ii \ c\ n « "Sk i I ’ * ' ^niri g$3 ? ; ?•** t a i l 1 * -Jf I i VOb b H- J 4 ,-j Bombay Natural History Society ' *>v INDEX AND TITLE PAGE \ VOL. XXXIV NOS. 1 & 2 Price .... Rs. 2—4- 0 MADRAS Printed at the Diocesan Press 1931 INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the following order when they are being bound : — Title page Contents of Nos. 1 and 2 of Vol. XXXIV List of Contributors List of Plates ... Index to Illustrations Errata Index to Species To follow frontis- piece in this order. To go at the end of two numbers. THR JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society EDITED BY SIR REGINALD SPENCE, kt„ f.z.s., m.l.c., & S. H. PRATER, m.l.c,, c.m.z.s. VOL. XXXIV Nos. I & 2 Containing 7 Coloured Plates, 56 Black and White Plates, 72 Text-figures, 1 Map and 11 Diagrams Dates of Publication Part I. (Pages 1 to 270 ... 1st March, 1930) „ II. ( „ 271 to 612 ... 15th July, 1930) LONDON AGENTS DULAU & CO., Ltd., 32, 0!d Bond Street, London, W.I. PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS 1931 CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIV No. 1 Page Tee Game Birds of the Indian Empire. Part XI. ( With a coloured plate) of Jerdon’s Courser {Rhino ptilus bitor- quahis) and the Small Indian Pratincole or Swallow- Plover {Glareola lactea). By E. C. Stuart Baker, j.p., F.Z.S., F.L.S., M.B.O.U., H.F.A.O.U 1 Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency. Part XI. By Rev. E. Blatter, S.J., ph.D., f.l s... 12 The Study of Indian Birds. Part IV. {With three black aiid white plates ). By H. Whistler, f.z.s., m.b.o.u.. 27 Flowerless Plants. Part II I. {With one coloured a?id two black and white plates ) By Mrs. M. Robinson, b.a. (t.C.D.), NAT. SCI. TRIP, CAM 40 Notes on the Birds of the Upper Burma Hills. Part II. (By P. F. Wickham) 46 The Panthers and Ounces of Asia. ( With six black and white plates). By R. I. Pocock, f.r.s 64 Some Beautiful Indian Trees. Part III. {With two coloured and tivo black and white plates.) By Rev. E. Blatter S.J., Ph.D., f.l.s. and W. S. Millard, f.z.s 83 Indian Dragonflies. Part XXXV. {With one plate and four text figiircs.) By Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, i.m.s., f.e.s. 87 A Tour in Further Kashmir. ( With two plates). By B. B. Osmaston, c.i.e 108 The Flowering of Bamboos. Part II. By Rev. E. Blatter, S.J., Ph.D., f.l.s 135 Notes from an Expedition for Ovis poli. ( Wih two plates). By W. J. Morden 142 Report on a Collection of Ants in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. ( With one plate and six text-figures). By Durgadas Mukerjee 149 On the Fishes of the Manchar Lake, Sind. By Dr. Baini Prashad, d.sc 164 Wolves in Sheep’s Clothing. (With seven text- figures). By Major R. W. G. Hingston, i.m.s 170 Ants and the Lac Insect. (With three plates). By P. S. Negi,. M. P. Misra, and S. N. Gupta.... . 182 IV CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIV Page Contributions to our Knowledge of the Fresh Water Alg/e of Manipur, Assam. ( With four plates ). By K. P. Biswas, m.a... 189 Methods of Fishing in the Punjab. {With a plate'). By M. Hamid Khan, m.sc 193 Description of a New Ant-Mimicking Spider. ( With two text-figures). By Durgadas Mukerjee 200 Two New Species of Sphingid^e ( Hawk Moths ) from the Oriental Region. By C. E. Fellowes-Manson. 