V. Margabandbu, who has taken great pains in making hourly collections during December tq-^6 and January 1937. The writer wishes to record his gratitude to the Indian Central Cotton Committee for making these studies possible bv financing the Scheme and to the Government Entomologist and Cotton Specialist for afford- ing facilities. References. Beeson, C. F. C. and Bhatia, B. M. — Indian Forest Records. Ent. series 2 : 223 (1936.1 Fletcher, T. B. — Some South Indian Insects (1914). Gardner, J. C. M. — Indian Forest Records. 18 and 19 : 18 (1933.) Lefroy, H. M, — Indian Insect Life (1909), OBITUARY LT.-COL. A. H. MOSSE. It is with regret that we record the death of Lt.-Col. Arthur Henry Eyre Mosse, c.i.e., of 45, Birling Road, Tunbridge Wells, which occurred on Wednesday week at the age of 65. Since he came to reside in the town on his retirement eleven years ago, Col. Mosse was a well-known personality, and when volunteers were asked for service in the A.R.P. early in 1938, he immediately put himself at the disposal of the authorities and became Head Warden of the South Group, a position he held until a few months ago, when he relinquished the work for health reasons. A very efficient officer, he was popular with everyone connected with the Group, and to mark their appreciation of his many valuable ser- vices, his colleagues made him a presentation on his retirement. The fourth son of the late Deputy Surgeon-General Mosse, C.B., c.m.g., Lt.-Col. Mosse was educated at King’s School, Canter- bury, Bedford School and the Rova.1 Military College, Sandhurst. He joined the Indian Army in 1897, and in the same year was attached to the Durham Light Infantrv, and in the following year to the 104th Wellesley’s Rifles. In 1901 he volunteered his ser- vices for famine relief in the Great Famine, and from that date he joined the Indian Political Service, serving in Aden and the Western Indian States as Political Agent. Towards the end of his service he was Vice-President of the Bhavanagar State Council during the minority, and in 1931 officiated as Agent to the Governor-General in the Western Indian States. During the Great War he served in Mesopotamia in the Judicial Department at Basrah, and was mentioned in dispatches. He retired in 1932 and was awarded the C.I.E. in the following year for his services as Vice-President of the Bhavanagar State Council. On coming to reside in Tunbridge Wells, Lt.-Col. Mosse became District Head of the Soldiers’, Sailors ’ and Airmen’s Help Society. He was a Fellow of the Zoological Society and a member of the Bombay Natural History Society. While in India and Somaliland he was a big-game hunter. A great naturalist, he was especially interested in entomology. He published a book on his Somali ex- periences, and wrote many articles and short stories and was a fre- auent contributor to the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. Much sympathy has been extended to his widow, son and daughter in their bereavement. Ex ‘ Times*, 22nd April 1943. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES I.— OCCURRENCE OF THE LION IN PERSIA. When I called to see you on my way through Bombay about a year ago, I mentioned that one of the surveyors working in S.-W. Persia recently had seen a lion. I promised to' send you a few more details. Here they are: — On 22nd May 1942 Jemadar Lai Khan, belonging to an Indian Field Survey Company engaged on survey work in S.-W. Persia, saw a lion about 40 miles north-west of Bizful. He had a squad of two signallers and four sepoys with him at the time and they all saw it. As the animal was only about 80 yards away I do not think that there was much chance of its identity being mistaken. In addition to his own men Jemadar Lai Khan had three local police- men with him belonging to the Persian gendarmerie. The Jemadar described the lion as about 5 feet in length from the nose to the base of the tail, and greyish -yellow in colour. It had no mane. He reported that he ‘shot at it but could not hit it’. I think that it was near this place that the late Sir Arnold Wilson saw a lion a few years before the last war. I would be interested to hear whether any other lions have recently been reported from this area. So far as I know no others were seen by troops of the Persia-Iraq Force, up to the time of my leaving the Force last Spring. Survey of India, Murree. December 30, 1948. [It would appear that lions still occur in the wild and moun- tainous region around Bizful in South-west Persia. The last-reported occurrence from this area was that made by a party of American Engineers in 1930 and recorded in this Journal (Yol. xxxv, No. 3, p. 672). — Eds.] IL— 1 TIGER CLAW MARKS ON TREES. With reference to the note on the above subject by Major R. C. Morris on page 656 of the Journal, Yol. xliii, No. 4, I wish to record that as Bunbar Brander has observed in his book, The Wild Animals in Central India , it is a habit of tigers to sharpen or clean their claws on , trees. But Bunbar Brander qualifies this habit ‘to be more an individual peculiarity constantly practised, rather than a general habit occasionally practised, as where the marks on trees are seen they are usually numerous and made by the same animal whereas miles of jungle containing tigers may be devoid of all signs of the habit*. I have very often observed the tigers kept in the zoo at Trivandrum, when let out from their cages into an adjoining spacious open-air arena (securely enclosed by high iron G. F. HEANEY, Lt.-Col. 468 JOURNAL, BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST., SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V fencing) .going straight for the trees therein and tearing the hark with their claws vertically downwards. The open-air enclosure has been so constructed as to correspond as much as possible to the natural habitats of the wild animals, with numerous trees at different stages of growth with an undergrowth of bushy shrubs and guinea grass, rockeries, caves and a watershed. The trees include Eugenia javanica, Mangifera indica , Trewia nudiflora, Pelto- phorum fcrrugineum, Swietienia macrophylla and S. mahogani, all of which have the claw marks in abundance on them. The topmost mark on any tree is just over 8 feet from ground level. Unfortu- nately there is no Arjan (Terminalia arjuna). There is however a Rubber tree ( Castilloa elastica) which is, but for one or two stray marks, invariably left alone. Plantain trees ( Musa sp.) have been torn off and destroyed by these animals. It might be mentioned in this connection that unlike lions, cats, or dogs, which have a habit of scratching the ground with their claws, the tigers seldom have been observed to make use of the ground for sharpening or cleaning claws. Tree-climbing among tigers might be individual peculiarities, for, even though many of the trees mentioned above have branches within easy reach below the 8 ft. height reached by the claws, none of them have been seen perched on any of the branches. ZobLOGiCAL Gardens, Trivandrum. E. S. SIMON. November 1, 1948. HI.— WILD DOGS ATTACKING A TIGER. ( Story told to me by Barldya, shikari, and his brother and confirmed by the Range Officer.) Soon after sunrise I spotted vultures circling in the distance, so mv brother and I set off to invesigate. After half an hour’s brisk walking we arrived at Kapra Nala which at this point is about 80 feet wide and except for a small water hole, quite dry. The nala for the greater part of its course runs between verv steep banks, but just here it opens out and its bed is level with the banks. On the opposite side of the nala and about 50 yards from it rise two hills about 200 to 800 feet high separated from each other by a very narrow ravine, full of long green grass and shaded by large trees — an ideal spot for a tiger to lie up after a hearty meal. At the edge of the water hole we found traces of a recent tragedy — disturbed soil and blood stains. It was easy to read the story— a tiger had crouched in a patch of long grass and pounced on an unsuspecting sambhur when it came for a drink. Very cautiously, we followed the trail made by the tiger dragging the animal and eventually located the body in a clump of bamboo at the mouth of the ravine. In the meantime the vultures had collected, but instead of settling round the carcass they alighted on the trees, an indication ihpt the tiger was nearby, Miscellaneous notes 469 My brother and I were arguing whether we should go back to the village and collect a few men to scare off the tiger so that we could collect what meat was left, when he drew my attention to a movement in the long grass half way up the hill on the right. We watched carefully and saw something red. My brother whis- pered to me bahri (barking deer), but I told him to be quiet and then we saw another and another and still another, until on that hill alone we counted 12. It then dawned to me that they were not bahri but wild dogs, and we decided that we better withdraw. To our horror we found a dog stationed alongside the path we had come bv and then discovered that we were surrounded. We immediately climbed un a large fig tree and sat very quiet. We had never heard of wild dons attacking men before, but we knew that if thev treed any animal they would surround it for several days until hunger or weakness caused the animal to leave its shelter and then of course its fate was sealed. From up the tree we had a verv clear view of what happened. The dogs were stationed about 30 vards apart along both hills facing the ravine, as well as on the farther side of the nala. Al- too-ether we counted 22 dogs. The strangest part about their behaviour was their absolute silence and when one moved, all moved, eraduallv closing in. Suddenly with a snarl a tiger appeared and the do^s closed in still further until there was a ring of them round him, about An.HO faat in diameter. They were apparently driving him int0 the bed of the nala where he could get no cover, but where their paws couM get a firm footing, with no obstructions such as twigs or scrub. This was very evident from their action. When the tiger faced the wav thev wanted him to go, the line of dogs withdrew but closed in behind, but when he faced the opposite wav, they stood up to him, bunching together and making stiff -legged rushes of a few feet. The dogs however left a large mahowa tree out of their calcula- tion, for when the tiger saw it he made for it with a rush scatter- ing the dogs in his way. He gained the shelter of the tree and sat down with his back firmly against it and his tail curled round over his fore-paws. The dogs closed in round the tree until the nearest was within 10 feet; the maioritv crouched on their haunches with heads between fore-feet as if content to plav a waiting-game. There were three or four half -grown pups which frisked round plaving with each other. For the first half hour the tiger sat quietly merely snarling occasionally, but then he began to lose his temper and gave vent to a couple of full-chested roars; but its only effect on the dogs was to make a few of them prick their ears. The tiger then fell to lashing his tail, but one of the pups slipped round to the back of the tree and gave it a painful tweak. This brought the tiger round with a roar, he let loose with a ‘hay-maker’, the pup threw itself on its back, paws in the air, slipped between the tiger’s legs and got away uncratched. This move left the tiger’s flank and rear uncovered, and a full-grown dog leaped in from the left and snapped at the tiger’s neck, just behind the ear, 4ft) JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLl V It was slow in its get-away with the result that it received a blow on the ribs which hurled it 10 feet away, stone dead. The tiger sat down again, but presently the Mood from the bite in its neck started to trickle down his chest. This made him very uncomfortable and when he could no longer endure it he lowered his head to lick the blood off. This momentary inattention cost him dear, as the instant his eves were off them than the whole pack rushed in and a few hectic seconds followed; the tiger was completely hidden under a mass of snapping struggling dogs, they fastened on to him everywhere biting and tearing. It is impos- sible to give an accurate description of the struggle as all the eye could see was a seething mound of red, with glimpses of yellow and black. The dogs suddenly withdrew leaving five of their num- ber dead or seriously iniured. The tiger had fared very hadlv — one eve was closed, the corner' of his mouth torn away, his ears in tatters and numerous gashes all over his hody. The most seri- ous iniurv seemed to be to his right fore-paw as he was unable to Mace it on the ground. The dogs reformed their circle, but this time much closer; and whereas at first they waited for the tieer to make the first move they now started making tentative rushes and kept the tieer on the alert. This continued for nearly an hour and due to loss of blood the tiger was fast losing strength. Ana, in the dogs rushed in and there was another confused struggle. When the dons drew off this time the tiger was in very bad shape and it was with a great effort that he kept himself erect. Presently his head began to droop and again the dogs attacked, one fastened on to the tiger’s throat and although immediately beaten to a pulp, its jaws re- mained locked and its hold could not be broken. In a supreme effort the tiger reared up on its hind legs with the dead dog still at its throat and others draped all over. Even with this glimnse we could clearly see that he had been disembowelled; he topoled over backwards and was immediately covered with dogs, there were a few more convulsive struggles and all was still. At this stage my brother and I slipped down from the tree and went back to the village. We told our story and collected a crowd and returned to the scene of the fight. By the time we got there the dogs had gone, leaving the vultures in possession. All that was left of the tiger was bones, sinews and a few tufts of blood stained fur. We counted twelve dead dogs and could see where others had dragged themselves away. A few years ago when there was a reward paid for wild dogs they were so rare that we did not see their foot-print for several years. Now the reward has been abolished and they have multiplied to such an extent that hardly a week goes by without our district being raided. J. Connell & Co., Erere Boap, Bombay. * W- CORNELL. October 15, -1943, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 47 i IV . — ELEPHANT S AT SALT-LICKS. On one occasion I took two ‘Ivoonkie ’ elephants to a salt-lick at the foot . of the Aka-Dafia Hills on the north bank of the Brahma- putra Biver and they at once started to eat greedily of the grey earth, kicking great lumps out of the hill-side with their feet and putting them into their mouths. It was with the greatest diffi- culty that we could tear the elephants away from the spot. On another occasion my Government elephant refused to touch any of the earth at another lick at the foot of the Bhutan Hills. Why'/ It seems that elephants eat the earth only when they, are so in- clined or are in need of a purge. There are two kinds of licks in Assam, one known as ‘pungs’ and the other as ‘mati-kolais’. The former are found at the foot of hills, invariably where a land-slip has occurred and the weathered soil extends as a talus or cone-like, grey slope up to 100 feet or more. Water oozes out from the base and the place is obviously visited by all manner of animals, preference being shown for the freshiy exposed surfaces higher up. ‘Mati-kolais’ are found on the plains, generally on the south bank, and resemble large white-ant hills, the sides and bases of which have been scraped away until a large shallow pit or hollow is formed in which water collects. Here the soil is much more clayey and yellow in colour, as com- pared to the grey, sandy earth of the ’pungs’. Some licks are more attractive to animals than others in the same neighbourhood, and the location of stockades for catching elephants depends on this fact. P. D. STB ACHY, I.F.S. V.— ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE BIEDS IN BETUL DISTBICT AND SUBBOUNDING ABEAS IN THE CENTBAL PROVINCES. I contributed a paper in Yol. xli, No. 2, of this Journal in 1939, and since then I have continued to keep notes about the move- ments of different species. As these notes have been continued for five years, they can be taken as a fairly reliable guide. I have extended the observations to the adjacent district of Amraoti (the Melghat), and the Hoshangabad District .to the north. The infor- mation is both positive and negative, and will help to determine the limits of spine species in Central India, of which the present records shew only a generalised distribution across India. Sitta frontalis, the Velvet-fronted Nuthatch. Widely distributed but not com." mon m the deciduous forest. Pomatorhinus horsfieldii Sykes, the Deccan Scimitar Babbler. Also widely distributed in the forest. It was recorded in all months of the year, and is a resident species. It is usually found in pairs, and not in parties. Chloropsis aurifrons, the Golden-fronted Chloropsis. Kecorded once in Betul. Several birds were seen frequently in Chickalda (Melghat) in the hot weather of 1942. Tezpur, Assam. October 6, 1943. 472 Journal, bombAY NATURAL hist, society , Voi. XUV Pycnonotidae Bulbuls. Only tAvo species, Molpastes cafer Linn, and Oto- compsa, jocosa Binn. have been recorded in this part. Molpastes leucog&dys has been recorded again from Nagpur by the Curator of the Museum. I mentioned it m my previous list, but I nave not recorded it from any other locality yet. Cercomela fusca Bfytli, the Brown Bockchat. Quite common in Hoshangabad town on tne banns of the Nerbudda. This is probably the southern limit or tins species. Cyanosylvia sueicica Linn., the Bluethroat. Not recorded in my previous list, but is quite common. Kittacincla raalabarica Scopoli, the Shama. Still not been recorded from these forests, but the Curator of tne Nagpur Museum informs me that they obtained a pair in the Balaghat district. Turdus simillimus Jerdon, the Nilgiri Blackbird. Discovered to be a migra- tory species. It arrives in the localities which it favours in April and leaves in October or November. It is confined to the higher elevations, and is quite settled in its habits seeming to occupy the same areas each year. The num- bers seem to vary from year to year wmch is what one would expect in a migra- tory race. There are many interesting points to be settled. The birds appear in considerable numbers, and s.omeone must lose their own birds; the race of these birds must be decided. \Vhether the birds reported from other localities in the Vindhyan hills and at Mount Abu are also migratory is to be recorded. Mooticola cinclordyncha Vigors, the Blue-Headed Bock Thrush. I have recpraea a single bird m March 1940. It is not a regular visitor to this part of India. Eumiyas thalassima Swainson, the Verditer Flycatcher. A fairly common winter visitor to the higher parts of the Satpuras. Terpsiphone paradisi Linn., the Paradise Flycatcher. Migratory as reported in my previous paper. The dates of the mam occurrence are March-Apnl to the rams. Some buds are seen in the rains, and an occasional bird in the cold weather. There are records of birds breeding in the hot weather, but ivhether all birds are breeding or some are passage migrants cannot be decided yet. Hemipus picatus Blanf. and Oates, the Black-Backed Pied Shrike. This bird was seen in Cninaida in 1942 in the hot weather. I have seen individual birds once or twice each year. It may be said to occur regularly but is rare. I have seen it at ail times of year, and it is a resident species. Pericrocotus speciosus, the Scarlet Minivet. One of the most constant mem- bers of the forest community, while P. peregnnus is the species of roadside mango topes and groups of trees m cultivation. P. erytHropygius, the White- beilied Minivet, is a less common- species which is common in some years and rare or absent in others. Lalage syksii. , the Black-headed Cuckoo Shrike, is probably a summer visitor. The common and resident species is Graucalis javensis. Artamus fuscus Vieillot, the Ashy Swallow Shrike. Has not been recorded again. Oriolus orioius, the Golden Oriole. A summer visitor to the Satpura hills, but i cannot say hotv far this migration extends. 0. xanthorms is the common and resident species of the forest and hills. Sturnidae. As I mentioned before, the distribution of the mynahs is local. Achdotheres trisits, the Common Mynah, and Temenuchus pagodarum, the Brahminy Mynah, are the common species. An occasional flock of the Bosy Pastor {Pastor rosejus) are seen; and this year there were some flocks of the Grey-headed Mynah, Sturnia malabanca. The Jungle Mynah ( Aethiopar fuscus ) does not occur in these hill ranges. In Hoshangabad I have found a few Pied Mynahs, Sturnopastor contra, Ploceidae. Stictospiza formosa is the most interesting species of this group I have seen this species only three times in five years, and each time to the west of the district near the Nimar border. It is evidently a very local species gud may be looked for in the Nimar and Khandesh areas. Of other species of Miscellaneous Notes 473 this family Uroloncha striata is quite a common forest species. U. punctulata is also quite a frequent bird. Gymnorhis xanthocollis Burton, the Yellow-throated Sparrow. Observed to be migratory. Tlie general rule is for flocks of birds to appear in December- January. By February the birds are broken up into breeding pairs, though some small parties possibly non-breeding birds are still seen. The flocks re- assemble in May, and seem to disappear in early June-July. They are hot seen commonly until December, but some flocks may be seen at times. The birds are present in very large numbers in the breeding season, and it is a genuine migration. Emberiza tnclanocepbala Scopoli, the Black-headed Bunting. A passage migrant m February-March. I have still failed to record it in any other monad. Motacillidae, Motacilla alba is the commonest of the migratory birds arriv- ing eany uctober and leaving in March When they first arrive they are in large numbers, but many pass on and they are then very wild, never still, and quite diherent from tlie staid individuals who settle down for the winter. M . jiava appears more commonly in j anuary-r ebruary. M. cmereq is a iorest resident, and is usually found solitary even m the depths of the forest. JLt arrives the earliest miu-beptember, and leaves very late, mid-April to early May. This year 1 saw a lew specimens of M. citrecua, tne lenow-neaded Wag- tail, but it does not seem to be a regular migrant to tms part of inaia. Pitta brachyura Linn., the Common Pitta. One of our regular migratory species wincn nests m our forests, it arrives in late May anu leaves to w arns tne end of October. Picus vittata, Vierll, the Little Scaly -bellied Green Woodpecker. Found to occur quite commonly in the fbrestss one other woodpecker also occurs, but i nave still failed to identify it witnout doubt. It is prooably Cur ys acuta pies tesmms Bodd., the Black-bacKed Woodpecker. Merops orientaiis Latham, the Green Bee-eater. A true local migrant,' desert- ing tne -betui plateau from July to September. The dates were i eg mar each year and even in 1941 wnen we nad pour rains the oirds remained aosent. The extent of this migration is not determined yet. M. super cuiusus , t he Blue-tailed Bee-eater, did not occur in netui, but occurs m BLosnangabad. Hemiprocne corooata Tickell, the Crested Swift. A very common species of the lores us. Cucuiidae, The extent to which cuckoos are migratory is not worked out fully yet. The liawk-Uuckoo is definitely resident in this part of the Central Provinces. The Tied Crested Cuckoo is equally certainly migratory; the birds arrive about the middle of June or the break oi tne rams. Tney leave m Sep- tember, but young birds may be seen later. The Ivoel, I consider almost cer- tainly to be migratory but mere may be localities wpere they stay tnrougnout the year. The ixoei nas been noted as eany as the first week in March, but not later than the end of September. The Cuckoo, Cuculus canorux, arrives according to my observations at tne beginning of May and has not been noted later than the middle of September. Tney are most common fir dune and July. Cuculus micropiernus, the Indian Cuckoo, is more a forest species. The bird occurs most commonly in May and June. The status of this species is more dnficult to determine, as the bird is smaller and is inconspicuous, and. keeps to the crowns of trees and- is rarely seeh. 1 nave only noted it in the period May to September, and then chiefly on the strength of the call. One other cuckoo is found, and this is almost entirely a bird of the forest as far as my observations extend; this is the Indian Plaintive Cuckoo, Cacomantis merulinus. 