SS ? r 4 4 i] SH Paton hs ta salts : “uM as vai fala i yaks A \ LY siheata i! he He iP Ve uit ‘hye! == ee —_ 2205 eee —* a AS 13503) Gene y iy A i See) ee ne i wh deka sh et ae Met a Hu i) if sada i} He ao aE: SSere ce Om oe as ES ee aS 5 Se ies ey ry vidi vie Cs ae ~ We We Sa wy! am hi ea stt all He i LEE i) Vendy a) i atu a Hh ut esa ECM RE sn i e on bie itt ta nen va rt rhodes fuie i 4 I ii Dy ih tabs ‘fy Re LR GPE ER PRET CHMO NAAT ESIC NCAT LAURA PASTE Meats. Hee HAY ei yak Rk ate a) mt we DROP Onhy P OP, Ra | aula 5 Ae ae a, et ie y) ' i ci he bt a ah Ase, a yey i i WRAY rine Vie | oe be Ve 92 n nate \ 7 Nn | bi Bie ny ay —— “a rc = t ' “4 7 ’ Y - aa Ae F ; ; < ' ; r : 7 : ; eo eT THE JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY INDEX AND ‘TITTLE PAGE VOL. 50 NOS. 1 & 2 Price Rs. 3-0-0 , MADRAS nae “a he rf. F PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS wd fg 1953 INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the following order when they are being bound :— Title page ad eee eee Contents of Nos. 1 & 2 of Vol. 50 List of contributors .. | To follow frontis- f 4 piece in this order. Listof plates ... Index to illustrations | To go at the end of the two numbers. Index to species THE JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY EDITED BY SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, Pb.D., and H. SANTAPAU S.J. VOL. 50 Nos. 1 & 2 Containing 25 black and white plates, 8 maps, 8 text figures and 2 photographs Dates of Publication Part 1. (Pages 1 to 210) ... August, 1951 » 2 ( 4, 211 to 450) ... December, 195! LONDON AGENTS MESSRS. WHELDON & WESLEY LTD., 83/84 Berwick Street, LONDON, W. 1. PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS 1953 : ee a : a " . as “le etal in ae: ri per “ co f Pri ste. Fl Pd: ¥ i “ i: . te | ) ; . | ; US Vi AGRE Ahe bine Te AMT S2 es LA. Pane Gs . : ee . Fay : 2 a UG OF, aa oe Me , a \ : . SA es i 7 a © OE : b 20) | ; Pa oe asivsh igh & ean eaiela ad lew bap 238 sid as vols : i ere (eran! ode & bebo” an - oo : : Meal a ; F = as a * 40 eekly = bi. orgs Smee “pays, « fOr vtmisagh oo) | O0SE oF Fy me a | avaaa ones es Ngttia yoRe Wwe a WGC Fate 1 ~esieea | dasha Hide SAEs fo eae et ; ; Saree MUTA, taeda: : | | : ee ov & Sy ae ’ Pate 4 bf \ Asano ters» sce Es a - CONTENTS OF VOLUME 50 No. 1 JUNGLE MEMORIES. PART IX—ANTELOPE AND DEER. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, 0.B.B., F.Z.S., IA. ati (With two plates)... BIONOMICS OF THE ie. Cirrhina ee: sen IN SOUTH INDIAN WATERS. By P. I. Chacko and S. V. Ganapati... THE BIRDS OF cena: Pane L By F. N. Betts. (With DIMA DY. Sueeaasasnes vse NoTES ON BUTTERFLIES FROM Nepat. Parr I. By Lt.- Col. F. M. Bailey, c1.n. (With a map and two plates). Two New Specigs oF Pimpinella. By M. L. Banerii....... FORTY YEARS OF SPORT ON LITTLE KNOWN ASSAM RIVERS. ParT I. By W. E. D. Cooper. (With two plates)......... SURVEY OF ECONOMIC VEGETABLE PRODUCTS OF JAMMU AND KasHmir. I. SINDH Forest Division. By L. D. Kapoor, R. N. Chopra and I.C. Chopra. (With a sketch TER) We ee a cece Te Uc O MatN ey oe bets Ga tule Shon vabaeielee cieuanan cenieesaite STUDY OF THE MARINE Phew OF THE KARWAR COAST AND NEIGHBOURING ISLANDs. PART [: PRoTOzOA TO ARTHROPODA. By A.M. Patil, M.sc. (With a map)...... ON AN INTERESTING CASE OF CARP SPAWNING IN THE RIVER CAUVERY AT BHAVANI DURING JuNE, 1947. By S. V. Ganapati, K. H. Alikunhi and Francesca Thivy.e.....eceeoe BIRDS AND EcoLoGy. By M. D. Lister......... SUCCESSION OF THE MANGROVE VEGETATION OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE ISLANDS. By B. S. Navalkar. (With LOM PIQIOS) Sadun <2, coy cataces >: - REVIEW :— Nature through the Year. By Frances Pitt. (H.G.A.)... Additions to the Bombay Natural History Society’s AD FAGVASIMCES Ail) SOS TG es ask cos cosiash cab sesascee see MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— 1. The Indian Wild Dog. By A. Middleton........... 2. A Wild Dog incident. By Joyce C. Winter- INO EPI eelvex ecw cccece res soetives dss PAGE 101 128 140 147 157 161 Aare am 13. 14. 1S: 16. Wf 18. 19. 20, (a og CONTENTS OF VOLUME 50 Rearing a baby Ceylon Grey Flying Squirrel (Petaurista philippensis lanka) By W. W. A. Phillips. s@W 2/22: @ Pi010) tees eee seen. tomer Gaur attacking Man. By Angus F. Hutton......... The Great Indian Rorqual or Fin-whale Balaenop- teva indica Blyth off Umargam (Bombay State) By! VorK.” Chatin scott a kee sakes shee cme nena Bibliography of Big Game Hunting and Shooting in India and the East. [Published in Vol. 48, No. 2:5 (August, 1950) Addenda. .aae.F. eek Crows hawking Fish on wing. By fesenel G. Acharya... swells coe nae eee Mating of thee Pious Grow ( Gane ee splendens Vieillot). By Harinarayan G. Acharya. Large Grey Babbler attacking metal hub-cap of car. By Hamidiak. VAN yee eee Birds attacking their reflections. By P. F. Cum- berlege... rae. Strange behaviour of “the Tudete Babbler (Turdo- ides terricolor). By Harinarayan G. Acharya...... The Ashy Swallow-shrike (Ariamus fuscus Vieil- lot) at a Bird bath. By C. M. Inglis, F.zs., c.M.B.0.U. (With a photo)... Bont arnascl Sea Occurrence of Hodgson’s Pipit (Aas roseatus) in Saurashtra. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhiji... Distribution of the Blue-bearded Bee-eater [Vyct- PAGE 164 166 167 167 169 170 LAL 171 172 174 iornts athertont (Jardine and ae By Jamal — ATALRS bee B: ‘ Birds of fac iaoda Neisabommeede , A, ene tion. By Salim Ali and Humayun Abdulali..,... The position of Plovers’ Eggs in nests. By Humayun Abdulall........ aeoisien aueee Bird Migration in India. By Tae Ee eens Gane ees ‘Notes on some Asiatic Sturnidae (Birds) ’— Comment.» By S. Dillon:Ripley.2..-7.2.0,.22e Duration of song in some Common Birds. By Jamal -Ara..(Wieth five orapnsis, .cj.2eei ee Angling for Crocodiles with Hook and Line in Krishnarajasagar Reservoir. By D. R. Krishna- A curious death of aSnake. By B. K. Behura and Mr As Sohne ikke cet ene eee ease ee ees 181 183 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 50 22. Egg-laying by a Python in captivity. By C. | Eee re 01) AS CR oa le a 23. A record of the Common Membracid, Ovinotus onevatus Walk. (Homoptera: Rhynchota) from the city of Patna (Bihar). By Basanta Kumar Beha Ande VISWANALTS IMMA. cs ct vee. vas.cess tee cece 24. Gleanings... aoe Catalogue of Benue in hel ont Netaen beiistony Society’s Library. Part V—Invertebrata..........0cse0e0. No. 2 JUNGLE MErmorIES. PART X—Mixep Bac. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, 0,B.E., F.Z.S., I.A. ee ee two plates)... Siftomece oesne wat THE BIRDS OF Chane PART IT. ‘By I B. N. Betts. “eu two plates)... SBN cor sae Tur HILsa Pees OF THE Cire we. Pack By 9. feces and K. H. Sujansingani. (W2zth 2 plates, 3 graphs and 3 COULD nee earn tc thse see tececsantieec hetcvelceclecuias desttes NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES FROM NEPAL. PART II. By Lt.- © Clemo lato Vue Van ale Eietedeis oes svactrods ss see hose Ses eke one oceusce ces HABITS OF THE COMMON MEMBRACID (‘ TREE-HOPPER’)— Otinotus oneratus WALK. (Homoptera: Rhynchota). By Basanta Kumar Behura, m.sc. (Cal.), Ph.D. (Edin.), F.R.E.S, CRITICAL NOTES ON THE IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF SOME BomBAy Prants. By H. Santapau,sJ. (Wath DUO SPULLE SIN vat: ANtte hate chet, ois Keates gre otek nhs O84 saSoseeshsl~(Edin.), F.R.E.S., and JoHN, M. A., A curious death of a Snake C.1.B: from (With a map 4 bart _—— - -——, and Sinha, Viswanath. A record of the Common Membracid, Otinotus oneratus Walk. (Ho- moptera: Rhynchota) from the city of Patna (Bihar) Best, A. E. G., The Butterflies of Bombay and Salsette Betts, F. N., The Birds of Coorg, Part I, (With a map) see ——_——, Part II. (With two plates) Sa owe Bote. P.4V., M.Sc., & Shahi PAU, H., S.J. A Hote Jon Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus Dalz. (With two plates) Bor, N. L., The Genus Vulsia Gmel, in India PAGE 64 281 88 414 299 183 183 331 2 24 428 340 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS BRISCOE, MARGARET VILLIERS, Butterfly pone. im) the Nilgiris wee oot Burton, Lt. cal R. W., I.A. (Retd.), Bibliography of Big Game Hunting and Shooting in India and the East —_—___-—_, The Protection of World Resour- ces: Wild life and the Soil ... > She most murderous Rogue’ , Fly- ing Foxes ———_————_—-——— , ( Shoot. ing of Peafowl] and netelone (Blackbuck) prohibited in Madras State CHacko, P.I., and GANAPATI, S. V., Bionomics of the Mrigal, Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.), in South Indian waters ... eee Cuarr!, V. K., The Great Tadian Rorqual br Fin-whale Sala- enoptera indica Blyth off Umargam (Bombay State) ... Cuopra, I. C., see KAPoor, L. D. CHOPRA, R. N., see KAPoor, L. D. CoopgR, W. E. D,, Forty years of Sport on little known Assam Rivers. Part Il (With two plates) coe ; ——_—__—_ —_—_—_—_-—_——, Part II £2 wee Aa ans CUMBERLEGE, P. F., Birds attacking their reflections DHARMAKUMARSINHJ!, K. S., Occurrence of Hodgson’s Pipit (duthus roseatus) in Saurashtra eae Epitors, Occurrence of ie Pheasant-tailed Jacana [Ay- drophasianus chirurgus (Sco- poli)] in Madras wae GANAPATI, S. V., see CHACKO, PYF, , ALIKUNHI, PAGE 417 433 13 167 91 313 171 175 406 K.H., and THIvy, FRANCESCA, On an interesting case of Carp spawning in the River Cauvery at Bhavani during June, 1947 - GEE, E. P., What is the ee means of control and destruc- tion of Flying Foxes [Ptero- pus giganteus (Brunn.)] HeEweEtTson, C. E., Preparation of a Flora for Madhya Pradesh and the central parts of the Indian Union ... see Hutton, ANGUS F., Gaur at- tacking Man é aes INGLIS, C. M., F.Z.S., C.M.B.O.U., The Ashy Swallow-shrike (Artamus fuscus Vieillot) at abird bath. (Witha photo). JOHN, M. A., see BEHURA, B. K. JonEs, S., and SUJANSINGANI, K. H., The Hilsa Fishery of the Chilka Lake. (With 2 plates, 3 graphs and 3 text figures) Kapoor, L. D. CHORE, R. N., and CHOPRA, a C,, Survey of Economic Vegetable Products of Jummu and Kashmir, I. Sindh Forest Division. (W2zth a sketch map) : KHAJURIA, H., Abnormal be- haviour of a male Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta mulatta Zimmermann) KRISHNAMURTHY, D.R., Ang- ling for Crocodiles with hock and line in Krishnarajasagar Reservoir fe nas KuRIYAN, G. K.,A note on the Eggs andthe First Stage Larva of Hippolysmata vittata Stimp- son Ae vee i ae LEIGH, C., S.J., egg-laying by a Python in captivity “ie LESLIE, C. J., Mating beha- viour of esbnes LISTER, M. D., Birds and Ecolo- gy. dss Tow D-IONESY wW. ., Habits of the Mongoose ix PAGE 140 401 431 166 174 264 101 389 181 416 183 422 147 397 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS MAYNE, W. WILSON, A tera- tosis of Mussaenda hirsutis- sima Hutch. — sr Rr MIDDLETON, A., The Indian Wild Dog ip MorrRIs, RANPOLPH o ‘An extraordinary find in a Pan- ther’s stomach’ A NAVALKAR, B. S., Srcceries of the Mimerove Vegetation of Bombay and _ Salsette Islands. (With two plates)... NEEDHAM, F. M., Tiger eating carrion ‘s NICHOLLS, ieee Wild Ele- phant Seeks assistance PatiL, A. M., M.Sc., Study of the Marine Fauna of the Karwar Coast and Neighbour- ing Islands, Part I: Protozoa to ears (With a map) : PHILLIPS, W. W. 70 Reamizie a baby Ceylon Grey Flying Squirrel (Petaurista philip- pensis lanka). (With a photo). PHyTHIAN-ADAMS, Lt.-Col. E. G., OFBHE.5i SUREZS2, 6 OAc (Retd.), Jungle Memories, Part [X—Antelope and Deér. (With 2 plates) a bes , Part X— (With 2 plates). = Mixed Bag. PAGE 426 162 390 157 389 396 128 164 PiIttay, T. V. R., Hilsa catches - on the Kodinar (Kathiawar) Coast sae PROUD, DESIREE, Sone birds seen on the Gandak-Kosi Watershed in March, 1951. ' (With a sketch map and a plate) a mee tee RICHARDSON, H. E., Stray Bird notes from Tibet “ RIPLEY, S. DILLON, ‘ Notes on some Asiatic Sturnidae (Birds) ’—A Comment RomER, J. D., M.1. BIOL., F.z.S., . Surface-locomotion of certain - Frogs (Aana), and the occur- rence of &, taipehensis Van- denburgh in India... nee 415 355 413 178 414 SANDRASAGARA, T. R,, F.R.ESS., A note on the Blood-sucking Simulium of Ceylon SANTAPAU, H., §.J., see BOLE,, P. V., M.Sc. — » Critical notes on the identity and nomenclature of some Bom- bay Plants. (With two plates). ——_——., Frerea indica — Dalz.—A new _ record in Bombay —————-——, A branched Specimen of Costus speciosus Smith > or -——, The flowering of Strobilanthes in Khané dala (IV) oes ae SILAS, E. G., B.Sc. (Hons.), Fishes from the High Range of Travancore. (With two text figures) 2. ——_— —_ -— uNotes on m hishes of the Genus Glyptothorax Blyth from Peninsular India, with description of a new species SINHA, rSuNe TE see capri RA, B. K. STANFORD, J. K., Crab-eating Chital SUJANSINGANI, JONEs, S. se THIvY, FRANCESCA, see Gane PATI, S. V. VENUGOPAL, S., B.Sc. (Zool.), B.Sc. (Bot.), see ANANTHANARAYANAN, K. R., B.A. (Hons. ) K. H., see WINTERBOTHAM, JOYCE C,, A. Wild Dog incident ... WorTH, C., BROOKE, A nesting colony of Small Swallow- plovers in Mysore State ——-——, Descrip- tion and discussion of the biting of an Indian Land Leech (Annelida ; Hirudinea) WYNTER-BiytTH, M.A., A Na- turalist in the North-west Himalaya. Part I. (With — atext map and two plates) ... PAGE 421 427 430 323 367 398 163 405 423 344 LAST OL PEAY BS VOLUME 50 Nos. 1 and 2 | PAGE Jungle Memories. Plate I. Sambar as) airs 4 My first Thamin ee i Plate II. Blackbuck oe Bull Nilgai . : \ : Notes on Butterflies from Nepal. Plate I. Papilios on wet sand—FPapilio memnon agenor, polytes and paris (or gamesa?) can be recognized—also Cepora | ‘ nadina — ur ee Aporia agathon at Godavari Nepal Valley, 7-5-1936 wae Plate II. Cyrestis thyodamas at Godavari, Nepal Valley, 8-5-1947 ... 71 Forty years of Sport on little known Assam Rivers. Plate I, Camping in comfort The Boro Hattias vt Plate II, Two good mahseer from the Barak A mahseer and ‘ pakhi runga’ i tf Survey of Economic Vegetable Products of J ammu and Kashmir, Plate I. Gurez Valley—Artemisia growing area. A view of Nichnai (12,000’) | . ma 104 Plate Il. Cimicifuga foetida (Aowering plants), Phytolacca acinosa (fruiting) grows wild and is used | | adulterating Belladonna roots and leaf. Succession of the Mangrove Vegetation of Bombay and Salsette Islands. Plate I. Ist Stage. Avicennia alba Association (optimum stage ) from Uran—near Bombay. 2nd Stage. Avicennia alba and Acanthus ilicifolius from | _ Bandra. \ 2(A) Stage. Ceriops candolleana and Acanthus ilici- | } 105 158 folius from Mumbra. 3rd Stage. Avicennia alba from Bandra. Plate II. 4th Stage. Sesuvium portulacastrum from Vadala. Sth Stage. Sesuvium portulacastrum and ee vepens from Mumbra—Diwa. 6th State. Aeluropus repens and Paspalum eae t 159 from Mumbra—Diwa. 7 i 7th Stage. Clerodendron inerme from Mambra’-Dives Duration of Song in some Common Birds. Plate I. I. Dhyal or Magpie-Robin (Copsychits saularis) 3. (graph) oe ee II. Crimson-breasted Barbet (Megalaima hemacephala) (do.) \ 180 Plate II, II. Yellow-cheeked Tit (Machlolophus xanthogenys). (do.) \ 181 IV. Papiha or Brain-fever Bird (Hierococcyx varius.) (do.) Jungle Memories. Plate I. The Bison Swamp Boar Scene of panther incident et 218 LIST OF PLATES xii PAGE Plate II. With Thibaw’s elephants at Bhamo “1 919 My last tusker Sse \ The Birds of Coorg. Plate I. Egyptian Vulture. one \ 246 Shahin Falcon. sas Plate II. Jerdon’s Long-tailed Nightjar. se \ 247 Great Stone Plover. The Hilsa Fishery of the Chilka Lake. Plate 1. (1) A view of Balugan, one of the main fish assembling) and exporting centers in the Chilka. Fish is being | unloaded from the country boats seen in the fore- ground. \. 266 (2) A view of the gilling nets in operation, in which hilsa is caught. (3) Stacking the net in boats and collecting the gilled fish as they come in. J Plate II. (1) A view of the Ambica Fishermen’s Co-operative) Society, Balugan, with their offices in the page, ground and fish godown in the foreground, where a large number of hilsa specimens were ne Carts parked near the godown contain ice blocks in gunny bags. r 267 (2) A view of the baskets, in which hilsa and other fishes | are packed and exported from the Chilka centres. (3) Aview of the interior of one of the godowns, where weighing and packing of fish are in progress. Critical notes on the identity and nomenclature of some Bombay Plants. Plate I. Fig. 1. Bridelia retusa Spr. : Fig, 2. Bridelia sguamosa Gehrm. a Plate Il. Fig. 3. Bvidelia roxburghiana Gehrm. : a Fig. 4. Bridelia hamiltoniana Wall. : A Naturalist in the North-west Himalaya. Plate I. Mule train crossing the Bashleo Pass. Gushu Pishu (18,610’) (right centre) and Kokshane (18,940’ ) (right) from near Darunghati. Plate II, Manali—‘ The End of the Journey.’ Himalayan Griffon Vulture. Some Birds seen on the Gandak-Kosi Watershed in March, 1951. Plate I. Path running down to Pati Bhanjyang showing terraced 350 cultivation. : | \ 308 } | \ 351 e ° ° e e e Sherpa hut at 11,000’. A note on Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus Dalz. Plate I, 1. Dry inflorescence. 2. Mature capsules Plate II. 3. Dry seeds. 4, Seeds in water. 428 429 358 | INDEX TOVILLOSTRATIONS VOLUME 50 Nos. 1 & 2 PAGE Acanthus ilicifolius | Cyrestis thyodamas Plate I. a ‘ 158 Plate II. Aeluropus repens Elephants Plate II. ee sas 159 Plate II, Aporia agathon Esacus vecurvirostris Plate I. ia ae 70 Plate II. Artamus fuscus Eudynamtis scolopaceus 3 Photo. Pe. we 174 Graph showing duration of Avitennia alba song Plate I. * as 158 | Falco peregrinus ( DePeE RINE: Birds of Coorg. tor) Map 20 Plate I, ae Birds seen on the Gardai Kosi Watershed in March, 1951. Map ate aes 356 Plate I. a Ses 358 Blackbuck. Plate II. Sa es 5 Boar, The Bison Swamp Plate I. sed wee 218 Bridelia hamiltoniana Plate II. Fig. 4 5 309 =—-———. velusa Plate I> Hig. 1. hs 308 ———— roxburghiana Plate II. Fig. 3 ses 309 ———— — sguamosa Piate I. Fig. 2 ace 308 Butterflies from Nepal]. Map. 64 Caprimulgus macrourus Plate II. wee ee 247 Carea subtilis Text fig.1,2& 3 fiat 419 Cepora nadina Plate I. aes Ste 70 Ceriops candolleana Plate I. oes ose 158 Cimicifuga foetida Plate II. eee se 105 Clerodendron inerme Plate II. es a 159 Copsychus saularis 3 PlateI, Graph showing duration of song aoe 180 Fishes from the High Rance, of Travancore. Pigwl. Maps. -.s. an Griffon Vulture, Himalayan Plate II. flierococeyx varius Plate II, Graph showing duration of song aoe Hilsa Fishery of the Chilka Lake Map Plate I, ak Plate II. es Graph I, Graph II. Graph III. Pext Lig, 2. Text Fig 3, Himalaya, A Naturalist in the North-west. Map Plate I. Plate II. fe tes Machlolophus xanthogenys Plate Il, Graph showing duration of song ; Marine Fauna of the Karwar Coast and Neighbouring Is- lands. Map Megalaima haemacephala Plate I. Graph showing duration of song eee PAGE 71 219 247 180 246 325 351 181 264 266 267 267 268 269 274 275 344 350 351 181 130 180 xiv INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS Nemachilus giintheri Fig.2 a & b ( Q speci- ; mens). eee Neophron percnopterus Plate I. cee Nilgai, Bull Plate II. aoe oot Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus Plate I. see Plate II. see Panther incident, Scene of Plate I. aS eae Papilio memnon agenor Plate I. paris (or ganesa ?) Plate [. Sen —— polytes Plate I. ese Paspalum vaginatum Plate II. ese PAGE 159 Petaurista philippensis lanka (Young 3) Photo. Phytolacca acinosa Plate II. ees Sambar Plate I. se Sesuvium portulacastrum Plate IL. eee os Sport on little known Assam Rivers, Forty years of Plate I. cae Plate II. Thamin Plate. 2.> Vegetable Products of Jammu and Kashmir, A survey of Economic Sketch map. ... eee Plate I. ase 159 104 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Abies pindrow .. 102, 103, 104, 105, 106 ——- webbiana nate Pry: ‘ge e268 Abisara echerius prunosa aes ee) - .—— suffusa aaa en) abe — fylla eet s Reem eG — neophron Heopironoides Seer 282 Abrota ganga ... ‘ies es pace OL Acacia caesia ... Was #3102311 Si2 - columnaris ses ae seat Oe ——- intsia ae sae 310, 311 -moniJiformis .. «. func 301 - torta Bag oot pete Stoke Acanthus ilicifolius ae, ine 158, 159):-160 Accipiter virgatus a ene we = 201 Acer caesium ae 5 oa eer Le —- pictum see weer eee oe wave = ~d02 Achillea millefolium ... sae =~ 103, 117 Aconitum chasmanthum we. 104, 106, 107 heterophyllum ... 104, 106, 107 ——-- laevi oy ee 107, 108 ——--violaceum ... uae ae LOB Acraea issoria anomala Seiad asd tes' 87 issoria sete ls7 O7 Acridotheres cristatellus falas. ATS —— grandis sea =~ 148 tristis wee www --2h, 56,-57 Acrocarpus oF coo ce) May) OL; 49,-54 Acrocephalus agricola ... aoe ans 51 - dumetorum aa on 51 se - stentoreus one sas ‘Spt Acromitus vee an ws ore oe Actaea spicata ... aes oo oe 108 Actitis hypoleucos ase an 200 Adonis chrysocyathus ... au ee 08 Aeaeus aa hy an oss 65 Aegiceras majus ae ose io OS Aegithaliscus ioschistos ace 358, 362 Aegithina tiphia coe ese aes 30 Aeluropus repens aes 600 soe te LOY Aeromachus jhora jhora_ _.., baz 295 ——- stigmata stigmata a. 205 Aesculusindica . ae eee sell LIZ Aethiopsar fuscus aoe sen 24 jo, DO8 OF PAGE Aethopyga nipalensis 365 Ageratum 356 Agrimonia pilosa 113 Aileantum patatum 103 Alauda gulgula eo 23 Albizzia os 22, 54, 55 Albunea Sy nista faicen LOL Alcedo atthis 239 meninting 240 Alcemerops athertoni 239 Alchemilla vulgaris... a 113 Alcippe poioicephala .. 29 Alcurus striatus ine sae 355 Alectoris graeca 346 Alima ie 136 Allium rubellum ve 24 semenovii oe ly, Alonella ss 14 Alosa sapidisima ah 270 Alphaeus Se bees OG Alseonax latirostris eee seen AL — —- muttui ae soon eS) Amandava amandava ... _ 60 Amaurornis fuscus see out 1200 ——- phoenicurus ves) 296 Amblypodia alemon 289,338 —- amantes amantes... 289, 338 —————- aresta aresta a eo 290 ——+—-—-—- bazalus 289 —————- centaurus ... eee 331 eee - pirithous 289 —————.- chinensis eas fen wyreo. a dodonea aie sea; 289 eRe ee A eumolphus eumolphus ... 289 —_—_-—_-—- ganesa ganesa ... oie 200 on oenea ales 289 a - paraganesa paraganesa... 290 --———-—-- paramuta a 290 —————- rama rama aaa 289 —————- singla see ose ae = 289 Ammomanes phoenicura _... 226 Amphora sion Anabaena 14, 141 Xvi Anabaenopsis : Anabaenopsis sieceriena Anaphalis Anaphalis nubigena Anapheis aurota aurota Anastomus oscitans Ancistroides nigrita diocles Androsace duthieana mucronifolia —————- primuloides ——_-—— rotundifolia ——— sempervivoides Anemonia Anemone polyanthes ——- rupicola ————-- tetrasepala Angelica glauca Anguilla australis bengalensis Anhinga melanogaster Ankistrodesmus Anona reticulata Anopheles Anthus hodgsoni nilghiriensis — richardi ———--~ roseatus — rufulus - similis —- thermophilus Apatura camiba Aphragmus obscurus Aplocheilus lineatus Aporia wat Aporia agathon Raton - caphusa —— Appias albina - lalage As - libythea libythea - lyncida eleonora Apus affinis Aquila chrysaetos - pomarina Aquilegia fragrans ———- jucunda Arabidopsis himalaica ... — mollissima — thaliana Arabis glabra - tenuirostris Arachnothera longirostra ed 1.9328.19240-327 .. 225, 357, 365 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE 141 14 105 117 7 261 295 120 120 120 120 120 132 108 108 108 106, 116 327 261 14 300 148 23, 225 413 175 225 225 225 335 110 326 354 70 70 333 71 333 71 409 351 410 104, 108 108 109 109 109 109 109 228 PAGE Arceuthobium minutissimum ... 103 Archangelica himalaica 116 - officinalis 116 Arctium lappa a7 Atdea purpurea 261. Ardeola grayii 262 Arenaria kashmirica aos 110 ———— neelgerrensis 110 ———— parviflora 110 Argya caudata 173 malcolmi Ee Wis subrufa a q 21,28 Argynnis childreni childreni 86 ————-- hyperbius hyperbius © 85 ————- kamala wd 86 ——- lathonia issoea 86 Arisaema wallichianum 127 Artamus fuscus 47 Artemisia 40: 105 Artemisia ae actin at a3: nA 106 —- brevifolia 103, 104, 106, 117 ————-- dracunculus wei eek —__——_-- grata 103, 107 ——_——- japonica mee ay DELS —_+—- laciniata .. 104, 106, 117 —-——- parviflora .. 104, 106, 118 ———~—- siversiana eels ——_——- vestita 118 Artocarpus integrifolia “A 53 Arthrocnemum indicum 159 Asio flammeus 245 Asplenium viride Wag Aster falconeri 118 flaccidus ; 118 ——- heterochaeta cas Fores Jils) —- molliusculus 118 Astragalus bicuspis .. 112 — himalayanus Feo: alee ——-—— longicaulis 112 ———_ longifolius LL -———_—— op lites 112 a orobrephes Jat ———— peduncularis 112 ————_ rhizanthns 112 oe royleanus wong pede —— — strobiliferus _ 106, 113 —— webbianus 113 Astur badius 250 —- trivirgatus pene!) Astycus pythias bambusae 339 Atella phalanta Bes eas 86 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Atergatis a 138 Athene brama 24, 246, 407 Atriplex crassifolia 124 stocksii 159 Atylosia ee a) Aulocera Bean imiads beanminoides a 77 —— brahminus 77 ———— padma chumbica di ——<———- —————- loha 77 | —_—_—-— padma 77 ———— saraswati Ts — swaha swaha ; 77 | Avicennia 157, 160 Avicennia alba ... 157, 158 ————-- officinalis 158 | Azdirachta indica 179 Badamia exclamationis 339 Balaenoptera sp. 167 Balaenoptera indica 167 Balanus amphitrite 135, 136 Balanus tintinabulum ... 135 Bambusa arundinacea ... 22 Baoris farri farri 297 | ——-- kumara kumara sisi seapn i fede ——-- zelleri cinnara ... 339 Barbarea intermedia 109 -——_——- vulgaris 109 Barbus (Lissocheilus) Meee ponelepis: 14 ———- (Puntius) amphibius 326 ———- (———_-—--) curmuca .. 326 = (—_—_-) denisonit 327 ———- (——_—-) dorsalis 323 ———- (——-—--) filamentosus 325 ———- (———-) lithopidos 326 ———- (_—-—-) melanampyx 326 ——-—- (———- ) melanostigma 327 ———- (———--) micropogon... 528, 339 = (—__—__—_-) _m periyarensis 323,024, 320,327 ———- ( -) ophicephalus Sesh, BlOeo, 324, 326, 328 ———- ( -) sarana 327 - (Tor) khudree malabaricus .... 326 Bargus lonah .. 367, 368, 370 Barilius bakeri alee Epa e148) ———- bendelisis SOLS) Go ROes, —- gatensis 326 Baza jerdoni 251 Belladonna aes ast are pec lOT Berberis oan 351,354, 355, 356 Berberis asiatica 70, 82 2 xVli PAGE Berberis vulgaris 359 Beroe ss poe Betula utilis 102, 104, 106, 126 Bhavania australis 326, 330 Bibasis vasutana hee Eee west) 20% Bombax 26, 31, 40, 47, 54, 55, 244 Bombax malabaricum prea gaa spore AS) Borbo bevani 298 Bosmina 14 Brachypternus Beneiniensa 231 Brachypteryx major od 2053S Brassica napus 109 Bridelia 307 Bridelia Neimiltontana 307, 303 ———- retusa .. 307, 308, 309 Se — var, roxburghiana 309 ———- roxburghiana 307, 309 ——\—- scandens 307, 308 ——_—— spinosa - 308 —————_~ squamosa .. 307, 308, 309 — — stipularis 307, 308 Broussonetia flabellifera 179 Bruguiera gymnorhiza sie seri wlso Bubulcus ibis .. 156, 262, 410 Buchnera hispida ~ . 427 Buddleia 354 Bunium persicum 116 Bunodactis Ney Bupleurum eanaieuarin 1S ————— lanceolatum 115 —- longicaule 115 ———_——- tenue 115 ——-——-—- thomsoni TS Burhinus oedicnemus 257 Butastur teesa 249 Butea frondosa 295 9 Butorides striatus 262 Cacomantis merulinus ... 234 Caesalpinia sepiaria : hE Cajanus indicus 299, 300, 301, 302 Calaenorrhinus ambaresa 339 Calamintha clinopodium 123 Calanus ... ees 134 Calappa She abe “ee fat aon Calappa lophos ... Ge sts Seon Calotropis procera 74 Caltha palustris 1¢8 Caltoris cahira austeni 297 -- tulsi tulsi oa A, 297 Campanula aristata_... ate ose: ot 220 xviii INDEX OF SPECIES Ei PAGE Campanula cashmiriana 120 -—— colorata var. tibetica 120 Camponotus 303 Camponotus pompretenee 184, 299, 302, 303 Cannabis sativa ... ae i 125 Cantharospermum 310 Cantharospermum scarabaeoides 310 Capella gallinago vee aye ne 200 -nemoricola | 260 — stenura isi oh. 352, 28260 Capra siberica 346 Capricornus Sader 346 Caprimulgus asiaticus oF 24, 245 ——-—— indicus .. ... 24, 244, 365 ——-—-——— — macrourus 244 ————-——. monticolus 245 Caprona ransonetti 339 Cardamine impatiens 109 Carduus nutans as ie 118 Carea subtilis eee a eat 418, 419 Carinella 133 Carissa carandus oe erage Carpodacuserythrinus ... aoe 61,. 364 Gases bulbocastanum 115 carvi eee es ae 103; 116 - Cassia fistula Se a 179 laevigata ... sth He Be Je Castalius caleta decidia ese ——— deleta decidia 337 ———— rosimon rosimon ais 282, 337 Catachrysops lithargyria ay pet 016 —————strabo ... BAG 286, 337 Catapoecilma elegans major 292 Catia catla Bass sie sor I stall Catopsllia crocale B33 —— - crotale 72 Catopsilia crocale jugurtha ‘eo — florella gnoma fe ——-—— pomona oan aes 72, 333 —_—-—— - var. catilla- 72, 333 =—— --——— pyranthe oat ae 72, 418 ss +. pyranthe’... 333 Catreus wallichii 346 Caucalis latifolia Jil Caverndlaria ““ ... 7? sc. <= an ee eyanos Gedrela toona’ 410 Cedrus deodara a 126 Celaenorrhinus dhanada dhanada 294 a -munda 294 — ratna:tytleri 294: Celtis australis rere 1125 Choaspes xanthopogon ... -.«.. PaGE Centropus sinensis op 235° Centrotus were ms 302 * Cepora nadina amba Aa - —-nadina ... a - nerissa nerissa ae phryne eae Cerastium aoe eae 104, lieing — dahuricum .. —... I10~ — —— trigynum ~.. a 110° Ceratium oe Sree en eS Tate Ceratium furca 1S ——-—— fusus coo oe ——-——-tripos ... bee “> 137° Ceriodaphnia 3p aS Ceriops candolleana re ee Ceriornis macrolophus ... wie 346° Certhia familiaris E9634 Cervus elaphus maral ... va 44" Ceryle rudis Sone 2 99gg4 Cethosia biblis tisamena > 86 - Chaerophyllum sp. 103 ‘ Chaerophyllum villosum 116 Chaetoprocta odata 288° Chaetura giganteus B: 243 ~ Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus 413~ Chalcophapsindica —.... Aeon t 252 Chaptia aenea: ~ 48, 50° Charadrius dubius wes D5! —. - jerdoni 176 ° Charana jalindra indra 292 Charaxes fabius fabius: 332; 335 —---~— polyxena hierax = 79° —-- —— ——-+—— imna 331, 3355 Charybdis A reldar wate 137; 590% Chela boopis 327- Chenopodium album 124: ——_—=— blitum --124- —_-——---——. botrys 105, 124- Chersonesia risa. 84 Chibia hottentota 49. Chilades laius laius 285 Chilasa agestor. agestor we --~-66- ——-— clytia clytia 331, 332. — —-— ——- dissimilis 331, 332 ——-— -epycides epycides vo). 166: Chiiaria kina cacharh 292. —_—-—- —— kina 292. ——-— othona so? eae Chloropsis aurifrons - 31 —-—— jerdoni cigk 294 Chotispora sabulosa Chrysocolaptes festivus Chrysomma Chrysomma sinensis Cicendela ... Cicer soongaricum Cinclus pallasi Cinnamomum tamala, Circus aeruginosus macrourus Cirrhina mrigala ——_—— reba Cisticola exilis — juncidis Citrus aurantium Clamator coromandus ... ———-— jacobinus Clematis connata grata ———-— graveolens ———-— orientalis Clerodendron inerme Closterium -Cluytia retusa =... Cluytia squamosa ——-—— stipularis... Codonopsis clematidea ... ————_——— ovata ———_—— rotundifolia... ————— sp. Coladenia dan fatih ~ Colchichum luteum Coleas Sa ac Colias electo fieldii ——— erate erate Collocalia brevirostris ... —_——-— fuciphaga Colotis amata amata ——— calois modesta ? ——— etrida Columba elphinstonii ————. leuconota palumbus Colutea nepalensis Conochilus Copsychus saularis Coracias benghalensis . Coracina novaehollandiae (macei) Cortusa matthioli Corvus frugilegugs ~~ —-— guttacristatus... — indrana ere INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE 109 24, 231 24, 231 43 29 139 113 353 299, 300 seems 200 250, 366 15.1718 14 17, 18, 143, 146 ses 52 299, 300 Seats) Zo 200 108 108 108 159 14 308 308 308 120 120 120 104 295 339 127 298 73 73 365 243 334 334 334 ee UR 355, 413 147 113 BAe: nas 36, 37, 179, 407 Autioy somitons ..47, 54 Ge Ome 196 153 oae ve 5D. xix PAGE | Corvus macrorhynchos 20, SOL “— ————-——-— intermedius... 413 —-—— Splendens 25, 407 - ——-—— splendens- 170 Corydalis ... 106 Corydalis govaniana 110 ——-——- ramosa 110 ——-—— thyrsiflora 110 Coryllis vernalis 237 Corylus colurna 126 Cosmarium_ 14 Costus speciosus ... 427 Cotoneaster Bhp Cotoneaster micropayiley 113 Cousinea thomsoni 118 Crataegus She Cremanthodium nerarerel 118 Cremastogaster 230 Crex crex : 148 Crocopus Bribe Aicoprens oe 25 Crucigenia 14 Cryptoplectron srtirornmacnt m 24, 255 Ctenoptilum vasava vasava 295 Cuculus micropterus 349° ——-— poliocephalus ... 234 Culicicapa ceylonensis 42 Cupha erymanthus lotis 86 Curetis acuta dentata 289 — - bulis 288" - thetis 338° Cyanosylvia svecica 35 Cyclops 141 Cyclotella ~ 14 Cymbella 14 Cymothoa 13S Cynanchum glaucum wee 121. —— - jacquemontianum 12 Cynictus penicillata ai sos 2 904 Cynniris asiatica st ~ 20/4: 220% 309 ———— Jotenia ... oe ae 227. — minima we 228 zeylanica 227, 228 Cynoglossum lanceolatum 121 ———- ——— micranthus P21 —_—— Sp. ats 103, 104 ——- wallichii ... -L2ie Cynthia erota erota 86_ Cyperus compressus 159 —— —— rotundus 159: Cypridopsis -. ... pees is 14 Cyrestis:-thyodamas ganescha ... 83: XX Cyrestic thyodamas thyodamas Dactylometra Daemia extensa ... Dalbergia latifolia Danais aglaea aglaea —~— chrysippus limniace mutina piexippus ———— septentrionis Danaus aglea melanoides ———- limniace leopardus ——— — plexippus ie ~——-- sita - —-sita --— tytia Danio aequipinnatus Darpahanria ... Datisca cannabinna Datura bf Datura fastuosa ... Delias aglaia aglaia agostina agostina belladonna horsfieldii berinda boyleae —— descombesi descombesi eucharis Avs —— hyparete indica ... sanaca confusa ... — oreas —— —— sanaca ——w— thysbe pyramus =e Delphinium ranunculifolium ... Dendrocitta leucogastra vagabunda Dendrocopos javanensis Dendrocopus mahrattensis Dendrocygna javanica Dendronathus indicus Dendrophasa pompadora Dendrostoma Dephine oloides Dermestes vulpinus Desmodus rotundus murino Deudoryx epijarbas ancus Diagora nicevillei ———- persimilis persimils Diaptomus Dicaeum concolor -chrysippus chrysippus -—— - hamata septentriornis PAGE 83 vice, 182 300, 303 22s 20) 334 £ asad 334, 418 334 334 73 74 74 74 74 73 73 a3 326 295 105, 106, 115 ay 08 300, 303 7 70 353 70 za 71 70, 333 ay meZO 7A A eal 70 eal vi 108 . 24, 26 24, 25, 50 232 408 263 225 ie bs 134 106 139 395 292 80 fete 14, 141 229 INDEX OF SPECIES Dicaeum erythrorhynchos ———— erythrorhynchum Dichoceros bicornis Dichorragia nesimachus Dicrurus coerulescens — longicaudatus ———— macrocercus Digitalis purpurea Digitaria marginata ... Dilipa morgiana Dinopium javanese Diogenes Diphyes Dipsacus inermis Discophora sondaica zal Dissemurus paradiseus Dissoura episcopa Diurella_ ... fa Dodona adonira adonira ——--— dipoea... — nostia Ses ~——- durga —— -— egeon ——-— eugenes —-— ouida ouida Doronicum roylei Dotilla Draba alpina - lanceolata — -—memorosa —-— muralis --—- obscura ——- oreades —-— petraea 360 Dracocephalum nutans Dryobates hardwickii ———-— macei ——_——— mahrattensis Dryopteris blanfordii ... —_———— brunoniana a filix-mas ———-—-~, odonotolma Ducula badia .. Dumetia Dumetia aibomuiatis ——-— — hyperythra Cipie nines) ———_- ——_ - ——— albogularis Echinospermum barbatum Edgeworthia oar Soe Edgeworthia gardneri ? Egretta alba 24, 230, 232 PAGE 229 155, 410 241 soe), 80 24, 25,48 © . 25, 48 , 25, 48, 407 122 159 79 Zo 136 132 47 79 26, 49, 50 261 14 282 281 281 281 282 281 282 118 128 con Og LO 110 110 nae LO 109 110 123 358,, 365 24, 230 127 127 127 103 252 43 52 29 i753 121 356, 357 356 261 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Egretta garzetta 261 ——_—. intermedia 261 Elanus caeruleus on we 250 Eleusine é gat one oe 58 Elsholtzia areata 123 ——~-—— densa 1123 Elymnias hypermnestra nada ea 79 ——-—— malelas malelas as an 79 ——--—— vasudeva vasudeva sae 79 Emerita asiatica 136 Enicurus maculatus 353 Epilobium angustifolium qES —- cylindricum ITS — latifolium 115 Erebia annada annada... at, ade 78 ="caeca i. ake aA 78 hyagriva ... mee ane ie 78 ——— hybrida ... ae wea ae 77 ——— nirmala nirmala as aps 77 scanda opima ... or oe 77 Eremopteryx grisea 226 Eremurus himalaicus eG Pen Lo Ergolis ariadne pallidior ae ees 87 ——-— merione assama ae aie 87 ——— ——-— taprobana 337 Eriboea athamas athamas 79,331 -————- dolon centralis ak aes aS ———— eudamippus eudamippus ... 79 Erigeron andryaloides ... 118 ———— multiradiatus 118 —_——-— patentisquama 118 Erionota torus 296 Eritrichiuma strictum 121 Eryngium coeruleum 116 Erysimum melicentae : 170 Erythrina ZO pols Os 00), 49, 54, Bs, 418 Erythrina indica ss tee 55, 500 —— lithosperma 22, 30 Esacus recurvirostris 257 Esomus barbatus 323 Euaspa milionia F 288 Euchrysops cnejus 2a oe we 289 -—— contracta contracta 286 ——— pandava pandava 286 Eucyclops oan : ny 14 Eudynamis prolonacens, 25, 179, 180, 235, 407 Eugenia ey BS 418 Eugenia jamabolaia 418 Euglena ace 14, 141 Eulipis athamas fe 335 Eumiyas al bicaudata ... eae » 23, 41 : xxi PAGE Eumiyas thalassina 41, 364 Eunotia see 14 Euonymus fae ttatands 12 Eupoyrbia cornigera 125 ——— pilosa wae ue 025 — —— wallichii 193, 125 Euphrasia officinalis 122 Euphrosia officinalis aes 103 Euploea core core 74, 334 ———— coreta coreta 334 ———— mulciber mulciber 74 Kupolia wae aos est oe 133 Eurema blanda silhetana ra 75 ———- brigitta rubella 72 ———- hecabe fimbriata - 73 ——~—- laeta laeta a 73 Euripus consimilis re 80 Eurystomus orientalis ... 238 Euthalia garuda anagama 2 335 ———— ——— suddhodana ... 81 ——— — julii appiades ae 80 ——-—— kesava arhat 80 ———— lepidea lepidea 80 ———-— lubentine 351 ———— nais forst 336 ———— nara nara 81 ——— patala patala ... ; 81 ——-—-—- sahadeva sahadeya ... 81 — telchinia 80 Everes argiades indica ... Foe toss 7 - dipora dee a Ue -f0.83 - parrhasius parrWanive 283 Excaecaria agallocha 158 Excalfactoria chinensis 254 Fagopyrum ee sate 107 Fagopyrum esculentum 103 Falco jugger wae ane Bere te: —-— peregrinus peregrinator 247, 410 —-— tinnunculus « 9865 SS ee (ebinrcatte ?) 248 i: ae (tinnunculus ?) 248 Felina cafra 03 “as ae 395 Ferula narthex ... aes 105, 106, 116 Festuca me ye oa0 Festuca myuros .. 340, 341 ~ octoflora 341 += tenella 341 Ficus x ae 22 Ficus ben ealenbis 300, 301 —- glomerata ... 50, 233 54 ——~ mysorensis ne ts XXli PAGE | Fimbristylis ferruginea ee mee he, ——————————- polytrichoi- des re “es i655 sae os aloo Flacourtia ramontchi ... Kae Pa 21300 Foeniculum Ad aids or ahs 68 Fragaria vesca ... B ate Pope ES Fragilaria mars a ine eae 14 Francolinus franeolinus be w. 346 ——pondicerianus... Ped pas) s) Franklinia eee a ss ae 43 Franklinia gracilis See ae a 52 Fraxinus xanthoxyloides wes Bria E40) Frerea indica... zs a, eee eT Frustulia cee Bie seh ae 14 Fulica atra ee sae oy eo Fulvetta vinipecta 4 = og? OY Galerida malabarica ... 24, 226 Galium asperuloides Cat) rcth een wie -boreale ... ws +e a 117 Gallinula chloropus Lf ee Pepe OG Galloperdix spadicea ... i ee eee: Gallus sonnerati gat ry va. 04 Garra jerdoni.... ae os: ae 20 ——- mullya 143, 146, 326 Garrulax albogularis ... FS sen, dunes — delesserti neh std de HE Gaultheria e- ae ee -s. OG Gelasimus a oe as siemeallias Gemmaria mee zee Bee Bee hes) Gennaeus hamiltoni... oes vente O4O Gentiana carinata cae Ao Ce All —--——— decumbens ... ny meee 7)| ———— marginata ... Sas 2yGe eral ——_—- serrata var. stracheyi sively obi — -— stracheyi wate se eae isi Geokichla citrina cyanotus.... sa 38 w———-— wardi... .. a ae 38 Geranium kishtavariense aa we ved — rectum Ser at ee el ——-—— wallichianum ae soe ee Geum elatum ABE cas oe ries! a) -- urbanum Bare Chea 2. aS Glareolalactea ... ie see 13 AOS Glaucidium brodiei' ... aoe af 366 —-— radiatum ... wei 24, 246 Glaucoma wee oe sae oe 14 Glenodinium ae ae on 14, 141 Gliricida maculata se ba ww 385 Glossogobius giuris ... i ORE ARES 6 Glyptothorax 367, 368 Gly ptothorax premalatensis .. 368, 369, 370 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Giyptothorax annandalei « 367,.369, 370 ———-——- conirostre var, .. 367, 368, 370 poonaensis ——~———.-— dekkanensis... mice: TRICO ——_——--—— housei ... ae 367, 368, 369, 370 — -—_—__— lonah 367, 369, 370 ——--——--—-- Madtaspatanusi.., acco, 07, 368, 370 ———-—--—-— trawavasae 367, 368, 369, 370 Gonaphalium stewartii ... we Bee ele} Gomphonema .«. eae ate aa 14 Gonepterix mahaguru mahaguru .. 72 —- - rhamni nepalensis oe 72 (soniastraea eco Sor 153 Bo SYA Gorgonia wo ae ae sore 84 Gossypium herbaccumne va sons LO Gracula religiosa aes ne ar 54 Graphiumagammemnon agammemnon 69 ——-——— ———_-—_—-—. menides 332 ——-—--— bathycles chiron doc 68 ——-——cloanthus ... ns a 69 ————- —— cloanthus | re 68 ——---— doson axion ees Says 68 ——— -— eurous cashmiriensis ope ———_—— —--— sikkimica .. 0.4... 68 ——— — gyas gyas ... ane ae 69 ———-— nomius nomius BOS N307 ——--——_- sarpedon sarpedon sa A RY —-——-—---teredon sarpedon ... wee eh ae Grapsus strigosus Ac Ace aol 38 Grevillea : Ss a 38, 54 Grevillea robusta... ae fe “es 22 Grevillia or Gre ae .. 418 Gymnodnium... Abd ae oie SH Gymnorhis xanthocollis oe ooo aslo mail Gypaetus barbatus sie he Pe 20 Gyps fulvus Ne ees ee 176, 246 —— indicus 0 use 176, 246 Haemadipsa zeylanica ... dss see) AES Halcyon pileata dies a Rens. 4) ——-—-smyrnensis ... ies 240, 241 Haliastur indus ee coe ape e49 Halobates Go aa sia ue SD. Halpe kumara ... ee Soe ear eo Hantzschia eee a ScriLt Bean ipa Harpactes fasciatus ia ay, el Harpodon nehereus cnet aires wegret) eee Hasora alexis alexis... ays) Smeal 830 INDEX OF SPECIES a PAGE Hasora chromus chromus 294 Hebomia glaucippe australis ... 334 ——-———— ——_-—— glaucippe 13. Hedysarum astragaloides 113 Heliophorus androcles androcles 288 ———— -— bakeri Tyrant <0) ———-—-— epicles indicus see 8 SOF ——_—— oda 288 —_———-— sena 287 ————--— tamu tamu 288 Hemicircus canente 232 Hemiprocne coronata 243 Hemipus 47, 244 Hemipus picatus ... : 44 Hemitragus jemalahicus is 346 Heracleum sp. 104 Heracleum thompsoni .. 116 Hestina nama ae 69, 80, 82 Heteropneustes fossilis ... 20326 Hibiscus ae 227 Hieraetus Pecineds 248 —--— pennatus 248 Hierococcyx sparveroides 234 ————-— varius... 179, 234 Hilsa ilisha 14, 246, 415, 416 ——- toli Sate : 415 Himantopus HiMmenieous: ‘bd 259 Hippolysmata _... 136, 417 Hippolysmata vittata 416, 4)7 Hippohae rhamnoides ... .-- 104, 106, 125 - Hirudo medivinalis see 423 ‘Hirundo daurica 62 -- javanica 62 ——-- —— domicola 23 -— rustica 62 -- smithii 63 Horaga onyx onyx 292 ‘Horaglanis krishnai 323 Horsfieldia anita anita ... 338 Huhua nipalensis car 245 Huphina nerissa phyrrne “i... 333 Hydrocissa coronata. . 241 Hydrophasianus chirurgus 406 Hypacanthis spinoides ... 365 Mrypericum «-. ve. “Mees Joe SOU ‘Hypericum perforatum 111 Hypolimna bolina: 84, 336 - -—— misippus ax | (336 ‘Hypolycaena erylus himavantus 292 Hypothymis azurea a 43 Hyoseyamus niger =< ,,. 105 Iambrix salsala salsala. . Ianthia cyanura tale - rufilata Iberidella andersoni Ibla quadrivalvis (?) Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus Ictinaetus malayensis Impatiens brachycentra ——— — edgeworthii ———-— flemingii ——-—— glandulifera ———— royleana big roylei ———-— thomsoni Imperata arundinacea ? Indicapus sylvaticus Indigofera Inula/obtusifolia —— - racemosa ive ——- rhizocephaloides ——- royleana ae Iole icterica one aes Ipomoea Fi Iraota timoleon timoleon Irena puella Iris hookeriana Issoria sinha pallida ——- sinha Ixias marianne -——-- pyrene ste ai familiaris ... Ixobrychus cinnamomeus ~~ — —a> -——— sinensis Ixops nipalensis ... ‘ae Ixora parviflora ... vee Ixulus flavicollis Jaeskia gentianoides Jamides alecto eurysaces -- bochus bochus ———--- celeno celeno Jasminum arborescens Jugians regia Juncus himalensis - membranaceus Juniperus Fe Juniperus ccmmunis : -macropoda ... — recurva ——-—— squamata Jurinea ceratocarpa - macrocephala ..,, Exiil ‘PAGE meee 4o 5 363 413 110 135 249 as 240 suerte es 112 an ccc Clee ree Spe 8/4 ae .. 106 NUL OS je 8 PZ 179 243 351 118 ww 18 soo 1S 118 24, 32, 34 - 227 289, 338 53 127 86 86 333 333 73 262 262 362 Ooo 356, 363 L035 120 287 286, 337 286, 337 173 102, 125 127 127 104 su «6126 104, 105, 106, 126 106, 107 104 ioe LG 103, 119 XX1V PAGE Kallima inachus inachus , 84 -— philarctus horsfieldii ... 336 Kandelia rheedii ae 158 Ketupa ceylonensis 245 Kochia prostrata 124 Labeo calbasu ae 17, fimbriatus 17, 143, 146 Lactuca lessertiana 119 ——--—— longifolia 119 —— -— scariola 119 Lagerstroemia indica 184 Laiscopus collaris nipalensis ... fea SATS Laiscopus himalayanus 357, 364 Lamium album nee 123 Lampides boeticus 286 Lanius cristatus 44 -excubitor .. 408 ———-schach 24, 44 a a 44 - vittatus 04, 43, 44 Lantana . 21, 27,828; 253,-204 Lantana aculeata 22 Larus argentatus 568 380 —— -——— argentatus 380 _——- smithsonianus 280 ———— fuscus 380 Lavatera kashmiriana 111 Lavetera ie 107 Lawsonia alba ... as sia 390;,301 Leioptila capistrata a 363 Lepidagathis sphaerostachya ... 428 | Lepidocephalus thermalis 326 Lepidopygopsis typus 327 Leptorhabdos benthamiana ee papelze Leptosia nina nina 69, 333 Lethe confusa confusa ... 76 —- goalpara goalpara 75 ——-insana dinarbas 76 | ——- jalaurida jalaurida 7s ——- kansa sss 76 ——~- maitrya maitrya .. 19 —- nicetella 75 ——- nohria nilgirensis 335 ——- pulaha pulaha 76 | ———- rohria rohria 76 ——- sidonis sidonis 75 —- vaivarta 75 ——- verma sintica 76 _——- yama yama 76 Leucopolius alexandrinus Ailsena rinus 176 Libythea lepita lepita aoe 281 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Libythea myrrha sanguinalis... 281 Ligia Ase 135 Ligia exotica ape A 135 Ligustrum nepalense sate (I2GS Limenitis danava : ro —— -—— dudu na6 one 81 ——-—— procris 336 a procris 81 ——--—— trivena pallida aos ee ro Lindelofia angustifolia 121 ——-—— longiflora 103, 104, 122 Liothrix lutea aed 363 Lobipluvia malabarica 259 Lobivanellus indicus .«. 258 Lobocla liliana ignatius ie 294 Lonicera asperifolia 116 —— —— quinquelocularis 116 Lophoceros 404 Lophophanes ater B09 - ater aemodius 413 —_——- —_—— dichrous 362 ———- melanolophus 359, 361 ————--—— rubidiventris ... wo SBG2 Lophophorus impejanus 346, 366 Lophotriorchis kieneri coo 8248 Loranthus 229, 353; 354 Lotus corniculatus ao 113 Loxura aty mnus atymnus ave 290, 338 Lucifer ... ioe #3 36 Lumnitzera racemosa 157, 158 Lycaena pavana oes 287, Lycaena phloeas indicus 287 Lycaenesthes emolus em olus 286 ———-— lycaenina lycambes 286 Lycaenopsis albocoerulea 284 a argiolus sikkima 284 ——————- cardia dilecta 234 ———-—-—- jynteana ... a ge. ASE ——__—-—-—-- ladonides gigas ... 284 _-————-- lavendularis placida 284 a marginata 283 — puspa 338 —_———_—_- ——- gisca SaA 283 ——___-—-—_- transpecta 284 ———-—-—.- vardhana 284 Lychnis cachemeriana 111 - nutans eee cor 111 Macaca mulatta mulatta SHO pee o) Machlolophus xanthogenys ... 26, 179, 180 Macrognetus aculeata 327 Macrotomia benthami 104, 122 Mahonia Mangifera indica Mastacembelus armatus Matapa aria eee Matuta victor Meconopsis aculeata Medicago falcata Megalaima haemacephala ———— rubricapilla —_——_- ——. virens —— viridis Megisba malaya sikkima Melanitis leda ismene —— ——- phedima bela Melilotus alba Melitaea arcesia irma Mentha arvensis - sylvestris Mepeta connata - glutinosa - Sp. °f) Merismopedia _... ade Merismopedium ... Merops leschenaulti ~ orientalis - superciliosus — =e Metopidius indicus Michelia Michelia ebatmpacd Microcystis Micropternus Ghachiy anes Micropus affinis ... — melba ... Microscelis psaroides .. Microtarsus poioicephalu s Milvus migrans ae Mimosa pudica — torta Mirafra affinis Molpastes cafer Monophyes Monotretus Monticola Beclothyacha: erythrogastra — solitaria ood ' Morina coulteriana Morus alba ae indica: ~~... ~Moschus moschiferus — Gavanigus) INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE 358 299, 300 | 326 296 137 | 109 113 24, 179, 233, 403 | 24 | 319 232, 233 283 serra ithoa238 24, 25, 238 24 228 257 355 69, 300 14, 141 230 243 242 By gen 94 249, 408 253 312 24, 226 24, 31, 32 132 323 39 363 39 117 102, 125 301 346 Motacilla alba cinerea — —. ————-- flava aA —— ———- maderaspatensis Mougeotia Munia malacca ., Muntiacus muntjac Musca wae Muscicapa parva ; Muscicapula hyperythra ——-- pallipes -———- ——-- rubeculoides ——-- tickelliae Mussaenda hirsutissima | Mycalesis francisca sanatana —— —— - heri --——_—- —- lepcha lepcha ——-—- malsara ———-- mineus mineus - polydecta — ——- nicotia — —-perseus - blasius ——-—-- suavolens suavolens —- visala visala Myiophoneus caeruleus —————-- horsfieldii ————-—-- temminckii Myonax pulverulentus Myosotis sylvatica Mystus cavasius - malabaricus - vittatus we Nacaduba dubiosa indica a kurava euplea ——-——- nora nora eee oe a eee pactolus HeRGRCTAAIS —————-- viola Naja haje Nasturtium palustre Navicula Nelumbium speciosum Nemachilus denisonti ———_-—-—- evezardi ————-—-- gtintheri —_——_——_—- triangularis Nemorhaedus goral Neophron percnopterus Nepeta clarkei ... $23, 324, 326 XXV PAGE 4 224 224, 353 275 224 14, 141 59 346 139 40 ae 40 34, 40 40 40, 41 426 74 75 350 Fe) 75 74 330 79 335 74 Ths) iis) 349 39 364 395 122 326 327 327 287 287 287 287 338 432 A. lO 14, 141 102 327, 329 me 307 326, 328 326, 327 346 246, 410 123 XXVi Nepeta eriostachya —— govaniana ———- salviaefolia ———- Sp. - Neptis ananta merece antilope melba ... — —— cartica cartica —— columella —- ophiava hordonia hordonia hylas astola ——_- ——- varuna — mahendra ——— manasa ——— miah miah ——— nandina susruta —-— narayana nana ... ——— nycteus nycteus ——— sankara ——_ ———- quilta ———_ —_—_—_- sankara —--— yerburyi : —~ —— —-- sikkima —— ———-- yerburyi Neptunus aa coe Neptunus pelagicus ... - sanguinolentus —— oo Nettapus coromandelianus Neuracanthus lawii —_—__-__—_—_—- sphaerostachyus —_—__—___——-- tetragonostachyus Ninox scutulata Noctiluca 4 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE 123 123 123 105 83 83 83 336 82 83 82 82, 336 _ 82 83 83 82 | ane 83 83 &3 83 83 | 82 83 aan 83 135,137 137 137 263 a. 428 428 428 246 Mae seul Notocrypta curvifascia cunvifesel Sea ZO Notopterus notopterus Nucifraga caryocatactes Nycticorax nycticorax ... Nyctiornis athertoni Ochlodes brahma Ochotona roylei Ochromela nigrorufa Octopus apollyon Ocypoda eee Oedogonium Ompok bimaculatus Onosma echiodes —- kashmirica Oocystis nee ode Ophicephalus gachua ... Ophicephalus striatus —— feisthamelii alysos © 296 327 349 262, 407 175 297 | 345 23, 42 435 138 14 326 104, 122 122 van v4 eve csi 926 tre 327. PAGE Ophrysia superciliosa .. ee sic, aie Orchis latifolia ... coat STAR eee 126 Oreocincla dauma 23, 38, 363 Origanum vulgare eee rio Si" amet ao Oricoma damaris _ ...... ¢ icpeapee ge eee Oriolus chinensis... én ves. o> OA ——— oriolus 24, 25, 54 ——— xanthornus .. 24, 25, 54, 407 Orobanche cernua ae, Bia a. 123 ——_————- orientalis ... Sei eons 7% 1 ————- sp. rime Fees hie OS Orsotrioena medus node us i ee 78 Orthotomus sutorius io. cae SI Oscillatoria wae 14, 141 Otinotus * ee Sie Ny ~ sew eee Otinotus oneratus 183, 184, 299, 300, 301, 303 Otocompsa jocosa 24, 31,32, 34 Otus bakkamoena fe ie res ? 200 ———— ——_—_-- alcanor .~ sgaphieieo- 00 ——— paris paris cape see ge 2 67 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Papilio polyctor ganesa 67 ——— polymnestor a 332 —_-——- polymnestor 331 _——— polytes 332 —_—— ——— romulus : 67 —— — ——— stichius 67, 332 —--—— protenor euprotenor =: 67 ——— rhetenor rhetenor 67 Paramoecium od 14 Paraquilegia prandificra 108 —————— sp. 104 Pararge menava menava 76 ———- schakra schakra 76 Pareba vesta ce 354 Parnara guttatus Sania 298 Parnassia affinis 114 Paranassius delphius 298 ————-—-- hardwickei hardwickei ... 69 Parrotia jacquemontiana 102 Parus major Se 23, 26 _ ——- monticolus Ponticolngt 413 ——- xanthogenys 408 Paspaluin vaginatum = 159 Passer domesticus . 61, 171, 408 Pastor roseuS ... 55, 156 Pavo cristatus .. 253 Pedalion se oat 14 Pedesta masuriensis 295 Pediastrum 14 ‘Pedicularis bicornuta 122 —_——-—.- pectinata ... 122 —_————-- pycnantha ... 122 ————-- pyramidata 122 ——— ---- roylei 122 ————-- siphonantha 122 ——_—--—-- sp. aie 103, 104, 106 ——_——-- verticillata ... 122 Pellorneum ruficeps 29 Pelopidas mathias mathias 297 ————-- sinensis 297 Penaeus 136 Pentaptera cromitata 306 ——-——--- tomentosa ... 305 Penthoceryx sonneratii 234 Perdicula asiatica 24, 255 Pericrocotus flammeus 24, 46 ———_—_-—_- peregrinus 24, 46, 408 Peridinium % 131, 141 Perissospiza carneipes ... 364 —————- icteroides .. 349 Pernis ptilorhynchus 291 RX vij PAGE Petaurista philippensis .. 164 Phacus 560 14 Phalacrocorax niger 261 Philyra scabriuscula 137 Phlomis bracteosa 103, 124 —- setigera sca ys) DZS Phoenicurus frontalis 363, 413 ochruros ... oe 35 Phylloscopus affinis 361, 364 - — proregulus .. 364 ——— —— pulcher 357, 361, 364 spp. : 52 Physalia 5c 132 Picrorhiza kurrooa 104, 122 Pieris brassicae nepalensis 70 -——-- canidia indica 70 ——-- formosa 356 —-- napi montana 69 —-- ovalifolia 357 Picus chlorolophus 230 ——- xanthopygaeus 230 Pimpinella 88 Pimpinella clarkeana 88 — urceolata eel 89 Pinnularia sot ase mes 14 Pinus excelsa ~ 102, "103, 104, 105, 106, 120 ——- gerardiana 102, 105, 106, 126 ——- longifolia 351 Piprisoma agile 229 Pitta brachyura 229 Platanus orientalis 125 Pleurobrachia 133 Pleurococcus 14 Pleurospermum condone! 116 - densiflorum ... 116 Pleurotaenium Pr 14 Ploceus manyar ane 58, 59 - ocularis 433 ———- philippinus 37, 408 Podiceps ruficollis 263 Podophyllum 107 Podophyllum emodi 109 Poinciana regia 179 Polyalthia longifolia 184 Polycirrus 134 Polydorus asd 354 Polydorus aristolochiae 33 ase: aristolochiae. 66 —-—-—— dasarada ravana 4. ste 66 —— ——- hector 290 ase 332 | xxviii PAGE Polydorus latreilleilatreillei ... sis 66 —— ——-- philoxenus 350, 354 —_—_——_ —— philoxenus ... 66 —— plutonius pembertoni ... 66 Polygonatum geminifolium ... Hine. 04 Polygonum affine aoe see Tape ee es --——— -alpinum #2... + 103, 124 —--—-—_ - amp lexicaule Ere ee Od —————— dumetorum a4 as A ——- ——-- lapathifolium fe remakes (9 ————_——-- paronychioides ... eyrent tl 5 ———_——-- persicaria ... am Ue emu —_-———- rumicifolium sie ee CLAS —— - tortuosum ... re Hv a25 ae - viviparum Bd fa O24 Polyommatus astrarche a Ne 20 -eros ariana ae qe e929 —— -——____- - —-- stoliczkana foe 2OO -galathea galathea -.... 285 Polytremis eltola cltola Mila peeled, -Pomatorhinus horsfieldii ee ey! 28 Polemonium coeruleum fs ero ee Populus alba ane 8 oe 103, 126 Populus ciliata ... see on oe OS ~- nigra var. pyramidalis ae P26 Porcellana O62 — rupestris 61 Rosa macrophylla 114 Ros tratula benghalensis 257 Rubia cordifolia 117 Rubus 27 Rumex acetosa 25 Sacculina 135 Sagartia ... ee 1325136 Salix alba... 126 —- flabellaris ... 126 -— — hastata ane 126 -—— lindleyana var. latifolia 126° ——- tertrasperma 126 —-sp. ... 3 102, 104, 106 Salvadora persica 159 Salvia glutinosa ... 105 —— hiana 107 RXix PAGE Salvia moorcroftiana 124 Sambucus wightiana 105; - 107 — wightianus ... 116 Saraca indica S73 Sarangesa dasahara aaa ara 295 ---— desahara 339 Sarcogyps calvus 246 Saussurea 104, 107 ——-— candolleana 19 ——-—— falconeri Wg ——-—— lappa ... 103, 104, 106; 107, 119 Saxiccla caprata aes ae Bee 213) —_—— — caprata Bh, nee 23 _———— —nilgiriensis ... sty 23 — torquata er ute 35 Saxicoloides fulicata 35, 36 Saxifraga androsacea var. tide tata 114 ae flagellaris 114 ——_-—— ligulata LU3; 115 ——-—— odontophylla 115 ——--—— sibirica as ——-—— sp. 104 —_—— -— stracheyi i> Scabiosa sp. 105 speciosa 15s Scenedesmus aa ace as eee 14° Scenedesumus 141 Scirpus ferruginea liste Scolopax rusticola 260 | Scorzonera diraricta We) Scrophularia griffithii .. 104 —-- himalensis 122 —-- polyantha 122 Scutellaria prostrata 124 Sedum crassipes 115 ewersil si 115 quadrifidum ae we 115 rhodiola oe os 115 Sp. se ies ... 103, 104, 106 Seicercus xanthoschistos 364 Selenarctos thibetanus 346 Selenastr um sas ee er aa’ 14 Selinum papyraceum 116 ——— vaginatum 116 Sempervivum acuminatum 115 Sendcis nahoor (error for Pseudois)... 346 Senecio chrysanthemoides 103, 104, 106 — jacquemontiana 103; 104 - — jacquemontianus ye) - pedunculatus 119 - thompsoni 103, 119 XXX Sephisa chandra Bae — albina — Sertularia eae Seseria dohertyi aenetiy Sesuvium portulacastrum Sicyopterus griseus Silene inflata By ——— kunawarensis ... ——— moorcroftiana ——— tenuis ——— venosa ... aes Silonopangasius childreni Silundia sykesi ... ewe Simulium : Simulium grisescens - indicum ——-—— striatum Sinthusa chandrana — nasaka pallidior Siphia strophiata Sisymbrium himalaicum —-—— mollissimum -—— thalianum Sitta castanea .. aoe ——- frontalis ——- himalayensis ees ett oe, Siva strigula ily 6c ads Skimmia ... = Skimmia laureola Smilax macrophylla Solanum tuberosum Solidago virga-aurea Sonneratia acida... apetala Sovia grahami Spalgis epius epius Spiala galba so es Spilornis cheela ... — Spindasis lohita himalayanus ~ —-~— lazularia ——-- ——. syaina peguanus. ——-—— vulcanus vulcanus ... Spiraea _ ——--— affinis : Spirorbis ee eee Spirulina nas 500 Spizaetus sae a ee —-—--——. nipalensis Sporobolus glaucifolius a ae orentailis ceo ee nipalicus nipalicus ... INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE a19s 82 79 131 , 136 goo, 324. 927 294 159 323 Tit 111 1 11] lil 323 421, 422 421 422 421 293 293 364 109 109 109 + 24, 27 sued 27 358, 363 362 67 111 85 103 119 158 158 296 . 282 295 248 290 337 290 290 337 351 114 134 14 248 248 159 159 Sporobolus pallidus Squillia Stachys sericea Stachys sericev var. apna Staurastrum Stauroneis Stellaria bulbosa --— crispata ——--— cuspidata = ——--— davidi var. hinialaiee ——=- monosperma ... ——--— subumbellata ... Stenothoe Sterna aurantia ... —--— melanogaster Sternaspis a Stibochisma nicea nicea Stipa sibirica ee Streptopelia chinensis .., ——-—- —-— decaocto ——-—-—— orientalis ———-—— senegalensis Strix aluco ? ane indranee ... ons Strobilanthes mas Stromateus Seca teas Fes Strychnos nux-vomica ... Sturnia malabarica mae — + — blythii Sturnus contra ‘ ——--— —-— sordidus ———-— malabaricus malabaricus ——-—tristis .. ——-— vulgaris Stylonichia Suaeda fruticosa Suestus gremius gremius Surendra biplagiata Surniculus lugubris Suya “0 Age Suya criniger Swertia perfoliata ———— petiolata ——-—— Sp. ————. thomsoni . Symbrenthia hippoclus nase ————--— hypselis cotanda Symplocos sumantia .. Synedra — quercetorum quereetorum a5 14, 141 PAGE 159 135, 136 124 124 14 14 111 111 T1 111 Jub 2 al 135 258 258 ae be 80 102, 107 24, 253, 408 24, 253 24, 252 24, 253 366 ae tS 21, 30, 34, 42, 52, 254, 257 135~ 354 55 55 407 17a 174 407 148 14 159 cao . 5898 290° 235 356 349 121 121 103 121 85 85 1355 e's See INDEX OF SPECIES Thecla birupa ... ows see ie 288 —_—_—_—_——— Cee PAGE Syntarucus plinus 263, 338 Tabanus © eee, lO Be icdesgana athos se 294 ———-— litigosa litigosa 294 ———-— menaka menaka 294 ae illurgis 291 —- iilurgoides ve 20d ——-—. jangala ravata se 2G ——-— }uculentus nela 292 = -_- maculata’ 292 ——-— yajna istroidea Mas Thee 40) | Tamarindus indica ... 299, 300, 303 ——__—-— indicus Pte et 170 Tanacetum falconeri 119 pe _---__ longifolium® ” 119 Taractocera ceramus ceramus "339° —-——.— danna aed sere (0 Be. -— maevius sagara | eet ZUG Taraxacum officinale’ ee ag: Tarsiger brunnea y 34 Tarucus callinara Bip re tyhe Cee 283 ——.—_-dharta nh E983" Taxus baccata 13 796 Tchitrea paradisi 2 25, 23 353 Bicrebella ek RED SO Teinopalpus =~. ee “69, 82- Teinopalpus imperialis aoe (3016S —-—~. impérialis = O95 Telchinia violae be Jans Mas 337 Telicota ancilla bambusae ~~... 297 Temenuchus pagodarum’” ,... 56 Tephrodornis... 47, 244 Tephrodornis gularis 24, 45 ee = pondicerianus 24, 46 Terias hacabe simulata wae 333 laeta sae ae oe 333 o—— libythea 333 ——— venata venata % 333 Terminalia belerica ve 49 ———-—— coriacea .. ihe 305, 306 ——-—— crenulata .. 305, 306 ——-— glabra var. anion 305 ———-—— tomentosa ... 22, 305, 306 -—— ——--——- var. crenulata. 306 Tetraodon (Monotretus) travancoricus 323 Tetraogallus himalayensis ... woe . 346 Thalamita A, John (p. 183). 22, Egg-laying by a Python in captivity. By C. Leigh (p. 183). 23. A record of the common membracid, Ofinotus oneratus Walk. (Homoptera: Rhynchota) from the City of Patna (Bihar). By Basanta Kumar Behura and Viswanath Sinha (p.183). 24. Gleanings (p. 184). CATALOGUE OF BOOKS IN THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY. Part V. Invertebrata... CATALOGUE OF BOOKS IN THE SOCIETY’s LIBRARY. Part VI. Botany PAGE 187 193 - JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1951 VoL. 50 No: -1 JUNGLE MEMORIES BY Lt.-Cor. E. G. PHyTHIAN-ADAMS, 0O.B.E., F.Z.S., 1.4. (Retired). ParT IX—ANTELOPE AND DEER (With two plates) (Continued from p. 607 of Volume 49) Bal AC Kk BUC K ‘The Black-buck’ says Aflalo in The Sportsman’s Book for India, ‘deserves the premier place both from his numbers and his ubiquity, and we might add, his beauty. He is a never ending source of interest and excitement to the subaltern, and the pursuit of him supplies a perennial and perfectly excellent school for the exercise of his ingenuity, patience and marksmanship.’ To which one might also add that this form of shikar never seems to pall, and though I seldom fire a rifle nowadays I find that the sight of a good head impels me to do my best to outwit hur. But I must confess that my memories of this elusive animal are as hard to recapture as it is to bring him to bag, largely I suppose owing to the fact that they are (or at any rate used to be) so common, and that one’s recollections are therefore less vivid as compared with the pursuit of nobler game. Not that I would for a moment depreci- ate the Blackbuck, for a really fine head makes a grand tropiy and the difficulty of securing it adds to its value. Still, the fact remains that it is hard to remember details of individual stalks, for my diaries are concerned more with regular shikar trips than with outings of a day or two. However, as is only natural, I do remember my first buck which was bagged near Kamptee so far back as 1906. ‘ plates, 4th edition, ‘revised oo enlarged. Be he : ve) WPricelte Members Rs. rape Set of 12 Coloured Picture Postcards of Common Indian Birds, Rs. 24 pets er é ¥ Fish. Arab i Ag: ae m mie nye 4 Circumventing the Mabseer and Other Sporting Fish a India ee : a Burma. ; : Rs. as: ear: Teak . (Price to Members Rs. 2) > eat | Snakes! \i5) "1840s Se ee ae Ss ad ae Identification of Poisonous Snakes— eg ah Se le Pili! Mie a Rein Chatty. neues pia a “a Rs, 2-8. Miscellaneous. PRC ether o. MINN. Sa Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic ‘Dog or Beh fad etc. ah: ; S. 2- Back Numbers of the Journal. ni oo Z Back nome of the Society’s Journal. Rates on at ; H wrk Ps, Obtainable from: = = et) a i Pe } , "i ae The Honorary Secretary, _ 1 OE os Mai AS 0: Ae A Bombay Natural History Society, © Shes dking i oa ae 114 Apollo ey ert eee, 1 mee Paes Pin London Agents: ; ia AVE Ha ohn Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley Ltd., tk se he pas | hes i 83/84 ‘Berwick Street, Dn te ny ee et he Be SS oe ae tN London, WwW. ao Pee Poy fil, eRe ' ry. e ss : : , Fi tif by: en > Fs ' ?. ay ae Bi M a3 Ay 4 eS 2 eC uF Pi Ke Ary tas “, EXW ce Tae A it ¥ Life Masthbers pay an entrance ee of Rs, 2 5 and a Life “Membership fee of Rs. 500. anh 4 y" ol y , a Ordinary Members pay an entrance ee of Rs. 25 and an tion of Rs. 30. ; The subscription of members elected in October, Nc covers the period from the date of their election uP tll year. The terms are the same for bic ee es outside Ind should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on tl eir T amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 3 31-12- -0 to t Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, hi of £2-8-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s London B National Bank of India, Bishopsgate eae pose ‘EC. dhe Y vehi } sah a ~ { Ween! een gn JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Vol. 50, No. 2 Editors SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, H. SANTAPAU ZaMiS ON, MAR 11 1952 = HERARN. DECEMBER 1951 Rs. 15 oe ‘) oe Cvperce ie never made to sells rs et the lowest possible’: price, sacrificing ad. vantages: which a good ‘3 Watch must embody, Prices vary consider. ably, but whatever you pay for your West End Watch you can be sure of Reliability, Strong Construction and Attract. ive Appearance, MINIATURE _ CRYSTAL SECUN DUS .s Ad e *« ey a a Wi SECUNDUS NEW CALIBRE SQUARE “B’”’ ees SOEs veeees:, Rolled Gold, 20 Microns Rs. 144 é : aes WEST END WATCH co BOMBAY CALCUTTA CONTENTS OF VOLUME 50, No. 2 PAGE JUNGLE MEMORIES. Part X. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, O.B.E., F.Z.S., 1.A. (Retd.) (With two plates) 211 THE BIRDS OF CoorG. PART II. By F.N. Betts. (With two plates) 224. THE HILSaA FISHERY OF THE CHILKA LAKE. By S. Jonesand K. H. Sujansingani. (With a map, 2 plates, 3 graphs and 2 diagrams.) 264 NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES FROM NEPAL. Part II. By Lt.-Col. F. M. Bailey. 281 HABITS OF THE COMMON MEMBRACID (‘ TREE-HoOpPPER ’) Otinotus oneratus WaLk. (HomopterRA: RHyNCHOTA). By B. K. Behura, msc. (Cal.), Ph.D. (Edin.). F.R.E.S. | wee CRITICAL NOTES ON THE IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF SOME BOMBAY PLants. By H. Santapau, S.J., F.L.S. (With 2 plates) FORTY YEARS OF SPORT ON LITTLE KNOWN ASSAM RIVERS, PARTII. By Wil. DB. Cooper, FISHES FROM THE HIGH RANGE OF TRAVANCORE. By E.G. Silas. (With two text figures) ... as THE BUTTERFLIES OF BOMBAY AND SaLSETTE. By A. E. G. Best THE GENUS Vulpia GMEL. IN INDIA. By N. L. Bor A NATURALIST IN THE NoRTH-WHST HIMALAYAS. PARTI. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth, M.a. (With one text map and two plates) ... SOME BIRDS SEEN ON THE GANDAK-KoSI WATERSHED iN Marcu, 1951 By Mrs. Desirée Proud, (With a sketch map and a plate) NOTHS ON FISHES OF THE GENUS Glyplothorax BLYTH FROM PENINSULAR INDIA, WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES. By E. G. Silas THE PROTECTION OF WORLD RESOURCES: WILD LIFE AND THE SOIL. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1. 4. (Retd.) REVIEWS :— 1, Contributions to the Breeding Biology of Larus argentatus and Larus fuscus. By Knud Paludan. (S.A.) ine : 2. Audubon Water Bird Guide. By Richard H. Pough, (S.A.) . Taiwania. (H.S.) er ae 4, Beautifying India. By M.S. Randhawa. (H.S.) ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 299 305 344 355 367 371 li CONTENTS OF VOLUME 50, No. 2° PAGE MISCELLANEOUS NOTES: 1. Abnormal behaviour of a male Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta mulatta Zimmerman). By H. Khajuria (p. 389). 2. Tiger eating carrion. By F. M. Needham (p. 389). 3.‘An extraordinary find in a Panther’s stomach’. By Randolph C. Morris (p. 390). 4 ‘ Rabies in Tiger ’—A dis- cussion (p 391). 5, Wild Elephant seeks assistance. By Frank Nicholls (p. 396). 6. Habits of the Mongoose. By W. T. Lloyd-Jones (p. 397). 7. Crab-eating Chital. By J. K. Stanford (p.398) 8 ‘ The Most Mur- derous Rogue’. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 399). 9. What is the best means of control and destruction of Flying Foxes[(Brtinn.)] Pleropus gigan- éus). By E. P. Gee, and Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 401). 10. Some notes on the Malabar Grey Hornbill [(Bath.)] Zockus griseus. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 403). 11. A nesting colony of small Swallow-plovers in Mysore State. By C. BrookeWorth (p. 405). 12. Occurrence of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana phasianus chirurgus (Scopoli) in Madras. By Editors (p. 406). 13. Morning and Evening bird calls. By Jamal Ara (p. 407). 14. Stray bird notes from Tibet. By H. E. Richardson (p. 413). 15. Breeding of the Green Pit Viper (Zvimeresurus gramineus). By J. N. Barooa (p. 414). 16. Sur- face locomotion of certain frogs (ama) and the occurrence of A. taipehen- sts van Denburgh in India. By J.D. Romer (p.414). 17. Hilsa catches on the Kodinar (Kathiawar) Coast By T. V.R, Pillay (p. 415). 18. A note on the eggs and the first stage larva of Hippolysmata vittata Stimpson. By G. K. Kuriyan (p. 416). 19. Butterfly migration in the Niigiris. By Margaret Villiers Briscoe (p. 417). 20. A short note on the Eugenia Leaf Caterpillar Carea subtilis Wik. (With a text figure). By K.R. Anantha. narayanan and S. Venugopal (p. 418). 21. A Note on the Blood-sucking Simulium of Ceylon. By T. R. Sandrasagara (p. 421). 22. Mating behaviour of Leeches. By C. J. Leslie (p.422). 23. Description and discussion of the biting of an Indian Land Leech (Annelida: Hirudinea). By C. Brooke Worth (p. 423). 24. A teratosis of MWussaenda hirsutissima Hutch. By W. Wilson Mayne (p.426). 25. Fyverea indica Dalz.—A new recordin Bombay. By H.Santapau (p.4?7). 26. A branched specimen of Costus speciosus Smith. By H. Santapau (p. 427). 27. A note on Neurac- anthus sphaerostachyus Dalz. (With two plates). By P. V. Bole and H. Santapau (p. 428). 28. The flowering of Strobi/anthes in Khandala (IV). By H. Santapau (p. 430). 29. Preparation of a Flora for Madhya Pradesh and the central parts of the Indian Union. By C. E. Hewetson (p. 431). 30. Shooting of Peafowl and Antelope (Blackbuck) prohibited in Madras State. By Lt.-Col! R. W. Burton (p.433). 31. Gleanings (p. 433). Annnal Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the year ending 31st December 1950 ales er 54 bess bas The Honorary Secretaries’ Report for the year 1950 Appendix to the Honorary Secretaries’ Report covering the period January to September 1951 es = aa ae Za. ' Statement of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society Minutes of the Annual General Meeting ‘fe nae ss 436 437 442 445 450 — ee JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1951 : Wow 50 No. 2 JUNGLE MEMORIES BY Lr.-Cot. By Ge, Conan ane OSBRE- yh) 2ESy, oleae, (Net. PaRT X—MIxED Bac (With two plates) _ (Continued from p. 12 of this Volume) nis ay ee ‘.. Few opportunities for pig-sticking have come my way, as I was never stationed in Bengal, and outside that province the country, vast though it is, with few exceptions does not lend_ itself to that grand form of sport. My memories of pig are therefore chiefly of those encountered in the jungle and shot as food for the men. Not that anyone uninhibited by religion need turn up his nose at a pigling or even a young sow, provided it is shot far from any village. In this connection I remember one bagged in Chanda in 1907. I jokingly asked: my Gond shikari whether he would eat it, and he replied that of .course everyone ate pork. When I pointed out that Muhammedans did not, the reason he gave startled me. Perhaps I had better not quote it, though my Muhammedan butler merely remarked that the shikari was an ignorant old man, when I told him. | Most of my pigs have been bagged in the Nilgiris and some of the forest boars I have met were immense brutes with tushes running up to gs inches. Only once have I shot a ten incher and that was at Bison Swamp during Christmas 1927. We saw him while marching out to camp but failed to contact. Next morning we came across him again while making our way to a lookout spot soon after dawn. He ‘was quite close, but by the time I had snatched the sight-protector off the rifle and loaded a cartridge from the magazine (I should have done all this before setting out), he was well awav up the hill. I fired two shots both of, which I was sure had found their mark, but he still carried on. I was about to fire again when he staggered and 212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 fell, kicked a bit and then rolled downhill dead. One bullet had pierced through shoulder and heart, the other was far back and had come out of the stomach. He was one of the biggest boars I have seen, and my shikari ‘Old’ Anthony estimated his age at 20 years. Height at shoulder was 36 inches, length of body (excluding: tail) 5 ft. 3 inches, and girth of neck tight behind the ears 29 inches, while the tushes taped the full 10 inches. , The men had some difficulty in eating him, he was so tough. Anothes boar shot near Hodg'son’s Hut was remarkable for having one hind leg missing. He was beaten out of a shola, and I did not realise that he was in any way maimed until I had rolled him over. Presumably the lower part of the leg had been shattered by a bullet and had sloughed off; the wound had healed completely and gave that leg the appearance of a ham. I have known a similar case with a tigress, which came out of a beat at full gallop and showed no sign of injury. Yet another boar was bagged under rather unusual circumstances near the Toda Cathedral. We were beating a shola for small game, when the shikari came out and told me there was a pig lying up in a thicket which refused to move. I had no rifle with me that day, so loaded my 12 bore with Lethals and approached the spot, but the bushes were so dense that I could see nothing. Finally I wormed my way in at fuil length along the ground, and at last saw the animal only 5 yards off. A lucky bullet killed it, and when the beaters hacked their way in and dragged it out, I discovered how foolhardy I had been, for instead of the half grown pig I expected, it proved to be a big boar with 94 inch tushes. What possessed him to lie so low I cannot imagine, as he was not in any way injured. It was lucky for me that he did not prove aggressive or I should have been for it properly. Two other boars I remember at which I did not fire though both were close shots. One was while I was working the country from Masnigudi towards the foot of the hills. We spotted a sounder of about 20 pig some 300 yards away and went after them. As we reached the bottom of a deep nullah which lay between, I saw an old boar 20 feet above looking down at us. It is a sound rule not to fire at a dangerous animal above one, so I stood still and waited for him to make the first move. I have never known pig to be aggressive unless wounded, and this one proved no exception, for after a good stare at us he turned and trotted off. The other was encountered near Mudumalai while after chital. We were working up to a good buck, when suddenly an old boar passed between us and the deer. He spotted us, had a good look and then moved a few yards towards us. I did not want to fire as it would have spoilt our chance at the buck, but the range was getting desperately close and I thought I should have to do so, when he decided that we were harmless and cleared off. That was the only time when I have seen a pig un- certain whether to attack or not. Following up a wounded boar is a far more dangerous undertaking than in the case of tiger or panther, for nothing but death will stop his charge and one slash from those razor sharp tushes can disembowel a man or sever the femoral artery. A pig-sticking friend advised me that when down with the boar standing over one, the only thing to do was to lie flat on one’s face fee JUNGLE MEMORIES 213 with both hands held tightly round the back of the neck. In this Way the vitals are covered and if a man remains motionless, the chances are, he said, that the boar will be content with a few slashes on the back and then leave him. I am glad to say I have never had to try this, but pass. on the tip in case it may be useful in such an emergency. Pigs give excellent practice with the rifle and many are the beats I have had for them on the slopes round my home in recent years. They are so destructive to the crops that the villagers are only too glad to turn out for the purpose, and they also much appreciate the meat. Shots are seldom under 100 yards and nearly always running ones, but these present little difhculty if one remembers to give the animal a slight lead and to keep the rifle swinging until after the trigger has been pressed. The most convenient position for such shots is sitting, and the rifle I use for this purpose is my .318. A pig’s sense of smell is extremely acute, and the greatest attention must be paid to the direction of the wind. Their small brain might lead one to think that they are stupid animals, but on the contrary they are extremely wide~awake, and if a gun is not weil concealed in a beat they will almost certainly break out to one side. Nor will they tolerate an electric light flashed on them at night, so sitting up for them over a waste butter-milk pit, as at Anaikatti, is best con- fined to the period round about full moon. Their food tastes are catholic. I have known pigs return again and again to the carcass of an elephant, and have found two snakes in the stomach of a huge sow shot at Anaikatti in 1947, but as a general rule they feed on roots, tubers etc., routing about for which leaves traces which will be evident to the observant shikari. On the Nilgiris plateau they do great damage to the potatoes which form the main crop of the district, and at one time Government used to pay a reward of Rs. § on each wild pig killed. This has unfortunately now been stopped owing to lack of funds, but the meat sells so well in these days as generally to cover the cost of beating, and as I said above they afford excellent practice with the rifle. So with average luck quite a lot of fun can be had at little expense, and no excuse is needed for shooting pig on ground where they cannot be ridden. The tushes make up into handsome miniature trophies, one of the most useful I have seen being a pair mounted upright on an ebony plinth with a small silver table gong suspended between. When extracting them it should be remembered that some two-thirds are hidden in the skull. If the latter is boiled, the tushes can be removed without difficulty, but any attempt to cut them out is almost certain to result in their being damaged. During intense hot weather tushes are sometimes liable to flake, as happens also with tiger’s teeth. ‘This can be prevented by a thin coating of bees-wax. CROCODILES My earliest memory of crocodiles is of these in the pit at Mugger Pir some miles outside Karachi in 1905. They were packed so tightly that a sporting midshipman was said to have run across over their 214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 30 backs some years before. The pit was enclosed by a low wall, so I climbed down and took some photos at close range. I was careful to keep well clear of the heads of those lying on the mud, not realising that the tail end is the danger spot, for with one sweep of it a crocodile can knock a man or animal off his feet into the water, - to be dealt with before he can recover. However, these particular brutes were so lethargic that they let me approach within a few feet without showing the least interest. Not long after my shikari per- suaded me to try for one, reported to be very large, in one of the pools of the Habb river. I was well hidden in some tamarisks while the shikari tied up a goat on the opposite bank. The goat called well but nothing materialised, and after an hour or so I gave it up as a bad job. I was young and inexperienced in those days and thought the shikari was stringing me, but reaily I believe it is possible to get a shot in this manner. Many years later I shot a number in he Mysore rivers and up the backwaters round Cannanore, and soon found how extremely accurate one has to be to bring one to bag. If shooting down, as for example into a pond at close range, a bullet through the brain will do the trick, but usually it is a question of stalking one lying asleep on a sandbank, and it is very seldom indeed that one can get. within 100 yards without being spotted. A bullet through the heart merely results in the crocodile reaching the water and being lost; for they will not float for 24 hours and by that time the skin is ruined. The only certain shot to anchor one on the spot is through the middle of the neck, and to secure the extreme accuracy needed on such a small target a telescopic sight is invaluable. Sometimes a wounded crocodile will, after a short time, return to the land either because water has got into his lungs or from annoyance caused by fish nibbling at the wound. So if it is not killed on the spot, it is as well to take up a position under cover and watch for half an hour or so. Generally it will be time wasted, but occasionally one gets a second chance in this way. Crocodiles are uninteresting brutes, and though I have shot a good many I have kept no details, but so far.as I recollect none have been over 1c feet, not to be compared with the monsters of the Ganges. Except in the case of very small ones when the back may be utilised, the only part of the skin which is worth keeping is that from the belly, so the cuts should be made round the sides and not down the central line as in the case of other animals. The way in which the muscles twitch while the skin is being removed is apt t9 be disconcerting at first. Common bazaar salt, finely powdered, is the best preservative, and it should be well rubbed in after all flesh and fat has been scraped off. The sooner the skin is then despatched to the curers the better. The Chrome Leather Co. (Chromepet P.O., S. India} have turned out very good work for me, and I can recom- mend them. The cured skins can be made up into a number of useful articles e.g. handbags, note-cases, bedroom slippers, suitcases, etc. But in my experience they are not suitable for ladies’ shoes as they tend to split. I saw JUNGLE MEMORIES 215 SNAKES Memories of the jungle would be incomplete without some mention of snakes, and I certainly have come across a fair number during so ‘many years in India. One of my earliest experiences was at iKamptee in 1905. Eggs had been disappearing mysteriously from the Mess fowl house. The culprit proved to be a large cobra which one day stayed too late and paid forfeit. I well remember the snake zigzage- ing down the drive pursued by several irate sepoys armed with long bamboos, which proved less effective than my swagger cane. Kamptee with its thatched bungalows was a bad place for snakes, and one of our officers had a lucky escape when a krait fell from the ceiling cloth on to him while he was reading a paper, stretched out at ease with his legs up in a long chair. | Then there was an immense python at Bhamo, whose wide track in the mud on several occasions. It was credibly reported to be in the habit of taking mules at night from the Chinese caravans encamped near the steamer ghat and the men complained to me bitterly about it. I was always hoping to come across it, but never did. I remember that one evening just before we left Bhamo two of my recruits came running in with the news that they had seen it devouring a half grown buffalo in the jungle near the rifle range. I hurried off with them, taking both gun and rifle as I was not sure which might be required, but they were unable to locate the spot again before dark, and so I lost my chance, and my only memory of ‘Rupert’ as we called him, is of his immense track in the mud. Judging by that he must have been well over 20 feet long. I found another large python lying dead in a swamp near Doddakatti in May 1929. Its head had been based in, and by it lay a doe jungle- sheep which it had evidently disgorged. It measured 15 feet andywas little damaged though several vultures were in attendance; the skin was unfortunately too far gone to be worth taking. I have come across a number of pythons at other times in the Nilgiris, but this was the biggest | have seen. A curious incident in connection with these snakes occurred while I was in camp at Anaikatti during Xmas 1936. My shikari Banta who had gone towards Sirur to tie up a young buffalo for tiger, returned after dark with a 7 foot python. It had been knocked on the head and appeared to be dead, so I left it in the verandah of the forest bungalow, intending to skin it iater. Shortly after, while I was having dinner, I heard a weird groaning noise which I thought at first was a buffalo being killed by a tiger some distance away. But it continued, so I went out and found it was made by the snake. It was still tied up and showed no other signs of life, but presumably had not been hit sufficiently hard on the head. This is the only occasion on which I have ever heara a snake make any kind of sound other than a hiss. The handsome black and yellow Banded Krait running up to 4 feet or more, was common at Meiktila, and quite a number were killed while I was stationed there in 1920-21. The bungalows were Situated round the edge of the lake, and often when motoring over to Mess in the evening I drove the car over snakes crossing the road 216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 56 on their way down to the water, but it seemed not to have the least effect. Russell’s Vipers were common in the Anaikatti-Masnigudi area in the old days, but seem less so now that the prickly pear has been so drastically reduced by the very ill-advised introduction of the cochineal insect. Not that I regret the absence of snakes! It is the lack of nesting cover for game birds which is so deplorable. I remember one morning many years ago I was working the jungle towards Westbury, when over a bush I saw a bird’s wing fluttering near the ground. On going closer I found that a Russell’s Viper had a quail in its mouth with one wing still beating. A charge of shot blew both snake’s head and quail to pieces. The Russell's Viper is commonly supposed to be a sluggish snake, but it can move like lightning when it wants to. One morning in October 1929 near Anaikatti we were following a path through dense prickly pear, when my shikari Jaora who was leading, nearly stepped on one. As he jumped to avoid it, the snake seemed to rise on end and threw itself backwards into cover, and was gone like a flash. I had no idea that they can move so quickly, but there was no doubt about identifica- tion, as I was following next and had a clear view at very close range. These vipers have a nasty habit of lying on pads of floating weed near the edge of a tank, where bulrushes afford shade and at the same time protection from birds of prey. More than once while wading after duck near Gundlupet I have nearly bumped into them in this way, but a loud hiss has always warned me in time. Whether they can strike effectively in this position, I do not know, but I should not care to experiment ! - Of Hamadryads I have one memory only. During the last war I was motoring down the Mettupalaiyam ghat early one morning, and a mile or two before reaching the bottom saw a large snake cross the road 50 yards ahead and climb up on to the berm at the side.. As we drew level it sat up and spread its hood, and it was not till then that I realised what it was. A good 15 feet long and shining jet black, it looked like an animated steel bar, and gave thé impression of tremendous power. I could not help thinking what utter nonsense it is to imagine, as some people apparently do, that such a thick set massive brute can be killed with a cane. Nothing short of an iron rod would have the least effect! And how grand he looked compared with those captives from Mount Popa which I had previously seen on show at Meiktila. As different as a wild tiger from one in a zoo. Even if I-had had a-gun with me I do not ‘think I could have brought myself to shoot him. That I should have encountered only one hamadryad during so many years wander- ing in the jungle, often in parts where they were reported to exist, goes to show how uncommon they really are. I suspect that in many cases reported, large cobras are mistaken for them. No one couid possibly fail to recognise the real article, it is simpiy terrific. | Ratsnakes are among the commonest in India. They do such good work killing other snakes that I never destroy one nowadays. But I would gladly have put a charge of shot into one-neac Poona many years ago. I was shooting snipe round the edge of the Khadak- vasla lake, and dropped a bird very close to, if not. actually on the top 2 a JUNGLE MEMORIES 217 of a iarge ratsnake lying out unseen in the short grass some 30 yards ahead. eonen a gift was as welcome as it was unexpected. The snake seized the bird and was gone down a hole before I realised what was happening. Another ratsnake I remember shooting at Bhamo, mistaking it for a cobra. A Burman working nearby asked if he might have it, so I handed it over. When I asked what he intended to do with it, he replied ‘To eat it’. There certainly is no accounting for tastes ! A little drama I witnessed in 1945 some miles out of Mangalore remains in my memory. I had finished lunch and was sitting quietly by the roadside, when in the ditch just below me I saw a green grass snake also looking for his tiffin. He came quietly along nosing under the overhanging grass and ferns till presently he put up a frog. With a couple of jumps the latter got away, but the ditch ended, and seeing he was cornered the frog leaped back right over the snake. I thought the latter had lost his chance, but he was round in a flash, and in two bounds had caught the frog and went off with it. He deserved his success and I did not disturb him. Snake skins can be made up into handsome articles. They should be taken off as soon as possible after death, and will come off easier so. Pounded salt, as with crocodile skins, is the best preservative. BEES While wandering through the jungle one may have the luck to come across a hollow tree in which bees have their hive. If time permits, it is worth while stopping to take the honey, which is ex- cellent. My first experience of this was in June 1909 while I was in North Kanara after bison. My men spotted bees coming out of a fallen tree and cut out the comb, which weighed about 3 lb. They said that particular kind of bees did not sting, but I noticed that they took the honey some 20 yards away, when all the bees left them. i kept a piece of comb for myself and the rest was eaten by the shikari and tracker on the spot. They squeezed out the honey into leaf cups, and then dipped into it pieces of comb containing the live grubs. I suppose it was that which made the incident stick in my memory. Rather like the Chinese delicacy of baby white mice also dipped in honey! Those were the small jungle bees; the large rock bees are quite a different proposition. Their huge dark brown combs, suspended from the branch of a lofty tree or from an overhanging rock are a common sight. But it is not everyone who realises how dangerous these brutes can be. So long as they are undisturbed, all is well, but the sound of a shot near at hand, the smoke from a camp fire, or even the odour of tobacco will at times enrage them and bring them down in their hundreds, with disastrous, if not fatal, results. I remember that while I was stationed at Kamptee in 1906, the Field Artillery battery out exercis- ing one day passed under a tree having several huge nests. The rumble of the wheels on the hard highway disturbed the bees, and down they came. The horses became uncontrollable, and while some teams galloped towards cantonments, others broke away across 218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. &0 country. Luckily there were no fatal casualties but it was some time before the battery could reassemble. In: ‘Birds of Southern India’ Col. Baker relates how a Honey Buzzard striking at a comb in the centre of Ootacamund infuriated the bees, and created a panic among passers-by, some of whom were badly stung. And as recently as November 1950 a similar occurrence in Coonoor resulted in the death of an old woman. I had a very unpleasant experience with them myself while living in Mysore in 1932. I had gone out one morning to the big Arsinakere tank some 4 miles beyond Nanjangud, to try and pick up a few duck, and on arrival saw that there were a number of pintails within range of a small bush-covered mound. I stalked them and laid out a couple, and was on the point of going to pick them up, when ‘Little Boy’, (who was as good at retrieving duck as he was at following up a tiger), rushed past me with his black coat literally covered with bees. The next second more were on to me. I dropped my gun, and did what must have been the record quarter mile for Mysore, but could not throw them off. Matters were getting serious, but luckily I remembered a tip I had been given many years before by an old shikari. I tore off my coat, wrapped it round my head, and lay motionless on’ the ground. I could hear the angry hum of hundreds of bees as they crawled over-my coat, but they soon left, and I was able to get up in time to see G. take to the water. He was unaware what had happened, but realised that something was wrong, so was running to my assistance when he also was attacked. We were lucky to get away with it. I had 17 stings on my face and neck, besides others on my hands and arms, and the dog also was severely stung, but G. got off fairly lightly. Remained now to recover my gun, and I wondered how on earth we could manage it, when a villager came by who volunteered to do so. Plucking some wild garlic and waving it round his head, he returned without a single sting ; a tip worth knowing if you can recognise the plant. Revisiting the spot at a later date, I found that the front side of the bush covered mound I have mentioned had been quarried for stone, and the bees had a comb there. Whether it was my shot or the dog routing about in the bushes which disturbed them, I am unable to say, but certainly the result was sufficiently unpleasant. I look back on that affair as one of the narrowest squeaks I have had. 1 The large yellow wasps are nothing like so dangerous, at least in my’ experience. Their round papier-mache nests, suspended from a low branch are familiar to most people. Near Secunderabad I ran full tilt into one while chasing a winged partridge. I received -several stings before I could get clear, but the results were negligible as compared with rock bees. === 1 Ginto sie O.UcA;RyT ER Sep We To BEAN ieee While writing the section on panthers, I could not help reflecting ‘that in the course of so many years, I had been extremely fortunate to have experienced no untoward incident with these animals. | It is true that, so far as possible, I have made a point of not firing at Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I The Bison Swamp Boar. Photos + | | | t _ Author Scene of panther incident. I] 4oyny ‘Ioysn} ysey ATW ‘oureyg ye sjueydoys s,meqiyy UA S0J0YU I aLVIg ‘00S ‘LSIE] ‘LVN AVaWog ‘Nuno[ JUNGLE MEMORIES 219 any animal until reasonably certain of inflicting a mortal wound with the first shot. That, I suppose, coupled with iuck, was the reason why I had come off so well. But the old adage that accidents will happen in the best regulated families, was forcibly brought home to me on the 29th December 1950, when I had an experience which I am not likely to forget. With two other guns I had gone down to Anaikatti at the foot of the northern slopes of the Nilgiris for a small game shoot. During the morning we had a number of beats over the open country, with a view to driving such birds as were not brought to bag into a long heavily wooded nullah, which always provides a mast satisfactory holding covert. Nothing of much interest occurred, except that in one beat a large boar passed between me and the next gun, unfired at, since neither of us had time to slip in a ball cartridge; and we started beating down the long nullah before lunch. After that we moved to what is generally the best beat of all. I was centre gun, standing alone on an open sheet of rock. My shikari was out of sight on my right, covering the wet nullah along which we knew by ex- perience that birds were inclined to run out. On his right again was G., another gun. Ten yards away on my left was my chokra Vasu, acting as stop behind a thick clump of bushes, and beyond him was H., the third gun, and his shikari. The beat started, and we had all fired a few shots, when I heard an animal grunting some way in front. H.’s shikari called out that a pig was coming, and I thought it was probably the boar which we had seen earlier in the day. A head-on shot at pig is always unsatis-~ factory, so I moved some to yards to my right, where a tall but leafless thorn bush afforded a little cover from view. My intention was to take a side shot at the animal, as soon as it had passed me, and was clear of the others. It did not occur to me for one moment that it would do anything except break out by the most direct route, to escape from the clamour of the approaching beaters. Vasu was well covered from view by the thicket close to which he was crouch- ing, and so long as I remained motionless, I was not rate: to be spotted. Had I known that it was a panther and not a pig, I should not have considered any further precautions necessary. As I reached my new stand, I opened my gun, and was on the point of slipping in a cartridge loaded with S.G., when through the top of the bush I saw a panther, obviously a female, coming out it big bounds, and seemingly on tiptoe. I remained motionless expecting her to pass at about 10 yards range, but evidently she spotted me, for on coming level she swung round at right angles, laid her ears flat, and came straight for me. Dropping the shot cartridge on the ground, I had time only to close the gun and fire one shot from the hip just as the panther reached me, and then went over backwards ‘into the thorn bush. Whether she actually knocked me over, f cannot say; but one claw caught me on the right knee, and on the left lez of my shorts was a broad smear of blood which certainly was not mine; presumably it came from her wounded shoulder. However that may be, my shot fortunately deterred her from further attack, and she left me and rushed back into a thicket. I now became 220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 aware that Vasu was shouting loudly, so fearing that he too had been mauled, picked myself up, reloaded, and started to investigate. But I was pelicved to meet him running up, and to find hee his anxiety had been on my behalf, as he had witnessed the whole episode. He said that after leaving me, the panther kept falling over, so presumably one shoulder had been shattered by my _ shot. Feeling rather shaken, I then sat down to assess damage. It was amazingly slight. Besides the claw mark on my right knee which was bleeding freely, there was a painful wound in my left wrist, which we thought at first was due to a bite, but later proved to be a large thorn which had penetrated deeply, and then broken off; a fine crop of prickly pear spines in my backside did not make themselves known till later ! While applying first aid, we heard the panther growl at a village dog which had gone to investigate, so as soon as 1 was ready we started to follow up. There was a good deal of blood across the sheet rock leading into some dense lantana bushes, but though we searched for 10 minutes or more we were unable to locate the animal, and in view of the necessity for early medical treatment, much to my regret I had to give it up for the time being. But the idea of leaving a wounded animal to be a possible source of danger to the villagers, apart from questions of humanity, was unthinkable, and since my wounds were so slight and healed well, within ten days I was able to revisit the spot and renew the quest. Unfortunately, however, an intensive search of over two hours through some very thick stuff proved unsuccessful. There were no pug marks at the water within half a mile, and the shikaris were of opinion that the animal had got into one of the dense thickets we were unable to penetrate, and had died there. Actually they were wrong, for she had carried on for some distance further, and had died after crossing the river. Her remains were found the day after I had come away, and enough was left to show that my shot had, as I expected, smashed the right shoulder, but being a glancing one, had failed to penetrate. With such a wound it was surprising that she had survived for ten days. As to the reason for her attack, we could find no trace of cubs, whose presence would have accounted for such behaviour, but the shikaris were of opinion that she was the mother of a small cub which had been shot in the vicinity not long before in the course of a beat by another party. That may be so, but personally I think a more likely explanation is that hearing the beaters behind and the shots in front, she felt herself cornered. I was extremely lucky to get off so lightly. My shot must have caught her in the split second when she was reaching out at me with her claws. Was it only a coincidence that not fifty yards away was the tamarind tree under which I had stalked a panther some time before, as related in the third section of this series? That too was a bad tempered beast which growled at us before moving on. The whole affair shows how easily accidents can happen, and that in the jungle one must always be prepared for the unexpected. Though the experience was not a happy one, the memory of my amazingly lucky escape is not likely to fade. JUNGLE MEMORIES 221 My tt As boku SikE R When I wrote the chapter on elephants in this series, I little thought that I should ever be called upon to tackle another rogue. However, fate ruled otherwise, and since the following episode is typical of elephant shikar, and is at the same time a pleasant memory of the jungle, I am including it here. Elephants are always to be found along the base of the northern ‘slopes of the Nilgiris, but in 1950 they were unusually numerous, and solitary tuskers were constantly chasing people and generally giving trouble. My shikari’s brother, whom I had known since he was a small boy, was killed close to Anaikatti village, and another man had previously met the same fate, so the two animals concerned were proscribed. No one else appeared to be keen on tackling them, so I decided that it was up to me to take the job on. After obtaining the necessary permit, I made three trips to Anaikatti during May -and June in the hopes of shooting at least one of them, but without success. The smaller of the two seemed always to get wind of my arrival at the forest bungalow, for though he might prior to that have been in the vicinity for a week or more, no sooner had I appeared ‘on the scene than he cleared right out of the area. The other and larger one proved equally elusive, and though we got on to his overnight tracks more than once, I was unable to come up with him. Then for a fortnight all trace of him was lost. I suspected—as indeed proved to be the case—that he had been wounded by someone and had retired to a place of refuge until he recovered. ‘This elephant ‘carried a very fine pair of tusks which met at the points, and gave him the name of ‘Cross Tusker’. On the 24th June I went down to Anaikatti again for the fourth time, which I determined must be my final effort. We could find no traces of either animal in the usual localities, so decided to try the circular valley below the Ebanaad waterfall, some 7 miles from the bungalow. This is a favourite haunt of elephants, and here if any- where we might at last locate the rogues. Passing the Anaikalmari- gudi temple, we entered the valley and proceeded along the track on the left side of the river, while the trackers worked the opposite slope. The path we were following was evidently well used by elephants, and during a halt a small tusker came round the corner behind us ‘about 100 yards away. Fortunately we spotted him in time to take evasive action in case his intentions were aggressive, but he was not out for trouble, and on seeing us turned down to the river. Resum- ing our progress, we carried on till about 10.30 a.m. when we reached a central position where the trackers had asked me to wait until they could report results. We had not been there long when I heard a branch break in the river bed below us, and this was followed by a series of squeaks and squeals, some of which sounded remarkably like a dog barking. I thought it was a herd with baby elephants, but Kunmada, who went along the high bank till he got a clear view, _reported that it was another small tusker, and not one of the pro- scribed animals. On getting our wind it turned back and went up a side valley to the left, and we saw no more of it. At 1 p.m. just 222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 as I was finishing my sandwiches, Bomma and the tracker arrived and reported that they had located Cross Tusker far uphill in a ravine ‘which they pointed out, on the opposite slope. After so many pre- vious fiascos I was rather sceptical, but both men were positive about the animal’s identity, so obviously there was no alternative but to go and see for myself, little as I relished the thought of the tremendous climb which lay ahead, and its effect on an already weak heart. The wind was blowing strongly up the valley, so it was necessary for us to continue on the same side of the river till we had got beyond the animal before crossing over. The path led through some un- pleasantly thick brakes of bamboo and lantana, which I was relieved to pass without meeting any stray tusker, and rising steadily, at last “brought us after an hour’s hard going, to the head of the valley, where we crossed the river. Now came the worst part: an open spur of dry grass and loose stones, so steep that it was difficult to negotiate without slipping back. I never thought I should be able to manage it. However, after half an hour's slow but steady pro- gress, we arrived near the spot where the elephant had been located. I sat down for a breather, while the trackers went on to ascertain whether the animal was still there. From my position I could see over the whole valley, and could appreciate the height to which we had climbed ; in fact a reference to the map afterwards showed that we had ascended 2000 feet above the temple which we had passed in the morning. The trackers soon returned and reported that all was well, so I climbed still higher and at last saw below me the huge brown form of the tusker. He was about 50 yards away in a regular cul-de-sac of immense rocks well shaded by bamboos on which he was feeding, and while we watched, he raised his tusks vertically, for the fact that they were touching at the tips prevented him from lifting his trunk to feed in the normal manner. There was now no possible doubt about his identity, but before firing it was necessary to approach closer, as an elephant’s brain is small, and one wants to make sure of the shot. Cautiously descending, I reached a rock within 1o yards of the animal, which now had stopped feeding and seemed uneasy. Possibly a back eddy of wind from the cliff behind us had carried to him a faint taint of human scent. Obviously there was no time to lose, and though a head shot at an elephant standing tail on is far from satisfactory, there was no alternative, so I whispered to G. to get ready. I fired the right barrel of the .476 Westly Richards at the back of his head, and G. fired a second later with his .423. But the angle was too flat, as we were practically level with his back, and neither shot had any effect except to cause a slight stagger. Fortuna- tely he then turned a little giving me a better angle. I fired again and this time there was no mistake, for the bullet entered behind the ear and passed through the brain. At the shot his hind legs gave way, and he fell backwards head over heels downhill, with a resound- ing crash, passing us almost within touching distance. It was ar impressive sight. A final sharp crack warned me that a tusk had broken. After making sure that he was dead, though there could JUNGLE MEMORIES 223 be little doubt about that, we descended to examine our prize and take measurements. In spite of his obvious age, he was not a very large animal; only g feet 4 inch at the shoulder, and not to be compared with the ‘Cradle Tusker’ shot in 1932 which taped 1o feet 6 inch. But the tusks were a very fine pair, and after extraction measured 6 feet 6 inches and 6 feet 3 inches respectively. The right one had come in contact with rock as he fell, and a piece about 6 inches long had broken off the tip, but luckily we found it. I was amazed at the power of the .476 as com- pared with the .423, which I always have, and still do consider quite adequate for elephant. Whereas the bullet of the latter had remained in the skull, both those of the heavier rifle had passed clean through, the first emerging just above the bump, and the second between eye and earhole on the left. All three were of course solids. ‘ And so Cross Tusker met his fate, and I obtained a very fine trophy. But as I sat alongside him enjoying the first cheroot of the day, I could not help regretting that it had been necessary to destroy such a magnificent animal, which may have been roaming those jungles for over a century. However, his life was forfeit, as he had killed at least one man already, and the four unhealed bullet wounds which he bore would have made him sttil more dangerous had he remained at large; so it was just as well that he should have no further chances of mischief. But what is one to think of the culprit who had fired those four shots, and then instead of following up and finishing off the animal, as every dictate of sportsmanship and humanity required, had failed even to report the matter to the forest authorities? However, a glance at my watch brought these reflections to an end. It was too late to cut out the tusks that day, but quite time that we were starting back. It was a long trek to the bungalow, and we did not get in till nearly dark, very tired, but with that comfortable feeling which success in shikar always brings. The pursuit of this rogue was typical of elephant hunting: days’ of searching, hours of tracking, and then the climax in a matter of seconds. (To be continued) THE BIRDS OF COORG BY F. N. Betts Part II (IVith two plates) } (Continued from p. 63 of this volume} Motacilla alba: The White Wagtail. A tairly common winter migrant in the Dry Zone. Odd birds find their way up into the Inter-Zone. These usually settle down in some farm-yard or coffee pulphouse and spend the whole winter there, rarely moving a hundred yards from their headquarters. Motacilla maderaspatensis: The Large Pied Wagtail. An exclusively waterside wagtail whose range coincides with that of the Wire-tailed Swallow. They are found on all the large rivers of the Province, both those running out into Malabar from the foot of the Ghats, and the waters of the Cauvery system flowing east through the deciduous forest, becoming most numerous of all on the main river when it reaches the open country of the Dry Zone. The smaller streams and brooks among the higher hills do not attract them. They are found occasionally round large tanks but prefer running water. They are nearly always seen in pairs which hold together throughout the year, and spend their time hunting over the rocks and islets in mid-stream. If the banks are open they extend their forays some way inland particularly in the monsoon when the rivers are flooding. The breeding season is extended, beginning as soon as the rivers drop to dry-season level about Christmas, and continuing until the break of the rains in June. Nesting sites are varied. If possible they choose some grassy rock or islet well out from shore; in such situations the nest is tucked away among the roots of the long grass and very well concealed. Other sites which I have seen were in hollows of stranded tree-trunks, under bridges, and once on a car-ferry in constant use. They are always however within a few feet of the water. The nest is a rough collection of roots and coarse grass in the centre of which is a neat cup lined with hair. The birds have a loud, cheerful, rattling song which is as much a demonstration of anger or alarm as of pleasure, for it is uttered by both sexes when any intruder approaches the nest. Motacilla cinerea: The Grey Wagtail. The commonest of our winter migrants. They visit the whole of Coorg in great numbers though they are scarcer in the Dry Zone, and are one of the first species to arrive, coming in at the beginning of September, while odd birds linger on until mid-May. They scatter widely during the daytime, but in the evening gather in big communal THE BIRDS OF COORG 225 roosts in thick trees or patches of lantana scrub. In some cases at least the identical birds return every year to the same winter quarters. One, distinguished by a particularly large white wing patch, spent three winters running in my garden, and used to conduct daily battles with its reflection in one of the bedroom windows. Motacilla flava: The Grey-headed Wagtail. A regular winter visitor to the Mysore ‘Maidan’ and almost certainly must visit the Coorg Dry Zone occasionally, though I have not seen ‘ile pendronanthus indicus: The Forest Wagtail. A common winter visitor in the Inter-Zone. Coffee plantations are their favourite habitat, but they may be found anywhere in ever- green woodland of an open type. They avoid dense forest, nur are they found in the deciduous forest belt or the Dry Zone. They are usually seen singly, feeding on the ground under the coffee or ‘undergrowth, and fly up into a tree when disturbed, where they utter a ‘chink, chink’ note like that of the European Chaffinch, and oscillate the tail from side to side, not up and down like the true wagtails. They are much more arboreal than the latter, and a good deal of their food is found in the trees. Anthus hodgsoni: The Tree Pipit. A common and regular winter visitor, closely resembling the last species in habits and distribution. The Inter-Zone, particularly coffee land are their favourite haunts and they will rarely be found outside evergreen woodland. They live in flocks of considerable size, feeding on the ground and flying up into the trees when disturbed. Anthus nilghiriensis: The Nilgiri Pipit. - Anthus similis: The Rufous Rock Pipit. Both these species, particularly the second, might be expected to occur on the grassy crags of the higher Ghat peaks, but I have failed to find them myself and no one else has recorded them from Coorg. Anthus rafulus: The Indian Pipit. The common resident pipit of Coorg, found all over the Province from the Dry Zone to the high Ghat peaks, and even in the forest wherever there are considerable clearings. They are usually seen in pairs, and are typical pipits in all their ways. Such song as they have consists of a wheezy trill uttered as the bird flutters a few feet into the air and dives earthwards with closed wings. The breeding season extends throughout most of the dry season from January till the break of the rains. ‘The nest is very well concealed in the depths of a grass tuft, and is only to be found by watching the bird. Three eges form the usual clutch. Anthus thermophilus. Blyth’s Pipit. A specimen from Coorg is in the British Museum. I have not come across this bird myself. 226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL (HISE SOCIETY, Vols 50 Mirafra affinis : The Madras Bush-Lark. Fairly numerous in the Dry Zone in scrubby grazing’ and rather. than cultivation, turning up again in large clearings and abandoned paddy fields in the deciduous forest provided the grass is short. « Its requirements seem to be grassland with plenty of scrub and low trees. They may be seen singly or in pairs, feeding on the ground, creeping about very quietly and inconspicuously. The flight is: weak and when disturbed they fly up into the trees. The breeding season is rather late, depending on the time of the first rains. The song is a success-. ion of whirring notes uttered as the bird flutters up to a height of, 30 or 40 feet and then floats down on outstretched wigs to the nearest low tree or rock. Oe gy . The only nest I have seen was found late. ; in May and contained well- -grown young. It was a grass cup, well concealed in a tuft of grass the growing blades of which were interwoven overhead to form a regular dome. | Galerida malabarica: The Malabar Crested Lark. ~The common lark of Coorg and very numerous on open maidans and close-cropped grazing grounds throughout the Inter-Zone, and in cultivation and open country through the Dry Zone. They like short-grassed downland clear of scrub and trees up to an elevation of 4,000 ft. but are not found on the high downs of the Ghat summits. Except during the breeding season they tend to flock and wander a good deal, particularly during the monsoon. Nesting takes place from January till the break of the rains. Unlike many of the open country birds they do not wait for the first showers and many nests, are destroyed in the grass- -fires in March. The song is quite a fine one, uttered on the wing, the bird rising to a considerable height. Unlike the last species they are entirely terrestrial, rarely if ever perching on trees or bushes. The nest is built in- the open without concealment, though often backing against a tuft of stiff grass. le is a neat cup nearly always surrounded by a conspicuous platform of dry grass and bits of cowdung. The young are clothed in down when hatched, and are fed very largely on grasshoppers, At an early. stage they leave the nest and seek shelter in neighbouring grass tufts, where their cryptic plumage makes them ve hard to ind. Hine usual clutch is two. : Ammomanes phoenicura: The Rufous-tailed Finch-Lark. | Seen on one occasion in the driest part of the Dry Zone. It was very tame, relying on squatting motionless for concealment,. and I was able to approach within two: yards before it soo wing. Eremopteryx grisea: The Ashy- -crowned Finch-Lark. Only seen in one locality in the driest part of the Dry Zone. On a grassy patch of maidan just outside the village of Hebbale, one could usually come on one or two along the dusty cart tracks, dust bathing or picking about among the goat and cattle droppings. When flushed they merely flutter a few yards and settle again, or if one does not come too close, merely crouch without taking wing LAE, BERDS: OF COORG 227 at all, thus hiding the conspicuous black underparts. I have not found a nest, but they probably breed there as they are very sedentary birds. Zosterops palpebrosa: The White-eye. Widely distributed through the wetter and. more well-wooded por- tions of the Province. They are numerous in coffee cultivation and in the evergreen sholas up to the highest peaks of the Ghats, also in the canopy of the rain forest on their western slopes. They go about in large flocks keeping up among the tree-tops. Most nests in Coorg are built high up, well out of reach, in contrast to the Nilgiris where they are frequently found within a few feet of the ground. I have, however, found one in a coffee bush at four feet only. The nest is a tiny and very fragile, loosely-built hammock of fine grass, slung in a horizontal fork in a tuft of leaves at the end of a bough, and well- concealed. Two pale blue eggs are laid. The nesting season lasts through the hot weather from March to May, and breeding is some- times resumed in September after the monsoon. Cynnyris lotenia: Loten’s Sunbird. This sunbird is fairly common throughout the greater part of Coorg at medium elevations, but less so than either C. asiatica or C. zeylanica. They are most numerous in the Inter-Zone and the neighbouring parts of the deciduous forest, and on the lower Ghat slopes, but I have not seen them in the Dry Zone. As with most of the family, well-wooded but fairly open country with plenty of flower- ing trees and shrubs, gardens and cultivated land are their favourite haunts. In thick evergreen forest, where they occur at all, they are confined to the canopy. The nest may be distinguished from that of other species by the comparative lack of cobweb in the construction of the exterior. The outside is extremely untidy, being covered in a mass of dead leaves which hang below the nest proper in a ragged tail several inches long. They are usually at a fair height, ten feet Or more, and tend to be built in the shade or in the interior of some fairly dense-foliaged tree, and would be difficult to find were it not for the bold demeanour of the birds. The main breeding season is March to May, and the normal clutch is two. The cock has a loud, sweet, cheerful song. ‘The nectar of flowers and the small insects found in their corollas form the greater part of their food. Cynniris asiatica: The Purple Sunbird. This species is commoner and more widely-spread than the last and may be found anywhere throughout the Province, except perhaps in the heart of heavy evergreen forest. They are most cheerful, friendly little birds. Any flower garden is certain to have a regular population, and they play an important part in the cross-fertilisation of flowers. Their foreheads may often be seen plastered with pollen. Nevertheless, although the beak and tongue are so well-adapted for probing the recesses of blossoms, in many cases of flowers with long corollas such as Hibiscus and Ipomoea they do not approach by the front door, but find a short cut to the nectaries by piercing the petals at the base. 2 228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Nests may be found at almost any season, but mostly between February and May. They are built in the most conspicuous places ; a rose bush in a garden; suspended from a bit of string hanging in a verandah ; a wire trellis or the extreme tip of some bare twig at any height between one foot and twenty from the ground, but usually within six feet of it. Despite the lack of concealment, the nest often escapes notice as it may easily be taken for a casual, wind-blown collection of cobwebs and rubbish. It is very like that of the last species, but a much greater use is made of cobweb which forms the major part of the exterior of the pear-shaped pouch. Dead leaves, pieces of bark and lichen are added freely and hang below in a ragged tail. The entrance is at one side with a well-defined porch above it. The outside casing is first completed and it is then well stuffed with vegetable floss by way of lining. As with the last species the hen does all the building, the cock merely accompanying her and singing loudly as she works. He does not appear to take any share in the - incubation, but is active in feeding the chicks as soon as they are hatched. Very small insects seem to be the chief food provided for them. Two egeg's is the usual clutch. The male has a very distinct eclipse plumage in which the underparts are yellow with a purple ventral stripe, but the assumption of this seems to depend rather on the individual than the season, as. one may see males in this condition while others are breeding. Cynniris zeylonica: The Purple-rumped Sunbird. Almost everything written about the last species applies to this one, except that the males have no ‘eclipse’ plumage. It is just as. common and wide-spread, and unless the birds are seen it is almost impossible to distinguish the nests and eggs. A slight difference lies in the fact that the nests of the present species tend to be placed higher up, sometimes forty or fifty feet high in the top of a tree, and that they breed very freely in September after the monsoon which is not character- istic of asiatica. Cynniris minima: }ne Small Sunbird. The tiny sunbird is common in the Wet Zone and the moister parts of the Inter-Zone. It is more of a forest and jungle bird than the others and ranges higher, up to the tops of the Ghats. The nests are neater in appearance as they are made largely of green moss with little cobweb and usually lack the tail of rubbish hanging below. They are also quite frequently well-concealed in a terminal tuft of leaves. They are suspended from the tip of a twig, generally fairly low down in a bush or sapling on the edge of a woodland path or clearing. I have only found two nests, one in December and one in April. Arachnothera longirostra: The Little Spider Hunter. I have never come across this bird though I have kept a sharp look-out for it. Nevertheless it must almost certainly occur as Salim Ali obtained it at Sakleshpur just over the border in typical Coorg Inter-Zone country. THE BIRDS OF COORG 229; Dicaeum concolor: The Nigiri Flowerpecker. Likely to occur, but not recorded as in the field it is impossible to distinguish from the next species. On the other hand as Salim Ali only found it in the Builligirirangan Hills, it may be another of the high-level Nilgiri forms which reach their limit in that range. Dicaeum erythrorhynchos: Tickell’s Flowerpecker. Extremely common all over the Province in cultivation or forest wherever there are trees afflicted with the parasites, Loranthus and Viscum spp. They feed voraciously on the berries, which pass through the body with great rapidity. The sticky mucous covering the seeds is quite undigested and on being voided they cling to any twig on which they fall. The flowerpeckers are undoubtedly the principal agents in the spread of these plants. They are very strong on the wing for such tiny birds, and fly high and rapidly and for long distances. They are birds of the canopy of the forest and seldom come below the tree-tops, while their nests are nearly always at a great height and exceedingly hard to find and even harder to reach when found. ‘They are minute purses of green moss and spider cocoons lined with vegetable down, slung from the tip of a twig well-hidden in a bunch of leaves at the end of a lofty bough. Breeding takes place in Feb./March and again in September. Piprosoma agile: The Thick-billed Flowerpecker. Fairly common throughout the Inter-Zone and the adjacent decidu- ous forest, but I have not seen it on the higher Ghats or in the Dry Zone, and it is nowhere as numerous as the last species. They scem rather less dependent on the Loranthus than other flowerpeckers. They may often be seen carefully searching the extreme tips of the twigs of a leafless tree presumably picking up small insects on the buds. While doing this they have a characteristic habit of twisting the tail slowly from side to side. The nests, which are built in January and February while the trees are bare are quite unique. They resemble those of the last species in shape but instead of being hidden in a bunch of leaves they are fully exposed at the tip of a naked twig. Despite this they are far from easy to see, being so small and nearly always so high up. They are made of a peculiar reddish brown material apparently some sort of vegetable down woven into a solid felt, so compact that the nest may be crushed in the hand and will resume its shape when released. Pitta brachyura: The Indian Pitta. A regular and fairly numerous winter migrant. They turn up almost anywhere on their first arrival in October, and often very weary ; understandably so considering the weakness of their wing power. During their stay in Coorg they frequent shady woodlands where they feed on the ground in the undergrowth, astonishing one with the flash of their brilliant colouring when they are disturbed and flutter weakly for a few yards. They are very silent and I have never heard them utter a sound. They have peculiar habit of bobbing on their long legs and at the same time jerking their almost non-existent tails like some mechanical toy. Some birds remain very iate, up till 230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 the end of May, but I have seen no sign of their ever attempting to breed in Coorg. , . Picus xanthopygaeus: The Little Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker. A scarce resident. A few pairs may be found scattered here and there through the Inter-Zone and the Ghat sholas. It does not a think, occur in the drier parts of the Province. As with the other woodpeckers, it is an early breeder excavating a hole high up in some dead tree in January or February. Picus chlorolophus: The Yellow-naped Woodpecker. A common species in the Inter-Zone and_ the neighbouring deciduous forest, wherever there is a certain admixture of evergreen. They are usually seen singly or in pairs, frequently in the company of the mixed flocks, but the families do not seem to keep together after fledging, as do so many other woodpeckers. Breeding takes place early in December/January. The site chosen is some rotten tree trunk in deep shade in a wooded ravine, and the hole is usually within 15 feet of the ground. On a number of occasions I have found it placed immediately under one of the large plate-shaped fungus growths which are so common on dead trees in damp positions. Two or three eggs form the clutch. These woodpeckers are quiet birds but occasionally utter a very distinctive note, a single loud, sharp ‘Chak’ Dryobates mahrattensis: The Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker. Occurs sparingly in the driest parts of the Dry Zone where cultivation is mingled with scrub jungle and scattered large trees such as tamarind, peepal, and banyan. They are usually seen in pairs and are quiet and inconspicuous. Dryobates hardwickii : The Pigmy Woodpecker. Commoner than is generally realised in the Inter-Zone nd _ the deciduous forest belt. It is a very quiet, unobtrusive little bird living among the upper branches of high trees, and is easily overlooked. It prefers fairly open woodland. Breeding takes place from December to February. The nests are usually very high up and quite inaccessible. The hole is bored in some quite small dead bough and the entrance is frequently on the underside. This is one of the species which I have noticed drumming. It is also the only one which I have seen carrying insects to the young in the beak. All the larger woodpeckers appear to feed the nestlings exclusively by regurgitation. Micropternus brachyurus: The Rufous Woodpecker. This remarkable woodpecker is fairly common throughout the Inter-Zone and the deciduous forest wherever giant bamboo grows and the Cremastogaster ants, with which it is symbiotic, are found. They are quiet birds, usually seen singly, and seem to feed almost exclusively on the above-mentioned ants which build large black ‘papier mache’ nests in treetops and tall bamboos. They breed in February and March in these same ants’ nests. A hole two inches in diameter is bored in one side, and the interior excavated leaving THE BIRDS OF COORG 231 a wall an inch thick? What. is so extraordinary is that this does not cause the desertion of the original owners who remain in occupation of the walls throughout the whole period of incubation and fledging. I have climbed to an occupied nest and been furiously attacked and yet found naked young inside completely unharmed. Shot specimens are said to have a peculiar acrid smell due to their diet of ants, and one can only assume that this extends to the young and protects them from their vicious little hosts. Certainly few birds can have such well-protected nest! Brachypternus benghalensis: Phe Golden-backed Woodpecker. Common throughout the Inter-Zone, the deciduous forest, and the more well-wooded parts of the Dry Zone. Generally the commonest woodpecker of the countryside, a noisy, conspicuous bird usually seen in small family parties, and an invariable member oi the mixed flocks. Breeding takes place between December and February. The nest is excavated in the trunk or a main bough of a dead tree in open woodland or coffee plantations. It may be at any height from the ground, but is commonly between ten and twenty feet. The entrance is a neat round hole with the horizontal axis usually slightly greater than the vertical. Dinopium javanense: The Three-toed Golden-backed Woodpecker. Similar in every way to the last species. Their range very largely overlaps, but the present bird tends to favour a wetter biotope and is absent from the Dry Zone. It is nowhere nearly so numerous as B. benghalensis, and is much quieter. The nesting habits appear tv be very similar. The two species are by no means easy to distinguish in the field, the best mark being the rump and lower back when seen in flight: crimson in this bird, black in B. benghalensis. Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus: Maiherbe’s Golden-backed Woodpecker. Very similar in habits and distribution to B. benghalensis and D. javanense but it prefers a wetter climate and higher altitude. They range through the evergreen forests of the Wet Zone up to the highest Ghat sholas, and abound in the coffee plantations of the Inter-Zone, but scarcely enter the deciduous forest. They are bold noisy birds usually seen in family parties. The call is a high, tinny scream, very distinctive. Breeding begins very early as I have found occupied nests in December, though apparently only one brood is raised. The same dead tree may be used for years in succession, a new hole being excavated each time. The nest of this bird can be distinguished at a glance as the entrance is oval with the tong axis vertical, while the lower edge is bevelled off at a slope in a rather untidy manner. The normal clutch is two or three. Chrysocolaptes festivus : The Black-backed Woodpecker. May possibly occur very rarely in the Dry Zone. [I have once seen it in a coconut plantation at Periapatam a few miles over the Mysore border. 232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 50 ° Hemicircus canente: The Heart-spotted Woodpecker. Common in the Inter-Zone and the deciduous forest, but not found in the Wet or Dry Zones. In fact their range coincides with that. of the giant bamboo. They are odd little birds with ridiculously short tails and quaint jerky movements. Presumably owing to the shortness of the tail they do not assume the usual woodpecker attitude, braced against a tree-trunk or branch, but perch across a bough like a Passerine and search the small twigs rather than the main limbs for food. They are usually seen in pairs which keep in touch by a constant squeaky call, flying from tree to tree with a comic exaggera- tion of the typical bounding woodpecker flight. I have never been able to find a nest though they are strictly resident, but suspect them of excavating holes in the bamboos. Dendrocopos javanensis : The Great Black Woodpecker. Occurs throughout the Wet and Inter-Zones and occasionally in the deciduous forest, but is never numerous. It is essentially a bird of the deep forest, only found where there are extensive tracts of woodland with trees of the largest size. They are great wanderers, however, and are often seen in coffee plantations on the borders of forest. They live in small family parties for most of the year and are extremely noisy, the loud clanging calls being audible at a great distance. In spite of this they are extremely shy, especially at the nest. This is excavated early in January high up in some tall dead tree. The size of the circular entrance hole, a good five inches in diameter, serves to distinguish the ownership at once. The interior hollow is about two feet deep by a foot wide at the bottom. Though normally so noisy the birds are most careful to avoid being seen or heard in the neighbourhood of the nest, and will desert at once if they think they have been detected, even if no attempt is made to climb the tree. During incubation the brooding bird pops her head out of the entrance at the slightest unfamiliar sound, but flies off only if danger actually approaches. Most woodpeckers and barbets have this habit which has a definite protective value. The dark, clean-cut entrance shows up conspicuously at a distance, and the pro- yecting head blocks this and looks like a natural branch stub. The only nest I have been able to reach had four incubated eggs. Vivia innominatus : The Nilgiri Speckled Piculet, Probably more numerous than one suspects for as Salim Ali points out it may very easily be overlooked. I have only seen one once in ten years’ residence, when I found a nest in March in a dead branch of a large tree in a shady ravine forming an isolated strip of ever- green just inside the deciduous forest. The bird flew out with an almost inaudible squeak and remained hopping anxiously about among the top branches of a neighbouring tree, perching across and not along the twigs. The entrance to the nest was barely an inch in diameter, smaller even than that of D. hardwickii, while the chamber was about six inches in depth and two and a half in width. There were two glossy white, almost spherical egys. There was an occupied nest hole of Megalaima viridis a foot higher up in the same stub. THE BIRDS OF COORG 233 Megalaima viridis : The Small Green Barbet. One of the commonest birds of Coorg especially in the Inter-Zene. Their monotonous notes resound ceaselessly all day in all directions, and it would be almost impossible to find a spot anywhere in the wooded parts of the district during the dry season whence at least half a dozen could not be heard calling. They are fairly common in the Ghat sholas though scarce in the interior of extensive evergreen forest. They are also found in small numbers in the Dry Zone where one would expect to find them replaced by T. zeylanicus. The latter species, however, does not seem to occur. Their real home is the coffee land where the shade trees provide ideal living conditions. The various fig trees furnish a supply of food throughout the year, and those killed and left standing during shade control work provide the dead soft-wooded stumps which they especially prefer for nesting purposes. They are almost entirely frugivorous, but I have seen them catching large insects on the tree trunks, and they sometimes join in the feast when there is a flight of termites, though their efforts at fly-catching are clumsy and not very successful. The principal breeding season is from February to April, but they start excavating holes as early as September. These do not appear to be used unless for roosting as I have never found eggs betore New Year. Work goes on in a desultory manner. There are two or three days of feverish digging and then the job is left for a week or so, or may even be deserted. Two eggs are laid. The young are fed on fruit from the earliest stages. At first this is regurgitated, but later given direct. A fresh chamber is normally dug out for each brood, but I have once or twice found them breeding in what appeared to be an old hole. The nests may be excavated in any dead soft-wooded tree at any height from the ground, sometimes even in a fence post. In Coorg quite the favourite species is Ficus glomerata, one of the commonest coffee shade trees. This, when two years dead, has a smooth barkless outer surface with a hard rind half an inch thick while the interior is soft punk which can be dug out with the fingers. Barbets are quarrelsome birds and though several pairs may breed in the same tree, and scores be seen feeding together on a big tig in fruit, there is continual bickering and querulous argument which often ends in actual fighting. Megalaima haemacephala: The Crimson-breasted Barbet. Confined to the Dry Zone being replaced in the Inter and Wet Zones by next species. Its range extends up to the deciduous forest where the two overlap but rarely intermingle, the present bird being found in the drier and more open parts, while X. rubricapilla prefers areas where there is an admixture of evergreen. It is nowhere numer- ous in Coorg, suitable fruit trees and nesting sites being scarce in its range. | Megalaima rubricapiila : The Crimson-throated Barbet. This species has practically the same range as Megalaima viridis and is as common. Its metallic ‘tonk, tonk, tonk’ uttered for minutes together without a break is one of the most familiar bird calls in 234 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 — Coorg. In feeding and breeding habits they resemble their larger cousin. By preterence, however, they choose small boughs in which to excavate their nest holes, sometimes so slender that the walls of the chamber are not more than a quarter of an inch thick. They show great skill in their carpentry and rarely break through the sides and spoil the work. A horizontal bough is often chosen and the entrance is on the under side. February to March are the principai breeding months and two eggs are laid. This species is even more exclusively frugivorous than M. vividis and 1 have never seen insect food being taken. Cuculus poliocephalus: The Small Cuckoo. Has been recorded from Coorg. I have not seen it myself. Hierococcyx sparveroides: The Large Hawk-Cuckoo. I suspect that this bird occurs as I have on several occasions seen a very large Hawk-Cuckoo, but I have not definitely identified it. Hierococcyx varius: The Common Hawk-Cuckoo. A common winter migrant throughout the Province. I have only seen them between October and April, and while with us they are silent and furtive. I have never heard the call, so it seems unlikely that they breed here. Cacomantis merulinus : The Plaintive Cuckoo. Not uncommon in the Inter-Zone, but I have been unable to determine its status. It appears to be a wandering bird, stray speci- inens turning up at any time of year and disappearing after a few days’ stay. I have heard them calling but have no evidence of their breeding. They are quiet, skulking birds living in scrub and lightly wooded country. I have seen one feeding on a repulsive looking scarlet bug which lives on rotten fruit and which from its gaudy, warning colouring one would have expected to be highly distasteful. Penthoceryx sonneratii: The Banded Bay Cuckoo. It is surprising that the Mysore Survey did not come across this bird as it is the commonest of the small cuckoos in Coorg and the only one of which I have definite evidence of breeding. It is fairly numerous in the Inter-Zone and lower Ghat sholas. I have not seen it in the Dry Zone. I suspect that these birds migrate during the monsoon as one does not encounter them between July and December. In March and April they become very noisy, and their loud ‘crescendo’ call is continually uttered. They inhabit much the-same country as C, merulinus, fairly light forest and well-wooded cultivation, but are more arboreal and keep to the treetops. The usual host for their young is the Iora, though I have once seen one being fed by a pair of Magpie Robins. Early in the monsoon when the big mixed flocks. first form, one may often see a young of this cuckoo in the party being attended by its foster parents. It keeps up a continuous loud, querulous call, and though strong on the wing and apparently perfectly capable of looking after itself, makes no attempt to find its own focd. THE BIRDS OF COORG 235 * Surniculus lugubris: The Drongo Cuckoo. I believe I once saw one in the Dry Zone but could not be quite sure, and the record must be taken as doubttul. Clamator jacobinus: The Pied Crested Cuckoo. Occurs apparently as a scarce and irregular winter migrant. I have seen them in the Dry Zone, but more frequently well up on the Ghat hillsides on the borders of sholas. They are evidently on passage as they are here today and gone tomorrow. I have never heard then: calling and do not think that it is at all likely that they breed in Coorg. Clamator coromandus: The Red-winged Crested Cuckoo. Once seen in the heart of a dense evergreen hill shola at about 4,500 ft. in May. It was skulking silently in the undergrowth and was very tame, allowing close approach and observation, so I have no doubt of the record. Evidently a mere rare straggler to Coorg. Eudynamis scolopaceus: The Indian Koel. Resident in small numbers in the Dry Zone. It is a regular visitor to the Inter-Zone in the hot weather apparently to breed though I have never seen young birds there. From January to March they are found in cultivation and lightly-wooded grazing grounds near villages, wherever in fact their hosts, the crows, abound. They betray their presence by their reiterated crescendo call, but are otherwise some- what shy, keeping to the interior of leafy tree-tops. When moving from one to another, they dash across the open space with a great flurry and bustle as if in a desperate hurry, probably to escape the attentions of the crows, who lose no opportunity of harrying them. They leave the district on the outbreak of the monsoon. Males seem greatly in the preponderance, but this may be because they are more conspicuous. Rhopodytes viridirostris : The Small Green Malkoha. A resident in the Dry Zone in small numbers. They certainly breed there though [ have not found the nest. In the cold weather from November to March they wander up into the Inter-Zone where they are found on scrubby downland and grazing grounds, but not up to any height on the Ghats. It is a silent, solitary, skulking bird seldom seen far from some lantana brake where it can hide if alarmed. Centropus sinensis: The Common Crow-Pheasant. A very common bird all over Coorg in almost every biotope, though scarcer in the more open parts of the Dry Zone. They ascend the hills to the highest sholas on the Ghats and are equally at home in the steamy tropical jungles at their western foot. As one would expect with a bird of such weak wing power, they are extremely sedentary, each pair remaining year after year in their own comparatively res- tricted territory. They breed in tangled cane brakes or trees in ever- green forest smothered in creepers and lianas, while in the drier areas a favourite site is in the heart of a clump of giant bamboos where the interlocking stems hold up a mass of dead leaves and debris and form an impenetrable stronghold. They are very adaptable birds 236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 however, and are one of the few species which have made themseives reaily at home in tea cultivation, where the open nature of the land, and the constant weeding and tidying that goes on, is by no means to the taste of most forms of bird life. Here they breed in the crowns of pollarded Grevilleas lining roads or planted as wind-breaks. The nests are simply made by twisting the living, growing leaves into a rough dome open at both ends, and despite the size of the bird they are remarkably inconspicuous. The usuai breeding season is in June and July, during the rains, but after the first and heaviest burst. Psittacula eupatria: The Alexandrine Parakeet. I have seen this species in Coorg on two occasions only; once a solitary bird in the Dry Zone near Hebbale, and once a large flock flying home at sundown to roost in a patch of sugarcane near Yaslur in the extreme north of the province. This, though well in the Inter- Zone, is much more open country than most of Coorg—treeless downs with coffee and cardamom, and paddy cultivation along the streams in the valleys. The large size of these parakeets and their very distinctive call make them unmistakable. Psittacula krameri: The Rose-ringed Parakeet. A common bird in the Mysore maidan, occasionally wandering over into the Coorg Dry Zone. Psittacula cyanocephala: The Blossom-headed Parakeet. The common parakeet of Coorg, extremely numerous throughout the Inter-Zone and the deciduous forest and also found in the Drv Zone. They avoid, however, the Wet Zone forests and are not seen above 4,500 ft. While mainly frugivorous, they appear to eat large quantities of leaves and buds and are extremely wasteful and destructive in their feeding habits. At certain times of year they are a plague in a garden. A flock will strip a hibiscus hedge bare of every leaf in a couple of mornings. They are highly sociable and live in large flocks. They breed early, pairing off in the first week of January. They nest usually in old barbet or woodpecker holes or natural hol- lows, enlarging them considerably to suit their requirements. One can always tell when a parakeet has been at work by the shape of the chips of wood at the foot of the tree. A woodpecker or barhet chisels out long slivers, while tlie parakeet bites out dice-shaped chunks. Two or three eggs are laid. The hen alone incubates and during the process her long tail feathers become very abraded and worn down to less than half their proper length. The young are fed by regurgitation and at long intervals, certainly not oftener than once an hour. In nests which I have kept under observation, the hen alone supplied food. By early April the young, distinguishable by their green heads and short tails, are all on the wing. Out of the breeding season, these parakeets roost communally in large, dense-foliaged trees. They are very noisy birds, but their voices are not unmusical and are quite pleasing to the ear. THE BIRDS OF COORG 237 Psittacula columboides: The Blue-winged Parakeet. Replaces the last species on the higher Ghats up to 5,000 ft. and in the wetter parts of the province. They do not extend to the Dry Zone, but over most of the Inter-Zone the two occur side by side in equal numbers. In habits this bird is entirely similar to P. cyanocep- hala, and is quite as noisy, but in this case the screams are extremely harsh and discordant. Salim Ali states that in Mysore this is the only Parakeet found in the coffee plantations, but in Coorg both this and P, cyanocephala occur and breed freely in coffee cultivation. Coryllis vernalis: The Indian Loriquet. Very common throughout most of the province in well-wooded areas. It is not found much above 4,oo0 ft., and I have not seen it in the Dry Zone. These little birds, though almost as numerous as the parakeets, are not neariy so conspicuous. Their small size, leaf- green colouration, and predilection for the highest treetops all help to conceal them, while unlike their larger relatives they are by no means noisy, their only note being a low, squeaky, bat-like trill. They do not flock, and except when the young have just flown are seen singly or in pairs. They feed largely on the nectar of flowering trees, clambering from truss to truss with the aid of beak and claws in a highly acrobatic manner, being quite as much at home hanging upside down as when the right way up. They breed in January or February in natural hollows of trees at any height from ten feet upwards. The holes are enlarged to suit, and a small pad of green leaves is added by way of lining. In this they differ from the parakeets, none of whom line their nests. The clutch is a large one, 5 or 6 eggs being laid. The young are fed by regurgitation and there appears to be only one brood annually. . Coracias benghalensis: The South Indian Roller. Quite a common resident in the open, cultivated Mysore ‘maidan’ country round Periapatam and Hunsur beyond the eastern border of Coorg. I have found them breeding in holes in dead palm trees killed by excessive toddy tapping. In the province it is a regular but casual winter visitor, turning up in clearings in the deciduous forest, and on open grazing grounds in the Inter-Zone, but seldom lingering in one spot for more than a day or two. They are sluggish birds, spending hours together perched on a telegraph wire or treetop, flying down at intervals to catch a grasshopper or other insect on the ground. Their powers of sight must be phenomenal as I have frequently seen one spot some quite small prey at a distance of at least a hundred yards. Comparatively dull-coloured while at rest, the sudden flash of brilliant blues as it opens its wings is positively dazzling. In the breeding season they become more active, indulging in remarkable antics on the wing, rolling and swerving like a tumbler pigeon and uttering the most diabolical screams. An odd pair or two may breed in the Dry Zone among the cultivated lands along the Cauvery, but I have never found a nest myself. 238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SO CEI. Vole ou Eurystomus orientalis : The Broad-billed Roller. Not yet seen in Coorg, but it is extremely probable that it does occur in the clearings and rubber plantations in the tropical evergreen forest on the western slopes of the Ghats. Merops orientalis : The Indian Bee-eater. A very numerous winter visitor all over the province except in the most thickly forested areas. They appear in early October, and the great majority depart in March to breed. Odd solitary pairs, however, remain and nest in sandpits or roadside cuttings usually in grazing land or on the Ghat downs. During the winter months they are highly sociable, living in large flocks. They are intolerant of cold and on a chilly January morning, 4o or 50 little towzied green balls. can often be seen packed tight as sardines along a bough, refusing to stir till long after sunrise when the world has begun to warm up. They are very fond of taking dust baths on sandy roads. Breeding takes place between December and February. The nest tunnels vary considerably and may be excavated in vertical banks. or in almost level ground. Unless the soil is very intractable, they are of considerable length, 4 feet or more, and wind and twist to avoid stones and roots. Wherever possible they are sloped slightly upwards. The bird pecks away at the soil and then throws back the loosened material with a furious scratching action using both legs so that tne dust flies out in a cloud. A newly excavated hole can always be recognised by the two grooves made by the feet in the floor of the entrance. Both birds feed the young which number five or six. ‘he latter do not leave the nest until they are fully fledged and already strong on the wing. Merops superciliosus [javanicus] : The Blue-tailed Bee-eater. Common along the seashore on the Malabar coast. I have only once met them in Coorg when a small colony of three or four pairs. lived for some months around Halagote Kere, the only tank of any size in the province, in the Dry Zone. I did not actually find the nests, but they certainiy bred there as I saw them feeding very newly- flown young on 25th May. They left at the beginning of the rains aud never returned in subsequent years. In habits they closely resemble the last species. Merops leschenaulti: he Chestnut-headed Bee-eater. A well distributed resident species throughout the province. They are water-loving birds and spend most of the year in small flocks along the Cauvery and other large rivers, both in their upper reaches where they flow through the deciduous forest and in the Dry Zone where the banks are open and cultivated. During the monsoon the flocks leave the rivers and wander far and wide over the countryside. They breed colonially, half a dozen pairs scattered over a hundred yards of ground, excavating their holes in sandbanks on the river’s edge, avoiding by preference anything like a vertical face. In fact they often choose almost level ground and such soft sand that it is remarkable that the holes do not cave in. The tunnels vary from two to six feet in length, but are usually nearer the latter figure. The season is March to May. THE ABIRIDS OF; € OORG 239 Five or six eggs are laid. Like so many insectivorous birds, they bathe and drink on the wing, flying down to the water and dipping and splashing for a second before rising again. Alcemerops athertoni : The Blue-bearded Bee-eater. An uncommon bird though widely distributed through the province in wooded country. They are most commonly seen on the edges of clearings and young teak plantations in the deciduous forest. They are sluggish birds compared with their smaller relations, and spend most of their time perched on an outstanding bough, only taking wing when some insect is actually in view, and rarely if ever soaring and cruising round in flight. The note is a harsh, low, most distinctive croak audible at a surprising distance and like no other bird note. The only attempt at breeding which I have come across was when a pair started excavating a tunnel in September in a roadside cutting in a coffee estate. It was abandoned after reaching a length of eighteen inches and the birds disappeared without making a second attempt. This rather unusual breeding season was confirmed some years later at the other end of India in the Lushai Hills of Assam. In a hundred- mile march froin Ayal to Lungleh in early October, I passed literally dozens of tunnels in process of excavation in the banks of the mule track in bamboo jungle. Ceryle rudis : The Pied Kingfisher. Common on the larger rivers such as the Cauvery, Hemavathi, and Lakshmantirtha after they leave the forest and enter the Dry Zone where their banks become open and cultivated. They are exclusively fish-eaters and do all their hunting on the wing, flying up to a height of fifteen to twenty feet where they hang hovering motionless on rapidly beating wings, the tail spread and bent forward as a brake and the bill pointed vertically downwards while they scan the water for anything edible. If prey is seen the bird turns over and plunges vertically down on it. If not, after a few seconds it flies on to hover again in a different spot. They are early breeders, excavating a hole in January in some vertical clay bank on the riverside, three or four feet above water-level. It is not usually of great length, 12 to 18 inches being normal. The chamber is some nine inches in diameter and five or six eggs are laid. As with all kingfishers the nest becomes extremely foul before the young finally leave. Both chamber and tunnel are choked with a stinking litter of fish-bones, scales, and excreta, Swarming with maggots. The young only emerge when fully developed, and remain dependent on their parents for a couple of weeks. It is a delightful sight to see half a dozen youngsters sitting en a rock in mid-stream being fed industriously by the old birds. Alcedo atthis: The Indian Common Kingfisher. Found throughout Coorg wherever there is water along the stream- lets running down from the high hills, whether they run through open downs, thick forest, or paddy fields, and equally on the larger’ rivers both in the Wet and Dry Zones, and also on nearly every tank or cattle pond. They resemble their near relative the European King- fisher in habits, feeding on small fish and tadpoles which are caught 240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 by diving from a perch overhanging the water, though they occasionally hover like the Pied Kingfisher. The usual breeding season is in March/ April but I have found a nest in September so that there may be two broods. The tunnel, 3 or 4 feet long, is excavated in a vertical river bank, but I once found one in the wall of a dry well three feet below ground level and two hundred and fifty yards from the nearest water. Alcedo meninting: Beavan's Kingtisher. This species which closely resembles the last is distinguishable in the field by the lack of the white shoulder patches and the deeper blue of the upper parts. It is a rare bird. I have only once seen a pair on one of the main tributaries of the Cauvery where it flows through heavy bamboo forest. Though only a sight record the birds were tame and I was able to observe them carefully and am confident of the identification. Ramphalcyon capensis: The Brown-headed Stork-billed Kingfisher. Found wherever a suitable biotope occurs though never numerous, as each pair occupies a large territory. They are confined to the larger rivers where they flow through thick, wild forest, and will never be seen in open country. They are shy birds, spending much of their time perched in some thick tree overhanging the water. They are the possessors of portentous voices, bursting forth at intervals into a terrifying cacophony of wild, shrieking laughter, bobbing up and down on the perch, and flicking up the short tail till it almost touches the back. Breeding presumably takes place in the hot weather, but I have never succeeded in finding a nest or seen young, though the old birds are undoubtedly resident throughout the year. Halcyon smyrnensis: The White-breasted Kingfisher. The commonest kingfisher in Coorg, and unlike the others by no means confined to the waterside. They are most numerous in and about paddy fields, but one also finds them in cultivation or jungle clearings a long way from the nearest pond or stream. They ascend the hills to the limit of paddy cuitivation, and elsewhere are numerous in fairly open country throughout the Wet, Inter, and Dry Zones. They feed very largely on big insects, small lizards, and land-crabs, employing the typical kingfisher tactics of swooping down from a perch. They are also quite at home in-more normal surroundings along the rivers and as adept at fishing as the rest of the family. The call is a loud, piercing laugh. Breeding takes place in late March and April, the tunnels being excavated in vertical banks, sand-pits and roadside cuttings often far from water. The very first nest I found was in a hole left for drainage purposes in the masonry of a bridge, but they generally dig their own dwelling. The passage is often quite short, 18 inches or less. Four to six eggs are laid. Halcyon pileata: The Black-capped Kingfisher.. This is a coastal species, common on the brackish estuaries, back- waters and mangrove swamps of the Malabar Coast. Nevertheless, I have met it twice in Coorg; once on a small stream running through a coffee plantation at 3,000 ft., and once on the Cauvery some five THE BIRDS-OF COORG 241 miles away. In the former case I saw a solitary bird on one occasion only, in January. Two years later, possibly the same bird turned up in the same spot and remained for several months, in fact until the break of the monsoon. In size and build they resemble H. smyrnensis closely, but apart from the black head, may be distinguished in the field by the deep, purplish blue upper parts which in smyrnensis are a lighter shade tending to green. Dichoceros bicornis: The Indian Great Hornbill. Must almost certainly occur in the heavy rain forest of the western slopes of the Ghats, but I have not come across it. Hydrocissa coronata: Malabar Pied Hornbill. Found in the Wet Zone rain forest on the Ghat slopes running down to Malabar. Seen in small parties, but not at all common. Tockus birostris: Common Grey Hornbill. Common in the Dry Zone wherever there are large trees such as roadside avenues of banyans, and also found throughout the deciduous. forest belt. They are usually seen in small flocks of half a dozen individuals though I once saw one of at least fifty. They are noisy birds with a great variety of loud, weird calls. The only nest I have come across was in a hole in a big horizontal bough, 50 feet up in an enormous wild fig standing on the bund of a tank in the Dry Zone. This was in April, and one bird only was bringing food (fruit of some sort), so presumably this was the male feeding his sitting mate. Tockus griseus: The Malabar Grey Hornbill. Replaces the last species in the evergreen forest of the Wet Zone where they are fairly common from almost sea level up to 4,000 ft. Whey are ‘strictly forest birds, more. often heard than seen. Like the last species they live in small flocks and are equally noisy. I have not found a nest. Upupa epops: The Hoopoe. Permanently resident in the Dry Zone, and a common dry weather visitor to the more open parts of the rest of the province, arriving in September, remaining to breed in February/March, and only leaving in June at the onset of the monsoon. They are essentially ground feeders, running about actively on their short legs, picking up ants and small insects, and probing the cracks and crannies of the soil with their long, curved bills. In the Nilgiris they breed freely in holes in stone walls and buildings. In Coorg I have found them always to choose natural hollows in trees, especially clefts and splits in the trunks, the result of lightning blast or the breaking of a major limb. Where the entrance is a very narrow one, it often presents a pecked appearance the birds evidently enlarging it sufficiently to allow easy access, though considering their long, delicate bills, this work must be very difficult for them. Half a dozen greeny-white, rough- shelled eggs are Jaid. The hen apparently does all the incubation. The cock at this time roosts somewhere in the neighbourhood. In the case of a nest near my bungalow, he used to occupy a wide fork in _ 242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST? SOCIETY, Vol. 50 the trunk of a small tree some three hundred yards away, in which he squatted instead of perching on a twig in the manner of most arboreal birds. The eggs are laid on a pad of moss and hair, and soon become very stained as there is no attempt at sanitation, and when the young hatch the hole becomes extremely foul. The familiar double call from which the bird gets its trivial name is uttered with closed crest, swelling neck, and bil! pointed vertically downward. It has the effect of coming from a distance even when the caller is close at hand. During courtship or when alarmed or angry it has another call, a harsh, croaking scream. In the courtship display the crest is erected and the wings spread and fluttered to show off the black and white barring. I have seen copulation taking place even when incubation was well advanced which seems unusual, the cock calling the hen off the eggs for the purpose. Both birds take part in feeding the young, and work most industriously. They seem to give themselves a lot of unnecessary labour. In the case of the above-mentioned nest near my bungalow, they used to fly to a maidan at least a quarter of a mile away before starting to search though there were precisely similar and apparently equally fruitful feeding grounds much nearer at hand. Harpactes fasciatus: The Malabar Trogon. Scarce but widely distributed. They seem to be great wanderers, singletons or pairs turning up for a few days at a time almost any- where in the deciduous forests and coffee plantations in the Inter-Zone, or the Ghat sholas of the Wet Zone up to high levels. Although I cannot prove it, I suspect that the rain forests of the Malabar slope are their real home. They are sluggish birds, usually encountered in the interior of heavy forest, perching for long periods on a bough, and flying out occasionally to take an insect on the wing. The only note is a low croak seldom uttered. The long tail, square at the tip and the same width throughout its length, is a very distinctive feature. I have once found a nest. This was in March and it was in a big, natural hollow in a rotten branch stub, twenty feet up in a fig tree in a coffee plantation. The three eggs were laid on the decaying chips with no attempt at a lining. Micropus melba: The Alpine Swift. Colonies of these swifts live on most of the higher precipitous crags of the Ghats. While birds of such great wing power must cover enor- mous distances during the day, they appear to return to their home cliffs to roost, at any rate during the Dry Weather. In the monsoon the hilltops are wrapped in almost continuous fog and rain, and if is probable that they migrate as Salim Ali records of the Jog birds, but I have no idea where they go as I have never seen them in Coorg except on’ the ‘hills. They ‘breed im January in clefts;insthe faceyar cliffs, usually in some quite inaccessible position. The nest is a flimsy half saucer of feathers and straw cemented with saliva. One colony of my acquaintance builds within 6 feet of a Shahin Falcon’s eyrie, neither species taking the slightest notice of each other. In addition the neighbouring rocks are festooned with the combs of the big Rock FHE BIRDS OF. ‘COORG 243 Bee, but the swifts fly in and out among them without the least com- punction. Micropus afiinis: The Common Indian House-Switt. Locally common. Colcnies of varying size breed in large buildings in the chief towns, such as the Fort at Mercara, and the Kachcheri at Somwarpet. They also use the underside of big bridges and more rarely cliffs on the Ghats. Their breeding season seems to differ considerably according to locality. They nest in June and July under the arches of bridges over the Cauvery in the Dry Zone. This is during the rains which, however, are light in that area, and it is pro- bably the season of maximuin insect abundance. The large colony on Mercara Fort in the Wet Zone ouly starts operations in. September after the worst of the cold, wet monsoon weather is passeds — ‘Une nests are built of feathers, straw and any air-borne rubbish, cemented with saiiva, and are more or less hemispherical with a smal! entrance hole. But usually forty or fifty are glued together in one amorphous lump, so that it is impossible to tell their reai shape. Chaetura giganteus: The Brown-throated Spinetail. This grand swift is something of a mystery. They turn up re- gularly in the wake of the violent thunderstorms which mark the end of the Dry Season in April and May. Large numbers appear in open country, swooping low over the newly moistened ground, feeding on the swarms of awakening insect life. They fly at an immense speed, and as they sweep past their wing's make a noise like a sword cut. At other times of year they are rarely seen, though they probably breed in the Ghat forests. Unlike most swifts they, are silent birds. Indicapus sylvaticus: The White-rumped Spinetail. Quite a common species, but like the last puzzling in its distribution. They are seen in large flocks, most often along rivers but they may turn up anywhere.- They seem to have no fixed abode and J have never found them breeding. They are, however, mainly forest haunters and I have rarely met them in the Dry Zone. Collecalia fuciphaga: The Edible-nest Swiftlet. Not Common, but colonies exist on some of the higher and craggier hills of the Ghats. The only actual breeding site with which I am acquainted is beyond the Coorg border on the Kudere Mukh, the highest peak of the Mysore section of the Ghats. Here twenty or thirty pairs nest in the belfry of a ruined Jesuit chapel at over 7,000 ft. The nests are small, shallow half-saucers, largely composed of whitish, isinglass-like saliva with a plentiful admixture of green moss. The males and non-breeding members of the colony roost beside the sitting birds, clinging back dow nwards to the rafters on which the nests are glued. The above colony and the only other I have seen—in Ceylon— were both breeding in March. Two eggs are laid. ; Hemiprocne coronata: The Indian Crested Swift. A common species in the deciduous forest and the neighbouring parts of the Dry and Inter-Zones. They are birds of fairly iene open 3 244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 woodiand country. While strong on the wing they are not nearly such: wanderers as the true swifts, and remain in more or less the same area throughout the year except perhaps in very stormy weather. They perch freely on trees. Breeding takes place from late February until April. Three or four pairs usually nest within a few hundred yards of each other. ‘The nest is a minute half-saucer an inch and a half long: by an inch wide, just large enough to contain the single egg. It is composed of a grey, horny substance two or three millimetres thick, apparently a mixture of dried saliva and shreds of lichen. This is. glued to the side of a thin, bare bough in a treetop. It may be sixty feet up in a giant Bombax, but often a low scrubby tree not twenty feet high is chosen. The incubating bird perches on the bough in the nor-. mal manner, and covers the egg with her breast feathers. The only way of finding a nest is to watch until a bird is noticed continually re-- turning to a particular perch, as the nest is quite undetectable from below. The young are clad in grey down, and when not actually being fed remain posed in a state of rigid immobility, most excellently camou- tlaged as a broken lichen-grown stub. In this they resemble the young of Hemipus and Tephrodornis which breed in similarly exposed: positions and whose nests are almost though net quite so exiguous. Caprimulgus macrourus: The Long-tailed Nightjar. Occurs in the Inter-Zone, though J cannot speak for the other parts of the province. They may be distinguished from the other two Coorg nightjars by the darker plumage. They frequent downland and graz- ing grounds, spending the day roosting on the ground among the dead. leaves in some thicket. The only nest I have found was in just such a situation in. March. The sitting bird was so well camouflaged by her cryptic colouration that on returning to the nest a second time I stood within a yard without being able to see her, and until she flew off imagined that the eggs had been stolen. The two eggs are quite unlike the usual nightjar type. They are the normal shape, a regular oval equal at both ends. But in colouring they are a uniform. pale coffee with small black spots. They are laid on the bare ground. with no attempt at a nest. When returning after a disturbance, the bird would alight within a foot of the eggs and shuffle on to them. The young are clad in cinnamon down and almost from the moment of hatching are capable of crawling away and hiding under dead leaves,. if frightened. Caprimulgus indicus: The Jungle Nightjar. The commonest nightjar in Coorg, particularly in the deciduous. forest. They have a particular predilection for squatting on roads at night. Driving through the jungle after dark, one flushes dozens of them from the dusty surface, their eyes gleaming like rubies as they reflect back the headlights of the car. They breed in the open, in clearings in forest or on rocky outcrops. The nesting season is in, March and April. Two eggs are laid, sometimes in the shade of a bush, but often right in the open on some rocky slope fully exposed to. the blazing hot weather sun. THE, BIRDS OF -GOORG 245 Caprimulgus asiaticus: The Little Indian Nightjar. Very similar to the last species in habits, but confined to the Dry Zone where they abound in open scrub and cultivated country. They can be distinguished from the other Coorg species by their small size. They breed rather late in April and May, after the first showers. The eggs are laid usually on some stony outcrop, fully in the open. Caprimulgus monticolus: Franklin’s Nightjar. Never identified, but may well occur. Asio flammeus: The Short-eared Owl. A rare visitor. The only ones I have ever seen were the twenty or so referred to by Salim Ali in the Mysore Survey, at Hebbale in the Dry Zone in January. They were roosting on the ground at the foot of bushes at intervals of a few yards. I returned to the place on a number of occasions after Salim Ali’s visit, and the birds remained in the area for several weeks. Each retained its particular roosting spot where it could be flushed at any time through the daylight hours. Strix indranee: The Brown Wood-owl. This bird has been recorded from Coorg. I have not definitely identified it myself in the province, though it is a common bird in the Nilgiris. Ketupa ceylonensis: The Fish-owl. Found throughout the province, except in the Dry Zone, along streams and rivers and in the neighbourhood of swamps, prefe- rably in forest. They rarely stray far from water. In a well-shaded locality they are more diurnal in habit than most owls. They appear to feed largely on frogs and crabs. I have not found the nest, but suspect them of breeding in hollows and forks of the huge wild mangoes and other large trees which abound along the banks of the Coorg rivers. Bubo bubo: The Indian Great Horned Owl. A very large horned owl is widely distributed, but nowhere numerous in the province. I had always put it down as Huhua nipalensis, but, in view of the findings of the Mysore Survey, it is likely to be this species. They are commonest in the deciduous forest. They are strictly nocturnal, spending the day perched in some thick, creeper~ clad tree. When driving at night along a forest road, one occasionally sees them perched on a milestone or boulder by the _ roadside, presumably waiting to pounce on any rat or small mammal exposing itself on the public highway. Their call is a low, rumbling murmur. A pair used to frequent some large trees in my garden, and one could easily mistake their voices for those of two humans taiking in an undertone. Otus bakkamoena: The Scops Owl. Never actually identified, but a very small owl which can hardlv have been anything else used to visit my garden at night, and perch in a tree-top, uttering a double noted call for minutes together. 246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL FYSF VSOCIETY, ols es0 Athene brama: The Spotted Owlet. Very common indeed in the Mysore ‘maidan’. It occurs somewhat sparingly in the cultivated portions of the Coorg Dry Zone. Glaucidium radiatum: The Jungle Owlet. Fairly common in the deciduous forest, extending into the scrubby jungle on the edge of the Dry Zone. I have never seen it in ever- green country. The only nest I have found was in March, in a hole twenty feet up in a teak tree in light, open woodland. There were three eggs reposing on a musty smelling mass of pellets, largely composed of the fur and bones of mice. Both birds were in the hole so that it looks as if the male roosts beside his mate while incubation is going on. It is a comparatively diurnal bird, actively on the wing throughout the day except perhaps during the hottest hours. Ninox scutulata: The Hawk-Owl. Has been recorded, but I have never come across it myself. Sarcogyps calvus: The King Vulture. A regular resident, but never numerous. In the dozens of White- backs which gather round any dead bullock, one usually sees one or two birds of this species. They live up to their name and keep the others at a distance. I suspect them of breeding on some of the precipitous crags which rise up on the edge of the Dry Zone in the N.E. of the province, but I have never found an eyrie. Pseudogyps benghalensis: The White-backed Vulture. The common vulture of the province. At almost any time it is only necessary to scan the sky for a few moments to see one or more circling round at an immense altitude, and the carcase of any large animal left lying in the open attracts scores to the feast Ihe 2 Meny. short time. They squabble and fight over the carrion, braying like donkeys, and gorging themselves until almost too bloated to, ily. I have not, however, been able to find any breeding colony in Coorg though there may be one somewhere on the forested cliffs of the Ghats. Gyps fulvus: The Indian Griffon. Gyps indicus: The Long-billed Vulture. Neither positively identified, but they probably occur as J have met them in the Nilgiris, and Salim Ali records them from Jog in the Mysore 'Ghats.* Neophron pércnopterus: The White Scavenger Vulture. While numerically not so abundant as the White-backed Vulture, this is a much more familiar bird. The White-backs when not feeding spend their whole time soaring high in the sky, while the Neophron, 2 See Correction on p. 236 of Vol. 45 of the Journal. The birds from Mysore were evidently all indicus. The record of fulvus was due to mistaken identifica- tion. "EDS: Journ. BomBay NAT. HIsT. Soc. PLATE Egyptian Vulture. Photos Author Shahin Falcon. BoMBAY NAT. HIstT. Soc. Stone Plover. Autho 7 II PHE BIRDS OF COORG 247 though a magnificent flier, passes much more of its life on the ground. They are unable to get a look in at the bigger banquets attended by their larger relatives, and have to work to obtain a living on the filth and scraps round villages, a large part of their food being human excre- ment. The towns and larger villages each support a number of pairs. I have been well acquainted for five or six years with one pair whose foraging ground is the little town of Somwarpet in N. Coorg. They bred annually on the rocky crag of Alikutty, 3 miles away, using a ledge on a cliff fifty feet high. The nest consists of a few filthy rags by way of a lining with bits of stick, bones and lumps of dung scattered round as decoration. In five consecutive years, one egg was. laid on three occasions and two twice, but never more than one chick was hatched. The incubation period is a long one. The egg is laid in early February and the young bird does not leave the nest until the end of April. The sitting bird seems to be much troubled by parasites as is hardly surprising, and is continually pecking and scratching various parts of its anatomy. The young bird is fed at long intervals by either parent on scraps of carrion and other doubtful delicacies. Although such a dirty feeder it has some idea of sanitation, and at a very early age learns to scramble to the edge of the nest and void its droppings over the side. Falco peregrinus [peregrinator Sundevall]: The Shahin Falcon. Nearly every one of the higher, rock-crowned peaks along the line of the Ghats has its pair of these magnificent falcons, as well as several of the lesser hills along the ridge bounding the province on the N.E. Each pair seems based permanently on its particular strong- hold though ranging over a wide area when hunting. The eyries are usually built on a ledge on some totally inaccessible precipice. The only one I know which is at all easily approachable is half way down a cliff some 150 ft. high on the Alikutty Rock referred to in my account of the Neophron, but half a mile away from the nest of the latter, at ithe other end of the crag. It is on a broad grassy ledge ten feet long by six at its widest, overhung by a jutting nose of rock. It is. not hard to reach with the aid of a rope, but is well protected by swarms of the fierce Rock Bees whose combs hang from the rock- snout above. It was only when one year these had been smoked out by the Kurumbas, a local jungle tribe who are ardent honey-hunters, that I was able to get down. I found three eggs laid in a scrape in the grass with no attempt at a nest, on 15th February. On reaching the ledge it was found that I could not be pulled up again owing to the overhang, and I was marooned there for several hours while another rope was brought to allow me to go on down to the bottom of the cliff. Though I was sitting not a couple of yards from the eggs, the falcon returned within a quarter of an hour and brooded fearlessly, allowing me to move and take photographs. She was so close that I could hear her panting in the heat as she sat with open beak. At intervals she rose and stood over the eggs, shading them with half- spread wings. I never saw any prey being brought in, but judging by remains at the cliff foot, parakeets from a considerable portion of the food. The fledging period is prolonged and the eyasses are not on the wing until well into April. During the incubation period, the tiercel when not hunting kept watch from a neighbouring pinnacle, 248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST SOCKET YE Violzeo0 Falco tinnunculus (objurgatus ?): The Indian Kestrel. A resident subspecies of kestrel is found on the higher hills of the Ghats breeding in holes or ledges of the cliffs, usually in very inacces- sible positions. I have never found an eyrie which could be reached without ropes and much labour. They breed early in the year. They are commonly to be seen hunting mice and beetles on the grassy downs of the Ghat summits, hovering in the usual kestrel manner. Falco tinnunculus (tinnunculus ¢): The European Kestrel. A kestrel apparently rather larger and lighter in colour than the last is a widely distributed and fairly numerous winter migrant through- out the more open parts of Coorg. Hieraetus fasciatus: Bonelli’s Eagle. I have seen this eagle on several occasions, usually soaring high overhead in the Ghat country. On one occasion I obtained a close view of one feeding on the ground on a crow-pheasant which it had caught on the edge of a hill shola. Hieraétus pennatus: Booted Eagle. Has been recorded from Coorg. Probably a scarce winter visitor. Lophotriorchis kieneri: The Rufous-bellied Hawk-Eagle. I have seen this bird on two or three occasions in light woodland country both in the deciduous forest and the Inter-Zone, usually not far from water. Its small size and rich colouration render its identi- fication easier than that of most of the larger birds of prey. Ictinaétus malayensis: The Black Eagle. A wide ranging species which turns up all over the province except in the Dry Zone. They are most often seen in the Ghat forests which I suspect are their breeding grounds. They are wonderful fliers. Their usual method of hunting is to float lightly as a butterfly on motionless wings within a foot or two of the forest canopy, or even lower among the boles and branches of the trees, avoiding obstacles in the most uncanny way, despite the great wing spread of five feet or more. They are silent birds except in the breeding season when courting couples swoop and wheel round each other in play with shrill velping cries. Spizaétus cirrhatus : The Crested Hawk-Eagle. Spizaétus nipalensis: Hodson’s Hawk-Eagle. One or other, or both, of these eagles are regular residents in small numbers throughout the hillier and more well wooded parts of the province, but lacking specimens I have not identified them definitely. Spilornis cheela: The Crested Serpent Eagle. The common eagle of the province, found throughout the Ghats, the Inter-Zone, and the moister parts of the deciduous forest iin well wooded, well watered country. Though a magnificent flier, and during the breeding season especially given to spending hours together soaring in circles, uttering its wild, whistling scream, it is on the whole EEES BIRDS OF COORG, 249 more sluggish than many of the family, and passes most of its day perched on a prominent bough on the edge of some swampy forest clearing or jungle waterhole, ready to pounce on frogs and small snakes which form its usual food. I have never found an eyrie, but suspect it of breeding deep in the interior of thick forest. Ichthyophaga ichthyaétus: The Large Grey F ishing-eagle. Occurs along all the larger rivers of the province. They are not very active birds, and though fine fliers seldom spend long periods soaring high in the air apparently purely for recreation as do. so many eagles. ‘They confine themselves strictly to the waterside, and will seldom be seen more than a very short distance from some river or tank. They feed almost exclusively on fish, which they catch by swooping from the wing, or more often from a perch on a bough overhanging the water. Fish up to several pounds in weight are captured. The eyrie is a huge pile of sticks in a tall tree by the waterside. It is used for years in succession, being gradually added to until it reaches an immense size. Each pair seems to maintain two or three eyries within a mile or two of each other which are used more or less alternately. The breeding season begins in December at which time the birds are very vocal. Their cry is a weird, very loud, clanging succession of screams. Butastur teesa: The White-eyed Buzzard. Very rare in Coorg, and confined to the Dry Zone where I have once seen one near Hebbale. Haliastur indus : The Brahminy Kite. Found all along the larger rivers, particularly common in the Dry Zone, and somewhat less numerous on their upper courses through the deciduous forest and the Inter-Zone. Odd pairs, however, adopt the habits of Miluvus migrans, and become parasitic on man, making a living by scavenging round towns and nallbeaes far from any large body of water. The jungle-dwelling birds ied largely on fish, frogs and crabs which they catch for themselves. They breed in February, making a substantial stick nest a couple of feet in diameter in some big mango or other evergreen tree at the waterside. Two eggs form the normal clutch. Milvus migrans: The Pariah Kite. Common round all the larger villages and towns, though their numbers are small compared with the myriads which haunt the plains villages in Mysore. As everywhere they are cowardly, scavenging birds, though wonderful fliers, and are a great pest to the poultry keeper, levying a heavy toll on young Grictens and ducklings. Thev are very cunning, being well aware of the danger of a gun, and biding their time to pale a sudden swoop when no one is een bey breed in March and April, building a large stick nest usually high up in a tall, isolated tree, but sometimes quite low down. There is usually no nine but sometimes leafy twigs or scraps of cloth are added. ) 250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST... SOCIETY, Val. 56 Elanus caeruleus: The Black-winged Kite. This graceful little kite is a regular winter migrant in smalt numbers. They are usually seen in open country such as the cultivated parts of the Dry Zone and the grass downs of the Ghats, byt I have also found them in teak clearings and young plantations in the heart of the deciduous forest. They resembie the kestrel in their hunting habits, hovering on the wing, and swooping down on grasshoppers and field mice, Circus macrourus: The Pale Harrier. The harriers, except for males in full plumage, are difficult to dis- tinguish in the field and I hesitate to be dogmatic about them. The present species does undoubtedly occur, but I cannot say how common- ly as the old males which can be definitely identified are almost certainly greatly in the minority as compared with females and im- mature birds. Circus aeruginosus: The Marsh Harrier. This appears to be the most numerous species and is a common winter visitor all over the province, found everywhere except in forest country. They favour paddy fields especially, and swampy ground, where they feed on frogs. They do attack larger prey, however, and are a nuisance at duck shoots, making off with wounded birds often almost as big as themselves. That they will attack unwounded water- fowl seems unlikely as their presence is usually disregarded and does not cause the consternation evident when a Shahin Falcon or a Goshawk puts in an appearance at a tank. Astur badius: The Shikra. A regular and widespread resident, but in surprisingly small numbers compared to those in which it occurs in the Nilgiris in similar biotope. They are found equally in the Dry Zone and the Inter-Zone in fairly open but well wooded cultivated country. They feed largely on lizards, but also on small birds who regard them as deadly foes, and flee with shrieks of fear at their approach, or gather in indignant flocks to mob them. The only nest I have found was thirty feet up in a sapling in the deciduous forest, and was a small platform of, stucks.,; “There were three eggs in early April. Astur trivirgatus : The Crested Goshawk. Somewhat uncommon, occurring chiefly in forest in the Wet and Inter-Zones. Its method of hunting is to perch unobtrusively in a leafy tree and thence pounce out on some unsuspecting bird in ore swift dash, pursuing relentlessly until it captures its prey or the latter escapes by going to ground in a thicket. The only nest I have found was in the Niteiric in March. It was in a creeper-grown tree in the heart of an evergreen shola, at a height of thirty feet, and was a rough platform of dry sticks a foot wide, lined with green leaves, on which lay a single egg in an early stage of incubation. The sitting bird flew off silently and, though remaining in the neighbourhood, made no sound or demonstration. LEE BIRDS. OF COORG LO wr la Accipiter virgatus : The Besra Sparrowhawk. Fairly Common in the Inter-Zone and the deciduous forest. I have not seen it.in Wet Zone evergreen forest, though it may occur there. It is a woodland species and the deadly foe of all small birds who realise this all too well and lose no opportunity of mobbing it if this can be done with safety. I have seen one capture a parakeet as big as itself, and watched another make an unsuccessiul attempt on a three-toed Woodpecker. The latter gained a defensive position on a tree limb, and there ensconced and pointing its formidable bill to the enemy, drove off several attacks until the hawk gave up and retired in disgust. Pernis ptilorhynchus : The Crested Honey-Buzzard. I believe I have seen this bird in the Wet Zone in a Ghat shola, but it requires confirmation. It certainly should occur as it is fairly numerous on the Nilgiris in this sort of biotope, and Salim Ali encountered it in’ Mysore. Baza jerdoni: Legge’s Baza. An uncommon resident through the Inter-Zone and the eastern slopes of the Ghats where sholas and downland intermingle. Thougii I: have not found a nest, it undoubtedly breeds as I have repeatedly seen pairs accompanied by juveniles which are easily distinguishable by their very pale colouration.’ The species is chiefly notable for its remarkable courtship flight. The pair soar round each other in circles Mem tn tine vain. Onevon them. then. towers vertically ‘for ‘twenty .or thirty feet, and, turning completely over, dives headforemost to its former level. Throughout the performance it utters a series of excited screams—‘kip, kip, kip’. The demonstration may be carried out three or four times in a quarter of an hour. I have seen one with a captured lizard, and imagine that these and small mammals are their chief prey as they are slow on the wing and hardly seem sufficiently active to catch birds. . Crocopus phoenicopterus : The Southern Green Pigeon. Not uncommon in the Dry Zone where it breeds. They wander up occasionally inte the deciduous forest, and even the Inter-Zone when some particularly favourite fruit is in season there. They are entirely fruit-eaters living principally on banyan and other wild figs. A nest found in April was twenty feet up in an open thorny tree on the edge of a clearing in deciduous forest. It was an extremely flimsy and fragile platform of thin twigs insecurely balanced on the crossing point of two branches. There were two eggs. Dendrophasa pompadora : The Grey-fronted Green Pigeon. A common bird throughout the Inter-Zone and in the evergreen forest of the Ghats up to 4,500 ft. They are much more numerous than is generally realised as they are so wonderfully camouflaged. It is usually their sweet mellow, whistle which gives away their presence. Any large fig tree is certain to be visited when the fruit is ripe especially ‘Gonis’ and ‘Basris’. Such a tree is sure to be alive with barbets, quarrelling and clambering among the outer branches. They are conspicuous enough, but there may be twenty or thirty pigeons in 252 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NAT RATE Fil Ses OnE Diveen Viole the tree whose presence will be quite unsuspected as they keep hidden among the leaves on the highest branches. Even if one knows they are there, one visiMucky ai Aer a prolonged search with binoculars one can pick out one or two. I have not found a nest. Ducula badia: Jerdon’s Imperial Pigeon. Strictly a Wet Zone species confined to the evergreen forests of the Ghats and extending up to the highest sholas. They are hard to shoot or even catch sta of, as they rarely emerge from the tree- tops except when flighting from one feeding ground to another. At these times they fly very high and strongly with slow, purposeful wingbeats. They are undoubtedly more numerous than one realises as one constantly hears their deep, moaning croon in the depths of the sombre forest. I have not found them breeding in Coorg, but on the Kudere Mukh in Mysore they were numerous in the sholas at 7,000 {t. in January, and evidently about to breed as courtship was in full swing. The courtship is of the typical pigeon type, in which the male advances along a bough towards his mate with bowed head and inflated throat cooing vigorously.! Chalcophaps indica: The Bronze-winged Dove. Another Wet Zone species, though found in small numbers throughout the Inter-Zone and occasionally in the deciduous forest. Their real home, however, is the heavy rain forest on the Malabar slope from plains level up to 4,500 ft. Here they are extremely numerous, and may be seen in numbers on roads running through the jungle especially round cart-stands where they pick up the fallen grain. At other times one usually meets them flying low and swiftly beneath They. are ground feeders. The call is a the canopy of the forest. I have not found the nest, though low, deep moan of several notes. they undoubtedly breed in Coorg. Columba elphinstonii: The Nigiri Woodpigeon. Has been recorded from the Brahmagiris in the extreme south of Coorg. Although I have never personally seen it in the province it _ probably occurs sparcely all along the Coorg Ghats as Salim Ali found it both in the Billigiris to the south and the “Bababudans to the north. Streptopelia orientalis: The Rufous Turtle Dove. Occurs in varying numbers as a winter migrant only. They are only to be found in the deciduous forest where there is plenty of bamboo, and mainly in the neighbourhood of rivers and the larger streams. In 1933, when large areas of bamboo flowered, they were particularly numerous and were feeding exclusively on the bamboo seed. They are very shy and difficult to shoot, and are generally in pairs, but occasionally in small parties. Their rufuous colouration serves to distinguish them in the field from the Spotted Dove. ———aeee * For an account of the aerial display see Sdlim Ali, ].B.N.H.S., 39:-338. itie BLEEDS: Ok .COORG 253 Streptopelia chinensis : The Spotted Dove. Extremely common all over the province in all types of country except heavy evergreen forest and the windswept downs of the Ghats. They are entirely ground feeders like the rest of the genus, and live on grain and various wild seeds. One which I shot had its crop stuffed with the seeds of the Sensitive Plant (Mimosa pudica). They breed anywhere, often in the most ridiculously conspicuous situations such as a low, open thorn bush, within a yard of the ground and seldom at a height of over twenty feet. Nesting goes on throughout the year. Streptopelia senegalensis: The Little Brown Dove. Found only in the driest part of the Dry Zone, where it is common in cultivated country and light scrub jungle. It much resembles the last species in habits. They breed in some low thorn bush or skimpy hedge within a few feet of the ground. The breeding season is quite indefinite though most nests will be found after the first showers in April. Although built in such open situations, the nests are such flimsy little platforms of twigs and the incubating bird sits so closely that they are not conspicuous. Streptopelia decaocto: The Indian Ring Dove. Found only in the Dry Zone, but not so numerous as the last species. It is rather more a bird of the jungle, and will be found more commonly in the scrub-grown wastelands than in cultivation. Its call is a-very distinctive one. One note at_a distance sounds very much like a herd boy calling his cattle. The only nest I have found was in early March, well hidden in the interior of a small, leafy tree in thick scrub at about ten feet from the ground. It was the usual flimsy construction of sticks, and there were two eggs. Pavo cristatus: The Peafowl. Rather surprisingly the Peafowl is found throughout the deciduous forest belt often in quite thick woodland, though they prefer the neighbourhood of rivers where there are stretches of open maidan and big clearings. They do not, however, venture beyond the forest belt into the Inter-Zone. They are most at home in the scrub jungle of the Dry Zone where they are definitely common. They are extremely shy however, and though their caterwauling may be heard on anv morning at sunrise, it takes very careful stalking to get a view. The way in which such large and highly coloured birds can hide them- selves is amazing. They are usually seen in small flocks of six or seven, but one not infrequently comes on cocks by themselves. They emerge into the open to feed in the early mornings and evenings and spend the heat of the day resting in the heart of some impenetrable Lantana thicket. Unless flushed with dogs it is very hard to get them to fly, but when they do, even an old cock with his long, heavy train will rocket straight up out of the bushes and rise thirty or forty feet almost vertically to clear the treetops. They apparently breed in the monsoon, probably about June, as though I have not found a nest, [ have on a number of occasions seen families of young the size of domestic fowls in August. ee 254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SO GLE T Ve Vor aod Gallus sonnerati: The Grey Junglefowl. Despite constant persecution by gun and snare, the Grey Jungle- fowl is found in some numbers all over the province in forest land. They exist even in the heart of the Wet Zone evergreen forest, a habitat shunned by many other almost ubiquitous species. ‘Ehey - ascend the Ghats to the highest sholas, and also frequent the thin, scrub jungle of the Dry Zone wastelands. They are commonest of all in the deciduous forest, and in the Reserves, where the Forest Department can exercise some control over shooting and trapping, are really numerous. In the dry weather, from January to April in this region, the crowing of the cocks may be heard on every side. They are to some extent migratory on particular occasions. The flowering of the Strobilanthes undergrowth in the Ghat sholas which occurs every seven years or so, attracts very large numbers to the hills, and the same applies when the bamboos flower in the deciduous belt. The breeding season varies somewhat with the locality, from January to March in the Wet Zone, and later, in April and May in the Dry Zone where they wait for the first showers to put an end to the forest fires and start a growth of vegetation. The. nest~may be anywhere on the ground, usually under a bush. The clutches are small, two or three eggs oniy. The cocks appear to be polygamous and take no interest in the rearing of the brood. Galioperdix spadicea : The Red Spurfowl. While very like the junglefowl in range and habits, this ‘species is even more widely distributed, as it is by no means confined to uninhabited country, but is numerous in coffee plantations, and any patch of Lantana or woodland of any size even close to villages. Despite this they are shy birds, scuttling away into the undergrowth if disturbed, and very “seldom seen “in the jopen) exceptwatteiedue paddy harvest when numbers may be seen of an evening in any field bordering on forest. When flushed by a dog, they fly up into the trees, and, crouching motionless on a lofty bough, are very difficul: to pick out. The junglefowl has the same habit.. Unlike the jungle- cock, the male spurfowl leads an exemplary married life. He lives with his single wife throughout the year and is a devoted father, though { do not know whether he shares in incubation. If one disturbs a brood of young chicks, both parents become quite distracted and try to draw off one’s attention by floundering about as though in extremis, while the young freeze among the dead leaves where their cryptic colouring makes them almost invisible. Breeding takes place early in the year, from late February till April. No nest is made, the eggs being laid in a scrape usually on sloping ground among a drift of dead leaves under a bush. The hen is timid and deserts easily. The normal clutch is two eggs only. The call is a long loud, bubbling rattle. Excalfactoria chinensis : The Blue-breasted Quail. I once flushed a very small, very dark quail in long grass on the edge of a paddy field. I failed to shoot it, but it was undoubtedly a new species to me, and would seem likely to have been this bird. THE BIRDS OF COORG 255 Cryptoplectron erythrorhynchum : The Painted Bush-Quail. Conimon throughout the Wet Zone wherever there are considerable stretches of long grass on the borders of paddy fieids, especially thosc avandoned or fallowed. It is also found on the grass downs of the Ghausee vite does notvoccupminethe Dry Zone or far into _the deciduous forest. The birds live in bevies of considerable size, a dozen or mor2 individuals. have never found the nest in Coorg, but in the Nilgiris one that I came on in September was a small pad of grass in a patcis of long grass on the edge of a shola. The young had hatched, leaving one addled egg, unmarked and whitish in colour. The normal breeding season is evidently in August and September, after the worst of the rains are over, and the grass has attained a good height. The cock at this time becomes very vocal, constantly reiterating his sweet doubie eall-note. Phe elutches must. be large as one’'sees up’ to ten or more young with their parents, who are both most devoted. The chicks can fly at a verv early age, even when they are still down-clad mites scarcely bigger than bumble-bees. Perdicula asiatica: Phe Jungle Bush-Quail. _ Replaces the last species in the Dry Zone where it is very common both in the scrub and in cultivation. They are found in considerable bevies, not quite so large as those of the last species, but from six to ten is a normal number. In the dry season they keep mainly to the scrub, but as soon as the young corn begins to give cover in the ‘ragi’ fields in June, they flock thither, and though I have not found a nest I suspect that this is where they breed. Eggs must be laid in early July as the young are well grown by the time the ‘ragi’ is reaped in August. Francolinus pondicerianus : The Grey Partridge. Occurs in considerable numbers in the open cultivated area of the Dry Zone, and the patches of wasteland grown with thin scrub which occur therein. Though shy, one comes on them quite close to villages and they are said to be very dirty feeders, though I cannot confirm this. They pair in January and early February at which time the cocks become very vocal and pugnacious. In fact partridge fighting is a favourite pastime of the local inhabitants, and numbers of birds are snared for the purpose. Breeding appears to start with the first rains in May or June, and the five or six young remain in the covey until the following pairing season. Turnix suscitator: The Common Bustard Quail. Occurs in the Dry Zone, though by no means common. I have seen one solitary bird shot there. Rallus eurizonoides : The Spotted Crake. The only occasion on which I have met this species was on a hill- side in the deciduous forest in thick bamboo jungle, a long way frorn water. I was in hiding by a game trail when a family party came by, and passed unsuspectingly within a few feet. It was a charming spectacle. One parent led the way, the picture of caution and alertness, peering this way and that as it picked its way along, constantly jerking 256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY," Vol 50 its tail to display the bright rufous under-tail coverts. Behind, twa little chicks, clad in black down, stumbled through the dead leaves while their other parent followed behind shepherding them alone if they showed signs of dawdling. This was in September. ; Amaurornis fuscus : The Ruddy Crake. A water-loving species which I have never seen except on the borders of flooded paddy fields or round tanks. Common round the - big tanks in the Mysore maidan where there are reedy margins. The only record I have for Coorg is one flushed in a bed of bulrushes growing in a small tank in the Dry Zone. They swim freely and even dive when wounded, if chased. ; Amaurornis phoenicurus : The White-breasted Waterhen. Common throughout the province in paddy fields and in the neigh- bourhood of any permanent standing water such as the ponds which are maintained by every coffee estate to supply water for washing and pulping the crop. Though perfectly capable of swimming, they do not do so unless it cannot be avoided, and seek their food on the marshy margins, never very far from some thicket or clump of bushes into which they scuttle for cover on any alarm. They perch freely, clambering up the trees to a considerable height. I have not found a nest, but it would appear that they breed during the monsoon as I have seen a pair in attendance on a couple of downy young in late July. Though normally silent, they give vent at times to the most appalling catcalls of astonishing volume. Gallinula chloropus : The Indian Moorhen. The only place in Coorg where I have seen this bird is Halagote Tank, where it is a breeding resident except when, as happened in 38/39, a succession of short monsoons caused the water almost to dry up and killed the reeds. Two or three pairs ordinarily nest there and remain throughout the year, but their numbers are greatly augmented in the winter by migrants. I have seen as many as fifty or sixty in December. They are indistinguishable in the field from the British bird. Nests which I have found have been substantial floating masses of bulrush leaves anchored to a reedstem, and built up seven or eight inches from the water with a deep, well-formed cup on top. Five or six eggs are laid in July, by which time the tank is or should be full and the reedbeds providing plenty of cover. Fulica atra: The Coot. A winter migrant, visiting Halagote Tank in varying numbers. Porphyrio poliocephalus : The Purple Coot. A dozen or so of these birds normally inhabit Halagote Tank more or less permanently, though they were absent in the drought years of ’38/’39. Their status is somewhat puzzling as though one or two are to be seen even in July which is presumably their breeding season, I never succeeded in finding a nest nor saw young birds. It would appear that they go elsewhere to nest and that those that remain are non-breeding specimens. Though entirely water birds and rarely Tit BIRDS Of COORG 257 seen on land, they avoid open water and do not swim if they can help it. Their whole life is spent clambering about in the reedheds or wading on the matted beds of floating waterweed. They are noisy, ili-tempered birds with loud, harsh voices, and are continually quarrel- ling and chasing each other about. Metopidius indicus : The Bronze-winged Jacana. In normally wet years this species occurs in numbers on Halagote Tank, but as with the last its status is uncertain, since though I visited the tank in all months of the year and have nearly always found them present, I have never been able to find a sign of eggs or young. They resemble the Purple Coots in habits, but are much more active, run- ning rapidly over the floating weeds and taking wing freely, though in the air they look extremely clumsy with their legs trailing awkwardiy behind them. They are extremely noisy birds with a variety otf trumpeting and braying calls. Rostratula benghalensis : The Painted Snipe. Common in the Mysore ‘maidan’ round tanks with extensive ‘reed- beds. In Coorg they are scarce though one occasionally comes on an odd bird while out snipe shooting. Their favourite haunts are the thick patches of Pandanus which are found at the head of most stretches of paddy land in the Inter-Zone. Where there is one bird, there are likely to be five or six. They sit very closely, and when fiushed rise singly and silently and never fly far. They probably breed in the province, though I have not found a nest. Burhinus oedicnemus : The Stone-curlew. Occurs in the Dry Zone, and is also thinly distributed through the deciduous forest and the Inter-Zone wherever there are patches of downland or jungle clearings, of considerable size, where the grass is kept short by grazing and which include patches of scrub for cover They are shy birds, largely nocturnal in habit. Throughout the day- time they lurk in the shelter of a bush, but at night are active on the wing, and their wild cries can often be heard as they pass overhead in the darkness from one feeding ground to another. They are on the whole sedentary, each pair living through the greater part of the year in their breeding territory. Eggs are laid in February. The clutch is two and there is no attempt at a nest or even a scrape. They are deposited among dead leaves under some small isolated tree. Although usually laid in the open, there is always some thick cover close at hand into which the bird can slink on the slightest alarm, with the result that it is extremely hard to discover her secret. I] have not been able to detect whether the male shares in the incubation, but he is never far away and keeps a constant watch for enemies. Esacus recur virostris : The Great Stone Plover. A bird of the lower reaches of the larger Indian rivers. In Coorg two or three pairs only may be found within the provincial boundary, on the Cauvery where it flows through the open cultivation of the Dry Zone. They are to be found in stretches where the river widens and runs among boulders and bare, rocky islets. Although like other 258 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY “NATURAL SEIST!* SOCIETY, “Vole 0 Stone Plovers they are really nocturnal birds, feeding and becoming active at night, they are by no means shade lovers and spend the day drowsing in the full glare of the sun om some baking rock. They breed in February, and the two eggs are usually laid on a patch of sand or gravel within a foot or two of the water on a ledge of a slab or rock i mid-stream. The same site-is used year, alter year. — Une beds are not shy, brooding unconcernedly while bathing, watering of cattle, and all the activities of Indian village life go on along the shore a few yards away. Incubation throughout the day at any rate is of necessity very close as the nesting site becomes so hot that were the eggs ieit uncovered for more than a few minutes at a time, they would certainly be cooked. I cannot say whether both birds share in brooding, but it seems likely as the strain in such heat must be severe. They feed chiefly on crabs, and possibly frogs and tadpoles, their strong recurved bills being admirably adapted for prying under stones of some size. The cry is a loud creaking note, not at all like the ‘curlew’ call of the common Stone Curlew. Sterna aurantia : The Indian River Tern. A few pairs are to be found in the same locality as the last species, that 1s along the Cauvery in its lower and more open reaches where it runs through the Dry Zone on the Mysore border. Each pair occupies a long stretch of water, and they strongly resent trespassing on the part of others of their own species, birds of prey, and any unusual humans or animals, especially in the breeding season. - They swoop round the intruders, screaming angrily. They are exclusively fish- eaters, catching their prey in the normal tern manner by plungiug from the wing, very rarely settling on the water or swimming. Breeding goes on from March to May. The eggs are laid without any sort of nest in a hollow of a rock in mid-stream and number two or three. The young when hatched are clad in grey down and can hide themselves in an amazing manner simply by squatting motionless fully in the open on their home rock. They are fed by both parents till they are well on the wing. Sterna melanogaster: The Black-bellied Tern. I have seen birds of this species occasionally along the Cauvery in the same-area as the last, but they are by no means so common and I have not found them breeding. ‘Charadrius dubius : The Little Ringed Plover. A few of these little plovers may occasionally be seen along the lower reaches of the Cauvery in the Dry Zone and I have seen one or two on the shores of Halagote Tank. All my records have been in March, and I am uncertain whether they are likely to be the resident ‘or the migratory race. I have not found signs of breeding. They thhaunt sandbanks and sandy stretches along the shore, but occasionaily may be found on bare fallows or ‘maidans’ some way inland. Lobivanellus indicus : The Red-wattled Lapwing. Extremely common all along the larger rivers both in their forest reaches and the open country lower down, but especially in the latter. THE BIRDS OF COORG 259 They are essentially waterside birds, and though one occasionally sees them on ‘maidans’ and forest clearings in the deciduous forest and the Inter-Zone some way from the river, they are only temporary visitors in these places. They spend the day standing about, drowsing on rocks in the stream, and only become active in the evening and during the night, especially when there is a moon, at which times their calls may be heard overhead in places where they are never scen normally. The breeding season is in February and March. Oddly enough in my experience though an occasional nest may be found on an islet in the river, the great majority leave the waterside at this time and go inland for up to a mile to some secluded clearing in the jungle or a ploughed field, if in cultivated country, The four eggs are laid in a scrape in the ground, sometimes with a slight lining of small pebbles or bits of dried cowdung. Until the eggs hatch, the birds are very secretive. On an alarm, the sitting bird slips off the nest and runs to a safe distance and then both she and the male fly right away in silence. After hatching however their tactics change completely. Any intruder is greeted with shrieks of abuse, the old birds flapping and swooping round his head, or flopping frenziedly along the ground as though seriously wounded. Lobipluvia malabarica : The Yellow-wattled Lapwing. I have only come on this bird at one spot in Coorg, the Belur Golf- course near Somwarpet, some 200 acres of downland lying on the borders of the deciduous forest. Here two pairs lived for five years between °35 and ’40 when I left the district. They appeared annually about Christmas and stayed until the break of the monsoon. ‘They attempted to breed the first two years, but only managed to raise one brood out of four and in subsequent years do not appear to have nested though I kept a constant watch on them. The clutch was four. All four nests were within a few yards of the same spot, fully exposed on short grass in the middle of the fairway, and they were not incon- spicuous, being quite substantially lined with bits of grass and dried cowdung. The first year, however, when they raised a brood, the eggs were of the normal colour and blended well with the surroundings. In subsequent years the male must have got a new mate, as the eggs were of a bright erythristic type, contrasting vividly with the olive green turf, and they were taken almost as soon as laid. It is of interest to note that Belur is only some sixty miles from the red laterite plains of the Malabar coastal belt where apparently this species regularly lays erythristic eggs which match well with the surrounding soil. All nests I have seen were in March. These lapwings are quiet birds compared with the last species and do not require the close proximity of water. Himantopus himantopus: The Black-winged Stilt. I saw three birds, my only record, at Halagote Tank on 9-1-39, a dry year when the tank was reduced to a mere puddle of muddy water in which the birds were wading thigh deep. One comes on them quite frequently on the big tanks in Mysore. 4 260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Tringa ochropus : The Green Sandpiper. A common winter visitor both in the Dry and Inter-Zones. They are to be found wherever there is water and open country on the shores of tanks, paddy fields, and along streams, usually singly. They arrive in September and leave late, some lingering till May. Actitis hypoleucos : The Common Sandpiper. The earliest winter migrant to Coorg, arriving before the end ol August. It is entirely a waterside species, found on all the larger rivers both in their forest reaches and lower down in open country, but nowhere in large numbers. Usually a pair is the most that will be seen together. They also appear on the shores of Halagote Tank and the big Mysore tanks. Tringa glareola: The Wood Sandpiper. A waterside species found in large numbers in winter on the shores of all the big Mysore tanks. In Coorg, Halagote Tank is the only place where I have seen them, especiaily in dry years when large stretches of open mud are exposed. Unlike the Green Sandpiper, they do not like reeds or swamps grown with long grass, and they are much more sociable than that species. Scolopax rusticola : The Woodcock. Probably occurs regularly in small numbers as a winter migrant, haunting the cardamom plantations and evergreen sholas on the eastern slopes of the Ghats above 4,000 ft., as it is well known in Mysore in such country. The only one, however, that I have actually seen in Coorg was a stray on the banks of a stream running through coffee near Somwarpet at 3,500 ft. In Mysore they are very conser- vative in their habits. On an estate near Chikmagalur with which I am acquainted, half a dozen or so are to be found every year in one particular small ravine and nowhere else. Capella gallinago: ‘The Fantail Snipe. Recorded from Coorg, but nowhere numerous. It is much commoner in Mysore round reed-grown tanks in the ‘maidan’. : Capella stenura : the Pintail Snipe. , The common snipe of the province found in considerable numbers in winter, varying according to the water available. They occur wherever there is suitable feeding ground, in the shape of swampy, fallow paddy fields. They like the soil to be soggy but without actual standing water, and the grass must not be more than three inches long. Strangely enough they will rarely be found in flooded standing paddy, a favourite haunt on the Malabar Coast. They feed mostly in the morning and evening, and very often spend the day in any jungle, especially screwpine or lantana, adjoining their feeding grounds. They arrive early in September and leave in April. Capella nemoricola : The Wood Snipe. | I was shown a specimen shot near Mercara on 28-1-38 and another obtained just over the Mysore border, near Somwarpet. These are the only two records for the district. THE BIRDS OF COORG 261 Phalacrocorax niger : The Little Cormorant. Occurs on the larger rivers. It is common on the Cauvery in its lower reaches on the Mysore border, and occasionally wanders some ‘way up into the forest stretches. It does not breed in the province. All those found there probably drop downstream to nest at the big heronry at Palhalli near Seringapatam. Anhinga melanogaster: The Darter. Found singly and in small numbers all up and down the bigger rivers well up into the forest reaches. Unlike the cormorant which cusually chooses a rock, the darters frequently perch in trees, choosing a thick one overhanging the water from which they can watch for their prey. Like the last species they breed at Palhalli during July and August. Anastomus oscitans: The Open-billed Stork. Occurs occasionally on the wide, open reaches of the Cauvery in the Dry Zone below Fraserpet, usually singly but sometimes two or three together. These also breed at Palhalli. ‘Dissoura episcopa: The White-necked Stork. I have once seen a pair in Coorg, and one or two others just over the Mysore boundary, in all cases in wild, uninhabited, open scrub country. Ardea purpurea: The Purple Heron. This bird is only to be found in the neighbourhood of tanks in which large, dense reedbeds grow. One may often see a solitary bird at Halagote in wet years when the reeds are tall, and also at another small and very reedy tank nearby. They are shy birds. Their great height enables them to see over the reed tops, and pick out any approaching danger, when they do not freeze like the Bittern, but take wing with a great fluster, and fly off croaking harshly. A small ‘colony nests at Palhalli, not on the main island among the other birds, but on a separate islet covered with Pandanus. The nests are in the heart of the Pandanus tops and quite invisible from outside. The breeding season is from July to September. Egretta alba: The Large Egret. Egretta intermedia: The Smaller Egret. Egretta garzetta: The Little Egret. All three egrets occur sporadically round Halaguote and the other small Dry Zone tanks, also on the lower reaches of the Cauvery. E. alba and E. intermedia are much less common than E. garzetta The Large Egret is generally solitary, the other two are occasionally found in small flocks. Though common in flooded paddy fields in Mysore, in Coorg they are confined to the Dry Zone and are not found in the paddy cultivation of the Wet Zone or the deciduous forest belt. All three breed during the rains at Palhalli. 262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 56 Bubutcus ibis: The Catte Egret. Commoner than any of the last three though confined to the Dry Zone where it occurs in small flocks along the lower Cauvery and also round tanks. Unlike the other egrets they wander considerable distances from water, attending on herds of cattle and buffaloes, picking the ticks off the grazing animals and pouncing on insects yiee by them. Like the other egrets they breed at Palhalli in the rains. Ardeola grayii: The Pond Heron. Common throughout the province wherever there is water, whether paddy fields, ponds, pulphouse reservoirs, tanks and along the main rivers. I suspect them breeding on occasion in Coorg having seen « juvenile apparently too young to have come far on a stream near Somwarpet. But the great majority depart in the early rains. The only certain breeding place I have come across is Palhalli, where a comparatively small colony builds on the fringe of the main heronry in some clumps of screwpine, but these cannot represent a fraction of the total population of Coorg and the surrounding parts of Mysore, and there must be other breeding grounds. The very handsome breeding plumage is only assumed for a short time, and all those one sees in Coorg are in the drab plumage of the off-season. Butorides striatus: The Little Green Heron. Occurs in small numbers along forest streams and rivers with shady banks overhung with trees. Here it is found singly, lurking under a steep bank or in the lower branches of a thick bush over the water. On being disturbed it flies silently away for a hundred yards or so, and settles in cover once more. I once found the remains of one which had been killed and was being eaten by a hawk-eagle. They appear to be resident and probably breed in their usual haunts though I have not found a nest. They do not breed at Palhalli. ixobrychus cinnamomeus: The Chesnut Bittern. Found in small numbers widely spread over the province. An extremely shy, skulking bird usually only encountered out snipe- shooting when singletons are occasionally kicked up out of long grass on the banks of streams or from reedbeds near ponds and small tanks. Ixobrychus sinensis: The Yellow Bittern. My only record for Coorg is of a pair which I found breeding in September in a bed of bulrushes growing in a small tank a couple of acres in extent in the Dry Zone near Hebbale. The nest was formed from the tops of a number of reeds, bent over and roughly interwoven at a height of four feet from the water. There were five eggs. Salim Ali does not record the last three species from Mysore, but they must undoubtedly occur. Nycticorax nycticorax: The Night Heron. An occasional stray bird wanders up the Cauvery into Coorg. It is a common species in the irrigated areas of Mysore, breeding in very large numbers at Palhalli. THE BIRDS OF COORG 203 Nettapus coromandelianus: The Cotton Teal. A regular frequenter of Halagote Tank. A couple of dozen birds are always to be seen there in normal years though in the drought seasons of ’38/’39 they disappeared. Though they seemed to remaia there throughout the year I could never find any trace of their breeding. Occasionally an odd bird may be seen on the Cauvery, but they are essentially birds of stagnant, not running water. Dendrocygna javanica: The Lesser Whistling Teal. The notes on the last species apply equally to this one. In normal years a few pairs are always to be seen at Halagote, but they do uot seem to breed there. They will only be found on tanks with a heavy growth of reeds and water-lilies, and avoid open water. Podiceps ruficollis: The Little Grebe. Found on all the small tanks in the Dry Zone and occasionally, though uncommonly, on the Cauvery. At least fifteen pairs inhabit Halagote Tank normally, and even in the drought years when the tank was reduced to a muddy pond, a bare hundred yards in length, a few remained. They begin to breed in June as soon as the new growth of reeds is well established. The nests are floating masses of water-weed in a decayed and fermenting condition, which provide a regular hot-bed for the eggs and prevent them chilling though they are always soaking wet. Breeding goes on until the end of August and there seem to be at least two, if not more broods. The usual clutch is four. The sitting bird always covers up the eggs before leaving the nest. On an alarm she does this with a few swift movements of the beak, and then dives silently over the edge, coming up some way off and creating a great splashing and disturbance to attract attention from the nest. The hen alone seems to feed the young. The latter can swim as soon as hatched, but take some time to learn to dive. One may see a parent feeding chicks which swim about in great agitation whenever the old bird goes under until she reappears. THE HILSA FISHERY OF THE CHILKA LAKE! BY S. JONES anp K. H. SUjJANSINGANI, Central Inland Fisheries Research Station, Barrack pore, (With 2 plates, 3 graphs and 3 text figures) EN. ERoO) DAU GRE Onn During the fisheries investigations in the Chilka Lake (Fig. 1), from where the city of Calcutta draws an appreciable part of its fish supply, W. BENGAL AND ORISSA COASTS Oo 10 20 40 60 Seale in Miles wf - 4 >) undarban® GOPALPUR: ” Fig. 1. West Bengal and Orissa coasts, showing the Chilka Lake and other centres of observation. The arrow indicates the position of the Naraj Anicut. certain observations were made on the biology and fishery of the Indian Shad, Hilsa ilisha (Hamilton), which are detailed below. According to * Published with the permission of the Chief Research Officer, Central Inland Fisheries Research Station, Barrackpore. TNE RILSACRISHERY “Cr THE CHILKA LAKE 269 the figures collected by the Orissa Fisheries Department, 3443 maunds! of fresh hilsa fish were exported by rail in the year 1948 and 1255 maunds in 1949, out of the total export of 71,400 maunds and 61,100 maunds of tresh fish during the respective years. In view of the low economic standard of the local people and the high price obtained for the fish at Calcutta, almost the entire catches of hilsa are exported, and thus the above figures represent over 95% of the hilsa yield from the lake for these years. The available statistics _ show considerable variations in exports from month to month in dif- ferent years, on account of great fluctuations in the catches from the lake, and it is necessary to study the statistics for a number of years to be able to explain the cause for fluctuations in the fishery. The Chilka is a large brackish-water lake, in the deltaic region of the Mahanadi, extending over an area of about 450 square miles during the monsoons and about 350 square miles for the rest of the year. In the east, it is connected to the Bay of Bengal by nieans of a narrow bent channel, about 14 miles long and in the northern section it receives flood waters from the Daya, a branch of the Mahanadi. The lake is very shallow, except in the southern sector, where it is somewhat deep. The fish fauna, which is mainly estuarine in .com- position, gets continuously replenished from the sea and its consequent elements at any one time largely depend on the salinity and other general hydrological conditions which vary from season to season, both in the lake and the channel. In the summer, the main area of the lake is distinctly brackish, whereas at the end of the monsoons a great part of it is fresh and the change from the water of low to that of comparatively high salinity takes place by the ingress of sea water through the channel. The hydrological conditions in the lake are mainly influenced by the flood waters of the Daya. Lying north- east close to the lake is a chain of hills which leaves only a narrow stretch of catchment area, giving rise to a very few small streams that drain into the lake during rains. The effect of the local rainfall thus being not appreciable, the cyclic change from brackish to fresh water in the lake depends almost entirely upon the flow from the Daya, as the flood waters not only check the ingress of sea water through the channel but also gradually push out the brackish water and the Chilka becomes a fresh water lake. FISHERY Hilsa is fished in the Chilka throughout the year and the figures shown in the tables I and II throw some light on the relative abundance of the fish in the different parts of the lake. Though the catch is dependent on various factors and the occurrence of the fish near the different centres may not necessarily be proportionate to the export figures recorded from those centres, it is obvious that the fish does not occur in appreciable quantities in the southern sector, 1.e. south of Balugan where the salinity is generally higher, and is available in greater abundance in the northern section, 1.e. towards Kaluparaghat side. In the ordinary course, the fish 1s exported 11 Maund=82.28 lh. 266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST; SOCIETY, Veal. 30 from the centre nearest the fishing ground and as such generally the fish caught near Parikud and between Parikud and Satpara is exported from Balugan [Plate 1 (1)|. The catches from the Satpara side are however exported from Balugan as well as Kaluparaghat, as Doth the centres are more or less equidistant, whereas, most of the catches from Tuaside and beyond in the north, are diverted to Kalu- paraghat. Exports from Gangadharpur and Kuhuri consist mainly of the catches round about these centres, though occasionally some catches from Gangadharpur are diverted to Balugan also. In the bay near Rambha and Kallikhota, there is not much of hilsa and the catches are exported from the nearest centre. Fishing methods. Gilling nets are used for the purpose of catching hilsa by encircling, and these are locally known es ‘Bhid Jal’, ‘Garoa Jal’ and ‘Patua Jal’ [Plate 1, (2 and 3)]. Strictly speak- ing “‘Patua Jal’ is not operated as a means for catching hilsa, but accidentally the fish gets caught in the net, when the latter is operated for catching ‘Patua’ (Engraulid) fish. lish trade. As the fish fetches fairly high price outside the province, it 1s rarely salted and that also only in the remote fishing cenires, from where it is difficult to transport it to the exporting centres in time. At times lack of ice and persistent bad weather, specially in the monsoon season, necessitate the salting of the fish, but otherwise the fishermen export it through co-operative societies [Plate II (x)]| or nierchants who hold permits for export outside the State of Orissa. Fish is packed in bamboo baskets [ Plate II (2 & 3)] one maund in each, with about a maund of well-crushed ice. An advance against the weight of the catches tendered for sale, upto the Civil Supplies rate of Rs. 32 per maund of 4o seers is paid to the fishermen, if required, at the time of delivery, and the account is finally settled on the basis of the ‘chalans’ received from the market where the fish is auctioned or otherwise disposed of. A deduction of about Rs. 16 per basket of one maund of fish is made from the rate shown in the ‘chalan’ towards export duty, transport, cost of ice and other incidental charges. For the fish exported to Calcutta, the fishermen get roughly Rs. 45 to Rs. 50 per maund, though the sale price there generally varies between Rs. 80 and Rs. roo. It may be mentioned here that the Chilka hilsa fetches a lower price than the Ganges hilsa, which is received in better condition and consequently is in greater demand. SEASONAL FLUCTUATIONS AND CROp MOVEMENTS IN RELATION TO PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CHANGES ‘The export figures for 1948 and 1949 given in tables I and II, which are very nearly equivalent to the catches from the lake in these years, as there was no difference in the fishing conditions or the local demand, indicate the presence of two peak periods, which obvious- ly correspond to two main waves of migration of fish (Graph I) into the lake, one at the close of the winter and the other at the commence- ment of the monsoons. In the Hooghly also there are two periods of migration, one by about February, i.e. at the close of the winter, and the other with the onset of the monsoons. Though statistics of Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE | Dentist (1) A view of Balugan,.one of the main fish assembiing and exporting centers in the Chilka. Fish is being unloaded from the country boats seen in the foreground (2) A view of the gilling nets in operation, Joyal oo gid as they come in. ee eR er — SEY out JU MOIN VW (G) ~ pue poryIEa Iie SvYySt tgyJO pue esi a Ul Sy}o P Peet 154 l B EY Yor E Si x ‘sso1s01d ul o1v ysy Jo surypoed pue Surysiom aszayn ‘SUMOPOS 94} JO UO JO JOLIA}UL BY} JO MalA Y (¢) ‘sdeq Auuns ul syoojq oo1 uleyUuo UMOPOS 3} Avou pexyied syieg ‘pourwuexs ota sueueds esiy jo aaquinu o81v, Vo oo *punosrso410f 941 UL UMOpOs YsY pue pUNOIsyIvVq ay. UL SeoqJo sry) iw fuesneg ‘Ajol00g aABrodo-0) S,uataYysT.y eoIquUIy ey, Jo MaIA Y (qT) i ‘ . 1] atvig ‘20§ ‘JSIH “JEN Avquog ‘‘uanog PE VAL ESASEISHERY TOR THE CHILKA LAKE 267 catches for the Hooghly are wanting, general observations indicate, that the ascent during the floods is of considerable magnitude compared to the earlier one, while in the Chilka, it can be seen from the figures, MAUNDS 900 800 700 600 $007 \9491 ' 400 300 200 100 Graph I. Showing export of fresh hilsa from the Chilka Lake in the years 1948 and 1949. that the late winter or the early spring migration is of equal, if not greater, intensity. As the statistics of export show, the hilsa catches were higher in 1948 than in 1949 and enquiries made among fish merchants and fishermen reveal that catches in 1949 were distinctly lower than during the past few years, in spite of the fact that the intensity of fishing was the same. Though it is premature to attribute th's decline to any particular cause, a tentative explanation may be offered. and in October 1949, 21.69, 20.46 and 7.51 respectively, which means along the coast it was nearly three times more than at Khurda which is towards the interior, but still there was practically no rise over the crest level of the anicut. On the other hand due to high rainfall in the interior in 1948, the flow over the crest level was substantial and steady even in October 1948, though the rainfall during that month in the coastal area was less than in the corresponding month of the following year. As regards rainfall along the coast, when it is substan- tial, it probably creates conditions which result in congregaton of sholas in the coastal waters and this may account for the heavy catch along the Puri coast in September 1949 as stated elsewhere in this paper. It could therefore reasonably be presumed that in 1949 the flow of water from the lake into the sea,, might not have been sufficient to stimulate large numbers of spawning fish to react against the current and thus ascend from the coastal waters to the lake. In this connec- tion a similar observation recorded by Chacko and Dixithulu (1951) on the hilsa in the Godavari, that owing to the fall in the flood levels DHESAIESA FISHERY COFOITHE CHITKA LAKE 269 and the silting up of the river, the hilsa shoals did not enter the Godavari, but migrated towards the north and contributed an ‘unusual sea fishery of considerable magnitude’ at Kakinada (Coconada) about 50 miles away lends support to the above view, and it will be interesting to conduct investigations on the above lines for the Godavari "] Inches TOTAL RAINFALL 1948-47. 76” TOTAL RAINFALL 1949- 40.97” Graph Wl Showing trend (i.e. continuous rise or fall) of flood levels in the Kathjuri (branch of the Mahanadi), over the crest level of the Naraj Anicut in the years 1948 and 1949. region also. The abundance of the hilsa fishery thus seems to be dependent on a combination of factors, as in the case of the American Shad, for the migratory movements of which, according to Leach (1925), freshets, unusual turbidity of water, and the direction and the velocity of the wind, all are influential factors. In order to study the movements of the fish, investigations were made to find out whether the fish is a permanent inhabitant of the lake and breeds there, or whether it comes from the direction of the sea, and if so where it breeds. Elucidation of these points is likely to be helpful for formulating conservancy measures required if any, for this important fishery. There is no data available on the bionomics of the Chilka hilsa except the remark by Chaudhuri {1917) that the fish occurs throughout the year though ‘it must remain doubtful if the species breeds there’. A general study of the distribution of the fish shows their comparative abundance in the northern section of the 270 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCTERY 2 Wal. 50 lake, where the salinity is always lower on account of the influx of water during the rains from the Daya, one of the deltaic branches of the Mahanadi River'. The salinity and the general hydrological conditions in the lake, which have a profound effect on fish life, how- ever, vary from season to season. In the case of the American Shad, Alosa sapidisima, it is said that its movements are largely controlled by the water temperature and that ‘it is believed, that it seeks to occupy an area having a temperature of 60 or 7o degrees, and that its migrations are determined by the shifting of this area’. (Leach 1925, p. 465). The influence of temperature on the movements of the Indian shad is not known, but our observations regarding catches at Barrackpore show that the fish react to the variations in the temperature, showing very restricted migratory movements during the cold season. In February 1950, when the first wave of migration commenced, hilsa was found in the catches near Barrackpore and it was breeding also in the Hooghly. Later on there was a spell of cold wave from 12-2-50 to 16-2-50 and very few fish were reported in the catches and breeding activity was also considerably restricted. In the coastal waters, however, fluctua- tions in temperature should be more frequent than in the open sea, and are to a very great extent influenced by currents, winds and tides. The actual movement of the fish from the sea into the lake and vice versa could not be studied, but results of local enquiries indicate that large shoals generally come from the direction of the sea along the channel of the lake by February, (January to March), when the fish is caught in appreciable numbers. In September 1949, there was an unusually heavy catch of hilsa from the sea at Puri, and this goes to indicate the presence of hilsa in the coastal waters, in the neigh- bourhood of the Chilka. Regarding the seaward movement of the fish no information is available, but judging from the fishing conditions it may not be wrong to presume that intensive fishing in the shallow waters of the lake spares very few spent adults to perform the return journey and as such, movement of the stragglers if any, could not be conspicuous enough to receive attention. Prompted by the spawning urge, the breeders ascend the rivers and the spent fish drift with the flowing waters and the young also start on their gradua! seaward movement. In the Hooghly the young hilsa move to the lower regions of the estuary, but the movement of the young from the Chilka to the sea is not known, as no nets similar to ‘Bhin-Jals’ or ‘Dhara Jals’ which are so common in the Hooghly and at Chandipore, are operated in the channel and its neighbourhood, and as such the young are rarely caught. S1ZE GROUPS AND SEXES ’ During the course of the investigations an attempt was made to determine as far as possible the size groups, the rate of growth and ratio * For general information regarding the hydrography of the lake see Mem. Indian Mus., 5 (1): 5-12. THE PILSA FISHERY OF THE CHILKA LAKE 271 of sexes of the fish in catches and to interpret the same statistically, and accordingly from August, 1948, onwards, samples were collected from time to time, from fish godowns at various exporting centres, for the purpose of detailed examination. The observations were continued for over a year, during which period 1762 specimens as detailed below were examined. SIZES AND SEX RATIO OF THE SPECIMENS EXAMINED Number of Hilsa Combined Male Female oN specimens examined range range rar ge M F Xx oe A B A B A B 1948— August wae) 1392-188 14) 347 31506 134.0 457 «1291 » $062 2198 September .. 188 98 39 325 520 208 449 208 520 229 October ve 3 36 — 397 485) 9025755303 5209-485. 257 November Po 17 12 150 179 485 213 485 244 483 294 December ane 32 7 574 613 480 84 431 216 480 317 1949— January oo — — 25 25 434 934 —- — — — February oo oo 6 6 408 307 — — — — March See 28 12 4-347. 383!" 1938" "383. 227 300° 265 April it. 2 2 1 S: 325°° 206::'315 250°: 325-308 May ao 125 ratelak 10 33 470 266 382 266 470 272 June oes 13 at hk 25 463 230 380 230 463 305 July sia 20 6 — 26 384 233 376 308 384 233 August — a3 21 25 — 46) 435' > 221 7383)" 221-435" 231 September aie 10 2 — 30 413 247 408 247 418 264 November nes 10 ll Let 22 idGo 19240, 17314. 1246 1385725) M=Males. F=Females. X=Unidentified sex. T= Total. A =Maximum length. B=Minimum length. Length is indicated in mm. It was found that under the existing conditions, samples conforming to the standard of truly representative and random samples, which could yield reliable information about larger bulk of the population were difficult to obtain. Besides, a number of specimens which on applying pressure gave no indication of their sex, specially in November and December 1048, but from their size appeared to be either immature or spent fish, could not be cut open to ascertain the nature of their sex. Thus the observations had to be based only on those individuals which were definitely identified by pressing and a few which could possi- bly be cut open and the data tabulated shows that the proportion of the ‘males to the females in the catches is not constant as has already been observed by Southwell and. Prashad (1918). BIONOMICS Examination of a large number of specimens showed that the gonads were in ripe condition from August to October with September- October as peak period both in 1948 and 1949. Spent hilsa were collected from November onwards in 1948 and sexually mature fish 272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 were rather rare thereafter till July-August of the next year, and a regular extended breeding season did not appear to exist as in the Hooghly hilsa (Hora and Nair rg4o a). A specimen measuring 47 mm. was obtained at Balugan towards the end of October, 1948, and young hilsa measuring from 84 mm. to 133 mm. began to appear in the catches along with other small clupeids in December 1948. Further, small specimens measuring about 110 mm. were found in the catches in April 1950. Analysing these size groups on the basis of observations made by Hora and Nair (1940) and Job | (1941) on the young fish collected from the Pucca Settling Tanks of Pulta Water Works that the young fish grows roughly at an average rate of about 25 mm. a month and that ten months to a year old fish-are just about a foot in length, it is possible to estimate that the breeding would have taken place by about August-September, if the fish grows at the same rate in open waters also, and thus the young specimens found in the catches in April 1950 might be the progeny of the late breeders. Efforts were directed towards the location of the spawning grounds of the hilsa in the Chilka. Plankton collections made from the lake proper did not show any eggs or early larvae of the fish. It was felt that investigations in the northern section of the lake would yield interesting results in the location of the spawning grounds of the fish and with this object in view a systematic search ‘was made near the mouth of the Daya, during the third week of September, 1949. On the afternoon of the 16th September, plankton collected from the river at Jagdala showed along with others, a certain type of lightly demersal eggs, and on the following morning drag net collections made from the neighbouring inundated areas of the lake showed the pre- sence of young hilsa of about 32 mm. to 43 mm. On the next day, viz. 17-9-’49 at about 2-30 p.m. some three miles up the river, near the fishing village of Garasaguda, plankton collections from the river showed the presence of the eggs of the same type as mentioned above. They were in the early stage of development with the blastoderm as a cap of cells. The zona radiata was strikingly large and swelled up showing fine streaks on the surface and forming. a double layering on preservation. The yolk was segmegted as is the case in other clupeid eggs and there were several light yellow oil globules. The identity of the eggs was not clear at that time, but after working out the develop- ment of hilsa at Barrackpore, from the material collected from the Hooghly, (Jones and Menon 1950), it. was possible to identify the material obtained from the Daya. At Garasaguda, along with the eggs postlarvae of hilsa (about 15 mm.) were collected, which is of signifi- cance, since it indicated the possibility of the fish breeding in the river. There was no fishing going on in the river at that time, but enquiries from the fishermen revealed thai the fish goes up the river in large numbers when the latter is in floods. It could hence be said that tne Chilka hilsa breeds in the lower reaches of the Daya, and probably in its associated branches also. How far up the river the fish breeds is difficult to say, but it is known to negotiate, during the Bea floods, the Naraj Anicut in the Kathjuri (from which the Daya branches off) and reach the Mahanadi. The ascent of the hilsa in the main Mahanadi river, which is spanned by the Cuttack ‘Anicut, also takes place by about September, depending on the intensity of the floods. Tipe TESA USHER OF THE CHILKA LAKE 273 During exceptionally heavy floods, hilsa is known to ascend as far as Sambalpur about 250 miles from the sea. Foop The fish is essentially a plankton feeder. The oozing individuals do not appear to feed. There is no selective feeding as far as plankton is concerned. Copepods and diatoms have been found invariably to be the dominant items depending on their availability. Spent speci- mens have more of fine sand grains, showing more or less a sort of feeding habit at the bottom layers, while the young specimens appear to be mid-water teeders. The food of hilsa in the coastal waters has been given by Prashad, Hora and Nair (1940) and by Chacko and Ganapati (1949). ars a COASTAL FISHERY OF HILSA AND ITS BEARING ON CHILKA: STOCKS The hilsa fishery in the Chilka cannot be regarded as a detached and isolated one by itself as the crop is dependent on the stocks present in the adjacent coastal waters. -Along the Orissa coast, as at Chandi- pur (Balasore) and Talpada hilsa move about in shoals and these are ~caught regularly from the inshore waters from the month of November. Towards the end of September 1950, large numbers ot young hilsa measuring from about 38 mm. to 90 mm. were obtained by us from Chandipur and the older lot among these should be the progeny of-the fish that bred towards the end of summer or the begin- ning of the monsoons, say May-June. Since collections from the same place, viz. Chandipur, during the previous months did not yield any stages of hilsa, it could reasonably be presumed. that the fish has Leen breeding in some of the tidal stretches of rivers, as has been found in the Hooghly (Hora & Nair 1940 and Jones & Menon 1950 & 1951) and that the young are moving about in the coastal waters. In this connection the observations of Hora and Nair (1940 b) on the Tatka (young hilsa) fishery of East Bengal and the movements of hilsa in Sunderbans deserve special mention. The Jatka, two to five months old, feed in the estuaries and move about in shoals and though there 1s no definite evidence to show the actual direction of their movements, it is probable that they move from estuaries upstream and along the coastal waters. De (ig1o) refers to this upward movement and observes that the fish is found as high up as Goalundo in the Ganges from February to April. When exactly the first downward movement takes place is not stated. According to Howard (1938) ‘the young fish after about two months’ stay in the sea, add considerabiy to their size and weight, and towards the end of December they return to the estuaries (Sunderbans) in shoals. The fish at about this time are 7 to g inches long and in search of new feeding grounds’. Thus the presence of the young hilsa in the catches at Chandipur as _ stated above, and also at Janput along the Contai coast where specimens measuring about 50 mm. in total length were obtained in June 1949 (Jones & Menon 1951), lend support to the observations regardingt the movement of the fish in coastal waters. The shoals of young hilsa 274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 thus appear to wander about along the Bengal-Balasore coasts where the hydrological conditions are similar, but whether the sea in the Fig. 2. Surface salinity of the Bay of Bengal (modified after Sewell): (a) from March to May; (b) from June to August; (c) from September to November ; (d) from December to February. neighbourhood of Chilka also comes within the orbit of their wanderings is yet to be ascertained. In winter months most of the adult fish fall back from the rivers to warmer waters of the estuaries, but with the advent of the hot weather they begin to show greater activity. While the mature fish react to the current and go against it like other anadro- mous fishes, this does not appear to be the case with the young, which have not been observed to travel against strong currents of flooded rivers. If the salinity, temperature and flow of the currents have anything to do with the movements of the fish, it will appear that the young fish in the tidal zone and the coastal waters is subject to a diversity of ecological conditions. The comparatively low salinity _ (Fig. 2), favourable direction of currents (Fig. 3), availability of food etc. may be contributing towards the presence of the hilsa in the coastal _waters after the monsoon’s, and the various factors influencing the migrations require to be studied with special reference to the physiologi- cal requirements of the fish. In this connection influence of the salinity fHE HILSA FISHERY (OF THE CHILKA LAKE 275 of the coastal waters on the distribution of the Bombay-Duck, Harpodon nehereus (Ham.) pointed out by Hora (1934) is significant. The currents in the sea indicate the net resultant movement of waters, inclusive of the effect if any, produced by the winds. Condi- tions are however different in the Chilka where similar currents are absent, tidal influence is not much specially in the main area, and the water is very shallow. The winds over the lake blow generally from the south-west from March to September and from north- 60: hs . 50° 100° 80° G0 ie 100° Fig. 38. Surface currents of the Bay of Bengal (modified after Sewell): (a) from March to May; (b) from June to August; (c) from September to November; (d) from December to February. east in the remaining part of the year, that is to say opposite to the general direction of the currents in the sea. The meteorological data available for the years 1948 and 1949 for Puri and Gopalpur coasts indicate, that the average monthly wind velocity at these centres did not exceed the limits of the fresh breeze on the Beaufort scale and the maximum velocity at these centres, during the period, was 36 and 44 miles per hour respectively, that is to say it never exceeded the limits of strong gale, and was only of a few hours duration. Even moderate winds disturb the surface layer considerably and as such should affect the movements of the fish in the lake in view of its shallowness. h) a0 V of. SOCIETY, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. 276 6 ) ‘OPEL UNL Ul SOU9}SIXO OJUL OUIED OI]U9N TLInYyNy x ‘SYV]BILD pu SI9ES ‘SPUNCU UI PepIODEI ST JUSBION Ley ‘jusMI}Iedaq Selleysiy BSSIIQ ay} Aq pezaT[Oo so1}sT}¥IS | id oat | | i : os ne 0°€ Spe |G F gpez| zi oz zez| € BL sce] 8 OT Osh) Byezes ial Ee | % TOL : rah o, mec OL ceG & 219 ay CLESoes 8 T¢ &I | v ect | —8 oi a a Ss ane see pears cae PL Go +18 G2 Tz 8. 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[idy Ciara ie | HeSeROL [8 S60. | et-21sc (le — selet Vp. e oe bet ae A es yore v 82 66 Grae. Cr la — fe | 2L.6c.F +) 8 -0e— | = FL6 g—— | a ip sv Sreniqed g ez | peep | + t pe | 8 2 Sér | Zt 82 0oL | F It 16 | 8 96 6h | ae ast ee Arenuer [230], | Poe | wmyny a aes uvsnyeg | wjoyTTey | eyquey 6761 EET 4 GFEL 22 vyj2yD ay? mos] ws]2FT Jo p4ogxey] 6 ON ATIVL Vol. 50 ry s f a JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIE 278 ance — | /T.0 |SS.91| ST-Z | 2h8 | #9-6 | €8-T | 6-0 | #70] — | $90 | 62-0 a3v49Qp7 Ue | eles iicaz) 1) eS9'o) | OP-cUle OS:c | 27-0.) 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The vastness of the lake, coupled with its shallowness and intensive fishing which is in vogue, make it very difficult to restrict fishing for any period or to observe any close season, more so since the fishing is not done for the sake of catching hilsa alone, as is the case in rivers, at the time of the ascent of the fish. Added to this, the close-meshed ‘Patua Jals’ which are used for catching anchovies and white bait, which do not grow to a large size, entrap young hiisa as well, during the course of the fishing. However, the possibility of restricting fishing for some limited period in the narrow belt of water, near the. mouths of the Daya and the Makra cannot be entirely ruled out, so that the breeders coming up to the river mouths from the lake may get a chance for access into one of these. The fish coming from the sea through the channel first get scattered in the vast expanse of the shallow waters of the lake, but later on are led by the current in the direction of the rivers, at their points of discharge. Restriction on fishing in the lake from the mouth of the Makra to the mouth of the Daya in a narrow belt of 2 to 3 miles is not likely to affect mate- rially the fishing industry, but would afford opportunity for the protec- tion of the breeders and the young and the consequent conservation of this important fishery. The success of this measure, in a rather out of trying and its long range effect worth studying. As similar hydrological conditions exist along the Bengal-Orissa coasts, the hilsa studies in this region may be co-ordinated so as to enable simultaneous detailed studies of the biology of the fish with special reference to the movements of the crop. While in rivers the fish is known to ascend for hundreds of miles, the range of its move- ments in the coastal waters remains to be studied. The migratory movements and the raciation studies of the fish are also likely to in- dicate whether or not the fish moves to the parent waters for breeding. The nature of shoals and their size, and the seasons when their move- ments take place, are also points which require to be studied in detail if ihe hilsa resources are to be properly utilised. The studies of the movements of the fish and the factors influencing migration would require a team of workers to conduct marking experiments, length and weight studies, etc., and to collect hydrological, meteorological and other relevant data over a wide range. CRN OLW LE DIG EM EN T Our thanks: ace due io, Dr. SS; LC. Hora, Dr’ TY. |; Job and Dr. J]. D. F. Hardenberg for their valuable criticism of this paper. We are indebted to Mr. G. N. Mitra, Deputy Director of Fisheries, Orissa, for affording us facilities for conducting investigations in the Lake and for the fresh fish export figures collected by his staff. 280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCI#TY, Vol. 50 REFERENCES Chacko, P. I. and Dixithulu, D. V. H. (1951): An unusual occurrence of a fishery of Hilsa ilisha in the Godavari Coast. Proc. 38th Indian Sci. Congr., pt. 3, Abstracts, p. 227. — —— & Ganapathi, S. V. (1949): On the bionomics of MHilsa ilisha (Hamilton). J. Madras Uni., 18: 16-22. Chaudhuri, B. L. (1917): Fauna of Chilka Lake.—Fish. Mem. Indian Mus. 5 (4): 427. | De, K. C. (1910): Report on the Fisheries of Eastern Bengal and Assam, pe Le. Devanesan, D. W. (1942): Weirs in South India and their effect on the bionomics of the Hilsa in the South Indian Rivers, the Godavari, the Kistna and the Cauvery. Curr. Sci. 11 (10): 389. Hora, S. L. (1934): Wanderings of the Bombay-Duck, Harpodon nehercus (Ham. Buch.), in Indian waters. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 36 (8): 640-654. — — — (1940): Life-history and wanderings of Hilsa in Bengal Waters. J. Roy. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, Science. 6 (2): 93-112, 1941. ———& Nair, K. K. (1940a): Further observations on the bionomics and the fishery of the Indian Shad, Hilsa ilisha (Hamilton) in Bengal Waters. Rec. Indian Mus., 42 (1): 35-50. —-— — ~(1940b): The Jatka fish of Eastern Bengal and its signi- ficance in the fishery of the so-called Indian Shad, Hilsa ilisha (Hamilton). Rec. Indian Mus., 42 (4): 553-565. Howard, Stanley (1938): The Hilsa The Statesman, Town Edition (September 7th) Job, T. J. (1941-42): Hilsa Investigations in Bengal Waters. Sci. and Cullt., 7 (): 427-429 Jones, S. & Menon, P. M. G. (1950): Spawning of Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) in the Hooghly River. Sci. and Cult., 15 (11): 443-444. ¥ — — — (1951):. Observations on the life-history of the Indian Shad, Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., Bangalore. 38 (3): 101-125. Leach, Glen C. (1925): Artificial Propagation of Shad. U.S. Bur. Fish., Washington, Doc. 981: 459-486. Prashad;,.B., Hora,,, S.- L. & —Nair, K:.-~K,,; (1940): Observations ‘on “ithe seaward migration of the so-called Indian Shad, MHilsa ilisha (Ham.). Rec. Indian Mus., 42 (4): 529-552. Sewell, R. B. Seymour (1929): Geographic and Oceanographic Research in Indian Waters. Mem. Roy. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 9 (5): 280-293. Southwell, T. & Prashad, B. (1918): Hilsa Investigations in Bengal and Bihar and Orissa. Bull. Dept, Fish: Bengal and Bihar and Orissa, 11, NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES FROM NEPAL BY Lt.-CoL. F. M. BAILEY, C.1.E. PARD TT (Continued trom p. 87 of this volume) ERYCINIDAE 198, Libythea lepita lepita M. Evans 1.2, Very common in the Valley, March, April and May. Often at damp soil. A pair zz copula 1-4-38. 199. Libythea myrrha sanguinalis Fruh. Evans 1.3. Uncommon. A few in the Valley in August. One specimen in October and one in November. 200. Zemeros flegyas indicus Fruh. Evans 2. Common in the Valley all the year except December, January and February. Also many brought in by collectors from the north. 201. Dodona durga Koll. Evans 3.1. A single specimen at Chitlang, 1,500 ft. on 20-7-35. 202. Dodona dipoea Hew. Evans 3.2. | In the Valley and surrounding hills from March to October. Especially plentiful in May and September. A single specimen was taken on 15-11-37. Both subspecies D. d. mostza Fruh. and D. dipoea Hew. appeared to be together, but there is very little superficial differ- ence between them. 203. Dodona eugenes Bates. Evans 3,3. Very common in the Valley and the surrounding hills ; most plenti- ful in April, in early May, and again in September. A female was seen depositing dull pink globular eggs on the woody stalk of the food plant on 6-8-35. As in the case of the last, both subspecies Z.e¢. eugenes and £.e. venox Fruh. are found together, but the subspecies are almost indistin- guishable, 282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80 204. Dodona egeon Db. Evans 3.4. Common in the Valley especially so on the surrounding ‘hills from March to November. Most plentiful in May. 205. Dodona ouida ouida M. Evans 3.5. Common in the Valley and especially in the surrounding hills March to November. 205. Dodona adonira adonira Hew. Evans 3.6. At Gedaveri in the Valley, Mav and June and again in October usually on damp stones. 207. Abisara fylla Db. Evans 4.1. A few in the Valley, April to November. 208. Abisara neophron neophronoides Fruh. Evans 4.2. A single specimen at Nagarkot, 6,000 ft. 7-6-37. 209. Abisara echerius suffusa M. Evans 4.5. Not found in the Valley. Common at Devighat 1,500 ft. and the Terai in winter. ; LYCAENIDAE 210. Poritia hewitsoni hewitsoni M. Evans 2.5. Not in the Valley. Bhimpedi, below the Valley, in October; Devi- ghat 1,500 ft. 3-11-35. ; eastern Terai 28-2-38. 211. Spalgis epius epius Wd. Evans 8. Two Specimens at low elevations; Amlekganj 1,000 ft. 15-11-35 ; Tribeni, Terai 5-12-35. 212. Castalius rosimon rosimon F, Evans 11.1. Notin the Valley but only at lower elevations. Devighat 1,500 ft. October; the Terai in winter. 213. Castalius caleta decidia Hew. Evans 11.2. At Devighat 1,500 ft. and in the Terai in winter. This is an exten- sion of habitat westwards in the Himalayas, 1 NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES FROM NEPAL 283 214. Tarucus dharta B—B. (Ww)! Evans 12.2. A single specimen at Amlekganj, 1,500 ft, 36-36. 215. Tarucus callinara But. Evans 12.4. A single specimen at Devighat 2,000 ft, 31-10-36. 216. Syntarucus plinius F. Evans 13. A single specimen at Katmandu 4,500 ft. 12-9-35. 217. Everes argiades indiea Ev. Evans 18.2. Common at Katmandu and in the Valley. A few on the surrounding hills, April to October. 218. Everes dipora M. Evans 18.4. Not in the Valley but on the surrounding hills. Nagarkot 6,000 ft. 28-7-37 ; Chandragiri 6,000 ft. 10-4-37; Chitlang 4,000 ft. 23-2-37. A few brought in by collectors from west Nepal. 219. Everes parrhasius parrhasius F. Evans 18.5. One in the Valley, Katmandu 13-10-35 ; one at Kakni, above the Valley 7,000 ft. 25-8-37; two at Devighat 1,500 ft. 31-3-35 and 29-10-35 and one brought in from Galchi, west Nepal 5-11-36. 220. Megisba malaya sikkima M. Evans 20. One specimen at Godavari in the Valley 5,000 ft. 31-7-35; one at Nagarkot 5,500 ft. 3-8-35; several in the Terai in winter. 221. Lycaenopsis puspa gisca Fruh. Evans 21.2. Common in the Valley and on the surrounding hills. A few in March and April, very many in July and August, fewer in September and October. A pair zz copula at Nagarkot 7,000 ft, 31-8-35. 222. Lycaenopsis marginata DeN. Evans 21.11. Common in the Valley, the surrounding hills and in the Terai. A few in April, many May to August. Pairs zz copula at Nagarkot 6,000 ft. 29-7-35, and at Kakni 6,500 ft. 28-8-37, 1 (W) or (E) indicate extensions of known habitat from Sikkim westward or from Kumaon eastward, respectively. 284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 223. Lycaenopsis transpecta M. (W) Evans 21.12. A few in the Valley and the surrounding hills in May and June. Devighat 1,500 ft. 31-10-35, 224. Lycaenopsis vardhana M. (E) Evans 21.13, Five specimens at Sheopani above the Valley, 8,000 ft. on 14-9-37. The specimens are rather brighter blue than specimens from Simla. 225. Lycaenopsis albocoerulea M. Evans 21.15. Common in the Valley and on the surrounding hills from the end of March to the end of October. 226. Lycaenopsis lavendularis placida DeN., (W) Evans 21.19. A single specimen at Godaveri in the Valley 5,000 [t. 20-6-36. 227. Lycaenopsis cardia dilecta M. Evans 21.20, Common in the Valley and surrounding hills end of March to early November, Most plentiful May to July. Often at damp sand and cowdung. 228, Lycaenopsis hugelii hugelii M. (E) Evans 21.22. Not found in the Valley, but two specimens from the surrounding hills, Nagarkot 6,000 ft. 4-7-36 and Kakni 7,500 ft. 15-9-37. Very many brought from north-west Nepal between the end of May and mid-September. A pair zz copula 1-6-36. Several specimens of Z. hugelzz oveana Swin. were taken at Godaveri 5,000 ft. May, June and October ; some also on Sheopuri Hill 8,000 ft. 14-9-37, 229. Lycaenopsis ladonides gigas Hemming. (BE) Evans 21.23. West Nepal 1936. 230. Lycaenopsis argiolus sikkima M. (W) Evans 21.24. A few in the hills above the Valley up to 7,000 ft. March to September. A single specimen on 28-12-36 at 2,000 ft. at Bhim- pedi below the Valley. 231. Lycaenopsis jynteana DeN. (W) Evans 21.25. Only two specimens Katmandu 4,500 ft. 25-36; Nagarkot 7,000 ft. 24-6-36. NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES FROM NEPAL 285 232, Polyommatus astrarche Berg. (E) Evans 22.10. A few brought from north-west Nepal, Yakpa 27-8-36, Pensa 13-9-36. 233. Polyommatus galathea galathea Blanch. (B) Evans 22.19. Several brought in from north-west Nepal, July 1936. 234, Polyommatus eros ariana M. Evans 22.27. | Many brought in from north-west Nepal. Simkot, June to Sep- tember 1936; Yakpa 27-8-35. Pensa 13-7-36 and 13-9-36. The sub- species is doubtful. I have never found any form of evos in Sikkim, Chumbi Valley or Bhutan, though evos stoliczkana Fd. is common in Tibet north of the Tang La and at Gyantse, Lhasa and in the Tsangpo Valley. I have caught it as far east as Sangaché Dzong, E Long. approx. 97° 10’. 235. Chilades laius laius Cr. Evans 23. Tribeni, Terai, 13-12-35. 236. Zizeeria trochilus trochilus Freyer. Evans 24.1. Devighat, 1,500 ft. 29-10-35; Katmandu, 4,500 ft., 9-10-36 and 29-10-36. 237. Zizeeria maha maha Koll. Evans 24.3. Very common at Katmandu March to October. Also common at Nagarkot and Kakni 6,000 ft. July to October. Pairs zz copula at Katmandu 4-3-35 and at Nagarkot 26-7-35. Common in the Terai in December. | 238. Zizeeria lysimon Hub. Evans 24.4. Terai, December and March. Not found in the Valley. 239, Zizeeria otis otis F, Evans 24.6. A single specimen at Katmandu, 4,500 ft. 10-10-35. Common in the Terai, October to March, and at Devighat at the end of October, 240. Euchrysops cnejus F. Evans 25.1. Common in the Terai, scarce in the hills. Katmandu 4,500 ft. 4-6-35. Nagarkot 6,500 ft. 6-9-35. A pair zz copula at Devighat 2,000 ft. 25-10-35. 286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vel. 50 241. Euchrysops contracta contracta But, Evans 25.2. A single specimen in the Terai 26-3-36. 242, Euchrysops pandava pandava Hors. Evans 25.3. Many of the wet season form in the Legation garden in early August 1937. Most were on Michaelmas daisies. 243. Lycaenesthes emolus emolus God. Evans 26.1. A single specimen in the Valley 24-4-37, and two at Nagarkot, 5,500 ft. in July. Others at lower levels and in the Terai in winter. An extension westwards in the Himalayas. 244. Lycaenesthes lycaenina lycambes Hew. (W) Evans 26.2. Not found in the Valley, but a few at lower levels. Nowakot, 3,000 ft. 17-10-35; Devighat, 1,500 ft. 30-10-35; Bhimpedi, 2,000 ft. 21-7-36. 245. Catachrysops strabo F. Evans 27.1. In the Valley and up to 7,000 ft. at Nagarkot, March, July, Septem- ber and October ; also in the Terai in winter. 246. Catachrysops lithargyria M. (W) Evans 27,2. A single female specimen at Katmandu 4,500 ft. 18-3-37. Evans gives ‘Assamto Burma’. This butterfly has never been taken in Sik- kim so this is a considerable extension of habitat westwards. The specimen was identified at the British Museum. 247, Lampides boeticus L, Evans 28. Very common everywhere. In March females were depositing eggs on the buds of wistaria ana lupin in the Legation garden. The buds were So covered in eggs that from a few feet away they appeared quite grey. 248. Jamides bochus bochus Cr. Evans 29.1. A few of both sexes in the Valley and up to 6,000 ft. on the sur- rounding hills in June and November ; also inthe Terai in winter. 249, Jamides celeno celeno Cr, Evans 29.5. Very common in the Valley; W.S.F. July to October and D.S.F. October to December. Specimens in October and November are very variable. Specimens taken in the Terai in December are of an extreme- ly dry form. A single specimen of the D.S.F. was taken in the Valley on 20-3-33. | NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES FROM NEPAL 287 250. Jamides alecto eurysaces Fruh. Evans 29.9. A few in the Valley in October ; very commortin the Terai in Decem- ber and January. This is an extension westwards in the Himalayas. 251. Nacaduba pactolus continentalis Fruh. (W) Evans 32.2. A single specimen at Katmandu 4-10-37, 252. Nacaduba kurava euplea Fruh. (W) Evans 32.8. Three female specimens Katmandu 4,500 ft. 26-9-35 and Nagarkot 7,000 ft. in July. 253. Nacaduba nora nora Fd. Evans 32.15. Several specimens from Nagarkot 6,000 ft. 7-6-37. Also several in the Terai in winter. None were actually seen in the Valley. 254. Nacaduba dubiosa indica Evans. Evans 32.16. None were taken in the Valley but a few at Nagarkot 6,000 ft. 7-6-37; also in the Terai in winter. Specimens were identified at the British Museum. 255. Lycaena pavana Koll. (EB) Evans 34.1. A few brought in by collectors from north-west Nepal in May and June 1936. 256. Lycaena phloeas indicus Ev. (W) Evans 34.2. Very many brought in by collectors from north-west Nepal June to August 1936. 257. Heliophorus sena Koll. (E) Evans 35.1. ines few brought in by collectors from west Nepal, June and October 258. Heliophorus epicles indicus Fruh. Evans 35.2. Common in the Valley, May to November, and also at lower elevations. 299. Heliophorus bakeri Ev. (E) Evans 35.4. ea brought in by collectors from west Nepal in May and June 288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 260. Heliophorus oda Hew. (E) Evans 35,5. A single specimen brought in from Melcham, west Nepal, 12-6-36.. 261. Heliophorus androcles androcles Hew. (W) Evans 35.8. Many brought in by collectors from west ona north Nepal and the Tibetan border, May and June. One from Patechaur, north Nepal, 11-11-37. A single male on Sheopuri Hill, above the Valley, 8,000 ft. 14-9-37. 262. Heliophorus tamu tamu Koll Evans 35.9. Many in the Valley, mostly at damp soil, May to September. Kakni, 7,000 ft. 24-8-37. Many on Sheopuri Hill, above the Valley, 8,000 ft. 14-9-37 and many brought in from the north, 263. Euaspa milionia Hew. (E) Evans 40. Very common in the woods in the Nepal Valley, April to July ; ; specimens taken after May were very worn. 264. Thecla icana M. (EB) Evans 41.1. Two male specimens at Chandragiri, above the Valley 6,000 ft., . 14-6-36. These have more orange than usual at the tornus unh. I have also taken this in Bhutan and in southern Tibet. . 265. Thecla birupa M. (EB) Evans 41.12. Several on the hills surrounding the Valley, 5,009 - to > 7000. fe s May, June and July. 266. Thecla syla assamica Tyt. (W) Evans 41.14. ne A single female specimen from Jalbiri, north central Nepal, 3-8-37, The specimen was identified at the British Museum. 267, Chaetoprocta odata Hew. (E) Evans 42. Many at Godaveri in the Nepal Valley in May, flying round, and at . dusk roosting on the upper sides of leaves of walnut trees; also many brought in from north-west Nepal in June 1936, 968. Curetis bulis Db. & Hew. Evans 44.4. A few in the Valley, April, May and June. dines, NOTES ION BUPTERFLIESVFROM, NEPAL 289 269. Curetis acuta dentata M. Evans 44.6. Tribeni, in the Terai, 1,000 ft 26-1-36; Bhimpedi, 1,000 ft. October. A female in eastern Terai, 3-3-26. One at Katmandu, 4,300 ft. in the Valley, 17-10-36. 270, Iraota timoleon timoleon Stoll. Evans 45.1. Several in the Valley and up to 6,000 ft. on the surrounding hills, May to September. 271. Amblypodia oenea Hew. (W) Evans 49.27. A single specimen at Katmandu, 4,500 ft., 4-10-37. 272. Amblypodia alemon DeN. Evans 49.34. . One specimen in the Valley, 5,000 ft. 22-5-37. Common in the Terai in winter. 273. Amblypodia centaurus pirithous M. Evans 49,36. ; Very common at Devighat October to. May ; common also in. the Terai in winter. A few in the Valley. 274. Amblypodia amantes amantes Hew. Evans 49,39. Only in the Terai in winter. 275. Amblypodia singla DeN. = (Wy Evans 49.40. _ . A few in the Valley up to 6 ,000 ft., March to August. 276. Amblypodia bazalus Hew. (W) Evans 49.41. _A few in the Valley and up to 6,500 ft. on the surrounding hills. 277, Amblypodia eumolphus eumolphus Cr. Evans 49.42. A few in the Valley, July and August. 278. Amblypodia dodonea M. —_(E) Evans 49.50. A single specimen from Yarsa-in west Nepal, 5-8-35. 279. Amblypodia ramarama Koll, _ Evans 49.51. _ Very common in the Valley and on the surrounding hills, March to October. A few at lower elevations and in the Terai in winter. 290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 280. Amblypodia paramuta DeN. (W) Evans 49,53. In the Valley and up to 7,000 ft. on the surrounding hills; common at Nagarkot July to October. 281. Amblypodia ganesa ganesa M. (EZ) Evans 49.65. Three specimens in the hills above the Valley; Nagarkot, 7,000 ft. 2.7-37: Thankot, 6,000 ft. 17-7-37; Kakni, 7;000 it. 27-8237." Eins subspecies was checked at the British Museum. 282. Amblypodia paraganesa paraganesa DeN. Evans 49.66. In the Valley and on the surrounding hills up to 7,000 ft.; common July to September. A single specimen as late as 9-11-35. at Nagarkot, 5,000 ft. | 283. Amblypodia chinensis Fd. (W) Evans 49.78. A few in July and August on the hills surrounding the Valley, between 5,000 and 7,000 ft. 284. Amblypodia areste areste Hew. (W) Evans 49.79. Four specimens on the hills above the Valley. Nagarkot, 6,000 ft. 1-7-37 and 9-9-37 ; Kakni, 7,000 ft. 26-8-37 and 15-9-37. 285. Surendra quercetorum quercetorum M. Evans 50.1. A single specimen at Devighat 1,500 ft. 27-10-35. 286. Loxura atymnus atymnus Cr. Evans 53: . A single specimen in the Valley, 4,500 ft. 7-8-37. Common at lower elevations in August and September 287. Spindasis nipalicus nipalicus M. Evans 57.9. One specimen at Katmandu, 4,500 ft. 10-6-35. Several at Nagarkot, 7,000 ft.in May. A few in the Terai and at lower elevations, March to October. 288. Spindasis syama peguanus M. Evans 57.12. Bhimpedi, early October 1936; Devighat 1,500 ft. 1-4-35 and thtee specimens on 25-10-35. This is an extension of habitat westwards in the Himalayas. 289. Spindasis lohita himalayanus M. (W) Evans 57.13. Common at Katmandu especially on Michaelmas daisies in the Legation garden in August and September. One brought in from the north, Chauntara, 13-9-37. NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES FROM NEPAL 291 290. Pratapa ctesia Hew. Evans 59.2. Common above the Valley between 5,000 and 7,000 feet, where it flies round tree tops; May to August. 291, Pratapa blanka argentia Aurivill. (W) Evans 59.4. A single female at Devighat, 2,000 ft., 25-10-35. 292. Pratapa deva lila M. Evans 59.5. A few on the hills above the Valley, 5,000 to 7,000 feet, in Vas A single specimen at 5,000 ft., 15-10-36. Flies around tree tops. \ 293. Pratapa icetas icetas Hew. (B) Evans 59.6, | ae Common on the hills above the Valley, 5,000 to 7,000 feet, July to September. Flies around isolated tree tops. 284, Pratapa cleobis God. Evans 59.8. | | Common on the hills above the Valley, July and August and a few in June, September and October; 5,000 to 7,000 feet. A few were taken in the Valley between April and November. ' 295, Pratapa bhotea M. (W) Evans 59.9. } _ A single specimen at Kakni, 7,500 ft., 15-9-37. 296. Tajuria jangala ravata M. (W) Evans 60.1. One female specimen at Nagarkot, 5,500 ft, 8-8-35, and a male brought in from Dendrowati, 1&-5-35. 297. Tajuria yajna istroidea DeN. (W) Evans 60.4. Two specimens which appear to be nearest to zstrocdea, Nagarkot, ? 7,000 ft., early August; Katmandu, 4,500 ft., 2-9-37. 298. Tajuria illurgis Hew. Evans 60.20. | Katmandu 4,500 ft., April and August; Nagarkot, 6,000 and 7,000 feet, July and August. Two specimens brought in from the north, Kodari, 17-5-37, and Gumtang, 20-5-37, 299. Tajuria illurgoides DeN. - Evans 60.21, Nagarkot, 7,000 ft., 5-6-37. Two from Kang Lang, north Nepal, 19-5-37, | 6 299 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 80 300. Tajuria luculentus nela Swin. (W) Evans 60.22. : A single female specimen at Thankot, above the Valley, 6,000 ft., 26-4-36. This single specimen is abnormal and may be new and has been given to the British Museum. It is a considerable extension of habitat westwards. Evans gives Assam as the habitat in India. 301. Tajuria maculata Hew. (W) Evans 60.23. Two specimens, Sundarijal in the Valley, 5,500 ft., 4-7-30; Nagarkot, 7-9-37. 302. Charana jalindra indra M. Evans 61.1. é Several in and around the Valley, May to October, This is an extension of habitat in the Himalayas westwards. 303. Horaga onyx onyx M. Evans 77.1. A single specimen, Katmandu, 4,300 ft., 9-10-35. 304. Catapoecilma elegans major Fruh. Evans 78.1. Devighat, 1,500 ft., 31-3-35, 1-4-35 ; Nagarkot, 5,000 ft., 17-6-35. 305. Chliaria othona Hew. Evans 79.1. A single specimen at Bhimpedi, below the Valley, 2,000 ft., 27-9-36. 306. Chliaria kina cachara M. Bvans 79.2. - Common on damp stones in the Valley and up to 6,000 ft. on the hills, March to October. Two specimens may be C. kina kina Hew. These are extensions of habitat east (C. & £zza) and west (C. &. cachara). 307. Hypolycaena erylus himavantus Fruh. (W) Evans 80.3. Valley April to July, some at lower elevations in October. 308. Zeltus etolus F, (W) Evans 81. Two specimens below the Valley, Nawakot, 3,000 ft., 17-10-35 ; Devighat, 2,000 ft., 1-11-35. | 309. Deudoryx epijarbas ancus Fruh. (W) Evans 83.1. Common in the Legation garden at Katmandu in July, August and September. Frequently at Michaelmas daisies. A female bred from a larva in an apple emerged 2-7-37. The subspecies was checked at the British Museum. NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES FROM NEPAL 993 310. Virachola perse perse Hew. Evans 84.2. Two specimens in the Valley, 1-9-35; a female specimen at Devighat, 1,500 ft., 3-11-36. 311. Rapala refulgens DeN. Evans 85.5. A few taken in the Valley between April and September. 312. Rapala tara DeN. Evans 85.9. A few at Godaveri in Valley, 5,000 ft. in May and October, but at no other time or place. 313. Rapala varuna orseis Hew. (W) Evans 85.11. Katmandu, 4,500 ft., 4-5-35, 11-10-35, 3-9-37. A specimen at Tribeni in the Terai, 3-12-35. 314. Rapala schistacea M. Evans 85.12. Not uncommon in the Valley and up to 6,000 ft. at Nagarkot; April to September. 315. Rapala scintilla DeN. (W) Evans 85.13. On the hills surrounding the Valley. Two specimens, Nagarkot, 7,000 ft. end of October 1936; Thankot, 6,000 ft., 26-4-36. 316. Rapala pheritimus petosiris Hew. (W) Evans 85.14. | . A few in the Valley, between June and October; Devighat, 1,500 ft., 25-10-35 ; a specimen brought in from the north Dendrawati, 18-5-35. 317. Rapala melampus Cr. Evans 85.16. | 7 A single specimen at Katmandu 4-6-35. This is an extension of habitat eastwards in the Himalayas. 318. Rapala nissa nissa Kol. Evans 85.19. Very common in the Valley. The first appearance is in March when a great many are seen on flowering shrubs. A favourite bush is Ligustrum nepalense Wall. The numbers gradually diminish until October. Up to 7,000 ft. at Nagarkot, June, July, and August. 319. Sinthusa chandrana M. Evans 86.2. A single specimen at Katmandu, 23-3-37. 320. Sinthusa nasaka pallidior Fruh. (E) Evans 86.3. A few in the Valley, March to September, 294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 HESPERIIDAE 321. Hasora chromus chromus Cr. Evans 1.16, Cat. A.3.13. Katmandu, 24-4-37, 23-6-37. 322. Bibasis vasutana M. PW VANS elo. -A@atee A oe Godaveri, Valley 5,000 ft., 20-10-36. 323, Choaspes xanthopogon Koll. Evans 4.4. Cat. A.5.4. Valley, March, May, August and October. 324, Celaenorrhinus ratna tytleri Evans. (W) Evans 11.9. Cat. B.6.9. One specimen at Katmandu 20-3-36., Several on Surrounding hills up to 7,000 ft. Like its congeners it inhabits dense forest where it settles on the underside of leaves. B29. Celaecnorrhinus munda M. Evans I1:17. Cat.B.6.19. Kodari, north Nepal, 27-5-37. 326, Celaenorrhinus dhanada dhanada M. Evans 11.29. Cat.b.6.27. One specimen, Katmandu, 2-9-37. 327. Lobocla liliana ignatius Plotz. (E) Evans 12.2. Cat.B.4.1. Many in the Valley and on the surrounding hills where it flies round tree tops in bright sunlight in May and June. A specimen from Kodari, north Nepal, 22-8-37. 328. Seseria dohertyi dohertyi Watson. Bvans 13.7. Cat.©. 8.2. Stx specimens in the Valley, April to July. 329. Tagiades gana athos Plotz. Evans 14.3. C.12.2. A single specimen in the eastern Terai 8-3-26. 330. Tagiades menaka menaka M. Evans 14.9. Cat.C.12.9. Common in the Valley from April to October. 331. Tagiades litigosa litigosa Mosth. Evans 14.10. Cat.C.12.8. Common in the Valley, March to May; some at lower elevations in October. | NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES FROM NEPAL 295 332. Coladenia dan fatih Koll, Evans 20.1. Cat.C€.5.1. Common in the Valley, May to August. Many brought in by collec- tors from west Nepal. 333. Sarangesa dasahara dasahara M. wEvans 21033 Cat:C.6.2: Devighat, 1,500 ft. and lower elevations below the Valley, May, July and October. 334. Darpa hanria M. (W) Byvans 22.1.0, Cate C.3i0. Several at Godaveri in the Valley 5,000 ft., April and May. All were drinking on wet stone. 335. Ctencptilum vasava vasava M. (W) Byvans 24.1. Cat.G:16.1, A single specimen at Katmandu, 4,500 ft., 22-4-35, 336. Spiala galba F. Evans 28.2. Cat.D.4.2. Common in the Terai in winter. A few in the Valley and up to 5,000 ft., June and October. 337. Aeromachus stigmata stigmata M. Evans 43.4. Cat.G.6.4. A single specimen Kakni, 7,000 ft., 15-8-35. 338. Aeromachus jhora jhora Dn. (W) Evans 43.8. Cat.G.6.6. Two specimens at Thankot above the Valley, 7,000 ft., 17-7-37. 339. Pedesta masuriensis DeN. Evans 44.1. Cat.G.9.1. Several in the Valley and surrounding hills up to 7,000 ft. April,: to August; also brought in by collectors from Kodari, north Nepal, 22-5-37. 340. lambrix salsala salsala M. Evans 46.2. Cat.I.1.1. A few at Devighat below the Valley, 1,500 ft. in March and April. 341. Ancistroides nigrita diocles M. . EW) Evans 55.1. Cat.I.5.1. Bhimpedi, 1,000 ft., early October. 342. Udaspes folus Cr. Evans 3/7... Cat. 7il: Common in the Valley and surrounding hills, April to August. 296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 343. Notocrypta feisthamelii alysos M. Evans 538.5. Cat.I1.6-6. Common in the Valley and surrounding hills usually in dense forest, March to September. 344. Notocrypta curvifascia curvifascia Fd. Evans 58.6. Cat.I.6.5. Common in the Valley, April to August. Especially plentiful in April. 345. Erionota torus Evans Evans 60.1. Cat.J.14.1. A single specimen at Khatmandu, 6-4-35. 346. Matapa aria M. Evans 64.1. Cat. J.17.1. A single specimen at Bhimpedi, 1,500 ft., 15-11-35. 347. Sovia grahami Evans. Evans 83.4. Cat.G.8.1. Two specimens brought by collectors from Kashiganj, north Nepal, 7-8-35, [ 348. Thoressa aina DeN. Evans 83.9. CaGGralt7. One specimen from the interior of Nepal and one from Thankot above the Valley 5,(C00 ft., 17-7-37,. 349, Thoressa gupta gupta DeN. Evans 83.12. Cat.G.11.15. A few in the Valley at 5,000 ft., in May. 350. Halpe kumara M. (W) Evans 83.28 Cat. G. 12-5. One specimen from the Valley 20-6-36. Several brought in from north Nepal in May and June ; Kodari 15-5-37 and 22-5-37, 351. Taractrocera danna M. Evans 88.1. Cat. L. 1-1. Common in the Valley and up to 6,000 ft. on the surrounding hills; flies along sunny roadsides. 352, Taractrocera maevius sagara M. Evans 88.2 Catrall. A.2: Several in the Valley, March, June and August, 353. Potanthus dara Koll. (E) Evans 90.8. Cat. L. 5.13. One specimen at Nawakot below the Valley 2,500 ft., 2-4-35, NOTES ON BUTTERFLIES FROM NEPAL 297 354. Potanthus pseudomaesa clio Evans. Evans 90.10. Cat... 5.0: Two specimens from the Valley. Khatmandu, 4,500 ft., 3-10-35, Godaveri. 5,000 ft., 8-10-36.- 355. Potanthus confucius dushta Fruh. Evans 90.12. Cat. L. 5.16. Two specimens from the Terai. Tribeni 3-2-36 ; Morang, east Terai, 28- 2-26. 356. Telicota ancilla bambusae M. Evans 91.2. Cat. L. 7-9. Raxaul, 1,000 ft., 7-3-38. Devighat, 1,500 ft., 25-10-35. 357. Ochlodes brahma M. Evans 93.8. Cat. K. 3.11. On hills surrounding the Valley, April and May. Some brought in from the interior, May and June, 358. Baoris farri farri M. Evans 97.1. Cat. M. 6.2. A single specimen in the western Terai, 3-2-26. 359, Caltoris cahira austeni M. (W) Evans 97.9. Cat. M. 7.5. Two specimens from the Valley. Khatmandu, 4,500 ft., 16-10-37, Godaveri, 5,000 ft., 20-10-36. 360. Caltoris tulsi tulsi DeN. (W) c Evans 97.13. Cat. M. 7.12. Khatmandu, 4,500 ft., 16-10-37, 27-10-37. 361. Polytremis eltola eltola Hew, Evans 97.21. Cat. M. 5.11.1. Common in the Valley, April to October, and on the surrounding hills at 7,000 ft. in August. 362. Pelopidas sinensis Mab. Evans 97.30. Cat. M. 4.1. Common in the Valley and up to 7,000 ft. on the surrounding hills, June to August, a few in April. 363. Pelopidas mathias mathias F., Evans 97.31. Cat. M. 4-5. several in the Valley, September and October ; a few brought in from Yarsa, north Nepal, 5-8-35; in the Terai at lower elevations December and January. a 298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 364. Parnara guttatus mangala M. Evans 97.32. ‘Cat. M. 2.1. Very common in the Valley and on the surrounding hills, July to October; a few in March and May. A pair zz copula at Khatmandu, 26-9-37. 365. Borbo bevani M. Evans 97.34. Cat. M. 3.3. Common everywhere March to October; a pair zz copula at Nagarkot, 6,000 ft., 9-9-35. Since compiling this list I have seen a fine collection of Nepal butterflies which has been presented to the British Museum by Colonel D. G. Lowndes who was a member of Tilman’s expedition to Nepal in 1950. This includes an interesting Parnasstus delbhius and several Coleas which are quite different to any I obtained. In fact, it was clear that my collectors did not venture high enough to get such things. HABITS OF THE COMMON MEMBRACID (‘TREE-HOPPER’) —OTINOTUS ONERATUS WALK. (HOMOPTERA: RHYNCHOTA)! BY BasAnTa KumMAR BEHURA, M.Sc. (Cal.), Ph.p. (Edin.), F.R.E.S. Department of Zoology, Ravenshaw College, Cuttack. SYNOPSIS The habits of the membracid Otinotus oneratus Walk., are studied. A list of host-plants in Calcutta and Orissa is given. It infests a large variety of plants belonging to different families among which are included a number of cultivated plants of economic’ import- ance e.g. Mangifera indica, Tamarindus indica, Cajanus indicus. Cinnamomum tamala, Citrus aurantium and Zizyphus jujuba. The nymphs and adults of the membracid species are attended by the common black ant Camponotus compressus Fabr., both on poisonous and non-poisonous plants alike. INTRODUCTION Distant’s (1908, 1916) admirable works on the taxonomy and distribution of Indian membracids are of great walue, but little is known about their bionomics and host-plants. Observations on the common membracid Otinoius oneratus Walk., were made by me during the months of October and November, 1945 as well as at other times during 1946-47 in a _ village called Sudhakanthy, in the Balikuda sub-division of the district of Cuttack, Orissa. This species also occurs in Calcutta and its habits were studied by me in Calcutta too, in the garden of the University College of Science, 35 Ballygunge Circular road during the period July, 1945 to September, 1946. Although Distant (1908, 1916) states a number of discontinuous places showing its wide distribution throughout India, O. oneratus has been recorded from Orissa from only two places viz:—Rambha and Satpara in the Ganjam district.’ Funkhouser (1917) has given an admirable account of the ecology of the New World membracids. Since accounts of the habits of Indian membracids are greatly wanting and practically nothing is known about the habits of any species of the genus Otinolus, I have endeavoured to describe in some detail my field observations. The village Sudhakanthy was selected by me for the study, as the various host-plants belonging to different families occurred in plenty in this locality. However, some difficulty was experienced in the identi- fication of the host-plants in the absence of a suitable work on the flora of this region. Most of the plants were kindly identified by Mr. C. M. Bastia of the Department of Botany, RKavenshaw College, 1 The paper was presented to the Indian Science Congress, Bangalore, 1951 and an abstract appeared in the Proc. 38 Ind, Sc. Cong. (3). 213-214. * Distant’s (1916) Janjam district is apparently a mis-print for Ganjam district, 300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 Cuttack, to whom I am very grateful. I also record my sincere thanks to Mr. D, Mukerji of the Department of Zoology, University College of Science, Calcutta University, for his kind help during the preparation of the manuscript. MEASUREMENTS In the species O. oneratus the males are usually smaller than the females. Specimens collected on the host-plant Lawsonia alba L., in Calcutta on 21-7-1945 measured as follows: Males 5 mm. to 5.8 mm., average 5.3 mm.; and females 5.6 mm. to 6.2 mm., average 6 mm, 04S) he a, ANS Apart from a mere statement by Buckton (1903) that Oxyrachis lignicola which was later placed as a synonym under O. oneratus by Distant (1908), laid eggs on ‘the bark of a leguminous shrub’ obtained from Raniseram, South India, practically nothing is known about the host-plants of this species. A plant should be indicated as a host-plant only when the pest actually feeds and breeds on it. In this paper, the term ‘host-plant’ has been used in its broadest sense that mating, feeding and young stages of these insects are available on the plants. Whether eggs were laid on the plants cannot be definitely stated in the majority of the cases as they might have escaped my attention. An examination of the host-plants indicated that O. oneratus feeds on a large variety of plants belonging to various families. The following is the list of plants usually somewhat heavily infested in the Sudhakanthy locality : SCIENTIFIC NAME LOCAL POPULAR NAME OF THE PLANT FAMILY CURRENT IN ORIYA 1. Mangiteraindica Linn... Anacardiaceae Amba (mango) 2. Anona reticulata Linn... Anonaceae — 3. (?) Daemia extensa Br.... Asclepiadaceae — 4, Flacourtia ramontcht : 14s IB .. Bixaceae a — 5. Zamarindus indica Linn. Caesalpiniaceae Kaiyan (Tamarind) 6. Cinnamomum tamala Fr. Nees .. Lauraceae Teja-patra 7. Gossypium herbaceum Pepa: ... Malvaceae Kapa (Cotton) 8. Michelia champaca Linn. Magnoliaceae Champa 9. Cajanus indicus Spreng. Papilionaceae Harada 10. rythrina indica Lamk. Papilionaceae Paladhua ll. Citrus aurantium Linn... Rutaceae Silata kamala (Or- ange) 12. Zizyphus jujuba Lamk... Rhamnaceae Barakoli 13. Zizyphus oenoplia Mill... Rhamnaceae Bhuin Barakoli, Kantai koli 14, Datura fastuosa Linn. ... Solanaceae Kala dhutura 15. Tips of stilt roots of Ficus bengalensis Linn. Urticaceae Bara (Banyan tree) HABITS OF THE COMMON MEMBRACID (‘TREE-HOPPER’) 301 (Although O. oneratus is commonly found on the stilt roots of the banyan tree, I doubt if it is a true host-plant of the membracid species. I have not found eggs and nymphs of this species on this tree.) In Calcutta O. oneratus was observed on the following plants: SCIENTIFIC NAME LOCAL POPULAR NAME FAMILY OF THE PLANT CURRENT IN BENGALI 1. Cajanus indicus Sp. ... Papilionaceae Arhar 2. Lawsonia alba Linn. ... Lythraceae — 3. Morus indica L. --. Moraceae + ut 4. Zyzybhus jujuba Lamk.... Rhamnaceae Kul 5. Acacia montlitormis Griseb, ... Leguminosae — HaBITS O. oneratus like other membracids are sun-loving insects and are often found on plants growing in the open fields. They live in droves grouped at the axils of the branches and on the mid-ribs of leaves on the adaxial side. Three or five form a group. Usually they form such a dense group that the insects touch one another. The crowd stays for hours at a place. In the majority of the cases, the adults rest with their heads pointing toward the base of the branch or point downward if they are on the trunk. While resting on hanging stilt roots of Ficus bengalensis the head directly points downward. This characteristic attitude can be explained as_ they simulate the thorns of the host-plants by their three pronotal spines with head pointing down. The nymphs lie attached to crevices of the bark by flattening of bodies or rest close to the axil of a leaf or crotch of a twig. In most cases the coloration of the nymphs as well as that of adults is such that they are not easily seen in such situations. They are generally most active during the warm parts of the day ; feeding, mating and flight taking place from to o’clock in the morning to 4 o’clock in the afternoon. The species is decidedly gregarious in habit. The insects remain in one spot for a long time deeply planting their proboscis in plant tissues, drawing sap, and do not move to tap fresh sources. While engaged in feeding they are found generally attended by ants. I have never come across any membracid being attacked or killed by other animals. | Pairing occurs with the caudal extremities meeting’ and the heads facing in opposite directions. The pair on being disturbed fall to the ground, but they do not separate. The only movement per- ceptible is when the female drags forward the male (in copula) behind ifs Eggs are commonly deposited under bark of young twigs. In Calcutta and Cuttack, I noticed the eggs especially on the shoots of 302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Cajanus indicus. The eggs are deposited in small groups running in two parallel lines cut in the twigs of trees and shrubs. If disturbed the insect usually circles round the axis of the twig or stem, but does not take to flight unless seriously disturbed. The insect fails to notice the approach of any foreign object if the move- ment of the latter be slow. It may even be touched with the finger if one is cautious and the hand is moved slowly; the sharp quick motion of an approaching object is readily detected by the insect which immediately takes to flight through the air. The usual method of progression is..walking on the host-plant. The walking motion is deliberately slow. If gently poked it goes round the stem with an awkward gait and flying is its last resort, Although the term ‘tree hopper’ is applied to the family, this species was never seen hopping about from stem to stem or leaf to leaf.- Of the three methods of locomotion—flying; walking and jumping—the last is certainly the least seen. In taking off it leaps through the air and in the last lap of the jump the wings are spread out. The flight, however, is seldom sustained for a long distance. The nymphs of course are unable to fly, and in no case has a Ay atele been seen to jump or take a leap. It crawls, I! ans, ' ' at Ac Tr: EO NUD AtN Can tp woe NGS The remarks of Wheeler (1910) that ‘The relations of the ants to the tree-hoppers (Membracidae, Cercopidae) are but little known, as these insects are abundant only in warm countries’ (p. 350) un- fortunately are still applicable. In some of the accounts from India bearing on the problem, one misses the reference to the membracid or that of the ant. It may be recalled that Belt (1874) was the first scientist to record the attendance of ants on a species of membracid larvae, though Sharp (1899) doubted it. Green (1910) put forth his observations in support of Belt. He stated that the larvae of various species of Centrotus were assiduously attended by ants. However, that the larvae and adults of membracids are attended by ants is now a well established fact (Imms, 1948). In all the host-plants without a single exception I find that the common black ant Camponotus compressus Fabr., attends the nymphs and adults of the membracid O. oneratus. The ants stroke the membracids with their antennae, whereupon these ant ‘cattle’ give off from the anal tube a liquid that issues in bubbles in considerable quantity. The liquid is colourless and transparent. The anal tube of the membracid is capable of great evagination specially in the nymphs, in which it is long and cylindrical and this is usually raised upward. This honey dew of the anal tube is eagerly licked by the ants. The adults as well as the nymphs are ‘milked’ by the ants | in the same way. It is worth pointing out that the adults do not excrete the liquid in such quantity as the nymphs. In general, the mutual relationship between O. oneratus and C. compressus exists in the same way as that found between aphids and ants, The ants Wd n HABITS OF THE COMMON MEMBRACID (‘TREE-HOPPER’) 303 seek the membracid assiduously. In many cases the hiding places of the membracid nymphs are detected by following the marching column of the ants. The ants do not drive these ‘cattle’, as in the case of certain aphids in ant-home perhaps because the membracids find natural shelter under the crevices of bark or are distasteful to carry in the mouth. The advantage to the membracid evidently accrues from the protection they get from the ants, which do not hesitate to bite viciously the fingers of the collector who seeks to remove nymphs or adults from the plant. As soon as the finger is brought near the membracids the ants rush forth to bite so as to drive away the intruder. : | Ayyar (1935) in his admirable study of the life-history of C. compressus stated that ‘Camponotus, which ordinarily infests a con- siderable variety of plants, seems to avoid-a few poisonous plants, even though these may be situated in the vicinity of its nest’. Among such plants he includes Datura fastuosa and further states that even when poisonous plants harbour sap-sucking Homoptera these ants do not care to live in association with them, and the plants are com- pletely free from ants. My own observations are quite contrary to the above. I have found large numbers of C. compressus attending colonies of O. oneratus on poisonous plants like Datura fasivosa and Daemia extensa. This undoubtedly shows that C. compressus follows membracids even when they occur on poisonous plants. Beconomic, IMPORTANCE So far as feeding is concerned there is little evidence that ‘membracids directly cause any injury to the host-plants. The quantity of sap consumed by the insects is negligible and the wounds made by the proboscis of their beaks are neither large enough to destroy tissue nor extensive enough to offer an opportunity for other types of infection. Careful examination of trees in the field revealed no indication of any possible injury from the feeding of membracids. The oviposition in plants can be more destructive, but even this appears to cause little injury to the host-plants though minor lacera- tions of outer bark are noticeable. The agricultural importance of the membracids lies in the injury they cause, in an indirect manner, to a variety of cultivated crops, trees and shrubs by their symbiotic association with the ant C. com- pressus. The ants by coaxing the membracids to yield more drops of sweet excretion make these insects draw sap heavily and thereby indirectly cause the loss of sap. Where the infestation of O. oneratus is very heavy, as for instance on Tamarindus indica, especially when the tree is in fruit, the ants crowd in plenty. Further, by the growth of Datura plants and such other shrubs near about the mud houses, the membracids thrive and encourage the ants to make their nests nearby and the ant population by their sheer number becomes obnoxious. 304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SCCIETY, Vol. 50 REFERENCES Ayyar, P. N. K. (1935): The Biology and economic status of the common black ant of South India—Camponotus (Tanaemyrmex) compressus Latr, Bull. Ent, Res. 26: 575-585. Belt, T. (1874): A Naturalist in Nicaragua, London, Pp. 226-227. — Buckton, G. B. (1903): A Monograph of the Membracidae, London, Pp. 224-225. Distant, W. L. (1908): The Fauna of British India. Rhynchota. 4: 40-41. Distant, W. L. (1916): The Fauna of British India. Rhynchota. 6: 160. _ Funkhouser, W. D. (1917): Biology of the Membracidae of the Cayuga Lake Basin. Cornell Univ. Agric. Stat..Mem. 14. 1917: 177-445. Green, E. E, (1900): Note on the attractive properties of certain larval Hemiptera. Ent. Mag. 36: 185. Imms, A. D, (1948): A Student’s Text Book of Entomology, London. 7th Ed., p. 3753 Sharp, D.. (1899): Cambridge Natural History. Insects. Pt. II, p. 577. Wheeler, W. M. (1910): Ants, their Structure, Development and Behaviour, New York, p.. 350. CRITICAL NOTES ON THE IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF SOME BOMBAY PLANTS BY H. SANTAPAU, S. j. (With two plates) The subject of these notes has been under consideration for a long time; the materials for this paper were collected nay, during my long stay in Kew Herbarium and library. During the last few years it has been my lot to hear some very disparaging remarks on the question of name changes of Indian plants; some authors have even begun to demand that a list of Nomina Specifica Conservanda be adopted similar to that of Nomina Generica Conservanda and thus settle the question once and for all. I have discussed this point elsewhere, and so I shall not dwell on the same point any further. Suffice it to say at this stage that the changes suggested in the following paragraphs are necessitated by the more accurate study of the identity of our Indian plants; it is not merely a question of names, it is a question of the actual identity of the plants that go under very well known names in most of our Floras. 1. Terminalia tomentosa and T. crenulata. In the district around Bombay, scattered through dense forests or on more or less bare plateaus and slopes, there is a common tree that is popularly known under the name of Ain. Cooke in his Flora gives the following synonyms for the tree: ee Terminalia tomentosa Wight & Arn. T. glabra var. tomentosa Dalz. & Gibs. T. crenulata W. & A. T. coriacea W. & A. Pentaptera tomentosa Roxb. As it is plain from this list of synonyms, Cooke has mixed up at least three plants, that Clarke in Fl. Brit. Ind. 2: 447-448 recognized as three distinct varieties of the same species. Gamble in his Flora of Madras Presidency, pp. 462-463, 1919, has, following Wight and ‘Arnott, separated this compiex group into three different species. The reasons for this step are stated by Gamble in Kew Bull. 1920:51 thus: ‘While travelling on Forest duty in various parts of South India I could not help being struck by the inadequacy of the arguments by which the well-marked species of Terminalia, T. crenulata, T. tomentosa and T. coriacea, admitted by Wight and Arnott, were joined together into one species, 7. tomentosa, in the ‘‘Flora of British India’. I have, therefore, gone back to the arrangement of Wight and Arnott.’ G 306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Val. 60 The following table, based on Gamble’s key in his Flora of Madras, pp. 462-463, gives the specific differences of these three plants: cor1acea tomentosa crenulala Leaves yellowish-brown villous | glabrous’ or | underside. velvety nearly so Leaves _... coriaceous coriaceous membranous / chartaceous obtuse/emarginate obtuse/emargin./ obtuse/acute subacute unequal cordate rounded/cordate narrowed Twigs and y ellowish-brown villous glabrous intloresc. velvety FOnigles ee i dense lax Glands ... sessile stalked stalked at base of midrib near base of someway up : . midrib midrib Frutt .. yellowish-brown glabrous glabrous veivety Examining our Bombay plants in accordance with this key, it is piain that only JT. crenulata is common in these parts of India. Cooke’s description is based on mixed material of the three species ; for this reason I give herewith the complete deseri iption and synonymy of our plant. Terminalia crenulata Roth, Nov. Pl. Sp. 380, 1821; Wight & Aino. perodra 314. Pentaptera crenulata Roxb., Hort. Beng. 34, 1814 & FI. Ind. 438, 1832. T. tomentosa var. cvenulata Clarke in FBI. 2: 448, 1878. T. tomentosa Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bombay 1: 479, 1903 ; Talbot, For. Fl. 2: 18, t. 297, ambo pro parte: An erect deciduous tree 2-25 m. high, smali when growing in open rocky plateaus and slopes, very large in dense forest. Young branches and inflorescence often badly attacked by insects and covered with unsightly galls. Young parts more or less yellowish-brown pubescent, older parts glabrous or nearly so. Leaves opposite or ‘ subopposite, fairly thick, 5-18 x 3-7 cms., ovate or elliptic-oblong, often obovate, glabrous or nearly so, with 1-2 glands, (which occasion- ally are absent); the glands are stalked and placed some way up along the midrib, occasionally they are on the side nerves; leaf apex rounded or obtuse, subacute or acute; base narrowed, rounded or subcordate, sometimes distinctly unequal-sided; margins _ entire, shallowly crenate or subserrate; nerves parallel, arcuate, quite clear; petioles about 1 cm. long, glabrous when old. Flowers hermaphrodite, in axillary or terminal, lax, glabrous or nearly glabrous panicles; flowers strongly and sweetly honey-scented. Calyx glabrous outside, broadly campanulate, teeth broadly triangular, hairy within; bracts glabrous. or nearly so. Disc with long fulvous hairs. The whole flower at first is greenish, then pale yellowish, finally turning brown. IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF SOME BOMBAY PLANTS 307 Fruit up to 5 cms. or more long, up to 5 cms. diam. including the 5 broad wings; nerves on wings very numerous, faint, running horizontally from the axis to the edges. The ripe fruits remain on the parent tree for a long time, occasionally even when the flowers of the next flowering season are on. A very common tree in Bombay State; when in full foliage and flower it is a good sight, and many inseets, especially bees, seem to frequent it for honey. This is the only species of the complex coriacea-tomentosa-crenaldta that is truly common in Bombay; I have seen no specimens of the other two species. 2. The gentis Bridelia in Bombay State. Under the popular name of Asana there is another complex group of trees consisting of at least 2, probably 3 different species of the genus Bridelia; Cooke in his Flora covers these several species under the name of B. retusa. The following key to the Bombay species of Bridelia has been based on that of Gehrmann in his monograph in Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 41, Beibl. 95, pp. 26-28, 1908. KEY TO THE BOMBAY SPECIES OF BRIDELIA Leaves ovate or elliptic or oblong: Female flowers pubescent inside or outside; climbers : Flowers pubescent outside, glabrous inside ... scandens. Flowers. glabrous outside, pubescent inside ... stipularis. Female flowers glabrous; erect trees: Flowers gathered in clusters on leafless branches. velusa, Flowers in clusters in leaf axils: Leaves rounded at the base, attenuated at the apex, acute, glabrous when old. w. Squamosa, Leaves ovate-elliptic, rounded at the apex, sometiine = emarginate, tomentose at least beneath when old ... roxburghiana. '_ Leaves. culheate, mostly abruptly and shortly acuminate ; erect shrubs eal ME AAS A freee: ...- hamiltoniana, nae Scandens (Koxb:) Willd.; Sp. Pl. 4: 979, 1805 pro-parte; Gehrmann, loc. cit. 29; Jablonszki, Pfreich. 65: 55. B. stipulavis Muell.-Arg. in DC., Prodr. 1§ (2): 499, 1866, pro min. parte. me Cluvita scandens Roxb,, Pl. Cor: 2-40, t. 173, °-1798: B. stipularis Cooke, FI. Pres. Bombay 2: 573, pro parte. As it is plain from the key and from the synonymy, the modern trend is to consider B. scandens Willd. as distinct from B. stipularis Blume; in this separation I have followed Gehrmann, Jablonszki and Gamble; the latter in his Flora of Madras keeps the two plants separate. Gamble describes this plant thus: ‘A large climbing shrub with thorny stems and branches, the flowering spikes often long and distichous with small leaves.’ (p. 1281). Jablonszki loc. cit. men- tions this plant for Bombay: ‘Concan (Stocks, Law, etc. . . .)’, whilst the following species is not mentioned as occurring in our 7 308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vel. 50 parts of India. Examination of the specimens in Blatter Herbarium, collected by Blatter himself, Hallberg and McCann, Sedgwick, Acland and my own collection, shows that it is this species and not B. stipularis that is common in Bombay. I have come to this conclusion judging my materials by Gehrmann’s key; the same conclusion is reached using Gamble’s more detailed key given on p. 1280 of his Flora of Madras. North Kanara, Dharwar, Sedgwick 1831! Anmod, Sedgwick 3379! Yellapur, Nana 5815! Arbail Ghat, Sedgwick 5822! Jog, Hallberg & McCann 35041! Londa, Santapau 10882! 10883! Deccan, Kolhapur, Acland 1094! Bridelia stipularis (Linn.) Blume, Bijdr. 2: 597, 1825; Muell.-Arg. in DC., Prodr. 15 (2): 499, pro parte; Gehrmann & Jablonszki Il. cc.; Gamble, Fl. Madr. 1281; Cooke, loc. cit. pro parte. B. scandens Willd., loc. cit. pro min. parte. Cluytia stipularis Linn., Mant. 127, 1767. ‘A large climbing shrub, with fulvous-tomentose branches, often thorny when young, the leaves on flowering shoots small but often wanting’ (Gamble, p. 1281). Cooke’s description is based on mixed material, which for the most part seems to belong to the preceding species. In Blatter Herbarium there are several specimens labelled ‘B. stipularis’ but as stated above, they all belong to the preceding species. Bridelia vetusa (Linn.) Spreng., Syst. Veg. 3: 48, 1826; Gehrmann 30; Jablonszki 69; Gamble, 1279; Cooke, 572 pro parte. B. spinosa Willd., Sp. Pl. 4 (2): 979, 1805; Graham 184. Cluytia retusa Linn., Sp. Pl. 1042, -1753: As stated in the key given above, this species is typified by the clusters of flowers on long terminal or axillary paniculate spikes. It is a rare plant in Bombay; the only specimens in Blatter Herbarium are the following: W. of Dharwar Sedgwick 2852! Dapoli, Acland 1OO2,, i224 In Blatt. Herb. there are several sheets, some of them of my own collection, that seem to be intermediate between this and the follow- ing species; flowers or fruits are in clusters in ‘the leaf-axils, but at the same time they are also in terminal leafless spikes on one and the same specimen. Of this intermediate category are the following numbers: Concan, Campoli, 28336! Salsette Island, Nana 1589 (2) ! 1589 (3)! Santapau 975! 976! (see plate I, fig. 1).- Bridelia squamosa (Lam.) Gehrmann, in Engler, Bot Jahrb. 4t, Beibl. 95: 30, 1908 sensu lato; Jablonszki 7o. Cluytia squamosa Lam., Encycl. 5 (2): 54, 1790. B. retusa Cooke, Fl. Bombay Pres. 2: 572, pro parte, non Spreng. This is the common and typical 4 sana of Bombay, with flowers clustered in the axils of leaves, and the leaves being attenuated at ‘UIYas) vsou'pnhs pyapiag °Z “BIA ‘IdG psnjad vYaplag “| “B14 FOme Gemeennnnee cement A, } ] a1vig ‘008 ‘98SIH ‘3eN Avquog ‘uno ) ‘TTe MA Duviuojjiupy I] aLyv1d ea 00g "9SIH ‘JN Avquog ‘'udnor IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF SOME BOMBAY PLANTS 309 the apex and glabrous. Jabionszki describes this species thus: ‘Shrubs or small trees about 7 metres high; branchlets somewhat thick, the younger ones greyish- or rufous-tomentose or puberulous. Stipules large, ovate or triangular or narrowed, 5-9 min. long; leaf- blade rigidly coriaceous, 7-14 cms. long, 2-5.5 cms. broad, lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, acute or acuminate at the apex, rounded at the base, more or less shining above, dull or subglaucous beneath, some- what hairy to more or less glabrous, densely papillose; nerves 14-20. Flowers clustered, pubescent or nearly so outside, axillary. Drupe globose, 8-11 mm. diam. The rest as in B. retusa.’ . For the occurrence of this tree in Bombay, Jablonszki cites the following sheets: Lanavla, Meebold 4696, 4901; Matheran, Meebold 4902; Castle Rock, Meebold 9820; Khandala Meebold 8946. In Khandala I have collected this plant on numerous occasions, but my sheets are not mentioned here, as they are listed in my Flora of Khandala. Other specimens from Blatter Herbarium are: Castle Rock, Ahmed Khan 4177! Near Kolhapur, Acland 1092! 1107! Salsette Island, Santapau 68.75! Purandhar, Kulp 8434! Mahablesh- war, Santapau! Simhagadh Fort, Santapau! (see plate I, fig. 2). Bridelia voxburghiana (Muell.-Arg.) Gehrmann, loc. cit. 30; \ablonszkia 70, *f. 12;* Gamble, “1279 B. vetusa var. roxburghiana Muell.-Arg. in DC., Prodr. 15 (2): Zope ieee. Mie Brits Ind. -5,.: 7268. | ‘Branches thick, glabrous, the younger ones rutous-puberulous. Stipules caducous; leaf blade ovate, subcordate at base, rounded at apex, 5-9 cms. long, 2.5-4.5 cms. broad, strongly coriaceous, pale yellowish green above, dull and more or less softly rufous-villous beneath, densely papillose. Clusters axillary; flowers puberulous outside. Drupe globose, 7-8 mm. diam. The rest as in the preceding species’ (i.e. in B. squamosa). (Jablonszki loc. cit.). © Gamble in his description (p. 1279) adds that the leaves are obtuse or emarginate at the apex. Cooke does not mention this plant for Bombay. On the other hand Sedgwick on a herbarium sheet of his collection remarks that this plant is ‘v. common in forests’ about Dharwar (see plate II, fig. 3). Karwar, T. R. Bell 7806! Dharwar Dist., Sedgwick 2348! Devicop, — Dharwar Dist., Sedgwick 5921! Ratnagiri, on the Ghats, Santapau 68.1 ! Bridelia hamiltoniana Wall., Cat. 7882, 1847 (nomen nudum); Muell.- Een einnaed 34.777, ts05-00. & im DC. Prodr. 15. (2): 500, 1goO;— Hie 'Brit.. Ind. 5: 271; Gehrmann; 34; Jablonszki 62; Cocker s202 573. A shrubby plant with very typical rhomboid or diamond-shaped leaves. To the localities mentioned by Cooke, add the following: Trombay, Meebold 16511; Elephanta Island, Acland 1095! Khandala, Santapau 1343! 4665! Mumbra, Santapau 8153! 12061! 12062! Mulgaon, Salsette Island, Santapau 68.29! 68.57! Kaneri Caves, Santapau 7055! (see plate II, fig. 4). 310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HisT. SOCIETY, Vol. 56 3. Atylosia or Cantharospermum ? In his Supplement to the Botany of Bihar and Orissa (1950) Dr. H. Mooney states (p. 52): ‘Cantharospermum scarabacoides (Linn.) Baill. . . . is the correct name for Alylosia scarahaeoides Benth. . . .’ and mentions a number of species of the same genus that have been shifted to Cantharospermum as the only correct name for that group of plants. The question of these two names has been very lucidly discussed by Sprague in Kew Bull. 1927: 134-135, from whom I quote the following paragraph: ‘The two competing names were published in the same work and at the same date by Wight and Arnott (Prodr. Fl. Pen. Ind. Or. 25, 257: 1834). Cantharospermum being on p. 255 and Alylosia on p. 257. Taubert apparently chose Cantharospermum because of this ‘‘priority of place’. Merrill . . . remarked that ‘‘the generic name Cantivaro- spermum W. & A. has only page preference over Atylosia W. & A., and the latter is by far the more commonly used one. The fact that Atylosia was not included in the list of nomina conservanda of the Vienna Botanical Congress is an excellent illustration of the inconsistency of that list.’’ This appears to have been written under a misapprehension. ‘‘Priority of place’’ is not recognised in the Inter- national Rules. Under Art.46, the first author who united Alylosia and Cantharospermum was at liberty to choose either of the names, and his choice cannot be modified by subsequent authors. Bentham . . appears to have been the first to unite the two genera, and he adopted the name Atylosia. Hence Atylosia is the correct name under the Rules (unless it can be proved that the two genera were united “previously by an author who chose Cantharospermum), and it is therefore unnecessary to place it on the list of nomina conservanda.’ After reading Sprague’s paragraph, during my stay in Kew I did search for any possible reference to such an author who might have fused the two names into Cantharospermum previous to Bentham, but failed to discover such a reference. Even should such an author be produced, this would be one of those clear cases which weuld call for the incluson of Atylosia among the nomina conservanda in view of the many specific epithets that would have to be altered in case Cantharospermum was adopted in place of the commonly used Atylosia. For these reasons in my Flora of Khandala I retained the name Atylosia as the only correct one for the genus. 4, Acacia intsia and Acacia caesia ? This group, Acacia intsia—Acacia caesia is one that has troubied ine for a long time. ‘As a result of much field work I have come to the conclusion that both names refer to one and the same plant at least as far as my Khandala specimens are concerned; the expressions used by Cooke and others on the subject have left me deeply puzzled. Cooke in his Flora, p. 451, writes: ‘This plant (i.e. Acacia caesia) is often confounded with Acacia intsia Willd., but to anyone who has seen both plants growing, their separation as distinct species presents no difficulty.’ Talbot, in For. Fl. 1: 494 adds: ‘Prain . . . separates IDENTITY AND NOMENCLATURE OF SOME BOMBAY PLANTS © 811 them (i.e. A. Intsia from A. caesia) . . . and maintains the two as distinct, stating that the crowded leaflets always hairy beneath makes it very easy to recognise A. caesia even in a herbarium and that no one dreams of confounding the two when they are seen growing. I agree with this opinion.’ On the other hand, Baker in FI. Brit. Ind, 2: 297 unites the two plants under A. intsia, making A. caesia but a variety of the same; Bentham, in Trans. Linn. Sec. 5.: 30, and)Brand. is in. For. Fl, 189, unite the two species into one. I have examined a number of specimens of apparently both species, and have read carefully through Cooke’s and Talbot’s des- criptions, and cannot find any constant and definite character by which these two species should be separated. The main points for the separation are the pubescence of the leaflets and the presence of glands on the rachises of the pinnae, together with the size of the leaflets. None of these characters seems to me to be constant; I find glands on the pinnae (typical of intsia) on leaves which are densely pubescent both on the rachises and leaflets (typical of caesia); pinnae over 12 in number (typical, according to Cooke, of caesia) together -with glabrous leaves (typical of intsia); leaflets overlapping (caesic} together with glabrous leaflets (typical of intsia). I have seen both plants growing and cannot see the obvious differences mentioned by Cooke, Talbot and Prain. Supposing, then, that both names refer to one and the same plant, the next question is what such a plant should be called. Craib in Kew Bull. 1915: 408 writes: ‘The writer regards the material examined by him, all of which has been referred to Acacia caesia and A. intsia, as composed of at least six species. In the enumeration and description of new species it will be noted that full synoriymy is not given, the reason being that the species have been so mixed up that short of examining the actual specimens included under either or both species by successive authors, it has been found impossible to decide which particular plant is referred to.” And again on the same page: ‘ . the writer feels compelled to abolish the name M. inisia altogether, at least so far as the Indian flora is cencerned.’ Of the six species mentioned by Craib, only two are found in Bombay State, judging from the material kept at Kew, Dehra Dun and elsewhere; the species are A. columnaris Craib and A. torta Craib, the latter being by far the commoner of the two in Bombay, and is the plant mentioned above for Khandala. Acacia columnaris Craib, in Kew Bull. 1915: 410, 1915. Differs from A. caesia Willd. in the larger number of pinnae and _ leaflets, and in the columnar glands on the petioles. Branchlets at first somewhat tomentose, sulcate, then glabrous, with ashy bark, and thorns about 1-2 mm. long, straight or slightly curved, somewhat densely arranged. Leaves about 8.5 cms. long (the common petiole scarcely 3 cms. long excluded); common petioles at first crisply puberulous, then glabrous, canaliculate above, provided with a gland 2 mm. high near the base; rachis with 3-4 columnar 312 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. -50 glands in the upper part, with the same type of indumentum as the petioles, on the lower side armed. with recurved prickles; pinnae 8 pairs, 5-6 cms. long, shortly petiolate; leaflets 10-17 pairs, oblong, provided with an apiculum which is straight or slightly bent, base truncate; the leaflets up to a-1 “cm. “lone and 3°55" mim. ibnoad, chartaceous, finally glabrous, shining above, paler beneath, opaque, sessile, nerves prominent beneath, clear above. Capitula about 8-9 mm. diam., arranged in a terminal, ferrugineo-tomentose panicle, the common peduncle about 8 mm. long. Calyx tube sparsely adpressedly ferrugineo-pubescent outside, 1.25 mm. long, lobes 0.75 mim. long, deltoid, acute. Corolla 2.5 mm. long, the upper part of the back slightly ferrugineo-pubescent. Stamens twice as long as the corolla. Ovary pubescent, stalk of the ovary 1 mm. long, glabrous; style glabrous. (Craib, loc. cit. p. 410, trans.) N. Canara, Talbot 622 (Herb. Dehra Dun). A. torta Craib, in Kew Bull. 1915: 470, 16915. A. Caesia Wight & Arn., Prodr. 278, 1834, non Willd. Mimosa torta Roxb... Fl, Ind. 2: 566, 41882. Bombay Presidency. Gibson, Gethune, Dalzell (Herb. Kew.); Concan, Stocks (Herb. Kew. and Mus. Brit.); Belgaum, Ritchie 1737 (Herb. Kew & Edinb.), 1737/3 (Herb. Kew.). | Bibliogs aip hy Cooke, Th. (1901-1908): The Flora of the Bombay Presidency. London. Craib, W. G. (1915): Mimosa caesia and M. intsia. Kew Bull. 1915: 407-410. Gamble, J. S. (1918-1936): The Flora of Madras Presidency. London. Gehrmann, K. (1908): Vorarbeiten zu einen Monographie der Gattung Bridelia mit besonderer Berucksichtigung der afrikanischen Arten. Engler, Bot. Jahrb. 41, Beibl. 95: 1-42, ff. 1-3, plate one. | Jablonszki, E. (1915): Euphorbiaceae. In Engler, Das Pflanzenreich 65: 1-98. Santapau, H. (1951): Changes in Plant Names. In fourn. Sci. Industr. Res. 10B (2): 49-50. Sprague, T. A. (1926): Atylosia or Cantharospermum. In Kew Bull. 1926: 134-135. FORTY YEARS OF SPORT ON LITTLE KNOWN ASSAM RIVERS BY Ws OE. D. COOPER Part II (Continued from p. 100 of this volume) 1935 Boats went off as before early in November and were lent to two friends who had a week’s fishing in the Macrup and Upper Barak. W & I had a very pleasant ride and walk over the hills and a won- derful view of the plains, when we stopped for lunch at the top. As the Macrup and the Upper Barak had been fished hard, loaded up the boats and got away down the Macrup. On the way down had-quite a battle with a big King Cobra, which, instead of getting out of the way as snakes usually do, came straight for the boat with its head well up. When unpleasantly close I dropped my rod and gave him a charge of shot in the face which knocked him down, but he came up again with hood out, and was only turned by the second barrel, when he scrambled to the bank and was finished off with a bullet. In spite of this stretch of the river having been well fished I picked up ten fish on my light fly rod. W had gone ahead and selected a camp site well below the mouth after driving off a large python he found on the site; he had also landed a 24 lb. mahseer. November 27th: Left a very pleasant camp and continued down through new and absolutely wild country, following a herd of elephants which were rather spoiling the water. W landed a 24 lb. mahseer and I caught fish on every rod. November 28th: Reached the mouth of the Irung midday, and found an excellent camp site on a gentle rapid which soothed one to sleep, catching odd fish on the way down. The Irung is a fiver flowing in from Manipur about which I had often heard travellers’ tales. I do not think any European had fished it before beyond the mouth. Came up to expectations; scenery magnificent on a_ scale half way between the Macrup and the Barak. My diary for the next three days reads :— ‘Woke up in our delightful camp, had two leaking boats out for overhaul. They had already been travelling over stones and rapids’ for a month. Went off up the Irung; W went down the Barak. Got into long cool gorges with magnificent scenery; not much doing in the fish line before lunch; was broken by a big one spinning and landed two smaller ones. Had a splendid afternoon with my little fly rod between the gorges and camp, landing 7 good fish on a Yellow Spider. Got back at dusk to find the camp really well fitted 314 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 36 up and W back after a hot and tiring day, with an 18 lb. mahseer. He had been broken by two monsters in spite of having started with an extra strong line. He had also lost another just as he was about to beach it owing to the spoon catch breaking. Plenty of excitement anyhow. November 30th: Had a good morning overhauling tackle and made rather a late start down the Barak to try and find some of the monsters that broke W the day before. Was quite unsuccessful and could not move a fish spinning at all. River very wide and difficult to fish. ‘Also wasted a lot of time hauling my boat up shallow rapids. W went up the Irung and came back with two good fish caught on the troll in the gorges, also shot a barking deer. He could not touch anything on a fly spoon where I did so well the day before. December 1st: Made an early start 8.15 up the Irung and got into some delightful country above the gorges at 10.30. River opens out and I should like to explore further. Saw lots of fish. River very clear and shallow, only managed to hook 4 spinning. -Weather colder, nothing would move to a fly in the evening in the water where I did so well 2 days ago. Got back to camp rather weary at dusk; W arrived at the same time with his usual fine fish, of 36 Ib. This time, also a junglefowl and duck. Spent the evening preparing tackle for the big ones (?), down the Barak to-morrow as we must leave our pleasant camp and move down to the Hattia Rocks, which we hope to get through by the 3rd. The Irung is a fine river and worth exploring higher up where I had not time to fish it properly.’ December 2nd: Down to the Big Gorge and the rocks known as the Hattias where the river narrows down to a few yards and drops suddenly, reaching about midday. We started the porterage after iunch carrying tents and camp equipment for + mile over and under rocks to a sandy bank where the river was quieter, which took till dark. Left the boats and most of the crew except personal servants above the waterfall which was not nearly so bad as expected. Scenery wonderful if somewhat awe inspiring with steep cliffs overhanging the river, from which in the monsoon huge rocks roll down into the river bed. My diary for the next two days reads :-— ‘An experience getting boats through the Boro Hattias, but no fish- ing. Boatmen packed the mahl through in the early morning. W at one end, I at the other. It took 4 hours to get 6 boats through, which was accomplished without accident barring the loss of the long rope. Were unable to move camp after a hard day for everyone. Dropped down to see what the Chota Hattias were like. May have to make another porterage. My boy Mongrew very sick with bad fever. Have seen nothing to shoot; weather colder. A. Kooki appeared in camp, said he had seen a tiger lower down.’ December 4th: Left camp in good time, glad to get out of the impressive but rather depressing gorge. Water in Chota Hattias much better than we expected, but like others before us we had_ to FORTY YEARS OF SPORT ON ASSAM RIVERS 315 pay the price of visiting this stretch of the river. Brought our boats without difficulty through some heavy water in which one had to shoot a narrow opening in a ledge of rock, and left two boats to follow. 1 was fishing down the rocks, W having gone on with his troll out when I heard yells from behind and returned to meet our tents and other things floating down the river. The fool of a boatman, having seen all boats shoot the ridge, had a brainwave and put a rope on it which swung it across the current. Boat upset. Recovered a good bit of stuff and wasted two hours, spoiling my fishing. Chief loss, all our plates, knives and forks, cups, sparklet bulbs, spares for petrol lamp, some of the ponemen? Ss cooking utensils and a bottle of whisky. Met W at the mouth of the gorge wondering what had happened. We must feed straight out of tins with one fork for the rest of the trip for this unnecessary accident. Came down below Bagh Chur and brought the boats on to Ledge Camp where I decided to stay and dry the wet things as it was too late to make Tepi’. Water looked perfect but fish were not taking and I could only fish a short time; W had a 2 lb. carp only. The crew had lost most of their dried fish.’ We spent most of next morning drying out things, camped below the mouth of the Tepi’ on a very windy spot and made for Minadhur. My diary records some rather unsuccessful fishing en route which did not add much to our total of 60 fish weighing 264 Ib. December 6th: Both had a good night on the somewhat bleak spot. W left ahead and I followed, behind the camp. Both had a day of thrills with no luck, partly due to homemade tackle and being snagged. I did not touch anything in the morning, but W in front, got into three Tigers, trace broke, hooks broke and the third snagged him at the top of Kommandhur: he only landed three small ones. 1 hooked a big one after finding W snagged with another in the sub- merged logs we know so well, but he tore the catch out of a homemade spoon, which condemns that type of mount. In the jong reach between Kommandhur and Minadhur I saw a big one chasing smali fish, put a No. 7 spoon over him which he took at the third cast and went upstream like a steam engine with plenty of line and everything free. Unfortunately he ran into a submerged log with branches, and though I had him on some time another rush broke the line, of which I lost 20 to 30 yards. Found camp at Minadhur hardly pitched, every- one very tired. We have given the men rather a roasting; should have taken another day over it. No bath tonight. Spoons and forixss made of bamboo very successful. Am feeling ten years younger for the trip, which, though accidents have been common, has been full of tense moments. Shot several pigeons for the crew. 1936 As H. E. the Governor was doing a tour in the hills and wanted to fish the Macrup and Upper Barak he asked for the loan of my boats and boatmen which were duly despatched through the Hattias in time to meet him at the Macrup mouth. My eldest son was with me on 316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 leave from Africa so arranged to take over the boats when H. E. had done with them and come down through the Hattias with one of his guests, a keen fisherman and an old friend of mine. J and I did the journey to the Macrup much as on previous occasions meeting the Government House party en route who told us they had done well on the Macrup with their fly lods, landing about 100 fish, but had nothing over ten pounds. We were met at the Macrup Bridge by one of my boats and arrived at the Governor’s palatial camp too ft. above the river where we found B over a camp fire, and had some difficulty in selecting which of the various bamboo buildings we should occupy. I did not fish as much as usual this trip as I had two guests and my head man was laid up with bad malaria most of the time. When fishing the Macrup, E. E. had fallen into a rapid from which he was rescued by my boatmen, but lost his rod swept into the pool below and from which Okhai had retrieved it after swimming and diving for half an hour on a cold evening. He was duly rewarded of course, but was of little use to me for the rest of the trip and I had to spend more time than usual in camp control. My boy J had not fished for mahseer before so spent most of my time down to the mouth of the Irung, showing him where and how to fish. The follow- ing extracts from my diary give an idea of the sort of fishing we had and how we got through the Hattia rocks and Long Gorge :-— December 3rd: ‘A good night and a good dinner. H. E.’s second cook we had taken on; doing us well. B up the Irung, J and I up the Barak, did not move anything till midday when a 20 to 30 Ib. fish came right out of the water and took my spoon spinning a run, went off like a motor car but unfortunately got my line round a snag and I lost 20 yards of spinning line, a thrill however. I have never seen a mahseer come right on top of the water like that. Had lunch in a cool spot, trolled a bit, then tried a fly, also J, who is becoming expert, soon had 2 mahseer of 4 lb. Fish taking well for an hour and found B in camp with half a dozen, one of which he had hooked in the tail. He had also been broken by a good one, Okhai ill again and we leave for Hattias tomorrow. December ath: J and I left our pleasant camp ahead, B following behind the mahl boats, spun and trolled down to Hattias with no result as in the previous year. Arrived 12.15 just ahead of mall boats and selected a good camp site just above the big rocks. B turned up with one small fish only. Fished up after lunch, lovely looking water but very fast and no use for a fly; one other fish caught. Climbed down to below the waterfall at 4 p.m. and, to my surprise met the Manipur State Engineer with another expert and a working party of Kookis, doing an Electric Scheme Survey. They had a camp below the Chota Hattias and had marched here in 12 stages, were expecting boats to take them down river and were practicaily out of food with absolutely no drink. He promised to send his Kookis to help us with the porterage, which he did next day, but could not stop as they had a long trek over rocks to their camp. Okhai better to-day, came down in our boat; saw lots of game tracks but no game. FORTY YEARS OF SPORT ON ASSAM RIVERS 317 December sth: After a good night alongside a roaring torrent that sounded like the sea, J and I went off with three boats, dumped the mahl at the top of the waterfall and proceeded to get the boats through. Found the engineers there again with 20 Kookis which helped no end with the porterage. With their aid we had all the boats through by midday, managed to do away with the long rope business. Let the empty boats go with men standing by with long bamboos to push them off the rocks; quite successful. Lunched and came on ahead of the mahl boats as there were one or two places in the Chota Hattias where we upset a boat the previous year, requiring care. We were clear of the Hattias by 2 p.m.; no time to fish and could have gone further but stopped opposite the engineers’ camp and asked them to dinner just above Tiger Camp. We had got through the Hattias in one day, a record. The engineers have a big camp here with Kookis and boatmen sent up to take them back; 60 or 70 souls in a place I never saw a human being in before. We had a cheery dinner party on our sandbank and put up a plum pudding. As they had been out of liquor for days a little gin went to the expert’s head quickly and he kept us cheerful. We gave them a small tent, some stores and a bottle of grog to see them down the river and they left early next morning. Okhai better; cook being doctored for a cut hand.’ The good camping ground at the mouth of the Tepi’ being occu- pied, dropped down to a rather cold and windy camp below, where our troubles began. B was stung or bitten by something putting wood on the camp fire; his hand and arm were badly swollen next day. J, feeling a bit off colour, went up the Tepi’ with me and had quite a good afternoon with our fly rods landing ro fish; best 6 Ib. J collapsed on return to camp so put him to bed with aspirin and hot toddy ; then his bed collapsed so gave him mine and wrapped him up well. B and I dined in his tent, the only time I remember dining anywhere but in front of the camp fire in the open, in all these trips. We decided to move down to a sunnier camping ground I knew of lower down, so went on and fixed the camp. Both my guests rather crocks, but managed to shoot a junglefowl each for dinner. Put J to bed and left B in camp much better, but on my return found B’s bearer and the cook dewn with fever so decided to send a light boat down to W to ask him to send the motor boat up a day earlier than arranged. My diary of the next two days reads as follows :— December goth: ‘J’s throat still bad so he stayed in bed and | sent off a light boat with 3 boatmen at 7.30 a.m. B’s hand better, so We went upstream in the morning. I caught a small mahseer and B landed 3 fish, being broken by two big ones and losing another. I returned to camp for tea to doctor my patients; missed a wild dog from a shaky boat on the way down. Visited by lots of Nagas and distributed tea and chocolate to the children, having exchanged a blanket for oranges in the morning. Found J pretty comfortable but throat still bad; no temperature. Okhai and my bearer down below 318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURA HIST. 2 SOC@EE TYG Vol. 150 the camp heard a tiger kill a pig, but left it alone. Big fish not taking at all; B pulled his out of the rocks with a fly spoon. | December toth: J much better, camp very comfortable. A goosander flew up river after breakfast which I shot. We then went ahead in one boat, shot pigeons and rolled a gharial over but it just managed to struggle into the water and got away. Kommandhur Ir a.m. J trolled down the two runs, the spots where W and I have caught many good fish; so did I, but nothing took. B came down later and was broken by a monster in the top run where snags are bad. I hooked a fish spinning in the bottom run, but he was off im- mediately. Had lunch in the shade, after which J went up to the top run and landed a 26 lb. mahseer after breaking his rod. A good effort which pleased everyone. As a beginner he had the best fish of the trip. B landed a to lb. fish lower down and two smaller ones. He has been unlucky in losing all his big fish. Arrived Minadhur 5.30 prem: Motorboat arrived next morning and took aboard all the invalids, I with them feeling perfectly fit but developed a bad attack of ague and fever on the way down so was quite glad to get home. This was the only time in many years camping in the cold weather that I had any sickness. This I put down to our night in the Governor’s camp which was in big tree jungle full of mosquitos, no doubt infected by the numerous camp followers who had been there. My camps were always on sandbanks as near the river as possible and free from mosquitos. On this trip we landed 94 fish weighing 200 lb., having lost most of the big ones hooked. B, I think, was using too light hooks for big mahseer. 1937 W and I decided to repeat our very successful trip of 1933 and fish the Upper Barak and Macrup. Boats went off on November 6, and were at the bridge in 11 days. We joined them on the 18th, an improvement in time all round. Found the river very low and the fishing was not as good as usual. Camped on a very noisy rapid just above the mouth and W came in with two good mahseer 19 and 20 Ib. the first evening there. I had several smailer fish and broke my old Hardy of some 30 years service in a 4 lb. mahseer which I landed with the top floating in the water. Fixed up an old light bamboo trolling rod with a fly spoon which worked well, and landed several fish as they were not taking a fly at all freely. My diary of the 24th records the following which was typical of the sort of days we had :— ‘Both went down, I first, and had an interesting day. Landed an 18 lb. mahseer on the troll and waited for W at the spot I fixed for our next years camp. W went on and I fished down to the bottom of the long reach where I shot the sambar in 1933. Left a pair of shoes and stockings on a tree and found them a year afterwards indi- cating a scarcity of human inhabitants. Ran several fish and got a mixed lot on a fly spoon, one of each, masheer, ‘‘pakhi runga’’, carp, and gugal. W caught me up at 4 p.m.; he had a 7 Jb. fish only and FORTY YEARS OF SPORT ON ASSAM RIVERS 319 had struck some hot dull reaches down below. Have not fired a shot at anything yet, a record for 3 or 4 days on these rivers.’ Our last camp at the Macrup Bridge with the 5,000 ft. Kalinugger above us, though we did not realise it at the time, neither did we imagine, that within five years this bridge and the paths leading to it would be the route by which some 50,000 refugees would make the last lap of their escape from Burma to safety. Our catch for the week was 46 fish weighing 152 Ib. only. We managed to have fresh fish for dinner every night. 1938 November 27th. I am quoting the log of my last trip in full as we had reduced the time factor to a minimum and I now knew in detail every stretch of the 150 miles of river covered in these journeys. We had hoped to have explored the upper reaches of the Jrung, but that has to be left to someone else. A friend who joined us in 1928 did it in 1940 and wrote, ‘We got some good fish. B lost a huge one he had on for hours when his reel broke. The Irung Gorge, about two days up, is far worse than the Hattias to get through, and really dangerous. The sun only shines in it about an hour a day as it is sheer on both sides with terrific cliffs, everything damp and sinister with very heavy water. Above that one comes out into a stretch of river where it flows across a plateau and on the banks are regular stone ramps which the Nagas and Kokis fish from. The fish were line shy but plentiful; they get line shy from seeing so many of their friends on night lines.’ I was leaving India for good next year-so W and | decided on a short trip up the Barak to the happy hunting grounds where we had both caught our first mahseer; I, some 30 odd years before. Left home 7 a.m. Joined W at Lakhipur Ghat 7.30 and had an excellent run in the motor boat to Minadhur with a boat tied along- side containing the cook and provisions. Had lunch at M. | Boat Camp completely changed and reached Minadhur where our camp had been sent. River high but clearing. Found camp pitched and all well. Okhai had shot 6 junglefowl and some pigeons so, with a Butchwa we acquired on the way up, we dined well. Saw two gharial on the way up very close; they did not seem to mind the motor boat, but I did not fire. Fish jumping at the top of the rapid, so got out my spinning rod and landed a 12 lb. mahseer with two of 5 lb. before tea, being broken by another just before dark. November 28th: Very comfortable camp at Minadhur. Caught another 7 lb. mahseer spinning before breakfast and were away for Kommandhur about 9 a.m. both being towed by the motor boat, which we sent back from the Naga village to tow mahl boats in relays. Water very dirty at Kommandhur where we expected to catch fish. The rapids were full of elephants and timber. I went off after lunch with the mahi boats. Water heavy and did not reach our camping ground till 4.30, so got down to it and fixed camp. W arrived with the last two mahl boats at dusk and was surprised to find tents pitched, 320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 50 fires and lamps going. He had shot several pigeons on the way up. Water unfishable due to elephants, but we are above them tonight; no rain and cooler. Camped where J, B and I did in 1937 well on our way to Tepi’ in two days. November 29th: In spite of a late camp were very comfortable. W left ahead and I after the mahl boats. Another long trek and neither of us could move a fish in the long reaches and shallow, fast rapids. Found camp pitched on a small stony bank just below the Lal Pahar (Red Hill) so should be at Tepi’ by midday tomorrow. Boys rather done up; will be glad of a day or two in permanent camp. W @ shot a junglefowl; otherwise no sport of any sort, but river much clearer. No fish for dinner tonight. Left camp 9 a.m. and struggled up very heavy water to Tepi’ Mukh, the Barak too big and dirty to be fishable, but the Tepi’ perfect. Went up 3 hr. to the spot I camped on 30 odd years ago, selected camp site and waited for mahi boats which arrived 1.30. Ran a fish or two on fly spoon and caught a small one. We had made the Tepi’ in 2} days paddling, against 7 days on my first trip—thanks to motor boat. November 30th: Went up the Tepi’ 2 p.m. and had splendid fishing in the first long reach. Finished up with an 11 lb. mahseer which gave me good sport. Fish taking a small spoon better than a fly; water not too clear. W had slogged up the Barak trying for a big one, but only had two small fish on the troll and had shot a monitor. December 1st: Am sitting in front of a roaring camp fire after a long day in the cold Tepi’ gorges and first rate fishing. W went from our very comfortable camp to try for a big one again in the Barak. I was up my old love the Tepi’ to find the waterfall was no more, and got above where it used to be, and into some good fish after $ hour spent hauling my boat up, higher than I had ever got before. Fishing good from 12 o’clock till 4 p.m. with both fly and spoon. I landed 18 fish mostly on Yellow Spider. Got back late to find W there with an 18 lb. mahseer; my 18 weighed only 27 Ib. December 2nd: W went off early up the Tepi’ to see if he could get a big one trolling in the top gorges and do some casting. He came back with a small carp and a junglefowl. I went up the Tepi’ a reach or two, but could not move a fish on either fly or fly spoon so stopped at 12 o’clock, read a book and took it easy till 1.30 in a shady spot of old memories. Had a good afternoon, was broken by what must have been an 8 lb. mahseer on my trout rod after having had it on for 10 minutes, and seeing it several times. Cast went at top so may have been weak there as I cut off the lower end at lunch. Put on a new cast and landed two good 4 lb. fish later as well as some smaller ones. White ants rising about camp but fish would not take any fly I had which is unusual. We have decided to do one more day here. Have not opened a tin so far; I had 1o fish for the afternoon. December 3rd: Weather and camp _ perfect. W went up the Barak still hoping for his 30 pounder; I went right FORTY YEARS OF SPORT ON ASSAM RIVERS 321 Upipither epi again, "did “notifish till «12 o’clock as~- fish’ did not take till the sun had been on the water. Started with three good carp at midday in the top gorge. Had lunch and the best afternoon with the fly rod I have ever had, landing 18 fish, 7 of them over 4 lb. Was only snagged and broken once, mostly caught on No. 1 fly spoon as, for some reason, they were taking this better than the fly. Finished up with a 4 lb. mahseer almost in the dark; pro- bably my last fish from the Tepi’, where I started my fishing career in India 35 years ago. A sad thought as I have only pleasant recollections of this beautiful little hill river, which in spite of orange groves and cows has never let me down. W came in with pigeons but no fish. The big river banks where he got his 18 pounder had fallen in and made the river almost unfishable. December 4th: With the sun breaking through the mist on the hills, struck camp on the Tepi’ and said goodbye with a lump in my throat and the usual chorus from gibbon monkeys bidding farewell. W went down ahead and I a couple of reaches up to let the camp get off. No fish taking in the morning; only one small carp. Was down at the mouth 11.30 passing the camp en route. Started to troll down with a dead bait, got into something big in the gorge below the mouth which came down stream and snagged me at once; got off with the loss of dead bait and tackle. Lunch at Putikhal. Immedia- tely afterwards another fish snagged me in very dirty water and deep, so had to cut the line and lost spoon and trace. Barak still very full and impossible for anything except trolling. Reached Ainadhur 4.30; W came in just after with two small fish caught on the troll. December 5th: Left camp at Aimadhur in front and dropped down to Kommandhur, usually the best place for big fish in the river. This year, however, owing to late floods the banks were falling in and it was dirty and unfishable. Had lunch with W and dropped down to our first camp at Minadhur where the rapid was clear and I caught four good fish on the way up. Spotted a fish feeding, crossed the river with my spinning rod and got him. Saw another real big one feeding in the middle of the river, so when W arrived signalled him to come down with his troll out and actually saw the fish, which Was just opposite me, take the spoon and landed in front of our tents. It weighed 24 Ib. W also got another, 6 lb. further down the river, and some pigeons. December 6th: Kept my last camp fire burning all night. In all these years have never let one out, and blew my last whistle for tea at 6.15 a.m. Saw a fish feeding whilst having tea so spun over him in pyjamas and landed a 4 lb. mahseer. Fish were not feeding after breakfast so left 10 a.m. and selected W’s Christmas camp site suitable for ladies, near the old Island Camp which has gone. Had a good run down in the motor boat with three fish tied in banana leaves under the roof to keep cool. Everyone inspected the 24 lb. mahseer, and I took the smaller one home to put in the frig. A pleasant and successful trip to wind up some of the happiest days of my life in 329 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 beautiful country with good companions, both European and Indian who I believe enjoyed it as much as we did, with plenty of hard work pulling up rapids and usually plenty to eat, in the country where no letters, telegrams or papers could reach one, and where money would buy nothing, the few hill people we met infinitely preferring tea or blankets. I salute the boatmen who kept one’s boat exactly the right distance from which to put a fly or a spoon over a fish. I shall remember them all over the fire on a winter’s night in England, especi- ally W and his good wife, who, whatever little I may have taught him about catching mahseer, taught me how to camp in comfort. My trips with him were very different from those of earlier days when I was younger, when we often slept on the ground with a tarpaulin for covering, lived on turtles eggs and what we could shoot. On the last trip I landed 63 fish weighing 135 lb.; W, 8 fish weighing- 63 Ib.. ‘Also, with Okhai’s assistance, shot some 20 jungilefowl. FISHES FROM THE HIGH RANGE OF TRAVANCORE BY E. G. Sizas, B.sc. (Hons.). From the Laboratories of the Zoological Survey of India. (Communicated by Dr. S. L. Hora) (With two text figures) INTRODUCTION Travancore has not remained a terra incognita to the fluviatile ichthyologist. A perusal of the literature shows that, since the publica- tion of Day’s ‘Fishes of Malabar’ (1865) and ‘Fishes of India’ (1878- 1888), a considerable amount of work has been carried out, especially during the past two decades. Situated at the extreme south of Penin- sular India, Travancore has been noted for its richness in the number and variety of freshwater fishes, so much so that with every fresh col- lection new records, or species new to science, have been discovered. The freshwater fish fauna is also noted for its high endemicity. A marked Malayan element in its fauna, is yet another feature of consider- able interest. In recording 76 species as occurring in the freshwaters of Travan- core, Hora and Law (1941) surmised that further research would bring to light more species of freshwater fishes from this interesting zoogeo- graphical region. Since then the addition of nearly a dozen freshwater species have been reported from Travancore. Some of these are new to science. Raj (1941), described a new species Barbus (Puntius) ophicephalus, and a subspecies, B. (Puntius) micropogon periyarensis, from Kallar, a tributary of the Pambayar river and from the Periyar Lake respectively. Hora and Nair (1941) redescribed a rare gobioid fish, Sicyopterus griseus (Day), from Southern Travancore and a new species of Globe-fish of the monotypic genus Monotretus Bibron, viz. Tetraodon (Monotretus) travancoricus, from the Pambayar river in Northern Travancore. Chacko’s list of indigenous fishes of the Periyar Lake (Chacko, 1948), includes the following species not previously listed from Travancore: Barilius bendelisis Ham.; Silonopangasius childreni (Sykes) (=Silundia sykesi Day); and Anguilla bengalensts (Gray). In 1949, the writer extended the distribution of Barbus (Puntius) dorsalis (Jerdon), to the fresh waters of Travancore. Recently Menon (1950) reported the discovery of a remarkable blind Cat-fish, Horaglanis krishnai from Kottayam. The present collections by the writer (Silas, 1951) from the hill ranges of Travancore show the extended distribu- tion of two other species, viz. Nemachilus denisonit Day, in the Peerméd Hills in Northern Travancore and Esomus barbatus (Jerdon), in Southern Travancore. This paper is a continuation of a previous contribution by the writer (Silas, 1951), and deals with the fishes of the High Range of Travan- 8 324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Val. 50 core. The above list of new records shows that six species have been reported since 1941 (Hora and Law), as occurring in the hill-streams and rivers draining the High Range. pa are :— Barilius bendelisis Ham. Barbus (Puntius) micropogon periyarensis Raj. Barbus (Puntius) ophicephalus Raj. Nemachilus denisonii Day. Silonopangasius childreni (Sykes). Anguilla bengalensis (Gray). To add to these the occurrence of two other remarkable genera described from here recently, viz. a homalopterid, Travancoria Hora (1941), and a_ schizothoracin, Lepidopygopsis Raj (1941), show how rich a fauna this part of Travancore possesses. In May and June 1950, while on a visit to the Peerméd hills, the writer. was able to make fish collections from certain places from this part of the High Range, and it is the object of this note to report on the material then collected. TOPOGRAPHY The High Range proper includes some of the highest peaks in the Western Ghats. In the south, especially towards the Peerméd section, the land spreads out into considerable width, with the hills rising upto about 5,000 feet. These ranges are topographically important because, due to their abrupt rise and closeness to the sea-board, they help in checking the South-West Monsoon clouds and give heavy rainfall to the narrow strip of land to their west. These hills also enjoy a maximum rainfall of about 200 inches. The efficient natural drainage system draining the western face of the High Range consisting of innumerable winding perennial streams and rivulets, harbour a very interesting fauna. DRAINAGE SYSTEMS The High Range is drained by streams which ultimately empty into four main rivers, viz, the Amaravati and the Vaigai on the east, and the Periyar and the Pambayar on the west. Chinnar, a tributary of the Amaravati river, takes its origin from the High Range proper and joins the Amaravati in the plains. The Amaravati in turn be- comes confluent with the Cauvery further east. The Suruli, a tributary of the river Vaigai, and the Vaigai itself drains part of the eastern face of the High Range. The Periyar, which drains a greater part of the western face of these hills, ultimately empties into the sea near Cochin. The Pambayar river flows into the Vembanad lake and is not directly connected to the sea. As a result, it has been possible to divide the drainage system into four main watersheds. They are the Cauvery and the Vaigai watersheds on the east, and the Periyar and the Pambayar on the west. Collections have been made from the Periyar and the Pambayar watersheds. The nature of the watersheds, and the localities from where collections have been made, are indicated in the accompanying map. FISHES FROM THE HIGH RANGE OF TRAVANCORE 325 Dees CG Ris nt OONee Oris .l.O:. CA LIT DES To obviate repetition of describing the environment of each species separately, the following brief description of the places of collection is given below. The species are arranged under each locality in the table at the end, and by referring to these descriptions the characteristics of their respective habitats may be ascertained. igs L Map showing the watersheds of the High Range and the localities from where fish collections have been made. (1) Manimala river, Mundakayam, (2) Vandi- periyar river close to Arnakal Estate, Peerméd Hills. (3) Stream in Garadygody Estate, Peerméd Hills. (4) Upper and Lower Pasupara streams, Peerméd Hills. The black circles indicate localities from where previous collections have been reported. (VE amre stream atiMundakayam,. (Manimala River): Typical large hill-stream at the base of the Peerméd Hills. At the time of collection, due to the then prevailing drought, the level of water had gone down considerably and consequently the flow in the stream was also moderate. The bottom is mostly rocky, strewn with stones and pebbles in some places, and muddy in others. ) 4. Ypthima baldus Very common. 5. Ypthima hubneri Fairiy common. 6. Melanitis leda ismene Very common. ERYCINIDAE Abisara echerius prunosa Fairly common. NYMPHALIDAE 1. Charaxes polyena imna Not common but fairly plentiful on the top of Trombay Hill where I have seen as many as twelve in one day. Very difficult to catch and I have only taken two tattered males. Females very scarce. Also saw one male at Tulsi. 2, Charaxes fabius fabius Not common. Have taken two on Trombay Hill and one at Ghodbunder. Not seen elsewhere. 3. Eulipis athamas Not common. Several taken on Trombay Hill; also seen at Tulsi. 4. Apatura camiba One male taken at Tulsi; otherwise have not seen this anywhere. 5. Euthalia lubentine One seen at Tulsi. 6. Euthalia garuda anagama Not common, but have seen a few at Tulsi and at Kanheri. One flew into the house in Bombay at 9 p.m. one night in October. 336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 56 7. Euthalia nais forst Not common but seen at Malad, Tuisi, Powai and Trombay. 8. Limenitis procris Uncommon. Have seen six in all at Tulsi only: November, December, March. 7 9, Pantoporia inara | One seen at Tulsi but not identified positively—December. 10. Neptis columella | Only two seen and taken, both at Tulsi in November. ll. Neptis hylas varuna Very common everywhere. 12. Precis hierta hierta Very common everywhere. 13. Precis lemonias vaisya Very common. 14, Precis iphita pluvialis Very common. 15. Precis almana almana Not so common as other Precis. 16. Precis orithiya Scarce. Not more than 12 seen during 9 months’ collecting. 17. Vanessa cardui Very common, especially at Malad in October. 18. Hy polimnas bolina Males very scarce; only three seen, two at Tulsi and one in Bombay City. Females very common. 19. Hypolimnas misippus Females very scarce; only two taken in the whole period (November), both at Tulsi Lake. Males plentiful October-December, but scarce at other times. 20. Kallima philarctus horsfieldii Very scarce. Took six at bottom of Trombay Hill in August including. 1 pair in copula and saw another pair in copula. Seen others at the same place early October, but not since. One also seen at Tulsi in October and another in March; otherwise none. 21. Atella phalante Very common everywhere. | bie | : THE BUTTERFLIES: OF “BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 337 22. Ergolis merione taprobana One seen at Malad, and one taken at Tulsi. 23. Telchinia violae | Only four seen: two at Malad, one at Kanheri and one taken at Trombay in August. LYCAENIDAE 1. Jamides celeno celeno Common all the year round. 2. Jamides bochus bochus Males common in August in wooded country; females rarer. Seen from August to February. 3. Castalius rosimon rosimon Common all the year round in wooded country. 4. Castalius deleta decidia Fairly common. Flies with rosimon, but is scarcer. 5. Zizera trochilus putli Taken at Powai in August, Tulsi in September. Very common. 6. Zizera lysimon A number seen at Kanheri in October and one or two at Tulsi; otherwise not common. | 7. Spindasis vulcanus vulcanus Not common. Two taken at Malad in july and a few seen at Tulsi. One seen on Marine Drive. 8. Spindasis lohita lazularia Only two seen on the same day and one perfect specimen taken at Tulsi in March. — 9. Rapala schistacea . One taken at Powai in August, the only one seen. 10. Rapala melampus One taken at Trombay in October. No others seen. 11. Rapala varuna lazulina Several seen at Kanheri in October and twe taken. Others seen at Trombay in November. 12. Catachrysops strabo Common everywhere. 338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL) HIST.< SOCKET Y, yViol: 50 13. Loxura atymnus atymnus Rather scarce. I have only seen this at Vihar and Powai Lakes in August, one pair in copula. 14. Curetis thetis Females very common at Malad in July and August; also at Vihar and Powai lakes. Males much scarcer; only two seen at Trombay in October and another at Tulsi in November. 15, Rathinda amor Very scarce. Took two at Tulsi in August. 16. Amblypodia alemon Only one seen and taken on Trombay; no others seen anywhere. I am fairly certain this is correct. It was identified by Mr. Gilbert on or about the 12th March last year, and it seems to closely resemble the description and also a specimen ‘in the Museum. 17. Amblypodia amantes amantes Saw a fine male at Tulsi in July, the only male seen. Saw hundreds on top of Trombay on 27th August. All appeared to be migrating, and were flying about 10 ft. high. Took one female. The same day I saw four fly across Marine Drive. All were flying south-east, both at Trombay and Marine Drive. Apart from that one day this butterfly is very scarce, and I have only taken 4 females, all at Tulsi, in February. (18. Horsfieldia anita anita Only two seen and taken, both at the foot of Trombay in March. 19. Iraota timoleon timoleon Only seen two at Tulsi in August of which one female was taken. Another seen in November at the same place. 20. Virachola perse ghala One taken at Tulsi in February in very tattered condition. The only one seen. 21. Surendra biplagiata Only one taken at Vihar Lake in August. 22. Syntarucus plinius One taken at Kanheri in October. 23, Nacaduba viola Several taken at Tulsi in November and December. 24. Lycaenopsis puspa Several taken in Tulsi in August. THE BUTTERFLIES OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE Sy) oy) day HESPERIDAE 1. Hasora alexis alexis Fairly common at Powai in August; also seen at Malad in July. 2. Coladenia indrana indra Common. 3. Badamia exclamationis Very common. I observed a large number migrating in a southerly _ direction on 27 August at Trombay, and again on the 2nd October at Malad. I counted 130 in a period of 10 minutes at Trombay and 57 in 10 minutes at Malad, and in both cases the migration continued all the morning. They were flying at a height of about 8 ft., though some were higher. 4. Caprona ransonetti Common at Powai in August. Not seen anywhere else. 5. Suestus gremius gremius Only two seen, both at Powai in July. 6. Udaspes folus a Common at Powai, Vihar and Trombay at all seasons. 7. Sarangesa desahara One only at Powai in August. 8, Padrona dara roll Two taken at Malad in July. © Baoris zelleri cinnara One at Powai in August. 30. Baoris kumara kumara Two at Trombay in October. 1]. Astycus pythias bambusae Taken at Trombay and Tulsi in August. 12, Taractocera c, ceramus Common at Trombay at all seasons. Not seen elsewhere. 13. Calaenorrhinus ambaresa A few taken at Tulsi tn March. THE GENUS VULPIA~GMEL, INe INDIA BY N. LY Bor The genus Vulpia was created by Gmelin in Flora Badensis 1, 8 (1806) to accommodate the species hitherto known as Festuca myuros Linn., on account of the structure of glumes and lemmas and the character of the single stamen. While there is not complete agree- ment about the status of Vulpia Gmel. —Hitchcock, for instance, includes all the American species under Festuca—there seems to be a considerable body of opinion which is prepared to accept Vulpia Gmelin as a perfectly good genus. The species form a very clear-cut group. They are all annuals with strict panicles of secund spikelets, with very unequal glumes and membranous lemmas and finally there is only a single stamen present in each floret. It is likely that the species are cleistogamous. The species Vulpia myuros (L.) Gmel. (Festuca myuros Linn.) is well known in India where it is commonly found all along the Himalaya. Its range extends to Europe and North Russia and it penetrates to Australia. It is essentially an Old World grass, which has in the last fifty years been introduced into other parts of the world. It has established itself in America. America possesses a round dozen of the species of Vulpia. They are all annuals with secund spikelets and the single stamen though it is reported that occasionally there are three stamens present in each floret. Among the American species there are two which have recently come to light in the Indian flora. One of them V. megalura (Nutt.) Rydb., has been confused in various collections with V. myuros (L.) Gmel., and is very like it in appearance. It is reported from Saharanpur and from Ootacamund, the last collection being as recent as 1947. The other species V. octoflora (Walt.) Rydb., is. quite distinctive and is not likely to be mistaken for either of the other two. It is strange therefore that the only gathering is one by Col. Wingate in the eighteen nineties, and the exact location is unknown. V. megalura was first collected in India in Saharanpur by Col. Wingate in 1891, and it is quite possible that V. octoflora was collected at the same time. J. F. Duthie, who was in charge of the botanical garden at Saharanpur about that time, is known to have introduced a number of exotics in order to test their fodder value in India. The two grasses under discussion may very well be two of those tried, and of the two it seems as if V. megalura has become acclimatised in the colder climates. It is probably much more common in India than is realised and it should be sought for. /: THE GENUS VULPIA GMEL. IN INDIA 34k KEY TO THE SPECIES Lower glume 2.5-3 mm. long; lemmas glabrous :— Lemmas not at all hyaline; spikelets more than 5-flowered .»» V. octoflora. Lemmas hyaline on the margins; spikelets less than 5-flowered wey Vi MYULOS: Lower glume at most 1.5 mm. long’; Lemmas furnished with long hairs on the margins _V. megalura. Vulpia octoflora (Walt.) Rydb. Festuca octoflora Walt., Fl. Carol. 81 (1788). ie ieneila\Niid: Sp. Pils bar) (1797): ‘An annual grass. Culms 5-40 cm. tall, slender, erect, sometimes geniculate at the base, smooth and glabrous or more or less retrorsely puberulent, particularly so below, mostly 3-jointed, striate, glabrous at the nodes. Leaf-blades narrowly linear, involute or rarely flat, soft, erect, or ascending, 2-10 cm. long, up to 2 cm. broad, tapering to a blunt point, smooth and glabrous, or more often retrorsely puberulent on both surfaces with short soft hairs, minutely scabrid on the margins; sheaths glabrous or retrorsely pubescent with very short soft hairs, scarious on the margins, somewhat loose, shorter than the internodes; ligule 0.5 to 1 mm. long, scarious, rounded at the top. Inflorescence a strict panicle, erect, often reduced to a raceme of spikelets, 3-12 cm. long, often secund; branches often solitary, 1-5 mm. long, erect, 3-angled, scabrid, striate, slightly expanded below the spikelet. Spikelets ovate or oblong in shape, 5-9 (some- times 13) mm. long, 5-13-flowered, with florets spreading at maturity. Lower glume 2.5-3 mm. long, 0.5 mm. wide at the base, 1-nerved, subulate-lanceolate, almost setaceous, scabrid on the keel; upper glume 3-3.5 mm. long, 1 mm. wide, lanceolate, 3-nerved, acuminate, scabrid on the keel, glabrous. Lemmas 4-5 mm. long, 1-1.25 mm. wide, firm, rounded on the back, lanceolate, from glabrous to very scabrous, obscurely 5-nerved, attenuate into a scabrid awn 0.5 (up to 7) mm. long; palea lanceolate-acute, as long as the lemma, scabrid on the keel; joints of the rhachilla clavate, 0.5 mm. long, scabrid; stamen 1; anther 0.2 mm. long, caught on top of the ovary; styles 2; stigmas 2, plumose; grain 1.25 mm. long, terete; hilum linear, half the length of the grain. iimdHi avwiN.VWo india, Col; Gi. Wingate: Vulpia myuros (Linn.) Gmel., Flor. Bad. 1, 8 (1805). Festuca myuros Linn., Sp: Pl: ed: 1, 74 (1753). An annual grass, tufted. Culms slender, up to'30 cm. tall, smooth, terete, Acne otlen geniculate at the base, finally erect, leafy almost to the panicle, glabrous at the nodes. Leaf-blades linear in shape, flat or folded, up to 15 cm. long, 2-2.5 mm. wide, tapering gradually to an acuminate point, flaccid to rather firm, puberulous on the upper 342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 surface, otherwise glabrous, smooth; margins sometimes involute, smooth; leaf-sheaths rather tight below, rather loose above, clasping the stem, almost covering the internode, smooth and glabrous, striate, the lower breaking up into fibres, all carrying leaves but the leaves of the upper sheaths small, hyaline on the margins, the hyaline por- tions being carried up into the ligule; ligule a hyaline, glabrous membrane, 1.5 mm. long. : Inflorescence a spike-like panicle, erect and stiff or nodding and flexuous, often very narrow, mostly with secund spikelets, 3-25 cm. long; base enclosed in the sheath of the topmost leaf; rachis filiform, acutely triquetrous, sharply scabrid on the angles, pale or somewhat suffused with purple, glabrous, branched; branches very short, similar to the rhachis but more slender, carrying one or two spikelets, scabrid, glabrous, fascicled, binate or solitary. Spikelets 8-12.5 mim. long, excluding the awns, loosely 3-6-flowered, secund, seated on rather stout triquetrous pedicels. Lower glume reduced to a minute scale or subulate, 0.5-1.5 mm. long, nerveless or 1-nerved, smooth and glabrous. Upper glume 2.5-4 mm. long, acicular, subulate in profile setaceously acuminate, 1-nerved, hyaline on the margins, smooth and glabrous; lemmas 4-6 mm. long, linear-acute in shape when flattened, terete in the spikelet, tapering into a slender straight awn, glabrous all over and on the callus, definitely and sharply scabrid on the upper _ dorsal surface, 5-nerved, slightly scabrid to almost smooth on the dorsal surface below; awn 5-25 mm. long, straight or slightly curved, scabrid; palea shorter, 2-keeled, scabrid on keels; rhachilla joints relatively long, being of the order 1-1.5 mm. long, scabrid; stamen 1; anther o.4-1 mm. long; caryopsis 3-5 mm. long. Quite common in the Himalaya from the Balipara Frontier Tract to Kashmir. Also found in the Nilgiris, Madras. Vulpia megalura (Nutt.) Rydb. in Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 36, 538 (1909). Festuca megalura Nutt. in Jour. Acad. Phila. n.s. 1, 188 (1848). An annual grass. Culms up to 60 cm. tall, slender to somewhat robust, smooth and glabrous, leafy almost to the panicle, striatulate, terete, glabrous on the nodes. Leaf-blades linear, long acuminate, soft to rather stiff, flat or plicate, rolled or involute, up to 20 cm. long, 1.5-3 mm. wide, puberulous on the upper surface with short, soft, white hairs, glabrous on the lower surface, scabrid along the nerves on the upper surface and also on the margins, smooth on the lower surface; leaf-sheaths tight or loose, the upper somewhat inflated and containing the inflorescence, markedly striate, smooth and glabrous with hyaline margins which are continuous with the ligule, often longer than the internodes; ligule a hyaline membrane, 0.5-1 mm. long. Inflorescence a strict, narrow panicle, nodding or erect, with short appressed branches, bearing few spikelets which are secund, 6-25 cm. long, at the most 2 cm. broad; rhachis triangular in cross section, winged on the angles, scabrid on the wings, pale with greenish THE GENUS VULPIA GMEL. IN INDIA 343° wings, glabrous, branched; branches short, angled and scabrid on the angles, inflated above just below the spikelet, fascicled, binate or solitary. Spikelets about 15 mm. long, without the awns, 3-6- flowered, secund. Lower glume 2-2.5 mm. long, subulate, acicuiar, 1-nerved, hyaline on the margins, smooth and glabrous or minutely scabrid, nerve green. Upper glume 3.5-5.5 mm. long, acicular, I- -nerved, subulate in outline, setaceously acuminate, smooth and glabrous, or slightly scabrid on the dorsal surface towards the tip. Lemma 6.5-7.5 mm. long, narrowly elliptic-acute, 5-nerved, the central nerve passing out into a scabrid awn 10-20 mm. long or more, coarsely scabrid on the dorsal surface especially towards the tip, furnished with white hairs on the upper half of the margins of the upper lemmas (hairs often missing from the lowest lemma): palea shorter, 2-keeled, coarsely scabrid on the keels; stamen 1; anther 1 mm. long: mature Caryopsis not seen. India. Saharanpur, March 1891, Col. G. Wingate; Pudumund, Ootacamund, 14-9-1930, V. Narayanaswami (no. 4325 Madras Herbarium); Ootacamund, 7,500’, 31-1-1947, M. B. Raizada, 21139, ‘a common grass’. A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA RY M. A. WynTER-BLYTH Part I (Vith a text map and two plates) NARKANDA TO KULU BY THE BASHLEO Pass My original intention had been to travel as far as Charang beyond tthe Indian Kailas, return down the Sutlej to Rampur and then to cross into Kulu over the Bashleo Pass. Circumstances, however, were against me and I had to cut out the more ambitious part of this Gushu Pish peels LA WO ~ ashne Le hate CE Rampur rat 30) oe LX \— Han sbeshon ey, @ Hoglt Gad "3 2, age Sete fo fut via Darunghate Ca programme and proceed direct from Darunghati to Larji, omitting the journey into Kunawar. When I set out from Narkanda early on the morning of April 27th to cover the short stage to Bagi, spring had hardly touched these northern slopes of Hatu. The snows had been both heavy and late A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA 345 and much was still lying in the forest. Though the rhododendrons (k. arboreum) were scarlet with blossom there were almost no other flowers to be seen and the deciduous trees were only just beginning to burst into leaf. Bird song was noticeably absent and the forest was very silent. Bagi bungalow, renowned in days gone by for its good fare, had fallen on evil times, for it furnished me with two of the worst mezais I have ever eaten. I was glad to leave it early the next day. The road to Sungri, running along the southern side of a long ridge, found spring much more advanced. Pale purple primulas (LP. denticulata and petiolaris) were in full bloom beneath the forest trees, whilst violets (V. patrinii and serpens) and gentians (G. argentea) brightened the grassy roadside. The white drooping racemes of a species of Prunus (P. padus) and the scarlet of rhododendrons gave colour to the forest. Beyond Khadrala a dwarf purple iris (I. kumaon- ensis?) was massed on the hill slopes. Some three miles from Bagi I caught a glimpse of a small red taii- tess object scuttling across the road, and down the side of a culvert. On looking over I saw a pika, or mouse hare (Ochotona roylei), staring up at me with the greatest interest (for they are the most in- quisitive of creatures), an interesting find at this low altitude (9,200’)', as they are dwellers among the rocks of the high mountains above the tree line. Little is known of their winter habits and whether they hibernate in their alpine home or migrate to lower regions with the onset of winter is uncertain. This then was a scrap of evidence in support of the latter view. From here until I arrived at Bahli the following day the journey was uneventful. The dak bungalow at Sungri was occupied by Lady Parmar, the Medica! Director of Himachal Pradesh, who was under- taking a most strenuous official tour of the hills, and I had to make do with accommodation in a somewhat squalid subsidiary bungalow further down the hill. I was indebted, however, to Lady Parmar for an excellent dinner. x x * The chief object of my trip was to make a brief survey of game in the higher regions of Himachal Pradesh. Although I had to omit that part of my programme which would have taken me through the Great Himalayan Range, this was not a tragedy as it gave me a longer ‘time in the Upper Kulu Valley which is inhabited by a similar fauna, only more richly. Eventually I covered a fair part of the latter area and the line of the Dhaoladhar Range from Darunghati to * ah |i This range is rich in game between the Sutle} and Hansbeshan, but further north-west, though the species are the same, it is less abundant. About the Upper Kulu Valley something will be stated later. ' Here attention should be drawn to the fact that, while a stroil through a rich jungle in the Peninsula or on the plains or in the foot- hills of Northern India, is sure to reveal at least some of the larger * In Kashmir they are commonly found at this elevation in summer.