202 The HrsTORY and Progress of the Zoological Survey of India. Part II 205 B. N. H. S. Investigation into the Composition of Salt- Licks. Earth-eating and Salt-licking in India. Part II. By Rev. Fr. J. F. Caius, S.J., f.l.s. and K. H. Bharucha, b.a., b.sc.... 220 Reviews— The Field-Book of a Jungle-Wallah 223 Trout Fishing from all Angles... 225 A Guide to the Orchids of Sikkim 226 What Botany REALLy Means 227 Migration of Waterfowl 229 The Toxicity of the Venoms of Indian Scorpions. By Rev. J. F. Caius 230 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES— I. Strange Behaviour of a Tigress. By A. Macdonald 231 II. The Caracal in Iraq. ( With a photo). By Norman L. Corkhill 232 III. Distribution and Colouration of the Lynx ( Lynx lynx). By Capt. D. G. Lowndes 234 IV. The Hunting Leopard (Cyncelurus jubatus) in the C. P. By J. M. Richardson 235 V. Malay Beliefs and Legends about Tigers and Wild Dogs. By Alexander Cross 235 VI. Season of Shedding and Growth of Antlers in the Swamp Deer (Rucervus duvancelli) in Assam. By Capt. D Montcrieff Wright 236 VI r. Encounters with Elephants on the Billgirirangan Hills. By R. C. Morris 237 VIII. Elephant Tusk Wedged in a Tree. By R C. Morris. 242 IX. The Distribution of Wild Buffalo in Orissa. ( With a map and a photo) By H. F. Money, i.f.S ....... 242 CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXX IV v Page X. Malformed Cheetal Head (Axis axis) (With a Photo) By Surajinal Singh... 245 XI. Partial Disappearance of the Wild Pig (S?cs cristatus). Ry R. C. Morris. 245 XII. Birds of Quetta. By C. B. Ticehurst. 246 XIII. The Incubation of Eggs during the Hot Weather. By C. O. Lowsley 247 XIV. The Tail-Racket of Dissemurus paradiseus . By II. Whistler. 250 XV. Note on the Nesting Habits of the Southern Red- Whiskered Bulbul (Otocompsa emeria iuscicaudata). By Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, i.m.s........ 250 XV I. — Migration of the Pied Crested-Cuckoo ( Coccystes jacobinus ). By R. M. Simmons... .. 252 XVII. — An Albino House-Sparrow ( Passer domcsticus). By N. K. Tiwary 253 XVIII. — Migratory Habits of Wagtails. By N. K. Tiwary.. 253 XIX. — The Mating of the Blossom-headed Paroquet (Psittacula cyanocephala). By N. K. Tiwary.. 254 XX. — Late Stay of Grey Quail (Coturnix coturnix) in Bihar. By A. Macdonald 255 XXI. — Breeding of Geese and Ducks in Eastern Turkestan. By Capt. G. Sherriff, r.a 255 XXII. — How the Monitor Lizard Sits in its Burrow. By Beni Charan Mahendra 255 XXIII. — Occurrence of Russell’s Viper in the Bhrama- putra Valley. By J. Loudon 256 XXIV. — The Distribution of the Banded Krait (Bungarus fasciatus). By Lt.-Col. J. Masson, i.m.s. (Retd.) 256 XXV. — A Duel between a Cat and a Cobra. By Miss H. Vick 257 XXVL— - Notes on the Rarer Lycaenidae. By G. E. R. Ccoper. 258 XXVir.— A Note on some Malabar Lepidoptera. By Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, i.m.s 260 XXVIII. — Dwarf Specimens of Butterflies. (With a plate). By W. M. Crawford, f.e.s.. 261 XXIX. — The Life History of the Silk-Moth (Lcepa newara). By C. E. Fellowes-Manson 262 XXX. — The Human Ear used as a Burrow by a Sphegid Wasp. By Lorna Boyd 263 XXXI. — Notes on the Flowering of Strobilanihus callosus). By C. McCann....... 264 VI CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIV Page XXXII. — Some Notes on Scorpions in Iraq. By Norman L. Corkhill.. . 