1 have noted it only in the rains, June and July. In Betui District water birds are uncommon, but tins summer being transferred to Hoshangabad on the Nerbudda I found a large community on the sandbanks of the river. Most of the birds had finished breeding by the beginning of June. The species found M JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV were Terns, Sterna aurantia Gray, the River Tern, Sterna melano- gaster Ternmink, the Black-bellied Tern and Sterna albifrons', the Tittle Tern; the Indian Pratincole, Glareola lactea, Temminck; the Ring Plover, Gkaradrius dubius Scopoli; the Spur- winged Plover, Boplopterus duvaucellii; several other species came to teed but were not resident, such as storks, egrets, idis; rather unusual were a large colony ot sarus cranes which ted tor the most part on the bare wheat and gram fields, and on the edge of tne river. These birds all disappeared on the break of the rams. Hoshangabad, C.P. C. HEWETSON, November 11, 1943. i.f.s. VI. — LATE BREEDING OE THE COMMON HOUSE CROW (COHVUS SPLENDENS SPLENDENS). On the 6th October last my attention was drawn by the per- sistent cries of a house crowT (Corvus splendens splendens ) winch were being responded to by what sounded like the raucous call of a young koei ( Ludynamis scolopaceus scotopaceus ). I spotted the two birds and found that my guess was correct. The next day I noticed the crow feeding the koel. It was fully hedged but the tell-tale brownish spots left no doubt about its age. it could have left the nest only recently. According to Stuart Baker, 0. splen- dens. splendens breeds in May, June and July in its north-western range (Fauna of British India, Birds, Vol. i, p. 33). It seems therefore unusual for a Delhi house crow to hatch a koel so late. I wonder whether the continuity of monsoon conditions has any thing to do with this late breeding. A pair of mynas (Acridotheres tristis tristis) have also hatched their young this year late in Sep- tember in my bungalow. The chick left the nest on the 3rd October for the first time. But young mynas of the same age are found all over this place following the parents and clamouring to be fed. Imperial Record Department, New Delhi. S. N. SEN. October 13, 1943, VIE— ON THE OCCURRENCE OE THE RUEOUS-BELLIED CRESTED TIT (LOPHOPHANES RUB1D1VENTRJS) IN THE SIMLA HILLS. As the information regarding the distribution of this rare Tit in the Fauna, 2nd ed., Vol. i, p. 85, is extremely scanty it is worth recording that a specimen, ‘one of a pair’, was obtained by Mr. H. C. Smith, of the Burma Forest Service, on April 25, 1943, at Kalabagh, 11,000 ft. on the ‘Chor’ (sometimes spelt ‘Chaur’) MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 476 mountain in Jubbal State. This is probably somewhat contiguous to tile locality irom wmch tne Pmwiii specimens, as cited in the Fauna, 2nd ed., came irom. Mr. Smith very kmdiy presented this specimen to me which is now in my collection. Simla, 1943, A. E. JONES, VIII.— FOOT OE THE LW HITE -B DE A STED EINGEISHEK (HALCYON ■SMYHNLNblS FUSCA). Writing of the habits of the Indian White-breasted Kingfisher (Halcyon smymensis fusca ) btuart Taker says: ‘Its principal articles of diet are undoubtedly grasshoppers and locusts, Dut will eat almost any living tiling not too large to swallow' (-birds, Fauna of British India, Vol. iv, p. 2/0). 1 hardly imagined that this kingfisher preyed upon small bircts until 1 saw it actually seize ana eat one (on .December 6, 1943). I could not identify its victim, but it looked like a North Indian White-eye. The bird was still alive wnen the kingfisher carried it to its perch and a few knocks against the percning branch put a quietus to it. It seemed to be too large to be swallowed at a gulp and the kingfisher went on striking it continuously tor twenty minutes or more m its characteristic manner. It would shift the body from the head to the tail before starting each fresh set of knocking. So far as I could observe, repeated knocking did not perceptibly reduce the size of the prey, borne of the contour feathers were of course dis- lodged but the tail and wing feathers were not affected. Most prooabiy the meat and the bones lost their toughness, before the body was finally swallowed head foremost. The tail feathers stuck out for a few seconds and the kmghsher flew to a neighbouring tree and began to sun itself without apparently feeling any need of a drink. New Delhi. S. N. SEN* December 7, 1943, Keeper of the Imperial Records . IX.— GDEEN PIGEONS IN SWAMP. I read with interest Major Phythian -Adams ’ note on Green Pigeons in a Swamp. While passing through the Amring Eorest Deserve on the banks of the Kopili Diver in Assam (Nowgong Dis- trict) I came on a fairly large area of lalang grass and shrubs con- taining several pools to which elephants were frequent visitors. The soil was sandy and there were several bare patches of sandy clay and mud where barking deer, sambar, etc. had left many trails — in other words a sort of salt lick. On trees around and in the area there were hundreds of Imperial pigeon, and many other kinds of pigeon and doves. Erom one of the sandy patches, a fairly damp spot, I flushed about a half a dozen green pigeon of some sort. I noticed it because I have never before seen a green pigeon on the ground except for the Punai Tanah of Malaya. 4,!g Journal, bom'bay natural hist, society, Hu ku¥ On my next visit at this place, with several guns, a green pigeon was shot on the ground at a water hole. Not knowing the Indian pigeons well, I could not identify it, but I noticed that it was slightly larger than the common green pigeon and that its feet and legs were bright yellow instead of red. I saw no Imperial Pigeon (two kinds were shot) on the ground, but it was noticeable that were none to be found at other open grassy places in the area. I note with interest also that green pigeon are not found in the coastal area referred to by Major Phythian-Adams. In. Malaya I have shot many birds in mangrove swamps and on islets near the shore. Post Box 1020.7, Calcutta. November 17, 1943. X.— THE COMMON FLAMINGO (. PKOENICOFTERUS RUBER) : AN APPEAL Surprisingly little is known and on record concerning the sea- sonal and local movements, breeding biology and life-history of this interesting bird in India. Its only known breeding grounds within our limits he far out within the vast salt-encrusted expanses of the Great Bann, north of Kutch in Western India. Here the birds seem to breed erratically, apparently not more than about once in 3 years on an average. Their principal requirement seems to me that the nesting ground be covered by a shallow stretch of water at least during incubation and until the chicks are able to run about. In some years, at the appropriate season the water level is suitable and large concentrations of birds — 7 to 8 thousand in 1943 according to one informant — collect on the area to build new nests or repair the old ones. The shifting movements of the surface water in the Great Bann are capricious and seem to be largely influenced by the direction and force of the prevailing winds. Thus it happens— apparently not infrequently — That, even after the monsoon and otner requisite conditions have been favourable, the water sudden- ly recedes from the proximity of the nest colonies or ‘cities’ leaving them high and dry. As soon as this occurs — apparently both while nesting has not yet commenced in earnest and even after incubation is well advanced and the- eggs just hatched or hatching, the adult birds forsake the nest ‘cities’ and vanish from the neighbourhood more or less completely. What we desire to learn is: Where do these birds go? Whether they shift elsewhere to breed? Whether when they first arrive at their nesting grounds they are physiologically ready for breeding? Whether being so they are capable of skipping a season or a number of seasons at will? The undersigned would be grateful if members, and others in- terested and having the opportunity, will kindly communicate any observations they may make concerning the comings and goings of flamingoes in their area, giving season, date and the approximate numbers seen from time to time. Also any other general informa- J. A. HISLQP, Ga'pt. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 477 tion they may be able to obtain regarding food, habits or behaviour. In the interest of scientific accuracy it would be desirable for them to state whether their information is based on personal obser- vation, surmise, local testimony or hearsay evidence, as the case may be. 30, Pali Hill, BandrA (Bombay Suburban Dist.). SALIM ALL December 11, 1943. XL— NOTES ON THE EVENING FLIGHT OE GEESE AND DUCK. At a certain fixed time before or after sunset wild fowl on a day sanctuary suddenly get off tiie water and fly round and round. Geese and duck may do tins at the same time or at different times. If there are no night feeding grounds attached to tiie sanctuary birds settle down after the evening ‘roll calL.as it were. If there are mgiit feeding grounds birds go to tnem either direct from ‘roll caiL or after an interval if they are apt to be disturbed on tlieir feeding grounds. Tiie arrival at mgiit feeding grounds is governed by the extent to which they are disturbed tnereon. Disturbance, to affect birds, has to be deliberate in the shape of shooting, netting or hawking or possibly the presence of human beings or cattle. Birds do not object to ordinary traffic in the proximity of dwellings if they are not deliberately mteriered with, In Persia 1 have seen duck remain on water in D arrow ^uts along the railway while trains go past. At Hygam Jheei in Kashmir duck stay all day within 20 yards of the bund and villages on the bund regardless of constant traffic : they are teal, shoveller, a few mallard, and odd pochard. I have never seen gadwall or pintail there. Night feeding grounds are reconnoitered especially by geese and occupied if free. Shooting dr even the presence of anyone on a feeding ground if persisted in makes duck leave it. Birds are very sensitive to regular disturbance but adjust their arrival to overcome it if the ground has any particular attraction. In a dak jungle near Pah bit a, about 30 miles from Delhi, there is a shallow rect- angle of clear water of about 5 acres literally teeming with snails. Duck and geese are always found there; and no matter when you shoot it up, you will find them back again inside half an hour. Duck and geese leave their day sanctuary by the same route ancl with the punctuality of the B.B.G. news bulletins. No amount of shooting on the edges of the day sanctuary affects the time or the route of flight, but birds go over higher to avoid being shot up. The brighter the moon the higher the flight. In snow, rain or fog, some, but not ail, birds flight low. The majority of the teal flight only a few feet above the ground preferring avenues along streams or over ground clear of trees. It has been noticed that teal crossing from Spain to Africa in a storm fly within a few feet of the waves going right down into the trough and, as it were, riding the crests. 478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL1V Snow or the freezing of still water upsets and, in fact, misses the flight programme 01 many birds on a sanctuary, but there are some wmcn no not change their daily flight routine. When a noise taxes place you get two-way traffic instead of one way owing to the change not being adopted by ail — the hour of flight is generally kept tile same. Heron are even more punctual arid regular in their flighting than duck and geese. An example oi persistence in flighting was that of pack after pack of geese leaving tfle Jtiokra preserve near Srinagar from about 8 a.m. tiii il a.m. over the poplar avenue on the mam road from Bara- mulia to Srinagar. It was a common thing to see up to a dozen guns lined up blazing away at the geese going over like formations of air crait. The percentage of kins to shots fired was very low because tne birds were practically out of shot and killed only by a chance penet or brought down owing to a broken wing. Wounded birds were numerous, and there was always a collection of villagers on foot and mounted on ponies on the look out for any that fell in the distance. The reward for retrieving a bird varied with the dis- tance. One brougflt in by a horseman from a mile or more cost practically the Srinagar game dealer's price. The poplar avenue navmg become very oid and badly affected by borers has been recent- ly cut down opposite Hokra. it will be interesting to see if the geese now go over lower or whether they will still adjust their neignt to something at which No. 4 shot was irritant rather than letnal. There is no doubt many shooters are misled. By the way visi- bility oi flighting birds varies from a large number of causes such as the height, speed of flight, amount of daylight still left, cloud, moisture oi the air. It is sometimes said any bird you can see flighting is within range. This is most misleading because at one stage oi the waning fight you see only birds that are a good 100 yams off. Again you kiil a bird thought to be a long shot only to flnd from the density of pellets in it that it was in reality a near shot, it .is true that., if you are sitting over a small patch of feed- ing ground the birds you see as they alight are within shot as also are birds walked up on a feeding ground. It is possible, for inst- ance, to get mallard in this way walking over some very favourite night haunt and taking a snap shot as the bird appears as a black spot for a moment, but this is hardly true flighting. In a true evening flight the shooter has also to take into consideration the varying size of birds, teal low down look much the same as big duck twice as high up. XII.— MOULTING OF BUCK AFTER ARRIVAL IN INDIA. I was very interested in Miscellaneous Note No. XI in the current issue of the Journal (Vol. xliv, p. 300) regarding the moult- ing of duck after arrival in India since I also came across an instance of this some years ago at a village called Tadunia on the Srinagar, Kashmir. December 30, 1943. G. PE LA P. BERESFORP, Mjajor General , Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, Photo by Courtship of Monitor Lizards. Salim Ali MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 479 Simen river in the Sadiya Frontier Tract in Assam when the ‘Gam’ (Headman) of the village brought me an immature male pintail duck which was unable to fly due to moulting. This was in J anuary so far as I remember and the Gam told me he had chased the duck and caught it with his hands when it was exhaust- ed. He also mentioned that he frequently caught duck in this way during that time of the year. I kept the bird for a consider- able time in company with a winged brahminy duck which I secured also but eventually they both died. Incidentally the smaller types of duck have not got separate names amongst the Abor tribesmen but the brahminy is called Ramkong while geese generally are called Permit? Puiong and the general name for duck is PA jap. ‘Hoped ale*, Shillong, Assam. January 1, 1944. XIII. — THE ‘COURTSHIP’ OF THE MONITOR LIZARD (VAR ANUS MONITOR). (With a plate). The accompanying photoeraohs were taken bv me at Chaduva in Kutch on August 17, 1943. The monitor lizards concerned were rather over 2 ft. long each. One of them, with the tail -tip missing, was the heftier of the two and the more aggressive. Him I assumed to be the male, the other the female. Ostensibly the lizards were engaged in an ‘all-in’ wrestling match, and many of th§ir grips, catches and throws were surprisingly human. The commonest manoeuvre was to stand un on their hindlegs, clasp- ing each other firmly about the neck and shoulders, and then with a sharp sideways jerk of the head to knock the other down — < sometimes tossing it completely over. The victor, who invariably happened to be the ‘male’, now appeared to try and twist the pos- terior end of the ‘female’ round into a position suitable for copula- tion. The struggle, which was interspersed with much bloodless biting on the neck behind the ear, lasted without result for over an hour and a half. Both combatants were panting heavily and were visiblv exhausted. Occasional pauses occurred only when the female — who seemed to be more timid than the other — walked away upon mv auoroaching closer with the camera. The male seemed unperturbed by my proximity, at one time under 4 feet. On these occasions the male did not follow or attempt to chase her but stalked slowly over the ‘ring’ nose to ground, body raised to full height, as if smelling. After retreating a few yards, and within the space of 2 or 3 minutes the female, though she had appeared to be having the worst of the encounters all along, returned to ‘Hefty’ and the bouts recommenced. This circumstance is enough to suggest that it could, not have been a serious fight but some sort of rough courtship that was in progress. After the ungentle handling the female had received it is hard to imagine her return- ing to the fray of her own accord when she had such a glorious opportunity for escaping. Although ‘Hefty’ had apparently been R. E. PARSONS, Indian Police. 480 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST-. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV winning the whole time he was the first to show signs of exhaustion, arid soon afterwards was completely done up. In the final stages the female took hold of his foreleg in her jaws and shook it violently from side to side two or three times, just as a terrier shakes a rat. Upon his still continuing inert she left him with what seemed a frustrated and disgusted sneer, eloquent of much damaging reflec- tion upon his virility! She then deliberately waddled off up a sloping bank and into the shrubbery. It took some minutes for ‘Hefty* to recover himself when he too walked away dejectedly in a different direction and with no attempt to follow her. It would be interesting to learn from some one who has studied the habits of Monitor Lizards whether this was in fact some court- ship proceeding and whether such ordinarily leads up to mating. 33. Pali Hill, Bandra. SALIM ALI. December 7, 1943. XIV.— THE ...BREEDING HABITS OF THE COBBA (NAIA TRIPUDIANS MEBBEMV AND THE GBEEN WHIP SNAKE (. DRYOPHIS MYCTERIZANS). Am on sex? 6 January 1935 Logar 5,700 ft. (Maconachie); S 8 April 1937 Paghman 7,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen). There is a good deal of difficulty about the identification of Afghan wrens. The three specimens obtained by Yate in Maimanah are, according to Scully, rather deeply coloured birds whereas the three specimens collected by Maconachie seem paler and greyer (thereby agreeing with some Gilgit specimens in the British Museum) than true neglectus from Kashmir. Wrens are very variable birds and it does not do to revise their classification on a few specimens but it is quite possible that these greyish birds represent a separable race. If so it seems probable that the name available for them is Anorthura magrathi Whitehead, Bull. B.O.C., xxi. (1908), p. 19. This name was given by White- head to the wren which he said was found commonly on the Safed Koh from 8,000 ft. upwards to the very summit of the range, chiefly in the juniper scrub. Unfortunately his two specimens, including the type, are juveniles and it is not possible therefore to say whether they belong to T. t. neglectus , as stated in the New Fauna (vol. i, p, 447) or whether they are of the same sub-species as these greyish Afghan birds. Meinertzhagen ’s specimen from Paghman, which was the only wren he met, could not be matched with anything in the Berlin and Leningrad Museums and is paler,, less red than 80 birds examined from all over Turkestan and the Pamirs. It is said to be nearer tianschanicus than anything else but might possibly belong to a new form. It is quite likely of course that two forms occur in Afghanistan. Cinclus pallasii tenuirostrls Bonaparte. Specimens collected. — Juv. 5 October Iskar, Afghan Turkestan, 2 sex? 8 October Deh Tang, Ghorband (Yate) ; 9 juv. $ ad. 13 July 1933 Khawak Chapchi (Maconachie); 4^2$ 8-12 April Paghman 8,000 ft., 26 .3 9 16-18 April Ghorband 8,300 ft., Juv. 23 May 1937 Shibar Pass 8,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen). Meinertzhagen found the Brown Dipper common on the Paghman River and in the Ghorband and subsidiary valleys. Birds were building on 12 April. It was not observed north or west of the Shibar Pass and the only other records for Afghanistan are furnished by the specimens listed above and the specimens listed by Koelz from the Kargasi Pass, Sanglech, the Minjar Pass and Paghman in June, July and August on which he bases his subspecies C. p. kargasiensis (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 52 (5 June 1939) p. 65). Whitehead however states that it occurs along the larger streams of the Safed Koh up to 9,000 ft. but is scarce. He shot a strong flying young bird on 27 June. Cinclus cinclus leucogaster Bonaparte. Specimens collected. — 2 cf 19 16-17 April Ghorband 8,200 ft., 9 25 April Bamian 11,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen). Meinertzhagen only met the White-bellied Dipper in these two localities and in a higher zone than the Brown Dipper from 8,200 ft. to 11,000 ft., though the two species overlapped about '8,200 ft. He has an interesting note on the habits. (To be continued.) *These dates are . taken from Griffith’s journals, CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH IN INDIA AND BURMA. BY A. St. J. Macdonald. ( With 1 6 text- figures) Part VII ( Continued from page 354, of this volume) Other Sporting Fish and How to catch Them. Carnatic Carp (1), Chitrahtu (2), Katli, Bokar (3), Jerruah (4), Olive Carp (5), White Carp (6), Black-spot (7), Malabar Carp (8), Rohu (9), Kala Banse (10), Mirgil (11), Cirrhina cirrhosa (12), Catla (13), Indian Trout (14), Barilius tileo (15), Chilwa (16). I have listed in this chapter all the common fish taken on rod and line in Burma and India; giving- the familiar or anglicised names followed by the ichthyological names, with a description of each fish. Actually these fish should be dealt with under two separate divi- sions—game and semi-game fish, as a large number of those listed are taken while fishing for mahseer or other larger varieties of carp, and to which it is not worth devoting much time when the larger species are available. I mean the smaller carp such as White carp, Olive carp, etc. I have appended short notes to the fish that are in my opinion worth catching or devoting one’s spare time to. Under Rohu, Murral, and Seetul, for instance, will be found methods of fishing not previously mentioned in any book, but quite worth a trial. The reader will find sufficient detail in this chapter to help him to find and catch the commoner fishes : but I would ask him to bear in mind, that, to what Thomas devoted 78 pages in his book ‘The Rod in India’, I have condensed in a meagre 19. The text-figures were originally printed in Day’s .