—Ebs. 346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vel. 50 game, and with luck much may be seen, this is far from the case in the high hills. In the course of a long walk through forest or a pro- tracted scramble among the high crags and meadows above the tree line the sight of any animal whatsoever may be accounted as extremely fortunate, though game birds may be in plenty. This is partly because of the great difficulty of the terrain, partly because of the remarkable wariness of hill animals—why they are so much more timid than animals on the plains is difficult to understand as this hill country affords them great protection—and partly because of the thickness ef the forests, but it is also undoubtedly due to the fact that there is much Jess big game on the hills than in the lower jungles. Perhaps the difficulty of survival during the severe winters is the cause of this. Among small game in that part of the Dhaoladhar visited by me pheasants are abundant, especially the Kalij (Gennaeus hamiltoni), known locally as the jungli murgha from its great likeness on tle ground to the domestic bird. Both Koklas (Ceviornis macrolophus) and Cheer (Catreus wallichii) are also found, and the monal (Lopho- phorus impejanus) is common above 9,000! (lower, of course, in the winter). The Black Patridge (Francolinus francolinus), as always, is in plenty below 8,000’ where there is cultivation, and Chukor (Alec- tovis graeca) are met with on the open hillsides, the slopes to the north of the Nogl Gad below Darunghati in particular being renowned for them. The Tragopan, or Western Horned Pheasant (Tragopan melanocephala), a lovely bird, is certainly very rare, if indeed it can be found at all for I could get no information about it until I arrived at Manali, where Jija Rana, the king of the pheasants, is not so very uncommon. Nor could I collect any information about that fine bird, the Snowcock (Tetraogallus himalayensis), but, as it is to be found above the Baspa Valley, it may well be present on the high slopes of tfansbeshan. Of the larger game the area holds seven species: Black Bear (Selen- arctos thibetanus) is not rare in the thick forests above 8,000/ though it descends much lower during the winter; Panther (Panthera pardus) is scarce but may be found as high as eight or nine thousand feet; kakkar or barking deer (Muntiacus muntjac), is not uncommon in jungle te 6,000’; Goral (Nemorhaedus goral) is fairly abundant in steep and rocky country to 7,500/; Thar (Hemitragus jemlahicus) inhabits for- bidding crags below the snow line (those towards the upper end of the Nogli Valley near Taklech harbouring some fine heads); Musk Deer (Moschus moschiferus), which shares the name kastura with the Hima- layan Whistling Thrush, is found in small numbers at high elevations, ranging as far as, and possibly beyond, Narkanda, and the Serow (Capricornus sumatraensis), locally called emmoo, a scarce animal throughout the North-west Himalaya, is occasionally met with in the thick cover of remote nalas above 7,000’. 7 Red Bear (Ursus arctos), Snow Leopard {Uncia uncia), Ibex (Capra siberica) and Bharal (Sendois nahoor) do not appear to be found on this side of the Sutlej any nearer than the mountains above the Baspa Valley, and, to the west, between the Great Himalayan Range and the Dhaoladhar. Beyond Sarahan, in the Sutlej Gorge, panthers are common along the trade route, preying on the flocks of sheep and goats that pass through in spring and autumn. As nian (Ovis ammon A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA 347 hodgsoni), the great Tibetan sheep, is mentioned in the Himachal Pradesh game licence, one assumes that this animal may occasionally be found on the Tibet border. It is certainly found no nearer. As for the future of the game of the high hills it is pleasant, in these days when the game of India is fast vanishing from so many parts of the sub-continent, to be able to state that it seems to be in little danger from man. Indeed there is less licensed shooting thar in years gone by, though this is not of necessity a good thing as such shooting keeps some sort of check on predatory species. In fact 1 heard it reliably voiced in Manali that the numbers of game there had decreased for this very reason. It must not, however, be thought that I had discovered an un- natural area where poaching is unknown. Far from it! On the contrary I should say that the incidence of potential poachers is very high indeed. One of the advantages of a non-official conducting enquiries of this nature is that he can hear much that is not for official ears. The hillmen are not reticent and I certainly found this to be so. Almost without exception they have an intense interest in sport and a very sound knowledge of the habits of local game, so who can blame them for supplementing their meagre food supplies with the occasionai -pheasant or kakkar in a region where the isolation of the villages and difficulty of the country make it impossible to enforce the game iaws. with any measure of success? My rifle and shotgun always aroused great interest and nearly always a request that we go out shooting at the earliest possible moment, irrespective of whether I had a licence, or whether what they wished me to shoot was in season or not. How- ever, they themselves possess so few guns and so thick is the forest that what they do shoot (or trap) can really cause little harm to the general stock. These remarks, of course, refer in the main oniy to small game. With the big game found at high altitudes the position is different. Few of these can normally be shot without a rilie, ,a weapon that the hillman naturally does not possess, and in addition they are protected by the great difficulties of the country they inhabit. I am certain that the poaching of these animals is, on the whole, neg- ligible. Musk deer, nevertheless, the killing of which is entirely prohibited, are frequently shot for the valuable musk pouch. An interesting sidelight on the difficulties of shooting game 1 the high hills was provided at Pulga in the Parbati Valley, an ideal head- quarters for this kind of sport. A very ancient shikari showed me his. testimonials dating from the earliest years of the century. He nao taken out many people, almost all of whom had seen ibex, or bharal, or red bear or tahr (except one irritated individual who wrote that he had failed to see ‘any buck’), but how few had shot anything at ali. * ‘% * * At Bahli I spent the late afternoon in the company of the bear guard and the local bania in the exhausting and unsuccessful pursuit of kakkar. The bania, however, a keen shikari, on our return pro- mised to get me a pheasant early next morning if I would lend him my gun. This I did, and he duly turned up with three kalij, one of which I presented to him for his trouble, threw in a couple of cartridges for 348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Wol h50 Juck and set out through the forest for Taklech. But I had not gone more than a mile when I was surprised to hear the sound of someone galfoping after me on a pony. It was the bania. He had forgoiten to collect three annas for firewood. | The weather deteriorated soon after my arrival at Taklech. As it is a pleasant sheltered place at a mere 5,000 ft. I decided to halt there over the next day to give the storm time to work itself out. The beat guard at Taklech was an even keener shikari than his colleague at Bahli, and I allowed him to arrange a goral shoot for the morrow. That afternoon did much to persuade me that shooting in the hills is an overrated sport! It was already raining when we set out, and as the way at the start led through fields of standing barley I became soaking wet from the first. We then proceeded at great speed (it must be realised that I had not yet got my hill legs) up a remarkably steep and slippery path that crossed a number of nasty ledges, and awkward places where the track had been obliterated by landslides. Having climbed several thousand feet we plunged down a precipitous and treacherous hillside on which I was in imminent danger of losing my foothold and dis- appearing down into the Nogli Gad which appeared from this height to be a mere silver thread, until, at last, we came to rest in a narrow cleft on the face of a precipice overlooking a great sloping wall of rock across which the animals were expected to pass, it was confidently asserted, at any moment. It was still raining heavily, but, ever and anon, by way of variety, this changed to sleet. It was thundering loudly and incessantly, and some of the flashes were sufficiently close to make me seriously alarmed that our gun barrels might serve as lightning conductors. ‘here was a bitter wind blowing from tne snows and I grew colder and colder. The beat guard and his assistant, whom these vagaries of the weather appeared to leave unmoved, chattered to me cheerfully. They seemed to have a variety of grievances. But though an hour passed no goral appeared. At last, when I could no longer prevent streams of icy cold water pouring down my neck, I conveyed to them in my halting Hindi that I was returning to the bungalow to avoid frostbite. They chose to take my gun and rifle and proceed further in pursuit of the animals. te, Jt was during my return that I hurt a toe of my left foot, an injury that made walking a painful matter for some days and brought about the change in my plans. Though I could walk uphill with a certain measure of comfort, to go downhill was extremely painful, except in my tennis shoes which eased the discomfort considerably. However, a further calamity occurred the next morning. All that night rain fell ‘torrentially, with snow down to 8,oo0 ft., but dawn broke brilliantly fine though bitterly cold, so cold that I told the servant to light ny fire. As I lay in bed drinking tea I thought I smelt burning rubber. Then { was sure of it, and, peering round, I saw that the left foot of. my tennis shoes which had been placed in front of the fire to dry, was completely enveloped in flames. This was serious, but, as the descent to the Nogli Gad is a short one and the rest of the way to Darunghati is all steeply uphill, I felt’ I could just manage it. So bidding farewell to the fine hill dog which A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA 349 aad firmly attached himself to me, I set off. The day remained ccol and very fine, and in spite of my gloomy prognostications I made short, though painful, work of the five thousand foot climb. Notwithstanding the glorious views of the mountains, and Uans- Neshan in particular, my halt at Darunghati was a miserable one. Snow was lying round the bungalow, it was unpleasantly cold and all the wood was so wet that it was impossible to make a satisfactory fire. I retired early to my ‘sleeping bag’—a bedding roll, a rezai with tapes attached so that it can be tied round the body, and one or two blankets make an excellent substitute. Just before leaving I shot a cock cheer pheasant for my evening meal and the reverberating echoes revived sad memories, for this was the triple echo at which Sheba, now, alas! no more, had barked with such indignation four years ago. The morning was fine and warm when I hobbled off down the hiil towards Gaora, and the forest was coming to life. The grating note of the nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes) and the plaintive and un- ceasing wail of the great Himalayan barbet (Megalaima virens) were to be heard everywhere. Both are inhabitants of the treetops and adept at keeping out of sight, the first a dark bird of the crow family with much white in the tail, and the second a large and handsome green barbet with a blue-black head. Common sounds too were the wild song of the kastura (Myiophoneus caeruleus), a frequenter of forest aalas and streams, whose dark plumage is transmuted to glistening blue by the magic of the sunlight, and the mellow tri-syliabic note of the Black-and-Yellow Grosbeak (Perissospiza icteroides), a restless bird that lives among the middle branches of the conifers and repeatedly moves from tree to tree. Once too I heard the call of the Indiat: Cuckoo (Cuculus mucropterus), later on a very common sound, translated in the books by the extraordinary phrase ‘kyphul pakka’! Lower down, where the road leaves the forest, much in evidence was the clear loud whistle of the Streaked Laughing-thrush (Trochalopteron lineatum) and the explosive ‘Tseeee-tswe’ of the Brown Hill-Warbler (Suya criniger) as he sat on the topmost twig of some bush, ever and anon flying up “to perform curious little evolutions in the sheer exuberance of living. Just before Mashnu I turned down the Gaora link and for the first time entered country that was new to me. The road skirts the forest and there were glorious views up the Sutlej Valley of the high mount- ains freshly covered with snow. Six miles out I met a young goatherd who made the surprising request that I employ him as a cook, and at nine miles 1 had my first quarrel with the Survey of India, the first of many. As a result of some cartographer’s error I landed up at a rest house two and a half miles short of Gaora and waited there for a good hour before | learnt of my mistake. By that time the mules had by-passed me and reached their rightful destination. The map has compromised over these iwo bungalows by putting the symbo! R.H. half way between them. When finally I reached Gaora (not marked on the map) I found the rest house to be a bleak little building right above the Sutlej. It was, however, warm, and at last I was able to have a much needed kath. The road from Gaora to Rampur is easily graded so the nine mile descent of 4,000 ft. was not too impossible to my poor foot. The spring 390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.-59 movement up the valley had begun and I met repeated herds of sheep and goats carrying their little packs, ponies, donkeys and mules in the charge of a heterogeny of different peoples and races—Tibetans, Spiti wallahs, Kunawaris and others, a picturesque collection, especi- ally the pony dealers from Spiti and Tibet. Several encampments of these were to be seen by the wayside with their neat, rather flat, stream- lined tents, each ornamented with a tuft of yaks’ tails, and a standard bearing fluttering prayer flags placed nearby. Rampur, situated where the valley narrows between bare and ugly hillsides, is a squalid collection of tumbled-down houses dominated by the palace which may perhaps best be described as an elegant building in the hiil style. The chief market for the trade of the Hindustan- Tibet road, Kampur is of interest as a meeting place of many races, and is famed for its pony fair in the autumn. The rest house, a large and comfortable one, is a mile further down: the Sutle]. The path between Rampur and Banjar over the Bashleo Fass,. although seldom used, is an excellent mule track and is kept in good condition. Having found out that the pass was open, we left Rampur early on May 5th, crossed the Sutlej and climbed into the steep valley opposite to the town. The going was hot and exhausting and we had 4,oo0 ft. to climb up an unshaded hillside. My young Goan servant, bearing in mind that before he made this trip he had seen no hills higher than the Western Ghats nor experienced any cold more intense than the mild Rajkot winter, had so far stood up to conditions well, but this day he was in a state of some exhaustion by the time we reached the top. So far butterflies had been very scarce, which was not surprising in view of the bad weather, and I had seen no species of any interest at all, until half way up this hillside at 5,500 ft. I saw the handsome red- bodied swallowtail, Polydorus philoxenus, known as the Common Windmill from the appearance of its extended wings, beating up and, down the bushes with the characteristic slow flight of its genus. Pre- viously I had known of only one record of this butterfly from the Simla region—a strange fact, for it is common on the other side of the Bashleo Pass and also to the east of Himachal Pradesh. Some iocal disaster, which did not touch the species to the east and the west, has. perhaps reduced the stock to vanishing point in the Simla Hills, much as I have suggested elsewhere (Vol. 48. No. 2) may account for the strange distribution of the Lepcha Bush-brown (Myca- lesis lepcha) which is found on most of the hills of Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Southern India but not in the Nilgiris. We crossed the hilltop at a little pass close to the village of Sohach, where the map places the rest house, only to find that it was another two miles further up the Kurpan Valley at Arsu.. As we were told there was another bungalow at Nermand in the opposite direction, the cartographer once again seems to have adopted the expedient of making one symbol do the work of two by placing it half way between: them. | " BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. JOURN Photos Gushu Pishu (18,610’) (right centre) and Kokshane (18,940’) (right) from near Darunghati. Uf wip j WH Yi, ; Author JOURN. BoMBAY NAT. HIstT. Soc. Photos Himalayan Griffon Vulture. PLATE I] a A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA 301 Nermand is famous for its mela, at which in days gone by, so I am told, a rope festival was celebrated. This was a kind of sacrifice to ensure the fertility of the crops. A rope was secured between a pre- cipice and the ground at its foot so that it stretched at a steep angle, and a suitable person, a criminal or one who had seriously offended against village custom, was chosen to ride down it on a forked piece of wood the shape of a ‘Y’. The top ends of the Y were placed down- wards over the rope and weighted to keep them in position, while the victim clung onto the upright with his hands and to the two arms of the ‘Y’ with his legs. If friction caused the rope to catch on fire and he fell to the ground below and: was killed he and his apparel were torn to pieces and planted in the fields. If, however, he survived, this usually only happened to his clothes. Arsu rest house is a little one-roomed shack, and I devoted the after-. noon to washing my clothes in a neighbouring stream. There was a good view of the Bashleo Pass from the verandah of the bungalow, and very forbidding it looked. I began to wonder if it would be possible to get the mules over it. However, when I questioned Chenan Singh, my very efficient Sikh muleteer, before setting off for Sirhan the next day, he had no qualms and assured me that it would be an easy matter. Beyond Arsu the road drops two thousand feet, gently at first, then steeply, down to the Kurpan bridge at four miles. The way led through scrub and cultivation, typical of the southern hill slopes at this altitude—standing barley and a young growth of potatoes, oaks (Quercus incana) badly stripped for firewood, wild apricot trees (Prunus armenica), roses, Indigofera and bushes of Berberis, Rhamnus, Spiraea, Cotoneaster and Crataegus. Beside the river-crossing an alder tree was almost hidden under a mass of the yellow spikes of Caesalpinia sepiaria, a scandent shrub whose limit according to Collet’s ‘Flora Simlensis’ is only 4,o00 ft. Nevertheless, as I also found it two days later beyond Batha flourishing at 6,500 ft. it is obvious that its normal range is much higher than that. I had heard much of the beauty of the Kulu women but it disappoint- ed me to observe that, after leaving Rampur, the nearer I approached that fortunate valley the more ill-favoured and surly became the in- habitants. Round Arsu they belonged to a positively Simian type, and truth compels me to observe that a large proportion of the population seemed to have a mental development in keeping with their appearance. Once over the Bashieo Pass, however, there was a sudden and pleasing change for the better, both in appearance and manners. Such local peculiarities of physiognomy are a noticeable feature of the north-west Himalaya. I remember once halting at the village of Deha in Balsan State where all the men are extremely tall and thin and have remarkably small heads and a most decided resemblance one to another, their features being quite unlike those of any others I had met.in the Simla Hills or, indeed, anywhere else. Again, for example, the difference in appeararice between the natives of Kulu and Manali, and those of the neighbouring Parbati Valley is most striking. Beyond the Kurpan the track climbs steeply from woods of Pinus longifolia to enter the short valley leading up to the pass. A Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaéctos) glided past a few yards below me, giving 302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 me the closest view I have ever had of this magnificent bird, and further up, at 7,500 ft., I saw a six-bar Swordtail butterfly (Graphium eurous cashmiriensis), a sign of the lateness of the season, for this extremely local Papilio appears with great regularity at this altitude in the Simla Hills about April 15th. } After entering the little valley the path climbs gently through pleasing scenery, mixed forest, cultivation and scrub, to give way to a steep and unpleasant ascent that winds in and out among the huge unshaded boulders of the terminal moraine of an ancient glacier that once flowed down from the head of the valley. ; There was, however, ample compensation for this tedious climb, for on reaching the upper end of the moraine a scene of great beauty suddenly revealed itself. A square half mile of flat green pasture, on which grazed the tiny hill cattle, lies enclosed on three sides by huge cliffs and steep forested hillsides to form a cirque, and at the head of the pasture a stream tumbles down the crags to meander peacefully across the meadow past a little wooden temple. When I arrived the chowkidar was absent from the bungalow, which is disappointingly placed to face away from the cirque, but an elderly crone who was minding cattle came to my rescue by emitting a series of eldritch shrieks in the direction of the village, three quarters of a mile away, which brought the chowkidar hurrying in a very short time. The art of shouting from khudside to khudside has been highiy developed in these parts, among whose simple folk it may almost be said to take the place of the telephone. I know of no place where it has been developed to a finer art than at Deha, the village mentioned a few paragraphs back, for there the inhabitants carry on conversa- tions with the next village down the narrow funnel-shaped valley, fuliv two miles away. The replies float up from below, mere whispers of sound. Curiously enough this form of communication does not seem to be much in use in Kulu. On opening one of my food boxes a scorpion was found (I think it had made the journey from Taklech where we had found another one) but otherwise the afternoon passed uneventfully and pleasantly among these delightful surroundings. Nevertheless, the pass looked even more forbidding from close quarters. It seemed to zig-zag up an almost vertical precipice. The weather was gloomy when we set out the next morning, but, after a shower of rain, it cleared up to become brilliantly fine once more. Chenan Singh proved to be correct and the ascent of the pass was easy. Thirty-four cleverly engineered zig-zags take the road up the precipitous head of the valley. Then, at a gentler angle, it passes through a conifer belt onto meadow land and finally through a strip of mountain oak (Quercus semecarpifolia) to the summit. The Bashleo, though a low pass—it is 10,800 ft.—is almost all that a pass should be, for it looks impressive from a distance, it is steep, it passes over a col between two high mountains, it is suff- ciently high to be interesting, the ascent from Sirhan is net long enough to be tiring and there is a fine view back from the top, though the view towards Kulu is disappointing as it looks towards. the lower hills. A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA 393 On the pasture I saw my first Alpine Choughs (Pyrrhocorax gracu- lus) and a Snow Pigeon (Columba leuconota). Of the latter more will be said presently for it is a very common bird above 10,000 ft. in Kulu. The chough is very like a small jungle crow with a short yellow beak, a character that readily distinguishes it from the other species found in the hills, though less commonly, the Red-billed Chough (Pyrrhoco- vax pyrrhocorax), whose bill is longer, curved and coral red. It is a lively bird that is much given to mild aerobatics and possesses a variety of calls that are both more shrill and musical than is usual with the crow family. This bird, too, is abundant at Manali, over 8,o00 ft. The southern face of the pass was free from snow except for one or two deep drifts, and primulas (P. denticulata), the first heralds. of spring, were just beginning to show their heads, but no other flowers were yet to be seen and the grass was still brown from its winter sleep. The northern side of the pass, however, was snowbound, and. the mules had to descend with care. I travelled rapidly, for my feot had recovered, and was soon at Batha. Batha is prettily placed in the narrow valley on a small spur above the poplar-fringed Tirthan River, with forest all around. I spent the afternoon by the waterside watching the attractive bird lfe of a Himalayan stream. They are a cheerful lot. There was a trio of dippers (Cinclus pallasi), one cock and two hens, plunging now and then into the most swiftly flowing parts of the torrent to emerge yards away, shake their feathers and bob about on some rock. A pair of Plumbeous Redstarts (Rhyacornis fuliginosus), the female a grey little bird with' a broadly white-bordered tail, very different from the deep slaty-blue, chestnut-tailed male, made brief hawking expeditions after insects or longer journeys close above the water from one stone [to another. The male showed great displeasure at another of the species. which had strayed into his territory, and chased him away in a deter- mined manner. There was also a pair of Grey Wagtails (Motacilla cine- rea) about their lawful business by the water’s edge, and the high-pitched alarm note and prominent pied plumage of a Spotted Forktail (Enicurus maculatus) compelled attention to this striking bird. Once I saw a Paradise Flycatcher (Tchitrea paradisi) trailing his silver ribbons behind him, and a pair of Yellow-billed Blue Magpies (Urocissa flavi- rostris) made short flights, one following the other, from tree to tree. This beautiful bird is extremely common in Kulu, where the red-pilled species (Urocissa erythrorhyncha), the common magpie of Simla, is not to be found. A noticeable absentee, a bird that is so much a part of Himalayan streams for most of the year, was the White-capped Redstart. They had left for their nesting grounds further into the hills. Beside the rest house grew an apricot tree singled out for great attention by the Hill Jezabel butterfly (Delias beiladonna) because it was infested with Loranthus, the foodplant of the larva. The slow, leisured flight and striking yellow and. black markings of the undersides of its wings proclaim that this butterfly is protected by its unpleasant taste. | It is a curious, and perhaps significant, fact, and one to which I have never seen attention drawn, that the majority of butterflies pro- tected in this way feed in their larval stage on foodplants that are 354 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, \Wol.. 50 either poisonous or belong to a family containing poisonous plants. For instance, in addition to Delias (the whole of which genus feeds on Loranthus or Viscum), the danaids of which the entire family is protected, feed on plants belonging to three genera A pocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae and Urticaceae, of which the first two families contain many poisonous plants and the third at least some—for example hemp—and nettles certainly possess irritant properties.. The large genus of the protected red-bodied swallowtails (Polydorus) feeds oun the often poisonous Aristolochiaceae, and Pareba vesta on Buddleia of the Loganiaceae, the family that contains Strychnos nux-vomica. In some cases, of course, the foodplants belong, as far as is known, to families which possess no species with toxic properties (such as Aporia, the blackveined whites, feeding on species of Berberis), but these are very much in the minority. Consequently I feel that there are grounds for suspicion that protection may not always be a mere matter of unpleasant taste, but that some butterflies may absorb the properties of the plants they feed upon and be actually poisonous. Here then, surely, is an interesting avenue of research for the bio-chemist ? The bania at Batha was most attentive, and, having sold me egg’s at a price that was hardly anything above the market rate, presented me with milk and two doves for my dinner. I wondered what was afoot, but all he wanted was a certificate from me to say what a fine fellow he was. This I willingly gave him and everybody was satisfied ; indeed, he was so pleased that he courteously accompanied me for a mile upon my way. The twenty-two miles from Batha to Larji was very easy going, a pleasant relief from the arduous up and down of my journey since I had left Bahli. : The valley for the first few miles below Batha is attractive, and bird and butterfly life was in abundance, Polydorus philoxenus, in particular, being common, but after that, as we descended, it progres- sively became hotter and the scenery more barren and dull. I remember little of these two stages except that I was thirsty and warm when J arrived at the comfortable and finely situated bunga- low at Banjar, and hot and very thirsty when I reached the fly-stricken civil rest house at Laril. A three mile walk up the Larji Gorge early on the morning of the 11th took me to Aut on the main Kulu road where I said goodbye to Chenan Singh and his mules, both of which had given me the best of service, and boarded a bus for Manali. (To be continued) SOME BIRDS SEEN ON THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED IN MARCH, 1951 BY DESIREE PRoUD (With a sketch map and a plate) Ever since reading’ in the Journal of April 1948 (Vol. 47, pp. 432-443) Mr. Smythies’s account of his journey along the Gandak-Kosi water- shed, I have longed to visit the mountains he describes so well. During our first year in Nepal it was, however, impossible as I could not leave my 3 children alone in Kathmandu. This winter it seemed more hopeful, the children being safely established in England at school and with their grandmother. Incidentally, what words of praise are sufficient for to-day’s grandmothers, who, in spite of rations, queues and servantless homes still open their arms to (frequently) spoilt and temperamental grandchildren from abroad? Unfortunately the winter of 1950-1951 was full of unexpected political activity. The tranquil backwater of Nepal became suddenly full of activity and it was not till March that leave became at all possible. At Easter we were given 8 days leave, during which I hoped we might reach the sacred Jakes of Gosainkund and perhaps catch a glimpse ot those thrilling birds, the great Parrotbill and the Beautiful Rosefinch. Thesé hopes were all doomed to disappointment, but nevertheless the 8 days were the most delightful I have ever spent. As our trip was at a different season to that of Mr. Smythies, with conditions as different as possible, and consequently different birds, the following notes may be of some interest. We left on March 20. The winter had been an unusually dry one, with no rain for months, but the weather broke on the day we left and rain threatened as we walked up the hil past Sundarijal (5,000 ft.). The steep cultivated land beyond the reservoir was yellow with flowering Berberis and Hypericum, and wild pear was still in flower above the village. The forest starts at 6,500 ft. and a pleasant easy walk along the Sheopuri ridge foliows. A tree (Symplocos sumantia?) was in flower all along the ridge and very attrac- tive, the numerous stamens giving a powder puff appearance to the flowers, some yellow, some white. We had intended to have our first camp near Pati Bhanjyang, but the ominous storm clouds decided us to camp as soon as possible. Accordingly we stopped just short of the crest of the ridge, and a lovely camp site it was. The coolies went on to a little hamlet just over the ridge. We were in none too soon, for the rain came down in torrents and continued most of the night. Next morning we woke to a perfect day: Grey-winged Blackbirds singing gloriously and the whole forest sparkling in the sunshine, the dust of months swept away by the rain. A large magnolia (or Michelia) tree near our camp was covered with huge waxy cream- coloured flowers. These attracted numbers of birds, chiefly Striated Green Bulbuls (Alcurus striatus). They are very local round here and will be extremely common in one place for some weeks and_ then 10 356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 disappear, not to be seen in that area again perhaps for years. They have much sweeter notes than any other bulbul I know. The Collared Ixulus (J. flavicollis) also very common, and of course numbers ot Red-headed and Green-backed Tits. We left at 9 and the view from the ridge (8,000 ft.) of the snow mountains was superb. The path down to Pati Bhanjyang is very steep, and as one scrambles down one looks straight across at the even steeper climb up the hills opposite and bitterly regrets the loss of height to be painfuily made up later in the day. Dark-grey Bushchats and a very pale stonechat were seen here and not again. The leafless Berberis had very much the appearance of hawthorn bushes in England. A bush (Edgeworthia gardneri?) was common and in flower. It has a sweet distinctive perfume. We call it the ‘buttered-egg’ plant. Pati. Bhanjyang is 5,900 ft. according to our altimeter, though 5,o00 ft. on the map. The little town is dirty but very picturesque in a squalid way, and is obviously a dearly loved halt for the coolies. As four tracks meet here there is probably a cheap market. We foolishly went on without seeing the coolies safely beyond its fleshpots and they were very late in catching us up. Red-rumped Swallows and Himalayan Swiftlets were hawking back and forth across the pass. Tfrom the town the path at first traverses an attractive hill-side cultivated in terraces; the barley here was fine and well grown. Indian corn had just been planted and the first green spears were showing above ground. Wiid cherry, plum and pear grew in the gullies and the yellow flowers of Hypericum everywhere. I heard the Hill Warbler (Suwya), but did not see one. The Streaked Laughing-thrush is also often heard here. Soon the path starts to climb steeply, up and up through scrub, mostly Gaultheria, now in bloom with stiff sprays of waxy white flowers. Ageratum is a weed all over this hill. At 7,000 ft. we reached a ridge where a large and very dirty Tamang village sprawls for over a quarter mile along a very narrow ridge. This was the only place where kites were seen. The forest (oak) which had covered this ridge had been recently killed. The oaks, barked, lopped and dead stand like stiff black skeletons, and the ground beneath them has been made up into fresh fields with their leaves and branches buried in them. No doubt very rich for one or two crops, but so steep is the land that I doubt if it will hold for two monsoons and then the old fields which must have been protected by the trees will surely be swept down the precipitous slopes, and the ridge will be abandoned to thin scrub and ageratum. At the end of the village the track again climbs steeply through piles of stones and boulders. At the top we came to another ridge, but this time covered with oak and rhododendron forest. Here we found the first Buddhist chorten and sat down for a rest and a chat with some Sherpas down from the high hills. They told us the snow was thigh deep at Thare Pati and no hope at all of reaching the sacred lakes. As there was no sign of the coolies, we decided we had better cdmp here and we found a lovely grassy meadow at the highest point of this ridge (8,000 ft.). Bushes of Edgeworthia. and Pieris formosa in flower all round the camp and we had a superb view of snow mountains all along the east—Jugal Himal and on and on as far as Gauri Shankar. Much more exciting to us were the Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. oh CHiyy Mya Suit z Ss XR; Vimy gi’ [FS | AY $y Mow §,837, = us bs = \y - ‘ “ ay - = Sy LZ ggitionn Stn, Me 6999 a 2 | wt! 'C} re) A > Uy Q_ gp “ND &% VATU a\ (i Niny, = Tiys ey = N SS Z OS SoukuNne ines = N | \ INR Uy may pier “pg ey ls =r | os HOOF (ute liunnciy, VE ly a = 2 \ \ Y WN JE\ @ = as N \\ : aw a A Sv ean Pak GYANG _& \. Ly =e = = E ry, os 904 ,\\" THARE PATI | eTARKE S a X ie = tay S Hail 5,904 = 12,060 Ss xz Ss 6 Se ae GYANG & | RS \\v =:s8 = 2 Boyt =12 = S BY ff)' ¥ = X s S sw" tSumme Z S YS : B %& 9% ; SPH eANG %, N Sunt Z2\ 3 PON 2S KHOLA sl = joaoor 2 &§ TAD! go S jeoteuauyane) 2 ee a SS ‘s JYANG, = =| , ~ SNE It fp 2 8 AWAD WSuqaya ers = 2 “ = § | Ly » MAMCHE DANDA o83il Fe = NN | | t4,, tpg gy ppp nM HIUSIEHRUR ff Wy, i = Z \) | i KHOLA % te Wn nace Nt A | —— _ ie ANUYANG \ , | <—_ “—“" Z 12 5,900 = iM —- CO, " = if nN = 2 '™", & i ay '3943 wi mie Rey i | ee Vo * “2 000 It hey | t LOM “as f a! ) ap ggP TTR as = — Yo é | at 2 ee Fay! 2 BE 34 \ Z ) \D O SUNDARUAL 4) ZY N | We a “/) by % \y \\ iS Y, %G, | Wa . “ny | iW - Py Ly yah ot NEPAL.” . V/ALLEY ty, Wy dt at Ba | Z%G i o be Z % | il -° , & 4% i Me is Z % c 2 2 z | ’ ZZ Se =u Ene KATMANDU @ Ze ROUGH SKETCH OF KOSI-GANDAK WATERSHED Scale: linch = 4 miles SOME BIRDS SEEN ON THE GANDAK-KOSI WATERSHED ook snows of the Gosainkund Lekh to the north. We were able to dry our tents etc. in the sun when the coolies finally arrived. We went to bed as soon as the sun sank, and fell asleep to the ‘jug jugging’ of the Jungle Nightjar. We awoke next day to mist and cloud. Phere had jbeemie fairly heavy rain in the interim and the river had risen, causing a decrease in the size of the island. Fewer adult birds were about, but they still behaved like nesting individuals. One nest with two newly- hatched chicks was found. These were fluffy and protectively mottled. Despite its youth, one of them jumped out of my hand and attempted to run away. By June 12, the monsoon had caused a sharp rise in the river and the island was completely inundated. Although I wandered along the west bank for several furlongs, thinking that the remaining young birds might have managed to find a sheltered stretch of shore, I could not see a single swallow plover of any age. The nesting success of the colony was therefore probably partially reduced by the onset of the monsoon. But I suspect that our discovery of the colony may have been late in its seasonal history, and that many young may have been fledged before that time. Major Phythian-Adams’s April egg date would support such a view. An effort will be made to test this impression next year, provided similar islands reappear in_ the Hemavati and swallow plovers return to Sakleshpur. 3, ST. Marks Roan, BANGALORE, C. BROOKE WORTH September 17, ‘1951: 12, OCCURRENCE OF THE PHEASANT-TPAILED JAGANA {HYDROPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS (SCOPOLI)| IN MADRAS Mr. J. M. Forrow of Simson & McConechy Ltd., Madras, has sent us a sketch and description of a bird which is undoubtedly the Pheasant-tailed Jacana in breeding plumage, which he observed on the banks of the Adyar river near Madras on the 25th June 1951. Whistler in the ‘Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats’ states that there is no information about the occurrence of this species in the Madras Presidency. except for one skin in the Madras Museum and two others obtained by Wardlaw-Ramsay (one undated, and one 1876) in the British Museum. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 407 Mr. Forrow saw this for the first time in 16 years residence in Mr. Forrow saw this for the first time in 16 years residence in 114, APOLLO STREET, . Fort, : EDITORS: BomBay, july 19; 1951- iz. (MORNING AND EVENING BIRD! CALLS The following observations on the succession of bird calls at dawn and dusk were taken on May 7, August 2 and 3, 1951. They were recorded in the Forest Office compound at Ranchi. This compound is about 26 years old. Both large and small trees occur, some of them being very old. Hedges, bushes, seasonal flowers, and open spaces with grass are all intermixed. Sometimes rare birds are met as winter visitors which are not found in any other compound in the neighbourhood. My conclusions are not definite, but generally it may be said that at the commencement of the breeding season in May, the Black Drongo starts calling earliest; whereas when young birds are about, the crows and mynas are the earliest risers. The end of calling is even more indefinite in the evening, but it would appear that the drongo, crow, and the mynas are the last to call before re- tiring. Of course, in moonlight, the Koel keeps up its chatter inter- mittently throughout the night; whilst the Spotted Owlet is also generally vocal at all hours of the night. May 7, 1951. 4.05 a.m. Soft calls of Black Drongo (Dicrurus macrocercus). 4.07 ,, Second drongo joined in from the western side. 4.08 ,, The Koel (Eudynamis scolopaceus) followed. 4. OO. 5, The second Koel joined in. ia Two drongos and Koels. + ” ee a1) ‘Another drongo from a different quarter. Y Tee . | 7 ° ° 4.15 ,, Koels and drongos at a high pitch, from all directions. ACO s., A dull. “lay Koa Drongos and Koels. 4.41 , Koel, House Crow (Corvus splendens). 2 Koel, crow, Dhayal (Copsychus saularis) in low pitch. 2 Dhayal, Koel, Common Myna, (Sturnus tristis). 5 Second myna took part; Dhayal in full song; Koel. | 6 ,, Black-headed Oriole (Orviclus xanthornus) joined in. 8 BS Second Black-headed Oriole from a_ different quarter joined in; Dhayal, 2 Night Herons (Nvycticorax : nycticorax) passing the compound and calling. Ag Cy ae Dhayval, myna, Red-vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer). a50° 9,, 2 second bulbul joined in; Myna, Crow, Koel. est Aa Bulbul, myna, Koel, drongo, Dhaval, all at a high pitch. AES 2 =" 55 Spotted Owlet (Athene brama), Pied Myna (Sturnus contra), Common Myna, bulbul. 408 Pins Geel tae wi ortn tn CONT Cin fee ot iu ot nt Ut Ut Gt Ot Ot Ut a I ot tt Ot Gt Ut on oni 1 OI tn Ui or ot gi ONS JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FEST. SOCIETY -3 oo a Tonk-tonk of Crimson-breasted Barbet (Megalaima haemacephala); Drongo. White-eye (Zosterops palpebrosa); Pied Mynas, Com- mon Mynas, Koel, barbet, Bava (Ploceus philippinus). Barbet, Pied Myna, Myna. Pied Myna, barbet, Koel, Dhayal. Pied Mynas, White-eyes, Dhayal. Crows, Yellow-cheeked Tits (Parus xanthogenys), Dhayal, Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis), Night Heron. Another dove from the west. Another dove from the east; Yellow-cheeked Tits, barbets. All doves together, myna, INoei, barbet. Koel, bulbul, myna, tits. Crow, drongo, dove. House Sparrow (Passer domesticus), crow, bulbul. Sparrow, dove, and bulbul. Grey Shrike (Lanius excubitor), occasionally calling. Bulbul, dove, Baya, myna. Pariah Kite (Milvus migrans) gave a few screams. Baya, dove, Koel, myna. Two owlets chuckling together. Bulbul, Pied Myna, Common Myna at high pitch. Drongo started calling again. . Two drongos together, two owlets, Baya. Bulbul, Koel, Pied Myna, Common Myna. Small. Minivets (Pericrocotus peregrinus) calling. Dhayal. Barbet, drongo, dove. A full. One Laggar Falcon (Falco jugger) taking short Aight but not calling. Dove, Koel, myna. Doves, orioles, Dhayal. Bulbul, Pied Myna, sparrow, Baya. Koel, dove, Baya. Dove tits. Owlets, Marhatta Woodpeckers, (Dendrocoptis mahraitensis), Drongo, tits, myna. Pied Myna, Common Myna, Noel, bulbul, dove, con- tinuing’. The morning was cloudy, and a light westerly breeze was blowing. The ground was wet due to heavy rain the previous night. Sunrise, about 5.33. a.m.; temperature: maximum, ros H.; mimmaum, 75 i: Evening Observations; sunset at 6.23 p.m. p.m. 5}5) ,’ Pied Myna, myna, dove, Koel. Pied Mynas, Common Mynas. Drongo, tits. | oe Ny) e6) H O LS) DAADAAAAG Soy RSvy 150) (oy Coy (G8) (9) Orn Go Oo 6.40 | OM oruri ow U1 Ui on nun Go G6 \O CON 9 August 2, or or cn Ut’ Ut Gt Gat Yt Ut (@) OV Gi Un ial On oi ui —_ i i) @y Cos , git Ut ee) a cr i) \O ont oe) e) gr Ur Ui 2 Oe Ww o>) a.m. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 409 Rose-ringed Parakeet (Psitlacula krameri), making a lot of noise on a mango tree. Drongo, Koel, parakeets. Myna; Dhayal singing softly. Pied Mynas, several together. A lull. | Bulbul, drongo, myna. Owlets, bulbul, drongo. Drongo, bulbul, myna. Barbet, Pied Myna, Common Myna, [oel. Plaintive swee-swee of Dhayal; Koel, crow. iA dull. Owlets, House Swift (Apus affinis). Second owlet joined in; drongo. Pied Myna, Koel, drongo, crow. Drongo, Koel, crow. AN ‘hell! Drongo, owlet, Koel. Koels at high pitch. Drongos, [oels. Koel, myna. Swee-ee and Chr-r of a Dhayai. ~Drongo, myna. Drongo, koel. Koel, drongo, continuing. Perfect silence prevails after the day’s hard struggle for food, nest building, etc. All fast asleep. 1954. House Crow. Myna. Second crow and myna join in. Pied Mynas join the Common Mynas. Pied Mynas, Common Mynas, crows. A lull. Koels from different directions. Pied Mynas, Common Mynas, owlet. Second owlet joined in, Pied Mynas, Common Mynas_ Crows. Bulbul, mynas. Second bulbul came in. Bulbul, mynas. All silent. Crow, Koel. Another crow from the west. Another crow from the east. All crows together, Koels. Tits, dove, Pied Myna. Second dove, tit, bulbuls: Another tit joined; doves, bulbuls Four doves in chorus; Koel. “ 410 .40 42 ho ath .46 .50 ici Orv uri gnr Ui tn Onn 6.34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY] NATURAL HHESTSSOCID LY,” Viola 50 SoH ialeiae ) A halt: Soft call of a Dhayal. Doves, tits, bulbuls. Doves, tits, and koels at high pitch. Crows, Pied Mynas, Common Mynas. Koels, crows, mynas. Small party of White-eyes hunting amongst the foliage of a Toon (Cedrela toona) tree, and uttering jingling notes all the. time. Pied Mynas, Common Mynas, bulbul, White-eye. Two Night. Herons were going to their roosting grounds and kwaak-ing all the time; Dhayal. Koel, Pied Mynas, Common Mynas. A drongo whistling from the north; doves. Doves, crows, Koels. Another drongo from the east, Pied Mynas, doves. White-eyes, mynas, doves. Small Minivets, doves. ‘A lull. Doves, crow, Pied Mynas, Common Mynas, bulbul. Crows, mynas, doves. Doves, mynas,. kite, and >a, Scavenger > Vulture (Neophron percnopterus) flying about but not calling. Two young Koels making a noise while being fed by a Crow. Young Koels, barbet, bulbul. A dull. Barbet, crows. aks: Mynas, bulbuls, tit. Silence. Parakeets. Shahin Falcon (Falco peregrinus perigrinator) flying low but not calling; Pied Mynas give alarm. Parakeets, barbet, myna, bulbul, young Koel, Tickell’s Flowerpecker (Dicaeum erythrorhynchum). Small Spotted Eagle (Aquila pomarina) sitting on 4 branch but not calling. Mynas, doves, barbet. Sunrise approximately at 6.35 a.m. The morning was _ very cloudy, and it was difficult to observe the exact instant at which the sun rose, motionless. There was no wind, and the morning was very calm and Evening; sunset approximately at 6.25 p.m. 6:26 pam: 6527 6.28 6.29 6.30 92) Young Koels, Pied Mynas, Common Mynas. Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis), Pied Mynas, young Koels. Pied Mynas, doves. Koel, Common Myna, young Pied Mynas. Mynas, crow. (Se) , DAAAR NS Go GO wy WO COON vu + Go Evening cloudy MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Aik Young Koel; 4 crows together; Koel. Young Koels, Koels, crows. Pied Myna, Common Myna, [oel. Mynas. Pied Mynas, Common Mynas, crow. Sommenile Barbet, Pied Myna. Second barbet took part; Pied Mynas. Two drongos, crows. White-eves, crows. Drongo, barbet, crow, Pied Myna. Owlet, drongo; Koel, two from different directions. Another —owlet, Shahin Falcon, young Koelis. A hull: Young Koels, crows, Night Herons going to feed. Complete silence. Two Koels from north and south, owlet. , still and hot. Sun not visible for the most part. Sunset observed with difficulty. AUG) ole alos: -IO a.M. mMmuanononunmmo om Un Un UT Ut ot on UI Un e . e . ° e e e ° Oac Myna. Several mynas joined in. Two Pied Mynas, Common Mynas, crow. Several Pied Mynas, Common Mynas in chorus, crow. Owlet, Pied Mynas, Common Mynas. . Second owlet from a different quarter, mynas. Pied Mynas. Pied Mynas, Common Mynas, Crow. Koel, Common Mynas, Pied Mynas. Another Koel took part. Two Koels together, Pied Mynas. Third Koel from the north, crows. Koel from the north, mynas. Silence: Crows, young Koels, Pied Mynas. Crows, Pied Mynas, Common Mynas. Crows, Koels, Pied Mynas, Common Mynas. Two Night Herons called while passing the compound. Two crows making noise while feeding young NKoels. Koels, mynas. Parakeet. Bulbul. Bulbul, Pied Mynas. Bulbul, Pied Mynas, Common Mynas. Pied Mynas, Common Mynas, Crow, White-eyes. Bulbul, crows, mynas. 412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCGL2TY © Vil. 60 6.09 a.m. Dove. 6.107") ,,, Dove aynas: Ooreny Young Koels, dove, mynas. OFIG es. & Parakeet, dove. 6.15 ,,: Second dove joined in; crows. Ga 7aee Flowerpeckers, dove, young LNoels. (Sysiltey eae Barbet, doves. Ga20 ae. Bulbuls, barbet. 6. Zier White-eyes, dove. On2 37 exe Mynas, dove, crow. 6:2 rs Two Koels, crows, mynas. 6226) 42. Doves, Koels, crows, Pied Mynas, Common Mynas. Grey aes Barbet, bulbul. 5:28 e, Koels, Pied Mvynas, Common Mynas. crows. ©: 20 655, Two Doves, Pied Mynas, Common Mynas. @:3Oune rn Barbet, bulbul, voung Koels. Che Hamer Young Koels, crows, mynas. Raining heavily; time of sunrise not observed. Evening; sunset approximately 6.25 p.m. 6.30 p.m. Mynas, barbet, young Pied Mynas. O22 75a. Pied Mynas, Common Mynas, barbet, young Koel. 623325, Koel, barbet, Pied Mynas, mynas. O.3Ha os, Mynas, young Pied Mynas. 6535 ke. Young Pied Mynas, young Koel. 6286795, Pied Mynas, Common Mynas, dove. e374 1h. Barbet. Mynas, Dove. 6.38 ,, Pied Mynas, Common Mynas, barbet. 6:30 5. Mynas, barbet. OnA10r een Parakeet, House Swift, barbet, mynas. Gs4i. ee Pied Mynas, Common Mynas, barbet, Koel from the west. Omega. Koel, young Mynas, Mynas. OSA rare. A lull. rasta Crow, voung Koels, Koeis. O46ur.. Crows, young Koels, mynas. O47. Two drongos, dove, crows, young mynas. OSA Sian, Crows. 6.49 ,, Drongo from the west;. crows. OPS Ome Silence. S51) fa Drongo, crow, young myna, owlet. 6.52 ,, Fwo owlets together, mynas, crows. 6.54° 75, Six Night Herons going to their feeding grounds; crows, drongo. Gusttea ny, Silence. The evening was clear and hot, but the sun was partly obscured, thus making time of sunset difficult to observe. Several birds visit this compound for breeding only, e.g. Baya and Sparrow, and are not seen thereafter. Others like the Grey Shrike and the oriole are more common in the cold weather, and the drongo comes only occasionally, mostly in the evening after the breeding | MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4153 season. Night Herons and Cattle Egrets do not live here, but only pass through. The Shahin Falcon and the woodpecker are irregular visitors. JAMAL ARA 4.) STRAY BIRD NOUTESSF ROM lb E l-hawe just returmed>from what 1s, l fear, my last trip in Tibet. I visited Lhakhang Dzong which you will find on the Vibet-Bhutan border where the Lhebrak river pierces the Himalava. The existence of an opening in the Himalaya makes it possible for South Himalayan birds to enter Tibet and I am sure that if it ever becomes possible for any observer to stay in that area, the number of Himaiayan species recorded with a Tibetan distribution will be increased. The country for some 30-40 miles up the Lhobrak river in Tibet has a mixed deciduous (mainly birch) and conifer forest and I found the following birds as far up as to within 4 miles of Se (Tse). Nutcracker. The Himalayan species henzispila. Bullfnch (Pyrrhula erythrocephaila). Himalayan Cole Tit (Lophophanes ater aemodius). Green-backed Tit (Parus monticolus monticolus). Himaiayan Goldcrest (Regulus regulus himalayensis). Red-flanked Bush Robin (Janthia cyanura rufilata). These were all numerous. In the same area there were Snow Pigeons (Columba leuconota) Blue-headed Redstarts (P. /vontalis) and Accentors (Prunella strophtaia). Also the same laughing thrush which is common on the Tibet side of the Nathu La (which I think is Trochalopteron affine affine), a pipit, probably Richard’s, (Anthis richardi) and the Himalayan Jungle Crow (Corvus m. intermedius). | At the Pemaling Ishho (Lake) I saw a flock of over 30 Hodgson’s Grandala, Rubythroats, a Laiscopus which I took to be collaris nipal- ensis, Prunella atrogularis, Bluethroat, Chaimarrhornis leucocephala, also Giildenstadt’s Redstart and the Eastern Indian Redstart, a chat like the Indian Bush Chat but without an orange-red breast. I may add that in the deciduous/conifer forest area I saw twice, but never distinctly, a dark blue bird with whitish sides which | thought might be Hodgson’ s Shortwing. I find from my notes of past years that a bied I saw in a valiey off the Brahmaputra near Samve and in other places, appears to be the Daurian Redstart, and that there is a martin in many parts of Tibet which is neither the Crag Martin nor the Sand Martin but has a much shinier black on the wings and body and a conspicuously white rump. It looks like a House Martin but I do not think Ludlow mentions this in his Bhutan list. c/o GRINDLAY’s BANK 6, CHurRcH LAng, | — CALCUTTA, i. E. RICHARDSON November Tea TOGO: 414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 590 15. BREEDING OF THE GREEN PIT VIPER (TRIMERESURUS GRAMINEUS) As there appears to be very little information regarding the breed- ing of this Pit Viper it might be of interest to record that a few days back we acquired « live specimen from a snake charmer said to have been obtained at Matheran. This gave birth to 7 live young and also expelled one infertile egg on oth June, 1951. The mother takes a mouse 3 or 4 times a week, but there is no evidence to show that the young have eaten anything so far. The mother with all her youngsters remain throughout on the plant that is provided in the cage, and she too does not show any inclination to attack her prey for feeding unless removed by force from the plant. VICTORIA GARDENS, J. N. BAROOA Bomsay, Assistant Superintendent (Zoological). june 122, Tost. [In the, Journal, Vol xxa, po. 1380; Mr- N= Be Kinneansrecords. a. young born in our Museum on 30th June.—EDs. | 16. SURFACE-LOCOMOTION OF CERTAIN FROGS (RANA), AND THE OCCURRENCE OF R. TAIPEHENSIS VAN DEN- BURGH IN INDIA. This note is an amendment and amplification of my comments on surface-locomotion in certain species of Rana, particularly R. erythraea Schleg., which appeared in 1947 in this journal, (Vol. 47, pp. 173-174). When publishing the record of this uncommon habit as having been observed in a colony of R. erythraea at Mymensingh, Bengal in July, 1944, I had followed Boulenger in using the name erythraea. Boulenger (vide his remarks in Records of the Indian Museum, Vol. xx 1920,} did not accept taipehensis as a species distinct from erythraea. How- ever, having subsequently discussed these frogs with Dr. Malcolm Smith (to whom I submitted specimens from Mymensingh for examina- tion), I am convinced that there is ample justification for accepting the smaller R. taipehensis as distinct—and to which species, as pointed out by Dr. Malcolm Smith, my specimens from Mymensingh will have tO be referred: During the course of studying the specimens of R. taipehensis and R. erythraea in the British Museum (Natural History), I happened te notice some remarks by Major S. S. Flower on the label attached to a specimen of R. erythraea which he had collected at Singapore in 1806. Consequently, I referred to Major Flower’s paper in the P.Z.S., 1896, pp. 856-914, wherein he remarks of the latter species :—‘This is a most active, agile frog, both on land and in the water; it can hop over the surface of a pond, much as Rana cyanophlictis does in India, and also jump right out of the water.’ Whereas I am undoubtedly at fault for not being aware of Majer Flower’s record wheh my note was published in this journal in 1947, It 1s extremely interesting to know that both R. erythraea and R. MISCEELANEOUS. NOTES 415 taipehensis can hop over the surface of the water. The other interest- ing point is that this appears to be the first published record of R. laipehensis in India, and represents the western limit of its known distribution. I would like to express my thanks to Dr. Malcolm A. Smith and Mr. J. C. Battersby, both of the British Museum (Natural History), for their kindly advice and assistance. c/o MINISTRY OF SUPPLY, J. D. ROMEK, TROPICAL TESTING ESTABLISHMENT, Vel BiOls, F.%.S- PortT HARCOURT, NIGERIA, WEsT AFRICA. july t0, 1951. It oie Sa CARGHES ON DHE KODINAR (KATHIAW AR) COAST ea In the last issue of the Journal (Vol. 49, pp. 614-623), Dr. C. V. Kulkarni in his paper on the Hilsa Fisheries in the Narbada River, has remarked that ‘Chaksi’ is the local name of Hilsa ilisha and the name of H. toli is ‘Palwa’ on the Kodinar Coast. He also suggested that the export figures of H,. ilisha given in my paper on the Marine Fisheries of Kodinar (J. Bombay Nat, Hist. Soc., 48, pp. 47-61) relate fOr Lol andsthose-ot i. tols to i. iisha. I had the opportunity of corresponding with Dr. Kulkarni on this matter and he very kindly sent me a note explaining his comments. From his note and the paper referred to above, it has been found that his comments are based on the following : (1) His enquiries from the fish merchants exporting fish to Bombay showed that the fish known as ‘Palwa’ in Madhwad is called ‘Bhing’ in Bombay, where the term is used for H. toli only. (2) Palwa specimens obtained from Madhwad were identified by him as H. toli. This was also personally verified by him. | (3) Dr. Moses in his paper entitled ‘A Statistical Account of the Fish Supply of Baroda City’ {Bull. Dep. Fish. Baroda, 3) has mention- ed Palwa as the local name of H. toli in Baroda (not Kodinar). (4) Inspection of parcels arriving in Bombay from Madhwad etc. after the monsoons has shown that H. toli is more numerous than H, ilisha, while in the statistics presented by me H. ilisha is shown as more numerous. Dr. Moses in his Check List of the Fishes of Baroda State (dnn. Kep. Dep. Fish. Baroda, 1937-38), gives Palwa as the local name of both A. ilisha and H. toli. In Dr. Kulkarni’s paper also mention is made of the fact that the vernacular names are often interchanged. In the ports of Kodinar fishermen from different parts of Guyerat camp for fishing during the fishing seasons, and it is likely that the vernacular names used by the fishermen also vary. My information is based on personal enquiries made from fishermen and Customs staff of the area. The fish called by them as Palwa was identified by me as Hf. ilisha. Specimens of Palwa were sent to Dr. K. K. Nair who was working «n Hilsa and he also identified them as I. ilisha. My 416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 50 enquiries from the local Customs staff indicated that HH. ilisha is con- sidered as Palwa in their_records. In view of this and the observa- tions of Dr. Kulkarni, it would appear that, as in certain other centres, there is some confusion in the use of the vernacular names of these fishes in the Kodinar ports also. So, it may not be possible to obtain the correct export data of these fishes from Kodinar by merely interchanging the figures as suggested by Dr. Kulkarni. ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, ee. Re eae INDIAN Musrum, CALCUTTA, August 30, 1951. 18. A NOTE ON THE EGGS AND THE FIRST STAGE LARVA OF HIPPOLYSMATA VITTATA STIMPSON? The brightly coloured shrimp, /ippolvsmata vittata Stimpson was frequently seen among the fouling organisms of Pearl Oyster cages at Krusadai. Most of those obtained in the months from July to October were berried and in each individual specimen examined there were between 400-500 eggs. Eggs showed four different stages of development ; and more than one stage was noticed on one individual. Stage I.—Perhaps the earliest stage in development; the eggs had a rounded shape with a diameter of 0.391 mm. Stage II.—Eggs had become ovoid and the longest diameter was 0.529 mm. Stage IIT.—Slightly more advanced than the previous stage. Eggs, though oval, were bigger (0.690 mm.). The bent body of the Shine O could be distinctly seen within the egg membrane. Stage IV.—The embryo in the process of straightening OU gait measured about 0.690 mm., the ,length of the entire egg being 0.920 mm. Fiirsite stave €nlaligved: Some of the berried individuals were left in an aquarium for ob- servation. The larvae hatched out in the course of the day and the parent was observed to have undergone a moult. Dies: 6 rathp ecm Om Flea gm ode The length of the larvae varied between 1.9 and 2.0 mm, The evesiare sessile and the carapace has a slender rostrum ves beyond the antenullar peduncle. The abdomen has 5 segments with a pair of spines at the posterior margin of segment 5. The triangular telson has 14 spines on its margin. Antennule: Peduncle is unsegmented; outer flagellum with a short plumose seta and 4 aesthetes. Inner flagellum absent, a short plumose seta arising in its place. Antenna : Flagellum is small and carries a long plumose seta. Scale with 4 segments and carries 10 setae on the inner margin and tip; and 2 setae on the outer margin. 1 Published with the kind permission of the Director of Fisheries, Madras. 4 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 417 Maxilla 1. Palp is unsegmented; and has 2 inner and 3 terminal setae. Mazilla II. Endopod is unsegmented and has 6 inner marginal setae and 3 at the tip. Scale has 5 plumose setae, all of them being large. Maxilliped Le Endopodite with 4 segments provided with 3, 2, 1 and 2 setae respectively. Exopodite has rt outer and 3 terminal setae. Maxilliped Ge Endopodite 3 segmented, having 5 terminal setae. Exopodite has 3 terminal and 3 pairs of lateral setae. Maxilliped ITI, Endopodite is long and 3-jointed. Exopod, has- 3 terminal and 4 pairs of lateral setae. Menon (1940) described the larvae of Hippolysmata sp. from Madras plankton. Differences noticed in the characters of the larva recorded by him and those of Hippolysmata vittata are as follows :— fa) The pterygostomial spine and the 3 small teeth observed on the lateral margin of the carapace of the larva of the species examined by Menon were absent in the larva of H. wiltata. (b) Endopodite of Maxilliped I has 4 segments cach armed with 3, 2, 1 and 2 setae respectively. The Madras species though also possessing a four segmented endopodite has 3, 1, 2 and 3 setae. (c) In Maxilliped II of the larva of the species described now, exopodite has only 3 terminal and 3 pairs of lateral setae, while the species described by Menon has 3 terminal and 4 pairs of lateral setae. (d) Exopodite. of Maxilliped HI of the Krusadai species has 4 pairs of lateral setae, while the species recorded from Madras has 6 pairs. The larva of H. vittata differs from the description of the larva of Hippolysmata by Gurney (1937) in the absence of the carapace with supra orbital spines and denticulate margin. I am grateful to Messrs. K. Chidambaram and M. Krishna Menon for their valuable suggestions in the preparation of this note. KRUSADAL BIOLOGICAL STATION G. K. KURIYAN PAMBAN, January, 1951. REFERENCES 1. Gurney, R. (1937): Discovery reports. 14, 401. ; e, 2. Menon, M. Krishna (1940): Bul. Madras. Mus. (N.S.) Nat. Hist. 3. [A detailed diagram of the larva of Hippolysmata vittata will be found in the paper on the Decapod larvae of Madras Plankton (refer- ence 2 above). The difference in the larvae as described in the note and that by Menon apparently consists only in the number of setae present in some of the appendages.—Ebs. | 19. BUTTERFLY MIGRATION IN THE NILGIRIS Just before the onset of the north-east monsoon I have seen thousands of butterflies passing over the bungalow, which is at an elevation of 5,800 ft. As soon as the day begins to get warm, about 9 a.m., 4 418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.-SOCIETY, Vol. 50 few butterflies are seen coming up the valley in front of the bungalow. Soon they are arriving in thouesneet all from the same direction, north to south, and all seem to be the same species, a brown butterfly with vivid blue spots all over the wings | probably Danais limniace mutina-—— Eps.| This flight takes about three hours to pass over; the same thing is seen for three or four consecutive days. These butterflies keep at a fairly high level, 8 to 10 feet above the ground. Last year about 25th October or just before the south-east monsoon was due, the butterflies came from a different direction, east to west: the first time I have noticed them coming this way, and a different butterfly too, mostly white with a black spot [Catopsilia pyranthe1— Eps.| This flight kept much lower, skimming the tea bushes, rising rapidly over any obstacle, falling again to the low level. It resembled the previous flights in the huge quantities, starting as soon as the day became warm, continuing for about three hours, and for about three or four days. Standing in their pathway one seemed to be in a snowstorm!! We have never seen such huge quantities of butterflies at other times of the year. One wonders why they do not come before the south-west monsoon, also, why they are not attacked during flight by birds, and never do we find dead or exhausted butter- flies in the garden. ; On ‘ia different oceasions we have seen butterflies resting at night, like a swarm of bees, hanging from the branches of trees in huge clusters. Twice we have seen them on Erythrina, once on Grevillia trees CuRZON ESTATE, MARGARET VILLIERS BRISCOE KoTAGIRI, NILGIRIS, . S. Inpm, April 2) 7951 20. A SHORT NOTE ON THE EUGENIA LEAF CATERPILLAR CAREA SU BELTS SWAG (With a text figure) Carea subtilis Wlk. belongs to the family Noctuidae .and members of this family are popularly avo n as owlet-moths. The larval stages are generally smooth-bodied, and a majority of them are leaf-feeders, with the exception of a few borers. The species Carea subtilis WIk. has a few interesting features in form, habits and life-history. The following is a brief note on the observations made at Coimbatore during the past two years. Host Plant The caterpillar occurs on the foliage of Eugenia jambolana, and has been recorded from India, Ceylon, Andamans and Java. Its dis- tribution in South India was first mentioned by Ramakrishna Iyer (1913) along with a parasite Tumidicoxocides jambolana Gir. The only other alternative host recorded is Ficus sp. * Identification confirmed by the author from coloured illustrations accompany- ing Williams’s ‘The migration of Butterflies in India’—J.B.N.H.S., XL, 439. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ALg ‘Ponwe= "VE o t hi. The adult is stout-built and sluggish during day time. The antennae are ciliated, the eyes black and conspicuous, and the wing's and abdomen coloured brick red or brown, with a whitish patch. (Fig. 3). The species has been described in detail by Hampson (1896) and by Moore (1892). Pc. omo mic 1 mipor.t anc €. Eugenia is one of the fruit trees growing in nature and planied often as an avenue tree. It has seldom been recognised that the tree is subject to the infestation of not less than a dozen insects of which Carea subtilis Wlk. is the most important, capable of defoliat- ing the tree severely during certain years. In the orchard at Coim- batore, it was found to occur in large numbers during March to May in the past two years. Stages of Eugenia leaf caterpillar ° Carea subtilis Wlk. t (a) A leaf showing eggs on it (6) A full grown caterpillar 2 (a) Cocoon on a leaf (6) Pupa 3 Moth Pere histor y. The moths copulate on the next day after emergence and the female lays her eggs singly on the ventral surface of the leaf all along the margin and just below the mid-rib portion on the dorsal side. An individual is capable of laying about 105 eggs and a single leaf may have from 20 to 30 eggs. The bulk of the egg laying is completed with- in 2 days. The larvae hatch out in three or four days. The newly hatched caterpillar is very active from the second day and even at this 14 420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 stage of growth it shows the characteristic swelling of thoracic region faintly with two black bands on the abdomen. It feeds on tender as well as old leaves, becomes full grown in 20 to 24 days and constructs thick cocoons of whitish silk and pupates inside. The pupal period varies from 8 to 12 days. Thus the whole life-cycle from egg to adult takes 31 to 4o days. Egg. The egg is oval, flattish, yellowish, translucent, without any cover- ing and seen mostly on the edge of the leaf margin (Fig. ra). Larva. The newly hatched caterpillar is about 1.5 mm. long and found scraping the green matter on leaf, near about the place of hatching. The notable feature about this caterpillar is that it has a characteristic prominent swelling on the thoracic region and presents a grotesque appearance. The protuberance is spongy, smooth, shining and colour- ed greenish above and smoky at sides. The three pairs of thoracic legs are short and strong but completely hidden by the swelling above. The five pairs of prolegs are longer and stouter and provided with strong hooks to have a firm grip on the branches and leaves of the host plant. The larva, young and old, have the queer habit of spurt- ing out thick yellowish fluid when disturbed or handled. In nature, it exhibits also a tendency to migrate from branch to branch either in search of fresh food or of suitable site for pupation. Just before -moulting, the caterpillar remains motionless on the leaf, having ceased feeding. The actual process of moulting is effected by the head shield being first pushed forward by the formation of fresh growth below, and getting detached gradually. This is followed by the rupture of the outer skin all along the body and the caterpillar emerges out of the larval skin. The full grown caterpillar measures more than an inch. The head is small and inconspicuous, being overshadowed by the thoracic protu- berance. Abdominal segments are soft, yellowish with a smoky brown tint, on the dorsal region, the sides and over the last segments. The ventral side is pale white in colour. There is a short anal horn on the 8th segment as is found in bombycid or sphingid larva [Fig. 1 (b)]. Papa C140. 10 There is a drastic contraction of the size, during pupation, the bulbose swelling being reduced considerably. ‘Thorax is seen clearly three segmented only at this stage with a clearly marked prothoracic shield. The abdominal portion has a green patch on the dorsal side with a whitish blotch on either side, while the lateral regions develop a reddish tinge. Unlike many other noctuids, it pupates on the leaf within a thick whitish silken cocoon inside either a partially or com- pletely rolled up leaf. Paugoya: The cocoon is attached to the leaf (Fig. 2a) and often two or niore of them are found in one and the same leaf. The pupa is oval, reddish brown, measuring about 0.6” in length, [Fig. 2 (b)]. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 42] Remedial measures. The caterpillars which are easily distinguished, can be readily collected off and destroyed in the small plants and trees. Being an external feeder, stomach poisons may easily bring about the destruction of caterpillars. In laboratory trials 5% dusts of DDT and BHC have shown a high degree of mortality, and it is wel! worth a trial on field scale. Conclwes von: Eugenia yields nutritious fruits, which is generally a delicacy of the poorer classes. Now that the tree is being freely propagated in the intensive drive for planting trees, especially those of economic importance, a detailed study of the pests infesting this tree is well worth the trouble. Mapras AGRICULTURAL K. R. ANANTHANARAYANAN, DEPARTMENT B.A. (Hons.). S. VENUGOPAL, B.SC. (Zool.), B.Sc. (Bot.). BIBLIOGRAPHY Hampson G. F. (1896): Fauna of British India Moths, Vol. II, page 422. Moore F, (1882-1883): The Lepidoptera of Ceylon, Vol. II, page 117. Ramakrishna Iyer, T. V. (1919): Report of the Proceedings of the Third Entomological meeting, Vol. I, page 79. 21. A NOTE ON THE BLOOD-SUCKING SIMULIUM OF CEYLON The Simuliidae are a family as yet little known as far as the Ceylon forms are concerned. As far back as 1912, Mr. E. Brunnetti described a new species of blood-sucking fly from Peradeniya (altitude 1,500-1,600 ft.). He named the new species Simulium striatum which is the first S¢muliuwm to be known from Ceylon. The only other re- cord is by Mr. R. Senior-White who captured a single specimen of Simulium grisescens hitherto known from a unique male from Kur- seong, on a window at Suduganga in the Matale District in January 1920. Thus only two species of Simuliwm are recorded as found in Ceylon. During the beginning of June this year, when collecting insects _ in a rather woody patch of jungle at Horton Plains (altitude 7,000 ft.) in the Nuwara Eliya District, I was severely bitten on the forehead and also on the back of my neck and ears by a few small black flies. I recognized these little insects as belonging to the dipterous family Simuliidae. I was fortunate to secure two specimens in the act of biting me and sucking blood, and they are definitely determined by me as Simulium which, I believe, to be a hitherto unrecorded, or possibly a new species from Ceylon. The bite of these blood sucking Simulium can be described as sharp and stinging, and within a couple of hours resulted in the development of a hard lump or swelling which persisted for a number of days. In fact the bite is definitely far more painful than that of a mosquito, and resulted after a couple of days: 422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 in the formation of irritable spots, which eventually went on to ulcera- tion. A week later however, the swelling increased considerably on the face and neck, forming an enlargement of the gland on the right side of the neck. The affected areas gave me much pain and in- convenience, and of course ultimately I was compelled to seek medical aid and treatment for suspected toxic symptoms. It is of interest to note that this particular blood-sucking Simulium from Nuwara Eliya District is so similar both in its bite and superfi- cial appearance to the well known ‘Potu’ fly (Simulium indicum) from the north-west Himalayas that it is very closely allied to this form. A technical description of the female of this species by Dr. Edward Recher was published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal Vol. lili, Part 2, pp. 199-200 (1884). There is an interesting note on the ‘Potu’ fly as found in the Himalayas by Mr. E. C. Cotes in the Indian Museum Notes Vol. ii, No. 5, pp. 39-41 (1894), which is follow- ed up by yet another important note on the blood-sucking habit of this fly by Mr. Lionel de Niceville in the Indian Museum Notes Vol. iv, No. 2, pp. 54-55 (1896). From all that is known of the habits of European and American species of this genus it is supposed that the female lays her eggs in quick flowing hill streams, and the larval and pupal stages are passed in the water. The two specimens captured by me at Horton Plains {altitude 7,000 feet) Nuwara Eliya District in June 1951, are both females with mouth parts developed for blood- sucking. The male is believed to be a harmless insect with rudimen- tary mouth parts. ENTOMOLOGICAL LABORATORY, T. R. SANDRASAGARA, NATIONAL MUSEUMS OF CEYLON, F.R.E.S. CoLoMBO 7 July 25, 1951. 22, -MATING BEHAVIOUR OF -LEECHES One April afternoon in the Anamallais I was laying on the ground watching ants at. work. when my attention was drawn to gentle tapping. noises coming from. some foliage nearby. I. looked up and saw a leech tapping a leaf. There were answering taps some distance away. Shortly afterwards a male leech came into view and landed on the same leaf as the female and both tapped the leaf to- gether and separately. I should say this lasted for a good two minutes. The male then approached to within 1” to the female and the dance started. They tapped the leaf and the heads curled round one way and then the other way interrupted by both tapping, sometimes once and sometimes twice, always together. This tapping and embracing continued for another two minutes. The male organ then projected and they coupled. Together they moved backward and forward leaning over one way and then the other. I should say this went on for 1} minutes. After completion, the male went off the way he came and the female in the opposite direction. KapaAmane Estate & P.O. 3 C.J. LESLIE Hassan Dist., Mysore. July 25,. 1951. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 423 | By way of comment on the above, Dr. C. Brooke Worth quotes from Craig and Faust, ‘Clinical Parasitology’, Philadelphia, 1040, the following: P. 493. ‘Leeches are hermaphroditic. Each worm _ possesses I to 10 or more pairs of small, hollow, spherical testes. A small vas efferens, arising from each testis, enters one of the paired vasa deferentia, which continue as paired seminal vesicles, each being usually provided with a prostate gland, an ejaculatory duct and a muscular penis. he two ejaculatory ducts enter a common bursa copulatrix or genital atrium. The ovaries consist of a single pair of coiled, filamentous sacs which are continuous with their ducts. The two ducts unite to form a-common convoluted oviduct, which is continued as a muscular uterus and opens through a short vaginal tube in a mid-ventral line, one metamere behind the male genital opening (usually stated to open on somite 9).’ P. 494. ‘In some leeches insemination is accomplished when one leech implants onto the cuticula of another a horny pocket or sperma- tophore, from which spermatozoa issue forth, migrate through the tissues of the recipient and reach its ovary. In the group to which the medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) belongs, reciprocal copula- tion takes place by the introduction of the penis of each into the vagina of the other and the reciprocal deposition of a spermatophore. Thus, in either type, fertilization takes place before the eggs are layed.’ He agrees that Mr. Leslie’s observation is of interest, for the witnessing of mating behaviour of leeches must be a rare, if not unique, occurrence. One is tempted to guess that the leeches’ antics served as recognition signals to bring them together for copulation.—EDs. | 23. DESCRIPTION AND DISCUSSION OF THE BITING OF AN INDIAN LAND LEECH (ANNELIDA; HIRUDINEA) In the literature at hand embracing medical parasitology there is no detailed description of a land leech’s biting. Hence it may be of interest to record experience arising out of curiosity about this matter. Craig and Faust (1) give information that indicates Haemadipsu zeylanica as the common land leech of Southern India. Leeches corres- ponding in size (about 1 inch long) and somewhat in behaviour to this species are common on coffee and cardamom plantations in the western part of Mysore State, especially in the monsoon period during the summer months. The present observations were made near Saklesh- pur, Hassan District, in the Western Ghats during June-August, 195:. A word should be said first about the method by which these teeches reach a host. In Craig and Faust and in Manson-Bahr (2) is found the statement that terrestrial leeches ‘actively spring’ upon their victims, while Strong (3) recounts the opinion that H. seylunic may at times . ‘drop’ onto hosts from overhanging vegetation. While neither of these methods of attack has been observed in Mysore, the second can be imagined as possible, but the first cannot be classified as otherwise than fantastic. Leeches have light receptors but no visual organs, 424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 for registering images, so that the presence of a potential host in their vicinity could be realised by them only as a vague phenomenon. Leaping, if it took place, would be random and ridiculous. Secondly one wonders just how a leech would manage a leap, since its locomotor organs consist solely of the anterior and posterior suckers, structures that are hardly adapted for jumping. Dropping onto a victim entails the necessity again for accurate awareness of the position of a passing host. Perhaps the jostling of vegetation would provide sufficient stimulus to spark the dropping manoeuvre. But so far as Mysore observations are concerned, the unfed leech is loth to detach itself from whatever substrate supports it. Locomotion, even by the hungriest leech, is accomplished by a succession of looping motions, resembling those of a measuring worm (Lepidoptera; Geometridae). The hind part of the body is brought forward when the anterior-sucker has found agreeable attachment; the fore part is extended when the posterior sucker is similarly satis- fied. Thus final lodgement on a host results from initial awareness of the host’s presence and resultant crawling activity in the host’s direction. The fact that coffee planters and other bucolic inhabitants have a motto, ‘Walk first in line,’ is a testimonial not to leaping or dropping of leeches, but to leeches’ awakened activity when the first man passes, leading to infestation of individuals subsequently travers- ing the disturbed path. Land leeches may be encountered or collected when one walks through damp ravines or similar moist situations. ‘They frequently are detected first on one’s shoes. If it is desired not to permit them to feed, one naturally tries to remove them and throw them away. This is about as easy as trying to rid one’s fingers of a wad of chewing gum that has begun to stick. The leech’s leathery or rubbery integument seems almost insusceptible of injury, and even rough treatment, from hand to hand, does not dissuade the worm from fasten- ing itself by one sucker or both to each new grasping forefinger and thumb. The leech on a shoe, or on a stone or rotted leaf near its prospeciive host, progresses by a series of looping motions. Each time the post- erior sucker is brought forward to a new position, the anterior part of the body is elevated and goes through a rapid vibratory groping motion which could be likened to the sniffing of a dog determining the direction of its quarry. Whether this is a search merely on a tactile basis, or an actual olfactory experience, cannot be assessed. When a leech is placed purposely on the back of one’s hand, in order to observe it conveniently through a lens, it quickly avails itself of the opportunity to feed without disturbance. The anterior sucker is apparently some sort of testing or tasting mechanism, for the leech is not always satisfied with the first spot encountered. However, one cr two looping steps usually suffice to bring the animal into feeding frame of mind. Immediately when the leech finds a location suitable for feeding, the human subject may feel a slight stinging or irritating sensation. This lasts for half a minute or less; were the observer engaged in other activities, the chances are that nothing at all would be noticed. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 425 But even the intent student feels nothing more after this short initial period of minimal discomfort. Close examination of the leech from now onward discloses that its neck is the site of rhythmic contractions and expansions. These movements consist of slight alternating dimplings of the cuticle in two regions, one behind the other. A low-powered hand lens pro- vides sufficient magnification for observing this phenomenon. The frequency of contraction cycles is about two or three per second. During the first five minutes there is little change in the general situation. The leech appears to draw its posterior sucker slightly forward, but this may in reality be illusion produced by its imper- ceptibly broadened diameter as the first blood is ingested. For the next fifteen minutes the events attendant upon beginnings of obvious engorgement take place. Sucking motions of the neck region continue without interruption. The body becomes distended laterally and dorsovenrtally. A poo! of thin liquid—not mucus— begins to appear around the leech. The nature of this liquid has not been sttudied in Mysore. However, it appears in increasingly copious amounts during the remainder of the feeding period, and the possibility suggests itself that the transudation or excretion may be a means of getting rid immediately of excess fluid from ingested blood, in order to concentrate the solid elements of that tissue. This would increase the efficiency of feeding and the subsequent possibilities for massive ‘egg production. In the following twenty minutes maximum engorgement takes place. Owing to the attachment of the posterior sucker in a fixed position, the body of the leech is pushed forward over its head, leading to an undershot position of the anterior sucker, and the bending of the leech’s neck into S-shaped curve. The distortion becomes increasingly marked as feeding progresses to its completion. When engorgement becomes advanced, a series of irregular peri- stalic contractions of the body begins, the waves of contraction moving in general from before backwards, although being by no means uni- form. This must serve to put the ingested blood through a churning action, and also to distend the paired lateral pouches of the crop in which food is stored, thereby possibly making room for the imbibing of more nutriment. Just before voluntary detachment, the leech exhibits maximal peri- staltic activity, while the surrounding pool of ‘leech fluid’ becomes also most voluminous. Detachment takes place during an exhibition of peristalsis, as if the worm were still reluctant to let go, but in its bloated and unwieldy condition were unbalanced by the violence of its somatic activities. Che site of attachment, viewed through a lens and through ‘leech fluid’ at the instant of release, resembles a geometric three-cornered star, aptly described as a triradiate wound (1). The cut edges are wonderfully neat and symmetrical. Owing to prolonged sucking action of the leech, the edges are now slightly edematous and therefore ele- vated, with separation of apposite margins. Blood immediately diffuses into the leech fluid. However, the present - observer experienced only slight subsequent bleeding. After wounds were wiped once or twice with a handkerchief, clotting took place and 426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 an insulating crust was formed. This is not in accord with most reports, in which the lesions are said to bleed ‘for sometime’ even after voluntary detachment of the leeches (3). Ficths Later reactions to leech bites in the present instance have consisted of: (a) Visualisation of the triradiate lesion (under magnification) for eight hours following the bite. Hemorrhagic infiltration of the sur- rounding skin was evident within the edematous area corresponding to diameter of the leech’s mouthparts (under 2 mm.). (b) Itching of the bite site was noted for several days. The engorged leech, on relinquishing its hold, encounters difficulties in locomotion, since it is now so greatly distended. It shows no hesitation in dropping to the ground, which must be a rather uncomfort- able experience for a worm with a full stomach. Upon reaching such environment, it continually falls over to right or left, since its pot belly interferes with easy progress. The anterior end apparently still func- tions as a sense receptor, apprising the organism of the state of local conditions. Thus the leech succeeds at last in dragging itself to the edge of a pebble, beneath which it secretes itself within a few moments. No. 3, St. Marks Roan, i C. BROOKE WORTH BANGALORE, MYSORE. . REFERENCES 1. Craig, C. F., and Faust, E. C. (1940): Clinical Parasitology, Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia. 2. Manson-Bahr, P. H. (1929): Manson’s Tropical Diseases, Ninth Edition. William Wood and Co., New York. 3. Strong, R. P.° (1944): Stitt’s Diagnosis, Prevention and Treatment of Tropical Diseases. The Blakiston Company, Philadelphia. 24. A TERATOSIS OF MUSSAENDA HIRSUTISSIMA HUTCH A striking teratosis of Mussaenda hirsutissima has been found in the High Range of Travancore which seems worthy of record. The species is common in the area and is very conspicuous on account of its bright orange red flowers and the occurrence of a greatly enlarged sepal on some of the flowers which is white in coiour and roughly of same size as the leaves. The enlarged sepal is by no means regularly formed. In a series of inflorescences of from 8-21 flowers, not more than 3 or 4 show this development in each inflorescence. In the abnormal plant, the frequency of the enlarged sepal is similar to that in the normal type, but every corolla is replaced by 5 separate ‘petals’ of the same form and colour as the enlarged sepal. The stamens are represented by short hairy subulate staminodes. The ovary is 5-locular, instead of the normal bilocular, and the usual single style with a bilobed stigma is replaced by 5 separate style-like organs considerably shorter than the normal style, which do not appear to have functional stigmas. Two plants of this type have been found both within a few yards of each other, but separated by a metalled road, in association with a number of quite normal individuals. Although the species is very MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 427 common in the district, occurring in small societies, no cases of this abnormality have yet been seen in any other site so far examined. SCIENTIFIC DEPART. W. WILSON MAYNE MUNNAR, TRAVANCORE June 25, 1951. 25. FREREA INDICA DALZ.—A NEW RECORD IN BOMBAY After the publication of my previous note on the occurrence of | this plant in Purandhar in this journal (49: 801-802, 1951) I received a letter from the Rt. Rev. R. D. Acland, m.a., formerly a vice-president of our Society, in which he states: ‘My Cooke shows from a marginal note that I had Frerea indica at Kate’s Point, Mahabaleshwar, in October 1924. It may well be there still; do look for it. I did not note the exact date but was there for the first three weeks of the month; still in the clouds for the first day or two. I always regretted never having got there in October again. . .’ Mahabaleshwar, then, must be counted among the few localities in our State where this very rare plant has been observed in recent years. ST. XAVIER’s COLLEGE, Bey oA APA sae ForT, BomBay 1. July 30, 1951. 26. A BRANCHED SPECIMEN OF €COSTUS SPECIOSUS SMITH Costus speciosus Smith is a very common plant all over the area of the National Park at Borivli; the appearance of the plant, however, is very typical, and the present is the first branching specimen that has come to my notice. The stem is normally spirally curved, with large leaves placed spirally on it; the usual size of the leaves may be about 15—20x8—10 cms., and leaves cover the whole stem from below. On June 30, 1951, a plant was seen in a clump of normal specimens showing remarkable structures. The lower part of the stem was leaf- less up to about 75 cms. from the ground, and perfectly straight; at about that height there were four small branches, each of about 15 cms. in length. These small branches were covered with leaves of only 5—8 x 4—5 cms., all placed in the usual spiral fashion on each branch. On careful examination it was noticed that the stem had been dam- aged at the apex, and this may have induced this strange proliferation. On the hills near Bombay there is another plant that is usually un- branched, or very sparingly branched; it is Buchnera hispida Buch. Ham., of the family Scrophulariaceae. On several occasions I have observed the plant branching profusely from near the ground, but on examination it has been found that the main stem had been damaged by browsing animals. The case of Costus speciosus Smith described in this note seems to be a similar one, and requires no further ex- planation. ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, H. SANTAPAU, s.,J. Fort, Bompay tr. July 4, 1951. 428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 27. A NOTE ON NEURACANTHAUS SPHAHROSTACH VS DALZ. (With two plates) During many botanical excursions in the neighbourhood of Bombay, the authors of this note have been frequently struck by the abundance of this plant. If Dalzell and Clarke are correct in their statements that this plant seldom sets seed, such an abundance is almost un- inielligible. For this reason we have paid particular attention to the habits of this plant with a view to elucidate an apparent contradiction. Before describing the plant, it may be worth putting down its synonymy and calling attention to an error in Cooke’s Flora concern- ing the spelling of the specific name. Cooke writes: N. sphaerostachys ; Dalzell always called the plant N. sphaerostachyus, and so did Clarke in Hook. f., Flora of British India. Cooke’s spelling must be con- sidered a simple printing error. The synonymy is as follows: Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus Dalz. in Kew Journ. Bot. 2: 140, 1850; Dalz. & Gibs., Bombay Fl. 190; Clarke in FBI. 4: 4o1; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bombay 2: 387 (sphaerostachys per sphalm.). Lepidagathis sphaerostachya Nees in DC., Prodr. 11: 254, 1847. Neuracanthus lawii Wight, Icon. t. 1531, 1850. Before giving our own observations on the plant, we may be allowed to transcribe Dalzell’s description, translating it from the Latin where necessary: ‘Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus; stems very many, erect, simple, obtusely quadrangular, pubescent-scabrid from a perennial root; leaves opposite, oblong, truncate at the base or subcordate, apex obtuse, both sides of the leaf pubescent-scabrid, pale beneath, spikes in opposite axils, sessile, capitate-congested, globose, densely silvery tomentose, growing much after anthesis, bracts orbicular, suddenly acu- minate, coloured, 5-7-nerved, reticulately veined, slightly longer than the calyx; upper lip of the calyx oblong, 3-toothed, 3-nerved, the lower lip deeply bifid, segments lanceolate, 1-nerved, all the segments reticulately nerved; tube of corolla slender, cylindric, as long as the calyx, limb entire, ventricosely rotate-cyathiform.—Neuracanthus sphae- rostachyus, Dalz. in Hook. Plant. ined. with plate. | ‘Stems 14-2 ft. high, at times verrucose below. Leaves 4 inches long, 2 inches broad, somewhat hard. Spikes single, turbinate, 6- 12 lines long. Bracts and calyces in flower 3 lines, in fruit 9-12 lines long, enclosing the capsule, all sericeotomentose on both sides. Corolla 6 lines long; tube white, limb blue; anthers, stigma, capsule etc. entirely as in N. tetragonostachyus.—Grows in both Concans; flowers Sept. ‘Although the limb of this singular plant is entire, it is very evidently made up of five pieces, not exactly by the union of their margins, but by the interjection, as it were, of triangular pieces, so as to unite the opposite margins. Each of the five pieces is indicated by parallel veins and lines of hairs on the back. Each piece has three veins, there being six close together in the upper part of the limb, and two lines of hairs indicating the two parts of an upper lip; the same marks are visible on the lower side of the limb at Piatr I Author rena wi ee = Pa inflorescence Dry Ihe Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Photo Mature capsules ra oF PLaTE LF Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. seeds Dry 3 Seeds in water 4. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 423 greater distances from each other, indicating three divisions, the middle one being furnished with a line of hairs both outside and inside. The aestivation is decidedly plicate and not contorted.’ This is a common herbaceous to shrubby plant, found in more or less open country, gregarious, and very conspicuous especially during the dry pre-monsoon period; at such a time this is often the only plant left standing on grassy slopes or plateaus especially after the grasses have been removed by fire. At the best of times it is not an elegant plant, but during the dry season it is a veritable eyesore and a constant nuisance. Dalzell and Cooke mention that the rootstock is perennial, but seem to imply that the stems are annual; this accords with our obser- vations only in a general way; on numerous occasions we have noticed ‘old stems giving out fresh leaves at the beginning of the monsoon season, and this seems to show that the stems, at least occasionally, are biennial or possibly perennial. As a rule the stems are erect, simple and terete to subquadrangular, 15-75 cms. high; branching is very rare. Leaves are sessile or sub- sessile, up to 10 x 6.5 cms., obtuse or subobtuse, glabrous to scabrid, and generally rather stiff and rough to the touch; both surfaces are covered with numerous raphides, which are plainly visible in dry specimens; the leaf base is rounded to cordate, often distinctly un- equal-sided ; main lateral nerves 8-10 pairs, conspicuous. The leaves persist on the plant from about June till well into the hot season. Flowers are generally axillary, occasionally axillary and terminal ; at first in simple spikes, at length in dense heads formed of closely packed spikes, the heads reaching 7.5 or more cms. in diameter. Bracts at first green, then brown, at length black, often broader than long, the lower ones practically glabrous, the rest densely hairy and ciliate, all strongly nerved. For the bracteoles and calyx segments, see Cooke. Calyx 2-lipped, the segments 3 and 2. Corolla limb cup- or funnel-shaped, entire or nearly so, only slightly 2-lipped; the colour of the corolla limb is generally deep purple-blue or deep purple, occa- sionally white; the corolla tube is whitish; the diameter of the corolla is about 20 mm. Possibly one of the reasons why some authors have failed to find fruits and in consequence have stated that the plant seldom sets seed, is that the development from ovary to fruit is very slow in- deed; flowers appear at the beginning of August, and generally it is only towards the end of December or even later that the capsules appear, but even then they are enveloped in such a dense array of bracts and bracteoles as to be practically invisible; only careful search can reveal their presence during winter and the early part of the hot season. We have studied this point for several years, and invariably have found 10 or more mature capsules in well-formed heads ; photo no. 1 shows an inflorescence head collected on June 15th, _ 1951, with 4 or more capsular valves after dehiscence. In the general conflagration of our hills that takes place during the hot season, many of the capsules, especially those placed on the outer parts of the floral heads, are destroyed by burning, but even so, numerous capsules escape destruction and come to normal dehiscence, 430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Mature capsules (photograph no. 2) are light brown in colour, glabrous and shining, oblong in shape, shortly and suddenly attenuated at the apex and base, flattened parallel to the septum; average dimensions about 12-14 x 4.5 x 2.3mm. Seeds 4, two in each loculus, each seed supported on a hard, up-turned retinaculum; seeds about 4-4.2 mm. diam., 0.6-0.7 mm. thick, orbicular or nearly so, densely covered with whitish or greyish-white long hairs, which are closely appressed to the seeds; the dry seed appears to be deeply striated, but the striations are due entirely to the arrangement of the hairs. When the seed is placed in water, the hairs expand forming a sort of a corona round the nearly glabrous, light-brown seed; the size of the wet seed with its concomitant corona is up to 11 mm. diam, (see photographs nos. 3 and 4). As soon as the first rains of the monsoon fall, the capsules dehisce somewhat explosively, and seeds are thrown some distance from the parent plant; the capsule valves remain more or less attached to or entangled in the floral head and are conspicuous {see photograph no. 1). Germination seems to take place almost at once; the two cotyledons are suborbicular in outline with 5-7 nerves from the base. Often the seeds are unable to escape after dehiscence of the capsule on account of the dense structures surrounding the capsule, and then they ger- minate on the parent plant. St. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, P. V. BOLE, M.sc. BomBay, _ H. SANTAPAU, 87. August 26, 1951. EXPLANATION OF THE PHOTOGRAPHS Photo. 1: Dry floral head with remains of several capsules after dehiscence. Photo. 2: Mature capsules before dehiscence; the top left-hand capsule is shown side-ways, the others frontways. Photo. 3: Dry seeds photographed on a scale to show size. Photo. 4: Seeds placed in a dish of water, with the corona expanded round the seeds. 28. THE FLOWERING OF STROBILANTHES IN KHANDALA (IV) In continuation of my previous notes on this intriguing subject, here are some more data gathered during September 1951. In August 1950 I reported a fairly extensive flowering of this plant on Bhoma Hill, in Khandala; the flowering had taken place in the second half of the monsoon of 1949. Recently I examined the same spot and found that a general flowering is now in progress on the higher parts of Bhoma Hill. From the Saddle upwards to the top of the hill and coming down by the opposite side, locally known as Barometer Hill, down to about the same height as the Saddle practically every plant is loaded with buds or flowers. Out of curiosity I examined a number of the smaller plants in flower; some of them measured only 15 cm. in height, and had up to 20 buds, i.e. not single flower buds, but whole ‘strobili’; the colour of the bracts varied from pure creamy white through green to deep pink, the latter being the commonest colour. On the same small plants the number of leaves was only 2—4. Larger plants reaching up to 2 m, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 431 or more in height, the number of ‘strobili’ was too difficult to count, but they were simply massed all along the plant. In the spot mentioned in my previous communication, i.e. the NW. side of the top plateau, where a general flowering had taken place in 1949, at present I could see very dense growths of the same plant ; some of the specimens were only 50 cms. high, but in the centre of each clump plants reached 1.5 m. high; all these plants were in the vegetative state only, without a single plant showing buds or flowers. Careful examination of the district round Khandala revealed the fact that only 6 plants in all were seen in apie scattered singly throughout the district. On the other hand the plant is very abundant practically on all the hills and slopes near Khandala down to pe ss wadi along the G.I.P. Ry. line. The imaginary line mentioned in my previous note dividing flower- ing from non-flowering plants is also very clear this year, plants on the W. side being sterile, those on the E. side of the same line being loaded with flowers. For a beautiful sight I strongly recommend a day’s trip to Khandala, the top of Bhoma is just a veritable riot of colour. ST. XAVIER’s COLLEGE, H. SANTAPAU, s.J. ForT, BoOmBay 1. September 16, 1951. aj. PREPARATION OF A FLORA FOR MADHYA PRADESH AND THE CENPRAL PARTS OF TEE INDIAN UNION Since the issue of Hooker’s Flora for the whole of India, regional floras have been prepared for most parts of India except for Madhya Pradesh. Such floras are: Cooke—Flora of Bombay (1901), Haines—Flora of Bihar & Orissa (1921-1925) and Gamble (Fisher)—Flora of Madras (1914-1935). In the M.P. the only partial lists prepared have been H. H. Haines’s ‘List of Trees, Shrubs and Grasses for Southern Circle’, D. O. Witts’s ‘List of Trees, Shrub & Grasses of the Berar and Northern Circles’, and Graham’s ‘List of Common weeds found in and around Nagpur’. No herbarium has been formed in any institution in M.P. though some small collections exist in the Nagpur University and the Bala- ghat Forest School. 2. Therefore anyone undertaking botanical work in Madhya Pradesh is very greatly handicapped in prosecuting his studies. For my part I travel with the Bombay, Bihar and Madras floras and I have to consult one after the other to track down some species. For instance in Chanda and South Bastar many plants are described only in the Madras flora; in east Madhya Pradesh, the plants are mostly found in the Bihar flora, while in central and west Madhya Pradesh the Bombay flora is more useful. The further disadvantage is that these floras were prepared 15-50 years ago and in many ways are getting out of date, or are out of print. 3. In addition the whole scientific attitude to systematic study of living organisms is changing; and, in particular, in plants it is realised that the old attempt to allot every specimen to a definite 432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 species is impossible. We find every gradation and a more flexible nomenclature is needed. It is, therefore, a suitable time to undertake an entirely new flora for the central parts of the country. 4. The area of country to be covered by the flora would have to be decided first. In this connexion we must look ahead to the possible formation of linguistic provinces. The present territories included in the Madhya Pradesh State vary in altitude, rainfall and rocks, but the similarities are greater than the differences and the present State (excluding certain outlying parts) is a_ satisfactory botanical unit. 5. The organisation of the work would have to be discussed by the parties concerned and the amount of detail to be given in the Flora. Modern botanical studies pay as much attention to the ecology of the species as to its identification. It appears desirable to extend the scope of the flora beyond the usual. In that event the first steps to be taken are to organise the formation of an herbarium where all the specimens collected may be housed and final and authoritative identification done; secondly, to obtain records of the distribution of the plants within the area covered by the flora and thirdly, to record information on the soils on which each plant is found growing, altitude, time of flowering, fruiting and relative abundance or scarcity. I would estimate this preliminary work would take at least five years. In the past there were enthusiastic and learned men like Haines, Gamble, Fisher, Kunjilal and Mooney to do all this work themselves, but none such are available now. However, each year a large number of graduates in botany pass out from the colleges and a number are now working in the Forestry Service and there may be an equal number in the Agricultural Depart- ment. What we lack in knowledge may be made up in numbers. I am sure that if the local botanists know that the preparation of the flora is being undertaken they will also co-operate to make the initial collections to form a basis for the final compilation. 6. There is the further question of the headquarters for such an organisation. It would be best if it could be housed either in the University or the Nagpur Museum. However, as funds would be small it may be necessary in the first place to rely on voluntary workers. Later, funds would have to be arranged by the Government for the printing and publication. 7. Another important principle is that of language. All the existing floras are in English and it would be very tedious and awkward to translate any of these into the State language. A flora printed in Hindi will, however, be an absolute necessity within 10-15 years, and it appears much better to prepare an entirely new and up-to-date flora in Hindi than to adopt an old one written in English. 8. Accordingly, I am venturing to place these facts before the various heads of departments in the Madhya Pradesh administra- tion and the Vice-Chancellors of the Universities. I request the heads of departments to forward the Memorandum to the Hon’ble Minister in charge of the departments with their comments. I hope the Madhya Pradesh Government would consider the scheme worth investigation and would agree to summon a conference to be attended by all the interested parties in the near future. _I have hopes that the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 433 preparation of a Flora for Madhya Pradesh would be a worthy project to include in the next five-year development plan for this State. g. Though I visualise in the first place that the work would be carried out mostly by voluntary workers, there is no doubt that a special ‘State Botanical Survey’ should be set up. This would be in the long run the most economical and efficient way to carry out the work. This survey could be either a separate department like the Geology and Mining Department or could be attached to one of the existing departments such as the Agricultural or Forest Depart- ment. | JAGDALPUR, C. E. HEWETSON BASTAR, Conservator of Forests October 1, 1951. 30. SHOOTING OF PEAFOWL AND ANTELOPE (BLACK- BUCK) PROHIBITED IN MADRAS STATE From Madras Information 5 (7): 34, July 1951. ‘It is brought to the notice of Government that the Indian Black- buck usually found in open rural areas in the districts of Chittoor, Bellary, etc., and the peacock found in large numbers in the district of Bellary and especially in the Sandur area are being ruthlessly de- cimated in numbers of reckless shooting of premature males and pregnant females. With a view to prevent this reckless shooting of these vanishing species, the Government of Madras have under the powers vested on them by Section 3 of the Wild Birds and Wild Animals Protection Act, 1912 (Central Act VIII of r912), declared the whole year to be a close time throughout the State for Peafowl (which includes peacock and peahen) and antelope (blackbuck).’ R. W, BURTON Lr. CoL., 1.a. (Retd.) 31. GLEANINGS Without comment ‘Many a native tractor driver, leaving his machine in a field over- night, returned to find a tiger sleeping in the driver’s seat’. (From an account of the use of American tractors in India—Time dated 2nd July 1951, p. 23.) A Super Builder A South African Weaver Bird (Ploceus ocularis) has been known to build a nest with an entrance tube ‘upwards of 8 feet long’. [Friedmann : ‘Breeding Habits of Weaver Birds’. Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution (1949) p. 295. | Pantocrin from deer antlers The following is from an article entitled ‘In the Altai Highlands’ in Soviet News No. 1 of March 1950, p. 32.: ‘Not far from the road lies a big maral-breeding state farm. The marals—a big, handsome species of deer—live in natural condi- 434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 tions, at full liberty. A high wall prevents them from leaving the territory of the state farm, which comprises 7,500 hectares of forest land. Every spring the grown stags are separated from the herd and rounded into a special enclosure, where, one by one, they are driven into the antler-cutting pen. A few strokes of the surgical saw, and the young antlers, still soft, have been removed. Next spring they will grow again. The medicinal qualities of panti, or antlers, have long been known in Tibetan medicine. The true source of these qualities, how- ever, was discovered only in recent times by Soviet research workers. The secret lies in a substance known as pantocrin, remarkable for its tonic qualities and its acceleration of the healing of wounds and ulcers. The Soviet pharmaceutical industry produces panttocrin from antlers in sufficient quantity to allow its extensive application in medical practice.’ [Maral is the Eastern Red Deer (Cervus elaphus maral).—Eps. | Cobra fergning death Wesley H. Dickinson in Herpetologica 1948, p. 147, has a tote on an Egyptian Cobra Naja haje that appeared to be dead in a cage. He writes: ‘I removed it and noted that the tail would hook around an object when the body was lifted. I placed it in the sun thinking that it may come to life . . . The snake’s mouth hung open and it lay on its back with an unnatural stiffness. I handled and watched it for an hour without detecting any breathing, but the trachea opened slightly and irregularly. A slight evidence of life was seen from time to time so I replaced the snake in its box and placed the wire cover over it. After ten minutes absence I found the cover off and the snake gone. After prolonged search the snake was found entering a hole in a wall. The snake was acttve and agile. While placing the snake in its box I felt it go limp and apparently dead. Five minutes later it lifted the cover and started to escape, but it saw me approaching and ‘froze’. I then placed it upon its back on the cement walk. After a few minutes it righted itself and started to crawl, but upon being touched, again feigned death. This experiment was repeated several times.’ A giant teak tree of Mysore State From the Editor’s Miscellany of the Indian Forester for June 1951: ‘Shri M. A. Muthanna, Chief Conservator of Forests, Mysore, has written about a giant teak tree felled recently in the Kakankote State forest, compt. X. The tree was 25 ft. in girth, at. 4} ft. from the ground with a clean bole of 66 ft. It has yielded 659 cubic feet of timber which at the current auction sales prices will yield a revenue of Rs. 4,613 to the State. About 680 annual growth rings were counted on the stump and it is just likely that some incomplete rings were included in the counting.’ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 435 Albino lon Lt.-Col. J. Stevenson-Hamilton in a letter published in the Field dated toth March 1951 records a friend of his shooting an albino lion. It was a female cub about 18 months old almost completely white. With the same pride was a full-grown lioness which he was unable to secure, but which he judged to be whiter than the three- parts grown cub. He further states: ‘The body of the cub was dirty white, there were no body spots, no ‘black on its ears, or above its eyes, and the tail tuft was light- straw-coloured. Its eyes were pale bluish grey, and the eyelids and lips were white, with a faint pink tinge.’ Decline of musk deer T. H. Hawkins in a note on ‘Musk and the Musk Deer’ Nature, Vol. 166, p. 262, draws attention to the speed with which musk deer are being destroyed in China, Manchuria, Korea and other places. He notes that in 1925 the quantity of musk exported from China and Eastern Tibet was stated to amount to about 27,000 Chinese ounces per annum, valued at £100,000. The number of animals killed annually in China and Tibet at that time was estimated to be between 10,000 and 15,000. Penetration of high velocity rifles. Vitality of elephants John Taylor in ‘Big Game and Big Game Rifles’ refers to the penetration power of the .375 magnum: ‘I have several times had three buffalo dead to one bullet—heart shot. But the biggest bag of all was seven eland to one shot! (An eland may weigh from 15 cwt. upwards)’ On page 38 of the sarne book, he says: ‘I, myself, personally knew two young sportsmen who between them actually succeeded in placing forty-two shots into an elephant without bringing him down. And even after that, he was able to kill one and seriously injure the other before he himself collapsed.’ Hunza Dr. Aggarwal, Superintendent of the Central Asian Museum at Delhi informs us that the name ‘Hunza’ (in north Kashmir) is derived from the Sanskrit ‘Hansa marg’ meaning the path of the geese. The Vicious Octopus : Woody Williams in ‘Friend Octopus’ says on page 212: ‘In 1947 Don Simpson, collector for the Steinhart Aquarium in San Francisco was bitten on the back of the hand by an Octopus apollyon, of one foot spread . . . two small punctures which bled pro- fusely .. . a few minutes later Simpson experienced a tingling sensation, and that night the hand swelled to obliterate the outline of his knuckles. Four weeks elapsed before the swelling disappeared.’ (From Natural History, May, 1951) 15 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER 1950. President H. E. Raja Manaray SINGH Vice-Presidents Maj.-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s. Mr OAV. Millard, ers7s- Executive Committee Mr. -J._ 1., Altrey se we Sir Chintaman D. Deshmukh, Kis 50 1eEs. i626: Mr. M. J. Hackney Mr. R. E. Hawkins Mires M. Had IecrScsn Rey. Fr. Hi. Santapau, ‘S-1. 5. wie «st Appayipe Dro pd. Sethe, JPiapy ate = | Sa Me. ROP” Sauth | Maj.-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.S. sa oti abdual (Jt. Hon. Secretaries) ... | Mr. M. J. Dickins (Hon. Treasurer) | | | 5 aa | Advisory Committee Lt:-Col. RoW... Burton, (-A.- (Retd2)s ... Bangalore Dr, Ban Chopra, D-Sc: oe ee .. New Delhi Mr. C. H. Donald, F.z.s ee ... London Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. En cores M.A., L.T., Ph.D., D.D. Coorg Dr.S3-L Heras, B.SC: .i4. et ... Calcutta Mr. C. M. Inglis, C.M.B.0.U., F.Z.S. ee ... Coonoor Col. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. ei ... Attikan Dr: So HK: Mukerjee, D.SC. ee i, Caleutia Lt.-Col. E. G. Ratan Adams, 0O.B.E., F.Z.S., (Retd.) sak ; ... Nilgiris Dr, Baini Prashad, D.Sc. a an .. New Delhi PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1950 437 List of members of the Executive and Advisory Committees elected for the year 1951. Vice-Presidents Maj.-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1I.M.s WMirecW cS.) Millard, F.Z.s; Executive Committee Mr. J. I. Alfrey e Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s. 1: Sir Chintaman D. Deshmukh, KT: C.deBs,1-6;S% Mr. M. J. Hackney Mr. R. E. Hawkins mi ie ee Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J. ae as ia Drs: B. Setnas Ph.p; ee ee ay ay Mis Ran P: Smith. uf Maj.-Gen. Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.S. ‘' Mr. Hume Abdulali Mr. Seed ae (Jt. Hon. Secretaries) ... Mr. M. J. Dickins (Hon. Treasurer) Advisory Committee LtCol. RW. Burton, 1.A.-(Retd.). ... ... Bangalore Dr. B. N. Chopra, D.sc. ie on .. New Delhi Mr2C. tHe: Donald, ¥.2.s: re ... London Rev. Fr. Dr. J. B. Freeman, MeAnabelc, Ph.D., D.D. Coorg Dire le dona. D.SC..5. a, ... Calcutta Mr. C. M. Inglis, C.M.B.0.U., F.Z.S. ae ... Coonoor Col. Re G.. Morris, .F.R.G.S.;.F.Z.S% ae ... Attitkan Drs S._K:; Mukerjee, D.SC. er ... Calcutta Lt.-Col. E. G. set a -Adams, OnB: Big FZeS 1A (Retd.) ss .. Nilgiris Dr. Baini Prashad, D.sc. ee af ... New Delhi HONORARY SECRETARIES’ REPORT FOR THE YEAR 10950 THE SOCIETy’sS JOURNAL During the year parts 1, 2 and 3 of Vol. 49 were published to- gether with Indexes to the end of volume 47. The idea of publishing quarterly issues has not been abandoned. It is still engaging the attention of the editors, and will be given effect to as soon as feasible. MAMMALS Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams contributed three more parts of his interesting serial ‘Jungle Memories’ which are well illustrated as usual. Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton’s painstaking ‘Bibliography of Big Game Hunting and Shooting in India and the East’ is most welcome since A 438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 ‘many of the publications he has listed are already out of print and Jong forgotten. y 9 In ‘A Novel Method of destroying Man-eaters and Cattle-lifters without Fire-arms’ S. R. Daver describes a clever method practised by Baigas of Mandla district in C.P. (Madhya Pradesh) for ridding them- selves of these dangerous vermin. | Mr. Daver preludes his article with a statement showing the special rewards etc. advertised by the M.P. Government for destroying parti- cular cattle-lifters and man-eaters, and attempts to show how much more economical and effective it would have been for them not to have withdrawn the regular prescribed rewards formerly in force. Part II of ‘The Gir Forest and its Lions’ by M. A. Wynter-Blyth and Kumar Shree Dharmakumarsinhji, describes the methods employed and the results of their census which revealed that there were at present between 243 and 251 lions in all living in the Junagadh Gir as against 287 estimated in 1936. C. A. Gibson-Hill in his ‘Note on the Rorquals (Balaenoptera spp.)’ analyses the published records. of the whales stranded on the coast of India and Ceylon with the object of determining the species that occur in this area. He gives a useful key of the external characters of the. five known living species which should enable specific identification of the whales met with in the neighbouring seas. Ba Re Das Of the 12 papers on birds that have been published, mention must be made of the one on ‘The Lesser Florican: its courtship display, behaviour and habits’ by K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji which contains some careful observations on a hitherto unrecorded aspect of the nuptial display. : The versatile C. A. Gibson-Hill has a paper on the ‘Tropic Birds of the Indian Ocean’. He tells of the Short-tailed, Long-tailed and Red- tailed tropic birds, their feeding and breeding habits. The paper is well illustrated. Another paper on the birds of the ocean ‘Wilson’s Storm Petrels, Shearwaters and other sea birds in the Gulf of Aden & Indian Ocean’— is the carefully kept diary of W. W. A. Phillips during a voyage. Lt.-Col. R. S. P. Bates has an excellently illustrated article on ‘The Lower Sind Valley and some further observations of Bird photo- graphy’ in which he has many useful tips to the bird photographer. — Horace G. Alexander contributes some field notes on the genus Phylloscopus in Kashmir. | Three important regional papers were published during the year: (1) ‘Notes on the Birds of the Irrigated area of Minbu district, Burma’ by W. L. Roseveare, (2) ‘Birds of Nepal (1947-1949)’ by S. Dillon Ripley and (3) ‘More Notes on the Birds of the Nepal Valley’ by B. E. Smythies. On the taxonomic side we have papers ‘On the Shrike Lanius tephronotus (Vigors) with remarks on the erythronotus and _ tricolor -groups of L. schach and their hybrids’ by Biswamoy Biswas. The -results are based on a critical study by the author of 375 birds in $$$ PROCEEDINGS .AND ACCOUNTS,- 1950 _.. i ° 439 various museums in the U.S., the British Museum and the Indian Museum, Calcutta. ; ; Daniel Marien has notes on some Asiatic Sturnidae and Meropidae _ while S. Dillon Ripley has one on Turdus mérula in South India which attempts to clear up the tangle of the status of various races that have been recorded thence in the published literature. | REPTILES In ‘Turtle-fishing in the sea around Krusadai Island’ G. K. Kuriyan describes methods of capturing marine turtles. His note deals with the respective economic importance of several species. A second paper by M. N. Acharji entitled ‘Edible Chelonians and their products’ which gives the three different forms of chelonians, i.e. marine, freshwater and land, together with notes on their commer- cial value. Fisu & FISHERIES No contribution was received during the year. INVERTEBRATES As usual, this section covered a wide field and published articles like : “The fouling organisms of pearl oyster cages’ by George K. Kuriyan, ‘The Mysore Lac Insect’ by S. Mahdihassan and ‘Observations on the bionomics and fishery of the Brown Mussel (Mytilus sp.)’ by S. Jones. F. N. Betts has a paper ‘On a collection of butterflies from the Balipara Frontier tract and Subansiri area (North Assam)’ while A. C. Harman contributes a list of butterflies from Champaran—North Bihar. ‘hese papers help to fill some glaring gaps in our knowledge of the distribution of Indian butterflies. : Other papers of note are ‘Observations on some larval and _ post- ‘larval stomatopods’ by Kk. H. Alikunhi and ‘Life history and biono- mics of the Cat Flea—Ctenocephalides felis Bouche’ by K. R. Karandi- ‘kar and D. M. Munshi. | , Miss Theresa Clay has an important paper entitled ‘A Preliminary survey of the distribution of the Mallophaga (feather-lice) on the. class Aves’. A study of the Mallophaga infesting bird feathers has suggest- ed their importance in determining the phylogenetic relationships of various groups of birds which are their hosts, and holds much promise of throwing light on obscure problems in this connection. The study is in its infancy in India. BOTANY Rev. Fr. Santapau has two important contributions, ‘Notes on the Scrophulariaceae of Bombay’ and ‘Notes on the Lentibulariaceae of Bombay’. J. ©. Culshaw has produced a useful working list of West Bengal plants entitled ‘Some West Bengal Plants’. N. L. Bor describes two new species of Ischaemum—IJ. bombaiense Bor and I. santapaui Bor. A New variety of Cucurbita maxima is recorded by C. Rajasekhara Mudaliar, 440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 MISCELLANEOUS This section of the Journal which includes items of general interest to naturalists and sportsmen has been well maintained, and we hope that members will continue to contribute notes and observations and experi- ences to it whenever they have an opportunity. PUBL 1c ATO NaS ‘The Study of Indian Molluscs’ by the late James Hornell is in the press and we hope to have it out during the course of the year. The republication of the serial ‘Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs’ by Bor and Raizada in book form is also in hand, and attempts are being made to expedite publication. The Ministry of Natural Resources and Scientific Research, Government of India has kindly agreed to bear half the cost of the publication of M. A. Wynter-Blyth’s ‘Butter- flles of the Indian Region’ and it is hoped to get this also moving within a reasonable period. EX P Eip I EbONs On behalf of the Prince of Wales Museum, the Assistant Curator, Mr. V. K. Chari, assisted by Mr. Gilbert Nogueira the senior assistant, and the artist Mr. Ram P. Subedar. visited Krusadai Island for a period of two weeks. Material for a dozen habitat groups for the invertebrate gallery has been collected, and work on it at the museum is progressing. Mr. Salim Ali visited Berar on a bird survey for about three weeks in January and 300 specimens were collected. The results will be published in due course. Fitm SHOWS AND TALKS On toth May 1950, films lent by the British Information Services were shown to members and their friends. On 19th December Mr. Salim Ali, the Society’s delegate to the 1toth International Ornithological Congress held at Uppsala in June delivered a talk accompanied by cine-films of his birding excursions in various parts of Sweden and his visits to places of ornithological interest on the Continent. NATURE EDUCATION The Nature Education Scheme sponsored by the Government of Bombay has been continued, and talks on ‘Animal Respiration’ and ‘Dispersal of fruits and seeds’ and ‘Insect Life’ were given in Marathi, Gujarathi and English to over 1,500 children. Teachers of Secondary and Primary Schools were acquainted with the facilities available at the Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum for effectively teaching nature study to children and with methods for creating a genuine interest among them. Four more plant study-sheets were brought out for distribution among schools. Field trips to study plants and animals were also arranged in which a large number of teachers participated. PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1950 ‘441 WILp LIFE PRESERVATION The Society has reason to be gratified with the passing of the Bombay National Parks Act 1950 which provides for the appointment of a nominee of the Society on the Advisory Committee. It is hoped that the Society will be able to collaborate usefully with Government both in the State and at the Centre. REVENUE ACCOUNT The total receipts during the year amounted to Rs. 46,231-3-6 as compared with Rs. 48,794-12-4 during the year 1949. The decrease of Rs. 2,563-8-10 is mainly due to fall in the revenue from calendars, back journals and other publications. Out of the Bombay Government grant of Rs. 4,000/- for 1949-50, Rs. 2,000/- was received in 1949 and was included in the Society’s 1949 accounts. The balance of Rs. 2,000/- received during this year is shown in the present accounts. The total number of members on our books on 31st December 1950 was 1,438, i.e., an increase of 5 members only over 1949. But the number of members actually paying subscription in 1950 was 672 compared with 767 in 1949. The sales of the Societv’s publications have dropped further, and the total sales are considerably lower than those in previous years. This is partly due to the Society not having brought out any new publication during the year and partly to the two popular books, viz. ‘Book of Indian Birds’ (Fourth Edition) and ‘Book of Indian Animals’ (First Edition) having been on sale for nearly four years with the result that the demand for them is almost satiated. COMPARATIVE STATEMENT SHOWING THE DIFFERENT SOURCES OF REVENUE RECEIVED IN 1949 AND 1950. Revenue Revenue Increase Decrease in in in in 1949 1950 1950 1950 | Rs. a.p. Rs. a.p.| |-Rs.-a.p.|. Rs. a. p. Subscription .» | 21,442 11 7; 21,841 O 11 398 5 4 —- Entrance Fee ety 1,920 0 0 1,725 0 0 —— 195 0 0 Publications St UO, a ocis Od 4,157 I4 4* | 3,325 2 7t| 1,000 8 8 —— Interest on Investments | 3,278 10 0 3,298 Y9 0 19 15 0 — Sundries, Taxidermy, Advertisement etc.... 1,670 14 6 1,883 8 8 21210 2 — Grants: Govt. of India. 8,000 0 0 8,000 0 0 ——- | — ” Govt. of | Bombay... 6,000 0 0 2,000 0 0 —— | 4,000 0 0 Potaloeacs. 48,794 12 4) 46,231 3 6) 1,631 7 2) 4,195 0 0 Net decrease in revenue in 1950 over 1949 Rs, 2,563-8-10. *Books etc. tJournals, — 442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 STAFF _ Phe post of the Curator has been vacant since 1-2-1950 for want Of a suitably qualified and experienced man on the scale of pay prescribed. : aH ~*~ The work of the entire staff has been satisfactory during the year and the Committee wish to record their appreciation of the same. ACKNOWLEDGMENT ce The Society’s grateful thanks are due to Mr. W. S. Millard who .continues to guard its interests zealously in London. APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARIES’ REPORT COVERING THE PERIOD JANUARY TO SEPTEMBER 1951 (READ By HuMayun ABDULALI, JT. Hon. SEcy.) ‘‘The Report, a copy of which has been handed over to you, covers the year ended 31st December 1950 and I will present a short account .of our subsequent activities. The April issue of the Journal must have reached you and we hope to be able to send you the August number before the end of this month. I am afraid that none of the other publications referred to in the report have as yet been completed though slow progress is being made. Subsequent to the Bombay National Parks Act 1950, the Bombay Legislature has passed the Bombay Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act, 1951 with the drafting of which the Society was active- ly associated. This also provides for the Society’s representation on the Advisory Boards, and a Sub-Committee is now drafting regula- tions and bye-laws for the working of the Act which it is hoped will be functioning as from November. Though the lead has been set by Bombay, the Central Government also is now alive to the fact that wild life protection and national parks are matters which need im- mediate action... In July an All-India Conference was called in Delhi to discuss ways and means, and the Society was also invited to send a répresentative. Though a report has not yet been published, it was unanimously decided that the attention of the other States should be drawn to these problems and it is hoped that pressure from the Centre will induce others to follow Bombay’s lead. It is obvious that in practice legislation in this direction is but the first step, and the law will. require public support to make it effective. It is hoped that members of the Society will do all they can to make this legislation successful. You are aware that a few years ago we offered an ann ship of Rs. 600 to one or more students and others working on specific outdoor problems of natural history. In the first year the scholarship was divided between two undergraduates, one working on bats and was divided on algae of hot-water springs. Unfortunately neither of these gentlemen completed their work and the scheme was more or less dropped on our part. The Committee has, however, decided to ual scholar- ‘se PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS, 1950 443 renew the offer and we hope that many applicants will come forward and that it will be possible to make and retain contacts with young people interested in this fascinating subject. While the amount which we offer is not large, it is hoped that it will encourage those seriously interested to pursue their hobbies which at a later-stage might lead to more valuable and interesting work being done by them. _ The main report indicates that the total number of members who paid their subscriptions in 1950 was 672. The number for this year is 660 which together with 217 life members means a valid member- ship of 877 members. For the Society to undertake further activities other than the publication of the Journal it is essential that it should have greater co-operation from members and it is hoped that all of you will try and get all such friends of yours who have any interest in natural history to join the Society.” The election of the following 65 members since the last general meeting was announced. , From 5th October 1950 to 31st December 1950 Maj.-Gen. H. Williams, New Delhi; Mr. J. P. L. Gwynn, t.c.s., Ellore, West Godavari District; Mr. D. K. Macfarlane, Nazira P.O., Assam ~ Ving Aas. Povey, Worl, , Bombay ;- Mr. "B.-F.' HB. Tyabji, 1.c.s.. New Delhi; Sir Roger Thomas, c.1.£., 66, Clifton Quarters, Karachi; The Delhi Gymkhana Club Ltd., New Delhi; Rai Bahadur Kuar Ambika Prasad Sinha, P.O. Chainipur, Dist. Palamah (Bihar); Mr. N. A. B. Warner, Balijan North T.E., Chabua, Upper Assam; The Deputy Conservator of Forests in Baluchistan, Quetta, Pakistan; Mr. Zatar Futehally, Hornby Road, Bombay; Mr.:- Leslie Yurner, North Lakhimpur P.O., Assam; Sir C. V. Raman, Hebbal P.O., Bangalore; The Pisciculturist, Department of Game and Fisher- ies, Jammu and Kashmir Government, Kashmir; From 1st January 1951 to 12th September 1951 Col. William E, Marling, California, U.S.A.; Mr. E. A. I. Row- land, Bharno Bari T.E., Dooars, West Bengal; Mr. C. P. B. Reid, Victoria House, Calcuita 1; Capt. Stanislav Szafranski, M.SC., A.M.I.E.E., A-M.1., (Mech.) £., Lalbaug, Bombay; Mr. H. C. Grieve, 381, Hornby Road, Bombay; Mr. C. S. Rao, Bhadrachalam, East Godavari Dist. ; Mr. D. D. McIntyre, Teloijan T.E., Assam; Mr. J. H. Murphy, c/o British Drug Houses (India), Bombay; Mr. H. P. von Friedlein, c/o Messrs. Hind Cycles Ltd., Worli, Bombay; Mr. L. A. Craven, Charter- ed Bank Buildings, Calcutta ; The Officer-in-Charge, Fisheries Research Station, 6, A.P. Sen Road, Lucknow; The Horticulturist, Government Miri’ Research Station, Saharanpur, U.P:; Mr. P. L. Kottyam, 76, Old Custom House Road, Bombay; The Director General of Fisheries, Department of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand; Maj. R. J. C. Kenny, Ootacamund, Nilgiris; Mr. R. D. Campbell, Forbes Building, Bombay ; Mr. M. Krishnan, Mylapore, Madras; Mr. C. S. Kooi, Middlestum, The Neherlands; The Librarian, Bihar Secretariat Library, Patna; Lt.-Col. W. Tippetts, Kuttiadi Estate & P.O., N. Malabar; The Con- = 444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 servator of Forests, North Western Circle, Alkapur, Baroda; Mr. M. L. Banerji, Meerut College, Meerut ; The Principal, Nizam College, Hyderabad—Dn.; The Deputy Director of Fisheries, Uttar Pra- desh, Lucknow, U.P.; Mr. M. Burke, Dadar, Bombay; Thakur Mahendranath Shah Deo of Jharia State, Jaria Garh P.O., District Ranchi, Bihar; Lt.-Col. C. F. Hamilton, 1st Mahratta Light Infantry, Ghorpadi, Poona; Lt.-Col. W. A. S. P. J. Lawrence, 51, The Mall, Meerut Cantt.; Mr. F. W. Winterbotham, c/o The Ootacamund Club, Ootacamund; Mr. Peter R. Ryhiner, Twann (Bern), Switzerland ; The Librarian, University Library, University of Saugar, Sagar; Durga Pado Malik, Kalna P.O. & T.O., Ambica Kalna Riyo ‘Stn., Burdwan District; Dr. B. G. Afzurpurkar, M.B.B.s., B.Hy., Matunga, Bombay ; Raja Dinesh Pratap Singh of Kasmanda, Kamlapur P.O., Dis- trict Sitapur, U.P.; Dr. G. V. Dravid, M.B.B.s., Hindu Colony, Dadar, Bombay 14; Dr. C. Brooke Worth, M.p., Bangalore, S.I.; Rajkumar Jaysinh of Vijaynagar, Vijaynagar, A.P. Rly., Sabarkantha District ; Mr. P. Krishnapillai, Palali Government Training College, Vasavilan, Ceylon ; The Director, Medical Research Institute, Ceylon, Colombo; Mr. Russell B. Payne, Taunggyi, S.S.S. Burma; Mr. Patrick G. S. Hall, Kumbazha Estate, Travancore; The Quarantine Entomologist, c/o The Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage, Sewri, Bombay; The Reference Librarian, Howard-Tilton Memorial Library, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana; The Superintendent, Ceylon Zoological Gardens, Dehiwela, Ceylon; Mrs. Aruna Banerji, Sunny View, Saharanpur; Mr. H. G. Hundley, Divisional Forest Officer, U.C./Myittha Division, Mawlaik; Mr. D. J. Edwards, Chinna- manur P.O., Madurai District, S.I.; The Principal, Cathedral Boys’ High School, Outram Road, Bombay; Mr. H. C. S. Bowdler, Dikom T.E.,. Upper Assam; Mr. M. 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List of plates ... ae Index to illustrations To go at the end of Index to species one fe j the two numbers. THE ~e eee JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SCOIETY EDITED BY | SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, ph.p,, and H. SANTAPAU, sy, VOL. 50 Nos. 3 & 4 Containing 8 coloured plates, 70 black-and-white plates, 28 text figures and 11 maps. Dates of Publication Part 3. (Pages 451 to 690) ... April, 1952 Ser oan (oar 691 to 964) ... August, 1952 LONDON AGENTS MESSRS. WHELDON & WESLEY LTD., 83/84 Berwick Street, LONDON, W. 1. PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS 1954 { a — a us Leia . pened a Ae 7 i a i = wi A i * ; oY” oa es ! e , 3 j E y - d By Me » ‘ ‘ 7 ¢ 1 - o— i Poet ‘ i + 7 hy, 3 a2 6 3 '#6 eek? hd ‘ as :. e @ or) 5 x ‘ i : ay r ( by y NS Z FE cee, ~ 4 a * 4 ‘a 7 ot 5 = * . y 7 : ba = Oe “ - > - . Ty d > ae Pars: we lee + + FEPeI TS i } bs 2 e i + Pa ae . wh Seaee ye = ¥ \ j 2 _ ~ * nk - : = : } Ss ° i » c 3 J % he ty ae 2 | pa a = ? * & * & b < ; tS : — 3 i ~~ ¥ it ; re i eS 4! &: “ tacks . ; _ ; bil , Lies a es - Dy" eu" 9 «oa e 4 . S ” € a oie ofc MEA , en ee a P ; 25k ade oa CONDENES OPVOLU ME 36 No. 3 JUNGLE MeEmorigsS. PART XI—Opps AND ENDs. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, 0.B.£., F.z.S., LA. (Retd.). (With two plates)... betinie arate cictatetaciats : aShisek RACES OF THE INDIAN Ae enninnee (Ratuta Dee By Humayun Abdulali and J. Cyril Daniel. (Wzth a plate) “A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM THE NAGA Hits. By S&S. Dillon Ripley. Wea two maps, two coloured and two black- and-white plates)... Seer Mie ew OO Rye eet Coe NOTES ON THE GREY Meee (Mugil anh OF er niere ISLAND, GULF OF Manaar. By K. Chidambaram and Cee Kutivanen CUCL: GiCKi tL OUVE) x hese aes sds sce «cn ocs CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY. PARA lee vac Santa pall, sos Oesce cok tee ase tasbivesistac rece Benidee soe STUDY OF THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE KARWAR COAST AND NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS. PART II: Mollusca—Ampbhi- neura and Gastropoda.- By A. M. Patil, M.SC........ccs0cceees A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA. Part II. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth. (With two sketch maps and two plates)... rasa eniee er recente ieaiectease (SOME JUNGLE a ASSOCIATIONS. By M. D. Tisch “With a map)... HISTORY OF Geyer AND INTRODUCTION OF FisHes IN INDIA. By S. Jones and K.K. Sarojini. (With a text map and eight figures)... ee THE POISONOUS AND MEDICINAL pee oF INDIA. By L C. Chopra and L. D. Kapoor .. Se Oe epee SS pene n ee PHOTOGRAPHING THE ee ene Se) feet (Ce tus leucogastery (Gmelin)]. By Wan Tho Loke. (With LOL pe PLL OS Meane naman ae RN ceeie tole staat ra iG oie cites Ga diend «babiae «nee ON THE TRAIL OF THE KOUPREY OR INDO-CHINESE FOREST Ox (Bibos sauveli). By Dr. Boonsong Lekagul. (With three plates and two text figures)... Mee Sar eiste vesomey-< THE ASSAM EARTHQUAKE OF 1950, “By E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S., F.R.GS. (With a map and two plates)... ...ccovrces ) PAGE 451 469 475 SPS: 520 549 559 5/3 618 623 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 50 REVIEWS :— 3h w oN 6. Elunter at Eleart--“Cke WwW. eRe Hydroponics. (J. A. A.)... ee tchery The Birds of the Malay etna Singapore oF Penang. (0. AD) gaieees. cor eae ene eee eee Animals strange and rare. (Ele) sense eee Proceedings of the Xth International Ornithologi- cal Congress (Uppsala, June 1950). (S. A.}....... Breeding Birds of Kashmir, (CW Los) ee eaenees MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— 1. C 10. 11. 12, Wild and Tame Dogs. By A. A. Dunbar Brander. Chital [Axzs axts (Erxl. » A strange attraction. By K. M. Kirkpatrick... scasee Fives Sanco ane iene PAGE 636 639 639 641 642 644 647 647 Melanism in the Baie! git (Muntiacus ” muntjac). By C. M. Inglis, F.z.s., C.M.B.O.U...... Sambar Deer in Mauritius. By J. Rene Main- gard de Ville-es-Offrans... Old Jungle Tales retold. By I os Col. i W. sae ton, 1.4. (Retd.)... ae Thrills in Sport. Be Col. V. i arene D.S.0., eA. ( ROtda ip xins | telsislekcestsloaages coisyeseveaneee ateenretante sediess Hoghunting Reminiscences. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.A. GRetd.)... . Unusual behaviour of ae Visit cape cee (Chaimarrornis leucocephalus caer By M. J. Hackney si5icd ccoee ene ee eee oma een eee Blackbacked Robin [Saxtcoloides f. fulicata (Linn.)] attacking car. By E. B. Wikrama- NAV AKC Acco tee vetoes asan’ Baya (pie Pay vty. Ee on ae graph wires. By K. M. Kirkpatrick... Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) ee Plumbeous Redstart (Rhyacornts f. fuliginosa). By W. T. Loke. «Weihia plaice)... eey.vete eee Notes on the Nepal Koklas Pheasant (Pucrasia macrolopha nipalensis) and the Spiny Babbler (Acanthoptila nipalensis). By Robert L. Flem- ing, PH.D. (With a text map)... eee An unrecorded feature of Spurfow! ten EN By Humayun Abdulali.. ance ne 648 648 649 652 654 655 656 657 658 658 661 iB 15. 16. likes 18, 1S. 20. 21. CONTENTS OF VOLUME 50 The Chukor Partridge [Alectoris graeca chukar (Griffith and Pidgeon)] in Nevada, U.S.A. By Glem Ce @Mristemsent ayeasecse schtick vedo ldvag acess, The Whimbrel ee hed in Assam. By Editors.. : Blacknecked Grebe Pipes Merrie seeane in Bhavnagar. By K. 8S. Dharmakumarsinhiji....... Some bird notes from Jasdan, Saurashtra. By VA yey, soa Val asl RAGIN UE sweaters calee ictus he's Ga Gann sce WaCure avait More stray bird notes from Malabar. By K. K. Neelakantan.. ‘Further notes on the birds ae the e NEAAL Valley. Wie WEG he ie OUGeas series con chs Soccer ces ees Sled ebostats Oceanic and other birds seen on two recent trips between Colombo and Adenin 1951. By C.E. INGE IS meee ceapenrares me ie caaeeed cele oh ke ieee ramie ois Birds attacking their reflections. By H. G. 72\ Wepre 0(GI(Si pa AR aA he Ree Ca ae Sager PI ee Re Pe Scenting power of Birds. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Bur- Opis yeic a (1 Syeh We la Mae oh cea ear eee arene pre ener area ’ Changes in Scientific Names of Indian Birds. By et WUMO MeN pe Veer vitan setae Coss cele ie Pac cawatnes hes The Orthography of English Names of Birds. By Nice Mails OC a eee int Wa ohio 32 eines tate we Gest ve sees bun iuas Bull Frog (Raza tigrina Daud.) preying upon the Common Toad (Bufo melanostictus Schneid.) By NV ONE ah ae apt haar nt eae ee OR Sn i Notes on the Eoin es of the Red Cony Try- pauchen vagina Bloch & Schneider. By E, G. lace CW 2 @ LEAL 122 UPE) sain coe soho Piso Stals bncle Ss Two further cases of obstruction of the mouth or throat bySkish: By Co brooke: W orth:.2.:..ic0.4<. Use of Fish Slime in structural engineering. By Neu Cee Aa OMN ana nca........0..<. Aposematic Butterflies protected by the poisonous qualities of their larval food-plants. By D.C. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.. Me eta eet Meat, yas Notes on the ee of ay ee By T. Norman.. OR ne Mgt acer Coeer ine eer Ey ree Sere Mature ee a the Pales townsendi Baranoff (Diptera : Tachinidae). By R. N. Mathur, m.sc., PH.D., F.E.S.1. (With @ plate)... Wave tease hae Probable odour trails in Termites ese By H.S. Vishnoi.. Bet Pe minarets amore radetees On the occurrence Bee ee Freebies Medusa in the Krishnarajasagar on the Cauvery. By D.R. Krishnamurthy, B.Sc.. Notes on the Genus s Ladvisi ey ‘By Charles McCann, F.L.S. . AE oh Wi ee ee PUE UMS: tos Be Fe Longevity of Succulents in Herbaria. = C. McCann... Wild Life Bein, ‘By a4 Col R W. Batok. Tie Arey (ES CUCO) e rdaee utes ariontne «cbr valv tastey. eet eet soot theese INO TEGAN DREN EWiST 2c ost kel Poo alee Fae aueclow oe Doe ee ee tcseers 9350 OS I9¢ 953 JSS ALPHABETICAL - LTSTHOR AGONDREBY BOR VOLUME 50 ABDULALI, HuMayun, An un- recorded feature of Spurfowl (Galloperdix) = Speer ene tererere, The Nos. 3 and 4 PAGE 661 ‘Dipping’ Habit of the Tapir (Zapirus indicus Cuv.) ee , The Whitetailed Lapwing (Chet- tusia leucura) near Bombay. ———— a and DANIEL, J. Cyrit., Races of the Indian Giant Squirrel (Ratufaindica). (With a plate) ALDRICH, HERSCHEL C., M.D., Occurrence of the Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus Linnaeus) in Kaira District, Gujarat te oe a ALEXANDER, H.G., Birds at- tacking their reflections Antony, A. C., Use of Fish Slime in Structural Engineer- ing as ee eae ee ARA, (Mrs.) JAMAL, The mating habits of the House Crow (Corvus splendens) and Pied Myna (Sturnus conira) BANERJI, M., Replacement of Inflorescence by Turions in Caldesia reniforme Makino. (With a plate and three text figures es ee sae BANERJI, S. K., 0.B,E., D.Se., HNids, HoROM.S. 5 F.AsSe... he Climate of India. (With five plates, one text figure and a graph) 36 eae Bates: Lt--Coly Rats .Bs TAs, Possible association between the Large Yellownaped Wood- pecker (Picus flavinucha) and 932 947 469 945 674 682 940 685 718 PAGE the Large Racket-tailed Drongo (Dissemurus paradi- SUS), eee nea ss. 941 | ‘BATES, “Lt.-Col, RLS. Pc eae. and Lowrsrr, E.H.N., The History of Bird-photography in India, (With seven plates). 779 i Best, A.E.G., Swarming of Butterflies = a Toe OSS Baatia, D.R., M.Sc. (Hons.), F.E.S.1., Seé PRUTHI, HEM SINGH, PH.D., Sc.D. (Cantab.), F,N.I., F.A.S, aes 900 BIRCH, “Col. V7 Ke, DLStO., ee (Retd.), Thrillsin Sport ... 652 Bor, N. L., The Genus oa Linn. in India. Part I. (With 3 plates and 13 text figures). 787 BRANDER, A. A. DUNBAR, Wild and Tame Dogs ba wo O47 Burton, Lt.-Col. R. W., 1.A. : (Retd.), Old Jungle Tales retold es one .. 649 Siete Sec , Hog- hunting Reminiscences wese One —__—__———_-—, Scent- ing power of Birds oy O75 pees ee eee History of Shikar in India. (With four plates)... besa OSS Burton, Lt.-Col. R. W., 1.a. (Retd.), The Diary and Sport- ing Journal of W. P. Okeden, 1821-1841 ‘i es co 930 ——_—————-_———,, Wild Life Preservation pa ‘oa | SEY) CHAKRAVARTY, 0b. Li, 0 D.Sc; (Eciz.), F.L.S., New finds of Indian Cucurbitaceae. (With five plates and a text figure), 894 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS si CHAR, V. K., Bull Frong (Rana tigrina Daud.) prey- ing upon the Common ‘Toad (Bufo mealnostictus Schneid.) ————,, Localization of the Striped Variety of the Roughtailed Earthsnake— Cropeltis macrolepis (Peters) —to Mahableshwar CHIDAMBARAM, K., and KuRrRI- YAN, G. K., Notes on the Grey Mullets (M/ugil spp.) of Kru- s2dai Island, Gulf of Manaar. (Witha text figure) CHopra,I.C., and Kapoor L. D., The Poisonous & Medici- nal Plants of India es CHRISTENSEN, GLEN C., The Chukor Partridge { Alectoris graeca chukar (Griffith & Pidgeon)] in Nevada, U.S.A. CoLAM, HAROLD, A ‘ Red’ Por- cupine COVELL, SIR GORDON, M.D., D.p.H., Mosquito work in Indian ? ag | | MLgiE Ne pave UURIE Yea | | i = #00 ele Sa ae , “i IEG ee cat . : LO eg Mau 12 3 ; vy ‘ ; ma P » VAF eAs 9@ is 7 . : ; ; ¥ : * 4 ni : oy _ — 4) \ Vals iB) . ka 3 7 : cas 4 sity > | 5 mf : my = A rg n } . : w , -_ “ Grad. : ; : : at a . \ = ' nae > : ois i ieee on Deny a7 3 : i io) we ey i : oS aes ra a4? a .) oe | ' i | te 0 onqutth val s, ou | as nee), ssalt t bent Ad, , ey Wier) Gs aye pv te rae Th rs = hy - abe ul Vie Poe thape os a ENS HS | gan eee ea | a s ah Sa : aoe selon BOWE : a Stiga sh Pu\ian. 4. aye . i 7 be ’ SE otek! ‘ 4 : ‘ ; a a v * ri / > : . 7 yy : te a ba! a 2 t 7 i E ‘ ‘5 - iT ‘ » j / a ‘ i AWS i = 2 i ‘. ar: . 7 . ta Val a t 724 NES a 7 ‘@ f iy —s f ip " iv a - i 7 ’ te ‘ : lu _ i‘ ‘ : : aa aa © 4 ODP: Pe a INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Abies pindrow 559 Abroma augusta 612 _Abroscopus schisticeps 669 577, 578, 958 575, 577, 578 Acacia ws. aes mAcacia arabica ... ae _Acanthochitona 549 _Acanthopneuste peel 586 Acanthopterygii ee 709 Acanthoptila nipalJensis... 658, 659, 668 Becipiternisus ... 0... «. 592, 841 =— nisosimilis 478 | Acer sp. 559 f Aceros Madalanae fconcret 482 Acinonyx jubatus 866, 867 — rex 641 | Aconitum eeropayinacl 614 ‘Acoruscalamus ... 613 | Acridotheres Anaiteaee 587 tristis 587 _Acrocephalus dumetorum 586 |Acrossochilus hexagonolepis ... 606 | Actinodura egertoni khasiana 499 | -—— nipalensis ... soe 068 —— -——— —- modem 475, 499 Aedes albopictus 875 Aegithaliscus concinnens 58] | manipurensis ... 508 Aegithina nigrolutea 582 ——--— tiphia 582 Aegypius monachus 945 Aeolis 557 Aerides x 959 “Aesculus indicus 559 Aethiopsar fuscus 587 Aethopyga dabryi 511 i dabryi oll -—— -— gouldiae gouldiae 51 —-—— —-—— isolata 510, 51d ———-— ignicauda ignicauda 510 jo —--— ipalensis ... : 669 _- ——koelzi ... 510 io Saturata_.,, mee oo = «988 Aethopyga saturata assamensis -—— Ssiparaja labecula Atropavo Agathia Ailurus fulgens Albizzia procera ... - Sp. : aoe -stipulata ... Sas ses Albula Alcedo atthis Alcippe -Alcippe eerancicep: parnie i- cauda ——- ——-——— castaneiceps ... cinereiceps manipurensls dubia mandellii nepalensis re nipalensis commoda ——--— fusca vinipectus austeni perstriata . Alcurus striatus a ate Alectoris graeca — ——— chukar Alsima reniforme Allium govanianum Alnus sp. Alticola roylei sis Amaurornis phoenicurus Amblypodia amantes Amherstia nobilis Ammania ... Ammi visnaga ee nes Amphipnous aoe bs ate Amphipoda Anabas Anacanthini Anas querquedula Anastomus oscitans Anchoviella spp. Ancilla Ancilla ampla Androsace sarmentosa 613, 952 662, 663 PAGE 510 510 917, 920 951 766 579 579 555 590 905, 506 502 502 503 503 582 503 e003 502, 503 502 exe §=— 083 662 685 562 559 560 993 886 911 597 615 759 709 759 709 949 478 760 553 553 5/0 Xxiv INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE PAGE Anemone obtusiloba ... 561, 562, 570 | Astur badius _... ae 592, 841 — Anguilla... a 586 ne ... foo |. AtheMe blewitti ... tie ice GOR Anomura ee “ae cae ua 09 -brama ... Ane “3 aeegees | Anopheles Ba Ae re soe) 5078 || AIS seis ee oa Bei 647, 865, 931 Anopheles culcifacies ... a .. 874 | Azadirachta indica ms a os 08S -~-— fluviatilis au i 874,878 | Babax ies : a ae ame 75 7/ ———- minimus = ae ... 874 | Babylonia snheta a ae ts eoe ——-—- philippinensis Sic .. o/f2 | agarius ... va so ee. ey eee stephensi _... Ps 2 6/4 |) -Baltia butleri® *... aa ve a2 7 OU —-subpictus ... ean wo. 979..|. eBalitora brucei t.. bes was > B08 Anthus hedgsoni “i ae .. 588 | Bambusicola fytchii ndpitusont AE Peat i's, —_——-- — hedeeoni bis 23. 460, | seam Te ae oe me .»- 462 a — yunnanensis w- . 490.1] ‘Bandicota «.. a Sas Si weoce Mee ——-~— richardi rufulus = a 588 | pearbus. ee ie ee ee —--——. roseatus ae are co, OOO. | zbarpUsS Hexavonoleste “30 he 3) os Antilope cervicapra aa ae: ae SOUS - (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis 607, 609 ACAPEAESE 101) cena ade on: 769 | —— = (Tor) khudree ... nae .3 i Om Apatura chevana sa Be .. 888 | ———-(——) mussullah ais a O08 Aplocheilus blochii «+ tee sas0 OUS2 1,5 - nigrofasciatus ... aA as OUg _—— —lineatus ... se .. 603 | —-——- (Tor) putitora ... At econ) OO a ak pera Se ie xe US =. Sarana " s.. ae = wee! OST Aplysia + ie fae PDO -titteya ... a sa aoe Ole Appias libythea libythés a sis-- 1083 =)tor ws ae ase « 633 Aquila heliaca «2... ae ... 841 |. Bariliusbola ... we wae, nant) once ete - imperialis We sid oad! | eBelone 2 ae oe Se ao fro - pipalensis Mae ee 592,842 | Berberis ... ae 490 ix .. ooG ——-— rapax .., ae aes ... 842 | Berberis aristata he he «ae Ole Arachnothera magna ... as .. 588 | Beta we a 4 Ls we OR —_— _—— — magna .. cat Dll) Betta pugnaxiee.. f oe .. 604. Arborophila rufogularis iutoriedia .. 480 | Betula alnoides ... 05 see -- 349 ——_——---— torqueola ey en Sp. ae ae be -. OGM ——_——---—- ——-———- interstincta ... 480 utilis soe see . Sag Oh A ee -— torquecla 480, 659 | Bibos banteng piantcns Ss .. * OGg Architectonica ... aes ae v.55] | | === Saurus ** ee ... 865, 933, 935 Ardeola grayi... ney > 2503 | (Blythipicus pyrhotise.... 65 nl oe Argya caudata «-« — hs eT ISRO -—— ————— pyrrhotis .» 4éame malcolmi ... Bs ae .- 9382 | Bombax> ... “ oe ase 511, 574 | Argynnis ...00 + is ve ... §87 | Bombax aeaniceen nanan ey Argyreia ... : 2a ae ... $96 | Borassus flabelliformis aun as Oe Arisaema A aerate i ron 570 Bos frontalis 500 es nae eae 618 | Arisaema speciosum ... a8 ss. , O12, | #=—= Saurus vee nee .. 63%) Arius — 4. ae a .. 757 | Boselaphus ee oearmelns a 865, 931 | Armandia lidder dalei 3 ee ... 886 | Brachypternus bengaiensis ... ge | Armina (Pleurophyliidia) on w» 558 | Brassica Sp. 050 ae we ... Ob Artamus fuscus ... tet fe c.. O85 | pitbalustoubalis.... Mes ee 634, 865 | Artemisia absinthium ... ae ... 613 | Bubo bubo bengalensis ms .. Some SET areal es Be 617 | Bubuleus ibis: 4 oe oe 478, 593 | —- vulgaris hee ve .. 613 | Budorcas taxicolor & Ma 634, 805 > Artocarpus integrifolia i" .. 575 | Bufo melanostictus we se OF Asteracantha longifolia ave 684) Bulla eee “ies ae wee .. Soe Asteroidea ds tise a ... 709 | Bullia me 5a Mee ie | ae INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Bursa granularis 556 -Bursatella (Notarchus) 557 Cacomantis merulinus ... 590 Calandrella brachydactyla 588 Caldesia parnassifolia ... ro G8 reniforme 685, 686 Callichrous 450 Calliostoma ‘ 550 Caltha palustris ... ase bo HoZ Calyptraea (Crucibulum) antiee rium 555 Camellia thea 379 Cancellaria 553 Cancroidea 709 Canis pallipes 768 Cannabis sativa ... vil 613 Capra falconeri eee nainensis 865 — falconeri 865 _——- — jerdoni 865 hircus blythii aarti SOS siberica 563, 855 Capricornis Pemetiacre 563, 634, 865 Caprimulgus asiaticus ... ieee OGL indicus 591, 670 ——_———- ——. macroourus : 591 —--ambiguus... 482 Caranx spp. 757 Carassius auratus 604 carassius 599 Cardamine macrophylla 570 Carduelis spinoides heinrichi 512 -—— —-—-— monguilloti 512 -- —---——— spinoides soe [ioTe Catabrosa thomsoni 818, 819 Careya arborea 649 Cassia 958 Cassa renigera ... a 911 Casuarina equesetifolia wes 2), O09 Catla catla 596, 754 Catopsilia crocale 683 ——--—— florella 887 ——-—. pomona 886 — -pyranthe 857 Catreus eis 918 Catreus wallichii 659 Cavolina es 597 Cedrelatoona ... see BA de cd 0G Cedrus deodara ... 559 Centropus sinersis 590 Cephalandra indica se v. O42 Cephalopoda es ei Foiw oo 709 Cerchneis tinnunculus ... Ceriornis Cerithidea Cerithidea aeorathiies)) Cerithium ‘ Certhia discolor ... --———- manipurensis .Cervus duvauceli - hanglu ‘ —-— kashmiriensis .,. ———. leschenaulti - rusa oe - unicolor niger ... - wallichii Ceryle rudis Cethosia Cettia duvelvacen: mieeendea wai —— -- —————-— flavolivacea —— ————— jntricata — —- —— weberi montana fortipes Chaerophyllum villosum Chaetoceras Chaimarrornis ledeocemiala ——— leucocephalus ... Chalcophaps indica indica Chanos chanos ... ate Chaptia aenea Charadrius dubius -— ——— curonicus = Charaxes ... Charronia Aenea Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum Chettusia leucura Chibia hottentotta Chilades laius laius Chilasa agestor Chirocentrus dorab ——«1 = Chloropsis At Chloropsis hardwickii ... Ree —— —-—— hardwickii ee —— jerdoni Chondropteryegii Choriotis nigriceps Chrysanthemum Chrysanthemum Groractonuni Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus Chrysomma sinensis Chrysophlegma flavinucha Cimicifuga foetida Cinchona XXV PAGE 591 919 554, 556 556 554 668 509 767 563 865 767 648 767 766, 767 590 951 506 506 506 506 506 559 sly 583 655 481 593 586 665 480 890 562 085 947 586 683 888, 890 737 905 982 487 582 709 905 612 612 589 582 589 613 Bll XXVi PAGE Cinculus pallasii 489, 583 Cinnamomum camphora 613 Cinnyris asiatica 588 —— zeylonica 588 Cirrhina cirrhosa 754 — mrigala 596, 754 Cirripedia 709 Cirrochroa aoris aoris ... 952 Cissa chinensis 581 Cisticola juncidis 586 Clamator coromandus 990 ———— jacobinus 590 Clarius 755 Clypeaster Brendale: aie 715 Clypidina notata 550 Cnidaria 709 Cocos nucifera 575 Colchicum autumnale .... 614 -———— luteum oe e614 Colpodium 795 Columba livia 592 ————— leuconota 570 ——_—— ————— leuconota 659 ———— pulchricollis 481 ————-—- punicea 48] Commiphora mukul 958 Conus 553 Copsychus eeetatié 584 Coptis coinensia 615 —-—- teeta 614 Coracias bengalensis 590 Coracina fimbriata melaschista 407 Coragyps atratus i 930 Corvus splendens .. 081, 939, 940 macrorhynchos... 581 Corydalis cachemiriana 570 —-— diphylla 560 — govaniana 562 Coscinodiscus 516, 517 Cotoneaster ass 559 Coturnix coromandelica 592 Crataegus 559 Creseis 557 Crocopus phosnibontene 592 Crossoptilon 918 Crotellaria ies 579 Crypsirhina formosae AVS eASiE at ESS Cryptomerias x 579 Cuculus canorus .. 589, 658, 945 —_——— ——-— bakeri 658 ———— micropterus 590 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Cuculus optatus 590 — poliocephalus 568, 590 —-~ sparveroides sparveroides 481 Cucumis hystrix ... 896, 891 — muriculatus 896, 901 — prophetarunm ... 896, 897 — Culex fatigans 874 ant 875 Culicicapa ceylonensis 584 Be as — calcane S€a agaa ts O08 Cuon dukhunensis 768, 866 Curcuma longa 613 Curetis 891 Cutia nipalensis . 582 —— nipalensis 498 Cyanosylviasuecica ... 983 Cybium 757 Cyclea peltata 920 Cymatium aor aie a 556 Cymbopogon nardus 613 Cynoglossus semifaciatus 757 Cyornis hyperythra 668 tickelliae 584 Cypraea 556 Cypraea moneta sis- 556 Cyprinus carpio “0 599, 607 — ——--—. (var. communis)... 599 —_— ———— (var. nudus) 600 ——_> += ar. speculanis)<-- 508 Cypsilurus spp. 757 Cypsiurus batassiensis 991 Dalbergia latifolia ww. 649 Danais ees oc. |) SGBe Danais aspasia aes 589, 890 —-— chrysippus aes 888, 889 ——— tytia 888 Deilephila nerii 951 Delias 881, 95] Delichon nipsledeie 587 Delphinium 612, 613 Dendrobium ee 95g Dendrocitta formosae ... 581. — —-——. vagabunda 581, 942 Dendrocopos 484 Dendrodoris? 557 Derris 612 Derris elliptica 612 Derris sp. ee 613 Dicaeum agile ... £88 ——_—. —— agile 510 ; —_—_—_—_——— deignani ceo OO 510 | INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Dicaeum concolor olivaceum ... 509 ——— chrysorrheum intensum 509 ———— erythrorhynchum 588 ———_-.— finschii one 510 ———ignipectum ... e 669 ———-— ignipectus oe necads 509 ———— modestum modestum 610 ———— remotum 510 Dicerorhinus sumatrensis 860 Dicrurus aeneus aeneus 512 —+-—— coerulescens ... 585 ———— leucophaeus ... 2s #550985 ———-— macrocercus ... .. 012, 585, 664 ———— --———- -— cathoecus 512 ——_—_—— paradiseus 513 Diodora 550 Dioscorea sf, + 614 Dipterocarpus grandiflorus 618 — -— macrocarpus 633 Dissemurus paradiseus 941 Doris 557 Dorosoma 757 Dremomys av5 ee 476 Dryobates cathpharius 589 --— darjellensis 589 ——--— macei 589 ——---—— mahrattensis 589 --—— Nanus semicoronatus 589 Dryonastes caerulatus ... 581 -—— ruficollis 581 Duboisia myoporides _... 617 Ducula badia griseicapilla 480 Dussumieria 757 Dussumieria acuta 760 —- ~ haseltii 519 Echinodorus ranunculoides 685 Echinoidea 709 Eglisia eae aol Eeretta garzetta yaa § "yr 09 Elachura haplonota 492,514 Elanus coeruleus oe ga OO Elephas maximus indicus 864 Eleutheronema 755 Elodea canadensis 687 Emarginula 550 Emberiza pusilla oe | ——-—— spodocephala sordias 512 —— stewarti 587 Enicurus maculatus 583 — -— RE 490 Engraulis Poe 8 ere 757 Ephedra Epitonium Equus kiang onager indicus Eragrostis Erebia shallada Hremopoa Eriboea ... tes Eriboea arja — -—- dolon Erithacus calliope paitone ——_———- chrysaeus chrysaeus —- cyanurus rufilata ———— indicus indicus Etroplus Etroplus Macular us suratensis Eucalyptus globulus Euchelus ° ae Eudynamis scolopaceus Eugina Eulima Eumyias ERAlecsine Eunaticina Euphorbia ves Euphorbia antiquorum -—— khandalensis ——-——- ligularia a neriifolia —— sp. Euploea Eupodotis Sawatdei Euripus consimilis —~—_—— halitherses cinnamoneus Eurystomus orientalis Euthalia Euthynnus Eutropiichthys ,.. Excoecaria agallocha Fagopyrum esculentum... Fagopyrum tartaricum Falco jugger ais eee i ——- peregrinus peregrinator ——- severus ——- subbuteo ? i ——- tinnunculus interstinctus Fasciolaria Felis caracal —— rubiginosa Ficus XXVii PAGE 614 Sou 866 865 787 560 787 890 952 888, 890 489 489 489 489 Za 597 597, 609 613 550 590, 943 952, 553 556 584 5o0 958 612 958 958 958 613 951 905 890 891 891 590 893 yy) 755 612 612 612 591 670 670 568, 591 478 Sol 866 768 956, 576 XXViii Ficus bengalensis -——- religiosa Fragaria vesca Fragillaria ie Francolinus pondicerianus Franklinia gracilis Fritillaria roylei ... Fusinus Gagea lutea Galloperdix Galloperdix lunulata spadicea Gallus gallus murghi — — lafayetti ... -~——— sonnerati Gambusia affinis Gampsorhynchus rufulus vanaiie Garulax Garrulax Bineealans ——-—— austen: austeni ——-— caerulatus caerulatus —_—~- -— ——_ -— kaurensis —_—-—— ——-— livingstoni —_———-— —-—— subcaerulatus ———-— cineraceous cineraceous ee re ee ——-— erythrocephalum godwini ... ——--— galbanus ... cae 470, —— -— gularis delesserti gularis ——— -— Jeucolophus hardwickii —-— patkaicus nO niliger ———-— pectoralis _—_ dropeoiats ———-— ruficollis : ———-— rufogularis assamensis ———-— sannio albo-superciliaris Garrulus glandarius azureitinctus ———-- —-—-—-— interstinctus -—-— persaturatus er ee ee Gastropoda Gazeila bennetti... - gazella bennetti ——— picticaudata ——-— Sugutturosa typica Gecinulus grantia Gennaeus leucomelanus ———-— melanotus Gentiana argentea — lutea Geokichla citrina... INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE 575 575 560 SVE 593 cies heeieis tae OO 551 ie OU 661, 995 aT OOe 661, 662 ie 1 O50 €38 638 603 499 668 581 498 497 497 497 497 495 498 477, 496 496 496 496 496 581 | AOTAS BA tags 495, 497 496 497 513 513 513 709 865 768 868 865 1589 659, 670 592 560 614 584 PAGE Gerbera lanuginosa 564 Glaucidium brodiei ay 591 ——— — brodiei 482 ———~ -—— cuculoides ... 514, 591 ——- ——-—— --— austerum 482 - -—— radiatum 591 Gliricidia maculata 911 Glycyrrhiza glabra A 617 Gracupica burmanica 587 --— nigricollis 587 Grammatoptila striata ... 981 Graphium doson eleius 6837 | -——~ nomius nomius 683 Gymnocorymbus ternetzi 604 Gynostemma burmanica 900 Gypaetus barbatus 5927 | Gyps himalayensis oD Be ——~ indicus # 591] Gypsophila ceratioides ... 560, 564 | Haematospiza sipahi 587 Halcyon smyrnensis 599 Haliaetus leucoryphus ... 502 Haliastur indus 592 | Haliotes varia 550 | Haltica cyanea 95 7) Harpa 553 | Harpactes erythfocepHaive SOT 2S --——~=—— erythroce- phalus 482 | Harpodon nehereus 756 | Helarctos malayanus 866 Heliophorus androcles ... 560 | bakeri 560 | — oda 560, 889 Hemerocallis fulva 561 | Hemichelidon ferruginea 584 — ——— Sibirica ... 584 | Hemichromis bimaculatus 605 | Hemidesmus indicus 614 | Hemifusus 551 Hemifusus Piesede eepiatie 487, 585 Hemirhamphus , 7o8 Hemitragus hylocrius ... 865 -—— jemlahicus 563, 865 Herecleum sf. 617 Herpestes griseus 648 Hervia 557, 908 | Heterophasia aie 503, 5057 | - pulchella 503 -——_- ——_ — --———. coeruleotincta 504 Si ee pulenella 504 Heteropnestes Heteroxenicus cruralis Hierococcyx fugax nisicolor ... wee sparverioides —_—_—-—. varius Hilsa Hilsa ilisha Hippolais rama... ———— scita Hipponyx i Hirundapus canaeoutes Hirundo daurica _——-—— rustica bd ——-—— striolata reer eats Holarrhena antidysenterica Holigarna es Holigarna sp... Holothuroidea Homochlamys fortipes Eoreites brunnifrons ... Hydnocarpus sp. Hydrilla Hydrilla venticillata -Hydrophasianus chirurgus Hyelaphus porcinus Hyena striata Hypacanthis spinoides Hyphessobrycon fammeus Hypolimnas misippus Hypothymis azurea Hystrix leucura —-— malabarica _——-— malabaricus -Ianthocincla rufogularis Ianthia cyanura Ichthyophaga ichtliy aétlis Impatiens sp. Indicator xanthonotus fulvus Indigofera Indigofera dosua Inula racemosa —-— royleana Ipecacuanha Tris milesii ? —- nepalensis ? —- Sp. Isopoda Ithaginis Ixos flavala —— macclellandi Ixulus flavicollis INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE 614, .. 886, 888, 562, 799 583 658 590 590 757 595 586 586 555 591 588 588 485 615 612 612 709 586 586 614 | 6386 687 917 865 866 669 605 8389 585 937 937 937 581 583 592 bog 483 559 579 617 614 617 570 561 617 709 905 583 583 582 | Iynx torquilla Janthina Juglans regia Jussiaea Kallima fe Kallima inachus Ketupa zeylonensis Kitta chinensis chinensis - erythrorhyncha Kowala coval ~__—- - thoracata ae ods Labeo calbasu , fimbriatus te aa rohita 596, Lactarius Lactarius lactarius Lalage melaschista Lamellibranchiata Lamium album .. Lanius collurioides — — cristatus ——— excubitor ——— nigriceps schach caniceps ——- ———— erythronotus ———- ——-— tephronotus ——- vittatus Larus argentatus fuscus Larvivora brunnea Lates calcarifer ses Latimeria chalumnae .. Sie ? Laureaceae ee vee Lavandula officinalis Lebistes reticulatus Leiegnathus spp. Leioptila capistrata Leiothrix argentauris aioe _—— ————— vernayi -—_—-—— lutea Leptoneurae Lepus nigricollis Lethe Lethrinus Leucocirea albicollis — aureola... Limenitis procris Limnaetops nipalensis ... Limnocnida indica pre Sie Liphyra brassolis Litsaea polyantha XXix PAGE 989 955 559, 614 ... 956, 957, 958 886 886 591 513 513 760 feet POT 596, 754 . 754 605, 607, 754 757 757 585 709 959 585 585 585 585 666, 667 585 585 585 646 646 583 755 641 576 617 604, 608 757 982 498 .. 498 582, 668 #62 9495 649, 932 888 757 585 585 893 592 955, 956 892 953 REX PAGE Littorina 554 Lobivanellus ingieue 593 Locusta migratoria 734 Lonchura punctulata subundulata 512 ——-—-— striata acuticauda ... 512 Lophophorus 5a0 918 Lophophorus impejanus 659 Lophura es a we SQ18 Lophura ieieumelena lathagni 479 ee moffiti 479 Loranthus spp. a 951 Ludwigia e .. 956, 957,958 Ludwigia parviflora ae fF, Obi Luffa .. 894, 895, 896 Luffa amara (?) 896 Lupinus ws 612 Macaca radiata ... 637 Machlolophus xanthogenys OE Macropodus opercularis 605 Macropygia unchall 592 -—— ———- tusalia 481 Macrura ... See aie oa 709 Madreporaria 709 Malacocincla sepiaria Bebe i2.- 1982 Mangifera indica aes 542, 575 Marmota caudata 767 Martes foina - 662 Mastacembalus 755 Mazus rugosus wh 56] Meandrusa payeni “dc “C6 886 Medicago ae oy: ee 612 Megalaima asiatica Qin ek Maken seo ————— ——— asiatica 483 ——— —— franklinii ; 589 ——— _— — franklinii 483 ————-— haemacephala ... See hey) ——-——_—— lineatus 589 -— virens 589 ——_—__-—_—- —-——. magnifica 483 ~-——. zeylanicus ee fy > 9089 Melanitisleda .... sas ase 234019007 Melanochlora sultanea 581 ai ——~-— sultanea 508 Melia aes 577 Melogale pomonate ane ose 768 Melothria angulata 899, 900 ———--—. assamica : 897 ——-—— — var. scabra 898 ee heterophylla 899 ~—-—-—— heterophyllae 899 ——- ritchiei ds Aas -. 898 INDEX OF SPECIES PaGE Melothria zeylanicae 898, 899 Melothriae maderaspatanae 897 Melursus ursinus 866 Mentha piperita An 617 Merops orientalis jae Hs 590 -— superciliosus ... aon 590 Mesia argentauris 582 Microcerotermes heimi ... 955 Microcichla scouleri : 583 Micropternus brachyurus phaioceps... 484 Micropus affinis 591 Microscelis flavala flavala 489 = — madagascariensis nigrescens .. — 489 ————— meclellandi eeocieitanal ...) 489m ———-—-—. psaroides 583 — Minla ignotincta ... 582 | Minolia es S39 550 Mirafra assamica microptera ... 588 ——-— erythroptera 588 | Mitra ee 552 Mixornis gularis ... 582 | Mollienisia sphenops 605 Molpastes cafer 583 © — -— leucogenys 583 | Momordica 897 | Monticola Ancnismnenene etiees s. «= OBA ——-——— rufiventris .. 490, 568, 584 | ————— solitaria 584 | Moringa pterygosperma 615 | Moschiola meminna -. _ SOaum Moschus moschiferus 563, 634, 659, 865 | Motacilla alba alboides... «.. ... - 485 | —_——-—— —~ dukhunensis 588 ———---— cinerea 588 ———--— ——-— caspica 948 | ie hal — citreola 485, 588 | ——-—-—— flava beema ... 588 | ——— + —-— thunbergi 588 | ——-—-— leucopsis ves . 588] Mrigal ; 608, 609 ) Mucuna sp. ee » 6927 Mugil corsula 598, 755. ——- seheli 515, 516, 518, 519 ——- spp. ; oie 519) ——- troschelii 515, 516, 517, 518, 519 ——- waigiensis 915, 516, 517, 518; 519) Muntiacus muntjac oe ra 648, 865 Murex 552) Murex tribulus aoe nee oe 1 Mus at os eee Tes 774, 775 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Muscadivora ACNEA ~~ oe ed re A Ue Muscicapa amabilis ... 5 10)/ —— hyperythra Aepenytara wea O07 —_—-—— parva albicilla We O04 ————. sapphira... oat a Ou -—_____. solitaris leucops ... Son UE —_—_—_-———- strophiata strophiata seameetis) UV —___——_ thalassina thalassina ie COOL ——_——— westermanni Mes oe Ole — ——- —_— iornimentis 507 Muscicapula melanoleuca as ene) KOBE Muscisylvia leucura ate OR Oi Rae Mycalesis ee ae Sie meteleks, Myiomela leucura lewcura es fre 490 Mylothris ede at a aur cool Myophonus caeruleus”... ... Seg, Oe Myosotis sylvatica «ws ws, te «570 Mystus.... see, hess i isis) Naemorheditis goral sie St; ee 7/518) Nassa at bss oS ah Bay OOO Navicula ... sp = teeter ae a OS) US Memorhacdtis ... .. + = 1634 -Nemorhaedts goral Bet) Secs 563, 865 -- CLISCHS em wen ss geese SOD - - s hodgsoni-, © .:: Ree clo, Neofelis nebulosa ne Soe eas tet BOO - Neoluffa we iestt 3 Ger Oud, OLD Neoluffa sikkimensis... seat, fe OOD, SOL - Néophron percnopterus ar oo OO | Nepeta sp. re Mes see ec) OLY ' Nephelium litchi ” ia et cei) | OFS | Neptis Bish ee Sy see es 888 MWereis dumerilii ---" 000°" 0 928 - Nerita SRE Len Ouse ame scney 8). DOL | Neritina ROU iota AN. oss. Mosse © OOL - Nesokia i Rte Peciee a7 46 (05 Netta rufina ... ete a; 2 003 _ Neuracanthus sphcroctaciw us Sen DAO) Nicotiana oe Bate re Pine G10 ' Niltava grandis ee bee 584, 668 | —— - macgrigoriae '...907, 585, 669 —-——— sundara aes sc 584, 668 Nitzschia a2 ast Le 516, 517 _Notopterus chitala ie ie et 155 ——— notopterus ... aes sae, OL I9 Numenius phaeopus ... is “ae SOUS ——————— variegatus “es O03 Nyctiornis athertoni athertoni ton 482 Ocypodoidea ae ie se 09 Gnopopelia Pe ngUsbaricn ae ae 2092 Oliva eee oS oe seo | COS Onchidium Ophicephalus ... ae 260082; O883°/50 Ophicephalus gachua ... —————— marulius ——————. spp. ————_—-— striatus ... Ophichthys Ophiomusa lymani Ophiopogon intermedius Ophiura irrorata Ophiuroidea as Ophrysia superciliosa ... Orcella fluminalis Ocimum sp. bh Oreocincla mollissima... Oriolus oriolus kundoo — ———- traillii traillii ———- xanthornus Orthotomus ctcullatus Soronetie —- sutorius ————— - ———- luteus —————- ———- patia Oryzias melastigma Oscillotaria eae Osphronemus goramy .. Otocompsa emeria jocosus Otus bakkamoena ——- scops sunia Ovis ammon - odasonie - poli eee — ee — argali —— hodgsoni dab —— vignei punjabiensis vignei aaa Oxyrrhyncha Oxystoma Pachyneurae Palaemon Palaemon carcinus Pales townsendi Pangasius Panolia eldi eldi —-—--—--thamin ... a Panthalops hodgsoni ... aoe Pantoporia Panthera leo persica pardus ——-—tigris ... KXxXi PAGE 558 605 598, 682 598 682 681 716 561 716 709 904 773 613 584 587 587 583 587, 666 506 aso 506 «. 906 ~ 598, 607 Cee 603, 605 517 ~ 488 583 591 482 653 . 865 865 . 766 766 365 865 709 709 795 755 755 935, 954 755 865 865 866 888 866 647, 886 866 Sxxii PAGE | Paphia 555 Papilio oe 893 | Papilio arcturus ... 886 - buddha 886 = = crino 886 ——_—-- demoleus demoleus 683 ——-- krishna 886 . - paris 886 - polyctor 886 - - polytes romulus eee 683, 889 Paradoxornis flavirostris guttaticollis 495 | —- poliotis poliotis... 495 -ruficeps bakeri 495 Paranassius 893 Parnassius acco ... 891 — charltonius 891 —__—_—_—_—_— delphius 891 -—— ephaphus 891 —_—— simo 891 ——— stoliczkanus 891 —_—__.—_ —_- —_—_-- spitiensis 891 Parochetus communis 561 Parthenos sylvia virens 836 Parus major 981 - modestus odes 508 ——- monticolus .. 505, 508, 581 - xanthogenys spilonotus 508 Passer domesticus : 587 ——— flaveolus 587 ——— montanus 512, 587 ——— —-—-—--hepaticus... eee Oe ——— rutilans lisarum 512 Pastor roseus 740 Patanga succincta ie see pet FOL Patella 550 Patella nimbus 550 —-— reynaudi 550 ——— variabilis 550 Pavo cristatus 992 Peganum harmala 613, 614 Pelecanus occidentalis occidentalis ... 682 Pellona eee 757 Pellorneum alpientre Hearne 491 - —- ruficeps 498, 513, 514, 582 —- —- chamelum 491] Pericallia ricini 94] Pericrocotus Pecirecris 486, 585 ———-—— ethologus 487 oe a oe ANNAMENSIS.<: | eOO ———_—___-- ——-———- cryptus 486, 487 es —_—- —- laetus... 486, 487 INDEX OF SPECIES | Picumnus 505 | Pack Pericrocotus ethologus mariae 486, 487 --- flammeus $13, 585 + ——-- ——-—-— elegans 486 —-————-- peregrinus one 585 ——_————--- roseus rosets 487 ——-- solaris solaris 487 Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis 478 Phizosolenia ae 516 Phoenicurus ochrurus ... 945 ——-- frontalis frontalis 490 ——-—-—-- hodgsoni ... 489 | ——-- ochrurus ... 583 Phoenix sylvestris 575 Phyllanthus urinaria 614 Phylloscopus humii 586 a inornatus inornatus 505 ——— -~—_—- ———— mandellii 505 —_—_~———-—_ maculipennis 586 — ———_ —- —_ -— maculipen- nis cee 5053 —_ —_ peceeeaee 586 ———_— — — chloronotus 505 a newtoni 505 —— ———— pulcher pulcher 905 ————--—— reguloides assamensis... 505 Physostomi aie 709 Phytometra orichalcea 953 Picea morinda 559 Picoides 484 Picoides atratus ... : 485 - canicapillus canicapillus 485 ———- cathpharius pyrrhothorax 484 -—— -— darjellensis darjellensis 484 —-—_ ——_——— fumidus 484 — —~—--— hyperythrus pare 484 ——-— macei ie eat 485 _ ——-— —--—— macei 484, 485 — Picrasm2 ... : 612 | Picrorhiza kurrooa 614 | Picumnus ianominatas malayoran » 48a Picus canus .. 589 | —- chlorolophus 589, 670 ——- flavinucha 941 ‘—-— vittatus 589 | Pieris callidice 89] | —-— chloridice ... 891 —-— deota ace 891 —-— krueperi 891 | Pila a 5955 Pinus excelsa 660 INDEX OF SPECIES xls: PAGE ‘Pinus longifolia ... 508 Pitta brachyura 588 ta—-nipalensis ... 669 sPianazis ... a 554 -Platypoecilus Paeula ate ean 605 ‘Plectognathi. 709 Pleurosigma 516, 517 ‘Ploceus atrigula .. F 587 - obilippints 587, 657, 669 ‘Pnoepyga albiventer albiv enter 492 ——-——- albiventris 583 ——-—— pusilla pusilla 492 Poa ... 787, 788, 789, 790, 791, 793, 795, 796, 797, 799, 820 Poa aitchisonii 793, 796, 803, 810, 814, 816, 835 —-_- alpigena 791, 804, 811, 813 —-- alpina 792, 793, 795, 796, 798, 800, 802, 805, 808 —-- amoena 805, 816 —-- augustifolia 793, 796, 804, 813 788, 789, 790, 791, 798, 800, 803: 815, 819, 821, 823, 824, 826, 836 spp. exilis ... ies 818 —-- —-—-— var. nepalensis 789, 819, 820, 821 var. sikkimensis 789, 824 —-- annua ee ee —-- araratica 790, 791, 792, 783, 804, 814 —— asperifolia ... .. 793, 804, 809 ——— bactriana 793, 796, 802, 805, 807 793, 796, 800, 801, 802, 805, 808 . 798, 805, 808 —— bulbosa —— burmanica ... -—— calliopsis .. 795, 797, 805, 812 —— compressa 790, 791, 792, 800, 802, 804, * 811, 816 —-— eleanorae .. 805, 808, 813 — exilis : 818 —— falconeri 799, 804, 809 —— gamblei e . 796, 805, 810 | —— gammieana aoe 793, 805, 809, 810 | —— glabriflora ... 794, 796, 802, 805, 807 —— himalayana 792, 794, 803, 814, 828, 830, 831, 832 | ——hirtiglumis ... 792, 796, 798, 805, 808 ——infirma 789, 794, 798, 799, 800, 803, 815 816, 819, 824 ——— jaunsarensis .. 792, 804, 813 -=~—khasiana 792, 793, 803, 811, 814, 815, Be 830, 831 s— koelzii 790, 795, 805, 819 3 i RT AD xXxill PAGE Poa lahulensis 792, 796, 804, 810 ——litwinowiana 790, 795, 804, 813, 815 —-~ ludens 799, 805, 808 ——nemoralis 788, 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 800, 803, 811, 832, 833 —— —— Ua MAtA iis tes 08 —— nepalensis 789, 793, 798, 803, 810, 811, 819, 820 —— nephelophila 793, 798, 803, 821 —-— nephilophila 798, 811 —— nitide-spiculata 804, 809 —— pagophila 792, 796, 799, 804, 809, 810, 835 —-— palustris 793, 795, 798, 799, 804, 800, 812 —— persica 787 —-— phariana 805, 812 —— polycolea 792, 799, 803, 808, 809, 810, 834, 836 —— poophagorum 796, 805, 816 —— pratensis 790, 791, 793, 795, 796, 800, 802, 804, 813 —-— remotiflora 818 —— rhadina ate 805, 813 —— royleana a asa HOeS ——setulosa ... 795, 803, 813, 837 ——-— sikkimensis 789, 803, 815, 821, 824 —— sinaica 793, 802, 895, 897 —— stapfiana 799, 803, 810 826, 827 — —_——. var. micranthera 827 — —-—— var. microtheca 799 —— Sterilis... 790, 791, 793, 795, 796, 797, 800, 804, 811, 814, 815, 834 — —— araratica ae oo. 780 —— stewartiana 792, 794, 803, 811, 829 —~ supina 789, 798, 800, 803, 815, 819, 822, 823, 824 —-~ tibetica . 790, 793, 796, 800, 803, 805, 810, 816 —- tibdeticola fener soS —- tremula as 799, 826 —- —-— var. micranthera . W oee —- trivialis 791, 792, 793, 804, 811, 812 —~ ——— f. glabra 2409 SLY —- wardiana 796, 797, 803, 815, 832 Podiceps cristatus cristatus 664 Podophyllum 614 Poephagus grunniens 866 Pogostemon heyneanus OES Polydorus hector see taz 889 Polygonatum cirrifolium 561 Broly SONUM SPs 4 150th oiypco ase ot pare DOO INDEX OF SPECIES XXXIV PAGE | Polynemus ARS ny ee 755 Polyommatus jee See 891 Polyommatus eros ats tee riyate tote Polyplectron bicalcaratum ... 479, 480 Pomatorhinus erythrogenys ... 491, 582 | —- — . mcclel- | landi 491 ed ochraceiceps austeni... 491 ———_——— ruficollis bakeri 491 Populus ciliata... a eet 559 Porifera 709 Prangos pabilatia 617 Primula denticulata 560, 562 -— involucrata 570 ——--— macrophylla 570 ——--— rosea 570 Prinia atrogularis eiesiene tee 506 ——- gracilis e 586 ——- hodgsoni rufula ... 506 ——- inornata 586 ——- rufescens Pareecene 506 | ——-socialis ... aes 586 | ——- sylvatica ... ae ose 586 Prothoe calydonia 2 OG — franckii regalis... Pig SBN) Protozoa ... es are oe sore 708) Prunella ive Miata 584 Psarisomus dalhousiae ary 588 — —— dalhousiae 485 Pseudogyps bengalensis ok Pseudois nahoor 563, 865 Psilorhynchus 880, 883, 884 Psilorhynchus balitora ... 880, 883, 884 —————-——- homaloptera. ... 880, 883 ———— sucatio 880, 881, 882, 833, 884 Psittacula alexandri fasciata .. 481 ——-—— cyanocephala ok 590 ———_-— eupatria oes 590 himalayana finschi 48] -—— krameri 590 Ptorocarpus indicus... boi esone coll Pterophyilum scalare 604 Pteruthius erythropterus 582 ———— erythrop- terus 499 : validirostris... 499 —— — melanotis melanotis eo «499 —— rufiventer rufiventer 499 Pucrasia 919 Pucrasia macrolophA 919 eo ine Hethelae ME OK) | PAGE Pucrasia macrolopha biddulphi ... 919 — --——nipalensis 658, 659 Puerulus sewelli A .- die Pycnonotus aurigaster ai: Ole — —-—— cafer 514 ———— -— —-— stanfordi 488° ————--— flavescens flavescens - 488 | -— flaviventris flaviventris ... 488) ——-—-— jocosus 4a; 514 ——-— ——-— monticola ». 488 — luteolus 583 | -——- striatus arctus 488 Pyrene Dog) | Pyrrhocorax erate 570 Quercus kes 612 | Quercus dilatata 559 | —-- semecarpifolia 559 Ramphalcyon capensis Rana tigrina 679 Ranunculus and 562 Ranunculus hirtellus ... a 560, 561 | Rapana . Sogmt Rasbora heniconius 605, 857 | -- heteromorpha ... 33 «. ~ GORE Rastrelliger ; 764 756, | Rastrelliger kanagurta 7A4 ; Rattus 5 ie a we -. «6° 7 Ratufa FE 472 | Ratufa gigantea 768 - indica me ; - 473 —_——- bengalensis 471, 472, 473 | ———-- centralis 470, 471, 472, 473 | —— dealbata 470, 473 | —_———- elphinstonei 470, 473 | = indica... 469, 470, 471, 473 ——- maxima .. 471, 472, 473 | - superans... 471 — Rauwolfia serpentina 614, 615 | Recurvirostra avosetta G47 Rhamnus 559 | Rheum sp. ne . GLa Rhinoceros sondaicus 634, 864 | —— sumatrensis 634, 865 | ———-— wnicornis 864 — Rhinoptilus bitorquatus 905 — Rhipidura albicollis ... aes 669 —_ -—_ —----—— _albicollis 508 -—— hypoxantha 508 Rhizophora mucronata ~ oi ... Goa Rhododendron campanulata .. osome ———-———- campunulatum . 568) | INDEX OF SPECIES | XEXV PAGE PAGE Rhododendron sf. Eee 614 | Schima wallichii - - 612 Rhodonessa caryophyllacea ... 903 | Schistocerca gregaria ... tenet not Rhodophilaferrea. ... «. 583 | Schizopepon wardii _ ,... 900, 901 Rhopodytes tristis .. 590, 670 | Schizopeponi macrantho .. _...900 SS - -—-- satiens 482 | —— —— macrathus 901 Se er LFISTIS «: 482 | Scomber microlepidotus. _. _764 Rhus ae 612 Scutus Nee Sis —-§50 Rhyacornis falieingen As t 583 Scyllarus orientalis... 75 —_—___ — ————-- fuliginosa 658 | Seicercus affinis 504 Rita . 755 | ————- burkii burkii 504 Reatollaria a 1 555, 716 | ——-——- castaniceps oe O04 Rostellaria columbaria ey 716 | ———- —-——— eacianiees 504, 505 ——-- delicatula 715 | ————- ———— nagaensis 505 Rotala e ee 957 | ————- poliogenys 505 Rousettus feccrenanlti 767 | ——-——- xanthoschistos ai 4) 586 Rucervus duvaucelii 634, 865 | ——-—-—-- — tephrodiras. 504 Rumex 612 | _——__——_- - — xanthochistos. 504 Rusa unicolor 634, 865 | Selenarctos thibetanus 562 Sagartia ee .. 554 | Semnopithecus dussumieri 767 Salicornia .. 870, 871, 872 | Senecio sp. F is 617 Salicornia brachiata 870, 871, 872, 873 | Serilophus iunatus Pebronyetce 485 — australis 870, 871, 872, 873 | Serranus 757 - Salmo fario 601 | Setipinna 755 frontinalis 601 | Shorea robusta =n S46 gairdnerii 601 | Silonia ered Ist levenensis a. O01 | sSinapis sp; 611 trutta fario .. 601 | Siphia hodgsonii 507 Salpa (Thalia) democratica 712 parva 584 Salvia lanata 564 | Sitta castanea 581 moorcroftiana 564 | —— europaea koelzi 509 Sp. 617 | —— ar 509 Santalum album .. 613 | —— frontalis As 581 Sarcogyps calvus ONL. Sa frontalis ves 509 Sardinella ise 757 | —— himalayensis = 667 Sardinella fimbriata . 757, 760, 763 | —— australis _... 508 ——- - gibbosa .. 760 | — -— himalayensis 509 ————-- longiceps 757,760 | Siva 501 ———-—- sirm 760 | Siva patent opens iu 668 Sasia ochracea soi «, O89 | ——cyanuroptera Prariiootera 501 ——~ querulivox 484 | Siva ignotincta ignotincta 500 —- ——-——- reichenowi ... 484 | —— strigula cinereigenae 500 - Sauromatum guttatum re 561, 959 | —— - simlaensis 500 Saussurea lappa 613,614) | —— strigula 500 Saxicola caprata .. §=6d583 | — — yunnanensis © 500 ——_——- ferrea ; 490 | Skimmia laureola 617 ———--- torquata ave oes 583 | Sorghum helepense 611 ——-- —— prezewalskii 490 —- vulgare 611 -- ———— stejnegeri .« 490 | Spelaeornis ; 493 Be colides fulicata aa 584 | Spelaeornis bideienlaris “433, 494 —-— fulicata fulicata ... 656 —- caudatus A 493, 494 Scaphopoda | sass aw cis 709 | —nemn= chocolatinus +s 492, 493, 494 REXVI a3 PAGE Spelaeornis chocolatinus choco- latinus .. 492, 493, 494 te tee Kinneari 494 wees er nagaensis . 492, 493, 494 —— —__ . —_—_— - oatesi 494 —_—-- reptatus 494 —__--—— - formosus 493, 494 ——__ ——- haplonotus 493, 494 ————-—- longicaudatus 493, 494 ——- troglodytoides 493 ‘Sphenocercus apicaudus 592 - sphenurus 670 Sphenurus sphenurus caneannee 480 Spilornis cheela 592 Spiraea canescens 559 ———— ~ sorbifolia Se}5) Spizactus ‘ 843 Spizixos canifrons 488 Sguilla investigatoris 714, 715 Stachyridopsis ruficeps 582 ——_——- rufifrons 582 Stachyris ~ & 505, 506 Stachyris chrysaea ahivenee ae 494 —- nigriceps 582 ———— ———— coltarti 494 —— ruficeps ruficeps 494 Stenobracon deesae 921 Stephania cepharantha 615 ————- sasakii 615 Sterna aurantia : ah) Stichopus S00 ee ane Spoil AY Stolephorus 757 Stomatopeda 790 Streptopelia chinensis 592 -—— — -—— edwardi 481 ———— ——__— —suratensis .. 481 —_—_—oOoOo edwardii 481 —_-——— -— tigrina re Mitel ———_-—— decaocta ; 592 ——~~— orientalis agricola 481 ——-—— senegalensis 592 ——- tranquebarica Lay epee oh 946 | Strix ocellata 591 Stromateus Set 757 Strombus ass oa ECS) Strophanthus Pombe oe eeb iy, Strychnos sf. dee aA re ww 614 Sturnia malabarica .... an Be¥/ Sturnus contra Bg) INDEX OF SPECIES Sturnus vulgaris 4% ti -- colednatecee Sturnopastor contra - Surniculus lugubris Suya atrogularis —— criniger Syrmaticus 30h eee Syrmaticus humiae hnmiae Taenioides rubicundus Tamarindus indicus ? Tamarisk gallica 578 Tamiops Ey A 476 Tanichthys nibenenes 604 Tapirus indicus ... 865, 932 Tatera indica 766 Tchitrea paradisi 585, 666 Tectona grandis 574 Teinopalpus imperialis 886 ‘Telescopium 50 556 Temenuchus pagodarum 587 Tephrodornis gularis 585 —- -— -———- pelvica 487 - - pondiceriana 585 — Tephrosia E12 Tephrosia candida Hi} 579 Se 614 Terebralia 556 Terias laeta cat 887 ——— venata 887 Tetraceros quadricornis 865 Tetrogallus himalayensis 570 Thais .. oom Thalassiothrix 516, 517 Thenus fod 757 Thevetia. : 944 Thevetia neTmIFone -- 945 Thlaspe alpestre 570 | Thrissocles spp. .. 7 76G Thymus serpyllum 560, 564 Tilapia 6(6 Tilapia sraegannirs 606 Tilia europea 559 Timailia pileata 582 -- bengalensis 495 Tinca tinca cae 599, 607 Tockus birostris ome 666 Tragia sp. aS sas 612 Tragopan blythi sing 18 ‘ 477 -— —-- blythi sae). | oa —-—— satyra ~aa. O88 Trichiurus es see PAGE - | «664 é 664 “ao eee _ 890 vv---— 588 ver -- 980 918 tee 0) BB «s 679 ee: ..575, 5/6, 577 ve ee 087 PAGE Trichodesma amplexicaule auctt 548 indicum 548 Trichodesmium ose 516, 518 Trichodesmium erythraeum 517, 519 Trichogaster leeri 605 pectoralis ee 606 Trichosanthes listeri 895, S01 -— palmata ae 945 - tomentosa ...894, 895, 901 Trigonella foenumgraecum 613 Trillium govanianum 560, 561 Tringa glareola ... 593 ——— ochropus 593 Trochalopteron ea rurocephalum 581 ——-—— phoeniceum 581 Trochus 550 Troglodytes te a TY) Troides ... eee cae -. 886 Trypauchen ie OF G Trypauchen vagina 679, 680 Tupaia belangeri 768 Turbo 551 Turboides ferricolor 581, 674 Turdus atrogularis - «=: O84 ——-— boulboul 984 ——-— dissimilis 490 ——- merula 584 ——~- - albocinctus 584 - obscurus 491 ruficollis 584 Turnix suscitator 593 - tanki blanfordi 480 Turritella 554 Turritella acutangula 554 Ulva sp. 557 Umbonium ae a ave 550 Uncia uncia ee Rae 563, 866 Upupa epops ie 590 Urocissa erythorhyncha 581 — flavirostris 581 Uroloncha malabarica ae 587 INDEX OF SPECIES Uroloncha punctulata --— Striata Uropeltis macrolepis Ursus arctos — isabellinus ——- torquatus Urtica Utricularia sp. Valeria oes sas Valeria valeria hippie ee - ——— philomela Valeriana wallichii Vanessa egea Verbascum thapsus Veronica serpyllifolia Viburnum foetens Viola biflora BG0 Votex negundo Vivia innominatus Wallagonia Wallagonia attu : Xiphophorus hellerii ... Ypthima vee Yuhina ... oon : Yuhina pastanitene conjuncta —- flavicollis baileyi - ——-— flavicollis - harterti : Yuhina flavicollis rouxi — gularis 38 —- ——— gularis — nigrimenta nigrimenta ~ zantholeuca zantholeuca Zanthoxylum alatum Zoothera dauma dauma ——-—— dixoni ——--—— marginata Zosterops palpebrosa — gira palpebrosa ——= Sse eS PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS—1954. C8978 XXXVii PAGE 889, 587 587 950 563 886 886 612 686 890 889 890 560 560 614 570 560 570 613 589 755 754 605 881 501 501 501 501 501 501 582 501 501 502 613 490 490 584 388 511 S11 uy IM ALI, S. B. SETNA, H. SAN "hte 7 *« 3 James Hornell, F.LS., F AN attractive booklet of 96 pages (93 in. x 63 in.) with 2 coloured plates and 70 line drawings in the 78 ~The Bombay Natural History Society rin at * 114 Apollo Street, Bombay 4 car . , 7 . r % j ; ; E . ; CONTENTS OF VOLUME 50, No. 3 JUNGLE Mermorrgs, Part XI. By Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian-Adams, O.B.E., F.Z.S., 1.A. (Retd.) (With two plates) RACES OF THE INDIAN GIANT SQUIRREL (fatufa indica). By Humayun Abdulali and J. Cyril Daniel. (With a plate} A CoLLEcTION oF BIRDS FROM THE Naca HILLs. By S. Dillon Ripley. (With 2 maps, 2 coloured and 2 black-and-white plates) NOTES ON THE GREY MULLETS (V/ugil spp.) OF KRUSADAI ISLAND, GULF OF MANAAR. By K. Chidambaram and G.K. Kuriyan. (With a text figure) dak waa awe ois as ae CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN Botany. PartI. By H. Santapau, $.J., F.L.S. STUDY OF THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE KARWAR COASr AND NBIGH- BOURING ISLANDS. Part II. By A. M. Patil, M.Sc. A NATURALISTIN THE NortTH-WEST Himatrava. Part II. By M. A. Wynter- Blyth. (With two sketch maps and two plates) ... aes Some JUNGLE BirD AssoctaTions. By M. D. Lister. (Wzth a map) HISTORY OF TRANSPLANTATION AND INTRODUCTION OF FISHES IN INDIA. By’S. Jones and K. K. Sarojini. (With a text map and eight figures). THE POISONOUS AND MEDICINAL PLANTS OF INDIA. By I. C. Chopra and L, D. Kapoor. PHOTOGRAPHING THE WHITEBELLIED SEBA-EAGLE [ Haliaetus leucogaster (Gmelin)]. By Wan Tho Loke. (With four plates) On THE TRAIL OF THE KOUPREY OR INDO-CHINESE FOREST Ox (JSibos sauveli). By Dr. Boonsong Lekagul. (With three plates and two text figures) aes Bile ig ae a ater ite THE ASSAM EARTHQUAKE OF 1950. By E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S., F.R.G.S. (With a map and two plates) att ane REVIEWS :— 1. Hunter at Heart. By B. N. Gordon Graham (R.W.B.) 2. Hydroponics, By J. Sholto Douglas (J.A.A ) 3. The Birds of the Malay Peninsula, Akay & Penang. By A. G. Glenister. (S.A.) sia ae Animals Strange and Rare. By Richard Bets. (H.A.) 5. Proceedings of the Xth International Ornithological Congress, Uppsala 1950. (S.A.) 6. Breeding Birds of Kashmir. By R. S. P. Bates & E. H. N. Lowther. (W.T.L.) 56 re ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY PAGE 451 469 594 610 618 623 629 il CONTENTS OF VOLUME 50, No. 3 PAGE MISCELLANEOUS NOTES: 1. Wild and tame dogs. By A. A. Dunbar Brander (p. 647). 2. Chital | Axis axis (Erxl.) |]: A strange attraction. By K. M. Kirkpatrick (p. 647). 3. Melanism in the Barking Deer (Muntiacus muntjac). By C. M. Inglis (p.648). 4. Sambar Deerin Mauritius. By J. Rene Maingard de Ville-es-Offrans (p. 648). 5. Old Jungle Tales retold. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 649). 6. Thrills in Sport. By Col. V. K. Birch (p. 652), 7. Hoghunting Reminiscences. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 654). 8. Unusual behaviour ~ of the Whitecapped Redstart (Chaimarrornis leucocephalus Vigors). By M. J. Hackney (p. 655). 9. Blackbacked Robin [Saricoloides f. fulicata (Linn.)] attacking car. By E. B. Wikramanayake (p. 656), 10. Baya \Ploceus philippinus Linn.) nests on telegraph wires. By K.M. Kirkpatrick (p. 657). 11. Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) parasitising Plumbeous. Redstart (Ahyacornis f. fuliginosa). (With a plate). By W.T. Loke. (p. 658). 12. Notes on the Nepal Koklas Pheasant (Pucrasia macrolopha mipalensts) and the Spiny Babbler (Acanthoptila mipalensis). (With a text map). By Robert L. Fleming (p. 658). 13. An unrecorded feature of the Spurfowl (Galloperdix). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 661). 