265 XXXIII. — Swarming of the Tenebrionid Beetle (Ly props cttrlicollis). By D. A. Turkhud 267 Proceedings 268 No. 2 Some Beautiful Indian Trees. Part IV. ( With two coloured plates of the Pagoda Tree ( Plumiena acutifolia') (Right) and Frangipani ( Plumicria rubra), (Left), and the Bhendi Tree ( Thespesia popiihiea :), and two black and white plates and four diagrams'). By Rev. E. Blatter, S.J., ph.D., f.l.s. and W. S. Millard, f.z.s 271 The Study of Indian Birds. Part V. ( With o?ie plate and six text figures). By H. Whistler, f.z.s., m.b.o.u. 276 Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency. Part XII. By Rev. E. Blatter, S.J., ph.D., f.l.s 291 The Panthers and Ounces of Asia. Part II. ( With seven plates ). By R. I. Pocock, f.r.s 307 Notes on the Birds of the Upper Burma Hills. Part III. By P. F. Wickham 337 The Panther as I have known him. Parts I and II. ( With two plates). By Lt.-Col. A. H. E. Mosse, la., f.z.s 350 The Monitor Lizards of Burma. {With two plates). By H. C. Smith, i.f.s.. W The Value of Field Observations in the Study of Organic Evolution. ( With nine text-figures.). By Sunder T. Rofa, d.s., etc 374 The Vernayt Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats. By N. B. Kinniar, f.z.s., m.b.o.u. and H. Whistler, f.z.s., m.b.o.u 386 The Habits of Millipedes {Marptodesmus sp.). {With two illustrations). By Major R. W. G. Hingston, i.m.s 404 Aphibidae of Mysore. {With thirteen text-figures). By B. Krishnamurthi, -.sc 411 Flowerless Plants. Part IV. {With five plates and two text-figures). By Mrs. M. Robinson, b.a. (t.c.d.), nat. SCI. trip, (camb.) 420 The Noctuid Moth {Eublemma aniabilis , Moore). {With one coloured plate and seven black and white plates). By M. P. Misra, P. S. Negi and S. N. Gupta.. 433 CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXIV vii Page The Flowering of Bamboos. Part III. By E. Blatter, s.j., ph.D., f.l.s 447 Notes on the Fauna of British India : Birds. Volumes IV, V and VI. (New Edition). By C. B. Ticehurst, M.A., M.R.C.S., M.B.O.U.... ...... ... ... 468 How Trout were introduced into Kashmir. By F. J. Mitchell. 491 The History and Progress of the Zoological Survey of India. Part III. By B. Chopra, d.s., f.l.s 502 Notes on some of the wild species of Aroids. ( With three plates a?id text-figures). By C. McCann 518 The Bombay Natural History Society’s Investigation INTO THE COMPOSITION OF SALT LlCKS. EARTH-EATING and Salt-licking in India. Part III. By J. F. Caius, S.J., f.l.s. and K. H. Bharucha, b.a., b.sc 522 The Toxicity of the Venoms of Indian Scorpions. By J. F. Cams, s.j., f.l.s... 526 Obituary— H. C. Robinson 527 J. C. Faunthorpe. 528 Reviews. — Bird Haunts and Bird Behaviour 531 The Third Annual Report and Records of the Central Provinces Angling Association, Jubbul- pore 532 Growth and Tropical Movements of Plants 533 First Steps in Zoology. 534 The Flora of the Indus Delta 535 Die Zytologie der Blutenpflanzen 537 A Treatise on the British Fresh Water Algae.... 538 The Flowering Plants of Madras City and its immediate Neighbourhood 539 A Monograph of the Genus Aristida. Vol. I 541 Plant Biology 542 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES— I. — The Alarm Call of Langoors. By F. W. Champion, i.f.s 543 II,— Tiger or .Panther ? (With 2 plates.) By R. I. Pocock, f.r.s. 544 ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXI P Page III. — Mr.Limouzin’s Specimen. By S. H. Prater C.M.z.s. 547 IV. — Mr. Pocock’s article on ‘ Tigers \ By A. A. Dunbar Brander. 548 V. — The size and markings of Indian Tigers. ( With a photo). By Lt.-Col. C. H. Stockley, D.s.o., O.B.E., m.c 553 VI. Movements of Tigers. By H. F. Knight, I.C.S... 555 VII. Tigers Swimming. By W. A. Hickie 555 VIII. Proportions of Sexes in Tigers. By Brigadier- General R. G. Burton — 556 IX. An Experience with a Tigress. By R. C. Morris. 