‘Fishes of India’. Fourteen were reproduced by Messrs Shaw and Shebbeare in their ‘Fishes of Northern Bengal’. The blocks used by them were kindly loaned by the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal to whom the author and the Bombay Natural History Society wish to express their sincere thanks. The Mahseer I have dealt with fully in the Chapter on Burma*, so will not include it again in this list. CIRCUMVENTING THE MAH SEER 521 SUB-CLASS : TELEOSTEI . Bony Fishes. Order: Physostomi The fresh water fishes of India belong- to the Sub-Class of Bony fishes (Teleostei). Most belong to the family of Carps (Cyprinidae) and the order of Sheat-fishes (Siluroidea). The Carps have no teeth in the mouth, but have scales on the body. The Sheat-fishes have no scales, but have teeth in the mouth. Family: CYPRINIDAE. This family is prominent in the absence of any sort of peculiari- rities, but the members are familiar to most people. A great majo- rity of Indian freshwater fishes belong to this family. They have scales on the body but the head is naked. Frequently barbels are present, but no adipose fin is to be found. There is only one dorsal fin with its first few rays closely adpressed and unbranched ; the last unbranched ray is sometimes serrated along its hinder margin. Mouth is toothless, but there are teeth in the throat known as Pharyngeal teeth, which may be arranged in one, two, or more series. This family comprises the Carps, Mahseers, Barbels, etc., all of which are game and sporting fish. Genus : Barbus i. CARNATIC CARP : Barbus (Puntius) carnatic usjerdon. Vernacular names: — Poaree candee, Saalcandee, Shelle&, Tamil; Gid-pakke , Canarese ; Gtddi-kaoli , Hind. D. 12 (|) ; ,P. 15 ; V. 9 ; A. 7 (?) ; C. 19 ; L. 1-32. Rivers along the bases of Nilghiris, Wynaad and South Canara hills are the common habitat of this fish. The dorsal profile is more Connex than the ventral. The upper jaw is larger and the lower labial fold is interrupted. There are two pairs of barbels, both being thin and shorter than the eve. The dorsal fin commences anterior to the insertion of the ventrals and midway between the snout and the base of the caudal fin ; it is about J as high as the body. Its last undivided ray is a strong and smooth spine, as long as the head in the immature specimens, but sometimes longer in the adults. Pectoral 522 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV fin is as long as or slightly longer than the head while the anal fin reaches • the caudal. The lateral line is complete and there are 3J rows of scales between it and the base of the ventral fin. The colour of the fish is greenish-brown along the back, becoming dull white glossed with gold on the sides and beneath. The fins are grayish and the eyes are golden. This fish runs to 25 lbs and frequents the same water as the mahseer; is taken best on fly. To the inexperi- enced eye it may be mistaken for a mahseer. They are caught in quiet runs and eddies and back wafers between runs, more than in white water of . the rapids themselves as in the case of mahseer. Under trees, near sunken ' logs or swirls, round rocks, are the specially beloved places of this fish. The flies they take best are size No. 5 or 6 in hooks and black or dark. An all peacock fly is probably most killing. 2. CHITRAHTU Barbus (Puntius) chillinoides McClelland. Vernacular name : — Chit-rah-too, Punj. D. 10-11 ; P. 17; V. 9 ; A. 7 (.2/5) ; C. 19; L. 1. 32-35. Fig. 2. — Barbus ( Puntius ) chillinoides McClelland. This fish is found, along the Himalayas as far to the east as Assam, and also in the Ganges. It attains about 2\ ft. in length. The body is rather elongated so that the dorsal and abdominal pro- files are about equally convex. The upper jaw is slightly the longer and the snout overhangs the mouth which is directed forwards. The lips are moderately thick, the lower with a continuous transverse fold, but without a lobe. There are two pairs of barbels which are of about the same length and equal to diameter of the orbit. The dorsal fin commences about midway between the tip of the snout and the base of the caudal fin. Its last undivided ray is osseous, very strong and entire. The anal fin reaches the base of the caudal which is deeply forked. The lateral line is complete and there are three rows of scales between it and the base of the ventral fin. The colour of the fish is golden above becoming silvery beneath. The margins of the scales are provided with numerous fine black dots. A black mark is present behind the opercle. The fins are reddish, CIRCUMVENTING the mahseer 523 3. KATLI. Barbus (Lissochilns) hexagonolepis McClelland. Vernacular names: — Bokar and Boolooah Assam; Katli, Nepal. D. 4/9; P. 1/13-15; V. 1/8; A. 3/5; C. 19; L. I. 22-31. Fig. 3. — Barbus ( Lissochilus ) hexagonolepis McClelland. This is the Bokar of the Assamese and Katli of the Nepalese. It is also known as the Snub-nosed Mahseer and is perhaps the commonest large-scaled Barbel of Assam and of the Eastern Hima- layas. Though Shaw and Shebbeare do not attribute a good size to this fish, it is known to grow to a fairly big size. Moreover according to Mr. S. J. Duncan1 this is the ‘Mighty Mahseer of the region traversed by him and that it was found in almost all the rivers of the Hills’. This is a beautifully coloured fish, though the colouration might vary considerably according to the nature of the water inhabited by the fish. According to Hora2 “The dorsal surface of the head and body was bottle green, the lateral band above the lateral line was yellowish brown followed by an area of King’s blue colour which was replaced below by silvery white. The edges of the scales were marked with light bluish neutral tint. The tip . of the snout was stone green, and the barbels had a neutral tint. There were two oval patches of a light yellow colour before and behind the eyes ; the iris was yellowish brown and the gill cover light alizarine pink. The dorsal fin had a citron green colour, while the pelvic, anal and greater part of the pectoral and caudal fins were of a slate grey colour. There was a patch of buff colour on the pectoral and the margin of the caudal was of a light greenish neutral tint.’ In general form this fish is similar to B. (Tor) mosal , but the head is relatively shorter and broadly rounded in front. The most conspicu- ous feature of the head is the possession of several rows of horny tubercles on the sides in front of and below the eyes. Shaw and Shebbeare noted that the habits of this fish are ‘very similar to those of the Mahseer. As a sporting fish there is nothing to choose between them, weight for weight. It is unfortunate that, as both take the same lures, and are found in the same water, the smaller species is often taken on much too heavy tackle which does 1 Hora, S. L., Game Fishes of India, xi, 4. Journ. Bombay Nat, Hist. Soc.y XLII, p. 86 (1940). 524 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV not give him a chance to show his power’. I have taken these fish in Nepal as far west as the Girwa River. See 25-pound Chocolate Mahseer in Chapter on Burma, caught by the author, which has been identified by Hora as the Bokar. 4. JERRUAH. Barbus (Puntius) chagunio (Ham.) Vernacular names: — Jerruah, Beng. ; Chaguni, Behar; Bootee keintah , Assam This fish inhabits clear streams and rivers in the foot-hills, Terai and Duars. According to Day it attains at least 18 inches. The upper profile in front of the dorsal fin is more arched than the lower. The snout is bold and is covered with sunken pores which in males are more strongly marked and more sharply defined. There are two pairs of barbels which are rather longer than the orbit. The dorsal fin arises midway between the end of the snout and the base of the caudal fin. Its undivided ray is osseous, strong with coarse teeth: Some of the last few anal rays are elongated in the males and the species exhibits marked sexual dimorphism. Colour. — The fish is silvery with a faint pinkish tinge. A black spot is present at the base of each scale on the upper three quarters of the body. Fins are yellowish, dorsal and caudal with a suffused sub-marginal band of red touched with black. Pelvics and anal are tinged with red. The male is more brilliant throughout and the black fin tips are more marked. 5. OLIVE CARP. Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.) Vernacular names: — Punjella, Tam. ; Giddi-kaoli, Durhie and Potah, Hind.; Gid-pakke, Canarese; Kanaka , Telugu ; Sarana , Ooriah and Bengali; Jundoori, Punj. ; Pop-pree and Kuh-nali-nee , Sind; Sen-nee, Assam; N ga-khon-mah-gyr and N ga-chong, Burmese. This fish inhabits clear streams of the foot hills, Terai and Duars, also ponds and borrow pits. The body is deep and moderately compressed. The dorsal pro- file is elevated. No pores are present on the. snout. The lower D, 3/8; P. 15; V. 9 ; A 3/5 ; C. 19; L. 1. 44-47. Fig. 4. — Barbus ( Puntius ) chagunio (Hamilton). Male D. 3/8 ; P. 15 : V. 9 ; A. 3/5 ; C. 19; L. 1. 32-34. CIRCUMVENTING THE MAITSEER 525 labial fold is interrupted. There are two pairs of barbels ; the rostral is as long as the orbit while the maxillary is slightly longer. The dorsal fin arises rather nearer the snout than the base of the caudal fin, and opposite the insertion of the ventrals. The undivided dorsal ray is osseous, strong in the- adult and finely serrated posteriorly. There are 3J to 4 rows of scales between the lateral line and the base of the ventral fin. Colour — silvery, darker above. Usually a golden blotch is found on the opercle and sometimes a small dark spot is also seen behind the gill-opening. The young indivi- duals have a faint black spot covering 25th to 28th scales on the lateral line. The fins are greyish-white with the caudal, pelvic and anal fins tipped red. 6. WHITE] CARP. Barbus (Puntius) curmuca (Ham.) D. 12 (3/9J; P. 16; V. 9; A. 8 (3/5); C. 18; L. 1. 41. Fig. 6. — Barbus ( Puntius ) curmuca (Hamilton). A fish attaining four feet in length, it is found along the Western Ghats of India. The dorsal profile is more convex than the ventral. The head is rather compressed with a conical snuot and a 526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIEfY, Vol. XLIV transversely concave interorbital space. In the adults, a band of open pores may be present running from the preorbital along the cheek. There are two pairs of maxillary barbels, the lower as long as the eye while the upper is only half as long. The dorsal fin arises in front of the ventrals and is rather nearer to the snout than to the base of the caudal fin; its last undivided ray is weak and articulated. The lateral line is complete, with 31 rows of scales between it and the base of the ventral fin. The caudal fin is deeply forked and its lobes are pointed. Colour. — The fish is silvery which is lighter on the sides and beneath. The tips of the caudal fin are blackish. In the young, however, the middle third of the caudal fin is orange and tipped with black. 7. BLACK SPOT. Barbus (Puntius) filamentosus (Cuv. & Val.).1 D. 13 (3/8); P. 15 ; V. 9; A. 7 (2/5) ; C. 19 ; L. 1. 21. Fig. 7. — Barbus (Puntinus) filamentosus (Cuv. & Val.). This fish is only about 6 inches in length and it is found from Canara down the Western Coast, along the base of the Nilgiris to Travancore Hills and Ceylon. The body is compressed and the upper jaw is the longer of the two. The lower labial fold is inter- rupted. In the mature males the snout is covered with large, pores. There is only one pair of small barbels which are difficult to make out at times. There is a thin maxillary pair extending to below the centre of the orbit in some specimens while it is very minute in others. The dorsal fin commences midway between the snout and the base of the caudal fin. Its last undivided ray is articulated, smooth and feeble. Some of the branched rays in the mature males are elongat- ed. The caudal is deeply lobed. The lateral line is complete with 2\ rows of scales between it and the base of the ventral fin. Colour. — The fish is silvery white, with a deep black oval mark on the lateral line covering the scales from about the fourteenth to the eighteenth. There is a dark band along the dorsal fin. The caudal fin is red, tipped with black. It will be seen from the above description that this species shows marked sexual dimorphism. Th^ form described as Barbus mahecola 1 B. mahecola and B. filamentosus are males and females of the same species. See Hora. Rec. Ind. Mils., XXXIX, p 22 (1937) and Hora and [.&**, Rec. Ind, Mus., XL III, p. 245 (1941). CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER (Cuv. & Val.) is a female in which the tubercles are absent on the snout and the rays of the dorsal hn are not elongated beyond the membrane. Similar sexual dimorphism is found in Barbus chagunio described above. 8. MALABAR CARP. Barbus (Tor) khudree var. malabaricus Jerdon. D. 12-13/ -9-4) ; P. 17 ; V. 9 ; A. 8 (3/5) ; C. 19 ; L. 1. 24. Fig. 8, — Barbus (Tor) khudree , var. malabaricus Jerdon. This fish is an inhabitant of the streams of South Ganara, down the Western Ghats to the Travancore Hills. ‘It attains at least 18 inches in length. The dorsal and ventral profiles Vnre moderately convex. The upper jaw is slightly longer than the lower one. The lips are thick and the lower labial fold is complete and the lower lip is provided with a median lobe. There are two pairs of barbels of which the maxillary pair reaches to the hind margin of the orbit while the rostral pair is shorter. The dorsal fin arises in advance of the ventral and its last undivided ray is osseous, but weak. The lateral line is complete with ij- rows, of scales 'between it and the base of the ventral fin. Colour. — The fish is bluish above, becoming white on the abdomen. The fins are usually blue and the eyes are red. Sometimes the fish is brown and the dorsal, pectoral and ventral fins are red, or against the edges of the fine may be dark. This species is a race of the Deccan Mahseer or Khudree ( Barbus (Tor.) khudree Sykes) in which the dorsal fin has a weak and articu- lated spine. Genus : Labeo. 9. ROHU. Labeo rohita (Ham). Vernacular names: — Ruhu, Ooriah; Ruee, Ben.; N ga-myit-chln and Nga° myit-tsan-nee, Burmese ; Dum-bra, Sind. D. 15-6 (jT^) ; P. 17 ; V. 9 ; A. 7 (2/5) ; C. 19 ; L. 1-40-42. This is the commonest carp of the plains; It is highly esteemed as food and is to be found in all sorts of water, the best being those taken in clear running water, and not too large. It is deep in form, the dorsal profile being more convex than the ventral. The greatest width of the head equals its length excluding the snout which is obtuse, depressed, but projecting beyond the 0^8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOQIETY, Vol. XLIV jaws. No lateral lobe is present. Lips thick, fringed with a distinct inner fold above and below. Generally there is a short and thin maxillary pair of barbels, though a rostral pair is sometimes present. The dorsal fin arises about midway between the snout and base of caudal fin. Pectoral is as long as the head excluding snout. Ventrals are inserted below the third or fourth dorsal ray. Caudal is deeply forked. There are 6-6 J rows of scales between lateral line and base of ventral fin. The fish is bluish or brownish along the back, be- coming silvery on the sides and beneath; sometimes there is a red mark on each scale. In some specimens the fins are black. Rohu frequent the sluggish water of pools in rivers, and will occasionally be seen in shoals in slow runs sucking in vegetation off the top of the water. I have caught them while doing this in the Saber Matti near' Ahmedabad in the following way: — On observing closely I noticed that green weed was the dainty morsel these fish were foraging. Some was collected and a fine cast with a very small hook provided the tackle; attaching the weed to the hook was a most tedious business. When this was done by wrapping it round the hook and tying it into position with fine silk the weed would come off as soon as it was in the water or swell too much to tempt the fish. Perseverance conquered. When the correct amount was gauged, a light float (quill) was attached to the cast io inches from the hook, and the bait allowed to move down with the current till it was engineered into the midst of a shoal where it was immediately taken, the floaT signalling the pop, pop movement of the fish sucking it in which was the indication to strike. I caught several fish this way, with the shoal still feeding. * The Rohu has a very small mouth set very low in the head, and almost below it. They are game fish, however, and when hooked will jump right out of the water two or three times. They provide one of the chief foods in Bengal and Bihar and are quite tasty. They do well in tanks where they are fished for in the commonly known way (seen chapter on ‘Tank Angling’). Hand Line Fishing for Rohu. — I was shown by an old Moha- piedan how to catch Rohu on a hand line, ‘Tuggy’ or ‘Tungoos’ CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 529 It is slow work but great fun when a fish is hooked. They seem to put up a much better fight in a river than in a tank. I detail this method so that anyone keen enough may give it a trial. I have caught fish up to 20 pounds in this way. River Fishing for Rohu. — A line 60 yards in length is wrapped criss-cross over a small dried vegetable marrow. This is the substi- tute for the winch. The Mount. — The mount is a thick piece of string ^ inch thick, with a heavy weight 6 ozs or more fixed on to one end, and to the other end the line is attached. Equal distance from the ends are two fine pieces of line attached to the mount about 6 inches long, with a large hook attached (size 4/0 in Limerick hooks) to each length. Mount is about a yard long. These are baited with nice juicy red earthworms, as much as they can hold, and then enough line is collected off the bobbin, and held in loops or laid in coils on the sand. The cast is then made by swinging the weight round in the manner of a stone sling, and cast into a slow flowing part of the river, which is either connecting two pools or is known to be a feeding ground. The next operation is to collect in the line till it is as near taut as you can get it, without moving the weight, and to fix the line into a slotted bamboo peg which will give a slight resistance to a tug ; this with the weight hooks the fish, and the funs begins. The peg is about 6 inches high. Playing the Fish . — The line is picked up as soon as a run is registered, and the fish is played through the fingers, exactly the same way as we do on a rod and reel. Clubbing the Fish. — When the fish is tired, and the mount comes into the hand, raise the head gradually to the surface. A small club which is held by the chin against the chest is used for knocking the fish on the head. The fisherman goes over his knees into the water to do this. It is in this way with a lump of Raggi paste, the size of a duck’s egg and no added weight that the big Mahseer and Rohu of the Cauvery and Cubbany rivers in Mysore are taken ; and it was in this way, a correspondent informs me, that Rivett Carnac’s 119-pound fish was captured. Substituting of course the rod and reel for the marrow ! Rohu Rising.— A Rohu comes to the surface and breaks the water with a loud splash and strong swirl, after which he generally lets up two bubbles. Bottom fishing for Rohu is dealt with fully in the chapter ‘Tank Angling.’ 10. KALA BANSE. Labeo calbasir (Ham.) Vernacular names: — Nalla-gandu-menu, Telugu ; Kalbasu and Kunda , Ben. ; Cuggera (Siane) ; Mahlee, Assam ; Kala beines, Ooriah and Hind. ; Di, Punj.; Di-hee, Sind ; Dai, Cutch ; KurrUmertu, Oanarese ; Nga-nek-pya, Nga-noo- than and Nga-ong-tong, Burmese. The width of head equals its length excluding snout. Mouth narrow, obtuse and depressed. No lateral lobe but pores are present. L. 1-40-44. 530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XUV Lips thick, fringed, more especially the lower one, each having- a distinct inner fold. There are four barbels, the rostrals being- slightly the longer, equalling the diameter of the eyes. Dorsal fin arises midway between the snout and the base of the caudal fin. Ventrals commence below the fourth or fifth dorsal ray. Caudal is deeply forked. There are to 6 rows of scales between the lateral line and the base of the ventral fin. The fish is blackish, sometimes with a scarlet centre for many of the scales. It grows to 3 feet in length. Fig. io .—Labeo calbasu (Hamilton). These fish seem to have a partiality for old masonry, walls and sunken trees in river and can be seen playing about in such places, sucking, and rubbing their sides against the masonry or trees, as the case may be. They are in structure the same as the Rohu, and are even known by some as the Black Rohu. This fish is well illustrated in Thomas’ ‘Rod in India’. I have taken them on small Fly Spoon, once or twice, but this is most unusual as the mouth of the fish is set right below the face and is very small. I was fishing for Mahseer at the time. They rise unlike the Rohu in a most frightened manner, coming up to the surface with a rush, almost perpendicularly, and turning on the surface, go down as fast. They are game fish, and are best caught in the manner shown under ‘Tank Angling’. They do well in tanks. The largest I have caught was 16 pounds. Genus : Cirrhina. 