14. The Chukor Partridge (Alectoris graeca chukav) in Nevada, U.S.A. By Glen C. Christensen (p. 662). 15. The Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus) in Assam. By Editors (p. 663). 16. Blacknecked Grebe (Podiceps nigrico'lts Brehm) in Bhavnagar. By K.S. Dharmakwu narsinhji (p. 664). 17. Some bird notes from Jasdan, Saurashtra. By Y.S. Shivrajkumar (p. 664). 18. More stray bird notes fron Malabar. By K.K. Neelakantan (p. 664). 19. Further notes on the birds of the Nepal Valley. By Desirée Proud (p. 667). 20. Oceanic and other birds seen on two recent trips between Colombo and Aden in 1951. By C. E. Norris (p. 671). 21. Birds attacking their reflections. By H. G. Alexander (p, 674). 22. Scenting power of Birds. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 675). 23. Changes in scientific names of Indian Birds. By S. Dillon Ripley (p. 676). 24. The Orthography of English names of Birds. By W. ‘I’. Loke (p. 678). 25. Bull Frog (Rana tigrina Daud.) preying upon the Common Toad (Bufo melanostictus Schneid). By V. K. Chari (p. 679). 26. Notes on the Bionomics of the Red Goby, 7ryfauchen vagina Bloch and Schneider. (With a text figure). By E.G. Silas (p. 679). 27. Two further cases of obstruction of the mouth or throat by fish. By C. Brooke Worth (p. 681). 28. Use of fish slime in structural engineering. By A. €. Antony (p. 682). 29. Swarming of Butterflies. By A. E. G. Best (p. 683). 30. A case of heterophylly in Asteracantha longifulia Nees. By B.S. M. Dutt (p. 684). 31. Anunusual case of vivipary in Ahizophora mucronata Lamk. (With a plate). By V. R. Rajagopalan and A. T. Natarajan (p. 684). 32. Replacement of inflorescence by turious in Caldesia reniforme Makino. (With a plate and 3 text figures). By M. Banerji (p. 685). Notes AND NEwS_... oe ae ane mits ) ans ERRATA e008 eee eee oe eco. eee ee0 688: 690 ae :| JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1952 Vox. 50 No. 3 JUNGLE MEMORIES BY - Lr.-Cor. E. G. PHYTHIAN-ADAMS, 0.B.E-, F.Z.S., 1.4. (Retd.) Part X1---Opps anp ENps (With two plates) (Concluded from p. 223 of this volume) Two Days in THE MupuMALAI FOREST Mudumalai, in the Nilgiris-Wynaad, has for the last 27 years been my favourite centre for big game shikar, and from my diaries I could extract sufficient material for a small book. But with conditions so greatly changed now in many parts of India from what they were in the past, I think that my readers will prefer an account of what things -are like today (1951), even though the outings are for a few hours only and not serious shikar. | | It is the 21st April and my first jungle trip this year. A Brain- fever bird is calling, but it is early in the season and he can manage only the first half of his monotonous notes. As we came through the forest yesterday from Kargude, I noticed that fire had swept right through the Wild Life Sanctuary. The question is whether it was held up by the big Mudumalai swamp which forms a natural fire-line, or whether it has continued on to Narati and Benne. On this will depend our chance of seeing game. It is therefore with some relief that after passing the causeway I find that the whole area has been burnt, and that visibility is from 100 to 200 yards. There has been no rain for some days, but the debris in the roadside drains shows that heavy storms have occurred recently. Everything looks fresh and green. The young grass is sprouting, and the trees are putting out their new foliage in many shades of green and russet brown, the monotony being broken here and there by a gorgeous yellow laburnum, or what looks like it, in full bloom. Though it is the hot weather 452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 there is quite a nip in the air, and with the windscreen up I am glad of my muffler. My driver evidently thinks the same, as he has donned a pull-over. As we turn a corner near the second milestone we see a jungle-sheep (kakar) standing by the side of the road 150 yards ahead. The glasses show it to be a female, and though the game rules permit them to be shot, I prefer not to fire. Probably she has a fawn in the lantana thicket close by which, though scorched by fire, still affords good shelter. _ We continue on our way, and as we approach the 5th mile I wonder how the elephant encampment has fared. All has gone up in smoke and only a few charred uprights remain to show where. the numerous huts stood.. The high arched bridge over the stream appears derelict and proves to be so, but a low wooden structure has been built alongside which we cross. Half a mile further on, while I am looking out to the left watching a pair of honey buzzards mewing round the top of a tall tree and no doubt selecting a site to nest, my driver suddenly stops the car and whispers ‘Bison’. I look to the right, and there on the open slope above us and not 60 yards away stands a grand bull still munching the young grass which he was plucking when the noise of the car disturbed him. His jet black colour shows him to be a mature animal, but the horn spread is no larger than what I already have, and the points are sharp and unbroken. He shakes his head and advances a few paces towards us. I cannot help thinking that if he does decide to be nasty, the downhill impetus of that mass of bone and muscle will knock the car flying. However, my experience is that 99 times out of roo bison are mild tempered beasts, and this one proves no exception, for after a good stare he swings round and trots off. We resume our way and are soon passing the big swamp which runs down from Narati hill. Usually there is a herd of chital to be seen here but today it is blank, so we turn to the right a little way up the forest road and park the car. I send George off with Ankan to work the ground across the stream. Veeran is left to mind the car, while I start uphill with Vasu and Masty. The road, rising by easy gradients, runs along the hill-side, and judging by the number of fallen trees has not been used by trafic- since early last year. The first part passes under high arching bamboos whose dew soaked leaves thickly cover the ground. Springing up through them are numbers of a pale mauve and white crocus, and I am admiring a large cluster of these, when a jungle-sheep dashes across the road and down to the swamp on our right. Vasu, whose eyes are exceptionally keen, points out what looks to me like the stump of a half hidden dead tree below us and says it is the buck, but before I can verify it the animal bolts. Continuing our way, soon after I spot a small herd of chital high up on the open hill-side above us. They have seen us too and disappear round the corner of the hill, but the only buck with them has half grown horns in velvet, so we leave them alone. Two shots from the direction of the car now show that George is in action. I hope he has got something, preferably a pig for the men, who are so fond of pork. On again up the winding track, moving very slowly all the time, for 2 miles an hour is the utmost for still-hunting. We see fresh marks where a pig has been rooting, and I carefully stalk a re-entrant where I shot a big one last JUNGLE MEMORIES 453 year, but there is nothing there today. We should by now have seen more game, but probably they have not yet returned after the recent fire. Malabar squirrels, however, make their presence known by their sharp chattering cry every few hundred yards. Lovely ceatures, with their bright cinnamon and orange coats—quite rightly they are on the protected list. There is a certain amount of bird hfe even in this heavy tree forest. On the edge of the swamp below us a Malabar Whistling Thrush is giving a fine rendering of his ‘Idle Schoolboy’ theme—an unusually fine performer. The monotonous call of green barbets also breaks the silence, and occasionally the heavy flight of a-golden-backed woodpecker, but the chief sound is the continual chatter of many pairs of Southern grackles, obviously nesting. We pass the fire-line, looking down on the road crossing the swamp far below us, and are now approaching an exceptionally favour- able spot where only last year I shot both jungle-sheep and pig, and even saw a small herd of elephants with a fine tusker, but today our luck seems to be out. However, it is time for a halt, so I take up position on the slope covering a glade below and wait hopefully. Above us is a huge tree whose crown must be in full flower judging by the sickly sweet scent and the hum of hundreds of bees overhead. After some time a doe jungle-sheep appears, so I wait a little longer in case she is in company with a buck, but apparently she is alone. I decide to give it up, so we stroll back slowly to the car, again seeing our friend of this morning who is far too wideawake now to give another chance. Shortly after George turns up also empty handed. He had an easy chance at a fine chital buck which he estimated at 36” (and in my experience his estimates are generally on the conservative side), but the cartridge missed fire. The buck bolted, and his two shots which I heard missed. We start back, seeing nothing till we reach the causeway near the Hut. Here some 20 grey langurs are sitting out in the swamp, all with their backs to us and quite 100 yards from any tree. They are widely spaced, and I cannot make out what they are doing, but Ankan tells me that they are feeding on a small white berry to which they are very partial, and which ripens at this season. They are too intent on their business to pay any attention to the car. It certainly is extra- ordinary to see so many on the ground at once and right out-in the open. And so ends a very pleasant morning. True, we have got nothing, but personally I am quite satisfied with my outing, though I am afraid my companion is less so. Two days later I decide to prospect up the Doddakatte path, a favourite route of mine. Last evening I had sent George to clear away any fallen trees etc. so we hope to cover the first three miles by car, though generally the track is only jeepable. Again we leave at dawn, and a few minutes run brings us to the stream which is likely to prove our biggest obstacle. The bridge was burnt many years ago and has not yet been replaced, but George has laid a corduroy of logs and branches across the water, and with some wheel spinning the old ‘A’ model Ford (an ideal car for shooting) crosses and climbs up through the heavy sand on the opposite bank. The forest road we are following forms the boundary of the Wild Life Sanctuary which lies on our right, and almost at once we see a herd of some 25 chital 454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 56 with several good bucks, but all in velvet. The sun has not yet risen and their coats look unusually dark in the dawn light. After a good look at us they swing round and make off. All this area has been burnt, so visibility 1s good—usually one is shut in by walls of. tall grass for the first two miles. For me the road is full of memories of panther, bison, deer, and wild dogs over the many years I have been using’ it. | _ As we top the rise we run out of the big tree forest. Here the jungle is lighter and the grass never more than two feet high. It is a favourite locality for chital, but today we see nothing, and shortly after we reach the Honurhatti cross roads where the car is parked under a tree in which I have often had a machan. George turns off to the right here, along the north boundary of the Sanctuary, making for the salt licks near the Mysore frontier 3 miles away. I continue along the path towards Doddakatte which soon sweeps round in a mile long curve with clear visibility to the end, as the low tree jungle has been cut back some way on each side. We have not proceeded far when I notice the tracks and droppings of a big tiger which had gone overnight in the same direction. It was just here many years ago I found the bleached bones and skull of a man who, according to Masty, had been killed and eaten by a tiger. As evidence he produced a silver-ring which he said he had found in the animal’s dropping. However, nothing remains today of that tragedy, and shortly after we see some chital feeding about 500 yards ahead, so slip down to the edge of the jungle on our left for a closer approach. This presents little difficulty, and we are soon within too yards of the deer. The thick growth of saplings somewhat obstructs our view, but after watching for some time I satisfy myself that no really good buck is present, so we move on. The road now forks, the branch on the right going downhill .to the Doddakatte maidans, while that on the left runs uphill round the side of Karadibetta inal I take the latter and almost at once spot some chital coming down it about 400 yards away. There is a good buck with them—his antlers have a wide spread and incurving tips, and I can see that the latter are white. I estimate him at 35” and decide to have a cioser look, so again we slip into the jungle on our left and work towards them. But the wind is tricky, and as we approach I feel a puff on the back of my neck. The inevitable happens, and with a rush the deer bolt across the road to our right and disappear downhill. of the plateau except a small minnow, and so the balance of Nature has been upset, and so far appears to be beyond re-adjustment. Not but what quite good sport may still be enjoyed, and in my opinion further deterioration is most unlikely. But, apart from fishing by normal methods, one of my best me- mories 1s of some very large murrel shot with a .303 in the pools below the bund of the Khadakwasla lake near Poona in 1910. As is well known these fish have to come to the surface to breathe, and it is then easy to shoot them, provided one aims a few inches low to allow for refraction, and has a man ready to retrieve, for my experience is that they invariably sink. And at Bhamo when the annual floods covered the brigade parade ground, shoals of fresh-water mullet appeared, swimming on the surface with their eyes protruding above water. We tried‘every normal method of circumventing them with- out success, so adopted a plan referred to in Thomas’s Rod in India, and went after them in a boat with our 12-bores. We used No. 8 shot with satisfactory results, and found that not all fish sank when hit—presumably it depended on whether the bladder was pierced. I see from my register that in five ‘shoots’ we bagged 44. Nothing is mentioned about weight, but to the best of my recollection there were few if any exceeding half a pound. They proved excellent for the table, and I remember in Mess one night my colonel asking me where I had got the fish we had just eaten. When I told him, he was rather annoyed at what he evidently considered ill-timed levity. Perhaps some of my readers will agree with him! * Son t KAR TS These’ memories would be incomplete without some mention of at least some of the many shikaris I have employed, without whose willing help and co-operation my sport in the jungle would have been very much poorer. A few in my early days no doubt took advantage of my inexperience; such are to be found in every large military station. But the great majority were keen and hardworking, and definitely laid themselves out to do their utmost to ensure success. Stout hearted too, when it came to the push. In fact in all these years, I can remember one only whose nerve gave way—that was when a bear charged in Chanda, as already related. 464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Tol. 50 Out of so many some stand out clearer than the rest. Anthoo itt Chanda, one of the finest shikaris in the Central Provinces; Pinnaya at i $1] 49KaD v“ PE (3X7, DADDUPAPAL-- = DUI OUY ne Doe (Lax suibouyuag b-3 “sr9uryobueg Us * @O@ sabomyragbma-- suodadng — + « (@ Avmaeyn--- D2}pur a es Ca) DAD PULyy---- ry $8 OAC) Adqurysruiug = -sguoysuiydya — ww (2) sbuva yang" VAVq]vap varpuy vfnzoy (1) O Aqnryzer 01 Wv Ludw9V Zz) aqvVdVuUaACAH "20G ‘ISI ‘LVN AVaWwog ‘Nunof “RACES: OF .THE INDIAN. GIANT SQUIRREL 473 the distinction of having black patches on the shoulders and occasion- ally on the rump. 19 specimens measure: Head and Bode -- J00-— 380 mm ; average 340 mm. | Tail Taser SOUT O exceptional) to 450 inm.; average 405 mm. » This form extends. through the Central Province (Madhya Pradesh) northwards into Orissa and Bihar and then south along the Eastern Ghats as far as South Arcot and Chaimarajnagar in Mysore State (hardly 30 miles from the locality of dezgalensis in Coorg). ‘The Survey aiso. records it from Coimbatore and Kotagiri (see supra). There is an appreciable amount of variation in the amount of black in this form, being at times restricted to the upper arm to the extent found in zzdica. It also shows variation in the depth of coloration. Four skins, Balapalli Range, South Cuddappah (2); Lamarsinghi, Vizagapatam District; and Dhain, Hoshangabad District are bay, similar to zzdtca from Kanara. Others, including skins from Dhain and Lamarsinghi, are darker, and though the evidence is unsatisfactory there is a suggestion of lightness in colour towards the south. 17 out of the 22 skins examined have black tails with small pale tips. Five (2 Chaibassa, Orissa; 1 Lamarsinghi, Vizagapatam District ; 1 Antagarh, Bastar District ; 1 juvenile Bori, Hoshangabad District) have reddish brown in the tail between the black base and the pale tip. This may perhaps be associated with the tendency to darkness towards the north. One specimen from Chota Dongar (Bastar State) has an all black tail. While no sign of injury is now visible, the tail is shorter than the body—which is against the general rule for the species—and it must be assumed that the pale tip was accidentally brcken off at some stage. As this species is localized with little or no chance of overlap between different populations it is possible that some of the differences mentioned above are constant. SUMMARY (i) An examination of freshly collected material and scrutiny of data shows that #. zvdica from Khandala and Bhimashankar differ from those in south Bombay State in the amount of white in the tail. Specimens from Bhimashankar are hazel as compared with bay in the south and at Khandala, and may therefore be attributed to the form designated e/phinstonez by Sykes. The form from Khandala seems inter- mediate, but may merit separation from that occurring at Bhimashankar. (ii) R. a. dealbata is not extinct and still occurs in the Dangs. (iii) Several races meet in Mysore and the Nilgiris and their distributional limits are not very clear. (iv) A. z. centralis: Populations from the north-eastern part of its range are distinctly darker than those from the southern, though both types have been collected in the type locality which unfortunately seems to be an intermediate area. Some individuals from the northern range also have rufous in the tail. (v) maxima differs from the other races in its white forefeet and the forehead being concolorous with the rufous on other parts of its body, 474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 REFERENCES Blandford, W. T.(1897) : The Large Indian Squirrel, Jour. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. X; 298. Ellerman, J. R, (1940) : The Families and Genera of Living Rodents, Vol. 1, p. 383. Ellerman, J. R. and Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. (1951): Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals 1758 to 1946—British Museum (Natural History). Robinson and Kloss (1918) : Nominal list of Oriental Sciuridae. Records of the Indian Museum. XV, (IV), 171. Ryley, Kathleen, V. (1913) : Scientific results from the Mammal Survey, Jour. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. XX\I, (3) ; 434. Wroughton, R. C. (1910): Some notes on the Giant Squirrels of India, Burma and Ceylon, Jour. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. X\X ; 880. ee = ae —EeE EE A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM THE NAGA HILLS BY S. DILLON RIPLEY (With two maps, two coloured and two black-and-white plates) During the summer of 1950 my wife and I arrived in India hope- fully looking forward to a project which we had cherished for some time in common with Mr. Salim Ali, namely to visit the eastern Naga Hills, and perhaps to attempt to climb Mt. Saramati (12,553 ft., a.s.1.) which lies almost directly east of Kohima, the Deputy Commissioner’s headquarters, on the India-Burma border. Saramati has never been climbed by a naturalist, or so far as I know by any non-Naga (although a Karen in the Burma Cartographic Survey is alleged to have climbed it in 1935), and it is the highest summit in southern Asia south of the Himalayas, excluding the Islands. The Naga Hills have had no intensive visits by naturalists. Major H. H. Godwin-Austen visited the Hills during 1872-73 and reported the novelties discovered by him in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1874, Pt. 1., pp. 43-48, with several fine coloured plates of some of the distinctive forms such as Garrulax galbanus and Actinodura nipalensis waldeni. The comprehensive paper by Hume on the birds of Manipur (1888) includes many notes of the occurrence of birds in the Naga Hills, usually furnished by Godwin- Austen, or from the collections made by two other surveyors associated with him, Messrs. Ogle and Chennell. However, there has been no general paper of any kind. In the case of mammals there have been isolated notes from time to time, mostly from the pen of J. H. Hutton and J. P. Mills, both distinguished former Deputy Commissioners. Unfortunately Mr. Sdlim Ali was unable to come with us in the end, and in the meantime the great Assam earthquake had necessarily diverted the facilities of Government, so that it was found to be impossible to lend us the escort of Assam Rifles which by Government Regulation we would need to visit the unadministered territory of the extreme eastern Hills. We arrived at Kohima in October, however, to find that the Deputy Commissioner, Mr. S. J. Duncan was extremely conscious of our disappointment and graciously made every effort to afford us ‘second best’, and make our visit as profitable as possible in the short time that we stayed in the Hills. After a brief stay in Manipur from October 17-25, we returned to Kohima and were allowed by Mr. Duncan to arrange for a trek up Mt. Japvo, the highest peak of the Barail Range (9,890 ft.) which lies about 5 miles southwest of Kohima in an air line. The Barail Range is a massive feature thrusting in a north-easterly direction, composed of slate and shale with heavily wooded peaks lying both in north Cachar and the western Naga Hills. We were able to leave for Japvo on November 2 and to stay there until the 13th. We made our camp at 7,7oo ft. under a thick canopy of original tropical ever- green rain forest, climbing up to the ridge at 8,500 ft. and the peak 476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALS EIST SC Citi ye aicolmeyt beyond each day, or plunging down into the lower slopes. Birds abounded but were difficult to see and collect due to the great height of the trees, and the density of the undergrowth wherever trees had fallen; and small clearings occurred... Most. of the small birds were in vast hunting parties at all stages in the forest, from the tree tops, through the understoreys of lower trees, higher bushes, and finally the lowest level of strobilanthes, ferns, nettles, and rotting brush resting on the ground. Serow, barking deer, sambar, wild dogs, tiger and possibly goral were all noted in one way or another. The only smaller mammals seen were two species of Tree Squirrel be- longing to the genera Dremomys and Tamiops. Returning to Kohima my wife had unexpectedly to leave suddenly for the United States, but meanwhile permission had been granted by the Assam Government for us to visit the extreme eastern Hills, as far east as we could go and still remain within the administered area. This would allow us to go right up to the Burma border in one small area where the Tizu River, a tributary of the Chindwin, flows through a gap in the main north-south axis of the Naga-Patkoi Range just south of Saramati. Not far from the trail which lies along the course of this river is a small mountain, Zephu, (8,408 ft., a.s.l.) which I felt would afford us an opportunity to sample the montane fauna of these eastern Hills. | Consequently I made preparations to go on east, accompanied this time by Mr. Horace Alexander and Professor D. C. Mahanta otf Gauhati University. We started this part of our trip on November 18th in a heavy downpour of rain in two wartime Dodge weapons carriers or 18 cwt. four-wheel drive trucks. The first 54 miles of the trail east from Kohima to the eastern Angami village of Phek | is motorable (Phakekedzumi is an alternate spelling of this village. on the quarter-inch Survey of India Maps, Sheet No. 83 K), although ‘motorable’ seems a charitable word especially if the weather is un- seasonable (N.B. November and December are technically known as the ‘dry’ months in the Naga Hills). Farther east there is a trail which was probably jeepable during war-time, but has now become impassable for vehicles due to the demise of all the steel cable sus- pension bridges and the substitution for them of the locally-made rattan cane pedestrian suspension bridges. We continued along this trail to Meluri, Primi (called Akhegwo on some maps), and Phozami. (called Yisi on some maps), the latter some 93 miles by trail from Kohima and 15 miles from the Burma border. At this point Professor Mahanta and I (Mr. Alexander’s holiday had. come to an end and he returned to Delhi), left the trail and struck south some g miles or more to Zephu where we made camp 2oo ft. below the summit and remained only four days until December rst. This point is about eight and a half miles from the nearest point on the Burma border. It was cold on Zephu, the temperature hovering in the low forties (F.) during much of the day, with several degrees of frost at night. The Nagas disliked the cold and remained in the nearby Sangtam Naga village of Zephu (7,000 ft.) as much as they could. Zephu, like Japvo, was all untouched tropical evergreen forest, with the addition of more types of hill bamboo than we had seen on the Barail peak. ‘Only above 7,000 ft. is there likely to- be unspoiled ‘evergreen -forest ‘to-day in the Naga Hills, so great is the “ e"*93NOI INO BUIMOYS S]]IF{ eSen{ oy3 Jo dep = 0O£.b6 De ..........—0.._. _.._.__._ x pres 2 ( rears o rs a = = ae se ee 2 — or ‘ — - 2 joydw] OL SONG O OD|W ey 00428SiNid v O686 > » OAdOL LW > pwambiyep---t ae q (©) ‘ S0b8 DWDSAUd ey ke nyda7 IW +770 © ydaz : a Ys es Res : ee fo dowig o ‘ an IWDZOYde. eo, int 19 OL ee y¢ oI IwWldsd Sv.Scf i ~4 J} 4 My 00§ ‘HSI ‘7UN Avquiog ‘“uanoe COLE C MONG OM BURDS FROM THE NAGA HILLS 477 extent of the shifting cultivation. The effect is almost of ‘islands,’ as the patches of unspoiled jungle are often quite isolated from each other. | We reached Phek again December 5th, Kohima December rith, and I left the Naga Hillis December 12th. We thus had a total of 48 days in the Naga Hills during: which we managed to collect 743 specimens representing 196 species and subspecies. In addition we saw, but did not collect, at least five species (I have not listed an owl and several hawks whose identification would be problematical), making a total of 201 species identified in the field. ‘With the exception of our two visits to heavy undisturbed ever- green forest on the summits of Japvo and Zephu, our collecting was mainly confined to what is now the predominant biotope in the Naga Hills from the lower altitudes of 2;000 ft. up to 7,000 ft. This is cut-over scrub mostly of a deciduous type which may be firewood lots for the Naga villages, sometimes second growth from old agri- cultural clearings, sometimes patches of scrub jungle near villages kept by the Nagas for toilet areas. In these somewhat unpromising surroundings there is often a wealth of- bird life due to the fact I suppose that birds may be moving from one jungle area to another, or that particular shrubs or trees may be in flower. Much of the thick tangle of light jungle is of course very suitable for babblers, and they were always in evidence. Larger species like hornbills, pheasants, eagles, and the large owls were much less in evidence, however, and there is no doubt that the destruction of the forests here is having a decisive effect on the numbers of different species. Some species will decrease sharply, others increase, and a survey of the fauna in this area in another few years should prove illuminating. Attempting to assess the fauna as a whole I was interested to note that out of 125 species which could be divided into more pre- dominantly western or eastern-derived forms, 54 species of these Hills. were of the same species as those farther to the west in the Himalayas proper, while 28 were of Burmese or Indo-Chinese origin. The other 43 were either endemic species or subspecies. whose origin either from the west or east was uncertain. Thus 65 per cent of the endemisms studied by me seem to derive from the western, the Himalayas fauna, and only 35 per cent from the Indo-Chinese fauna, a smaller proportion than I had expected before I visited these border Hills. There are only two good endemic species in this area apparently, both shared with Manipur, Tragopan biythi and Garrulax galbanus- Of the endemic subspecies 27 seem to be confined to this immediate area or shared with Manipur (17), the Patkoi Hills (7), or Cachar (14). Many of these endemisms run south as far as the Chin Hills (Mt. Victoria) (9). I am certainly sorry we did not get a chance to collect on the higher slopes of Saramati which we could see plainly from Meluri east along the trail. The upper 3,000-4,o00 ft. appear to be grassland, and there should possibly be a wren, Troglodytes, a Babax, possibly a Nutcracker, and probably a Yellow-billed Blue Magpie on: the upper slopes. But this problem will remain for another attempt. I certainly. wish much luck and God- Speedin to the ornithologist who visits that challenging mountain. 478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST USOCIET Vi Vale 30 Some of the novelties collected by us have already been described by me in Postilla, a publication of the Yale Peabody Museum (no. 6, 1951). My grateful thanks are due to the authorities of the British Museum, the United States National Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard, and the Chicago Natural History Museum who have lent me speci- mens in their care, or allowed me to work in their Bird Rooms. I am grateful for some financial aid received from a Fulbright award of the U.S. Government. For help in the field I am most grateful also to Mr. and Mrs. Duncan of Kohima, to many Naga friends, to Horace Alexander, and finally to my wife Mary, who was a constant aid and source of inspiration. LIST OF THE SPECIES PHALACR ©OCGO RWC Dee Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis (Shaw): Large Cormorant. A flock of 31 was counted on an evening flight up the Tizu River near our camp between Meluri and Phek, December 4th. The Assam Rifles and the Phek Nagas consider these birds to be ‘ducks’ and shoot them for food from time to time. ARDEIDAE Cattle Egrets (Bubulcus ibis) seemed to be the only common egret in the areas we visited. Flocks of egrets, presumably this species, were seen flying south over Kohima in mid-November evidently on migration. CArGoN hLDA Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert): Open-bill Stork. A single bird was secured out of a flock which landed near the Deputy Commissioner’s office building in Kohima evidently lost as there was heavy cloud all over the ridge. The date was in the first week of November. Presumably the birds were on migration as the rest of the flock flew.south after the clouds lifted. ACCP Tt 2 pA Accipiter nisus nisosimilis (Tickell): Sparrow Hawk. A male was shot November 17th out of a pine tree behind the Circuit House in Kohima. It seemed to be a migrating bird. Very few hawks were seen, and those that occasionally were glimpsed through the trees could not be readily identified. FALCONIDAE Falco tinnunculus interstinctus McClelland: Indian Kestrel. A male collected at Kohima, October 26th, was the only specimen we secured of this species which was very common in open areas all up and down the Naga Hills. A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM THE NAGA HILLS 479 PHASIANIDAE Lophura leucomelana lathami (Gray): Assam Kaleej, or Horsfield’s Kalee}]. Common from 2,000 to 5,000 ft. in the Naga Hiils. Males with varying amounts of white on the rump sometimes were brought in to the Kohima market. Some males closely approached moffiti, (see Delacour’s discussion, 1951), as did some females, in possessing a nearly black rump and very dark plumage. A possible range for moffiti may be in the Sylhet area west of the Naga Hills, if the speci- mens obtained by us represent a trend in the direction of the all-biack form. . Wine: 6 of 951-54 mint -Seicercus castaniceps subsp.: Chestnutheaded Flycatcher-warbler. ‘A single male taken on November oth on Japvo at 7,700 ft. is our only record of this species. Unfortunately it was later. mislaid, probably in the packing of our material. It was in medium height trees with a flock of hunting warblers and babblers. The call was quite distinctive, a very loud wren-like ‘tsick’ which immediately attracted my attention to it. Soft parts: iris brown; bill upper mandible dark brown, lower yellowish-brown, feet light brown, pads yellow. Weight: 6 gr. _. Recently Koelz (1951) has described a race nagaensis from one specimen taken at Kohima not differing in size but in colour as follows: ‘chestnut on crown much deeper, so much so that the lateral stripes on crown are not very prominent; the white spot on the nape is very much reduced; the gray above extends almost to the middle of the back; the white on the abdomen is much more extensive.’ As true castaniceps is found all over the area south to Manipur and the Chin a A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM THE NAGA HILLS 505 Hills, and as colour variation is likely to exist when only one speci- men is considered, I am inclined to doubt the validity of this form, which, as proposed is confined to a range of a sort of ‘island’ in a sea of typical castaniceps. Seicercus poliogenys Blyth: Graycheeked Flycatcher-warbler. A male of this little flycatcher-warbler weighed 7, two females 6 gr. Phylloscopus pulcher pulcher Blyth: Orangebarred Willow-warbler. We came upon this willow-warbler occasionally in heavy forest from 4,700-8,600 ft., always in evergreen, sometimes immensely high on the tops of the biggest trees. It seemed not to be a part of the large mixed hunting parties, but usually just in willow-warbler groups. Males and females weighed 5-7 gr. Soft parts: iris brown; bill blackish or dark brown, base of lower mandible yellowish-brown or yellowish-horn; feet brown, dark greenish-brown, yellowish-brown, pads yellow. Phylloscopus inornatus inornatus (Blyth): Crowned Willow-warbler. Taken by us from 2,500-4,700 ft. in open deciduous scrub, usually rather high in the trees. Males and females weighed from 5-7 gr. Phylloscopus inornatus mandellii (Brooks): West China Crowned Willow-warbler. This rather darker willow-warbler is indistinguishable from the former in the field and seemed to occur in the same areas, but more commonly. Eight specimens were taken to the five of imornatus, from 2,500-6,000 ft. Weight: 4.5-6 gr. Phylloscopus proregulus newtoni Gaéike: Pallas’s Himalayan Willow-warbler. As I pointed out (1950) this name is available for the darker eastern population of this willow-warbler, as chloronotus must be confined to Nepal. A common species from 3,500-7,000 ft. in mixed deciduous and evergreen association, sometimes in small trees beside the trail, at other times high up in denser growth. Found in mixed flocks with Chloropsis, Heterophasia gracilis, Picumnus, and Parus monticolus. Weight: 11 oo’ 9 2 4-6 ar. Phylloscopus maculipennis maculipennis Blyth: Grayfaced Willow- warbler. . A bird of thick forest from 6,o00 ft. up. We found these birds high up in the trees with mixed babbler-warbler hunting flocks. Weight: 4.5-6 gr. Phylloscopus reguloides assamensis Hartert: Crowned Willow- warbler. A bird of forest, found in mixed parties from 4,700-7,700 ft. I recall it making typical ‘cheep’ notes in a flock of Alcippe and Stachyris in light scrub and low second growth pasture land near a village. 506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vai. 56 Orthotomus sutorius luteus Ripley : Mishmi Tailor-bird. The tailor-bird taken by us from the Naga Hills and northern Manipur is darker, more rufous on the forehead and forecrown thar topotypical patia from Nepal, and matches luteus from the Mishmi Hills. It is also more richly washed with buff below than in patia. A female from near Yisi at 3,500 ft. weighed 7.5 gr., a Manipur female 8.5 gr. Orthotomus cucullatus coronatus Blyth: Yellowbellied Tailor-bird. A single sex undetermined specimen is indistinguishable from Sikkim birds. Soft parts: iris brown; bill upper mandible black,. lower basally orange, distally horn; feet brownish flesh. Weight : O2er. Prinia hodgsoni rufula Godwin-Austen: Himalayan Gray-breasted Wren-warbler. In the tall weeds and grass from 2,900-4,500 ft. we came across these active little wren-warblers in small flocks. It was less com- mon than the following species. Weight: o&Q 5-7 gr. Prinia rufescens rufescens Blyth: Assam Wren-warbler. A very common bird along the trail east of Phek from 2,500-. 5,000 ft. in patches of light grass under clumps of deciduous trees. Often found in mixed hunting parties with Alcippe, Stachyris, and other babblers. We heard it often make rather harsh grating or churring trills. Eight males and females weighed from 6.5-7 gr.. Wing: &%hO QD 42-46 mm. Prinia atrogularis khasiana (Godwin-Austen): Austen’s Hill-warbler. A young male, subadult and very rufous above, was taken near Kohima in mid-October, and an adult female at Phek. The birds have a rather grating series of low call notes. We found them in long grass on the edge of cultivated patches on the steep hillsides. Weisht <0 11-5, syouns oi 70. en. Cettia montana fortipes (Hodgson): Strong-footed Bush-warbler. In tall grass along the trail beyond Phek we ran into these shy skulking bush-warblers, behaving in a very wren-like way in the tall grass, usually almost impossible to see. They called simply a single alarm note, ‘tsick’. Soft parts: iris brown; bill dark brown, base of lower mandible pinkish-horn; feet pale brownish-flesh, or yellowish- brown. Weight: +G' «10, -O1O 773560588 ee Cettia flavolivacea alexanderi (Ripley) : Naga Hills Aberrant Warbler. Two specimens of this dark olive-buff subspecies were collected along the trail beyond Phek in tall grass. We heard definitely only a ‘tsick’ call from this form, but several times we heard a short grating song which Alexander found very reminiscent of what he had been told was flavolivacea in west China. This is a much darker bird than typical flavolivacea of the Himalayas, more richly coloured than weberi of Mt. Victoria and darker, more buffy (especially below} than intricata. Weight: 99 6, 7 ger. ‘4 COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM THE NAGA HILLS 507° Subfamily MUSCICAPINAE Muscicapa_ strophiata strophiata (Hodgson): Orangegorgetted: Flycatcher. ; The commonest flycatcher in the Hills, taken from 3,500 ft. up, but particularly numerous in the evergreen on Japvo at 7,700 ft.. Males weighed from 11-14, females 11-12.5 gr. Muscicapa parva albicilla Pallas: Eastern Redbreasted Flycatcher. A male from Kohima weighed 9 gr. Muscicapa amabilis Deignan: Rustybreasted Blue Flycatcher. This is a new name (1947) for Siphia hodgsonii Verreaux, listed’ inthe Fauna (Vol. If, p.:216, and Vol. VII, p: 132). A single bird in brown plumage, possibly a subadult male was taken on Japvo at 7,000 tt.-on the edge of the evergreen. - Weight: .o gr-. Muscicapa hyperythra hyperythra Blyth: Rufousbreasted Blue Flycatcher. _ Two females taken on Japvo in the understorey in heavy evergreen forest were noted from the harsh and snapping noise they made as. they flew to a perch. Wing 56, 58 mm. Weight: 7.5, 9 gr. One bird is very rufescent below with a pronounced tawny-buff streak from the lores to the eye-ring. So richly coloured is this specimen that I had difficulty identifying it. The other presumed ‘female’ weighing 9 gr. is possibly a subadult male as I can just detect the faintest tinge of gray-blue to the forehead area. Muscicapa sapphira (Tickell) : Sapphireheaded Flycatcher. A single male in the brown-headed stage of plumage was taken: in evergreen forest on Japvo at 8,550 ft. It weighed 8 gr. Muscicapa westermanni indochinensis Ripley: Eastern Little Pied. Flycatcher. - I have recently revised this species (1952), hence the name for the darker, more rufous-rumped eastern population of this widely distributed species. A male taken at Phek weighed Io gr. Muscicapa thalassina thalassina Swainson: Verditer Flycatcher. Found by us at 7,000 ft. on Japvo perching on the edge of the forest in old dead trees near cultivation, and hawking for insects. Kvicioht >. oO 17:5 sr: Muscicapa solitaris leucops (Sharpe): Whitegorgetted Flycatcher. A female from Phek is our only specimen of this shy flycatcher. Weicht: 11, or. Niltava macgrigoriae (Burton): Small Niltava. Not uncommon in thick scrub near streams from 2,500-4,500 ft.. Weight: ho 9/9 11-13 gr. 508° JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. ‘SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Culicicapa ceylonensis calochrysea Oberholser: Grayheaded Fly- catcher. A male from Kohima weighed 8 gr. (Rhipidura hypoxantha Blyth: Yellowbellied Fantail Flycatcher. Not uncommon on forest edges or in heavy deciduous patches along the trail east of Phek. The distinctive ‘cheep’ of this busy little fellow always gave him away. Three males weighed 5 gr. each. Rhipidura albicollis albicollis (Vieillot): Whitethroated Fantail Fly- catcher. Found by us in heavy evergreen forest from 4,100-7,700 ft. Weight: ool 9 9-12 gr. PARIDAE ‘Parus monticolus Vigors: Greenbacked Tit. From 4,300-6,000 ft. this seemed to be the common tit of the ‘scrub pasture land, light deciduous forest, and occasionally on the fringes of heavier jungle. I would characterize the song of this ‘species as a series of three notes, rather musical, ‘pling pling pling,’ followed by a double note ‘tee-eurp’. Weight: oo Q 12-16 gr. Parus xanthogenys spilonotus Blyth: Blackspotted Yellow Tit. A male taken at 6,000 ft. in evergreen forest at Phek is our only record for this form. Weight: 18 gr. Wing 77 mm. Parus modestus modestus (Burton): Yellowbrowed Tit. A bird of evergreen’ forest from 7,700 ft. up: |) Six maleswand females weighed 7-7.5 gr. Aegithaliscus concinnus manipurensis Hume: Hume’s Redheaded Dit: A species found by us usually in the pines (P. longifolia) from 4,700-6,000 ft. It is reproduced herewith (Plate III) to show the dis- tinctive pattern and dark colour. Weight: oto 5.5-7, :'9 5-5 er. Melanochlora sultanea sultanea (Hodgson): Sultan Tit. A male taken at 2,500 ft. in deciduous forest near the Tizu River weighed 41 gr. Sit PD AE ‘Sitta himalayensis australis Koelz: Naga Hills Whitetailed Nuthatch. Koelz (1951) describes this new race from the Naga Hills as being; ‘underside clear chestnut, deeper posteriorly and fading to white on the centre of throat and chin, quite unlike the nominate race where a paler chestnut is restricted to the vent and flanks, and where the. abdomen and breast are rather pale rufous. In S. h. australis the postocular stripe stops short on the neck, and is not produced to the shoulders as in the nominate race. Bill stouter in this new race.’ Jour., Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. ee ae is em Sn a RN eT RN AT AAT A AOR ay HERE LODO LORE Den aerrerocrwonyeytasly re = eae githaliscus concinnus manpurensis Hume Siva strigula cineretgen@, subsp. nov. A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM THE NAGA HILLS 509 A male and two females shot by me from 6,000-8,200 ft. east of Kohima when compared with nominate himalayensis from the U.P. ‘Himalayas are certainly not noticeably different on the underparts ‘as Koelz maintains, nor is the bill stouter in series. However, the postocular stripe does stop short on the neck, and is not prolonged onto the shoulder as Dr. Koelz rightly points out. This is a bird of evergreen forest. Soft parts: iris brown; bill black, base of lower mandible gray; feet (co) dark greenish-brown, or, yellowish-brown, (9) dark brown. Weight: Oo 15, 15.5, 2 14 gr. A smallish male (wing 71) of typical himalayensis from Kumaon in the collection, taken in January has a weight of only 11 gr. Sitta europaea nagaensis Godwin-Austen: Austen’s Nuthatch. Two females were taken at Phek and Mt. Zephu at 4,800 ft. in heavy mixed deciduous and evergreen forest. This form is appa- rently altitudinally separated from its neighbouring forms as Deignan (1945) pointed out in the case of north Siam subspecies, where a dark-coloured population lived at lower altitudes, and a paler-colored population at higher. In this case nagaensis is the higher form, and the new race koelzi Vaurie (1950), which we did not come across, must inhabit the lowlands. These birds weighed 13.5, 16.5 gr. Sitta frontalis frontalis Swainson: Velvetfronted Nuthatch. Four females with wing measurements from 68.5-74 mm. incline me to agree with Vaurie (loc. cit., pp. 11-13) that all Indian birds must be listed in this single subspecies. These birds were taker. from 3,000-4,000 ft. in light deciduous growth and weighed 11- 14.5 o4- CHRP DAE Certhia discolor manipurensis Hume: Hume’s Tree-creeper. A pair, from 4,200 and 7,000 ft., the latter on Japvo, the former near Meluri, seem to belong to this slightly darker population. They measure: wing of 69,:9 67 mm. Weight: co 11, 9-10 gr. DICAEIDAE Dicaeum ignipectus ignipectus Blyth: Firebreasted Flowerpecker. The only common flowerpecker, found from 2,500-8,200 ft. in evergreen as well as light deciduous scrub. Ten males weighed from 4-8, one female 6 gr. Dicaeum concolor olivaceum Walden: Plaincoloured Flowerpecker. The second most common species, found from 2,500-3,500 ft. in deciduous jungle and cut-over scrub. Wing: of 43.5-46, Q 42.5-44 mm. Weight: oo Qi 4-6 gr. These birds give an impression of having a slightly stouter, bigger bill on the average than birds from Nepal or the Khasia site Dicaeumchrysorrheum intensum Baker: Yellowvented Flowerpecker. A single male from Kohima weighed 9 gr. Wing 59 mm. 510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 59 Dicaeum agile deignani n. subsp. : Thickbilled Flowerpecker. Type.—No. 12,960, Yale Peabody Museum, © ad., Kohima, Assam, October 15th, 1950; S. Dillon Ripley coll. : Deignan (1945, pp. 550-1) correctly points out that the Thick- billed Flowerpecker of Assam is brighter and greener above, and creamier below than typical modestum (Hume) of Tenasserim, Peninsular Thailand, and Malaya (apparently remotum and_finschii are synonyms). Compared to typical agile of the Himalayas it is more richly gray- green above, and distinctly grayish-creamy rather than grayish-white on the underparts. Measurements: wing 56.5, tail 29, culmen 9. Weight: 8 gr. Range: Assam and northern Burma. I have not seen specimens from the Shan States and am not sure where in southern Burma this. form meets modestum. This is a bird of open scrub and pasture land. The subspecies is named in honor of my friend Herbert Deignan. NECTARINIIDAE Aethopyga nipalensis koelzi Ripley: Koelz’s Yellowbacked Sunbird. Found from 4,900-8,200 ft. wherever plants were in flower, usually in deciduous or evergreen forest, but sometimes in open pasture land. Wing: , oot 53-55-53. culmen 22-23 mm.” Weight.) otc 2 Cris. Aethopyga sSaturata assamensis (Horsfield): Blackbreasted Sunbird. This is a more richly coloured population than topotypical Nepal birds, and so it seems wise to revive Horsfield’s name (1839). I suspect that these birds are smaller also; wing: oto 51, 53; 9 A4-48: culmen: oo" 20, 215,092 © 18-18.5 mma Veit sieoeen] 5-6 gr. The specimens were taken from 3,000 to nearly 5,000 ft. in deciduous forest or open pasture land. Aethopyga siparajia labecula (Horsfield): Assam Scarletbacked Sun- bird. | This is a darker and more richly cotoured form than seheriae. It does not differ in size. We found them in the hills from 3,750- 5,000 ft. in open deciduous forest and scrub jungle. Weight: oo 6-9, Q 6 gr. Aethopyga ignicauda ignicauda (Hodgson): Firetailed Yellow- backed Sunbird. Two males in eclipse were taken in open pasture at 5,000 ft. at cd Phek, and in evergreen forest at 8,200 ft. on Zephu. They weighed: 745 cand (O}) ite Aethopyga gouldiae isolata Baker: Baker’s Yellowbacked Sunbird. Having looked at Baker’s type of isolata in the British Museum,. I am inclined to agree with Stresemann (1940) that this subspecies was not worth recognizing. It is slightly smaller than typical A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM THE NAGA HILLS 511 gouldiae, and my specimens from the Naga Hills agree with this diagnosis. However, I would like to retain the name for another more interesting biological reason. Baker in the ‘Fauna’ (1926) discusses the species dabryi and notes that he has taken specimens in Cachar which, from their reddish breasts, he presumes to be this species. These specimens are now deposited in the Sophia Museum. Among the birds taken by us in the Naga Hills is one subadult male moulting into adult plumage which has a great splash of reddish feathers coming in and overlaying the yellow of the breast. It is not symme- trical, being more heavy on one side than the other. From this evidence coupled with that of Baker in Cachar, I should say that there was a polymorphic population here representing a transitional condition between typical gouldiae and typical dabryi. It may be characterized by slightly smaller size, by a tendency to a paler yellow band on the rump than typical gouldiae, and, in the case of g. dabryi, by smaller size. The dabry: phenotype I think would be otherwise indistinguishable. Evidently this is a question of gene imbalance in an intermediate population. The rarity of dabryi phenotypes indicates that the gouldiae type has some slight advantage. It would be interesting to determine what percentage of the dabryi types may occur in the wild state. I have no data from existing collections beyond my own in which one out of four males showed the presence of this character. We found this sunbird from 4,000-5,0o00 ft. at Phek and the trail to the east. They were in deciduous scrub jungle feeding on flower- ing vines and trees. Wing: oo 51.5-53; culmen: 15-16.5 mm. Weight: coo 6+7 er: Baker’s isolata was originally described from Manipur, and the range included the Surma Valley in Cachar, the Lushai Hills and part of the Chin Hills. Baker (1925) noted that red-breasted males came from above 6,o0o0 ft. on Mt. Victoria, but none turned up apparently in the Heinrich collection reported on by Stresemann (loc. cit.). I would list the range of this polymorphic population as: eastern Cachar, Naga Hills south to Manipur, Lushai and Chin Hills. Arachnothera magna magna (Hodgson): Streaked Spider Hunter. Found occasionally in Bombax trees in flower in the eastern hills from 2,500-6,o0o0 ft. Their loud chatter is unmistakable. Weight: ee 31) 33,19 25-5 gt- Z.0.55 ER O.E 1 DrAE ‘Zosterops palpebrosa palpebrosa (Temminck) : Indian W hite-eye. Six males and females have wing measurements from 51-53 mm., thus fitting in with palpebrosa and not cacharensis Baker, which was described as ‘smaller’ and with a distinct yellow streak down the abdomen. One specimen, taken by us in Manipur, is not ‘smaller,’ but is richly coloured with a distinct yellow streak down the abdomen. One Naga skin has an indication of a yellow streak also. Otherwise these birds are indistinguishable. Males and females weighed 7-10 gr. 512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 FEF RIN GILULIDAE Carduelis spinoides heinrichi Stresemann: Mt. Victoria Greenfinch. This subspecies is far darker in colouration than typical spinoides of the Himalayas, but paler than monguilloti Delacour of Indo-China. We found the greenfinch in some tall eucalyptus planted near the Government Resthouse at Mao, just over the border into Manipur from the Naga Hills, and also on Mt. Zephu in dead trees in clearings at Zephu willage at.7,500 ft. Wing: ol 75, oo. Subadult y2sqemg 5. OQ 9-.70-72.5 mm. (Weight: of 16,7 oo subadulig asta rca. (3) 15 gr. Emberiza pusilla Pallas: Little Bunting. A female from Mt. Zephu at 4,800 ft. weighed 13.5 gr. ‘O + Emberiza spodocephala sordida Blyth: Blackheaded Bunting. A male taken in tall grass along the Dzulu River east of Kohima at 2,670 ft. represents this richly-coloured form. Soft parts: iris brown; bill, upper mandible black, tomia and lower mandible whitish- horn, tip dark horn; feet pale brownish-flesh. Weight: 18 gr. Only call- uttered, ““tsick.” PLOC ET DAE Passer rutilans lisarum Stresemann: Mt. Victoria Cinnamon Sparrow. A male from Japvo with a wing of 69.5 mm. belongs to this small, richly-coloured subspecies. Soft parts: iris brown; bill black, base of lower mandible yellowish-brown; feet brown, Weight: 19-5. SF. | | , It is worth noting that a male Passer montanus taken by us in Manipur appears to belong to the saturate, liver-coloured form, named hepaticus by me from the Mishmi Hills. Lonchura striata acuticauda (Hodgson): Hodgson’s Munia. A single male taken at Phek in the rice fields belongs to this subspecies. Weight: 12 gr. Lonchura punctulata subundulata (Godwin-Austen): Burmese Spotted- Munia. Adults and immature birds were collected round Kohima. Weight: [2-13 21. DICRURIDAE Dicrurus macrocercus was not collected by us in the Naga Hills although it was seen once or twice at low altitudes in the fields. However, a female shot in Manipur, proves by its measurements to belong to the Burmese form cathoecus Swinhoe, a westward extension for the subspecies. Dicrurus aeneus aeneus Vieillot : Bowes Drongo. A pair was taken in light deciduous forest east of Phek. Weight: Of 25.5, Q 21.5 gr. | . A COLLECTION OF BIRDS FROM THE NAGA HILLS 51% Dicrurus paradiseus was seen but not collected in similar biotope. ORIOLIDAE Oriolus traillii traillii (Vigors) : Maroon Oriole. Shot in thick secondary growth near the trail east of Phek, I was. _ attracted to this brilliant oriole by the harsh woodpecker-like squawk that it uttered monotonously. Soft parts: iris, Qo creamy pinkish- yellow, yellowish-brown, Q brown; bill, o pearl gray; 9 gray; feet, o gray or bluish-gray, @ slaty-gray. Weighitewoimo7,074) O- 68ier- e CoRVIDAE Kitta chinensis chinensis (Boddaert): Green Magpie. A male shot below Kohima at 3,500 ft. weighed 130 gr. Crypsirhina formosae himalayensis (Blyth): Himalayan Tree-pie. The only abundant tree-pie in the Naga Hills. I saw the Red- billed Blue Magpie (Kitta erythrorhyncha) east of Phek, but failed to secure a specimen. This Tree-pie was shot from 3,500-5,700 ft. Wing woo 9 O 134-147 mm. Weight: oo (2) 108, 9/9 97- LO7 21. Garrulus glandarius interstinctus Hartert: Sikkim or East Himalayan fay. Comparing this jay throughout its range west and east in the Himalayas, it seems just possible to separate it into two races. There is no difference in size, and the colour of the upperparts is truly vari- able when series are laid out together. Some birds from the U.P. Himalayas are just as dark as are some from, for example, the Naga Hills. It does seem to me that the brown patch on the innermost tertial is slightly darker in the eastern part of the range, and that the banding on the outer webs of the secondaries is more widely spaced in these eastern birds. I cannot recognize persaturatus. Hartert from the Kasia Hills, nor the recent azuwreitinctus Koelz (1951) whose range is given as: ‘Southeastern Assam, and probably also northeastern Assam.’ A pair from beyond Phek were shot in deciduous cut-over forest at 4,500 and 4,goo ft. A group of small birds were mobbing one of these jays. Weight: :9 130 gr. Wing: o 173, 9 164 mm. Pr aee R AvisUCR & © rT E.p Ali, SAlim, and Ripley, S. Dillon (1948): The Birds of the Mishmi Hills. Jour Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 48 (1). Baker, E. C. Stuart (1922-30): The Fauna of British India, Birds (2d ed.).. 8 vols. London. — — — (1925): New Races of Sun-birds. Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl., KLYI; 13. Deignan, H. G. (1945): The Birds of Northern Thailand. U.S, Nat. Mus., Bull. 186; 315-317. — — — (1946): The Races of the Scarlet Minivet [Pericrocotus flammeus (Forster)]. Auk. 68; 511. — — — (1947): A Review of the Races of the Spotted Babbling Thrush, Pellorneum ruficeps Swainson, Smith. Misc. Coll., 107; 6-7. 514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Deignan, H. G. (1947): Some untenable names in the Old World Flycatchers. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington. 60; 166. — — — (1948): The Races of the Red-whiskered Bulbul, Pycnonotus jocosus (Linnaeus). Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 38; 281. — — — (1949): Races of Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus) and P. aurigaster (Vieillot) in the Indo-chinese subregion. Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 39; 277-278. Delacour, Jean (1947): Les Timaliines. L’Oiseau et la Revue Francajse d’Orni- ihologie, KWI; 24. — — — (1951): Commentaires, Modifications et Additions a la liste des ‘Oiseaux de 1’Indochine Frangaise. L’Oiseau et la Revue Francaise d’Ornithologie, XXI; 86. ; — — — (1951): The Pheasants of the World. London; 181-133. Hartert, Ernst (1909): Die Vogel der palaéarktischen Fauna. Heft W; 635. Horsfield, Thomas (1839): List of Mammalia and Birds collected in Assam -by John McClelland, Esq., etc. Proc. Zool. Soc.; 167. ' Hume, Allen O. (1888): The Birds of Manipur, Assam, Sylhet, and Cachaf. Stray Feathers. KI; 57-59. Koelz, Walter N. (1951): New Birds from India. Jour. Zool.. Soc. India. 3, (1); 28-30. Mayr, Ernst (1940): Pericrocotus brevirostris and its Double. Ibis, 82; 717. — — — (1941): The Vernay-Cutting Expedition to northern Burma. Ibis, 83; 367-371. Ripley, S. Dillon (1948): Notes on Indian Birds. II. The species Glaucidium cuculoides. Zoologica, 33; 200. — — — (1950): Birds from Nepal, 1947-1949. Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 49; 401. — — — (19€0): A note about the Wren-babbler, Spelaeornis. Auk, 67; 390- 391. — — — (1951): Notes on Indian Birds. IV. Some recently collected birds from Assam. Postilla, No. 6; 1-7. — — — (1952): A note on the species Muscicapa westermanni. Proc. Biol. Soc, Washington, (in press). ~ Rothschild, Lord (1921): On a collection of birds from west-central and north- western Yunnan. Novit. Zool., KXKXWIII; 38. Stanford, J. K. (1941): The Vernay-Cutting Expedition to northern Burma. DAS, 83. 68: Stresemann, Erwin (1940): Die Vogel des Mount Victoria. Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin, 24; 174. Ticehurst, C. B. (1939): On the birds of northern Burma. Ibis, 841; 5. — — — (1939): On the Identity of Elachura haplonota. Ibis, 81; 348-349. Vaurie, Charles (1950): Notes on some Asiatic Nuthatches and Creepers. Amer. Mus. Novit., No. 1472; 5-8. NOTES ON THE GREY MULLETS (MUGI/L SPP.) OF KRUSADAI ISLAND, GULF OF MANAAR * BY K. CHIDAMBARAM & G. K. KURIYAN (Marine Biological Station, Krusadai Island, Pamban) (With a text figure) Grey Mullets (Mugi/ spp.) constitute an important group of fishes hugging the shores of Krusadai and nearby islands in the Gulf of Manaar. The mullet fishery extends throughout the year. The fish is caught in comparatively shallow water at flood tide, with cast and drag nets. The following three species have been found to predominate in the commercial catches: 1. Mugil troscheliz (Blkr.) 2. M. waigiensis (Quoy & Gaim.), and 3. M. sehelt (Forsk.) Mugil seheli Forsk. These species are being studied in detail in view of their impor- tance for cultivation in marine, brackish water and fresh water- farms. In this note are embodied certain details of their bionomics. Food of Mullets: The diet of mullets in Krusadai area, as revealed by systematic analyses of 101 specimens of each of the three species, is presented in the following Table I. , The food consists mainly of planktonic organisms. Diatoms formed on an average 65 to 75% of the total volume of the gut contents. The _* Read before the 37th Session of the Indian Science Congress and published with the kind permission of the Director of Fisheries, Madras, 5 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 516 SBS TL SNOJUSWLTY Wy UNLMSAPCYILAT :Ja}Jeul [esle pue ‘ - DLYISZILNT 2) v1UNOSOZLY T *$72I9S2POULI30) ‘LLAYIOLSSBIDY J, A[WIPUL : SUIOIVIG WUeNLWMSApOY IL -Jayew [vole pue : SWISZPOULISOD) AW SMLYISZILAT ‘OUGISOANI T ‘XY J02SSD] 0Y [ ATUIeUL : SWO}IG : “UNLUMSIPOYIVAT , ie : Bo [e SNOJUsWIBUUTY | : 1a}]eW [esle pue ead : DINILAAT 2Q SwIsipouLIsoy isUlo 6.72 OC 7 Le ‘pues pue sjjous UvIIIUIUIBIOT | SMIOM o}OvYyoA[Og I 1 aes 7 >... SUIIOW as ajavyosjog pur atl | spodaedod 2% spoo DUBS PUL ST[AYS UBIOJIUIMIEIO,, |-BI]SQ ‘sUBLOEISHID SUID 6-2 O} G-LT EE IAN ANS swsuaeslvm "fy °2Z 21JAYISOAL “J “TY — ——— ‘OLY ISZJUNT | ‘VULGLSOANI] T pues pue s{[ays uvId] SULIOM 939vYOA[Og ‘LILY J0USSDIDY T -IULWIPIOJ SHOU seu s[od | put. ¢podedoz) ATUIVUL > SUO}LIG Sta ¢.7¢ 0} CT ee eccee uo} xueldoyAyg SW9}I SNOSULISOSIFY me ee uo} Ug Dee ote Satoeds Jo omen JO asUel 3ZIG ] HIV GREY MULLETS OF KRUSADATI ISLAND: 517 usual outward appearance’ of the: stomach was slightly greenish. In’ several instances.the «stomach and intestines’ were: virtually. gorged=with diatoms.. A large percentage of thé:JZ: wazgiensts examined showed ‘a: comparative abundance of the alga: Trichodesmium erythraeum in the stomach. The presence of formaniferan shells and sand is suggestive of: the eassinle: and occasional browsing habit of mullets at the substratum, “Food of fry OL Metter at The stomach ‘contents of the fry show that they are surface and mid-water feeders. The analysis of the pat, contents is given. below i in Table il. Pee aoe ore ei Ri Name | Phytoplankton _ Zooplankton. specimens examined |. “No:-of : — ve. a — Fry of MZ, troschelti 50 Diatoms: © pe mainly ZT halasstothrix, Nitzschia, ' | Copepods Pleurosigma, i Chaetoceras & Fragillaria Algae: Oscillotaria Fry of W. waigiensis 50 | Diatoms: -| Crustaceans: mainly Copepods & Pleurosigma & Leuctter ; Coscinodiscus ; and larva! algal filaments Polychaetes and algal spores ; The fry of JZ. ¢troschelli take to phytoplanktonic diet with great avidity, while those of JZ. wazgiensts feed mainly on copepods. The fry of the latter species showed in many cases a selective feeding, as the stomach was frequently noticed to be full of copepods only. Breeding Seasons: Examinations of gonads in the laboratory revealed that the mullets have a prolonged breeding period from May of one year to February of the succeeding year. Mullet fry are avail- able for collection in the inshore areas of Krusadai Island almost throughout the year. Characters of Fry: A provisional key for the field identifica- tion of eight species of mullets¢n the Madras waters as classified by Chidambaram and Venkataraman is given by Job and Chacko (1947) in their paper on ‘ Rearing oi saltwater fish in fresh waters of Madras’. The fry of mujlets also present certain difficulties in their identification. In view of the fact that the field identification of the fry of mullets ra 518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 50 would be of benefit to the pisciculturist, and as the cultivation of mullets in marine and fresh water farms is gaining importance in the country, the need for a key for identification of fry is keenly felt. The distinguishing characters of the fry of M. troschelzi and M. waigiensis are detailed ‘below : Fry of 1. tvoscheliz. Dorsal side grey and ventral side silvery ; dorsal and caudal fins spotted; a dark blotch at the upper edge of the pectoral fin. Fry of 47. waigiensis. Exceedingly shiny and silvery all over, except dark margins of the dorsal fins. The pelvic and pecto- rals tinged yellow. Grey coiour first appears on the dorsal side of the head when about 2 cms. in length, and slowly extends to the dorsal side of the body. Discussion: Devanesen (1942) is of opinion that the fishery of M. waigiensis in the Krusadai area depends to a certain extent on the abundant occurrence of the blue green algae 77ichodesmium spp. in the plankton. Chacko and Venkataraman (1944) made notes on the food of twelve species of mullets in ‘our country’. But unfortunately the in- formation regarding the regions from where those specimens of mullet were collected is not given and that restricts the scope of comparison of their data with what is presented in this paper. But ona closer examina- tion of the data furnished by them on the stomach contents of the twelve species, it is noticed that they were collected in the estuaries and back- waters or in the seas close to the mouths of rivers, as evident from the presence of organisms which are characteristic of brackish and fresh waters. Jacob and Krishnamurthy (1948) have given a few more organisms as forming the diet of 47. troschelit and M. watgienszs than those recorded by Chacko and Venkataraman (1944). Chacko (1949), presenting the food and feeding habits of the fishes of the Gulf of Manaar has recorded the gut contents of JZ. troscheltz, M. waigiensts and M. seheli. In addition to the previous records of the stomach contents of the three species of /ugil, the following organisms have been observed in the course of this study. 1. WM. troschelli — Trichodesmium sp. & copepods. 2. M. waigiensis — (No new records) 3. M. sehelt — Foraminiferan shells. Chacko (1949) suggests that J/. sehel¢ is a plankton feeder, but it has been observed by us that this species resorts to occasional bottom feeding also, like the other two. The sand and bottom scum are found in the stomach contents of JZ. ¢roschelzz in the Krusadai area, but appar- ently not in Ennore region. The phytoplanktonic organisms of brackish water origin as recorded by the other investigators are not found includ- ed in the stomach contents of the three species under examination at Krusadai. Our observations, in general, on the feeding habits of mullets confirm those of the previous workers regarding their plank- tonic diet and their occasional feeding at the bottom. Regarding the food of mullet fry, Jacob and Krishnamurthi (1948) state that the fry of mullets of Ennore share all the adult characters in their type of food and manner of feeding. The analyses presented above for the Krusadai area show a conspicuous absence of forminiferan shells and sand grains. GREY MULLETS OF KRUSADAI ISLAND 519 There is hence every reason to believe that only full-grown mullets. resort to occasional browsing at the substratum. According to Jacob and Krishnamurthy (1948) ‘the mullets of Madras coast breed soon after the commencement of the monsoon’ and they have observed the gonads to be ripe from October to. May. This indicates that the stimuli for breeding may be certain. factors including perhaps those caused by the monsoon. The factors. may possibly be physical, like temperature, wind and current ;. chemical, like salinity and oxygen content; and physiological, like availability of food (diatoms mainly). This aspect is under further investigation and the findings will be presented separately. Summary: Grey mullets constitute an important group of fishes. hugging the shores of Krusadai and nearby islands in the Gulf of Manaar. The three important species constituting the fishery are: (1) M. troschelit (Blkr.), (2) MZ. watgiensts (Quoy and Gaim.) and (3) M. sehelt (Forsk). The food of the adult and fry of the first two. species are presented and discussed. ‘The characters for identifying in. the field the fry of WZ, troschelit and M. waigiensis are given in view of their importance for pisciculturists, since the cultivation of mullets in: marine and fresh water farms is gaining more importance in this country than ever before. REFERENCES 1. Chacko, P. I. (1949): Food and feeding habits of the fishes of the Gulf of Manaar. Pro. Ind. Acad. S¢i., 29; 83. 2. Chacko, P. I. & Venkataraman, R.S. (1944): On the food of Mullets. Curr. Sct, March 1944, 14; 79. 3. Chidambaram, K. & Kuriyan, G. K. (1949): Fluctuation of Zyrichodes-. mium erythraeum in the Krusadai Plankton with its relation to hydrographical condition and fisheries. (Mss.) 4. Devanesan, D. W. (1942): Plankton studies in the Fisheries branch of the- Department of Industries and Commerce, Madras. Curr. Sct., 11,3 143. 5. Devanesen, D. W. & Chacko P. I. 1944: On the Bionomics of Rainbow. Sardine, Dussumieria haseltitz. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sct. India, 10; 143. 6. Devanesen, D. W. & Chidambaram, K. (1948): The common food fishes of Madras Presidency— Madras Govt. Pubin. 1948, p. 30. 7. Jacob, P. K. & Krishnamurthy, B. (1948): Breeding and feeding habits. of Mullets (/ugi/) in Ennore Creek. Jouvn.Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. 47 (4) ; 063-668... 8. Job, T. J. & Chacko, P. I. (1947): Rearing of salt water fish in fresh. waters of Madras— Jud. Ecologist, 2. 9. John, C.C. (1948): Progress reports of the fisheries development schemes, Cert. Res. Inst. Div. Mar. Biol. and Fisheries— May 1948, No. 1—'Trivandrum. ‘CONTRIBUTIONS. TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY. OF INDIAN BOTANY BY 3 ‘A. SANTAPAU, Se Parr I The present paper is intended as a complement to Blatter’s ‘A Bibliography of the Botany of British India and’ Ceylon’ published in this Journal (20: Ixxix -clxxvi, 1909). Such bibliographical lists are of great help to students, ene unfortunately ney, are > all too rare in India. Pritzel- with | hig Thestiterus Literaturae Botanica (1831) set the fashion in this line ;-he has been followed by a- distinguished’ succession of authors in many countries, especially i in the U.S:A. «Indian literature on the subject is very méagre; in addition to the” ‘papet ‘by Shaw and Bose cited below and a few minor ones, we can show nothing to compare with the numerous contributions from foreign countries.- Fhe directors of UNESCO have realised or position,. and how seriously we are hampered in our work by this want of literature, and this is why they have’ :recently..undertaken. the . erm oe of an. purer Oker “series of bulletins, of. great promise, | bs ~The following list has been ‘somewhat! _diffe?ently: planned from that of Blatter ;-:the division of the: country into floristic regions may be a. logical one,» but makes reference rather .difficult .and~ often. con- fusing. All my references to general or local floras have been alpha- betically ‘arranged in Part, 1; Part II lists a number of monographs or papers. dealing. with. families, ‘genera or even. individual species, the families being” arranged in’ alphabetical ‘order, and within. the familv references’ follow thé alphabetical order of their authors’ ‘names. My. scope has been: restricted to the Phanerogams, . and in consequence ferns}; mosses, . etcy are. left out; further, vas., a. rule only. papers of taxonomic: or systematic. interest: are given- here,’ other. papers: on. ana- tomy, morphology, cytology,. etc. are, only mentioned in so far as they may;, be.-considered to be of interest for. the’ study :of. taxonomy. In general, works listed by Blatter in his Bibliography have been omitted here; where the title of the work or paper is incorrectly or in- completely given by Blatter, it is here corrected to the best of my information. Many of the references in Part II are to books which at first sight may appear to have nothing to do with India; as a rule, however, only monographs dealing with families represented in India are inserted here. Among the foreign books or papers in my list, it will be at once clear that many deal with the flora of Malaya or of the Dutch East Indies ; such papers have been carefully studied and found of great help in the study of our Indian flora; in this respect the various contributions from the Buitenzorg botanic garden that have appeared either in the Bulletin du Jardin Botanique, Buitenzorg, or in Blumea deserve careful study and attention. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY 521 Materials for the present paper have been collected in the course of a number of years; but it was mainly during my long stay in Kew that most of the references were seen and checked. At first it was my intention to publish a comprehensive list of the papers on which my Flora of Khandala had been based, and to append such a list as a bibliography to my book. Gradually, however, my plan expanded so as to include books or papers dealing with plants not only of Khandala but also of other parts of India. Ceylon, Burma and Pakistan have been left out of my list, first because politically they no longer form part of India, and secondly because with the omission of these countries our Indian flora, and consequently its bibliography, have become a much more homogeneous and compact unit. Most of the references here given have been personally checked by the author in Kew or elsewhere; a good number of the papers given in this list can be seen in St. Xavier’ s College, Bombay, either in the original, or in photographic copies or in fairly lengthy MS. abstracts. The author does not claim to have exhausted the subject; the references here given have been of great help to him and it is hoped that they may also be of help to other Indian botanists in their systematic work on Indian plants. In conclusion, it is the author’s pleasant duty to express his sincere gratitude to Mr. H. S. Marshall, the librarian, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for the great kindness with which he has. often come to the author’s help in his search for references dealing with Indian plants. ABBREVIATIONS In order to save space, the titles of the more common journals have been shortened from the usual internationally accepted forms to but a few letters. The following are the more commonly used abbre- viations. of this type: ARBG Annals of the. Ros al Botanic’ Gardens Calcutta. Buitenz. _ Bulletin du Jardin Botanique. Buitenzorg, Java. JB Journal of Botany, British and. Foreign. London. JBNHS Journal of the Bombay Natural eae | | Society. : _ Bombay. eS © Journal of! Indian Botany or Journal of: the Indian Botanical : Society. : sjLS Journal of the Linnean eee Botany. London. FEES) + . Transactions of. the Linnean Society, London.’ RBSI ~~ Records of the Botanical Survey of India. Calcutta. Pfreich. —_~‘Engler’s Das Pflanzenreich. Pian." * | Engler and Prantl Ss Die, Natiirlichen EE ceaterailicee ‘Part | I: General Ahern, G. P. & H. K. Newton 1928. A Bibliography on Woods of the World, -exelsive ‘of ake temperate region of North America and with emphasis on tropical woods. Sct. Contrib. Trop. Plant: Res. Found. NOSIS spp. 772-1 EO. .eelosy me: wi 7 522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vou. 50 Alston, A. H. G. 1929. Names published in Moon’s Catalogue. Ann. Roy. Bot. » Gard) Perad."11': 9263-205. 1928. The Kandy Flora. See also under Trimen H. Anderson, B. 1862. Catalogue of Plants Indigenous in the Neighbourhood of Calcutta with directions for the Examination and Pre- servations of Plants. Calcutta; pp. 22. Anderson, Gr, 1888. Forest Trees in the Coffee Lands of South Mysore. Bangalore. Anderson, Th. 1865. Catalogue of plants cultivated in the Royal Botanic Gardens,,. Calcutta, from April 1861 to September 1864. Calcutta. Arjun, 3S, 1878. Catalogue of the Bombay Drugs including a list of the medicinal plants of Bombay used in the fresh state. Bombay. Arnott, G. A. Walker, 1836. Pugillus Plantarum Indiae Orientalis. Nov. Act. Phys.-Med.. Caes. Leop.-Carol. Nat. Cur. 18 (1): 321-356d. Atkinson, E. C. 1881. Memoirs on the economic products. of N.W. Provinces,. India. Allahabad. Bales. N., 1940. An outline of Pharmacopoeial drugs of vegetable origin.. Calcutta.’ Ppsi1-74, Wit: o1-6) 1942. Useful plants of Mayurbhanj State in Orissa. RBSI. 6 (10): i-xii, I-IIQ, i-xXx. Balfour, E. 1870. The Timber-trees, Timber and Fancy Woods of India and of E. and S. Asia. Madras, ed. 3. Barnes, E. 1938. Supplement to the Flowering Plants of Madras City and its immediate neighbourhood. Governt. Mus. Bull.,. Madras, (N-S.) (Nat. Hist: Sect.) c4 (aie spp: (46s tt.a7. (See below under Mayuranathan, P. V.) 1944. Flowering Plants of the Billigirangan Hills. JBNHS a4: 436-459. Beddome, R. H. 1863. The Trees of the Madras Presidency. Madras. 1866. A List of the Exogenous Plants found in the Anamallay Mountains, in Southern India, with Descriptions of the New Species. TLS 25: 209-225, tt. 21-27. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY 523 1868. Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis: or Plates and Descrip-- tions of new and rare plants from Southern India and Ceylon. Madras, 1868-1874. 1869. The Flora Sylvatica for Southern India: containing quarto: plates of all the principal timber trees in Southern India and Ceylon, accompanied by a Botanical Manual, with descriptions of every known tree and shrub, and analysis. of every genus not figured in the plates. Madras, 1869- 1874. (‘Forester’s Manual of Botany for Southern India’ is ON pages i-cCxxxIx, tt. 1-29. From the original covers of the separate parts, the dates of publication are the following: Tt. 1-36, 1869; 37-72, 1870; 73-168, 1871 5. 169-288, 1872; 289-325, 1873; 328-330, 1874). Benthall, A. P. 1946. The Trees of Calcutta and its Neighbourhood . . . with 274. illustrations . . . Calcutta. Pp. i-cil, 1-513. Birdwood, G. C. M. 1862. Catalogue of the Economic Products of the Presidency of Bombay; being a catalogue of the Government Central Museum. Division I. Raw Produce (Vegetable) . . Bombay. 1865. Catalogue of the Vegetable Productions of the Presidency of Bombay; including a list of the drugs sold in the bazaars of Western India. . . . Second edition. Bombay. Pp. 45-458. Birdwood, H. M. 1886. A Catalogue of the Flora of Matheran. JBNHS. 1: 203-- 214. 1887. A Catalogue of the Flora of Mahableshwar and Matheran.. JBNHS 2: 107-132 (See also under Cooke, 1887). 1896. A Catalogue of the Flora of Matheran and Mahableshwar. JBNHS 10: 394-439 (See also Cooke, 1896). Biscoe, W. F. | 1910. A List of Trees & Shrubs of Indore State. Bombay; pp. 108.. Biswas, K. 1926. Flora of the Salt Lakes, Calcutta. Journ. Dept. Sci. Cal- cutta Univ. vol. 8. 1935. The Vegetation on Tundi and neighbouring areas of the Hazaribagh Dist., Bihar, India. Trans. Min. & Geol. Inst. India, vol. 30. ~« 1937. Two New Flowering Plants. JIB 16: 57-61, ff. 1-6. “ 1940. Plants of the Lloyd Botanic Garden, Darjeeling. RBSI. 5 (5): i-lv, 369-478, map. 1941. The Flora of the Aka Hills. Ind. For. Rec. 3 (1): 1-62. 1943. Systematic and Taxonomic Studies on the Flora of India and Burma. Proc. Ind. Sci. Congr. 30 (2): 101-152. Biswas, K. & C. C. Calder 1936. Hand book of the Common Water and Marsh Plants of India and Burma. (Health Bull. No. 24, Malaria Bureau: Bull. 11) 524 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL HIST "SOCHETY,. Volk 50 > Blatter, E. 1905. The Fauna and Flora of our Metallic Money. JBNHS 10: 334-339: 1905. The Mangrove of ‘the Bombay Presidency and its Biology. Ibid. 16: 644-656. 1908. , On ithe -Plora of Cutchs, Sibi 1s: a 56-747, 1908; 19: 157- . 176, 1909. rgo9... The Blora-of Panchagni.. Ibid. {219% @74-342- tg11. A Bibliography of the Botany of British India and Ceylon. Ibid. 20: Ixxix-clxxvi. 1921.. Species Novae Indiae Orientalis. Decas I.. JIB 2: 44- 54) ff. I-5- 1926. Revision of the Flora of Bombay Presidency. (See below under Blatter, E. & C. McCann.) 1927. Beautiful Flowers of Kashmir. London; vols. 2; 1927-28. 1930. New Species of Indian Plants. Journ. & Proc. Asiat. Soc. Beng. (N.S.) 26: 339-366. ‘Blatter; E, & Prof: F. Hallberg 1918. The Flora of the Indian. Desert (Jodhpur and Jaisal mer). JBNHS 26: 218-246, It. 1-12, 19183 525-551, It. 13-255 Sri-Srey.” It.) 26-317 oro. 968-087, tise 2d: 40-47 ; 270-279," 1 t.,,329345 21920; 506-512, Tt. .25-37, 192i. Blatter, E. & C. McCann 2 1926. Revision’ of the Flora of Bombay Presidency. JBNHS 318 sav-cey, 1920, .“s2 Im all-27- paris were published between 1926 and 1935; parts 1-2, 12-14 & 20 by Blatter alone, the ‘rest im collaboration with McCann; parts 15- 26 are profusely | illustrated with EES. and text est The work is not completed. 1928... Some New. Species of Plants from the Western Ghats. yreGl |: Ibid. 32: 733-736, with a- plate. . Blatter, E., C. McCann & T. S. Sabnis 3 fates 1G27. The Flora of the Indus Delta. j7B 67: map); 31-477 ai. ; 78,' 115-132, 1927; 7: 22+43,' 70-96, “168-175, 1928; 8: 19-77, 1920. Illustrated with 50 hess and 140_-line drawings. Blatter, E> & W...S..Millard eee ae aoe 1929. Some Beautiful Indian Trees. JBNEHS 33: 624-635, 1929 - | This serial was ‘profusely illustrated “vith coloured plates, ~. .« photos and -text figures ; up to..thé time of Blatter’s wee 7 ew Geath ain 19345 14 parts had been Paneer See next item. : _1937.-.Some Beautiful. Indian Trees. Tandon: Pp. eX. ToL1O= Col rae plates 2; black and white plates 60, ce fig Wea 60. This -is.a reproduction with but few changes of the: serial above. ‘Boissier, E. , a 1867. Flora Orientalis sive. _Enumeratio. ‘Pisce ‘in oriente a +. +, Graecia et Aegypto. ad Indiae fines. hucusque observat- arum. Basle. 1867-1884. : Le © ry ere : ee CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY: OF INDIAN BOTANY 525 Bor N: °L. 1942. The Relict Vegetation of the Shillong Plateau, Assam. Ind. How, INeon (IN.5')\ Sali b5 22195. Bor, N. L. & M. B. Raizada 1939. Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. JBNHS a1: Pot, ol COl ss) pl. 2, i. 1-HO, FOa@s,4,.....1n, all, this serial consists of 28 parts, each with one or more coloured and several uncoloured plates and numerous text figures. Reference is made in Part II to the various families dealt with in this serial. Boérgesen, F. 1929. Notes on the Vegetation at Dwarka on the West Coast of India, with Reference to Raunkiaer’s ‘Life-Forms’ and Statistical Methods. jIB. 8: 1-18, tt. 1-3. Bourdillon, T. F. / 1893. Report on the Forests of Travancore. Trivandrum. 1899. Descriptions of some new or rare trees from Travancore. IBNAS .t2: 349-353,. tt-1-6, 1899. eGanG | 1916. Decas Specierum Novarum. Fedde, Repert. 14: 323-326. Brandis, D. Aavegs ett] 1906. - Indian Trees. An account of trees, shrubs, woody climbers, bamboos and palms indigenous or-commonly cultivated ‘in the British Indian Empire. . London 1906; third: im- eos TOLLS ue rh Beiquel: ie _ 1914. _Decades Plantarum. Novarum vel minus cognitarum. Ann. : Cons. Jard. Bot.’ Genéve Ls 326- 403. Bruhl, P. c 1908. Plant Immigrants. Journ. © Proc. Asai Soc.. Bengii(N-S_) Es a eateries? 65 6. ee — Dae Bek P. & -G. King 1896. A ace of New and Nae atele ‘Plants. “ARBG ey ate Mek 170, ‘tt. 102-200. 3 | Foo 8s, Burkill, F.' H. py se : 1910. Notes from a Journey to Nepal. RBSI- ‘as map, 59-140. 1916. A Note on the’ Terai’ Forests between the Gandak and the Bae cit ', Tista, : Journ. © Proc. Astat. Soc. Beng. 12.2 267-272. 1924. The Botany of the Abor Expedition, -oRBSTI. IO: I-420, tt. I-10, 1924-1925. eae 71935: ARGS Dictionary of. the Economic ses of | the Malay i Peninsula. . London. Er cworth, A. Ree he eb et hE betes I9ltr Some Madras Trees.. mae PED. eh-220. CE MESSI J. (& J. Decaisne) 1 Oqae ‘Plantae *Rarieres; quas..in India. orientali . Ae ater ~ Jacquemont.. In Voyage dans l’Inde BY V,. Jacquemont, on qr183, °18445- atlas pl. 1-180. 526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCGIEE YA Vet. Ha Cameron, J. 1880. Catalogue of Plants in the Botanical Garden, Bangalore, and its vicinity. Bangalore, 1894. Forest Trees of Mysore and Coorg. Bangalore, 3rd edit. Candolle, A. P., A., & C. de 1824. Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. Paris, 1824-1873. Candolle, A., & C. de 1878. Monographiae Phanerogamarum Prodromi nunc Continuatio: nunc Revisio, auctoribus Alphonso et Casimiro de Candolle. Paris. Vols. 9, 1878-1896; separate mono- graphs are listed under their authors in the second part. Champion, H. G. 1936. A Preliminary Survey of the Forest Types of India and Burma. Ind. For: Rec. (N.S.) 1 (1): Map, 1x, 1-286, vit, map; plates 1-38. Champion, H. G. & W. J. Lambert 1921. Notes on a Visit to the Pindari Glacier, Kumaon. Ind. POM OARS. tl =2,10 Chatterjee, D. 1946. New Records of Plants from India and Burma. Kew Buli. 1946: 49-50; 1949: 563-564. 1947. Influence of East Mediterranean Region Flora on that of India. Sc GS Cult. 13 240-11; 1948. New Plants from India and Burma. Kew Bull. 1948: 57- 655, 3737074: &) 1949. Validating Botanical Names by Reference to pre-1753 litera- ture. —foirn> Aon, Arb. 30: 71-74. Chatterjee, D. & S. K. Mukerjee 1940. Some new Plants from India and Burma. JIB 19: 77-89, ff. 1-7, 1 unnumbered. Chibber, H. M. 1916. A List of Natural Orders and Genera of Bombay Plants. with derivations of their names. JBNHS 24: 244-290,, 431-467, 783-814, 1916. Chopra, R. N., R. L. Badhwar, & S. L. Nayar 1941. Insecticidal and Piscidial Plants of India. JBNHS 42: 854-902. Cleghorn, H. 1856. General Index of the Plants described and figured in Dr. Wight’s work entitled ‘Icones Plantarum Indiae Orien- talis’. Madras, pp. i-ii, 1-78. 1861. The Forests and Gardens of South India. London. Colthurst, I. 1927. Familiar Flowering Trees in India. With Sixty-one illus- trations from photographs in colour and _half-tone- Second edition. Calcutta, 1927. Pp. (14), 1-148, (6). CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY 527 Cooke, Th. 1887. Note on the Flora of Mahableshwar and Matheran. J/BNHS. 2: 133-140. (This note is complementary to Birdwood, 1887, above). 1896. Supplementary note on the Flora of Matheran and Maha- bleshwar. Ibid. 10: 440-448. (See Birdwood, 1896). 1g01. The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. ‘London. 1gor- 1908. Coventry, A. M. 1go1. A Catalogue of the Trees and Shrubs of the Punjab. Coventry, B. O. 1923. Wild Flowers of Kashmir. London. Series I: pp. i-xxiii, I-102, XXV-xxxil, col. tt. frontispice & I-L, 1923; Series Il: pp. 1-xvil, 1-100, xix-xxvi, col. tt. frontispiece & I-L. Cowan, J. M. 1928. Flora of the Chakaria Sundarbans. RBSI. 11: 197-225. Cowan, A Wi, BAL, & ji. MM. The Trees of Northern Bengal including Shrubs, Woody Climbers, Bamboos, Palms and Tree Ferns. Cowen, D. V. ; 1950. Flowering trees and shrubs of India. Bombay; pp. i-xvi, 1-137, col. tt. 1-59 (unnumbered), uncol. figs. 1-39. Dastur, J. F. 1951. Useful Plants of India & Pakistan. Bombay, Pp. i-vi, 1- 260, text figs. 1-66. Don, G. 1831. A General History of the dichlamydeous plants comprising complete descriptions of the different orders; together with the characters of the genera and species, and an enumeration of the cultivated varieties, their places of growth, time of flowering, mode of culture and uses in medicine and domestic economy ; the scientific names ac- centuated, their etymologies explained, and the classes and orders illustrated by engravings, and preceded by introductions to the Linnean and natural systems, and a glossary of terms used, the whole arranged according to the natural system. London; 4 vols, 1831-1838. This book also goes under the name of ‘A General System of Gardening and Botany’. (See Kew Bull, 1925: 311- 315). Diruce, G. C. 1914. Notes on Nomenclature. Suppl. Bot. Exch. Club. Rep. 1913 3 ° Pp.. 1/1319. 1) 1905. The Vegetation of the Districts of Hughli-Howrah and the 24-Pergunnahs. RBSI 3: map, 143-339. Prantl, K. & A. Engler 1924. Die natirliche Pflanzenfamilien . . . (see under Engler). Pritzel, G. A. 3 1847. Thesaurus literaturae botanicae, omnium gentium inde a rerum botanicarum initiis ad nostra usque tempora, quin- decim millia operum recensus. i-vili, 1-547, 1847-1851; ed, 205-570), 11872. 1855. Iconum botanicarum index locupletissimus. An alphabetical register of upwards of eighty-six thousand representations of phanerogamic plants and ferns compiled from botanical and horticultural publications of the XVIIIth and XIXth centuries for scientific and practical use. 1-xxxil, I-1184. Raizada, M. B. 1931. Contributions to ‘Duthie’s Flora of the Upper -Gangetic Plain’ from the neighbourhood of Dehra Dun. JIB to: 155-158. 1935. Recently introduced or otherwise imperfectly known plants from the Upper Gangetic Plain. Ibid. 14: 339-348. 1941. New or little-known plants from Kumaon. Ind. For. 67: 15-23. 1941. On the Flora of Chittagong. Ibid. 67: 245-254. 1949. Some interesting plants from Orissa. JBNHS 48: 667- 680. Ramaswami, M. S. 1914. A botanical tour in the Tinnevelly Hills. RBSJ. 6: map TO5-171, tt. 1-2. Rao, M. R. i 1914. Flowering plants of Travancore. Trivandrum, 536 _ JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Razi, B. A. wt 1946. A List of Mysore Plants. Journ. Mysore Univ. (B) 7 (4): 39-81. 1950. A Bibliographical Negi of Systematic Botany i in Mysore, Ibid. 10: 59-66. 1950. An index to collections of Flowering Plants of Mysore as represented in Herbaria—I. Ibid. 11 (1): 1-20. 1950. An index to collections of Flowering Plants of Mysore as represented in Herbaria—II. Ibid. 21-55, map. Razi, B. A., B. G. L, Swami & J. M. Thirumalachar 1949. Additions to the Common Flowering Plants of Nandi Hills. Tbtd.. 30 (5)e 78-34. Rehder, A. . tg11. The Bradley Bibliography. A guide’to the Literature of the Woody Plants of the World published before the be- ginning of the Twentieth Century. Cambridge, Mass. Vols. 5, published ror1-1918, as Publ. Arnold Arb. No. 3. Sabnis,, a 7 S: 1940. A Contribution to the Flora of the Punjab Plains and the Associated Hill regions. JBNHS 42: 124-149. Sabnis, IT. S., E. Blatter &/C. WvicCann e 1927. The Flora of the Indus Delta. (See above under Blatter.) Sampson, H. C. 1936. Cultivated crop plants of the British Empire and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan . . . Kew Bull., Addit, Ser, 12: I-viill, 1-251. ; be Santapau, H. or 1945. New Plant Records for Bombay Presidency. JBNHS 45: 45-448. 1946. Nee Piet Records for the Presidency of Bombay II. Ibid. AG. 1377-3815 plate: 1948. New Plant Names from India. Kew Bull. 1948: 276. 1949. Novitates Bombaienses. Kew Bull. 1948: 485-492, 1949. 1950. Iter Kathiawarense, Being Notes on a botanical tour in Nawanagar State, Oct.-Nov. 1945. Journ. Gujarat Res. Soc. 11-12: 226-237, Tt. 1-4. 1951. A Contribution to the Flora. of Simhagadh Hill, Poona District. The Poona Agric. Coll. Mag. 41: 270-284. Saxton, W. T. : ; 1922. Additional Plants of Northern Gujarat. RBSI_9: 251-262. Saxton, W. T. & L. J. Sedgwick | 1918. Plants of Northern Gujarat. RBSI 6: 207-323, i-xiii. Sayeed-ud-Din, M. 1936. Some of the Common Flowering Plants of the Pyderaues State, their distribution and economic importance. Mono- cotyledons—Part I. _ Journ. Roy, Asiat. Soc. Beng. 2: S994. exit to aiealee ME an CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY 537 1938. A Further Contribution to some of the Common Flowering Plants of the Hyderabad State; their distribution and economic importance. Dicotyledons. JBNHS 4o:. IQI-212, 1938. Catalogue of Plants Cultivated in the Botanic Garden Osmania University, Hyderabad, Dn. Collections 1935- 1937.. Hyderabad, Pp. 1-20, pl. 2, map. 1941. Additions to our knowledge of the’ Flowering Plants of H.E.H. -the Nizam’s Dominions, Hyderabad, Deccan. JBNHS 42: 903-924, plate 1. Sedgwick, L. J. 1921. New Bombay Species. JIB 2: 123-131, tt. 3 (not numbered). Shaw, I. ie. & RD. Bose 1930. List of Publications on the Botany of Indian Crops. Imp. Inst, Agric. Res. a ie Bull. No. 202 Pp, 1-256. y Shortt: 1. 1877, List of Wild Plants and Vegetables used as food by the people in famine times. Madras. Smith, W. W. 1911. Some additions to the Flora of the Eastern Himalayas. RBS 4: *261-272. 1913. The Alpine and Sub-alpine Vegetation of South-East Sikkim. Ibid. 4: 323-431, i-x. Smith, W. W. & G. H. Cave 1911. The Vegetation of the Zemu and Llonakh Valleys of Sikkim. Ibid. 4: map, 141-260, pl. 2. Smith, W. W., S. C. Bannerji & M, S. Ramaswami 1913. Two decades of new Indo-Burmese Species. Ibid. 6: 29- 40. Sprague, T. A. 1928. The Correct Spelling of Certain Generic Names. Kew Bull. 1928; tI ER-115 3285-290 3 337-365. Srivastava, G. D. 1938. Flora of Allahabad. Part I. Allahabad Univ. Stud. 14 (Sci.): 87-133. Stewart, J. L. & D. Brandis 1874. Forest Flora of N.W. and Central India: with a volume of illustrations, drawn by W. Fitch. London. Stapf, O. - 1929. Index Londinensis to illustrations of flowering Plants, Ferns and Fern-allies, being’ an amended and enlarged edition continued up to the end of the year 1920 of _ Pritzel’s. alphabetical register’... .- London; vols, 6; _ 1929-1931. eit he 538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 50 Steudel, E. (G: 1821. Nomenclator botanicus. Stuttgart, 2 vols. 1821, 1824. 2nd. edit. 2 vols, 1840, 1841. ; 1854. Synopsis plantarum Glumacearum. Stuttgart, 2 vols., 1854- 1855, 1855. Symonds, W. P. | 1901. Vernacular Names of Plants in the Presidency proper, Bombay. Bombay; Pp. 1-2, 1-78; there is no date on the title-page, but the preface is dated 1901. Tadulingam, C. 1915. Some Weeds of the Central Farm, Coimbatore. Coimbatore ; Pp. 12. This is a reprint of four papers published in the Journal Madras Agric. Stud. Union. Talbot, W. A. 1897. New Species of Western Peninsular Plants from North Kanara and Mysore. JBNHS 11: 234-238, T. I-X. 1898. Species of Western Peninsular Trees, Shrubs, etc. from North ‘Kanara, Bombay. JBNHS 8: 690-693, tt. 11-14. 1902. ‘The Trees, Shrubs and Woody Climbers of the Bombay Presidency. Bombay. ed. 2. 1906. The Distribution of the Forest Flora of the Bombay Presi- dency and Sind. Ind. For. 1906: 8-23, 56-63, 126-141. 1909. Forest Flora of the Bombay Presidency and Sind. Poona; 2 vols., 19009, 1911. Thakar, J. Indraji 1910. Botany. A Complete and Comprehensive Account of the Flora of Barda Mountain (Kathiawad). Bombay. 1926. Plants of Cutch and their Utility. Bombay. Trimen, H. 1893. A Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon containing descriptions of all the species of flowering plants indigenous to the island, and notes on their history, distribution, and uses . . . With an atlas of plates. London. Vols. 1-5 by Trimen; Vol. 6, Supplement, by A. H. G. Alston, 19309. Voigt, J. C. 1845. Hortus suburbanus calcuttensis. A Catalogue of the plants which have been cultivated in the Hon. East India Com- pany’s Botanical Garden, Calcutta, and in the Serampore Botanical Garden, generally known as Dr. Carey’s Gar- den, from the beginning of both establishments (1786 and 1800) to the end of August 1841; drawn according to the Jussieuan arrangement, and mostly in conformity with the second edition (1836) of Lindley’s Natural System of Botany .. . Calcutta. Watson, J. F. 1866. Index to the Native and Scientific Names of Indian and other Eastern Economic Plants and Products. London. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY 5389 1872. A List of Indian Products with details relative to certain operations connected with the Industrial Survey of India. London. Wight, R. 1838. Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis . . . Madras. The dates of publication of this very important work are the following: Icones Nos. 1-100 1838. 931-1046 1845. 101-24l 1839. 1047-1162 1846. 242-416 1840. 1163-1403 1848. 417-631 1840-43. 1404-1501 1849, 632-736 1843. 1502-1621 1850. 737-815 1844, 1622-1762 1851. 816-930 1844-45. 1763-1920 1852. 1921-2101 1853. Wood, J. J. 1902. Plants of Chutia Nagpur, including Jaspur and Sirguja. RBST 2 (1). Woodrow, G. M. ; ' 1895. Notes on a Journey from Poona to Nagotna. RBSI 1: 89-97. 1897. The Flora of Western India. JBNHS 11: 118-130, 265- 27/735 15897. 5 420-440,, 6357651; 1808; \12'2162-176,) 1808 ; 354-373, 515-526, 1899; 13: 427-442, Igor. 1910. Gardening in the Tropics, being a sixth edition of ‘Garden- ing in India’. . . Paisley. Wyckoff, E. 1913. Bibliography relating to the flora of Asia, embracing bota- nical section T of the Lloyd library. Bibl. Contr. Lloyd Libr, 439-468. Anonymous. 1910. Decades Kewenses . . . Decas LVI. Kew Bull. 1910: 73- 79. The series of Decades Kewenses from 1910 to 1940 contains large number of Indian plants described for the first time by Gamble, Fischer, Dunn, Craib, etc. An important series. - 1913. Names of the Field and Market Garden Crops and of the Principal Fruit and Timber Trees of the United Provinces Oh NetavandwOudh. | Dept, Wand shee iG Apnc. U.P., Bull. No. 30, Agric. series. Pp. 1-95. 1925. Additions to the Index Kewensis: V. Kew Bull, 1925: . 311-315. On p. 312: ‘Nomina nuda published in Wallich’s Catalogue and Roxburgh’s Hortus Bengalensis and validated by description in G. Don’s General System.’ 1945. A Handbook of Empire Timbers. (Rev. Edit.) Dept. Sct. | Indust. Res, (Forest Products Res.) London. 1948. The Wealth of India. A Dictionary of Indian Raw Materials and Industrial Products. Delhi; Vol. 1: A-B, 1948; vol. 2: C, 1950. Important articles of this Dictionary are mentioned in Part II. | JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 1949. Bibliography of Scientific Publications of South East Asia (India, Burma, Ceylon). Delhi; Unesco; No. 1 January- June 1949. Part II: References by Families 540 ACANTHACEAE Anderson, T. -On the identification of ane Acanthaceae of the Linnean Herbarium, in the possession of the Linnean Society of 1863. JLS Londont*}/US 97:5 111-118. An Enumeration of the Indian Species of Acanthaceae 1867. Q: 425-526. Bole; PV. .&.1 {Santapau 1951. A note on Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus Dalz. JBNHS Ou 420-430 gets ear Bor, N: Le. & M82 Raizada 1941. Acanthaceae. /JBNHS 42: coloured plates 5, text figs 685-697, Col. plate 8A, un- : T=: Bremekamp, C. E. B. 1944. Materials for a Monograph of the Strobilanthinae (Acanth- aceae). Nederl.. Akad. Wet., Verh. (Sect. 11) 41 (1): - 1-306, Tt. 1-6. 1948. Notes on the Acanthaceae of Java. Ibid. 45 (2): Bremekamp, C. E. B. & N. E. Nannenga-Bremekamp 1949. A Preliminary Survey of the Ruelliinae (Acanthaceae) of the Malay Archipelago and New Guinea. Ibid. 45 (1): I-39. Periodical flowering of Strobilanthes spp., and of Aech- 1-78. Duthie, J. F. 1890. i manthera tomentosa, Nees. JBNHS 5: 417-418 Lindau, G. 1893. Ubersicht tiber die bisher bekannten Arten der Gattung fhunbergia L.f. Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 17, Beibl. 41: 31-42. McCann, C. 1943. The Flowering of Strobilanthes callosus Nees. JBNHS 44: : Comes Nees von Esenbeck, C. G. 1832. Acanthaceae Indiae Orientalis. In Wallich, Pl. Asiat. Rar. 2% YO-117. 1837. Characters of New Species of Indian Acanthaceae. Hook. ; Comp. Bot. Mag. 2: 310-313. illustratio monographica. Vvratislavae 1841. Lepidagathidis . ad Viadrum. Radlkofer, L. 7 1883. Uber den systematischen Werth der Pollenbeschaffenheit | bei den Acanthaceen. Sitz. Bay. Akad. Wiss. 13 (2): | : | Rr 4 4 250314.) Santapau; H. Ae a4 1944. The eae of Strobilanthes. _JBNHS 44: 605-606. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY 3AL 1952. The Acanthaceae of Bombay. Bot. Mem. Univ. Bombay INOt\ 2% | 2 Steenis, C. G..G. J. van 1942. Gregarious Flowering of Stigbildbithes (Acanthaceae) i Malaysia. ARBG 150th Anniv, Vol., pp. g1-97. AEGINETIACBAE. Livéta, E. J. 1927. Aeginetiaceae A New Natural Family of Flowering Plants. Ann, Bot. Gard. Peradeniya 10 (2): 145-159. AGAVEACEAE Berger, A. : . 1915. Die Agaven. Beitrage zu einer Monographie. Pp. i-vi, . 1-288, ff. 1-79. Drummond, J. R. & D. Prain 1906. Notes on Agave and Furcraea in India. Agric. Ledg. 1906 (7) 77-271. He ALANGIACEAE Bice beiwenr, 5: 1935- The Genus Alangium in the Netherlands Indies. Blumea I: 241-294. 1939. A Revision of the Genus Alangium. Butterie. (ser. 3) 26: | 139-235. Wangerin, Ww. 19gog. Alangiaceae. Pigeich. Are t-25, tt. 1-6: AMARANTHACEAE Merrill, B.D. ex 1936. On the Application of the binomial Amaranthus viridis = Linnaeus. Amer. Journ. Bot. 23: 609-612, f. I. Sandwith, N. Y. | | 1946. Gomphrena celosioides Mart., a weed spreading in the Old ~. - World Tropics. Kew Bull. 1944: -29-30. Schinz, H. 7 ) : 1903. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Amaranthaceen. Bull. Herb. Boiss. (Set. 2) 321-0: | 1934. Amaranthaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) 16c: 7-85, ff. 1-46. AMARYLLIDACEAE Baker, J. G. is 1881. A Synopsis of the known species of Crinum. Gard. Chron. Ese 703, 750) Tool 2102039, -72, 080, 305- “399, 495-496, 588-589, 760, 784-785, 1881. 1888. A Handbook of -the Amaryllideae, including the. Alstroe- merieae and Agaveae. London; i-xii, 1-216. Bose Cle rbottniannt. Ue ite TAN ges is steel) x "* 14930. -Amaryllidaceae. -Pfam..(ed. 2) 15a: 391-430, ff. 163-187. 542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 50 | AMPELIDACEAE Clarke, °C. -B: 1881. A Revision of the Indian Species of Leea. JB 19: 100-106, | 135-142, 163-167. 2 Gagnepain, F. 1910. Essai d’une classification des Leea asiatiques. Bull. Soc. Bot, France 57: 331-336. 1910. Essai de classification du genre Tetrastigma. Not, Syst. I: 306-326. 1911. Un genre méconnu: Classification des Cissus et Cayratia. Ibid. 1: 339-362. 1911. Révision des Ampelidacées asiatiques et malaises. Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. Autun 24: 1-41. King, G. 1896. Notes on the Indian Species of Vitis Linn. Journ, Asiat. Soc. Beng. 65 (Pt. 2): 108-114. Pianchon, ‘J.35; 1887. Ampelideae. In DC., Mon. Phan. 5: 305-648. Viala, P. 1901. Ampélographie. Traité général de viticulture. Vols. 7: IQOI-1g09. ANACARDIACEAE Engler, A. 1881. Uber die morphologischen Verhaltnisse und die geographische Verbreitung der Gattung Rhus, wie der mit ihr verwand- ten, leben und ausgestorbenen Anacardiaceae. Engl. Bot. Jahrb. 1: 365-426, pl. 4. 1883. Anacardiaceae. .In DC., Mon. Phan. 4: 171-500, Tt. 4- 150.0 Mukerjee, S. 1950. Wild Mangoes in India. Sci. & Cult. 15: 469-471. Mukerjee, vo. 2K: 1948. The Varieties of Mango (Mangifera indica L.) and their classification. Bull. Bot. Soc. Beng. 2: to1-133. Woodrow, M. 1904. The Mango; its culture and varieties. Paisley; Pp. 32, ff. 2, plates) 3: ANCISTROCLADACEAE Gilo, EF. 1925. Ancistrocladaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2), vol. 21. ANONACEAE Blatter, E. - 1930. Anonaceae. JBNHS 34: 291-294. Chatterjee, D. » : 1941. A Revision of the Indian and Burmese Species of Sageraea / ..> - (Anonaceae). Proce. Linn. Soc., London 154: 263-260. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY 543 King, G. 1893. The Anonaceae of British India. ARBG 4: i-xi, 1-160, i-iv; Tt. 1-220. Safford, W. E. 1912. Desmos, the proper generic name for the so-called Unonas of the Old World. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 39: 501- 508. APOCYNACEAE Bor, N. L. & M. B. Raizada 1945. Apocynaceae. JBNHS 45: 263-279, col. plate No. 22, ff. 1-7, uncoloured plates 3; 451-461, col. plate No. 23, ff. 1-6, uncoloured plates 4, 1945. Chatterjee, D. 1947. The Genus Chonemorpha G. Don. (Apocynaceae). Kew Bulla, ©1@47.3, 47252). Haines, H. H. 1919. Indian Species of Carissa. Ind. For. 45: 375-388, Tt. 1-7, 1919; 47: 377-379, 1921. Markgraf, F. 1935. Die Gliederung der asiatischen Tabernaemontanoiden. Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin 12: 540-552. Merrill, E. D. 1922. The generic name Parsonsia and the status of Parsonsia helicandra Hooker & Arnott. Brittonia 1 (4): 233-237. Pichon, M. 1947. Classification des Apocynées. II. Genre ‘Rauwolfia’. Bull. Soc. Bot. France 94: 31-39. a APONOGETONACEAE Camus, A. 1923. Le genre Aponogeton L.f. Bull. Soc. Bot. France 70: 670-676. Krause, K. & A. Engler. : 1906. Aponogetonaceae. Pfreich. 24: 1-24, ff. 1-9. ARACEAE Barnes, E. 1934. Some observations on the genus Arisaema on the Nilgiri Hills, South India. JBNHS 37: 630-639, tt. I-II. Blatter, E. & C. McCann 1931.. Araceae. JBNHS 35: 13-31, plates 1-7. Engler, A. 1879. Araceae. In DC., Mon. Phan. 2: 1-681. 1905. Araceae. Pfreich. 21: 1-330, ff. 1-88, 1905; 37: 1-3, f. Iga, 1908; 48: 1-130, ff. 1-44, 1911; 64: 1-78, ff. 1-34, 1915573: 1-284, ff. 1-64; 74: - 1-71, .1920. 044 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAI. HIST,.SOCIETY, VPol..60.... Engler, A. & K. Krause 1 a 2. 3908. Araceae. Pfreich. 372 4-139, ff. 1-56, 19083. 55+ 1-134, 1-77, 1912; 713 1-139, f.29, aged. 7! | Krause, K. seine se ~ 1908. Araceae. Pfreich. 37: 140-155,-ff. 1-3, 1968; 60: 1-143, ; it? 1-4e 6or3. iG - : McCann, C. 1930. Notes on some of the wild species of Aroids. JBNHS 34: 518-521, ff. -1-2, tt. I-III. 1942. Occurrence of Synantherias sylvatica Schott in the Bombay - Presidency, and notes on some other Araceae of interest. JBNHS 42: 796-799, tt. i-4. McCann, C. & E. Blatter 1939. The» Kruit set EMG O gS tortuosa Blatter & McCann. JBNGS) 36; «760. Petch,or. 1929. Notes on Cryptocorine. Ann, Roy. Bot. Gard. Peradeniya II: 11-26, pl. ii-v. : ARALIACEAE Lammermayr, L. | 1930. Die Gattung Hedera L. Pflanzenar. 2: 64-69, maps 65-68. Seemann, R. ) Pas 1864. Revision of the natural order Hederaceae. JB 2: 289-309, gf, 1864303: 173-198, 1865555)-5 236-260, 1867 ; 6: 52- 58, 129-142, 161-165, pl. 79-80, 1868. ARISTOLOCHIACGEAE Bor, N. L. & M. B. Raizada . ers _ 1939. -Aristolochiaceae. JBNHS 41: 203-220, col. plate no. 2, | text figs, 1-12, uncoloured plates 3. Staak Schmidt, O. C. AE fet ge a . 1935. Aristolochiaceae, Pfam. (ed. 2) 16b: 204-242, ff. 103-123. ASCLEPIADACEAE Blatter, E. & C. McCann re Sea 1931. A New Ceropegia from the Western Ghats. JBNHS: 34: 936, plate. 1931. Another New Garonne from the “Western Ghats. Ibid. 35° 409: Sor age Wee 1933; Asclepiadaceae. Ibid. 36: g24-c3% Tt, 1-2. Brown, R. 1811. 7 On the Asclepiadeae, a Natural Order of Plants separated from the Apocyneae of Jussieu. Mem, Wern, Soc. 1: 12-58. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY_OF INDIAN BOTANY 545 Gravely, F. H. & P. V. Mayuranathan : 1931. The Indian Species of Genus Caralluma (Fam. Asclepiada- a ceae). Governt. Mus. Madras Bull. (N.S.) (Nat. Hist. sect.) 4° (1)? ‘pp. :28) tt.4. McCann, C. 1939. Additions to the description of Frerea indica Dalz. (Ascle- piadaceae) and some observations on the species. JBNHS 41: 143-145, plates 3. 1943. Light-windows in certain flowers. Ibid. 44: 182-184. 1944. The Genus Brachystelma R. Br.: an addition to the Flora of the Bombay Presidency. Ibid. 44: 494-495, plate. 1945. New Species of Ceropegia and the synonymy of the Indian Species. Ibid, 45: 209-211. Watt, G. 1900. Madar (Calotropis gigantea R. Br.) Kew Bull. 1900: 8-12, . plate 1. White, A. & B. A. Sloane 1933. The Stapelieae. An Introduction to the Study of this tribe of the Asclepiadaceae. Pasadena, California, 1933; second edit, 1937. AVICENNIACEAE Bakhuizen van den Brink, R. C. 1921. Revisio Generis Avicenniae. Buitenz. (ser. 3) 3: 199-226, . Tt. 14-22. Biswas, K. 1934. A Comparative Study of Indian Species of Avicennia. Notes Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 18: 159-166, pl. 243-246. Moldenke, H. N. 1942. An alphabetic list of invalid and incorrect scientific names proposed in the Verbenaceae and Avicenniaceae. New York. 1942. The known geographic distribution of the members of the Verbenaceae and Avicenniaceae. New York. — -1943. The known geographic distribution . . . Supplement 1. “3 New York. 1944. Supplement 2. Bot. Gaz. 106: 158-164. : 1945. Supplement 3. Castanea 10: 35-46. | | 1945. Supplement 4. Amer. Journ. Bot. 32: 609-612, ff. 1-2. . 1947. A list showing the location of the principal collections of Verbenaceae, Avicenniaceae, Stilbaceae, Symphoremaceae, : and Eriocaulaceae, Supplement 1. New York. . 1947. An alphabetic list of invalid and incorrect’ scientific names proposed in the Verbenaceae, Avicenniaceae, Stilbaceae, and Symphoremaceae, including variations in spelling and accredition. Supplement 1. New York. er 1947. The known geographic distribution of the Verbenaceae, Avicenniaceae, Stilbaceae and Symphoremaceae. Supple- ment 7. Phytologia 2: 382-387, 1947; Supplement 11: Ibid. 3: 130-141. a3 546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vel. 50 1949. The known geographic distribution of the members of the Verbenaceae, Avicenniaceae, Stilbaceae, Symphoremaceae, and Eriocaulaceae. Supplement 1. Phytologia 3: 283- 296, 1949. Supplement 3: Ibid. 3: 304-307, 1950. BALANOPHORACEAE Blatter, E. 1929. A New Species of Balanophora from Mahableshwar, Bombay Presidency. JBNHS 33: 309-310, plate. Griffith, W. 1846. On the Indian Species of Balanophora and on a new genus of the Family Balanophoraceae. TLS 20: 93-108, Tt. 3-8. Harms, H. 1935. Balanophoraceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) 16b : 296-339, ff. 154-170. Hart, Mrs. W. E. 1886. Note on a supposed root-parasite found at Mahableshwar in October 1885. JBNHS 1: 75-77, one plate. Heinricher, E. 1907. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Gattung Balanophora. Sit. Akad. Wiss. Wien 116 (1): 439 Seq:, 1907. Macdonald, D. * 7 1886. Memorandum .. .. on the species of Balanophora found and described by Mrs. W. E. Hart. JBNHS 1: 78-79. BALSAMINACEAE Arnott, G. A. Walker 1836. New Species of Indian Balsamineae. Hook, Comp. Bot. Mag. 1: 320-325, t. 18. Blatter, E. 1933. Balsaminaceae. JBNHS 36: 307-315, tt. 1-2. Hooker, J. D. 1904. An Epitome of the British Indian Species of Impatiens. RBSI 4% 1-10, 19043) 11-35, 19055..37-55, 1-lll, "1900: 1904. On the species of Impatiens in the Wallichian herbariuin of the Linnean Society. JLS 37: 22-32. 1910. Indian Species of Impatiens. Generis Impatiens species indicae novae et minus rite cognitae a cl. A. Meebold detectae. Kew Bull. 1910: 291-300. i911. Indian Species of Impatiens. On some Western Peninsular Indian Balsamineae collected by Mr. A. Meebold. Kew Bull, 1911: 353-356. Sedgwick, L. J. 1919. A New Indian Impatiens. RBSI 6: 351. BARRINGTONIACEAE Miers, J. | 1875. On the Barringtoniaceae. TLS. 1: 47-118, Tt. 10-18. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OF INDIAN BOTANY 54? BEGONIACEAE Blatter, E. & C. McCann 1931. A new Indian Species of Begonia. JIB 10: 27-28, plate. Clarke; ©. B. 1880. On Indian Begonias. JLS 18: 114-122, tt. I-III. Irmscher, E. 1925. Begoniaceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) vol. 21. oR BE RTD A.C EAE Ahrendt, W. A. 1941. A Survey of the Genus Berberis L. in Asia. Suppl. to JB, 1941-1942. schneider, C. K: 1905. Die Gattung Berberis (Euberberis). Bull, Herb. Boiss. (ser. 2)%5.7-.33 seq. BIGNONIACEAE Bor, N. Ls -& MB Raizada 1940. Bignoniaceae. JBNHS 41: 453-460, col. plate no. 3, text figs. 1-5, uncoloured plates 3; 681-690, col. plate no. 4, text figs. 1-5, uncoloured plates 4. Bureau, E. 1861. Rémarques sur la classification des Bignoniacées et obser- vations sur les genres Radermachera et Stereospermum. Adansonia 2: 182-197, tt. 2-4. 1864. Monographie des Bignoniacées, ou Histoire générale et particuliére des plantes qui composent cet ordre naturel. Paris, Pp. t-2u5y (icsi: Chatterjee, D. 1948. A Review of Bignoniaceae of India and Burma. Bull. BO’ S0C.. beng. 2% 62-70: Seemann, B. 1862. Revision of the natural order Bignoniaceae. Ann. Mag. Nat Hast. (2)-40: 20-33. See also in J/B51: $5 seq. Sprague, IT. A. 1919. Dolichandrone and Markhamia. Kew Bull. 1919: 302-314. Steenis, C. G. G. J. van 1927. Malayan Bignoniaceae, their taxonomy, origin and geogra- phical distribution. Rec. Trav. Bot. Neerl. 24: 787-1049, illustr. 1928. The Bignoniaceae of the Netherlands Indies. Buitenz. (ser. 3) 10% 173-200. Bel ALGoR ACE Gagnepain, F. 1908. Bixacées et Pittosporacées asiatiques. Bull. Bot. Soc. France 55: 544-548. 548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Pilger, R. 1925.. Bixaceaes~ Pfam. (ed>2)evol- 21% BOMBACACEAE Bakhuizen van der Brink, R. C. 1924. Revisio Bombacacearum. Buitenz. (ser. 3) 6: 161-232, tt. 26-38. Chatterjee, D. & M. B. Raizada 1950. Correct name of Indian Silk-cotton tree. Ind. For. 76: 154- uss) | BORAGINACEAE Brand, A. 1915. Neue Gattungen und Arten der Cynoglosseae. Fedde, Rep. Ld gO 1921. Borraginaceae. Pfreich, 78: 1-183, ff. 1-22. Hutchinson, J. 1918. Cordia Myxa and Allied Species. Kew Bull. 1918: 217-222. Johnston, I. M. 1951. Studies in the Boraginaceae. XX. Representatives of three sub-families in Eastern Asia. Journ, Arnold. Arb. 32 (1): 1-26. | Sedgwick, L. J. totg. On Trichodesma indicum R. Br. and Trichodesma amplexi- caule auctt.. RBS 6: 347-250: | 13° ROME LeleAsC B yA Harms, H. 1930. © Bromeliaceae. - Pfam. (ed. 2) 15a: 65-159, ff. 31-54: Mez, °C: 1896. Bromeliaceae. In DC., Mon. Phan. 9: 1-990. BURMANNIACEAE Jonker, -F-.-P. ; 1938. A Monograph of the Burmanniaceae. Meded. Herb. Utrech Nos 512 pp. 1-270, 4. 1-20. 7 BURSERACEAE Engler, A. 1883. Burseraceae. In DC., Mon. Phan. 4: 1-100, alls, lady 1931. Burseraceae. Pfam. (ed. 2) 19a: 405-456, ff. 191-220. (To be continued) ae _ STUDY OF THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE KARWAR COAST | AND NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS EY A. M?. PATTIE, MSc. (Depariment of Zoology, Karnatak College, Dharwar) Part Il: MOLLUSCA—AMPHINEURA AND GASTROPODA (Continued trom p. 139 of this volume) INTRODUCTION The present paper is the second of a series of papers devoted to the systematic study of the marine fauna of the Karwar Coast and neigh- bouring islands. The Karwar Coast is especially rich in the molluscan fauna and hence it was thought desirable to deal with only Amphineura and Gastropoda in the present paper. The remaining groups of Mollusca will be dealt in a subsequent paper. SYSTEMATICS: MOLLUSCA Mollusca are the most abundant of all the animals found in the littoral regions of Karwar. A large variety of them have been collected from all the different localities, either in the living condition or as empty shells. ‘The oysters and clams are by far the commonest of the molluscs of Karwar and they form a major part of the food of the coastal population. Representatives from all the major classes of the phylum have been recorded except members of the group Solenogastres. PLACOPHORA: Chitons have not been observed in appreciable numbers. The only genus recorded is Acanthochitona found on the rocks between tide marks in Kamat’s bay, Binge bay and Kurmugad island. These animals are recognised by the presence of bundles of spicules along the edge of the mantle, arranged in tufts. GASTROPODA : 4 Gastropods are very well represented all along the coast and the live animals recorded are as numerous as the empty shells collected. The following are the families recorded: Patellidae: Limpets are quite abundant in Karwar and are found living between tide marks on rocky coasts. They live so near the high tide mark, that during low tide they are left stranded high and dry. Though edible, 550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 50 .they are not used as food along this coast. However, some people in Anjadiv island have been seen collecting them for food. The following three species are the most common in Karwar: Fatella variabdilzs (Sowerby), P. veynaudz (Deshayes) and P. ximbus (Reeve). Haliotidae: The Ear-shells are flat, oval and limpet-like, with a row of holes on the outer posterior margin of the shell, the anterior ones being closed. A low indistinct spire is recognised at the anterior end. Orly a few dry shells of Halzotes varza (Linnaeus) have been collected. Fissurellidae: As these animals live below or at the low tide mark, the majority of them are seen only as shells washed ashore. Clypidina notata (Linnaeus) is the most common Fissurellid of Karwar and is found in large numbers along with the true limpets, but generally at a lower level. Its shell is conical and violet in colour with deep ribs and narrow white grooves radiating from the apex. The shell has no hole or slit and may be mistaken for that of Patella. Its fissurellid characters are revealed only by ne study of the internal anatomy. Diodora has a smaller, but more elongated atria he shell with a slit at the apex. They live below the low tide level and only dry shells washed ashore have been collected. Emargitnula has a thinner and more flat shell with a slit at the posterior margin. They too are known only by the dry shells that have been washed ashore. Scutws is again known only by the dry shells washed ashore and is similar to Amarginula, but is thinner, narrower, longer and has no slit. Its front margin is slightly concave. Trochidae: The Trochidae found in Karwar are quite small in size and are found on rocks between tide marks. Five representatives of this family are known. Trochus is the most common and has a bigger shell with red and brown markings. Both empty shells and live animals have been collected. Calltostoma has a shell similar to Trochus in shape, but is delicate and shows a sharply pointed apex. Only empty shells have been collected. Euchelus has a shel] smaller than 7vochus and its whorls are bulged. Both live animals and empty shells are known. Umbonium is small, half an inch or less in diameter, and has a shell with a very low cone. The shell! is polished and brightly coloured. They are found in large numbers in the extensive sandy areas, which are submerged during high tide. Minolta has a slightly larger shell with a higher spire and bigger aperture than Umbonium. The surface of the shell is sculptured or decorated with spiral ridges. These animals are found living on rocks. MARINE FAUNA OF KARWAR COAST & NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS 551 Turbinidae: Turbo is the only genus represented from this family. The shell has a high spire and swoilen whorls arranged Jike a tapering turban. [ts operculum is heavy, calcareous and is shaped like a plano-convex lens. The animals are collected from the rocks and many a time the opercula are seen washed ashore in good numbers. Neritidae: Neviia are found in large numbers on the rocks. They have a heavy swollen shell with a low spire and no umbilicus. A very closely allied form with a similar, but smaller and thinner shell, is Mevr?tz7a, which is found in the estuary, while /Verzta is exclusively marine. Verztina is found in large numbeis on the mud-banks of the river Kalinadi. A series of transitional forms, ranging from the very highly saline to the very pure freshwater regions are represented by this genus. Architectonidae: Architectonica has a shell with a wide low cone and an open umbili- cus, the margin of which gives the impression of a spiral staircase, hence the name ‘staircase shell’, Only a few empty shells have been collected. Epitoniidae: The animals of this family have more or less elongated shells with distinct whorls, and they possess a horny operculum. Animals belonging to the following two genera have been collected in Kamat’s Bay. Epitontum has a shell whose whorls are swollen and encircled by transpiral ribs. Only one live animal was collected on a rock. fglisia has a shell with the base of the body whorl flattened and has spiral lines and radial sculpture on it. Only a few empty shells have been collected. . Fasciolariidae: These animals possess spindle-shaped shells with an elongated anterior canal. The operculum is horny. Two genera are known in Karwar. Fasciolaria is more or less like the sacred chank, but the anterior canal and the spire are comparatively longer. They live in slightiy deep waters and can be collected by dredging. Fusinus has typically a fusiform or spindle-shaped shell with a very long spire and a long beak, and the whorls are gracefully rounded. The shell is sculptured with longitudinal and transverse striations. These animals were also collected in large numbers by dredging. V olemidae: Hemitusus is the knobbed chank, the knobs being very conspicuous. They have along anterior canal with a comparatively short spire. The shells are very massive and grow to a large size. A few large specimens are usually found in the nets brought to the shore. ae 502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Mitridae: Mitra has a_ beautiful elongated spindle-shaped shell without an operculum. ‘The surface of the shell is ornamented with coloured spiral lines and spots. A few dry shells have been collected on the beaches. Buccinidae: The animals included in this family, commonly known as Whelks, have an oval shell with more or less an oval aperture. The foot is large with a horny operculum. : Babylonia spirata (Linnaeus) has a smooth shell with brown patches on a pale background. The grooves separating the whorls are broad and deep, giving the spire an appearance of a tower with successively decreasing stories. ‘These animals are found in sandy and muddy areas below the low tide mark. They are usually collected by dredging or are brought to the shore in the fishermen’s nets. Engina is quite small with the shell having tuberculated “ribs and a very small operculum. ‘The tubercles are brownish in colour on a pale background. ‘These animals are littoral in habitat. Nassidae: The animals belonging to this family possess shells with short anterior canals and horny opercula. They have a large and broad foot and a long siphon. ‘Two genera are represented in Karwar. Nassa has a shell with a large aperture and in the majority of species, the shells have transpiral grooves or lines. They have been collected in Kamat’s and Binge bays. Bullia have thinner shells with taller and more slender spires. They live burrowing in the sand near the low tide level. ‘They have always been found in large numbers in Kamat’s Bay. With the receding waves they are often left exposed, when it is common to see them > rapidly burrowing into the sand with their large leaf-like foot. When handled, these animals squirt a quantity of water through an aperture in front of the foot and then only can the foot be contracted and with- drawn into the shell. It is interesting to note that, though thousands of these animals are found in live condition all round the year upon this shore, only a few empty shells have been seen cast ashore. The presence of some predacious animal which feeds upon these snails has been suspected. Muricidae: The shells of these animals are solidly built and in many species the varices are ornamented with tubercles or spines. The spire of the shell is usually shortened and the body-whorl is large. Their foot is’ large and the operculum is horny. Three genera, with several species in each, are well represented in Karwar. Murex is recognised by its long anterior canal and distinct varices. One species, JZ. ¢vibu/us (Linnaeus), which bears long slender :spines, is occasionally brought ashore in the nets entangled by its spines. Another MARINE FAUNA OF KARWAR COAST G&G NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS 553 species is collected-in the muddy areas, which has a thick shell with a moderately long anterior canal and the varices bearing tubercles. Rapana has a large and thick shell with a spiral line of small tubercles, a large umbilicus and a low spire. It is common on tie rocks between tide marks. Thats shells are thick and generally their longer diameter Seat the height of the spire. The whorls are characterised by lines and tubercles. There are several species of Zats in Karwar. They are littoral, gregarious and found under or between rocks and stones, Egeg-capsules of Zhazs have been found attached in clusters to rocks and many atime to molluscan shells which are washed ashore. Each capsule is about half an inch in length and is shaped like a straw- coloured vase with purple edges. Girnicel lari daer Cancellaria has a moderate-sized shell with rather small ribs and no operculum, Only one live animal was collected on a rock in Kamat’s Bay. Pyrenidae: Pyrene have short spindle-shaped solid shells about an inch in length and may be mistaken for the shells of Axgzua (Buccinidae). The Pyrene shell has a longer spire, narrower aperture and is more spindle-shaped. It is usually found living along with Angina. Olividae: ate ; The Olives are found actively burrowing into the sand, probably in search of bivalves on which they feed, and a number of them have been collected in Kamat’s Bay. The shel] is cylindrical in shape, like an olive fruit, with a low spire and a natrow mouth opening. The foot is large with no operculum. The surface of the shell is highly polished and beautifully coloured like marble. There is no periostracum over the shell, because it 1s normally covered by the expanded foot and mantle, which are responsible for maintaining the polish. Two genera-are represented in Karwar. Oliva has a bigger and heavier shell with a variety of coloured markings. Ancilla has a ‘comparatively slender shell with uniform colouring, and in one species, 4. ampla (Gmelin), the shell has a dark brown apex, Harpidae: Harpa has an inflated shell with a short spire, beautifully coloured — and presenting a number of longitudinal ribs appearing like the strings of a harp; hence the name. A single dry shell was collected on Karwar beach. Bonidae- Conus, as the name ialiee has a cone-shaped shell with a very short ‘spire, almost flat, forming the base of the cone. They havea long and narrow aperture and a claw-shaped operculum. They are 554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 brilliantly coloured and have been collected from Baitkal Cove and Kamat’s Bay. Littorinidae: Littorina is found all along the coast in Karwar, living in groups of hundreds on rocks and other habitats. Their shells are small, whelk-shaped, but the aperture is rounded at the anterior margin. ‘The foot is divided longitudinally into two halves, each moving alternately forward. ‘The shells are protectively coloured like their background. They are found in large numbers living on rocks below and above the high tide level, and they are also found living in the estuarine regions. The peculiarity about these animals is that they are able to live a long time out of water. This semi-terrestrial habit has developed to such an extent in some species, that they may be found living so high on the rocks that they get only the spray of water at high tide. Planaxidae: Planaxis is usually found in large numbers along with Lz/torina, and they are almost similar to each other in appearance, but on closer observations the differences can easily be recognised between the two. Planaxis shell has a shorter spire, wider aperture and no umbilicus. There is a distinct spiral ridge extending inwards from the inner side of the posterior canal, and the columella lip.is broad. Cerithiidae: - The shells have an elongated spire having many whorls marked with tubercles. The aperture of the shell is strongly channelled and the operculum is horny. Cerithtum is quite common in the backwaters along with Cerithidea (Potamididae), but they are few in number. It not only has the same habitat but aiso closely resembles Cerzthidea in size and sculpture. Cerithium differs from it in being slightly more slender and having an additional ridge on the two lowest whorls. Vermetidae: Vermeleus has been collected in Kamat’s Bay and Binge Bay. The whorls of the shell are not fused and it appears like a worm-tube, The shells are always attached to rocks. Their foot is reduced to a vestige, supporting only the horny operculum. Specimens of Vermeteus at Karwar, however, have their tubes coiled in one plane, unlike those des- cribed by Gravely (Madras). | Turritellidae; Turritella shells are long, heavy and gradually tapering towards the apex with transpirally ribbed whorls. The foot is broad, truncated and provided with a horny operculum. Turritella acutangula (Linnaeus) isthe most common species found living at moderate depths in muddy sands. Both animals and empty shells have been collected in large numbers on the beaches. The largest specimen collected is about six inches in length. Sea-anemones (Sagartia) are sonietimes found attached to empty shells buried in the sand. MARINE FAUNA OF KARWAR COAST & NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS 555 Strombidae: All Strombidae shells have a well-developed shell, The outer margin of the aperture has a tendency to growinto wing-like or finger- like expansions. ‘Their foot is narrow, arched and adapted for leaping movements, and they bear a sharp claw-like operculum. Stvombus has a shell with the outer lip shaped like a wing. The rapid jerky movements of the clawed foot is dangerous to those who handle it carelessly. These animals live in shallow waters in muddy sands. Rostellaria has a large shell with a long tapering spire which is finely polished. The outer lip expands into a wing and its anterior end is produced into a long and narrow beak. They are supposed to be found in abundance at depths between 10 to 30 fathoms. Only a few empty shells have been collected. Hipponycidae: Hipponyx has a bowl-shaped shell with three distinct ribs radiating from the apex. Several white shells have been collected from the shores of Anjidiv Island, Kamat’s Bay and Karwar Bay. It is said that these animals live on the rocks of the West coast of Anjidiv island, which was not investigated. Calyptraeidae: Calyptraea (Crucibulum) extinctoritum (Lamarck) is the common species of Karwar of which, many shells have been collected from several localities. The shell is thin and conical with a spiral apex, on the inside of which, can be seen a small curved ribbon-shaped plate. Living specimens attached to bivalve shells (Paphza) have been collected in the dredge in Karwar Bay. Naticidae: Naticidae are active sand-burrowing gastropods with a large foot whose outer parts are folded over the head, thus forming an efficient plough to burrow into the sand. Three genera are represented in Karwar. Natica have thick shells with the body whorls bulged to such an extent that some forms look like P7/a (Ampullariidae). The columella lip is more or less thickened. ‘These animals are very Common and are found in large numbers in the mud-flats of the estuary and backwaters. Their egg-masses are very peculiar and have been observed in large numbers. Thousands of minute eggs mixed with sand and sticky secretion, arranged to forin soft spiral ribbons and standing out as little truncated cones, are common objects seen on muddy flats in Karwar. Eunaticina have shells witha high spire anda straight columellar lip. Only a few dry shells have been collected on the shores. Albula has a heavier shell with the body whorl oblique and less inflated. The umbilicus is completely closed by callus, A few worn- out shells have been collected. Janthinidae: Janthina is pelagic, living in the open sea. Their empty shells are often seen cast upon the beaches. ‘T'he shell is thin and violet tinted, with no columella and umbilicus. 556) JOURNAL; BOMBAY “(NATURAL RUSE SOCIETY, Vol 20 Cypraecidae: Cowries have massive oval shells with an arched top and a flat base. The spire is not visible and the aperture is a toothed slit in the middle of the flat base. The foot is large without an operculum. The mantle, when expanded, can cover the shell and thus retain its polish. Several species of Cypraeca are known in Karwar, of which C. moneta (Linnaeus) is quite common living on rocks between the tide marks. Their shells have a central elevation with yellowish colouration. Cymatidae: Cymatium is the only genus known in Karwar. The shell is thick with a well-developed spire and has uniform spiral grooves. The anterior canal is slightly elongated and the operculum is horny. A single specimen has been collected in Baitkal Cove, Ficidae: Ficus is represented in Karwar only by two or three empty shells collected on the shores. The shell is long, pear-shaped with a low spire and a large body whorl. The operculum is absent. Bursidae: Bursa granularis (Roding) is a common form found in the shallow waters of Baitkal Cove, Kamat’s Bay and Karwar Bay. ‘They live as scavengers feeding on the debris of muddy bottoms. The shell has a stout varix continuous along the whole length of either side. The remain- ing space of the shell surface is decorated with spiral lines of tubercles. Potamididae: The shells have elongated spires with numerous whorls either tuberculated or spirally ridged. ‘The aperture of the shell has a short anterior canal and the operculum is horny. The following three genera are represented in the backwaters of Karwar: Cerithidea, Telescopium and Jerebralia. Cerithidea (Potamides) is probably the most abundant gastropod, found on the mud-banks of estuarine regions and back-waters. Their shells are small with each whorl ornamented by three transpiral ribs bearing tubercles. They have been observed in very large numbers in Chendie Creek and Kalinadi estuary. Among the specimens collected there-are several species belonging to this genus. Telescopbium is easily recognised by its large shell (about four inches in Jength) and smooth whorls with faint ridges. A number of them have been collected-on the mud-banks of the river Kalinadi. Terebralta has also a large shell with broad spiral ridges and brane piral ribs, which are more or less distinct at least towards the apex. Only a few slightly worn-out shells have been collected from Mavin Halla area. Eulimidae: _ A Single ‘dry shell of Audzma has been collected in the Kamat’s Bay. The shell is small, very slender with a tall spire and the whorls are not inflated. The surface of the shell is smooth and glossy. MARINE FAUNA OF KARWAR COAST G&G NEIGHBOURING ISLANDS 557 Birllidae: This Pate i$ represented only by the empty shells of bine which are usually washed ashore. It is a swollen oval shell, purplish- brown in colour. There is no spire and the aperture is broad in front and narrow behind. 7 eee oiding-idaee These are small pelagic molluscs with two forms represented in Karwar. A few empty shells of Cavolina were found washed ashore in Kamat’s Bay. The shells are thin, small, broad and pocket-shaped. The other form has a tubular shell, resembling Cresets in many. respects. It has been observed in the plankton very often. ‘Their foot is divided into two lateral fins. Many a time these tiny shells are also washed ashore. \ Aplysiidae: i; These animals are soft-bodied and fame with a large foot. “They possess a thin transparent shell covered by the mantle. Two represen- tatives are found in abundance in Karwar. - bi Ls Aplysia are dirty green in colour with brown spots and-~ grey blotches all over the body. In Karwar, they have been collected in enormous numbers in Baitkal Cove, only during the months of December and January. They are found in muddy areas among the green sea- weeds (Ulva sp.). Eggs of Aplysia are laid in long strings made of a jelly- like substance, and are found in masses of coils among the green sea- weeds, in the same area and during the same season. Buy aia (Notarchus Hornell) is smaller than Aplysia and the body -is:beset with small branched filaments. The shell is extremely small and internal. The lateral flaps of the foot are fused over the back posteriorly and not open like that of Aflysza. On the sides of the body are found some eye-like bright green spots with a brown ring. These animals have been collected in large numbers from the same locality as Aplysia and during the same season. They have also been collected in Mavin Halla area. Dorididae: A single specimen of Dorzs has been collected in Baitkal Cove. It is greenish-yellow in colour with dark tubercles all over the body. The gills are external and form a circlet round the anus. Another nudibranch, which is probably included in this family, has been collected from the rocks in Kamat’s Bay. It is a soft-bodied pink coloured animal living attached to rocks between tide marks (Dendrodorts ?). Aeolididae: A single specimen of Acolzs has been collected in Karwar, which was about an inch in length. It is a cream coloured, elongated, soft-bodied nudibranch with numerous cerata covering up the lateral aspect of the body, ffervia, another nudibranch belonging to this family, is found on the rocks among sea-anemones and hydroids in Kamat’s Bay. It is a 558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 50 beautiful pale pink-coloured animal about the same size as Aeol7zs and bears bright orange-coloured cerata, which are arranged in a series of tufts on either side of the body. Aprimitiwidac: Armina (Pleurophyllidia Meckel) was collected in large numbers on the Karwar beach only once (December 1945, at dusk on a full moon day). They were stranded on the shore by the action of the waves, where they remained motionless for a while and then burrowed into the sand. They have a soft flat body, oval in shape, and pale brown in colour with numerous white spots on the dorsal side. The, foot is long and bears rows of branchiae on either side. Onchidiidae: Onchidium, which is the Sole representative of this family, is quite common in Karwar. It is aslug-like gastropod with a leathery skin bearing warts on the back. In addition to the eyes at the tip of the tentacles, many eyes are present on the warts. These animals are found in mud and on stones in the brackish water areas near the mouth of the river Kalinadi. A number of specimens have been collected. REFERENCES 1. Cook, A. H. (1895) ; The Cambridge Natural History, Vol. III, Mollusca, 2, Gravely, F.H. (1941) ; Shells and other animal remains found on the Madras Beach, Aull. Madras Government Mus., Vol. V, No. 2. 3. Hornell, James (1949) ; The Study of Indian Molluscs, Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 48 (2 and 3). 4. Lankester, E. R. (1906); ‘Treatise on Zoology, Part V, Mollusca, by P, Pelseneer. 5. Patil, A. M. (1951) ; Study ofthe marine fauna of the Karwar coast and Neighbouring Islands, Part I, Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 50 ; 128-139, (To be continued.) A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA BY M. A. WYNTER-BLYTH PARE 1] (With two sketch maps and 1wo plates) (Continued from p. 354 of this volume) I MANALI The valley of the Beas narrows at Manali, hemmed in by steep forested slopes. To the north it widens out into a boulder-strewn waste that extends to the foot of the great wall of mountains, ten miles away, which separates Kulu from the desolate high plateau of Lahoul. Down the valley, above where it bends to the east, are the big hills beyond Jagatsukh, and up the Manalsu Nala, which joins the main valley at Old Manali village, are views of the snow-covered peaks that are the source of the river Ravi. The Kulu Valley, as Himalayan valleys go, is prosperous and much of its floor and lower slopes is closely terraced for the cultivation of rice and barley, and there are many orchards, for it is famous for its fruit especially those that are native to more northern climes. Other northern trees too do well, for the European oak, the linden (Zz/ia europea) and the Spanish chestnut flourish near Manali village. Along the riverside grow tali alders (A/xus sp.) and the occasional poplar (Populus ciliata), while the lower slopes of the hills are covered with plantations of deodar (Cedrus deodara),and in the more open places with the scrubby growth that is usual at this altitude in the north-west Himalaya — — Sfzraea sorbitolia, Shiraea canescens, Berberts, Crataegus, Indigofera, Rhamnus, Cotoneaster, roses and the holly-leaved oak (Quercus dilatata). Above the deodar plantations the forest is mostly of spruce (Picea morinda) with a-scattering of horse chestnut (Aesculus indicus) and walnut trees (Jug/ans regia) and a thick undergrowth of ferns and mixed herbage of balsams (/mpatzens sp.), dead nettle (Lamium album) and wild carrot (Chaerophyllum villosum), whose root is a favourite food of the black bear. Around 9,000 ft. itis common to find areas where planes (Acer sp.) grow to the exclusion of most other trees, and the vivid green of their young leaves makes a pleasing contrast to the sombre hues of the conifers. Above the spruce the dark-leaved Narkanda pine (Abies pindrow) becomes the predominant tree, to give place at 10,000 ft.to the mountain oak (Quercus semecarpt- folia), where an abrupt transition to an alpine type of vegetation takes place. From 11,000 ft. forests of birch (Betula utilis) and shrubberies of rhododendrons (Rhododendron campanulata) stretch to the treeline at 12,000 ft. ae * | * * 560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 I had gone to Manali with great hopes of catching, if not any butter- flies that were new to my collection, at least many that would be valuable additions to it. In this I was sorely disappointed for in spite of a’profuse and varied vegetation I saw no more than 42 species in all, and apart from catching fine series of Heliophorus oda, Heliobhorus bakeri, Heliobhorus androcles and Erebia shallad2z, and one or two be- draggled comma butterflies (Vazessa egea), I collected no species that the most fertile imagination couid describe as anything but very common. However, my series of H. oda and A. bakeri were of interest. Although I do not possess the wet season forms of these butterflies in which the difference between them is greater, that between the spring forms is small; dakerz lacks discal lines and an orange-flushed area on the under forewing; characters which are present in oda. This, in conjunction with the facts that I found the two insects flying together and that some of them displayed characters intermediate be- tween the two, leads me to suspect that oda and bakeri may merely be forms of the one butterfly and not distinct species. I was, however, more than compensated for my disappointment in Manali’s butterfly life by the richness of the flora, which, though I am no botanist, I found to be of absorbing interest, especially that of the alpine region. There was an easy route to the high altitudes up Khanpari Tibba, the mountain that rises abruptly just behind Manali. My first ascent was.made. in early May and took me no further than a steep little meadow at 9,000 ft. where spring had hardly : begun and few flowers. were yet to be seen except a scattering of white.gy psophila (Gypsophila cerastiotdes) and strawberry blossoms (fvagaria vesca), purple thyme (Thymus serpyllum), golden Ranunculus hirtellus and the inevitable-little blue gentian (Genizana argentea). A week later I penetrated higher onto the extensive meadowland marked on the map as Gumhana. Thach (thach being the vernacular for a grazing ground) behind, the. rocky steeps that mark the end of the first and hardest part of the ascent, to find that it was still under snow. At its lower edges among the trees Primula denticulata was in flower and among a fine display of the white racemes of valerian (Valeriana wallichit) were early growths of: the strange .7/rillium govanianum, the three-leaved lily with a curiously spider-like yellow and purple flower, a close relation of the rare English herb paris. My next ascent was at the end of May when ote snow “lee receded from the lower parts of the meadow up to nearly 11,000 ft., but even yet flowers were scanty. Primula denticulata was now in full bloom, as was Trillium govanianum, a small purple fumitory (Corydalis diphylla) and the bright golden stars of Gagea lutea (the Star of Bethlehem). ‘There were, too, some early anemones and a. small, sweet- scented, -leafless, flowering tree (Vzburnum foetens). Where the snow had just melted, everywhere were visible the collapsed tunnels of Royle’s vole (Alticola roylet). 'To judge from their abundance, the winters of these little animals are far from idle for they criss-crossed and wound about the surface of the ground much like the galleries constructed by certain species of white ant, but on a much larger scale. This vole scoops out a narrow channel along the surface of the earth and employs the earth so released for lining the upper part of the tunnel which is bored through the snow. Inside these, one imagines, the winter is spent JouRN. BomBay Nat. HIst. Soc. PLATE I Sa Photos Author View to the Rohtang Pass from Khanpari Tibba. II soyny ‘eTeN eUIeY—AIjUNOD xoq] “RTEN $O104d ALVId 2) O 5 ‘LSIH “LVN AVaWog ‘Nunof A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA 561 | scuttling to and fro feeding on the roots, seeds and grasses come across during the excavations. I trudged through the snow to the top of the ridge leading to. the final slopes of Khanpari Tibba, where I sat down and ate my lunch. The view was superb for I was encircled by snowy peaks. To the north it almost seemed as if I looked down onto the Rohtang Pass, (13,050 ft.), ten and a half miles away, where the track of early travellers to Lahoul could be marked in the snow as a thin black line winding across the long gentle ascent of its summit. ‘To the east was the great. mass of ice-capped Dev Tibba (19,687 ft.) and, close beside it, the magnificent precipices and ice-falls of his greater, though nameless,, brother. Again to the left was the pillar-shaped peak behind Chhatoru: and the approaches of the Hamta Pass, and a little nearer-the vast, chimney of Indar Kila standing like a huge obelisk on the mountainside. After lunch I began to return at a run down the steep snow slope that I had socarefully ascended. I soon learnt that this was a mistake for the snow was harder and more slippery than I had realised and before I could prevent it I was embarked on an involuntary glissade travelling at ever-increasing speed. Almost from the first I. knew that I should inevitably collide with the trunk of a birch tree some 59 yards down the slope, and I remember turning over in my mind in an entirely detached way what would happen to me if I broke an arm or leg in this remote spot. The next I knew was that I had left the ground where the incline suddenly grew steeper and was flying, first through the air, and then through a rhododendron bush, which, I suppose, slowed me down somewhat, to glance violently off the birch tree and come to rest six feet lower Gown up to my waist in snow. I picked myself up with care and was surprised to find myself intact except for a few minor bruises and scratches. Thereafter I proceeded with great caution. My final ascent was made on June 9th, the season when the cherries are ripe in the Manali orchards and the forest is lovely with the lilac of irises (/. mepalensis?). Beyond the old village the rare tiger-lily (Hemerocallis fulva), a favourite garden plant, blooms among the rocks, and the lily of the valley (Ophzopogon intermedius) and the little dark blue and white A/azus rugosus flowers on the shady banks. Among. the long grass can be found the curious climbing lily, Poly gonatum cirritolium, with the tendril-like leaf tips and drooping white flowers, and in the hedgerows the brilliant blue vetch, Pavochetus communis. But in case it should be thought that all the flowers at Manali are things of beauty it must be mentioned that this is also the season of the inflorescence of that most unpleasing of plants, Sauvomatum gutta- tum of the Araceae. Imagine a leafless growth with an erect, narrow column, or spadix, prolonged into a long, tapering, dark-purple appendage, surrounded at its lower end by a sheath, or spathe, of a sickly yellow hue, heavily blotched and spotted with purple, whose upper part is open, bent back and spreading. Imagine, too, that this loathsome object fouls the air for yards around with a most disgusting odour, and then the reader will have a fair impression of the plant. Two hours saw me at the foot of the meadowland where a pleasing sight met my eyes, for it had become a garden wherein flowered a profusion of white and blue anemones (A. ob/ustloba), golden Ranun- culus hirtellus, Trillium govanianum, and nodding heads of purple- chequered fritillaries (f77tillaria roylez). 562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 0 On entering the meadow I startled a monal into flight, loudly shrilling his ringing alarm whistle, to be followed a moment later, as is. their custom, by his drably-coloured mate. This bird is common at this season around J0,000 ft. and to have seen him in flight from above with the sun shining onto his plumage is to have witnessed one of the most lovely sights in nature. His head and crest of spatulate feathers, are of brilliant metallic green, and around his eyes is a bare patch of bright blue flesh. His nape is of flame-tinted bronze which shades: into the silky green of his upper back. His lower back and wing coverts are of silky purple, and his tail bright cinnamon, the only drably- coloured parts of him being his dusty white rump and dusky black breast and legs, a contrast that has caused the following legend about him to grow up among the hill folk. In the beginning Jija Rana, the bird god, created the monal king of the pheasants, giving him the plumage he deemed worthy of this position. But that bird, being displeased with his drably-coloured breast and legs, complained to the god and asked him to improve on his handiwork. However, Jija, being extremely annoyed at such criticism, angrily drove him off, speeding him on his way with a handful of ashes picked from the fire, which fell on the lower part of his back so that from that day to this the monal has had a dusty white rump. Jija Rana then set about the creation of an even more beautiful bird to take the place of the monal as the pheasant king, and so came into being the glorious, scarlet, white-spotted, black- breasted tragopan, who ever since has been called Jija Rana in honour of his maker. I walked across the meadows to where the final steep pull-up to Khanpari Tibba begins among shrubberies of mauve rhododendrons CR. campanulatum), as yet hardly in flower, for the season is late on these northern slopes. Marsh marigolds (Caliha palustris) were growing in profusion among the rocks and there were the bright yellow spikes of a fumitory (Corydalis govaniana). At 12,000 ft. I passed through the shrubberies and onto grassland above the treeline. Here on a meadow favoured by the sun the bright blue, golden, cream-coloured and white forms of Anemone obtusiloba were massed among the deep purple of dwarf irises (/7zs mdleszi ?), white garlic (diium govanianumy), yellow Ranunculus and lilac Primula denticulata to form such a carpet of flowers as I had never seen before. On my return I was caught in the most violent hailstorm that it has been my lot to experience, and had I not been able to shelter under a large rock I should have been ina sorry plight for the hailstones were of the size of marbles. It wrought great havoc inthis natural garden, ‘beating down and destroying the flowers, except the nodding heads of the fritillaries which seemed especially constructed to withstand such an onslaught. Lower down in the forest [ sawa pine marten (Charronia flavigula), which, it so happened, was except tor monkeys, the largest wild animal ILsaw in Kulu. His markings were unusual and striking, for his head appeared to be black down to the line of his eyes, as were his bushy tail, legs and hindquarters, whilst his back was brownish-grey. There is also another marten to be found here, the stone marten (artes foina), but he is seldom seen, being very nocturnal in his habits. Of the other wild animals that I might have seen, black bears (Selenarctos thibetanus) are undoubtedly common, especially on this Khanpari Tibba 7 7 - . i ’ - ‘ % oul at e = *. 7 _ a : > , eA : _ 7 7 - ; i@ “ae = _ - 7 > — _ ' : ; 6 (ie 7 ; = ‘ ® ( : ’ : * — 1 dey yoqoys 060007 Sojius 7 z ie ! 00g 7) v ad hae, 178 qaeq ad y ImTP MY ry Ooo} Wd70d. Soa EN Oo? o000)] Oooo} Q0007 9008 2008 000) O70] Uy, hy i. @ 90091 TYigzi / — 25 vf Uu x ‘ER SS £- x = ae “ EN A Ouran ss 2 88 gs ees & g g38 § 8 sak 8 : = = < Se "20 “}SIT ‘jJeN Aeqmog ‘‘uimor A NATURALIST IN THE NORTH-WEST HIMALAYA 563 where I came across many of their scratchings, but they are abroad little in the daytime and arg adept at keeping out of sight. At this season brown héar (Ursus arctos) are up at the high altitudes, but I saw the tracks of one that had crossed over the Hamta Pass. The snow leopard (Uncia uncia), too, had moved to the heights, but one had been shot close to Manali village as late as April, after having killed a pony and mauled a bull terrier dog, and another was seen in Laboul, a march or so beyond the Rohtang Pass in' early June. Ibex (Capra siberica) do not seem to be rare as there were several reports of them whilst I ‘was.in the valley, and bharal (Pseudozs nahoor) to judge-from the number of their horns that decorate the local temples, are io be found not uncommonly. Theantlers of barasingha (Cervus hanglu) are also a popular decoration but these must be imported. (Rannoo, who is usually a reliable informant and is the generally accepted authority on wild life in Manali, asserts that they come from western Kangra, but no textbook allows that they can be found nearer than Kashmir). Of the rest, musk deer ((/oschus moschiferus) are not very rarey and are perse- cuted for their musk pouch, tahr (flemilvagus jemlahicus) are present on the craggy hillsides, goral (Vemorhaedus goral) in the same type of country at lower altitudes, and serow (Capricornis sumatraensis), here called yamu, which are scarce, can sometimes be found in remote and thickly wooded nalas. Iam told, too, that there are leopards, and that wolves occasionally come over from Lahoul in the winter... II i Pa i DAR BATIOV ALLEY Edward Peck’s plan w2* to walk from Kulu to Nark.. ja over the Pin Parbati and Bhabekt sses. I agreed to aceomp. i: him as far as Pulga where he} ‘i¢2cd to hire coolies to take hf over the mountains to Wangtu. ; fi ee Our drive down *’ ‘early on the morning @)“2ane Ist coincided with the ann -x of flocks from Kangra, an;’ progress was much delayed by ti. many thousands of sheep and goats on their way up to their sur--er pastures in Lahoul.. Alth«, t times it seemed as ii we | Sidi / at reach otr destination it was an interest- ing spectacle Mas =, the animals carr+ed little ee iOF i. is .. ccessary for the Wy" ster Species Myitkyina Dhubalia Ramgarh Monywa Ambala Delhi Okala R | Darjeeling | 1 | = 8 Eastern Swallow (Hirundo rustica) Striated Swallow (Hirundo daurica) Indian White Wagtail Ae ( Motacilla alba dukhunensis) | White-faced Wagtail ase atlig (Motacilla leucopsis) Eastern Grey Wagtail noe ( Motacilla cinerea) | Indian Blue-headed Wagtail near (AMotacilla flava beema ) Grey-headed Wagtail Act (Afotacilla f. thunbergi) Yellow-headed Wagtail (Motacilla citreola) Tree Pipit soe pe (Anthus hodgsoni) Indian Pipit (Anthus richardi rufulus) Vinous-breasted (Hodgson’s) Pipit ee (duthus roseatus) Short-toed Lark (Calandrella brachydactyla) Burmese Bush Lark (Afirafra assamica microptera) Red-winged Bush Lark ve (Ativrafra erythrop/era) White-eye => (Zosterops palebrosa) Black-breasted Sunbird co (Aethopyga saturata) | Yellow-backed Sunbird ae (Aethopyga siparaja) | Purple Sunbird vas (Cinnyrts asiatica) | Purple-rumped Sunbird (Note 2) on (Cinnyrts zeylonica) Indian Streaked Spider Hunter (Arachnothera magna) Tickell’s Flowerpecker ae (Dicaeum erythrorhynchum) Thick-billed Flowerpecker (Dicaeum agile) Indian Pitta (Pitta brachyura) Long-tailed Broadbill ety (Psarisomus dalhoustae) i SOME JUNGLE BIRD ASSOCIATIONS 589 Species ras} on a es bs (} hs! > 1O|GES = D a4 |S | — ao a i oid ‘= a) -_= m [4|Sia) x =| a Ss ja (AlZ, A < a) a ajalaja ba\5}a a Little Scaly-breasted Green Woodpecker .., (Picus vittatus) Black naped Green Woodpecker ( Picus Cantus) Small Yellow-naped Woodpecker (Picus chlorolcphus) Large Yellow-naped Woodpecker (Chrysophlegma flavinucha) Pale- headed Woodpecker (Gecinulus grantia) Darjeeling Pied Woodpecker (Drvobates darjellensts) Himalayan Lesser Pied Woodpecker (Dryobates cathpharius) Fulvous-breasted Pied Woodpecker (Dryobates macet) Yellow-fronted Pied (Mahratta) Wood- pecker (Dryobates mahrattensts ) Darjeeling Pygmy Woodpecker (Dryobates nanus semicoronatus) Red-eared Bay Woodpecker (By thipicus pyrrhotis) Golden-backed Woodpecker (Brachypiternus bengalensis) Tickell’s Golden-backed Woodpecker (Chrysocolaples guttacristatus) Speckled Piculet (Vivia tnnominatus) Rufous Piculet (Sasia ochracea) Wryneck (Jynx torquilla) Great Himalayan Barbet (Megalaima virens) Green Barbet (Megalaima zeylanicus) Lineated Barbet (Megalatna lineatus) Blue-throated Barbet (Megalaima asiatica) Golden-throated Barbet (Megalaima franklinit) Crimson-breasted Barbet (Coppersmith) .. (Megalaima haemacephala) Asiatic Cuckoo (Cuculus Canorus) a | 590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Species ae Himalayan Cuckoo (Cuculus optatus) Sroall Cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus) Indian Cuckoo (Cuculus micropterus) Large Hawk Cuckoo (Hierococcyx sparverioides) Common Hawk Cuckoo ( Hierococcyx varius) Indian Plaintive Cuckoo (Cacomantis merulinus) Indian Drongo Cuckoo (Surniculus lugubris) Pied Crested Cuckoo (Clamator jacobinus) Red-winged Crested Cuckoo (Clamator coromandus) Indian Koel (Eudynamis scolopaceus) Large Green-billed Malkoha (Rhopodytes tristts) Crow-Pheasant (Centropus sinensis) Large Parakeet (Psittacula eupatria) Rose-ringed Parakeet (Psittacula kramert) Blossom-headed Parakeet (Psittacula cyanocephala) Roller (Coracias bengalensis) Broad-billed Roller (Eurystomus orientalis) Common Green Bee-eater (Merops orientalts) Blue-tailed Bee-eater (Merops superciltosus) Indian Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle rudis) Common Indian Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) Brown-headed Stork-billed Kingfisher (Ramphalcyon capensis) White-breasted Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis) Hoopoe (Upupa epop;) | I | Il Ill |» | c [>| E F a ofals B is zs = /3ela) a1 B/S isle SISA a |S 18/8 lla a\o|a\ala a| je Ja| ajo | a # * * * * |x * a lie : * * | & Ee * * | ok bo | * * | = x Pk | ok Dk * eae eae i +|T * a] x dx] * * | * * *) & Px * * | x * | SOME JUNGLE BIRD ASSOCIATIONS Species Red-headed Trogon (Harpactes erythrocephalus) Common House Swift (Micropus atfinis) Palm Swift (Cypsturus batassiensts ) White-throated Spinetail Swift (Hirundabus caudacutts) Long-tailed (Horsfield’s) Nightjar (Caprimulgus macrourus) Jungle Nightjar (Cabrimulgus indicus) Common Indian Nightjar (Caprimulgus asia ticus) Mottled Wood Owl (Strvia ocellata) Brown Fish Owl (Ketupa zeylonensis) Indian Great Horned Owl (Bubo bubo bengalensis) Collared Scops Owl (Otus bakkamoena) Spotted Owlet (Athene brama) Barred Owlet (Glauctdium cuculoides) Jungle Owlet (Glaucidium radiatum) Collared Pygmy Owlet (Glaucidium brodiet) King Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus) Himalayan Griffon Vulture (Gyps himalayensis) Long-billed Vulture (Gy ps indicus) Indian White-backed Vulture (Pseudogy ps bengalensts) Large White Scavenger Vulture (Veophron percnopterus) Lammergeier (Gypaétus barbatus) Lagger Falcon (Falco jug ger) Hobby (Falco subbuteo) Kestrel (Cerchneis tinnunculus) Dhubalia Ramgarh _ Digri + eh Wa es Monywa R * Delhi > Okhla g | Darjeeling | 9} | i ok, -+ —+ 592 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 bs — | am — eH = | Species Myitkyina Jessore Dhubalia Ramearh Digri Monywa a | Darjeeling | rx} | & ae ae ta a R aces Rg ne a= R Ti a5 Eastern Steppe Eagle ase | (Aquila nipalensis) Hodgson’s Hawk Eagle (Limnaétops nipalensis) Crested Serpent Eagle sire & | x (Spilornis cheel:) Pallas’s Fishing Eagle ma t (Haliaétus leucoryphus) Large Grey-headed Fishing Eagle one * ([chthyophaga ichthyaélus) Brahminy Kite waa & | * f * (Haliastur indus) | Common Pariah Kite a“ * | | «| ape (Milvus migrans govinda) Black-eared (or Large Indian) Kite (Milvus snigrans lineatus) Indian Shikra (Astur badius) Indian Sparrow Hawk (Accipiter nisus) Bengal Green Pigeon see t (Crocopus phoenicopterus) Pintailed Green Pigeon (Sphenocercus apicaudus) 4 Green Imperial Pigeon ae if {Muscadivora aenea) Indian Blue Rock Pigeon see | % (Columba livia) Rufous Turtle Dove ee x (Stveptopelia orientalis) Spotted Dove seen leae teed tar ie (Streptopelia chinensis) Little Brown Dove coe (Streplopelia senegalensis) | Indian Ring Dove ae ele (Streptepelia decaocta) Red Turtle Dove was pa (enopopelia tranquebarica) Bar-tailed Cuckoo Dove Ae (Macropygia unchall) Common Indian Peafowl (Pavo cristatus) Black-backed Kalij Pheasant (Genneus melanotus) Black- breasted or Rain Quail (Coturnix coromandelica) Hill Partridge (Arborophila torqueota) SOME JUNGLE BIRD ASSOCIATIONS AQ3 Rh EE PE TS A TE I FEE SE EE GS OIE IT | y g Species Dhubalia Myitkyina Darjeelin Ramgarh ® = ee Q eS. ce nae Se iG oo a5 4 a Jessore Grey Partridge ees! © wiles (Francolinus pondicertanus) Common Bustard Quail icon * (Turnix suscitator) White-breasted Waterhen 58 : (Amaurornis phoenicurus) Indian River Tern (Sterna aurantia) Red-wattled Lapwing (Lobivanellus indicus) Green Sandpiper we ss (Zringa ochropus) W ood Sandpiper sia . (Zringa glareola) Little Egret Se | (Egretta garzetia) | Cattle Egret ee elieilie| ( Bubulcus ibis) Indian Pond Heron (Ardeola gray) * a ~) * * * Note 1. Grey Tit: I am convinced that I saw one member of this species on one of the tea gardens below Darjeeling, but unfortunately I did not make a note of the exact altitude. Until somebody shoots one there, therefore, this record will no coubt not be admitted. Note 2. Purple-rumped Sunbird: I identified a g and a © beyond all doubt at Ambala on 19th July, 1942, which is some way north of the range given for this species in the Fauna. HISTORY OF TRANSPLANTATION AND INTRODUCTION OF FISHES IN INDIA* BY S,. JONES AND K. K. SAROJINI Central Inland Fisheries Research Station, Barrackpore (With a text map and eight figures) SYNOPSIS The objects of transplantation of fishes in India and _ intro- duction of exotic species into the country are mentioned and in the light of these objects the fishes are grouped as (i) game fishes (ii) food fishes (iii) larvicidal fishes and (iv) ornamental fishes. The history of transplantation and introduction of these fishes is reviewed in the context of the results achieved. Instances of accidental transplantation are mentioned. In the light of the available data suggestions for furthe transplantation of fishes are given. INTRODUCTION Though transplantation of food fishes from their natural habitat to nurseries and rearing ponds has been in vogue in India from remote times, the augmentation of the fish fauna by introduction of exotic forms and intrazonal transplantation of suitable autochthonous species for permanent establishment is of comparatively recent origin in this country. Most of the pioneering work in this field has been done by westerners, who, finding some of the upland waters similar to the rivers in their own country, tried to introduce their favourite varieties of fishes in them. ‘The successful introduction of trout into certain hill- streams of India is an outstanding achievement of such efforts. The Madras Fisheries Department was, probably, the first govern- ment organization to take up transplantation of fish, and its pioneering effort in this field is worth special mention. ‘Though attempts to intro- duce or transplant food fishes into various localities were started over a century ago, it is only in recent years, when the food shortage in the country became acute, that these operations were intensified. While the establishment of game fishes and production of food fishes were the main objects of this work in India, another important object was the biological control of malaria. From early times ornamental fishes such as the exotic goldfish have been reared by aquarium keepers, and there exists a trade in these fishes in same of our big cities. The tishes that have been introduced or transplanted are here grouped as (1) game fishes, (2) food fishes, (3) larvicidal fishes and (4) ornamental *Read at the Symposium on transplantation of fishes during the 3rd meeting of the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council, Madras (February 1951), and published with the permission of the Chief Research Officer, Central Inland Fisheries Research Station, Barrackpore. HISTORY OF TRANSPLANTATION OF FISHES IN INDIA 595 fishes, and a historical account of their transplantations and introductions with a brief discussion of the results achieved is attempted. Routine transplantation operations for rearing and harvesting purposes without the object of permanently establishing the species in regions where they are not autochthonous are not included in the account. BOMBAY é ANDAMAN 0 ISLANDS Outline Map of India showing the localities mentioned in the article. Key to the numbering : 1. Periyar (Travancore) ; 2. High Ranges (Travancore); 3. Kodaikanal (Palnis); 4. Anamalais; 5. Ootacamund (Nilgiris) ; 6. Mysore ; 7. Coondapur (South Canara); 8. Shevaroys (Salem) ; 9. Ippur (Nellore) ; 10. Sunkesula (Kurnool) ; 11. Hyderabad ; 12. Baroda ; 13. Darjeeling; 14. Nainital (Kumaon Hills); 15. Simla; 16. Kangra; 17. Chamba; 18. Kulu. TRANSPLANTED Foop FisH ES—Autochthonous One of the earliest recorded attempts at transplantation of fish in India, is of the Milk-fish, Chanos chanos, by Hyder Ali of Mysore during the latter part of the 18th century, from the sea to the Coondapur estuary in South Kanara (Thomas, 1870). Subsequently Thomas (op. cit.) transplanted some fish from the sea to the Karkal lake, but they failed to breed there. 10 596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 An interesting but evidently unsuccessful attempt to transplant Hilsa Hiilsa tlisha (Ham.) was made by Wilson (Nicholson, 1915). The eyed ova of this fish were transferred from the hatchery at the lower anicut in the Cauvery to the Ponnani river in Malabar, but there is no evidence of the fish having established itself there. The Catla, Cat/a catla (Ham.): This is one of the major carps of India, and is reputed to be one of the fastest growing fishes in the world. Its natural distribution is from Sind and the Punjab in the north along upper India to the Krishna river in the south and as far as Burma in the east. The successful transplantation of the fish in the south was achieved by the efforts of the Madras Fisheries Department whose then Piscicul- tural Assistant, Mr. H. C. Wilson, introduced the fingerlings in 1909, from the Godavari into the Cuddapah-Kurnool canal where they established themselves and spread into the Pennar river and the connected tanks in the Nellore District (Raj, 1916). Catla fingerlings from the Godavari were introduced in the year 1921 into the Cauvery river below the Hogaikanal falls and into the Bhavani (Hornell, 1924) where the fish now affords a major fishery. Catla fingerlings were sent to Cochin by Dr. Job in 1945 where they were thriving well. Fry from the Godavari river were introduced into the Periyar lake in Travancore-Cochin in 1947 (Chacko, 1948) but the result of these transplantations is not known. The Bombay Fisheries Department transplanted catla from Patna (Bihar) into the Powai lake in Bombay where it has bred and establish- ed itself (Kulkarni, 1947). The Rohu, Ladveo rvohita (Ham.): This is another of the major carps of India and the most esteemed fish in Bengal. Its natural distribution is from Sind and the Punjab along upper India and Assam as far as Burma. Recently it has also been reported from the Godavari (Alikunhi and Chaudhuri, 1951). The earliest attempt to transplant this fish was made a few years previous to 1925, when fingerlings were taken from Calcutta and introduced into the fresh waters of the Andamans. Exact details are lacking, but from the records of Annandale and Hora (1925) and Mookerjee (1935) it is seen that the fish grew very well though it is doubtful if it bred there. The Madras Fisheries Department had been regularly stocking several pieces of water in the State from 1944 to 1949 with fry obtained: from Bengal and Orissa (Jaganadham 1946 and Thyagarajan & Chacko, 1950) and attempts were made to transplant the fish in the Cauvery also. Whether the fish has established itself there or not is not known. In Bombay, fry from Patna (Bihar) were introduced into the Powai lake along with L. ca/basu (Ham.) where both are reported to have bred (Kulkarni, 1947). The Mrigal, Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.): This is an important major carp of India distributed throughout upper India from North-west Provinces, the Punjab and Sind to Bengal and Assam and in upper Deccan and Burma. The fry of mrigal have been introduced from Bengal regularly from 1943 to 1947 and from Orissa in 1949 into Madras waters including the Cauvery (Thyagarajan & Chacko, 1950) but the results of these transplan- HISTORY OF TRANSPLANTATION OF FISHES IN INDIA 597 tations are not available. Mrigal introduced as fry into the Powai lake in Bombay from Patna (Bihar) is reported to have bred there (Kulkarni, 1947). The Pearl-spot, Atroplus suratensts (Bloch) (Fig. 1): This Cichlid, distributed in brackish and fresh waters along the coastal tracts of Penin- sular India from Malabar on the west to Chilka on the east coast, and in Ceylon, grows to a good size and is one of the most relished fishes of the Malabar Coast. Fig. 1. The Pearl-spot, Atroplus suratensis,(Bloch), (After Hornell). The Madras Fisheries Department introduced the pearl-spot into the interior districts of Bellary and Anantapur and in the farms at Sunkesula (Kurnool) and Ippur (Nellore), where it has established itself, Fingerlings of this fish have been transplanted successfully from North Kanara to the Mahim Creek in Bombay (Kulkarni, 1947) and in 1941 and subsequent years from Sunkesula, Madras, to the irrigation tanks of Baroda where they are reported to be breeding now (Moses, 1942 and 1944). Fry from Madras have been introduced into the Bidyadhari area in Bengal (Jaganadham, 1946) and these have been reported to be breeding there (Job & Chacko, 1947). A total of 500 young fish were taken in 1942 from Madras to Hyderabad (Deccan) of which only a few survived. These commenced breeding in 1943 and the fish is now reported to have established itself there (Rahimullah, 1946). This is perhaps the first or only Indian food-fish that has been trans- ported to any foreign country. A consignment of pearl-spot was taken in 1922 from India to Mauritius via Colombo (Hornell, 1923). Over half of it reached safely, but it is not known whether the fish established itself there. The Orange Chromide, Etvoplus maculatus (Bloch): This cichlid, of more or less similar distribution and habitat as the pearl-spot, is of smaller size and hence is not of much economic importance. It is reared as an aquarium fish also and for this purpose has been introduced into several countries outside India. 598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 The Orange Chromide has been introduced by the Madras Fisheries Department into the Sunkesula (Kurnool) Farm and from there trans- planted by the Bombay Fisheries Department to the Bandra Creek (Bombay) where it figures regularly in the fishermen’s catches (Kulkarni, 1947). It was successfully transplanted from Madras to the Hyderabad State in 1943. The Murrel, Ophicedhalus spp.: In several parts of India where major carps are not available and tanks are seasonal, the murrel forms a very important food fish. Kulkarni (1947) reports the transplantation of Ophicebhalus marulius (Hamilton) from Poona to tanks in Bombay. The Khorsula, Mugdl corsula (Hamilton): Two trial transplantations of the mullet, Mugzi corsula (Hamilton), from Bengal to Madras were made by Dr. T. J. Job in 1944 and by Dr. S. L. Hora in 1945 (Basu, 1946). The fingerlings reached the destination and grew well, but as their number was small the species has apparently not establish- ed itself. INTRODUCED Foop FisHESsS—Exotic The Gourami, Osphronemus goramy (Laceép.) (Fig. 2): The fish, a native of Indonesia, was first introduced in India during the early half of the last century and stocked in the Botanical Gardens at Calcutta, but the entire lot is reported to have perished by 1841 for want of proper atten- tion (Thomas, 1881). Further details about this introduction are not available. Ca ana RS, Osphronemus goramy Lac. Fig.2. The Gourami, Osphronemus goramy (Lacép.). (After Hofstede) About the year 1865, Sir William Denison, the then Governor of Madras, imported some gourami from Mauritius and introduced them in the Government House ponds at Madras while some were taken to the Nilgiris (Raj, 1916). The fish bred in the tanks at Madras and it appears that the fry were distributed to some of the tanks in the neigh- bourhood, including the Red Hills tank. However, the condition of the stock in general was not satisfactory anda fresh consignment of about HISTORY OF TRANSPLANTATION OF FISHES IN INDIA 599 200 fish was brought from Mauritius and Java in 1916. The fish has established itself in various parts of Madras State, from where it has been successfully transplanted to Bombay in 1937 (Kulkarni, 1943 and 1946), Baroda in 1941 (Moses, 1944), Mysore in 1942 (Bhimachar, eZ a/, 1944) and Cochin and Hyderabad in 1945. Gourami was introduced in the Punjab but could not survive the low winter temperature there (Khan, 1946). The Tench, 77z2ca ¢tzzca (Bloch) (Fig. 3): The tench was brought from England by Mr. Maclvor about the year 1870 along with the golden carp and introduced into the Ootacamund lake (Molesworth & Bryant, 1921), The fish bred in the lake and subsequently fingerlings were Fig. 3. The Tench, 7inca tinca (Bloch). (After Innes). transplanted to some more ponds and lakes in the Nilgiris and the Shevaroy Hills. Its introduction in the lower elevations does not appear to have met with much success though it is reported to have bred in the Sunkesula farm, Madras (Hornell, 1923 and Tampoe, 1929). The Crucian Carp, Cavassius carassius (Linn.): This fish, also known as the Golden Carp, is a native of Central Europe from where it has been transplanted to various countries, MacIvor introduced it about the year 1870 along with the Tench into the Ootacamund lake where it bred well (Molesworth & Bryant, 1921). Subsequently it was trans- planted to several ponds and lakes in the Nilgiris, Shevaroys and Kodaikanal. Attempts to transplant this fish to the plains did not meet with success. The Common Carp, Cyprinus carpio (Linn.): Originally a native of China, this fish is now very widely distributed all over Europe, America and several other parts of the world. It was introduced in Ceylon from Prussia in 1914 and from there a consignment of 45 young fish was brought in 1939 by Dr. Sundara Raj, the then Director of Fisheries, Madras, and stocked in the Ootacamund lake where it thrived well and bred in three years. Three varieties of the common carp are distinguish- ed, viz. the Mirror Carp (var. specularts) (Fig. 4), the Scale Carp (var. 600 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 communts) and the Leather Carp (var. »wdus), and of these the first one is the most common. Cyprinus carpio L. Fig.4. The Mirror Carp, Cyfrinus carpio Linn. (var. specularis). (After Hofstede). The Mirror'Carp has been transplanted to the Shevaroys where it is reported to be breeding (Ganapathi & Chacko, 1950). Though the fish grows well in the plains it has not bred there. In 1946 some fingerlings of the Mirror Carp were introduced in the Ulsoor lake, Bangalore (Burton, 1948). In 1947 fingerlings of the fish were transported by plane in an oxygenated container from Ootacamund (Nilgiris) to Bhowali in the Kumaon Hills (U.P.) (Raj & Cornelius, 1947) and the fish is now reported to have bred there. A small consignment of fingerlings of Mirror Carp was also transport- ed to Bombay in 1949, from Ootacamund, and introduced into a lake at Lonavla at an altitude of about 2,000 feet.* TRANSPLANTED GAME FisH ES—Autochthonous The Putitor Mahseer, Barbus (Tor) putitora (Ham.): The large- scaled carps of the subgenus Zvry are known as mahseers and are the favourite among Indian game fishes. The Putitor Mahseer is found all along the Himalayas from Kashmir to the Darjeeling hills and probab- ly further east as far as China. ‘The lakes of Kumaon hills were stocked with this fish by Sir H. Ramsay about the year 1858 (Walker, 1888). The Bhimtal, the Nakuchiatal and the Sathtal were stocked with fingerlings transported in earthen vessels from the Gola river and the Nainital with those from the Koli river. The fish flourished in all the lakes except Bhimtal, where a second attempt was made by him in 1878, with success. ‘The fish took well to the confined waters and bred in the shallow areas of the streams that drain into the lakes. Edye (1922) stocked the Khurpa- tal on the Nainital-Kaladhungi Road in 1922. Raj (1945) has dealt with the present condition of the mahseer in the Kumaon lakes in detail. * Annual Report of the Department of Fisheries, Bombay, 1943-19, p. 36. HISTORY OF TRANSPLANTATION OF FISHES IN INDIA 601 The Khudree Mahseer, Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes: Molesworth & Bryant (1921) have cited a report by Mr. Barlow to the effect that Pykara (Nilgiris) was stocked with mahseer before the introduction of trout. In the absence of further details it is to be presumed that the mahseer referred to is B. (Tor) khudree Sykes being the most common form found in that region at present. Hornell (1923) reports about stocking the Kodaikanal waters (Palni Hills) with 162 mahseer fingerlings from the Tungabhadra in Kurnool. The-species could either be Barbus (Tor) khudree Sykes ot B. (Tor) mussullah Sykes, these being the mahseers available in the Tungabha- dra. Information about the result of the transplantation is lacking. INTRODUCED GAME FISHES—Exotic Trout is the only exotic game fish introduced into India and at present two species have established themselves, viz. the Rainbow Trout, Sa/mo gairdneriz Rich. and the Brown Trout, Salmo trutta fario Linn., the former in the south and the latter in the north. The introduction of trout in India was achieved by the efforts of the European residents in the country during the latter half of the 19th century and the beginning of this century. Though the work commen- ced as a private enterprise, it subsequently received the active support and cooperation of the Government. Details of the introduction of trout in India are given by Howell (1916), Mitchell (1918), Molesworth & Bryant (1921), Skene-Dhu (1906 and 1918), and Mackay (1945); and in the present account only some of the important events are mentioned. The Nilgiris and Travancore trout came from the same stock as the Ceylon trout regarding which Fowke (1938) gives valuable information. Introduction of trout in the Nilgiris (Madras): The first attempt to introduce trout in India was made by Mr. H. S. Thomas in 1863, but the consignment of ova he was bringing perished on the way (Day 1876). In 1866 Day (op. cit.) imported 6,000 ova and though most of them died a few days after reaching Ootacamund, the few that survived turned out to be the first trout to see life in Indian waters. After a few years’ lull, attempts were again made by Mr. MclIvor in 1887 and subsequently by himself and others till 1906. Some of the attempts resulted in failure, others being partially successful. Most of the consignments were of Salmo fario but trials with Salmo gairdneriz, Salmo levenensis and Salmo fontinalts were also made. All the successive attempts proved futile till the first decade of this century. The credit for the ultimate permanent establishment of the trout in the Nilgiris goes to Mr. Wilson who organized the whole work on a scien- tific basis. He found the climate at Dodabetta, where the hatchery was located, unsuited for the Brown Trout. So he constructed a hatchery at Avalanche and concentrated on the establishment of the Rainbow Trout. All the available stocks of brood fishes were transferred and fresh con- signments of ova were brought from Germany and New Zealand, and fingerlings from Ceylon. The Avalanche hatchery was a great success and the Rainbow Trout is now well established in the Nilgiris waters. Introduction of trout in Kashmir: The introduction of -trout in Kashmir was carried out independent of the attempts that were in 602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘AIST. (SOCIETY; Volz 50 progress inthe Nilgiris. The first shipment of ova was sent in the spring of 1900 as a present from the Duke of Bedford to the Maharaja of Kashmir in return for the Kashmir stags presented by the latter (Mitchell, 1918). The whole consignment, however, perished on the way on account of the heat. A second lot arrived in December of the same year and another followed in 1901. The ova were of Brown Trout and took very well to the Kashmir waters. Some ova liberated in the river Kalapani near Abbottabad flourished and bred there. A heavy flood in Kashmir in 1903 swept over all the brood ponds and hatcheries and this, instead of destroying the whole stock as was feared, resulted in providing more favourable conditions for their permanent establishment in the waters. Though both Rainbow Trout and Brown Trout were introduced, it was found that the latter is more suited to the cold Himalayan waters. Introduction of trout in the Punjab: Trout was first introduced in the River Beas in the Kulu Valley (Punjab) in 1909 by Mr. Howell who brought about 23,000 eyed ova from Kashmir for the purpose (Howell, 1916). This stock established itself in the river and since then many lakhs of Brown Trout fry have been planted in the Beas and its tributa- ries and other streams in the Punjab (Tyson, 1941). The fish is now well established in Kulu and from there it has been transplanted to rivers and streams in Chamba, in the Kangra Valley and the Simla hills, About 5,000 eyed ova of Rainbow Trout were introduced in Kulu waters from Kashmir in 1919. Though the fish spawned in 1922 and in subsequent years, it failed to give satisfactory results in view of its greater susceptibility to diseases than Brown Trout, and its culture therefore was abandoned (Khan, 1946). Introduction of trout in the Kumaon lakes and in the Eastern Himalayas: Trout was first introduced in the lakes of the Kumoan hills in 1910 when a consignment of 10,000 ova was taken from Kashmir to the Bhowali hatchery, about 8 miles from Nainital. Another consign- ment was obtained in 1912 and fingerlings from these were stocked in various lakes such as the Nainital, Naguchiatal, Sathtal, Malwatal etc. (Skene-Dhu, 1918). Though the first stocking operations met with encouraging results it is doubtful if the trout has permanently established itself in the Kumaon hills. Attempts made to establish trout in the Darjeeling Himalayas did not meet with success in view of the heavily silted condition of the rivers during floods and the precipitous nature of the valley with high waterfalls, whereas the fish has established itself in the Ha Valley in Bhutan at an elevation of 9,000 to 10,000 ft. (Hora, 1946). Further details about the above transplantations are not available. Introduction of trout in Travancore, Kodaikanai and other waters in South India: The first consignment of trout ova for Travancore was obtained in 1909 from Howieton in Stirlingshire, Scotland (via Bombay) and this reached the High Range, Travancore, successfully. A second consignment was received in the same year via Colombo- Tuticorin, and another in 1913. All the above consignments comprised of ova of the Brown Trout. By this time culture of the Rainbow Trout was becoming a notable success in the Nilgiris and attention was turned to this species. Though the fry introduced into the waters of the High HISTORY OF TRANSPLANTATION OF FISHES IN INDIA 603 Range showed phenomenal growth they failed to breed until a hatchery was located at Rajmally and the fish were liberated in the Eravikulam river, where they bred under natural conditions in 1937. Fresh stocks of Rainbow Trout were obtained from the Nilgiris and Ceylon and by 1941-42 the fish had firmly established itself in the High Range of Travancore. (Gopinath, 1942 and Mackay, 1945). Streams in the Anamalais have been stocked with fingerlings of trout from the hatchery in the High Range, Travancore. The fish does not breed there due to the comparatively low elevation and consequent high temperature. As a result of the interest taken by Messrs. Crossley and MacTaggert two lots of trout ova were imported in 1894 by the Palni Game Association for stocking the Kodaikanal lake. Both the attempts resulted in failure (Skene-Dhu, 1906). TRANSPLANTED LA RVICIDAL FISHE sS—Autochthonous Among the Indian larvicidal fishes, the cyprincdonts Ajplocheztlus lineatus, A, panchax, A. blochit and Oryzias melastigma (McCl.) are the most important; and these have been transplanted in several parts of the country for antimalarial work. Most of the transplantations are intra-regional and come under routine activities of public health departments of the States concerned, and the records are too numerous to be listed here. INTRODUCED LARVICIDAL FISHES—Exotic The Top Minnow, Gambusia affinis B. & G. (Fig. 5): This fish from North America has been introduced in various countries for larvicidal Fig.5. The Top Minnow, Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard). (After Prashad and Hora), purposes. It was first introduced in India by Dr. B. S. Rao and Dr. Chandrasekhriah who brought an experimental consignment to Mysore 604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 from Italy in 1928 (Gopinath, 1942). The attempt was a great success and the fish bred out of this stock was transplanted to several States, from Travancore in the south to the Punjab in the north. A consign- ment of young gambusia was brought from Ceylon in 1929 by the Madras Fisheries Department and stocked in the waters of Krusadai Island, and another was taken from Bangalore to Madras city in 1930 (Chacko, 1948). Both lots of gambusia bred well and have been distri- buted to different parts of the State. The Millions: Ledzstes reticulatus (Peters): This is a native of South America and is known also as ‘ Barbados Millions’. A consignment was introduced by Major Selley into Madras in 1909, but was reported to have perished due to unsuitable climatic conditions (Prashad and Hora, 1936). However, in 1946 the fish was noticed thriving inthe Rameswaram temple tank and from there it has now been successfully transplanted to various parts of Madras (Chacko, 1948). INTRODUCED ORNAME NTAL FISHES Records are not available showing the exact period of introduction of ornamental fishes into the country, but it is probable that this might have taken place at a very early date during the Buddhist period when India and China came into intimate contact with each other. During the Moghul period fish ponds and ornamental pools were popular in palace gardens, and in the residences of the aristocracy. Fig.6. The Gold Fish, Carassius auratus (Linn.) : A. Veil-tailed variety ; B. Pop-eyed variety ; C. Lion-headed variety. (After Norman). The commonest and the most popular ornamental fish is the Gold- fish, Carassius auratus, introduced from China. Other examples are the Angel-fish, Prevophyllum scalare, from South America ; the Fighting- fish, Betta pugnax, from Siam; the White Cloud Mountain Minnow, Tanichthys albonubes, from China; the Black Tetra, Gymnocorymbus HISTORY OF TRANSPLANTATION OF FISHES IN INDIA 605 ternetzt, from Paraguay; the Flame Tetra, Hyphessobrycon flammeus, from Rio de Janeiro; the Pearl Gourami, Zyichogaster leeri, from Siam; the Jewel Fish, Hemichromis bimaculatus, from Africa; the Chinese Paradise Fish, (/acropodus opercularis, from China; the Red and Green Swordtail, X7¢phophorus hellerit, from Mexico; the different colour varieties of Platies, Platypoectlus maculatus, from Mexico; the Liberty Mollies, Mollientsia sphenops, from Texas; the Cherry Barb, Barbus titteya, from Ceylon; the Negro Barb, Barbus nigrofascialus, trom Ceylon; and the Harlequin, Rasbora heteromorpha, from Sumatra and Singa- pore. Exact details about the introduction of these ornamental fishes are not available. ACCIDENTAL TRANSPLANTATIONS In the course of purposive introduction of species accidental introduc- tions have also taken place, such as of Rasbora danicontus (Ham.) and Oryzias melastigma(McCl.) into the Andamans along with the fry of Labeo rohtta (Ham.) (Mookerjee, 1935 and Herre, 1941). Species like Ophicephalus gachua (Ham.) found in the Andamans are considered to have been introduced accidentally by human agency (Mookerjee op. cit.), According to Annandale & Hora (1925), along with the fingerlings of L. rohita (Ham.) the fry of minor carps and certain Siluridae also might have been introduced into the Island. As a result of the present fillip to the expansion of carp cultural activities in the different States (Job, 1951) and the consequent large- scale transportation of carp fry fromthe Gangetic and the Mahanadi systems of rivers to other parts of India there is a possibility of accidental transplantation of unwanted species. GENERAL REMARKS As will be seen from the foregoing account, several successful attempts have been made to introduce exotic species into the country and to transplant the indigenous ones. The advent of these exotic species does not appear to have in any way affected the indigenous fish fauna. Even the trout, the carnivorous habits of which are well known, has not been detrimental as it is restricted to the cool waters in the higher reaches of the rivers where economically important varieties of indi- genous fishes are few. In Kashmir and in the Punjab, the trout waters still retain a rich indigenous fish fauna. However, this fact should not leave us unmindful of the dangers of indiscriminate transplantation. Strict quarantine restrictions have to be exercised while carrying out transplantation programmes. In view of the present food shortage the transplantation of food fishes like the major carps of India is of prime importance. The establishment of carps like catla in the Cauvery in the south and in the Bombay waters has been a creditable achievement, especially as it is astep towards regional self-sufficiency in the supply of carp fry for cultural operations. The result of the introduction of catla in Periyar lake in Travancore will be watched with interest and if the fish establishes itself in the Periyar system a suitable source of seed supply will be available for the region. 