556 X. Tigers Eating their Young. By R. C. Morris 557 XI. The Luck of Hunting. By A. Novice 557 XII. Hyaenas killing Cattle tied up as a bait. By R.C. Morris 561 XIII. Body Measurements of a Gaur. By R. C. Morris., 562 XIV. Good head of a Nilgiri Tahr. By H. D. Latham. 563 XV. The Distribution of the Mouse Deer. By Lt.-Col. C. H. Stockley. 563 XVI. Notes on the 9th Edition of ‘ Records of Big Game ’. By Lt.-Col. C. H. Stockley 564 XVII. Notes on the Mammals of Baluchistan. By Lt.- Col. C. H. Stockley 567 XVIII. Migration of Wild Fowl. 568 XIX. Migration Notes in 1929 from the Nilgiri District. By F. N. Betts 569 XX. Notes on Some Birds seen in Lahul and Kulu. By Capt. D. Lowndes 569 XXI. Vernacular names for Kashmir Birds. By Samsar Chand Koul.. 571 XXII. The Attitude of Birds towards their Young. By Brigadier-General R. H. Betham. 573 XXIII. Notes on Birds in Baluchistan, By Lt.-Col. C.H. Stockley 575 XXIV. Occurrence of the White-throat Sylvia curruca halimodendii in the Punjab. By H. A. Waite.... 575 XXV. The Amandavat ( Amandava ama?idava) in Meso- potamia. By.C. B. Ticehurst 576 XXVI. Occurrence of the White-headed or Stiff-tailed Duck ( Erismatura leucocephala ) in the N.W.F.P. By T. D. Weeks 576 CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXI V ix Page XXVII. Occurrence of the Stiff-tailed Duck ( Erismatura leucocephalct) in the Shahpur District, Punjab, By Lt.-Col. W. E. Flemming...... 577 XXVIII. Occurrence of the Mallard (Anas platyryncha) in Upper Burma. By A. J. Jones 577 XXIX. Occurrence of the Baikal Teal (. Neitium iormosum) in the Durbhanga District, N. Bihar. By Lt.- Gol. H. R. Dutton, i.m,s. =,. 578 XXX. Bathing Habit of the Indian Roller ( Coracias b en g hale n sis). By N. K, Tiwary 578 XXXI. Nidification of Storks. ( With a photo) By C. McCann.. .. 579 XXXII. Nesting of the Sarus (Antigone antigone). By Lt. A. J R* Hill, k.e 582 XXXIII. Fish-eating Habit of the Sarus Crane (. Antigone antigone). By S. C. Law .%.... 582 XXXIV. Peafowl without a train. By H. C. Smith 583 XXXV. An enormous Estuary Crocodile ( Crocodilus porosus). By A. A. Dunbar Brander 584 XXXVI. Note on Snakes collected at Belgaum. By Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey, i.m.s XXXVII. Local names of some fish from the Teesta River. By E. Ghosh 586 XXXVIII. Masheer Fishing in the Zhob River. By Lt.-Col. C. H. Stockley. 587 XXXIX. Notes on Parantirrlioea marsh alii. By J, A. Yates...... 587 XL. Notes on Pathysa antiphates naira. By J. A. Yates 589 XLI. On the occurrence of Vanessa atalanta and Pararge schakra in Baluchistan. By Lt.-Col. C. H. Stockley 590 XLI I. Occurrence of the Colias hyale and Pieris ca?iidia indica in the plains. By D. F. Sanders . 591 XLIII. The Grasshopper (Isopsera pedunculata) a supposed mimic of the Black Ant (Cam ponotus compressors). By W. L. McAtee 591 XLIV. Effect of Spider bite on Man. (With a photo). By F. J. Meggitt .. 592 XLV. A Yellow variety of the Silk-Cotton Tree (. Bombax malabaricum ). By Lt.