11. MIRGIL. Cirrhina mirgala (Ham.) Vernacular names : — Mirrgah, Ooriah ; Mi ductory remarks in the Ibis , 1939, ‘On the Birds of Northern Burma’). Nor is it mine. I would wager I could find 50 undescribed birds in North Burma. The map in ‘The Birds of Burma’ — the only blemish in an otherwise excellent summary — where the Adung valley is shown as filling the entire sources of the western Irrawaddy, is partly responsible for this surprising claim. Evidently the author has been quite unable to visualise North Burma. Possibly no one who has never been north of Myitkyina could. IV. Climate. General Remarks. — We have practically no meteorological records from North Burma. I give the rainfall records for the only three stations where they were kept and these have a certain value ; but their application is limited. Rainfall varies in mountainous regions almost as much as maximum or minimum temperatures vary, and it will be noticed that they are far from constant year by year. There is however one factor, and that the most potent single factor control- ling the vegetation, which tends to keep fairly constant over the whole area, and at every season, namely humidity. Here again, except for scattered observations, we have no instrument records. However the monthly rainfall figures and still more the appearance of the vegetation itself, prove a high degree of humidity, as well as the absence of prolonged drought. Nowhere, for example, does dry monsoon forest, as seen in the lower Chindwin valley, prevail. Deciduous trees form a small proportion of every forest type met with ; but each season has its own deciduous species, they do not all cast their leaves at the same time. Some lose them in the cold, others in the hot weather, while yet others are bare for a short period during the rains. These last probably have a leaf-shed rhythm of less than 12 months — -it may be 8 or 10 months only, so that in course of time the tree is leafless during each month of the year. The prevailing forest type, whether broad leafed or Conifer, is evergreen. All that can be said of the climate of North Burma must be said in general terms. High summer temperatures (up to 98° F. on the Hkamti Plain), cool winters, with frost above 5,000 feet and thick mists and heavy dew in the low lying valleys, heavy rainfall between April and October, with heavy winter snowfall above 9,00© feet, /I SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH. BURMA 561 and an increasing winter rainfall as one recedes from the plains, and always and everywhere a high humidity, highest in the hot valleys in summer. Humidity is higher on the Hkamti plain, which is closely surrounded by mountains than it is for example at Myitkyina, which lies outside the high country. The factors which influence vegetation, besides humidity, are maximum and minimum temperatures (which largely control the germination of seeds), annual distribution of rainfall, and light; and in a lesser degree, wind and snowfall (as a protecting agent). Light depends chiefly on aspect and steepness of slope. The midday sun is never le§s than 40° above the horizon. On mid-summer day it is about 4° from the zenith at Putao, that is, it is almost vertically over- head. Many of the above factors directly depend upon altitude and vary with it. Alpine Region. — -Above 10,000 feet, persistent rather than heavy summer rain, is the rule. The rainfall is certainly not so high as on the Hkamti plain. In the Seinghku valley at 12,000 feet, dry air comes sweeping over the pass from the Tibetan plateau, and not infrequently near the pass one is in sunshine above the cloud, with steady rain falling lower down the valley ; and this in the wettest months of the year ! In the Burmese alps the cloud layer has an almost daily vertical movement throughout the summer. At night the cloud sinks down into the deep valleys leaving the peaks clear. By day, the heated air in the valleys drives the cloud up. Thus it tends to rain more in the valleys by night and more on the mountains by day. Winds, though occasionally strong, are usually local. The only winds approaching gale force I have ever experienced in North Burma were in deep gorges such as the Adung gorge. Above 10,000 feet snowfall in the north and east is heavy. Even so low as 10,000 feet snow beds persist in the Seinghku, Adung and other large valleys till June or July. Such snow beds however owe lheir existence to the depth and narrowness of the valley and the steepness of its sides. The flanks themselves, particularly the ex- posed side, are free of snow which, loosened by the warm wind, slides down and piles up at the bottom of the valley to a depth of twenty or thirty feet. At 12,000 feet these accumulated beds persist till August or September and at 13,000-14,000 feet are permanent. These permanent snow beds are not however glaciers ; they do not flow. There is not enough depth of snow and consequently insufficient pres^ sure to convert the snow into ice. If more snow fell each winter than melted in the succeeding summer, the snow beds would gradu- ally increase in size and depth until eventually they became glaciers. If less snow fell than melted each year, they would dwindle and finally disappear. Probably they are in a state of equilibrium for the time being, as much snow falling in winter as melts in summer; but it is obvious that down to very recent times more snow has melted than has fallen each year since only recently (on the geological time-scale) these snow beds were glaciers. In other words, the climate of North Burma is passing through a warm moist or inter-glacial phase. The permanent snow line stands at about 16,000 feet, and peaks of 17,000 feet or more usually have small glaciers at least on their 562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, V'ol XLIV north flanks. So precipitous are the higher mountains however — veritable steeples — that peaks of 16,000 and 17,000 feet are sometimes clear of snow throughout the summer. In general terms then one may say that the climate of North Burma taking it all in all is moist and warm in the lowest valleys, moist and cool at the middle levels, moist and cold above 9,000 feet. The heaviest rainfall occurs in spring and summer ; but enough rain (or snow) falls in autumn and winter to keep the humidity high. Even in the finest weather there is heavy precipitation of dew. Drought is unknown. The tables on pages 563, 564 and 565 show the rainfall for ten years or more for three stations : (/) Myitkyina, (ii) Sumpra Bum, (Hi) Putao (Fort Hertz). The general features of the climate which are reflected in the vegetation are given under each zone. V. Origin of the Flora of North Burma. The composition of the vegetation (i.e. the flora) is closely bound up with its origin and hence with the recent geological history of North Burma. Nor need we probe far back to find a time when the present flora was not there, for it clearly represents a new order, the result of a tragic persecution. The original mountain flora was either exterminated or driven out of North Burma by the Pleis- tocene glaciation of the Irrawaddy plateau, and we can only guess what that early flora was like. Perhaps it was not so very different from the present flora, though probably poorer in species. It is worth mentioning that in the Mali Hka valley between Myitkyina and Fort Hertz, where the rocks are soft sandstones with bands of clay and pebble beds, are preserved leaf impressions, possibly fruits and s^eds also, which when studied may throw some light on this problem. Whatever the flora may have been in preglacial times, today it is a strange medley of Indo-Malaysian, East Asiatic, Sino-Himalayan and Palaearctic species. The tropical flora is almost pure Indo- Malaysian, the aipine flora almost pure Sino-Himalayan. Between these extremes the temperate flora includes a considerable number of East Asiatic species, besides Palaearctic, together with a larger proportion of endemics than either of the other tw7o zones, so far as we know at present. Thus the flora of North Burma is stratified both in space and time, according to when each element entered the country. The great highland mass of Sino-Himalaya wedged between the Central Asian, East Asiatic, Indo-Malaysian and Mediterranean regions .supports a mainly northern flora. It forms a barrier between Central Asia and the southern peninsulas, but it is also a carrier between East and West. In fact it is the link between all the botani- cal regions of Asia. Hence it includes also East Asiatic and Hima- layan elements. Most of the Sino-Himalayan endemic genera such as Cyananthus , Nomocharis , Notholirion , Omphalo gramma, Ber- neuxia , Oreosolen , Crementhodium and many others, occur in North Burma. There are also numerous endemic species of such charac- teristic Sino-Himalaya genera as Rhododendron, Primula, Corydalis , And rosace, Meconopsis , Gentiana , Pediciilaris. Nevertheless there are RAINFALL : MYITKYINA A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 563 jaqoiaoacr j0qni0AO]s[ jpqopo CO lO i-H vp co co CO CO CN» !0qai0;d0C5 IsnSuv Fn. rH CD CO do oo Ainf 0Ollf o o ip c b lo Iiadv S8 qaJ'BH Aj'etuq©^ Ajmavf 00 05 O CO CO Tji 05 05 05 5 564 Journal, Bombay natural hist, society, Voi. xLi V Rainfall recorded in Myitkyina (600 feet) for the years 1911-41. Year In. Cents . 1911 • • • •• • 93 36 1912 ... 86 85 1913 77 19 1914 • • • 75 ^ 05 1915 98 03 1916 ••• ... 73 91 1917 67 57 1918 • «» ... • • » 90 80 1919 78 02 1920 83 81 1921 • •• 93 71 1922 72 78 1923 87 98 1924 77 84 1925 ... ... 78 99 1926 99 54 1927 106 , 20 1928 • •• ... 105 41 1929 77 68 1930 82 83 1931 ••• 80 19 1932 106 59 1933 • •• ••• ••• 88 11 1934 99 02 1935 84 08 1936 eo» 74 99 1937 • •• 88 56 1938 ••• ... 95 83 1939 74 85 1940 69 81 1941 Max. Rainfall — 106*59 in. 1932 ) Min. ,, 67-57 in. 1917 j Average for 31 years — 85*74 in. 105 31 years. 25 RAINFALL: SUMPRA BUM Year d 1-5 JQ £ March April j May June 3 1—5 bo 3 < Sept. Oct. > o £ Dec. j Total 1931 0 i 10 ! 4 7 7 31 56 25 10 7 1 2 160 Rainfall Re- 1932 0 3 6 3 10 22 21 15 15 5 3 1 104 cord for Sum- 1933 0 1 1 5 17 27 25 26 10 8 0 0 120 pra Bum, 1934 1 3 4 ?. 5 40 30 25 22 9 6 0 153 Alt. 3,500 ft. 1935 0 3 3 7 5 38 16 21 18 6 1 0 118 Average for 1936 1 5 3 13 20 27 24 32 16 15 2 1 159 11 years, 1937 0 3 5 4 14 27 20 24 10 5 0 2 114 141*18. 1938 4 3 10 4 15 56 20 17 25 [18 5 0 177 Average for 1939 0 6 5 9 12 29 29 22 ! 32 1 7 1 0 152 decade 1932- 1940 0 5 11 3 10 27 25 11 32 9 1 1 134 1941, 139-30. 1941 1 3 3 11 19 31 25 34 27 ! 6 1 1 162 Max. rainfall 1942 1 3 11 177 in. 1938. Min. rainfall 104 in. 1932. RAINFALL: FORT HERTZ (PUTAO). HKAMTI LONG A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 565 -i c a a CD •'-* _ iO CD CD r-i LO LO « '—l rH ^ ,H O £ Ttt ^ £> | | >>(M r-( CO CO ^ 05 05 -0® I— I -+H T3 (U . *PO r-» ‘Idas CD CD LO 00 CO 00 CD 05 00 CM co- 00 rH CM CO CM CM rH CM CM co CM •Sny 05 o* 00 v 05 " 00 CO 05 o CM 05 CM Tf< Hr* CM rft co CO CM ■Hfl CO CM CO CO rH CD CO o rH o 05 o rH 05 CD 00 rH CO rr- CO ■HU CO cm CO CO in CM co CO CO LO o CO LO op CD rH o CO LO annf CO CM 04 CO CM co CO CM co # co CM CM i co t>» LO CD LO 16 00 to rH 05 00 rH ludv : 00 00 co LO t>» LO rH LO CM CD qo.n?H ? rH LO CO CM rH rH co CM CM CD rH LO CO CM 1—1 rH CM CM CM CO rH CO ' -H rH ,ct9J 2 2 • , •UEf I CM rH 2 2 rH 2 rH 2 rH 2 rH 2 C0050^CvjCOrtlOCDt^00050'-H (NCMCOCOCOCOcOCOCOCOCOCOtT^I 566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLlV fewer known endemics in Sino-Himalaya and hence in alpine Burma than one might expect, though no doubt many more remain to be discovered. The East Asiatic contribution is most prominent in the temperate zone. It suggests a strong E.-W. connection during the ice age. Such plants as S tacky unis himalaicus , Rhododendron Simsii , Asteropyrum peltatumf Decaisnea Fargesii, Souleia vaginata , Tetracentron sinense} Mahonia Iqmariifolia, Saxifraga sarmentosa , Rubns corchorifolius and R. ampelums , Photinia glabra, Eurya nitida and E. chinensis , Gordonia axillaris , Schima argentea, with species of Rodgersia, Podophyllum , Schizophragma, Actinidia clearly indi- cate this connection. More remarkable still is the Chinese Coffin tree ( Taiwania cryptomerioides ) found in Formosa, south-western Tunnan and North Burma, a good example of discontinuous distri- bution— better called broken distribution since there is no physical barrier between the various localities unless it is between Formosa and the mainland. Podocai'pus macrophyllus, on the other hand, has an unbroken distribution from Japan to North Burma as also has T ' rip t e vygi u n i Wi Ifo rd ii . The land connections between North Burma and the East Asiatic region on the one hand and the East Himalayan region on the other are clear enough. Equally clear is the continuity between North Burma and the Malaysian region and Indonesia. But what brought about such great movements of the floras, which is not just a gentle mingling, but a violent telescoping? How has it come about that Japanese plants are found in the Eastern Himalayas, North Burma plants in Indonesia and Malaysia? The almost com- plete absence of East Asiatic plants from peninsular India gives us a valuable clue to what may have happened. Peninsular India has no Eagaceae , Be.tulaceae, H amamelidaceae , Saxijragaceae , Schizan- drdceae or Conijerae (except one Podocarpus), Many characteristic East Asiatic genera such as Acer, Magnolia , Illicium, De-utzia , Philadelphus , Eriobotrya, Pyrus, Fraxinus, Ulmus , Tr achy carpus , Livrstona, Licuala, Gordonia are absent; but all of them reached Malaysia, Indonesia or the Eastern Himalayas. We know that a similar flora reached China and New England from the far north as a result of and in fact during the Pliestocene ice age. If the western spread of eastern plants took place during the ice age, or after it, why did they not reach peninsular India at the same time? If they could reach south-east China, Indo-China and Malaysia not to mention the Eastern Himalayas, why not the hills of South India? A few — a very few Himalayan plants — -did get through to peninsular India but only enough to emphasize their scarcity, e.g. Rhododen- dron arboreum. There are two possible explanations : (i) either the plains were not yet solid land but consisted at best of brackish swamps, not unlike the Sunderbans today or (2) the Himalayan flora, driven into the plains by the advancing ice, perished ere it could cross them to reach the peninsula. In other words, the plains of India whether sea or land proved impassable ; and of the plants driven south only those which followed the mountain arc of Burma-Malaya and the south-eastern strike of the ranges towards Indo-China, survived to return when conditions improved, leaving fragments of Himalayan A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 567 flora scattered on all the mountains of Malaysia, e.g. Primula imperialis in Java. It is improbable that the East Asiatic flora was already establish- ed in the Eastern Himalayas before the Pleistocene ice age. Even if it had been, it would have been largely destroyed or driven out by the ice wall which stretched from the Eastern Himalayas across North Burma and Assam to Western China; and these regions would have had to be restocked from surrounding areas during inter- glacial periods or after the ice age had passed. Moreover the Miocene-Pliocene flora of the Arctic, we know, was driven south and fanned out down the coast of China and down the Atlantic coast of North /Vmerica. No doubt it reached the Eastern Himalayas and North Burma at the same time, via Indonesia, and perhaps across China, and failed to reach peninsular India only because it could not cross the hot swampy plains or the sea. Thus on the. eastern frontier mountains of Burma, Sino-Himalayan, Indo-Malaysian and East Asiatic floras mingled. During periods of intense glaciation, the mountain flora was pushed southwards — , whatever was pushed northwards must have perished in the deserts of Central Asia. During interglacial periods, the southern flora crept back north. Communication between the Eastern Himalaya and Western China across North Burma was also open, before the deep river gorges were cut. This region was then a plateau. By the end of the ice age the cutting up of the Irrawaddy plateau, and the deeply dissected gorges of the Salween, Mekong and Yangtze rivers had to some extent interrupted this east-west movement, but the north-south movement was thereby facilitated. The close relation- ship between the Malaysian and North Burma floras has already been remarked; that between the Indonesian and North Burma floras is scarcely less close. Nor is it confined to the floras ; it is also apparent in the faunas of these regions. Indeed the south-eastern route towards Hongkong, like the southern route towards Singapore, appears to be a modern migratory route for birds and has probably long been so. Two striking examples within the writer’s field experience may be quoted. The first example of Hai'pactes wardi (Ward’s Trogon) was collected in the Seinghku valley in 1926. Several years later it was collected in Annam where it is not uncommon. Sooner or later it will no doubt be collected at some intermediate point in south- west Yunnan — unless indeed birds, like plants, can show discon- tinuous distribution. (In a sense of course, migratory birds do show a kind of discontinuous distribution)'. Recently Dr. Harold Anthony of the American Museum of Natural History has identified a shrew not uncommon in the Hpimaw and Htawgaw hills as Crocidura indochinensis , a species described from Annam. Here again the distribution may be discontinuous. Besides Taiwania cryptomerioides , there are other curious ex- amples of discontinuous distribution of plants to the south-east, such -as . Verndnia Vidalii which, accord to Merrill, is known outside Luzon only from the ’Nmai valley (Vernav-Cutting Expedition 514 Ward). These are straws, but they point to possible lines of migra- tion. Nor are they isolated examples. There are many birds common to North Burma, perhaps as summer residents only, and 568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL XLIV . Indonesia, just as there are many common to the Eastern Himalayas and Malaysia. The examples given are remarkable only because the species were collected at the extremities of their range and have still to be found at intermediate stations. If the high land which stretches across south-east Asia from the Tsangpo bend in longitude 95 °F. via North Burma and Yunnan to Indo-China is, as seems probable, one of the main migratory bird routes, we might expect to find many species of plants also with the same distribution. And so we do. It is possible that in mid-Tertiary times the flora of Eastern Asia was more uniform than it is today. But differentiation of the flora into contrasting botanical regions must have proceeded some way before the Pleistocene glaciation set in. Latest of all the floras to reach North Burma was the lowland forest flora, flowing up the hot moist valleys as rivers scoured them ; already this subtropical Indo-Malaysian flora has reached almost to the sources of the Irrawaddy (lat. 28°). Until rivers had cut deep gorges in the plateau, no tropical flora could have lived here. The dampness of the climate helped it. At first the vegetation of the valleys resembled that of New Zealand or southern Japan in general appearance, with many tree-ferns and climbing plants. Even today the Tamai valley in lat. 28° at 4,000 feet altitude has a tropical appearance, where tree-ferns grow within sight of the snows, and luxuriant climbers and epiphytes flourish in the humid atmos- phere, though the winter temperature drops to 4o°F. Finally we have to account for the alpine flora of North Burma. Here arises a special difficulty. In Europe the Arctic flora was driven south by the ice sheet and when the ice retreated the few survivors — -much had perished — took refuge in the European Alps, or crept back north in the wake of the melting ice to its original home. Only a single flora was involved, the Miocene-Pliocene circum- polar flora, and the distance it travelled before it was stopped by the transverse Alpine ranges and the Mediterranean Sea was at most 1,200 miles. Unable to cross these barriers, most of it perished. The same circumpolar flora which was driven south into Asia however had to travel no less than 3,000 miles to reach the Himalayas even by the direct route through Central Asia, which may have been partly desert. The Tian Shan and the Tibet plateau lay athwart its path; and finally the Himalayas being themselves glaciated (like the European Alps), no alpine flora could possibly' lodge there except during an interglacial lull. In fact there is no evidence of any Arctic flora having reached the Himalayas by this route. A more probable route is that already described for the East Asiatic flora via the China coast and the Yunnan plateau, or via the Indo-Chinese ranges and Malaysia. But it does not seem probable that the circumpolar flora as such reached the Himalaya by this route, without undergoing great modification in the course of its long journey. For the Sino-Himalayan flora is more complex than the European-Alpine flora, although the two are obviously allied. Re- garding the alpine flora of North Burma, a part of the Sino-Hima- layan flora, let us set out the proved facts, the probable, but improv- es facts and the reasonable assumptions, and see whither they lead us. A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 569 (i) Almost the whole of North Burma was during the Pleistocene period covered by an ice sheet. At this time therefore there could have been no alpine flora on the Irrawaddy plateau. (ii) The modern North Burma alpine flora is part of the alpine flora which stretches from Kashmir to Western China and through- out Tibet — the Sino-Himalayan flora. (Hi) The present Sino-Himalayan flora has close Palaearctic affinities. (iv) Before the Pleistocene glaciation the Irrawaddy plateau was covered with some sort of flora, just as the rest of Sino-Himalaya was covered with some sort of flora, whether alpine, subalpine or other- wise. There hs no reason to suppose that the region, with the possi- ble exception of Tibet, was a desert. The southern escarpment of the plateau at any rate must always have supported a rich flora except when it was actually under ice. (v) It is probable that the pre-glacial Sino-Himalayan flora was as uniform over the whole mountainous area as the present one, or more so ; it may have been poorer in species. (vi) 'This pre-glacial flora can hardly have had much in common with the circumpolar flora which in Pliocene or at any rate in Miocene times was a moist warm temperate flora. Even though the two may have been in direct contact through north-west Europe or north- east Asia or both, there was no reason why they should mingle. > ( vii ) Before an^ during the ice age movement along the entire length of the Alpine-Himalayan system, from north-west to south- east and also north and south along the Burma-Malay arc was unhindered. These were two of the great migration routes in south- east Asia. (viii) If both ends of the Sino-Himalayan region were in direct contact with the Holarctic region which stretched across the Eura- sian continent, it would provide a possible route* or routes by which the Holarctic flora could later reach North Burma. In the north- western Himalaya numerous alpines common to the Arctic regions, but so far not recorded from the Eastern Himalayas, occur. Yet the fact that a few species are common to the Arctic, and are found throughout the length of the Himalaya suggests this as one probable line of migration. For example Thalictrum alpinum, Corydalis ccish- meriana , Draba alpina , Saxifraga flagellaris are common to North Burma, the Himalayan region and the Arctic regions. (ix) An ice sheet covering northern Siberia fanning out south- wards, might have driven the circumpolar flora southwards through Central Asia. (*) Another possible route by which the circumpolar flora might have reached Sino-Himalaya is via the China coast and the highlands of South China, thence north-westwards across Indo-China and Yunnan. We know that the ice did drive the circumpolar flora southwards fanwise — it is the classic explanation for the striking resemblances between the flora of maritime China and Japan and the Atlantic States of North America. It seems probable that such trees as, Taiwania , Gordonia, Rhodoleia , several laurels, Magnolias, Rhododendrons, Vernonia Vidalii and Hamamelidaceae reached North Burma by this route, Some of the aboye might yet be foiind 570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV in the Eastern Himalayas or at least in northern Assam. Some alpines too may have followed this route. (xi) Periods of maximum glaciation must always have kept the East Asiatic and Himalayan floras apart. It is obvious that no plants, East Asiatic or otherwise, could reach the Himalayas, itself a glaciated region, during an all out ice age. The Himalayan flora was being driven outwards. Any plants driven south-east got away, any plants driven into Central Asia perished in the desert just as much of the circumpolar Magnolia flora which was driven into Europe, perished on the shores of the Mediterranean or against the Alpine- Carpathian barrier. But some of the northern flora after being telescoped into the eastern Mediterranean flora might escape along the Himalayas and travel intermittently the full length of these mountains during interglacial periods. Equally from another polar quadrant the escaping flora might have moved gradually across China, following the northern moun- tain folds to the eastern edge of the Tibet plateau. (xii) The succession of glacial and interglacial periods was the principal means for the restocking of Sino-Himalaya, including North Burma, after the destruction of the original flora. During the early stages, whatever flora there was there, must have been driven out and much of it was overwhelmed. Since the last advance of the ice the flora has been steadily following up the retreat. Meanwhile a new flora had been driven across eastern Asia, coming from the north. The above are assumptions 3 if they lack' proof at least there is a certain amount of evidence for them, no fatal objection to their acceptance. In fact they are reasonable inferences. We have to account for the Palaearctic affinities of the North Burma alpine and subalpine flora and we infer that it .was derived, like the North American and alpine European floras and in the same way mainly from the north. Most of the North Burma alpines are found in Western China or in the Eastern Himalayas, or in Tibet. Endemic alpines are few. The affinity is with the east rather than with the west, indicating that the flora has been largely derived from that direction. — , This is well illustrated by the genus Rhododendron. About 130 species are recorded from Burma, the great majority of them from North Burma. ' The table on p. 571 shows the distribution of 80 species which I have collected in North Burma : This list of North Burma species is not complete, and the distribu- tion of species is likely to be modified in the -future with further exploration. But I believe it gives a fair general picture of the lay- out and hence a clue to how Rhododendrons came into North Burma during and after the glaciation. Ths first thing to notice is the large proportion of endemics, 24 out of 80 or 30%. Only seven of these are alpines however. Secondly, whereas North Burma shares 3 species with the Eastern Himalaya only. (i.e. with the mountains -to the west), it shares no less than 22 species with the mountains to the east alone. Even if the Assam-Tibet area to the north-west is included, it only adds 8 species to the three mentioned. If we add another 8 species, A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 571 NORTH BURMA SPECIES OF RHODODENDRON Name of species Endemic Sikkim and E. Himalaya Assam and S. E. Tibet Yunnan aemulorum • • • ... +. agapetum + ... apodectum ... + ... ... ... arizelum + 4* asperulum + Beanianum *+ Beesianum ... + bullatum 4 butyricum + calciphila ... ... calostrotum + ...