606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Among the fishes indigenous to India the pearl-spot ranks in importance next to the major carps in its suitability for transplantation and permanent establishment. The coastal districts of Orissa and Bengal appear to offer ideal conditions for introduction. Another indigenous fish considered suitable is the Copper Mahseer, Acrossochilus hexagonolebis (McCl.). This fish grows to about 25 lb. and is distributed in the rivers of Assam and the eastern section of the Himalayas. Recently it has been reported from the Cauvery also. The fish breeds in semi-confined waters (Smith, 1944 and Hora, 1946) and its artificial propagation is reported to be easy (Ahmed, 1946 and 1948), Experimental transplantation of this could, therefore, be tried with advantage in waters where the major carps do not occur or when trans- planted have failed to give satisfactory results. The small streams of the Andaman Islands appear to offer suitable conditions for the breed- ing of this fish, and it is likely that the Bengali settlers in the islands will find the Copper Mahseer a welcome substitute in the absence of the major carps. The Tilapia, 7tlapia mossambica (Peters) (Fig. 7) whichis a native of South Africa, has given very encouraging results in some of the South- “aR See te elk fo pee << Tilopia mossambice Peters Fig. 7. The Tilapia, Tilapia mossambica Peters. (After Hofstede), East Asian countries where it has been introduced in recent years. It will be desirable to consider the feasibility of introducing this fish in India also as an experimental measure.* The usefulness of 7richogaster pectoralis (Regan) (Fig. 8) for introduction in paddy-fields, swamps and marshes requires to be studied. This fish is a native of Siam and is now well established in several parts of Malaya and Indonesia. We have now in India a variety of fishes both indigenous and exotic suitable for culture in varying ecological conditions. The optimum *After this paper was read at the Symposium we were informed by Dr. Nazir Ahmed that a consignment of 7zlagza had recently been brought to East Bengal (Pakistan). The results of this transplantation are awaited with interest. If the fish gets established in East Bengal, its natural spread into the contiguous areas of India will be only a matter of time. HISTORY OF TRANSPLANTATION OF FISHES IN INDIA G07 requirements of the species concerned, their response to the change in habitat etc. have yet to be studied in detail. With regional self- Trichogaster pectoralis Regon Fig.8. The Sepat-Siam, 7richogaster pectoralis (Regan). (After Hofstede). sufficiency in crop and seed as the aim, judicious transplantation and introduction of these fishes have to be planned and carried out throughout the country. BiBETO GRAPH vy" Ahmed, Nazir, (1946): On the spawning habits and culture of Katli, Baréus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland. Bengal Govt. Fish. Dev. Pamph, No. 2; pp. 48. Ahmed, Nazir, (1948): On the spawning habits and development of the Copper Mahseer, Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland. Proc, Nat. last. Scz. India 14 (1); 21-28. Alikunhi, K. H. (1948): Observations on the growth of Cyfrinus carpio in tropical environment at the Chetput Fish Farm, Madras. Proc, 35th Indian Sci. Congr. (Patna, 1948) Pt. 3, Abstracts, Calcutta, p. 206. Alikunhi, K. H. & Chaudhuri, H. (1951): On the Occurrence of Ladbeo rohita in the Godavari River System. Sei. & Cudt.; 16 (11) ; 527. Alikunhi, K. H., Chaudhuri, H. & Ramachandran, V. (1951): Response to transplantation of fishes in India, with special reference to conditions of existence of carp fry. Symposium on transplantation of Fishes, Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council 3rd Meeting, Madras. Alikunhi, K. H. & Ranganathan, V. (1947) : Bionomics, breeding habits and development of the Tench, Zzuca tinca in the Nilgiris waters. Proc. 34th Indian Sci. Congr. (Delhi, 1947) Pt. 3, Abstracts, Calcutta ; 179. Annandale, N. & Hora, S. L. (1925): The freshwater fish of the Andaman Islands. ec. Indian Mus. 27 (2) ; 33-41. Basu, 8. P. (1946): Pcssibilities of Mullet Farming in India. /udian Fme., Welnt @ (11); pp. $17-522: Bhimachar, B. S., David, A. & Muniappa, B. (1944): Observations on the acclimatisation, nesting habits and early development of Osphronemus goramy (Lacep.). Proc. Indian Acad. Sci., Bangalore 20 (1) ; 88-101. Sa * A great deal of information obtained from the various Administration Reports of the Madras Fisheries Department is incorporated in the paper but only some important references are listed in the bibliography. : 608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Burton, R. W. (1948): Mirror carp. Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., Bombay, 47 (4) ; 761-762. Chacko, P. I. (1945) : Acclimatisation of Mirror Carp in Nilgiris. Jour, Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., Bombay, 45 (2) ; 244-247. Chacko, P. I. (1948): Development of Fisheries in the Periyar Lake. Proc. 35th Ind. Sci. Congr. (Patna, 1918) Pt. 3, Abstracts, pp. 204-205. Chacko, P.I. & Kuriyan, G. K. (1948): On the bionomics of Catla cutla (Cuv. & Val.) in South Indian Waters. Proc. Zool. Soc., London. 120 (1) ; 39-42. Chacko, P. I. & Venkatraman, R.S. (1948): Notes on the Bionomics of the Millions, Ledistes reticulatus in Madras Waters. Proc. 35th Indian Sci. Congr. (Patna, 1948), Pt. 3, Abstracts, Calcutta, pp. 157-158, Day, F. (1873): Report on the Freshwater Fish and Fisheries of India and Burma, Calcutta. Day, F. (1876) : Introduction of Trout and Tench into India. Journ. Linn, Soc., London, 12; 562-555. Edye, E. H. H. (1923): Report on the Fisheries of the United Provinces, Allahabad. ° Fowke, P. (1938): Trout Culture in Ceylon. Sol. Zeyl. (Ceylon J. Scz.), Colombo, 6 (1); 1-78. Gopinath, K. (1942): Acclimatisation of foreign fish in Travancore. Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., Bombay, 43 ; 267-271. Ganapati, S. V. & Chacko, P. I. (1950): Fish Farming in tea and coffee plantations. Planters’ Chronicle, Madras, Aug, 1950, pp. 1-6. Herre, A. W. C. T. (1941): A list of fishes known from the Andaman Islands. —Mem. Indian Mus., Calcutta, 13 (3) ; 331-403. Hora, S. L. (1943): Possibility of fish culture in the Eastern Himalayas. Bengal Govt. Fish Dev. Pamph. 2, pp. 1-3. Hornell, J. (1923): Administration Report for the year 1921-22. Madras Fish. Bull., Madras, 17; 1-44. Hornell, J. (1924): Administration Report for the year 1922-23. Wadras Fish. Bull., Madras, 18; 1-58. Howell, G. C. L. (1916): The making of a Himalayan trout water. Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., Bombay, 24 (2) ; 317-328, Jaganatham, N. (1946): A note on the introduction of Roku and Mrigal into Madras waters. Judian Fmg., Delhi, 7 (6) ; 292-296. Job, T. J. & Chacko, P. I. (1947): Rearing of salt water fish in freshwaters of Madras. J/nudian Ecol., Bombay, 2 (1) ; 12-20. Job, T. J. (1951): Fish Seed Industry in India. Symposium on Transplanta- tion of Fishes, Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council 3rd Meeting, Madras (February 1951). Khan, Hamid (1946) : Development of Fisheries in the Punjab—II. Culture and Propagation. /nedian Fing., Delhi, 7 ; 331-335. a C. V. (1946): Gourami Culture. Jndian Fimg., Delhi, 7 (12) ; 569-571. Kulkarni, C. V. (1947): Note on freshwater fishes of Bombay and Salsette Island. Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., Bombay, 47 (2) ; 319-326. Mackay, W. S. (1945): Trout of Travancore, Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., Bombay, 45 (3 & 4) ; 352-373 and 542-557. Mitchell, F. J. 1918: How Trout were introduced into Kashmir. Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., Bombay, 26 (1) ; 295-299. Molesworth, C. & Bryant, J. F. (1921): Trout culture on the Nilgiris. Jour. Bomb, Nat. Hist, Soc., Bombay, 27 (4) ; 898-910. HISTORY OF TRANSPLANTATION OF FISHES IN INDIA 609 Mookerjee, D. D. (1935): Notes on some rare and interesting fishes from the Andaman Islands, with descriptions of two new freshwater gobies, Kec. /ndian Mus., Calcutta, 37; 259-277, Moses, S. T. (1942): Rep. Dept. Fish. Baroda State, 1940-41, Baroda. Moses, S. T. (1944): Rep. Dept. Fish. Baroda State, 1942-43, Baroda. Nicholson, F. A. (1915): Papers from 1899 relating chiefly to the development of the Madras Fisheries Bureau. Sull., Madras Kish. Bur. \, Phayre, R. B. (1944) : Where the Rainbow ends. Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., Bombay, 44 (3) ; 380-385. Prashad, B. & Hora, S. L. (1936): Ageneral review of the probable larvivorous fishes of India. Rec. Mal. Sur. India, 6 (4) ; 642. Rahimullah, M. (1946) ; Acclimatisation of exotic fish, Atroplus suratensis (Bloch) in the Hyderabad State. Proc. 33rd Indian Sct. Congr. (Bangalore, 1946), Pt. 3, Abstracts, Calcutta, p. 129. Raj, B.S. (1916) .. Notes onthe freshwater fish of Madras. Rec. Indian Mus., Calcutta, 12 (6) ; 249-294. Raj, B. S. (1945) ; The decline of Mahseer fisheries of the Kumaon Lakes and a possible remedy. Proc. Nat. Inst., Sct., India, Delhi 11 (3) ; 341-345, Raj, B. S. & Cornelius, R. P. (1948): On the history and transport of the Mirror carp in oxvgen container from Ootacamund (Nilgiris) to Kumaon Hills (United Provinces) Proc. 35th Indian Sct. Congr. (Patna, 1948), Pt. 3, Abstracts, Calcutta, p. 205. Ross, E. J. (1939): Trout Fishing in Kashmir. Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist, Soc., Bombay, 41 (2) ; 437-442. Smith, Langdale W. K. (1944): A note on the breeding habits of Katli, Barbus (Lissochitus) hexagonolepis McClelland. J, Bengal Nat. Hist. Soc., Calcutta, 19 ; 89-90. Southwell, T. (1915): Report on Fishery Investigations in Bengal and Bihar and Orissa, with recommendations forfuture work. Bull. Dept. Fish. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, 5. Tampoe, A. McG, C. (1929) : Report of the Committee on Fisheries in Madras, Govt. Press, Madras, Thyagarajan, S. & Chacko, P. I. (1950): Introduction of Roku and Mrigal from Orissa State to Madras State. Jud. Com. J., Madras, Oct. 1950, pp. 1-4. Thomas H. S. (1870): Report on Pisciculture in South Canara, London, (1881) : Rod in India, Calcutta. Tyson, T. (1941): Trout Fishing in Kulu. Lahore. Walker, W, (1888): Angling in Kumaon Lakes, Calcutta. THE POISONOUS & MEDICINAL PLANTS OF INDIA BY I. C. CHOPRA & DL. -D; KAroor INTRODUCTION Spread over an area of more than a million and a half square miles and endowed by nature with varied physical and climatological condi- tions, India possesses a rich and varied flora. Tropical plants grow in the south and south-east, while temperate and alpine plants thrive in the north and north-western Himalayas. The vegetation of these areas contains innumerable economic products, such as food plants, spices, oils, timber, fibre, gums, etc. There are more than 700 important food or fodder plants, among which about 200 species are valuable fodder grasses. In addition there grow in this vast sub- continent a large number of plants with active medicinal principles. More than 2,000 plants alleged to have medicinal properties have been enumerated in the literature of ancient India; of the plants listed in the British and other pharmacopoeias a very large proportion either grow here naturally or can be cultivated without much difficulty. The more important families from which come useful medicinal plants are the following : Leguminosae, Compositae, Labiatae, Euphor- biaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Rosaceae, Gramineae, Liliaceae, Rutaceae, Ranunculaceae, Umbelliferae, Solanaceae and Apocynaceae. Many of these plants have constituents, which if taken internally may cause serious disorders and even death; such plants are usually termed ‘ Poisonous Plants’. A large number of these, when taken in appropriate doses, are of help in the alleviation of suffering; but their toxic properties are such that in general such plants constitute a serious menace both to man and domestic animals. Recent studies in India have shown that we have about 700 species of poisonous plants belong- ing to 90 botanical families; their poisonous principles may be alkaloids, glucosides, toxalbumins, ete.,, which though useful and beneficial in small amounts, are actually harmful -to our livestock. The study of poisonous plants from their toxicological or economic aspects in relation to man is, therefore, very important. Many of these plants provide us with various medicinal principles which can be extracted and used in the country, or even exported to foreign parts. This is a study that promises well for the economy of India; under the auspices and financial assistance of the Indian Council of Medical Research much has been done here for the collection, extraction and application of active plant principles, as useful medicinal drugs. On the other hand, toxicological studies have not been sufficiently intense in our country ; various countries in Europe and America are far ahead of us in this type of work, and it is only thanks to the interest taken by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research that India has awakened to the possibilities of this line of research. POISONOUS & MEDICINAL PLANTS OF INDIA 611 WORK UNDER THE INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH In 1935 the Indian Council of Agricultural Research made a grant to Col. (Sir) R. N. Chopra for the purpose of starting intense work on Indian poisonous plants; soon the work started in the School of Tropical Medicine at Calcutta. The first results of Col. Chopra’s activities was the publication of a list including about 700 plants that were reputed to be poisonous to man, livestock, fishes, etc. ; this work entailed intense search for such plants both in the field and in the various national herbaria. : In the case of many of the plants listed by Chopra their poisonous properties had not been substantiated by actual experimentation. A preliminary chemical examination of the more important plants was carried out in the School of Tropical Medicine, Caicutta, and later on in the Drug Research Laboratory, Jammu & Kashmir State. The poison- ous plants may be divided into two groups according to their toxicolo- gical properties: (2) Plants poisonous to man and livestock. (6) Plants poisonous to insects and fishes. As far as the first group is concerned, there are still considerable gaps, but our knowledge is advancing satisfactorily ; in connection with the second group our knowledge is still very meagre. Loss of livestock due to poisoning “In India there are hundreds of plants intimately connected with the food supplies of roughly 180 million bovine and 80 million other live- stock heads (sheep, goats, etc.). The fodder supply for this livestock amounts to at least 28 million maunds daily. Unfortunately there are no figures for the loss incurred through poisoning with fodder plants in this country, but they are believed to be very high. It may be interesting to refer to conditions existing in two states, Montana and Colorado, of U.S.A., which will give an idea of the possible damage. It has been calculated that the loss suffered in those two states through poisoning is of the order of 200 million dollars annually. This is a very large figure, considering the size of those states as compared with India (less than one-sixth), and also in view of the fact that the know- ledge of poisonous plants is much more advanced in America, where active preventive measures are regularly taken to prevent such losses. Food poisons In the large majority of cases, poisoning is produced when plants are used as food. Cases of poisoning in animals through eating of poisonous plants are of frequent occurrence throughout the world and are even more common in India When such plants, which provide food and fodder for manand animals, produce toxiceffects they are termed ‘Food Poisons’. The following are some of the food poisons commonly met with in India. Several grasses especially juar (Sorghum vulgare) and baru (Sorghum helepense), mustards (species of Brassica and Sinapis especially the rai), several members of the Cucurbitaceae, leaf blades of Rhubarb (species of R/eum), the Potato family (Solanaceae), buckwheat de 612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 (Fagopyrum esculentum, F. tartaricum) and several spscies of une Lupinus, Medicago, Beta, Quercus, etc. Poisonous grasses Our knowledge of Indian grasses which produce poisoning is very meagre, and it is not possible to estimate the losses in livestock from this source. The problem of poisonous grasses is indeed of great economic importance in certain parts of India where the rains often fail and drought conditions prevail. The development of hydrocyanic acid among grasses in dangerously large quantities under definite climatic and soil conditions is very important in certain regions. It has been observed that such grasses are pvisonous during wilting and under conditions of drought, that younger and more succulent ones are often more likely to contain lethal doses of hydrocyanic acid, but if well dried these plants are generally without poisonous effects. Plants liable to produce dermatitis Poisoning may also be produced through external contact as in the case of some species belonging to the genera Rhus, Holigarna, Urtica, etc., resulting in irritation of skin, eczema and dermatitis. A long list of such plants has been drawn up, but some of the important ones may be marked here :—Abroma augusta (Ulat kambal), Arisaema speciosum (Kiralu), Euphorbia antiquorum (Tridhera-sehund), E-xcoecaria agallocha (Gangwa), Holigarna sp. (Bibu), Mucuna sp. (Kiwach), Schima wallichii (Chilauni), Zvagia sp. (Barkanta), Urtica sp. (Bichu), etc. Insecticidal plants The second group is composed of plants pdisonous to insects and fishes and is also important in the economy of our nation. Insects do incalculable harm and are responsible for much loss of life and much destruction of foodstuffs and of property. On a moderate computation, the annual loss caused in India through insect pests has been estimated at 2,000 million rupees and over a million and a half in human lives. An effective control of these enemies of social and economic progress will reduce this enormous loss and will facilitate national development. One means of fighting them is by use of the insecticides which can be supplied by this group of plants. In spite of the development of cheap synthetic insecticides such as D.D.T., etc., vegetable insecticides still hold a prominent place. The reason is that they are less deleterious to warm-blooded animals and plant life and many possess remarkable immediate knock-out effects. Among vegetable insecticides of proved value may be mentioned Chrysanthemum (Pyrethrum), Derris (Tuba root), Vicotzana (Tobacco), Tephrosia (Sarphankha), Pzcrasma (Charangi), Delphinium (Larkspur), etc., but there are many others which need investigation. Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerarifolium) and Derris (Derris elliptica) have already acquired great importance as plant insecticides, and America alone imports several million dollars worth of. these commodities. Pyrethrum is now grown in many countries for export, and Kenya and Japan are making enormous profits by its export. In India its cultivation has been successfully started in Kashmir, the Nilgiris, Assam and other places. In Kashmir a large area was brought POISONOUS & MEDICINAL PLANTS OF INDIA 613 under this crop, and research work to improve the quality of pyrethrum flowers by proper selection of seed, collection of flowers at the right time, drying and storing under suitable conditions, was carried out by one of the authors and his co-workers, Unfortunately large scale Cultivation for commercial purpcses has nowhere been taken up in this country. In Kashmir a maximum production level of a hundred tons of flowers annually was reached, but lately on account of the disturbed conditions in 1947-48, production fell down to almost nothing. The plantations are again being revived, but it will take considerable time before previous levels are attained. MDerrzs ellzpizca is found in a state of nature to a very limited extent in India, but several other species growing here need systematic investigation and cultivation for commers= cial exploitation. Insect repellents The insect repellents group of plants also occupy a prominent place in the economy of a nation. The cheaper and larger the number of effective insect repellents, the greater likelihood of the masses of India benefitting from their use. It is a time-honoured practice in India that the leaves of neem (Azadirachta indica) and patchouli (Pogostemon heyneanus) and the roots of costus (Saussurea lappa) are used to protect woollen fabrics from insects. Articles placed in boxes made of sandal- wood (Saztalum album) are immune from the attacks of these pests. Some essential oils such as eucalyptus oil (from Lucalyptus globulus) and citronella oil(from Cymbopogon nardus), when applied to the human body, give relief from the bites of mosquitoes and other insects so long as the odour lasts. Hemp (Cannabis sativa), if spread under a bedsheet, affords ample protection against fleas. The simple device of mixing leaves of TZvigonella foenumgraecum (Methi) and Vitex negundo (Nirgundhi) with grains before storage saves them from insect attacks. _ A long list of vegetable insecticides and insect repellents has been drawn up elsewhere. Many of these grow wild, and some are even cultivated in India. Mention may, however, be made of some of the more important plants in this respect : -Acorus calamus (Bach), Artemisia absinthium (Afsantin), Czmetctfuga foelida (Juinti), CZunamomum cam- bhora (Karpur), Curcuma longa (Haldi), Delphintum sp. (Larkspur), Euphorbia sp. (Hirvi), Ocimum sp. (Tulsi), Peganum harmala (Hurmal), Santalum album (Sandal), and Zanthoxylum alatum (Tejmal). Piscicidal plants . It isa well-known fact that some plants are poisonous to fish. Cases are known where such plants have accidentally come into contact with water in ponds or streams and enormous numbers of fish have died as aresult. Use of these plants for purposes of obtaining food is some times resorted to by people.~ This is uneconomical and wasteful, and the practice should be stopped. The list of plants poisonous to fish is a very long one. This group is also of importance as some of the insecticides are also piscicides and vice versa. A systematic investi- gation of the group may lead to the discovery of effective insecticides. Examples of important piscicides may be cited as :—A/dzz 7a sp. (Siris), Artemisia vulgaris (Tithwan), Berberis aristata (Darhald), Derris sp. 614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 50 (Tuba), Dioscovea sp. (Manalu), Hydnocarpus sp. (Kastal), Juglans regia (Akhrot), AWzllettia piscidia, Phyllanthus urinaria (Hazarmuni), Rhodo- dendron sp. (Gaggar), Stvychnos sp. (Kuchila), Tephrosia sp. (Sarapankha), Verbascum thapsus (Bantomaku), etc. etc. Medicinal plants It would be interesting to summarise briefly the salient features concerning the work on Indian medicinal plants which was initiated by Col. R. N. Chopra and his co-workers more than thirty years ago. The work had the following main objects in view :—(a) To make India self-sufficient, by enabling her to utilise the drugs produced in the country by manufacturing them in a form suitable for administration. (0) To discover remedies from the claims of Ayurvedic, Tibbi and other indigenous sources suitable to be employed by the exponents of western medicine. (c) To discover means of affecting economy so that these remedies might fall within the means of the great masses in India, whose economic condition is low, and eventually (¢@) To prepare an Indian Pharmacopoeia. Pharmacopoetal and allied drugs. The work done in connection with medicinal plants has been responsible tor bringing into use a large number of crude drugs used in the British and other Pharmacopoeias which were formerly imported from foreign countries by the pharmaceutical industry. It was shown that the active principles of many of the indigenous plants such as Podophyllum, Rhubarb, EAhedra and Indian Belladonna, etc. were up to the standards laid down in the pharmacopoeias. Similarly a large number of plants grow in India which, though not exactly the same, have properties and actions similar to the imported and often expensive drugs. These could form excellent substitutes. Colchicum luteum (Suranjan), Picrorhiza kurrooa (Kour), which grow wild in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh have thus come into use as good Indian substitutes for the officinal variety of drugs Colchicum autumnale and Gentiana lutea. Indian Ephedra, Indian Belladonna, Aconites and Santonine have thus all found their way in the exports to U.K. and U.S.A. before and after the second World War. Many examples can be cited where Indian drugs, which otherwise perished unobserved in our forests, gained economic importance in the country. The Drugs used in Indian Medicine It is believed that out of the very large number of drugs used in Indian medicine there must be some at least which deserve the reputa- tion they have earned as cures. A few plants may be cited for example :—Atis (Aconitum heterophyllum), Mamira (Copizs teeta), Anan- tamul (Hemidesmus indvicus), Kurchi (Holarrhena antidysenterica), Maline (Inula royleana), Hurmal (Peganum harmala), Kuth (Saussurea lappa), Sarpagandha (Rauwolfia serpentina), etc. etc. A large number of these commonly used drugs have been worked out by application of modern scientific methods. Their chemical com- position has been determined, the pharmacologicaiaction of the active principles has been worked out by animal experimentation, and finally suitable preparations made from the drugs have been tested on patients POISONOUS & MEDICINAL PLANTS OF INDIA 615 in the hospitals. This laborious work has brought out the merit and qualities of certain drugs and it has been shown that they may prove to be valuable additions to the present armoury of the medical man to relieve the sufferings of humanity if brought into general use. But such drug plants unfortunately are not large in number. In many cases negative results have been obtained, which also is not without significance. There is an enormous field for investigation in this country but only the fringes of this vast problem have as yet been touched. It remains for future workers to explore and investigate the materia medica mention- ed in the literature of indigenous medicine and to prove or disprove the effectiveness and practical utility of many alleged remedies mentioned therein. As Col. Chopra has said, ‘At the present time when the big drug manufacturers of the world are producing an ever-increasing flow of synthetic remedies there has been a feeling in Europe and in America that medicinal herbs, particularly those used in the indigenous medicines of different countries, should receive more attention. Their use is built up on experience of generations extending over centuries at a price in human lives which is very difficult for any modern research to pay. From my own experience of thirty years I have no doubt that much remains to be learnt from a close study of such herbal remedies. Examples of such drugs are WHolarrhena antidysenterica (in amoebioses), and Rauwolfia serpentina (in blood pressure) from India, Stepbhania cepharantha and S. sasakiz, alkaloid cepharanthine (in tuberculosis) from Japan, Ammz visnaga (diuretic and coronary anti- spasmodic) from Egypt; Coptzs cotnensia (alkaloid berberine) has tuberculostatic activity ; and a number of others whose efficiency have been recently established.’ He further observed that chemical investigation of plants has so far confined itself to the discovery of alkaloids, glucosides, etc. An enormous field, yet undetermined, is open to investigation, if plant research receives a new orientation and plant antibiotics are also studied. Recent work in India has shown the presence cf substances of antibiotic nature in common Indian plants, e.g., Woringa plerygosperma (pterigosperimin), which are highly effective against disease producing organisms particularly of the bacillary dysentery group. Close colla- boration in this type of work is pregnant with possibilities not only of scientific and academic interest, but also of very greit practical economic importance to the country. Indian pharmacopoeia The fact that India should have an official publication which would record what she recognizes as a trustworthy and approved materia medica upon which can be established modern Food Drug Acts, Poison Laws, systems of legal medicine, need hardly be emphasized. But this involves not cnly the development of machinery for the administration of laws based upon official standards, but also findirg an authoritative standard which every doctor and pharmacist in India will hail as real guide in everyday work. Production of such a work will entail a very large amount of work. The pharmacopoeia which is envisaged should include the composition of drugs, definite pharmacological action of their active constituents, well-established therapeutic uses, fully investi- gated toxicity and standard for a safe maximum dose based on chemical 616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 50 and biological standards. The work which was started by Colonel Chopra and his collaborators and which is now being done extensively by many workers in the country, is exactly the type of work which will lead to the preparation of an Indian pharmacopoeia. It is obvious, however, that much more will have to be accomplished before such an authori- tative publication can be prepared. It isa matter of great satisfaction that a committee appointed by the Government of India with Colonel Chopra as its chairman has composed an Indian Pharmacopoeial list largely based onthe scientific work done up till now. ‘This list contains the indigenous drugs which have been sufficiently worked out on the above stated basis and will form in the first instance an Addendum to the Pharmacopoeias. This is the first step towards laying the foundation of the Indian pharmacopoeia and it is hoped that now, with indepen- dence achieved, an Indian pharmacopoeia will be prepared in course of a few years. Drug research With the opening of the Central Drug Research Institute at Lucknow, research on economic plants generally and medicinal plants particularly will be put on a sound, systematic and permanent basis. Colonel Chopra said in his address at the opening ceremony of this Institute: ‘In spite of many handicaps, India’s men of science have justified their capacity for original investigations and have taken an honourable and ever-increasing share in the advance of knowledge of pure and applied sciences. In iact progress in drug research has depended mainly on the contribution of a few individual workers rather than a systematic attack by concerted action. It is now recognised that a more systematic appli- cation of science and research, over a broader field, is essential in the national interest. Even during the short period of our independence, the concept of research which is rapidly developing is highly practical for country’s needs. The deep interest and foresight of the Prime Minister and his able adviser, Dr. Bhatnagar, in giving generous grants for research, in spite of financial stringency, deserve the gratitude of the nation. Nothing can contribute more towards the rapid building up of a prosperous nation than wide research activities in science and its application. This problem is being solved by establishing National Laboratories of which a number are already functioning. Eminent men of science have taken up their direction. The work both on the side of pure science and its practical application should now make rapid strides. A new era has opened.’ The Indian Council of Agricultural Research has played a great partin plant research particularly in connection with plant cultivation on a commercial scale. The whole country has been divided into a number of zones, and large grants are being given in connection with drug cultivation on scientific lines and Uires increasing their contents of active principles. Other plants of economic value During the course of the survey undertaken by the authors under the guidance of Colonel Chopra, besides the plants yielding pharmaco- poeial ard allied drugs, many other plants having economic value were discovered and studied. For instance about 50 plants bearing essential oils, which are in demand both in the cosmetic and the pharmaceutical POISONOUS & MEDICINAL PLANTS OF [INDIA 617 industry, were found growing wild in the State of Jammu and Kashmir. ’ For convenience these plants are divided into three groups : 1. Plants whose essential oil content compares well with those grown in other countries,-e.g., Mint, Lavender, Thyme, Sage, Angelica, (Chora) and Juniper (Padambi)j), etc. etc. 2. Plants not worked elsewhere, viz. /uula racemosa (Poshkar), Skimmia laureola (Nera), Salvia sp., Herecleum sp., Prangos pubilaria (Kornal) and Sezeczo sp., etc, etc. 3. Plants whose yield of essential oil is low but can be improved by artificial cultivation, viz. /vzs sp., Artemisia sp., Nepeta sp., etc. Preliminary work on the survey of essential oil bearing plants has been carried out. It is now for the industrialists to take up the initia- tive and to exploit the natural resources to the best advantage of the country. It is well known that in France in the region of the Maritime Alps a large industry for the production of scents and perfumes has been developed which supplies its produce all over the world. With our vast resources of these essential oil bearing plants a similar industry and on a much larger scale can be established which will be of great economic importance. Cultivation of Medicinal and other plants As has already been stated, India is an epitome of climates and an emporium of medicinal herbs. There is no reason why exotic medici- nal plants should not thrive here under suitable conditions of soil, season and climate in different parts of the country. Cznchona and I pecacuanha, which were introduced in the ninteenth century, are valuable drug plants under cultivation now. Pyrethrum, which is a potent source of vegetable insecticide, has also been successfully introduced in Kashmir, the Nilgiris and Assam. Investigations have been carried out in the Drug Research Laboratory, Kashmir, on the different problems concerned with the successful cultivation of pyrethrum with a view to the establishment of a large scale industry in this country. There is no reason why such an industry should not develop in the near future. Experimental work at different experimental centres was conducted in connection with cultivation of Lavender (Lavandula officinalis), Mint (Mentha piperita), Liquorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), successfully and there is a great future for these and many others. Seeds of Stvophanthus Kombe and Duboisia myoporides procured from South Africa and Australia respectively have been tried in different places in India. Many exotics can be introduced and those already growing can be extended for cultivation. It may be concluded that the cultivation of medicinal, or rather economic plants, and the introduction of exotics has a promising future in this country and the work done so far has produced remark- able results. This should stimulate the governments of the various States to take the initiative and do this work in a systematic manner. The part plaved by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research in initiating and developing these studies has been of a pioneering nature; it is pregnant with the possibilities of future development and deserves the gratitude of the nation, PHOTOGRAPHING THE WHITEBELLIED SEA-EAGLE [HALIAETUS LEUCOGASTER (GMELIN) | BY Wan THo LOKE (With four plates) If I were asked what should be the tutelary bird of Singapore, I would without hesitation say, The Whitebeilied Sea- -eagle. This species is common here, althbath not numerous, because the skies of Singapore are not wide enough to accommodate a large bird with such a great flying range. Nevertheless, wherever you may be on this small, green and pleasant island there is always a good chance that you will see one of these magnificent birds. You will see him at any time of the year because he is a ‘local-born’ and lives and brings up his family in our midst. I known of two nests which are regularly used, and no doubt there must be others. One of these nests is placed high up in an Albizzia tree in Malcolm Road; and the other, in a similar tree but placed even higher up (at 150 feet) finds itself in the very midst of big business, standing, as it does, in the compound of a house occupied by the man- ager of a well-known local bank. This latter nest was blown down in the big storm of 1950 but at the end of the year it was rebuilt and I was surprised to see that the new nest did not appear very much smaller than the previous structure. Stuart Baker, writing of the Whitebellied Sea-eagle in ‘Nidification of Birds of the Indian Empire’ says: ‘These Eagles select almost, if not quite, invariably only the largest trees upon which to construct their nests’. The Malayan birds are true to type in their behaviour in this respect. It is thus not surprising that no good photographs have ever been taken of the bird; certainly no such pictures, so far as I am aware, have ever been published. Therefore, when His Excellency the Commissioner-General for the United Kinedom i in South-East Asia, Mr. Malcolm MacDonald (himself a keen ands knowledgeable ornithologist) telephoned me at the end of 1948 to say that he had found a nest of the Eagle in his garden at Bukit Serene, a wild thought struck me: why not build a machan up to it and try and photograph the birds? An exploratory trip to Bukit Serene disclosed that the nest was placed at the very top of an enormous jungle tree (Dipterocarpus grandi- florus). We estimated that a tower roo ft. high would reach it, but first of all we had to make sure that the bird we had seen sitting in the nest was in fact incubating. One of the Tamil workmen, employed by the contractor who was going to construct the tower for us, volunteered to climb the nest-tree and make the necessary investigation. A couple of evenings later this lone and brave scout was sent up on his mission, armed only with a slender piece of rope which he attached to his two feet. The bole of the tree was smooth and without side-branches until JourN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I Phot Author The photographing tower, 130 ft. high. ih NE EY lll PEN PRP REPS RNP in AN ysoul Ye o[svI-vaG PoT]Joqory MM ouny | = fs Se | als: aed he IJ a1vig ‘90S “LSI, “LVN AVvaWog ‘Nunof PHOTOGRAPHING THE WHITEBELLIED SEA-EAGLE 619 it reached the nest. All went well for a time and our climber moved steadily upwards. When he was about three-quarters of the way up he suddenly let out a yell and began coming down so fast that he practically fell the last twenty feet. His head, face, arms, and back were covered with little dark objects which made the poor fellow look like a currant cake. We had reckoned without the enemy, a swarm of little black bees which had their abode inside a small hole in the trunk of the tree and formed most effective guardians of the Eagles’ nest. We rushed to our poor scout’s rescue, swatted and picked off the bees and then drove him quickly back to Singapore for medical treatment. Fortunately, the poor man recovered quickly. This preliminary setback forced us to the conclusion that careful watching through binoculars would be the only means of settling our problem. Observations confirmed that the bird was brooding and I thought I once saw the bird bend down and make movements as though it was turning over an egg. The decision was then taken to build a tower. The nest-tree stood on the side of a hill. We were afraid that projecting branches would prevent a good view of the nest from the upper side of the hill and so it was reluctantly decided to place the tower on the lower slope of the hill, despite the fact that a taller structure would in consequence be needed. Construction of a 100-foot wooden tower began: first the timbers were prepared and cut; then the tower was assembled in the con- tractor’s workshop to make sure that all the pieces fitted together properly; finally the tower was dismantled and the entire structure taken out by lorry to Johore, 19 miles away. Assembling of the tower on the site began on February 8th, 1949. The workmen were allowed to work for only two hours a day, for fear of disturbing the birds. Progress was slow but finally, on February 20th, the tower was completed. But alas! it was not high enough. We were some 20 feet short of our goal. The workmen said they could nail on a superstructure, and argued that as they were prepared to build it I should not be afraid to sit on it. So, the crazy work went on. The additions were completed on the 27th, and I was asked to inspect the finished job. To my horror I saw that the bit which had been tacked on was quite evidently out of plumb but as the con- tractor’s manager and his workmen were watching expectantly and showing the very greatest interest, I climbed up even though my heart was in my mouth and lead was in my boots. Later, I learned that the interest shown had more point to it than I had guessed; some of the workmen, having less faith in me than I was supposed to have in their work, had betted that I would never get to the top. The Eagle, quite unperturbed by our presence below, did not fly off the nest until I was half-way up the ladder. At the top I was disappointed to find that the tower was still not high enough to allow of a sight of the contents of the nest. Later on, when familiarity had bred a measure of contempt, we added yet a little more to the tower and were rewarded with the sight of a single, not very white, egg. The final height of the tower was, in all, about 130 feet. It was held upright by a number of wire cables, attached either to nearby 620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST> SOCIETY, Vol. 50 trees or to stakes in the ground. When the tower was eventually taken down, we found that the base was sunk only 18 inches into the ground. I recalled then the remark Mrs. MacDonald had one day made to me jokingly, but only half in jest, ‘If anything happens to my husband when these crazy things are going on, I shall have to blame you’. H. E. went up daily and sometimes twice a day, watching and keeping careful notes. The remembrance of it all now makes me think of a story which Mr. Salim Ali sometimes tells con- cerning the manager of a wolfram mine in Burma who had been given the job of showing the Governor round. His superiors, realising that the manager’s vocabulary was of a rough and ready and somewhat limited nature, cautioned him to mind his language. All went well until they suddenly reached a low point in the tunnel. The manager, in his excitement and anxiety to protect his distinguished visitor, grabbed the Governor by the shoulder and said in a loud voice: ‘Mind your ‘bloody head, Sir’. Mr. MacDonald, however, is a very courage- ous and adventurous man, so perhaps even the most forceful language would not have Srecaeiad in keeping him on the ground. Observations and photographic activity in the hide extended over a period of about 6 weeks. Every weekend, and such hours as I was able to seize during the working week, were spent on the top of the tower. The distance from my office to Bukit Serene involved a journey of about 20 miles, so that those early afternoon disappearances must have been regarded by my staff with more than a little suspicion. Both birds incubated the single egg, but one bird—the less shy of the two—did the major portion of this work. It was possible, after a while, to tell the birds apart, not only from the differences in their behaviour bui also from their size; the shyer bird was also the smaller of the two and this I took to be the male. He rarely came to the nest, but was often to be heard as he flew round in the sky above, or, perched on some high vantage point on a distant jungle tree, uttered his loud, clear, and curlew-like call. Any suspicious movement under the nest-tree was al- ways signalied to his sitting mate. I could tell if the male was flying overhead because the hen would cock an eye toward the heavens with that kind of questioning look which wives reserve for husbands when they come home from a stag party. Once, when I had been sitting in the hide for some time watching the brooding female and, as usual expecting nothing much to happen but hoping nevertheless that something would, the male bird came flying high in from the sea, uttering a loud, insistent call. His mate answered and immediately flew off the nest to meet him and together, uttering their wild duet, they flew round in great circles with only an occasional flap of their huge pinions. She returned to the nest some time later, but whether the male had brought her breakfast as well as inviting her to a morning flight, I shall never know because they were too far away for me to see what they were doing and she brought no food back with her. In fact, I never saw the birds bringing anything to the nest, except on one occasion when a large branch, still with green leaves on it, was brought to add a little crude decoration to an already huge structure. : The birds invariably approached the nest from one direction only. - Even in the calmest weather, the loud thud made by the bird as it landed on the nest could be heard 4o feet away. This observation of "ysou }e SUTALIIC P1Ig AOYINP 0704 III 4lv1d ‘90S “ISIH LVN AvaWwog ‘N¥no a — PrAatE IV RN. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. = Jou Author Photo 1c10Nn. Susp PHOTOGRAPHING THE WHITEBELLIED SEA-EAGLE 621 the one-way traffic rule allowed me to get the photograph of the flying bird which is reproduced in Plate III]. With a 14 inch telephoto lens on the camera and a shutter speed of 1/1000 sec., the diaphragm had to be used fully open thus giving me practically no depth of focus. Added to this difficulty there was the problem of the.rapid approach of the bird which necessitated the release of the shutter a fraction of a second before the bird reached the spot on which the camera was focussed. As this spot was placed out in space, I was compelled to gauge its correct position by focussing the camera on a leaf of the tree which, it was judged, was the correct distance away. The reader will thus not be surprised to hear that I had a long string of failures before finally securing the desired picture on the very last pack which I was to take of the Shae: On one occasion, the bird approached from a different direction and landed on the nest from the right-hand side. I got a photograph of it as it touched down. Wind currents must have been unfavourable because the picture shows an off-level landing with the bird pushing down hard with its left wing in order to correct its balance; the dis- placement of air caused by the pressure of the wing is clearly seen in the photograph as it has ruffled the breast feathers. Bird photographers sometimes suffer from an inability to gauge the strength of the light because of the continual application of a single eye to a hole in the hide. The same problem confronted me in this case also, but on days of flying cloud I was always able to judge the strength of the sun by the sharpness of the shadows cast on the ground by the surrounding jungle trees; I could see these shadows merely by looking downwards between my legs. An exposure meter reading was also easy to obtain because one had only to direct the instrument in an earthward direction. Three planks formed the floor of the topmost storey of the hide and when the +-plate Graflex camera and tripod were in place there was not much room left for the photographer. I found, however, that I could make quite a comfortable morning of it by sitting cross- legged, in Buddha-like pose, on the free portion of the floor. One’s body only began to protest after the end of 24 to 3 hours of this kind of squatting. Five hours was the longest continuous period I ever spent in the hide. A storm blew up one day and bore down on the hide from the north. I decided to sit it out and watch the effect of the rain and wind on the brooding eagle. But when the wind freshened the tower shook alarmingly and the cloth of the hide cracked like a whip so that, after enduring a few minutes of this warfare of nerves, I packed up my equipment and beat a hasty retreat, discarding my good intentions with the practised ease of a habitual maker of New Year resolutions. We had hoped that, having found the eagle at so early a stage of its breeding, we would be rewarded with a series of egg-to-fledgling pictures, but in bird photography one soon learns that the best laid schemes ‘gang eft agley’ and so it proved in this case also. After a period of at least six weeks, when no little eagle had emerged from the egg, we began to suspect the worst. (There is reason to believe that a high percentage of the eggs of the sea-eagle are addled.) The object of our attention continued as lifeless as if it had been made of 622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 China and so, one day, quite abruptly, the eagle decided that it had had quite enough of sitting in its nest and looking at us (just as we were beginning to get equally tired of sitting on our tower and looking at the eagle) and apparently kicking the egg over the side of the nest, it flew away, never to return: I say ‘apparently’ because no one saw the egg being ejected although Mr. MacDonald found broken pieces under the tree. I have always been sorry that things did not turn out better so that I could have ended up with a complete series of pictures. Although neither Mr. MacDonald nor I have ever said as much to each other, speaking for myself alone, I must admit that I was relieved to find the pole-sitting come to an end. The photographs taken of the birds have had a good deal of success in exhibitions, and I daresay if the opportunity of photographing a nest with young in it were ever again offered, I should soon find excuses for building another tower. ON THE TRAIL OF THE KOUPREY OR INDO-CHINESE FOREST OX, (6I1BOS: SAU VEL) BY Dr. Boonsone LEKAGUL t ¢ he Bangkok (Thailand) (With three plates and two text figures) In 1944 I saw a pair of horns of a strange wild ox in a shop selling Chinese herbs as medicine in Bangkok. These were unfamiliar to me since they did not belong to the gaur, banteng, buffalo or gayal which are known to exist in this part of the world. The horns were about the size of a banteng’s, but curved in a curious manner. About 13 inches from the tip the surface covering was split, forming a collar of long shredded strips around each horn. These strips were 0.2 to 0.3 inches wide and 4 to 8 inches long. The distance between the bases of the two horns was only 34 inches and the forehead was slightly convex, not concave as in the banteng or the gaur. I purchased this pair and enquired of many of my friends, but could get no information about them. Towards the end of the same year I found two more similar pairs of horns in a Chinese pawn shop. ‘These two were smaller in size, rather flat, and curved like those of the Lesser Koodoo of Africa. The distance between the horns at the base was about 3 inches and the frontal bones were also not concave. This led me to believe that these belonged to cows, and the first pair to a bull, of some unknown species. After enquiries of many hunters and naturalists in Siam I finally learned from an old gentleman, Phra Abhai Vongse, who had lived in Cambodia in his youth, that these were the horns of a kind of wild ox called by the Cambodians ‘Kouprey’ (wild ox) and by the Lao people ‘Vua Ba’. The animals were apparently plentiful in the jungles of north-eastern Cambodia where he had hunted them about 20 years ago near Chongkal, but without success. In January 1945 I led an expedition to northern Cambodia in search of these animals. We started from Kralann (or Phibul Song- kram) going up north passing the villages of Ban Mong, Srae Parang, Talok, Varin, Srae Noi, Lavia, Tapeng-Sang Kae, Srae Kandal (Sarong Sangkae), Tapeng and Prey Weng. Some photographs of the three pairs of horns mentioned above were taken along with us and we made enquiries in the villages on the way. - During the first fortnight we met no one who knew anything about these animals, but after travelling about 200 kilometres we came to a village called Prey Weng where we got the first information of their occurrence from an old hunter. He claimed to have hunted them often and stated that they could be found in the forests of Tapeng Chook and Phrom Dhep 624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 5d further north and eastwards. Having spent two weeks collecting this information we ran short of rice, being unable to get sufficient quanti- ties from the villages around. We, nevertheless, decided to proceed with.our expedition living largely on the meat of wild animals. — About a day’s walk from Prey Weng we reached the Tapeng Chook which was an open forest on flat rolling hills. Here we found the first definite signs of Kouprey in the form of old footprints. They were mixed with banteng tracks. The local hunters could distinguish the Kouprey tracks without hesitation as they were longer and blunter in front. The tracks were however several months old having been made during the last rainy season. Many herds of banteng were found teeding on the plains and we also saw many Thamin or Brow-antlered deer (Panolia eldi). Two fine bull banteng were shot mainly for meat. After 5 days we were compelled, by the scarcity of rice, to move further to a village called Anlongpoom. Here too only very small quantities of rice were available, the local people having to live on roots dug out from the neighbouring forests. At Anlongpoom we were again unlucky with Kouprey though we saw many new tracks. Two bull banteng and a thamin were shot. The former, which are not much hunted here, feed and stay almost the whole day in the plains and in the open forest. These habits are quite different from those found in Siam, After three days at Anlongpoom we moved to a forest called Kabal Kamode meaning ‘Corpse Skull’. There being no village here, we camped near a pond. Fresh tracks of Kouprey and other large animals were numerous, and on the first morning my companion Mr. Poon Pan followed up the fresh tracks of two bull Kouprey which were keeping together. He came up to them at about nine in the morning while they were still feeding in the open forest. He noted that both the bulls were grey which turned dark in certain areas e.g. in front of the shoulder, on the neck and face. He did not observe any brown at all. He noticed their long and hanging dewlap. Near the tips of the horns of both of the animals were big ‘collars’ formed of shredded strips and brushy in appearance. A bull dropped to his first shot, but repeated misfires due to old ammunition obtained during the war permitted it to stagger away. Poon Pan came back to camp and we both went out and followed the wounded anima! until dusk, and though we found a few pools of blood where it had lain down we were unable to catch up with it. We stayed here for 3 days, but only got two bull bantengs, ~. From Kabal Kamode we travelled eastward to Koh Ke or Prasat Yai and’ Phra Abhai alone saw six herds of banteng. At Koh Ke there was a pyramid-like monument or chedi with several storeys, and a big ancient: palace nearby. Not far from the wall of this palace I found a large herd of banteng and bagged a big bull with fine horns. As there were no tracks of Kouprey we moved the next morning to Tapeng Ra Vieng. Here we found new tracks of Kouprey and also wild buffalo, banteng, gaur and wild elephant. We followed the Kouprey tracks for 5 days, but the ground was too dry for success. One day at about noon Mr. Poon Pan and his guide were resting under the shade of a tree near a pool. A herd of four Kouprey passed Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLatE I o # A. BANTENG ¢ P. KOUPREY C. GAUR ¢ LY 4OYINE & ONFLNVa & aquaaom ‘008 ‘SIH ‘yen Avequog ‘uanog ON THE TRAIL’OF THE KOUPREY 625 nearby, but scenting them they made off at a slow trot. Poon Pan upon hearing them ran after the herd; being unable to approach the Fic. 1 KOUPREY GAUR BANTENG Spoor of Bulls. big bull which was running in front, he shot the last animal which turned out to be-a fine cow. When I heard this good news, I hurried to the spot and arrived there at dusk taking such pictures as the light permitted. The whole body was greyish-white, lighter on the abdomen but darker in front of the forelegs, at the neck and on the face below the level of the eyes. It had also white stockings on its feet which, however, did not contrast strongly with the grey of the body. It had a well defined dewlap, though not as long as in a bull. It had also long white hairs inside its ears. The dorsal ridge was not as high as in the gaur and terminated in the middle of its back as in the banteng. There was no white patch on the buttocks. The horns were twisted as shown in the picture. There was no horny shield between the bases of the horns as in a bull banteng. Its nose was peculiarly notched. The tail was longer and bushier than that of either gaur or banteng. I obtained the body measurements, but unfortunately I have lost them. Speaking from memory, it was about the same height as a gaur and banteng, but the body was not so thick being.flatter on both sides, the presence of the long dewlap accentuating this effect. The animal looked leggier than the banteng. On the following morning I came upon a small herd of Kouprey feeding in open forest. My guide saw them first when they were ~ about 200 yards from us and whispered ‘Kou! Kou!’ pointing to them with his hand. It took me some time to pick them out as their colour at this distance looked like a greyish fog. In this herd I saw a calf about 3 feet high, greyish white all-over without any brown as in a young gaur. Having already shot a cow, we were looking for a bull, but this herd consisted only of three cows and the calf. As far as I could observe while following up their tracks, they appeared to feed and rest on the open plain and in open forest avoid- ing densely wooded areas unless very much disturbed by men. They 626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 lived in herds sometime numbering twenty or more. There were also solitaries as in the gaur and banteng. They appeared to be fierce animals butting at objects in their way—sometimes even at the stumps of trees or an ant hill—a stump about the thickness of a man’s arm being broken in two and thrown some distance. While following a herd which had not been shot at, I found some drops of blood which might have resulted due to fighting within the herd. | Distribution.—I found the Kouprey in the country between Chong- kal and Melonprey and the Dongrag range on the border between Cambodia and Siam. I also learnt from Prince Petcharaj, a Lao prince, that he had hunted them west of Kratie, southwest of Stung Tren, Voeung Sai, Pakse and Saravane. The northernmost place where he had found the Kouprey was Se Bang Nuan River, a little north of Saravane, but not beyond the river. sé BANG NUAN &. THAILAND SC eae ee SS ARAVANE ‘ ° ree Py pod - ed mleregid, rea aes oVOEUNE SAI + (6 STUNG TRENG ° ~ Aa ¥ om ry . . . Ge oy otha | cages ae ear AG ae 4 ‘ . pH AO aed Aes WRATIE- -- : . va Se no 7° oa card - te . . ‘. . rs - & 6. . . r . e ao . a. 0 oF oe “ oe 5 Ore wees 10S Fig. 2. Map of Cambodia showing distribution of Kouprey (dotted areas) I was also reliably informed by the Siamese that 30 to 4o years ago there were many Kouprey north of the Dongrag range. PuaTE III LE AT 'TIP n, reduced 4. Front-back. ONVTHE TRAIL OFTHE KOUPREY 627 HorN MEASUREMENTS (in inches) BULLS: Pair No.1 Pair No.2 Pair No.3 Widest outside Pai ae ar 38 33:0 35°5 Widest inside ea aes 31°5 26°5 29°25 Length on outside curve. Right ae 41°0 32°5 39°5 Length on outside curve. Left. Pa 38°0 g2°5 39°75 Circumference at base. Right ak 0 15 0 14°25 Circumference at base. Lett oe 15°0 15:0 14°5 Tip to tip eae 22°0 — 13°5 Distance between bases of horns Sees 4:0 3°5 3°5 Distance of tuft from tip ae is 13°0 4:0 Shaven ? Measurements of six other detached horns: | Cire Length on Dist. of No. At nce outside tuft from ig curve tip iw Right 13°5 BLS 6 2. Left 1325 31°5 7 3.) Richt 13°75 31°5 4°5 4, Left cee ee Soe 12°5 29 4 > Right ee oe ne 12 30 Shaven ? 6. Left Reis aa ais 2 30°5 Shaven ? Cows: Pair No. 1 Pair No.2 Pair No. 3 Widest outside ar see Eee 19 0 23°75 20°25 Widest inside hee aR as ats 13°25 18:75 15°75 Narrowest inside ... oes ee 8:5 15°5 14°75 Tip totip a batt 14:0 22°0 17°25 Length on outside curve, Right 2307.5 29°35 20°5 Length on outside curve. Lett af 23°9 28:0 21-25 Circumference at base. Right Pe 8'5 Zo 7s Circumference at base. Left bee 8°5 7°5 FES Distance between bases of horns 3475 35 3°75 Corrugation. Ina bull there are corrugations at the base of the horns like in those of gaur or banteng, but the corrugations in Kouprey are not as rough as in the other two. In the pair No. 1 which seemed to be the oldest one, there are 6-7 cross ridges which are about 8 inches long altogether from the base of the horns. The horns of younger bulls have shorter and fewer corrugations. In a cow, there are more corrugations than in the gaur or banteng. In some of them there are a few cross-ridges at the base, and further than that, there are cross bands for about 8-12 inches from the base. Bushy Tuft of shredded horn near the tips. In every bull, when nearly full grown, say about 2-3 years old, the horns become split at the tips; and as it grows older the tips of the horns continue to grow longer until they are about 13 inches or more. At the same time the bushy tuft grows longer and longer until some strands are about 7-8 inches long. It is very peculiar that these split pieces are thin and fairly 12 | ~ 628. ° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 regular in width, i.e. about $-+ inch wide. This is quite different from gaur and banteng horns which split up in broad and very short strands near the tips only. It should be noted also that the bushy tuft shown in the Plate I B is smaller than what it should normally be, because it is much damaged by sparrows in my house tugging at the strands. Some natives say that this manner of splitting and tuft forming is due to the Kouprey goring and digging into the ground with its horns. In cows’ there is never any bushy tuft at the ends. 7 7 7 _ 7 - a : - — - a a - - 4 b \ _ - ae er 7 a E a ~ ——' a 7 a a 7 - = 7 ———————— ee OOO OO —=* SS——> . Y AITIWA ONMYNIH I" ‘ Ton (eax ee ~ + ae Wap cess se x “+ The we LW vyNH \ - , \ fad Is ancl uUuad, Swe” ~l/ ER INERIEELO)) OS6I JO oyenbyyieg uressy ay} Aq payooye vary ; - \-* = - a ek ia . —_e ed 008 ‘SIH ‘JUN Aequog ‘‘uanog THE ASSAM BEARTHQUAKE OF 1950 BY Hvis GEE, Mey uGallizeS,, "ERG. Se (With a map and two plates.) This earthquake occurred at about half past seven, Indian Standard Time, in the evening of August 15th 1950, and is generally acknow- ledged to have been one of the severest in history. The preliminary report of the Advisory Committee, Assam Earthquake Reconnaissance and Survey, states that it was tectonic in origin, and that it appears to have been caused by a sudden fracture of a portion of the earth’s crust or by relative movements along old fault lines. Its epicentre has been located by seismologists at approximately latitude 29° N. and longitude 97° E. This would indicate a spot in the China-Tibet region north of Rima, and some eighty miles north of Walong, the northernmost outpost of the Assam Rifles in that corner of India. The area is one of geological instability, being situated at the eastern end of the comparatively newly formed Great Himalayan Range, an unstable land-mass not in its final stage of equilibrium. As far as India is concerned, the area most affected is an arc bounded on the west by the Ranganadi river (just to the west of the Subansiri river), and on the east by the Dehing river in the Tirap Frontier Tract. This includes the Abor Hills, the Mishmi Hills and part of the Tirap Frontier Tract, in the newly constituted North East Frontier Agency; and a portion of the plains area of Assam as far south and west as the town of Golaghat in the district of Sibsagar. The duration of the shock was approximately four minutes, and it is now generally assessed as one of the five most severe that the world has experienced in historical times. One source describes it as one of the two biggest in magnitude of recorded history, the other being the Colombia earthquake of 1903. At a symposium organised by the Central Board of Geophysics at the Geological Survey of India, Calcutta, it was calculated to have had an intensity of 8°6-—-equivalent to the bursting of several million atom bombs. It was greater in intensity than the severe earthquake of Assam in 1897, the one of Quetta in 1934 and the one of Bihar in 1935. The damage to railways, roads, bridges and buildings was heavy and widespread, and all communications were for some time completely dis- located. Official sources estimated the number of deaths as 1,526; and stated that from 25 to 35 per cent of livestock, including the interesting gayal ur mithan (formerely classed as a distinct species, Bos frontalis) in the Abor and Mishmi Hills, were destroyed or washed away. But as these hills constitute a wild and inaccessible region, no degree of accuracy is possible in computing the amount of damage done there. 630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist, SOCIE IY ial 250 Several Abor and Mishmi villages are known to have been buried eternally under huge landslides, leaving no trace of their former existence. DESCRIPTION “OF TH EH, OHO & It so happened that at the time of the earthquake Mr. F. Kingdon- Ward and his wife were on a plant-hunting expedition, in camp at Rima in the Lohit Valley just beyond the Assam border. No account of this earthquake would ke complete without a few extracts from his able des- Cription of the event: ‘.. the earth began to tremble violently, and a terrible noise assailed our ears . . . Outside we were at once thrown to the ground ... the near mountainous horizon was blurred, as though the hills were leaping up and down with high frequency, The noise was now terrible, and to the muffled hammering of the earthquake itself beneath us, was added the thunder of rock avalanches pouring down the mountain scuppers ... The motion was still up and down, as though a steam hammer were pounding the thin floor on which welay ... After several tense minutes it began to lessen, and the noise abated some- what. Rocks were still pouring down the mountain sides with a terrible clatter, but the internal noises had almost ceased .. . High upinthesky towards the north-west ...came the sound of five or six sharp explosions, very clear; it sounded like anti-aircraft shells exploding.’ This noise resembling the sound of anti-aircraft fire was heard also in the plains. I am indebted to Mr. F. Woolley Smith for some details of the experiences of persons residing in Upper Assam: ‘The earth heaved and rolled with a sickly undulating movement. Cars parked on level surfaces with brakes unapplied careered wildly about, fans swung and some lights went out... At the end there was a succession of loud Looming noises variously described as resembling anti-aircraft fire and express trains.’ It appears that the petroleum and kerosene stored inthe huge million-gallon storage tanks at Tinsukia ‘slopped violently about, shooting yards away through fractured plates and covers’. In- cidentally, the oil fields at Digboi, only 18 miles away, were compara- tively unaffected by the earthquake. | Even as far away to the south and west as Golaghat, some 100 miles from the nearest portion of the Abor Hills, the shaking was terrifying, and the noise which followed some seconds after the shock was also described as resembling that of a series of bombs ot shells bursting in the distance. The main shock of August 15th was followed by many minor shocks, and these continued for some eight months, gradually becoming fewer and of lesser intensity. IMMEDIATE EPFECTS IN 1959 Considerable damage was caused by the earthquake to the town of Dibrugarh and other towns, villages and tea estates with their factories. . The Assam Railway from Mariani eastwards suffered greatly, rail tracks being torn up and twisted into snake-like patterns. Fissures opened in the ground, most roads were damaged and bridges destroyed. Occurring as it did in the middle of the monsoon, when the ground was saturated and rivers swollen to their maximum volume, the damage THE ASSAM EARTHQUAKE OF 1950 631 was probably greatest inthe wild Abor and Mishmi country. Here many hills, several thousand feet in height, were sheared from top to bottom, their sides crashing down into the valleys below. Rivers both large and small thus became blocked by huge unstable dams of rocks, earth and vegetation, and in some cases actually ceased to flow. Even the huge Subansiri, snow-fed from the higher Himalayas and swelled with monsoon rains, practically dried up for a few days. Then came the bursting of the dams, one by one in some cases, in other cases simultaneously ; and vast flood waves surged down the valleys carrying everything before them, and on reaching the plains spilled far and wide, causing extensive destruction to forests, villages and cultivations. In some cases the lakes thus formed in the hills by these temporary dams endured for a longer period. For example at the headwaters of the Tidding river, a tributary of the Lohit, a lake nearly four miles long by a quarter of a mile wide was found to have lasted throughout the cold weather into the following spring. This has probably disappeared during the monsoon of 1951. I was fortunate to be able to make a brief trip to the fringe of the North East Frontier Agency inMarch 1951. I first of all had the privilege of making two flights over some of the affected areas in a two-seater light aeroplane, thanks to the kindness of Mr. R. C. Reynolds of Seal- kotee Tea Estate, who has acquired well-deserved kudos by his help to the State of Assam in air-reconnaissance, relief and rescue work. After this, I visited by road the areas of Saikhowa, Sadiya, Tezu, Timaighat, Rongdoi, Kobo, Murkong Selek and Pasighat. I found that it was estimated that some 75 per cent of the hills in this 17,000 square mile area were mutilated by landslides. Of these aval- anches, less than half appear to have occurred on the day of the earthquake, and more than half afterwards, when heavy rain and sub- sequent earth tremors assisted the previously fissured hills in disinte- grating. There have been reports of still more landslides during the monsoon of 1951. The floods following the bursting of the dams carried vast quanti- ties of silt and debris, and all the river channels—even that of the Brahmaputra itself—became blocked. This again resulted in further widespread flooding and alarming changing of river courses. For example even in the latter part of October 1950, the Dibang became so silted up that its tributaries Jigiapani, Deopani aid Ghurmura could not enterit. These were diverted by the newly formed silt banks of the Dibang on to the town of Sadiya, thus covering it with flood water at an unexpected time of the year. In the cold weather of 1950-51, after the flood waters of the mon- soon had dwindled to the usual ‘low levels, all rivers in the affected area presented a grim sight. Widetracts of desert-like country with dead trees standing here and there; thousands of trees torn up from the ground; and silt, debris and driftwood everywhere. The silting up of these river beds in north-east Assam has considerably altered the topography of that part of India. The Lohit at Sadiya, where it is two miles wide, was believed in March 1951 to have silted up to the extent of four or five feet; and the Brahmaputra at Murkong Selek to the extent of eight to ten feet and at Dibrugarh some six or seven feet. In addition to this, the adjacent countryside is estimated to have subsided some four or five feet during the actual earthquake, thus 632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAQRUR AE GEasd) 2 SO Clem Vee ols 50 effecting a general levelling out of the area—a stern foreboding of floods in subsequent years, as has already been experienced in 1951. The mass of silt in the Brahmaputra is slowly moving downstream on its way to the Bay of Bengal, and after August 1950 river steamers could no longer navigate as far as Dibrugarh, but were forced to termi- nate their journey at Desangmukh. EFFECTS IN 1951 Two factors, directly the result of the earthquake, were evident during the monsoon of 1951. Firstly the rapid run-off of water from the Jandslides in the hills resulted in equally rapid rises and falls in the flood levels of the rivers concerned. And secondly, the silted-up river beds in the plains areas could not contain the flood water, and consequently vast tracts of adjacent Jand became inundated, some for the first time in recorded history. Major floods occurred in June-July, and again in September. The river Dibang, in particular, behaved in an extremely treacherous manner, with alarmingly quick rises and falls. Unexpected deposits of silt after a fall in the flood level were apt to cause equally unexpected erosions in the following rise of flood water. For example, a party of officials and tribesmen were taken completely by surprise when the Dibang suddenly changed its course near Nizamghat, the proposed sub-divisional headquarters of the Dibang Valley. They were marooned for some time without any hope of escape, until light planes were brought from other parts of India and crash-landed on achapori for their rescue—a daring and praiseworthy effort. This flood of June-July moved slowly down the Brahmaputra Valley of Assam, inundating the north and south banks as it went. Travelling by air from Dibrugarh to Gauhati on July 20th, I observed that the flood had receded in Upper Assam; but in Nowgong and Kamrup districts the whole plain from the Himalayan foothills in the north to the Khasi and Jaintia Hills in the south appeared to be a con- tinuous sheet of water, with only trees and the roofs of houses showing. Fortunately the Wild Life Sanctuary of Kaziranga suffered little from floods, presumably because of the lower flood levels cf the south bank rivers, and because the Majuli island diverts some of the north bank drainage away from this valuable sanctuary. In the flood of September 1951, the depth of the water in the com- pound of the Saikhowa Inspection Bungalow was no less than five and a half feet, and the whole population had to be evacuated. Still worse was the fate of Murkong Selek, where the silted-up Brahmaputra both flooded and eroded the land on which was situated the Assam Saw Mills—the largest of its kind in India, with a production of about half a million tea chests annually. In the three days from September 15th to 17th the Brahmaputra eroded no less than half a mile northwards, sweeping away the entire mills with their bazaar, bungalows, lines, warehouses, workshops and main factory with its irreplaceable plywood machinery. The hapless staff and workers attempted to take refuge on the highest land in the vicinity, where the water was waist-deep, until they were evacuated by air. At that time there was no dry land within fifteen miles of where Murkong Selek had been, and it was reported officially that some 2,000 square miles of Upper Assam were under ‘pnur pmby SUIUUNI SYM IDATI oy} (1S6I Yoreyy) JoyzeoM AIP oy} UI UaAY ‘USTUIS PUP LIISUBQNS SIBALI dy} UIdA\}0q ‘STITT ‘Ysesniqiqd JO YOU USWIS IJaATI 94} Jo Ao[eA poseulep oy] 1oqV 9} jo uotj1od e& 0} aUOp oseWep oY} Jo MAIA [eLIOY uOSLaPUP °F 4OYINE 0104 Cd J aLVIg "00S “LSIH “LVN AvaWog ‘Nunof Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PrAne oil A portion of the Abor Hills north of Dibrugarh, showing landslides caused by the earthquake. Photos Author The valley of the Timai, a very small stream in the Mishmi Hills near -arsuram Kunda. Formerly thickly forested, it was a desert of stones and driftwood when photographed in March 1951. THE ASSAM EARTHQUAKE OF 1950 633 water. Vast timber forests holding valuable plantations of hollock (Dipterocarpus macrocarpus), and extensive chaforzs of, thatch, were irretrievably ruined, and much of the wild life they had contained was destroyed. During the rains of 1951 the Subansiri river twice completely chang- ed its course in the plains of North Lakhimpur. At the beginning of the year it followed its old course, with slight changes since 1950, By August 1951 all these channels were dry, and a new and large channel had formed between Koyam and Baligoan. ‘Then in mid-September it entirely altered its course westwards, engulfing most of the tea estate of Pathalipam. Vast areas of forest and cultivated rice fields were destroyed during the vagaries of this large river. PROBABLE LONG-TERM EBFFECTS The gradual westward movement of the colossal silt deposits down the Brahmapuira Valley may be completed within a decade or two. But the partial denudation by the earthquake of the hillsides in the catchment a’reas of the rivers Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang, Lohit, Dehing and all their tributaries, assisted by the indiscriminate felling of forests in all the tribal areas of Assam through the system of jhuming (shifting cultivation), will continue for a very long time to cause greater and more accelerated floods in the, plains. And until new and deeper channels can be formed by the rivers of these alluvial plains, the wide- spread flooding experienced in 1951 will be an annual occurrence—and may even worsen. It will probably’ take some hundreds of years, if not considerably longer, before any satisfactory amount of vegetation can again cover the hillsides mutilated by the earthquake. It is possible that many riverain districts will have to be evacuated by their inhabitants, and villages and cultivations moved to higher ‘ground nearer the foothills. In this case there would be a seasonal cold-weather return to the riversides of graziers, fishermen and growers of dry weather crops. DESTRUCTICN OF FLOKA AND FAUNA Trees and other vegetation of all types from various altitudes were torn down and swept away by the rivers. Many of these trees were of coniferous species. A major portion of the driftwood could not be salvaged in the plains, and has passed beyond the Indo-Pakistan border on its way to the sea. Fish in all the rivers from the Subansiri in the west to the Lohit, and possibly the Dehing, in the east are believed to have been totally destroyed by the liquid mud mixed with decaying vegetation which came in the phenomenal flood waves after the bursting of the dams. Countless thousands of dead mahseer (Barbus for), bokar or catli (Barbus hexagonolepis) and other species were salvaged by villagers in this erstwhile paradise for naturalists and fishermen, and also lower down in the Brahmaputra Valley. It is feared that nothing is left alive in these rivers of the North-east Frontier Agency. When I saw them in March last, the driest pericd of the year when the water should be crystal clear, they were all still flowing with liquid mud. 634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL TWIST SOGEEEY, Vol. 50 Mr. R. G. Menzies, Political Officer of the Subansiri Area, informs me that though the fishing in the Subansiri river was utterly ruined, he obtained normal good sport in the rivers Ranganadi and Dikrang immediately to the west, although the earthquake was almost as severe in these two valleys. He believes this was due to the fact that these two latter rivers were not blocked by landslides, with the subsequent ill-effects of these, as were the Subansiri and the rivers to the east of it. It is difficult to estimate the destruction caused among birds. Oc- curring as it did after nightfall, when birds would be roosting, the earth- quake must have paralysed some of them with fear and swept them with the forest to their doom. | The loss among mammals must have been very great. At a con- servative estimate, some forty to fifty per cent of the wild animals of the area must have been killed. These would include the vanishing Musk Deer (Moschus moschiferus), the rare and interesting Takin (Budorcas taxicolor), as well as Serow (Cafricornis sumatraensis), Goral (Nemorhaedus), Gaur (Bos gaurus) and other animals. In the plains areas, Chiefly as a result of the floods of 1951, Wild Buffalo (Budbalus bubalis), Gaur (Bos gaurus), Sambar (Rusa unicolor), Swamp Deer (Rucervus duvaucelli), Hog Deer (Hyelaphus porcinus) and others are believed to have suffered greatly. I found to be quite unauthentic the newspaper report of 1959 about a carcase of a rhinoceros being seen floating past Murkong Selek, with surmises of the existence of Rhinoceros sumatrensis or Sondaicus in the upper reaches of the Lohit or Dehing rivers. No such carcase had been seen. A letter from Mr. F. Woolley Smith of Tingri in Upper Assam last August stated that the numbers of tiger were on the increase in the district. These must have migrated from the Saikhowa and Dibru Reserved Forests, which became inundated in June and July and are ‘ believed to have been mostly destroyed by flood water. It is feared that the Lalli Game Sanctuary, a chaforz situated between the Lalli and Dihang rivers and formerly teeming with wild buffalo and various species of deer, has been totally destroyed. Even in July 1951 only about eighteen wild buffaloes in very poor condition could be observed from the air. The floods of September, which com- pletely submerged these chaporis, must have completed the destruction of all wild life which could not make their escape from these riverain areas. It is well known that erosions and floods are a “normal and annual occurrence in Assam. But they have in the past been gradual and in most cases within expected limits. But what has happened in 1951, and is likely to take place for matiy More years to come, was on an unprece- dented and alarming scale. Mr. N, A. B. Warner of Upper Assam, who flew over the affected area on October 28th after the floods had subsided, has described to me © the devastation and destruction he saw. Literally thousands of square miles of forest appeared to be dead or dying. Very little vegetation was left alive, and vast swamps still stretched to the foothills. The loss to wild life, already sadly depleted by an excess of Sportsmen and poachers during the last few decades, must have been very considerable indeed. THE ASSAM EARTHQUAKE OF 1950 635 GLOSSARY Mithan—either a domesticated form of the Gaur (Bos gaurus), or a cross between the gaur and domestic cattle; or a mixture of both in varying degrees. Herds of these mz/han are kept by'the hill tribesmen, and are used chiefly as barter or for sacrificial purposes, Chapori—a chur or island (sometimes a bank) formed by channels ‘of a river in ASsam. Jhuming—a system of shifting cultivation by which forest is felled, burned and planted up; but after a few years is abandoned for another area. Ina cycle of twelve years or so all the forest near a village will be so utilized, resulting in a total absence of primeval forest and an excess of secondary forest. REVIEWS tr HUNTER AT HEART. By B..N. Gordon Graham.” ltustrated by A. I, Cameron and with 15 photographs by the author and others. Pp. 222 (84" x 54”). London, 1950 (Herbert Jenkins Ltd.) Price 15/- sh. This book is designed as a guide to young sportsmen wishing to shoot in the reserved and other forests of the Central Provinces of India, the Madras Presidency and Ceylon, The sixteen chapters deal with choice of a shooting ground and preliminary arrangements for India and Ceylon; shikar days with small game, also deer, buffalo, bison, bear, panther and tiger; notes on all those animals and on beating, sitting up and stalking. Chapter XV is on Taxidermy and Preservation of Trophies, and XVI gives a pen portrait of his Muhammadan orderly, and some memories. Appendices deal with costs, equipment, words and phrases in Hindustani, Telugu and Sinhalese; and with a list of books suggested for the sportsman’s bookshelf. In connexion with this may be mentioned the Bibliography of Bocks on Big Game Hunting published in Vol. 4g of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, August 1950, and No. 134 of that list. Vhe author is a member of the Ceylon Game and Fauna Protection Society, but not of the Bombay Natural History Society. Generally speaking, the compilation gives well arranged and necessary advice and information, but there are a good many omissions, and also some errors. Weapons and Other matters. Shouldicarnivorawbe shot at from a motor vehicle at any time? All over India the Rules prohibit shooting from any wheeled vehicie, excepting only case of a man-eater. Does the hammerless rifle safety catch ‘invariably’ ‘click’? Not if properly constructed and oiled. Objection to use of an ejector rifle is mentioned, yet the author advocates the use of this mechnism. Use of a noiseless detachable sling with the rifle is barely mentioned. This should have been emphasized as very necessary as obviating movement when in the forests, lessening fatigue and temptation to hand the weapon to an attendant, and of very great use in machan or tree stance in a beat, and when following up a wounded beast. The essentiality of a light ladder when following wounded carnivora is not mentioned: the ladder, the sling, a piece of rope to secure stance in tree may all be vitally important when following up a wounded tiger or panther. It is not mentioned that sound of a whistle does not carry very far in the forest, and use of a high-note signal horn is much better, and more safe for the beaters. Use of a small greenwood saw for removal of obstructions to swing of rifle is not mentioned, nor the valuable asset afforded by the easily acquired ability to fire rifle from either shoulder. The essential spare foresight should be carried in a ‘trap’ in the stock or end of pistol grip, and not in the gun case. It is not mentioned that use of fluor oil before pouring boiling water greatly lessens work of cleaning both gun and rifle. Shotgun sportsmen might have been informed that the ring of the REVIEWS 637 standard cartridge extractor is designed to’ re-gauge dampened car- tridges, so should always be carried when duck shooting. The suggested second rifle might well be the .423 Mauser magazine (8} Ib.) or the slightly heavier .375 Magnum, either of which is power- ful enough to take the place of the heavy D.B. weapon on all occasions in case of need, and better for that and other reasons than the advocated 250 OG 2250. Caren! Of Cahir dis es.) Suitable, aduiceis given ;: but. it might have been added that cartridges should be carried on the person in pouch or belt, each round separated from the next, with a separate arrangement for two to be instantly available at waist level for re-load- ing. Clothing. Rolled-down thick socks are a torture in spear grass. The real solution is to wear canvas ankle-bcots, or shoes, and no socks; or rather, trousers of hard material with flexible canvas ankle putties, and so be comfortably protected against all kinds of pests. Medical. Paludrine has now superseded the mentioned Mepa- crine; and there is no mention of quinine. Chlorodyne often dries up, so Camphorodyne is better. Silk for sutures is better than unsafe cotton. M&B. 760 and 125 have a wider use than the listed 693. (Your re- viewer brings to notice that the recent M&B ‘Sulphatriad’, a compound of Sulphanamides, may be valuable in camp). Sulphaguanidine, an essential remedy for bacillary dysentery, is omitted. There should have been mention of 1 lb. of a good chemist’s ointment for sores and injuries of jungle people, and sulphur ointment for scabies. Literature,’ ihe complete’ Wst at p. 53) makes no! mention of the very valuable ‘Book of Indian Animals’ (S. H. Prater)—also omitted from Appendix ‘D’—nor of the ‘Folding Chart for Identification of Poisonous Snakes’, both of which are published by the Bombay Natural History Society. ‘The St. John Ambulance Association First Aid Text Book’ with Indian Supplement might be substituted for the recommended Red Cross First Aid Manuals, Nos. 1 & 2. Most sportsmen are, or should be, interested in trees, shrubs and other plants in the forests. For C.P., ‘Descriptive List of Trees and Shrubs of Central Provinces’ by Haines (Rs. 3/-) is good, if procurable. Commercial Guide to the Forest Economic Products of Mysore.’ (Govern- ment Press, Bangalore, Rs. 1/8) is excellent for other parts of South India also. The out-of-print ‘Manual of Indian Timbers’ by J. S. Gamble is invaluable, but difficult to obtain. Food Sundries. In these days, food arrangements should wholly discount replenishment from wild life sources. It should have been mentioned that any filtering should precede the essential boiling of all water used for drinking and culinary purposes. The valuable kerosene oil tin is not listed. Candles are of little use without a candle lantern of a type not easily broken which can be packed for transit in a biscuit tin. The ‘X’ Pattern canvas camp bed with bath and basin should have been advised, also the valuable ‘Icmic’ cooker. Small tablets of soap as ‘bakhshish’ is a good idea; use of any but a new village charpoy is, for several reasons, a dangerous practice. Salt 638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL TTIST 5 O}CRE MMC aitol: a0 and alum should not only be packed apart from food stuffs but be finely powdered, packed against damp and separately from each other. Small game. A Jeather hand-protector for hot barrels when duck shooting is good; but the gun guarded against glint of sun by a tight-fitting slip-on cover of green or khaki drill gets more shots. Use of a .22 rifle for gathering cripples is scarcely a safe practice, for bullets ricochet off water. In these difficult days as to cartridges most sportsmen are Satisfied with the ordinary 24 inch cases. Use Of 3 in. cases is unnecessary, and 24” or 2#” cases give erratic results in 3 inch chambers. The author has no scruples about eating hares in India. In the wide experience of your reviewer the Common Indian Hare is a very foul feeder in vicinity of habitations, as also the grey partridge and the junglefowl—and, in arid areas, the village cattle too! The author has confused the junglefowls. Gallus lafayetti is the Ceylon species and confined to that Island; Gallus sonnerati, known as the Grey Junglefowl (not found in Ceylon) has a far wider range than that mentioned; Gallus gallus murghi, also not in Ceylon, is the Common Red Junglefowl of the sal forest areas, northern India and Assam. The species of Imperial Pigeon referred to is not stated. In Ceylon it would be the Green Imperial Pigeon (also Jerdon’s Imperial Pigeon) while in C.P. it would be the latter, with the former also in the more eastern portions. The bird promoted by the author to pigeon status is better known as the Emerald Dove. The Grey Quail is omitted. Large bags of this bird and of the Rain Quail were made by many sportsmen when cartridges were not so expensive or scarce as in these days. Probably the majority of sportsmen prefer smaller sizes than No. 5 for mixed duck and teal shooting. Tiger. ‘The Principle of Moments’ described and illustrated at p. 600 of B.N.H.S. Journal, Vol. 44, would have enabled the author to weigh his tiger. It is almost unknown for clavicle bones to be missing in tiger or panther. Buffalo. ‘Some individuals tend to have grey stockings’, All truly. wild buifaloes have white stockings. Chital. Is the record 42 inches, and does it hail from Bhopal? Is it not 39 inches, and from the U.P. Siwaliks? In India the practice is to omit the ‘h’ from the names ‘sambhar’ and ‘nilghai’. Females of deer are usually called ‘hind’ and not ‘doe’; there is no need for the coined word ‘carnivorae’ to express the plural of mammals that subsist upon flesh or prey upon others. The Wild Dog Of India can be tamed, and there may be more than six puppies in a litter. As many as nine are known. The illustration, presumably of the Rusty Spotted Cat, at p. 33 is too stocky for this lightly built animal’ of mostly arboreal habits. The photograph (p. 96) of the first panther killed by the author (1948) could have been more attractively posed. The book is well printed, bound and produced. There is evidence in places of too much reliance on the writings of others but, notwithstanding the above criticisms, the book will be useful as a guide to the younger sportsman. R.W.B. REVIEWS 639 2. HYDROPONICS. Tue Bencat System. By J. Sholto Douglas. Ppmi47. ssizelys 1642 4. illustrations. Bombay, 1951 (Oxford Uni- versity Press). Price. Rs. 6/-. We have no hesitance in saying that Mr. Douglas has done a great service to the popularising of Hydroponics through this book. He makes the subject attractive and practicable through his various suggestions and guidance. The chapters are excellently arranged and the matter treated in a very clear manner. The instructions are brief and clear without being complicated with unnecessary details and explanations. The illustrations are interesting. and attractive. Al- together the book is one which all garden lovers in India and specially those who have taken some interest in hydroponics, should possess and treat as a basis for their experiments. The author has succeeded in cutting down expenses quite considerably and brought hydroponics within reach of the common man in India. This is an achievement. When we turn to the commercial side of hydroponics, however, we do not feel at all convinced by what the book tells us, or by the tables provided. Take Table V: the figures taken for agricultural average per acre of all the grains are extremely low and for non-irrigated crops obtained by inefficient cultivators. Jt is, therefore, not fair to compare these figures with the hydroponic production obtained by efficient work of those who are practically skilled research workers. Why the agri- cultural production of potatoes is taken as 4 ton we do not know. The seed-requirement of an acre: alone is 4 ton. Even in India a production of 15 tons and over is not unknown. Under Table VIII the prices quoted may be retail prices, but not the average wholesale prices. of the produce... Under, ‘estimated’ revenue the author «gives Rs. 50,000 as gross value of produce per acre per annum, and Rs. 20,000 as nett profit. This is not understandable. On the previous page under Table VIII we see that maize production per acre is Rs. 1,700 and peas Rs. 1,200, potatoes at Rs. 4,000. If we got one crop of potatoes and two of peas and maize combined, we would at most have a total of Rs. 10,000 as the gross value for a vear’s production. Tomatoes are the only item mentioned of which the produce from an acre could be Rs. §0,000. We have no doubt the purpose of the book will be well achieved as it will be able to attract more enthusiasts for work in this field. TAA Oe ithe bi DS OF FHE MALAY PENINSULA, SINGAPORE PENANG oye NG) Glenister,. F.Z.S., M.B.0.U.4, With 8 plates in colour, 8 in monochrome (78 species) by Elizabeth M. E. Glenister, 54 text figures and 20 photographs. Pp. xiv+ 282 (84” x 54"), London, ijt Oxord wniversity ress), Price 35. sh. net. Mr. Glenister, although we do not recall any of his published work on Malayan ornithology, has obviously been a keen and observant student. During his long residence in Malaya many years ago, in towns and villages and on tin mines and rubber estates, he seems to have made good use of his opportunities for bird watching. His 640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURATARIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 own notes supplemented and fortified by the writings of seeded Malayan ornithologists like Robinson, Chasen and Gibson-Hill have combined to produce this estimable volume for which bird lovers in Malaya will feel beholden to him. The first part of the book is of an introductory nature and covers general topics such as geographical divisions of the Malayan sub- region (made up of Malayan, Sumatran, Bornean and Javan Provinces) as defined by Chasen in his ‘Handlist of Malayasian Birds’ (1935). It is good to find that the toxonomical arrangement, numbering and nomenclature is, in the main, that adopted by Dr. C. A. Gibson-Hill in his recent ‘Annotated Checklist of the Birds of Malaya’ (1949). To a large extent also the notes on status, distribution and breeding of that competent ornithologist are summarized. They lend added weight to his accounts under each species though it may be a matter of opinion whether the summarising has always been done to best advantage. In Chapter I, entitled ‘The Birds of Everyday Life’ is given a list of the 7o bird families which comprise the avifauna of Malaya, to- gether with an indication of the species of each family to be found in the sub-region. An attempt has been made to split up the bird life into ‘compartments’—Bird life of the Towns and Gardens, Bird life of the higher Hill Stations, and ‘For the Sportsman’. Those with experience of Robinson & Chasen’s sumptuous but somewhat cumber- some volumes, ‘The Birds of the Malay Peninsula’, will be better able to judge the merits or otherwise of this method of treatment though it must be admitted that the demerits are to some extent mitigated when the sections are contained within the covers of a single volume whereby reference does not involve the handling of a separate tome each; sume. Aids to field identification are provided firstly by division of the 7c families into three ‘Field Groups’—‘for field purposes only’ as the author explains. To this are added a number of tables—Notice- able colours, bills, legs, tails and other features such as crests, ear tufts (e.g. as in some owls), ‘eye-patches’ (e.g. as in barbets) etc. Under Chapter I]I—The Birds and Bird Families of Malaya—is an enumeration of the species found in Malaya numbered and arranged according to families. First a short general description of the family is given—its constituents, characteristics, flight, calls, food etc. followed by distinguishing points for identification (coloration ; size in inches) for each species, and abbreviated information con- cerning its status thus: V=Rare vagrant, V=passage migrant and winter visitor, R=believed to be resident, I=introduced, and so on, indicating - occurrence in the various divisions and areas of the sub- region—lowlands, hills, etc. Part II of the book begins with the Systematic List under which each species is described in greater detail, together with notes on its status and distribution called largely from Gibson-Hill’s Checklist. The total number of forms dealt with here is 575; an addendum lists a further 35 species recorded from peninsular Thailand but not yet from Malaya. The abounding wealth of the bird life of this sub- region becomes manifest, and Mr. Glenister’s benefaction in providing such a handy and useful guide is certain to receive wide appreciation REVIEWS 641 from bird lovers and would-be students to whom its richness and variety might seem bewildering at the start. The book ends with 3 appendices—Glossary of Malay Bird Names, A List of the Birds of Sumatra, Borneo and Java, and A List of some Malayan Hill Stations, Peaks and Passes with their approximate heights above sea level. The spate of tables, footnotes, abbreviations, redundances, instruc- tions for use, appendices, elaborate index and index to footnotes are rather complicated and frightening to one cursorily glancing over the book, and it would seem that so much generous spoon-feeding is not perhaps strictly necessary. A closer acquaintance will show, how- ever, that there is a method in all this, and when the instructions for use are once mastered some of the apparent intricacies will be found not devoid of usefulness. The illustrations, both colour and monochrome, are attractive and helpful ; so also are most of the figures in the text. But the photographs of captive birds, though well selected as to species, can by no means be considered incapable of improvement and many of them might well have been omitted. The book is a useful addition to literature on Malaysian birds and its handy format should make it a welcome guide to bird lovers in’ that area. Sens 4. ANIMALS STRANGE AND RARE. By Richard Ogle. With HumMerous drawings im the text by the author. Pp. 1092 (72" x 5!'). Wondon, 1951 (G. Bell & Sons Ltd:).. | Price 12 sh. 6d. net. This is a pleasantly illustrated book in which we are taken on a magic carpet to the remotest places to look at strange and rare animals, many of which are threatened with extinction. It is an excellent effort covering the whole world and referring to a large number of interesting animals and facts. Accounts of the discovery of the living fossil fish Latimeria chalumnae, and the king cheeta in Africa adds to its value for the layman. The latter, presumably Acinonyx rex, is, however, now generally regarded as a mutant form of the African cheeta. The book also serves the useful purpose of helping to arouse that spirit of adventure and discovery which is so rare nowadays. A chapter is devoted to unknown and almost mythical animals like the Himalayan snowman and the Nandi bear. The former is of parti- cular current interest in this country since in spite of the opinion expressed by the British Museum that the footprints seen by Shipton’s recent expedition were those of the common langur, mountaineers, shikaries and others have from time to time brought in fragmentary bits of evidence which, when pieced together, do not appear to warrant its dogmatic reduction to so humdrum a creature. The latest verdict, published on p. 572 of this number of the Journal, is that it is the Himalayan Brown Bear, as indeed has been generally believed heretofore. ; There is no doubt that many strange, rare, and perhaps even yet unknown animals do exist in India or upon its immediate borders. 642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 The relatively recent discovery of the large forest-ox or Kouprey in Siam is evidence that our knowledge is far from complete and that discoveries are still to be made, often in unexpected places. A recent press note mentioned an expedition to New Guinea in quest of a saurian monster which was reported from some remote swamps in a little known and almost impenetrable area there. We hope that books of this kind will arouse interest in the life history of many of our animals of which so little is known, and some of which are now almost on the verge of extinction. The right kind of public interest can really do far more towards the saving of our wild life than any number of government ordinances and regulations. | A certain amount of literary licence has been introduced into the book, and this becomes more apparent when the author deals with animals nearer to us in India. The picture of the Racket-tailed Drongo on page 124 is unfortunate. On page 119 the Rosy Starling is said to do a large amount of damage to ‘rice’ in India. This of course is an error for jawar. ~ Most of the drawings and text, however, are excellent and full of life: H.A. 5. PROCEEDINGS OF THE.Xtn INTERNATIONAL ORNI- THOLOGICAL CONGRESS, (Uppsala, June 1950). Edited by Prof. Sven H6rstadius, General Secretary. Pp. 662 (93” x 63”), with 1 coloured plate, numerous photographic illustrations, text figures and graphs. Published by the Board of the Congress. Price 35 Swedish crowns (=£42-8-3 or $6.75). International Ornithological Congresses have been held in Vienna 1884, Budapest 1891, Paris 1900, London 1905, Berlin 1910, Copen- hagen 1926, Amsterdam 1930, Oxford 1934 and Rouen 1938. Then came the cataclysm of the 2nd World War with the inevitable intellec- tual and cultural vacuum in its wake, so that it was only in 1950 that this friendly International cooperation could be resumed. Actual- ly the Xth Congress was scheduled to take place in the U.S., but owing to the financial upheaval caused by the war, with exchange difficulties and multifarious other restrictions, it became impracticable for impoverished ornithologists from Europe and elsewhere to visit that country. Therefore, to the Swedish Government and the Swedish Ornithological Society (Sveriges Ornitologiska F6rening) world ornithologists feel especially beholden for their cordiality in invit- ing the permanent Executive Committee to convene the Congress in Sweden instead. The warm-hearted hospitality shown by the Government, scientific institutions, the press and the people of Sweden in general, and the well-planned and impeccable arrangements down to the minutest detail, made by the Swedish Ornithological Society through its President, Prof. H6rstadius (also the General Secretary of the Congress) will be testified to by all who were privileged to share in the deliberations of the Congress and of which they will long cherish happy memories. REVIEWS 643 The 1950 Congress was held at Uppsala from 10-17 June under the presidentship of Dr. Alexander Wetmore of the Smithsonian Institution of Washington. About 350 ornithologists from 27 countries participated. The U.S.S.R. and its satellites remained the only notable European absentees. Unfortunately, also, Asia was totally unrepre- sented save for a single delegate from India. This volume of the Proceedings of the Congress opens with an account of the sessions and the field excursions. Owing to the large number of papers on every aspect of bird study that were presented, it has not been possible to print them all in full, even though the tome contains more than 650 pages. They have, however, been skil- fully condensed so that none of their original flavour or purport is lost. An innovation at the present Congress was the special request sent out by the organizing committee to four eminent ornithologists —each of outstanding international repute in his own particular sphere of work—to review the trends and progress of their special disciplines during the 12 years since the meeting at Rouen. No serious bird student who presumes to consider himself, or aspires to be considered, “in the swim’ or up-to-date in his science, can afford to miss the masterly surveys by Dr. Ernst Mayr (Speciation in Birds), Prof. R. Drost (Study of Bird Migration, 1938-50), Prof. N. Tinbergen (Recent Advances in the Study of Bird Behaviour) and Dr. David Lack (Population Ecology in Birds). Dr. Wetmore’s Presidential address, ‘Recent Additions to our knowledge of Prehistoric Birds 1933- 1949" ; recounts the progress of palaeontology in relation to birds, and gives a useful list of the bird fossils described during this interval. The volume is so packed with papers of real merit and originality that it would seem invidious to mark out particular titles for mention. But the list of contents will indicate the breadth of the canvas and the wide range of topics covered by the contributions. They may be broken up as follows: Evolution and Systematics (17 papers) ; Migration and Orientation (19 papers); Behaviour (7 papers); Ecology (23 papers); Regional Faunas (6 papers); Miscellaneous (9 papers, including such diverse titles as ‘Progress in Bird Photography and Sound Recording’; ‘Conservation on Ornithological Programs’; and “The Structures in the Avian Pituitary responsible for the transfer of impulses from the Nervous to the Hormonal System’). An account of the Round Table Conference on Bird Ringing at which practical suggestions for international cooperation in this sphere were discussed and adopted, or recommended, is of the greatest usefulness. Most of these contributions are of as high a scientific standard as might be expected from an international pool of this nature. They represent sound original research, and often show amazing ingenuity and _per- severance in the planning and execution of experiments in field and laboratory. Apart from the four invited key contributions, each section contains some papers of quite outstanding merit. They indicate the stature which the science of ornithology has attained since 1938, in spite of the war and the abnormal conditions since prevailing. In some aspects, for example Systematics, Animal Behaviour and Ecology, it can justly be claimed that ornithology now leads in the 1s. 644 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. (SOCIETY. Vol. 50 zoological field, and the advances it has made or induced, particularly in these directions, are truly phenomenal. Those at the Congress who had the pleasure of listening to the fascinating and erudite papers of Dr. H. Johansen (on the bird ring- ing work of the Copenhagen Zoological Museum) and Dr. W. Vogt (‘On the Ecology of the Peruvian Guano Islands’) will deplore the absence of these two titles in the permanent record due to non-receipt of the MSS by the editor in time. To all who were present at Uppsala, and to others merely perusing this volume of Proceedings, the privileged place enjoyed by the English language as a medium of international communication in social, scientific and every other walk of life will be manifest. It is significant that of the 87 papers presented at the Congress no less. than 65 were in English. Next came German with 17, and third French with only 5. As this reviewer has observed before, the review of a publication is no place for moralising; but in the context of certain unhappy trends in our country to-day, it may perhaps not be devoid of profit merely to draw attention to this fact, without com- ment. The volume is well printed on good paper, and pleasingly produced, and considering the polyglot nature of its contents, is remarkably free from typographical errors. It compels unreserved admiration for its versatile editor. Ornithologists all the world over will welcome this permanent record of progress and achievements which, as a reference volume, must prove indispensable for every serious student of birds. Ae! 6. BREEDING BIRDS OF KASHMIR. By R. S. P. Bates and E. H. N. Lowther. Pp. xxxiii+ 367 (84” x 54”). Illustrated with 151 photographs by the authors and 5 coloured plates by D. V. Cowen. End maps. London, 1952 (Oxford University Press). Price Rs. 25 net. Kashmir has for so long been a paradise for the ornithologist that a book describing the wonders of its bird life was greatly overdue. Visitors to the country have hitherto found published sources of infor- mation regarding the bird life of Kashmir inadequate and sometimes (as in the case of the two papers by Osmaston) difficult to obtain. The reviewer writes with some feeling on this point because he is one of those whose enthusiasm has driven him to take out on each. of his several treks in Kashmir all of the six volumes of the ‘Fauna’! The publication, in one manageable volume of 367 pages, of the ‘Breeding Birds of Kashmir’ by that great partnership of Bates and Lowther has therefore been long and eagerly awaited. Bates’s and Lowther’s book is the result of more than 20 years. of work and 16 separate visits to Kashmir during the summer months. Ii concerns itself only with those birds of which there is adequate or reliable proof that they breed in Kashmir. Ag the book was written before the partition of India, the authors regard the State of Kashmir as containing the whole of that area of some 85,000 square miles found within its pre-1947 boundaries. REVIEWS 645. To keep their book within reasonable proportions and ‘to avoid con- fusion with Plains’ birds and those of Kashmir proper’ nesting species found only in the four following areas are dealt with: (a) The Vale of Kashmir and the Jhelum Valley from Kohala to Baramullah. (b) The slopes and side valleys around the Vale of Kashmir up to the passes over the Great Snowy Range. (c) The Kishenganga Valley inclusive of. Gurais. (d) The Upper Wardwan Valley of Kishtwar. As long ago as the year 1920, the authors took their first photo- graphs of Kashmir birds with the object in mind of using them to illustrate a book. In the Introduction they write, ‘While the five coloured plates contain the majority of the most gaily dressed birds of Kashmir, as well as portraits of a number of species whose photo- graphs we have as yet been unable to obtain, we have aimed at including such photographic illustrations as will help in the identi- fication of each bird and its nest, thereby rendering long descriptions. in the text unnecessary. We are only too well aware that our efforts. in that respect are by no means complete... .’. A characteristically modest understatement because of the 167 species of breeding birds described {omitting those mentioned in the Supplement) no less than 99 have been photographed. To anyone aware of the difficulties of bird photography this is an achievement of a very high order. Among the birds photographed there are a number which are notoriously shy and wary. Any photographer who has tried to take pictures. of the Blueheaded Rock-thrush must look with admiration and envy on the excellent illustrations, showing both the male and female, in the plates opposite page 84. Most of the water and marsh birds, too, such as the Snipe, the Coot, the Ruddy Crake and others of their kind, are outstandingly unco-operative, yet the authors have managed to lure them into the range of their telephoto lenses. In India, there are other difficulties apart from the problem of getting the birds to pose for their portraits: the correct type of photo- graphic material is not always obtainable, nor is it easy to store it properly ; in the early days, films were slow and in modern times the second world war often made it impossible to get them at all; the developing of films, even in Kashmir, is always a problem because of dust and heat and sometimes of cold. The authors, moreover,. clearly did not have such modern aids as flash (and particularly speed- flash) to help them. Therefore to have done as much as they have, is, all things considered, a splendid and remarkable achievement. I would, however, make one small criticism: not all of the photo- graphs are of the same general standard of excellence: for a book which maintains such a high standard throughout, a little more ruth- less editing in this department would not be a disadvantage. The plates, both in black-and-white and colour are well printed and Mrs. D. V. Cowen’s coloured illustrations are pleasing and, on the whole, true to life. The text is admirable. Accurate observation, careful collation and good use of existing sources of information, much painstaking work in the field, economy and reliability of description make it certain that this book will remain, for many years to come, the authoritative ‘646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 50 work on the birds of Kashmir. The authors have an intimate know- ledge of birds in the field so that their descriptions of behaviour and habits are full of those little touches, born of long study and sensitive observation, which make the word-picture come alive to the reader. Instances are too many to permit of quotation; the reader will have the pleasure of finding them for himself. The descriptions for field identification are short but to the point and pick out for mention only those characteristics of the bird which are readily noticeable in the field. That excellent habit, begun by Mr. Salim Ali, of stating the size of the bird in terms of a selected group of more familiar birds is here carried on with beneficial results. The translation of bird song into terms of human speech has been handled with restraint. To anyone who has not heard a song it will be of no help to syllabize it, but as an aide-memoire to those who have, the system can be very useful. The authors have employed the method with success. Whether the Kashmiri names used for the birds are equally suc- cessful is perhaps open to doubt. The reviewer had the privilege on a visit to Kashmir in 1951 of being able to use the book while it was still in proof form. Attempts to describe birds to his shikaris by means of the Kashmiri names proved singularly unsuccessful. In all other respects, however, it is true to say that, after two months of use in the field, the book proved to be wholly admirable. This, for a book which sets out to be field guide, is surely the greatest praise that could be given to it. aoe Wi. The following books have been added to the Society’s Library since December 1951 :— 1. CHECKLIST OF PALAEARCTIC AND INDIAN MaMMALs 1758 to 1946. By J. R. Ellerman and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott. [British Museum (Natural History), 1951]. {A complimentary copy). 2. Hyproponics—THE BENGAL SystTEM. By J. Sholto Douglas. (Oxford University Press, 1951). (A Review copy). 3. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BREEDING BIoLOGy oF Larus argentatus and Larus fuscus. By Knud Paludan (Reprinted from Vidensk. Medd. fra Dansk. naturh. Foren., bd. 114, 1951). Fifty back numbers of periodicals which include among others, Journal of Mammalogy (a Quarterly published by the American Society of Mammalogists) and the Auk (a Quarterly Journal of Ornithology published by the American Ornithologists’ Union) were presented by Dr. C. Brooke Worth of Bangalore. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1. WILD AND TAME DOGS The familiar relations existing between wild dogs and one’s own pets was published for the first time in ‘Wild Animals in Central India’ in 1923, viz. 28 years ago. Winterbotham’s letter in Volume 50, No. 1, so far as I am aware, is the first confirmation of my remarks which has been published. As regards Winterbotham’s experience I have no doubt that had all his dogs retreated, the wild dogs would have followed them up right to his very feet. As it was, the wild dogs stayed to fraternise and gambol with the larger dog who was not afraid and had stayed behind. November 25, 1951. A. A. DUNBAR BRANDER peel Ate (ARIS AXTS (ERXE)|: A STRANGE ATTRACTION During my years in the Indian jungles I have often been puzzled by the strange attraction the sound of a hand-saw has for the chital and wonder if any of the Society’s members can throw some light on the subject. In Ganjam, Kalahandi, Jeypore Samasthanam (all in Orissa) and in Bastar, I have more than once surprised chital near sawing benches in the forests. In all of these several instances the deer has been attentively facing toward the sound of the sawing, its ears pricked forward listening as it occasionally takes a step toward the source of the sound as if to get closer and discover the agency responsible. In Belgarh, Ganjam, one of my mates--Ronoo Gond—has actually led me quietly to a bench where a pair of sawyers in his file have continued sawing through a log whilst we have stood near them watch- ing a chital stag staring and listening to them from a distance of some forty feet, only turning to disappear into the undergrowth when we moved towards him. I have brought up this strange habit of the deer with Oriya, Khond, Gond and Muria sawyers, who all confirm the fact that--for some reason unknown to them—chital deer are attracted by ‘the crying of the saw’ (literal translation). Some of them affirm that chital have been shot due to this trait of curiosity, but I have no concrete proof of any such shooting though it is certainly possible. The nearest natural jungle noise tnat a hand-saw cutting through timber resembles is the ‘sawing’ or calling of the Leopard (Panthera pardus) and it may be this sound association that attracts the chital into finding out the source of the sound, though why the deer should stand and gaze at the sawyers as if hypnotised is not understandable especially as it is an extremely alert animal, more so in Orissa where the local villager and his crop-protection gun, blunderbuss and match- lock musket are continually blazing at it, in season and out, doe, fawn 648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.“ SOGIMI = Vole 250 or stag so that man is an enemy to be as much avoided as the local carnivora. a P.O. GupuR: NELLORE, Ke VS ART GPE Reis November 11, 1951. 3. MELANISM IN THE BARKING DEER (MUNTIACUS MUNTJAC) In his interesting article ‘Jungle Memories’ Lt.-Col. E. G. Phythian- Adams (four. B.N.H.S, Volume 50, page 11) mentions shooting a Barking Deer with a sepia coloured coat. This probably was a melanis- tic specimen. Melanism is not rare in this deer in the Darjeeling district; it usually takes the form of very dark brown. There is one such example mounted in the Darjeeling Natural History Museum. Nearly black animals have also been reported. KENILWORTH, C. M. INGLIS, £:2z.s., Cm3B:0%u3 Coonoor, NILGIRIS, November 10, 1951. 4. SAMBAR DEER IN MAURITIUS (Reproduced from Country Life—May 4, 1951 with acknow- ledgments) POT, I have recently seen Mr. Kenneth Whitehead’s article on deer, and in the hope that it may interest your readers, I send you a few notes on deer hunting in the island of Mauritius. Deer (Cervus vusa) were introduced into the Colony from Batavia by the Dutch in 1639 and now roam in fairly large herds in the wooded districts of the island.« Considering its small extent (720 square miles) and the fact that the shooting season lasts only three months, from June to August, it may appear exaggerated to state that 2,500 to 3,000 stags are shot every year. A morning’s beat on one of the more extensive chasses, or hunting grounds, yields an average of thirty to forty stags. A beat usually comprises thirty to forty guns disposed round the area chosen, which usually covers about 400 to 600 acres. The hunters are stationed on small platforms, or miradors, some 200 yards apart from each other. Fifty to a hundred native beaters and as many dogs are employed to dislodge the stags from the bushes and wooded areas, whence they are driven towards the plains and clearings, or chutes, prepared in advance. The stags are shot at while they are crossing these plains and clearings and the sportsmen thus have an excellent opportunity of displaying their marksmanship. I enclose herewith two photographs, showing two adult stags and a morning’s bag on my estate in the district of Black River. Partridges and quails used to afford excellent sport not so long ago but are now practically extinct thanks to the Mongoose (Herpestes MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 649 griseus), which were introduced from India to destroy rats—the vectors of plague and a pest to sugar-cane planters. The young hares (Lepus migricollis) are likewise being preyed upon by the mongoose, with the result that this game animal is gradually disappearing.’ PY ©. Box bo, J. RENE MAINGARD DE VILLE-ES-OFFRANS PorT Louis, MAURITIUS. [In response to a request by the Honorary Secretary of this Society, for further information Mons. Rene Maingard replied as follows :— ‘Referring to my recent article in Country Life on the above subject I give you hereunder some brief notes on the occurrence of Sambar Deer in Mauritius. . Its introduction from Java dates back to the Dutch occupation of the Island. (1598-1710) since when this wild animal has thriven considerably and now roams freely in the wooded and uncultivated portions of the Island. Some 2,500 stags are shot annually, the hunting season extending from the first Saturday in June to the first Sunday in September. This season some 360 stags were shot on my Estate alone (the Estate is named ‘‘Yemen’’ and is situated in the district of Black River), the luckiest bag being on 16th August last when 81 stags were killed by a gathering of 45 guns, including a very fine and rare specimen of a 15/16 year old stag with 34 inch horns. So far as hares are concerned, these tend to disappear for two main reasons: 1. Their unlawful hunting at night with car spotlights. 2. The destruction of the young by Mongoose (Herpestes griseus) also introduced from India in the last century to help destroying rats after a serious epidemic of plague in the Colony.’—Eps. | 5. OLD: JUNGLE TALES RETOED THE TIGER AS FRUIT EATER ‘There is a forest fruit of the shape and size of a wood-apple with a very powerful, pungent, aromatic smell, which tigers and wild dogs eat greedily; this is also the favourite fruit of the Chenchu buffalo; but singularly enough the bear, which devours every other kind of forest fruit, will not touch it. The favourite fruit of bears and wild dogs alike is that of the female blackwood tree.’ This is taken from the article titled ‘Wild Dogs’ written by a forest officer under the name of ‘Robin Hood’ and _ published at page 130 of the fournal Vol. 10. in 1895. It is an interesting item of jungle lore which will be appreciated by a number of our members. I have ascertained through the Conservator of Forests, Bellary Circle, that the fruit referred to is that of. Careya arborea Roxb.,— Dudippa in Telegu. The blackwood is Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. 650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 59 BUFFALOES SLAY A TIGRESS In the same article “Robin Hood’ related the killing by a tigress of a female Chenchu buffalo, and the speedy retribution by the maddened herd which slew the murderer of the cow and her calf. “Hie was at the Bairnuti Forest Inspection Shed and while sitting in the verandah one evening was looking at the herd feeding on the fallen fruit of a large fig tree which strewed the ground on the skirt of the forest a stone’s throw from the shed. ‘There was the ‘‘tonk’’ of a startled sambar, then a combined roaring and bellowing from the forest. Some of the buffaloes rushed back with dismayed snorts, stopped suddenly as if by word of command, circled round and returned to the scene of conflict. In serried ranks, like a squadron of cavalry, with their great heads lowered to the ground, and bellowing out encouragement to their fellows fighting in the forest, they swept onwards to the rescue, while I nimbly ran along in their rear with my rifle. In this order we crashed into the forest. A feeble gurgling noise announced that the buffalo had been vanquished and a hoarse roar of rage proclaimed that ‘‘stripes’’ refused to quit the victim. Then ensued a perfect pandemonium of roaring, bellowing, stamping and crashing in the midst of which I had to drop my rifle and shin up the nearest tree, owing to two blundering buffaloes, who could not force their way through their struggling companions in front fixing their regards upon me, and in insane delu- sion that I was the cause of all the turmoil, charging me savagely.’ So he lost sight of all that was going on, but after what seemed an interminable time a number of Chenchus arrived and with great difficulty appeased the ferocious buffaloes and got them away. The tigress was found trampled deep into the mud and gored all over. Beside it lay the carcase of an immense she-bufialo, and a yard or two away the body of her calf in defence of which she had lost her life. I saw the Bairnuti Shed when shooting in the Nallamallai Hills in 1902 but had forgotten, or not noticed the remark about the tree fruit so made no enquiry about it. THREE TIGERS FOUND DEAD. MAY HAVE BEEN RABIES? ‘Robin Hood’ further relates how no less than three tigers were found dead in the forests by Chenchus who averred they had been killed by wild dogs. He had only fired at one tiger, and that fifteen miles away, and did not see the carcases as he had shifted camp. As these three tigers were found within a period of about a week may it be, in view of cases of ‘Rabies in the Tiger’ which have taken place in Assam, that those tigers died of rabies? Had wild dogs killed them decomposed carcases would not have been found, for wild dees do not leave their prey uneaten. A LEOPARD CHILD At a meeting of the Bombay Natural. History Society held on the 7th May 1889 there was read an article by Mr. Jivanji Jamshedji Modi, ‘Recorded Instances of Children having been nourished by Wolves and Birds of Prey’ which was published in Vol. 4 of the Society’s journal at pp. 142-147. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 651 There has been since then no particular other mention of that subject in the Journal, but in an article, ‘The Power of Scent in Wild Animals” by themlate= Mir. 2B MG! Stuart Baker,’ F.Z/S., F:L.S.,'-M.B.O0.U., which: appeared in Vol. 27, pp. 112-118 (1920), is related at first hand the quite unique instance of a child being nourished for several years by a female leopard in the jungles of the North Cachar Hills in Assam. That record attracted no attention, possibly because it was tucked away in an article on scenting power of animals, and is now rescued from oblivion for the interest of members. Mr. Stuart Baker was a well known police officer, an intrepid hunter of big game, an expert ornithologist and a trained observer of natural history occurrences so not in the least likely to have been led away by the story related to him by the people of the village and backed by his personal observations and enquiries made on the spot in his official capacity. He writes: ‘Before leaving the subject of feline senses it may be of interest to relate a story of a leopard child which has not yet ever been published though it was pretty well known at the time. In the North Cachar Hills, where the boy was found, Government taxation used to consist in part of labour, so much being supplied by every village for the upkeep of roads, rest-houses, etc. Sometimes. men would petition for exemption from this labour on various grounds, and one day when questioning a man as to why he wanted exemption from such labour he told me that he had a little ‘‘wild’’ son to look after and as his wife had recently died he could not leave the village to work or the boy would run back to the jungle. I accordingly went outside the court to see the ‘‘wild child’’ and satisfy myself as to the truth of the story. There sure enough outside was a small boy about seven years old, or less, squatted on the ground like a small animal; directly I came near him he put his head in the air and sniffed about, finishing by bolting on all fours to his father between whose legs he backed like a small wild beast retreating into a burrow. Looking closer at the child I saw that he was nearly or entirely blind from some form of cataract and his little body was covered with the white scars of innumerable healed tiny cuts and scratches. Struck with his appearance I asked the father to tell me all about the boy and he then narrated the following wonderful story which I fully believe to be true, but which my readers must accept or not as they think fit. It appears that about five years before I saw father and son, the Cachar villagers of a village called Dihungi, had found two leopard cubs close to the village which they killed. The mother leopard had tracked the murderers of her children back to the village and had haunted the outskirts for two days. The third day a woman cutting rice in some cultivation close to the village laid her baby down on a cloth while she went on with her work. Presently, hearing a cry, she turned round and saw a leopard bounding away and carrying the child with it. The whole village at once turned out and hunted for leopard and baby but without success, and finally they were forced by darkness to leave the boy, as they supposed, to be eaten by the leopard. Some three years after this event a leopardess was killed close to the village by a sportsman who brought in news of his success 652 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NALURAE SAUST SO CLET VomaVole a5) together with the information that the leopard had cubs which he failed to secure. On hearing this the whole village turned out and eventually captured two cubs and one child, the boy of this story. He was at once identified by his parents, claimed by them, and their claim admitted by the whole village. Subsequently when visiting Dihungi I interviewed the headman and also the man who actually caught the child, and they both corro- borated the father’s tale in every detail. It appears that at the time he was caught the child ran on all fours almost as fast as an adult man could run, whilst in dodging in and out of bushes and other obstacles he was much cleverer and quicker. At that time he was only suffering from cataract to a slight extent and could see fairly well, but after he was caught his eyes became rapidly worse. His knees, even when I saw him and he had learnt to move about upright to a great extent had hard callosities on them and his toes were retained upright, almost at right angles to his instep. The palms of his hands and pads of toes and thumbs were also covered with very tough horny skin. When first caught he bit and fought with everyone who came within reach of him and although even then affected in his eyes, any wretched fowl which came within his reach was seized, torn to pieces and eaten with extraordinary rapidity. When brought before me he had been more or less tamed, walked upright except when startled into extra rapid motion, was friendly with his own villagers, whom he seemed to know by scent, would eat rice, vegetables, etc., and consented to sleep in his father’s hut at night. Clothes, being a Cachari child of tender years, he had not ‘been introduced to. His blindness was not in any way due to his treatment by the leopard—if the story is true—as I found that another child, a couple of years older, and the mother also both had the same cataract. At the same time the defective sense of sight may well have intensified his sense of smell as the loss of one must have caused him to rely more on the other. When caught the child was in perfect condition, thin but well covered, and with a quite exceptional development of muscle.’ BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON August 13, 1950. Lt.-Col. LAs Reta 4) “6. -FHRILUS. IN. SPORT The question of the greatest thrills in sport is often discussed by sportsmen. One will say, after a brief reference to a right and left at woodcock, or the fall of a stag that he considers the finest of all is the first pull and rush of a salmon; another, his thoughts further afield, recalls the close approach to a dangerous rogue elephant or a wounded and savage buffalo as the greatest thrills in his experience. The subject is interesting to anyone who has enjoyed various forms of sport, and has given me food for thought at various times. I consider from my own experience that the thrill afforded by the rush MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 653 of a salmon or a large mahseer is not so exciting—though very pleasurable—as certain other thrills which have come my way. It is not easy to analyse the various thrills in sport. Some are sustained, others are momentary. A sulking salmon can become ‘boring’ in more ways than one. There is certainly excitement in the first rush of salmon or mahseer, added to the hope that it is a big fish,—and well hooked. Then, too, the anxious consideration of the surroundings: the presence of snags, rocks or rapids; the relief after a successful landing, especially when alone. I think my first salmon of 124 lb. gave me the greatest thrill as far as fishing is concerned, because it was on a trout rod and took 1% hours to tire out, and gaff. A few days later I landed 8 salmon of from 6 lb. to 16 lb. in an afternoon’s fishing on a light salmon rod—but it was easy fishing on a lovely pool of the R, Inver and though each fish, on being hooked, gave me a thrill, I remember that it was only a mild form of excitement. In later years salmon of 22) lbs and. 23, lb-om the R. Wye and fish.of 16 lb. to: 22 Ib. onva Very Swit, river, othe .Oleron in, the: Pyrenees, were more. exciting, and I often lost large fish, owing to the hook-hold giving in the strong current. The same thing occurred at times with mahseer in the rivers of Northern India and the River Indravati in Central India, where large fish took out 100 yds. of line and then got round rocks, broke wire traces, and even crushed treble hooks; my biggest was 51 lb. So much for fishing. Let me now refer to other sport. Pigsticking in the Deccan and United Provinces in India gave many a thrill. The furious gallop, often over bad ground, the striving to get 1st spear, the charges of a heavy boar, standing 36” at the shoulder are unforgettable. But even more so was the day when we put up and rode a panther. Our horses had to gallop all they knew to get up, and then the panther crouched amongst the tussocks of grass—the latter often 2 to 3 ft. high. Turning hurriedly and searching for the panther, the latter charged and sprang on to the neck of one horse, fell off, and jumped on another horse behind the saddle. It was bucked off and I managed to get Ist spear. Though wounded it still charged, but was soon despatched. Neither of the two riders were hurt, but one horse was scratched on the neck and chest and for 2 days became feverish and off his feed. After that he re- covered. I find it difficult to say whether my tst panther or Ist tiger or 1st Ovis ammon, or any of the ibex (one was 46”), shapoo, bharal, Tibetan gazelle or stags (barasingh) sambar, swamp deer, and chital gave the greatest thrill. Out of the 18 tigers I bagged the majority were in beats—from machans. There were wounded beasts which I had to follow up on foot. Two of these charged, and twice I have been charged by un- wounded tigers whom I surprised on their kills in the early morning. I have never shot a tiger or panther off an elephant. _. There were plenty of, thrills in following up wounded tigers on foot, but perhaps my greatest thrill was in shooting 3 tigers in one minute from a machan, in Ahiri. That was in a beat. I have a vivid recollection of a thrill when a wounded panther 654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 got into a thick patch of thorn jungle. I was guarding a narrow path through this, and the beaters were hurling stones into the thicket, when my Indian orderly appeared in the path. He was carrying a loaded shot-gun, and was perhaps 15 paces from me. There was a sudden roar and, as I put up my D.B. .475, the panther sprang on to the man. The latter, luckily for him, had his finger on the trigger of the gun, and fired into the air, and fell backward. So did the Panther —dead. I had fired as he sprang. He must have just reached the orderly, as the latter had 2 or 3 scratches on one shoulder, but suffered no ill effects, as I had disinfectants at hand. In conclusion therefore I would be inclined to classify sporting thrills as of 3 kinds: 1. The merely pleasant, e.g. wet fly fishing for salmon, trout, sea- trout, grayling, etc. 2. Such sports as demand skill, experience, practice and a quick hand and eye, e.g. dry fly fishing, shooting, fox hunting, and stalking (of the cervidae). One should not forget tunny and tarpon and sword- fish. 3. The most thrilling of all: the pursuit of dangerous game (tiger, elephant, lion, rhino, buffalo, bear, etc.) with rifle or spear (boar). Still greater thrills abound, no doubt, in steeple-chasing, ski-ing, mountaineering, motor-racing, flying, etc. But should these be in- cluded in ‘Sport’ as here discussed? A thrill can also accompany a failure. In the Kadir Cup of ’o9 there were over 100 competitors. Having won 3 heats I found myself in the Final heat, with 2 others. My horse was a 14.2 Arab. The others were English thorough-breds and had the legs of my Arab. So I waited for the jink and got on to the pig’s tail, just as he entered a patch of tooth-brush stiff grass. Twice I tried to spear, but the stiff grass covered the pig, and the point of my spear was brushed aside and almost torn from my grasp by the reed-like grass. My Arab was jumping the tussocks and tiring. : As we emerged onto open ground I again got close to the boar, but before I could get quite up I was ridden off by one of the others who was on a very fast horse and who got Ist spear. V. K. BIRCH, D.s.o. Col., 1.4. {Retd.). [The above article was prepared by the late Colonel Birch during 1950 for publication. He died in Yorkshire on the 24th January 1951. He served in the Hyderabad Contingent cavalry and was a junior contemporary of the late Brigadier General R. G. Burton and R. W. Burton who sends us this contribution in memory of a fine all-round sportsman who was not, unfortunately, a member of our Society.—EDs. | 7. HOGHUNTING REMINISCENCES The words of the famous Hoghunters Song, ‘The next Grey Boar we see!’ were given at page 169 of the Society’s Journal Vol. XXXIX, No.1: It is now known from a note by Inverarity at p. 814 of Vol. XXII No. 4 that the author of the song was Captain Thomas D’Arcy MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 655 Morris who used for his signature the last letters of his three names (‘Sys’). He also wrote ‘Saddle, Spur and Spear’ and a number of other songs besides contributing several amusing prose papers to the pages of the Oriental Sporting Magazine, 1828 to 1833. BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON August 13, 1950. Lt.-Col., 1.4. (Retd.). 8. UNUSUAL BEHAVIOUR OF THE WHITECAPPED REDSTART (CHAIMARRORNIS LEUCOCEPHALUS VIGORS.) It is more than time that I recorded what I now realise must have been the most unusual behaviour of a party of Whitecapped Redstarts. I had trekked into the Kulu Valley from Simla early in May 1944 and was spinning a gold Devon for trout in the Tithan River about ? of a mile below Manglour Bridge. At that point the river is about 3,500 ft. above sea level and some 35 paces across, broken up by protruding rocks interspersed with fast runs and small turbulent pools. On the far bank was a short cliff with its foot in the river and against it a roundish pool, perhaps five feet in diameter. This pool contained a slow circular eddy with an oily surface and was almost completely surrounded by low boulders no- ~where more than a foot above water. It was only as my Devon pitched near this pool that I saw its verge was occupied by about 4 to 5 redstarts, all of them facing inwards and intent on the antics of 2 others which were floating in the pool. These two were leaning back on spread tails in the water, their heads held high and drawn back, their opened wings thrust outwards and downwards into the water to maintain balance. In this position they sailed round and round, the pool facing one another across it; when the current drew them towards the pool’s centre, they fluttered together and collided breast to breast once or twice after which they drew apart again and repeated the whole performance. The atmosphere of this play was ponderous rather than skittish or vicious, if so heavy a term may be applied to the actions of so small a bird. Neither used his beak or claws and no feathers flew; a quite gentlemanly engagement. I use the masculine gender because I can only assume that this was a jousting match for the ladies’ favour. At this stage in the proceedings another most unusual’ circumstance intervened. I had the misfortune (sic!) ‘to strike a fish which made off down-stream and for the moment de- manded all my attention. In the interests of science I know now that I should have broken with that fish forthwith and returned to the redstarts, but a fighting trout put too great a strain on the naturalist’s sense of duty, let alone the angler’s tackle. Before my fish carried me out of sight of the birds, however, I was able, out of the tail of one eye, to note two further points. That one of the swimmers was apparently worsted and retired to a ring-side seat on the rocks, his place in the arena being immediately taken by a new entrant; and that at one period there were as many as three birds in the pool at the same time. By the time my fish had come to the net and €56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY? INAT CRATE SEES Te Oe ee mays mello etna) I had returned to a point opposite the cliff, the birds had all gone. Thinking back on this interesting scene I have considered, and ruled out, other possible reasons for the birds’ behaviour. They were not feeding on insects trapped in the eddy; this bird is normally most jealous of its feeding beat on a stream and it seems certain that a party of 6 or 7 could not forgather for such a purpose on com- paratively amicable terms. The spectators on the pool’s verge ignored each other completely; indeed they seemed torpid, apparently mes- merised by the circling birds in the water. The possibility of a family party at play is very unlikely at that time of year; for one thing the party was too large and for another it appeared to consist solely of birds in full plumage. This redstart is not gregarious and it would therefore seem unlikely that common indignation had banded the party together to punish a transgressor; had this been the case the spectators would surely have shown more interest in the proceed- ings. I can only conclude that their behaviour was actuated by the mating instinct. BomBay, M.. J. HACKNEY Jie Ta hOs i. 9. BLACKBACKED ROBIN [SAXICOLOIDES F, FULICATA (LINN.)] ATTACKING CAR I have read with interest Mr. Alexander’s account of the Large Grey Babbler attacking the metal hub cap of the wheel of a car (Jour. B.N.H.S. Vol. 49; 550) in view of my own experience with a Blackbacked Robin. Every time my car is brought into the porch it is attacked by the robin. Sometimes he takes his seat on the rear number-plate and pecks his way upward until he reaches the window pane in the rear. Then he goes back to the number-plate and repeats the performance. At other times he sits on the front mudguard or the bonnet and pecks at it like a woodpecker tapping at a tree. When I drive him away he flies off to a nearby pillar and comes back as soon as my back is turned. His attacks have become so persistent that I am compelled to keep the car in the garage until it is wanted. I may mention that this is one of a pair of robins that have been trying, so far unsuccessfully, to rear a brood in my verandah. It is only the male robin that indulges in this pastime. The female goes quietly about her business. It is a reflecting surface that is attacked. I do not think, however, that it is the reflection which excites him. It is not as if he sat on the car, saw his reflection and then attacked it. He comes as soon as the car is brought under the porch. He starts from the rear number- plate from where he cannot see his reflection. It seems to me a little game which he has invented for himself. THE ROOK E. B. WIKRAMANAYAKE CASTLE LANE COLOMBO 4. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES [=>) COU S 10. BAYA.(PLOCEUS PHILIPPINUS LINN.) NESTS ON TELEGRAPH WIRES On October 7th, whilst motoring from this place to Bangalore, my wife pointed out a number of Baya’s nests slung from telegraph wires. On our return trip we stopped to check the actual number of nests, which was twelve including one half-finished nest. Birds were working on some of the nests, evidently putting the finishing touches to them, whilst we were taking the count. All the nests were suspended from a single strand of telegraph wire which crossed over a field of sugar- cane. The area is extremely well-wooded, the particular field over which the colony was suspended being surrounded by trees on all sides and it at first seemed surprising that the Bayas should forego these abundant natural nesting sites and attach their nests to a single hori- zontal wire. However, the entire local area abounds with the destructive Bonnet Macaque (Macaca radiata Geoffrey) and I feel sure that these are responsi- ble for the many half-finished and finished Baya’s nests that we have found over the past month strewn under colony trees, more especially where these colonies are built on Madras Thorn and tamarind trees, and I feel that this particular colony may have attached their nests to the telegraph wire well away from the supporting columns at either end in an effort to avoid destruction by the monkeys. I am more inclined to place the blame for the destruction of birds’ nests on the monkeys than the local population, whom I have found to be wholly disinterested. and pitifully ignorant of the bird-life surrounding them apart from the capture of storks and the shooting of ducks with crop protection powder guns. I trust this unusual nesting site may be of some interest to you. The location of the colony is 25 miles from Chittoor on the Chittoor- Chandragiri road in a well-wooded, cultivated valley between high hills through which both the road and railway run alongside each other. c/o Postmaster, K. M. KIRKPATRICK P.O. GupuR: NELLORE October) 14,1951. [The suspension of Baya nests from telegraph wires is not unknown. But this departure in habit by a few individuals only from amongst a population of normally tree nesting birds is so local and unusual that one would like to know something more of the factors that prompt it. Mr. Kirkpatrick suggests safety from the ravages of macacques. It would be interesting to discover what degree of extra immunity, if any, nests hung from telegraph wires enjoy over those built in natural situations, i.e. at the ends of pliant and often thorny twigs. We have sometimes found nests on telegraph wires in places where no special danger from monkeys was apparent. Sunbirds also hang their nests. from telegraph wires occasionally.—Ebs. | 658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 11. COMMON CUCKOO (CUCULUS CANORUS) PARASITISING PLUMBEOUS REDSTART (RHYACORNIS F. FULIGINOSA) ' (With a plate) In 1945, I published a note in this journal (Vol. 45; 419), describing the strange death of a young Cuckoo found in a nest of Plumbeous Redstarts. The nest was actually found in June, 1944. In the follow- ing year, in June 1945, I was again in Sonamarg, Kashmir, and found, in almost exactly the same spot as the previous year, another nest of Plumbeous Redstarts containing a young Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) ; the bird was fully fledged and almost ready to fly. Possessed of the voracious hunger of its kind, it was being* constantly fed by both its foster-parents. The Cuckoo found in 1944 was not too young for a correct identi- fication of its species to be made, but evidence of a more conclusive nature was desirable. The happy chance presented to me in 1945 to photograph the bird with its foster-parent gives me the opportunity now to offer to the editors of the Journal proof positive of what, I believe, must be the discovery of a new host of the Common Cuckoo. I trust it will be conceded, even by those who put their faith in the infallibility of the dead specimen, that a bird in the plate in this instance is as good as one in the hand. ‘SINGAPORE, Wt VOKE CO) CLODen. 27.5 TOS 1. |The Plumbeous Redstart does not appear to have been definitely recorded as a fosterer of the Cuckoo in the Western Himalayas before, though from Mr. Stuart Baker’s list (‘Cuckoo Problems’, 1942, p. 187) this is apparently not uncommon with the Khasia Hills race, Cuculus canorus bakeri. The only other cuckoo recorded as parasitizing the Plumbeous Redstart is the Indian Small Hawk Cuckoo, Hierococcyx fugax nisicolor.—-EDs. | a2. NOTES ON THE NEPAL KOKLAS PHEASANT (PUCRASIA MACROLOPHA NIPALENSIS) AND THE SPINY BABBLER (ACANTHOPTILA NIPALENSIS) ; (With a text map) In the fall and winter of 1949-50 Nepalese authorities gave me permission to lead an expedition to the Kali Gandak region of West Nepal. The country north of Tansen, capital of West Nepal, had never been visited before by ornithologists. We spent three months collecting birds for the Chicago Natural History Museum. Our route lay directly north of Gorakhpur, U.P., through Tansen, Baglung, Dana, Tukche and through the Dhaulagiri Range on the left and Annapurna Range on the right to the Tibetan side. We were within a few miles of Muktinath, an important place to Hindu pilgrims. One ‘Wespey snoesquin[d pue ooyon> 2407 “LM 0104 a a a Ad —— ee OO MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 659 of our party secured birds from 18,000 feet. From the higher elevations we secured twelve species of pheasants and partridges. On our return journey we visited the lake region of Pokhara and beautiful Phewa Tal which yielded us additional rare and little known “Mustang Muk tnath Jumlae Tuke hea” Sali yang Dana 5 Baglungy “» Pokhara Gurkha Katmandu Nepalganje (es “$Tansen ¢But wal f Gorakhput Araxaul Darjeeling Map of Nepal showing our route........ species including the Spiny Babbler (Acanthoptila nipalensis), In com- paring our list with that of Dillon Ripley | Jour. B.N.H.S., Vol. 49 (3), December, 1950] I estimate that possibly a third of our birds are not mentioned by him. More than 7oo of my Nepal specimens are in Chicago. In this note I only give some data on the Nepal Koklas and the Spiny Babbler regarding which our information is so scanty. fia ehces Nepal Koo K td.g In February, 1939, I made a trip to Naipalganj Road, Baliraich District, U.P., which is situated on the Nepal border. Permission was given to visit Nepalganj, Nepal. When I reached the town, which was a distance of about three or four miles from where I was staying, I learned that a goodly number of tribesmen had just come down from the hills. Some of them had brought live birds enclosed in wicker baskets. A musk deer (Moschus moschiferus L.), in a small box, was displayed along the street. Nearby was a caged Nepal Kalij Pheasant (Gennaeus leucomelanus) with no feathers or skin covering his skull. Seeing my interest in the bird, a local man volun- teered to take me to a place where there were more caged birds. To my surprise I found two rooms full of about 130 specimens including Monals (Lophophorus impejanus), Horned Pheasants (Tragopan satyra), Chir Pheasants (Cutreus wallichii) and Nepal Koklas Pheasants (Pucrasia macrolopha nipalensis), but no Nepal Kalij Pheasants. There were also Common Hill Partridges (Arborophila t. torqueola) and numerous Snow Pigeons (Columba |. leuconota). For a nominal sum I purchased three Koklas, two Horned, two Impeyan and one Chir 14 660 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, oj. 58 along with a Hill Partridge. One Koklas and both Horned Pheasants died and were skinned, but the others were brought to Mussoorie and kept for ten months. Meanwhile the birds moulted in July and August and it was possible to obtain exact measurements of them. The Koklas cock which died was much darker than the second one; both were said to have come from the vicinity of Jumla. This second bird more closely resembled those we took on the upper reaches of the Kali Gandak River in northern Nepal during November and December, 1949. Measurements of the two Jumla birds are as follows: ef Se Wing we. © ceo tom 212 mm Tail em 20S 166 Tarsus’ ofan 55 Culmeni aes acs 29 Stuart Baker has pointed out! that ‘very little is known as to... how far this Pheasant works East.’ One of the purposes of our Nepal expedition of 1949-50 was to obtain skins of this pheasant. We found them in two localities near the Kali Gandak River, some 20 or 30 miles apart. The first place was near Tukche (9,000 ft.) which is located about 15 miles southwest of Muktinath. A small covey consisting of a cock and three hens was located in the blue pine forest (Pinus excelsa) at approximately 11,000 feet, above and to the west of the village. They were on the side of a very steep nala soon after dawn. A wounded cock flew far down the valley while the hens scattered and were not seen again. | Late in November we established an upper camp (12,000 feet). It was in the shelter of a large rock at the head of a steep valley to the west of Tukche. This spot was only a mile north of the perpendi- cular wall of rock and snow of Dhaulagiri (26,800 feet). From our tent it was necessary to scale 2,000 feet to reach the wider slopes. Another Koklas hen flew out from a valley covered with grass, bushes and a few large birch trees (Betula sp.). A few days after this a shikari brought in a battered cock which he obtained from the heavy fir forest not far below and to the east of Tukche. Early in December we moved down the Kali Gandak to Dana (5,000 feet), Baglung District, where we had stopped a month before and had collected several Nepal Kalij Pheasants with the aid of hunters and a belled dog. Upon our return we set up a second camp about seven miles northwest of the village. The height was about 9,000 feet; our camp was on the edge of a ringal—oak forest. A Koklas crowed across the valley to the south and another sounded somewhat above us on our side of the hill. We disturbed a Horned Pheasant on the path among bamboos near our tent and later got two. Dr. Carl Taylor and I climbed the grassy terraces above us which bordered the forest. That afternoon Dr. Taylor secured two Koklas cocks from a thick patch of bamboo at about 9,500 feet. The birds were eee 1 Baker, E. C. Stuart: Fauna of British India Series, Birds. Vol. 5, p. 313. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 661 wary and ran at once at the least sign of danger. The measurements of one of the cocks, a young male with rudimentary spurs of about 5 mm in length and rather light in colour, are as follows: Wing 220;. tail 191; tarsus 64; culmen 26; crest 80-90 mim. One other cock bird was brought to us at Dana. These specimens are now in the Chicago Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. The known range of the Nepal Koklas Pheasant is thus extended some roo miles east of Jumla from where it had been reported by Hodgson more than a hundred years ago. Ze iohe Spiny ab bdier Our party arrived at Tansen, capital of West Nepal, on November 2, 1949. Tansen is about 65 miles directly north of Gorakhpur, U.P. The city les on the southern slope and near the crest of a 4,800 foot range. On the northern side, up back of the city, are the Srinagar forests. We were not sure whether our collecting of birds in the vicinity of Tansen would be appreciated so we waited until we left Tansen for Riri Bazaar. Our road wound along the top of the ridge to the west. Dr. Taylor noticed several birds lurking in a small wayside bush. He secured a specimen which we at once identified as a babbler, but it was not until our return to Mussoorie that it was identified as a Spiny Babbler. Ten weeks later, when again in Tansen, numbers of shy white and brown birds. were noted skulking in low bushes of the Srinagar forest but none were obtained. These may also have been this species. Two other specimens were obtained by me at Pokhara at 3,000 feet, Pokhara is a large town just eight days’ trek west of Katmandu, situated on a plain between low ranges of hills. The first Spiny Babbler I secured was one of four or five, flitting through a hedgerow along a lane in the south-western part of the town. The second bird was one of a somewhat larger party found in grass and bushes at the base of a hill directly north-east of the parade ground, only about a mile from our camp. These birds were quite noisy. They would appear for a moment only to dart under cover at once. After a shot all the rest would vanish, not to be found again. In my opinion, this species of babbler is not uncommon, either around Tansen or- Pokhara. ‘WoopsTocr’, ROBERT L. FLEMING, ph.p. Mussoor£EE, U.P., | April 15, 1951. 13. AN UNRECORDED FEATURE OF SPURFOWL (GALLOPERDIX) It is curious that none of the standard reference works on Indian orni- thology mention a crest in birds of the genus Galloperdix. On the rath “instant I was at the Kanheri National Park with Mr. Horace Alexander and we had a good view of a pair of Red Spurfowl (Gallo perdix spadicea) at a distance of about 30 yards only and both the birds showed a distinet tuft of feathers on the forehead. Mr. Alexander remembered having 662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, fol. 56 noticed this in other places in the C.P. and this prompted me a look up the specimens in the Society’s collection. , | There is no doubt that both sexes of Galloperdix spadicea do have slightly elongated feathers on the crown which apparently can be raised in life as a fairly noticeable tuft. The spurfowl is a great skulker and the only view that one ordinarily gets of him is at the wrong end of the gun and this perhaps is why this distinctive feature has so far been overlooked. In the prepared skin the elongated feathers have to be looked for. ; Such feathers were not found in specimens of G. lunulata, the Painted Spurfowl. GO) MI AIZu ee Com HUMAYUN ABDULALI 75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, BOMBAY 3, July 15, 1951. 14. THE CHUKOR PARTRIDGE | ALECTORIS GRAHCA CHUKAR (GRIFFITH & PIDGEON)] IN NEVADA, U.S.A. At the present time I am attempting to compare the environments inhabitated by the chukor partridge in Nevada, with those found in their native land. To my present knowledge the bird which we have in Nevada is the Indian-hill variety (Alectoris graeca chukar) which is distributed from Ladak to Nepal in north-eastern India. The type locality is Srinagar. I have been taking climatological data in Nevada over the past year, and am now interested in comparing the average monthly maximum and minimum temperatures and the monthly preci- pitation of a station in Nevada with atypical station found in their native habitat. Up to now I have not been able to obtain such climato- logical data for an Indian station. Records for the year 1950 would be very suitable. | The area where favourable chukor partridge populations occur in Nevada ranges from 4,000 to 7,000 feet in elevation. Daily temperatures fluctuate considerably—having in cases, a difference of 40°F between the daily maximum and minimum. Precipitation is low, averaging around 5 to 7 inches per year. I would be very appreciative of any help which you can offer. Incidentally, we are having a month-long hunting season on the chukor in Washoe County this year (Sept. 30 to Oct. 31). An opening day check showed that the hunters were averaging nearly 3 birds apiece, which may be considered as very good. Due to a very mild winter, and great amounts of available food the chukor population has increased considerably and the birds are offering some of the best upland game hunting we have had for some time. Box 9460, UNIVERSITY STATION, GLEN C. CHRISTENSEN ReENo, NEVADA, October. 24, 1951. bE: MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 663 [The Deputy Director General of Observatories (Climatology and Geophys: cs), Poona, has kindly supplied the following data for two stations lying within the native distributional range of the Chukor (Alectoris graeca chukar) which enable interesting comparison. - -Muktesar, Naini Tal District, 29°28’N x 79°39’E. Altitude F500 aT OO" Mean daily tempera- Maximum Minimum ture (Fahrenheit) ... 73:2 (June)+49°8 35:5 (Jan.)-530 (June, (Jan.) July) Mean annual 63:0 Mean annual 48°3 Average rainfall in 12°37 (July) 0:42 (November) inches -,,.. Annual average 53°55” Mussooree, Dehra Dun District, 30°27’N x 78°5’E. Altitude 6,000’ — 7,500’. Mean daily tempera- Maximum Minimum ture (Fahrenheit) .... 765 (May)—49°5 36:3 (Jan.)-- 60°7 (June) (Jan.) Mean annual 63-5 Mean annual 59:1 Average rainfall in 31:35 (August) 0:49 (November) inches .. Annual average 97:69” At these two stations the difference between the daily maximum and minimum temperatures is at no season normally above 20 degrees, while the precipitation is considerably higher than in Nevada. No climatological data are available for Ladakh, but in some respects the conditions there may approximate more closely to those mentioned in Mr. Christensen’s note.—Eps. | 1. THE WHIMBREL (NUMENIUS PHAEOPUS) IN ASSAM Mr. G. E. D. Walker of Margherita P.O., Upper Assam, has sent us the bill of a whimbrel shot at the Ledo airfield which is worth recording since this bird has actually been so seldom noted in Assam. Ledo is at the north-eastern extremity of the Assam Railway. In the Journal Vol. 13; 570, Stuart Baker records a young male, one of a pair shot by Mr. V. Woods of the Assam-Bengal Railway at Haflong on 1st September 1899. The species is not mentioned by Stevens in ‘The Birds of Upper Assam’ nor. by Stuart Baker in ‘The Birds of North Cachar’ though both refer to the Curlew. It is also omitted from Stuart Baker’s ‘Birds of the Khasia Hills’. In his serial on ‘The Game Birds of India’ in the Journal, Vol. 35; 712, Stuart Baker says, ‘I shot one bird of this race (N. p. variegatus) on a small lake in N. Cachar in 1899, which had been in the company of two others, and I saw a small flock in Lakhimpur in 1900... ._ It is a common winter visitor to the Indo-Chinese countries and Burma and probably also to Assam and Eastern Bengal.’ 114, APOLLO STREET, FORT, EDITORS Bompay. 664 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Kol. 50 16. BLACKNECKED GREBE (PODICEPS NIGRICOLLIS BREHM) IN BHAVNAGAR During my bird watching visits to the Ruvapari Tanks and sewage waters only a mile away from Bhavnagar, I came across the Blacknecked Grebe on 7th November 1951. The bird looked so different from the common little grebes or dabchicks that I took a few cine shots of it before collecting the specimen. It was a male in winter plumage. I beieve this to be the first instance of its being recorded in Saurashtra. BHAVNAGAR, K. S, DHARMAKUMARSINHIJI December 4, 1951. [Identification of the specimen has been confirmed.—Ebs. | 17, SOME BIRD NOTES EROM JASDAN, SAURASHTRA On the 12th November 1951 I had been to a lake some 15 miles from Jasdan where I was surprised to see a Great Crested Grebe, {Podiceps crisatus cristatus) in winter plumage. M. K. S. Dharma- kumarsinhji who was with me confirmed the identification. This bird is a very rare straggler to these parts having been previously re- corded in Bhavnagar and Kharaghoda. Another rare winter straggler seen by us was the Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) four birds among grazing cattle on the lake side. They were all collected and have been sent for identification as to the subspecies. JASDAN, Yo°S? SHIPV RAK UMASS December 2, 1951. [| Apparently S. v. poltavatskyi Finsch. In the B.N.H.S. collection we have two specimens of this race collected by the Gujarat Ornitholo- sical Survey at Saiat (Kaira District), December 1945.—Eps. | 18. MORE STRAY BIRD NOTES FROM MALABAR 1. CUCKOO CHICK FOSTERED ON KING CROWS On the 30th of May, 1951, I came across a pair of King Crows (Dicrurus macrocercus) which were feeding a fully-fledged cuckoo chick. The chick flew from tree to tree when I attempted to catch it, while the king crows, though agitated, kept at a distance. I left the chick finally on a tree more than 100 yards away from its original perch. The next evening the chick was found once again on the very same twig where it had been first found, and the king crows were observed feeding it often. When the ‘gunman’, who had agreed to shoot the chick for me, and I were standing under the tree, one of the king crows flew past the chick, uttering short, sharp notes, whereupon the chick left its perch and followed the foster-parent to a distant tree. Now and then one or both drongos bullied the crows and a Crested Serpent-eagle which flew over us, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 665 After shooting of the chick it was found that the king crows left the area—where they had been the most conspicuous birds— entirely. | To the best of my knowledge, we have four parasitic cuckoos with us in spring: the Koel (numerous); the Common Hawk Cuckoo (common); the Plaintive Cuckoo (never more than two or three); and the Indian Cuckoo (uncommon—never more than half a dozen). 2. THE BREEDING OF THE LITTLE RING PLOVER (Charadrius dubius) In the latest authoritative account of the birds of the west coast, Mr. Salim Ali’s ‘Ornithology of Travancore and Cochin’ (J.B.N.H.S. 39; 581), it is said of Jerdon’s Little Ring Plover: ‘No specific instance of its breeding in Travancore and Cochin has hitherto been recorded’. As this seems to be true of Malabar also, it may be worth while placing on record that this Ring Plover breeds regularly in numbers in the rivers of the Palghat taluk from December to June. In Kavasseri, on the bed of the river Gayatri, at least 29 times they have nested between April 1943 and June 1951. March, April and May seem to be the months when the majority have nests. Four times nests were found in December: Dec. 27, 1948, ©) 22 Deer 2S 1943) C/ 2 DeC. 19,1949, C/257Dec. 20,; 19505) c/ Tr. The usual number of eggs in a full clutch is three; I have never ~ found one of four. The birds which nest late in May always stand a serious risk of having their eggs or chicks washed away by monsoon floods. This year for instance, on June 3, there were three pairs of Ring Plover in the river, each with a family of chicks. One pair had 3 chicks, another had 1, and the third had an egg and a newly hatched chick. On June 4 this last egg also hatched. On the 11th the river was in spate and the chicks undoubtedly perished. Two pairs out of the three disappeared at this time, the third pair remaining with us till about 20th June, and resorting to the grassy banks, laterite flats and the marshy paddy fields for their food. Throughout the month of May this year I had wandered about on the river bed noting that there were three pairs of Ring Plovers, and confident that only one of these had a nest (May, 28 c/2). On June 3 I was on the river bed, in heavy rain which a strong wind was driving almost through me. A Ring Plover was found brooding over, what J_ thought must be eggs. Though its mate was uttering warning calls this bird got up and ran away only after I had gone very near it. When it got up, three tiny chicks ran away from the shelter of its wings and fluffed-out breast feathers. The moment I walked off the parent got the chicks safely tucked up under it once more. Some 150 yards away yet another Ring Plover was sheltering a single chick in the same way. Another 150 yards, and I came across the pair whose nest I had found on May 28. Here it looked as though one bird was sitting on an egg and the other protecting a chick from the rain. On June 5 also the birds were found protecting their brood in this fashion. 666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 3. THE BREEDING SEASON OF THE BLACKHEADED ORIOLE (Oriolus xanthornus) The Blackheaded Oriole is said to breed from February to July, hut on the September 24, 1950, I discovered a pair feeding two chicks in a nest on a mango tree. On the 25th the chicks were still being fed. On the 27th the nest was found torn to pieces, by some predatory bird most probably. 4. PARADISE FLYCATCHER (Tchitrea paradisi) The last date on which a Paradise Flycatcher was seen in the plains this year (1951) was April 24 (Olavakkode). Throughout April the birds were found to be rare and had to be carefully looked for. On May 15 I was at Padagiri (Nelliampathy hills) for a few hours, and was surprised to find a Paradise Flycatcher of uncertain sex at the edge of a forest by the roadside. I watched the bird for a long time through fieldglasses. In view of the fact that Mr. C. R. Stonor repeats (J.B.N.H.S. 46; 118-125) Kinloch’s statement that white males were found predominant on the hills, it may be interesting to know that in the plains of the Palghat Gap white males as well as chestnut males with streamers are rare at all times, though birds whose sex cannot be distinguished in the field are very common. Mr. Salim Ali does not tell us (J.B.N.H.S. 38; 303) whether he found white males more common than the others in the Nelliampathies, but states that at Nemmara, ‘Red plumaged males and females were common, but white males exceedingly rare.’ My experience suggests that white males, when with us, prefer jungles and forests where they have more cover, whereas the birds of ‘uncertain’ sex frequent the more open jungles, gardens etc. Is it not probable that this may have something to do with the white males’ greater need for protection? If within their breeding range, the white males also are found to frequent inhabited areas and open countryside, it may be due to the boldness that breeding birds invariably display. Night Herons, for instance, fearlessly go about collecting nesting material even at noon during the breeding season, whereas, at other times, they hide very carefully throughout the day in thick foliage. 5. THE Common GREY HornsiLut (Tockus_ birostris) In ‘The Ornithology of Travancore, and Cochin’ (].B.N AS, 305 21-23) only three hornbills are listed as occurring in those states. -In Kavasseri, which is close to Nemmara, one of the collecting camps of the Survey, the resident breeding hornbill is the Common Grey Hornbill. The Pied Hornbill, the only other hornbill of our place, is just an occasional visitor during the monsoon months. It would be most surprising if the Common Grey Hornbill were found to be totally absent at least in that part of Cochin State which lies in the Palghat Gap. 6. THE SOUTHERN GREYBACKED SHRIKE {Lanius schach caniceps BLYTH) as a Mimic It is well known that the Rufousbacked and Greybacked shrikes are expert mimics. But, unfortunately, they seem to be rarely disposed MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 667 to give performances. Of the many Greybacked shrikes I have known, only one indulged in mimicry, and that too only on three evenings. But this bird displayed real taste in the call notes it chose to mimic. Within half an hour it gave excellent renderings of the notes of some fourteen different birds. Almost every bird which has an interesting call or song was included, e.g. the Common Hawk Cuckoo, the Red- wattled Lapwing, the Whitebrowed Fantail Flycatcher, the Indian Nightjar, the Plaintive Cuckoo and the Whitebreasted Kingfisher. Every time the Hawk Cuckoo’s ‘pipeeah’ notes were uttered they were either preceded or succeeded by the ‘teeti-teeti-teeti’ preface which the Hawk Cuckoo itself very often does not utter. In the case of the Redwattled Lapwing, the ‘Did you do it’ call was invariably preceded by the ‘Trick .. trick . . trick’. When taking off the Whitebreasted Kingfisher, the shrike faithfully reproduced the first notes which sound like a stammerer’s efforts to commence a sentence. As no other avian mimic has such an astonishing repertoire, it is a pity that the shrikes do not give more frequent performances. 7, A GREYBACKED SHRIKE USING LARDERING TACTICS ‘TO TACKLE NEEM FRUITS. In a thin teak jungle bordering on cultivated land and_ scrub, a pair of Greybacked Shrikes (Lanius schach caniceps Blyth,. most probably) has been found every summer for the past seven years. This year, in the first week of June, they were found feeding two full- grown chicks which must have left the nest many days ago. On June 15, when I could no longer distinguish between adult and young, one of these birds was observed eating a ripe neem fruit in an interest- ing fashion. The shrike picked up a fruit from the ground, hopped on to a thin, low bush and very dexterously, with a sudden downward sweep of the bill, impaled the fruit on a dry, upstanding twig. Then it peeled and ate the fruit bit by bit, slowly turning the fruit about. Now and then the fruit fell off and the bird had to jump down, retrieve it and refix it. Once it wasted a couple of minutes vainly trying to fix a fruit on a twig which was green and still had leaves on it. Every time the bird tried jabbing the fruit on the twig, the fruit fell off and had to be fetched from the ground. After a time, the bird hopped back to the first twig and succeeded in its very first attempt to get ‘the fruit fixed satisfactorily. | GOVERNMENT VICTORIA COLLEGE, K. K. NEELAKANTAN PALGHAT, MALABAR. 19. PURTHER NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE NEPAL VALLEY Sitta himalayensis ; Whitetailed Nuthatch. A nest found at 8,oco ft. on Phulchok ridge on February 25. It was about 5 ft. from the ground in a rhododendron tree. Both birds were carrying nesting material into the hole which was built up with white mud. On April 8 both parents were feeding young which appeared well feathered when I flashed a torch into the nest hole. — 668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Acanthoptila nipalensis: Spiny. Babbler. Since reading Dr. Ripley’s article in the December 1950 number of the Journal I think my previous record of this bird must have been a mistake’. It differs from the illustration in the Journal as follows. White of throat less pure white, more dirty or off-white. The bill is less slender. The iris is brown not white. Otherwise it looks much the same but the bird I saw was always solitary and could not have behaved less like a sociable Garrulax. I have not seen one this winter, but hope to get a specimen sometime to clear up the doubt. Actinodura nipalensis: Hoary Bar-wing. Common on the ridge leading up to Sheopuri 7,000-8,000 ft., also on Phulchok ridge at the same height. Has many low churring notes, also whistle ‘tui whee-er’ very like that of the Streaked Laughing Thrush with which I think I have confused it in the past. Siva cyanouroptera; Bluewinged Siva. Fairly common at Godavari, usually in flocks with babblers, yuhinas etc. Until my husband shot one I had failed to identify it in the field, and had been much puzzled over this small bird which appeared to have a grey head contrasting with rufous back and black and white wings. The blue of the head and wings cannot be easily seen. The crest also is not visible and the bird appears very long and thin with very flat head, a curious distinctive shape. I have only seen it in jungle quite low, 5,000-6,0o00 ft. but only in winter so presume it moves to higher levels for breeding. Leiothrix lutea: Redbilled Leiothrix. I heard the male singing for the first time on March 4, and during April a pair obviously had a nest in thick scrub at 5,500 ft. Both birds would scold us whenever we passed, though owing to the thick- ness of the jungle I failed to find the nest. Certhia discolor: Sikkim Tree-creeper. We shot 2 of these birds at Godavari during December and they proved to be of the above species. Not seen there after the beginning of February. Cyornis hyperythra ;: Rufousbreasted Flycatcher. A single male shot at 8,ooo ft. on Sheopuri on April 22. It was so much on the ground that I had mistaken it in the distance for a chat of some kind. Niltava grandis: Large Niltava. A female. shot in jungle above Godavari at 6,500 ft. on January 28. No others seen. Niltava sundara: Rufousbellied Niltava. A male spent a couple of months in our garden from January 15 till March 8. Very quiet and tame and always found in the same patch of bushes. In March it began to be more active and would * But see note No. 12 (2), p. 661 by Dr. IR, vi. Bleming taps: MISCELLANEOUS NOTES O79 0i00 669 chase other birds which entered its strip of territory. I never heard it utter a sound. Niltava macgrigoriae ; Small Niltava. Fairly common from March onwards at Godavari. The males have a curious little grating song, uttered sotio voce, a sort of sub-song, but they seem to have no other. On April 1 I saw 2 males challenging one another. They were only about 2 feet apart with feathers fluffed and both uttering this curious song, a mere thread of sound. They keep their bills open while singing. So engrossed were they that I could get very close to them, though they are usually shy. I have not seen them anywhere else except this west valley of Godavari, not above 6,oo0 ft. A male shot March 11. Rhipidura albicollis; Whitethroated Fantail Flycatcher. Seen several times up the west valley at Godavari 5,500 ft, during January. Seicercus castaneiceps, Chestnut-headed Flycatcher Warbler. Seen fairly often at*Godavari during January, February and early March in mixed flocks of babblers, willow-warblers etc.; occasionally in our garden. Not seen above 5,000 ft. One shot February 19. Abroscopus schisticeps ; Blackfaced Flycatcher Warbler. Not common. A pair seen at 7,500 ft. on Sheopuri on New Year’s day in a flock of tits. Seen occasionally at Godayari during February. Ploceus philippinus; Baya Weaver Bird. Nests found this year by K. Kilburne in pine trees in his garden, Is it not very unusual for these birds to build in pines?! Pine needles are also partly used in the construction of the nests. Hypacanthis spinoides: Himalayan Greenfinch. This year these have been very common all winter in the Valley and in the Embassy garden. They are still here in flocks (June 4th), In 1948-49 I hardly saw one. . Aethopyga nipalensis ; Nepal Sunbird. : The common sunbird of the hills round the Valley, where it is abundant all winter. In summer not seen below 7,000 ft. In my previous notes I made a stupid mistake and noted Mrs. Gould’s Sun- bird as being common. The latter bird is in fact extremely rare here. Dicaem ignipectum: Firebreasted Flowerpecker. Very common this spring from February 25 onwards. The numbers seem to vary greatly in different years. Pitta nipalensis ;: Bluenaped Pitta. A female shot at Godavari, 5,600 ft. on January 28. This is the only one seen. | —— —— * In the Konkan it sometimes builds in Casuarina trees (Casuarina equesetifolia), but this is decidedly uncommon.—Eps. 670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Picus chloroiophus : Small Yellownaped Woodpecker. A male shot by a little boy with a catapult and drésenited® to me on February 5 was the first one I had seen in the Valley. Have since seen it on Nagarjung uttering the most peculiar call, a trill of 5 or more ascending notes. If I had not seen it calling I should have thought the call to be made by some variety of cuckoo. Also utters a loud ‘quaaa’ at intervals. Has, moreover, a wide range of more woodpecker-like trills, and it also drums. Rhopodytes tristis ; Himalayan Greenbilled Malkoha. March 20 and 29 in our garden, very tame, and uttering at intervals of 4 to 6 seconds a most peculiar croak. Caprimulgus indicus: Jungle Nightjar. Common on Nagarjung. First heard calling mid March, but night- jars are seen on this mountain all winter, and I think this species is resident. Falco peregrinus peregrinator ; Shahin Falcon. Seen for the first trme this summer. In our garden May 21; on the hills at 7,000 ft. on May 27. It is smaller and very much darker than the race which visits the Valley in winter. The bird seen flying on the hills was almost black with a very conspicuous cheek stripe. Falco severus; Hobby. y Arrived in our garden this year on May 30, a day later than in 1948. Elanus coeruleus: Blackwinged Kite. Seen once only on June rst in our garden. Sphenocercus sphenurus; Wedgetailed Green Pigeon. A single bird shot on Nagarjung at ©,000)it- On. Aprill:2 iamaenave often caught glimpses of green pigeons before without being sure of their identity. They are often heard whistling in the hills during April and May. Gennaeus leucomelanus: Nepal Kalij Pheasant. Common on Nagarjung, less so on the other hills. At the end of March they are evidently pairing, as the cocks collect in open places and challenge other cocks. They make the most extraordinary noises and appear to dance round in circles. Unfortunately I have never been able to approach close enough to see the whole display. There are usually 3 or 4 cocks dancing and fighting and a half dozen or more hens. On June 4th on Nagar- jung I saw a cock and two hens and about a dozen tiny chicks. Although very small, the chicks used their wings when following the parents downhill and appeared able to fly fairly well. I was surprised to see the cock with the hens and apparently helping with the chicks. The dark stripe down the chick’s neck was very consp:cuous. KATMANDU, NEPAL DESIREE PROUD June 4, 1951. | MISCELLANEOUS NOTES é71 20.. OCEANIC AND OTHER BIRDS SEEN ON TWO RECENT TRIPS. BETWEEN COLOMBO AND ADEN IN 1951 I was so interested to read Mr. W, W. A. Phillip’s paper on the Wilson’s Storm Petrels, Shearwaters and other sea birds in the Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean [jJ.B.N.H.S. Vol. 49 (3)], that I was moved to keeping a careful diary of the birds seen between Colombo and Aden on two recent voyages. It was interesting to compare the complete absence of birds seen in February with the very large migration that was observed moving in a southerly direction on August 4, 1951. This migration was presumably being undertaken by birds leaving their breeding grounds somewhere in the Persian Gulf. The following are extracts from my diaries :— RIMS Orcades: Homeward Voyage—February 28th to March 5th 1951. February 28. Sailed from Colombo at midnight. No birds seen across the Indian Ocean at all. March 4. 09.00 hrs. ship was off Cape Gardafui—quite a few Red Sea Blackheaded Gulls seen and 4 elu iees Boobys. There were also a few solitary terns (unidentified). March s. Entered Red Sea—Lesser Blackbacked Gulls ; Herring Gulls (quite a few in juvenile plumage); 2 Red Sea Blackheaded Gulls and 1 Redbilled Tropic Bird seen. , ih M.S. Orion Outward Voyage. August 3 to August 8, 1951. August 3. “Sea calm with a swell, weather hazy and cloudy. . 09.30 hrs. 2 different species of moths seen on board together with a locust. | : 09.35-09.50 hrs. A large flock of Wilson’s Storm Petrel seen sitting upon the sea with others flying around very like Common Switts.. skimming the water. 10.10 hrs. The ship disturbed another large flock of Wilson’s Storm Petrels. 10.30 hrs. Another large flock of Wilson’s Storm-Petrels seen. 10.55 hrs. Red Sea Blackheaded Gull was following the ship. 11.30 hrs. Ship arrived off Aden. Aden Gulls; juvenile Black- backed Gulls were seen and a Peregrine was seen to make half-hearted stoop at the Aden Gulls. ven 16.00 hrs. Ship sailed from Aden. A Brown Booby was seen fishing just outside the harbour; it dropped into the water from quite a considerable height and was totally submerged. A large number of Caspian Terns (? Black head; dark grey mantle ; flight feathers appeared lighter than rest of wing ; underparts white ; tail fairly long; bill orange.) 17.50 hrs. A dark chocolate coloured shearwater (Wedgetailed probably) with a flock of Wilson’s Storm Petrels. 18.10 hrs. A solitary black storm: petrel was..seen, but not identified. 672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Yol. 50 August 4. Ship’s position at noon Lat. 12°53’N, Long, 51°21’E. Sea calm with long swell. In the afternoon the wind freshened and the sea became choppy becoming rough. 07.45 hrs. A solitary Redbilled Tropic Bird seen. 08.40 hrs. A solitary Palefooted Shearwater seen. (This was a light brown bird with long pointed wings which it flapped frequently ; it moved very fast.) 09.30 hrs. A Wedgetailed Shearwater was seen. (This appeared smaller and darker chocolate than the last species; the flight feathers were noted as being nearly black in colour.) Wedgetailed Shearwaters were seen throughout the morning together with a couple of Palefooted Shearwaters. 10.40 hrs. 4 Bluefaced Boobys were seen. | 15.30 hrs. Large flocks of Dusky Shearwaters were seen. It was quite apparent that the ship was cutting across a very large southerly migration of birds as the number seen was impossible to estimate. The following species were seen in this order of predominance :—Wedge- tailed Shearwaters, Palefooted Shearwaters, Dusky Shearwaters, Sooty Terns, Brownwinged Terns and the odd Aden Gulls. This migration was still continuing until approximately 18.30 hrs. when the volume of birds noticeably slackened; as the ship was averaging about 19 knots per hour we had proceeded approximately 57 nautical miles since the start of the migration. The depth of front can therefore be estimated _ at 57 miles across a very close mass of birds. It was, indeed, a most interesting spectacle. 18.00 hrs. The ship passed Socotra. August 5. Ship’s position at noon Lat. 11°27’N, Long. 59°10°E. Sea rough; strong S.W. monsoon wind blowing; weather fine and clear. 07.00 hrs. A solitary Wedgetailed Shearwater seen. 11.30 hrs. A solitary Pomatorhine Skua (the white markings on the upper sides of the wings were very prominently noticeable) ; a Wedge- tailed Shearwater was keeping company with this skua. During the morning 21 Wedgetailed Shearwaters were seen all of .which were solitary birds. | ie 14.10 hrs. Wilson’s Storm Petrel (a solitary small petrel which was black with a white rump and underparts was seen). 16.40 hrs. A solitary tropic bird was seen, it was too far for definite identification. Another solitary Wilson’s Storm Petrel was also seen. 18.00 hrs. Wilson’s Storm Petrel—solitary bird. From 14.00 hrs. to 18.00 hrs. g Wedgetailed Shearwaters, all of them solitary, were seen. , August 5. Ship’s position at noon Lat. 9°20’N, Long. 66°35’E. Sea calmer with moderate long swell; wind had lessened considerably ; weather fine and clear. 08.00 hrs. Wedgetailed Shearwater, solitary bird seen. 08.20 hrs. Palefooted Shearwater seen (this bird was much lighter in colour). 10.55 hrs. 2 Palefooted Shearwaters flew in front of the bows and settled on the water. 11.40 hrs. Another Palefooted Shearwater seen. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES eg 11.45 hrs. 3 Wedgetailed Shearwaters. 11.55 hrs. A Redbilled Tropic Bird was disturbed by the ship and rose up from under the bows, giving me an excellent view. It had’ a short tail and no streamers. : During the afternoon a further 9 Wedgetaileq Shearwaters were seen at odd intervals. August 7. Ship’s position at noon Lat. 7°56’N, Long. 74°13’E. Sea calm with light swell; wind slight; weather fine and cloudy. 09.50 hrs. A single Palefooted Shearwater seen. The Palefooted Shearwaters do not appear so graceful as the Wedgetailed as their flight is heavier with considerable flapping of their wings. The Wedge- tailed swerve and glide with great speed along the troughs of the waves and appear to keep closer to the surface of the water. 14.00 hrs. A Redbilled Tropic Bird seen. (This bird was complete with streamers in its tail.) No other birds were seen all day. / August 8. Ship arrived Colombo at 06.00 hrs. SUMMARY The dates of the voyages undertaken by Mr. W. W, A. Phillips were: homeward—11th to 19th July 1949 and, outward—r3th to 2oth January 1950; whereas those of mine were: homeward—28th February to 5th March 1951 and, outward—3rd to 8th August 1951. In January 1950 Mr. Phillips saw the following species of birds: Lesser Blackbacked Gull; Herring Gull; Aden Sooty Gull; Large Crested Tern; Aden Gull; Blackheaded Gull; Dusky Shearwaters ; Redbilled Tropic Bird; phalaropes; Wedgetailed Shearwater; Poma- torhine Skua; Brown Booby ; Whitetailed Tropic Bird and Brownheaded Gull. The majority of these birds were seen in the Gulf ot Aden and only tropic birds were met within the Ind!an Ocean. In March 1951 I saw no birds whilst crossing the Indian Ocean; this fact, I consider, was due to most species having left the open ocean for their breeding grounds. Mr. Phillips saw quite. a few shearwaters in the Gulf of Aden, which is comparatively close to land to the north and south; these birds may have been moving slowly to the north in the vicinity of the Persian Gulf to breed. I saw no phalaropes on my trip. It would be interesting to ascertain the local breeding times of these species mentioned as this may explain the reason why so few birds were seen by me. Is it possible that the tropic birds breed at a later date than the other species? Alexander gives the nearest . breeding grounds of the Redbilled Tropic Bird as the islands in the Persian Gulf and, the Whitetailed Tropic Bird as on the Mascarine, Seychelles and Andaman Islands; which may account for the reason why the Whitetailed Tropic Bird was seen by Mr. Phillips in the eastern section of the Indian Ocean. Mr. Phillips expresses his surprise at seeing so many shearwaters off Colombo in July 1949; I also saw quite a few in August 1951. In view of the large southerly movement seen by me on 4th August it may be possible that the birds seen by Mr. Phillips were early breeders or non-breeding birds. Alexander states that the Wedgetailed Shearwaters breed at the Seychelles and Mauritus, which makes it difficult to explain why I 674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Poi. 50 saw sO Many moving in a southerly direction across the Gulf of Aden. I feel certain that these birds must have been returning to the open ocean from their breeding grounds, otherwise I am at a loss to explain the reasons for such a large movement. Again I am at a loss to explain the presence of Palefooted Shearwaters as Alexander gives their breeding locality as the western coast of Australia, the North island of New Zealand and Lord Howe Island. On 18th July 1949 Mr. Phillips witnessed a large movement of Sooty Terns flying in a south-westerly direction, these terns were also present in the very large movement seen by me on 4th August 1951, but were definitely in the minority. The species of birds met on both Mr. Phillips’s and my trip appear to be the same with, of course, a difference in concentration. The. | large movement seen by me on 4th August was a truly remarkable sight. Mr. Phillips stated that on 1gth July 1949 he saw many Wilson’s Storm Petrels that appeared to be in moult with ragged plumage ; although I saw many of these birds in August 1951 I did not notice any with ragged plumages. IKUTTAPITIYA, PELMADULLA, CEYLON C. E. NORRIS October 17, 1951. REFERENCES Alexander, W. B. (1928): Birds of the Ocean. Phillips, W. W. A. (1950): Wilson’s Storm Petrels, Shearwaters and other sea birds in the Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean. Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. 49 (3) ; 503. 21. BIRDS ATTACKING THEIR REFLECTIONS I was greatly interested in the three communications on this subject in. the Journal [Vol. 50 (1) 171-174]. May I make a further comment? I am glad to note that my old friend Mr. Hamid Ali has had a parallel experience to my own with the Large Grey Babbler in Delhi. Mr. Cumberlege has, I think, misunderstood me. It is quite well known that birds will attack their own reflections in a mirror or in a window. Such instances have been published again and again. Experiments have been carried out with Blackbirds and other species, and convincing evidence has been produced to show that it is the sight of the reflection that causes the attack. I was not questioning this at all; I was only questioning whether it was the right explanation in the case of the babbler attacking a hub-cap. On this essential point the long note from Mr. H. G. Acharya, recording a very similar experience with Jungle Babblers (Turdoides terricolor) is of the greatest value and interest. It appears that Mr. Acharya had not read my note, and did not know how closely parallel his observations were to mine and those of my friends in Delhi. But there are important differences. First, at Ahmedabad it appears that the habit is confined to Jungle Babblers; Large Grey Babblers do not do it, though they are present. In Delhi, though both species MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 675 are present their roles are reversed. The Large Grey attacks, the Jungle refrains from attacking. This is surely rather odd. Mr. Acharya is convinced that it is the sight of the reflection in the cap that causes the bird to attack. He points out that the curve of the hub-cap does not distort the picture of the bird. That is true; ‘but it greatly reduces its size. Is it likely that a bird will rush to attack one of its species which appears to be a long way off? If it were by nature pugnacious towards its own kind, perhaps; but neither of the babblers in question is a bird (like the robins or some others) that drive off their_own kind. On the contrary, they are constantly feeding in more or less peace with the other ‘sisters’ of their family party. Yet, suddenly they break away from this peaceful social behaviour to attack one of their own kind which, if seen at all, is seen far away. Moreover, as friends of mine and I myself have again and again noticed, they rush to the attack from a position in which they cannot possibly see any reflection in the hub-cap. I confess I am still puzzled. I hope other readers of the Journal will contribute their evidence. I think very careful and scrupulous observation will be required if we are to discover the true solution. 144, OAKTREE LANE, SELLY OAKS, H. G. ALEXANDER BIRMINGHAM, 29, December to, 1951. 22. SCENTING POWER OF BIRDS Since November 1949 there have been published in The Field a number of letters from correspondents on ‘Scenting Power of Birds’. Some have said that carrion birds only have this sense of smell, others that it is evidenced only by seed and insect-eating birds such as pheasants, pigeons, grouse and others. The latest lJetter—15th July 1950, p. 110—is from one correspondent with 7 years’ experience of pursuit of ptarmigan. He says these birds have a very keen sense of smell, that it is no use attempting to stalk them down wind, that he and his companions have been on more than one occasion winded a quarter of a mile away. ‘The latest are two letters in the issue of 4 November 1950 in which a Major R. H. Welge and Mr. Dugald Macintyre both make very positive statements as to scenting power of birds. Welge says domestic hens detected newly sown peas four inches below the ground; and Macintyre repeats the statements as to ravens having a sense of smell so acute as to be able to detect the taint of human smell on gins—presumably traps of iron—when almost down on the carrion placed in the trap as bait. He also says that ravens have a sense of smell so acute that they can move on to hidden carrion as a pointer dog does on game. One of these two also discredits Darwin’s experiment as to scenting power of the vulture. Are all these observers just deceiving themselves, or are their state- ments to be credited? Most people think that birds have very little sense of smell. In ‘course of his very interesting and authoritative series, ‘The Study of 15 676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Indian Birds’ in ten chapters, published in the Society’s Journal, Vols. 33 to 35, Whistler remarked (Vol. 33; 784) ‘Birds as a class are believed to have little or no sense of smell’. Here we are in 1950 A.D. and this matter of Scenting Power of Birds undecided! Vultures, eagles, falcons, hawks, kites; . 7erows = geese, ducks, junglefowls, domestic fowl, pheasants, partridges, parrots are all to be found in the several zoological gardens of this country. {It should not be too difficult to have blinkers-caps made to fit the species of birds to be ‘investigated’ and so find out what scenting power is possessed by each of them for the food they are accustomed to eat. A suggestion is that, given the necessary interest in the matter, it should not be too difficult for naturalists, aided by the several superintendents of the zoological gardens (who would doubtless afford. all help and facilities) to carry out the experiments and make the essential careful notes in each case. As to birds scenting human beings photographers taking photo- graphs from ‘hides’ do not seem to bother much about that ! What is needed is an expert investigation of the kind carried out by Capt. Allen Payne regarding ‘The Sense of Smell in Snakes’ which was published in Vol. 45 (pp. 507-515) of the Society’s Journal. BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON August 10, 1950. bb Col. a aeaivendaie 23. CHANGES IN SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF INDIAN BIRDS The occasion of the publication in the Journal of my ‘Birds from Nepal 1947-1949’ [49 (3) 1950; 355-417] prompts me to write and to attempt to explain to the members of the Society why I have apparently departed so radically from the system of nomenclature familiar to many students of Indian birds who work with the ‘Fauna’ series. In a previous number of the Journal [ 47, (4) 1948; 790] it was announced that the Honorary Editor, Mr. Salim Ali and the under- signed proposed to start a five-volume handbook on Indian birds. It has been. agreed between us that the first priority in this cause should be given to the completion of a Handlist of the Indian birds, and this I have been currently at work on for some time. The urgency of this work is manifest to professional workers. The standard work on Indian birds, the ‘Fauna’ series, published between 1922 and 1930, was an attempt to modernize the treatment of Indian birds previously revised in 1889. And yet much of the work of Mr. E. C. Stuart Baker which made these volumes admirable lay along other lines from those of bringing the nomenclature up to date. In effect, a good deal of this technical side of the work was already outdated on its publication. Ornithology is by no means a regional subject, but unfortunately some world areas have suffered from regionalism. There are the International Codes and Rules of Nomenclature, and of course workers of many other nationalities to be reckoned with in the systematic study of birds. It is today a quite outmoded process to attempt to work in a vacuum without regard to these outside and stimulating influences. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 677 Since the publication of the last edition of the ‘Fauna’ series, there has been a great spate of systematic ornithological research, partially inspired by the recent advances in genetics and in ethology. New theories of the technics of evolution have come to light, and in addition at present there is an outstandingly active generation of professional ornithologists. These workers today are publishing papers on families and lesser groups of birds often rather removed from the Indian sub- region, but which bear by implication on Indian systematic problems. A study of African bulbuls, for example, may reveal relationships in that group which require the suppression of a generic name. The combined genus may have two identical specific or subspecific names requiring under the International Rules, the suppression of the latter of the two, with the consequent introduction of some little-known pre- viously suppressed old name, or the erection of a new name. These tedious, extraneous and troublesome details (from a field naturalist’s point of view) have to be ironed out and brought up to date if nomen- clature as such is to continue to exist. So much for changes in names. The question of the order in which birds should be listed is perhaps even more arbitrary. The class Aves. is a great mushroomed, sprawling aggregation of families, some obvi- ously related, others of questionable relationship, which is certainly not subject to linear arrangement. No proper family tree can be diagnosed. The mere listing of birds means running out each branch to the terminal twigs, and then retracing one’s steps back to the main trunk to: seek the next nearest branch in the order, and so on and on. Personal opinion obviously enters as regards which branch to follow first, second and so on. The order itself has changed a great deal. That followed by the immortal ‘Catalogue of the Birds in the British Museum’ may still be preferred by some. Others may choose that of Hartert in his ‘Die Vogel der palaarktischen Fauna’. Currently among students of world birds it seems that most do or will follow the order and arrangement of families proposed by Wetmore and followed largely by Mr. J. L. Peters in his ‘Check-List of Birds of the World’ (Harvard University Press, seven volumes now published). This arrangement commences with the most primitive families and leads up to the most advanced, though as to the exact sequence to follow there will probably continue to be arguments for many generations to come. This is the order being followed by authors working on checklists of neighbouring areas such as Burma (Smythies), the Indo-Chinese subregion (Deignan), Indo- China (Delacour), Malaya (Gibson-Hill) and Ceylon (Phillips). It seems far wiser, therefore, to make a definite and thoroughgoing break with the traditional arrangement of Indian bird families and swing into line with the main stream of world opinion on such matters. Only harm will be done by continuing to remain in the old mould, (and this I say consciously, as a distant kinsman on my mother’s side of A. O. Hume). It is for the above reasons that I have been bending every effort to bring the Indian Handlist up to date, and to speed its appearance. ‘KILRAVOCK’ LITCHFIELD, CONNECTICUT, U.S.A. > DILEON RIPLEY July 28, 1951. 678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 24. THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH NAMES OF BIRDS In any Handlist, Checklist or any other list of birds, the incon- sistencies shown in the orthography of the popular names is always a matter for wonder. Thus, in one Checklist which I saw recently, the ‘ following appeared on opposite pages, ‘Water-Hen’ and ‘Watercock’. Similarly, person may write ‘Sea Eagle’ in one place and ‘Eagle-Owl’ or even ‘Eagle-owl’ in another. In an attempt to bring some order out of chaos, the following ‘Rules’ are submitted for the consideration of the Editors and other readers of this journal. In framing them Simplicity, Clarity and Consistency have been regarded as of fundamental importance. A: Nouns Where the name of a bird consists of two Nouns, the w6?ds should be joined by a hyphen, thus :-— Serpent- -eagle, Magpie-robin, Hawk-cuckoo, Eagle-owl, Hen- perce, Snow-pigeon, Scops-owl, Fish- owl and so on. For the sake of simplicity it is suggested that the second noun be written entirely in lower case. The exceptions to this Rule would be:-— (i) Where constant usage has made a different form familiar, e.g. Peafowl, Nuthatch, Nutcracker, Stonechat, Flycatcher, Wood- pecker, Sandpiper. The Rule of simplicity would appear to demand the elimination of the hyphen wherever possible and, to my mind, this, in most cases, could be applied. Clarity, however, forbids the writing together of two words, one of which ends and the other begins with a vowel, for example, ‘Eagleowl’. A name which is a borderline case is ‘Laughingthrush’ : laughing’ being a present participle can be used as either a verbal adjective or a noun. If it is regarded as a noun the word should be written ‘Laughing-thrush’; if an adjective, ‘Laughingthrush’ or ‘Laughing Thrush’. [See Rule B (1)]. I favour ‘Laughing-thrush’. (ii) Where a proper name is used, as in the examples that follow, the hyphen should be omitted and the words written separately each beginning with a capital letter, thus: Nicobar Pigeon, Sarus Crane, Shahin Falcon. B: ADJECTIVES | (1) A single qualifying adjective should be written, as in common practice, apart from the noun, e.g. Rosy Pastor, Green Loriquet. Exceptions would be those which usage has joined and no man can now put.asunder, e.g. Bluechat, Greenshank, Redshank, Whitethroat, Bluebird. _ {2) Where there are two qualifying adjectives, I am of the opinion that, they should be written together, thus: Whitebellied Sea-eagle, Bluetailed Bee-eater, Whitebreasted Water- hen, Whitecollared Kingfisher. (3) Where the description requires the use of more than two words, €larity ‘réquires’ the’ use of hyphens, thus: Black-and-Yellow Grosbeak, Black-and-Orange Flycatcher. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 679 In submitting the above proposal, I realise that rules have an awkward way of producing exceptions and keys have a habit of opening more than one lock. It is also realised that a certain amount of arbitrary procedure goes into the forming of these ‘rules’, although careful attention has been paid to usage. It is submitted, however, that some consistency in the writing of popular names is desirable and a beginning in that direction ought now to be made. Bompay, | W. T. LOKE November 4, 1951. 25. BULL FROG (RANA TIGRINA DAUD.) PREYING UPON THE COMMON TOAD (BUFO MELANOSTICTUS SCHNEID.) A captive specimen of a well-sized Rana tigrina Daud. swallowed two adult Bufo melanostictus Schneid., its fellow captives. There was an interval of 15 days between the two feeds. The above specimens were kept in the museum’s workrooms and intended for modelling. They were daily fed on cockroaches (Peri- planeta Sp.) BomBay, Vo KSCHAKI December 14, 1951. Asst. Curator 26. NOTES ON THE BIONOMICS OF THE RED GOBY, TRYPAUCHEN VAGINA BLOCH & SCHNEIDER (With a text figure) In his account of the Gobioid Fishes of the Gangetic Delta, Hora (1936) described the ecology and bionomics of ten species of gobies. from the Uttarbagh area on the Piali river, one of the estuarine creeks a few miles on a motorable road from Calcutta. He referred to Try- pauchen vagina, but, since specimens of this species were not available to him at Uttarbagh, its ecology and bionomics were not dealt with by him. The writer was, however, lucky to obtain specimens from the Calcutta markets and Port Canning, about 20 miles south of Calcutta, and also from the fixed engines or Chinese dip-nets operated at the mouth of the Cochin Harbour on the West Coast. As our knowledge of the bionomics of this species is meagre, the following observations. ‘seem worth recording. Trypauchen has a wide distribution, extending from the Persian Gulf, along the coasts of India, to the Indo-Australian Archipelago and China. Koumans (1941) has given a list of localities whence this species has been recorded from India. It is generally found frequenting the coasts, estuaries and lower courses of brackish water streams, canals and creeks. Though essentially a euryhyaline species, it is occasionally found to push its way up rivers into waters that are nearly Om quite fresh. Its zonation in relation to the other estuarine Gobioids is similar to that described for Taenioides rubicundus (Hamilton) by Hora (1936, ~ 680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, sVol. 50 p. 849). It is found living low down on muddy banks between tide marks and in outlying shallow portions. It moves about by wriggling in the mud. : Trypauchen vagina Bloch & Schneider. (a) Lateral view of head and anterior part of body. (6) Upper and lower jaw showing arrangement of teeth. (c) Alimentary canal. The mouth of Trypauchen vagina is superior and oblique, the lower jaw being very prominent (figure a). Both jaws are fringed with two or three rows of teeth, of which the outer row is sharp and caninoid (figure b). Behind the rows of teeth in either jaw, a membranous flap is present. The markedly upturned nature of the mouth may help the fish to respire even while completely hidden in the mud, with only a part of the head showing in the water. The wide and unspecialised gill-openings suggest that the fish breathes continuously and can pass out muddy water without clogging its gills. Due to its oblique nature, the mouth offers least hindrance to progression through the mud. In correlation with its mode of life in the muddy waters, the eyes have also undergone considerable reduction and, in some of the speci- mens, are hardly recognisable. On either side above the operculum is a cavity or blind pouch, which is probably sensory in function. The pelvics, which are jugular and partly fused to the ventral surface of the body, are also reduced to a certain extent. The alimentary canal, which is slightly convoluted, showed practically no variation in the nature and disposition of the coils (figure c). The length of the gut roughly ranges from o.4 to 0.6 in the total length of the fish. The stomach is only 1/1oth to 1/12th in the length of the alimentary canal. The short nature of the alimentary canal is suggestive of a carnivous diet. The inner wall of the stomach is produced into a number of longitudinal ridges or folds. In some specimens, the stomach was empty though the intestine had digested food in it. This suggests that feeding is not only intermittent, but that the digestive action is also rapid. The stomach contents of 36 specimens of T. vagina were examined and it was found that the fish feeds mainly on Polychaete worms. Along MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 681 with the semidigested food, plenty of sand particles were also present. The sand may probably have been derived from the Polychaete worms on which the fish feeds. Bits of algae were found in the stomach of two of the specimens. As none of the other specimens examined showed any trace of phytophagous remains, its stray occurrence suggests that it had been accidently taken in along with other food. Of interest is the fact that in the stomach of one of the specimens measuring 128 mm., an entire young Ophichthys, about 58 mm in length, was found. That the prey had been taken in a short while prior to the capture of the fish is certain, because no digestive action Seems: to. Mave taken place. » It isttlikely’ that ~the prey «had-> been swallowed when both fish were in the net together. The approximate percentage of food in the specimens examined is as follows: Polychaete remains 65%; digested pulpy mass: 20% and sand particles and other food 15%. It may therefore be surmised that Trypauchen frequents muddy areas and is carnivorous in habit, feeding mainly on Polychaete worms. ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, be Gaol AS MC ALCUITA. RUE FE RECN CoE S Davey be (8716) :.% Bish, India, 1, py 320: Hamilton, B. (1822): Fish. Ganges, p. 33 and 365. Hora, S..L. (1924): Notes on Fishes in the Indian Museum. VI. On a New -genus of Gobioid Fishes (Subfmaily Trypauchenidae) with notes on related forms. Rec. Ind. Mus., KXXYI, pp. 155-163. Hora, S. L. (1936): Ecology and bionomics of the Gobioid Fishes of the Gangetic Delta. C. R. Congr. Inter. Zool., KIT, pp. 841-863. Koumans, F, P. (1941): Gobioid Fishes of India. Mem. Ind, Mus., XIII, pp. 305-306. 27a WO RURTHER €ASES OF OBSTRUCTION OF THE MOUTH] OR THROAT BY “TSE - The recent report by B. K. Behura and M. A. John on ‘A Curious Death of a Snake’ (|J.BUN.H-S. Vol. 50,({1);.183]| reminds me of two -other instances in which fish that were too large to be swallowed or subsequently disgorged were taken into the mouth. In 1942, while the guest of a local rancher near Tampico, Mexico, I noticed that one of my host’s dog's was acting strangely. He examined the animal and found that it had a large fish lodged in its throat. This class of Mexicans generally owns numerous dogs for hunting and other purposes, but the animals can scarcely be classed as pets. They ‘are fed irregularly, if at all, so that they must forage for what they ‘ean find. The ranch was on the banks of the Panuco River, and ‘apparently the fish had been washed ashore dead or dying. The ravenous ‘dog had not taken time to gnaw the fish but had taken it in entire. The rancher: was unable to dislodge the fish, as it had been ingested head foremost, and various backward-directed spines were wedged into the tissues of the throat. These tissues were already grossly infected, and it seemed that under the conditions there was no choice 682 JOURNAL BOMBAY ‘NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 50 but to shoot the dog. My host was unwilling for me to ‘waste’ a shot, however, and since it was his animal I was unable to do more than sympathise with the suffering beast. The dog lingered about the ranch house for four or five days, until one morning it suddenly arose, tottered for a few steps and fell dead. The second case did not come under my personal observation, but I heard its details in 1949 in Tampa, Florida, and have no reason to. doubt their truth. In this instance a Brown Pelican, Pelecanus occiden- talis occidentalis, had dived for a large fish and succeeded in obtaining it in its pouch. The fish was too large to be swallowed. The pelican was unable to disgorge the fish, for the dimensions of its prey were greater than the widest degree to which the bird could spread its flexible mandibles. Apparently the force of the dive and the impact with the fish were great enough to over-distend the mandibles, but the pelican could not work up an equal counter force to eject the fish. After the bird had spent several days at one spot on the water, being unable to arise in flight and also acting in abnormal fashion, its behaviour aroused the curiosity of some local fishermen. They were able to capture the bird. Charged with humanitarian instincts, they removed the fish from the pelican’s pouch and released the great bird. It was weakened from hunger and could not launch itself in flight. The fishermen left the bird to its natural reactions, and the next day it had disappeared. Whether it recovered from its experience or had died no one knew. Now some one else must take up the thread of these fish stories. BANGALORE, | C. BROOKE WORTH November 5, 10951. 23. USE. OF FISH SEIME IN STRUCTURE ENGINEERING Fish by-products such as fish liver oil, fish meal, fish manure, isinglass, glue, and a host of others are fairly well known. What is perhaps not so well understood ts the use of fish slime or mucus for extra strength in the construction of big buildings. The mucus in question is the one obtained from the body of Ophicephalus spp.—‘Braal’ (Malayalam). Generally the bigger varieties. such as U. striatus and O. marulius are used. The mucus is obtained in the following way: Living specimens are put into a large mouthed copper vessel {about 5 ft. in diameter and 1 ft. in height) with water. The quantity of water is determined with reference to the number of specimens available. Three or four specimens with every gallon of water gives the proper quantity of glue. The fish are kept in the vessel for two or three days. Their movements in the limited quantity of confined water causes the slime on their bodies to enter into solution with the water. This solution is viscous and sticky. A certain amount of the slime settles down at the bottom. This assumes a dull greenish hue. When the solution is found to be sufficiently sticky the specimens are removed, and the solution stirred well. Locally this mucus solution is known as ‘Braal pascha’. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 683: When available in large quantities fish slime is used in the prepara- tion of mortar or in plastering. Structures built with mortar prepared in this way have an extra adhesive strength and do not give way under ordinary conditions. In the construction of domes and other arched structures, Ophicephalus mucus is of special importance. It is said that many of the old churches in Travancore-Cochin with arches and domes were built using Ophicephalus mucus. The use of this is not so common now as of old, presumably because Ophicephalus specimens are not obtained in sufficient numbers for large scale constructions. Ophicephalus is considered excellent eating all over India. It forms the mainstay of the natural pond fishery in South India. It is cultured in several parts of India and is esteemed as excellent food for con- valescents. Ex-FISHERY TRAINEE, CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES RESEARCH STATION, BARRACKPORE, AM CAVAN TONY November 12, 1051. 29.) WARNING OF BUTTERELIES While out in the jungle the other day, in hilly country some 60 miles NNW. of Madras I came across enormous swarms of a lycenid butterfly. They were settled along two miles of a red earth forest road in such profusion that there were large patches of grey all over the road. I estimated there were some patches 10 yards long by the whole width of the road which was about to ft. wide, and each patch must have contained tens of thousands of butterflies. The road was dry but not dusty and there had been rain the week before: | I enclose a specimen of this butterfly and would be very grateful if you will identify it for me. Incidentally there were smaller patches of other buiterflies in the vicinity, notably Graphium nomius nomius (twenty to thirty in a group), Graphium doson eleius, Catopsilia crocale, Appias libythea libythea,. and Papilio demoleus demoleus. In the same place last year in September I came across enormous numbers of Papilio polytes romulus oo all drinking on damp ashes. On this occasion I flopped my net on one patch and caught 57! c/o GRAHAMS TRADING Co, (INDIA) LTD., 310/11 LinGHit CHETTY STREET, NE ats Gs DESAY MADRAS, July 27, 1951. {The specimen has been identified as Chilades laius laius Cr., the Lime Blue. It has a practically overall Indian distribution.—Ebs. | '684 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOGIETY,-Vol. 50 30. A CASE OF HETEROPHYEVY IN 457 brace nmr LONGIFOLIA NEES. Heterophylly is a characteristic feature exhibited by certain aquatic plants as well as a few land plants. It has been explained that the ribbon shaped or finely divided submerged leaves of amphibious plants represent youth forms and may not be regarded as adaptations to the surrounding medium. An interesting case of heterophylly in the seedlings of Asteracantha longifolia {a plant common in wet places such as rice fields, margins of tanks etc.) has recently been observed by the present writer. The Jeaves of this plant are described as entire in text-books and Floras. In my material the youth forms are broader and deeply dissected while those that follow later are narrower with a fairly uniform leaf-margin. There is no mention of this fact in Arber’s Water Plants. BioLoGy DEPARTMENT, (GUDIVADA COLLEGE, GUDIVADA, B. S.-M. DUT November 29, 1951. 31. AN UNUSUAL CASE OF VIVIPARYUIN - REIZOP Ore MUCRONATA LAMK. (lVith a plate) Vivipary is a fixed rule in Rhizophora mucronata Lamk. presumably owing to its adaptation to the peculiar mangrove habitat. Under normal conditions only one hypocotyl emerges out of the fruit and hangs down to a length of about 20 inches. During our exploration of the mangrove vegetation at Pichavaram certain cases were met with where the fruits had two hypocotyls. The occurrence of such unusual specimens no doubt is very rare; rarity being judged from the fact that after a close search spread over two years only ten such specimens have been found. Recently, during one of the trips a single specimen was found with three hypo- cotyls, hitherto unrecorded. The anatomy of these viviparous fruits does not appear to have been worked out so far. It is this aspect of study which is particularly presented in the present communication. Normal viviparous fruits (Figs. 1 & 2): The plumule is capped by a cotyledon, lined by a thick tissue gauzed with reserve food material shaped like a phrygian cap. Unusual viviparous fruits with two hypocotyls (Figs. 3 & 4): Kumar and Joshi! described a similar phenomenon in 1942 in Rhizophora mucronata Lamk. but they have not given any anatomical details. This unusual case under reference is beyond doubt a fruit with 2 seeds which have germinated in situ simultaneously in a viviparous manner. The two plumules are separately capped (Fig. 3), by their own phrygian 1’ Kumar, L. S. S. and Joshi, W. V. (1942): False ee -embryony in viviparous Rhizophora mucronata Lamk. Current Science 2 (6): Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. EXPLANATION OF FIGURES (c=cotyledons ; e=-endosperm; h=hypocotyl; ow--ovary wall; p=plumule). Fig. 1. Rhizophora mucronata Lamk.: longitudinal section of a normal viviparous fruit. x2. Fig. 2. Idem: transverse of the normal viviparous fruit as seen in figure 1. x2. Fig. 3. Idem: longitudinal section of an unusual viviparous fruit with the two hypocotyls. Note two separate cotyledons on each plumule, covered by the endosperm. x2. Fig. 4. Idem: transverse section of the unusual viviparous fruit as seen in figure 3. x2. Fig. 5. Idem: longitudinal section of an unusual viviparous fruit with three hypocotyls (left one broken in transit). x2. Fig. 6. Idem: transverse section of an unusual viviparous fruit as seen in figure 5. x2. i . ’ r . ry E z : J . E; ~ 7 . Z * r , bd 7 iy > ‘ ‘ . 2 * Pr ea0 ‘ * = . = F P) 1 ry . 5 « % MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 685 capped cotyledons gauzed with reserve food material as in normal specimens. Unusual viviparous fruits with 3 hypocotyls (Fig. 5): Such an unusual viviparous fruit had not been observed before. The fruit is comparatively big. One of the hypocotyls had broken off in transit. The three plumules are separate and each one of them is independently capped with its own cotyledon gauzed with reserve food material (Figs. 5 & 6). . Grateful thanks are due to Professor T. C. N. Singh, D.sc., F.B.s., Professor of Botany, Annamalai University, for his valuable criticisms and suggestions in the preparation of this paper. DEPARTMENT GF BOTANY, ANNAMALAI. UNIVERSITY, V. R. RAJAGOPALAN ANNAMALAINAGAR, A, IT. NATARAJAN November 27, 1951. Research Scholars 322. REPLACEMENT OF INFLORESCENCE BY TURIONS IN CALDESIA RENIFORME MAKINO.! (With a plate and 3 text figures) Turions, which were regarded as adaptations of the plant to tide over the cold season, and to ensure vegetative propagation have been shown to be the result of unfavourable conditions by Goebel (18q1- 1893). And the relation which these turions bear to the flowers and inflorescence is of interest. Gliick (1906) has recorded the production of an ordinary turion at the apex of an inflorescence which had become submerged. In Alismaceae and some other hydrophytes the connection between flowering and vegetative reproduction is well shown (Arber, 1920; p. 224). In Echinodorus ranunculoides (Alismaceae) a plant of America and Africa, transitions between inflorescence and vegetative offshoot occur. And in Caldesia parnassifolia (Alismaceae), which is widely distributed in Southern Europe, the inflorescence may be trans- formed into an axis bearing turions. According to Gliick as referred to by Arber the transformation of inflorescences into vegetative shoots takes place as the depth of water increases. Caldesia reniforme Makino. (=Alisma reniforme Don.) is a plant that is widely distributed throughout the plains of India, and ascends to 5,000 ft. in Kashmir and Kumaon. In a number of specimens of Caldesia reniforme that were collected by the author from a tank in Bhadgaon in Nepal this year (1951) in early May, the turions have replaced the flowers on the floral axis either in part or completely. As Caldésia reniforme is quite common in India, and the occurrence of turions in this species has not been reported so far, the author thinks it proper to describe them. Interest also lies in that the present observations support the view that with the increase in the depth of water the inflorescence is progressively transformed into vegetative * Makino in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 20: 34, 1906. 686 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCKET Y, Vol, 50 turions. ‘The complete transformation of the inflorescence into an axis bearing turions in this species is exactly as occurs in Caldesia parnas- sifolia. It is quite necessary to give, in brief, the ecological conditions under which the plants were growing. The tank which is about 650 ft. in length and 300 ft. in breadth 1s approximately 20 ft. deep in the middle. Towards the margin the depth gradually decreases, as the sides are bounded by steps. The tank supports a Caldesia reniforme —Utricularia sp. association, with the rare occurrence of a Hydrilla. The vegetation is 3-4 ft. away from the sides of the tank. The water is very clear and is used by the populace for washing and bathing, and this may be the reason for the vegetation being away from the sides of the tank. The vegetation is not very dense, and near the fringes the plants are sparse. On April 4, 1948, when the author first visited Bhadgaon and collected specimens of the species the association was the same and he did not come across any specimen with flowers or turions.. “Itis, thus, quite evident that the flowering. time Tor the species in this part of the Himalayas is somewhere about the middle or end of April; and is, consequently, much earlier than the flowering time in Kumaon, where it is in June. Fic. 3 Fic. 4 Fic. § Caldesia reniforme The flowers are in large whorled panicles. In photo 1 the in- florescence bears normal flowers at the top of the floral axis and in the lower portions of the axis, the flowers have been replaced by turions (a, b and c). In photo 2 the complete replacement of the flowers by turions all over the main axis has taken place. Some of the turions have sprouted as well (a, b and c). The structure of each turion before it sprouts consist of a short axis on which scale leaves are alternately arranged (Fig. 3). The number of scale leaves on each turion varies from 6 to 10, but commonly there are 8 or 9 of them. The basal scale is always the smallest and approximately of the size of a normal sépal. The other scales are gradually bigger. The turions sprout even when they are still attached to the main axis (Photo 2 a, b and cc). But the largest number of sprouted turions collected have been those which had separated from the parent plant. In some cases the main axis begins to rot from the base with. the result that the turions attached to the detached axis begin to sprout ‘pajnoids savy yoy MA JO 90S ‘SUOTIN] SUIMOYS °e ‘six SoWOdSaTOWUl dY1 UO SUOCTIN} PUL SIOMCLH [eUIZOU SUIMOYG “I ‘005 ‘ISIH ‘JUN Avquog ‘uanoe cry Saag MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 687 and form roots (Fig. 4). Normally a sprouted turion bears roots from the middle of its axis and normal foliage leaves are developed at the apex (Fig. 5). In turions, that sprout when attached to the healthy main axis, roots are not developed early. For valuable suggestions and criticisms the author is deeply indebted to Dr. V. Puri, who has been the source of encouragement. BOTANY DEPARTMENT, MEERUT COLLEGE, . M. BANERJI November 1, 1951. i BOF CE-RAE N © 3S i Aeberee\. (1920)2 Water Plants. 12. Glick, H. (1906): Biologische und morphologische Untersuchungen. tiber Wasser—und Sumpfgewachse II Untersuchungen uber die mitteleuropaischen Utricularia—Arten tiber die Turionenbildung bei Wasserpflanzen, sowie uber Cerato- phyllum. Jena 1906. 13. Goebel, K. (1891-1893): Pflanzenbiologische Schilderungen. Marburg, Lief. Ee soie Met. 1,393. 4, Safeeulla, K. M., & Govindu, H. C.. (1949): Occurrence of turions in Elodea canadensis. Curr, Sci. 18 (11), 414-415. 5.-Lakshmanan, C. (1951): A note on the occurrence of turions in Hydrilla verticillata. Journ. Bom. Nai. Hist. Soc. 49 (4) 202-803. 1 As referred to by Arber in ‘Water Plants’, originals being not available to the author. NOTES AND NEWS We regret to announce the death on 24 March at his home in Tunbridge Wells, England, of Mr. W. S. Millard, one of the oldest members of the Society and its Honorary Secretary from 1906-1920. A fuller obituary note will appear in our August number. * * * * At the invitation of the President of the International Committee for Bird Preservation, the Government of India have set up a National Section for Bird Preservation, (vide Gazette Notification No... 22 (3)/51 SRII dated 17th December 1951) to assist the international body in its objective of stimulating active interest for more adequate protection of India’s bird life. Government have directed that the national committee shall function under the aegis of the Bombay Natural History Society and maintain international contacts through the Ministry of Natural Resources and Scientific Research, New Delhi. The constitution of the committee is as follows: 1. Mr. Salim Ali (Chairman) 2. WMine 3H IP Gee, Assam 3. Dr. Satya Charan Law, Calcutta 4. A representative of the Forest Research Institute 5. A representative of the Zoological Survey of India 6. A representative of the Zoological Society of India 7. Mr. C. E. Hewetson, Conservator of Forests, Bastar, Madhya Pradesh 8. Mr. Horace Alexander, Delhi g. Two university professors of zoology, each to be nominated by the National Institute of Sciences of India and the Inter-University Board respectively. It is a matter for gratification that the Society’s services in the cause of bird protection in India have received official recognition in this manner, and it is to be hoped that the national committee, with the co-operation of the international body, will further help in inten- sifying and making more effective our efforts. There is urgent need for action in the case of several bird species and habitats which are threatened with extinction or with unwise over-exploitation to the detriment of their native bird faunas. The Indian National Committee expects to hold its first meeting shortly when plans for priorities and action will be discussed. Re- ports will be published in the Journal from time to time. * * * Negotiations with the Central Ministry of Finance (Revenue Division) have resulted in Government’s approving of the Society for purposes a, vg NOTES AND NEWS 685° ‘of Section 15-B of the Indian Income-tax Act 1922. This in essence means that donations to the Society of amounts not less than Rs, 250: will be exempted from income-tax subject to the aggregate of any such sum not exceeding 1/20th in the case of a company and 1/1oth ieaidy Other case Of the assessee’s total imeome, “er Rs. 2,50,000 whichever is less. The Executive Committee hopes that well wishers of the Society will find in this concession just the opportunity they have been waiting for to make substantial donations 10 the Societv’s funds and assist thereby not only in furthering its current activities. but also in building up an adequate reserve for the future. BRERA ee THE HILSA FISHERY OF THE CHILKA LAKE [Published in Vol. 50(2)~-December 1951] Page Line ‘266 6 268 “Grapholiee:. 269 Graphilt... 2/9 Baral ast sentence, ‘PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. 18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MANDRAS—20-5-1952. EDITORS: SALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA AND H. SANTAPAU Read Tua side Graph II. Showing trend (i.e. continuous rise or fall) of flood levels in the Kathjuri (branch of the Mahanadi), over the crest level of the Naraj Anicut in the years 1948 and 1949. Showing rainfall over the Chilka region in the years 1948 and 1949 (Average of Gopalpur, Khurda and Puri). The success. of this measure in a rather out of the way place is not an easy task, but the experiment may be worth trying and its long range effect worth studying. For Tuaside Graph II. Showing rainfall over the Chilka region in the years 1948 and 1949. (Average of Gopal- pur,- Khurda-- and Puri.) Graph III. Showing trend — - (7.6.7 cone tinuous rise or fall) of flood ievels in the Kathjuri (branch of the Mahanadi), over the crest level of the Naraj Anicut in the years 1948 and 1949. The success of this measure, in a rather out of trying and its long range effect worth studying.’ M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS C5421 114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by observing the following instructions : 1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica- tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be submitted. 2. The MS should preferably be typed (double spacing) on one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered. All scientific names, to be printed in italics, should be under- lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and sub-specific names always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsont or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis or Dimeria blattert. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification is based merely on sight, binomials should be used. 5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 34 x 24 inches (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper. 6. ‘Text figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board. 7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics), and titles of books not underlined (roman type), thus ; Roepke, W. (1949); The Genus Nyctemera Hubner. Trans. ent. Soc. Lond., 100 (2); 47-70. Prater, S. H. (1948); The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay. Titles of papers should not be underlined. 8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Roepke, 1949). g- Synopsis: As recommended by the Royal Society Scientific In- formation Conference (July 1948), the editors consider it desirable that each scientific paper be accompanied by a synopsis appearing at the beginning, immediately after the title. ‘The synopsis should be factual. It should convey briefly the content cf the paper; draw attention to all new information and to the author’s main conclusions. It should also indicate newly observed facts, the method and conclusions of an experiment, and if possible the essential points of any new finding, theory or technique. It should be concise and normally nct exceed 200 Words. When the synopsis is complete it should be carefully revised by the author to clarify obscurities, and further compressed wherever possible without detracting from its usefulness. 114 Apollo Street, Fort, EDITORS, Bombay 1. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. ot 3 . «+ Pe THE beni sis pene “ anew Book of fadisn' Li white plates. a i ke Birds of India, by Bae. Stuart Baker. Vol. IL Book of tedian Birds, by Sélim: Ali, with ae Nae ach edition, ae? and enlarged. | ea ‘a be Was ee ‘a Set of: 12 ‘Coloured Picture Postcards of Commo 1 (Tat ‘Fish. iat -Circumventing the Mahseer and Other S _ Burma, ee rots Sg i Macdonald, aoe colour < "Snakes, Identification of Poisonous Snakes— . F olding Chart. “S 8 , 2 Obtainable from: | cds ; one dipnok at een London Agents: : Messrs. Wheldon : & Wesley Lea., ye, Life bers pay an entrance { at £ \ ponent AS. SOON s) S se Oa me Ordinary Members pay an ‘entrance fee of ihe 2 25, cand tion of Rs. 30. . ; i _ The subscription of micmbers elected in io cadens " : covers ey Beeiod from the date of bet election ie, till ands Me : ap Bid a : ae tee oe their Seaections ye means pe pe ‘on he amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. ; Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this 1 of £2-8-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s Lo: 1d National Bank of India S eborseste Beh lod ame ve 506. 54 JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Vol. 50, No. 4 Editors sALIM ALI, S. B. SETNA, H. SANTAPAU Zeonsonigp NOV 4- ig | LigraRnl 7 SPECIAL 50th ANNIVERSARY ISSUE OF THE JOURNAL AUGUST 1952 | Rs. 20 ~ INDIAN MOLLUSCS ‘james Hornell, F. L. S. 3 R. A. is _ AN attractive booklet of 96 pages (9: in. x 63 in.) with 2 coloured || plates and 70 line drawings inthe | text illustrating and describing a Bl ieee the shells and shellfish found Indian coastal and fresh waters: Price Bs. OW. a (Rs. 4-8 to Members) _ - BREEDING BIRDS OF KASH MIR 2 ~ , . < a ae Ye A - je = . . R Scar: Bates & & H. N. Lowther _ IIlustrated with 51 photographs — by the authors and 5 coloured : plates by D. V. Coheed Price Rs. 25/- net__ ro te Apply to : ghee apie 91 Bombay | “hattrat History. Sodiety | 414 Apollo ‘Street, Bombay 1 CONTENTS OF VOLUME 50, No. 4 FRONTISPIECE EDITORIAL ates ips ; oat aoe DEEP-SEA OCEANOGRAPHIC EXPLORATION IN INDIAN WATERS. By -Lieut.-Col. R. B. Seymour Sewell, C.1.E., £¢.D., F.R.S. (With a chart and two plates) : ; TuE CLIMATE OF INDIA. By 8. K. Barerji, 0.B.#., D.Sc., F.N.I., F.R.M.S., F.aAsc. (With five plates, cne text figure and a graph) THE DESERT LOCUST AND ITS CONTROL. By Hem Singh Pruthi, ph.p , sc.p. (Cantab.), F.N.I., F.A.S., and D. R. Bhatia, m.sc. (Hons.), F.#.s.1. (With one coloured and two black-and-white plates) ie FISHERIES RESEARCH IN InpiA. PartI. By N. Kesava Panikkar. (With eight plates) BA oe a. Lz THe HISTORY OF INDIAN MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLCGY. Part I. Mammats. By Sir Norman Kinnear, c.B. (With three plates) THe HistoRyY OF BIRD-PHOTOGRAPHY IN INDIA. By R.S.P. Bates and E. H.N. Lowther. (Wzith seven plates) te tee PHOTOGRAPHING BIRDS WITH THE HIGHSPEED FLASH. By W. T. Loke. (With five plates) ae oe as es ie THE Genus POA LINN. IN INDIA. FPartI. By N. L. Bor. (With three plates and thirteen text figures) es au asé THE FLIGHT OF EaGLes. By C. H. Donald. (With three plates) A History OF SHIKAR IN INDIA. By Lieut.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1a. (Retd.). (With four plates) — af Ss . Notes oN THE GENUS SALICORNIA Linn. (CBENOFOTIACEAE), By Charles McCann, F.L.s. (With two plates) Mosouiro WORK IN INDIA. By Sir Gordon Covell, M.D., D.P.H. FUNCTIONAL DIVERGENCE, STRUCTURAL CONVERGENCE AND PRE-ADAP- TATION EXHIBITED BY THE FISHES OF THE CVYFRINOID FAMILY PSILORHYNCHIDAE Hora. By Sunder Lal Hora, p.sc., F.R.S.E,, C.M.Z.S., M.I, BIOL.,* F.Z.S.1., F.AeS., F.N.I. (With two text figures) BUTTERFLY COLLECTING IN INDIA. By M., A, Wynter-Blyth, F.R.E.S, (With a coloured plate) ‘ cg = a New Finps oF Inpran Cucurpirackar. By H. L, Chakravarthy, shes (Edin.), F.L.S. (With five plates anda text f igure) Bs VANISHING AND EXTINcT Birp § ; Revise trdizek sidien esac Inpria. By S. Dillon Ripley. THE HISTORY OF HERPETOLOGY IN INDIA. _ By Malcolm.A, Smith, M.R.c.§ L.R.C.p, (London) , ‘S., OBITUARIES :— W.S. Millard. (Plate). By Norman'B. Kinnear E.H.N. Lowther. (Plate), By R.S.P.B. » PAGE 691 705 718 910: 913 ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 50, No. 4 PAGE REVIEWS :— 1. MyIndia. By Jim Corbett. (R.W.B.) aoe . act ae Oe 2. ‘The Pheasants of the World. By Jean Delacour.~- (S.A.) scar MOLT 3. Pharmacognosy of Ayurvedic Drugs of ‘Travancore-Cochin. Series 1. (Published by the Central Research Institute, Trivan- drum, 1951). (H. Santapau, S.J.) = 920 4. Head and Thorax of Stensbracon deesae. Ey S. Mashhood Alam. PartI. (S. Mahdihassan) von wae » SOT 5. The Butterfly Fauna of Ceylon. By L.G.O. Woodhouse. 2nd (Abridged) Ed. (M. J. Hackney) é SM ce | 6. The Story of Animal Life. By Maurice Burton, p.sc. (D.E.R.) .... 923 ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY SINCE JANUARY 1952... FOS MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— 1. Some Tiger incidents. By H. R. D. Robey (p. 927). 2. Post-script on ‘ Rabies in Tiger’. By C. Brooke Worth (p. 929). 3. A record of the Cheetah (Acinonyx 7ubatus Erxleben) in Chitoor Dist., Madras State. By K. M. Kirkpatrick (p. 931). 4. The ‘Dipping’ habit of the Tapir (Zapirus indicus Cuv.). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 932). 5. An Elephant’s stride. By R. C. Morris (p. 933). 6. Measurements of an Indian Bison head (260s gaurus). By H.G. Hundley (p, 933). 7. The record spread of Gaur horns (Bibos gaurus). (With a photo). By B. Subbiah Pillay (p. 935). 8. Cattle diseases and Wild Life. By R. C. Morris (p. 936). 9. A ‘Red’ Porcupine. By Harold Colam (p. 937). 10. The Diary and Sporting Journal of W. P. Okeden, 1821-1841. By R. W. Burton (p. 938). 11. Strange behaviour of a House- crow (Corvus splendens). By Dinsha J. Panday (p. 939). 12. The mating habits of the House-crow (Corvus splendens) and Pied Myna (Sturnus contra). By (Mrs.) Jamal Ara (p. 940). 13. Possible association between ~ the Large Yellownap2d Woodpecker (Picus flavinucha) and the Large Racket-tailed Drongo (Dissemurus paradiseus). By R.S.P. Bates (p. 941). 14. A Canary’s curious reaction to yellow. By Editors (p. 942). 15. Koels ( Zudynamis scolopaceus) eating the poisonous fruit of the Yellow Oleander. By M. Krishnan (p. 943). 16. Does the adult Cuckoo ever assist in feeding its offspring ? By D. G. Lowndes (p. 945). 17. Occurrence of the Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus Linnaeus) in Kaira Dist., Gujarat. By Hers- | chel C. Aldrich, M.D. (p. 945). 18. Reappearance of the Little Indian Red Turtle-dove (Streptopelia tranquebarica tranguebarica Hermann) in Ceylon. By W. W. A. Phillips (p. 946). 19. Occurrence of the Avocet (/ecurvirostra avosetta Linn.) in Assam. By (Mrs.) D. Sendall (p. £47). 20. The White- tailed Lapwing (Chettusia leucura) near Bombay. By Humayun Abdulali. (p. 947). 21. Occurrence of the Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus Scop.) in Nellore Dist., Madras. By K. M. Kirkpatrick (p. 947). 22. Birds attacking their reflections. By (Mrs.) Margaret Rivers (p. 948). 53. Bird migration in India. By Editors (p. 949). 24. Large stone in stomach of Crocodile. By K.S. Dharmakumarsinhji (p. 950). 25. Locali- zation of the striped variety of the Roughtailed Earthsnake—Uvopeltis macrolepis (Peters)—to Mahableshwar, .By V. K. Chari (p. 950). 26. Apose- matic Butterflies protected by the poisonous qualities of their larval food- plants. By D. G. Sevastopulo (po. 951). 27. Notes on the Lepidoptera of Assam—I. By ‘Il. Norman (p. 952). 28. Mature larva of Pales townsendi Baranoff (Diptera: Tachinidae). (With a plate). By R. N. Mathur (p. 953). 99, Probable odour trails in Termites (Isoptera). By H.S. Vishnoi (p. 955). 30. On the occurrence of the freshwater Medusa in the Krishnarajasag ar on the Cauvery. By D.R. Krishnamurthy (p. 955). 31. Notes on the genus Ludwigia Linn. By Charles McCann (p. 956). 32. Longevity of Succulents in herbaria. By C. McCann (p. 958). 323. Wild life preservation. By R. W. Burton (p. 959). Nores AND NEWS... one Sc eee Sas «sr 962 NoricE TO CONTRIBUTORS oe ee iz Inside back cover. es by ee: . 5 7 E IVT pvscvs Vuk Apo ae IULOAYIOIY HOHId SILNOY “00S “LSI ‘IVN AVANOG ‘NuAOf JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1952 VoL. 50 No. 4 EDITORIAL The Society’s Journal which has maintained uninterrupted publica- tion for the last 66 years completes its fiftieth volume with the present issue. This surely is an occasion for justifiable pride. From small beginnings—four parts of Vol. I published in 1886 contained only 234 pages —it has grown to imposing proportions, the average number of pages in the last 10 volumes being 774. For a natural history publication conducted by a private society purely out of revenues derived from its membership subscriptions, with practically no financial aid from Government or extraneous sources, this is indeed a praiseworthy achievement. Add to this the general lack of interest in natural history in India that had to be contended with tor keeping up the Society’s membership strength, also the fact that contributions for publication were gratis and voluntary and there- fore not always to be depended on—and the achievement becomes doubly creditable. The contributions to the Journal at first consisted largely of sporting and popular articles written mostly by members of the Society who were generally observant sportsmen and field naturalists—‘amateurs’ it is true, but in the best sense of the term. The scope of these con- tributions has steadily expanded, and serious scientific papers by acknowledged experts have now become a regular feature of its pages. Finally, the fact that throughout the years the editors of the Journal have all been entirely honovary—business or professional men with plenty of enthusiasm but limited time at their disposal—is not the least notable feature of this remarkable achievement.. The membership of the Society does not consist of scientific men alone, nor does it consist of sportsmen pure and simple, nor altogether of persons who look upon natural history merely as an amusing pastime. It is a conglomerate of all these types. And this is not all, for while readers of the Journal include some who are mainly interested in large game animals, the interest of others centres chiefly on plants or snakes or butterflies or birds. Every branch of the study of animal or plant life, moreover, has its devotees among them. Some are interested in problems of evolution or systematics and taxonomy, others in field study and ecology, others in morphology 692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 30 and laboratory experiments, others in economics and _ applied biology or some other line of study, and yet others in shooting, fishing or nature photography. The effort to cater for all these polyglot tastes makes the task of editing the Journal one of absorbing interest, but by no means easy. The problem always is to maintain the golden mean, and the difficulties involved in the effort are such as the casual reader can have but a vague conception of. Since the journal does not pay for contributions, it is seldom in a position to pick and choose material to any large extent; nor is it always possible to publish articles strictly in rotation as they are received. Such delay some- times causes dissatisfaction among contributors, and in some cases, where, for instance a new species is described, deferred publication may ‘even constitute a genuine grievance. It may happen that one particular issue contains a preponderance of articles on birds, or plants or fish or what have you; or it may contain more articles on s¥stematics or morphology—‘dry-as-dust’ as they are commonly dubbed—than perhaps the average reader or field student cares to be inflicted with. A howl goes up immediately. One member com- plains that the Journal is getting much too ‘high brow’ for a simple ~ nature lover like him and therefore writes in to ‘Please accept his resignation from the Society’! Another member complains of a follow- ing issue that the Journal has descended to the level of a story-telling magazine and is no longer a truly scientific. publication, therefore he feels constrained to dissociate his good name from it! And so it goes. One finds in the journal too much of fish and too little of birds; another too much morphology and too little natural history ; and the charges of similar excesses and deficiencies levelled at the editors are “without end. Our sins of omission and commission are indeed bewildering! But they are not new, and that the Journal has survived them during the last 60 years, and even grown from strength to strength to enjoy the high esteem of scientific workers throughout the world would seem abounding proof that it has, on the whole, been conducted along the right lines. This is, of course, not the same thing as saying there is no room for improvement; the editors are the foremost to realize this. There are indeed certain directions in which the scope and desirability for improvement are quite obvious. For instance, we could easily do with more coloured plates for the general reader and nature lover, and also with more original and snappy articles on shikar, scientific expeditions and the out-of-doors generally. There is no doubt that these would help substantially in widening the appeal of the Journal and help to develop greater general interest in nature. But within the limits imposed by hard facts, it is almost as much as we can do at present to keep going. Although it is gratifying to find that among the eight original founders of the Society two were Indians, the lion’s share of the credit for what it has achieved must nevertheless, go where it belongs. It was really British members of the business community and services who, through their keenness on sport and natural history, enabled the Journal to be born and to survive and flourish. Scanning the earlier volumes for.names, one finds that the first Indian contributor to the Journal was Surgeon-Major K. R. Kirtikar, I.M.S., whose studies on ‘The Poisonous Plants of Bombay’ published EDITORIAL 69S serially in 20 parts, led the way to his well known ‘Indian Medicinal Plants’, written jointly with B. D. Basu. Revised by the late Fr. Wank) }Caius,.3S.j., one of the) later editors of the Society's! journal, and published in four volumes, this is still a standard work of re- ference. The number of Indian contributors has risen from five in the first 15 volumes to well over 120 in the last 15. They have now largely taken the place of British in plants, insects and fishes, on all of which subjects there is a steady inflow of papers for publication, many of them of a high scientific standard. Contributions on other branches of animal life and, particularly, articles on shikar and general natural history are not of equal volume. Fortunately, we still have in our midst a number of British sportsmen and field naturalists upon whom the editors can always rely when material in lighter vein and free from scientific technicalities is needed to vary the ponderous diet of ‘dry-as-dust’ specialized fare. Although our countrymen may number many mighty slayers of tiger and other big game, equalling and even surpassing British sportsmen of the past, so far there are scarcely any known to us who, through love of the jungles and inti- mate study of the ways and habits of wild animals, can wield gun and pen with the dexterity of such sportsmen-writers of’ the past as J. D. Inverarity or Reginald Gilbert. A passage from the Introduction to the very first issue of the Journal (Vol. I, No. 1, January 1886) seems worth quoting, since what was true then is perhaps even truer to-day: ‘In accordance with the character which this Society has assumed from the begin- ning, the aim of its journal will be, as far as possible, to interest all students of nature, ever remembering that there are many naturalists, in the highest sense of the term, who have not such a technical know- ledge of any particular branch of science as to be able to enter with interest into questions of nomenclature and the discrimination of closely allied species. The Secretaries of the Sections would there- fore invite sportsmen and others to communicate anything interesting or worthy of note, which comes under their observation, beariig on the nature and habits of animals and plants.’ Papers on birds have in the past consisted largely of regional lists, but the recent happy trend of laying greater emphasis on physiography, habitat and ecology, and detailed field notes on individual species, has helped to impart more life to the pages of the Journal and added to their usefulness for students. The increasing use of Champion’s, ‘Forest Types of India and Burma’, constantly advocated by the editors for fixation and description of biotopes, has tended in some measure, to minimize diffuseness in the terminology employed by workers in different branches of animal and plant life. Champion’s system was primarily devised for foresters, but experience shows that there is real scope for simplifying and perfecting it for the general use of field naturalists possessing but little technical knowledge. Since scientists have to depend so largely for their data upon objective field observations of the so-called amateurs, the importance of a standard designation of habitats will be readily appreciated. 694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST. SOCIHIY WV ol. 50 Departments in which the Journal is to-day poorer than in the past—besides sport and field natural history—are perhaps Herpetology (in which we led during the era of Col. Frank Wall, 1.M.s.) and Mammals, of which, except for some of the larger and more specta- cular game animals—our knowledge of their habits and life histories remains lamentably deficient and static. While on the subject of contributions and contributors it seems pertinent also to refer to the past editors of the Journal who laboured so devotedly for its growth and development, and won for .it the important place it now occupies among scientific journals of the world. All honour and praise to those men for the traditions they have built up. They have set high standards, and though it may be difficult to maintain them, these will ever ‘serve as an inspiration to their successors and an ideal towards which to strive. The trail has been clearly blazed for us, and if the same type of co-operation as our predecessors enjoyed from members and contributors is forth- coming now, we are confident that our task of maintaining the level of achievement will be considerably lightened. THE Epirors’ WHo’s WHEN A scrutiny of the Journal for the names associated with the editing of the 50 volumes, from its inception in 1886 to the present day, reveals as follows: Vols. I-II (1886-7): R. A. Sterndale & BE. H. Aitken. », LU-X1(1888-97): HM. Phipson. 5» AII-XVI (1898-1904): H. M. Phipson & W.S. Millard. » XVII (1907): W. 5. Millard, BE. H. Comber -&, UC ore Young. 5, AVITI-XXVI (1907-1918): W. S. Millard, R. A. Spence & N. B. Kinnear. » AXVII-XXIX (1920-23): R.A. Spence, B.C. Hilson te . bieaerater: » XXX (1924):°R. A.-Spence, P. MoD) Sandersomicyo.ebe Prater. 5» AX (1926): RiWAS Spence; cS. i. Prater. »» XAXIT (1927-8) 2 RoAsrSpence, P. M: DeSanderson; Ss: "ke Prater & Salim Ali. 9» ~XXXIEL (1928-9): RAS Spence; S: Hy Prater ic 3Saliae Ali. o «609 XAXXIV-KXXXV_ (1930-32): R. A. Spence & S. H.* Prater 9 RAXVI-FXXXVITL © (1932-34) > .R. AS Spence; Es Mee Sanderson, S. H. Prater & C. McCann. » S&XXVITI-XL (1935-39): P. M.-D. Sanderson, S. H. Prater; C. McCann, H. M. McGusty & J. F. Caius. » XLI-XLITI (1939-43): H. M. McGusty, J. F. Caius & 5.11. Prater: » XLIV (1943-44): J..F. Caius, 5. H. Prater & C. McCann, », 40-47 (3) (1944-48): S. H. Prater, C. McCann & Sdélim Ali. » 4&7 (4)-48 (2) (1948-49): Salim Ali & S. B. Setna. » 8 (3)-50 (1949-52): Salim Ali, S. B. Setna & H. Santapau. EDITORIAL 695: Happily, as will be seen, we have never had to suffer a clean break in the chain of editors, so that there have always been one or more in a new combination sufficiently familiar with the conduct of the Journal to permit of smooth continuity. This circumstance has helped appreciably in the maintenance of its general policy and traditions. hurekprrors: Wio:s WHo iw Bdward Hamilton. “Atk en, better known ‘as EHA, hardly requires introducing. As author of several books which have become almost classics, he enjoys a wide reputation as a naturalist. ‘Behind the Bungalow’, ‘Tribes on my Frontier’, ‘A Naturalist on the Prowl’ and ‘Common Birds of Bombay’ are amongst his most popular writings. Indeed EHA is claimed by some to be India’s greatest naturalist-writer, and a perusal of his books shows that this is by no means an exaggerated view. He was an exceptionally keen observer of nature, interested in everything that lived and breathed and posses- sed the gift of humorous and imaginative, yet scrupulously accurate, description such as has seldom been surpassed or equalled. When EHA resigned his editorship of the Journal in 1887, presumably because of transfer from Bombay, his place was taken by H. M.. Phipson who had in the meantime returned from leave in England. A very good biographical sketch of EHA by W. T. Loke is given in the 3rd ed. of ‘The Common Birds of Bombay’ reprinted in 1947 by Thacker & Co. Ltd., Bombay, under the altered title of ‘The Com- mon Birds of India’. Sir Norman Kinnear relates that in an obituary notice that appeared on his death in 1909 in a local newspaper of his provincial home town in Scotland, EHA was described as an expert on Indian birds, Bungalow Economy and the Frontier Tribes! How EHA him- self would have enjoved this description can be imagined by any one familiar with the spirit of his writings. 2. Fr feanm Ferdinand Caius, 5S2j., a° distinguished bio- chemist, was Professor of Chemistry in St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, from 1922, and founder and first director of the Pharmacological Laboratory at the Haffkine Institute (Government of Bombay) from 1924-1932. He became Honorary Secretary of the Society in 1941 and served as Chairman of the Sub-Committee of Trustees of the Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum, and as one of the editors of the Journal till his death in 1944. He was an indefatigable worker and among his more outstanding scientific achievements were the intensive investigations he carried out at the Haffkine Institute on the therapeutic value of various remedies employed against diseases caused by hookworm and roundworm, so prevalent in India. His work has been recognised as the most exhaustive and complete treatise en the subject and is widely quoted in most text books on pharma- cology. Another contribution by Fr. Caius was his extensive studies of the poison apparatus of snakes and of the remedies employed against snake poisons, particularly those alleged to be efficacious in the Ayurvedic and Yunani systems of medicine. His experiments. proved that all of such cures, even those most widely reputed, were completely ineffective against cobra and viper venom. 69G JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 50 He contributed a valuable series of articles to the Journal on the Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of India, and completed the revision started by the late Fr. Blatter, of Kirtikar and Basu’s ‘Medicinal Plants. of India’. | Fr. Caius died in Bombay in July 1944. . ow SS i se j R.LMGS. “ INVESTIGATOR 1° H.E.M.S. ‘ MABAHISS ’” Arriving back at Alexandria, May 25, 1934 OCEANOGRAPHIC EXPLORATION. EN INDIAN’ WATERS 709 1897’ published by Alcock in the series of ‘Scientific Memoirs by Medical Officers of the Army of India’ in 1898. . TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF TRAWLS OF DIFFERENT KINDS MADE DURING EACH 5-YEAR PERIOD BETWEEN 1885 AND 1925 Year Agassiz trawls Mid-water Deep Shallow trawls 1885-1889 va 235 Zi 43 1890-1894 ae on se 5) 1895-1899 He sh 55 Vi 1900-1904 es Ss IAS 13 1905-1909 a a 30 4 sed 1910-1914 bid ans 10 25 4 1921-1925 As she 5 1 ) I give below a list of the numbers of the various species and genera that were obtained during this period from depths below too fathoms. = New species Previously Number of and varieties known species genera Protozoa sue a 8 a3 eee Porifera aan het 26 5 11 Madreporaria ... as 17 8 14 Cnidaria — ., oe Asteroidea... ies 39 15 26 Ophiuroidea ... ee 38 17 ae: - Hchinoidea ... ~ sithe 6 Z 6 Holothuroidea a 6 ali ave Crustacea : Cirripedia 2 2 Amphipoda bie 3 ee 3 tsopoda = ©... ee aa 2 Z Stomatopoda 2 - 1 Schizopoda ... 2 8 5 Macrura o4 43 645 Anomura ... 5 5 6 Brachy ura: Cancroidea . 5 nS Ocypodoidea 2 g Oxystoma 13 re 9 Oxyrrhyncha 10 4 8 Pycnogonida ... 2 ] Mollusca : Lamellibranchiata On 8 23 _ Gastropoda ,,, oi 7 2+ Scaphopoda ae 5 1 1 Cephalopoda sie 6 4 8 Pisces : Chondroptery gii ian 5 1 5 Acanthoptery gii ae 23 15 30 Anacanthini Po 48 8 24. Physostomi... kes 41 16 39 Plectognathi er 1 ai r= ey) (ep) Grand Total... ASGE EAA, A132 710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST VSOCIE IY. V ol.cae In spite of the enormous advances that had already been made by the ‘Challenger’, no less than 71 out of every hundred species or varieties recorded from Indian waters proved to be new. These zoological results. were embodied in a magnificent series of ‘Investi- gator’ Memoirs, that were published by the Trustees of the Indian Museum, namely :— Echinoderma, pts. 1-8 oe -.. 1889-1914 Squillidae one ae are 1895 Brachyura we aan ae 1899 Fishes a nies ee 1899 Decapoda, Macrura and Anomala ee I9QOI Crustacea, pts. 1-3 aAe «se. 1901-1906 Hexactinellid Sponges ee wes 1902 Accompanying these Memoirs a series of plates was published by the Royal Indian Marine under the title of ‘Illustrations of the Zoology of the Royal Indian Marine Surveying Steamer ‘‘Investigator’’ bet- ween 1892 and 1909’. In addition to the faunistic work of the Surgeon-Naturalist, other observations were made.on the temperature of the sea-water at both the surface and near the bottom and a number of samples of the bottom deposits were taken and reports dealing with ‘The Mean Temperature of the Deep Waters of the Bay of Bengal’ and the ‘Topography of the Arabian Sea in the Neighbourhood of the Laccadive Islands’ were published in the Journal’ of the Asiatic Society of Bengal by two of the officers commanding the Marine Survey, namely Captain A. Carpenter in Vol. LVI in 1887, -and Captain Oldham in Vol. LXIV in 1895. But the observations on the bottom deposits were not published till many years later, when I was able to collate them and get them published. By the beginning of this century the zoological work of the Marine Survey of India had aitracted world-wide attention, and the great importance of these contributions to our knowledge of marine life had earned for the ‘Investigator’ the honcur of having her name carved on the facade of the new Institute of Oceanography in Monaco that was erected by H. R. H. Prince Albert I. I am greatly indebted to Captain Rouch for having this photograph specially taken for me. Other well-known ships similarly honoured were the ‘Challenger’, “Travailleur’, ‘Talisman’, ‘Gazelle’, ‘Novara’, etc. These investiga- tions had also built up for succeeding Surgeon-Naturalists such a high reputation that in 1913, although I was but a junior officer of the Indian Medical Service and had held the appointment for only two-and-a-half years, I was appointed a Vice-President of Section V, Oceanography, at the meeting of the International Congress of Zoology that was held at Monaco that year. From 1904 on, the number of trawls that were carried out shows a somewhat rapid decline. The amount of deep-sea work that the Surgeon-Naturalist could get done depended on the situation of the survey ground, and as the whole of the survey season was now spent, as a rule, in one particular region the only time that the ship was in deep water was during her passage to and from her home port of Bombay at the commencement and conclusion of the season’s work: OCEANOGRAPHIC EXPLORATION IN INDIAN WATERS fells thus the time that could be devoted to trawling became less and less. Another very important factor was the interest, or lack of it, shown by the Officer Commanding. By this time the novelty had worn off and so one had to use to the utmost one’s powers of persuasion, and if this failed other steps had to be taken. There is a story of one of my predecessors that illustrates this: the Surgeon-Naturalist naturally wanted to get ag many trawls carried out as he could, but the O.C. wasn’t interested: however, he hated to see any of his officers with no work to do, so the Surgeon-Naturalist devised a scheme which consisted of getting a comfortable deck-chair, which he placed on deck where he could be seen from the bridge, and settled himself there with a bottle of beer and the latest novel from the ship’s library. Every time that the O.C. looked forward over the bridge-rail he couldn’t help seeing this officer, and eventually this got too much for his feelings and he called down ‘Got no work to do?’ ‘No, Sir; I am afraid not,’ replied the Surgeon-Naturalist. ‘Ha! Can’t have this, we’ll have a trawl’ !! In 1908 the old ‘Investigator I’ was scrapped and ‘Investigator [1’ took her place. Thie new vessel was a steel ship built by Vickers Maxim and Co., of a gross tonnage of 1,018 tons and capable of steaming at about 14 knots. Owing to the decline in the amount of deep-sea work the Surgeon-Naturalist was able to commence work in other branches of oceanographic research and so when I was. appointed in 1910 I took up the study of the Copepoda which formy an unportant constituent of the floating population of the sea, termed the Plankton, and of the conditions of salinity and temperature of the sea-water in which these animals live. I aiso collated all the previous observations that had been made on the topography and nature of the sea-floor. The results thus obtained have been published in the Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. IX, between the years 1925-35. While on the ‘survey-ground the ‘Investigator’ anchored each night in the week, and from mid-day Saturday to Monday morning in some more or less sheltered locality. In order to obtain samples of the surface plankton one or more tow-nets were put out at 6.00 p.m. and the tide was allowed to drift through them till 6.00 a.m., when they were hauled in and the catch was taken down to the laboratory for examination and preservation. Samples of the surface-water and a record of its temperature were taken, usually at four-hourly intervals throughout the day at 4, 8 and 12 a.m. and p.m.: certain meteoro- logical observations, such as the air-temperature readings by both wet- and dry-bulb thermometers, the barometric pressure and the strength and direction of the wind were also made. The water samples were examined as soon as possible after they had been collected. All this, involving both day and night work was, as must be obvious, considerably more than one individual could accomplish; but I was greatly assisted by the ship’s staff, both officers and men, and to them I owe a deep debt of gratitude. There were occasions when some fluid other than sea-water was substituted for the sample that had been taken during the night, but examination at once revealed the substitution, and on a protest being made the true sample was usually 712 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 250 forthcoming. When all these observations were correlated and com- pared with the total quantity of the plankton or with the number of any particular organism, such as the common Salp, Salpa (Thalia) democratica (Forskal), some very interesting results were obtained. It was found that the salinity of the surface water exhibited a double diurnal variation that at one period of the year coincided and at another alternated with the rise and fall of barometric pressure. -The conclusion to be drawn seems to be that with the change of barometric pressure there is a corresponding change in the strength of the wind, and that an increase in the wind-force brings about a corresponding increase in the lateral movement of the surface water that is com- pensated for by an upwelling of water from some depth below the surface, this deeper water having a lower salinity than the surface water during the hot dry period of the year in consequence of evapora- tion and a higher salinity during the wet, cold period owing to the dilution of the surface water by rainfall and the increased influx of river water into the neighbouring area. The salinity of the surface water also showed oscillations of a longer period, from a few days to as long as a fortnight, in different localities, and these oscillations appear to correspond, as regards their period, to the estimated time of a ‘seiche’, i.e., to a to-and-fro swing of the deep water in the basin in which the locality is situated, as for instance in the Andaman Sea. During the monsoon periods the wind, blowing in a particular direction, causes a piling up of the surface water on one side of the basin and a corresponding depression of the level of the deep water, and when the wind ceases the two strata of water, upper and lower, begin to re-adjust themselves so that the boundary in between shall once again be horizontal. In this process the level of the deep water swings up and down on the two sides of the basin, rising at periodic intervals nearer to the surface where admixture with the surface layer can be brought about by wave action: accompanying this periodic rise and fall in the salinity there may occur a marked rise and fall in the number of some of the planktonic organisms in the surface water. After a year’s experience of purely surface work I was desirous of extending these observations to the mid-water regions. I therefore requested the authorities of the Royal Indian Marine to sanction the construction in the dockyard of nets suitable for mid-water trawling. At first my request met with some degree of opposition and I was asked what put this new idea into my head, and why I should suppose that the Marine Survey should undertake it; but when I pointed out that it was no new idea, since observations of this type had been earried out by the ‘Challenger’, and that it did not exactly reflect credit on the Marine Survey that they had for so many years entirely neglected this important branch of oceanographic research, consent was given and a 6-foot square mid-water trawl was _ constructed. Four hauls of this net, taken in the survey-season r911-12 at depths of from 375 to 475 fathoms yielded some very interesting catches and very greatly increased the number of Copepoda that were known to inhabit Indian waters. 3 | The outbreak of the First World War in 1914, brought the work of the Marine Survey to an end for the time being, and it was not Ss OCEANOGRAPHIC EXPLORATION IN INDIAN WATERS 713 dill 1921 that I was able to resume my marine investigations. During the next four years the ‘Investigator’ was engaged in surveying in the Maldive ‘Archipelago and in the central group of the Nicobar Islands, regions in which there is a profuse growth of coral, and I was thus able to study the probable mode of formation and the present conditions existing in such localities; but there was _ little opportunity for continuing deep-sea work. On my relinquishing the appointment of Surgeon-Naturalist, in 1925 Major R. W. G. Hingston was appointed; but he only held the post for one year after which he resigned from the Indian Medical Service, and the post again became vacant. The Director-Generai of the Indian Medical Service notified the Government of India that there was no officer serving under him who appeared to have the necessary qualifications, and he recommended that the post should be abolished. In my capacity of Director of the Zoological Survey of India I strongly opposed this and urged the Government of India not to abolish the post altogether but to change its character and substi- tute for the Surgeon-Naturalist the post of Naturalist to the Marine Survey and attach it to the Zoological Survey of India. This the Government of India agreed to do, but although this post continues to exist in theory, in practice no appointment has ever been made. Thus in 1926 the work of the Surgeon-Naturalist came to an end. The scope and the methods employed in the study of oceanography have rapidly expanded during the last half century. . New discoveries ‘in other sciences (and especially in physics) have been adapted for oceanographic work and have resulted in a very considerable advance in our knowledge of the oceans: one of the first of such inventions was the development of ‘Asdic’ during the 1914-18 war. This method made use of an echo for the detection of enemy submarines; but later it was adapted to give the depth of water below a vessel, and a ship fitted with the apparatus was able to take sound- ings at the rate of about 25 to the minute, while steaming on her course whereas previously, by the lead and sounding-wire method, a single deep sounding used to take two hours or more, during which time the ship was stopped and was manoeuvred to keep the wire straight ‘up and down’. While greatly increasing our detailed knowledge of the features of the ocean bottom, this method has one great disadvantage, it does not give one a sample of the bottom deposit. More recently another method for the study of the ocean bed has been borrowed from the science of seismology and by ex- ploding a small charge either on the sea-bed or in the water above it and by getting accurate records of the time taken for the resulting vibrations to pass down into the sea-bed and be reflected back to the recorder on the vessel, an estimate can be made of the depth at which different strata lie below the carpet of bottom sediment and of the thickness of these strata. From time to time research vessels have passed across the southern region of our Indian waters either on their way to or return from other parts of the world. In 1899 the German Deep-Sea Expedition in the ‘Valdivia’ on her return voyage crossed from the northern point of Sumatra to Colombo and on to Dar-es-Salam in Africa and then turned up the African coast to the Gulf of Aden and the Red 714 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol, 50 Sea; in 1928-30 the Danish Carlsberg Expedition in the ‘Dana’ during her world-cruise followed much the same course but on reaching the African coast turned southwards to pass round the Cape of Good Hope. The ‘Dana’ was equipped with echo-sounding apparatus, and during her passage across the southern part of the ‘Arabian Sea obtained evidence of a great submarine mountain range rising from. the bottom of the ocean. The late Prof. Johannes: Schmidt, the Leader of the Expedition, from a study of these and previous sound- ing’s, concluded that a great submarine range extends roughly from the island of Socotra off Cape Guarda-fui to the Chagos Archipelago,. and for this ridge he suggested the name Carlsberg Ridge. In a paper that I submitted to the Asiatic Society of Bengal for publication in April, 1933, I had put forward the view that ‘such soundings as. were then available seemed to indicate that a submarine ridge ran i a south-westerly direction from the Indian coast in the neighbourhood of Karachi towards Socotra and I suggested that this might be a submerged continuation of the Kirthar Range of Sind that had been involved in the formation of the great ‘fault’ that had, at about the close of the Tertiary epoch, given India its present western coast-line- The next stage in the exploration of the northern region of the Indian Ocean came in 1933 when the ‘John Murray’ Expedition to the Indian Ocean was fitted out and sailed from Alexandria in the Egyptian research vessel, H.E.M.S. ‘Mabahiss’. The primary object of this. expedition was to investigate the fauna of the deep warer below 100 fathoms and the nature of its habitat, and the region to be studied was the area to the west of the Laccadive and Maldive Archipelagoes, so as to continue the previous investigations of the ‘Investigator’ westward to the African coast. For the most part these earlier investigations had been confined to the Laccadive Sea, the Bay of. Bengal and the Andaman Sea, though in 1895-96 she had carried out a survey of the Indian coast off Karachi and in the region of the submarine gulley of the ‘Indus Swatch’. She had also worked in rg01-02 in the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, and in 1904-05 along the Arabian coast and in the Gulf of Aden. Evidence of the richness of the fauna in this area was obtained at ‘Investigator’ Station 364 off the south coast of Arabia, in a depth of 110 fathoms, where over 500 examples of a species of ‘Mantis Shrimp’ were taken in the trawl. The story’ is told that the Surgeon-Naturalist, in view of the large number taken, concluded that the species must be a common one, though he couldn’t remember having seen it before. He therefore preserved about 20 specimens and handed the remaining 480 over to’ the Mess cook, who made an excéllent ‘Prawn Curry” out of them, a change from ship-borne mutton that was greatly appreciated. On his return to the Indian Museum at the end of the survey-season, the Surgeon-Naturalist made a careful examination of his 20 specimens and then discovered that these represented a new species, which he christened Squilla investigatoris. It was thought that most of the big zoological museums all the world over would have been willing to give £1 for a co-type of this new species, so that this ‘prawn curry’ was one of the most expensive dishes ever served on board! No further examples of this species were taken till the ‘Mabahiss’ carried out a series of observations in the same: Piate III Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. J e & Mid Indian Ridg fon) “ a YMA: o = 0 Sp 4 es, < : S = oo ald, ica YY, Li Lad : i) 4, G i i CHART OF THE ARABIAN SEA ssion from The Geolog Reproduced with perm ( OCEANOGRAPHIC EXPLORATION IN INDIAN WATERS ety region, but the extraordinary concentration of the species in this locality is shown by as many as 14 examples being taken in one-half a square metre of the sea-floor by a haul of the grab. The topographical results obtained by the ‘Mabahiss’ are shown in the chart. (Plate III.) From this it is seen that the existence of both the above-mentioned submarine mountain ranges was confirmed, and we were fortunate enough to obtain actual specimens of the rocks ot which the Carlsberg Ridge is composed. This ridge near the Fquator in long. 66° 34’ E. is composed of basalt while further to the northwest in lat. 7° 14° N. x long. 60° 38’ E. fragments of a rock resembling consolidated Globigerina ooze were obtained. The presence of basalt is particularly interesting in view of the opinion of most, if not all, geologists that a large area of the Deccan Trap, which covers so much of India, must have been broken off and has. sunk to the bottom of the Arabian Sea. But the chemical composition: and the radio-activity of this submarine basalt is markedly different from that of the Deccan Trap and so cannot be regarded as an out- lying part of it. The general results are particularly interesting for they prove quite clearly that the character of the sea-bed is far more irregular than was previously thought to be the case, and that there is an enormous submarine mountain chain that runs from north to south through the whole of the Indian Ocean and finally connects with the Antarctic continent. Although the work of reporting on the ‘John Murray’ collections. is far from complete, an analysis of those reports that have been published shows that of the fauna of this region out of the 1,642 species so far identified, 240 new species or varieties have been discovered—a proportion of about 14.6 per cent. All along the ‘Arabian south coast and in the Gulf of Oman we encountered a most interesting difference at different depths in the character of the fauna. From the entrance to the Gulf of Aden and stretching eastward is a zone that at its eastern end, near Cape Ras-al-Had, extends downwards from a depth of some 200 m. to about 1,250 m. in which there is little or no life, whereas above and below this zone the fauna is extremely rich both in species and in numbers. Towards the west, in long. 46° to 51° E. living at or near the edgte of the continental shelf in about 200 m. depth there is a large population, consisting of 225 examples of certain lobster- like crustacea, such as Puerulus sewelli Ramadan and Scyllarus orien- talis Spence Bate, and huge numbers of certain echinoids, such as Clypeaster annandalei Koehler, between 4,000 and 5,000 examples of this latter species having been taken in a single haul. A little further east, between long. 48° and 52° E., at about the same depth, we have the haunt of the stomatopod, Squilla investigatoris Lloyd, to which [have already referred;-at the head of the Gulf of Oman, in lat, 25° to N. x long. 56° 47’ E., at 210 m. depth the commonest inhabitant was a species of holothurian, probably a Stichopus, as many as 666: examples being taken in one haul. At the head of the Gulf of Oman, between long. 56° and 57° E., the most frequent ingredient of the fauna at about 200 m. depth is the mollusc Rostellaria delicatula Nevill and the empty shells of this species occur with great frequency in "016 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 50 ‘ the mud of the azoic area at deeper depths. This deposit is of con- siderable interest to geologists because of its close resemblance to a deposit that Blanford discovered at Barrah in Sind. Here he recorded the presence of ‘a bed abounding in a species of Rostellaria, ‘apparently the R. columbaria of D’Archiac and Haine, but a very different form from the true R. columbaria of Lamarck’: the age of this bed appears to be Middle Eocene and further north near ‘Attock similar beds of the same period have been found to be petroliferous, and _ it has been suggested that we have here in the Gulf of Oman and along the Arabian coast an area where petroleum is in process of formation. In the deep water at depths of some 2,000 to 2,500 m. below the level of the azoic area, in about long. 50° E., the most conspicuous ingredient of the fauna are large ophiuroids, especially Ophiura irrvorata (Lyman) and Ophiomusa lymani (Wyville-Thomson), as many ‘as 206 examples of this last species being taken at Station 135, while further east, in long. 59° 50’ E., at a depth of 950 m. thousands of -ophiuroids, belonging to several species, were taken in one haul. Throughout the azoic area the bottom deposit consisted of a greenish mud that in some areas contains a high percentage of sulphuretted hydrogen gas, while the supernatant water is almost entirely devoid of oxygen. These conditions are almost certainly attributable to the putrefaction of organic matter, OF which the mud contains a relatively high percentage—between 4 and 5 per cent in contrast to about 1 to I.5. per cent over most.of the bottom further south. The origin of this high percentage of organic matter in the bottom deposit is to be found in the amazingly rich zoo-plankton that is present, along the African and Arabian coasts and extending eastward towards India, “during the months of the Southwest Monsoon and shortly after. The cause of this rich plankton is to be found in the upwelling of deep water all along the coasts of East Africa and Arabia under the influence of the Southwest Monsoon wind. This upwelling water is rich in nutrient salts, nitrates and phosphates, and thus provides the ‘necessary conditions for a rich outburst of phyto-plankton that is followed by an amazingly rich zoo-plankton; and as the dead bodies of these organisms sink to the bottom and accumulate in the mud, they provide nutriment for large numbers of other animals in the zones above and below the azoic region’ where there is sufficient oxygen to support life. Before closing this summary of the oceanographic work oe has been carried out in the Indian region, mention must be made of the work that has been done in the study of the depth of water and the hydrographical conditions that exist. A number of vessels of the Royal Navy have made observations of great value to students of marine life, and among these I may mention H.M.S. ‘Sealark’ (1906) which carried the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition to the Indian Ocean under the leadership of the late Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner, F.R.s. ‘Other vessels are ‘Penguin’ (1891), ‘Stork’ (1897), ‘Merlin’ (1920), ‘Ormonde’ (1927), ‘Endeavour’ (1933), ‘Challenger’ (1946), ‘Owen’ and ‘Delhi’ (1950). | Many other collections and observations have been made of the fauna of the Indian coastal and shallow water regions. From time ‘to time the Surgeon-Naturalist was able to leave the ‘Investigator’ OCEANOGRAPHIC EXPLORATION IN INDIAN WATERS Felis for a short time, usually a week or so, and camp on the sea-shore in the neighbourhood of the Vide-watching Party; and was thus able to make extensive collections of the littoral fauna. From time to time members of the Zoological Survey of India have visited and collected in various parts of the long Indian coast-line and much has been added to our knowledge by the work of the research vessels employed by the Fishery Departments of Madras, Bengal and Bombay. In addition the officers of the Madras Museum and the Marine Biological Department of Madras University have studied the fauna of Krusadai Island, the officers of the Bombay Natural History Society have carried out a survey of the fishes of the Bombay coast, and other private individuals have made extensive collections. Among these last mention may be made of James Hornell, who carried out a survey of the Okhamandal coast, of A. J. Abercrombie, who collected: intensively round Bombay and, in collaboration with J. C. Melwvill, enumerated 320 species of molluscs. W. F. 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Coico co tN COILS Hoole Looe niogy oS com Ss COiog os = a © NN AD YO MTA SP |79R SO FO a C HO HO wt BO OM FPO AD ~mu ub As 3 mo DO OW Dr AM oe Om on — = ar a 2 ; eee eG) [OO ROU eat ie, 00 Oy ieee NO HRD HO NS OM RD AD ON fq q — DAD DMO DAY CH OY OF OO Ar < S a ri rd i = moO mt OH NN THD OH SOS ON u RO NM Ho Ho Ho wHe HO WH = rey, O~ OO QR OCOnR SCO SOR GR ON = < me re om Gis Ab eee eee a 7 i v = ron COS et OO aE Se ret | Cans = CeO a SH AH OM O©O RA OR OA Reg s Oon~ DAO m— oo HO ON SK To Co WN Of tC co in OO OS On OSD orn Om OM KR On wom oe co 6S okK DO aw ZB oo ¢ om Cn NO AND TWH OF SCOP Sf sR On ODO Hoa Om HR ON BHA ia SS Sn S= OH OH OH COS ON =~ p=) o a, q aA 3 ° do a es E a am 3 = ) i 3 & a wu aS) 3 {0 Le} ay sc) on) is) m @ ro) a - q q KS) ° eg | aa S 6a = i ev < aa) = LUSNO JO SaLVd IWINYON—NOOSNOW LSAMHLNOS AHL oe Coes ene PY Yeuseyy & Lia ——| SNH C* alVv ° a “EFC '‘Kyoor o zo AJ] aLV Ig 909 “st qeny Kequrog “usmnor THE CLIMATE OF INDIA (27 The principal cyclone months in both the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal are May, October and November. They may also occur in April, September and December, and, particularly in the Arabian Sea, in June, on the advancing front of monsoon air. Onan average 1 or 2 © severe cyclones inay be expected to form in the Indian seas in the pre- monsoon period, and 2 or 3 in the post-monsoon period. EASTERN DEPRESSIONS The fluctuations in the intensity of the monsoon itself areto a large extent associated with a series of depressions which mostly originate (or, when they are coming from farther east strengthen) at the head of the Bay of Bengal and travel in a northwesterly direction across the country towards N.W. India, causing heavy rainfall along their track. The frequency of such depressions is 3 or 4 in a month during the monsoon months (June to September). WESTERN DEPRESSIONS During the period November to Maya series of western depressions enter India through Baluchistan and the N.W. Frontier and move eastwards across north India towards N.E. India (Assam-Bengal). These depresSions cause cloudy weather and light rains in the plains with snowfall in the Himalayas and are followed by cold waves. ‘Their frequency is on the avetage, 2 in November, 4 to 5 per month during December to April, and about 2 in May. CHARACTRR (OF -TH RE S::-Wioa. MONSOON :R AINF Adit Figs. 4 and 5 show the normal dates of onset and of withdrawal of this. monsoon in different parts of India. The actual dates of onset as well as the intensity and distribution in time and space of the monsoon precipitation vary from yearto year. It will be noticed that there is a considerable variation not only in the dates of establishment but also in the speed with which the monsoon current moves from the T'ravancore- Cochin area in the south towards Kolaba in the north (near Bombay). As the major agricultural operations have to synchronize with the monsoon rains, the importance of an advance knowledge of dates of establishment of the monsoon in different parts of the country, the spells of rain and breaks in rain which occur during the season, cannot be over-emphasized. For an analysis of floods and droughts, we consider the total rainfall during the period June to September. If the deviation of the actual rainfall in a year is more than about twice the mean deviation, that year is defined as a year of flood or drought according as the departure is positive or negative. The resuits of the analysis from 1875 to 1945 are given in Table III. In this table the ‘@’ sign and‘ O’ sign indicate rainfall in excess and in defect of the normal by an amount more than twice the standard deviation. If we study the distribution of floods and droughts in the various subdivisions in each year, we see that the years 1877, 1899 and 1918 stand cut very prominently as years of generai drought. It will be recalled that these were actually years of great famine and distress. The year 1920 was one of partial drought, only the northwest and 728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 central parts of the country being affected. The years of general flood are 1878, 1892, and 1917. In two instances at least (1877, 1878 and 1917, 1918) droughts and floods occurred in adjacent years, but there is usually no regularity in time in the distribution of droughts and floods. Heavy Rainfall If we examine the frequency ‘of heavy rainfall over India we find that :— (i) Fall exceeding 5 in. in 24 hours have occurred over the whole of India excluding N.E. Baluchistan ard parts of the N.W. frontier. (ii) Falls have not exceeded 10 in. in 24 hours over most of the interior of the Peninsula and in a few districts in the central parts of the country. (iii) Falls of 15 to 20 in. in 24 hours have occurred ali along the west coast including Saurashtra, on the south- Coromandel coast, in south Assam, in Bengal, and the foot of the Himalayas. (iv) A few isolated falls of 20 in. and over have occurred in the plains. (v) The greatest fall of over 40 in. in 24 hours has occurred at Cherrapunji in the Khasi Hills. Heavy rainfall is almost invariably associated with the movement inland of storms from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. When heavy rainfall occurs consecutively on a number of days and particularly over the catchment areas of rivers, the magnitude of the ensuing floods may well be imagined. Plate V gives the distribution of the frequency of heavy falls of three inches and above in 24 hours. Increasing forest-cover, checking erosion, delaying flood-peaks, and training the major rivers, etc., are problems which have begun to demand an increasing attention of the State. MICRO-CLIMATE All the foregoing are the large-scale, or macro-climatic, effects of topography, land and sea surfaces. Locally, however, the variation of land-forms creates an infinite variety of smaller climatic differences, called micro-climates. In addition to the micro-climatic effects of various land forms, concave (valley), convex (crest), lakes, swamps, forests, etc., other climatic influences usually of a subordinate nature, are introduced by the presence or absence of vegetation and by human activities. Vegetation introduces marked influence on the hydrologic cycle. Trees intercept falling precipitation and part of it is evaporated before reaching the ground. Evaporation is also increased by the transpiration of plants. Precipitation that reaches the soil will, on the other hand, not readily evaporate, nor will it run off easily, because the soil of forests has a spongy structure that can absorb and store considerable quanti-. ties of water. Inside forests, temperature maxima are lower and minima higher than over open land. The wind speed is sharply reduced at the surface and the relative humidities in the forests are Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soe. TABLE Ll NORTH-WEST NORTH-EAST CHOTA NAGPUR BALUCHISTAN ™! BOMBAY OECCAN | © | 4 ee en) = 4 a me Kol mat eae Eats aes eileney |_ | @| Ree — @; | eerie ONO ae eet el elie) Tee EE oh (oN Lo) Lo TR Be LoD et oD ae AE RT a es 1 el El ae os ake La! ee Pele ea Ae ees fs eal Se ae Pee AO OP AO OiOn 1O1OioiOrolon te eS ae ae eS Ce ee OR Be ee l@; | | C2 ae a ee ee aa al ee ee ee |@'@/e| {4 18 ele! T0010, Tor TOO OOS OOO OT OOO OOO —— ee ae a a a ee ee Ee 2Os ee OL OlOlgiOi ae be Oot O10 | jOlOl at tal) 2 a Ee el ae ey ae je} bo [CER a [ee a (oe ae ee ae 26 | || a 2 a Ca a EE a 2 ee ee Ol tes! ctr ols aueeaaa Saas ak ee —|—}|+}-} a ee (a Da FL |_1930 |_| et ee ee iat al ed al |_| Ped ea (en EE Fe a a Inna eralewc selmi alsa frelon los tp falsalae sein ocala DEVIATION fo [e3 [sos ofeolealertes|s [ss [eslos|s [sels tea|solsris e's [se] ‘ARO nmscty sjeojedeaion|ooloaicals fee [soit2 40 [solaonalnaisdmatoojgaled ojeds pecoons [427i r ty Yala totes fsf2lrtelel7{ols ial [2 {4 [6 | forousurs [3 [3 [22 tal7 [es le [sis [3 | apetrteteteretere tote tetas pe oTAC ZS To Ls Ps fir [2 ie fi a2 liz f2ai79 7s fio ja fie | 7 fiz is Tole ts | FLOODS @ AND DROUGHTS O_ IN INDIA. THE FAMINE YEARS OF 1877.1899 AND 1918 foe CONSPICUOUS. cc OAJA NOT AVAILABLE. © SOE! & =) y Oo yy t=) eh pons iJ "EGS CROED'E TOO “OOS PUL OOF GOE "OO? ‘G01 ‘Gs “GS “OT “S °O 40y UABIP ade BYYs}doug hey EPUE,Y 2 ~ sInoY $Z UI sAOgE | (02611681 porsad ay) ur suorsed50 jo Es2qUINN ) pue ¢ jo sqjey Anvay yo Aouanbe.y ay} Jo UONIIjsIq Ci Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. SS Height in feet above ground DS Us Temperature in C Kapour pressure in nm of Hg SOME MICRO-CLIMATES THE CLIMATE OF INDIA 729 raised. Tillage of ground will increase water loss from the surface by evaporation, and will also lead to lower minimum temperatures at the surface because of the poor heat conductivity of the loose soil, which will radiate heat without being able to draw on the reservoir at great depths. Such ground will also lead to increased dust blowing at high wind speeds. Factories and big cities have appreciable influence upon climate. By increasing the atmospheric pollution, they change the radiation balance in the atmosphere over the area. Dust and smoke deplete particularly the ultra-violet part of the solar spectrum. The consider- able amount of heat produced in the cities results in an increase of the air temperature. In summer, increased convection causes higher cloudiness over cities, coupled with somewhat higher rain frequencies and amounts. When soil samples containing only hygroscopic moisture are expos- ed in the open, they lose water by evaporation from the morning up to the maximum temperature epoch inthe afternoon. Thereafter, towards the evening, during the night and until sunrise next morning, the soil absorbs the water vapour from the atmosphere. There is a comple- mentary phenomenon going on in the air layers near the ground. During day-time there is an upward flow of water vapour with the vapour pressure decreasing with height. During night time there is a downward flow of water vapour towards the ground which dessicates the air so that the vapour pressure increases with height. The micro-climates of plant communities are of fundamental importance in agricultural operations. The air temperature, humidity, wind velocity, evaporation, etc., at different levels above ground inside environments like standing crops and orchards, that is the micro-climates of these environments, show significant and typical deviations from the conditions at the same leveis in the open space. A few typical micro- climates for cotton, betel-vine, wheat, double-beans and sugarcane as observed in the Poona Agricultural Meteorological Observatory are shown in the graph (opposite). The curves referring to the minimum temperature epoch are marked WN while those referring to the maximum temperature epoch are marked X. The horizontal separation between the N and the_X curves indicates the diurnal range at the level under con- sideration. The micro-climatic characteristic depends on the plant density, wind break effect as controlled by the distribution and intensity of the foliage, the canopy effect, wetness of ground, etc. The healthy growth and normal yield of crops depend upon certain optimum conditions of rainfall, temperature, humidity, wind, cloudiness, etc., in the air and soil layers with which the plant world is concerned. Analysis of existing data has given ample evidence for concluding that of all the ‘controls’, the climatic factor is the one ‘control’ which accounts for at least 50 per cent of the variability of crop yields over a series of vears. Manure, variety, cultural operations, etc., all combined, account only for the remaining 50 per cent of the variability. MISCELLANEOUS CLIMATOLOGICAL PROBLEMS (1) Periodic Variations and Climatic Trends Ellsworth Huntingdon has utilised field studies in Asia and North America for evidence of progressive, or perhaps a mode of desiccation 730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 that occurs in the form of pulsations which endure for a century or more and are then followed by a swing in the opposite direction. There is strong reason to believe that during the last two thousand years there has been a widespread pronounced tendency towards. aridity. In drier regions the extent of land available for pasturage and cultivation has been seriously curtailed, and the habitability of the country has decreased. Moreover, in both the drier and the moister regions the change of climate does not appear to have been all in one direction. After a period of rapidly decreasing rainfall and rising temperature during the earlier centuries of the Christian era, there is evidence of a slight reversal and a tendency towards more abundant rainfall and lower temperature during the Middle Ages. This pulsation has been more in evidence in desert regions than elsewhere. Writing about Lake Nagami, north of Kalahari Desert in South Africa, Prof. Schwarz says: ‘In 1760 it was dry ; then followed a period, when it was great lake, from 1813 to Livingstone’s visit in 1849, when it had begun to decrease; from 1854 until 1861, when it held some shal- low water surrounded by reeds: and from 1896 until 1922 when there was no water and the lake was a dry plain’. The restoration of Lake Nagami is regarded as evidence, amongst others, of a cyclic climatic change of.period exceeding 100 years. In arid and semi-arid areas, annual precipitation varies greatly from year to year. Long-time changes in precipitation may be classified into (1) random fluctuations, (2) cyclic fluctuations, and (3) trends. As regards random fluctuations, it miay be expected, since there is a large variation in the annual rainfall, that consecutive years will have . similar as well as dissimilar amounts. A chance event may happen singly or in random groups. If there are cyclic fluctuations, the varia- tion from the mean should be similar in magnitudes, and should be repeated at regular intervals of time. Walker found between sunspots. and the annual temperature of India a correlation coefficient as high as —0:5. This is suggestive of a cyclic variation of 11 years, or 22 (or 23), years, or 34 (or 35 years, as in Bruckner’s ‘cycle’), though it is not easy to trace such cyclical variation in a plotted curve of annual preci-. pitation against years. Trends may be defined as diminishing or increasing average preci- pitation over a given period. The annual variations obscure the trend in many cases, but in others it is clearly visible in a plotted graph. To. determine whether the aridity is increasing or decreasing over any part of Rajputana and adjoining areas, or over Deccan, -we have to determine the trend of (a) rainfall at typical individual stations, and (b) over speci- fied areas, such as districts. The most commonly used method for determining trend is the method of moving averages. Theeffect of this process is the smooth- ing out of the annual variations: the greater the number of years in each group the more effectively is the annual variation smoothed out. A more accurate method is to assume a law, Ry = a+ bn, where R, denotes the rainfall in the nth year, and determine the most proba- ble values of a and b by the method of least squares. Analysing in this way, we find that the rainfall in some of the stations in the Great Indian Desert, in the south Punjab, Cutch and Saurashtra show a definite downward trend. At Jacobabad, which is a typical desert station with long records, the mean annual rainfall for the THE CLIMATE OF INDIA 731 26 years ending 1886 was 44 inches; for the 52 years ending 1920, it was 4°0 inches; and for the 60 years ending 1940, it was 3:6. inches. At Delhi, the mean annual rainfall for the 36 years ending 1886 was 27°6 inches; for the 55 years ending 1920, it was 26:18 inches ; and for the 75 years ending 1940, it was 25:25 inches, These overlapping means definitely show a downward trend of rainfall. Such decrease of rainfall must necessarily lead to an increase of aridity. @) aridity factor and Precipitation Ratio. To introduce a numerical expression for aridity as a climatic element, Lang defined in 1920 the ‘ rain factor’, P/T, in which P denoted the mean amount of precipitation in millimetres and T the mean air tempe- rature in degrees centigrade, for a specified period of years. In 1926, Hirth plotted the lines of equal ‘ rain-factor’ called isonotides. P/T has generally the minimum value over the desert region. But this or the form P/(T + 10), introduced by Prof. Maroune, to avoid negative values, which he called ‘index of aridity’, does not provide a complete description of aridity. Heavy rainfall in one year, followed by little rain in the next 2 or 3 years or what is known as ‘ rainfail variability ’ as well as the large diurnal variation of temperature (or range of temperature), called also ‘thermal continentality’, are major contri- butory factors for aridity. Accordingly Gorcezynski gave the following numerical measure for the percentage of aridity: K x (Latitude factor) x (Range of Temperature) x (Precipitation Ratio.). The ‘latitude factor’ was taken to be merely the cosecant of the latitude, (on the ground that 12 cosec (lat.) gives the range of tempe- rature in centigrade scale in most part of the oceans). The ‘ precipitation ratio’ represents the ratio of the difference of maximum and minimum annual precipitation to the average precipitation for a given number of years. The range of temperature is the mean annual range of tempe- rature. When temperature is measured in Fahrenheit scale, the constant K is taken as 5-4, so that the ‘percentage aridity’ may approach 100 for the worst desert conditions. Calculated on this basis, the aridity of the Sahara is 79% at Colomb Bechar and 65% at Fayium; the aridity is 66% at Salton (California) and 40% in West Rajputana. While this formtla is approximate, it indicates the major factors to be taken into consideration in the computation of aridity. A more accurate formula has yet to be evolved. One of the main contributory causes for the increase of aridity is the destruction of forests and vegetative cover. The formula given above for the percentage of aridity shows that it is directly proportional to the range of temperature. Over barren grounds, the range of temperature is considerably mote than that over forests or grounds with a vegetative cover. ‘Therefore, indiscriminate cutting of trees for cultivation, fire- wood, etc., and destruction of vegetative cover by cows, goats, sheep and other animals must lead to an increase of aridity. The increase of aridity in several parts of India has been partly due to this cause. Historical evidence has been adduced that western Kajasthan was well-wooded at the time of Alexander and the Maurya empire. Since A.D. 600, the use of forests for firewood and other domestic purposes increased beyond their natural recuperative powers. Thus a vicious cycle was set up. Herds of goats and sheep moved about by the 732 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 ol oes a a q nomadic tribes used up vegetation wherever it existed or appeared. In this way man and his animals contributed, and are still contributing appreciably, to the increase of aridity. (3) Classification of Climates Koppen classified the principal climatic zones of the world into five main classes, namely, dry climate, humid meso-thermal climate, humid micro-thermal climate, polar climate and tropical rain climate, and further sub-divided these into a total of eleven climatic provinces. The dry climate (steppe and desert) is distinguished from the others mainly by precipitation limit, while the others are separated from each other by characteristic temperature limits. Thornthwaite, on the other hand, defined the climatic classes based on the effectiveness of precipitation, by which was meant the ratio between precipitation and evaporation at a given place. The statistical value obtained by him for the precipitation- evaporation ratio (P/E) is he. 11:5( Bren) 20/9) Ti 107 where P and E are the monthly precipitation and evaporation in inches and T is the mean monthly temperature in°F. This factor is found to bear aclose relation to plant growth. According to this basis, the five climatic classes are: Arid (desert), where P/E =< 16: Semi-arid (steppe), where P/E = 16 to 31; Sub-humid (grassland), where P/E = 32 to 63; Humid (forest), where P/E = 64 to 127; Wet (rain-forest), where P/E = or> 128. The importance of plant cover and agri- culture to human culture has resulted in widespread use of these climatic classifications. In India we have regions where one or the other of these climatic types prevail. (4) Influence of Topography on Climate The topography, mountains, lakes, etc., have profound influence on climate. The distribution of precipitation is most noticeably affected by mountains. Onthe windward side there is an increaSe of precipita- tion with height, and this is approximately given by the formula P= Po 0:072h: where P,, represents the annual precipitation in inches at height h above the foot of mountain measured in feet, and P, the annual precipitation in inches at the foot. Thus if at a station at the foot of Western Ghats the annual rainfall is 100 inches, it is 244 inches at a height of 2,000 feet. The rate of decrease of temperature with height is‘known as the lapse rate of temperature. It amounts on the average to 3:4 to 3°8 °F. per 1,000 ft., but may vary considerably from this depending on the locality and the season. (5) Diurnal Variation of Climatic Elements There isa pronounced diurnal variation of pressure, temperature and humidity at all stations. At many stations in India there is also a clear THE CLIMATE OF INDIA 733 diurnal variation of rainfall in the months June to September. ‘There is a well-marked tendency to increased rainfall during the dark hours, and asa consequence, the earlier half of the day, from midnight to noon, gets more rain than the latter twelve hours. Thus at Bombay, the analysis of the hourly values.of rainfall for the 60 years, 1875 to 1934, shows that during June to September, 35:7 inches were recorded bet- ween midnight and noon and only 28°8 between noon and midnight. (6) Climatological Folk-lores Climatological folk-lores are prevalent in many countries of the world. In India, too, there are many such folk-lores. Some of these are based on astronomical or astrological grounds, such as those asso- ciated with the effect of full-moon or new-moon or the position of planets on rainfall; some of the others are based on climatological experience, such as rainfall lasting for one day only or for three days or for seven days, if it commences on certain specified days of the week in July. While they contain climatological statements in convenient forms, statistical investigations are necessary to determine how often they are true, and if any of them be found to be true more often than one should expect on random chance, the locality to which it is applicable. This review will make it clear that the climate is the collective state of the atmosphere at a given place during a specified period of time. The climatic conditions depend on the general circulation of the atmosphere and its local modifications. The circulation of the atmos- phere is determined by a multitude of processes; many of these processes are known, but their influence, inter-relation and inter-action are very complex, These make the climate a variable quantity and no analytical and quantitative treatment of all the causes determining the climate can be given in the present state of our knowledge. THE DESERT LOCUST AND ITS CONTROL BY Hem SINGH PRuTHI, Ph.pD., Sc.D. (Cantab.), F.N.I., F.A.S. (Plant Protection Adviser & Director, Locust Control in India) & D. R. BuaTiA, M.Sc. (HONS.), F.E.S.I1. (Deputy Locust Entomologist) (With one coloured and two black-and-white plates) BNE RO D“U ai ten Zaehle’ YY) = ee o —_ ee I] fLvig ‘208 ‘ISTH ‘3tN Avquog ‘“‘uanop Ql FISHERIES KESEARGE IN UN DIA Te: As regards the collection of statistics of freshwater fisheries there are several regional problems and hence they can only be tackled on a regional basis where the only agency which may be utilized lies in the State fishery departments. The diagrams on Plates I and II show the various categories of marine and freshwater fishes of India and their relation to total pro- duction. Table I shows production by zones. LABEL ‘Table showing total landings of marine fish in India during 1949 and 1950 (Based on data at the Central Marine Fisheries Research Station.) In Metric Tons 1949* 1950 1. West Bengal and Orissa (part) : 18,842 15,686 2. Andhra Coast (from south of Gopalpur to north of Visakhapatnam) 54,273 40,463 3, Andhra Coast (from Visakhapatnam to Masuli- patam) 24,426 41,237 4, Andhra Coast (south of Mas: alipatam to north of Pulicat Lake) 1,308 969 5. Coromandel Coast (Pulicat Taace a Cudda- lore) s& 22,065 30,284 6. Coromandel Coast (south of Cuddalore to Devipatanam) rey wwe 11,850 35652 7. Palk Bay and Gulf of Manaar (south of Devi- patanam to north of Cape Comorin) ca 2,600 4,030 8. Travancore-Cochin and South Malabar (Cape Comorin to Ponnani R.) 48,659 93,600 9. Malabar ard South Kanara (north ‘of Ponnani R. to Mangalore) Bo,ole. 166,021 i0. Kanara, Karwar and Konkan Coast (north of Mangalore to south of Ratnagiri) .. pon (pie, O40 40,426 ll. Bombay and Gujarat (Ratnagiri to Broach) snp S044, ll AZ 12. Kathiawar Coast (north of Broach)... asi6 ae ans Data not. available Total. -... 3,81,442 -5,60,385 (6) SURVEY OF FISHERY RESOURCKHS? (i) Freshwater Fisheries The biogeographical and ecological conditions against which the fishery resources have to be examined may here be indicated. It is obvious that freshwater fisheries would flourish only in areas where large quantities of water are available either from rain or rivers. The river systems of India provide the backbone of freshwater fisheries because apart from the extensive riverine fisheries themselves, the rivers alone provide the means of providing water to many other culturable waters and also form the source from which sufficient spawn for cultural purposes could be obtained. The great freshwater basins of India are (1) the Ganga System stretched across the Indo-Gangetic 1 1949 figures are probably incomplete. 2 For a detailed survey of the resources, vide Handbook of Indian Fisheries edited by B. N. Chopra, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, 1951. TE4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALSAISPVSOCIERY, Volo 50 plain and composed of the tributaries of the Ganga; (2) the East Coast system comprising principally the Mahanadi, the Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri; (3) The West Coast system covering the narrow strip of laad between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea which enlarges in the northern part tc cover the Narbada and ‘lapti rivers; (4) the Brahma- putra system covering Assam; and finally (5) the Indus system which is now of negligible proportions in India after partition. ny Ba w = ww sa S Length RES = We Water system S228 of rivers Rainfall S2>8 Sis SSS SS N ‘Ss Miles Range Average = Ganga system eo CWS) 5,000 25% — 77” 43” 20” 397 East Coastsystem ... 4:70 6,400) 28°87 — 61:5”, -42577% 2 135, 334 West Coast system... 1:90 2,100 LS" 1157 48” 20. e202 Brahmaputra system... 2°00 2,900 40”%— 83” 48” SO 2310 It will be obvious from the above that the Ganga system constitutes the most important region from the freshwater fisheries point of view and covers the States of West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and a portion of Madhya Bharat. The rivers also support several perennial and seasonal jeels and ponds and a wide variety of freshwater habitats at varying elevations and having different temperatures and harbouring a rich fish fauna of game fishes, loaches, culturable carps and prawns. The second in importance isthe more diffuse East Coast river system which has rich carp fisheries in the northern sector but gives place to the more miscellaneous assemblage of warm water fishes in most other parts. The carps and game fishes and various other freshwater groups are also noteworthy in the other systems. Freshwater lakes in India are few but mention may be made of the Kumaon lakes in Uttar Pradesh which have valuable Mahseer fisheries and the Mettur lake in the south, developed artificiaily by the construction of the Mettur Dam, which is now yielding an extremely rich carp fishery. The freshwater fishery resources of India comprise (1) the major carps, (2) the catfishes, (3) prawns, (4) mullets, (5) the live fishes, (6) the feather backs, and (7) the miscellaneous category which includes a number of minor carps, freshwater perches, eels and the small number of freshwater clupeoids. Both from the point of view of resources and potentials for increased production the carps are the most important and include the well-known forms Rohu [Ladeo rohita (Ham.)], Calbasu [Labeo calbasu (Ham.)], Mrigal [C7zrrhina mr7gala (Ham.)] and Catla | Catla catla (Ham.)]. Less known but equally valuable in future expansion are Labeo fimbriatus (Bloch) and Cirrhina cirrhosa. The large-scaled barbels belonging to the genus Barbus, and under which comes the well-known Mahseer, form fishesies of considerable value in freshwaters and the large species are excellent game fish. Thecatfishes are a mostly carnivorous group and although some of them are excellent table fish, they are mostly active predators like the freshwater shark Wallagonia attu, and should not be allowed to grow along with carps. FISHERIES RESEARCH IN INDIA 755 Nevertheless at present a large yield, almost as big as that from the carps, comes from catfishes of the genera Wallagonta, Bagarius, Pangasius, Silonia, Mystus, Eutropiichthys, Rita and Callichrous. The category called ‘live fishes’ torm a taxonomically divergent assembly having one common character, viz. their powers of aerial respiration and ability to be transported and kept alive outside water, which has been of much value in meeting the demands of fresh fish in various places. Species of Clavius, Heteropnestes, Anadas and Ophicephalus are included in this category; in many places in the Deccan special attention 1s paid to the culture of species of Ophicephalus. The ‘feather backs’ (Volopterus chitala and N. notopterus), the freshwater mullet Mugztl corsula, eels and spiny eels of the genera Anguilla, Amphipnous and Mastacem- balus and prawns of the genus Palaemon, principally P. carcznus, contri- bute to the remainder of the freshwater resources. Estuarine species which are taken in freshwater include Afzlsa, Setzpinna and Atroplus all of which are valuable and will be dealt with in the various sections below. The freshwater and estuarine fisheries are best exploited at present in the States of West Bengal and Orissa. (i) Bstuarine Fisheries: A second geographical peculiarity of the country which has influenced the pattern of Indian fisheries is the extensive development of estuarine and brackish-water tracts either as estuaries proper at the mouths of rivers as part of the river systems or as embanked brackish-water tracts near the coasts fed by rain and sea-water. The size and physiography of these coastal tracts vary a great deal, depending on whether they are in association with rivers, tidal creeks, backwaters or with large lakes, among which mention musi be made of-the Chilka and Puiicat Lakes on the east coast of India, both of which are typical brackish water lakes. They all have the common feature of extremely variable salinity conditions, but as the marine fauna of India has a large number of euryhaline species, the estuaries and brackish waters support a rich fauna including several commercially valuable fishes and crustacea. In fact as these estuarine and brackish water areas are zones of high biological productivity, they form excellent nursery grounds even for many coastal species of fish and prawns. Biologically, and from the fisheries point of view, the estuaries have close affinities with the sea as their fauna is predominantly marine and in almost all cases with the exception of AWz/sa, the fisheries depend upon the colonization of these areas by young ones of marine species. A factor which has led to the extensive development of estuarine fisheries in the country is the fact that the areas covered are mostly shallow and exploitable without the employment of complex craft and gear. Among the estuarine fishes, the most important is Afzlsa. It is a migratory species of great value in the lower reaches of the rivers in Bengal and Orissa on the east coast, and of the Narbada and Tapti on the west. Mullets form another valuable group of estuarine species. The well-known Bekti, Lates calcarifer, the threadfins, which include species of Polynemus and Eleutheronema and many other euryhaline fishes, prawns and crabs contribute to highly productive fisheries in most coastal parts of the country. 5 756 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 (iit) Marine Fisivertes:? As regards the marine fisheries of India the striking feature is the differences between the western and eastern coasts of the Peninsula. As judged by the present day landings which are predominantly based on the fishing carried out within the narrow coastal range of 5-7 miles from the shcre, about two-thirds of the total landings of marine fish come from the west coast, where apparently the water masses adjoining the coast are of an oceanic character and enriched by the nutrient-laden waters of the Bottom Antarctic Drift as well as by the Somali Current, which moves notthwards from the coast of East Africa and sweeps round at the head of the Arabian Sea moving downwards along the west coast of India. The turbulance of the inshore waters, within the continental shelf which has an approximate width of about 50 miles, caused by the heavy Southwest Monsoon winds, the mud suspensions which probably act as reservoirs of nutrients, the presence of submarine ridges like the Carlsberg and Murray Ridges in the Arabian Sea are all factors which make the west coast having more productive fisheries than the east coast. The pattern of the east coast is largely influenced by the river systems opening into it, and the somewhat enclosed nature of the Bay of Bengal prevents active oceanic circulation. There is nothing at present to show that east coast marine fisheries are poor in off-shore waters; in fact rich marine fishing grounds have been located in waters off the mouths of the Ganga and Mahanadi at the head of the Bay inthe exploratory activities of the cutters operating for the Bengal Government. ‘The scientific evidence available at present points to the western coast being more productive. Notwithstanding the broad demarcation indicated above, the fisheries of either coast are not uniform in character throughout the length of each coast. This may be seen fromthe following enumeration of the chief biogeographical zones as understood from the fisheries point of view. Starting from the north western part of India, the coast of Kathiawar has, in common with the Pakistan coast, an extremely valuable fishery of Sciaenids (Ghol and Dhoma) which appear in large numbers during certain seasons of the year, considerable landings of Polynemids (Rawas and Daras), Clupeids, perches and sharks and rays, Ghol, Daras, Rawas and Pomfrets are first class table fish occurring in large concentrations off Kathiawar. The Gulf of Cambay and the strip of the coast north of Bombay share many features with the Kathizwar coast, but owing to the influence of the Narbada and Tapti there is adevelopment of the estuarine fisheries as well and, further down, the fishery for Bombay Duck, Hlarpodon nehereus, and eels is well marked. Both the Ghol and Bombay Duck are not pelagic in the sense we understand the mackerel and sardine fisheries which are best developed to the south of Bombay. ‘The Konkan coast is noted for the mackerel, Aastrelliger kanaguria, enocmous shoals of which appear during the October-January period. Mackerel is a most important fishery throughout the west coast of India from the Konkan to the Travancore coast, but shoals are not encountered to the south of Quilon. On the Kanara and Malabar coasts, the mackerel, although 1This section is adapted from the author’s article in the Handbook of Indiam Fisheries, op. cit. FISHERIES RESEARCH IN INDIA 187 important, is partly eclipsed by the Clupeoids—more particularly the oil-sardine of Malabar, Sardinella longiceps, and the related forms Sardz- nella timbriata, Kowala thoracata, and by species of anchovies. Several Carangids, Cynoglossids (Cynoglossus semifasciatus), sharks and rays and catfishes also contribute to the high annual yield of the Malabar coast. Polynemids and pomfrets are found in considerable numbers throughout the west coast. The prawn fisheries, composed of Penaeids are also well developed in the coastal belts of Malabar, Bombay and Travancore-Cochin. The general features of the Malabar coast, with a rich productive season during the period September- February and a lean season during the following months ending in total inactivity during the monsoon months, June to August, are in evidence up to about fifty miles north of Cape Comorin the southernmost point of India. | The pelagic fisheries composed of sardine and mackerel disappear in the Comorin area, but their place is taken by midpelagic or demersal species, mostly perches (species of Servranus, Lethrinus), pomfrets (Stromateus spp.), the butter fish (Lactarius lactarius), sharks, rays and species of Cybzum in considerable numbers. Small tunnies (Authynnus) appear in shoals at certain places. The Wadge Bank near the Cape is one of the richest fishing grounds for percoid fishes and may well prove to be a lucrative trawling ground like some of the waters off Ceylon. The Cape area has much in common with the east coast between the Cape and Point Calimere, where the fisheries are composed of numerous species, each contributing to a small-scale fishery consisting of Silver Bellies (Lezognathus spp.), pomfrets (Stvomateus spp.) and Carangids (Cavanx spp.). The waters of Palk Bay and Gulf of Manaar have considerable yields of Be/one and Hemirhamphus, and the smaller Ciupeoids Dorosoma, Stolephorus, Dussumteria and Sardinella and the large Clupeid Chirocentrus dorab. High yields are noticeablé¢ in this area of numerous perches of the genera Lethrinus, Serranus and Seer fish comprising species of Cyézum. The waters between Tuticorin and Point Calimere are noteworthy in the possession of extensive chank beds, which yield a lucrative and unique fishery, as also of the pearl oyster in the Tuticorin area. The Palk Bay is a valuable fishing ground with considerable resources in leiognathids, elasmobranchs, cybiids, clupeids, and carangids, but the fisheries do not appear at present to be exploited adequately. From Point Calimere to Adirampatnam there are good grounds for sharks and rays and, during June to August, shoals of flying fishes (Cypszluvus spp.) appear off the coast of Nagapattinam and Cuddalore. Inthe same area there are also unexploited fishing grounds. for perches and the lobster 7hexus. From Madras to Vishakapatnam,. the biggest shoaling fishery is that of the hair-tail or species of Trichiurus. This important area on the east coast is also noted for Cybium, Letognathus and Lactarius. The Andhra coast appears to have numerous valuable grounds for shark fishing, especially to the south of Kakinada with considerable yields also in Engvaulis, Pellona and Stromateus. Between Godavari and Ganga there are numerous small-. scale fisheries, the predominant forms being species of Fellona, Sardinella, Engraulis and Stolephorus with subsidiary fisheries of species ef Arius and Cybium. On West Bengal and Orissa coasts, Az/sa also. appear in large numbers. The most noteworthy feature of the east coast marine fisheries 768 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 seems to be the absence of large shoals of mackerel and oil sardine, although small numbers of them are noticed; their place seems to be taken by the less valuable clupeoids, horse imackerels and leiognathids. It will be obvious from this survey that the fisheries of the east coast, which now yield only about a third of the total, are more diversified in character than those of the west. It is probable that the smaller output is correlated to socio-economic factors, not least of which is that the west coast fisherman is a better seaman and that conditions of transport and utilization here are not as well developed as in Malabar. While the west coast will be suitable for large-scale production followed by industrial exploitation of fewer fisheries like the clupeids, mackerel and prawns, the east coast would, if developed, substantially increase the supplies of sea fish for consumption in the fresh state in an area where the level of nutrition is already very low. 5. FISHERY BIOLOGY & FISHERY MANAGEMENT It is futile to attempt fishery management without adequate know- ledge of the biology of the fishes concerned, and in the present stage of our development it is natural that much attention General should be paid to studying the biology of our commer- cially valuable species. This work is made somewhat dificult owing to certain natural factors over which we have no control. In countries with colder climates, speciation takes place less rapidly than in the tropics, and it is a common experience that in the place of single cold water species of importance we find in our waters a large number in the same family. In many instances instead of single species fisheries, there is in otrr waters groups of species comprising combined fisheries, most of them having such very similar features and apparently similar habits as to render their separation and study extremely difficult. Both in marine fisheries as well as in inland fisheries, sound taxonomic work is necessary for the correct recognition of species and suhspecies. Much work on fish taxonomy has already been done in India, and excellent work continues to be done by the publication in parts of the series Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archi- pelago, started by Weber and De Beaufort, now being continued by the latter. In former days most species have been described from single speci- mens and even when large series were available, the emphasis has been to find the extremes of characters rather than the range of common occurrence of particular characters. In recent times, thanks to the development of statistical concepts, increasing attention is being paid to the analysis of characters, based on frequency distributions and the correlation of characters with specific delimiting factors. Although we haveaconsiderable number of workers on the taxonomy of fishes, their background is even now the museum concept rather than the genetical concept. This criticism can, in fact, be applied to many centres of taxonomic work all over the world. It is unfortunate that close study and analyses of characters based on large populations of species with a view to revising the taxonomy of groups of fishes of commercial value is not being taken up by any one. Investigations of this type are closely bound up with the problem of racial stocks of fishes which is so funda- New Systematics FISHERIES RESEARCH IN INDIA 759 mental to understanding fisheries made up of species widely distributed as are most of the Indo-Pacific forms. The ‘New Systematics’ which has emerged by the impact of geneti- cal concepts on problems of taxonomy is equally dependent on physiological ideas on species and races. Physiological investigations. have generally been lagging behind in India owing to the paucity of qualified workers, but the development of this discipline will be essential if we are to make sound progress in fish cultural practices. relating to coastal, estuarine and marine fisheries. Considerable progress has been achieved in morphological studies relating to fishes owing to the facilities for such investigations being available at most places. Many publications have appeared on various aspects of marine and inland fishes, their food, growth, occurrence, larvae, spawning seasons, life-history, parasites and a host of similar problems, but the large majority of these studies are random contributions. and, even now, there are few species of fish of which it could be said that areasonably allround pictureis known, Examination of fish stocks, year classes, rate of recruitment, exploitable margin and such basic information relating to fisheries has not been obtained for any of our commercial species, although workers at the Central Fisheries Stations have begun to apply themselves to these aspects. Controlled growth studies, so essential for the development of fish culture on scientific lines, have hardly been attempted but here again recent efforts are being made both at Barrackpore and Mandapam. It could perhaps be said that on the whole the work at present does not match with the standards set by the more advanced centres of fisheries research, but the answer to this may be found in the introductory section. Apart from the late beginning, the preliminary stages required the development of almost a new discipline unfamiliar to the majority of Indian workers who also had to cope with inadequate facilities at various levels in their programme. What has been achieved during the past five years is encouraging, and one can say with confidence that considering the various difficulties which had to be surmounted inthe initial stages, it is doubtful if more could possibly have been accomplished by any other band of investigators under similar circumstances. Objective fisheries research as has been develoved in other countries has placed emphasis on varying aspects and in the integrated development of this science in our country, the orientation needed is for increased exploitation in marine fisheries, conservation of coastal fisheries and expansion of the culture fisheries. There is a small butinfluential school of thought in Indian scientific circles which considers that the fisheries institutions are devoting far too. much time and energy to problems which are purely Morphologi- cal Studies Applied of an academic nature, unconnected with actual fisheries. US. This criticism is in a large measure unjustified, but Pure it does not mean that there is no further room for Research improvement in the research programmes and_ their execution which, as workers become experienced, are bound toimprove. Onthe other hand, inconsiderate criticism as has been voiced in certain quarters will react adversely on the overall necessity to obtain a larger measure of public support for scientific work on fisheries than is now available. It has already been indicated that there is much 760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 preliminary ground to be covered in the purely zoological and botanical aspects, which it would have been unnecessary~for fishery workers to devote to, had knowledge of aquatic animals and plants in this country been sufficiently advanced. When any fishery problem is bound up with groups of organisms whose scientific study is inseparable from that problem, such studies have to be pursued by some members of the teams. Similarly it would be disastrous to the growth of scientific knowledge if workers begin completely ignoring any new fact or relationship which they may discover during the course of their work, although it may not be possible to give it the ‘fishery’ stamp. There cannot be any sharp distinction between pure and applied research. For the success of the latter, there will arise problems which have to be pursued with that amount of thoroughness necessary to establish facts with sufficient experimentation and control, which might give others the impression of an academic approach. Similarly, what some of these critics consider as academic are some of the very problems to which much attention is paid elsewhere. It would never be in the interests of fishery research and, in fact, of scientific advancement of the country to ignore the fundamental aspects of the various sections of a composite subject like the fisheries which is the meeting place of a number of disciplines of knowledge. Healthy development of new ideas and techniques can be expected only if the researchers are aliowed a certain measure of freedom within the programmes without subjecting them to judgment based on short-term achievements of applied value. Nothing would please a fishery scientist more than the discovery of facts of practical value to the industry and to the country as a whole, but it is not his fault if short cuts to such findings do not exist. We may now examine the problems presented by some of the major fisheries both marine and freshwater. The oil sardine of Malabar and the Indian mackerel and the Hilsa will be discussed as they form outstanding fisheries in the country formed of single species. This will be followed by problems relating to group fisheries. Sardines: The fishes belonging to the family Clupeidae rank first in world production; in India too they constitute about a third of the sea fish production represented by the oil sardine (Sardinella longiceps) and other related sardines (S. fmbriata, S. gibbosa and S.sivm), the anchovies (7%rzssocles spp.), the white bait (Azchoviella spp.), the rainbow sardine (Dussumuieria acuta), the white sardine (Kowala coval)and many other clupeoids yielding small-scale fisheries. There is large fluctuation in their annual yield, which is most pronounced in the oil sardine, the most valuable clupeoid of India. The species is widely distributed and is landed on the coasts of Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, Ceylon, Andamans and Indonesia, but large-scale shoals seem to be limited to certain areas only, for example the Malabar and Kanara coasts alone in India. The fishery starts after the consmencement of the South-west Monsoon but the peak period is after September extending to January, a time when the entire coastal fishing population concentrate their efforts. to catch sardines with large boat seines and gilling nets so efficiently operated in Malabar. It will be easy to picture the calamity that would befall the industry if shoals which are accustomed to appear on the coast do not appear in certain years, or the shoals arrive at unforeseen times. But it is Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pate IT] Sardinella longiceps The Oil Sardine of Malabar Rastrelliiger kanagurta The Indian Mackerel Plate IV Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. from the Malabar Coast ines Other Common Sard 1eria 3. Dussumi . >) iella commersonii 4. Sardinella fimbriata ; 2. Anchov hasseltti al 1. Kowala cov . » FISHERIES RESEARCH IN INDIA 761 precisely the irregular and undependable nature of this fishery and the great decline of the shoals in recent years which have constituted a serious problem. Nair & Chidambaram (1951) have reviewed the subject. From their work the following table of landings for the oil sardine is reproduced below after adding th2 figures for 1950-52. TABLE II Statement of estimated landings of Oil Sardines from the fish-curing yard registers in the South Kanara and Malabar Districts Oil sardines landed in maunds ae ee eee Total in matunds | South Kanara Malabar 1925-26 6,50,707 5,41,742 11,92 ,449 1926-27 74,021 322,020 3,96 647 1927-28 63,673 1,29,339 1,93,012 1928-29 8,465 39,968 48,433 1929-30 42,122 31,656 VEY Eis) 1930-31. 4,824 1,11,048 Ve1,8/2 1931-32 B/ 17S 41,378 58,553 1932-33 zie 29,901 S0;113 1933-34 7,96,805 11,26,788 19,23 ,593 1934-35 10,796 5,47,414 5,908,210 1935-36 961 39,188 40,149 1936-37 1,22,365 6,05,361 7,27,726 1937-38 76,445 379,092 4,56,037 1938-39 66,873 24,576 91,449 1939-40 78,240 1d 724 1,89,964 1940-41 2,90,603 3,86 ,406 6,77,009 1941-42 13,442 1,05,789 ai 1942-43 690 23,948 24,638 1943-44 sh 5,867 9,991 11,858 1944-45 17,472 123 17,595 1945-46 195 281 476 1946-47 30 207 237 1947-48 25,494 6,419 31;913 1948-49 oat 6,645 1,144 7,789 1949-50 : Gorey 16,083 | 74,744 £0,827 1950-51 Ecce A 41,102 1,29,462 1,70 ,564 1951-52 eee temierr 1 10:500 2,71,694 2,91,194 sD Piero Eee reer wth < RaeNeSe arena ee (Ea a a (Snare 762 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 TABLE III Table showing the approximate landings of Oil Sardines in South Kanara and Malabar for the years 1950-52 Month | S. Kanara Malabar Mads, Mads. 1950 July aes . = 660 August ir 50 3,975 September ane poe 276 October Aue . 490 2,932 November es : 4,615 ty, 180 December a 3 27,199 64. O11 1951 January ais : 6,860 31,398 February eae 7. 1, 888 9.725 March ane ; — 40 April + gas : — 265: May Sais _— — June he : _ — July aoe : — : £05 August ave ‘ 810 6.705 September* see : 11,595 71,590 October ae ; 6,475 1,58,444 November a : —_ 1,010 December 485 . 520 5,070 1952 January* ae 100 18,110 February* ies : 5,110 March* ue ; — 4,750 *Data incomplete. The available statistics show that the fishery was extremely rich in the latter half of the last century which resulted in the oil extraction: from sardines forming a lucrative industry with the increase in. value of the oil. Large fluctuations were, however, evident in the landings even in those days, but from 1926 a new and unprecedented phase of decline set in. There was again a notable recovery in 1933-34 followed by further falls and slight recoveries, but the fishery dwindled to practically nothing in 1941-42. Improved landings were noticed again in 1949-50 and there has been an encouraging increase in sardines from that date; in fact the fishery as may be seen from the tables has. been of some magnitude during the current year. The oil sardine has been the subject of study by the scientists of the: Madras State Government for a number of years; since 1947 the work has also been taken up by the Central Marine Fisheries Research Station: of the Government of India. Various views on the length of life, spawning, rate of growth and other biological features have been ‘put forward, but it is obvious that more reliable data are needed to establish many facts relating to its biology. The fish has a maximum size of 22.23 cms.; the commercial catches are predominantly the juveniles. varying from 12-15 cms. All investigators are unanimous in ascribing. -Zurp1ous uaas st 39U sy, “s}eOq OM} Aq pajpuey (9U | | 18) 004 VIVYD "GEN “A “Y HYS Aq yoroyg) “sourpres Jo [eoys & 1yIVIT IYI JO UOTyIIdG ‘leqeyeyA, UI SUIYSy sUIpPIeG = aratatets RK oe A SLVIg Le gegen gs Pp Ly GEZ | . : > SS it : 2 5 s trea ‘00g “ISIHT ‘3eN Avequiog ‘‘uanor pineal as _ s -_ Ss —_ ~— ——— i a i ee IA ! ‘(RN CA WW EYS Aq y9}94S) ‘SdUIpies [Io oY} AOJ posn ATOAISNOX9 Jou oUTOs poztjeroods e si yOIYM YIYYA 27/03 -1yIMPy 243 Aq ButYsy ouIpieg s ALVIg Zee a Ny TN 4 a sao "905 “ISTH ‘FEN Acquog ‘‘uanoe FISHERIES RESEARCH IN INDIA 763- the success of the fishery to the abundance of immature young sardines. The sardine is a plankton feeder and spawning is from August to. November, probably commencing with the onset of the S. W. Monsoon. Sexual maturity is attained by 15 cm. sardines when they are certainly more than a year old but the exact age of spawners is not established. According to Nair the life span is 3-4 years and sexual maturity is at the end of two years. In the scientific study of this fishery one of the major problems to. be solved is how far intensive fishing is inimical to the fishery. From the time of Day the possibility that the sardine fisheries were being over-worked was constantly in the minds of all investigators on the subject and it was believed by the fishermen that the introduction of the close-meshed ‘ Kolli vala’ which was a much more efficient net for catching small-sized sardines than other nets, was one of the chief causes. forthe decline of the fishery. In olden days the sardines were caught only by the large Boat Seines or ‘ Paithu vala’, but when the industrial demands for the fish grew regardless of size (which was immaterial in oil extraction) the more destructive nets were introduced.1 In 1943. the Madras Government introduced legislation to protect the fishery in the Malabar and S. Kanara Districts. The legislation which was mainly intended to prevent the more efficient nets being used to capture the small-sized sardines throughout the year and to protect the spawners,. lapsed in 1947. During the time the legislation was in force there have been many practical difficulties in its enforcement. It is fairly evident at present that enough is not known of the sardines to formu-. late legislative measures. It would obviously be of the highest practical value to determine the causes responsible for the great fluctuation in the fishery, and there- by modify fishing operations so as to obtain a steady annual yield, at least avoiding total failures which would throw the entire shore establishment idle and, finally, to have a system of predicting the time and magnitude of the fishertes beforehand. If the fish cannot be had. in their normal haunts, can they be fished elsewhere? If the recent decline has been due to overfishing, the establishment of close seasons to protect spawners and probably other measures will be necessary. The sardine fisheries is a world problem because their decline has been observed in various parts of the world. There is a considerable body of experts who attribute the wide fluctuations in these fisheries to cosmic factors beyond the control of man, and consider that under these circumstances protective legislation would serve no purpose. If the decline and fluctuations in any fisheries cannot be controlled, researches. would all the same be extremely necessary to develop the prediction side of these fisheries by the correlation of oceanographical or other conditions with the abundance and availability of the fishes for fishing. The relationship of the oil sardine populations with other sardines, notably S. fzmbériafa, has also to be closely established to secure an overall picture of their relative abundance in successive years. * A seasoned fisherman of Mahé once told the author that the decline in the fishery was caused by the larger sardines forsaking the coasts in sheer disgust, on finding, from the refuse thrown back into the sea after oil extraction, what is happening to their young ones! 764 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 The Indian Mackerel Rastvelliger kanagurta Cuvier! is probably: the most important marine fish of India. The fishery is composed of only a single species, it has along season of occurrence, and the annual variations in the catches are not so high as inthe sardine. It has been known for many years that lean sardine fisheries coincided with good mackerel fisheries and with the decline in sardines, it is only natural that mackerel is receiving much attention even in areas where they formerly had only the second place. Thegenus /astrelliger is widely distributed, ranging from the Iranian Gulf to the South China Seas, and although three species have been described it is fairly certain that the Indian mackerel fishery is composed of a single species; further, it seems probable that the Aembong fisheries of the Malayan coast, and the Pla-thu of Indo-China and Thailand are ali contributed by one and the same’species. The districts of North Kanara in Bombay State, South Kanara and Malabar in the Madras State and the northern part of Travancore-Cochin State provide the chief areas of mackerel fishery, the actual range of the fishery on the west coast being from Ratnagiri south of Bombay to Quilon in Travancore. The season commences in September and continues till February. On the east coast of India, the fish appear rather erratically contributing to local fisheries near Mandapam, Madras, and occasionally as far up as Kakinada and Orissa. On the eastern coast of Ceylon there is a fishery from November to December. In essentials, its appearance throughout India corresponds to the colder part of the year although small landings of the species are by no means uncommon in many parts of the west coast during what is usually spoken ofas the off-season. The fish is a plankton feeder and its shoaling on the west coast corresponds to a period of rich plankton production. The mackerel of the commercial catches of the season are juvenile examples ranging from 18-21 cms. having very poor development of the gonads. In the monsoon months irregular catches of mackerel of all sizes varying from 7 to 24 cms. are not uncommon in Malabar (Chidam- baram ef al. 1951) and in the Kanara Districts. The juvenile examples of 18-19 cms. appear in shoals during October, and as may be expected the average size increases in the succeéding months registering the higher figures of 21-22 cms. by February and March. Although shoals disappear in the subsequent months, the mackerel! obtained in small numbers are progressively larger, the maximum size being in the sum- mer months, July and August (24-25 cms.) by which time the gonads are ripe, indicating a spawning period which corresponds with the Southwest Monsoon. This is supported also by the fact that very small mackerel from 9 to 11 cms. occur inthe August/September period in Karwar, and small ones of varying sizes from 6 to 11 cms. in Calicut. It seems reasonable to consider that these small individuals do not form the fishery in the immediately succeeding months, the present indications being that it is the second year class that comprise the fishery. It is also a remarkable fact that mackerel collected in any one lot present an extraordinary similarity in the size of individuals comprising the catch, a uniformity that is most unusual in fish popula- i RS 1 Scomber microlepidotus of Day’s volumes. For recent account of taxonomy vide Beaufort in fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago. Vol. 9, 1951, Leiden. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 1. Outrigger canoes are extensively used in mackerel fishing. Photograph shows a canoe with mackerel in Karwar Bay. 2. Fresh mackerel gibbed, salted and kept’ for drying. Note the uniformity in size. 3. Mackerel fishing village on N. Kanara coast. Note the outrigger canoe, nets, fishermen, huts and curing yards PLATE > WA V; 18 Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pirate VIII 1. The Rampani nets, which are very large shore seines, are extensively employed in mackerel fishing in the Kanara coasts. The photograph shows one arm of the net being drawn ashore. 2. The mackerel encircled in the net are kept im- pounded near the shore until the arrival of launches from Bombay. Photograph shows the boats and impound- ing net with their floats. 3. Impounded mackerel are hauled ashore in batches as required. At the back may be seen a launch loading mackerel with ice for being transported to Bombay. FISHERIES RESEARCH IN INDIA 765 tions.1_ While such a uniformity may be expected of smaller examples not many months old, the very narrow range of size variation in a second year class iS so pronounced as to throw suspicion on their age. It is needless to add that much remains to be knowa,. but we shall have achieved much when a complete story of the Indian Mackerel is avail- able to us: Where do the first year fish disappear to their feeding grounds? Which are the spawning grounds? Is spawning intermit- tent and extending for a long time as in the Atlantic Mackerel? What are the factors which control their movements and cause fluctuations in the fishery ? We have no data to show whether the fishery is worked at its optimal level. The present operations are more or less coastal and it remains to be found out whether mackerel operations could be extended to the off-shore waters. Both sardines and mackerel appear earlier in the south and slowly extend northwards and their disappear- ance from north to the south also follows a similar pattern. These two fisheries require close study under an integrated programme because it is becoming increasingly clear that they form two major as- pects of the zeritic pelagic complex * of the west coast waters. Infor- mation is badly needed on the extent of off-shore stocks of both these fishes which are unexploited at the present time. The introduction of carrier launches for the mackerel in 1936, and the steady increase in the fleet of launches operating between Bombay and the mackerel centres of Malwan and Karwar have had a healthy effect on the development of this fishery because it has become possibie to land large quantities of mackerel for the people of Bombay at a reasonably low price. The operators have already shown a way of minimising the risk involved in the trade by the practice of impounding mackerel on the Karwar Coast, in the large Rampani nets in which they are caught, between the time of capture and the time they can be packed in ice in carrier Jaunches arriving from Bombay. Researches on mackerel should further help in the prediction and assessment of the annual fishery, improvement in the efficiency of operations by closer knowledge of the habits of the mackerel and, above all, to assure that nothing is done to the stock of fish which might lead to decline in the yield as has occurred in the sardines. (Zo be continued) ~ 1] am indebted to Prof. W. Rich who drew my specific attention to this point. 2The term was coined at the first meeting of the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council at Singapore to denote the problems relating to the pelagic fisheries of the coastal areas as against true pelagic fisheries of off-shore waters. THE HISTORY OF INDIAN MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY BY Str NorMAN KINNEAR, C.B. Part I. MaAmmars (With three plates) The study of mammals in India in the first half of the last century owes more to Brian Hodgson and Edward Blyth than any other naturalist. Hodgson’s work in Nepal and Sikkim laid the foundation of our knowledge of the mammalian fauna of the great Himalayan chain, while Blyth, owing to his facilities as curator of the museum of the Asiatic Society, had a wider influence since he had at his disposai specimens from the whole of India, Burma and Ceylon, as well as. Afghanistan and the Malay Peninsula. But before either of them had arrived in India Major-General Hardwick, head of the Bengal Artillery, had for many years collected specimens and employed native artists to make coloured drawings of them. He described a number of species, such as the Goral (Naemorhedus goral) and the Indian Gerbil (Tatera indica), but he was forestalled in his description of the Gaur and Four-horned Antelope. In 1815 Dr. Wallich, superintendent of the Calcutta Botanical Garden, went to Nepal to collect plants and seeds. He was a great friend of Hardwick and sent him a number of mammals, birds and many insects. Some of the mammals Hardwick described himself, while others he presented to the British Museum, the Zoological and the Linnean Societies. Hardwick seems to have been-.unfortunate in his dealings. with the last named society, since according to the minute book for 1821 a description of the Panda (Ailurus fulgens) was communicated by General Hardwick and read in his absence, but never published. Again in 1823 his communication on the ‘tail-less deer’ Cervus wallichw and the sheep ‘Ovis argali’ =(Ovis hodgsoni) met the same fate ! Hardwick returned to England in 1823 and some years later com- menced publishing, in conjunction with Dr. J. E. Gray of the British Museum, the well-known ‘Illustrations of Indian Zoology’ (1830-1835). In 1844 Dr. John McClelland in writing a review of Belanseee ‘Voyage aux Indes Orientales’ (1838) remarked ‘We wish our own Government would take a lesson from the French, who seeing the interest of science neglected in the colonies of other rival nations, with an enlightened policy peculiar to the French, dispatched their own philosophers to supply desirata’. Before giving a brief account of the important work the French did in India, it is well to remember that one Governor-General—Lord Wellesley —did attempt to set up an institution for the study of natural history in the beginning of the nineteenth century. The scheme was to establish a college at Fort William and attached to it a natural history establishment at HISTORY OF INDIAN MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY 707 Barrackpore where animals and birds were to be kept and studied. Orders were sent to officials in ali parts of the Company’s territories to send in live animals to Barrackpore. Dr. Francis Buchanan was appointed to take charge of the institution and undertake the official study of Natural History in India. Between 1800 and 1804 many animais reached Barrackpore, but Lord Wellesley’s successor took little interest in the scheme; the institution degenerated into an in- different zoological garden and gradually came to an end. McClelland’s remarks about the French were, however, quite true and one of their earliest travelling naturalists to visit India was Jean Baptiste Leschenault de la Tour, who arrived in Pondicherry in September 1816 to take charge of the Royal Botanical Gardens there. He travelled and collected widely in South India and visited Salem, the Nilgiri Hills, the French possessions on the west coast and then went south to Cape Comorin from where he crossed over to Ceylon. He returned to France in 1826. A year after Leschenault’s arrival Pierre Medard Diard reached Chandernagore, where he was joined by Cuvier’s step-son Alfred Duvaucel. These two naturalists accompanied Sir Stamford Raffles’s expedition to Java in 1818-19. Diard went on to Sumatra and Indo-China and in 1825 joined the Dutch administra- tion at Batavia. Between 1820 and 1825 he sent specimens to Paris but thereafter all his collections were sent to Leyden. He died at Batavia in 1863. Duvaucel parted from Diard in 1820 and went to Pedang and then returned to Chandernagore. Irom there he went to Sylhet and apparently visited the Khasia Hills, from where he returned to Calcutta in bad health and died in Madras in 1824. While at Chandernagore he visited General Hardwick at Dum Dum and made drawings of a four-horned antelope the general had alive. He also studied and made. sketches of the animals at Barrackpore including the tail-less deer (Cervus wallichit), which had been sent from Nepal. ‘Two of his native collectors he sent to Katmandu where they worked under Hodgson. About the same time a captain in the French mercantile marine, by name Dussumier, was very active in collecting specimens at many ports of call, which naturally were for the most part in the French possessions. The specimens these naturalists collected were sent home to Paris where they were described: by the Cuviers, Geoffroy, Blainville and others and. included Rousettus leschenaulti, Semnopithecus dussumieri, Cervus leschenaulti (=Cervus unicolor niger) and Cervus duvaucelt. Four years after Duvaucel’s death Victor Jacquemont arrived in Calcutta and remained in India some four years. He seems, however, to have been more of a traveller, and a very observant one, than a collector., In the course of his journeys he visited Delhi, the Himalayas, the Punjab and Kashmir from where he returned to Delhi and then went south to Bombay via Indore and Ajmere. He _ had intended continuing down the ghauts to Pondicherry and Ceylon, but he was taken ill and died in Bombay on 7th December, 1832. Jacquemont collected few mammals and though he described several the only name given by him which stands is that for the long tailed marmot Marmota caudata. More successful, however, was Charles Belanger, who reached Bombay in 1825 after a journey overland from 763 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 France. He travelled south to Malabar and then crossed the peninsula to Pondicherry from where he went to Calcutta. Thence he sailed to Pegu and after doing some collecting there he proceeded further south to Java and then returned to Pondicherry on his way home. He discovered several mammals such as the Rusty-spotted Cat (Felis rvubiginosa) near Pondicherry and Melogale personata the Burmese Ferret-badger and the Tree-shrew Tupaia belangeri, both near Rangoon. The last French travelling naturalist is Adolphe Delessert, who came out to Pondicherry in 1834, but as he was more interested in birds than mammals details will be given under that section. In October 1824 Captain W. H. Sykes of the Bombay Army was appointed statistical reporter to the Bombay Government and for the next seven years was engaged in this work. He wrote two large statistical reports on the Deccan and while gathering information on the subject also collected natural history specimens of all orders, which he gave to the Company's Museum in London in 1831. In the same year he published in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society a paper on the mammals in which he deserbee the Indian Wolf Canis pallipes, the Wild Dog Cuon dukhunensis, the Indian Gazelle Gazella g. bennetti, and a number of others. In all he listed thirty-nine species with some information on their distribution and habits. A deputation in 1839 was sent to study the tea plant in Assam. The party consisted of Dr. Wallich, Dr. William Griffith both botanists, and Dr. John McClelland, a geologist who was interested in natural history generally, especially fishes. They visited the Khasia Hills and McClelland made a collection of mammals and birds, which were despatched to the Company’s Museum on the return of the deputa- tion. With the assistance of Dr. Horsfield, the Keeper of the Museum, McClelland wrote a paper on his collections in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1839. Of the nineteen different species collected the Macaque Macaca assamensis and the Giant Squirrel Ratufa gigantea were among his four new discoveries. Sir Walter Elliot, better known as an archaeologist than a zoologist, served some seven or eight years in the Southern Mahratta country, now known as the Dharwar district. In 1839 he published in the Madras Journal of Literature and Science a ‘Catalogue of the species of mammalia found in the Southern Mahratta country’. This paper was far in advance of any previously published on Indian mam- mals. Fifty-eight species are given with detailed descriptions and very good notes on habits and distribution. All this goes to show that Sir Walter was a very close observer and had he continued his studies no doubt he would have become one of the leading naturalists in India. In his introduction Elliot divides the various species into five categories, according to where they are found, as follows: (1) ‘Common to all parts of the country where they are found’, (2) ‘Mountain forest’, (3) “‘Mulnad or rain country’, (4) ‘Black plain’, (5) ‘Sandstone and red soil’. Surely this paper must be one of the fore- runners of the study of animal ecology! Many years later Elliot sent to the British Museum the skulls of several cetaceans obtained at Vizagapatam, together with notes of the colours of the fresh animals. These were described by Sir Richard Owen in a paper published in the Transactions of the Zoological Society for 1866. HISTORY OF INDIAN MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY 769. Brian Hodgson went to Nepal as assistant to the Resident at Katmandu in 1820 and, with the exception of a break of eighteen months remained there till 1843. During the last ten years of his service he was Resident. Throughout his service he employed hunters to shoot and trap mammals and birds and every specimen which they brought to him was carefully measured, weighed and described. In addition he had one or two artists who made careful drawings of the feet, ears, etc., while fresh, and in some cases of the whole animal also. Skulls were always taken out and attached to the skins and sometimes entire skeletons were preserved, or at least parts of them. The weak point in Hodgson’s collecting was his labelling of the specimens. Either no label was attached to the skin, or merely the name of the animal on native paper. In this Hodgson was not alone; few collectors in those early days realized the necessity for careful labelling. Nevertheless Hodgson brought together a remarkable collection and so far no important addition has been made to his Nepal list. One of the first animals he described was the serow which he named Antilope thar in 1831, and in the following year appeared his first catalogue in which twenty species are recorded by name but there are many others he was unable to identify’. His final catalogue published by the British Museum in 1846 records one hundred and fifteen species, including some ten or so from Tibet. It was owing to Hodgson’s friendship with Bhim Sen, the Prime Minister of Nepal, that he was enabled to get specimens from Tibet and ultimately to send his own men there. It has often been said, and quite correctly too, that Hodgson described many of his species on unsatis- factory characters or too small material and also that he was always in a hurry to get priority. This last suggestion is not true since over and over again we read in his papers that he has known a certain animal for years but delayed describing it till he had further examples. In 1843 Hodgson left Nepal and came home to England but two years later he returned to India and lived at Darjeeling till he finally left India for good in 1858. The most remarkable animal which. Hodgson named was the Takin. In 1846 a Major Jenkins, the Governor-General’s Representative in Assam, sent him an imperfect specimen which was followed two years later by good examples of both male and female. It was while he was living at Darjeeling that Hodgson wrote his important paper on the ‘Physical Geography of the Himalayas’ in which he divided that mountain range into three altitudinal areas and described the animals inhabiting each. When Dr. McClelland in 1840 started the Calcutta Magazine of Natural History among the contributors to the first number was. a young officer of the 31st Bengal Native Infantry, in civil employ, stationed in the wild district on the south west border of Bengal. 1 In a footnote Hodgson writes: . . . ‘My shooters were once alarmed in the Kachar by the apparition of a ‘wild man,’ possibly an ourang, but I doubt their accuracy. They mistook the creature for a cacodemon, or rakshas, and fled from it instead of shooting it. It moved, they said, erectly; was covered with long dark hair, and had no tail.’ Here we have an early reference to the animal which has been exercising the minds of climbers in the Himalayas and zoologists who have never seen India! 770 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 This was Lt. R. S. Tickell, one of the best field naturalists India has known. His contributions included papers on the sloth bear, brown flying squirrel and anteater, and when he was stationed in Tenasserim he wrote a very good account of the habits of the gibbons. At one time Tickeli intended to publish a book on Indian mammals and birds, but although his manuscript, and illustrations by himself, were all prepared, it was never published and is now carefully preserved in the library of the Zoological Society in London. When Blanford wrote the ‘Mammals’ he made frequent use of Tickell’s MS. When the first ‘Afghan war broke out in 1838 Lt. Thomas Hutton of the 37th Native Infantry joined the army of the Indus but was soon transferred to the ‘Pay and Commissariat Department of Shah Soajah’s forces’ and bitterly complained that he had no time to get about. All the same he somehow or other did a good deal of collect- ing and wrote interesting notes on the Sind Ibex, Markhor and Urial; the last two he also named and described. In addition he sent some smaller mammals to Blyth for identification and, after the war, published a paper in the Jour. Asiat, Soc. of Bengal (1845) ‘Rough notes on the Zoology of Afghanistan’. Hutton later was in charge of the ‘Invalides’ at Mussoorie where he continued his natural history studies and at one time was said to be writing a popular account of the Mammalia of the north western Himalayas, but it was never published. In September 1841 Edward Blyth arrived in Calcutta to take charge of the Museum of the Asiatic Society. Before long he was in touch with many naturalists in India and the neighbouring countries and large numbers of specimens of many orders began to come to the Society. First and foremost of these correspondents was Dr. Jerdon, who became a great personal friend, then there was Col. Phayre, afterwards first Commissioner for Burma, and Major Birdmore, both stationed in Tenasserim where too was Ossian Limborg. The well- known Roman Catholic Missionary the Reverend J. Barbe sent speci- mens from the Tipperah Hills, Tenasserim and the Nicobars; Captain Hutton and Dr. Stewart from Mussoorie, Captain Tickell, Chaibassa, and Dr. Kelaart and. E.. L. Layard from Ceylon. R. W. Frith of Jessore made several trips for the Society to Cherrapunji and brought back many interesting specimens. Blyth was a man of great energy and in addition to carrying out his museum duties it was his custom to prepare reports for the monthly meetings of the Society of the accessions received since the last meeting. This was no mere list of specimens but a_ detailed account in which new — specimens were described and attention drawn to others whether little known or new’ .to. the collection _.of the ,.Society....Not infrequently. ie read a paper at these meetings and his choice of subjects was very wide, ranging from the ‘Rats and Mice of India’ to the ‘Great Rorqual of the Indian Ocean’. Blyth had a remarkable memory, was very well read, and anything he wrote generally contained some out of the way information. On account of continued ill health he had to retire in 1562 and return to England, but not before he had finished the catalogue of the Mammals in the Society’s collection, which his friend Jerdon saw through the press for him. Dr. Kelaart, Blyth’s correspondent in Ceylon, was in the Army Medical Service and when on leave in England had been persuaded 1 ~ PLATE a een ra Thomas Caverhill Jerdon Samuel Richard Tickell 1811-1875 Died 1865 (Reproduced from ‘‘ The Nests and Eggs of Indian Bivds”’ by A. O. Hume, 2nd edn.) VION ~“UUSSPU Ff To UUFYUOLLUFY UE trey sae = II a1iv1g ‘00S ‘LSIH ‘LVN AVaWog ‘Nuano[ HISTORY OF INDIAN MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY 771 by the head of the Medical Service Dr., afterwards Sir Andrew, Smith, to take up the study of natural history. I» 1850 he published in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society “A Catalogue of the Mammals of Ceylon’ enumerating 58 species, and two years later his well-known ‘Prodromus Faunae Zeylaniae’ appeared. In the introduc- tion to his work he remarks ‘our own labours would, like those of many collectors, have been in a chaotic mess, but for the assistance of cabinet investigations of such eminent men as the Grays and Blyth’. On 18th May, 1849 the 22 Foot—the Cheshire Regiment—landed in Bombay, crossed the harbour and marched over the ghauts to Poona. Their medical officer was A. L. Adams, who later became professor of zoology in Cork, a very keen and observant naturalist. Adams served with the regiment for seven years at Poona, Karachi and Rawalpindi and while at the last station made expeditions into the Himalayas and to Kashmir. In a paper in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1858, he described the habits and distribution of the different mammals he had met with during his stay in India, and some nine years later published an interesting book entitled ‘Wander- ings of a Naturalist in India’. In 1867 Jerdon’s ‘Mammals of India’ appeared and for the next twenty-one years it was the standard book till replaced by Blanford’s volume. Though confined to the animals found in Kashmir and the Indian peninsula, he frequently referred to species in Assam, Burma. and Ceylon. In his introduction Jerdon admits that the portion of the work dealing with the small shrews, bats and rodents was very imperfect and this was not to be wondered at as the only collection he could refer to was the Asiatic Society’s in Calcutta and many of the species described by Hodgson and Gray were not represented there. Then, too, he had to rely to a great extent on his own observa- tions on the habits of animals, since little had been published except in the papers of Sykes, Elliot, Tickell and Hutton. Nevertheless the book filled a great want and Jerdon’s own notes were excellent. In England Doctors Horsfield and Gray had been making known many new animals from India, principally collected by Hodgson, who con- tinued to send consignments to both museums. The ‘Catalogue of Mammals in the Museum of the East India Company’ appeared in 1851 and two years later Hodgson sent his final donation to the Company’s museum, which Horsfield described in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History (1855). This was an important paper and besides descriptions of new and _ little-known species there were notes on all the additions to Gray’s ‘Catalogue of the Mammals and Birds of Nepal’ published ten years earlier. At the beginning of the paper Horsfield mentions that this consignment included a large supply of Indian ungulata, but except for the takin he makes no mention of them. ? The year 1845 was an important one in the study of zoology in india since in that year W. T. Blanford arrived in India to join the Geological Survey. In addition to being an accomplished geologist, Blanford was a zoologist with wide interests and wrote many papers, not only on mammals but also on birds, reptiles and mollusca. He was concerned with the agitation which ultimately induced the Government of India to establish a museum in Calcutta, and there is 6 T12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 little doubt but that he had much to do with the memorial which persuaded the Secretary of State for India to sanction the series of volumes known as the Fauna of British India, of which he was the first editor and author of four volumes. While engaged in geological field: work Blanford had ample opportunities for collecting and see- ing live animals, and when the staff of the Survey worked in Calcutta during the rains he devoted his spare time to studying the collections — in the museum.- He wrote many papers on mammals and one of his most important was the mammal portion of the ‘Scientific Results of the Second Yarkand Mission’ (1878). The specimens brought back by the expedition were collected by a young ‘Austrian geologist on the staff of the Geological Survey named Ferdinand Stoliczka, who died on the way home when crossing a high pass!. Previous to this expedition littlke was known about the mammals of Kashmir, except the game animals and a short account in the fourth volume of Baron von Hugel’s ‘Kaschmir und Reich der Sick’ (1840). Blanford’s paper may therefore be said to be the basis of all future work on this region. During the next twenty years or so several officers stationed in Kashmir and adjacent agencies did good work in making known the local fauna, such as Biddulph and Scully in Gilgit, Macmahon—afterwards Sir Henry and founder of the Baluchistan Natural History Society—in Dir and Swat, Fulton in Chitral and at a much later date Colonel Stockley in various parts of Kashmir. During the first ten years of the present century Major Dunn, Colonel Magrath and Captain Whitehead collected in Hazara and the North West Frontier Province and helped to enrich the collections of both the Society and the British Museum. Between 1891 and 1894, Dr. W. L. Abbott, an American of independent means, who spent most of his life travelling and collecting for the Smithsonian Institution in the East Indies and East Africa, visited Kashmir on two occasions. On the second of these visits he travelled north as far as the Tian Shan following the same route as the Yarkand expedition. His collections were reported on in the Proceedings of the U.S, National Museum. It was not, however, till Colonel Ward of the Kashmir Game Department began to collect that the mammals of Kashmir became properly known. ‘At first Ward collected himself, but latterly engaged C. A. Crump to come out from England and collect both mammals and birds. From time to time Ward sent short papers to the Journal giving the identifications of the specimens he had sent to. the British Museum. In the first of these papers he quotes from a a letter he had received from Oldfield Thomas dated September 1904 as follows,—‘I doubt if you realize that we have no specimens except yours of the commonest Kashmir species or indeed of India generally (except from Wroughton) and these we have moreover without the date, measurement etc. that nowadays make the chief value of speci- mens’. It is much to be regretted that no general account of the mammals collected by Col. Ward was ever published. During the Afghan Delimitation Commission in 1896 Dr. Aitchison the official naturalist, and Colonel Yate, a member of the Commission, EE 1 Stoliczka was buried in Leh. A photograph of his tomb is published at p. 656: of Vol. 32 (4) of the Journal.—EpDs. | ~1 jew) HISTORY .OF INDIAN MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY vi both. made collections of mammals which were described in the Lvansactions of the Linnean Society and in the Journal of the Asiatic Society. When Colonel Younghusband’s Mission went to Lhasa in 1904 Captain Walton, I.M.s., was attached as doctor and naturalist. He got together a small but interesting collection of mammals, some of which were collected in the same localities that Hodgson’s men had procured the originals sixty-three years previously. Not long after Blyth left India the Government decided to build a museum in Calcutta and in September 1866 Dr. John Anderson was brought out from home to be the curator. During his term of office he did much to increase the collections and in this he was helped by Dr. G. E, Dobson, an army doctor interested in bats, who besides writing many papers also wrote a monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera (1876) which was based on the Museum’s collections. Anderson did a considerable amount of collecting himself, accompanied the two Yunnan expeditions in 1868 and 1875, and at a later date went to the Mergui Archipelago. . The collections made on the Yunnan expeditions were described in a special volume entitled ‘Anatomical and Zoological Researches’ (1878) and included an impor- tant memoir on a new river dolphin Orcella fluminalis captured in the Irrawaddy during the first expedition. Sir Arthur Phayre, the first Governor of Burma, a great friend of Blyth’s and donor of many specimens to the Asiatic Society’s Museum, had asked Blyth to write a general account of the mammals and birds of Burma. This Blyth was engaged in at the time of his death in 1873. The Asiatic Society later. published the account in a special number of their journal along with a short life of Blyth. The mammal portion was revised by Anderson and Dobson, and the birds by Viscount Walden. Between 1885 and 1887 Leonardo Fea of the Genoa Museum visited Burma and made exiensive collections in all branches of natural history in the Bhamo district of upper Burma, and in Karennee and. Tenasserim. The mammals were described by Oldfield Thomas in the Ann. Mus. Genova (1892). In 1846 the missionary, the Rev. P. Barbie, s.J., wrote an account of the Nicobar Islands in the Asiatic Society’s journal to which Blyth added a natural history appendix. Eleven years later the islands. were visited by an Austrian scientific expedition in the frigate ‘Novara’ and considerable collections made. Towards the end of the mutiny Dr. Mouat was sent to the [Andaman Islands on behalf of the govern- ment to report whether the islands would be suitable for a convict settlement and in 1863 he published an account of his visit in ‘Adventures and Researches in the Andamans’ with an appendix on the natural history by Blyth. It was not, however, till 1901 that the- mammalian fauna of the two groups of islands was properly investi- gated. In that year Dr. Abbott accompanied by C. Boden Kloss, who. afterwards was on the staff of the F.M.S. Museums, made a com- prehensive tour of both the Andamans and Nicobars and collected a series of specimens which were described by Geritt Millar in the Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum. The name of A. O. Hume is generally associated with the study of Indian birds, but he was also interested in big game and presented to the British Museum his collection of over a hundred heads and 774 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 56 horns. In 1874 he described in the Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal the race of the Ibex from the Sind hills and of the Markhor inhabiting the Suleiman range. Two years later Major Sandeman, the famous frontier officer, sent him an Urial from Baluchistan which he named after Blanford. Hume also had a collection of mammal skins amounting to 400 specimens collected by his own men and some of his correspondents. This collection was presented to the British Museum in 1886. Many different kinds of rats and mice had been described by Gray, Horsfield, Hodgson and others on various occasions, but it was’ exceedingly doubtful if they were all good species. This uncertainty was cleared up in 1881 by Oldfield Thomas who, in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, published a paper on the ‘Indian Species of the Genus Mus.’ Besides examining all the old specimens in the British Museum, Thomas had at his disposal some material recently collected by Blanford in various parts of India, by Mandelli in Sikkim, Colonel St. John in Ajmere and the Rev. Fairbank at Ahmednagar. It is interesting to note that at that date the genus Mus included among other genera Katlus, Bandicota and Nesoria. Two years before the Bombay Natural History Society was founded a memorial signed by Charles Darwin, Sir Joseph Hooker and other eminent men of science was presented to the Secretary of State for India recommending that a series of volumes dealing with the Fauna of British India should be published. This was eventually agreed to and Blanford was appointed editor and in addition undertook to write the volume on mammals which was published between 1888 and 1891. This work was a great advance on that of Jerdon, published some 20 years earlier, but the study of mammals had not advanced in the same way as that of birds had. Although many people in India were interested in the larger animals, few took any interest in squirrels, bats and the like. Furthermore, Blanford, who was work- ing in London, had poor material at his disposal and many of the specimens had been exposed to light in the public galleries. In spite of some shortcomings in descriptions and distribution, for which Blanford was not to blame, this work was of great value to the student in India and was the first authoritative account of the mammals of the Indian Empire. In 1884 Sterndale brought out his ‘Natural History of the Mammalia of India and Ceylon’, a popular work which was well re- ceived, and the same year saw J. A. Murray’s ‘Vertebrate Zoology of Sind’, a compilation as regards the mammals and birds from Jerdon’s works. The author of this last work was at one time in charge of the Frere Museum in Karachi and afterwards of the Victoria and Albert Museum, Bombay. With the starting of the Society’s Journal in 1886 a periodical became available where naturalists could record their observations. Among the early contributors there were two eminent Bombay lawyers, J. D. Inverarity a barrister, and Reginald Gilbert a solicitor, both of whom probably knew as much about the habits of big game as they did about the law! Interesting notes on bears and Himalayan game animals were contributed by Major G. S. Rodon, a retired officer of the Royal Scots, who had settled in India and every year spent some HISTORY OF INDIAN MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY 775 time in Chamba State. Then there was Colonel G. H. Evans of the Burma veterinary service, a popular figure in Rangoon, whose articles on the Thamin, Serow and Goral showed that he was a good observer. For long there had been a dispute as to whether the Gyal was a distinct species or a domesticated form of the Gaur and it was Stuart Baker who settled the question in the fifteenth volume of the Journal, but, alas, the four gaur heads which were depicted in the paper never came to the Society! In 1871 R. C. Wroughton joined the Indian Forest Service and spent nearly the whole of his time in the Bombay Presidency. At first he was interested in Hymenoptera, especially ants, which he deserted for scorpions and through scorpions became acquainted with R. I. Pocock. At that time Pocock was in charge of the collection of Arachnida in the British Museum, but mammals were his real interest and in 1904 he left the Museum and became superintendent of the Zoological Society’s gardens. But some time before that he had interested Wroughton in mammals and when the latter came home on leave in 1896 he brought with him a collection of bats which he worked out with Oldfie'd Thomas’s help and wrote a paper ‘Some Konkan Bats’ in the 12th volume of the Journal. When Wroughton retired in 1904 he went to live in London and became a regular worker at the Museum. At first he had to work at African mammals because, as already mentioned, there was no recent Indian material available. He tried, however, to persuade friends in India to collect specimens but with litthe result, though the Society began to send a small but steady stream of rats, and Colonel Ward’s consignments from Kashmir began to appear. In 1904 Captain Glen Liston, I.M.s., read a paper before the Society on ‘Plague, Rats and Fleas’ in the course of which he said ‘Hankin suggested that the accessibility of people to rats was more important than the filth, overcrowding etc.’ He went on to say ‘It is absolutely certain that rats are the most important factor in the spread of plague’ and finally he added ‘what do we know about rats, very little’. The last remark was only too true, and looking back it is extra- ordinary that nothing was done to properly identify the different species of rats or work out their distribution and biology. It must, however, be remembered that the importance of animals in spreading disease was not yet fully realized. A year after Liston’s paper Dr. Hossack of the plague department, Calcutta Municipality, contributed to the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal a ‘Preliminary Note on the Rats of Calcutta’ and this was followed two years later by ‘An Account of the Rats of Calcutta with some remarks on the existing” class function of the genus Mus and Nesokia’, which was published in the first number of the Records of the Indian Museum. There was little new in either of these papers since the author was neither a naturalist nor trained systematist. Liston’s paper, however, encouraged members to send rats to the Society for identification and regular consignments used to arrive from Father Lord of the Cowley Fathers who worked at Pen in the Kolaba district across Bombay Harbour. Many of the specimens were forwarded to Wroughton who, when sending the identifications. 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. -50\\ ~J continually urged Millard that the Society should emoploy. a paid collector, but the difficulty was the lack of funds. ‘At the end of 1911 or beginning of 1912 C, A. Crump Si dcltinly arrived in Bombay and offered his services to the Society. Here was an opportunity not to be missed! Hurriedly calling a meeting of the Committee, Millard persuaded the members to allow him to engage Crump for some months and at the same time issue an appeal for funds. In April Crump started collecting in Khandesh and that was the beginning of the Mammal Survey. In the special Supplement commemorating the Golden Jubilee of the Society (1933) details are given of the money raised, the areas investigated and the forty-six reports issued. By the next year there were four collectors working, and then in 1914 the war came, the collectors gradually joined up and for a short time the work of the survey came to a standstill. But this: was only temporary since, thanks to the assistance of members, the survey went on and one of the Society’s assistants was sent to Darjeeling to carry on where Crump had ceased. In 1915 he was moved to Baluchistan to work under Sir Ernest Hotson who had joined the army, and with him also he went to East Persia. R. Shunkara Narayan Pillay, formerly in charge of the Trivandrum Museum, undertook to collect in Travancore, in various parts of Burma J. M. D. Mackenzie of the Forest Service collected in his spare time and Captain Philip Gosse, R.A.M.c., did good work in the Poona district and the Nilgiris. S. H. Prater, then assistant curator of the Society, was sent to work the Satara district and afterwards to North Sind. So it was that the work of the survey was continued all through the first war and soon after peace was declared Mr. Millard engaged another collector to come out from home. Other collectors were recruited in India and Charles McCann, who later succeeded Prater as assistant curator, also went into the field and did good work. In this way the survey carried on till the end of 1923. During the time the survey was working some 25,000 specimens were collected including all the areas where the old collections of Sykes, Hodgson etc. had been made. The work of sorting and cataloguing this huge series of specimens was carried out in London by R. C. Wroughton assisted by his brother-in-law, T. B. Fry, who carried on the work after Wroughton died in 1921. In addition Wroughton prepared most of the 55 reports and made many contri- butions to the Scientific Results, besides being responsible for the “Summary of the Results from the Indian Mammal Survey’ the first number of which appeared in Volume 25 of the Journal. The Society owes a great deal to these two members for all the work they did, and it must be remembered that neither of them was young at the time. At the Indian end there was the late Mr. Maillard, a very busy man who nevertheless found time to keep the appeal for funds going, engage collectors, arrange where they were to go, supervise the despatch of specimens home etc., to say nothing of editing the Journal and looking after his own business. When Mr. Millard left India Sir Reginald Spence took his place and even in the difficult post-war years raised money to keep the survey going. (upa pug ‘aun ‘o'r Aq ,,spaig uvipuy fo saazT puv sysant ay fT ,, most poanposdag, ) Co61-CEQI Ee ee TENN z161-6zg1 SUNT UPIAL}IGO ULTY lll a1vIg PND §TOTTH "FF waY FTwaMracr eararanl HISTORY OF INDIAN MAMMALOGY AND ORNITHOLOGY 777 Briefly the results of the survey are that we now know what mammals are found in India, their characters, variation and distri- bution and it is unlikely that many remain undiscovered except a few shrews, bats and small rodents. It is interesting to compare the genera and species of one family—the rodents—as known to Blanford and the figures from the latest check-list. Blanford, Fauna of British India, 1891: genera 22, species 93. Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals, 1951: genera 44 species and subspecies 201. The survey collections are a sound basis for future volumes in the new edition of the Fauna and were utilized to the full by Pocock in his two volumes. Without these collections Sir John Ellerman would have been unable to deal effectively with the Indian and Burmese species in his ‘Families and genera of living Rodents’ 1940 and certainly the very useful ‘Checklist of Palaearctic and _ Indian Mammals’ by Ellerman and Morrison Scott would likewise. have been incomplete. In addition to specimens the survey made available a very con- siderable amount of information on distribution, altitudinal range and the notes by the collectors supply particulars about habits and breeding. Both before and since the survey was started many valuable papers have appeared in the Journal, but the majority have been concerned with the large cats and big game on which there was already quite a library of books. A. A. Dunbar Brander’s ‘Wild Animals in Central India’ its, however, of quite a different type and there is more in it about the behaviour of animals, not all of them game. animals, than of how to shoot them. The author was fortunate to spend all his service in the forests of the Central Provinces, that classic ground of Forsyth’s ‘Highlands of Central India’ and Sterndale’s ‘Seonee’. Lieutenant-Colonel R. W. Burton in Volume 41 has given an admirable summary of all that is known of the wild dog, while Salim Ali’s account of the wild ass in Kutch is a model of its kind. Useful observations on monkeys and different bats have been given by McCann, and in Spolia Zeylanica Dr. Osman Hill has described the breeding habits of certain monkeys in captivity as well as writing a ‘Monograph of the genus Loris’. More is known of the habits of Ceylon mammals than of those of India thanks to Phillips’s ‘Manual of Ceylon Mammals’ which contains much useful information. A similar work, but covering a much wider field is S. H. Prater’s small volume ‘The Book of Indian Animals’ (1948) a veritable multum in parvo. The movements of bats are being studied by Humayun Abdulali, and two members Messrs. Powell and Frere have described in the Journal interesting particulars about two species of mongoose. Strangely enough there is little on record on the habits of the different kinds of rats though P. V. Wagle’s ‘Rice Rats of Lower Sind and their Control’ in Volume 32 confirms some of Elliot’s observations made many years earlier. The members of the Society have always been interested in the conservation of the fauna and much has been done by members of the forest service. The great decrease in the numbers of rhinoceros, buffalo and certain deer led to a valuable series of papers on the ‘Wild Animals of the Indian Empire’ (1933-34) by S. H. Prater, with special 778 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 articles by members in different provinces. From this it became evident that unless something was done certain species were in danger of disappearing. The establishment of game reserves at the foot of the Himalayas and in parts of Assam, it is hoped, may save the rhino and buffalo for the present. On the western side the lion still holds its own thanks to careful conservation; the wild ass, too, is. strictly protected at least within Kutch State. (To be continued) THE HISTORY OF BIRD-PHOTOGRAPHY IN INDIA BY R. S. P. Bates & E. H. N. LOwTHER (With seven plates) It is indeed possible that photographs of Indian birds, or of their nests and eggs, appeared in other publications before ornamenting the pages of this journal, but we believe the contingency to be remote. In any case, even if such were the case, their numbers must have been very small. Consequently we have confined our researches into the history of bird-photography in India to the pages of our Jourvnal, and since records indicate that the nest and eggs even of a British bird were photographed for the first time in April 1892, by Cherry Kearton, and of a bird at its nest not till the spring of 1895 (in this instance by that other great pioneer of bird photography, R. B. Lodge) we feel it is. improbable that much, if indeed any, bird photography had been done in India earlier than 1900. We have therefore not looked through the Journal published prior to that ;ear!, Neither of us being lucky enough to possess a compiete set of the Journal, we repaired to the library of the South Kensington: Natural History Museum where we spent two happy days browsing through their interesting pages, being afforded every assistance by Mr. Townsend, the Librarian, and by his staff. Often did we stray from our subject to read to each other scraps of absorbing: interest, and as frequently did we have to pull ourselves- up with a jerk to: ensure completion of our task in the limited time at our disposal. As may be imagined nostalgic memories overcame us again and again, but we learnt much. Some of what we learnt surprised us not a little, for it was not until we reached the fourth part of Volume 21 (November 1912): that we made our first discovery, a photograph by Magrath purporting to show the site of a bird’s nest—that of the Orange Bullfinch. ‘Purporting to show’ is the right expression, for the photograph, or else its reproduction—a very possible contingency—is so poor that even a cross to show the nest’s position entirely fails to give a clue —_— * Since this article went to press my attention has been drawn to a few photo- graphs in the pages of the Journal which we appear to have missed out in our survey. One or two of these have perhaps been omitted in error, but others were undoubtedly rejected for technical or other reasons. The sudden death of my great friend and collaborator, Bob Lowther, renders it inadvisable, in my opinion, to make any alteration in this paper, but I. find that the photograph of the female florican on nest in Vol. XXI (July 1912) is reproduced excellently at page 207 of Vol. II of Stuart Baker’s Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon where it is credited to H. H. The Maharao of Cutch. The latter is also responsible for a picture taken on 8th November 1903 (Vol. XV of June 1904) of flamingos’ nests and eggs in the Great Rann of Cutch. I would also like to mention F. M. Bailey’s Bar-headed Geese photos (Vol. XIX of 1909) and his pictures of the nesting: of the Ibisbill taken in May 1909 (Vol. XIX of February 1910).—R.S.P.B. 780 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 to the composition of this strange smudge of printer’s ink. its; being of a nest, cannot take pride of place as the first published Indian bird photograph. This honour apparently goes to C. Beadon who, to illustrate a Miscellaneous Note in Volume 24 (September IQI5), in addition to pictures of a nest arid eggs of the Common Sandgrouse, has one of the bird itself on the nest. Admittedly there are earlier photographs than those named, as for example that of a Ram Chukar taken in 1912, but these are of captive or wounded birds and as such should not, in our view, be included in this brief sketch, since bird photography, as understood by its devotees, means the portrayal of wild birds in their natural surroundings and under no form of human control. | From 1915 onwards, until some time after the close of the Great War, nature photographs were used only sporadically, but in ro21 [Volume 27 (3)] there appeared an article which conveys the impression that the author’s intent was to give to photography its due importance in supplementing the written word. This article, ‘A List of the Birds of Dharmsala,’ by Captain R. W, G. Hingston, was illus- trated with 6 photographs, about quarter plate in size, of various nests and of a couple of birds—a Brownbacked Indian Robin and a young Himalayan Snowcock, the latter poorly reproduced. This article was the forerunner of those illustrated ornithological papers of both scientific and of a more popular nature which thereafter formed a steady if somewhat thin trickle up to the present day. Up to this time the photographers’ technique and the quality of reproduction left a great deal to be desired, but with thie inception of E. H. N.- Gills *A Description “of the Nests “and Boos von cme Common Birds occurring in the Plains of the United Provinces,’ [Volume 28 (4) dated December 1922} a new era was ushered in. It is true that these photographs were still mainly of nests, but there is a crispness of definition and attention to composition about them, and those of the few bird photographs he included, which were previously .altogether lacking. Unfortunately Gill’s enthusiasm for ornithology appears to have waned with the conclusion of these articles, and by 1924 he had faded entirely from the Indian scene. As Gill’s articles ‘were drawing to a close, one of the present authors, R. S. P. Bates, stepped into the breach, first with ‘Notes on Hugh Whistler’s ‘‘A Contribution to the Ornithology of Kashmir’’,’ a short article with one plate depicting nearly life-size photographs of the nests and eggs of the Sooty and Whitebrowed Blue Flycatchers, and then; ‘shortly afterwards [Volume 29 (4) May 1924] with the first of a series on ‘Birds’ Nesting with a Camera in India’. This series, in 6 parts, lasted until August 1926, and was written with the express purpose of popularizing the photographing of India’s birds» and to encourage the use of photographs in furthering bird study. We have repeatedly been told that, more than anything else published up to that time, it did focus attention on India’s teeming. and varied bird life and caused many to turn their attention to the birds around them, some for relaxation, some in a more serious manner, while the fillip it gave to those who were already bird enthusiasts was considerable. Perhaps few were induced to take up bird photo- graphy, but nevertheless from now on there was a small but noticeable Prater al ) inuta ttern (Ixorbrychus m ttle Bi Li 9URN. BomMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. = — —— ee ee -. : - a -—; - . - uIO,, IAAT ueIpuy une Li Il 21v1g ‘00S ‘LSIET “LVN AvaWog ‘Nuno[ (2ydjnppig omnqM X14S) [MO POONA S,A][NIS saw ‘d “SM Oioe ch Na vay ‘00S “LSIF] ‘LVN AVaWwogd ‘Nuno[{ “THE HISTORY OF BIRD-PHOTOGRAPHY IN- INDIA~: 781 increase in the numbers using photographs to give point to. their writings. , At the end of 1926 S. Basil-Edwardes put in a ‘Contribution to the Ornithology of Delhi’ with some habitat photographs, but alas this promising ornithologist died very soon afterwards. : The year 1927 saw illustrated works by three different authors. Bates’s ‘Impressions of Pachmarhi Birds’; C. B. Ticehurst’s and Sir Percy Cox’s ‘Birds of the Persian Gulf Islands’ with poor but’ interesting photographs of nest sites of Crab Plover, Cormorants nesting on sandbanks and gulls flying over their colony stealing the unguarded eggs; and Major R. W. G. Hingston’s ‘Bird Notes from the Mount Everest Expedition of 1924’. The four photographs illus- trating the last, of Chough, Blue Rock Pigeon, Accentor, and Adam’s Mountain Finch, though small, are very clear. From the end of 1928 until December 1932, except for Bates’s ‘A Reed-bed in the Dal Lake, Kashmir’, illustrated chiefly with photographs depicting the life history of the Little Bittern [Volume 33 (3), May 1929], Salim Ali holds forth with a series of articles dealing largely with the role of certain birds in the dissemination of plant-life, and in Volume 34 [(4), March 1931] with an outstanding contribution on the ‘Nesting Habits of the Baya’. Although the photographs in this article can be said to be only fairly good, they are of exceptional interest. Unfortunately Salim Ali ist-a user of miniature cameras, instruments of great precision, it is true, but of limited use in straight bird photography. The miniaturist will no doubt take us to task for implying that first-class bird work cannot be turned out by the true miniature such as the Leica. We do not say that it cannot, since for certain work the Leica has given remarkable results. Some birds in flight and in the mass, such as the concourses at heronries, can be admirably depicted, but for bird portraits from the hide where a high degree of enlargement and the meticulous depiction of. detail are required, it falls down except in the case of the largest birds. With the introduction about this time of faster panchromatic emulsions, fine-grain developers, and photo-electric exposure meters, the task of the bird photographer tended to be simplified. For this reason one might reasonably have expected to find a noticeable increase in the numbers of nature photographers and an improvement in their work. There was in fact a slight increase in the output of bird portraits about 1935, but the Indian climate presents many adverse factors which more northerly temperate climes do not possess, so that only in the years following the last war is there an obvious improvement in achievement over previous work. The harsh lighting, the great heat of the spring, followed by the extreme humidity of the monsoon months, are not only factors which daunt the spirit and sap the energies of would-be photographers, and which have undoubtedly kept down their numbers, but have equally devastating effects upon the mechanical processes of development and printing and particularly bad effects upon exposed photographic emulsions if left unprocessed for any length of time. But thanks to the accumulated experience of 782 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 the pioneers, and the steady improvement in materials and appara- tus, those adverse factors are being overcome. In fact, we think it can be said quite fairly that a new era is opening in the art of bird photography in India. However, we must not anticipate. In Volume 37 (4) dated April 1935, in the same number in which Bates added his ‘Notes on the Habits of some Indian Birds’ with three plates, a new name appeared, that of F. N. Betts, with a short article _on ‘South Indian Woodpeckers’. Unfortunately the accompanying photographs are poor and much below Betts’s present standard. The year 1936 might, we think, be described as a good one. It started with Bates’s article on the Kishenganga Valley and was follow- ed by T. R. Livesey’s ‘Cuckoo Problems’ and the first part of Salim Ali’s & Humayun Abdulali’s ‘Birds of Bombay and Salsette’—none of these illustrated with particularly good work. It ended in Volume 39 (1) of December, with the first part of the long and important series of E. H. N. Lowther’s ‘Notes on Some Indian Birds’. His opening gambit on the Crested Swift was not only a useful paper ornithologically but it introduced, with some unusual photographs of this bird of most remarkable habits, the work of a bird photographer who was actually in action even before Beadon published his portrait of the sandgrouse. In Part II, Lowther followed up his first published effort with a batch of noteworthy photographs of the different species of nightjars found in the plains. The series ran to 9g instal- ments which appeared intermittently throughout the greater part of the Second World War. The fact that Lowther had been photographing India’s birds since 1911 shows the danger of relying for this article only on the printed word, for no doubt there are many excellent bird-photographers who never blossom into print, a fact borne out by a perusal of the catalogue of the Wild Life Photographic Exhibition held in Bombay in April 1939 and the Nature Calendars issued by the Society annually since 1941. An outstanding example is Major C. L. Boyle who showed a fine series of 18 Kashmir bird photographs at this Bombay exhi- bition, including the best picture we have yet seen of both male and female Little Bittern at the nest. This photograph was also used in the Society’s 1942 Calendar and is reproduced here. (Plate I.) That good year of 1936 was the precursor of a ten-year period with a number of bird photographers in the field, by no means all of the Old Brigade. Apart from Lowther’s series, more work came from Bates, his ‘Rosefinches and other Birds of the Wardwan Valley’ [Volume 4o (2), September 1938] being the first to be illustrated with photographs reproduced in the U.K. in a most pleasing manner “in sepia by the Vandyke process. A number of the illustrations to papers by Lowther and Bates which followed were reproduced in this way, but in 1942 war conditions rendered it no longer possible to employ this process in the Journal. As permanent half-tone blocks are not prepared in this process, none of those photographs are available for reproduction here. Amongst others at work during this period were Betts with two illustrated articles in December 1937 and April 1938, and C. McCann with some photographs of a deserted flamingo city in the Rann of Cutch, ‘OURN. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATES, W. W A. Phillips | The Spoonbill ( Platalea leucorodia) JourN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLatEeE Vil Alert and with measured tread, the Ibisbill approaches the nest f Photos " B. T. Phillips | Settling down to brood | PLATE VII 0 fe) WY H Z a 5 < A a < -Q = je) = Z ~ E. H. N. Lowther Crested Swift on nest with egg A THE HISTORY OF BIRD-PHOTOGRAPHY IN INDIA Zc OD ice and towards the end of the period W.W.A. Phillips has ‘Some Observa- tions on the Indian Courser’. Photographs by this author of a higher standard appeared in 1947 with an article entitled ‘The Islet— A Bird Sanctuary in Ceylon’. ‘In September 1945 (Volume 45) the late Lt.-Col. B. T. Phillips was at last persuaded to venture into print. His first paper, ‘Photo- graphing the Ibisbill’, was supported by some most illuminating photographs of this elusive and rarely-portrayed bird. Colonel Phillips concerned himself ‘largely with colour work—his excellent transparencies cover nearly one hundred of Kashmir’s birds and are a monument to his skill and experience in the use of the miniature camera in conjunction with the distant release. As his object was to produce colour transparencies for projection, his choice of apparatus was undoubtedly correct: the result of attempting to translate these same photographs into large-scale half-tone reproductions with which to illustrate his later series of articles, called ‘A Bird Photographer’s Musings from Kashmir’, was not, however, altogether a happy one, for many of them show up his work to poor advantage. In Volume 46 (2), August 1945, Salim Ali illustrated ‘An Ornitho- logical Pilgrimage to Lake Manasarowar and Mount Kailas’ with a mixed bag of small photographs some of which are really excellent, particularly of Horned Lark and Pamir Sand Plover, while, later in the same year W. T. Loke added ‘A Bird Photographer in Kashmir’. On the photographs accompanying this article we have no remarks to make for the simple reason that they do not reflect the excellence of his later work and the fact that this summary is to be rounded off in the next article by his own explanation of the methods he now employs to obtain results which undoubtedly mark the opening of a new era in bird photography in India. A perusal of articles from all sources appearing in these years shows a marked advance in technique and quality although Lowther’s last paper on the Lammergeier (Volume 46, December 1946) reveals a noticeable falling off. The rise and fall are easily explained. Before the war high-speed fine-grain panchromatic emulsions were already coming into their own and existing stocks lasted into 1943. There- after, to obtain a box of plates which was not so stale as to be almost useless—or which had not been salvaged in a partially wet state from a torpedoed vessel—became impossible. Lowther’s long-awaited opportunity to photograph the most majestic bird of the Himalayas, the Lammergeier, suffered for this latter reason. Finally let us say that there are signs at last that bird photography in so far as India is concerned has emerged from its teething troubles, for in addition to the older names, the /ournal and Calendars now contain work bearing such names as C. A. Gibson-Hill, whose studies of the tropical sea-birds are outstanding, K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji, the Maharao of Kotah and the Maharajah of Bikaner, O. C. Edwards and others. Bird photographers are undoubtedly on the increase in India but there are still far too few to cover but an infinitesimal part of the ground. When we look back and think of the photo- graphic material at our disposal in the early days and compare it with the super-fast emulsions of great latitude, the fine-grain developers, and the aids to correct and silent exposure which now exist, whereby 734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 with comparative ease first-class photographs can be obtained by those with energy and determination, it seems to us scandalous that the ranks of the Society are not bursting to fill the /ournal’s pages with portraits of that multitude of India’s birds whose secrets are crying out to be divulged. In the British Isles the Zoological Photographic Club has been largely responsible for raising the standard of bird photography to near-perfection. Its membership being limited to forty on account of the circulation of work by means of portfolios, other clubs with a like object have sprung up, showing that in these islands bird photo- zraphers are to be numbered in hundreds rather than in tens. So buck up India, and if you have not yet started your Z.P.C., do sa now to give a greater stimulus to the wonderful and useful hobby of bird photography. Personally we feel it deserves to be termed a science and an art, especially such work as that of W. T. Loke with the highspeed flash which heralds a new phase in the photography of India’s teeming birdlife and a wonderful means of recording their every action. % % % NOTE BY THE EDITORS It is interesting to find that as early as the year 1900, in Some Hints on the Collection and Preservation of Natural History Specimens (Vol. 13; 279) E. Comber, under Nesis & Eggs advises: ‘Written descriptions of the materials, form and situation of nests can be enormously increased in value if supplemented by pictures of them taken while in situ; and now that the means for taking snap-shots is so simplified and brought to such perfection, every field naturalist should provide himself with one. Every one must naturally please himself of course as to the camera he selects, but, to those who have not already formed opinions, I can recommend the Eastman ‘No. 4 Bullseye’ which takes pictures 5 by 4 inches. Besides being cheap (cost between 42 and £3) it is a great advantage to be able to change the spool of films in broad daylight. Films of course must be fresh, and I myself find the best plan is to send a postal order for 25s, to Eastman’s in London as fresh supplies are wanted; this covers the cost of postage of six spools of one dozen exposures each.’ PHOTOGRAPHING BIRDS WITH THE HIGHSPEED FLASH BY MANN 2 COKE (With five plates) The use of the highspeed flashlamp (or electronic flash, as it is known in the U.S.A.) has undoubtedly caused what Eric Hosking calls a revolution in bird photography. The wonders of highspeed flash photography first became known to the world in the 1930’s when a group of scientists at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, headed by Dr. Harold FE. Edgerton, perfected a system of taking photographs at very high speeds. Photographs taken at these great speeds showed bursting bulbs, bowls of milk at the instant they smashed on hitting the floor, the shape of footballs when kicked and other happenings hitherto un- seen by the human eye. During the last war this system, which consists of passing a very high voltage current through a tube filled with a rare gas or gases thus producing a bright light of very short duration, was found to be of great usefulness in night-time reconnaissance photography from the air. Since the war, the invention made available to the ordinary photographer has each year grown rapidly in popularity. The main disadvantage of the high-speed flash is its great weight. The power pack for my own equipment weighed some 50 lb., and in addition there were the usual camera and tripod plus two lamps which needed a tripod each. The 6-volt current from the batteries is stepped up to some 2,500 volts before it is discharged through the lamps. When working in the field, often under damp conditions, it is essential that the connec- tions between power pack and lamps be completely safe from leakage, otherwise the photographer handling them might easily be killed. During my recent expedition in Kashmir (1951), I used the speed- flash for the first time for a period of continuous work in the field, and the lessons I learnt may be of some use to other bird photo- graphers. I am not competent to deal with the technical aspects of speedflash photography, but from the practical point of view several qualities are desirable :— (1) The light should be of high intensity to allow for exposures at small stops. When using a telephoto lens, it is clear that good depth of focus is of very great importance. (2) The flash must be of short duration. My set gave me an exposure speed of about 1/3,oooth of a second. This was not fast enough to ‘freeze’ the movement of the smaller birds such as the Bluechat. It could, however, deal quite adequately with a slow-flying bird like the Hoopoe. I am certain that for a bird like the Central Asian King- fisher, an effective speed of at least 1/10,oooth of a second is essential. 786 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 (3) Quick re-charging of the condenser is useful. As a light of high intensity is important, the transformer naturally has to be large, and weight in the equipment is unavoidable. (4) The leakage of current from the condenser is usually de- signed, as a safety measure, to empty it in about 1 minute. It should be possible to lengthen this time to, say, 3-5 minutes. For ordinary use this would be danger- ous, but birds quite often do not visit the nest for long stretches at a time and it would be a distinct advantage for the bird photographer to be able to make his battery last longer by having to charge his condenser less often. When on trek, one’s constant worry is when the battery is going to run down. There is, of course, no hope of getting the battery recharged in Kashmir, for instance, except when one reaches a place like Pahalgam or Srinagar. In the early examples of speedflash photography, it was not un- usual for the pictures to have inky black backgrounds which made the bird look as if it was flying by night. This look of unreality may be avoided by either photographing the bird with a background close enough to be illuminated by the lamps, or choosing a point where the bird is in shadow but the distant background in full sunlight. The photograph of the Hoopoe (Plate II) was taken by this later method. I found that in most cases two lamps were necessary. The use of a single lamp causes dense shadows in the photograph which are ugly and can only be avoided by using a supplementary light source to light up the shadows. | It is unwise to photograph when it is raining, even if the rain is only a slight drizzle. Apart from the damage likely to be caused to equipment and the danger involved, raindrops get ‘frozen’ and in the photograph appear as round blobs which (as this happened to me) made me think at first that my film had deteriorated. A developer which will give good shadow detail is essential and I found ‘Promicrol’ from this point of view most satisfactory. My camera Was a quarter-plate Speed Graphic and I used a 1o-inch tele- photo lens for all my pictures. There is no doubt that the highspeed flash will cause as great a revolution in bird photography in India as it has done elsewhere. Photographs of quick-moving birds, like the Bluechat, which always nests on the ground in dark places could not be obtained except by using it. As it does not give dense, hard shadows of the kind usually associated with pictures taken with the ‘M’ or ‘F’ type of flashbulb, the results are also more pictorial. I did not have an opportunity to use colour films with my speed- flash but as the light emitted is white in colour, there is no reason why daylight-type colour film should not be used satisfactorily with it. When technical improvements finally bring decreased weight with- out decreased efficiency, the use of the speedflash in the high places of the Himalayas will become, as indeed it should be, a problem in photography and not a problem in transportation. JsouU SUIARZ] PEYOONI IIe (ysegpeeds ) ayo7 “TM 0j04d ye ew : — i accep ita - es 5 aaa 3 eat) ‘sunoA jo yoxOed soos YIM SoU SUTAPOT (sdoda vdndy ) sodooyy ‘00S “LSIH ‘LVN AvaWog ‘Nunof[ ( ysegpeeds ) ayo7 Jt M Q O ‘yy Ooo0'S IIWYSeY JO 9]eA myoeoidde (raysns opunsp]) MOT[LeEMS WOUTUIOD O10Ud TP SY oe HR VN Avawog - Journ. BomsBaAy Nat. Hist. Soc. W. T. Loke (Speedflash) | Paradise Flycatcher (Tchitrea p. leucogaster ). Male approaching nest with food. Anchar Lake 5,o00 ft. ‘YF OOO'TT siewmUeIsy “UlYS 94} UT dun] & SULyeUT Poo}; a10N ‘SUNOA PoYo}eY-A[MOU SUTZEQNOUL s[eULo} Poof 0} JNOQe SI oTeU oY, *( 2uamyNs *s uopyaysuuaz) aoyoyeoAT,J A JOOS Iruysey ( ysegpeeds ) ayoT °L "MM 0704 THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA BY N. L. Bor PART I (With three plates and thirteen text figures) SUMMARY In the Flora of British India the species of Poa were worked up by the late Dr. Otto Stapf and in all 17 species were described. Of these, the species called Poa persica Trin. has been made the type of a new genus, Hvemopoa Roshev., by the Russian botanist Roshevitz. ‘The characteristics of Hvemopoa Roshev. are so different from those of Poa Linn., particularly in the nervation of the lemma, that there is no doubt that they are better kept apart. ‘This leaves sixteen species of Poa for India. In the present study, forty-nine species are described, and it is by no means certain that this number covers all the valid species of the Himalaya and neigh- bouring areas. Some of these forty-nine species have not so far been found within the political boundaries of India and Pakistan, but as they occur just over the border, it may be assumed that they will sooner or later be found within the geographical area known as India, since there are no natural barriers to their spread. Introduction The name oa, from the Greek wéa, mon, woin, grass, herb or fodder, apparently was not used to designate any particular plant until Linnaeus founded the genus Poa in his Genera Plantarum 20 (1737)*, a genus which appeared in each successive edition of the book with the characteristics unchanged. In the first edition of his Spectes Plantarum 67 (1753), Linnaeus gave binomials to 17 species in this genus, the majority of which still remain in the genus foa as conceived by modern agrostologists. The remainder have been transferred to other genera, e.g. Eragrostis, as necessity arose. The systematic treatment of the species of the genus Poa is one of the most bewildering and difficult of taxonomic studies. While many species are clear cut and can be recognised at a glance, there are groups of species about which one can only conclude that their evolu- * In the first four editions of this work, Linnaeus refers to the Agrostographia of Scheuchzer, published in 1719, for illustrations of the genus Poa. By a curious error, which remained undetected through four editions of the Genera Plantarum, Linnaeus quotes tabula IV, fig. 17, instead of tabula, III, fig. 17. In the sixth edition of the Genera Plantarum, published in 1754, Linnaeus drops all reference to Scheuchzer, since, as he tells us in the preface to the edition, ‘citationes auctorum pro determinandis speciebus expunximus’, since these are to be found in Species Plantarum, 1753. 7 788 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST. SOCIETY, VoL 50 tionary history has been so complex that they do not lend themselves to systematic treatment by present taxonomic methods. One cannot rely upon a single character to separate species in such groups, but combinations of more or less variable characters must be used—a procedure, it must be confessed, which often leads to the recognition of species by what is suspiciously like guesswork, even if it is termed experience or intuition. The foregoing statements do not apply to the Indian species of Poa _ only, but have been the experience of all workers in this field, no matter what flora has been the subject of their studies. One of the reasons for these difficulties is presumably hybridization and polyploidy followed by apomixis. This suggests that the only satisfactory way of dealing with such difficult groups will be by experimental analysis. So far no experiments of this kind have been undertaken with any of the Indian species and it seems as if these experiments are far distant. This, however, should not be a valid reason for postponing a revision of the genus in India, for, no matter how difficult and complex the study is or how desirable a knowledge of the genetic basis for each species may be, there are still collections to be named. Until all the data necessary to give the complete picture have been obtained, the taxonomist must do the best he can with the material at hand. At any rate we are very far from the stage in our knowledge of the genus Poa about which Stebbins (1950) surmises ‘ when this genus is better known, it may have to be regarded as a single huge polyploid complex, which is in part purely sexual, in part facultatively apomictic, and which contains in addition obligate apomicts’. Difficulties of classification in default of breeding experiments and analysis have so far been tackled in adjacent areas (India and Russia) in two ways, neither of which is entirely satisfactory. The first method is to widen the characters of certain species to such an extent that these species become a kind of dustbin to which many of the aberrant or doubtful specimens can be relegated. In this method the concept of a species of Poa may include characters which are as divergent as firm and herbaceous lemmas, wool or no wool, keels of the palea which are scabrid or ciliate, anthers large or small, ligules long or short, and so forth. Such a hypothetical species becomes a polymorphic assemblage with extremes looking as different from one another as only two distinct species can. For typical examples of this method, one had only to look at the treatment of the two species Poa nemoralis Linn. and P. annua Linn. in the Flora of British India. Now, if the ambit of 7. xemoralis Linn. is extended to include specimens with a long ligule and lower glumes which may be lanceolate, oblong-elliptic or even ovate in shape,. it is quite clear that P. xemoralis as understood by Linnaeus will be swamped in the flood of specimens which obviously look different but. which, thanks to the widening of the characters, fall pat into the artificial and capacious receptacle created for thein. In the folders of Indian P. nemoralis at Kew, Edinburgh, Calcutta and Dehra Dun were to be found a small number of sheets only which could actually be identified as true P. nemoralis Linn. The erection of | var. ligulata Stapf permitted numerous sheets of P. sterélis M.B., avaratiea Trautv. and several other species to be included. The treatment of Poa annua Linn. in the same work is just as THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA 733 unsatisfactory. This cosmopolitan species is usually a lax annual, sometimes biennial, but very rarely perennial—there is little or no wool at the base of the lemmas—the lemmas are herbaceous, green, with cilia on the keel and outer nerves—the paleae are ciliate on the keels—the anthers are almost 0°8 mm. long. The erection of two varieties, var. mepalensis and var. stkkimensits in the Flora of British /ndia, widens these characters so that the Poa annua of India is annual or perennial, with wool or without wool, with keels of the palea ciliate or ciliate below and scabrid above, with lemmas very firm or herbaceous, with all nerves ciliate or only the outer, with anthers varying in length from 0°4 mm.to2 mm. _ Into the hypothetical species possessing these characters it is possible to fit P. annua Linn., P. supina Schrad., P. intirma H.B.K., P. nepalensts Wall. and P. stkkimensis Bor, all of which differ in morphology, habit and appearance, and soms even have different chromosome numbers. The second method is to take a single character as a basis and to divide the species of the genus into two parts on the criterion of its presence or absence, The most frequently used character for this initial subdivision is the nervation of the lemmas. In one group the nerve between the lateral and keel nerves is extremely prominent, while in the other group it is very faint. Each of the two divisions so obtained could again be subdivided by taking another character, say, wool or no wool at the base of the lemma. Further subdivisions would demand other contrasting characters. In this way a rigid dichtomous key is obtained and this is the method, one feels, that has been followed in the Flora U.S.S.R. Vol. 2. for in the treatment of the genus Poa inthat book, which incidentally runs to 106 species, the species are separated in the key on just such characters as the above. If the dichotomy in the key is based upon contrasting characters which are not absolutely reliable, then the whole system breaks down and makes the determination of species by means of a key impossible. In the absence of data obtained by experimental techniques. the writer of this paper feels that an intermediate position between the two extremes is in the circumstances the best course to pursue. By this. means the unreasonable expansion of the limits of the species, and hence the inevitable lumping, on the one hand, is avoided, and, on the other, that while due regard is given to the status of recognisable species, excessive splitting on doubtful characters is likewise excluded. The procedure however does not solve the question of the treatment of the more difficult groups, and the writer has come to the conclusion that it is quite impossible to deal with the members of such groups by” the ordinary classical methods, but that species must be lumped to be dealt with later when, by breeding experiments, the exact relationship of the members of the group can be elucidated. Taxonomic Characters and their Reliability Before any key to a genus can be drawn up a decision has to be made regarding the characters to be used for the separation of species. And after the selection of such characters has been made, further consideration must be given to the confidence or weight which can be dlaced in these characters. 790 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Such decisions can only be made after experience has been gained by the examination and dissection of a large mass of material. To this end the collections of the genus in the great herbaria of England, India, Paris and Holland have been examined, particularly those of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew ; the British Museum (South Kensington) ; the Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh; the National Botanic Gardens, Calcutta ; the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun; and the Rijks- herbarium, Leiden. Afterexamination of this very large mass of material, one is forced to the conclusion that, in so far as the genus Poa in India is concerned, there is no single character which can be selected (except possibly one) in which absolute reliance can be placed. The degree of reliability also varies. Some characters are almost always present, others fairly constant, while others only occasionally can be found. The one exception to which reference has been made is the possession of scaly rhizomes. I have yet to find a specimen of Poa pratensis which does not possess this organ. But here again it is often missing in herbarium specimens, though usually the remains of it can be made out. The compilation of a kéy to the species of Poa is therefore a matter of considerable labour, and the writer has been reduced to a state of extreme exasperation on more than one occasion by the discovery that the carefully-built edifice has had to be destroyed because one specimen of a species did not possess the vital character. The fact of the matter is that groups of characters have to be used, and this method, in a dichotomous key, means the repetition of species in the contrasting sections. In the following pages an attempt is made to list and evaluate characters for diagnostic purposes in the light of experience gained from the examination of the material at hand. Colour Although species of Poa exhibit many different shades of green, it is difficult to make use of the variations since they are often partly due to habitat conditions. Another difficulty is that of conveying in words the exact description of a shade of green. Still it is possible to make a limited use of colour differences. As, for example, the two grasses, Poa litwinowiana Ovez. and P. koelziz Bor, can be picked out at once because of their extremely glaucous aerial parts. As for shades of green, P. anxnua Linn. is light green, P. compressa Linn. has a bluish tinge in the green and P. pratensis Linn. is said to be dark green in colour. Some species are much paler and P. sterz/is .M.B. is one such, while its close relative P. avaratica Trautv. is equally pale but has a reddish or purplish shade in the basal sheaths. P. tibetica Munro is distinguished by its very pale spikelets, while the spikelets of many of the other species which grow at high altitudes are suffused with purple. Butthis purple colour, although it usually can be correlated with high altitudes, is too variable to be of any value as a diagnostic character. Other species, again, have bands of gold or orange near the tip of the spikelet and this is sometimes of limited value in diagnosis. THE GENUS-POA LINN, IN INDIA 791 Vegetative Characters Roots The dense fibrous shallow roots of the species of Poa vary so much In appearance and size in response to habitat conditions that no reliance can be placed upon them for diagnostic purposes. SHOOTS In addition to the vertical vegetative shoots which usually end in the inflorescence, the genus Poa has two types of horizontal modified shoots: underground shoots or rhizomes and stolons which creep over the surface. CuLMsS In most species the culms are terete and smooth but some are scabrid below the panicle, and this is taken in some floras to be diag- nostic. While in some instances the scabridity is of such a degree as to be noticeable to the touch, itis usually much less apparent. Seen under a lens, however, it is safe to say that a large proportion of species are at least minutely scabrid below the inflorescence, where the scabridity takes the form of very minute, well-spaced teeth on the nerves. In one species only, P. compressa Linn., is the culm markedly com- pressed. This is of diagnostic importance in the field, but in a pressed herbarium specimen the character is lost or masked. STOLONS P. trivialis Linn. is strongly stoloniferous, the prostrate stems: creeping widely, rooting at the nodes and sending up flowering shoots. P. nemoralis Linn. is a species that is weakly stoloniferous. RHIZOMES ‘The possession of these organs is a most reliable feature and 1s quite characteristic of the group into which P. pratenszs falls. Poa alpigena has a characteristically curved underground stem which is very constant and distinguishes at once living and herbarium specimens from other species. Poa araratica possesses a striking rootstock, really a thick rhizome with very short nodes, but it is rarely present on herbarium sheets as, when carelessly collected, the culms of this species break off easily at the base, and the rootstock is left in the ground. The culms grow closely crowded together arising from the short, stout, inclined or almost horizontal rootstock which is quite characteristic and which, if present, separate this species at once from the closely related /oa stevtlts M.B. with which it is often confused. The latter does not arise from a rhizome of this kind, and the circumstance emphasises once again the necessity for careful collecting if correct identificaticns are to. be made. 792 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 The two species P. himalayana Nees and P. stewartiana Bor are very close together: the former possesses a rhizome while the latter does not. They are easily separated on this feature alone. Appendages to the Vegetative Shoots SHEATHS The firmly compressed sheaths of Poa compressa Linn. are character- istic, but then the sheaths are more or less compressed in most species, and when dried specimens are being examined no reliance can be placed on this character. The scabrous sheaths of foa frivialis Linn. are often considered to be diagnostic, but the character breaks down in the form of this species which has smooth sheaths! Indeed, in many species the sheaths are more or Jess scabrid and the roughness is very variable in amount, even in the same species. In the series Bulbosae the swollen leaf bases, which give the base of these plants a bulbous appearance, are quite distinctive. The grasses which form this group can be separated with confidence from other Poae by the possession of this character alone. The bases of the sheaths of non-flowering shoots of these species become thickened and succulent, and act as storage organs where starch and reserve cellulose can be accumulated. In Poa aipina Linn. the basal sheaths decay very tardily, so that the base, consisting mainly of dead and partly disintegrated sheaths, becomes thicker and thicker. Loose, scarious, smooth sheaths are characteristic of P. dagophila Bor, P. hirtiglumis Stapf and P. polycolea Stapf. The basal sheaths of P. avaratica Trautv. are distinctly reddish- purple in colour, though this does not hold good for every specimen. The colour is absent in the specimens of the closely related P. sterzlis M.B. LIGULES The length of the ligule 1s an important and often diagnostic feature, and there appears to be little variation in ligule-length within a single species. The range within the Indian species is considerable, varying as it does from practically none to 7 mm. long. At one end of the scale are P. nemoralis Linn. and P. khastana Stapf. In the former the ligule is very short, often practically absent and never more than 0'5 mm. long. In the latter it is longer, but still not more than 1 mm. long. At the other end of the scale are P. pago- phila Bor, P. lahulensts Bor, and PP. jaunsarensis Bor—which have ligules over 5 mm. long. Most ligules are truncate or rounded on the upper margin and ‘become lacerate with age. The ligule of P. ¢vzvialis Linn., however, ends in a more or less sharp point, a feature which is diagnostic, provided other essential characters are present. The texture of the ligule varies from hyaline to membranous or chartaceous, and it is sometimes milky or brownish in colour. The THE GENUS POA LINN... IN INDIA 793 outer surface of the ligule is sometimes scabrid, but this scabridity is so variable as to be worthless as a distinguishing character. In the descriptions of the species the ligule- lengths recorded are those of the ligule of the topmost leaf. LEAVES The leaves in the genus are mostly linear in shape, tapering abruptly to a point which is hooded like the prow ofa boat. But this characteristic is not uniform throughout the genus, for the leaves of P., trivialts Linn., P. gammteana Stapf and P. palustris Linn. end in a long. acuminate tip which is quite different from that just mentioned. The texture of the leaves may be firm or flaccid, they may be green or even pale green, or glaucous or variously suffused with purple. The leaves of all species are folded in the bud. It is a moot point whether the size and texture of the leaves can in general be taken as reliable characters in the separation of species since these depend so much upon habitat. In one instance, however, two species very much alike in other res- pects, can be separated with certainty on the width of the leaves. These two species are Poa pratensis and Poa angustifolia in which the leaves are much smaller and narrower in the latter than in the former— a circumstance which makes the two grasses look very different in the field or ina herbarium specimen. The margins of ieaves and their surfaces are usually smooth, though asperities can be made out with a lens. Feinbrunn* makes use of this scabridity as an additional character by which Poa sinaica Boiss. can be separated from Poa etgiz Feinbrunn, the latter being scaberulous on the margins of the leaves only, while the former is scaberulous on the surface and on the margins, Whether this difference is a con- stant feature in all leaves of the two species, or in any way reliable, is open to question. In Poa asperitolta Bor, however, the leaves are so scabrid to the touch that the scabridity alone is almost sufficient to determine the species. Leafiness, or the reverse, is so difficult to define precisely that no matter what conception the worker on Poa has in his own mind, it is perhaps better not to try anduse it as a contrasting character. Yet, looking through a series of folders, one does get the idea that, com- -pared with others, some /oae are distinctly leafy. For example, long lax leaves are found in foa trivialts Linn., P. nepdhelophila Bor, P. khasiana Stapf, P. nemoralis Linn., P. nepalensis Wall., VP. tbeticola Bor, and P. aztchisoniz Boiss. Other species, Poa stertlzs M.B. and P. avaratica Trautv., for example, are decidedly less leafy. The arrangement of leaves is 2a somewhat better criterion. Nume- rous flat basal leaves with very short culm leaves are characteristic of Poa alpina Linn. and Poa azichtsoniz Boiss. The leaves of the former often turn purple when dried. The mature basal leaves are folded in Poa tibetica Munro and flat in P. alpina Linn. The leaves of the sterile shoots at the base of tufts of Poa bulbosa Linn., Poa sinaica Steud. and P. bactriana Roshev. are very flexuous and threadlike, giving a very distinctive facies to the tuft. © Kew Bulletin, 1940, 277 (1940). 794 JOURNAL, BOMBAY) NATURAL HIST.FSOCIE TRY, Wol.w50 The leaves of P. infirma H.B.K. are extremely thin, almost translu= cent and far thinner than those of any other Indian species. Inflorescence PANICLE The shape of the panicle and its density are important for classifica= tion. Most densely spiculate panicles do expand a little as they grow older, but even so they retain their character and are not likely to be mistaken for the effuse wide-spreading panicles common in the meadow grasses. The length of the pedicel and the branches are important in this. respect, aS even an expanded spicate inflorescence will retain its densely arranged spikelets. The number of basal branches is important, and is usually fairly constant. If a Species which normally has five basal branches appears to have two or three only it is well to examine the node carefully. Traces. will nearly always be found of the missing branches which can be made. out as aborted or fused rémnants. THE SPIKELET The spikelet consists of glumes, lemmas, paleas, rhachilla, androe- ceum, gynaeceum and lodicules—each of which will be considered in turn. First of all, the shape of the spikelet may be characteristic. FP. alpina Linn., in which the glumes and lemmas are curved on the back, has broadly ovate spikelets, and can be recognised Dy the spikelet. alone. On the other hand, there are numerous species in which the keels of glumes and lemmas are more or less straight, and these have spikelets which are cuneate or oblong-cuneate in shape. In between. these two extremes there is a gradual transition from one to the other. (1) Tue GLuMeEs The lower glume is usually smaller and narrower than the upper. The upper is invariably 3-nerved, the lower 1- or 3-nerved. The ner- vation of the lower glume is more or Jess constant for the species. The size of the lower glume and its relationship to the other parts of the spikelet is sometimes diagnostic. For example the two species Poa himalayana Nees and P. stewarttana Bor, are very close to one another. If, however, the spikelets of each are examined, it will be seen that the tip of the lower glume reaches beyond the centre of the keel of the lowest lemma in Poa stewarttana Bor, while in Poa himalayana Nees. the tip of the glume does not reach so far up. Knowledge such as this. obviates the necessity for dissection, and an examination of the palea.. In some species the tip of the lower glume exceeds the tip of the lowest lemma in the spikelet. This is an important taxonomic charac- ter and only a few Indian species possess it. The glumes are usually narrowly hyaline on the margins, but in Poa glabriflora Roshev. they are curiously translucent, and the bases of the lemmas can be seen through them. The shape of the lower glume is a good character. ‘Those of Poa THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA 795 nemoralis Linn. and of P. setulosa Bor are awl-shaped, that of P. alpina Linn. ovate when flattened; others are (and this includes the majority of the species) lanceolate or elliptic-acute when flattened. (2) Lemma The grass flower arises in the axil of a scale-like bract or leaf, the lemma, and is enclosed between it and the bracteole or palea. Thus these two scales are in close contact with the most important part of the plant and therefore intimately concerned with its protection. As might be expected these organs show less variability than any others. In all species the lemma is more or less keeled. In Poa palustris Linn. the lemma is sharply keeled below and not above, so that in the fruit the lemma is flattened on the back. In Poa calliopszs Litw. the lemma is more rounded than keeled and is reminiscent of the lemmas inthe genus Colpodium. (a) Colour Colour is hardly a reliable factor, but glaucous spikelets are found in Poa litwinowiana Ovez. and P. koelztz Bor. For the remainder, which possess spikelets of various shades of green, an infusion of purple in the lemma seems to be correlated with habitats at high altitudes. Possibly the colouring matter is a protection against the penetrating rays of the sun in the rarified air of the highest mountain tops. In some of the species which live at high altitudes the purple lemma is. divided from the hyaline margin at the tip by a band of golden coloured tissve which makes the spikelet an object of great beauty. A faint yellow band is often present between the hyaline tip of the lemma and the lower green or violet portion. This can easily be seen in P. stevz/zs M.B., Poa nemoralzs Linn., Pea pratensis \sinn. and others. In FP. palustris Linn. the colour of the band is coppery or orange, but is not always so distinct as to be diagno- stic. (b) Mervation All the lemmas of species of Poa have five nerves, the centre one being the keel nerve, about which the lemma itself is folded or com- pressed. ° The texture of the lemma varies within wide limits, though it is. constant for a species. Most lemmas tend to become indurated or at least firmer as the seed ripens, and this fact is a point to remember when making use of a character which has been used for a very long time to divide the species into two categories. The section Pachyneurae Aschers. contains those species of Poa in which the nerve between the keel and marginal nerves on each side is prominent and conspicuous. The other section is the Lep/oneunrae DOll, in which the corresponding nerves are faint and inconspicuous. This subdivision is reasonably satisfactory as long as the lemmas are young. When older, however, the conspicuous intermediate nerve of species in section Pachyneurae tends to become inconspicuous as the lemma becomes firmer, so that the significance or reliability of this character becomes masked. Never- theless this is a very useful subdivision and one which is made use of in many floras. 796 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST SOCIEEY, Vorwse Personally, I think it can be best applied as an ee asa primary—distinguishing character. (c) Surface The surface of the lemmas in most species of Poa is dull and mat, and while they may not be actually scabrid, they are granular in appear- ance under a lens. The surface actually looks as if it were pitted and glandular. Under a higher power it becomes clear that the granular appearance is due to the numerous silica cells in the epidermis of the lemmas. These are much more numerous in some species than in others. For example, in P. pratensis Lian., P. angustifolia Linn., P. wardiana Bor and others, these silica cells are very numerous, and give a dull appearance to the lemmas which are markedly different in appearance and texture from the shining lemmas of P. alpina Linn., P. dahulensis Bor and P. ¢zbetica Munro in which the silica cells are not sO numerous. Some species are distinctly scabrid on the dorsal surface, not only on ‘the upper parts of the nerves and keel, but on the actual surface between the nerves. P. wardiana Bor, P. gamblet Bor, and P. pagophila Bor may ‘be mentioned as examples of this. I'he covering of matted hairs, white or yellowish, which is to be found on the lower half of the lemmas of some species is very remarkable. This feature is a good diagnostic one, but it must be looked forcarefully Since the short matted hairs are caducous, and in mature spikelets very often all but the barest traces are lost. In P. Azrt¢glumis Stapf, one of this group, the hairs are golden yellow in colour and comparatively long, and are appressed to the surface of the lemma. All the species which possess this feature are high altitude plants, and it is possible that the felty covering serves a useful purpose as an insulating device to protect the androeceum, gynoecium and Seed against violent fluctuations of heat and moisture. Other appendages which are found on the Jemma are—(a) the ciliate hairs on the nerves, and (4) the wool on the callus at the base. First of all it should be stated that there are some species which are almost completely devoid of cilia, hair or wool. Such species are Poa glabriflora Roshev., P. daciriana Reoshev. and P. poobhagorum Bor,and some races of P. bulbosa Linn. and P. aifchtsonii Boiss. are equally bare. For the rest every combination can be seen—all the nerves, or only the keel and outer pair, or the keel alone may be ciliate. The presence or absence of the cilia on the nerves are good characters and do not vary much withina species. The keel is rarely ciliate for more than half its length, the upper half being most often scabrid. The nerves are usually scabrid, not ciliate, in the upper third or quarter. The wool at the base of the lemma, actually on the callus, is a very good and reasonably reliable character, but not quite good enough to ‘separate a whole genus into two sections. How far this is a genetic character is of course not known, but in the sfevilis group, for example, the quantity of wool does not appear to be constant. In P. sterilis M.B. itself, wool is not considered to be present, but in certain specimens which can undoubtedly be placed under P. stevilis M.B. there is wool present, albeit only a strand or two. In the dichotomous key, therefore, THE GENUS POA LINN. IN INDIA 797 | P. sterilis M.B. will be found in both halves. Actually to separate species on the possession or absence of wool, as in the Flora of the U.S.S.R., seems to be a dangerous procedure. The wool on the callus and the cilia on the nerves appear to consist solely of 1-celled hairs. (3) PALEA This organ is one of the most important in the grass flower. Mor- phologically itis the bracteole which is situated between the flower and the rhachilla and is homologous with the prophyllum. Typically the palea is 2-nerved, the nerves being separated by a thin sheet of hyaline tissue which is concave on the adaxial surface. Outside the two nerves are two flaps, both being thin and hyaline. This structure suggests very strongly that its shape and nervation are due to space conditions within the developing spikelet. At any rate the two flaps are pressed against the margins of the lemma and the surface between the nerves against the rhachilla, so that the palea is strongly 2-keeled. The rdéle of the palea seems to be a protective one. The hyaline tissue between the keels is sometimes granular from the presence of silica cells, and l-celled hairs may or may not be present in addition on the adaxial sutface. These surfaces may also be very scabrid as in the species P. wardiana Bor. By far the most interesting and important, however, are the appendages to the keels. The keels are invariably armed with either forwardly directed teeth or hooks or spreading 1-celled hairs, the upper half bearing teeth and the lower half cilia. In the species Poa calliopsis these teeth are reduced to a few blunt projections on each keel, but the teeth are numerous and in one ormore rows in all the other species except those in which the keels are completely ciliate. For this one species the reduced number of teeth constitutes a diagnostic feature. Von Oettingen has attempted to use the armature of the palea keels as an additional tool in the identification of species. After the examination of a large number of specimens he formulated a scheme the salient features of which are as follows :— He distinguished four groups. (1) Pélosae in which the keels are ciliate from base to apex with longish hairs. (2) Semz-pilosae in which the lower half of the keel is ciliate with the cilia passing insensibly to the teeth above. (3) Dentatae in which there are no hairs but more than one row of hooked teeth. (4) Pectinatae in which the teeth are reduced to a single row on the keel. In the writer’s opinion the possession of hairs, teeth or a mixture of both is of such importance in the identification of species of Poa that it is worth while taking some trouble to find out exactly how these structures are arranged. The palea to be examined should be placed in a drop of water and the keels carefully examined. In young paleas the hairs, if present, are not immediately apparent, and indeed it may be necessary to tease them ‘out. Inolder paleas the hairs are motile and stand out at once. 798 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 These hairs or trichomes are reduced in number or almost entirely aborted in some races of those species in which they are normally present. This sometimes happens in Poa annua, one of the com- monest of species. It has been found, however, that the hairs are not altogether absent though they may be reduced in extreme instances, to a single trichome. In specimens which exhibit a palea with few or no trichomes on the keels, it is reasonable to search for the species among those listed under Pdlosae below. In specimens in which the upper part of the keel of the palea is covered with hooks and the lower half bare or almost bare, the species should be sought for under Semzpilosae. In both these categories there are additional subsidiary characters, which help to separate the species easily. Apart from such aberrations, experience has shown that the. armature of the keels of the palea, when hairs are present, is a very great help towards identification, but that von Oettingen’s other two sections are of limited value only. The writer’s opinion is that to attempt to divide aJl the species which have scabrid kee¥s into two rigid classes, according as they have one row of teeth (Pectinatae) or two or more rows (Dentatae) is a matter of some difficulty. For, while it is admitted that some can be relegated to one or other category with ease, there are others which appear to occupy an intermediate position. For example, it is quite evident that P. angustifolia Linn. has one row of teeth, and that P. palustvis Linn. has more than one. But it is not so easy to place P.compressa Jinn., which appears to have teeth in one or more rows. The following is a list of those species which belong to the sections Pilosae and Semz-pilosae. Pilosae A bare half dozen species belong to this group. They are P. annua Linn., 2. hirtiglumis Stapf, P. infirma H.B.K., P. nepalensis Wall., P. supina Schrad., P. nephzlophita Bor. Semtpilosae To this group belong P. alpina Linn., P. burmanica Bor, P. gam- mieana Hook. f., P. stapfiana Bor, P. stewartiana Bor. An interesting, but idle, speculation is that these species are tertile hybrids between species in Pzlosae and species in Dentatae-Pectinatae. If this be so, there is no method of telling in our present state of knowledge what _the parents may be. (4) RACHILLA The rachilla in the genus Poa is slender and terete and jointed below each floret. It is always prolonged beyond the upper perfect floret and crowned with arudimentary lemma and palea. The internodes are attached to the base of the adjacent lemma, and the internode and floret fall together when the rachilla breaks up. The shape of the spikelet depends very largely upon the lengths of the internodes of the rachilla. The compact lanceolate or ovate types are those in which the joints are very short. On the other hand the oblong, loose types are those in which the florets are well spaced. The rachilla joints (internodes) are much_ longer in P. nephelophila THE GENUS POA LINN. IN’ INDIA 799 Bor. and P. folycolea Stapf than in any of the remainder of the Indian species, The rachilla is smooth and glabrous in about half of the Indian species, while in the remainder it is shortly hairy, verrucose, or covered with scabridities. It is not possible to use these features to any extent in the separation of species. : THE FLOWER In the majority of the Indian species of /va all the florets in a spikelet, excluding the terminal rudimentary floret, are usually herma- phrodite, but in one of the commonest Indian species, Poa annua L., the lower florets are hermaphrodite, while the upper one or two are female. This arrangement is quite unusual in the genus. (a) Androeceum The androeceum consists of three stamens, each of which has a jong filament surmounted by an anther with 2 loculi opening by longitudinal slits. The size of the anthers does not vary to any extent within a species, except in one known instance, as will be seen later. In so far as the genus in India is concerned, the smallest anthers, 0:22 mm. long, are found in the species Poa infirma, and the largest, 3 mm. long in Poa falconert, P. ludens, P. pagophila and P. palustris. As had been indicated, the size of the anthers is a reliable character and has been used in the key to separate groups. As might have been expected, however, there is an exception to the otherwise general rule. In Poa staptiana (P. tremula Stapf) there is a race in which the only difference from the type is the small anthers. Stapf called the variety var. microtheca and it is the sole example of a marked variation in the size of the anthers within a species. The peculiarity has of course been allowed for in the key. As in the majority of species the anthers are bright yellow, but purple anthers and yellow anthers spotted with purple are not unknown, especially in the high altitude species. (b) Gynoeceum The gynoeceum consists of a one-celled ovary with two styles and two plumose stigmas. There isa single ovary attached to the wall of the carpel. . (c) Lodicules The lodicules are two in number and are more or less 2-toothed or -lobed. (d) Grain The hilum is punctiform and basal. Cytology and Cytogenetics Avdulov’s (1931) pioneer work on the cytology, anatomy and morphology of the grasses has been of great importance to those whose studies include the systematics and phylogenetic relationships of the Gramineae. This original work and research lead him to divide the family into two large groups, Sacchartferae and Poatae. The 800 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HAST. SOCIETY; Vol. 50 latter were again subdivided into Phragmitifermes and Festuciformes. Both Sacchariferae and Phragmttiformes have small chromosomes, the former in multiples of 9 or 10, and the latter in multiples of 12. The Festucifo+mes, however, have large chromosomes with a basic number o£ -/. When Avdulov came to examine the Festuciformes in detail, he found that the vast majority of those included in this group were inhabitants of the temperate or cooler regions of the world. From this and other considerations he propounded the hypothesis that the evolutionary trend inthe grasses was towards a reduction in chromosome number but an increase in chromosome size—a hypothesis which has had a large measure of acceptance. He took the view that the phylogenetic increase in size of the chromosomes was brought about as an adaptation to the more rigorous climate in which these grasses live. In common with mest of the genera which inhabit temperate or cold climates, the basic chromosome number in the genus Poa is 7. The genus can also be considered to be advanced in that the species, inter alia, have specialised appendages in the torm of the wool at the base of the lemmas, and often hairy coverings to the lemmas themselves. It is therefore something of an anti-climax to find that the chromosomes in the genus are small, in fact much smaller than in other members of the Festuciformes. Stebbins (1950) considers this circum- stance to provide the best evidence among plants for the reversibility of trends in absolute chromosome size. Since no Indian cytologist has worked on the Indian species of Poa, the work of Russian, American and British scientists on those species which are cosmopolitan and which are also found in India, has been taken as the basis for the following short account. Reference may be made to an excellent review of the whole subject by Myers (1947), whose index to the literature contains over 600 references, | Polyploidy is a feature of the Gramineae and the genus /oa is one of the genera which provides perhaps one of the best illustrations of this statement. Not only is polyploidy common in this genus, but several of the species include races which differ in chromosome number, as will be evident from the following list of species, all of which occur in India :— * Eu Poa annua Linn. Baer Ao. P. supina Schrad Ee P. intirma H.B.K. Fig. 3. Poa nepalensis Wall., x 10 inm. wide, obiong-elliptic-obtuse in shape, very narrowly hyaline on the margins and at the tip, 5-nerved with inconspicuous intermediate nerves, profusely ciliate on the lateral nerves and on the lower two-thirds of the keel, glabrous in between, very faintly punctate all over the dorsal surface, minutely scaberulous in the lower third. Rhachilla smooth and glabrous. Wool copious. introduced into the Khairpur territory. In the early Jain and Buddhist periods (c. 600 B.c.) there was considerable knowledge of mammals, birds and reptiles, but previous. to the appearance of the Kmperor Babur on the scene there is little information concerning shikar. THe MoGuL PERIOD From 1526 to 1707 much of interest is contained in the memoirs of the Mogul Emperors and the chronicles of European travellers in India in those times. The famous illustrated copy of the Ain-i-Akbari, bearing the signature of the Emperor Jehangir, in the Victoria and Albert Museum should be seen by all whocan do so. In the series by Salim A. Ali on ‘The Mogul Emperors as Sportsmen and Naturalists ’ we learn about the hunting methods practised in those days; and this is aided by Handley’s valuable illustrated article. These two contributions afford a remarkably full picture of the shikar methods and natural history knowledge of the period. The shikar grounds of- the Moguls (snuixou spydajq) yueydojy ueipuy yovgqneT a4opoay T ==—— Sa Sa —= — ieee ;, aoe: ), , "20S “LSIH, “LYN Avawog ‘Nunof YO FURS Cre ee @ A] wvev—~v == 4a prpYyorrat: ajopual “A *H £ TP avid | AvaNog ‘Nuno[ AATISEORY OF SHIKAR IN INDTA « B47 were the upper vatles of the Indus towards Peshawar, and the whole of the present U.P. westward from the Ganges to Kathiawar and south- wards to Mandla in the Central Provinces. THE SHIKAR ANIMALS OF THE MOGULS Elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo were known to the Moguls,'ilt! wo the ‘Bison’. When the Moguls first entered India in 1526, the rhinoceros was along the Indus, and the elephant in many places whence it has since vanished. Akbar was specially interested in trapping wild elephants. At the present time there are no longer any elephants north of the Dehra Dun Siwaliks; the rhinoceros lives only in Nepal, Bengal and Assam ; the wild buffalo in those same areas, while a few herds survive here and there in Orissa, Raipur, Jeypore and Bastar. The Larger Felines: The Emperor Babur was a fine sportsman, as also was Akbar, while Jehangir excelled as a naturalist. Akbar disliked the less hazardous methods of tiger-hunting—traps, nets, limed leaves. etc.—and preferred to attack these animals openly with bows and matchlocks. In Mogul days, and as late as the 1830's lions were numerous in Hindustan. Jehangir killed them in Malwa, and the Rev. Terry (c. 1650) was frequently terrified by them when passing through the then vast jungles of that country. The Mogul Emperors quickly discovered the delights of Kashmir, but there is little record of what they did there in the way of shikat. Abul Fazl mentions that the snow leopard was tracked in the snow in Kashmir, but since this is a very elusive animal, seldom seen by sportsmen, it is more likely that this had reference to the common leopard or panther. This is still considered a fine sport by the few who have done it; Ward’s series should be seen. Bears: Of bears there seems to be almost no mention in the Mogul literature. —~ Deer: Nordo we find much about hunting of Deer in the Mogul days. A net was put round the horns of a tamed deer and the horns of the wild one became entangled. It is related that one of the deer ‘caught’ a leopard which became entangled inthe net. The species of deer referred to is not clear. Another form of hunting was by means of a light inside a basket on a man’s head; the animals attracted were shot or speared. The modern poacher uses electric torches or other contrivances and buckshot cartridges. Antelope and Gazelle: There must have been a very great number of antelope (blackbuck), nilgai and gazelle in all the areas suited to them. All the Emperors, Jehangir in particular, were extremely fond of hunting the nilgai and spared no personal effort in pursuit of sport where this species was concerned. Blackbuck were trained as decoys to take the wild ones by the net method. That same device is in use in a part of South India at the present time. Hunting with the Cheetah: This is a pastime indulged in by many notables in India since very early days. The Mogul Emperors were partial to the sport, and Akbar kept a thousand of these 848 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 animals. Three sets were khacah (‘ Royal’) or for use of the sovereign. The monarch’s best leopard, by name Samand malik (‘like a ruby’), rode in a chandol, or litter borne on the necks of two horses. In a wild’state the cheetah hunts antelope, gazelle and the smaller deer, also hares, peafowl and other birds and the smaller mammals, but for sport it is mostly trained for blackbuck. ‘The buck is struck down at full speed, not by blow of a paw only as is commonly stated, but by use of the large-taloned dew-claw which gives the necessary purchase. Blackbuck can attain a speed of 42 miles per. hour when hunted and going all out. The cheetah is an animal partial to rocky. and open country and was soon shot out when the land became more developed. ‘They were frequent!y found in packs, and there is record of a cavalry officer having in one day speared six off one horse. The animals having become exceedingly scarce in India, the supply for sporting purposes comes—or used to come latterly—from Africa. The animals have to be trapped when full grown; if taken as cubs the training is tedious and unsatisfactory. The Caracal—‘ Siah-gosh’ as the Moguls knew it—is easily tamed, and was trained in the same way to kill gazelle and the smaller deer, foxes, hares, peafowl. Vigne witnessed the sport and says their speed is, if possible, greater in proportion even than that of the cheetah. Falconry: The antiquity of falconry is known to be very great, and it is certain that the Moguls gave much impetus to the sport in Northern India. Inthe Salim Ali series we have something, also in Handley’s ‘ Sport in Indian Art’, where we learn that Akbar hunted with trained falcons and hawks of which his favourite was the bashak (Sparrowhawk). In the Ain-i-Akbari names of many varieties are given, and the names of those in use in Sind are in Langley’s book. The famous French physician, Bernier, relates of the Emperor Aurangzeb that there passed before him at his daily Court, or Public Audience, ‘... every species of the birds of prey used in field sports for catching ‘partridges, cranes, hares, and even it is said for hunting antelopes, on which they pounce seni violence, beating their heads and blinding them with their wings and claws. Fishing: The Mogul Emperors were partial to the ancient sport of fishing, in which connection Salim Ali and Hora should be seen. It is common knowledge that Muhammadans of the present day all over India are much addicted to angling with rod and line in both rivers and lakes ; and there are many anglers in Bengal and other parts of India also. THE Post-MoOGUL PERIOD Tiger and Lion: Judging by the number of tigers and other game in a seventy by thirty-mile area near Neemuch in the years 1850--1854 as related by Rice, and the mention by Newall of a railway official having killed one hundred tigers in Rajputana owing to the facility with which he could move about, the quantity of game in the time of the. Moguls must have been very great. Gordon Cumming takes the modern record to the Tapti river border (in 1862 ten tigers in 5 days); Montague Gerard killed 227 tigers in Central India and Hyderabad before he left in 1993; Prideaux of the Central Provinces A, HISTORY OF SHIKAR TN: TN DIA 843: shot 147 tigers during his service up to about 1930. Forsyth, Hicks, Glasfurd, Burton and others fill in the period 1845 to 1905 as to the land of hills and plains from the Narbada to the Kistna. For Madras and Ceylon there are Campbell, Hamilton, Sanderson, Samuel Baker, Dawson, Drury, Fletcher and some more. In regard to Orissa, Bengal, Assam, and Bihar to the Siwaliks we have Williamson, Okeden, Kinloch, Simson, F. W. Pollok, E. B. Baker Fayrer, Baldwin, Braddon, MacIntyre, Adams, Lambert, and others to fill in the hundred years from 1780 to about 1880. In 1852 a tiger killed an officer of the 98th Regiment 23 miles from Rawalpindi; there was a man-eating tiger near Poona in 1849; and there are interesting records of tigers on the islands of Bombay and Salsette. Owing to increase of cultivation and decrease of forests, tigers are in less number than formerly. Although people are still killed by them in some tracts they are necessary to the torest economy, as are the deer and wild pig on which they are meant to exist, so neither the tigers nor their natural prey should be unduly destroyed by man. It is said in the Bengal Sporting Magazine of 1837 that within 23 years of occupation of the country (after the Mahratta Wars) the lions were extinct in the dry and sandy deserts of the Hariana. In 1832-33 cavalry officers at Rajkot shot lions from horseback ; and Colonel D, of the cavalry killed eighty lions while in Kathiawar, one of them being 10 ft. 6 in. long with an 18 inch mane. With another gun (Rice ?) he killed 14 lions in 10 days in the Gir forest. There are now no lions out of Kathiawar, and the number in the Gir is estimated to be 247. Panther or Leopard: Panthers are more ubiquitous than the tiger and less affected by the advance of cultivation, In proportion, the animal is more destructive than the tiger, and under favourable circumstances is more deadly as a man-eater being more agile and active, also more silent and more stealthy. He climbs better, jumps better, and stalks better than the tiger,and can conceal himself almost anywhere. Thomas Vigne was in Kashmir in 1835 and his book would be a useful reference were it not so rare and difficult to obtain. Adams was. a naturalist and ornithologist rather than a sportsman. From his book, and from Newall and Maclatyre who were also in Kashmir about 1851-52, it is known there was then much game in those countries. Not long after that the writing was already on the wall. Far too many animals were shot by Sportsmen; and the people of the country, then as now, took heavy toll during the winter months, The conclusion from perusal of all the old sporting books, cealnee also with Kashmir and Burma, is thatthe steady diminution of all the game animals began about 1780 as to Hindustan, 1840 as to the Western Himalayas, later as to Burma, and is now nearing its climax unless it is halted by all the governments. In Williamson’s day there was the sport of riding on the neck of a ‘koomkee ’—a female elephant used as decoy in capturing a male— and throwing a noosed rope round the head of a wild tusker. ‘This kind of sport,’ says Williamson, ‘cannot be classed among the effeminacies of the day!’ The hunting by tracking of the rogue elephant was declared by Sanderson to be the greatest of all sports; and is still available from time to time. ‘850 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Crocodiles: Of the two species of crocodile knowa in India the river crocodile of the burning ghats and other places takes a man when it has a chance, while the estuarine species is a very dangerous reptile. ‘The Indian Gharial is a fish-eater and not feared by man. Concerning crocodiles and the gharial there are more than fifty Miscellaneous Notes in the Society’s Journal ; among which harpooning in tanks, gharial catching in the Indus river, hints on shooting crocodiles, angling for crocodiles, and poisoning of crocodiles! The shooting of these animals in India can be excellent sport and calls for considerable technique and knowledge of the animals. In jungle streams and pools they take considerable toll of wild life. At p. 75, vol. 1 of Langley’s book is a visual account by an officer of a tiger being vanquished by a large mugger. The Sloth); Bear: and -the: Malayan. Bear c. Upine sixty years ago the Sloth Bear was really plentiful all over the forested tracts-of India and Assam from the base of the Himalayas to Ceylon. Because of its aggressive habit when chanced upon in the jungle, the hand of man is against it, so it is now almost or quite extinct in places where formerly numerous. Nowhere has it been protected under shooting rules. Many of these bears were speared from horse- back by Colcnel Nightingale in the 1860’s. This noted sportsman died in the saddle in 1868 while spearing a panther. The Sloth Bear wil] probably survive through protection in some of the National Parks and Sanctuaries in course of formation, and in its more remote haunts. Naturalists regard the Sloth Bear of Ceylon as a distinct race. The Malayan Bear of Chittagong and Burma is a smaller edition of - the Himalayan Black Bear and merits little mention in this history of shikar as it is seldom met with or hunted. Wild Dogs and Hyenas;: The Indian Wild Dog has an immense range. In earlier days the packs of these animals in forest areas were considerably larger than now. Apart from distemper and other diseases which keep the numbers in check, the fluctuation of the wild dog population must depend considerably upon food supply—mainly deer, pig and other forest animals. Fortunate is it for India that that the species does not attack man, and is not habitually destructive to domestic stock. Should it be more and more deprived of its natural food it may, like the tiger, increasingly prey upon the flocks and herds. The hyena of India is not ordinarily . greatly inimical to human life. [i is here mentioned as occasionaily affording sport to the bobbery-pack, or the horseman with his spear. Sheep and Goats: When the record Sind Wild Goat (52? in.) was shot in the Kirthar Range in November 1912, considerable herds were seen; of present stock there is no news. In Baluchistan the Persian Ibex may not have survived the influx of modern rifles ; nor will the toothsome Urial have fared better. The Persian Gazelle may have survived in a few places. Of the stock of all these animals in earlier days there is no literature available to the writer, but they pro- bably existed in considerable numbers. The Suleiman Markhor is also an animal of the Baluchistan Hills. Soldier-sportsmen serving trans- ‘ Indus used to have fine sport and secure good heads of this race. A HISTORY OF SHIKAR IN INDIA &51 In Adams’s day ibex were plentiful in Kashmir and Wardhwan; now they are no longer there, and have not been for a number of years. Only in the more remote nullahs of Baltistan, Gilgit and Astor could the sportsman now hope to find worth while ibex ; and markhor may have almost vanished (Stockley, Vol. 32 ; 783). Both Adams and MacIntyre pointed out in their books what was happening, and what the result would be; while both Baldwin and MacIntyre remarked on the great diminution of game birds in the Terai and the Doon. SMALL GAME SHOOTING In his Mogul Emperors series Salim Ali, being an expert ornitholo- gist, has given us some interesting information. In those days, and up to the period 1840-1860, the game birds of the hills and plains must have been everywhere in great numbers. Nature had evolved for them a high reproduction rate and they were able successfully to contend against all natural checks, and even with the amount of trapping and snaring to which they had been subjected through all the centuries. With the shotgun and its indiscriminate use there came a very great change; but some of this depletion was also due to the increased incentive to the people to snare game for the tables of the foreigners. Now we have the present intensified diminution of all game birds for there has never been any thought for the morrow, and some species are nearing extinction. During the past few years there has been great opportunity for all game birds to recover in some measure their former abundance, for the changed conditions have made shooting of every description both difficult and expensive. But the apathy of Govern- ments and the authorities, and the activities of trappers and snarers have nullified the opportunity as the demand for meat of any kind has ‘become clamant, and modern communications have made it easy for the supply to reach both markets and consumers. Failing speedy and suitable measures by Government, the outlook is exceedingly gloomy. Jecently, an observer from a foreign land has said to the writer, ‘ You will lose a// your game birds.’ Kashmir: Of Kashmir it is reported at the present time that there is depletion of the number of chukor. Large bags of wildfowl used to be made in Kashmir by sportsmen inclined that way. One of these shot 6998 duck and geese in one year; while another, also shooting alone, bagged 58,613 wildfowl in the seasons 1907-1919. He killed 119 grey lag geese in one day, and on another day 509 duck and teal. Rajputana: In the well-known Bharatpur wildfow] shoots the bags were large. On 20th November 1916 there fell 4206 birds to 50 guns. Without any reference to anything here written or referred to, may be quoted ‘Some prefer flighting, others shoot for averages and lose many of the delights of an exceptionally high bird, and there are those who will not pull trigger until three heads are ina straight line !’ In the Imperial Sandgrouse shoots huge were the bags. Perhaps the record may be that of the Bikaner shoot in 1921(?) when Lord Rawlinson was one of the party which killed in two mornings 5,968 birds. May be those large bags of wildfowl could still be made, but the world’s wildfowl situation does not warrant such slaughter; and 11 852 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 perhaps those other big shoots are events of the past not likely to be repeated, for the times have changed. In India there is now urgent need for a nation-wide fixed close time for the shotgun from Ist April to 30th September. If enforced, that would do much good; but the trappers and snarers must be dealt with by finding them alternative pursuits, as has been done for the toddy tappers in the cause of prohibition. And the shooting and consuming public must be taught to co-operate by refusing to shoot, buy or eat game birds and wildfow] during that period. HUNTING wITH A BOBBERY-PACK The Emperor Akbar was extremely fond of good hunting dogs and imported them from several countries; those from the Hazara District would attack any kind of animal, even thetiger. A bull-mastiff or cross- bred dog of that 60 1b. type will fasten on the nose of the largest of buffa- loes, tame or wild, and bring it to its knees within forty yards. In the 1870’s Sir Montague Gerard used bull terriers to bring tigers to bay, but discontinued the practice because of inevitable casualties. It is all right to use dogs when following wounded tiger or panther, but too much courage is fatal, and unfair to the dogs. Sport with a Bobbery-pack has been enjoyed by British sportsmen in India since the early days of the East India Company. Williamson has much of interest—management, feeding, kennels, diseases and care, and kindred matters—-which are profitable to us even in these later days. He experienced, as have all who hunt the jackal, the instinctive faculty these animals have of ‘shamming death’. Among modern writers J. W. Best gives an excelient sixteen pages of his small book to the Bobbery-pack; and in the ‘Sportsman’s Hand- book for India’ a contributor with fifteen years experience describes his doings and lists jackal, hare, fox, hyena, wolf, blackbuck, gazelle, -sambar stag, pig, wild cat and porcupine as having at one time or another fallen victims to his eager dogs. Burton contributes a chatty account ‘Days and Doings with my Bobbery-pack’ in the Hyderabad country during a number of years. It is essential that the dogs be well broken against ‘ riot’ as to domestic stock; rabies has to be watched for, and there may be casualties from snake-bite. In these greatly changed days a Bobbery-pack is almost a pleasure of the past, fora general charge of Rs. 3 a dog will not, as in 1904, cover the cost of feed, and the wages of a kennelman would be much more than Rs. 7amonth. ‘he keep of a horse is four or five times as great, and everything else in proportion. Again, and again, Aheu tugaces ! HUNTING WITH FOXHOUNDS When asked what he thought of fox-hunting, the great G.B.S. promptly replied in his own inimitable way, ‘It is the pursuit of the uneatable by the unspeakable *! This essentially British sport has not, for climatic reasons, at any time been universal in this country ; but since 1776 when the Madras Hunting Society imported a pack of hounds from England, hunting has gone on uninterrupted in India up to the present day through a Hunt yf Bikaner a Oo PEATE tit H. H. The Mahara — Pris’. BomMmBAyY NAT. Photo JOURN. Sambar or Rusa Deer (Rusa unicolor) ive (eoosuoy *{ ‘[ Sq Sutnured e WO) 9981 “req ApuINy ut quNn]_, SeIpeyN oT lobe “00S °LSIH ‘LVN AVaWog ‘Nunof AP USTORY OF SHIKAR IN INDIA 853 being maintained at one time or another in a number of places. The list is a long one: Bangalore, Belgaum, Bombay, Calcutta, Dacca, Delhi, Jaipur, Jaora, Jullundur, Madras, Meerut, Mbhow, Mysore, Ootacamund, Peshawar, Poona-Kirkee, Rawalpindi, and perhaps some more. The Madras Hunt: Unfortunately the continuous records only date back to 1862; but from a letter in possession of Kenel Rigby, Esq., of Meriden Hall, Coventry, it is seen that a ‘ Hunt Society’ existed in Madras as far back as 1776. That most interesting and informative letter is too long for reproduction here. At irregular periods from 1854 to 1875 professional huntsmen were employed. It ‘was Squires of the Pytchley who hunted the Pack during that famous run in 1875 when King Edward VII, as Prince of Wales, was - out. One of the characters of the later years of the Hunt was the Kennelman, Charlie, who did 55 continuous years service and remained with the Hunt unil it closed down in 1946. In the Adyar Club are some old records and many group pictures, one of which is reproduced with this contribution. The Bombay ‘Ovxlooker’ for May and June 1940 contains fuller information regarding the Madras Hunt. The Ootacamund Hunt: Ootacamund was ‘discovered’ in 1820, and hounds from Madras were kenneled there in 1829. Full information as to the Ooty Hunt is contained in, ‘ A Centenary Chronicle of the Ootacamund Hunt 1845-1945’ by J. F. Smail, M.F.a. Gleanings from the Chronicle : ‘The present kennels are easily the best in India, and even compare favourably with the best in England.’ ... ‘ Hounds have on many occasions been killed by panther, but there is only one record of ‘riot’? after a panther.’ ... ‘The ideal type of hunter is a sound, quality horse, not more than 16 hands, with a placid temperament.’ aie ‘The ideal hound for Ooty isa large harrier, say 21” to 23%,’ ... ‘Itisnot the size of the pack, but the quality which tells.’ . ‘I personally prefer a pack of 11 couples to a larger one.’.... ‘There is no doubt that first class hounds suited to local conditions can be bred generation after generation in India with occasional blood from home.’ 4th June 1903 provided the best run that is known—well over nine miles, and one hour and ten minutes. 1913 furnished a sixteen-mile hunt lasting one hour and forty minutes. Connected with the Hunt is the annual Point-to-Point Race, the Ootacamund Hunt Cup, the Ladies Cup, the Peter Pan Cup. Appen- dix X of Chronicle gives origin of 121 names of nullahs, sholas, etc., entered on the Hunt Map. The Hunt still flourishes. Long may it continue. Two Lesser Hunts: When the writer was in Belgaum in 1890 he hunted with Colonel Sherringham’s hounds. The Mysore Hunt was in existence during 1932-1936 and showed good sport during May to January on alternative Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays with 30 couple of foxhounds, imported and country-bred. A non-subscription pack of which the Patron was H. H. the Maharajah of Mysore and the Master, Prince Jaya Chamrajendra Wadyar Bahadur, 864 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 50 The Bangalore Hounds: This country was first hunted many years ago by a Bank Manager who ran a very good show in tip-top style at his own expense. He left India and the pack was not kept up. Between 1905 and 1910 the 30th Lancers (Gordon’s Horse) ran a useful pack. After a considerable interval the pack was again set going in May 1924 and known as Captain Buckley’s Hounds until, in 1929, when the Hunt was well established, the Hounds were purchased by the Bangalore Hunt Club by whom the Hunt was conducted until it closed down in January 1948. Gleanings from Captain W. H. Buckley’s notes: ‘Some of our best country is the very best in India and better than most provincial countries at Home.’ ... ‘The country-bred hounds have again shown that those who say C. B.’s are mute or small, are liars!’ ...‘ A big pack, 30 to 35 couple, is an economy.’ ... ‘ Dueto an equable climate never a case of dis- temper in seven years.’ ... ‘ You must have “ Music” and for this in Bangalore the Welsh hound is supreme.’ (Welsh also asked for by Madras in 1776.) Bombay: Hunting began in Bombay about 1811, but the Bombay Hunt was constituted in 1865. It has now been combined with Poona and Kirkee and is known as ‘ The Bombay Hunt and Poona & Kirkee Hounds.’ It is distinct from ‘The Jackal Club’ which has existed since 1889 and is still going strong. Mhow and Meerut: In 1906, perhaps earlier, and up to 1927 at any rate, there was a pack of foxhounds at Mhow. Later information is lacking. The Meerut Hunt was formed by Major W. T. V. Wooley, M.F.H. with hounds obtained from the Delhi Hunt before it closed down in 1945. Present strength is 195 couples, and the M. F. H.is Lieut.- Colonel D. R. Sahni, r.v.F.c. Hound puppies now receive Indian names, Hounds meet every Sunday and bye-days are arranged on holidays. Attendance varies between 25-30 at a Meet; and some members of the Diplomatic Corps come from Delhi—40 miles—to ride . with the Meerut Hounds. The present C-in-C in India is the Patron-in- Chief, and but for his active and enthusiastic support and guidance the Meerut Hunt would have closed down. Peshawar: Hunting was first started in Peshawar in 1863 with ‘Hussay’s Regimental Pack’. In 1865 the 19th Foot brought their pack, and it hunted during 1865-66 under the name of ‘ The Green rloward’s Pack.’ In 1869, on transfer to England, the regiment presented its pack to the Station at Peshawar on condition that it should remain there. The pack then became known in 1869 as ‘ The Peshawar Vale Hunt’ and had its first meet under this name on 2nd February 1870. The P,V.H. has hunted every season since 1870 with the exception of 1880 when ihe pack was taken to Kabul during the Second Afghan War. Owing to an unfortunate circumstance the season 1950-51 was the first. since 1863—excluding 1880—when there was no pack in Peshawar. In November 1951 hounds were flown out from England under arrangements made by the Pakistan Army. Long may the P.V.H. flourish and show fine sport. A HISTORY OF SHIKAR IN INDIA 855 PIGSTICKING OR HOG-HUNTING _ The sport of chasing the wild boar on horseback with a spear was introduced by British sportsmen in Bengal in the latter part of the eighteenth century. At first the sloth bear was hunted; but in 1776 it was the wild boar, the weapon used in the Dacca District being a short, heavy spear three feet long and well poised. It was thrown like a javelin; and if the sportsman missed his aim he had to dismount and recover his weapon, thus letting in the next in succession, and so on till the pig was killed. The modern spear is up to 6 ft. 3 in., Jong and fairly heavily leaded —about 12 1b. On the Bombay side the spear was eight to ten feet or even more, and often unleaded. Twenty-five years later a jabbing or thrusting spear was in use in Upper India, but the practice developed in Bengal was to use a spear about seven or more feet in length, also thrown as a javelin as is well described and illustrated in Williamson’s ‘ Oriental Field Sports ’, 1807. We know from Simson that in 1830 the throwing of the spear was discontinued, and penalized by the Calcutta Tent Club at the instance of Mr. Mills, 3.c.s. Published in 1880, Simson’s book contains complete guidance to everything pertaining to pigsticking in Eastern Bengal up to that time; and, except as to localities, is of equal value at the present day. All regarding the sport as developed in Upper India is contained in the article by Neville-Taylor in the ‘Sportsman’s Handbook for India’, with which is a map showing the pigsticking centres and Tent Clubs of those parts in 1904. ‘Modern Pigsticking’ by Wardrop covers practically all of India and is acomplete compendium of pigsticking. The Meerut Tent Club country is fully dealt with ; also the Kadir Cup which was constituted in 1869 and the winning of which has been the blue ribbon of pigsticking. Among the hazards related by Wardrop is that of a pigsticker’s Arab horse, having swum a river, being seized by the head by a crocodile while drinking in shallow water, dragged into deep water and never seen again; and Kinloch, when hunting with the Meerut Tent Club, had his horse ripped, himself thrown and wounded by the boar in /fzfty places ! The Nagpur country is well described by Best and Dunbar Brander, Praise of the Boar: ‘Itcan be said that the finest and most spectacular animal of the Indian jungles is the tiger, the most noble in - appearance the elephant ; but the concensus of opinion is that the Indian wild boar is the bravest and most gallant of all.’ ... ‘Nothing for size and ferocity could surpass, if it could equal, the pure Bengali breed; other hunters, however, declare the Deccany pig to be unrivalled for speed and ferocity.’ : while a widely experienced expert has declared, ‘Give me a Bengali hog in Guzerat country.’ ...‘No man who has not been an eye-witness of the desperate courage of the wild hog would believe in his utter recklessness of life, or in the fierceness that will make him run up the hunter’s spear, which has passed through his vitals, until he buries his tusk in the body of the horse, or, it may be, in the leg of the rider.’ ... ‘ Thehunter loses his seat at the peril of his life.’ 856 JOURNAL, | BOMBAY NATURAL UHIST VSOCIERY, Wo)" 50 Praise of Pigsticking: Pigsticking is the grandest sport that India or any country affords. ‘Some have condemned pigsticking as cruel, yet of all sports this is the oniy one practised in modern times where the hunter shares, on almost equal terms, the danger with the hunted. It has a code of honour; the boar is hunted with respect and pursued on certain fixed principles ; and there is a casus be/lz, for he 1s an incorrigible plunderer. ’ An enthusiast has composed the following imperishable verse: ‘ Youth’s daring spirit, manhood’s fire, Firm seat and eagle eye, Do they require who dare aspire To see the wild boar die.’ Under the altered conditions in India pigsticking is now almost a dream of the past, and all the above of little more than academic interest. There are two records in the Society’s journal of a wolf being ridden down and speared, or shot, by a single horseman. Only in favourable country can the feat be accomplished, and the horse must have a good stride and be in really hard condition, for the distance covered may be 16 to 18 miles. A gorged wolf is easily dealt with. Here it may be remarked that there is no record of the Indian Wild Ass having ever been run down by a single horseman. The animal is able to attain, and keep up without difficulty, a speed of 30-32 miles per hour. FALCONRY Hawking is not now so much practised in Rajputana and Northern India as it was even sixty to eighty years ago. In 1908 an expert modern falconer wrote, ‘ A few days’ roaming about a river bank with a net, a set of nooses and some mynahs and sparrows in a cage, and I had collected two peregrines—one a laggard and the other a splendid dark bird in her first year—a saker, a duggar and two merlins, and within a month was ready for houbara, herons, paddy—birds, crows, kites, hoopoes and Jarks, and surely it would be a bad day on which I could not find one or other of the above. The saker I kept exclusively for kites, the young peregrine was all there when see saw a heron, and both had been “entered ’”’ to houbara.’ The list of animals and birds which can be captured through falconry in India is a long one: antelope, gazelle, hares, cranes, egrets, herons, ibises, spoonbills, stone plovers, storks, houbara, florican, jungle- fowl, partridges, peafowl, sandgrouse, crows, kites, grass owls, vultures, hoopoes, larks, rollers, sparrows. In the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society ‘The Review ot the Accipitres’ is of the greatest interest; and the article, ‘Shakes- peare on the Nodle Art of Hawking’ is of interest not only to lovers of Shakespeare. FISHING Bombay: The Bombay Presidency Angling Association was started in Bombay with its centre of activities at Powai Lake about 1932 by the late Mr. H. B. Hayes of the American Express Co. Inc., Mr. J. G. Ridland of the Imperial Bank of India and few others, the fishing rights being secured from the Bombay Municipality. A HISTORY OF SHIKAR IN INDIA 857 In the initial stages the only fish available were minnows (Rasdora danicontus) and olive carp (Barbus sarana), but several thousand fry of rohu and catla were released in the lake, and they have grown both in size and numberxs. The club is now well established with a member- ship of over a hundred, and the lake teems with rohu and catla, the former scaling between 20 and 30 lb. while a 65 lb. catla was landed a few years ago. As usual, much heavier fish are said to have got away! More fry have again been recently released and the lake is well stocked for many years. Madras: The Angler’s Club initiated in Madras in 1946 was short-lived. It would seem that India is not yet ready for an Angling Association on Western lines. Perhaps the Angling Club now (1952) proposed to be formed in Mysore State may have more lasting success. Books on angling in India are listed in my ‘ Bibliography of Big Game Hunting and Shooting in India and the East.’ (.B.N.A.S, 49; 222-241). Trout of the East and the West The so-called ‘Indian Trout’ of the rivers of Central India, Northern India, Assam and Burma is a worthy rival of the trout and grayling of Western countries. But the successful introduction of the trout of those lands in the upland streams and lakes of Ceylon, the Nilgiri and Travancore Hills, Kulu and Kashmir has brought great enjoyment to many anglers; and there is the landslide-formed Guhna Lake in Garhwal which has proved to be a natural spawning ground and is said to be one of the best trout fishing areas in this ‘country. It is now only two marches from Chamoli where is the ter- minus of the bus route from Hardwar to Badrinath. -Six marches from Tehri is the Dodhi Tal (lake) in Tehri Garhwal where the trout are large and five pounders common. Regarding the introduction of trout into India pp. 601-3 of the article ‘History of transplantation and introduction of Fishes in India’, by S. Jones and K. K. Sarojini, published in Vol. 50 No. 3 (April 1952), may be seen. In these days of the motor vehicle the angler in India has quicker access to localities than formerly ; and through hydro-electric projects a number of lakes have been formed. On the other hand, these same projects, and certain canal weirs also, have adversely affected migra- tion of important species to spawning grounds, thereby greatly altering some of the rivers and streams of the country to the detriment of the angler and the food supply of the people alike. | From articles in the Journal, and earlier angling books and records, it seems that on the whole the angler is not able at this time of writing to have equal success with mahseer in running waters as in former days. Assam has always been a grand province for the angler, but those formerly prolific waters will have been much altered by the recent earthquakes. The issue in the Journal in serial form of the book by A. St. J. Macdonald, ‘Circumventing the Mahseer and Other Sporting Fish in India and Burma’, and its publication by the Society as a book in 1948 was a notable event, 858 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAE HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 50 The Society’s journal contains close on 300 articles and Miscellaneous Notes on all aspects of fish and fishing both from the angle of sport and of commerce. In 1907, following the publication in the Journal of certain papers (Vol. 17; 637-644) the Society moved the Government of Bombay in respect to legislation for protection of fisheries in Western India; and on 16th January 1908 (Vol. 18; 668-669) addressed the Government of Bombay asking that the expediency of creating a Fisheries Depart- ment be favourably considered. That led to useful results in many directions; but from a New Delhi press report of 10th May 1952 it is apparent that even after all these yearsa great deal remains to be done. Of the 1,00,00,000 maunds of fish taken from the sea in each year only 32 per cent is consumed as fresh fish. This, says the report is due to unsatisfactory transport facilities, inadequate supply and distri- bution of ice and marketing facilities. Other defects are scattered fishing centres and primitive methods of catching, preserving, trans- porting and marketing. It is emphasized that with proper arrangements and scientific control the fishing industry can make a substantial addi- tion to the country’s food resources. So much as regards sea and maritime fishing. Inland, the activities of the Fisheries Departments have been in recent years principally directed towards stocking of lakes and tanks. Running waters have not received adequate attention. Moreover, the malpractices declaimed by Day and Thomas over eighty years ago— wanton destruction of the nation’s fishery resources through use of explosives, fish poisons, capture and waste of fish fry and spawners— have not at all abated, and are getting worse. India should emulate the example of the Philippines where a favourable public opinion in these matters has been brought about. Defects in regard to running waters have been pointed out by several contributors—Hamid Khan (Vol. 43; 416-426) and (Vol. 46; 193-194); Setna and Kulkarni (Vol. 46; 126-132); and there is a valuable article in two parts by Jones (also in Vol. 46) with which is a long reference list. Fishing contrivances in the Hyderabad State are dealt with by Mahmood and Rahimullah (Vol. 46 ; 649-654) ; and there is a note by H. de B. Codrington pointing out how much has yet to be discovered in regard to the Mahseer, the premier sporting fish of India. The illustrated article, also published in pamphlet form, by Spence and Prater on the ‘ Game Fishes of Bombay and the Deccan’ is valuable to anglers. Indeed, the Society through its Journal has done much to aid and inform regarding the land and sea fish and fisheries of the sub-continent. * x * * EVOLUTION OF THE SPORTING RIFLE The early days of European sportsmen in India were those of the flintlock, powder horn and bullet pouch. Then came the percussion cap followed by the breech-loader. The accuracy of those 18-bore muzzle- loaders was obtained by a sharp twist of rifling necessitating the small charge of 14 drs. of powder which gave a high trajectory to the spherical bullet of hardened lead, and insufficient shock to the animal. To remedy this, bullets containing an explosive charge were also used A HISTORY OF SHIKAR IN INDIA 859 by Rice and his companions in Rajputana during 1850-1854 when sixty- eight tigers were killed, some of them having to endure up to a dozen bullets, and another thirty wounded but not recovered. The Express System: About 1840 Sir Samuel Baker introduced the large bore rifle with a heavy charge of powder; and in the 1860’s arrived the ‘Express’ system devised by Forsyth. In the beginning, the hollow-pointed conical bullets had insufficient base. This caused much wounding of animals and, even as late as 1895, a number of tiger and panther maulings and fatalities. When the bullet was improved and used by discriminating sportsmen the black powder Express was an efficient weapon against soft-skinned animals. Even now, some tiger-slaying sportsmen are partial to the °577 D.B. black powder Express taking 75 grains Nitro powder and a 650 grains conical bullet. The Forsyth system of the 12 bore rifle with slow spiral rifling was in vogue until the late 1890’s, the bullet being either spherical or blunt conical. Some designs of the latter contained an explosive charge detonated by impact in the animal. Meade’s spherical explosive bullet was used in shotguns. H.V. Smokeless Powder Rifles: With the advent of smokeless powder, black powder weapons were superseded and there arrived ‘the battle of the bores’ ‘which sportsmen of experience resolved into a small bore (under ‘400) magazine rifle with the ‘ Nobeloy ’-jacketed solid soft nose bullet cf weight not less than 180 grains for hill shooting ; and, as a constant companion in plains forests the -375 Magnum magazine which, for an initial shot, is equal to any animal met with. The weapon ordinarily used for dangerous game, or following up wounded animals isthe D.B. H.V. rifle of the °470 class. Space does not permit of detailed mention of the ‘Paradox’ and other systems as big game weapons, or the various types of expanding shotgun bullets; or the miniature rifles such as °295, °300, and -310 advisable for antelope and gazelle shikar in populated open spaces, Bic GAME PHOTOGRAPHY IN INDIA Wild Life Photography is a modern sport of a high order, perhaps more especially in the wide, open spaces of the hills and plains. The man with a rifle has his difficulties ; but the sportsman-photographer who has to take his ‘shot’ at a much closer range and bear in mind half a hundred things of importance before he can press the camera trigger has to be a stalker almost in a class apart. The first book on big game photography in India— With a Camera in Tiger Land ’—was published by Champion in 1927. This pioneer work attracted much attention and was followed three years later by ‘The Jungle in Sunlight and Shadow,’ by the same author. Many of the photographs in these books were taken at night by automatic flash- light apparatus; soalso most of the 120 photographs in the two sumptuous volumes by Bengt Berg. The article on ‘Measurement and Photography of Big Game’ by Stockley is good guidance tothe shikari-photographer and the sportsman. Success with his camera in the forests of Burma is illustrated in the two articles by Peacock ; and the late Theodore Hubback enriched the Journal with five photographs and thirteen pages of valuable information 860 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 as to the habits and hunting of the Malayan Gaur, or Seladang. This was followed by ‘his article ‘ Wild Life Photography in the Malayan Jungles’ portraying elephant, seladang and sambar at salt-licks together with eleven pages of great value and interest—Apparatus, Hides, Taking the Photographs, Outfit, The Menace of Damp, Animal Psycho- logy. In another article the vanishing Two-horned Asiatic Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) is fully written up and pictured by Hubback, with additional notes by Prater, the whole forming a monograph on the species. The finest-ever photograph of a wild bull elephant taken in the Thayetmyo Yomah of Burma by W.S. Thom at a few yards distance with a 174 inch Ross Telecentric Lens, and the thirteen pages of this most interesting contribution area delight to shikaris. At the present time the Society has valued contributions from the camera and pen of BE. P. Gee of Assam. WILD LIFE PRESERVATION bout the middle of the eighteenth century the animals of the open country were still in much the same numbers as they had always been, but following the advent of sporting firearms in increasing number, and the pressure on the land through a growing population, the stock of antelope and gazelle all over the country has been greatly reduced—almost to vanishing point in some places. In areas of Upper India where antelope of both species still have a measure of protection on religious grounds they are still in fair number; but outside those special localities they are becoming more and more scarce. Through the length and breadth of India it is no longer possible for the traveller to view these lovely creatures from railway or motor car window. In that respect there is a lifeless landscape; nor does the former common sight of a stately bustard now delight the eye. Everywhere the Great One-horned Rhinoceros is now protected. The wonder is that it has survived its relentless pursuit by poachers and the indiscriminate shooting of it by sportsmen in earlier days. The Wild Buffalo should be under strict protection. The tracking and shooting of a solitary bull has afforded genuine sport. The Indian Gaur, or ‘Bison’ seems at present to be holding its own; but too many are shot, some are being poached for meat, and the species is subject to cattle diseases—so there is no room for complacency. None of these animals should be shot except on foot, and not by driving. If that is not possible they should be left alone, for what sport is there in slaying them from an elephant or in a beat? It is much to be feared that the Brown Bear of Kashmir and adjacent hill territories is approaching extermination because of its handsome pelt. A male has been measured to be 74 ft, with girth of 584 inches. Weight about 500 lb. The Himalayan Black Bear was formerly in great number in Kashmir and Poonch, but much toll of the species has been taken by sportsmen, and also in organized drives on the ground that the animals are not only destructive to crops but often maul and kill the villagers. . Owing to its widely extended forest and mountain habitat, the species is not yet in danger of extermination. Notwithstanding all the poaching and malpractices, there is still, in some places and due to A HISTORY OF SHIKAR IN INDIA 861 local circumstances, a fair but decreasing number of sambar, chital, swamp deer, hog deer, and barking deer. Because of its commercially valuable scented pod the Musk Deer is being everywhere slain. In Burma the Brow-antlered Deer survives only in zoological gardens, while the Manipur race is extinct. Survival of the elephant where it exists in a wild state is due to the Elephant Preservation Act, 1873, since when proscribed males only may be killed. Recently, in the Madras State, interested parties have obtained the retrograde step of an alteration in the law to permit of females also being proscribed in the cause of cultivation. In earlier days wolves were a real menace to the people in many parts of India. Williamson (1780-1806) relates how the troops used to assist in smoking them out of dens, and shooting, trapping and killing them by various methods. The wolf, being a creature of the open country, has been greatly reduced through extension of cultiva- tion; yet, in a few areas, the animal still gives sporadic trouble. Kashmir in 1924. Of preservation of game in Kashmir, Ward rightly remarked: ‘ When we consider the difficulties experienced in preserving game in Great Britain we can imagine what has to be faced in the case of tens of thousands of square miles of rugged and mountainous country. It is useless to imagine that poaching in Kashmir can be stopped.’ Since then the situation has greatly worsened. Ward’s series on Kashmir and the Adjacent Hill Provinces is a complete vade mecum for the sportsman-naturalist. Kashmir and India in recent years: Of the Kashmir Stag it was reported in February 1951 that since the 1947 troubles began there has been rapid disappearance of the species from localities where it was formerly abundant. The 1950 Pakistan report to the I.U.P.N. was that fauna is being rapidly diminished, and that military occupation of certain Himalayan regions has not bettered the situation: while the report from India said that the situation is gloomy and poaching extensive. The India report referred to the whole country and not to Kashmir in particular. The Role of the Society: The influence of the Society towards Preservation of Game commenced in 1888, and has continued all through the subsequent years, as can be known through perusal of the many references published at pp. 620-22 of Vol. 47, and other contributions in later volumes. The Society’s Honorary Secretaries—Phipson, Millard, Spence, Salim Ali, Humayun Abdulali and others—and the Curator, S. H. Prater have been ever mindful of the influence which can be exercised, and the Editors have given valuable aid through means of a number of important editorials. Had the experienced and expert advice contained in all the above—and in the special illustrated series in five parts compiled by Prater (Vols. 36-8)—been heeded by the various govern- ments, administrations and departments the rapidly deteriorating state of affairs at present existing would not perhaps have come about. But there are many factors and facets in this matter. In his address to the Society on the 17th March 1930 the President (H. EB. Sir Frederick Sykes, Governor of Bombay), remarked that in this country we are confronted with the almost insurmountable difficulty 862 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 of persuading the masses to have any regard for the principles of wild life preservation; but there is now much more to it than that. Example is more than ever necessary; for a very great difficulty at the present time in India is the increasing number of officials with no interest in sport or natural history, and the rapidly lowering shikar ethics. Even among those who should know better, proper sporting considerations are subordinated to the hunger for meat and the ‘ some- thing-for-nothing ’ attitude of mind of the man with the gun. Wantof Public Opinion: At the All-India Wild Life Conference held at Delhi in January 1935 it was declared that Indian Wild Life could only be saved by Public Opinion, and that legislation, however efficient, could do little in matters like these without the whole-hearted support of the Public. There is as yet no sign of a proper public opinion while there Aas been apathy, and even discour- agement on the part of the authorities. ‘Forests, while saving us from the ravages of flood and famine, can themselves become a menace to cultivation’; and there have been other utterances which are almost direct incitements to users of guns to turn them against wild life. As the present writer has said in letters to the newspapers, ‘ deer and other wild creatures are just lumps of meat and catchers of votes.’ Laws are enacted, rules are made and forgotten, for there is no continuity of official enforcement and no public opinion to keep them in mind. India’s Vanishing Asset: A comprehensive pamphlet stressing the urgent need for immediate steps towards conservation was printed in January 1948 and widely circulated, with covering letters from the Society and the author (R. W. Burton) to the Governors- General of India and Pakistan, to Prime Ministers and many other high officials ; and a précis was circulated through the newspapers and press services all over the country. The pamphlet was printed in the Society’s Journal (Vol, 47; 602-22) together with a list of 56 references. The Society’s notice about itis at p. 792, Vol. 47. 500 copies of a Special Appeal relating to Reserved Forests was also distri- buted among divisional and other forest officers throughout the country. Later, a Supplement to the pamphlet by the same author (Vol. 48; 290-299) was cyclostyled and similarly circulated. At no time did it seem that the above impassioned appeals had attracted any attention except for the one Miscellaneous Note [Vol. 48 588. (1949)] by M. D. Chaturvedi, But there is reason to suppose that sundry measures such as The Bombay National Parks Act, 1950; The Bombay Wild Birds and Wild Animals Protection Act, 1951; the Committee assembled at Delhi on 23rd and 24th July 1951; and nowthe Central Board for Wild Life appointed by the Government of India to preserve the Fauna of India (Press Note: New Delhi, 11th April 1952) have stemmed from the original pamphlet and other writings. The Hailey National Park and the United Provinces National Parks Act, 1935, resulted from the activities previous to the 1935 Delhi Conference. A Central Board for Wild Life: This Board was cons- tituted at Delhi on the 4th April 1952 by a Ministry of Food and Agriculture Resolution. It will function through States’ Wild Life Committees and will meet at least once in two years. A HISTORY OF SHIKAR IN INDIA 863 /f this Central Board and the States ’ Committees have before them in correctly summarized form the principal contents of all the main wild life contributions to the Journal; the 16th October 1950 thirteen page Memorandum by the writer: and the Address delivered by M. S. Randhawa to the Section of Botany, 35th Indian Science Congress, Allahabad, 1949. (‘ Nature Conservation, National Parks and _ Bio- aesthetic Planning in India’), and study and apply all that is practicable in them there should be good results: du¢ the States’ Wild Life Committees need to be formed quickly and all that is decided speedily putin motion or results will be of little avail, also too little and too late as has proved to be the case with previous Conferences and Committees. A Department for Wild Life: Ithas to be conceded that no such Department will be formed in India—not yet awhile at any rate—but it was counselled by the Society [ Vol. 38; 223. (1934)] that there is need for creating a definite agency within the forest department for administering the laws relative to the protection of wild animals. This is supported in the above-quoted note by Shri M. D. Chaturvedi, the present Inspector-General of Forests and a Vice Chairman of the new Central Board. A weighty consideration is that the success or failure of game preservation depends upon a wholly trustworthy and impeccable subordinate staff. National and States Forest Policies: The recently announced Forest Policy for India should have excellent long-range effect on wild life in general ; and the C.P. (Ist May 1952) Plan announ- cing 46 recommendations (including game reserves) for management and future development of the Madhya Pradesh protected forests, tree forests, minor forests, pasture lands, recreation forests, fuel and fodder reserves should be a valuable guide to other States and Unions. South India and the Nilgiris: At tne Meeting assembled at Ootacamund on the 7th June 1933 by the Governor of Madras it was decided to form an Association for the Preservation of Wild Life in South India. The project was launched, but within a year proved completely abortive and was never heard of again. The only bright spot has been the mostly effective preservation of game in the Nilgiris District [41: 384-96 (1939)|- Ceylon: In December 1949 Ceylon attained the long sought for Wild Life Department, and the growth of it during 1950 gave hope that at last the menace of the professional poacher and the commercialisation of wild life would be halted. Uttar Pradesh and Assam: The sub-montane tracts of the former United Provinces have always been well stocked with game animals and birds. With some exceptions this obtains at the present time. Let us hope that no Caliph will arise to alter all this. In Assam there is now a strong movement associated with the names of P. D. Stracey and E. P. Gee. A thousand pities it began too late to save the Manipur race of the ¢kaminu from extermination, for there was sufficient warning of what was happening. Burma and Malaya: In spite of vigorous efforts and warnings by Smith, Peacock, Weatherbe, and Hubback important species have vanished or are nearing extermination in these countries— &64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL WS TS © Chi Taye enol eas) and this before the two countries were overrun by the Japanese during the Jast war. Education in Schools: ‘The youth of today must become the conservationists of tomorrow.’ The Bombay Natural History Society has worked towards this end with, as yet, no widely extended results, and the present writer has been urging the neezd for the past five years. Sir Frederick Sykes (1930) said that we should aim at teaching the children to appreciate the value of wild life. In his address to the Ceylon Game and Fauna Protection Society on 14th December 1950 the Governor-General and Patron of that Society said, among other things, ‘There is need for extensive propaganda and education, and the Government and this Society can co-operate to convince the younger generation in the schools that they will,and must be, the future custodians of wild life'—to which can be added ‘ and of the forests also.’ . At the present time the International Union for the Protection of Nature is making considerable effort in this direction, and Italy, Greece, French Cameroon, Mexico, Belgium, Belgian Congo, Madagascar, and Turkey are issuing special lessons on the subject for the interest of educators and use by teachers and. pupils in primary and secondary schools, ‘In spite of its importance to mankind, the theme of these lessons is little known or totally ignored by contemporary nations.’ How very true itis that,’ Many are the paths along which man proceeds to (his own) destruction... ’. The Education Departments of Governments in India have a great responsibility in regard to education of the childrenin matters affecting wild life and world resources. CONCLUSION In the 1948 Pamphlet the writer remarked (Vol. 47; 618) : ‘An atmosphere of mistrust and suspicion is all too common among tineducated people, so the beneficial intentions of measures to- wards wild life preservation are apt to be misconstrued unless the objects and reasons receive the widest publicity through Govern- ment channels—and the newspapers. The years are passing; this great national asset is wasting away. It is the duty of every government to preserve it for posterity. The urge should come from the highest levels.’ Opportunity is taken to again plead for the above, and for the essential whole-hearted aid by editors and journalists. APPENDIX A List OF THE GAME ANIMALS oF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON Note.—(H). Hunza only ; (B), Burma only. (C), also in Ceylon. The Indian Elephant— Elephas maximus indicus (C) The Great Indian Rhinoceros—ARhinocervos unicornts The Smaller One-horned or Javan Rhinoceros—Ahznoceros son- daicus. A HISTORY OF SHIKAR IN INDIA The Sumatran Two-horned Rhinoceros— Ahinoceros sumatrensts The Malay Tapir—7Zapirus indicus Sheep The Great Pamir, or Marcopolo’s Sheep— Ovzs ammon poli The Great Tibetan Sheep, or Nyan—Ov7s ammon hod gsoni The Shapu of Ladak—Ovz?s vignez vignet The Urial of Punjab— Ov7zs vignet punjabiensts The Bharal—FPseudois nahoor Goats The Asiatic [bex—Capra sibirica The Sind Wild Goat—Capra hircus blythiz The Markhor—Capra falconeri falcenert The Pir Panjal Markhor—Cafra falconeri cashmtriensts The Suleiman Markhor—Capra falconeri jerdont The Himalayan Tahr—Hemztragus jemlahicus The Nilgiri Tahr—Hemitragus hylocrius The Serow—Capricornis sumatraensts The Grey Himalayan Goral—Nemorhaedus goral The Brown Goral—Nemorhaedus hodgsoni The Burmese Goral— Nemorhaedus griseus (B) The Mishmi Takin—Budorcas taxicolor The Indian Wild Ass—Aquus onager indicus Antelope and Gazelle The Indian Gazelle—Gazella bennettz The Persian Gazelle—Gazella subgutturosa typica The Indian Antelope or Blackbuck—Azniézilope cervicapra The Nilgai or Blue Bull— Boselabhus tragocamelus The Four-horned Antelope—TZetraceros guadricornis Deer The Kashmir Stag—Cervus kashmiriensts The Sambar—fusa unicolor (C) The Spotted Deer, or Chital—Axzs axis (C) The Hog Deer—fyelaphus porcinus (C) The Swamp Deer—Rucervus duvaucellt The Brow-antlered Deer of Manipur—Fanolia eldi eldz The Brow-antlered Deer of Burma—Fanolia eldt thamin (B) The Barking Deer, or Muntjac—MJunttacus- muntjac The Mouse Deer, or Indian Chevrotain—Moschiola meminna (C) The Musk Deer— Moschus moschiterus Bovinae The Indian Wild Buffalo—Bubalus bubalis (C) The Gaur, or ‘Indian Bison ’—Azbo0s gaurus The Banteng or Tsaing—Szdos banteng birmanicus (B) 865 866 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 50 Bears The Himalayan Brown Bear— Ursus zsabellinus ; | The Himalayan Black Bear—U*vsus torquatus | The Sloth Bear—Melursus ursinus (C) The Malayan Bear—Aelarctos malayanis Beasts of Prey The Asiatic Lion—Panthera leo persica The Panther-—Panthera pardus (C) The Tiger—FPanthera tigris The Snow Leopard, or Ounce—Uncia uncia The Hunting Leopard, or Cheetah—Acinonyx jubatus The Clouded Leopard—Weofelis nebulosa The Caracal—Felzs caracal The Striped Hyena—Ayena striata The Indian Wild Dog—Cuon dukhunensis Tibetan Game Animals The Yak—FPoephagus grunniens The Tibetan Antelope—fanthalops hodgsoni The Tibetan Gazelle—Gazella picticaudata The Tibetan Wild Ass—Agumus kiang LITERATURE AND REFERENCES General (1) Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl ‘Allami’. Translated by Blochmann, Cal- cutta, 1873. (2) Bernier, Travels in the Mogul Empire, 1656-1668, second edition. Mitford, 1914 (3) Bibliography of Big Game Hunting and Shooting in India and the East. By Lt-Col. R. W. Burton, Journ. B.N.A.S., Vol. 49, August 1950, with Addenda in August 1951 and 1952. (Contains titles of upwards of 300 books on Shikar and lists of other publications and references. ) (4) Authors mentioned in the text and includedin the Bibliography | (3), above]. (5) Haney Col. T.H. (1916) ; The Journal of Indian Art, XVII, (134); (6) International Technical Conference on the Protection of Nature I.U.P.N., Brussels (1950) : Proceedings and Papers. (7) I.U.P.N., Brussels (1951) : The Position of Nature Protection throughout the World in 1950. (8) hd of the Bombay Natural History Society, January 1886 to August (9) Knighton, Dr. W., (1855) : Life of an Eastern King. (10) Prater, S.H. (1948) : The Book of Indian Animals. (11) Roe, Sir Thomas, and Dr. John Fryer. Reprinted from the ‘ Calcutta - Weekly Englishman’, Trubner & Co. (1872.). (12) Salim A. Ali (1927): The Mogul Emperors of India as Naturalists and Sportsmen. J.B.N.A.S. 31 ; 833-861, 32 : 34-63 and 264-273. (13) Talbot, F. G. (1909) : Memoirs of Baber. (14) Terry’s Voyage to East India, Reprinted from the edition of 1665 in 1777, Kashmir (1) Books of Adams, Vigne, Newall, MacIntyre and others listed in the Bibliography [(3), General] (2) Ward, A.E. (1921-1922) : Big Game Shooting of Kashmir and Adjacent Hill Provinces. J.B.N.H1.S. Vols. 28 & 29, (in five parts). A HISTORY OF SHIKAR IN INDIA 867 (3) Ward, Col. A. E. (1924-1929) : The Mammals and Birds of Kashmir and the Adjacent Hill Provinces. J/.B.N.H.S. Vols. 29-33 in eight parts. For Elephant, Rhinoceros, Buffalo, ‘ Bison’, The Larger Felines, Bears, Deer, Antelop, Gazelle, see the Bibliography [(3) General]. Wolves (Ridden down by a single horseman.) (1) Symons, N. S., a Member of the Society and a noted pigsticker rode down a wolf single-handed, ‘ Aszan’ newspaper 25th October 1881. (2) Waddington, C. W. (1893) : Wolf-hunting (Rajkote). J/.B.N.A.S., VU; 94-55 (3) Wray, J. W. (1893) : Wolf Hunting in the Southern Mahratta Country. J.B.N.H.S., Vill; 145-149. ? Wild Dog , (1) Burton, R. W. (1940) : The Indian Wild Dog. J.B.N.A.S., 41; 691-715. ‘Crocodiles (1) Shortt, W. H. O. (1921) : A Few Hints on Crocodile Shooting. J B.N.ALS., XXVIII; 76-84, illustrated. ‘Small Game Shooting (1) ‘ Pheon’, Shikar near Cantonments. Article in Journal, United Service Institution of India, July 1951. (2) Tulloch, Maurice (1948) : The All-in-one Shikar Book. (3) Ward, Col. A. E., (1923) : Small Game Shooting in Kashmir -and the Adjacent Hill Provinces. J.B.NV.A.S., XXIX; 653-658. Hunting with Cheetah (1) Bibliography, Vigne, Handley, Salim A. Ali. (2) Burton, R.W. (1950) : The Dew-claws of the Hunting Leopard or Cheetah [(Acinonyx jubatus (Schreber)]. J.B.N.A.S., 49; 4541-543. Hunting with Foxhounds (1) Barrowcliff-Elliss, H. (1949): The Worseman’s Year. ‘Hunting in India’, Contribution at pp. 76-84, — (2) Information supplied by Mr. H. Hadow (Madras Hunt); Mr. J. de Wet Van Ingen (Mysore Hounds) ; Notes by Captain W. H. Buckley (Banga- lore Hounds) ; Mr. A, L. Holme. (Bombay Hunt and Poona & Kirkee Hounds, and Bombay Jackal Club) ; Mr. H. J. M. Dent (Peshawar Vale Hunt). Hunting with a Bobbery-Pack (1) Aflalo, F.G, (1904) : ‘The Sportsman’s Handbook for India.’ Article at pp. 409-418. (2) Best, Hon. J. W. (1922) : Shikar Notes, pp. 139-154. (3) Burton, R. W. (1939) : Days and Doings with my Bobbery-Paek. J.B.N.H.S., 415 324-331. Pigsticking or Hog-Hunting (1) Aflalo, F. G. (1904) : The Sportsman’s Handbook for India. Contribu- tion by Major Neville-Taylor, pp. 309-381. (2) Best, Hon. J. W. (1922) : Shikar Notes, pp. 170-186. (3) Dunbar Brander, A. A. (1923) : Wild Animals in Central India, pp. 247- 3 263. (4) ‘G.R.A.M.’ (1875) : A Manual of Indian Sport, 2nd Edition, pp. 119-134 and pp. 213-222. (5) Simson, F. B. (1886) : Letters on Sport in Eastern Bengal. (6) Wardrop, Gen. Sir Alexander (1930) : Modern Pigsticking. {7) Williamson, Captain Thomas. First edition, coloured plates, 1807; second edition, engraved plates, 1808. Vol. 1; p. 23. 12 868 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCK RY, eal o50 Falconry : (1) Blanford, W. T. (1897) : Review of the Fauna cf British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Birds. Vol. I1I, Accipitres, /.B.N.H.S., 10 ; 505-524. (Full of interest and valuable information as to all diurnal birds of prey.) (2) Donald, C. H. (1908) : The Sport of Kings. J.B.N.H.S., XVI; 785-791. (A vivid description of practice of Falconry in India.) (3) Donald, C. H. (1921) : The Catching of Hawks and Falcons. J/.B.N.H.S., XXXVII; 829-834. (4) Luard, Lt.-Col. E. C. (1921) : Shakespeare on the Noble Art of Hawking, J.8.N.H.S., 27; 161-164. (5) Langley, Captain E. A. (1860) : A Narrative of a Residence at the Court of Meer Ali Moorad. With Wild Sports in the Valley of the Indus. 2 ve Mase Vol. 1; pp. 218-233. Training Hawks, Vol. II; pp. 124-128. Fishing (1) References asin text. (2! Codrington, K, deB. (1946) : Notes on the Indian Mahseers. J.B.N.A.S., 46 ; 236-344. (3) Hora, Sunder Lal (1937-1948) : The Game Fishes of India. J.B.N.H.S., Vols. 39-44. (Anillustrated and descriptive scientific series comprising seventeen articles.) (4) Jones, S. (1946) : Breeding and development of Indian Freshwater and Brackish water Fishes. J.B.N.H.S., 463 317-355 and 437-472. (5) Jones, S. (1946): Destructive methods of Fishing in the Hill Ranges of Travancore J.B.N.H.S., 46; 332-345. (6) Spence, R. A. and Prater, S. H. (1932) : Game Fishes of Bombay, the Deccan and the Neighbouring Districts of the Bombay Presidency J.B.N.H.S., 36; 29-60. 19 plates (14 coloured). Notes on Mosquito- destroying fishes, and on plants suitable for improving margins of lakes. Two fiShes added. Suter (1942): 43; 663. Photography. (Big Game). (1) Champion, F. W. (1927): With a Camera in Tiger Land. (2) Champion, F. W. (1930): ‘The Jungle in Sunlight and Shadow.’ (3) Hubback, Theodore (1938) : Malayan Gaur or Selangdang. J.B.N.H.S., 40 ; 8-19. (4) Hubback, Theodore (1939): The Two-Horned Asiatic Rhinoceres (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis). J.B.N.A.S., 49; 594-617, with Additional Notes by S. H. Prater (pp. 618-627). (5) Hubback, Theodore, (1939): Wild Life Photography in the Malayan Jungle. J.B.N.H.S., 41; 48-63. (6) Peacock, E. H. (1934) : Stalking a Herd of Saing. J.8.N.H.S., XXXVIII_ ; 278-280. (7) Peacock, E. H. (1934) : In Ambush for Bison. J.B.N.A.S., XXXVIL 528-531. (8) Peaccck, E. H. (1935) : Where Big Game Takes the Waters. J.B.N.A.S., XXXVII; 780-785. (9) Stockley, Major C. H. (1923) : 'The Measurement and Photography of specimens of Big Game. J.L.N.A.S., XXIX ; 209-213. (10) Thom, W.S. (1933) : Some Experiences amongst Elephant and other _ Big Game of Burma (from 1887-1931). J.B.N.AL.S., XXXVI; 321-333. (11) Thom, W.S. (1934) : Some Notes on Bison. (4760s gaurus) in Burma. J.B.N.A.S., XXXVI; 106-123. The Sporting Rifle (1) Burgess, Captain F. H. (1884) : Sporting Firearms in Bush and Jungle. (2) Burrard, Major Gerald (1925) : Notes on Sporting Rifles for Use in India and elsewhere. Second edition. (3) Forsyth, Captain James (1867) : The Sporting Rifle and its Projectile. New edition. (4) Rice, William. Tiger Shooting in India—Rajputana 1850-1854. (1857) and ‘Indian Game’ by Gen. ‘William Rice, p. 85, (1884). : a HISTORY OF SHIKAR IN INDIFA. ~~ 869 (5) ‘ The Little Old Bear’ (1899): Useful Hints on the Gun and Rifle. 2nd edition. Preservation of Game References as in text: also other references in addition to the 56 at pp. 620-622 of Vol, 47. (1) Protection of Wild Life: Honorary Secretary’s Report, 1949. J.B.N.A.S., 48; 617 and 623-624. (2) Educational activities and Nature Education. J.BA.N.HZ/.S., 48 ; 621-623. (3) Nature Education Scheme sponsored by the Bombay Government. J.B.N.H.S., 50; 440 (1951), (4) Burton, R. W. (1950) : Wild Life Reserves in India: Uttar Pradesh, J.BN.HS., 49; 749-754. Atp. 752, delete the word ‘ Kansrau’. (5) Burton, R. W. (1950) : Game Sanctuaries in Burma (pre 1942) with present status of Rhinoceros and Thamin. (Withlist of references). .B.N.H.S., 49; 729-737. (6) Burton, R. W. (1951) : Protection of World Resources: Wild Life and the Soil. J.B.N.A.S,, 50 ; 371-379. (7) Burton, R. W. (1948): Wild Life Preservation: Birds. JB.NW.H.S., 47; 778-780. (8) Burton, R. W. (1948): Wild Life Preservation: Animals. J.B.N.A.S., 47; 780-781. (9) Burton, R. W. (1950) : The International Union for the Protection of Nature. 1950. /.B.N.A.S., 49; 809-814. (10) The Bombay Wild Birds and Wild Animals Protection Act, 1951. Passed by the Legislature. Society represented on the Advisory Boards. ‘l'ext of the Act. Vol. 49: pp. 815-832 (1950). Editors. ‘Obvious that legislation is but the first step, and the laws require public support to make them effective. Centre is now alive to the fact that wild life protection and national] parks are in need of immediate action.’ (11) The Bombay National Parks Act, 1950. Provides for nominee of the Society on the Advisory Committee. /.B.N.H.S., 50; 441 (1951). (12) Daver, S. R. (1950); A Novel method of destroying man-eaters and cattle-lifters without firearms. J.B.N.A.S., 49; 52-65. Comments by R.W.B. at pp. 65-66. (13))Gee, B.. PR. (1950), - Wild. Life Reserves in India: Assam. J.B.NV.A.S., 49; 81-89. : (14) Jamal Ara (1949): Wild Life Reserves in India: Bihar Province. J BUNETL DS ., 49.5.2283-287,. (15) Weatherbe, D’Arcy (1939) : Memorandum on the Kahilu Sanctuary. With an introduction by Theodore Hubback. J.B.N.H/.S., 41; 146-160. (16) Weatherbe, D’Arcy (1940) : Burma’s Decreasing Wild Life. J. B.NM.A.S., 42; 150-160. 17) For articles by Hubback and Peacock see references under Photography of Big Game. NOTES ON THE GENUS SALICORNIA LINN. (CHENOPODIACEAE) BY CHARLES McCann, F.L.S. (With two plates) Some years ago, when studying coastal vegetation in the field, I experienced some difficulties regarding the floral construction of Salicornia. My observations did not agree entirely with the descrip- tions in authoritative works. My main difficulty was the correct number of stamens. The species under observation, at that time, was the Asiatic Salicornia brachiata Roxb. Since then, I have had the opportunity of extending my studies to the New Zealand S. australis Solander. Here again, I was confronted with the same difficulties. Under the circumstances, I feel that I am now in a position to discuss the point more confidently, and, at the same time, to draw a comparison between the two species and record other field and morphological characters. , The floral structures of Salicornia are so minute and difficult to dissect that it 1s no wonder their true construction has not been correctly recorded. Added to this is the hitherto unnoticed manner in which the stamens are extruded. Most of the genera of the family Chenopodiaceae are described as having 3 to 5 stamens. Salicornia ‘appears’ to be the exception. It is described as having one or one to two stamens. After my ex- perience in the field I did not feel very happy about these statements and so determined to investigate the matter further. After an ex- amination of a very large number of flowers at different stages of development, I found in some instances what appeared to be the dried filaments protruding through the ‘floral pore’. The number of such filaments varied from one to four, in addition to the remains of the bifid style. This number seemed to be more in keeping with the family characteristics. Not being quite satisfied with my results, I pursued the subject further and eventually found the fifth stamen in a very young floret (in S. australis). In the fresh flower, field observations indicated that only one stamen is extruded at a time through the floral: pore, but that this one is succeeded by the others. This behaviour, no doubt, accounts lor the oft-repeated statement, ‘stamens one’. Besides the number of stamens, there are a few other details which need to be dealt with from a field point of view, and these will be referred to under their respective heads. Habit: Salicornia brachiata is an erect annual, growing chiefly in a substratum of a mixture of mud and sand. S. australis is a perennial growing in rocky situations amongst shingle—or at least with an underlying substratum of such material—where it is deeply anchored. The former (brachiata) develops after the monsoon rains, Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate I Salicornia brachiata Roxb. 1. Entire plant ; 2. flowering nodes ; 3. pistil ; 4. embryo; 5. anther ; 6. pollen grain; 7. seed. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PratE IT Salicornia australis Soland. 1. Portion of plant; 2. flowering nodes; 3 and 4. anthers; 5. pistil; 6. pollen grain ; 7. seed ; 8. floral lobe with 3 stamens ; 9. floral lobes round ovary. THE GENUS SALICORNIA LINN. (CHENOPODIACEAE) 871 and continues to flourish throughout the dry season, maturing its seed before the advent of the following monsoon. The old stems remain standing till they are beaten down by wind and waves, or succumb to decay. The latter (australis) flourishes throughout the year, but the old succulent tissue dries up leaving a wiry, yet living stem, .surmounted by fleshy tissue towards its extremity—the vegetative growth of the last season. The period of greatest vegetative activity (in australis) is during the spring of each year, followed by the new inflorescences. At the extremity of each succulent ‘finger’ the topmost segments. are confined to the production of flowers and fruit—‘in- florescences terminal’. During the winter months growth is. con- siderably retarded. Incidentally, most rain in New Zealand falls during the winter period. We have already observed that S. brachiuta is killed off with the advent of each monsoon season, a period when the rains neutralise the salinity of the inshore waters. Perhaps this factor inhibits the growth of new plants. It is of interest to note that, in the case of S. australis, growth is also retarded at a time when there is an in- crease in the rainfall, apart from the factor of low temperature at the same period. However, I am fully aware that no one factor, alone, is responsible for the reduction of vegetative growth, but that several factors come into operation in unison. Stem: An interesting question about Salicornia is, What actually constitutes the stem and branches? Outwardly, the stem and branches appear as succulent structures, but a cross-section reveals a hard wiry core surrounded by succulent tissue. This question appears to be partly answered by the perennial species, S$. australis. In _ that species the fleshy tissue dries up on the older portions leaving a wiry, yet living, structure capable of producing one or twe new succulent shoots at each node. Another point worthy of note in S. australis is that the fructifying region disintegrates after maturation, leaving a truncated section. This extremity is capable of producing two new shoots, suggesting dichotomous branching. If we restrict the term stem to the wiry core within the succulent tissue, we are then faced with the problem, What is the origin of the succulent tissue and how are we to designate it? Is it to be regarded as part. of the foliar structure? With these questions I must pass on to the leaves them- selves. Leaves: At one time the Salicornia were described as leafless. However, the subject has given rise to much discussion, and the opinions have been varied. Duval-Jouve (1868) regarded the succulent outer tissue of stem and branches as of foliar origin. Babington (1904), Bentham (1858) and Hooker (1884) considered the Salicornia to be leafless, and that the succulent tissue represented stem cortex- De Bary (1884) expressed the view that the free extremities of the fleshy internodes constituted the scale-like leaves arranged in a decussate pattern. De Fraine (1913), after a careful study of the anatomy of the genus Salicornia, agrees with Duval-Jouve in treating the succulent tissue as foliar in origin. After careful observation in the field of both S. brachiata and S. australis I arrived at an inde- pendent, but similar conclusion (I was not aware of the papers quoted 872 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 above at the time of my own studies). My conclusions were based largely on the comparison of the two species in the field, and rough transverse sections. De Fraine (1913) has proved beyond doubt that the succulent tissue surrounding the internodes is foliar and that it is formed by the con- genital fusion of two opposing leaf-sheaths. ‘he leaf tips constitute the membranous collar at each node. De Fraine (1913) speaks of. periodic shedding of the succulent tissue (after desiccation) in the perennial species, and that the annual species shed their foliar structures towards the close of the flowering period. ‘As far as my observations go, I must confess that I have not observed leaf-fall in either S. brachiata or in S. australis. On maturity the succulent tissue dries, but remains adherent to the stem until it is rotted off by repeated wetting or removed by friction. Flowers: The number of florets in each leaf-axil is variable but there seems to be some uniformity within the species; this may form an useful accessory taxonomic character. In S§. brachiata the number in each axil varies from 1 to 3, but 3 appears to be the more frequent number; in S. australis the number varies from 5 to 10, but an odd number is more frequent. Each floret is somewhat urceolate or obpyramidal, depending much on its position in the axil; 3 to 5 minute teeth or lobes border the floral opening (very suggestive of calyx teeth); its walls are much thickened. Within the ‘calyx cup’ I discovered two minute orbicular, deeply concaved, membranous floral lobes, pl. 2, figs. 8 & 9 (perhaps corresponding to a corolla) embracing the ovary. Within these lobes I was more than surprised to find the young stamens, two ia one lobe and three in the other. Thus in the case of S. brachiata I found four stamens and five in S. australis. This was final confirmation that the normal number of stamens in Salicornia is 4-5. (It is ex- tremely difficult to tease out these minute parts.) The stigma is bifid, the arms minutely papillate. Usually, the stigma is extruded after the first stamen. Authoritative works define the number of stamens in Salicornia as 1, or 1 to 2. The usual number for the family Chenopodiaceae is 5. Why did Salicornia alone appear to deviate frem the usual family character of 5 stamens? The question puzzled me and aroused my curiosity. I determined to find the solution. After an examination of very many florets in the fresh state, I discovered in some the remains of the filaments of more than one stamen, in addition to the remains of the style. Further dissection finally revealed that there were actually five. The next thing was to observe the anthers them- selves. On examining immature florets it was found that only one anther matures at a time. This occupies all available space till it emerges through the ‘floral pore’. The extrusion of the first anther is followed by the style, the remaining anthers appearing later. This mode of succession evidently has something to do with pollination. The pollen in both species is very similar; it is spherical and pitted. Apparently, the pits are responsible for the somewhat adherent quality of the pollen, for, although some of the pollen may be wind borne, much of it remains adhering to the surface of the plant and tends to ‘roll’ along it. Few insects visit the flowers, but I have eens eee THE GENUS SALICORNIA LINN. (CHENOPODIACEAE) 873 observed a minute thrips moving over the tissue. There is a possibi- lity that these insects may play a part in pollination (?). However, it appears to me that both cross- and self-pollination is provided for. Cross-pollination by the movement of pollen from a freshly opened flower, with the anther dehisced, to a flower below, in which a freshly expanded stigma is mature; self-pollination by the stigma contacting the second anther from the same flower. Sercaiss: imesbotm species the seeds, are, very similar: they are compressed and provided with minute hooks. Economics: In India, S. brachiata is frequently eaten as a pot herb by some of the poorer classes. It is boiled in much the same way as spinach. Accordingly, it is occasionally seen, on sale, in some of the local vegetable shops. I can find no reference to S. australis being used as a food in New Zealand. Ett Er REA TU ORE Babington, (1904): Manual of British Botany, 9th edition, p. 350. Bentham, G. (1858): Handbook of British Flora, p. 436. Cheeseman, T. F. (1925): Manual of the New Zealand Flora, p. 410. Cooke, T. (1908): The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, Vol. II, p. 504. De Bary, (1884): Comparative Anatomy, of Phanerogams & Ferns, English Translation, p. 297. De, brane. B31 913) Jour Linn Soc. Lond. Sil, (4) p..2317: Duval-Jouve, (1868): Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr. XV, p. 182. Hooker, J. D. (1884): Students Flora of the British Isles, pp. 335 and 341. “Roxburgh, W. (1832): Flora Indica, I, p. 84 MOSQUITO WORK IN INDIA BY SIR GORDON COVELL, M.D., D.P.H., (Irormerly Director, Malaria Institute of India) For a ‘proper appreciation of the development of mosquito work in India, it is useful to review the events which led up to the discovery of the mosquito transmission of malaria by Ronald Ross, then a Major in the Indian Medical Service, in 1897. Sir Patrick "Manson, having shown by his researches in China that the development of the filarial embryo takes place in the mosquito, had become convinced that this insect also played an essential part in the transmission of malaria. He imparted this conviction to Ross, and thus inspired the brilliant series of investigations which culminated in the discovery of malarial oocysts on the stomach wall of an ‘Anopheles mosquito at Secunderabad on August 20, 1897. Ross’s knowledge of mosquitoes at that time was extremely limited, and he was unaware of the identity of the species dissected, but it was almost certainly that subsequently named by Liston Anopheles stephensi. In the following year, in Calcutta, Ross turned his attention to bird malaria and succeeded in following out the complete life cycle of the parasite, the mosquito: used being presumably Culex fatigans. How little was known of the mosquitoes of India at this time is. well illustrated in the following passage from a paper by Colonel G. M. Giles, 1.M.s., read before the Bombay Natural History Society in 1900: ‘Two years ago, when I took up the task of collecting the history of | the Culicidae’, it is an actual fact that no more than four speciés were recorded as having been found in all India. There was in fact hardly any known country with such scanty records of the subject. The subjoined list includes 32 species, and I have little doubt that the final total of species will be found to be not far off a hundred, as new species are constantly turning up.’ By 1934, when P. J. Barraud published his volume on _ the Culicidae in the Fauna of British India series, the number of species: in the sub-family Culicinae, including 43 Anophelini, had reached # total of 288, excluding named varieties. : Of the’ 43 species of Anopheles, only 7 are of major importance as malaria carriers in India: A. culicifacies, noted for its associatiom with widespread regional epidemics of great severity, A. stephensi,. the only vector capable of adapting itself to built-up city conditions,. ' A. superpictus, the chief carrier in Baluchistan, A. fluviatilis and A. minimus, the notorious foothill vectors of southern and eastern India respectively, A. philippinensis, the chief vector of deltaic Bengal and A. sundaicus, the brackish water breeder of the Bengal and Orissa coastal areas. 1 Giles’s Handbook of the Gnats or Mosquitoes was first published in 1900. tebe Rie Bsn, hie ae ‘be 3 i ogi Bh ro fee aia ee Rea eA aA ot no higaiprven iene tingle tases aug # 4 oa a. a a ates Par ne MOSQUITO WORK IN INDIA 875- ~ One of:the most distinguished of the early workers on mosquitoes. in India was S. P. James, who joined the Indian Medical Service in 1896. In 1898 he was posted to Quilon, in Travancore State, where his attention was directed to the study of mosquitoes chiefly on account of his interest in filariasis, which is extremely common in that part of India. Following up the researches of Manson, James succeeded in demonstrating filarial embryos in the head and proboscis. of Culex sitiens, Aedes albopictus and Anopheles subpictus, and arrived at the conclusion that filariasis was transmitted by mosquito bite. These observations were made entirely independently of those of G. C. Low, whose paper recording his findings was, however, published a few weeks earlier than that of James. In 1901, James was placed on special duty with the Malaria Com- mission of the Royal Society, two of whose members, J. W. W. Stephens and S. R. Christophers, had recently arrived in India after working for two years in Central and West Africa. Investigations were conducted in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, in the course of which for the first time the selective breeding habits of mosquitoes were recognised—the foundation of what is now known as species sanitation. Later in the same year the Commission moved to Lahore,. where they initiated an experimental trial of malaria control by the obliteration or treatment of mosquito breeding places in the canton- ment of Mian Mir. The result of this experiment, which extended over 3 years, showed that the control of malaria by antilarval opera- tions was by no means as easy and simple as had. originally been: supposed, and that above all it required thoroughly organised action and constant strict supervision. In January 1902 the members of the Commission attended a Malaria Conference at Nagpur, and it was here that James formed the association with W. G. Liston, I.M.s., which bore fruit two years later in the first edition of their classic memoir on ‘The Anopheline Mosquitoes of India’. Other names associated with these early investigations are those of Cogill, Aitken and Patton, all of whom contributed articles on mosquitoes in this. Journal. In 1908 Christophers (now an officer of the I.M.S.} and C. A. Bentley conducted an inquiry into the problems of malaria and black- water fever in the planting districts of north-east India, particularly the Bengal Duars. In the same year there occurred a devastating regional malaria epidemic in north-west India, in the course of which more than 300,000 persons died in the Punjab alone. In one sense this proved a blessing in disguise, for it led to the calling of an Imperial Malaria Conference at Simla in the following year which recommended the formation of an organisation for the study and prevention of malaria in India, comprising a Central Scientific Committee and a Local Malaria Committee for each province. There was appointed in each province an officer trained in malaria research, to carry out investigations which would form. the basis of preventive measures, and the study of mosquitoes throughout the Indian sub-continent was greatly extended. In the years 1909-10 Bentley made a detailed survey of malarial conditions in Bombay City and in 1911 Christophers conducted an inquiry into the causes of malaria in the Andaman Islands. Similar surveys of malarious tracts were undertaken in other 876 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 350 parts of India’ by Fry, Graham, ‘Kendrick, Adie, Permy, Gill tS: Ross, Horne, Hodgson and others. The Central Malaria Bureau, under the direction of Christophers, was founded at Kasauli, where were started thie collections which have formed the basis of most of the systematic work since carried out on the mosquitoes of India. The first world war had a disastrous effect on mosquito work in India, but after the cessation of hostilities interest in the subject began to revive. Christophers, who had served during the war in Mesopotamia, returned to the Central Malaria Bureau and resumed his intensive study of Anopheles, and Barraud took up the study of culicine mosquitoes on similar lines. In 1927 a permanent malaria organisation, the Malaria Survey of India, now known as the Malaria Institute of India, was established. Its headquarters was originally at Kasauli, but was transferred to Delhi in 1938. Much detailed ‘study of the mosquitoes of India from both systematic and biological aspects has been carried out by the staff of the institute both in its central laboratories and through special research units operating in various parts of the country. Among the more important works on mosquitoes published between the first and second world wars were Christophers’s ‘Provisional List and Reference Catalogue of the Anophelini’ and the same author’s volume on the Anophelini in the Fauna of British India series, Barraud’s volume on the Megarhinin1 and Culicini in the same series, Covell’s ‘Distribution of Anopheline Mosquitoes in India’ and ‘A critical review of the data recorded re-— garding the transmission of malaria by the different species of ‘Anopheles’ and Puri’s ‘Larvae of Anopheline Mosquitoes, with full ‘description of the Indian Species’. 7 The Rockefeller Foundation has also made a notable contribution to the study of Indian mosquitoes. From 1927 to 1433 W. C. Sweet conducted a series of epidemiological investigations in Mysore State, which formed the basis of the antimalartal campaign which has been in (progress there in’ recent years: Dr: P, . “Russell canrred pone similar work in south-eastern Madras from 1936 to 1942, with particular reference to the problems of irrigation malaria. In both these investigations many important mosquito studies were included, particularly in regard to bionomics. The Ross Institute of Tropicai Hygiene established a branch in India in 1930, with centres in Assam and the Bengai Duars, and later in southern India also. The prevention of malaria has been a major feature of its activities, and this has involved an intensive study of mosquitoes and their habits. Much attention has been directed to the biological control of mosquito breeding by the growing of dense shade ‘over water channels and by the flushing of streams by means of automatic sluices. Important researches on mosquito behaviour in Assam were also undertaken by R. C. Muirhead-Thomson under the auspices of the Royal Society and the London School of Hygiene and ‘Tropical Medicine from 1938 to 1941. In Bengal notable contributions to our knowledge of mosquitoes have been made by M. O. T. Iyengar, for many years Entomologist to the Bengal Health Department, and by C. Strickland and other workers at the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine. Mention must ‘also be made of the work of R. A. Senior White, who was for 20 years PENI ie 2 BR He MOSQUITO. WORK IN INDIA 877 Malariologist to the Bengal Nagpur Railway. During this period he carried out a series of intensive studies of the mosquito fauna of Bengal and Orissa and published a number of articles on the subject in various scientific journals. -® THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANTIMOSQUITO MEASURES Reference has already been made to the disappointing results of the first attempts in India to control malaria by antilarval measures. It became obvious that such methods were far too costly for applica- tion in rural areas, in which oo per cent of the population of India is located. They were economically practicable only in circumstances where large numbers of persons were congregated in limited areas and where considerable financial interests were involved. During the next 35 years there were many examples where malaria was successfully controlled by antilarval measures in urban areas such as Bombay, Bangalore, Lucknow and Delhi, and among labour forces employed on tea, coffee and rubber estates or other industrial concerns. But in the villages of India the only procedure attempted was the provision of treatment for the sick—a palliative rather than a control measure. In 1936, however, the publication of results achieved in South Africa by the spray-killing of adult mosquitoes in human dwellings with pyrethrum insecticide at a moderate cost encouraged the hope that here at last was a weapon which might prove practicable for use in rural India. Just at this time a comprehensive scheme of malaria control was being planned for the Delhi urban area, which covers approximately 60 square miles. The quarters occupied by government employees in particularly malarious sections of the area were sprayed throughout the malaria season with remarkably good results. In one set of quarters the malaria rate was reduced to 1.4 per cent, whilst a figure of 45 per cent was recorded in adjacent quarters which were left unsprayed during the same period. The WCihod was there- upon recommended for use throughout India for personnel such as police, railway, forest or other government employees and_ labour forces in estates, mills and other industrial enterprises when housed in permanent quarters. It was at first thought that its usefulness would be limited to such conditions, but in 1937 it was applied with success in several villages wh) Delhi Province. Further experimental work on similar lines was carried out by the Rockefeller Foundation Malaria Unit in southern India from 1938 to 1941, and about the same time the measure was adopted on a large scale in rural areas of Mysore State. During the early stages of the second world war, antilarval measures combined with the spray-killing of adult mosquitoes with pyrethrum insecticide proved inadequate for the conditions obtaining on the Burma front. With the introduction of DDT in 1944 a dramatic change occurred and in the two following malaria seasons the disease was reduced to such a low level that it was no longer of any military significance. Unfortunately, however, a system of rigid mass drug prophylaxis was put in fos at the same time, and it is impossible to assess with any degree of accuracy the relative part 4 878 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Veis 30 played by each of the two measures. The destruction of adult mosquitoes with residual insecticides has however been the chief feature of all antimalarial campaigns carried out among civil popula- tions during the post-war years, and in India, as elsewhere, the results achieved have been most striking. : Mosquito control measures in Delhi have now been extended throughout the rural area of the State. In Bombay State an organi- sation established in 1942 is now operating one of the largest and most successful DDT spray-killing campaigns in the world. Over g million persons are already under protection and it is expected that the number will reach 16 millions within the next two years. In Madras State there are 33 schemes in operation, protecting a popula- tion of 2 millions. In Mysore State 500,000 people are under protection. In West Bengal 97 antimalarial units are now operating and more than 3 millions are already protected. In Uttar Pradesh ~) 7 schemes are in operation, protecting 2 million persons. In Coorg the destruction of mosquitoes with residual sprays has been extremely successful, with great benefit to the coffee planting industry. Four control schemes under the auspices of the World Health Organisation are operating in foothill tracts in Mysore State, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa and Madras for the past two years. Antimosquito measures are also in force throughout the coalfields of India and on most of the railways, and there are other schemes in operation in association with various engineering projects such as the Damodar Valley, Hirakud Dam and Tungabhadra. The most striking reduction in the malaria rate brought about by the application of residual sprays has been in the foothills of southern India where the chief vector is Anopheles fluviatilis, a house-haunting mosquito with a marked pre-- ference for human blood, and one of the most efficient malaria carriers in the world. It is encouraging to note that the importance of antimosquito work is now fasdigs recognised by the Government of India, and that plans are on foot to extend such operations until the entire population of areas where malaria is still rife are effectively protected from infection. A list of publications relating to mosquitoes which have appeared from time to time in the Journal is given below. rey Giles, G. M. (1901): A plea for the collective investigation of the Culicidae. 13; 592. Aitken, E. H. (1901): Notes on Anopheles or malaria mosquito. 13; 601. : 3 | Cogill, H. (1903): The Anopheles of Karwar (North Kanara). 1d: 327. ea W. S. (1905): The Culicid fauna of the Aden Hinterland. 16; 623. | : ann H. (1907): Destruction of mosquitoes and their larvae by fish and lime. 17; 823. Liston, W--G. <(1908):-— The — present. epidemic gine thesseort <1 Bombay. 18; 872. | | Bentley, C. ‘A. (1910): The natural history of Bombay malaria. 20; 3092. Lloyd, R. E. (1910): Mosquitoes and fish. 20; 1165.. 7 eae TRE SSS ORAL TON. AAS ean CO Soa! MOSQUITO WORK IN INDIA S79 Wnichine Wee e( lols). bite distance mosquitoeg, can fly. — Za; =» Cavell, Gr2(1930):. ‘Che malaria problem in Bombay. 34; 735. * * * * * a Ar tulls list ‘of (the; species of’ mosquitoes, hitherto. recorded ‘in India will be found in the two volumes on Culicidae by Christophers and Barraud.in the Fauna of British India series, the former on Anophelinae, the latter on Megarhinini and Culicini.—Ebs. | FUNCTIONAL DIVERGENCE, STRUCTURAL CONVERGENCE AND PRE-ADAPTATION EXHIBITED BY THE FISHES OF THE CYPRINOID FAMILY PSILORHYNCHIDAB HORA BY SUNDER: LAL HORA, D.SC.;, F.R:S:2.,° C;M,Z.S,,. Mel-BIOl.,. F.Z.S.b5 F.A.S., F.N.I.5 Director, Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta (With two text figures) The family Psilorhynchidae, as defined at present, consists of a single genus Pszlorhynchus McClelland which comprises three species,. namely, P. sucatio (Ham.), P. balitora (Ham.) and P. homaloptera Hora & Mukerji. Hamilton’s two species were originally described from the north-eastern parts of Bengal (Eastern Himalayas), and have since been very frequently collected from the small streams below the Darjeeling Himalayas. The range of P. sucatio has now been extended to the Gandak drainage by Menon (seen in MS.) and to the Damodar River basin by David (seen in MS.), while /?. dalitora has since been found in the Assam Hills (Hora 1921a), Upper Burma (Mukerji, 1933), and as far west along the Himalayas as Delhi (Majumdar, 1952), P. homalopiera is known so far only from the Naga Hills, Assam (Hora & Mukerji, 1935). It will thus be seen that Psilorhynchidae is a small family of peculiar fishes with a comparatively restricted distribu- tion. The distributional pattern of the family, when compared with that of the Homalopteridae or the Glyptosternoid group of the family Sisoridae, indicates its evolution during the Pleistocene and its dispersal and speciation during the late orogenic movements of the Himalayas. (Menon, op. cit., MS.). It seems to have crossed over the Garo- Rajmahal Gap during the last glacial epoch about 20,000 tc 10,000 years ago when the height of the gap relative to the then sea-level was probably 500 to 600 feet (Hora, 1951). These remarkable fishes have been variously assigned to the families Cyprinidae, Cobitidae and Homalopteridae by the earlier ichthyologists and some fishes from China and Indo-China had erroneously been _ referred to Psdlorhynchus owing to certain superficial similarities in structure and form with the Indian species. In 1925, the writer (Hora, pp. 457-60) discussed the systematic position of this genus and created a separate family for its reception. Since then, Mukerji (loc. cit.) and Ramaswami (1952) have shown from more detailed morphological studies that its separation into a new family was justified. The salient features of the Psilorhynchidae are :— 1. Absence of barbels and peculiar shape of mouth and of the associated structures (text fig. 1 d-f). 2. Presence of a number of unbranched rays in the paired fins (text fig. 1 d-f) as in the Homalopteridae. 3. A free air-bladder in the abdominal cavity (text fig. I a-c)as in the Cyprinidae. pie SMe Ry Te! eye hr FUNCTIONAL DIVERGENCE ETC. OF PSILORHYNCHIDAE HORA 85r 4. A siender pharyngeal bone with teeth (four) arranged in a single row as in the Cobitidae and the Homalopteridae. 5. A plate-like, well-developed and broad basipterygium (text. fig. 1g, #and/7) for the attachment of muscles as in the Homalopteridae. In characters 2, 4 and 5, there is a close parallelism between the families Psilorhynchidae and Homalopteridae, but the structural modifications 2 and 5, though due to the more vigorous use of the paired. fins and the muscles associated with them, are correlated with the performance of different functions, as will be shown below. Fig. 1 Hora & Mukerji (loc. cit.) have already referred to the differences in the habitats of the three species and shown how these are correlated with their structural features. For instance, P. sucatio is usually met Within sandy parts of a brook where it lies partly buried in sand which 882 FOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50° — ; 3 it displaces with the vigorous action of its paired fins. It is thus not affected by the swiftness of the current to any appreciable extent. Asa result of this ground habit of life, the air-bladder (text fig. la) has deviated from the normal shape and is represented by a laterally ex- tended anterior chamber only. When it lies at the bottom, partly buried in sand, its dorsal streamlined profile offers little resistance to the current and the flattened ventral surface broadly rests on a sandy ~ substratum. There seems little doubt that the unbranched rays in the ot — CJ =I —r sy ri \ paired fins of P. sucatio (text fig. 2d) are used for digging in sandy bottom. Similar structural. modifications in the paired fins of the Homalopteridae (text fig. 2a) have taken place but for a different ~ purpose—enabling them to cling to rocks. ‘To obviate any damage to the fins, either- when used for digging or for adhesion, the unbranched rays are completely segmented to ensure, during operation, pliability with strength. Thus the convergence of structure is carried a step further. Inthe case of the Homalopteridae, the skin on the ventral surface of these rays becomes padded (text fig. 2a) for effective adhesion and the first ray (text fig. 26 &c.) becomes broader by the development ofa series of cartilaginous processes as are characteristic of the Glyptosternoid fishes (Hora & Silas, 1952) of the family: FUNCTIONAL DIVERGENCE ETC. OF PSILORHYNCHIDAE HORA 883 Sisoridz. In view of the fact that the pectoral fins of Psilorhynchus sucatco are used for quite a different purpose, no adhesive pads of skin are developed on their ventral surface. In an aquarium, however, the -fish was noticed to cling to the sides by means of the fins and the flattened ventral surface. Pstlorhynchus balitora (text fig. le) is cylindrical and loach-like in appearance and I have often collected it from rocky streams. Mukerji (op. cit., p. 830) observed that ‘P.bakitora is found in the fast streams and shallow rivers of Northern Bengal and Assam, especially where the bottom is rocky. 1 have never found the fish living in any sluggish stream with a muddy bottom. In the Sevoke Stream and in the shallow, clear and rocky parts of the Mahanadi river, 1 have observed series of P. balitora adhering tightly to the rocky substratum with the expanded paired fins and the chest appliedto the rocks. Like other torrential fishes, it always points its head against the flow of the current.’ On the other hand, Kaushiva (1951, p. 164) found specimens of P. batitora at Lucknow on a sandy bottom where the water was flowing with some force owing to a weir. There are more unbranched rays in the pectoral fins of this species than in P. sucatéo and the air-bladder | (text fig. 10) is, though somewhat reduced, of the usual Cyprinid type, showing thereby that this species has not yet fuliy taken to a ground habit of life, though for clinging to rocks or digging in sand it seems to have more efficient pectoral fins than those of P. sucatio, From the observations recorded above, it will be seen that 2. éali- fora is equally at home both in rocky as well as in sandy streams. It is, therefore, a more generalised species of the genus. Specimens collected from the rocky streams usually possess skin pads on the ventral surface of the unbranched rays. ‘The paired fins, originally modified for clinging to rocks have secondarily become equally effici- ent for digging in sand. ‘Thus, this is a case of pre-adaptation, where structures modified for one purpose have turned out to be suitable for another purpose also. Psilorhynchus homaloptera (text fig. If), as is implied in the speci- fic name, has become absolutely Homaltopiera-like in form and struc- tural modifications. There is an increase in the number of unbranched rays to 8 in the pectoral fins and the air-bladder (text fig. 1c) is fibrous and reduced. Though no direct observations on its mode of life are recorded, the development of skin-pads on the ventral surface of the unbranched rays of the pectoral fins shows its adaptiveness to cling to rocks in swift currents. The present-day modes of life of the three species referred to above indicate that P, dalitova is the central form which can live in sand, as its specific name indicates, but is equally at home on rocks, as observed by Mukerji. Itis not yet known which Cyprinoid genus gave rise to Pstlorhynchus nor is there any indication about the evolution of the type of mouth characteristic of these fishes. The coalescence of the branch- ed rays in the paired fins would seem to have been induced by digging in sand and later found useful for clinging to rocks also. The modifi- cations of P. sucatio seem to be directed towards burrowing in sand while those of P. homaloptera for clinging to rocks. Thus in these three Species we have a remarkable instance of functional divergence associated with structural convergence. 13 884. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 REFERENCES ts David, A. (1952) : New Records of Himalayan Fishes from the Damodar and Mahanadi river systems. Scz. & Cult. (In press). Hora, S. L. (1921 a): Fish and Fisheries of Manipur with sore observations. on those of the Naga Hills. ec. Ind. Mus.22; 165-214. — — — (19216): On some new or rare species of fish from the Eastern Himalayas. ec. Ind. Mus.22 3 731-744. — — — (1925): Notes on fishesin the Indian Museum, XI[—The systematic position of the Cyprinoid genus /’silorhynchus McClelland. Jbid., 27 ; 457-460. — — — (1951): Some observations on the palaeogeography of the Garo- Rajmahal Gap as evidenced by the distribution of Malayan fauna and flora to Peninsular India, Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India, 17 (6) ; 437-444. Hora, S. L.; & Mukerji, D. D. (1935): Fishes of the Naga Hills, Assam. Rec. Ind. Mus., 37 ; 381-404. Hora, S. L., and Silas, E. G. (1952) : Evolution and distribution of Glyptos- ternoid fishes of the family Sisoridae (order Siluroidea). Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. (In press). Kaushiva, B. S. (1951): Extension of geographical range of Psilorhynchus balitora (Ham,). Curr, Sci., 20; 164. Majumdar, N.N. (1952) : Notes on Delhi Fishes. II—On the occurrence of the fish Pstlorhynchus balitora (Hamilton) in the Jumna river at Delhi. J. Zool. Soc. India, 3 (2) ; 243-247. Menon, A. G. K. (1952) : Further studies regarding Hora’s Satpura Hypothe- sis. I1—The distribution of torrential fishes of the Himalayas and its palaeogeogra- phical significance (Under preparation). ’ Mukerji, D. D. (1933): Report on Burmese fishes collected by Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton from the tributary streams of the Mali Hka river of the Myitkyina district (Upper Burma). Journ. Bomb. Nat Hist. Soc., 36 ; 812-831. Ramaswami, L. 8. (1952): Skeleton of Cyprinoid fishes in relation to phylo- genetic studies. 2. ‘the skull and other skeletal structures of Pszlorhynchus McClelland. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India. EXPLANATION OF TEXT FIGURES Text fig. 1. Air-bladder, ventral surface of anterior part of body and basipterygium in the three species of Psilorhynchus McClelland. a. Air-bladder of P. sucatio (Ham.) x 13; 6. Air-bladder of P. dbalitora (Ham.) x 5 (After Mukerji, 1933); c. Air-bladder of P. homaloptera Hora & Mukerji, x5 (After Hora & Mukerji, 1955); d. Ventral surface of anterior part of body of P. sucatio (Ham.) x ¢.1 (After Hora 1921); e. Same of P. dalitora (Ham.) x ¢. 1(After Mukerji, (1933); f. Same of P. homaloplera (Hora & Mukerji, 1935). ¢.x1; g. Basipterygium of P. sucatio (Ham.). x ¢ca.8;h. Same of P. balitora (Ham.), x c. 44 (After Mukerji, (1933) ;z. Sameof P. homaloptera Hora & Mukerji x ¢.3. (Atter Hora & Mukerji, 1935). Text fig. 2. Pectora! fins of Balitora brucei Gray and Psilorhynchus sucatio (Hamilton). ; a. Balitora brucei: ventral surface to show the adhesive pads on the unbranched rays, x 24; 6. Six anterior rays of &. dbrucez dissected out to show their segmented nature and wing-like cartilaginous extensions on the exposed portions of these rays, x 4; ¢. Proximal portions of the anterior two rays of B. brucet to show the well-developed cartilaginous extension of the first ray,, x 643; da. Psilorhynchus sucatio. BUTTERFLY COLLECTING IN INDIA BY M. A. WyntTer-BLYTH, F.R.E.S. (With a coloured plate) Perhaps few articles have been begun under conditions more unsuitable to the subject than this. I am camping in a side nala of the Wardwan Valley in Kishtwar and, although it is May 15th, I am, for the third consecutive day, confined to my tent by foul weather. It is snowing heavily, it is bitterly cold, and no conditions less con- ducive to writing on butterflies can be imagined! However, this is the date upon which the article is due. Conscience, not inspiration, is the spur. My object is to show that butterfly collecting is no mere childish hobby, but a study of absorbing and deep scientific interest. Much remains to be discovered about the early stages, distribution, migration, and habits of Indan butterflies, and it is still in the power of the enthusiastic collector to be a pioneer, for it is no exaggeration to state that every collector, no matter where he collects, will after collecting for a few months, have some piece of information or some specimen of value to science. The naturalist is usually depicted as a bearded old fossil down on his knees peering at something through a magnifying glass, whilst the butterfly collector in particular, an even greater figure of fun, is a be-spectacled professor, head in air, wildly chasing a butterfly, unobservant of the yawning chasm in front of him. Such pictures should not deter the embryo collector, for though they are no doubt humorous, they are somewhat unjust. If the reader is prepared to undertake a little simple research, he will find that the majority of distinguished naturalists in India, and she has had many, have also made their mark in the services or professions. At first it will undoubtedly be the beauty, and, to a lesser extent, the variety and abundance, of Indian butterflies that will attract the collector, for there are few Indian butterflies that are not beautiful, and among the 1,400 or so species to be found within the Indian Region! are some of the most beautiful in the world. An interesting experiment that I once carried out on the relative beauty of Indian butterflies may serve as an illustration to this state- ment. I chose some 4o of what I considered to be the most beautiful of them all, selected with an eye to suit all tastes. - I then asked 1r of the inhabitants of the place in which I was stationed, people of various nationalities, occupations, social standing and levels of intelligence, to choose in order what they thought to be the six most beautiful—first choice receiving 6 points, second 5 points and + That is India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma, Nicobars & Andamans. 386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOGIETY> Vor Ge so on. Amongst these butterflies was Prothoe calydonia, the Glori- ous Begum (see plate), an extremely rare butterfly from Burma that is often referred to as the most beautiful butterfly in the world. . In the final count the interesting fact was that this butterfly only gained 6th place. . The final placings were as follows :— (1) The Blue Peacocks [Papilio polyctor, P. arcturus (see plate), P. paris and P. krishna, of which the favourite was P. polyctor]. ) The Kaisar-i-Hind (Teinopalpus imperialis). ) The Banded Peacocks (Papilio crino and P. buddha). ) The Orange Oakleaf (Ivallima inachus). ) The Birdwings (Troides). ) The Gisnace! Begum (Prothoe calydonia). (7). The Clipper (Parthenos sylvia virens), and thereafter in order the Bhutan Glory (Armandia lidderdalei), the Yellow Gorgon (Meandrusa payeni), and the Large Oakblue (Amblypodia amantes) as representing the numerous Oakblue genus. The Blue Peacocks gained first place very comfortably, seven of the eleven’ selectors placing them airst, | The “favourite, (Ps cpolyeior, the Common Peacock, is an abundant butterfly at Himalayan hill stations and very much a feature of gardens during the ‘spring and rains. Papilio arcturus, the Blue Peacock, is my own particular favourite in this group, perhaps because of its association with the higher hills, for the differences between it and polyctor are very minor. When the collector has caught and named the majority of the common butterfiies of his locality and has attained some proficiency in identifying the scarcer species, he will begin to Sfinderthat ithe study of butterflies is absorbing in many ways in addition to the mere novelty of catching new species and taking pleasure in the appearance of those that he has caught, though these pleasures will always remain. One of the iirst things to intrigue him must be the’ variation that so many butterflies display—-between individuals of the same sex, between the two sexes, .and, especially, between the dry season and wet season broods. For example, the undersides of no two Kallima, or Oakleaf Butter- flies, are ever identical, and the variation in marking's on the upper- sides of Catopsilia pomona, the Lemon Emigrant, a very common garden buttertly, is great. The males and females of most butter- flies show some difference in marking, colouration or shape of the wings, though in a number of species the wing markings are identi- cal and sex can only be determined by examination of ies genitalia or the structure of the legs. Where the sexes differ considerably—and the rule is that the male is the brighter in colour whilst the female has the drabber or more confusing peeing eal selection in the males has proved stronger than natural selection which has given the lemale her protective markings. Usually it is easy enough to re- cognise that such males ate females belong to the same species, but there are numerous butterflies that have a female form or forms that are. entirely. different , from the male, for instance—once again choosing a very common garden butterfly—the male of Hypolimnas misippus, the Danaid Beis is a vhandsome black insect with a white egg-shaped blue- -edged marking on each wing, while the aan BUTTE REE VYGOLLEGTING iINUINDIA @ BD S| female is brick red with black and white markings bearing at first sight no resemblance at all to the male. More interesting still is seasonal variation caused by the effects of different conditions of moisture and temperature on the caterpillars and their foodstuffs. As a general rule butterflies reared during the rainy season when plant growth is at its richest are smaller, darker and less protectively marked—the struggle for existence being at a lower ebb during this season of plenty. Butterflies reared during the dry season are larger, paler and more obscurely marked, and their wing contours are often angular. Most of the genus Ypthima, the Rings, common little brown butterflies which hop about close to the grass, are richly marked with rings, or ‘eyes’ (ocelli), and fine streaking, or ‘striations’, on the under- sides in the wet forms, whereas these markings are reduced to mere silver specks in the dry forms and the striations disappear. Again, Melanitis leda, the Common Evening Brown, an abundant butterfly that dances briskly about as dusk falls and often comes in to verandah lights, has a finely striated underside with ocelli in the wet form, which markings entirely disappear in the brood reared during the dry season, to be replaced, often richly, by brown, yellow and black blotches or bands like the patterns on old leaves lying on the ground. To add to the resemblance the contour of the wings becomes much more angular and the insect bends the wings over sideways when: settling. There are two more interesting examples worthy of mention. Terias laeta, the Spotless Grass Yellow, and its wet season form venata, were long classed as different species, so dissimilar were they in appearance, until Colonel Mosse proved them to be the same by breeding laeta from eggs laid by venata. Catopsilia .pyranthe, the Mottled Emigrant, and Catopsilia flor- ella, the African Emigrant, are two extremely common greenish-white medium-sized garden butterflies, the former flying in the monsoon and early autumn, the latter at the other seasons. They do not differ greatly but are easily recognised the one from the other. Now, though circumstantial evidence is very strongly in favour of their being two forms of the one species, this has never been proved. As the foodplant is known, one would think it would be an easy matter to secure the necessary proof by capturing a female, keeping ker with her foodplant and seeing what the eggs bring forth. Unfortunately many butterflies are unwilling to lay eggs in captivity. Another matter that must quickly claim the interest of the collector is the patterns on butterflies’ wings and the reasons for them. These patterns may roughly be divided into three categories: protective, warning and attractive. Almost all butterflies are protectively marked on the undersides; many on the uppersides as well. The aim of such markings is to make it hard for their enemies to see them. On the undersides they may resemble some specific object, such as MKallima’s wonderful imitation of a leaf, or as the silver-spotted Fritillaries (Argynnis) resemble the sparkling morning dew, for early morning is the time that these ligh altitude butterflies are numbed with cold and find it hard to fly. But the majority have cryptic patterns that blend with the background against which they settle. It will be noticed that such 888 JOURNAL, (BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SSOGIEAIR ole markings on the underwing’s invariably cover the whole of the hind- wings but very frequently only the tips of the forewings, for when many butterflies settle the forewings are folded back into the hindwings so that only their tips remain uncovered?. Certain butterflies carry warning colours, usually combinations of red, yellow and black. ‘These are either butterflies that are actively protected by a taste (derived from the plants on which their caterpillars fed) that is offensive to their enemies (birds and lizards), or butterflies that by a process of natural selection have come to imitate, or ‘mimic’, the evil-tasting species for their own protection. In the first group, amongst others, is the genus Danais (which contains the brick-red, black and white Plain Tiger, D. chrysippus, perhaps the commonest of garden butterflies on the plains). The butterflies of this genus display the warning colours on the upperside, for when they settle to sip the nectar of plants they do so with their wings spread. But another genus, Delias, the Jezebels, which settles at such times with wings closed, bears brilliant black, red, and yellow markings on the underside. In the second group perhaps the commonest is the female of the aforementioned Hypolimnas misippus which mimics D. chrysip- pus. Chilasa agestor, the Tawny Mime, a mimic of Danais tytia, the Chestnut Tiger, is shown on the plate. These two are butterflies that can be seen at Himalayan hill stations. In passing, perhaps it is of interest to notice that ‘protected’ butterflies fly slowly to give their potential enemies time to see and recognise that they are distasteful species, and furthermore they are always very tough and tenacious of life (as the collector will learn when he tries to kill them), so that if a-bird does make a mistake and rejects the insect in disgust, little damage may result ! The upperwings of butterflies show an almost endless variety ot colours and patterns. The faster flying species such as Eriboea dolon, the Stately Nawab, (figured. on the plate) make little attempt at protection, but the majority bear some sort of confusing, concealing or disruptive pattern suited to their type of habitat—for instance the basic colour of almost all forest haunting butterflies is drab brown (genera such as Lethe, the Treebrowns, and Mycalesis, the Bushbrowns), and favourite patterns for those that love patchy ‘sunlight and shade are horizontal bands of black and white, or black or brown and yellow (e.g. genera such as Neptis, the Sailers, and Pantoporia, the Sergeants), obviously a successful pattern as it is mimicked by a butterfly, Apatura chevana, the Sergeant Emperor, a member of a genus whose general pattern bears no relationship to it at all. This is, I believe, the only case of mimicry among Indian butterflies where the pattern, or object of imitation, is not a ‘pro- tected’ butterfly—that is one protected by unpleasant taste. In the third category—butterflies with attractive colours or mark- ings—the uppersides of the males show no attempt at protection; in- deed, quite the reverse, for every attempt is made to render them conspicuous on the wing. This is apparently the result of sexual ‘selection, the importance of attracting the female being paramount and more powerful than the influences of natural selection that would * Almost all butterflies go to rest with the wings in this position. JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. SCALE: ONE INCH I. The Banded Apollo, Parnassius stoliczkanus, race nova, male 2. The Glorious Begum, Prothoe calydonia belisama, male UP UN 3. The Blue Peacock, Papilio arcturus arius, male 4. The Tawny Mime, Chilasa agestor govindra, male 5. The Painted Courtesan, Euripus consimilis, form nova, female UP UN 6. The Stately Nawab, Eriboea dolon centralis, male BUTE REIEY “COPENCLING ‘BN INDIA 589 produce some protective colour pattern. Such butterflies gain pro- tection in other ways, such as by fast flight or, in the case of many ‘blues’ (Lycaenidae), by strongly contrasting colours on the upper and lower sides, so that, though in flight they present one appearance, immediately they settle with their wings closed they present an entirely different one, thereby utterly confusing their pursuers. The Blue Sapphire, Heliophorus oda, a beautiful little butterfly that is not rare in the N.W. Himalaya, serves as an excellent example of both sexual selection and contrasting coloration. In the male of this species the upperside is of a brilliant deep silky blue with black borders to the forewing and red borders to the hindwings, a colour scheme that flashes in the sunlight and makes the butterfly very obvious in flight, but the underside is of a rich orange brown. The female is the same below but orange and black above. : Mimicry has already been mentioned in relation to colour schemes, and so much has been written about this fascinating subject that I do not intend to say more than a word or two about it. Mimicry, to state the obvious, is where a species of butterfly by a process of natural selection has grown to resemble another for its own protection—a protection in the case of mature butterflies that is almost entirely against birds and lizards. How does this mimicry deceive the human eye? Speaking as a collector my answer is that it does so very seldom. Wonderful though most examples of mimicry may be, after a litthe experience it is usually easy to pick out the mimic in flight from its pattern. Perhaps the most perfect example of mimicry among Indian butterflies is that of the Danaid Egefly, Hypolimnas misippus, the female of which mimics the Plain Tiger, Danais chrysippus. In this case considerable experience is required to tell the butterflies apart in flight—and even so one is often deceived. It should, perhaps, be stressed that mimicry and_ protective resemblance are measures against birds and lizards, and to a lesser extent against frogs and toads, but not against insect enemies. The sight of insects is entirely different from that of ourselves, birds, reptiles and amphibians, and as insects rely mainly on other senses for finding their prey, mimicry and protective resemblance are no defence against them. Other measures have to be adopted. Though in the imago—final, or butterfly, stage—insect enemies are of small importance (chiefly dragonflies, robberflies or 'Asilidae, and Mantids), in the earlier stages, as I shall mention shortly, they are many. Perhaps one problem of mimicry should be mentioned. To gain the needed protection one would obviously assume that the mimic and the pattern should fly together. Yet this is not always the case. The vomulus form of the female of the Common Mormon (Papilio polytes) that mimics Polydorus hector, the Crimson Rose, is found north of the range of the latter in both Kathiawar and the Simla Hills. However, as these areas are not so very far north of ‘the habitat of hector this can probably be explained by local migration. The case of Valeria valeria hippia, female form philomela, the Com- mon Wanderer, a species found in S. India, that mimics Danais aspasia, a butterfly that can be met with no nearer than Burma, is soo JOURNAL, ‘BOMBAY, NATURAL HIST?S SOCIRTY, Vel 250 much more difficult to explain. One distinguished naturalist put forward a theory that the selective agent is some species of wagtail that migrates between India and Burma. Sdlim Ali, however, thinks nothing of this theory as he knows of no such wagtail and further- more considers that a wagtail is a most unlikely kind of bird to serve as a selective agent for a fast flying butterfly such as Valeria. More Hes solutions are that Valeria is a persistently migrant butterfly (though I have no evidence of this except that its trivial name, the Common Wanderer, leaves a suspicion that it may be a migrant) or that its pattern and its mimic originally flew together in the south (and other parts of India, for it is also found in Bengal, M.P., and Assam) but some change of climate or other condition eliminated aspasia from that region but left philomela. One of the most attractive things to my mind about butterfly collecting—but this applies mainly to the north of India and espe- cially to the N.W. Himalaya where the seasons are pronounced-—is the discovering, in the case of single or double-brooded butterflies, of the dates on which the broods may be expected to appear, for they are often most remarkably regular in appearance. When this applies to butterflies that can only be found in certain very particular locali- ties their pursuit becomes even more intriguing. Two such butterflies are featured on the plate—Chilasa agestor, ‘the Tawny Mime, and Eriboea dolon, the Stately Nawab. Indeed, it was the first-mentioned that induced me to take up butterfly collecting. Shortly after arriv- ing m Simla, that fine naturalist A. E. Jones showed me a picture of it and said that it was the earliest of the ‘good’ butterflies to be caught in Simla. It could be found for a fortnight, from the last week of March, in a very small number of select localities—one of which, I remember, was near the then Japanese Consulate. Al- though it took me two years to come across it and to catch it, never- theless this was the butterfly that started me off on butterfly collect- ing in India. Eriboga, the genus to which the Stately Nawab belongs, the closely allied genus Charaxes, the Rajahs, and one or two others, may be regarded as the ‘big game’ of the Indian butterfly world. Their capture is a matter of experience, knowledge and strategy. To catch this particular butterfly a knowledge of the precise locality, exact season, and particular time of day that it flies is needed. A further complication is that it flies very fast indeed and seldom approaches within 12 or 15 feet of the ground, but this can be overcome by the fact that its range is very restricted and if the collector climbs a tree within this small area he will) have an excellent chance of catching not one, but two‘or three at once, for they are extremely quarrelsome butterflies and fight in two’s and three’s, at which time they are oblivious to their surroundings and pay no attention to the collector and his net. The collector will probably. wish to know what are his prospects of catching a new species—and so fulfilling the dream of every naturalist. In India the chances are almost nil.. In Assam and Burma they are very, very remote. In a paper collection from Burma bought by me in Ooty T was fortunate enough to discover the new ne form of Euripus consimilis, the Painted Courtesan, that is sp ay ehien a eee BUDLERE LY COLLECTING VIN ENDIA SOE shown on the plate. This parallels one ct the female forms of the very closely related Euripus halitherses, the Courtesan (Q form cinnamoneus). Such discoverics as this are nowadays very rare. If, on the other hand, the collector cares to investigate carefully some of the high valleys of the Himalayas he has a very good chance indeed ot discovering new races of certain species—and by races we mean butterflies that in a certain locality show slight but constant differences from others of their own species in an adjacent locality. The valleys there are so isolated from one another that species can follow their own line of development with little infiltration of fresh blood from outside to interfere with them. The three species to which these remarks mainly apply are Parnassius delphius, P. stoliczkanus (inhabi- tants of above about 13,000 ft.), and the Lycaenid, Polyommatus: eros, found above about 8,500 ft., all of which run to a large number of races. A new race of Parnassits stolicskanus is shown on the plate. This flies on the Shiring La, the pass that is one stage beyond Shipki. ‘A. E. Jones and I had an arrangement with a trader who went vearly over the passes to Gartok by which his men collected butter- flles for us. Opening the. parcels of butterflies he sent to us was most exciting. Many were the good buttertiies he brought back— Parnassus stohcekanus -spiiensis,. P...acco, P.. simo, P: charlionius, ‘P. ephaphus. Baltia butleri, Pieris callidice, P. chloridice, P. deota, P, krueperi, high elevation Polyommatus and Satyrids, and on one occasion a very long series of this new race of Parnassius stolicskanus. vs Vv Vv. *K ay Fe *. * So far I have touched, and touched but lightly, on a very few points of interest regarding the imago, or final stage of butterfly life ; but it should not be thought that the early- stages are without interest. Far from it, for it is in this field that many discoveries. can be made. The early stages of few Indian butterflies have been described—and the vast majority of those that have been described were described by one pioneer, T. R. Bell of Kanara, whose researches were published in this journal under the title of ‘The Common Butter- flies of the Plains of India’. As well as the discovery of the caterpillars and foodplants of butterflies whose early stages have hitherto remained undescribed, there is a multitude of other things of interest about the ege’s, cater- pillars and chrysalids. The study of the association between ants and the caterpillars of many Lycaenids is of absorbing interest. In its most highly developed form ants take complete charge of the development of the butterfly from the egg stage until the emergence of the perfect insect, all of which care is administered in return for a sweet secretion that these caterpillars exude from segment 11 of their bodies. Most Lycaenid larvae also have two small organs on segment 12, one on each side, in the form of pillars, which can be erected at will. In the larvae of Curetis, the Sunbeams, however, these pillars are large and permanently erected. When one of these larvae is touched or frightened, from-each of the pillars is protruded a long tentacle furnished at its head with a brush of parti-coloured hairs which opens out into a rosette. The tentacle is whirled around with immense rapidity producing a curious effect. This contrivance is undoubtedly B92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL sHIST]*SOOIEE YO eV oly a0 an apparatus for frightening away enemies. Now the Sunbeams do not possess the gland on segment 11 and therefore are afforded no protection by ants. Consequently it seems probable that the organ on 11 was developed later than that on 12 and that on most larvae the organ on 12 is only a relic of an old form of defence, and since it has ceased to be of use for its original purpose it has become aborted. There is a theory that in its present degenerate condition it is used as_a signal to ants that the sweet liquid from the gland in 11 is ready for the taking, but I do not think that this need be considered seriously. Generally larvae are very particular about their choice of food- plants, often feeding on only one particular species of plant: . But this does not apply to butterflies constantly attended by ants for more often than not they are found to feed on a large variety, attention by ants apparently being of more importance than the type of food. Such caterpillars cannot be reared away from the ants that usually attend them. On the other hand, there is the caterpillar of the very rare Moth Butterfly, Liphyra brassolis, that, clothed in impenetrable armour, also lives in ants’ nests, not to be ministered to by them but to feed on the ant larvae. This species also pupates in the ants’ nests—still in his armour plate—and emerges there. This surely is the moment when he may well be vulnerable to the attacks of ants? But no; the young imago is covered with detachable and adhesive scales in which the attacking ants become entangled and so are rendered impotent. The study of the numerous enemies and parasites that the early stages of butterflies are heir to is a subject of great scope. To men- tion but a few, spiders and cockroaches eat their eggs, ichneumon flies, mason wasps and a host of others lay their own eggs within the caterpillars, the chrysalids are far from safe from birds and lizards, and frogs and toads will eat greedily the eggs, caterpillars or chrysalids when they find them. What then are their measures of protection? Unlike the imago the early stages are more or less static, and so protection against the more slowly moving insect enemies becomes of great importance. Although butterflies’ eggs are minutely sculp- tured to look like tiny plant galls the main method of protection of the species in this stage lies in the laying of very large numbers in the hope that at, least a few will survive. In the caterpillar stage the methods of protection are many. Some, like the perfect insects, are protected by unpleasant taste and smell and bear warning mark- ings and feed openly for all to see. Others, the Papilios, or Swallow- tails, feed on citrus plants, whose essential oils are generally con- ‘sidered to be a deterrent to insects—nevertheless the early stages of some of these butterflies are far from free from insect parasites. But the larvae of the Charaxes-Apatura group of the Nymphalids and those of the Danaids, employ more direct methods in dealing with them, for the former have fleshy processes on their heads, and the latter on segments 3 and 12, which are probably used for brushing them off. Many Nymphalids have spined larvae, and often these, and those too that are protected by unpleasant taste or smell, live in colonies, on the assumption, perhaps, that though one hairy or unpleasant tasting caterpillar may not be a too unpleasant mouthful, BULLERELY “COLLECTING IN “IN DIA 893 several will certainly be so and something no bird will wish to repeat ! Many caterpillars only feed by night, most feed on the undersurface ot leaves, and the majority, like the perfect insects, bear protective colour patterns or processes. To mention one or two: Euthalia (a very large genus of the Nymphalidae) carry fern-like processes that make them resemble the midrib and veins of a leaf, some Swallow- tail (Papilio) larvae resemble birds’ droppings, and the larva ot Limenitis procris, the Commander, builds up a rampart of its own droppings and perfectly resembles these. Skippers (Hesperiidae) live in cells made from leaves or blades of grass. Chrysalids mainly depend on the protected position in which they are placed, on their obscure markings, on their shapes and, especially, on their hard chitinous coverings that guard them from most of their insect enemies. * * * * * But, perhaps, after all, one of the greatest charms of butterfly collect- ing lies in the beauty of real butterfly country—the high meadows and passes of the Himalayas in July. where the labour of attaining such ‘places is richly rewarded by the gardens of flowers in which fly Parnassius and other prizes of the butterfly world; the lovely nalas above the Himalayan hill stations in May and June; and, throughout the year, the South Indian jungles at the foot of the hills where insect life is unbelievably rich. Above all, butterfly collecting is a hobby for those who seek peace of mind, solitude, and beauty. NEW FINDS OF INDIAN CUCURBITACEAE BY H. L. CHAKRAVARTY D.Sc. (Edin.), F.L.S. Protessor of Botany, Presidency College, Caicutla (With five plates and a text figure) During the preparation of a monographic work on Indian Cucurbi- taceae in Great Britain, attached to the University of Edinburgh, I came across nine new species and one new genus of the family. The new finds together with those recorded by Clarke in Hooker's Flora of. British India will now come to a total of 108 species which mean an iricrease of 37 species from Clarke’s list. Thirty-four genera have been included in the Monograph, while in F. B. I. we find only 29. The new genus Weoluffa has been discovered from Sikkim Himalaya. It approaches towards Luffa in certain aspects but differs in having (i) leaves entire and tomentose without punctation, (ii) petals constricted at the apex and (ili) stamens all free but four arising closer as if in two pairs. The monograph is being published elsewhere. Trichosanthes tomentosa Chakravarty, sp. nov. Ab omnibus speciebus hujus generis adhuc descriptis propter folia subtus dense tomentosa valde distincta; affinis speciei infra notatae esse videtur. Caulis robustus, elongatus, angulato-sulcatus, fulvo-hirsutus, Folia magna; lamina supra atro-viridis, sparsim atque breviter hirsuta, subtus densissime coacto-tomentosa, glandulis cupularibus paucis conspersa, ovato-lanceolata, truncata vel paulo cordata, margine integerrima vel remote et obscure serrata, 10-20 cm. longa, 5-10 cm. lata, apice longe acuminata, ad basim nervis ornata 3-5, petiolo robusto, tomentoso, 95 cm. longo praedita. Cirrhi robusti, hirsuti, simplices vel basi 4-5-— fidi, 5-15 cm. longi. Pedunculus femineus — robustus, axillaris, solita- rius, uniflorus, tomentosus, 2-4 cm. longus. Calycis tubus tomentosus, 8-12 mm. longus, 4-6 mm. latus, 5-lobatus; lobi lineares extra tomen- tosi, 10-12 mm. longi, 1-5-3 mm. lati. Petala 5, spathulata, unguicu- lata, ad marginem fimbriata, 10-15 mm. longa et lata. Ovarium oblongum, dense molliter tomentosum, apice basique + contractum, Stylus crassus, niger in sicco, 1-5-2 mm. longus, 1-1°5 mm. latus ; stigma 3-lobatum, lobis linearibus 2-3 mm. longis. Flores masculi ignoti. Fructus deest. Assam: Kohimato Nerhema 4,500 ft. (Watt. No. 11640 type: 22nd May 1895, Herb. Cal.); Naga Hulls, Mongsendi 5,000 ft. (Watt. No. 1129, May 1895, Herb. Cal.). Four sheets of this species are in the Calcutta Herbarium, three collected from Kohima and one from Naga Hills. This species can be easily distinguished from its allies by its densely tomentose leaves. Prats | fourn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Sy ~~ . Dt Baa O74 eas oe Seas Py Cae ons ee ~~ CS oe ae a os, ~ woe we SA let ae Oot A aon eo” pea set Sx = oo ff See : Jo fy ae é oe Be. : Se ees a, aa x - a ai J . es ‘a hah 2 Trichosanthes tomentosa Chakr. Journ.. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. , ean Pirate II \{ ANY Trichosanthes listeri Chakr. NEW FINDS OF INDIAN CUCURBITACEAE 895 Trichosanthes listeri Chakravarty, sp. nov. Haec species cum 77yichosanthe tomentosa Chakravarty quoad faciem econegruit sed follis multo minoribus, supra scabrido- hirsutis, floribus multo majoribus, tubo calycis longissimo discrepat. . _ Caulis satis robustus, elongatus, angulatus, longe hirsutus. Lamina crassa, indivisa, ovata vel ovato-lanceolata, alte cordata, apice acuto, margine minute denticulato, supra dense scabrido-hirsuta, subtus densissime et molliter tomentosa, 6-8 cm. longa, 4-5 cm. lata; lobi ad basim cordatam = rotundi, 1-2 cm. lati; petiolus cylindricus, hirsutus, 3-6 cm. longus. Flores masculi ebracteati, axillares, magni; pedunculus hirsutus, uniflorus, 1-5-2 cm. longus. Calycis tubus breviter tomentosus, 8-12 cm. longus, linearis, apice latior et campanulatim expansus, regione angusta 2-3 mm. lata, regione expansa 2~2:5 cm. lata; lobi 5,2 5 mm. longi, acuti. Corolla expansa ad basim partita, longe fim= briata ; Jobi oblongo-ovati, glabri, 4-5 cm. longi, 1°5-2 cm. lati. Stamina 3, unum uniloculare, duo bilocularia, ori tubi calycini inserta; filamenta 1-1-2 cm. longa; antherae sinuatae; connectiva lata, rugulosa, undulata 4-5 mm. longa et lata. Flores feminei et fructus ignoti. Bengal: Chittagong Hill Tracts, Burkul (Zister, No. 349, 4th Marchel$76:," Elerb.Calj>7y2e). This species can easily be distinguished by its very thick tomentose and deeply cordate leaves and large flowers with very long calyx tube. Neoluffa Chakravarty, gen. nov. Genus afline /uffae, a quo foliis integerrimis haud scabro-punctatis infra tomentosis, petalis ovatis, apice angustatis nec rotundatis, stamini- bus aliter dispositis, uno libero, quatuor per paria insertis imprimis divergit. Herba scandens. Cirrhi plerumaue bifidi. Folia cordata eglandu- losa. Flores fere certe dioici, flavi, in fasciculis plurifloris ad cacumina ramulorum longorum dispositi. Bracteae parvae, foliaceae, eglandu- losae. Calycis tubus (receptaculum) campanulatus, non-turbinatus, patulus. Petala libera, patula, ovata. Stamina 5, filamentis liberis hoc modo collocata (1+1]) + (1+1) + 1 omnia ad tubi calycini basim inserta; antherae 5, libe Tae, exsertae, 1-loculares, loculis sigmoi- deo-flexuosis, connectivis crassis granulatis. Species one. Habitat in Eastern Himalaya. The genus approaches Luffa in certain features but differs in having (i) leaves entire without punctation on the upper surface and tomentose lower surface, (ii) petals constricted at the apex, (ill) stamens one free and the rest four arising in two pairs. Neoluffa sikkimensis Chakravarty, sp. nov. Herba annua. Caulis 5-angulosus ferrugineo-tomentosus. Petiolus 5-8cm. longus, breviter tomentosus; lamina cordata, supra glabra, subtus minute coacto-tomentosa, 7-15 cm. longa et lata, margine inte- gerrimo, nervis duobus infimis secundum marginem loborum basalium currentibus. Flores masculi flavidi, racemis fasciculatis ad apices pedunculorum longorum axillarium dispositis; pars florifera 3-5 cm. longa; flores 20-35 in singulis racemis, pedicelli 1-2 cm. longi; S96 JOURNAL; BOMBAY “NATURALS AIST: SOC YeeaVcl- 170 bracteae foliaceae 7-15 mm. longae, pedunculo infra per circ. 8-14 cm. nudo. Reeptaculum campanulatum 1-1°5 cm. diametro, tomentosum, alternatim nigrum et fuscum; calycis lobi acuti 3-5mm. longi incisi. Petala oblongo-ovata, integerrima, ad apicem + constricta, acuta, 8-10 mm. ionga, 3-4 mm. lata. Stamina libera, tubo calycis ad basim inserta, 1-2 mm. longa, filamentis 0°5-1 mm. longis; antherae leloculares, sinuatae, connectivo lato granulari. Pollen globosum. Flores feminei et fructus ignoti. Sikkim Himalaya: near Sittong 1,500 ft. (Aing, 12.5.76 Type at Calcutta Herbarium.) This is aninteresting species of Cucurbitaceae. Three sheets of the specimen were collected by George King as far back as 1876 from Sittong in the Eastern Himalaya near Mongpu. No specimen of the female plant is available. The general appearance of the plant parti- cularly of the leaves gives an illusive resemblance to Argyveia (Convol- vulaceae). It shows a near approach to Luffa, hence the name /Veoluffa, but certain dominant features like the inflorescence, the stamens and the leaves are at variance with Luffa. The female plant when procured will throw further light on its affinity. C. B. Clarke in 1895 seems to have examined the flowers and remarked on its affinity with Luffa amara (2?) but he expressed doubt of its generic position. Cucumis hystrix Chakravarty, sp. nov. Species affinis Cucumt propbhetarum Linn. a quo foliis majoribus haud alte trilobis, fructibus oblongis nec globosis differt. Caulis repens, elongatus, ramosus, angulato-sulcatus, pallido-viridis, sparse hirsutus. Foliorum petiolus dense atque breviter cinereo- hirsutus, 2-4 cm. longus; lamina ovata, aliquando leviter trilobata, utrinque + dense hirsuta, supra intense viridis, subtus pallidior, margine minute denticulato, basi cordata vel truncata, apice acuto, 4-7 cm, longa, 3:5-6°5 cm. lata. Cirrhi simplices, breviter hirsuti. Flores ignoti. Fructus oblongus, aculeis 1-2 mm, longis, multis, munitus, 3-3°5 cm. longus, 1-1:7 cm. latus. Semina obovata, haud marginata, 3:5—4:5 mm. longa, - 2 mm. lata, - 0:2 mm. crassa, pallido-flavescentia. Assam: Garo Hills, Tura Mountain 3,000 ft.(V.Z. Parry, No. 859 Herb. Kew, type, November 1929); Mishmee Hills (Griffith No. 2554 Herb. Kew, 1862-3 ex Herb. East India Company). This species is distinct from the rest of its Indian allies except Cucumis probhetarum Linn. which is principally a species of the arid part of the Mediterranean region although it extends to Western India. Both have a prickly fruit but C. propbhetarum has much smaller leaves usually deeply lobed and also a globose fruit—-not elongate as in CORYSINIX, Cucumis muriculatus Chakravarty, sp. nov. Species haec fructibus muriculatis est valde conspicua; proxima est Cucumt prophetarum Linn., a quo caulibus flavido-brunneis, foliis © denisus pubescentibus, petiolo gracili haud fragili, fructibus minoribus obovatis nec obiongis vix 1 mm. crassis differt. 7 Herba monoica scandens. Caulis gracilis, elongatus, sparsim ramosus, angulato-sulcatus, scaber. Foliorum petiolus gracilis dense Piate II] fourn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Neoluffa sikkimensis Chakr. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Sec. Pirate IV Cucumis muriculatus Chakr. NEW EIMDS “OFMNINDIAN CUCURBITACEAE 897 hirsutus, 2-4 cm, longus; lamina utrinque dense atque breviter hirsuta, cordato-ovata, plus minus 3-—5-lobata, ad apicem acuminata, margine sparsim serrulato, 5—7 cm. longa et lata; nervi subtus valde prominentes et reticulati; cirrhi simplices, 4-6 cm, longi, breviter villoso-hirsuti. Flores masculi solitarii vel fasciculati; pedunculus brevissimus vel fere obsoletus. Receptaculum cylindricum pubescens 1-6 cm. longum, + 2 mm. latum. Sepala linearia 1-2 mm. longa. Corolla sparse villosa, 3-5 mm. longa, segmentis ovatoeoblongis subacutis. Staminum filamenta filiformia, breviter villosa, — 1 mm. longa; antherae condu- plicatae, fere 2 mm. longae, una unilocularis, ceterae biloculares; appendix connectivi hyalina, glabra, 0°5-0°7 mm. longa. Flores feminei solitarii; pedunculus fere 5 mm. longus; receptaculum et calyx et corolla ut in floribus masculis; corolla 6-10 mm. longa. Ovarium oblongo-ovatum, dense hirsutum. Stylus 2-3 mm. longus. Stigmata carnosa trilobata fere 3 mm. longa et ad medium fere 1 mm. lata. Pedunculus fructifer -+ robustus, 0°5-1 cm. longus, rarius ultra 1 cm. Fructus oblongo-globosus, echinato-muriculatus, Momordicae fructui fere similis, 2-3 cm. longus, ad medium 1-1°5 cm. latus. Semina _plurima, fusca, laevia, ovata, 3-4 mm. longa, ad medium fere 2 mm. lata, fere 0-5 mm. crassa. This species differs distinctly from its allies in having muriculate Momordica-like fruit, densely pubescent leaves and shortly pedunculate flowers and fruits. It hascertain similarities with Cucumzs prophetarune Linn., but differs from it in the following characters :—(i) fruit small echinate-muriculate, (ii) leaves more densely pubescent, (iii) stem yellowish brown and not whitish as in C. prophetarum, (iv) petiole slender but not brittle, (v) seeds ovate and not oblong and thickness. less than 1 mm, Burma: Ruby Mines District (J. H. Lace, No. 6315, October 1912. Herb. Edin. Type). Melothria assamica Chakravarty, sp. nov. Species affinis Melothriae maderaspatanae (L.) Cogn., a qua fructu longius pedunculato, oblongo nec globoso, atque seminibus complana- tis, basi haud apiculatis, marginibus prominentibus differt. Caulis scandens, gracilis, hispidus. Foliorum petiolus gracilis, breviter hispidus, 2-2°5 cm. longus; lamina membranacea, ovato-cor- data, 5-lobata, obtusa vel acuta, margine denticulato, utrinque breviter hispida, 2-3 cm. longa, 3-5 cm. lata; sinus basilaris saepius anguste rotundus, 10-15 mm. profundus. Cirrhi simplices, gracillimi, minute hirsuti, 3-4 cm. longi. Flores monoici. Pedunculus communis brevis. Flores masculi et feminei saepius ex dissimilibus axillis orientes vel interdum mixti. Pedicellii masculi 2-3 mm. longi. Receptaculum sparse villoso-hirsutum, basi acutum, 2~2°5 mm. longum, — 1:5 mm. latum. Sepala erecta, subulata, 1-1'5 mm. longa. Corolla flavescens, extus villoso-hirsuta, segmentis ovato-oblongis, apice -+ rotundatis, 2--2'5 mm. longis, + 1 mm. latis. Stamina 3, inclusa, tubo receptaculi inserta; filamenta breviter pilosa, 0°3-0°5 mm, longa; antherae oblongae, ciliatae, basi hispidae una unilocularis, ceterae biloculares, distincte appendiculatae, -+ 1:55 mm. longae. Quoad sepala et petala flores feminei sunt similes. Ovarium oblongum, fusiforme, sparse hirsutum, demum glabrum; stylus 1:2-1:'4 mm. longus; stigma triparti- 898 JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURALY AIST. SOCTET Vai ol s50 tum +04 mm. longum; styli discus albus, cupuliformis, margine undulatus, + 0°8 mm. diam. Pedunculus fructifer -: filiformis, 8-15 mm. longus. Fructus oblongus, carnosus, 10-12 mm. longus, 6-8 mm. latus. Semina obovato-oblonga, utrinque scrobiculata, haud apiculata, + 4:5] mm. longa, — 2:5 mm. lata, marginibus prominentibus. Assam: Cachar (R.L. Keenan, June 1874. Herb. Kew Type). Melothria assamica var. scabra Chakravarty, var. nov. Varietas haec foliis rigidis scabris distinguitur. The variety differs from the type in having scabrid and rigid leaves, Assam: Goalpara, Chirang Duar Duar (King’s collector, No. 1890 Herb:-C€al:’ Type). Melothria ritchiei Chakravarty, sp. nov. Affinis 14. zeylanicae Clarke a qua foliis pentagonis brevioribus hirsutis, floribus laxe fasciculatis, pedicellis forum masculorum minori- bus dense villosis, receptaculo longiore quam latiore; fructu breviore Jineari haud costato, seminibus minoribus recedit. Caules graciles, elongati, ramosi, angulati, breviter sparse pilosi, Foliorum petioli graciles, breviter villosi, 4-7 cm. longi; lamina mem. branacea, cordata, 5-angularis, 2-4 cm. Jonga et lata vel aliquantum Fig. MWelothria ritchiet Chakravarty. A— patt ofastem witha leaf and a tendril x 2/3; B— leaf showing hairs on (i) upper surface, (ii) lower surface x 4/3; C— part of apical portion of a the stem with 2 male flower buds ca. x 5 female flower x 2/3; F — ovary x 4;G dise and trilobed stigma ca. different views ca. x 5; J ;(D — amale-tloweri-cwisxii3/- 2H = — female flower showing ovary, stylar x 9; H —calyx tube split openca. x 5; I— stamens a fruit x 1; K — seeds ca. x 5. Jatior quam longa, apice acuta, basi late emarginata, margine + undu- lato, denticulato, utrinque intense viridis villoso-hirsuta. Cirrhi sim- plices, filiformes, breves, subglabri. Flores monoici. Pedunculi NEW FINDS OF INDIAN CUCURBITACEAE 899 masculi brevissimi, 1-2 mm. longi, floribus paucis pedicellatis fasci- culatis; flores superiores saepe caduci; pedicelli filiformes, patuli, dense hirsuti, 2-10 cm. longi. Receptaculum campanulatum breviter et sparse villosum, -—: 2 mm. longum et circa 1 mm. latum. Sepala 5, subulata, +0°5 mm. longa. Petala fusca, patula, oblongo-ovata, acuta, sparse villosa, -- 3 mm. longa; staminum filamenta glabra, + 0°5 mm. longa; antherae connatae, una unilocularis, ceterae biloculares, rectae, aliquantum curvatae, circa 1 mm. longa, connectivo latiusculo apice brevissime producto. Flores feminei solitarii vel pauci masculis similes ; pedunculi 4-5 mm.longi. Ovarium elongato-lineare; stylus brevis, disco cupuliformi albo, stigmate 3-lobato. Fructus elongato- linearis fuscus, rostratus, apice basique attenuatus sparse hirsutus, fere glaber. Semina pauca fusca, ovato-oblonga, haud marginata, 2-3 mm. longa, circa 1 mm. lata. Peninsular India: Bombay Presidency, Savantvadi State, Ram Ghat (Aitchze, No. 67 Herb, Edin. Type); in grass ona hill near Devarayi, 1,800 ft. M.S.M. Ry. (Sedgwick and Bell, No. 4103, July 1918, Herb. Cal.); moist, clefts of rocks on hillside, Pullival Ridges, Kanan Devan Hills, Devicolam Taluk, N. Tra- vancore (Szuzclair, No 3589, Ist July 1944, Herb. Edin.). This species is allied to Melothria zeylanica Clarke but can be distinguished from it by (i) shorter angular leaves with long petioles, (ii) flowers in lax fascicles, (iii) smaller male pedicels, (iv) receptacle longer than broad, (v) fruit shorter, linear, not ribbed, (vi) seeds smaller. Melothria angulata Chakravarty, sp. nov. Species haec est affinis A/. heterophyllae (Lour.) Cogn. a qua fructo 9-angulato, seminibus late marginatis valde rugosis differt. Dioica. Caulis scandens. Rami graciles, elongati, sulcati, glabri. Foliorum petiolus, 0°5-1 cm. longus, brevissime villosus, lamina 6-20 cm. longa, coriacea, rigidiuscula, polymorpha, plerumque hastata vel sagittata, margine minute atque remote denticulato vel interdum fere integerrimo, supra squamis scabro-punctata, pallide viridis in sicco, subtus pallidior, squamosa, glandulis paucis ad basim notata. Cirrhi graciles, longissimi, glabri. Flores masculi subumbellati; pedunculus communis gracilis, apice 7-25-florus, 0:'5-5 mm. longus; pedicelli erecto-patuli filiformes, fere glabri, 2-8 mm. longi. Receptaculum campanulato-subcylindricum, basirotundum, glabrum, + 5mm, longum, + 3mm.latum. Sepala subulata, 0:2-0:3 mm. longa. Corolla flaves- cens, brevissime puberula, segmentis patulis triangularibus acutis -- 1°5 mm. longis. Stamina 3; filamenta gracillima, glabra, + 3 mm. longa ; antherae suborbiculares. Flores feminei solitarii; pedunculus 0-5-1 cm. longus. Ovarium angulatum, glabrum. Fructus in sicco flavescenti- ruber, obtuse 9-angulatus, polyspermus, 4-7 cm. longus, 2-2:5 cm. latus; semina oblonga, turgida, valde marginata, balteo distincto munita, 7-7°5 mm. longa, 5—5'5 mm. lata, 3-3°5 mm. crassa. S. India: Gomata (Malcolmpeth, No. 81 Herb. Cal. Type); Perumal 5,500 ft. (Sauliére, Nos. 70, 71 Herb. Cal.). This species is close to MM. heterophylla (Lour.) Cogn. in many respects, but can be easily distinguished by its ,9-angular fruits and strongly margined rugose seeds. 14 900 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Sheet No. 1398 Herb. Cal., collected by M. S. Ramaswami from Velligonda Hills (Block B), District Nellore, seems to be a variety (?) of M. angulata. The fruit is somewhat smaller and _leaf-punctations minuter. Till further materials are available it is provisionally kept under the type. Gynostemma burmanica King ex Chakravarty, Jud. Journ. Agric. Se. XVI. 1 (1946) 85. A rather stout climber. Stem pubescent more so on the tender parts. Leaves trifoliate, petiole shortly and densely rusty pubescent, sulcate, 3°5-4:5. cm. long; petiolules 3-4 mm. long; lamina rusty tomentose on both surfaces denser on the veins of lower surface: middle leaflet lanceolate attenuate at base apex acute or slightly acuminate, margin crenulate-dentate, 6-8 cm. long, 3-4 cm. broad ; lateral leaflets somewhat shorter and oblique at base. Tendril simple elongate, sul- cate, glabrous. Male peduncles slender, pubescent 10-30 cm. long or still longer ; pedicels capillary 1-2 mm. long, at base bracteolate ; bracteoles subulate about 1 mm. long. Calyx segments acute about 1-1°5 mm. long. Petals one nerved 1-2 mm. long. Stamens 5, minute, about -5 mm. long. Female flowers and fruits not seen. Burma: Upper Burma, Maymyo (Badal Khan, No. 153 Herb. Cal.); 5. Shan States, Toungyi (Addul Khalil, Herb. Cal.); Thamakhan (Addul Khalil, Herb. Cal.). Schizopepon wardii Chakravarty, sp, nov. Species affinis Schizopepont macrantho Haud.-Mzt. a quo lamina haud lobata, pedicellis longioribus, connectivo conico ultra loculum producto differt. Caulis scandens, gracilis, debilis, ramosus, sulcatus, glaber. Folio- rum petiolus gracilis, sulcatus, glaber vel breviter villosus, 2—4°5 cm. longus ; lamina membranecea, ovato-cordata, undulata veil aliquantum angulata, 7-8°5 cm. longa, 4-5 cm. ad basim lata, acuminata, remote mucronulato-denticulata, supra breviter et sparse hirsuto-scabra, subtus glabra nisi ad nervos minute et remote hirsuta; nervi palmato-pedati. Cirrhi plus minusve graciles, 2-vel 3-fidi, glabri. Flores dioici (2 ignoti) in racemis axillaribus solitariis. Racemi masculi, 4-7 cm. longi, 8-15-flori, ebracteati; pedicelli patuli, filiformes, 7-12 mm. longi. Receptaculum late campanulatum 5-6 mm. profundum, intus minute glanduloso-papillosum. Sepala linearia, lanceolato-subulata, 2—-2°5 mm. longa, 0°3-04 mm. lata. Corolla subrotata, flavida, utrinque sparsim glanduloso papillosa; petala 6-nervia, linearia-lanceolata, 7-9 mm. longa, 1-2 mm. lata, acuta. Stamina’3, monadelpha, inclusa; filamenta ad receptaculi basim inserta, plus minusve 1 mm. longa, glabra; antherae 3-3-5 mm. longae (connectivo incluso), connatae, una uniloe cularis, ceterae biloculares ; loculi erecti ; connectivum lineare conicum, productum, minute papillosum, 15-2 mm. longum. Assam: Delei Valley 11,000 ft. 28° 15’ N. 96° 35’ E, in Rhodo«= dendron-Conifer Forest, open gullies facing north (4. Azzgdom Ward, No. 8567 Herb. Kew. Type, 23. 8. 1928). — “IyVyd xuysty swunang (gq) ‘Iyeygg upsve uodadoziyssg (vy) “MMVHO XIMLSAW stwnona a & oh : Oe mye ICN M NOdadOect? ae A SIVIg i "00S "JSIE] "JUN Avquog ‘‘usnor NEW FINDS OF INDIAN CUCURBITACEAE 901 The species has affinity towards S. macranthus Haud.-Mzt., but differs in the following characters: (i) leaves not lobed, (ii) pedicels longer and (iii) connective produced beyond the loculus. In conclusion I offer my sincerest thanks to my Professor Sir Willam Wright Smith, F.R.s., for his untiring help and encouragement during the preparation of this work. EXPLANATION OF PLATES I. Trichosanthes tomentosa Chakravarty. A—a part of the stem with a flower and a simple tendril x 1; B—a portion of the stem showing 4-lobed tendril x 1; C—a portion of the upper surface of the leaf showing tomenta and glands x 2; D—a female flowerx 1; K—a female flower showing style and trilobed stigma x 2. Il. TVrichosanthes listeyt Chakravarty. A—a portion of the stem; B—a flower bud ca. x 4/3; C—a flower ca, x 1; D—a part of the calyx tube split open to show the stamens ca. x 4/3. Ill. Neoluffa sikkimensis Chakravarty. A—a portion of the stem with inflorescence ca. x 1/3; B—a part of the leafca. x 3/2; C—a bract; D& E— flower buds ca. x 4 and 5; F — back view of flower ca. x 1 ; (; —dorsal view of the calyx tube of a male flower ca. x 1; H — front view of a flower, petals 5; stamens 2+ 2+ 1 ca. x 1; 1—a part of the Mower showing a petal and two stamens ca. x 5; J — male flower, perianth removed showing stamens; K & L— anther with loculus, front view ¢a. x 5; M,N, O—anthers showing granular connective. IV. Cucumis muriculatus Chakravarty. A— part of the stem with a male flower x 1; B—a leaf x 1; C, D— part of the upper and lower surfaces of a leaf showing hairs x 8; E—a female flower x 1; F —a simple and a compound stamen showing connective appendages and anther loculi x 8; G—trilobed stigma x 5; H — ovary with style and stigma x 1; [— a fruit x 1; J—L.S. of a truit x I. V. (A). Schizopepon wardii Chakravarty. A — general appearance ca. x 1/4; B— part of the stem showing two male flowers ca. x 3/2; C—a male flower ca. x 3/4, D—a partof the papillose petal ca. x 5/2 ; & — a flower dissected to show manadelphous stamens and coneshaped papillose appendage ca. x 2; F — stamens with appendage, one 1-locular, two bi-locular ca. x 2; G — dorsal view of the single bi-locular stamen ca. x 5/2. V. (B). Cucumis hystrix Chakravarty. ca. x 1/4. VANISHING AND EXTINCT BIRD SPECIES OF INDIA BY S. DILLon RIPLEY (With two coloured plates) Human history is full of memorials both to its greatness and to its powers of destruction. On the negative side of our historical ledger many sad records are listed of waste, neglect, and wanton abuse of our natural heritage. Human beings tend to have the presumptuous feeling that the world and all its marvellous works are their ‘oyster’—their own personal inheritance. This careless waste of the gifts of nature extends to species of living animals and birds as well as to the forests and to the soil on which we depend for our very existence. Recently two interesting books have been published on man’s ability to destroy his natural environment, and on the great need for conservation of our dwindling resources. These books, Our Plundered Planet by Fairfield Osborn, and Road to Survival by William Vogt, paint a dreary picture of human thoughtlessness, and point up the tremendous, really strategic need for conservation of our soils and water tables, on which, far more than the atomic bomb, the future of the human race depends. The aesthetic and cultural side of conservation is of great impor- tance to our race as well. There is a responsibility to the future vested in all of us to protect and preserve vanishing species. Indeed a Buddhist might well argue that we could store up merit for the future of our own race by attempting to preserve the races of the animal kingdom. Among the birds of India, there are four species which are either now extinct, or so seriously threatened that their future is highly problematical. What has caused these species to become so sadly ~ depleted is not entirely clear. Two facts at least stand out. One is that all four species are large birds, of game-bird status, and have undoubtedly been the target of sportsmen with guns, snares or other fowling devices for many generations. Another parallel fact is that three of the species are birds of the Ganges basin or Peninsular India so that their movements as large, conspicuous birds have become increasingly circumscribed by the destruction of jungle and open parkland which must have been their favored habitat, and the gradual transformation into closely held agricultural land. There is a further fact which probably has biological significance, but which is. now not sufficiently understood by students of ecoiogy or animal distribution. The three species found in the Gangetic basin or Peninsular India now or in former times are all what might be termed ‘relict’ species ; forms whose near relatives are widely dispersed, in the African or European regions. These species have become isolated from their close relatives, possibly during the earliest Tertiary times when the disappearance of the Sea of Tethys and the mountain . ot sh . see eee . Cee e piesa se 0s: aS ays RO a ee = oe — fouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. eNait0 Ser ReSeER ‘ Bo 0 Se Se Rena se ee SRN Jerdon’s Courser, Rhinoptilus bitorquatus Blyth Pinkheaded Duck, Rhodonessa caryophyllacea (Latham), male VANISHING AND EXTINCT BIRD SPECIES OF INDIA 903 building developments in northern India and central Asia must have caused vast changes with alternate bridging and isolation of the peninsular area of the Indian ‘subcontinent. However, perhaps we need not look so far back in the case of some of these species, for their relationship to the present fauna of Africa seems close enough to postulate that they are the end remnants of a former continuous distribution from Africa across Arabia and Mesopotamia dating back to the pluvial epochs of Recent times, which, parallelling the glacial periods extended a vegetation belt across the intervening area. Whatever the cause of the disappearance of these species, every effort should_now be bent by conservation-minded citizens to protect and preserve the remnant population that may still exist. It is the duty of all who are interested in this subject and informed upon it, to disseminate their interest and information to others, and to attempt to find out any further relevant facts about the existence and the possible protection of these forlorn and lovely birds. Rhodonessa caryophyflacea (Latham): Pinkheaded Duck. Hindi: Gulab Sir. This beautiful and curious bird once had a range which extended as far north as Punjab and U.P., as far south as Madras, and east to Assam and Burma. No certain record of its existence has come to light since the mid-nineteen thirties. The last reliable record I know of is June 1935 in Darbhanga District, Bihar (C. M. Inglis). I say reliable because the resemblance between this species and the Redcrested Pochard (Netta rufina) is great enough to make casual identification difficult. A key to the more obvious differences between the two species might be as follows: Head Upper Surtace Underparis Outer edge of Secondaries co Pinkhead pink dark dark brown light buff brown do Redcrest reddish light black, creamy-white with brown, white flanks golden- white orange patch on area on shoulders top 2 Pinkhead palish, dull brown dull brown pale brow- pink nish-buff only on top 2 Redcrest grayish- dull brown grayish ochre gray brown, to whitish crown dark brown 904 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Both species have bright pinkish or reddish bills in the male. Both species are much the same in size, although the Pinkhead would never weigh over two and a half pounds, and both are likely to be isolated from the main flocks of migratory duck, although the Red- crested Pochard being a diving duck is somewhat more likely to be in areas of large open water. No recent record of the shooting of a Pinkheaded Duck by a sportsman, presumably we hope by accident, should be credited’ unless accompanied by a recognizable specimen, or at least the head and bill, preserved for study in a museum such as the Prince of Wales Museum at Bombay or the Indian Museum at Calcutta. The spate of correspondence about the occurrence of the Pink- headed Duck during July, August, and September 1950 in the daily Statesman of Calcutta appear to refer, as far as recent records are concerned, to the Redcrested Pochard, even though these records came from the very area where one should be on the lookout for this long-lost and beautiful species. This area consists of southern Bihar and northern Orissa. The area near the Sankh River would seem to be a natural winter home for the species as well as in northern Bihar, in Darbhanga where the last records have occurred. There is no recent information of the occurrence of the species at all in eastern ‘Assam, Manipur, and northwestern Burma, where the untouched state of the forest and remote ‘jheels’ or ‘bhils’ might be such as to favor the continued existence of the species, which by nature is a forest-pool inhabitant. I have been told that the last trapped speci- mens secured by the late Sir David Ezra in the thirties and kept in captivity for some time, came from southern Goalpara and eastern Rangpur, near the confluence of the Tista and the Brahmaputra Rivers, but there has been no subsequent trapping or information to bear out the further occurrence of these birds. As to relationship, there has been much speculation about the Pinkheaded Duck. The most ornithologists can contrive to say about it is that it is an ‘aberrant’ species without close relatives. In the past it has been considered related to the perching ducks such as the Comb-duck or ‘Nukhta’. The egg is said to be rather rounded (Mr. Inglis has one in his collection'), and reports have been made that the ducks have been seen to perch in trees. On the other hand in colour pattern, and reduced display and behaviour postures, it re- sembled distantly the Redcrested Pochard, which some authors have likened to a link between the river ducks and the diving ducks. Per- haps the Pinkhead, an old isolated ‘relict’ species, points back to some such transitional generalized form of duck—an ancestral stock which evolved eventually into the two main streams of evolution of the river and diving ducks, the Mallard-like forms and the Pochard-like forms. Ophrysia superciliosa (Gray): Mountain Quail. No more is known about the occurrence of this small quail to-day than many years ago. All the five specimens in the British Museum came from Mussoorie and Naini Tal at altitudes from 5,000 to 6,000 ao 1 Laid in captivity ; measuring 47x43 mm.—Ens. II divig aeut “(Aeixn) vsozpiasadns viskiydg ‘Tren(d) ureyunoyq oy ‘“O0CG ‘“LSIHT “LVNT AVAaWOR “NNO VANISHING AND EXTINCT BIRD SPECIES OF INDIA 905 feet. The bird, which has been classified as a small partridge, related on the one hand to the Blood-pheasants (Ithaginis) and on the other to the Spurfowl (Galloperdix) is an inhabitant of very long grass, and apparently is primarily a runner, not a flyer. It would be vir- tually impossible to secure a specimen without a capable dog. During my visit in west Nepal I attempted to gain any information that I could about this species, but no news was forthcoming. I was told that the species was known in the Dailekh District, and that its local name was ‘sano kalo titra’, a purely descriptive name indeed. Recently reports have come that a specimen has been shot in East Kumaon during the last five years, not far from a village called Lohaghat. Unfortunately attempts to corroborate this did not meet with success, so that at present we are as much in the dark as ever about the fate of the Mountain Quailt. Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors): Great Indian Bustard. Once found from the Punjab and Sind right across to southern Madras, this great bustard, relative of several African and one Australian species, seems doomed to extinction. Isolated pairs may still linger in Rajasthan, perhaps in Gwalior, in Berar and Hyderabad. No specimens have been recorded from Hyderabad since 1924, or from Madras (near Trichinopoly) since the same year. At least no other specimens have been recorded for science. This magnificent bird, standing nearly four feet high and weighing at least over 1c pounds, is of all India’s vanishing species the one most needing protection, as it is a mark for the hunter or sportsman of almost irresistible attraction. It is to be hoped that Government will take pains to publicize the need to protect this rare and magnificent bird?. Rhinoptilus bitorquatus Blyth: Jerdon’s Courser. This courser is a close relative of a group of coursers now found in Africa. No new information has come to light since the original specimens were taken in 1871, although it has been recorded from several localities. It apparently frequented light forested areas, in contrast to its more open plain-loving relatives in Africa, and has been seen on both sides of the Godavary River near Borgampad in Hyderabad, and in Madras, Cuddapah and Nellore. Not man, but a ' A full description of the bird and all the meagre information we possess con- cerning it will be found on pp. 22-24 of Vol XXVII of the Journal, in the serial ‘The Game Birds of India, Burma and Ceylon’ by E. C. Stuart Baker.—Ebs. * For a coloured plate and full description of habits and former status, see Journal B.N.H.S., Vol. XXI, pp. 304-324 (under Eupodotis edwardsi, by E. C. Stuart Baker). Although persecution has squeezed the Great Indian Bustard alarmingly close to the edge of extinction, happily enough it can not as yet be placed in the same category of rarity or mnear-extinction as the other three species mentioned in this article. There is still hope for its continued existence provided no more time is lost in initiating and enforcing suitable protective measures. That no recent published records of its occurrence exist from areas of its former abundance is not in itself of great significance since the species has as yet not become rare enough to warrant the publication of every individual specimen shot. However, there is certainly no room at all for complacency.—Ebs. 906 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: 50 some environmental factor must have been responsible for the dis- appearance of this fine bird?. There are other rare birds in India to-day. No one has any recent information on Athene blewitti, the Forest Spotted Owlet, known only from near Sambalpur and Karial. However, the fact that no new information has come to light about this species since 1872, is not evidence that the owlet™is extinct. The forests of central India have fortunately not yet disappeared, and cover a large area. It is not unusual among ‘shy or skulking bird species for information about them to be lacking for a generation or more. They lead their own lives, unknown to the eyes and ears of humankind. But the larger species, such as the ducks, pheasants, and other game birds, and especially the Great Bustard are prey for everyone, and much. needs to be done to protect them from the permanent fate of extinction. EE * For another coloured plate, description, habits and history, etc., see Jour. B.N.H.S. Vol. XXXIV, pp. 5-6 (Stuart Baker).—Eps. * ‘wp THE HISTORY OF HERPETOLOGY IN INDIA BY MALCOLM A. SMITH, M.R.C.S,, L.R.C.P. (London) The history of herpetology in India begins at the end of the eighteenth. century, when Patrick Russell and Thomas Hardwicke came to the Country in the service of the East India Company. They lived and worked independently, but they were contemporaries and they may be considered together. Dr. Russell’s life in India began in 1781 when at the age of 55, after some 20 years in the near Bast, he joined his. younger brother who was returning to India, and lived at Vizagapatam. in the Madras Presidency, Four years later he was appointed botanist and naturalist to the East India Company and for the remainder of his. stay inthe country was indefatigable in his researches, not only in botany, but in collecting, figuring and describing the fishes and snakes. of the country. He was particularly interested in the poisonous snakes. He was the first person in India to distinguish the harmless from the: poisonous species and his treatise, ‘On the Peculiar Organs in the. Mouth of Poisonous Snakes’ illustrated with figures was published by the Government of India in 1787 and circulated in the settlements and. military stations. He experimented widely with the common species of poisonous snakes making them bite animals and birds so that he could observe the symptoms, discover. the varying degrees of toxicity and with that knowledge devise treatment to save human life. Nothing very novel, however, resulted from his experiments which were based. largely upon an already reputed remedy known as the Tanjore Pill, a. combination of mercury, arsenic, pepper and the extracts of certain. herbs. His two volumes ‘ An account of Indian Serpents collected on the coast of Coromandel’ and ‘A continuation of an account of Indian Serpents’ containing brief descriptions and carefully executed. colour plates were published in 1786 and 1801 to 1809 respectively. Only the vernacular names of the snakes are given. A good account of Russell’s life, with a portrait, is in the second volume of this work which. was not completed until after his death. Major-General Thomas Hardwicke spent his life in India in the. army. As a young man of 21 he landed in the country in 1778 and there he spent the next 25 years. Hardwicke was an assiduous collector, not only of specimens in all branches of natural history but also of drawings and water-colour sketches of plants and animals. Most of these were drawn by native artists whom he employed for the purpose.. The total number of his sketches fill 32 volumes and are now in the British Museum (Natural History). Two of the volumes contain the sketches of the reptiles (mainly snakes) and amphibians. Hardwicke did not contribute anything to the literature of herpetology, but his sketches and preserved specimens were used extensively by the systema- tists of his time and in that way our knowledge of the herpetology of India was enriched. 908 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 Other names connected with the early history of herpetology in India are Francis Buchanan-Hamilton, also a collector of water-colour sketches, Brian Hodgson who spent his life chiefly in Nepal, James Emer- son Tennant, whose book the ‘ Natural History of Ceylon’ was the first to deal with the natural history of the Island, Edward Blyth, the first curator of the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Dr W. T. Blan- ford who, in his work on the geological survey of India, travelled and collected widely, and Col. R. H. Beddome to whom herpetology is in- debted in particular for our knowledge of the Uropelts. With the arrival of Dr. J. Fayrer in India a new era in the study of ophiology commenced. Fayrer devoted himself particularly to the poisonous snakes and his ‘‘lhanatophidia of India’ published in 1874 was a notable contribution. He made a careful study of the poison apparatus. By experimenting with animals and birds which he caused to be bitten by snakes, by a study of the symptoms of those people who had been bitten and brought to him for treatment he greatly advanced our knowledge of snake bite. He was the first to recognize that the venom of the elapine snakes was different in its effects upon the body from that of the viperine species. He made many advances in treat- ment. He advocated ligature and incision of the wound, suction under certain conditions, and destruction of the tissues at the seat of injury both by caustics and by the cautery. He tried amputation when it was possible. He was the originator of the treatment by potassium perman- ganate. In 1860 the entire collection of preserved specimens of reptiles in the possession of the East India Company was presented to the British Museum and it was the atrival of this valuable material in England that led Dr. Albert Giinther to compile his volume ‘ The Reptiles of British India’. This was published by the Ray Society in 1864. It was the first complete monograph to deal with the herpetology of the country. Dr. Ginther never visited India and had no knowledge of the animals in the wild state. Nevertheless his volume was a valuable contri- bution to the subject and was for many years the standard work of reference. The volume is well illustrated, the source of many of the pictures being the collection of drawings made by Sir Walter Blliot during his long residence in the Madras Presidency. Other workers of note on herpetology at the latter end of the last century and the beginning of the present one are Dr. John Anderson who made two expeditions to Yunnan, Lt.-Col. Henry Godwin-Austen who spent most of his service in India in Assam, Ferdinand Stoliczka who travelied extensively in the Himalayas and was the first naturalist to study the natural history of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and Harold Ferguson who enriched our knowledge in particular of the district of ‘I'ravancore. Above all others, however, stands George Albert Boulenger, not only for his ‘ Reptilia and Batrachia’ inthe Fauna of.British India series, but for the very large number of papers and articles on herpetological subjects which he wrote at that time. Like Gunther, Boulenger never visited India and his work was mainly on systematics. But the classifi- cation adopted by him in his treatment of the subject was a great advance on that of his predecessors and his major arrangement of the families has not been disputed since. For 40 years his volume remained the standard work on the subject. THE HISTORY OF HERPETOLOGY IN INDIA 909 To Colonel Frank Wall we are indebted more than any other man for our knowledge of the habits of the Indian snakes. As a member of the Indian Medical Service he arrived in the country in 1894. There he was to spend most of the next 30 years of his life and in the course of his duties was stationed in most parts of the Peninsula including Ceylon and Burma. Wherever Wall went he collected and studied his material, and by his enthusiasm induced others to collect for him. He was not a museum worker. His interest was in the living creatures and his voluminous writings deal almost entirely with their habits and structure. His larger works include ‘The Snakes of Ceylon’, ‘The Poisonous Snakes of our British Indian Dominions’ and 'A Popular Treatise on the Common Indian Snakes’. The writer’s contribution to Indian herpetology is the three volurnes on the reptiles inthe Fauna of British India series published during 1931-1943. The classification adopted is with some small alterations that used by Boulenger, but in addition to the descriptions given, an attempt has been made to include an account of the life histories of those species that are known. Itis unfortunate that the volume on the snakes is now out of print, all the unbound copies of the book having been destroyed by fire during one of the air raids on London. The volume on the amphibia is not yet written. In recent years an intensive study of the reptiles of Ceylon has been made by Dr. P. E, P. Deraniyagala. He has devoted himself specially to the Chelonians, and his volume ‘Tetrapod Reptiles of Ceylon’ published in 1939 covers the group very completely. His account of the development of the species is an aspect of the subject that has not been undertaken before. In his introduction to the volume Dr. Deraniyagala has given also a brief account of the chief workers on herpetology connected with the Island. It is impossible, in a brief survey of the history of herpetology of India, such as has been attempted here, to mention every one who has contributed to the subject. Notes and short articles on habits, structure and distribution dealing with individual species are constantly appearing, the majority of themin the pages of this journal. OBITUARIES W. S. MILLARD (Plate) By the death of W. S. Millard at Tunbridge Wells on March 24 the Society has lost not only its oldest member, but the last link with the original founders. Walter Samuel Millard, the seventh son of the Rev. J. H. Millard was born at Hungtingdon in 1864. After working for some time with Messrs. Frank Bailey & Co., wine importers in London he went to Bombay in 1884 as assistant to Herbert Phipson, who some years previously had started a wine business in that city. Phipson was a very remarkable man with a great interest in natural history, and though not one of the original founders, had been the mainstay of the Society from its beginning. Since 1886 he had held the offices of Honorary Secretary and editor of the Journal, and moreover had accommodated the Society in his original office in Forbes Street. But by the time Millard arrived he had moved to more commodious quarters at 6 (now 114), Apollo Street, the residence in former times of ‘the Chief Justice of Bombay, and rented to the Society several rooms. It was impossible to work with Phipson without becoming interested in natural history. To reach his office it was necessary to pass through the Society’s museum which, in addition to various stuffed Janimals and jars containing fish and reptiles, generally housed a live cobra or two and a large python. Not long after his arrival Millard joined the Society, and in 1893 was made assistant editor of the Journal though he had doubtless been helping Phipson with the work of the Society for some time previous. In 1906 Phipson retired from business and Millard was elected to fill his place in the Society. He continued to give it of his best til he left India in 1920. Under the editorship of Phipson and Millard the Journal had become the most important scientific publica- tion east of Suez. By the time Millard took over, other scientific journals had sprung up all over the East but the Society’s journal remained unique since it not only published important scientific papers but also natural.history articles of more general interest, suitable for the majority of members. It was at this time also that the Society began to publish in book form serial articles from its journal, and the first thus to appear was Major Wall’s small guide to poisonous snakes which, before long, was in every dispensary from the Bolan Pass to the Chinese frontier. The greatest success in this line was the ‘Duck Book’ containing Stuart Baker’s papers on ‘Indian Ducks and their ‘Allies’ started as long ago as 1897. Millard took a great pride in this book, and when at home on leave personally saw to the printing and binding so that the volume would be a credit to the Society. He did not, however, realize what a demand there would be for the book and it was in no time out of print. To fill the place of the articles on ducks, Millard persuaded Stuart Baker to write a IoyJMOT “N ‘HL YsSeUuIq PIETTIN *S FOUEM err ~~ ~ ‘90S ‘LSIFT ‘LVN Avawog “Nunof OBITUARIES 911 new series on snipe, bustards, sandgrouse and other game birds which in due course were published in two volumes but were never as popular as the first venture. Though Millard took interest in natural history generally, his particular hobby was gardening especially the cultivation of flowering trees and shrubs. A tree, moreover, did not necessarily have to have a beautiful flower to interest him, and it was at his suggestion that Father Blatter wrote the articles on ‘The Palms of India’. This was followed a few years later by a series on ‘Beautiful Indian Trees’ of which Millard and Blatter were the joint authors. For many years Millard had been collecting paintings of flowering trees from all over India and studying the best ways of propagating and growing them. The title of this series was slightly misleading since a number of the trees were not Indian but had been introduced either by Millard himself or by his friend H. V. Kemball of the Improvement Trust. Among the trees introduced in Bombay by Millard the Burmese Cassia renigera is the most outstanding, and indeed it vies with Amherstia nobilis as the most beautiful flowering tree in the city. Other introductions include Pterocarpus indicus with yellow fragrant flowers, which in spite of its name is also a native of Burma, and Glivicidia maculata a delightful South American tree raised from seed sent from Ceylon which first flowered in Millard’s garden in 1916. After Millard married he lived in a bungalow in Winter Road, Malabar Hill, and about 1910 moved to another on ‘The Ridge’ with much more ground which was soon developed into a beautiful garden with trees and shrubs and a large fernery full of foliage plants, orchids and other tropical flowers. This was the most important private garden in Bombay, and guests staying at Government house were frequently sent to inspect its treasures. On several occasions different governors sought Millard’s advice in regard to improving the grounds of Malabar Point, and at Lord Willingdon’s request he undertook to supervise the laying out of the grounds at the Willingdon Club. The study of birds has always been the most popular branch of natural history among members of the Society, but there had been little advance in the knowledge of mammals, other than the big game animals, since Blanford wrote his volume in 1888. R. C. Wroughton, after he retired from the Indian Forest Service took up the study of mammals at the British museum and was continually writing to Millard about this lamentable state of affairs and urging the Society to employ a collector to collect small mammals. Millard, however, could only point out that no collector was available in India and that the finances of the Society did not permit of employing one. Then one morning in r910 C. A. Crump suddenly walked into the office. He had just arrived from England and offered his services as a collector or taxidermist. Here was a chance not to be missed, and Millard hastily calling a committee meeting persuaded the members to agree to employ Crump for several months and at the same time to launch an appeal for a Mammal Survey Fund. This appeal was so successful that within a year four collectors were at work and the Mammal Survey firmly established. The collections a 912 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAE “HIST. SOCIETY, Vol) 50 provided adequate material on which to base the two new volumes of the ‘Fauna’ by R. I. Pocock, as well as other important publications. The starting and the success of the Mammal Survey was entirely due to Millard, and only those who were in close association with him at the time have any idea of the amount of time and work he spent in the raising of the money and organising of the survey. All this was done in addition to attending to the Society’s other business and editing the Journal, to say nothing of looking after his own business of Messrs. Phipson & Co. Millard’s honorary work was not entirely confined to the offices he held in the Society. He was also Secretary of the Countess of Dufferin Fund and the Cama & Albless Hospital, and entirely res- ponsible for the running of the Peachy-Phipson Sanatorium at Nasik. When Phipson left India Millard took his place on the Committee of the Prince of Wales Museum, but in spite of all his efforts the building was not completed till after the outbreak of the 1914 war, when it was turned into a hospital for Indian soldiers, and by the time he left India the building had not yet reverted to the original purpose for which it was built. It is difficult in a few words to tell of all Millard’s activities on behalf of the Society, how he pressed the Government to enquire into the inshore fisheries and indeed if it had not been for the first world war he would have taken up the whole question of the fishing industry in Bombay with the Government. Through his efforts a close time was established for certain birds, while other species were given additional protection. When he finally left Bombay he became the Society’s representative in London and undertook the arrangements for the reproduction of plates, printing of books, etc. Every visitor to the Society’s room in Apollo Street will remember the great Indian Hornbill, better known as the ‘office canary’ which lived in a cage behind Millard’s chair in Phipson & Co.’s office for 26 years and died in 1920. It is said its death was caused by swallowing a piece of wire, but in the past ‘William’ had swallowed a lighted cigar without ill effects and I for my part think that the loss of his old friend was the principal cause. By nature Millard was of rather a shy and retiring disposition, but all that vanished when he had anything to do on behalf of the Society. He was a keen sportsman and loved a day after quail or snipe in the Thana district. While at home, on leave, he always spent part of 'August grouse shooting in Perthshire and after he_ retired he rented a shooting lodge in the Rannoch district for several years. After finally leaving India Millard settled in Tunbridge Wells, within easy reach of London, which enabled him to run up for the day to attend to business or visit the fortnightly shows of the Horticultural Society. Attached to his house was a small garden which he soon filled with interesting plants and shrubs, and it 1s doubtful if there was ever any garden of the same size with as many rare and interesting plants! It was a veritable multum in parvo. Millard married Sybil daughter of James Mackinlay of Edinburgh, and seldom has there been a happier marriage. Mrs. Millard assisted her husband in many ways and her presence at the meetings of the Society was always welcome, where her charming personality made OBITUARIES J13 the shy visitor feel at ease. Later when she became crippled with arthritis no husband could have attended his wife in a more unselfish way. To Mrs. Millard, and her family Mrs. Kirk Green and Dr. Antony Millard, all members of the Society send their deepest sympathy. And now before closing this inadequate notice I must add a personal note. It was through Millard that I had the chance of going to Bombay and working for the Society which had great influ- ences on my later career. It is difficult to describe the man himself, but we who worked under him in the old days, whether in the Society or Phipson & Co., Sir Reginald Spence, P. M. D. Sanderson and S. H. Prater all received innumerable kindnesses from him which cannot be told here. We all loved and admired him and now that he is gone we treasure the memory of his friendship, NORMAN B. KINNEAR it NA LOW THER (Plate) Ernest Herbert Newton Lowther, universally known to his friends. and intimates as Bob Lowther, died suddenly on April 28th at his home at Burgess Hili in Sussex. He was born in India, being educated first in Simla and later in England at Bedford and Tonbridge schools. It was at the latter that his great love of nature first became evident and there, too, he was weaned by the great naturalist and photographer, Richard Kearton, from that usual boyhood pastime of egg-collecting to replace in its stead a passion for bird-photography. In ro11, after his return to India, where he followed in his father’s footsteps in the service of the East Indian Railway, he took up with enthusiasm the photography of India’s birds, an enthusiasm which later became a ruling force in his life, resulting in the fine work which for several years graced the pages of the Journal as well as the walls at a number of Exhibitions, and culminated in the publication of ‘A Bird Photographer in India’ and, in conjunction with the writer of this notice, of ‘The Breeding Birds of Kashmir’. On his retirement from the railway in 1945 he had risen to be Divisional Superintendent at Lucknow, but it was while stationed at Allahabad and earlier in the Dhanbad area that he did much of what is probably his best work, making the most of his opportunities to photograph the birds of those districts made famous by Allan Octavian Hume. Bob Lowther had a great capacity for making friends and all who met him at once came under his spell. He was kindness and generosity personified and had a delightful sense of humour which was quite infectious. A story which he used to tell almost against himself was how the chairman at one of his nature lectures in India—who in fact was his _chief—humorously introduced him to his audience with the words, ‘I believe Mr. Lowther in his spare time is a railwayman’. ‘Although he retired from India with impaired health after 34 years’ service, his 914 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 love for bird-photography did not wane. He at once threw himseif into the study and portrayal of British birds in which pursuit he was already making his influence felt. In June 1951 he visited the Isle of Fetlar in the Shetlands where he obtained many outstanding photo- graphs of some of Britain’s rarer birds, and up to the very day of his death, although his health was far from good, he was planning a second trip for this year. All who knew and loved him will feel relieved that at the last he was spared lingering pain and that inacti- vity which would have been so irksome to him. His wife took a great interest in his bird work and accompanied him on many of his trips in Kashmir and elsewhere. It goes without saying that all members would wish to join with me in recording here our deepest sympathy with Mrs, Lowther in her grievous loss. ROS sear REVIEWS n.°/MY INDIA. . By Jim Corbett. Twelve chapters... Pp. 190 igi” x 64"). Sketch map, front and end inside-cover maps. Bombay 1952, (Oxford University Press). Price Rs. 6-12. The India of this book is that portion of the Lower Himalayas between Hardwar and Nepal made known to readers of the author’s two previous publications, ‘Man-eaters of Kumaon’ and ‘The Man- eating Leopard of Rudraprayag’ reviewed in this Journal [ Vol. 45 (1), 1945 and Vol.-:47 (4), 1948]. The end-maps also include the country below the foothills exploited for three years by the notorious robber and plunderer of the well-to-do—Sultana, dacoit of the Bhantu criminal tribe (in present political parlance ‘Scheduled Tribe’) as related in chapter VII. The Introduction gives a quite admirable description of the Lower Himalayas, and how good it is will be realised by the ordinary reader and even more by those who, lke your reviewer, wandered during some years of work and sport among those delectable hills and valleys. The sketch map opposite p. 190 shows where Mokameh Ghat is on the south bank of the mighty Ganges east of Patna in North Bihar and scene of the narrative in chapters VIII to XII. Those who have read Corbett’s two shikar ‘thrillers’ will re- member his gift of writing simple yet dramatic prose which has an air of verisimilitude. That is what you also find in these tales of the hill people. You sense that this is what happened, this is the scene word-pictured before your eyes. Here, in this small book, you have a true picture of the lives and manner of living of ‘The stout- hearted people, who with infinite labour have made these terraced fields, live in a row of stone houses with slate roofs bordering the rough and narrow road that runs from the Bhabar, and the plains beyond, to the Lower Himalayas.’ The killing of helpless women by man-eating tigers is a very sad and gruesome business, and the story around the life of ‘The Queen of the Village’ grips one’s attention in every line. In con- nexion ‘with this beast Corbett makes the dogmatic remark that: ‘tigers have no sense’ of smell’. The habits of the tiger do not require that he should have a keen sense of smell, but there are related instances in the Society’s journal, and happenings within the personal experience of the writer, that the tiger can sometimes show he has both a hound nose—though a poor one—and a winding nose too. In his narrative there is demonstrated the great harm an inex- perienced sportsman can bring about. Kunwar Singh (Ch. II) was quite right: those who shoof in jungles should be able to climb trees. In the matter of K.S.’s later days’ near-fatal illness there are perhaps none of us who would have ventured to act against religious observances as did Corbett, and by which he saved the life of his friend. That indicates his intimate know- ledge of the people and the influence he had through unfailing sympathy tS) 916 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 and understanding. In the stories around the life of Mothi (Ch. III) is another instance of lamentable action—or want of action—on the part of three tiger-hunting ‘sportsmen’. Fortunately, in those days so well known to your reviewer, such occurrences can have been very few. In the narrative woven around the life of Mothi is much of interest. There is, for instance, the very true remark that wounded wild boars have to be treated with very great respect. Again we meet Robin of uncertain lineage but treasured memory who was so ‘valiant’ yet so brave. Perhaps among his ancestors was the spaniel of Williamson’s day who, trained to ‘point’ marauding forest leopards, was killed at his fiftieth success, “In pre-red-tape days we have a vivid insight into the time when district officers in some parts of this country used effectively to carry out their manifold duties while moving from camp to camp. Among his varied official experiences your reviewer ofttimes settled cases of many kinds while on the march. The people liked such methods, for they were not called away from their homes for days on end, and the open air settlements being seen and heard, not only by the parties themselves but by the villagers also, few dared to speak false witness in such surroundings. Many are the deeds of unthinking heroism performed by the jungle dwelling peoples of India. A number are personally known to the writer but none to equal the tale of the ‘brothers’ Narwa and Haria related in Ch. VI and pictured on the cover-wrapping of-this book. The story of the two lost children woven into the Law of the Jungle is a peignant tale. It is the present-day custom in the public press to accord the legendary name of ‘Robin Hood’ as a kind of honorific title to dacoits and robbers some of whom by no means deserve it. Sultana of Chapter VII was apparently somewhat deserving of the appellation, though his many deeds did eventually earn him the dishonour of a hempen rope. Your reviewer happened to be at Lalkua Junction on the afternoon of 23rd March 1923 on the way to Ramnagar when he met the redoubtable Young of the police all set to lead his special police force on a night march through the forests. to surprise the elusive Sultana and his gang. That venture failed owing, we heard later, to the accidental (?) discharge of a rifle. We had not previous- ly met Mr. Young, but being told there was some doubt as to whether the hoped for shikar elephant would be available at Ramnagar he at once offered the loan of his own animal. That it was not found to be necessary did not detract from the prompt kindness of his generous action. The tale of his further doings and his final capture of Sultana-is well related by our author. Yes! that very able and physically active police officer did look as if weighed around 280 lbs. Chapters VIII to XII are concerned with twenty-one years of work at Mokameh Ghat. They were years of hard and anxious toil in a climate very different from the salubrious hills of his home near Naini Tal. These fifty-eight pages give the reader much that is interesting and informative regarding the character of the author and the lives of the people with whom he lived and worked all those years. Those of us who have acquired knowledge of the peoples of India REVIEWS 917 through long residence in this country will know how true is Corbett’s narrative of his days and doings at Mokameh Ghat. Some will think he was of a too generous nature. This book should attain a very wide circulation, and all w ho have the fortune to read it will look forward to more from the author’s pleasingly descriptive pen. R. W.B 20H PHEASANTS OF, THE WORLD: Byjean: Delacour: Pp. 347 (112" x 82”). Mlustrated with 16 coloured and 16 monochrome plates by J. C. Harrison, 21 maps and diagrams. London (Country Life Ltd.), New York (Charles. Scribner’s Sons), 1951. Price £47-7sh. —$ 35.00. Between the years 1918 and 1922 Dr. William Beebe published the four lavishly illustrated but somewhat unwieldy volumes of his monumental ‘Monograph of the Pheasants’. Before commencing the task he undertook expeditions to almost every part of the world where pheasants are found in the wild state, including the homes of some of the rarest species, observing and studying their habits and recording meticulous data concerning their habitats and ecology. Small wonder, then, that his book on this fascinating group of game birds should be what it is universally acknowledged—the most complete natural history of the pheasants ever produced. Beebe’s ‘Monograph’, however, apart from its size and weight which render it somewhat formidable for constant reference, has long been out of print. In the years since its publication, also, a good deal of additional knowledge has accumulated, and several new forms of pheasants have been described. Therefore the need for a new work on this group of birds was evident. Equally evident was the fact that no living ornithologist was better qualified for undertaking the task than Mons. Jean Delacour. His field researches and ex- perience with pheasants in the Indo-Chinese countries and over 40 years. of pheasant keeping and breeding in his far-famed aviaries in France (completely destroyed twice in each of the World Wars, but now again in the course of rebuilding), and his eminence as a systematic ornithologist are sufficient guarantee for the quality of this pro- duction. The plan of the book is simple and rational. It opens with a general account of the pheasants as a group. This is followed by a chapter on their acclimatization in the aviaries of the world, and: then comes the treatment of each species and sub-species separately headed by a concise description of the bird and its general habits: and behaviour, particularly from the aviculturist’s angle. Accounts of habits of most species in the wild state are reduced to a minimum since these have been fully treated in Beebe’s Monograph and its subsequent one-volume abridgement, ‘Pheasants, their Lives and Homes’. Only one new genus and 4 new species have been discovered during the present century including the peacock-Iike Afropavo from the Belgian Congo in Africa, a continent hitherto considered devoid of the true pheasants and as possessing only Guinea Fowts, Francolins. 918 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. AIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 50 and Quails in this family. The real home of the pheasants of course is Asia, particularly south-east Asia. On a critical evaluation of the various classes of characteristics possessed by the pheasants, Mons. Delacour maintains 16 natural genera in place of the 22 or so hitherto recognized. It is refreshing to find that in keeping with the excellent review of the family Anatidae (Ducks, Geese & Swans) published by him some years ago in con- junction with Dr. Ernst Mayr of the New York Museum, here also the importance of display and behaviour patterns, and bionomics in determining natural relationships and grouping is emphasised as against the purely morphological characters evinced in dead museum material. Thus the lumping of seven genera with laterally compressed roof-shaped tails under the single genus Lophura (e.g. Kaleej, Silver Pheasant and Fireback)—termed by the author Gallopheasants—all characterized by a whirring of wings during display, as in Syrmaticus, seems a thoroughly rational arrangement with which perhaps few ornithologists with field experience of these birds will be inclined to quarrel. But what precise value to place on each morphological character still seems largely to be a matter of individual taste and fancy, and it continues to amaze (or amuse !) and mystify what one may call the non- systematist onlooker. For instance, while some systematists lay great store by the number of feathers in the tail, basing even genera on this character, others treat it as of no consequence. Thus the genus Lophura as here recognized encompasses birds with 14, 16 and up to 32 tail feathers. Moreover, it contains species that are crested and others without a crest; two species possessing blue face wattles while all the rest have them red; in some species the rectrices are blunt, short and straight, whereas others have them long, pointed and curved. More mystifying still is the great importance sometimes given by the same ornithologist to such a feature as the bill, its size and shape, in one instance, while its significance is epored) 10% explained away in another. As a case in point, on p. 25 shape and size of bill is included among the main morphological characters separating the various genera of pheasants; on p. 184 the similarity in bill between Crossoptilon (Horned Pheasant) and Catreus and Lophophorus (the Cheer and Monals) in nonchalantly dismissed with ‘But such late acquired functional characteristics are of little meaning as an indication of affinity.’ Well may the aforesaid onlooker wonder ! Gaps in existing knowledge are usefully indicated; the precise geographical ranges of many pheasants, and even the provenance of some seen in aviaries, are unknown. A few species are known only from captive specimens and have never been observed in a wild state ; ‘One incomplete feather is all the information we possess of a certain striking species of Argus’. The eggs and chicks. of several species still remain undescribed. Thus the vast amount of work still to be done by field ornithologists is here made manifest. As a result of mature experience of pheasant keeping and breed- ing, hints are offered on practical problems such as acclimatization, housing, feeding and rearing of the different species—their procure- ment, transport, establishment and diseases. The notes on the feed- REVIEWS 919 ing and care of chicks should be of special value to zoos and pheasant breeders. ‘Pheasants which eat grain only soon become too fat and produce infertile eggs. Variety in food and green food are essential. Oystershell and grit should be available at all times.’ In the main section of the book that follows, a good description of each genus and its taxonomic position, general habits and captivity heads the account. Its various species and sub-species are next dealt with individually, male, female, immature and downy chick being des- cribed, together with eggs and distribution. Historical accounts of the introduction and acclimatization of the different species in Europe aid America add considerably to the interest of the general reader. It is gratifying to find that—thanks to the whirligig of time— Ceriornis has reverted to the more familiar, onomatopoeic Pucras.a. The crow of the cock Koklass is given as ‘Ah-croaak! croaak-croaak ! crok!, the last note very low.’ The reviewer feels that the more usual rendering of the call ‘Kok-kok-kok—kokras’ or ‘Pok-pok-pok— pokras’ is as good as any. It is responsible for the Hindustani name Kkoklass as well as for the Latin Pucrasia. | Several of the named races of the Koklass pheasant, for example bethelae Fleming and biddulphi Marshall, would seem to be little more than stages in a continuous cline, therefore without precisely definable boundaries. As such the reviewer is not entirely convinced that any useful purpose is served by naming the populations. One of the con- ditions that have been authoritatively laid down for the recognizability of a sub-species is that the differences should be sufficiently ‘taxonomic’ to be recognizable in museum specimens. It may be that this con- dition is fulfilled to a greater degree in Pucrasia macrolopha than im many other species of birds so treated, but the usefulness of nomen- clatorial sub-specific recognition in many cases is certainly questionable. Instead of simplifying taxonomy, it does little more than confuse issues and clutter up synonymy, since it is often rejected by the next reviser who covers the same ground. In the abounding merits of this work there is little that any one car seriously criticize, but attention may be drawn to a few minor slips which might easily have been avoided. To readers familiar with India it will seem that a little more care in the orthography of Indian names would have been of advantage. For instance, on page 113 Jubbulpore is spelt ‘Jubhulpore’; on p. 131 Khasia (Hills) appear as ‘Kashia’, while on p. 204 Gandak (River) is printed as ‘Gandal’. The westernmost distribution of the Satyr Tragopan is given as the Kattar Valley somewhat west of the Alaknanda valley in Kumaon. It is therefore unlikely that there are ‘Afghans’ among the other hill natives who bring them down to Calcutta every year, as stated. Kumaon is entirely out of the distributional range of the Afghan! Absence of any indication in the text of where to turn for a parti- cular illustration will cause some inconvenience to users; likewise a cross-reference on a plate to the relative page of the text would have been appreciated. Between pages 235 and 240 the name ‘Kozlova” appears variously as ‘Kozlowa’ as well as ‘Koslova’! It might be mentioned that the correct Hindustani pronunciation for the word here spelt Kalij (p. 120) is ‘kaleej’/—the ‘a’ shortened iike the ‘u’ in ‘cut’. The plural consistently written here as ‘kaliys’ 920 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 is both odd and difficult to pronounce. Perhaps it would have. been better to drop the final ‘s’ altogether and use kalij as a collective noun. The story of the finding of the peacock-like African bird Afropavo in the late ’30s is surely one of the most romantic epics of ornitholo- gical investigation. The initial clue, supplied by a single feather worn in the hat of a native Congoan in 1913, and 2 dilapidated moth- eaten specimens supposed to be the yqung of the Common Peafowl, in the neglected corridor of a Belgian museum, led to a special ex- pedition to central Congo in search, resulting in the dramatic discovery of the -bird. As regards the general excellence of the book—text as well as plates—there can hardly be two opinions. Ornithologists are fortu- nate in getting the benefit of Mons. Delacour’s unparalleled experience and intimate knowledge of this group of birds. The book will rank as a classic in its own class. Spawee ~ 3. PHARMACOGNOSY OF AYURVEDIC DRUGS OF. TRA- VANGORE-COCHIN.. Series. I... 25x19 cms., Pp. vii-+ 41,. tt. IX; tables’ nos. I; IV,.. VII & VHI are in::colour; ‘the rest, in black and white. (Published by the Central Research Institute, Trivandrum, 1951.) This is an interesting series that is now being started by the University of Travancore on Ayurvedic Drug plants. To begin with, the number of tables and their presentation make the little volume an attractive one, the plates are very clear, and even those representing the anatomical structure of the plants are very artistically drawn. The booklet deals with but a few plants, and in each case after a short introduction, the following data are given: the local name of the plant, its distribution and habitat, external morphology, officinal part of the plant, histology, distinguishing features of the root, etc.. Both the external morphology and the histology are well illustrated in the plates.’ On the negative side I have but a few remarks to offer. Accord- ing to the practice of the latest edition of the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature, no comma should be used between the name (generic or specific) of a plant and the name of the author who named the plant. Thus in the booklet under review, it should be Cyclea peltata Diels, and not Cyclea peltata, Diels, etc. The question of the name of Cyclea peltata Diels is a complicated ‘one, and not easy to solve; one thing is clear: the name Cyclea peltata Dieis is definitely illegitimate, and cannot be used, even though Gamble in his Flora of Madras, and Blatter in this journal (31: 556, 1926) use the name in the same sense as in the booklet under review. Diels published his Cyclea peltata in 1910; prior to this there were two other authors who had used the same name for different plants: Hook f. & Thoms. in Flora Indica 201, 1855 and Miers, in Contrib. Bot. 3: 236, 1874. Cvwclea peltata Diels is 4 later homonym: in the sense of Art. 61 of the Rules, and must be saledics! —a- ! REVIEWS ; g2 “Subsequent numbers in this series will be eagerly awaited both by botanists and by pharmacologists in India and elsewhere. EH SAN EAPAW S27 fo HEAD AND THORAX OF STENOBRACON-DEESAE. . Ty S. Mashhood Alam. Part I of Skeleto-muscular mechanism... Ediced by Prof. M, B. Mirza. Pp. 74, 9 plates. (Aligarh Muslim University Publication,. [1l; 1951.) -Price Rs: 5-8. While the first publication of the series, previously noticed in this journal Vol. 49 (1); I09, represented the average type of work done in an Indian University this one shows a great advance over it. Jt is better to take a simple problem and make a good job of it, as in the present case, than to attack a difficult one complaining of want of facilities, shortage of apparatus and even of cooperation. The present publication represents such excellent work that we hope Prof. Mirza, as the Director of Research, will try and maintain this standard. Only the bibliographical references seem to be incomplete. Of some 50 references none represents a paper of German origin. This scems strange knowing that Prof. Mirza himself has had a thorough German train- ing. «As in the case of the previous publication ordinary pen and ink drawings have been reproduced on excellent art paper. Although we appreciate the taste, choice of a less costly paper would probably have reduced the price which has been fixed at Rs. 5-8. We note with pleasure that the Vice-Chancellor, Dr. Zakir Husain, has generously financed the publication. It is to be hoped that others in -a sim lar position will follow his noble example. | S. MAHDIHASSAN So. LER BUA TERE EY FAUNA-OF CEYEON.”' By tr. GO. Woodhouse. 2nd (Abridged) Edition. Pp. xvi+133 (121" x92"). 37 coloured and 12 uncoloured plates. Colombo (The Ceyion Govt. Press) 1950. Price Rs. 25. This 2nd (Abridged) Edition is based on a ist Edition published in 1942 and incorporates details of the then unknown early stages of an additional 41 species of Ceylon butterflies, leaving now only 42 out of 242 known species undescribed in this respect. This edition has a very complete set of coloured plates which permit purely visual identification: written descriptions in the text are therefore practically eliminated, the letterpress being confined almost solely to other inform- ation essential to the collector. Apart from the financial assistance afforded by an enlightened State Government, this wealth of coloured plates was made possible to a great extent by the economy involved in the use of the author’s ‘Wax-cum-Gum’ method of producing accurate wing-pictures; this is done by transfer to paper of the actual scales themselves, and ts, in effect, a double-transfer system. The scales are first removed from the wings by pressing them on to waxed paper; the image thus formed, which is of course composed of inverted scales, is then brought into contact under pressure with gummed paper: when dry it is ‘placed in a 922 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL UIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 50 bath of petrol which dissolves the wax but leaves the dried gum un- affected. This method obviates the lengthy, expensive and often inaccurate work of painting pictures from which to prepare blocks. The plates are produced by the 3-colour process; as the author himself admits, the results are somewhat ‘muddy’ and fall far short of the live brilliance of the image. They are, however, very adequate for their purpose, namely identification, and he is most fortunate in being able to produce a book so completely illustrated in colour at so low a price. Whilst realising that first things must come first one sighs, as a worker in India, for a State which has the vision and means to support so complete a work of reference ;-it must be considered invaluable to anyone studying the butterflies of Ceylon and, for that matter, of South India itself. To criticise, adversely, a number of points which do not how- ever seriously detract from the real value of the book: The systematic sequence of Families (page 8 et seq.) follows the popular, if illogical, arrangement whereby a commencement is made with the most highly specialised types, and a conclusion with the most primitive. In the work under review however, this sequence is broken by placing the Pieridae before the Papilionidae, whereas the reverse is the accepted order. The author does not explain this departure from system. A Map is indexed to appear after Appendix 2, but is not in fact included in the copy sent for review. As regards format this is a superficially attractive volume bound in scarlet leather with gilt lettering and is thus of a style, and also of a size, more essentially suited to a place of honour in the parlour than to the collector’s den or to his camp in the field. The print lacks clarity and is very tiring to the eyes. choice of print-types and their arrangement are very poor; the reviewer refers for example to the index at page (ix) which, incidentally, should immediately follow the title page and should not appear in the middle of text to which it is a guide. The frontispiece is unusually placed, as it faces the wrong way by conventional standards. It would in any case better have faced the description which immediately follows it. The Reviews with which the volume commences savour rather of advertisement and do not embellish the opening pages. They seem out of place in a scientific work of this nature, but might have been printed with advantage on the dust-cover. The fact that pages 1 to 96 are printed on paper noticeably inferior to those which precede and follow it, does not make for uniformity of presentation. Turning to the plates, interleaving with flimsy paper is pre- sumably essential for their protection, although it has not apparently been thought necessary thus to protect the frontispiece. There could otherwise be no possible justification for the use of this infuriating material particularly, as in the Tropics, where one has frequently to work under a fan. Avoidance of damage to the plates was also, presumably, the reason why the plate descriptions are printed on the outside of each flimsy. Had each description faced the plate the reader would have been saved much time and fuss, and would In places the REVIEWS 923. have had two hands free when comparing a _ specimen’ with the illustrations. If flimsies are indeed essential, it should surely be possible to print in reverse on the outside of the flimsy so that the descriptions could be read by transparency at one opening ? Alternatively to print on the reverse. side of the preceding plate, interleaving with blank flimsies for protection? More careful editing might have eliminated spelling mistakes, e.g. pp. (xiv) and 57: ‘epeus’ for ‘epius’; p. 89: ‘Euremas’ for ‘Eurema’; pp. (xii) and ee ‘Orsotriaena’ for ‘Orsotrioena’; p. (xiv): ‘Petrela’ for ‘Petrelaea’; pp. {xiv) and 71: ‘Catapaecilma’ for ‘Catapoecilma’ ; pp. (xv) and 82 ‘iarbus’ for ‘jarbas’ etc. etc. Vide pp. ou) and 27/29: ‘Danaus’ is more usually spelt ‘Danais’. The page heading indicators to numbers of paragraphs are, ‘correct- ly, at the outside top corners of pages 65 to 123. On pages 27 to 64 they appear, however, at the inside top corners and need full open- ing to be seen. It should be noted that two additional 2nd Editions are also avail- able with the publishers as follows :— (i) The ‘Complete’ 2nd Edition: This is as described above but has a more complete letterpress and includes 7 addi- tional plates depicting genitalia. (1) The ‘Popular’, or ‘Atlas’, 2nd Edition: This is an abridg- ment of the ‘Abridged’ 2nd Edition. The letterpress is cut to an absolute minimum and some of the uncoloured plates are excluded. M. J. HACKNEY 6. THE STORY OF ANIMAL LIFE. By Maurice Burton, p.sc. Vol. I: The Framework of Animal Life; Invertebrates. Pp. xii+ 381. Vol. 11: Vertebrates. Pp. viii+ 423. Illustrated. (London: Elesvier Publishing Co. Ltd., 1949). Price 63sh. Dr. Maurice Burton here tells the uninitiated something about animal behaviour, beginning with elementary animal forms and work- ine: wp) to thes more highly evolved. The subject chosen postulates. a knowledge of animals in their natural surroundings and the help of naturalists in all parts of the world has been enlisted for the task. The first question which presents itself to the reader is how life originated. One of Dr. Burton’s collaborators makes as illuminating a guess as any I have come across. FT ollowing the course of evolution backwards to a time when there was no life, he imagines a_ back- ground of sea, a heavy atmosphere rich in gases, and a cooling earth. Some catalyst set off ‘the primary chemical experiment’ and a froth was formed, a tenuous coherent blob permeable by fluid, air and sunshine. This was the first living matter. It grew and from the physics of its shape divided, and continued to divide as it grew. In the course of a thousand million years it developed into the simplest forms of life that we know. Fabre has familiarised us with wives who eat their husbands. It is refreshing to learn that women do not always get their own way. Ina species of marine bristle worm (Nereis dumerilit) the male 924 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL EIST. “SSOCLE IW: Vol a0 devours the female and then, to make things even, becomes a female and is eaten in his.turn.. When we read of the ability of certain animals to cast off an organ and regenerate a new one, we may well ask ourselves. whether evolution has done as much for us as is claimed for it. What would we not give for the brittle-star’s capacity of growing a new stomach in place of a defective one? A. fascinating. account of echinoderms gives an insight into the diverse ways in which creatures propagate their kind. Some _ shed eggs and sperms direct into the water, fertilisation taking place outside the body and the eggs developing into various types of free- swimming larvae. The body of the larva is generally absorbed by the developing echinoderm, but in one species a portion of the larva separates and grows into the adult animal while the remaining portion swims off, lives for some time and perishes. In some forms the eggs are collected round the mouth of the mother, who raises her- self on her arms and forms a brood-chamber in which the young develop. During the time, extending for some weeks, the mother takes no food. Other forms are viviparous, the young developing in the bursae, which are pouches normally used for respiratory pur- poses. An amazing case is that of an Antarctic brittle-star in which the eggs hatch in the ovaries, only one egg developing in each ovary and using others as food. Native does not appear to have been es careful in this instance as in that of the Lace-wing, described in the portion devoted to insects, the eggs of which are placed on long stalks to prevent the larvae which first hatch out from eating their brothers and_ sisters. Aphides or plant lice illustrate one of the ways in which Nature maintains a species in spite of the inroads of numerous enemies. In autumn the females lay one egg each and the adults, male and female, die by the following year. In spring the eggs hatch out and only females emerge. During spring and summer these females reproduce without the intervention of a male. The rate of reproduction is pheno- menal, a female under the best conditions producing a young one every half hour. The young ones mature within a::few hours and proceed to reproduce at the same rate. The results of man’s interference with nature make sad and _ in- structive reading. The Moas of New Zealand are no more and the Dodo of Mauritius is known only because of Alice in JVonderland. The fer-de-lance introduced to deter slaves from escaping, and the mongoose brought in later to kill the fer-de-lance have both become pests of the sugar plantations. Yet this interference provides a striking example, if verified, of the adaptation of an instinctive func- tion to a change in Sierendine circumstances. The tooth-billed pigeon of Samoa used to nest on the ground. After the introduction into the island of rats and cats it took to nesting in trees. I have given only a few samples of the many interesting facts related. The illustrations in the book have been chosen with an eye to their artistic value. Even a tape worm: is invested with beauty and the picture of a chicken-embryo is reminiscent of an Italian medallion. The size of the two volumes makes for ease in handling. : REVIEWS 925 ~ In a book so well got up it is so annoying to find misprints and mis- takes in spelling, but they are not so many as to interfere with the enjoyment of the text. There is also an occasional mistake in a refe- rence, for instance in the last sentence ‘at page 94 of Volume I. And I would like to see more references in the text to the illustrations. Thas, the reader’s enjoyment of the first reference to the beauty of: Venus’ Flower Basket. would be enhanced by a reference to the superb illustration at page 144 of Volume I. PD To atns The following books have been added to the Society’s library since January 1952:— Tt. THE Brrps OF THE Matay PENINSULA, SINGAPORE: & PENANG. An account of all the Malayan species with a note of their occurrence in Sumatra, Borneo & Java and a list of the birds of those islands. By A. G. Glenister (Oxford University Press, 1951) (A Review copy). 2. GRONLANDS FuGLE—The Birds of Greenland, Parts II and III. By Finn Salomonsen & Gitz Johansen (Ejnar Munks-Gaard Koben- havn, 1950). 3. Inp1an Motiuscs. By James Hornell (Bombay Natural History Society, 1951): 4. Brrps or CeyLon. By W. W. A. Phillips (Ceylon Daily News Press, Colombo, 1949) (A Review copy). 5. Bra Game or Mataya: ‘Their types, distribution and habits. By E. C. Foenander (The Batchworth Press, 1952) (A Review copy) 6. ANIMALS STRANGE AND RARE. By Richard Ogle {G. Bell & Sons, 1951) (A Review copy). 7. CATALOGUE OF THE GENUS FELIS. By R. I. Pocock | British Museum (Natural History), 1952]. 8. NAME THIS INsEcT. By Eric Fitch Daglish (J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1952) (A Review copy). g. A CENTENARY CHRONICLE OF THE OOTACAMUND HUNT, 1845-1945. By J. F. Smail (presented by Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton). 10. ELEMENTS OF PLANT PROTECTION. By Louis L. Pyenson. (Chapman & Hall Ltd., 1951). The following books were presented by Mr. Humayun Abdulali to the Society’s library on 14-3-1952: 1. THE WorLp or AniMAL LiFe. By Fred Smith. 1923. 2. SHOOTING WITH RIFLE AND CAMERA: Filming the FOUR fe EES ON bie-eaime ‘Uatiller. « By A..J|. Siggins. 1931. 3. BomBay Ducks—An account of some of the every-day birds and beasts found in a Naturalist’s Eldorado. By Douglas Dewar. 1906. 4. Brrps OF THE PLatins. By Douglas Dewar. 1g09. 5. THE Gun: Afield and Afloat. By Henry Sharp. 1904. 6. THE TicGeR Hunters. Brig.-Genl. R. G. Burton. 1936. 7. Bic Game SHootinc. Vol. I. By Clive Phillips-Wolley. 1894. 8. Tue Ways or Man ann Beast in INpria. By D. King Martin. 2935: 9. JUNGLE By-ways IN INpIA. By E. P. Stebbing. torr. 926 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 10. W1TH A CaMERA IN TIGER-Lanp. By F. W. Champion. 1928. 11. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALIA OF BriTISH INDIA AND CEYLON. By Robert A. Sterndale. 1884. 12. INDIAN JUNGLE LORE AND THE RIFLE: Being notes on shikar and wild animal life. By ‘Silver Hackle’. 1929. 13. Common INDIAN TREES & How to Know Tuem (Forty trees common in India). By R. N. Parker (Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, Government of India Publication, 1933). 14. THE AUK—A quarterly journal of ornithology published by the American Ornithologists’ Union, Vols. 61-64 and 66, No. 1. 35 maps of districts and forest areas within Indian limits, were presented to the Society by Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton of Bangalore, and 15 back numbers of various periodicals, viz. the Journal of Mammalogy, The Auk, Bird-banding and Ebba News by Dr. C. Brooke Worth of Bangalore. WISCELVANEOUS NOTES 1. SOME TIGER INCIDENTS Having read with interest the article ‘Leopards in daylight’ in a recent issue of the /*ield I thought the following incidents concerning a family of tigers on a tea estate in Cachar, Assam, might interest readers, | In April last this family, the parents and two cubs were reported to be appearing in daylight near the factory and coolie lines of the estate next-door to me, and despite the fact that numbers of people would congregate to watch them they seemed quite unperturbed by the crowds, even when efforts were made to move them by shouting, beating of tins, etc. The family were taking toll of the coolies’ cattle (not altogether frowned upon on a tea estate where a manager is usually worried by cattle trespass!) and as I usually received news of their doings too late to enable me to do anything about it I decided finally to go and waylay them in the hope of getting a shot in daylight. I went out at about 6 p.m. one evening and having been shown where the family were likely to appear for their evening perambulation I sat myself down behind a bush on the side of a low ‘teela’ (hillock) about 30 yds. from the path which the tigers were supposed to take. The country hereabouts, apart from the actual tea areas, consists almost entirely of ‘teelas’, covered by jungle of varying density, with paddy-fields on the level ground between the ‘teelas’. I had not been sitting for more than twenty minutes when some- one up the ‘teela’ behind me gave a low whistle and pointed away to the paddy-field on my right. The ‘teela’, at the end of which I was sitting, formed a ridge about 200 yds. long overlooking this field, and by now most of the jabour-force had congregated along this ridge. I realised as soon as I heard the whistle that something was on the move away to the right; so clambering down over a bamboo fence into the field, I ran across it to a deepish nullah about 12 ft. wide which ran down the centre of the field, parallel to the ridge and about 50 yds. from it. Along the edge of the nullah there were odd clumps of cover and having reached these my boy and I spent the next few minutes racing up and down, peering through the gaps, trying to locate a tiger but unable to do so despite the pointings and gesticulations of the people on the ridge whom we could still just see in the rapidly failing light. There were apparently two tigers walking along the base of the ‘teela’ on the opposite side of the nullah but just inside the scrub jungle on the edge of it; the crowd on the ridge could see them but we down on the level could not. 928 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 On reaching the end of the ‘teela’ one of the two turned out of the scrub into the field, right into the open, and started to cross it dia- gonally towards the nullah. It was only then that we saw him, but for a few moments in the bad light I thought it might be a cow home- ward-bound a trifle later than its companions. I soon realised that this was no home-coming cow and accordingly ‘froze’ behind the nearest bush on the edge of the nullah, at the same time bringing my rifle very slowly up to the aim. The tiger proceeded straight towards where I was standing never once giving the crowd on the ridge a glance, although to him they must have been clearly visible. On reaching the edge of the nullah almost opposite me he stopped and looked up, whether at me or the crowd I cannot say, but by, then he was looking straight up the muzzle of my rifle from 18 ft. away; I measured the distance afterwards. The outline of his face was. just discernible though the light had gone and I could not make out my sights clearly so I let him have it. This proved to be one of the cubs, a male, 8 ft. between pegs and in very fine condition. The remainder of the family stayed in the vicinity for sometime making a lot of noise both by day and by night, but although I saw them on several occasions in broad daylight I never succeeded in getting a shot at them. I spent four hours one’ Sunday afternoon playing what amounted almost to hide-and-seek with one of them, but this time the spectators in the distance did upset the beast or . I would have bagged him at a range of a few feet quite early in the afternoon. J had dragged his kill, out of the scrub jungle where he had hidden it, into the open, and a few minutes later he came along - to recover it. This he tried four times during the afternoon, but went back each time, popping out at a different spot on each occasion whilst I popped behind a different bit of cover. At the fifth attempt he came up from behind me right to the bush behind which I was. sitting. I had put my boy on a ‘teela’ some way away. to signal quietly to me if this should happen and it was not till he started dancing like a dervish smacking his behind that I realised the tiger must be very near my posterior. There was actually just the small bush between us. He skulked after this and as it was starting to get dark I called it a day. } . Eventually a coolie was killed, the only remains recovered being half an arm, and the following morning at about 11 o’clock I was. informed that a bullock had been killed half an hour before. I went and collected my rifle and my lad Ramadhor and went out to the spot but found only a badly mauled calf, still alive, and no definite information regarding the bullock so I decided to look around the place where the cattle had been grazing. I was taken into a bottle-necked clearing surrounded by ‘teelas’, and after searching for a short while found a freshly killed bullock. I was examining the poor beast when Ramadhor in a very audible Nei. said, ‘There’s a tiger looking at you from the base of the ‘‘teela’’ opposite’. Four of us had entered the clearing in full view of these beasts. (there were two of them) and yet they had taken not the slightest notice of us. MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 929 Two members of the party suddenly remembered urgent business elsewhere and removed themselves hastiy leaving Ramadhor and myself, Neither of us could make out how exactly the tigers were sitting as they were on a slope and we could only see their bodies through a gap in the foliage, neither of their heads being visible. However, atter we had been arguing for a full ten minutes in per- fectly normal voices 25 yds. from them, without the tigers resenting our. presence at all, one of them yawned. This gave me a line on a nose, the upper half of the face being obscured by two large leaves. As neither beast appeared to have the slightest intention of moving { made Ramadhor stoop in front of me and resting the rifle across the back of his shoulders fired at the centre of the visible nose. One tiger bounded away through the jungle up the ‘teela’ but the owner of the nose merely keeled over and after one or two twitches I heard a gasping gurgle and then silence. I fired a second shot into the underside of the chest, which was now visible, to make certain the beast was dead. It was then exactly 12.20, so that from the time when I had first arrived on the scene and found the mauled calf a mere forty minutes. had elapsed. ; The bullet I found afterwards had gone in at the centre of the nose, broken the Jower jaw, almost torn out the tongue completely and then proceeded through the back of the throat and into the vitals. I was disappointed to find that this was the other cub, also a male and exactly the same length as the first. Two evenings later I stalked to within a few yards of one of the parents trying to remove a kill which I had had pegged down; this. time however, my presence was resented and after a couple of snarls the beast went off roaring and presumably rather hungry. The same night at 10.30 I went after the two of them, clad in my pyjamas, as one of the estate lorries returning late had passed them sitting just below the road not far. from where the pegged-down kill was, but although I saw them both I was unable to have a shot. I haven’t seen anything further of this pair for a while now and I] would like to think that a new family is afoot in which case they will pass with my blessing if we meet again. c/o GRINDLAY’S BANK L1b., 54, PARLIAMENT STREET, AR D. ROBEY LONDON, ©. VV ./1, March 17; 1952. POST-SCRIPT ON ‘RABIES IN. TIGER’ to In continuation of the discussion on rabies in the tiger and vulture, the following quotations and comments are proferred. 1. ‘The vampire bat is the only known host that can act as a true carrier of rabies over an extended period without exhibiting evident illness. The majority of vampire bats that contract rabies 30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIEERY Vols 50 evidently die of the disease, but some have been shown to be capable of transmitting the disease over a period of five months, without show- ing symptoms of rabies’. Harald N. Johnson, 1947. Rabies. Annals of the New. ,.York »Academy of Sevences: Nol. XUN INI Agi. P- 373: 2. ‘With rare exceptions, intracerebral injection of concentrated virus suspensions is fatal to animals. Young birds are generally susceptible to intracerebral inoculation, while older birds are often refractory.’ ibid., p. 366. Comment: The word, ‘animals’, in the above passage is presumably used in the lay sense to mean ‘mammals’, ‘as suggested by the immediately following reference to birds. Hence since vultures attending carcases are scarcely fledgelings, it is diff- cult to imagine that they would even occasionally be carrying rabies virus as true hosts. Furthermore if a carcase were that of a victim of rabies, there is no reason why carrion-eaters at the same feast ° need to be inoculated by a mechanicaily contaminated vulture’s beak -—they could just as easily contaminate the mucous membranes of their own mouths directly from the carcase. However: 3. ‘ .... the virus in the brains of animals dead of rabies is inactivated rapidly in hot weather.’ ibid., p. 365. Comment: This would probably apply to virus in other organs also, (Virus has been found in ‘lactating breast tissue, stomach mucosa, pancreas, kidney and adrenal tissue,’ but not in ‘spleen, liver, lymph nodes, bone marrow and sex glands.’ ibid., p. 367. Comment: Presumably vultures are not sufficiently expert anatomists to distinguish among these several organs and tissues. General contamination of carrion- eaters may logically be inferred from the foregoing information. 4. In the United States, where rabies is common in many wild mammals, I witnessed the bite of a vulture in the case of a human being. I can think of no reason why American vultures should be less rabid than Indian ones. The bitten man happened to be my uncle who was obligingly restraining a Black Vulture, Coragyps atratus, as I prepared to photograph it and its fledgelings. Suddenly the bird reached around and gave one of the knuckles of his middle finger a ragged cut with its foul beak (it had disgorged when I pounced on it a few moments previously, just as it darted from one of the entrances to its nest beneath a pile of boulders). We were far afield and were unable to treat the cut with anything better than a bit of seventy per cent. alcohol that had been taken along for preserving specimens (not uncles). There was no subsequent cauterization or anti- rabic treatment, for we did not then think of rabies. This was more than twenty years ago, and my uncle is living and well today, still enthusiastic about vultures’. Incidentally I have the photographs that I took. In the first picture my uncle is holding the vulture with its wings out-stretched, but in the second—after being bitten——he has a firm grip with his uninjured hand about the bird’s neck. The bird was ringed and liberated; its psychological scar may have exceeded the physical one of my uncle’s finger, but not that of our individual memories. In any case, we * Of course Mr. Daver never suggested that every individual vulture carried the rabies virus, so that the case cited is, by itself, no criterion.—Eps. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 931 concluded unscientifically that vultures, far from propagating viruses and bacteria in their saliva, gastric juice, or other body fluids, may have virustatic or bacteriostatic substances in these media that are consequences of Natura] Selection through aeons of carrion-eating. THE ROCKFELLER FOUNDATION, BANGALORE, Mysore, C. BROOKE WORTH April 10, 1952. 3. A RECORD OF THE CHEETAH (ACINONYX JUBATUS ERXLEBEN) IN CHITOOR DISTRICT, MADRAS STATE During the night of March 28/29, I had occasion to travel between this place and Bangalore, the route I use being via Renigunta, Tirupati, Chandragiri and Chitoor. Whilst passing through the hilly section of country, through which the road winds, between Chandragiri and Puthalkonda, at about 1.30 a.m., the headlights picked out the gleam of eyes and on drawing closer, we saw what we thought was a small leopard, sitting well erect on the left side of the road gazing toward the car. I slowed down immediately and when the car was some fifteen yards from the animal it stood up and walked across the brilliant beam of the headlights and, after standing on the right side of the road for some five to ten seconds looking at the now stationary car, it went down the embankment. Having no torch I could not either follow it or make any further observation ; although I did turn the car across the road the light beam did not light up the ground below the embankment. However, the cheetah gave us ample time to watch it as it liesure- ly walked across the road and stood on the right-hand side. The slender build, domed head and long limbs together with a very heavily spotted coat were too distinguishable to classify it as anything else, night or no night. The roadside was too loosely dusty to give a clear pug mark, but what pugs there were were smaller than one would expect of a leopard of corresponding size. By rule of thumb, I should judge the animal to have been some 5 feet in length, inclusive of the tail. i The country at the point of observation consists of a semi-culti- vated valley, the crops being for the most part sugar-cane and orchards of mango, interspersed with the bush-covered flanks of the hills on either side. These hills are for the most part huge sheets of stone and tumbled masses of boulder and scree, in, the fissured gullies of which there is a struggling growth of thorn bush and cactus. I have driven through this stretch at least a dozen times at all hours of the night and day within the past year and although I am told that Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) and ‘Wild goats’ (Muntjac ?) occur together with wild pig I have not seen any signs of them along the road mentioned, although since I do know that these animals, together with Chital (Axis axis) occur along the very narrow belt of secondary jungle at the immediate foot of the most eastern range of the Eastern Ghats and that the animals within the Eastern Ghats 16 932 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 in Cuddapah have ample forest within which to move, it is very probable that the species mentioned do occur. However, by far the commonest animal throughout the area is the Blacknaped Hare (Lepus nigricollis), which occurs in profusion. I have gone into this at length as I am interested in placing a finger on a reliable source of food supply to attract carnivora, apart from the village herds of goats and cows, upon which they also may possibly prey. This is the second occasion in my life that I have seen the Cheetah in its wild state, or more closely, the second time in some fifteen years of intelligent observation in the forests of Bihar, Orissa, Central India and Burma for the most part. Regarding an animal such as this, which is fast becoming extinct in India, one is very reluctant to report the exact localities of occurrence out of fear of those trigger-happy gentlemen who do not understand the fine line between sport and slaughter. However, I think the Chandragiri Cheetah will be safe as the local population is not given so much to shikar. c/o POSTMASTER, P.O. GupuR, NELLORE DISsrT., K. M. KIRKPATRICK April 11, 1952. 4.- THE “DIPPING, HABIT. OF THE TAPIRe (dieeeos INDICUS CUV.) Blanford’s Fauna (p. 479) states that the tapir is fond of water, and is said to plunge in and walk along the bottom, instead of swimming. There appears to be little further information on record, and it might be interesting to draw attention to a note included in ‘The Story of a Tapir’ by J. A. Hislop in the Malayan Nature Journal, Vol. V, No. 2, June 1950 (pages 92 to 95) in which he relates the experience of a Mr. C. E. Jackson :— ‘While discussing the tapir with some Sakai I remarked that I could not understand how this animal managed to survive and flourish . . . . particularly against tigers. The Sakai replied that the senses of sight, hearing and smell were most acutely Geveloped in the tapir, and that it also had the ability to remain under water for fairly long periods. In fact, when harassed by a tiger, tapirs had been known to enter a river and walk downstream on the bed of the river for a considerable distance in order to put the tiger off the scent. I was not aware of the tapir possessing all these powers. attributed to it and was very sceptical about its sub-aqueous abilities. It was, however, not very long after this conversation took place: that the following incident occurred.’ He then goes on to relate how he received an urgent telephone call from the Assistant Engineer, Waterworks, Kuala Lumpur, inform-. ing him that a tiger had attacked a tapir at the Ampang Reservoir and that both animals had fallen into the ‘intake well’. Mr. Jackson visited the place with Mr. H. M. Pendlebury of the Museums Depart- MEN. MISCELLANEOUS !} NOTESVAOG SLi AN 932 The intake well was a concrete structure some twelve feet; square’ and about the same in depth and a fully grown male tapir was stand-. ing in the bottom of the well which was dry. There was no sign of the tiger, but there was however evidence to show that it -had _been in the well and had sprung out and ‘made off into the jungle. ‘Fhe problem then was how to get the unfortunate animal/ out of its predicament. We first of all flooded the well, thinking that the tapir might swim or float to the surface, but when it failed to appear after a few minutes we speedily emptied the. well, thinking that it might have drowned. He was there, still in his original position and seemingly quite unperturbed and none the worse for the immersion. We thereupon repeated the performance, leaving the water in for a much longer period, but with exactly the same result. Other means ied to be resorted to, and it was,.with some ‘mis- givings that I allowed myself to be lowered on a rope in-order to make a second rope fast round the tapir’s middle, and that accom- plished I made a rapid exit. With some twenty labourers heaving on the rope and the well again flooded, the tapir was brought to the top and levered out on to dry land. The proceedings took over two hours and during that time ; the tapir made’no sound nor showed any sign of aggressiveness. whatso- ever. It was however found to be badly mauled and was destroyed.’ c/o Faiz’ & “Co.,.. an 75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI Bompay, | = eer e ie June 16, 1952. 5. AN ELEPHANTS STRIDE I saw 3 elephants (tuskers) stride, without apparent difficulty, across an elephant trench round a ragi field, in the moonlight on the night of the 11th instant. The width of the trench was 34 feet; the stride measured in each case 8 ft. 2 in. from centre to centre of the foot- prints. Had I not myself seen this occur I would have considered the feat incredible. : . : 4 HoNNAMETTI ESTATE, | | ATTIKAN ’ P.O., via Mysore (S. Inp1a), RANDOLPH C. MORRIS. | December 15, 1951. 6. MEASUREMENTS OF AN INDIAN BISON HEAD (BIBOS GAURUS) With reference to Miscellaneous Note No. 5 in your journal of April 1942, Vol. XLIII, No. 1, I give below measurements of the first ten heads of bison shot in Burma and recorded in Appendix I of the. 934 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 56 Burma‘ Game Manual 1929, which do not appear to have been con- sidered for the world’s record claimed by Mr. S. C. H. Robinson. Horn measurements Tip to tip (9) Inches 313 16 | | Widest. Remarks | outside © (6) (7) Inches 46 | (L.F.S.B.) Owner :— D.H. Allan. Shot in Upper Chind- win. 40 |(LF.S.B.) Shot by W. S. Thom, Myitk yina. 463 A. Hazlewood, Bas- sein Forest Divi- sion. 447 | (CR. W.) Owner :— J. McF. Petters. 394 Shot by L. D. Ed- ee mondston, Upper Chindwin, 1926. Shot by E. F. Bat- ten, Bombay-Bur- ma Trading Cor- poration, Limited, Matu Reserve, Upper Chindwin, 40914, | 405 | Shot by A.L. Bacon, Mogok. 39 Shot by F. R. Dic- kins, Magwe For- est Division on 22nd June 1928. 40 (R. W.) Owner:— A. E. English. Found in the house of Myothugyz at i Yinmabin, Lower, | Chindwin District. No. Length | Girth Q} @) | @ | @) Inches Inches 1. |Right| 363 | a28) Left 33g | 224 2. | 38 19 3. ee 344 195 } | Left 34 193 | 4, 333 21 5. |Right| 343 204 Left 33 214 6. | Right 33 208 Left 32 | 201 | 7. 325 20 8. Right} 323 19 | Left | 323 20 9. | | 32 194 10. |Right 348 174) Left 344 1738 ‘ MAWLAIK, UPPER CHINDWIN/MyitTrHa Division, February 26, 1952. H. G. HUNDLEY Divisional Forest Officer St i AE ae MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 935 [In Rowland Ward’s ‘Records of Big Game’ (1928) the largest head of the Malayan Bison is widest outside 38” and circumference at base 163”. Foenander in his recent book ‘Big Game of Malaya’ p. 61 records one shot by Da Prah at Kuala Jelai in Negri Sembilan as 46” outside width and circumference at base 203”. Length from tip to tip across the forehead (sweep) 783”.—Ebs. | 7. THE RECORD SPREAD OF GAUR HORNS (BIBOS GAURUS) (With a photo) On 27th November, 1951, my friend, Mr. Maruthasala Gownder Landlord, Saravanapatti Village, Coimbatore District, shot a huge solitary bull bison in the Talamalai Range of North Coimbatore Divi- sion. The left horn is blunt and worn out to nearly one-third of its. length (photo). Had it been full, the spread would have measured another three or four inches. As it is, it measures 48 inches. I was ae spot and took down the measurements carefully. They are as. ollows : rt. Length of right horn ae eeOa! 2. Length of left horn ee oye 3. Girth of right horn ... 203" 4. Girth of left horn a. Logt 5. Spread. Widest outside se 48? 6. Span. Tip to tip in straight line oer) 7. Sweep across forehead poe a! 8. Girth round body (behind shoulder) eee LO Et: 936 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 g. Height at shoulder pis. 7Gbbb sh" ‘1o.. Total length over curves from nose tip to end . of tail i 1 A3 fieGuog! 15/15, PERUMAL KoIL STREET, FORT, COIMBATORE, B. SUBBIAH PILLAY, January 4, 1952. | Messrs. Van Ingen & Van Ingen, taxidermists of Mysore, to whom the head was sent for mounting, wrote to us: ‘The bison head received from Mr. Maruthasala Gownder cannot be measured in its present condition as the horns are severed at the base and for some reason a greater part of the core remains firmly inside of the horn. Whether the boiling has caused this or disease we cannot say. Bison heads with horns should never be boiled.’ In a subsequent letter they indicate the following measurements :— Widest outside ... 47” Girth ae Oe! The letter adds ‘it is unfortunate that one horn is_ broken off at the end and 10” missing, spoiling its symmetry and a beautiful trophy. . ‘These measurements are likely to have differed from the original taken when the bison was shot in view of the fact that the skull of this bison appeared to be very porous and the bone was soft and light. The cores of the horns were each four inches in length and hollow, whereas the horns themselves were solid nearly as far as the cavity allowed for the core.’ This certainly appears to jbe the Gaur head with the largest spread so far recorded. Rowland Ward’s ‘Records of Big Game’ (1928) gives the widest outside as 44?” and circumference at the base 20” (Lt.-Col. C. H. Stockley, Siam). : The largest head from South India is: widest outside 432”; circum- ference at base 173”. It was shot at Parambikolam (Cochin State) by G. Elliot Browning—Ebs. | 8. CATTLE DISEASES AND WILD LIFE Between 15 and 20 bison have died recently from foot and mouth disease, and several more are affected, in the Kollegal Division of the Coimbatore District, having caught that disease from the village cattle penned in the hill forests owing to the lack of grazing down below. Had these cattle introduced rinderpest as well, a tragedy similar to that of 1929 would have overwhelmed the large number of bison nee: HONNAMETTI ESTATE, ATTIKAN P.O., RANDOLPH C. MORRIS via Mysore (S. Inpia), June 7, 1952.-- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 937 g A ‘RED’ PORCUPINE o About six years ago I was staying on the Bababudan Hills in Mysore. I was sitting on the hill-side one afternoon watching for animals. A small red animal came up the ridge towards me, in and out of the rocks, much of the colour of a British fox. Eventually it saw me when about 20 yards off and dived into the rocks, by which time I had made certain it was a porcupine. This in itself would not be conclusive, but later, in another place I found ‘some porcupine quills on which a bright rusty red replaced the white bars, partially or entirely. This was proof positive. Col. Phythian-Adams, with his. extensive experience, tells me he has never heard of a red porcupine, so it might be worth looking for a specimen. ‘STOCKBRIDGE’, HAROLD COLAM OOTACAMUND, August I, 1951. {In 1863 Francis Day, a Fellow of the Zoological Society of London and of H. M. Madras Medical Service, in his work on Cochin entitled ‘The Land of the Perumals’ pp. 446-447, refers to the Orange Porcupine (Hystrix malabaricus). He states that during his residence in Cochin he was informed by the natives that ‘a species or orange- coloured Porcupine was found in the neighbouring hills and its flesh was more highly esteemed for food than that of the common variety. It was said to be a smaller species, and that the two never lived in the same locality. They were also found at various places along the Ghats of Cochin and Travancore. At Trichooe (Trichur ?) about 4o miles north-east of Cochin there was a colony of these animals. They had formed their burrows in the laterite rock... . The native sports- men declare that aroma from these burrows is quite sufficient to distinguish this species. . . . In captivity they lose much of their orange colour; and their vividness greatly decreases when they are ill.’ Sclater in the P.Z.S. 1865, pp. 352-356, described this as a new species under the name of Hystrix malabarica. Later in the P.Z.S. 1871, pp. 233-234, he refers to a specimen in the Zoological Gardens in London which ‘after sometime gradually lost the splendid orange colour in the quills and became undistinguishable in external appear- ance from other Indian specimens. Under these circumstances, I cannot doubt that the colour of the quills is merely due to some local variation, probably to some particular food which they consume; and I have therefore reduced Hystrix malabarica to a synonym with HT, leucura.’ Further information concerning this colour phase in the Porcupine would be interesting.—Eps. | 938 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 10. THE DIARY AND SPORTING JOURNAL OF W. P. OKEDEN, 1821-1841 There are some entries which attract attention in this somewhat bare recital of the shooting of elephants, of about 285 tigers, 19 bears, 13 buffaloes, and many deer during nineteen years shoots in the jungles. of the Himalayan tera: from Moradabad to Kheri-Lakhimpur in the present Uttar Pradesh. All through the Diary it is evident—and also stated—that the main object was not to kill the tigers too soon but bring them to the charge. An aid to this was the rather inefficient muzzle-loading rifle of those days, with its small charge of 14 drs. of powder to propel the 18 bore spherical bullet of hardened lead. Okeden gives no details of the rifles used; but we know from General William Rice that this. was the weapon in use at that time. Some of the tigers, says the Diary, endured a number of bullets—16, 15, 13 are mentioned—before they succumbed. FIGHTING TIGERS There were many gallant tigers: p. 102. ‘. . . on coming up the tiger showed good fight, and took a number of shots ere he yielded. 1 hind leg broke, 1 fore ditto, a shot through the back which had gone through and let his guts out, one eye knocked out, and yet he sat on his rump and roared at us, his sound eye sparkling like a fire-ball, and the very picture of savage fury.’ One of the latest entries: 12th April 1841. ‘. . . He was a large, powerful male and proved himself worthy of his notoriety. (He had lately fought and killed another tiger, and killed on an average two bullocks a day.) His ferocity, with his eye out, his mouth filled with blood, and still coming on roaring up to the mukna, was magnificent. Alas, I fear I have not many such a sight to see again, for a Dorsetshire coppice holds nothing but a hare.’ STAUNCH HowpbAuH ELEPHANTS His mukna was staunch, and his other howdah elephant ex-. ceedingly brave for she faced many fiercely attacking tigers, though a number of times clawed or bitten. The Emperor Shah Jehan gave orders for the head and trunk of elephants used or tiger-shooting to be protected down to the end of the. trunk with a covering of thick leather studded with sharp nails. Sir Samuel Baker, in his book ‘Wild Beasts and their Ways’ Pp. 35-36, says that elephants used against tigers should have pro- tection of the face and trunk provided in the way designed and described by him. (No mention of sharp nails, and he had probably not read of Shah Jehan’s order !). This sensible idea does not seem to have caught on, for there is- no mention of it in subsequent shikar books. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 939: SomME TERMS AND EXPRESSIONS ‘ p- 41. (and elsewhere). . at last she (tigress) stopped in a large tope of semallow bushes.’ Perhaps a Forest Officer of the area will be able to give scientific name of this plant? It is not in Gamble’s Indian Timbers, p. 49. ‘. .. we then fired a ball or two, skimming the petellahs.’ They were shooting near a swamp. What is petellahs? May be petals of the lotus flowers? p. 56. ‘The elephant went down in what I know not, but I suspect an old obhee.’ Perhaps a disused well? : p. 63. ‘Beat the jheel full of tantagrass.’ What is this grass? p- 74. Okeden shot ‘I stinker’. From the context, perhaps a deer, but what deer? A stag of swamp deer with immature horn? On several occasions he shot a stinker. p. 108. 16th February 1835. ‘Shot a choukur, or dindseoo, the only one I ever killed. Rode to Moradabad the next morn.’ What creature may this have been? Bird or animal? There is no mention of it in ‘Hobson Jobson’, and it woud seem that Yule and Burnell had not seen this Diary which was not published but privately printed, where is not apparent in the copy in the Society’s Library. BANGALORE, R. W. BURTON January 1, 1952. Ist Cols. Lop CNet.) @ ir STRANGE BEHAVIOUR OF A HOUSE-CROW (CORVUS SPLENDENS) Recently during the last week of May a curious behaviour of a crow attracted my attention. Just outside the window from which I was watching him (or her) there is a row of rough flat stones, each stone about eight inches high, meant to hold up earth for a flower bed. When I first noticed the crow he was trying to pull out a pebble wedged in the vertical interstice between two of the stones. The interstice had a very irregular width ranging from an inch to a quarter of an inch. The bird succeeded in pulling out the pebble and placed it on the ground at his feet. He next picked up another pebble and inserted it in place of the one he had just removed. The bird now took a piece of broken Mangalore tile (about the correct size for the purpose) and tried to lodge it a little above his. first effort, where the fissure widened to about an inch. The tile, however, dropped off. He made another effort, trying to push it in with small jerky, rather insistent movements of his head and neck; changing position slightly with occasional short hops. | The behaviour of the bird gave the impression that he was trying to accomplish some urgent and necessary task. He was aware that I was watching him and obviously uncomfortable ; but still he carried: on, keeping one wary eye on me. 940 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 He made about three or four unsuccessful efforts trying every time to wedge in the same piece of tile and which would not stay put, but kept slipping off. He might have succeeded if he had chanced to get the tile into place longitudinally, A quarter of a minute after I first noticed the bird, the disappoint- ment of repeated failure, and discomfort at ‘my proximity probably got the better of his perseverance and he quit. Has similar behaviour been commonly noted and is there any explanation for it? ADEN HALL, NEPEAN SEA Roap, DINSHA J. PANDAY BOMBAY, HONEA TS, alOG2. i2. THE MATING HABITS OF THE HOUSE-CROW (CORVUS SPLENDENS) AND PIED MYNA (STURNUS CONTRA) These notes relate to random and fortuitous observations on the sexual behaviour of birds, and are merely objective records. (1) At the back of the Forest Rest House at Ranchi on the afternoon of 28th May, 1951, I observed a House Crow on the ground under a Bougainvillea bush standing with its wings crossed over its back fanning and elevating its tail slightly. The head was bent down, and a soft white feather was held crosswise in its beak. Keeping fixed at one spot, it began going round and round ‘shimmying’ its body conti- nuously. This ‘invitation’ display continued for very nearly 3 minutes. Another crow (later proved to be a male) who had been watching this intently from one of the tamarind trees closeby, flew down to the first bird (subsequently proved female) calling loudly, and settled a few steps behind her with wings half drooped, but his body also shimmy- ing like hers. He was calling with a loud harsh, throaty caw-caw. He then advanced slowly towards her keeping up his body movements and call. When close to her, he pecked at her rump with his bill, and then mated after getting on her back. As soon as the male got on her back she dropped the white feather. The act of mating lasted hardly a few seconds, after which the birds separated and flew away. Although the male kept cawing all through the act the female was comparatively quiet, and only called out occasionally after dropping the white feather in a low voice very similar to a young crow’s while being fed. (2) The behaviour of a pair in another instance was very different. On 28th March, 1951, at about 8 a.m., I suddenly heard House Crows making a loud commotion on a tree in a corner of the Rest House compound. This tree carried many nests of both the Pied and Common Mynas as well as two of the House Crow, all incomplete and in various stages of construction. Investigation revealed that two House Crows were apparently fighting tooth and nail on a branch of the same tree, close to one of the nests. While locked in combat they lost their perch, but continued grappling with each other in the air till they reached the ground. On the ground one threw the other on MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 941 its back, and sitting almost on its chest pecked furiously at the breast feathers of its ‘adversary’. This went on for a few minutes, the prostrate one struggling hard to free itself. The crow on top then forced the other to its feet, mounted its back and mated with it. This clarified the sexes of the two. The fight was innocuous and appeared to be some sort of sex play, for no feathers flew while it lasted and none were found littering the spot later. (3) At about 6.30 a.m., on oth April, 1951, two Pied Mynas. were seen feeding on the ground in.the compound of the Forest Office separat- ed from each other by a distance of some 2 yards and calling occa- sionally. Suddenly one of the birds crouched down low spreading its right wing fully, the head held at an angle, and the wing tip almost touching the ground; the feathers of the crown were slightly raised, and the tail fanned out a bit. It then called out twice in a low voice, probably to attract the attention of the male which was still busy feeding, unaware of this invitation display. He looked at once in the direction of the call, came running, and treaded her, the operation lasting only a few seconds. The male was calling during the actual mating, but the female was silent. Feeding was resumed by both immediately they separated from each other. ForEstT REstT HOusgE, P.O. HINoo, (MRS.) JAMAL ARA RANCHI, Pebruary, 20, 1952. 13. POSSIBLE ASSOCIATION BETWEEN THE LARGE YELLOWNAPED WOODPECKER (PICUS FLAVINUCHA) AND THE LARGE RACKET-TAILED DRONGO (DISSEMURUS PARADISEUS) Mr. Biswamoy Biswas’s interesting study of the species Picus flavi- nucha in the current Ibis recalls a small problem which exercised my mind towards the end of the war when I had occasion to ‘Jeep’ between Chittagong and Rangamati at the foot of the Lushai Hills. I found this fine woodpecker to be far from uncommon from the moment one got into the better wooded areas. During a halt on my first journey I was watching one of these birds in some open forest about fifty yards from the road when I caught sight of a Racket- tailed Drongo mounting from branch to branch, first of an adjacent tree and then in the same one, keeping pace with the ascent of the woodpecker. When the latter flew off through the trees the drongo immediately followed it. A couple of miles further on I had an almost identical experience. About a month later, shortly after Christmas, I spent a night in a forest-hut about’ halfway to Rangamati. Nearby were two rather isolated clumps of tall trees bordering a strip of cultivation beyond which the heavy forest recommenced. I soon noticed a Yellownaped Woodpecker in the farther clump. Remembering the previous occasions, I found myself quite disappointed that no drongo appeared 942 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 to be in attendance. However, after watching the woodpecker for some minutes, it flew off across the fields to the forest beyond. It was immediately followed by a drongo, till then hidden in the nearer clump, which reached the shelter of the forest close behind the wood- pecker. Is there by any chance some association between these species, or were these three consecutive episodes pure coincidence? ‘SPRINGS’ BARLAVINGTON, is R..S., 2. BALES. SUSSEX, Lieut.-Colonel, t.a. April 6, 1952. {Mr. Salim Ali has noted a somewhat parallel instance in the Surat Dangs in March, 1948, but with tree pies replacing the woodpecker. A pair of Racket-tailed Drongos were observed ‘shadowing’ a pair of tree pies (Dendrocitta vagabunda), following them about closely from tree to tree and up and down among the branches mimicking their various calls immediately they were uttered—in echo as it were—as. if deliberately to mock the birds. This went on for quite a number of minutes and appeared to be some sort of game. After a while one’ of the Racket-tails, seeming to have had his fill of the fun, flew off. It was now the tree pies’ turn; one of the pair promptly gave chase and closely followed the drongo into another tree some distance away where the game was resumed in the form of ‘singles’. It is difficult to explain these proceedings as other than sheer play- fulness. There was no malice or ulterior motive noticeable on either side.—EDs. | 14. A CANARY’S CURIOUS REACTION. TOTYELLOW Mr. E. D. Avari from Darjeeling sent us the following report of the curious reaction of a German Warbler Canary (mottled yellowish) which was bred in captivity and which has been associated with other canaries pure yellow in colour. ‘(a) A yellow jersey was held up close to the cage and as soon as the canary saw it he became very agitated and flew quickly around the cage, obviously frightened and would not approach in the direc- tion of the yellow jersey. He then perched, and his breathing was. abnormally fast. As soon as the jersey was removed he. behaved normally once more. (b) A mirror was put in the cage close to the plate containing bird seed. After a while, the canary flew down from his perch and’ caught sight of his reflection in the mirror. He appeared very in- terested, but not frightened and kept looking at his reflection and then. away again, stretching his neck and looking around the cages ie: then flew off for a while and returned to his plate, proceeding to eat quite unconcernedly in front of the mirror, occasionally looking at his reflection. (c) The yellow jersey was paced in the cage and as soon as he saw it he commenced to flutter around the cage. When he perched. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 943 his respiration was again noticed to be very rapid. Whilst on his perch he avoided looking towards the jersey, still breathing very rapidly. The jersey was left in the cage for about a minute. This canary is an offspring of “German Warblers’’, imported from Germany. His age is 13 years, and he is mule colour. For the last three years, he has lived entirely on his own. For your information the length, breadth and height of his cage are as follows :— 8’ x 33’ x a Subsequent to this Mr. Avari inserted a small ball of yellow wool into the cage assuming that it was perhaps the size of the yellow jersey responsible for the perturbation, but the canary’s behaviour again changed immediately from normal to marked agitation. Though the quickening of the respiration was not so pronounced as in the case of the jersey there was nevertheless a certain amount of fright and nervous- ness clearly perceptible. A little later a bowl of seed was introduced by Mr. Avari which was also a comparative stranger to the canary, but the bird promptly hopped down to it. Dr. N. Tinbergen, the expert on bird behaviour at the Edward Grey Institute of Ornithology, Oxford, at our request gave the follow- ing comment : ‘The observations seem to suggest that it was yellow colour which frightened the bird. To make sure, it would be necessary to present similar objects of a different colour. If the response were really confined to yellow objects it could be either an inborn response to the male plumage of the species (in which case the abnormal size of the objects could perhaps explain why the bird fled instead of attacked), or a result of conditioning, which would not be impossible if the bird during its association with purely yellow canaries had been seriously hen-pecked by them.’ Dr. David Lack, F.R.s., Director of the above institute, considers the canary’s reaction comparable to the Robins attacking red objects {colour of male Robin’s breast) as described in his book—‘The Life of the Robin’. London, 1943. | BomBAy NATURAL HIsTORY SOCIETY, 114, APOLLO STREET, EDITORS BOMBAY, December 20, 1951. 15. KOELS (EUDYNAMIS SCOLOPACEUS) EATING THE POISONOUS FRUIT OF THE YELLOW OLEANDER The Exile or Yellow Oleander, Thevetia neriifolia, cultivated in gardens for its abundant golden flowers and decorative foliage, is highly poisonous. The poison, found in the milky juice that exudes from every part of the little tree, is the glucoside Thevetin, similar in action to digitalin but having a convulsant effect as well. The fruit of this tree, in particular, is used as a cattle poison, and has had lethal effects on human beings. There are several of these trees in and around my garden, and the place (Mylapore, Madras) is singularly rich in Koels. 944 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 In 1940 I first recorded the partiality of Koels to this bushy tree; and their habit of pecking at its squat, green drupes. However, I did not actually observe them eating the fruit then, and I left Madras soon afterwards, In December 1951 I observed Koels actually eat- ing the pulp (mesocarp) of the drupes. Subsequently I have observed this many times, from nearer than two yards. The bird sidles up to a fruit and stabs it with its bill, excavating and removing a piece of the mesocarp that it swallows with an upward toss of the head. After two or three pieces have been gouged out and eaten in this manner, the fruit gets detached from its stalk by dint of the repeated pecks, and falls to the ground. There is a definite preference for the riper (bigger) fruits. The Koel then proceeds to another fruit, taking no notice of the one it has sent earthwards, and after eating from 3 or 4 fruits {every one of which falls down after a few pieces have been pecked out) it flies away. A furtive, im- petuous haste characterises its fruit eating, and tender green branches are frequently broken in its avid hurry to get at the fruit, (I have noticed the same, literal ‘tearing hurry’ in Koels consuming the crim- son fruit of Cephalandra indica). At each visit to the tree, an undisturbed Koel eats about threequarters of the mesocarp of a Thevetia drupe (from all its drupes). This poison-eating by Koels seems most common from late winter to early summer (November to March or April). From April onwards, when Koels here get vocal, their visits to the Thevetia trees seem infrequent, but this is a point that requires further observation and verification. It is to be noted that the pulp of the fruits, consumed by Koels, . is known to be definitely poisonous to mammals. The fruits they eat are not so ripe that they are turning dry and brown—they are green and latex can be seen oozing out of the deep, beak-gouged holes that go right down to the stone, in freshly fallen fruits. Koels are the only birds, above a certain size, that seem partial to the Yellow Oleander. Other birds I have seen on these trees are common mynahs, crows and whiteheaded babblers, all in obvious casual passage and a pair of tailor birds that visit the trees in the evenings. None of these birds, nor the squirrels that pass that way, have the slightest interest in the drupes, nor have I seen any other animal eating the fallen fruit on the ground below. I may add that the bird population of my garden, though varied, is notable for some absentees, the common sparrow in particular. No certain explanation of the addiction of Koels to this. poisonous fruit occurs to me, but it seems possible that the habit conditions them in some way for the breeding season. It is obvious that they are immune to the poison in doses that would, taken in the same pro- portion to body weight, undoubtedly kill a man or a cow. PERUNKULAM HOousE, Epwarp ELLiot Roap, M. KRISHNAN MYyLAPORE, MADRAS, June 8, 1952. [In ‘The Birds of Bombay and Salsette’ []J.B.N.H.S xxxix, (t); 94] Sdlim Ali and Humayun Abdulali record a Tree Pie feeding MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 945, on the ripe fruit of ‘Kaundal’ (Trichosanthes palmata). According to Roxburgh, quoted by Kirtikar and Basu (‘Indian Medicinal Plants’, I, 580) the fruit is poisonous, and mixed with rice is employed for destroying crows. It seems curious that it should be eaten by such a close relation of the crow and apparently with no untoward effects. —EDsS. | 160, DOKS LHE ADULT CUCKOO: EVER ‘ASSIST IN FEEDING ITS OF ESPRING?-. On 7th July, at an altitude of about 13,500 ft., an adult cuckoo settled in a juniper tree within five yards of me carrying in its beak -a larger caterpillar. 1 stopped to watch and to make sure that it was not carrying an egg or eggshell, but there is no doubt that what it carried was a caterpillar. Before it finally moved off it was joined by a second adult bird. I cannot say for certain whether the bird with the caterpillar was a cock or a hen but believe that it was a hen. Some short while previously I had heard a cuckoo calling—Cuculus canorus, Some two hours later, Major J. O. M. Roberts, who is in charge of our bird collecting activities, passed the same way and in approxi- mately the same spot close to the path, saw a young fully fledged cuckoo being fed by a_ redstart—probably Phoenicurus ochrurus— which he watched for some time. He did not, however, see an adult cuckoo in the vicinity. There seems to be at least some reason to assume that the adult bird that I saw was in fact engaged in feeding the young one in the absence of its foster-parent. MANANGBHAT, D. G. LOWNDES. NEPAL-TIBET TF RONTIER, Colonel July 14, 1950. {It is not easy to tell the sex of a cuckoo in the field except by its call notes; there would seem insufficient grounds for Col. Lowndes’s. conjecture that the one he saw with a caterpillar might be a hen. The feeding of a fledgling cuckoo by its real parents is, as far as we are aware, unknown as indeed is their showing any interest in their offspring in any other way. What is more likely in the present case is that the caterpillar was being carried for courtship feeding by one bird (o ?) to another (o ?) as has been observed recently in the case of the plaintive cuckoo. More evidence on this is, however, desirable.—Ebs. | 17. OCCURRENCE OF THE CINEREOUS VULTURE (AEGYPIUS MONACHUS LINNAEUS) IN KAIRA DISTRICT, GUJARAT On 26th December 1951 and ist January 1952, in the same area near the village of Mitli, formerly in Cambay State, but now a part of Kaira District, we saw a single cinereous vulture, possibly the same bird in both instances. The first time that it was seen, it was. ‘946 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 56 the first to arrive at the remains of a recently shot blue bull. It kept all other vultures at a distance until it had eaten its fill, after which it flew off and the other vultures moved in for their share. Five. days later at about the same spot, it was seen in the company of two king vultures, drinking from a puddle of water near a shallow . well. Both times the bird was seen from a distance of about 50 yards and examined carefully with the aid of a powerful binocular. Its large size, very dark colour, peculiar feathering of the head, and the mauve coloured cere were clearly identified. Hari Narayan G. Acharya, under a note dated April 16, 1950, in Vol. 49, No. 2 of the Journal, writes concerning the finding of a dead specimen of this vulture near Ahmedabad on December 25, 1949. Previous to this, according to this note of Acharya’s, the cinereous vulture had been reported only once before in Gujarat in the winter of 1870 by Capt. A. E. Butler. Mi§tli, where we identified this vulture on the two occasions, is about 4o miles due south of Ahmedabad. NADIAD, | KatrRA DISTRICT, HERSCHEL C. ALDRICH, M.p. February 18, 1952. 18. REAPPEARANCE OF THE LITTLE INDIAN RED TURTLE-DOVE (STREPTOPELIA TRANQUEBARICA TRANQUEBARICA HERMANN) IN CEYLON Hitherto there has been but one record of the occurrence in Ceylon of the pretty little Indian Red Turtle-Dove. Almost exactly a hun- dred years ago, Edgar Layard, of the Ceylon Civil Service, discovered a small colony nesting, during the hot weather, in palmyra palms in the arid country between Point Pedro and Jaffna in the Jaffna Penin- sula, Northern Province. Layard tells us that he collected six speci- mens and could have killed as many more. His graphic description of his discovery is recorded on page 709 of Legge’s ‘Birds of Ceylon’ 1880). Since then, this dove does not appear to have been identified in Ceylon. However, on 24th November last year (1951), while I was motoring to the south of the Naval Area, between Pottuvil and Panama on the south-east coast of the Eastern Province, I observed one of these doves feeding on the ground beside the road in an open grassy glade in low jungle country. It was quite solitary and easily approach- ed; it proved to be ad S. tranquebarica tranquebarica, in full and perfect adult plumage with the gonads undeveloped. As a ‘red’ dove, answering more or less to the description of this species, was seen near Panama in June, 1948 by Mr. and Mrs. D. Boyd-Moss, it is possible that a small colony exists in this neigh- bourhood, although it is more likely that the bird procured was merely a casual vagrant from the Indian mainland. ‘TONACOMBE, NAMUNUKULA, W. W. A. PHILLIPS CEYLON, April 11, 1952. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 947 | 19. OCCURRENCE OF THE AVOCET (RECURVIROSTRA AVOSETTA LINN.) IN ASSAM On March 11, my husband went duck shooting across the Brahma- putra near Charkhalia Island and shot an Avocet. With its upturned bill there is no mistaking this bird, yet four of the various books on birds that we consulted, stated that this bird is not to be found in Assam. c/o JAMES WarREN & Co. LTD., DrBruGarH, (MRS.) D. SENDALL Upper ASSAM, March 15, 1952.. {Except for a specimen recorded from Godlpara by Primrose {]/.B.N.H.S., xviti, 683) there appears to be no previous record of this species from Assam. Smythies in ‘The Birds of Burma’ states that it is a vagrant to Burma, the only records being from Eps i 20. THE WHITETAILED LAPWING (CHETTUSIA LEUCURA) NEAR BOMBAY Br. Navarro of St. Xavier’s High School brought in the skin of a Whitetailed Lapwing (Chettusia leucura) shot on 3rd February, 1952 at a tank a few miles from Kalyan near Bombay. The bird was alone. Stuart Baker (Faunaevi; S84 and: feb N 7 )S.. 35) a12\Poives” its range as extending to Mysore, but I have been unable to trace any Indian record from south of Bombay. _ Whitehead recorded the species as common from 7th October to zoth March, at Sehore, Bhopal, Central! India, (J.B.N. H. Sep My. eae Salim Ali records it as uncommon in Kutch (first seen 5th August, 1943) while Barnes'in ‘The Birds of the Bombay Presidency’, p. 332, mentions it is an uncommon winter visitor throughout the region, 1.e. Sind and Rajputana including Gujarat, Kutch and portions of Central India. ClOmeAlzre, CON, ; 75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI BomMBay, February 15, 1952. 21. OCCURRENCE OF THE PHEASANT-TAILED JACANA (HYDROPHASIANUS CHIRURGUS SCOP.) IN NELLORE DISTRICT, MADRAS In Volume 50, No. 2, of the Journal the editors publish a note remarking on the occurrence of the Pheasant- tailed jacana in Madras. I therefore list the following recording OneMarch25,, at 3:30 p.m, whilst watching birds on the semi- dry reservoir at Sarvepalli (80’0” East by 14’20"” North) a village 17 948 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 on the Venkatachalamchatram-Krishnapatnam road, south of Nellore town, my wading through the shallow water, choked with a heavy growing weed, disturbed a flock of some twenty to twenty-four Pheasant- failed nee The flock flew at my approach and settled again some twenty yards away, watching me with suspicion but allowing me to draw within some five yards of them. Most of the birds were in the winter plumage, but at least six were in transitional plumage and three in almost complete summer dress except for the tail feathers. Other birds noted on the tank that afternoon were Biilatbey Kites, Pariah Kites, a solitary Lagger which stooped at a flock of Little Ringed Plover, several small flocks of Little Stint, a group of five Blackwinged Stilt, Egrets, Indian Wiskered Terns, Wiretailed Swallows and Palm Swifts. Also a single Redwattled Lapwing. c/o POSTMASTER, GubuR, NELLORE, K. M, KIRKPATRICK Api ie ate 2. 22. BIRDS ATTACKING THEIR REFLECTIONS In previous issues of the Journal I have read correspondence about Jungle Babblers attacking the shining hub caps and other chromium parts of motor cars (and have frequently observed this myself in Delhi). During the last few weeks I have been watching an Eastern Grey Wagtail (Motacilla cinerea caspica) regularly attacking the hub caps of a small car parked in a busy Calcutta compound. The bird would flit against the hub cap pecking sharply at the surface. It would often repeat this action on all the hub caps in turn. The only sound it uttered was if it was disturbed and flew away. It appeared always to be alone. Water standing in a nearby drain provided the only faint reminder of a wagtail’s preferred natural habitat. The delicate tapping noise became a familiar sound in the quiet of the early mornings or during the hot afternoons. 20, RAJA SANTOSH ROAD, ALIPORE, CALCUTTA, (MRS.) MARGARET RIVERS April 8, 1952. [We have also observed this propensity in a wagtail of the same species in Bombay. With the help of a shaving mirror and _horse- hair nooses spread around it on a lawn, the bird was captured for ringing purposes. It escaped while being handled, but so great was the attraction of the mirror that the bird returned to the attack in less. than five minutes and this time was successfully ringed. By means. of the ring it was recognized-as the identical individual that appro- priated this particular patch of lawn during 6 successive seasons. It was observed that the fighting instinct was present only on first arrival in September each year and then quickly wore off. It may be due to territorial jealousy of a supposed rival for the feeding ground.—EpDs, | eee se 949 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ZS6L ‘9 yrevpy ‘AVANOY SYOLIAGa ‘LUO ‘LAGALS OTIOdY ‘FIl (098 X ) (a ,0T N 0S2) seul | o9Z_ X N’ ,0€ YON ‘3o17} : ofS) ourdny -sIq esueyq | uoneys AGA =-1 eq and |-[er Jo ysom -Iseuleg jol. 94} 0} S19} yynos soyTU -sWO[IY OR | l A[9} eu dITqnday | -xoidde jaoul JSI[BIDOG J9IA | rid Tet MOOSO[N| OS yyezey| (vxup ur 8 AeMIIe yy ‘neoing seIqQ pei| -anbssnb | ‘L‘O 9} Jo | sulpueg -3O]ARg ‘UOIS| svup) AuowY “IJ | pleuopoeW parq | “ot AOTSUATA Teo. aHcZ980l &q 10U§ TIS WV TS6I-c-S¢) [etjUusD qpeuleg | Ur oye, ayy, | Aauvsiey 6P61-L-02 /VMXSOW | (sunod 10 }|Npe) SYIVUI9Y SUll JO ‘ON porsAodel Aq AIQAO09I | 9 JOBUIT pasulr paiq hil done SIOYM SOR[g | payIoday | jo ajeq | jo sWweN a19yM s0¥[g | Jo oweN “ed —! MOOSOJ UI eIpU] Jo Assequiqy 94} Jo Saoyjo poos oY} YSsnoiy} ‘pliq poxuls uvIssny ve JO ATOAOD91 9IOW BUO SUIUIOOUOD PaAII001 Useq SEU UOTeUIIOJUT SUIMOT[OJ 94} ‘Z/T ‘4 ‘OS [OA Ul plooaI Jsel OY} SuTYsI[qnd souIGg VIGNI NI NOILVYSIN GUId ‘Ee 950 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 24. LARGE STONE IN STOMACH OF CROCODILE I am sending you a fairly large stone weighing 5 Ib. 8 oz. (220 tolas) which was found in the empty stomach of a 10 ft.-3 ins. croco- dile I recently shot at Jasdan. : ne Though pebbles, small stones and other hard substances are common- ly found in the maws of crocodiles I have never so far found such a large stone though I have examined over a hundred stomachs. Dit Banar, BHAVNAGAR, K. S. DHARMAKUMARSINHYJI January 21, 1952. | [As has been remarked by the editors previously (Vol. 30, 703) the stones and pebbles are presumably swallowed as an aid to diges- tion, but we cannot trace any record of one as large as this taken from a crocodile before.—Eps. | LOCALIZATION OF THE STRIPED VARIETY OF THE ROUGHTAILED EARTHSNAKE—UROPELTIS MACROLEPIS (PETERS)—TO MAHABLESHWAR a ed <—9))° An earth-snake recently collected at Mahableshwar (4,000 ft., Western Ghats) agrees with Uropeltis macrolepis (Peters) except that the sub- caudals are 13 in number instead of 7 to 10 (Malcolm Smith’s Fauna, Vol. III, p. 79) though Wali in ‘The Handlist of the Snakes of the Indian Empire’ refers to specimens between Lonavli (lat. 18° 70’) and Igatpuri (lat. 19° 7o') and records the sub-caudals as 7 to 12. The Fauna also refers to a specimen which agrees with the one from Mahableshwar in the presence of a brownish yellow stripe (extending to 3 scale rows) along each flank throughout the length of the body, as compared with a broken line of spots in others. 12 specimens have been examined, 9 in the Society’s collections from Lonavla, Khandala, Igatpuri and Matheran—and_ without locality—and 3 from Khandala in the St. Xavier’s Cottege collection. All of them ‘have 10 sub-caudals, and none the unbroken stripe on the sides. . ' At Dr. Malcolm Smith’s suggestion the striped variety is hereby localized to Mahableshwar. Mr. Humayun Abdulali who obtained this specimen states that it was caught alive, placed in a cardboard box and left in the boot of - his car for a few hours and then found dead. In life it had a bright red. tongue. eee : Mr. McCann (J.B.N.H.S., 29, 1062, and in episola) also obtained several specimens at Mahableshwar, but these are not now traceable. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — 95] The overall length of the specimen—head to tip of tail—is 250 mm. (in spirit). LEPIDOSIS I. Costals. 1. Two headlengths behind the head ... 15 2. Mid-body aie Ws 3.. Two headlengths before the vent ... 15 EL. Ventrals . Side oe Ill. Anal divided. fe IV. Sub-Caudals Se cae PG Bomsay, V. K. CHARI December 17, 1951. _ Assistant Curator . 26. APOSEMATIC BUTTERFLIES PROTECTED BY THE POISONOUS QUALITIES OF THEIR LARVAL FOOD-PLANTS With reference to Mr. Wynter Blyth’s remarks on this subject (1951, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 50, 354), the late professor Poulton commented on this hypothesis, originally propounded by Haase, before the Entomological Society of London in 1916. The late Professor, stated that the hypothesis did not satisfy him and that whilst he thought it possible {but never definitely proved) that the distasteful and poisonous properties of the food plant might be utilised by the larva and retained in the imago, it was also possible for the insect itself to produce distasteful or poisonous juices in the laboratory of its own body. He went on to say that whilst, amongst the examples quoted by Haase, the Danaidae feeding on Asclepiads and the Pharmacophagus (now Polydorus) Swallowtails feeding on Aristolochias were probably cases of the utilisation of this ready-made protection, the Heliconinae were not as the Passifloraceae, their food-plants, had been said to be without any poisonous properties by Dr. O. Stapf, F.R.s. A number of Acraeidae feed on Passifloraceae in the larval stage, and this is another well-protected group. Dr. Stapf was also quoted as saying that the Loranthaceae, the food-plants of Delias and Mylothris, had . no acrid or poisonous qualities. A little thought will bring to mind many examples of both poisonous. and non-poisonous plants that are the common’ food-plant of the larvae of both aposematic and procryptic species, I use the term here with reference to the imago. A few examples will suffice. Oleander is eaten by Euploea (Danaidae and protected) and A gathia (Goemetridae and procryptic) and by Deilephila nerii (Sphingidae and procryptic). Loranthus spp. by Delias and Mylothris (both aposematic Pieridae), by several Lycaenids and by a number of procryptic Geometers. Castor by Pericallia ricint (aposematic Arctiidae) and by numerous pro- cryptic. Noctuidae and Geometridae. Strangely enough, although the Passifloraceae is stated to be non-poisonous, the three main groups feeding on it—the American Heliconines,; the Oriental Cethosia and 952 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 50 the Acraeidae—are all well-known aposematic groups and form, in many cases, the centre of both Batesian and Mullerian mimetic asso- ciations. | KAMPALA, D. @. SEVASTOPULO SF -Rik:s. March 3, 1952. 27. NOTES ON THE LEPIDOPTERA OF ASSAM—I 1. LARVAL AND PUPAL STAGES OF Eriboea arja FELDER. I found three nearly fully grown larvae feeding on wild saplings of Sau (Albizzia sp:) during October, in thick jungle at plains level. These hatched into 2 ¢ ¢ and 1 Q, the latter taking from 23rd October until 2nd November in the pupal stage. A fourth larva, found on Sau in a cultivated area, was heavily parasitised by a small ~ Hymenopteron. Comouflage is so remarkably good that in the first case, when I saw a Sau sapling completely stripped of leaflets excepting two terminal areas of an inch or so, it was some seconds before I realised that these areas were, in fact, larvae. The head. of the larva is broad and flat, dark green, and with darker green longitudinal stripes. An inner and an outer pair of horns project backwards from the posterior part of the head, which is edged with orange between the horns. The outer horns are about half the length of the inner ones, are slightly and evenly curved, and each bears 6 downward projecting yellow. combs. The inner horns each have 2 curves, and are tipped with black. The ground colour of the body is bluish green, the legs yellow. The first 11 segments bear half moons of light green, convex backwards, and edged with yellow and then black, this edging being most marked on the convexity. 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