-Col. W. D. Ritchie, i.m.s.......... 593 Page X CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXlV XLVI. Introduction of the Gul Mohnr ( Poinciana regia ) into Bombay. By W. S. Millard, f.z.s 594 XL VII. What age can a tree reach? (R. S.). By E. Blatter, S.J., ph.D., f.l.s 594 XLVIII. A request for material of Trapa (Water Chestnut). ByE. Blatter, s.J., ph.D., f.l.s. ( With a text - figure ) 597 XLIX. Notes on Tacca pmnatifida, Forst. {With a text- figure .) By C. McCann 597 L. A Terrestrial Orchid found Epiphytic. By E. Blatter, s.J. , ph.D., f.l.s 599 LI. Collecting of Liverworts at Maymyo. By L. P. Khanna 599 LI I. A List of Mosses from Darjeeling District. By J. Fernandez 600 Annual Report and Proceedings, etc 602 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS VOLUME XXXIV Nos. 1 Page Baker, E. C. Stuart, J.P., F.Z.S., F.L.S., M.B.O.U., H.F.A.O.U., ; The Game Birds of the Indian Empire, Vol. V. Part XI. {With a coloured plate ) of Jordon’s Courser ( Rhinoptilus bitorqua- tus) and the Small Indian Pratincole or Swallow-Plover ( Glareola lactea) 1 Betham, Brig-General R.M. ; The Attitude of Birds towards their young 573 Betts, F. N. ; Migration Notes in 1929 from the Nilgiri Dis- trict 569 Biswas, K.P., M.A. ; Contribu- tions to our knowledge of the Fresh Water Algse of Manipur, Assam. {With four plates) ... 189 Blatter, E. ; The Flowering of Bamboos. Part II 135 ; The Flowering of Bamboos* Part III 447 ; S. J., Ph. D., F. L. S. ; Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presi- dency. Part XII {Annonaceae). 291 ; What age can a tree reach ? 594 ; A Terrestial Or- chid found Epiphytic 599 • S. J., Ph, D., F.L. S. and McCann, C. ; Revi- sion of the Flora of the Bom- bay Presidency. Part XI. Graminecs , (continued) ... 12 and Millard, W. S. ; Some Beautiful Indian Trees. Part III. ( With two coloured plates , two black and white plates and four text figures) .,. ... 83 and 2 Page Blatter, E. ; S. J.. Ph. D., F. L. S., and Millard, W. S.; Part IV. ( With two coloured plates , two black and white plates and four diagrams .... 271 Boyd, Lorna. ; The Human Ear used as a Burrow by a Sphegid Wasp 263 Brander, A. A. Dunbar. Mr. Pocock’s article on ‘ Tigers ’. 548 — ; An enor- mous Estuary Cr o c o d i 1 e {Crocodilus porosus ) 584 Burton, Brig. Gen. R. G. ; Proportion of Sexes in Tigers. 556 Caius, J. F. ; The Toxicity of the Venoms of Indian Scor- pions ... ... 231, 526 S. J., F. L S. AND Bharucha, K. H., B. A., B. Sc. ; The Bombay Natural History Society. Investigation into the composition of Salt- Licks. Part II 221 Part III 522 Champion, F. W., I.F.S. ; The Alarm call of Langoors ... 543 Chopra, B., D. Sc., F. L. S. ; The History and Progress of the Zoological Survey of India. Part III. Crustacea Section ... 502 Cooper, G. E. R. ; Notes on the Rarer Lyccenidce ... ... 258 Corkhill, Norman L. ; The Caracal in Iraq. ( With a photo ) 232 — ; Some Notes on Scorpions in Iraq ... 265 Crawford, W. M., F. E. S. ; Dwarf specemins of Butter- flies. ( With a plate ) 261 Cross, Alexander ; Malay Beliefs and Legends about Tigers and Wild Dogs ... 23£ Xll LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Page Dutton, Lt.-Col. H.R. ; Occur- rence of the Baikal Teal [Nettion formosum ) in the Durbhacga District, N. Bihar ... 578 Editors ; Migration of Wild Fowl ... ... ... 229, 568 ; Distribution of the Lynx ... 234 ; The Hunting Leopard in the Central Province ... 235 ; The Incubation of Eggs during the hot weather. 249 ; Nesting-habits of the Red-whiskered Bulbul 251 ; On the Heetle {Lyrops curticqllis j ... ... .. 267 ; Bathing habit of the Indian Roller ( Coracias ben - ghalensis) ... 578 ; Measurement of skulls of Crocodilus porosus ... 584 ; On the Venom of spiders .. 593 Fellowes-Manson, C.E. ; Two new species of Sphingidae, {Hawk moths ) from the Ori- ental region 202 • ; The Life-History of the silk-moth. {Lee pa newara , Moore) ... 