* ... campylogyniim ... ... + + cephalanthum ... ... ... + cerasinnm + ... chamaetortum ... + ... ... chryseum + . chrysolepis + ... crassum ... + crebreflorum + ... crinigerum ... ... + decorum ... + Delavayi ... ... dendricola + ... dendrocharis + ... ... eclecteum ... ■ + eriogynum + ... euchaites ... + + facetum + fulgens ... i -... ■ + Genestierianum ... ... ... ... + habrotrichum ... ... + hylaeum ... -t- hypolepidotum ... ... + imperator + ... insculptum + ... kasoense ... + keleticum • + - ... Kyawi ... ... leptothrium ... * ... ... + + magnificum ... + ... ... Martinianum + megeratum ■+ + megacalyx ... ... + + manipurense ... + ... microphyton ... + micromeres ... + myrtilloides + ... neriiflorum + ' + niphargum + + notatum + ... 572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV NORTH BURMA SPECIES OF RHO DO DEN DRON — ( Contd. ) Name of species Endemic r—. 2 os q ■m Assam and S. E. Tibet c a a p >* pankimense + praestans + protistura T". pruniflorum At'. pumilum ' + + repens + + + rhaibocarpum ... ... + + 1 riparium ... + saluenense + selense ... + seinghkuense + sidereum ... + • + + Simsii ... .. . + sino-grande ... + + + sino-nuttallii + ! + Stuartianum + stenaulum + + suaveolens + ... ... ... Taggianum “T tanastyltim + tarorense + telopeum + + tephropeplum ... ... + + timeteum ... ... + trichocladum ... ... + + triflorum ... . + + tsarongense + vaccinioides + + vesiculi ferum + virgatum + + xanthostephanum (aureum). ... ... + common to both the Eastern Himalaya and to the Assam-Tibet area, we still have only 19 species from the west as compared with 22 species from the east. But in that case we must add 13 species recorded from both China and Assam-Tibet, increasing the total of eastern species to 35, or almost 44% of the whole. The Assam-Tibet area in fact belongs as much to the eastern mountain region as to the western; it is the link between the two. For that reason it is perhaps curious that only three species are known to occur in all four areas, i.e., to go right across from the Eastern Himalaya to Yunnan via both Assam and North Burma; though this I attribute to lack of exploration — -I suspect that more species do in fact cover the whole area. It is significant that one of the three — R. repens — is an alpine. Apart from a general resemblance in its Czuciferae , Papilio- naceae , Caryophyllaceae , Rosaceae , Composite^ , Umbelliferae and in its Saxifrages, AnemonieS, Primulas, Gentians, Ranunculus , Polygonum and a score more genera, what ..Arctic species of plants are there in North Burma today which are unknown elsewhere? Only A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 573 one that I know oi—Cornus suaedica , which I found on the Nam Tamai range at about 10,000 feet altitude in 1937. And since this plant is unknown from the Himalayas, it probably reached North Burma by way of north-east or possibly south-east China. In the immense spaces and varied climates of Sino-Himalaya, many northern genera found new centres of development, e.g. Rhodo- dendron, Primula , Meconopsis (all but one endemic) Berberis, Pedicularis, Cotoneaster ; while other large genera of world wide, northern distribution such as Lilium and Senecio produced new independent genera ( Nomacharis and Notholirion ; Cremanthodium and Ligularia). But it is worth noting that Campanula , so prolic in the mountains of Europe, made no headway in Sino-Himalaya and is represented by few species. Other genera of Campanulaceae are fairly well represented. One point emerges clearly. Since the Palsearctic flora got as for as Australia where Rhododendron Lochae is an outlier there is nothing surprising in its having' firmly establish- ed itself in Sino-Himalaya; if indeed the entire alpine flora of Sino- Himalaya is anything more than a modified and greatly enriched Palasarctic flora. There are a number of Sino-Himalayan endemics, but few of them are peculiar to Burma. One other point — the glaciation of South-East Asia roughly outlined the limits of the various floral regions now recognisable, by interposing a barrier of ice in the form of a vast arc between India and China and between India and Central Asia. It was not until the passing of the ice and the establishment of the Sino-Himalayan flora proper, that the present drainage came into being. Another result was to substitute a mainly north and south migration movement for the hitherto pre- dominantly east and west migration movement along the Himalayan chain. An alpine flora, driven from the Eastern Himalayas by increasingly severe conditions, unless it escaped along the generally lower ranges to the south-east, had the choice of going north onto the Tibet plateau or south into the plains of Bengal — if indeed this was yet dry land and not swamp. Neither was an encouraging prospect. But the Burma-Malay arc and the mountains which strike south-east into- Indo-China offered a line of escape. Possibly some of the pre- glacial flora also escaped by this route. The most important fact which emerges however is that the flora of North Burma, being mainly Sino-Himalayan, is almost entirely a nost-glacial flora. Even the Indo-Malayasian element in it is modern. With glaciers as far south at Htawgaw (lat. 26°) where there is un- questionable evidence of glaciation, it is hardly possible to imagine anv considerable alpine flora surviving in North Burma during the height of the glacial age. In Miocene-Pliocene times there were perhaps no greater barriers to free movement between different parts of South-East Asia than those of climate and altitude, so far as plants are concerned. Continental and maritime climates no doubt existed. But since an arm of the sea extended between peninsular India and the Himalayas (which together with the Tibetan plateau may have been lower), the continental climate would have been mitigated. Thus there may even then have been a slow interchange of flora between the China coast qnd Kashmir. The first onset of glacial conditions set the 574 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV floras in swifter Vnotion. Two results followed from the Sino- Himalayan glaciation. (i) A violent telescoping of floras, whereby the circumpolar flora was pushed southwards into Europe, North America, and Siberia. It then fanned out in East Asia, down the China coast and probably along other routes. At the same time the Sino- Himalayan flora was telescoped into the Malaysian and Indonesian floras. (Any flora on the northern slopes of the Himalayas and in Tibet doubtless perish- ed in Central Asia). (it) At the same time a great wall of ice stretched across Asia from Kashmir to Annam and tlm Central China plateau, cutting oft' all the interior of Asia from the peninsulas of India, Malaya and, Indo-China. During interglacial periods however this barrier would disappear and the crowded floras of the south would stretch out and flow back to fill the spaces uncovered by the retreating ice. In this way cir- cumpolar plants, pushed down the China coast, might eventually turn north-westwards, towards the Himalayas, while the Malaysian flora also would move north through Burma. If the Sino-Himalayan area experienced the same succession of glacial climaxes and inter-glacial periods which we can recognise in Europe, such movements would of course have taken place several times. (To be continued.) OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT. BY Edward G. Nichols. Part II 'v ( Continued from Vol. xliv, No. 3 (1944), p. 407). Picus xanthopygaeus. Green Woodpecker. Maran kotthi, Thachan kuruvi. 4000' to the top of the Palni Hill^. (In other districts it' is found down to 200'.) Resident. Uncommon, among thick trees. The call is a mild falsetto laugh. Picus chlorolophus chlorigaster. Yellow-naped Woodpecker. Salim Ali observed it at Periyar Lake, 3000', and Fairbank took a specimen at Periyur, 4000'. (In other districts it occurs from the plains up to 66oo'. ) Probably resident. Dryobates mahrattensis mahrattensis. Pied Woodpecker. Plains, and Fairbank found it up to 5000' in the Lower Palni Hills. Resident. Rare on the plains, but Fairbank called it fairly common on the hills. Dryobates hardwickii cinereigula. Pigmy Woodpecker. Western hills from 2400' up to Machfir, 4500'. (In other districts down to the low country.) Resident. Rare. OCCi RRENCF OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT Micropternus brachyurus. Rufous Woodpecker. Specimens of the race jerdoni have been taken on the Shevaroys and in Travancore. Salim Ali and I have seen the species at Thekadi, 3000' and it is found up to 5200' in the Palni Hills. Resident. Reported to be common on the High Wavy Mts. Brachypteraus benghalensis puncticollis. Golden-backed Woodpecker. Specimens of the race tehminae have been taken in Travancore. Plains, and up to 4700' in the High Wavy Mts. Resident. Uncommon, but the only woodpecker regularly seen, on the plains. Com- mon in the lower hills. Found in fairly open country as well as forest. The call is a high-pitched laugh,, less emphatic and more tinn^y than the White-breasted Kingfisher’s. Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus chersonesus. White-naped Woodpecker. Fairbank found it at all elevations on the Palni Hills. Prater’s specimen must have been taken not at Madura itself but on the High Wavy Mountains. Resident. Seventy years ago Fairbank called it common. I should say it is uncommon today. Hemicircus canente cordatus. Heart-spotted Woodpecker, Recorded only at Periyar Lake on our western boundary, 3000/ (In Travan- core it is found from the low country up to 4500'.) Probably resident. Vivia innomiuata. Piculet. . Specimens from the Nilgiris and Travancore belong to the race avunculoruvi. I have seen them in trees from 2400' to 5500' on the Palni Hills. (Elsewhere as low as 2000'.) Resident. Uncommon. lynx torquilla. Wryneck. A specimen of the typical form has been obtained in Mysore, I have seen only one bird in ^crub" jungle near Batlagundu, on December 10 and a friend reports one at Kodaikapai in November. Winter visitor. Thereiceryx zeylanicus zeylanicus. Ceylon Barbet. Kuhuruvdn. I have records only between 1000' and 2000', and J. P. Cook secured one at about 2000'. A friend from Ceylon tells me he has seen them at Kodai- kanal, 7000'. (In other districts it occurs up to 4000'.) Resident. Uncommon, in forests. Thereiceryx viridis. Small Green Barbet. Hills from top to bottom, but never on the plains. Resident. Abundant wherever there are trees. Ranks 8th on my Kodaikanal list. Xantholaema haemacephala indica. Crimson-breasted Coppersmith. Sinna kukuruvdn. Plains, and as high as 4400' in the hills. Fairbank was quite correct in his observation of this species' in the lower hills. Resident. One digging a nest-hole on September 3. Common, frequenting fairly heavy trees. The took note is repeated deliber- ately, as fast as 108 per minute. S'/t) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLlP Xantholaema rubricapiila. Crimson-throated Coppersmith. Specimens of the form malabarica have been taken on the Cardamom Hills. Western hills from 2600' to 4500'. (Also in the low country in Ceylon.) Resident. Rare, in forests. Cuculus canorus. Asiatic Cuckoo. Kuyil. The subspecies which breeds in the central Himalayas is called telephonm. Plains. (Also on the hills in the NilgiriSi) Winter ■ visitor. I have seen it only three- seasons, from October 17 tu December 13. Rare, in trees in open country. Cuculus micropterus. Indian Cuckoo. The typical micropterus has been obtained in Travancore.. Plains. (To 5000' in the hills in. other districts.) 1 have seen this species only twice, on October 28 and April 27. (Resident in nearby districts.) Rare, in groves of trees. Hierococcyx sparverioides. Large Hawk-Cuckoo. Howard Campbell is the authority cited by Stuart Baker for the occurrence of this species in the Palni Hills, i have seen only one bird at 4000' on June 1 8th, probably of this species. (From the plains up in other districts.) Probably resident. Hierococcyx varius. Common Hawk-Cuckoo. Plains, and as high as 5400' in the Palni Hills. Resident in the hills, chiefly seen in winter on the plains. Fairly common on the plains, common on the hills. Its ‘brainfever* calls commence in March and last until October. Glamator jacobinus jacobinus. Pied Cuckoo. Kondai kuyil, Sathaha pul. A specimen of C. j. pica has also been taken on the Nilgiris. Plains, and hills up to 4800/ (In the Nilgiris up to 7000'.) Resident. Uncommon, preferring scrub jungle but wandering about much. The loud, mournful notes remind one of a shore-bird. Clamator coromandus. Red-winged Cuckoo. There is a mounted specimen in the American College, Madura, secured by Star & Sons, probably at Sholavandan. (Up to 6ooo' in other districts.) Rare winter visitor. (October to March in Ceylon.) Budynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus. Koel. Kuyil. Plains, and up to 6900' in the hills. (To 7000' in the Nilgiris.) Resident. Uncommon, wandering about much, usually found in thick groves. The voice is somewhat sweeter than that of the Hawk-Cuckoo. Rhopodytes viridirostris. Malkoha. Puld poruki. On the plains, it extends out irom the foot of the hills as far as 7 miles. In the Lower P'alnis,, it is found as high as 2000'. (Ascends as high as 4000' in Mysore.) Resident. Fairly common in scrub jungle. I have heard a very mild, querulous croak. Taccocua leschenaultii leschenaultii. Sirkeer Cuckoo. iooo' to 3000' on the western hills. (As high as 6ooo' in the Nilgiris.) Resident. Uncommon, found in thorny bushes on the lower slopes. 577 Occurrence of birds in madura district Centropus sinensis parroti. Southern Crow-Pheasant. Sem botthu, Senpaham. Plains, and as high as 7000' in the hills. * Resident. Seen mating on December 10. Fairly common on the plains, common on the lower hills, occasional at the top. Found in groves of trees. The deep, resounding hoo is repeated 6 to 8 times. Centropus bengalensis (bengalensis ?) Lesser Crow-Pheasant. Salim Ali took a specimen at Kumili, 3000'. (Up to 5000' in other districts.) Psittacula krameri manillensis. Rose-ringed Paroquet. Pachai kili. Plains and in cultivated places on the Upper Palnis up to 6000'. Resident. Common, ranking 10th in order, of abundance in my notes. Flocks of 50 or more are found. Psittacula cyanocephala cyanocephala. Blossom-headed Paroquet. Sivappu - thalai kili. Plains, and in the hills up to 5500' according to Terry. (To 7000' in the Nilgiris.) Resident. Fairly common when grain and fruit are ripe. The notes are softer and sweeter than the Rose-ring’s, and quite varied. Psittacula columboides. Blue-winged Paroquet. 1400' to 4500' on the western hills. (In Travancore it ranges from the low country to 5000'.) Resident. Fairly common in tall trees in forests. The call is a high-pitched, soft and pleasant queenk, not as sweet as the Blossom-headed ’s. Coryllis vernalis. Loriquet. * Kanni kili. From the base of the hills up to 4500'. (In the Nilgiris up to 6000'.) Resident. Common in the tree-tops in wooded sections. Coracias benghalesnis indica. Southern Roller. Panan hakai, Pal kurvvi. Plains, and there are a few records in the western hills up to about 3500' by Terry. (In the Shevaroys it has been recorded up to 4000'.) Resident. Common, frequenting exposed perches and palm trees in open country. Merops orientalis. Common Bee-eater. Panjuruttdn. The typical race has been 'secured in Trichinopoly Dist. and Travancore. Plains, and on open slopes of the Palni Hills up to 4900'. (In the Nilgiris it has been noted up to 7000'.) Resident. Common, sometimes as many as 50 in a flock. Merops superciiiosus javanicus. Blue-tailed Bee-eater. Pdains. Fairbank found the species as high as Periyur, 4000'. (In Ceylon it reaches 5000'.) Winter visitor, arriving August 10 one year, August 30 another, but more often in September. Last date, April 2. I also saw one at the north base of the Sirumalai on June 13, July 4. Abundant, in flocks of hundreds on wires. Merops leschenaulti. Chestnut-headed Bee-eater. The subspecies leschenaulti has been taken in Salem District and Travan- core. Hills, from 750' at the foot of Alahar Malai up to 6400' near Kodaikanal. Resident. Fairly common on the open slopes. The notes are a little more musical than those of the other bee-eaters. 578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV * Bucia athertoni. Blue-bearded Bee-eater. 1500' to 4000' on the western hills. (Up to 5000' in the Nilgiris.) Rare at the edge of forest. Resident. Ceryle rudis. Pied Kingfisher. Min kotthi. The race leucomelanura has been taken in Cuddapah District and Ceylon, while Travancore specimens belong to travancoreensis. Plains, and up to 66oo' at Kodaikanal once. Resident. Fairly common where there is plenty of water. The call is a shrill, sharp, twittering cry. Alcedo atthis. Common Kingfisher. The subspecies taprobana has been taken in Travancore and at Palghat. At all elevations. Resident. More common than the Pied, wherever there is^ water on the plains. In the hills it is uncommon. Ramphalcyon capensis. Stork-billed Kingfisher. The subspecies gurial has been taken in N. Kanara. Plains, and Salim Ali saw it as high as Periyar Lake, 3000'. (Up to 3500' in other districts.) Probably resident. Rare, but 'Fairbank observed it twice at the foot of the Palni Hills years ago and I have two records near Periyakulam. Halcyon smyrnensis. White-breasted Kingfisher. The typical smyrnensis has been taken in Salem District, fusca in Travan core. , At all elevations. Resident. Common on the plains, uncommon in the hills. Often seen on the plains far from water. Dichoceros bicornis. Great Hornbill. Malai mdngu. On the western hills, from the base up to 5500'. The former locality is noted in J. R. Henderson’s list, and* the latter is reported by Mr. J. H. Lawson, above Kukal Cave. Resident. W. W. Wallace found a nest in the Varusha Nadu valley. Uncommon, in the wildest forests only ; perhaps most numerous on the High Wavy Mountains. Tockus birostris. Common Hornbill. Iru vdy kuruvi . Plains only. (In other districts the species ascends the hills to 3000'.) Perhaps only a winter wanderer. Fairbank took a specimen near Palni in October 1876, and my only record is of a flock of 6 in roadside trees near Ayakudi on March 3. Rare. Tockus griseus. Malabar Grey Hornbill, The typical form has been taken in Travancore. At the base of the western hills,, reported by F'airbank doubtfully, J. R. Henderson, and J. H. Lawson probably. (The species * is found from 400' to over 5000' in Travancore.) Probably resident. S. K. Bunker and I saw one flock in forest 2400'. UpUpa epops. Hoopoe, Kondai latthi, PuJu kotthi. The resident subspecies, ceylonensis, has been obtained on Rameswaram, in Trichinopoly . District, and Travancore. The European race, epops, has been taken in winter in N. Kanara, and probably also by Fairbank on the Palni Hills, but Fairbank did not send his specimen to. Hume for identification, sq this is not certain. OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT 579 At all elevations where houses are found. In Kodaikanal it was unknown In Fairbank’s day, 1877, but by 1883 Terry had noted it ‘everywhere in small numbers’. Resident. Fairly common on the plains, common in Kodaikanal. I have timed the calls and counted as many as 19 in a minute. Harpactes fasciatus malabaricus. Trogon. Vandu kutthi. From 2500' up to 5000' on the western hills. (2000' to 6000' in other ■districts.) Resident. In dense forests, small flocks are seen in undergrowth. Rare. Micropus melba bakeri. Alpine Swift. Ulavdra kuruvi. At all elevations. My records all fall between January 27 and September 10. This period probably includes the breeding season. In August Jerdon observed near Madura flocks apparently migrating eastward. (Biddulph saw the species on Rameswaram only from December to March and from August to October.) Uncommon, sometimes solitary, sometimes as many as 20 together. [It will be remembered that Biddulph (Jour., xl, 247) recorded parties of 20 to 40 ‘seated on telegraph wires alongside the railway line’. To our enquiry the author has' confirmed his statement since. Nevertheless sitting on telegraph wires is such an unheard of — and seemingly impossible — thing for a true swift to do, that it does not seem beyond the bounds of possibility some error in identification may have crept in. To that extent this particular record needs to be taken with reserve. But the Alpine Swift may, of course, occur on Rameswaram Island notwithstanding. — Eds. ] Micropus affinis. House Swift. The typical affinis has been taken in South Arcot District. At. all elevations. Resident on the plains. Locally common on the plains, especially in old temples and the Madura palace, in flocks of about 200 or more. Occasional large flocks over the hills. Cypsiurus parvus. Palm Swift. The subspecies batassiensis has been taken in Salem District and Travancore. Plains, and up to 2000' on the Lower Palni Hills. Resident. Very common, ranking 6th in abundance among our plains-birds. Seldom seen out of sight of palmyra palms. The call is thin and shrill, a cheerful staccato series of notes. Chaetura gigantea. Brown-throated Spinetail Swift. Specimens of the race indica have been taken in Travancore. Plains, and up to 5600' in the Palni Hills. All my records fall between December 2 and July 31, except October 11. Fairly common on the plains, especially near the foot of the hills. It gives a loud, shrill twittering, rather sweet in tone. Indicapus sylvaticus. White-rumped Spinetail Swift. I have seen the species only once at 7200' near Pillar Rocks. (In other ■districts it is found in jungle as low as 2000'.) Coilocalia fuciphaga unicolor. Swiftlet. At all. elevations. Resident in the hills. Very common in the hills, ranking 4th among Kodaikanal birds. I have ■seen the species in only a few places on the plains, usually near the foot of the hills, but once at Sholavandan. Hemiprocne coronata. Crested Swift. From 1000' to 7000^ on the western hills and once at Madura. Resident. My records fall between February 1 and October 2. Fairly common among thin trees on the drier slopes of the lower hills, as many as 15 in a flock. 6 580 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Capriraulgus tnacrourus. Long-tailed Nightjar. Pathuhai kuruvi, Pathungi . The subspecies atripennis has been taken in Travancore. Plains, and up to 3000' in the hills. (In Travancore 3500'.) Resident. Mrs. Cantlay reports it to be common on the High Wavy Mountains. I have only a few records, mostly near the base of the hills. Caprimulgus indicus indicus. Jungle Nightjar. From 5000' to 7000' on the western hills. (In other districts it is found down to the low country.) Resident. Terry called it common on open downs near sholas. I have only a few records. Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus. Little Nightjar. Plains, and up to noo' at the base of the hills. (Up to 4000' in Ceylon.) Resident. Fairly common in scrub jungle, barren fields, boulder-strewn hillsides. Tyto alba stertens. Barn Owl. Kuhai. Plains, and up to about 2000 on the lower slopes of the Palni Hills. Dr. T. C. Jerdon caught one alive when it flew into his room at Madura. Resident. Fairly common, judging from the frequency of sucking or grating calls at night. Tyto longimembris. Grass Owl. The typical form has been taken on the Nilgiris. The only record is Terry’s sight observation at Pallangi, 5500', on the Palni Hills. (In other districts it occurs on the plains also.) Asio fiatnmeus. Short-eared Owl. The typical flammeus has been taken on the Nilgiris and in Travancore. Hume & Dewar both stated that this species had been procured on the Palni Hills. (In other districts the range is from the plains up to 7000'.) Winter visitor. (The season in Ceylon is from .November to February.) Rare. Strix indranee. Brown Wood Owl. Specimens of the race indranee have been taken on the Shevaroy and Nilgiri Hills. Plains, and up to 1100' in the Varusha Nadu valley. (At all elevations in other districts.) Resident. I have one sure sight record on July 30, others doubtful. Strix oceliata. Mottled Owl. Plains, where I have heard a metallic note from two large owls at Batlagundu in January. Large owls along the roads at night may be this species. (Occurs as high as 2800' in Mysore.) Probably resident. Ketupa zeylonensis. Fish Owl. Fairbank’s specimen was probably leschenaulti, which has been surely taken in Salem District and Cochin State. At Dindigul, I think I have heard it once, at Kodaikanal several times. (At all elevations in other districts.) Resident. Rare. Bubo bubo bengalensis. Great Horned Owl. Plains. (Ascends the Nilgiri Hills rarely.) Resident. Uncommon, on the small rocky hills that rise out of the plains, and at the base of the larger hills. OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT 581 Bubo nipalensis. Forest Owl. The typical nipalensis has been taken in Salem Dist. One record,, at noo' in the Varusha Nadu valley on a cloudy afternoon. (In the Nllgiris it occurs up to 7000'.) Probably resident. Otus bakkamoena. Collared Scops Owl. Anthai. The typical bakkamoena has been taken in Travancore. Plains, and in the lower ^Palni Hills as high as 3400'. (To 4000' in the Nllgiris.) Resident. Fairly common in shrubbery near houses in places. I have seen only one by day. Athene bratna brama. Spotted Owlet. Plains. (As high as 3000' in Mysore.) Resident. Common everywhere, replacing the Drongos as soon as dusk sets in. Glaucidium radiatum. Jungle Owlet. The Travancore race is called malabaricum. I have seen only one Jn daylight, on the slopes of the Palni Hills at 2000' on June 22. (In Travancore this is the common owlet from sea-level up to 5000'.) Resident, probably. Sarcogyps calvus. Black Vuture. Kaluhu, Plains, and at all elevations on the hills. Resident. Howard Campbell records its breeding at Kodaikanal. Uncommon. I have sieen a few on the plains in winter, and more in the hills. Gyps fulvus. Griffon Vulture. The race fulvescens has been obtained in N. Kanara. Salim Ali’s sight record at Kumili, 3000', on February 28, is the only record for South India. [Probably Long-billed Vulture. — Eds.] Gyps indicus. Long-billed Vulture. The typical indicus has been obtained at Pondicherry. Plains, and hills to 7700' near Kodaikanal. Probably resident. I have only one record on the plains, a few more in the hills. Pseudogyps bengalensis. WJiite-backed Vulture. At all elevations. Resident. Fairly common on the hills, rather less so on the plains. Sometimes 10 or mere together near a town. Neophron perenopterus. White Vulture. Manjal thirudi. The type locality of the race ginginianus is Gingee, South Arcot Dist. At all elevations. Resident. A nest with half-grown young on July 30. Common on the plains, less so on the hills. Frequently seen around towns. Falco peregrinus. Peregrine Falcon. Vallum, Irdsdli. Specimens of the resident peregrinalor and of the winter visitor colidus have been taken at Madras and in Travancore. Plains and up to 4900^. At any altitude in other districts.) Perhaps only _ a winter visitor. My records, some uncertain, extend from September 3 to March 29. Rare. Falco jugger. Laggar Falcon. Plains. (In other districts up to perhaps 3000'.) My records extend from April to August, but all of them are vague. (Biddulph’s observations on Rameswaram Island run from June to November.) Uncommon. 582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Falco chiquera. Merlin Falcon, The typical chiquera has been taken near Bombay. Plains. Winter visitor in October and March only. (Breeds in Tinnevelly Dist.) Erythropus amurensis. Red-legged Falcon. I saw one on March 9 at Dindigul. (Jerdon found the species in the Nilgiri Hills.) Winter visitor as far south as Ceylon. (September to April is the period ■of stay farther north.) Falco tinnunculus. Kestrel. The resident race, objurgatus , has been taken in Travancore and on Rames- waram. The European race, tinnunculus, has been taken in winter in Salem, Travancore, and Ceylon. The Chinese race, inter siinctus , has also been taken in winter in Coimbatore District and Travancore. At all elevations. I have seen a nest at 8ooo' in the Palni Hills. (On the Nilgiris it breeds as low as 4000'.) On the plains, my records extend from November 6 to April 14. (On Rameswaram, Biddulph found the arrival to be in October.) Fairly common. The call is a screaming klee repeated rapidly a dozen .times or more. Aquila rapax. Tawny Eagle. Irdsdli, Punjey parunthu. The subspecies is vindhiana in the case of a Madras specimen. Single birds seen on December 2 at the foot of the hills near Batlagundu and on March 20 at Kodaikanal probably belonged to this species. Previously .recorded only as far south as Madras, as a resident. Aquila clanga. Greater Spotted Eagle. Plains. Winter visitor, on July 26 and from November 16 to April 12. Uncommon, in wet fields, where it stands around or flies slowly low over the fields. There is a good specimen of this species in the American College, locally obtained. Hieraeius fasciatus. Bonelli’s Eagle. Parunthu. The typical fasciatus has been taken in Hyderabad State. At all elevations on the Palni Hills. (On plains in 'Tinnevelly Dist.) Probably a resident. Uncommon, often perching on trees. Kierab'ius pennatus. Booted Eagle. I have two records on the plains, and one at Kodaikanal, 6900'. Winter visitor, December 03 to March 20. (Arrives Oct. 17 in other districts.) Rare. Lophotriorchis kienerii. Rufous-bellied Hawk-Eagle. Travancore specimens probably belong to the typical race. From 3000' at Thekadi up to 7000' at Kodaikanal, where S. K. Bunker Fas seen it. (In Travancore it occurs down to 200'.) Resident. Rare. Ictinaetus malayensis. Black Eagle. The race found in Travancore is probably perniger. From 1500' to 8000' on the: western hills. (In Travancore it is also found as low as 500'.) Resident. Fairly common, over forests and open slopes. OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT 583: Spizattus cirrhatus. Crested Hawk-Eagle. Kondaiyan. The typical cirrhatus has been taken in Travancore. 4500' to 7000' on the Palni Hills. (Occurs also in the low country of Travancore.) Probably resident. Rare ; have seen only 4. Nisaetus nipaleasis. Feather-toed Eagle. Specimens from Travancore belong to the Ceylon race, kelaarti. I have only 4 probable records in the Palni Hills from 3000' to 7100'. (In Travancore it occurs as low as iooo'.) Circaetus gallicus or ferox. Short-toed Eagle. Onan kutthi , Pdmbu parunthu.. Plains, lower hills, and once at Kodaikanal, 7000'. Resident. Uncommon, most often seen near the base of the hills. Haemafornis cheela. Serpent Eagle. Specimens of melanotis have been taken in Travancore and Mysore. • Plains at Dindigul once, and on the Palni Hills as high as 7500'. Resident. Fairly common. Butastur teesa. White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle. Parunthu. Two sight records on the plains, Jan. 16 & Feb. 12. (Up to 2800' in other districts where it is resident.) Ichthyophaga ichlhyaetus. Fishing Eagle. Aid. Stuart Baker says that Travancore specimens may be classed with the typical ichthyaeta. Only observed at Periyar Lake, 3000'. (Occurs in the low country also> in Travancore.) Rare, resident. Haliastur indus. Brahminy Kite. Sembarunthu , Garuda patchi. Specimens from Pondicherry and Trivandrum belong to the typical indus ~ Plains, and up to 7700' in the hills. Resident. Common, being 9th in order of abundance among our plains-birds. Almost. always found in sight of water. Milvus migrans. Common Kite. Karum parunthu. A specimen from the Shevaroy Hills belongs to the race govinda. . Plains, and in the hills at all elevations. Resident. Ranks 7th among plains-birds in my records. Also common in the hills- Flocks of about 40 gather when there is a plentiful supply of food such as- termites. Elanus coeruleus. Black-winged Kite. Naraiydn parunthu. Salim Ali collected one of the race vociferus on the Cardamom Hills, and: the type-locality is ‘Coromandel coast’. Plains, and as high as 7500' in the western hills. Probably resident in the hills. Rare. Circus macrourus. Pale Harrier. Punai parunthu. Plains. In the hills up to 7000^ E. L. Bradby has seen some. Winter visitor, from Oct. 21 to March 24. Brown harriers, species not known, have been seen from October 3 to April 15. (The arrival date of the Pale Harrier is in September at Coimbatore, and a few stay all year in Ceylon.) Common on the plains, less so in the hills. 584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Circus pygargus. Montague’s Harrier. Plains. (Also in the hills in other districts.) Winter visitor, which I have definitely noted from November 7 until April 1. Probably fairly common. There is a specimen, I think, in the American College, Madura. Cirucs meianoleucus. Pied Harrier. Plains, and up 6900' at Kodaikanal. Winter visitor, from November 28 to April 12. (April 18 is the departure date in Travancore.) Fairly common. Circus aeruginosus. Marsh Harrier. The typical race has been taken in Travancore. Plains. (It ascends the Nilgiris to 7000'.) Winter visitor, September 24 to April 22. (On Rameswaram it stays as late as June.) Fairly common ; more confined to water-filled fields than the other harriers are. Astur badius badius. Shikra Hawk. Kichan valluru. Sdlim All’s specimens from Kumili are assigned to the Ceylon race badius, but the Indian dussumieri occurs on the Eastern Ghats and in Mysore. Plains, and in the. hills as high as 7000'. Resident. Fairly common on the plains, in light jungle or trees near houses. I have •seen one trying to catch bats at dusk. The call is a sharp double whistle, kee, keeoo, repeated tiresomely. Accipiter nisus. Asiatic Hawk. On, an adilzi valluru. Travancore specimens belong to the race nisosimilis. Plains. (Up to 7000' in other districts.) Winter visitor, .September 9 to January 17. (Stays at Coimbatore until March.) Rare. Pernls ptilorhynchus. Honey Buzzard. Then parunthu. Specimens from the Nilgiris belong to the subspecies ruficollis. The species has been seen only by Salim Ali at Periyar Lake, on our western border, 3000'. (Found from the plains up to 7000' in forests in •other districts.) Baza jerdoni. Brown Baza. Kdtlu parunthu. The subspecies ceylonensis has been found in Travancore. Palni Hills; my 2 records were at 5000' and 6900'. (Found also lower in the Wynaad.) Probably resident. May 11 & June 15 are my records. (To be continued) MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. I.— A BLACK JUNGLE CAT FROM KARACHI AND THE PANTHER OF SIND. The interesting account by Mr. K. R. Eates of the occurrence of a black Panther near Karachi, published in the Journal Dec. 1943, pp. 291-292, reminds me of the equally interesting and equally unexpected occurrence many years ago of a black, silver-tipped Jungle Cat at the same locality. Its skin, without further particulars, was sent by Mr. W. S. Millard, at that time Secretary of the Society, to the British Museum (Natural History) and I described it in my Mammals of British India , 1, p. 300, 1939. Very similar specimens of this beautiful variety, recal- ling a ‘sivler-fox’, were shot by St. G. Burke in the United Pro- vinces. May I remind some of your readers that the panthers of Sind or at ail events of the Kirthar Range are of particular interest and comparatively very little known to zoologists. On the evidence of a single skin given to him by H. E. Watson, Blanford pointed out in 1888 that this panther can be distin- guished at a glance from the ordinary Indian and Ceylonese pan- thers. This skin is in the British Museum, but the only other skin of this race in the national collection is one from Waziristan presented by Major D. G. Lowndes. A description of this race may be found on p. 233 of my volume cited above. The value that sportsmen attach to such handsome trophies as panther skins, everyone understands ; but on behalf of the British Museum I should like to make an appeal for either skins or skulls, pre- ferably both, of this animal if they are available; and I may add that damaged or ‘mangry’ skins not worth making into rugs or women’s cloaks are just as interesting to the zoologist as per- fect specimens. Zoological Department, R. I. POCOCK. British Museum (Natural History), February 29, 1944. II. — JACKALS ATTACKING DEER IN CEYLON. The jackals of Ceylon appear to be somewhat larger than those of S. India. I have recently seen a remarkable cine picture of jackals pulling down and killing an adult chital in a pool in Ceylon ; their tactics and methods being exactly the same as those of the Indian Wild Dogs. R. C. MORRIS, Lt.-Col. III.— THE EASTERN RANGE OF THE HIMALAYAN BROWN BEAR ( URSUS ARCTOS ISABELLINUS ). In the second volume of the Mammals of British India , p. 173, 1941, I stated that the range of this bear in the Himalayas was from ‘the Valley of Chitral in the west to the basin of •the Bhagirathi in Tehri Garhwal in the east and possibly to Nepal’ ; and I added a footnote suggesting that Horsfield’s 586 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV original specimen, recorded from the mountains of Nepal, was perhaps a traded skin from Tehri Garhwal or Kulu. The doubt thus expressed regarding its natural occurrence in Nepal was due to my being unacquainted at that time with any record of tlie bear having been shot or seen in that country. But Mr. N. B. Kinnear has recently drawn my attention, to an account by T. W. Webber in The Forests of Upper India, pp. 95-96, 1902, which runs as follows: — ‘Our light camp was pitched on sloping ground in a considerable valley in Nepal, east of Kali,, on the south bank of a rushing torrent which drained the ex- tensive slopes of the lofty peak of Api .... At dusk we searched the hillside with binoculars and sighted some burrhel grazing, also a big brown bear. The black bear is usually found in Kumaon , and the brown in Kashmir ; but a few of the latter exist in these valleys’. Since the Kali river is the boundary between Kumaon and Nepal, the occurrence of this bear at all events in the extreme west of the latter country is thus established and there is no longer any justification for doubting the accuracy of Horsfield’s statement. Zoological Department R. I. POCOCK. British Museum (Natural History), March 10, 1944. IV.— BEAR HUNTING ON THE WULAR LAKE. As I was writing a note after an early breakfast a shikara (punt) arrived at my houseboat with an excited crew. I was invited to join a bear hunt on the waters of the Wular Lake. A solitary shikara half a mile away was following a black object in the water heading for the opposite shore, some 3 miles off- A man in the bows took occasional shots at the bear’s head with a long crooked pole, which soon broke to bits. I refused, to join the hunt, not being desirous of killing black bears in any circumstances much less without a licence and the poor creature defenceless. The deputation loaded its boat with as many big* stones as it would safely carry and rejoined the chase closely followed by another manned by my cook, waiter and sweeper. While the bear was stoned from one boat, the cook in the other kept ducking him with a long punt pole. At this stage the bear began a series of roars that kept all craft at a distance, but the cook braver than the rest resumed his method of attack and literally dozens of boats joined in including a punt gunner in his craft with its long matchlock gun. The final killing was due to a combination of drowning and blows on the head from an axe. The bear was hauled ashore and skinned, the local forest guard insisting on taking the pelt and head to the Forest Officer as evidence of a flagrant breach of the Game Laws. My retriever daily eats bear steaks for his evening meal and seems to like them. The bear had come into a village on the shore of the lake and on being chased by dogs, took to- the water. A similar killing took place further along the shore- 10 days previously. It is said that this year jungle fruits are very poor and bears are hard put to get enough to eat. This MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 587 one was in fine condition but not fat. His stomach contained walnut shells, honeycomb, a wasp’s nest, some bees and wasps, grubs and a good many pieces of bone. Srinagar, Kashmir. G. de la P. BERESFORD, December 30, 1943. Major General. V. — BREEDING SEASON OF THE INDIAN SAMBAR. Throughout the great mass of the Central part of the Indian Peninsula the rut takes place in the end of November or early in December. With an animal so widely distributed as the Sambar, living under diverse conditions, one would expect departures from this normality, but not anything, so diverse, as that reported by Mr. Simon in his letter of January 21, 1943 ( Journ . B. N. H. S.y Vol. xliv, No. 1, p. 1 18). From that letter one gathers, that the antlers are shed in May, and breeding takes place in late June, and early July: this means that the rut takes place while the stag’s horns are still in full velvet. So far as I am aware, this has never occurred in the case of any other deer, anywhere. Apart from the physical condition of the stag at the time, it is a complete negation of one of the main raison d’etres of the growth of the horn. It is notorious that one of the first effects of captivity in a wild animal, is a disarrangement of the sex life, and it is prob- able that the extraordinary facts, reported by Mr. Simon are merely evidence of this disturbance having occurred, once again. Elgin, A. A. DUNBAR BRANDER. Scotland. November 16, 1943. VI.— THE LARGER DEER OF INDIA: A CORRECTION. In my paper on the Chital and Hog-Deer published in the issue of this Journal , December 1943, there is a misleading error in the explanation of the text figure on p. 170. Fig. D in reality represents the incisiform teeth of a Sambar and C those of a Chital, not the other way about as stated. The very large median and small lateral teeth are of course characteristic of the Chital and FIog-Deer, not of the Sambar and other large deer previously described. Zoological Department, R. I. POCOCK. British Museum (Natural History). February 29, 1944. VII.— MALFORMED HORNS OF THE GAUR {BIBOS GAURUS). \With a photo). We enclose a photograph of a ‘Malformed’ bison skull, a most interesting specimen, shot by H. H. The Maharaja of Mysore 588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV Malformed horns of Gaur ( Bibos gaurus). near Hanakere in the Biligirirangan Hills, Mysore. We feel sure it will interest you and some of your readers. Mysore, VAN INGEN & VAN INGEN. January 24, 1944. VIII.— OBSERVATIONS ON THE ELEPHANT AND OTHER MAMMALS IN THE ANAMALAI HILLS OF COCHIN. These notes were made in the northern area of the Anamalai Hills, at an altitude of between fifteen hundred and two to three thousand feet, during a month spent studying the fauna between February 1 2th and March 10th, 1944. I. The Indian Elephant ( Elephas maximus indicus) : I have three notes worthy of record. Taking them chronologically : February 14 th : I was watching, from the opposite slope of a narrow river valley, a herd of twenty-five to thirty elephants moving through a bamboo thicket. They stopped occasionally to feed, but were definitely on the move with loud cracking and snapping of bamboos. One of the local forest guards with me drew my attention to a full-grown bull which was lagging behind the remainder and pushing his way about in a rather dense thicket, giving us an occasional glimpse of him. Presently he appeared at the lower edge of the thicket, just above the river-bed, where he stood facing us, keeping quite still, but obviously on the alert. A few moments later came a sudden crash, as another elephant, up to now hidden, blundered out of the same thicket, and went down into the dry bed of the river, perhaps fifty yards from the tusker, and out of his sight. He did not follow, but showed definite interest ; soon afterwards he disappeared silently a short way into the bamboos, while the second animal remained motion- less in the river bed. After two or three minutes, it climbed up the bank on our side of the river, and into full view, to reveal itself as a cow. She moved very silently along the bank, in the opposite direction to the herd, through a thin growth of bamboo, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 589 as if on ‘tip- toe,’ and stopped after some forty yards. The tusker meanwhile seemed to be making cautiously for her previous position in the stream bed. Unfortunately darkness was falling, and further observation was not possible. . The whole episode savoured of a game of hide-and-seek, and was, I assume, a phase of the courtship. It is worth noting that there was at least one other tusker with the herd, who showed no interest, but moved on with the rest. March 5 th: Going out late in the afternoon after wild pig, I heard much crashing and rampaging in the undergrowth, not far from the forest track ; I approached with my shikari as near as I dared ; almost at once a big tusker reared up on his hind legs above the bamboo, and lunged forwards — followed by a crash as another bull, at which it was evidently aiming, lumbered off out of sight. The first bull did not follow it, but remained still, and the incident seemed over. An hour later I was returning along the same path, and came on him moving about in much the same area as before ; I sat down to watch, and suddenly this bull, up to now comparatively quiet, broke cover, and came past at full gallop, back arched and all his ‘hackles’ up — a gigantic and terrifying spectacle — to hurl himself into the thicket where the second animal had disappeared some time before. Nothing further transpired, and the other had evidently moved further on. It was getting late, and I was unable to stop longer : but some way further down the path, I came on the second beast who had slipped well away to one side, and was standing motion- less among the undergrowth. The Kadar tribesmen of these hills and the forest guards inform me that running fights between bull elephants are quite frequent; and they maintain that it is the general rule for a tusker sooner or later to develop a feud against another. These feuds are said to be kept up intermittently over months or even years, and with ever-growing intensity, until the climax is reached in a battle royal, lasting several- days, and invariably ending in the death of one or even both combatants. The final stages are said to be extreme- ly noisy, and the tribesmen follow up at a safe distance to wait for the ivory of the vanquished. I was told that such fights are particularly common during' the two or three months immediately preceding the rains. March jth: I had come unexpectedly on a solitary bull, and beat a rapid retreat to a safe distance. He turned off the forest track, and after browsing a little, vanished into the forest. I was on the point of continuing on, when another elephant appeared round a bend in the path; this time a calf; it is naturally unheard of for a calf to be on its own, or to lead the way at any time. But very close behind it, there came into view the head and shoulders of a big cow; the two of them advanced down the path, the calf leading all the while, and both moving with extreme, exaggerated slowness. From my cover, eighty yards distant I could only wonder what so strange a reversal of normal habit might mean, 590 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV until, as the line of the track brought them into side view, the mystery explained itself; for, hidden, almost invisible beneath' the body of the mother was a second and minute calf, perhaps born only few hours previously, and which I judged to be week old at the most. As far as I could see it suckled continuously. The pitiable reluctance of the larger calf — a picture of sulky bewilderment — to ^ lead the way instead of trotting safely at its mother’s side was comical to watch. It tried again and again to turn back, only to be countered every time by a swing forward of its mother’s head and trunk. She kept up a ceaseless rumbl- ing-grumbling, which I took to be a wafning to her larger off- spring to keep its place in front. Her skill and patience in controlling simultaneously each of her two offspring was quite remarkable. She moved at a shuffling walk, infinitely slow, stop- ping at frequent intervals, adjusting her every movement to keep step with the faltering pace of her newly-born calf. She as successfully kept the older one at ‘trunk’s length’ in front, goading it forwards away from its normal position, so preventing any risk of interference with its diminutive brother or sister. After some minutes she guided the party off the track, and into a stretch of light jungle, where I did not care to follow her. Size is notoriously difficult to estimate in the field, but the larger calf appeared to be about four and a half feet at the shoulder or rather less ; local opinion put its age at about two years. I do not know at what intervals elephants are known to breed, but in this instance, allowing for the recognised gestation period of 641 days, and assuming the age of the larger calf as correctly estimated, it seems that the two calves must have followed each other in immediate succession, the mother being possibly in breed- ing condition very soon after the first calf was born. It is curious that the customary female helper or ‘nurse-maid’ which is known always to assist with a calf, should have been absent, but I think it likely, especially in view of the very slow movements of the small calf, and the obvious bewilderment of the larger, that the smaller one was not more than a few hours old, and the ‘helper’ had not yet started on her duties. I questioned the Kadar tribesmen and the forest guards con- cerning the breeding season; they stated quite definitely that they see small calves in every month of the year, and did not believe the ‘Ana’ to have any fixed breeding season. The brief glimpse of courtship, the pugnacity of the bulls, and the additional fact that there were large bulls with every herd I saw, indicate February and March — the two months preceding the rains — as a time of breeding activity. On the other hand, the newly-born calf I saw must have started existence about June 1942, in the height of the rainy season. II. Of the larger Game Animals, it is satisfactory to record that Gaur ( Bos bibos gaums), Tahr ( Hemitragus hylocrius), Sambar ( Rusa unicolor ), Chital (Axis axis) and Mutjac (Muntiacus muntjak) all seem to be maintaining their numbers well in the area. I found Chital particularly numerous, and they are said to have increased somewhat during the past few years. I saw a number of good stages. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 50 L The Radar tribe have a definite Taboo against eating either Sambar or Bison, but will take all other animals including the Langur Monkey. I watched four to five herds of Bisson all of which included large bulls, and I only saw one solitary bull. The strange wailing, piping note, usually regarded as the breeding call of the bull, was much in evidence. I came on one small calf, possibly two to three months old. The Tahr or ‘Nilgiri Ibex’ seems to be little disturbed; I saw one herd of about twenty. Chevrotain or Mouse Deer ( Moschiola meminna ) were like- wise plentiful. I stumbled on one in a clump of Bamboo during the heat of the day, it bounded out and stopped in open ground. I kept perfectly still, and the little creature, though not more than ten yards distant and in full view, seemed quite unable to locate me, turning its head this way and that as if suspicious but puzzled. I accordingly made a slight movement of my hand, of which it took no notice. Nor could I get it to respond at all to any movement, even when looking straight in my direction. To the smallest noise however it was most sensitive, instantly turning in the direction whence it came. These observations suggest that the chevrotain is extremely short-sighted, or even blind by day. The protective colouration of this charming little deer is quite perfect. I heard a slight rustle one afternoon from beneath some Lantana bushes, and it took me some minutes to make out a mouse deer, crouched not five feet away, and this even though the ground was almost bare. They are occasionally caught and tamed by the Radars who say that they become very docile and follow their master within a few days of capture. Tiger seem reasonably common in the hills, but black panther are very scarce, although -common some years ago. Of the three monkeys found in the Anamalais, the Nilgiri Langur ( Kasi Johnii ) is abundant, but the forest Officer informed me that they have shown some decrease during the past two or three years, possibly from an epidemic. A limited number are shot, mainly for the supposed medicinal value of the liver; they fetch a price of fifteen rupees when sent down to the plains for thisf purpose. The handsome Lion-faced Macaque ( Macaca silenus ) is scarce. I found it twice, once a male in loose association with a party of Langurs, and also a family party of four or five feeding in a Ficus tree, oddly enough in company with the Great Indian Horn- bill ( Dichoceros bicornis). I was intrigued to come on a party of the small Bonnet Macaque (Macaca radiata) bathing in a river, jumping in from a foot or more above the water, or hanging by their hands from fringing Bamboos, and letting themselves drop. They swam round in all circles, only the head above water, never venturing far out, and with every sign of enjoyment. The Malabar Squirrel ( Ratufa indi.ca maxima) was pleasantly com- mon, as a rule in evergreen forest, but a few in purely deciduous areas. 592 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV The beautiful Stripe-necked Mongoose ( Herpestes vitticollis) was also common, always alone, and always in marshy ground or near water. Its long chestnut fur shows up from some distance. It was very shy and wary, with extremely good powers of sight and hearing. I was anxious to find the Pangolin ( Manis crassicaudata ) known in the hills as ‘Udumbu’, and a familiar animal to the Kadars and forest guards, who described them as common, and sometimes caught by dogs, especially after the rains ; but even the offer of a substantial reward failed to produce a specimen. 14, A. B. P. O,. C. R. STONOR, India. Captain . March 10, 1944. 2nd Assam Regiment. [No exact data on the rate of growth in elephants is available. But some indication is provided in the note by Mr. Gordon Hundley ( Journ . B. N. H. S.} Vol. xxxvii, No. 2, p. 487) which gives statistics of the rate of growth of calves, born in the stock of a timber trading company in Burma. At birth the average height of 109 male and 111 female calves was about 3 ft. high. No increase in height was registered in the first year. In the second year 8 male calves averaged 4 '2" 15 females — 3' 11". In the third year, 7 males averag- ed 4' 5". On this basis the 4' 6" calf observed by Captain Stonor must have been quite 3 years old. The period of gestation has been ascertained to be about 19 months, though it is said to vary from 18-22, as such impregnation for the second offspring must have taken place at least a year or so after the first calf was born. It is a common belief that most animals have well demarcated breeding seasons. Critical investigation has shown, that while there may be an annual period when breeding activity is more marked, a relatively large number of animals breed throughout the year — particularly in tropical countries. The frequent encounters between bull ele- phants referred to by the author are preliminaries to the establish- ment of lordship over the females. They occur as is shown, more commonly between the onset of the hot weather and the commence- ment of the rains — the period when breeding activity is more intense. — Eds.] IX.— BEARDED BEE-EATER (ALCEMEROPS ATHERTON I) IN THE CENTRAL PROVINCES. I sent you recently some notes on, bird movements in the C.P. When on tour near Pachmarhi recently I saw a single specimen of the Bearded Bee-eater, Alcemerops athertoni. This is a new locality for the species. In Mr. Osmaston’s list of Pachmarhi birds published in your Journal No. xxviii, 457 as far as I remember, he recorded hearing this bird but never saw it. It is not given in D’Abreu’s list published in Vol. xxxviii. Hoshangabad, C.P., C. HEWETSON. April 8, 1944. [Mr. Osmaston subsequently confirmed his original record by sight (p. 805 of the same volume). Messrs. Salim Ali and H. Abdulali MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 5P3 observed this bee-eater and Dauri (Hoshangabad Dist.) below Pachmarhi on 21-1-1942. Its occurrence in this area now seems well established — -Eds. ] X.— A RECORD OF HODGSON’S FROGMOUTH (. BATRACHOSTOMUS JAVENSIS HODGSONI) AND THE COCHIN-CHINA SPINETAIL HIRUNDAPUS CAUDACUTUS SSP. FROM NORTHERN BURMA. While on active service recently in Burma I picked up (literally, for both were picked up dead) two interesting- specimens which I skinned and carried in my pack for many days. The specimen of Hodgson’s Frogmouth was picked up on May 8, 1944 in the Katha district near the Kachin village of Lamai (Lat. 240 53r, Long. 96° 03') which is about 20 miles north-west of Mohnyin on the Burma railway. It was found at 2,000 feet on the path in bamboo jungle, with evergreen forest just below. The Kachins said it was called Oo-koo in jinghpaw and Kinbok in Burmese, was fairly common, and its call was po-chyi} po-chyi, po-chyiy . . . , uttered rapidly ; this information may not be reliable, and is given for what it is worth. The bird was in moult, and proved very difficult to skin. Previous records of Frogmouths from Burma are (writing from memory) from Mt. Victoria, Karenni, and the Dawnas, but not all of these three are Hodgson’s species. The Cochin-China Spinetail was floating down the Nampang stream (Lat. 25 0 24' Long. 96° o8;) in the Myitkyina district, about 6 miles south of Haungpa on the Uyu river; elevation 700 feet, date May 14, 1944. In measurement (wing c. 190 mm.) the specimen is intermediate between the measurements given in the F.B.I.y 2nd edition, for the race nudipes and the race cochin- chinensis, and may prove to be an interesting connecting link. Again from memory, the only previous records of this species from Burma are those of J, K. Stanford from the east of the Myitkyina district, Shillong. B. E. SMYTHIES, May 29, 1944. Burma Forest Service. [In his “Birds of Burma” Smythies records Hodgson’s Frog- mouth from Mt. Victoria and in Karenni. The former is ca. 2 1 0 N . X94°E., the latter between i8-2o°N. x 96-98°E. — Eds.] XI.— NOTE ON THE NESTING OF THE HIMALAYAN SWIFTLET ( COLLOGALIA FUGIPHAGA). Rumours of pot holes over 1,000 feet deep took me to Buina Dhar above the ruined Buinathach Forest Rest-House in Chakrata District, U.P. Here just below the top of a knife-edge ridge was a fine open pot 110 feet deep and about 15 feet in diameter and close by on the other side of the ridge a small opening blocked by stones leading into a separate chamber with its floor 80 feet below the opening. 594 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV The open pot expands downwards and at the lower portion is about 60 feet long and 30 feet broad. From the bottom of the shaft a slope of fallen boulders leads down N.N.W. along the long axis of the pot. At the far end there is a small extension blocked a few feet in by a rockfall cemented with calcite. Very little ligfit penetrates from the shaft opening- and about fifty feet above the floor there is* a gallery about four feet wide and here there is a small triangular window about two feet wide and five feet high leading into a second chamber. This second chamber continues in the N.N'.W. direction and is about 40 feet long, 12 feet wide and about 40 feet high. The floor slopes downwards from the window, and from the far end one can turn back down a steep slope and descend through an awkward squeeze into a small lower chamber where there are some fine coloured calcite formations. Elsewhere there is very little calcite formation. As the open pot is on the cool shady side of the hill a strong current of air passes down the shaft thence through the opening into the second chamber and up through the small opening on the sunny south-west side of tfie ridge. Himalayan Swiftlets ( Collocalia fuciphaga) fly down the open pot then through the window into the other chamber and nest there in great numbers. Only the faintest glimmer of light enters this chamber through this window and through the blocked open- ing above, so that the birds are practically in complete darkness. The window opening into the inner chamber must look like a black void through which they fly. Hence, when I had lighted candles in the inner chamber, and sat in the window, they seemed to mis- take my silhouette for the opening and frequently hit me. So far at least they appear to depend on sight to find their way. At the end of May the birds are in residence with nesting acti- vities in all stages from no eggs, — one new-laid egg, two eggs under incubation, — to two half -fledged chicks. Only two eggs are laid and these are white, and ellipsoidal with only a slight narrow- ing at one end. The dimensions of the egg measured were length 20 mm., breadth 13.8 mm. The nest is made of moss gummed in layers by means of the viscid saliva which is also used to stick the nest to the vertical rock wall, no use being made of rock ledges to support the nests. The nest has an open cup about 2J inches diameter and f inch deep, below the cup is a slightly tapering pedestal about 2 inches thick. This pedestal perhaps represents growth of the nest, as a result of the cup at the top receiving a new layer each year. The rim of the cup is not horizontal but slopes down from the wall at about 30° or more from the horizontal. The side of the nest adhering to the wall projects upwards giving an increased bearing surface. The nest is not lined and no feathers are used. Beyond a slight excitement and twittering when we first en- tered, the birds took little notice of us and continued their nesting activities undisturbed. In the middle of the day they came in large numbers and rested in clusters on the walls clinging in a vertical position, head upwards on to minute roughness of the wall. Later when climbing the ladder out of the cave one could pick an adult bird off a nest and put it back again without causing undue alarm. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 595 When the cave was visited in the last week of October, no birds were present. Nearly the whole floor of the inner chamber is covered with the regurgitated dejecta of undigested insect remains. This is a perfectly clean dark-brown material, devoid of smell; it cakes slightly when damp, but breaks up readily into a fine sand. The thickness of the layer of dejecta is about 2 feet, so there must be not less than 200 cubic feet of this material showing that the colony has occupied this cave for a very long period. The top layers of the dejecta are coarse, but it gets gradually finer as one gets lower. This fact and also the compaction with depth should be taken into account in any calculation of the time necessary for this accumulation. Below this there is an abrupt change to ordi- nary cave earth. By the end of May there is a thin white crust of guano over this deposit, and there must be further accumulation during the sum- mer, but by the end of October all of this has vanished. In May the inner chamber is very dry, and it is no doubt on account of this that it is chosen as a nesting place; in October the dampness is not markedly greater, but the fact that the guano vanishes, and that the predatory larvae of large beetles evidently find means of living in the cave suggest that during the rains the humidity is considerable. Insects are not common either in late May or late October, and I have not visited the cave during the rains. It would be interesting to do so. It is a speleological commonplace that caves when dry will often be found apparently entirely devoid of life, but the same cave under wetter conditions will be found with a teeming population, and 1 would expect this to be the case in this cave. During the dry period the fauna has hidden itself away in inaccessible crevices. A cave of this nature is certain to have an entirely different type of fauna to that in caves without an organic deposit; it is therefore not surprising that none of the insects, or myriapods found here are to be found in the extensive caves further to the west in the Chakrata forest division, where there are no Swifts. Only the spiders may be the same. In Swiftlet Pot the following has been found : — Coleoptera: A carabid beetle ( Sphodropsis cnesipus (Andr.)). A staphyline beetle. Another beetle was seen, probably Cryptophagus sp. but it escaped into a crevice. Microlepidoptera : A small buff -winged moth, not flying to light, common. .Collembola: One species, very few seen. Myriopoda: One species, several found, always deep down at the junction between the dejecta layer and the cave earth. Arachnida: One species. Old adults of the carabid beetle were found in/ May on the surface of the deposit, but in October a very recently emerged specimen was found about six inches down in the layer of dejecta. I think there is no doubt that the immature stages of this beetle were spent in the cave. 7 696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. NLlV On iny first visit I was unaccompanied, and on this occasion only descended the 110-foot pot, and failed to observe the window into the inner chamber since this was hidden from below by the ledge. In October 1942, with B. D. Leakey the inner chamber was entered, and again in May 1943 when I was accompanied by E. J. Douglas. BotJa are members of the British Speleological Associa- tion and experienced Yorkshire pot-holers. On this latter occasion a goat-herd guided us to two open holes in the wooded hill slopes about half a mile away. A stone thrown down seemed to take between 4 and 5 seconds before hitting the bottom with a dull thud. All my rope ladders were tied together making a total of 152 feet, the last 30 feet being very old and flimsy. Down this Douglas climbed and at the very foot of the ladder found himself hanging in space far out of sight of the bottom, which must have been at least 100 feet further down, and so up again — hard work at nearly 9,000 feet above sea level. Ail this time swiftlets were diving down straight out of the sunlight into the black shaft and going down in steep spirals in pitch darkness to their nests 300 feet or so below ground. Nests started 50 feet down, but the majority were far below the bottom of the ladder. These two open pots are about 50 yards apart and are almost certainly connected below perhaps by some great cavern. Here then is an interesting piece of exploration yet to be done, but not one to be undertaken without careful planning and with a strong party. The situation of these caves is as follows : — Chakrata District, U.P. Chakrata Eorest Division. Bawar Bange, Ivudog Deserved Eorest. Swiftlet Pot. Lat. 30° 45' 20"; long. 78° 00' 35"; height 8,525 feet on Biuna Dhar. It is about 20 yards north of the path where it crosses the ridge. Swift Holes. Lat. 30° 45' 11"; long. 78° 00' 18"; height 8,550 feet. They are little below on the north side of the ridgu about 200 yards north-west of point 8837 amongst trees. The following Survey of India maps should be consulted : — J inch to 1 mile map 53 J /NW ; Eorest map 4 inches to 1 mile 53 J/l S.2. Water is scarce and is only to be obtained from below the Buinathach E.E.H. or on the way to Kudog E.B.H. Accompanied by H. J. Larwood, I revisited the Biunathach area in May 1944. The year was a late one and there were still a few drifts of snow at 9,000 feet on the Mandali road beyond Deoban on 7th May. Descending Swiftlet Pot on 9th May, we found all the nests with two eggs apiece, but the birds were not yet sitting and there were no chicks. The temperature in the upper chamber was 48° E. One bird was secured and sent to the Society enabling the previous identification to be confirmed. No ecto-parasites were found on it. At the place where I had delved two feet into the insect dejecta and had disturbed the cave earth below, some bacterial activity had been released. A buried stone ‘was found covered MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 597 with white slime, and the dejecta from a few inches below the surface had been transformed into a smooth black viscous mess apparently extending to the bottom. Elsewhere the dejecta was unchanged and as previously described. This bacterial action is a new phase, and if it extends over the whole mass of dejecta, conditions in the cave will be profoundly altered. On 10th May, with Larwood at the top supervising the life- line, I descended the lower of the two Swift Holes, which had been abandoned the previous year owing to shortage of tackle. The bottom was reached at the end of 'a 243 feet pitch, the rope- ladder hanging clear of the rock all the way down. At the bottom is a hall 18 feet wide and 50 feet long, 30 feet high at the lowest part. The entry shaft is situated close to the lowest end of the hall and here, looking* upwards, daylight can be dimlv seen. The hall slopes upwards rising about ten feet to the further end ; here an aven evidently leads to the Upper Swift Hole, but it is now blocked. At some time there has been a great fall of clean angular lime- stone chips usually less than six inches long. This seems to point to very insecure conditions in the upper cave. The fall of stone has blocked what may be a passage extension leading out of the hall at the aven end. At this end too but on the opposite side, a narrow fissure goes on, too small to penetrate. Down this also some small limestone chips had flowed. Looking along this fissure, as far as one could see the lefthand wall was coated with a polished calcite layer coloured, to a height of five feet or so, a livid blood red, perfectly uniform in hue and very startling in appearance. I have never seen anything to equal this. Conditions in the hall were damper than in Swiftlet Pot. There were several large mounds of insect deiecta with the normal sandy consistency. The temperature in the hall was 48^° E. Nests started fifty feet down the shaft and continued to the bottom and in the hall itself, always located at the drvest and most sheltered parts. Only one or two nests had two eggs, all the rest had one egg only on this date. Both in this cave and in Swiftlet Pot the nests are always separate, usually a foot or more apart and never in clusters. Attempts to raise the rope ladders failed. Thev had jammed somewhere. Probably the surplus fifty feet at the bottom got into a tangle. Finally the ropes were cut and the ladders dropped down. Cecil Hotel, Delhi. E. A. GLENNIE. November 5, 1943. Col. XII. THE MYSTFRV OF BIB D-t ANTING’ (REPRODUCED FROM COUNTRY LIFE— NOVEMBER 5> *9A3)- One of the minor ornithological mysteries is why birds use ants as part of their toilet. Whatever the explanation may be, the habit has been attested too. often by various observers in several countries for there to be anv doubt about its occurrence. Charles K. Nichols, writing in the American bird iournal Auk, savs he saw on his lawn an American robin/which is similar to 598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV a British thrush, going through some remarkable actions. The bird picked up something from the ground and then quickly placed it under one of its partly opened wings and sometimes on the underside of its tail. Frequently the bird lost its balance and fell on its back. In addition to these actions it sometimes pressed its breast to the grass and partly rotated its body with the breast as pivot. Later another robin appeared on the scene, drove the first one away and after settling on the same spot on the lawn went through similar actions. The second robin was in turn replaced by a third which occupied the favoured spot for a few minutes. There- after the birds took ‘turn and turn about’. When Nichols exa- mined the spot, while the birds were momentarily frightened away he found a swarm of about ioo ants milling excitedly about a space a foot or so square. The next observation concerns two tame jays which used to fly about a farm. Whenever an ants’ nest was laid bare in the course of the farm work the two birds trod on it, and this stimu- lated the ants to shower the birds’ feathers with their acid ejec- tions. Sometimes the jays wallowed in the nest. They often raised their tails and sat down and then almost immediately turned on their shoulders. The jays stayed on the nest for periods up to a quarter of an hour. They then flew away and shook and preened themselves as after a water bath. One other field observation may be given. Josselyn Van Tyne prefaces the following record of what he saw by the statement : ‘I never fully believed in the occurrence of this most improbable phenomenon (bird ‘anting’) until I recently saw it with my own eyes.’ Soon after sunset one evening in July, he writes, he saw a male American robin preening itself on the lawn 15 feet from his window. ‘The bird was preening much more vigorously than is customary and his actions were further remarkable for the fre- quency with which he preened in a single motion the whole outer edge of the wing from wrist to tip. In fact, this wing preening was done so violently that the bird repeatedly fell down at the end of the preening motion, and once this ended in a complete somersault. ‘Sometimes the bird preened the tail or body plumage, but more often he concerned himself with the wing. Almost imme- diately I noticed that nearly every preening was preceded by a hasty picking of some small object from the ground, and I realis- ed thab here at last was a bird “anting”. Several times the robin crouched and seemed to rub its body aeainst the ground.’ To these and the many other existing records of observations on anting there has recently been added a complete account of the habit witnesed under controlled conditions. H. R. Ivor scat- tered some earth, containing several hundred ants, over a part of the floor of his aviary and then he lay down on the ground close to the birds to watch their reactions. Some of the birds actually anted on his hand. Sixteen experiments were carried out altogether and 20 out of the 31 species of birds in the aviary MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 59t> •were observed ‘to ant.’ About a score of other species have been reported by other observers to ant. Ivor says: ‘The moment an ant was sighted by any bird -which anted, there seemed to be an instantaneous and instinctive reaction. The ant was picked up and held in the tip of the bill; the eyes were partly closed; the wing was held out from the hody but only partly spread ; the wrist was drawn forward and raised, thus bringing the tips of the primaries far forward and touching the ground ; the tail was always brought forward and under to some extent, on the same side as the extended wing, and often so far that the feet were placed upon it. Stepping on the tail at times' caused the bird to fall on its side or even on its back. ’ The bird seizing the ant rubbed it swiftly only on the ven- tral surface of the primary^wing feathers. After being used for anting the ant was often, though not invariably, eaten. Enthusiasm for anting varied with the season, the favourite period being between April and July. Ivor adds: ‘During the height of the anting season the act of anting seemed to engender a state of ecstasy so overwhelming that even domination and enmity were forgotten ..... at times from twenty to thirty birds would be going through the performance at one time on a space of four of five square feet, where they were continually bumping against one another. ’ Confirmation of Ivor’s belief that anting is instinctive is found in the reactions of young birds when confronted with ants. Young starlings, taken from the nest and given some ants, dressed their plumage just as in the case of adult birds. A young dipper when first presented with some ants, seized one after another in its beak and passed them through its feathers. Why do birds ant themselves? Various theories have been propounded. One suggestion is that the bird is stimulated by the crawling of the insects, their tiny bites and acrid secretions. The pleasure may be akin to that derived from the ruffling of a bird’s feathers by a human hand. Another suggestion is that birds resort to anting to rid them- selves of parasites. The formic acid secreted by ants has antisep- tic properties. Birds have been seen to hold ants, in a way that would indicate that the bird was trying to make the ants spray their acid on the feathers. Incidentally, a tame jay has been known to intercept the spurting sap from an orange that was being peeled. The bird went through the motions of bathing at the same time. This behaviour occurred more than once. One observer says he has seen ants seize the parasites on a crow which was anting and bear them away. In this connec- tion it is interesting to' learn that in some parts of the world ants are sometimes used to remove vermin from clothes. The infec- ted garments are placed on large ant-hills and, when collected, they are found to be freed from vermin. One other apparent use of anting was mentioned long ago by Audubon. He says young Eastern turkeys ‘roll themselves in deserted ants’ nests to clear their growing feathers of the loose stales and prevent ticks and other vermin from attacking 7 A (500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIV them, these insects being unable to bear the odour of the earth: in which ants have been. ’ [The subject of Birds ‘anting’ themselves was first raised in the Journal by Mr. B. B. Osmaston. ( Journ . B.N.H.S. , Vol. XIX, p. 752) In a later issue (Vol. XXXIII, Nq. 4, Mr. Salim Ali published a number of recorded instances and gave the various theories offered in explanation of the curious habit. Further notes appeared in Vol. XXXIX, No. 1, p. 182 (B. B. Osmaston) and p, 640 (T. Bain- bridge Fletcher) ; Vol. XLII, p. 935 (N. G. Pillai).— Eds.] ' XIII— EGG-LAYING PERIOD OF THE COMMON INDIAN MONITOR. Having read Mr. Charles McCann’s remarks on the appear- ance of the young of Varanus monitor (L.) in this Journal , Vol. XLII, No. 1 dated December, 1940, I record the following inci- dent of eggs having been laid at an apparently unusually early period. At the end of October, 1942, a friend of mine captured an adult specimen of this reptile on Elephanta Island, Bombay. After 'examination I found that it was a gravid female and decided to take it back' to my room for further observation ; it was placed in a sack, therefore, and so transported back by launch to Colaba on the 1 st November. On removing it from the Sack', I was surprised to find that one egg had already been laid during the short journey. After this it was given the freedom of my room and appeared to make itself quite at home, as it entered a drawer in the dressing-table and deposited some more eggs amongst my clothes ! This was on the 2nd November when three eggs were laid, followed on the 3rd by the fifth egg. The following day, unfortunately, the monitor had to be returned to Elephanta Island owing to circumstances which prevented me keeping it for further observations. At the time it was ’ returned, however, another seven eggs could be distinctly felt through the skin on either side of the belly, thus making a total of twelve eggs in all. The specimen referred was 3 feet 5 inches long, the tail account- ing for 2 feet of this. Ordnance Depot, J. D. ROMER, Bombay, Sergeant . February 2jth, 1944. XIV. — A GOOD METHOD OF WEIGHING FISH WHICH ARE TOO HEAVY FOR A SPRING BALANCE. In the Miscellaneous Note No. XIII in Journal No. 4, Vol. XLIII on ‘Record Mahseer’ by Col. R. W. Burton, I notice that two of these big fish had to be halved in order to weigh them. This prompts me to remind your members of the ‘Principle of Moments’. All that is required for this method is a long, strong stick (of fairly even cross section) and a measure. Hanging the fish on one FRANK LANE ( With a text-figure.) ourn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pathysa nomius , Esp. (Aberration) . 3. Argynnis lathonia issoca, Db. (Melanism) . MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 601 end and a known weight on the other, balance the stick on any con- venient object, thus : — Then W x D = F x d. Edinburgh. ^ 56 x 39 n . F - — — — = 104 lbs. A. P. MILLARD. XV.— SOME INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES. ( With a coloured plate.) 1 Pathysa nonius nomius, Esperance. £ Aberrant (fig. 1.) Caught at Kallar, Nilgiris, on 19-2-1942 at 1,350' after a period, of normal weather. Expanse:, 76 mm. The main characteristics of this remarkable aberration are as follows : On the forewing, in the cell, bands 2 and 4 are entirely absent; on the upper side, there is no spot below band 3, though it is present on the underside. The submarginal spots are enlarged. On the hindwing-, the two bands are narrow, the tornal grey area is absent, and the arrangements of spots and lunules there is unusual. 2. Pathysa nomius nomius, Esperance. Normal (fig. 2.) Caught at Kallar, Nilgiris, on 20-5-1941 at 1,350'. Given for comparison. Expanse : 80 mm. 3. Argynnis lathonia issoea, Doubleday. <$ Melanistic (fig. 3.) Caught at Narkanda, Simla Hills, on 19-6-1940 at 9,000' after a period of normal weather. Expanse : 56 mm. This specimen seems to be a melanism, an unusual type . of aberration among butterflies. The main characteristics are as follows : The whole upperside is of a deep blackish brown, over- laid with golden-brown scales in the basal area and in places along the veins. Most of the discal area of the under forewing is deep brown but the basal area and along the veins is yellowish. On the under hind- wing the lines and patches between the silver spots are blackish- brown and some of the spots are modified. The two large interior spots in 7 are joined. 4. Argynnis lathonia issoea, Doubleday. Typical (fig. 4.) Caught at Simla in April at 6,500'. Given for comparison. Expanse : 60 mm. 5. Melanitis phedima varaha, More. 9 Aberran? (fig 5.)1 Caught at Kallar, Nilgiris, on 14-8-1942 at 1,350'. Expanse: 82 mm. 1 Further similar specimens since caught point to the possibility of this being a variety of Zitenius. €02 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XLIV I have been unable to find any satisfactory description of the female of Phedima varaha. As this specimen seems to be so different from other Melanitis females, I suspect that it is an aberration, but even if it is typical I feel that a description will be useful. Phedima varaha is rare in the Southern Nilgiris and this is the only female I have caught; consequently, I have no local specimens with which ito compare it. I have, however, caught three males and these all answer to Evans’ description of that sex. This female was caught in the middle of August and may be safely assumed to be a W.S.F. Nevertheless the underside is not ocellated, there being only vestigial white spots. The background of both underwings is of a bright ochreous colour with well-marked disca! lines. On the upper forewing there is a well-defined black mark at the end of the cell and beyond it. The costa is ferruginous-ashy, broadening to a blighter ferruginous patch beyond the black mark, which shades into an ill-defined lighter-brown area that reaches the termen. There are no traces of black and white spots in 3 and 4. Evans gives the measurements of this race as 60 to 70 mm : my four specimens vary from 78 to 82 mm. Kallar, however, from which place three of these come, specialises in ‘giants’. 6. Terias hecabe simaluta. More d Albinistic (No fig.). Caught at Kallar, Nilgiris, on 1-3-1942 at i,35o;. Expanse: 39 mm. In this specimen all the marginal markings are of a very deep brown, not black, and the disc of both wings is white, very faintly tinged with greenish yellow. Melanisms and albinisms are easily explained by excess, or lack, of pigmentation. But what are the causes behind such a remarkable sport as No. 1? It would be interesting to have information about any theories that have been advanced to explain such aberrations. Is No. 1 a new species in the making? All the figures shown are slightly enlarged. Ketti (Nilgiris). M. A. WYNTER-BLYTH, M.A. (Cantab.). XVI.— A NEW VARIETY OF PAPAYA: CARICA PAPAYA VAR FLA VA FROM TRAVANCORE. (With 3 text-figures.) In connection with a study of the different sex types of Carica papaya we have collected more than one hundred samples of seeds of various varieties of papaya from the different tropical and sub- tropical countries where it is cultivated. Plants have been raised from sixty of these varieties and they are all growing very well (in the Economic Botanist’s area in the Agricultural College, Poona), in spite of the great change of climate to which some of them have been subjected. In papaya, classification into varieties have been done on a purely arbitrary basis, so much so, that the same variety is known under different names in different places. However, there are quite unmistakable varieties like the ‘Solo papaya’, the Melon papaya’, the ‘Washington papaya,’ and a few others. Observations MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 603 made on a large number of ‘varieties’ show no marked differences among them. The only differences are in size and shape of fruits, slight variations in size of the plants, and variation in flavour of the fruit. These differences between varieties, however, are not greater than what have been observed within the same variety. Only the sample of seeds, received from Travancore, gave rise to plants of uniform habit and character, distinctly different from any other variety in our collections. Reference to available literature shows that this type has not been described previously. The basis on which species classification has been made in Carica by Heilborn (1936) would permit this new variety being taken as a distinct species. Till more is known about the taxonomy of the whole genus, we feel, it would be better to assign it only the rank of a distinct variety. Carica papaya var. travancorica : The plant has an unbranched erect stem, 10-15 feet high, straight and cylindric with numerous leaf-scars arranged in an ascending spiral. The whole plant is yellowish in colour and is thus markedly different from other varieties. Fig. 1. — Plants of Carica papaya var. travancorica. Stem is yellowish, with brown patches. Leaf-scars are whitish with brown tinge. The ieaves are very crowded at the apex and give the plant a semi-circular contour at the top. Leaves yellowish green, leaf-stalk yellow, base of leaf with overlapping lobes; lobes 7 to 10 and as many as main veins, which are of a lighter yellow than the blade. Plants female or hermaphrodite; males absent. Female. — Flowers in simple or modified cymose inflorescence (usually 3 flowers in one) in the axils of leaves. Terminal flowers only functional ; 4-6 cms. long, 3-4 cms. across, stalk short and thick. Calyx with prominent yellow lobes, pointed, 0.5-1 cm. long, and alternating with petals. Petals yellowish white, 5-6 cms. long, 604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XLIV 1-1.5 . cm. broad, contorted, lower part boat-shaped, upper linear with rounded apex, glabrous. Ovary large, 3-4 cms. long, 2-2.5 ems. broad, deep yellow, glabrous, very indistinctly five-grooved, each carpel opposite a petal, syncarpous, one celled, with parietal normal green variety (right). placentation and many ovules. Stigma distinctly five branched, 1-1.5 cm. thick, reddish, with good flavour. Seeds not so numerous as in the green papaya. Seeds 0.5 cm. long, 0.3 cm. broad, ovate, light brown colour enclosed in a transparent gelatinous aril. Size of fruit varies from 10-15 cms. long, by 8-12 cms. broad; nearly spherical. Hermaphrodite. — Flowers similar to female in size and colour of parts, varying number of small stamens from 5 to 10 present. Some- times filaments adhere to carpels and not infrequently one or two of the fine carpels may be free at the upper region. Fruit shape pyri- form, slightly distorted and distinctly five-grooved. Flavour as good as the fruits from the female. Both sex types bear a large number of fruits from as low as one foot from the ground under Poona con- ditions, though in Tranvancore the more humid climate promotes greater vegetative growth and fruits appear only higher up the plant. Notes. — -This is a very distinct type from the ordinary green papaya. The junior author has observed these plants for a number of years in Travancore, but not elsewhere. Probably it grows in other parts of the West Coast also. Nothing is known about its origin or history. No male plants have been ever seen in Travancore and in our plantation here with forty plants of this variety, there is an approximately equal proportion of females and hermaphrodites, but not a single male plant. This would show that it is a fixed variety distinct from others. In this connection it is interesting to note that Heilborn (1921), during his travels in South America, noted the absence of male plants in certain species of Carica, — C. chryso- petala and C. pentagona , both of which have parthenocarpic fruits. He also mentions that Jameson (1865) described two cultivated MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 605 species of Carica, in which he failed to find *any male individuals. Apart from the distinct morphological differences, it is also noted that the latex content of the Travancore papaya, is much less. Fig. 3. — Seedlings of yellow papaya Carica p. var. travancorica (left) and normal green papaya (right). Genetical studies on this variety have been started with a view to finding the cause of absence of males in this variety and also to study the inheritance of the yellow colour. Due to its attractive appearance and almost ‘bushy’ growth, this variety should prove to be of great horticultural interest. The authors are indebted to Mr. A. T. Abraham of Travancore for kindly supplying the seeds of the variety described above. College of Agriculture, L. S. S. KUMAR, Poona, . A. ABRAHAM. 10th March , 1944. REFERENCES. Heilborn, O. (1921) — Taxonomical and cytological studies on cultivated Ecuadorian species of Carica. Arkiv For Botanik K. Svenska Vetenskaprakademien. Band 17, No. 12, pp. 1-16. — — — * — • (1936) — Taxonomical studies on Carica. Sartryck our Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift. Bd. 30, H. 3, 1936, pp. 217-22. Jameson, G. (1865) — Synopsis plant arum Auquatoriensium. ' Quito (quoted by Heilborn, 1921). XVII.' — THE FLOWERING OF STROBILANTHES . In a recent note in this Journal, Mr. C. McCann invited the help of readers interested in Botany for fixing the date of flowering of the various species of Strobilanthes. It may be of interest to jot down a few notes on three different species which have been observed in flower during recent years. 1. Strobilanthes callosus , Nees. This plant is very common on the slopes and tops of Echo Point and Bhoma Hills in Khandala; it is also pretty common in the ravines among the undergrowth of certain 606 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XUV parts of the forest. Generally, however, it favours an open situation, and with its dense foliage shades every other plant out of existence. The first time this plant was observed in flower was in September 1942; flowering was then very sporadic, as only a few shrubs came into flower from the many plants forming the large Strobilanthes clumps. The following year during the months of August-October there was a veritable riot of flowers ; buds appeared in J une, and at that time the hillsides seemed covered with a pinkish hue due to the colour of the bracts ; shortly afterwards, with the opening of tlie flower, the colour scheme changed to a rich cobalt blue. This plant usually grows to a height of about 8 feet about Khandala, occa- sionally it reaches 15 feet in height; but even when the plant was only 18 inches high, the whole plant was a mass of cobalt blue flowers. By December 1943 all the flowers had disappeared, and the plant was then densely covered with glandular hairs with a strong, persistent and rather pleasant odour. At the beginning of the rains in 1944, the ground seemed to be covered with the seeds of Strobilanthes ; when passing near a clump of such plants, one could often hear a series of slight ‘explosions’ caused by the bursting of the fruits and observe the seeds being scattered in all directions to a distance of several feet from the plant. 2. Strobilanthes ixiocephalus , Benth. This plant was first noticed in flower in March 1942; the flowers, when newly opened, are of a pale sky blue colour, but as they advance in age, they turn very pale lilac or practically white. All through the second half of 1943, and up to May 1944 the plant has been in full bloom. In contrast to S. callosus , this species is to be found only in dense, shady forests, and though of a somewhat gregarious habit, it grows either solitary or more often in small clumps. The scent of the oil from the glandular hairs covering the fruit is strong and unpleasant, not very different from that of Pogostemon parviflorus. 3. • Strobilanthes perfoliatus , Anders. For the last four years we have been watching a plant, which from its general habit and appearance seemed to be one of the Acanthaceae. Flowers were seen and collected for the first time on November 5th, 1943; towards the end of December 1943 flowering was at its height; by the end of March of this year, there was only an occasional flower to be seen. 5. perfoliatus is not so conspicuous in colour which is light violet, or size of its flowers, as by the numerous glandular hairs covering the whole of the inflorescence, even whilst the plant is in flower; when such hairs were pressed or merely stroked with the hand, a very strong and sweet scent was obtained which was strongly reminiscent of that of Juniper. 5. perfoliatus grows in open situations, in clumps of 12-15 feet in diameter. Wherever the plant was seen especially in the fruiting stage, there were large numbers of insects hovering about and feeding on its fruit ; and this may account for the relative scarcity of the plant in Khandala and elsewhere. St. Xavier's College, H. SANTAPAU, s.j. Bombay. 4 th July 1944. PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, iS CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS EDITOR : S. H. PRATER, C. MCCANN AND S^LIM ALI, 6, APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS. Birds. Game Birds of India, Vol. II. (Woodcock, Snipe, Bustards, and 'Sancigrouse) i st Edition. Rs . 42. ( Price to Members Rs. jo). Game Birds of India, Vol. III. Pheasants, ist Edition. Rs. 32. (Price to Members Rs. 24). Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali, with many colour and black and white plates, 3rd edition, revised and enlarged. Rs 16. (Price to Members Rs. 12-8). Cuckoo Problems, by E. C. Stuart Baker, illustrated. Rs, 25. (Price to Members Rs. 20). 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The subscription of members elected in October, November and December covers the period from the date of their election up till the end of the following year. MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA. The terms are the same for members living outside Indio. Such members should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers tu pay the amount of the subscription, plus postage — in all Rs. 26-8-0 — to the Society in Bombay on the ist January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of ^2-0-6 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers — The National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. Rs. 8. Re. M2. Re. 1. IVow Ready THE BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS By SALIM ALI THIRD EDITION (With 188 coloured plates) AN inexpensive, handy volume for every one interested in the bird life of our ^country. It now contains 188 full-page plates ' in colour, numerous excellent photographs, and simple, readable accounts of the habits, food and nesting of about 200 species of birds commonly seen about towns, villages an d j heels in the plains of India, and about our sea coasts, LIST OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction to Bird Study. 2. How to Recognize Birds in the Field. 3. Description of 196 Species. 4. Usefulness of Birds. 5. Bird Migration. 6. Bird Watching. 7. Some Nests and Nesting Behaviour. 8. Flight. Bound in full cloth. Price Rs. 16/- (To Members of the Society. Rs. 12-8) Postage and Packing Re. i/- extra. Published by THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 6, Apollo Street, Bombay.