262 Fernandez, J. ; A List of Mosses from Darjeeling Dis- trict 600 Flemming, Lt.-Col. W. E. ; Occurrence of the Stiff-tailed Duck ( Erismatura leucoce- phala ) in the Shahpur District, Punjab 577 Fraser, Lt.-Col. F. C., I. M. S., F. E. S. ; Indian Dragon- flies. Part XXXV. {With one plate and lour text-figures ) ... 87 Note on the Nesting Habits of the Southern Red- whiskered Bulbul {Otocomp- sa emeria fuscicaudata) ... 250 A note on some Malabar Lepi- doptera ... ... ... 260 Page Gharpurey, Lt.-Col., K, G.,r t I. M. S. ; Note on Snakes1 collected at Belgaum 585 Ghosh, Ekendranath, M.Sc., M. D. ; Local names of some Fish from the Teesta River ... 5S6 Gluck, Prof. Dr. H. ; Are- quest for material of Trapa •Water Chestnut . ... r ... 597; Gupta, S. N. ; See Misra M. P. « : See Negi P. S. Hickie, W. A. ; Tigers Swim- ming ... ... ... .... 555 Hill, Lt. A. J. R. ; R. E. Nesting of the Sarus {Anti- gone antigone) ... 582 Hingston, Major R. W. G. ; WTolves in Sheep’s Clothing {Acanthaspis and Chrysopa) {With seven illustrations) ... 170 I. M. S. The Habits of Milli- pedes {Marptodesmzis sp.) {With two illustrations) ... 404 Hora, Sunder Lal; The Value of Field Observations in, the Study of Organic Evolution {With nine text-figures) ... 374 Jones, A. J.; Occurrence of the Mallard {Anas platyrhyncha) in Upper Burma .;. ... Khan, M. Hamid, M.Sc. 577 Methods of Fishing in the Punjab ( With a plate) ... 193 Khanna, L. B., Collecting of Liverworts at Maymyo ... 599 Kinnear, N. B., F. Z. S., M.B.O.U., and Whistler, H., F.Z.S., M.B.Q.U. ; The Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats, Ornithological Section ... 386 Knight. H.F. ; Movements of . Tigers 555 Koul, Samsar Chand ; Verna- . cular Names for Kashmir Birds -571 Krishnamurti, B., B.Sc. ; : Aphididce of Mysore ( With thirteen text- figures) ... 411 Latham, H. D.; Good head of - Nilgiri Tahr ... . ..... 563 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS xiii Page Law, Satya Churn ; Fish- eating habit of the Sarus Crane {Antigone anti gone) ... 582 oudon, J. ; Occurrence of the Russell’s Viper in the Bhrama- putra. Valley ... 256 Lowndes, Capt. D. G. ; Distri- bution and Colouration of the Lynx ( Lynx lynx) ... ... 234 *. "i ■ — ■'J'-— — : — ; Notes oh some Birds .seen nn Lahul and Kulu ' iL ... ... ... 569 Lowsley, C.O., P.W.D. ; The Incubation of Eggs during the Hot Weather .».» ... 247 McAtee, W.L. ; The Grasshop- per {Isopsera pedunculata) a supposed mimic of the Black Ant ( Camponotus compressus . . 591 McCann, C. ; Notes on the flowering of Strobilanthiis callosus (Nees) ... ... ... 264 : ; Notes on some of the Wild Spec:es of Aroids {With three plates and text- figures) ... ... ... 518 — — — ; Nidification of Storks ( With a photo) ... 579 ; Notes oh Tacca pinnatifida, Forst {With one text-figure) ... 597 ; see Blatter, E. ... Macdonald, A. ; Strange Beha- viour of a Tigress ... ... 231 — ; Late Staofy the Grey Quail ( Coturnix cotur nix) in Bihar ... ... 255 Mahendra, Beni Char an ; Howthe Monitor Lizard sits in ^ its Burrow ... - ... ... 255“ Masson, Lt.-Col.James; LM.S. (Retd.)- The Distribution of the Banded Krait ( Bungarus fasciatus ) ... ... ... 256 Meggitt, F. J. ; Effect of Spider bite on Man {With a photo ) ... ... ... ... 592 Millard, W.S. ; Introduction of thfe Gul Mo’iur {Poinciani regia) into Bombay ... ... 594 L-U: ; see Blatter, E. Page Misra, M.P., Negri, P.S., and Gupta, S, N. ; The Noctuid $1 oth ; {Enblemma amabilis, Moore) a Predator of the Lac Insect, and its control ( With one- colour.; four black and white plates and ten dia- grams) ... ... 431 — ■ — — ; see Negi , P.S. Mitchell. F;j. ; How Trout were introduced into Kashmir. 49 r Mooney, H. F., I.F.S.; The Distribution of Wild Buffalo in Orissa ( With a photo arid a map) .;. ... ... ... 242 Morden, William J. ; Notes from an Expedition for Oils poli {with two plates) ... ... 142 Morris, R.C. ; Encounters with Elephants on the Billigirangan HilIs — -■ 237 ; Elephant Tusk wedged in a Tree 212 “ ; Partial disap- pearance of the Wild Pig {Sus crist at us) ... 245 ; An Experience with a Tigress ... ... ... 555 Tigers eating their Young ... ... ... 55 7 ; Hyaenas killing cattle tied up as bait ... 561 ... , Body Measure- ments of a Gaur ... ... 562 Mosse, Lt.-Col. A. H. E., I. A., F. Z. S. ; The Panther as I have known him. Parts I and II. {With two plates)... ... 350 Mukerji, D. D., M. Sc. ; see Prashad, B Mukerjee, Durgadas ; Report on a Collection of ants in the Indian Museum,. Calcutta. ( With one plate and six text- figures) ... ... ... ... 149 Negi, P. S., Misra, M. T., and Gupta; Ants and the Lac Insect. {With three plates) ... 182 ; see misra, M. P. Novice, A ; The Luck of Hunt ing 557 XIV LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Page Obituary Herbert Christo- pher Robinson 527 John Champion Faunthorpe... 528 Osmaston, B. B. ; A Tour in Further Kashmir. ( Wth two plates ) 10S Pocock, R. I., F. R. S. ; The Panthers and Ounces of Asia. Parti. [With six plates) ... 64 Part II. {With seven plates) ... 307 ; Tiger or Panther? Mr. Limouzin’s specimen. ( With two plates). 544 Prashad, B., D.Sc., FiR.S.E., F.A.S.B. and Mukerji, D.D., M. Sc. ; On the Fishes of the Manchar Lake 165 Prater, S. H., C. M. Z. S. : Tiger or Panther? Mr. Limouzin’s specimen 547 Proceedings ... 268,605 Rao, Srinivasas. — M. A., D.Sc. ; The History and Progress of the Zoological Survey of India. Part II. Invertebrate Section. 205 Reviews 1. The Field-Book of a Jungle Wallah 223 2. Trout Fishing from all angles 225 3. A Guide to the Orchids of Sikkim 226 4. What Botany Really Means 227 Reviews : — Bird Haunts and Bird Behaviour 531 The Third Annual Repoit and Records of the Central Provinces Ang- ling Association (Head- quarters Jubbulpore) ... 532 Growth and Tropic Move- ments of Plants 533 First Steps in Zoology ... 534 The Flora of the Indus Delta 535 Die Zytologie Der Bluten- pflanzen 537 A Treatise on the British Presh- water Algae ... 538 Page The Flowering Plants of Madras City and its Immediate Neighbour- hood 539 A Monograph of the Genus Aristida 541 Plant Biology ... ... 542 Richardson, J. M., I. M. D. ; The Hunting Leopard ( Cynce - Inrus jubatus) in the Central Provinces 235 Ritchie, Lt.-Col. W. D. ; A yellow variety of the Silk- Cotton Tree ( Bombax malaba- ricum) 593 Robinson, M., B. A. (T.C.D.) ; Nat. Sci. Trip. (Camb.) ; Flowerless Plants Part III. The Lichens {with one colour- ed and two black and white plates) 40 ; Part IV. The Bryphyta {with five plates and two text-figures) 420 Sanders, D.F. ; Occurrence of Colias hyale hyale and Pier is canidia indicam the plains ... 591 Siierriff, Capt G., R. A. ; Breeding of Geese and Ducks in Chinese Turkestan 255 Simmons, R.M. ; Migration of the Pied Crested Cuckoo ( Coccystes jacobinus) 252 Singh, Surajinal ; Malformed Cheetal Head {Axis axis) {with a photo) 245 Smith, H. C. ; The Monitor Lizards of Burma {with two plates) ... ... 367 : Peafowl without a train 583 Stockley, Lt.-Col. C. H. ; The Size and Markings of Indian Tigeis {with a photo) . . 553 ; The Distribution of the Mouse-Deer 563 ; Notes on the Ninth Edition of ‘Records of Big Game’ ... 564 ; Notes on the Mammals of Baluchistan ... 567 Ust of contributors XV Page Shockley, Lt.-Col., C. H.; The Attitude of Birds towards their Young ... ... 57 5 ; Masheer Fishing in the Zhob River 587 ; On the Occurrence of Vanessa atalanta and Par- arge schakra in Baluchistan ... 590 Ticehurst, C. B , M. A., M.R. C.S., M.B.O.U. ; Notes on the Fauna of British India. Vols. IV, V. and VI. (New Edition) 468 Birds of Quetta 246 • , The Amandavat ( Amandava aman - dava ) in Mesopotamia ... 576 Tiwary, N. K. ; Albino House- Sparrow {Passer domesticus). 253 | ; Migratory Habits of Wagtails 253 — _ ; The Mating of the Blossom headed Paroquet [Psittacula cyanocephala) ... 254 ; Bathing habit of the Indian Roller ( Coracias benghalensis 578 Turkhud, D.A., M.D., C.B. (Edin.) Swarming of the Tenebrionid Beetle ( Lyrops curticollis Fairm) 217 Vick Miss H.; A Duel between a Cat and a Cobra 257 Page Waite, H. W. ; Occurrence of the Whitethroat {Sylvia cur- rttcahali)nodendi)m thePuniab 575 Weeks, T. D. ; Occurrence of the White-headed or Stiff- tailed Duck ( Erismatura leu- cocephala)in'N.'iN.F.P. ... 576 Whistler, H., F. Z. S., M.B.O.U.; see Kinnear, N.B. ; The Tail- Racket of Dissemurus para- diseus 250 ; The Study of Indian Birds. Part IV {with three plates and one diagram ) , 27 ; Part V.[7vith one plate and six text-figures ) 276 White, N. Thirkell ; Occur- rence of the Mallard in Upper Burma 577 Wickham, P. F. ; Notes on the Birds of Upper Burma Hills. Part II 46 ; Part III ... 337 Wright, Capt. D. Moncrieff ; Season of Shedding and growth of Antlers in the Swamp Deer {Rucervus duvaucelli ) in Assam 236 Yates, J.A. ; Notes on Par an - tirrhcea marshalli ... ... 587 ; Notes on Pathysa antiphates naira 589 S0J01 io .W LIST OF PLATES VOLUME XXXIV No. 1 The Game Birds of the Indian Empire- Plate A. Jercbn’s Courser {Rhinoptilusbitorquatiis) -Plate B. The Small Indian Pratincole or Swallow Plover , eola lactea ) ... ... '■ ..; Page . t r ,D id- The Study of Indian Birds — - Plate A. Comparison of Fore-limb of Man and Bird ... ... 29 Plate B, Comparison of the Wings of Pterodactyle, Bat and Bird. 30 Plate C. The Paddle of a Penguin ... ... .... 38 Flowerless Plants — Plate 1. Lichens ... Plate 2. Lichens ... ... .... : : ... Plate 3. Lichens .... ... ..._ ... The Panthers and Ounces of Asia— Plate I. Teeth, Nasal Bones and Mesopterggoid fossa Plate II. Variety of Indian Panther from Cuddapah .. Plate III. Variety of Indian Panther from Kanara Plate IV. Skulls Plate V. Skulls ... ... ... Plate VI. Persian Panther {Panther a pardus sax icolor) Some Beautiful Indian Trees— Plate Plate Plate Plate PI ate A. B. A. Lignum Vitae Tree {Guaiacum officinale, Linn.) Lignum Vitae Tree {Guaiacum officinale, Linn.) Flowers of Lignum Vitae Tree {Guaiacum officinale , Linn.) Indian Cork Tree {Millingtonia hortensis, Linn.) f. ... Indian Cork Trees {Millingtonia hortensis ) on roadside in Bombay Flowers of the Indian Cork Tree {M. hortensis ) Indian Dragonflies — Anal appendages of Lestes , Platy testes, Ceylonolestes, Indolestes and Sympycna X' 40 43 44 65 68 70 72 73 79 83 84 84 85 86 86 88 A Tour in Further Kashmir — Plate I. (1) Snow bridge on the Sind River ... ... 118 (2) Track of an avalanche, Sind Valley ... ... 118 (3) Glacier opposite cur camp at Sonamerg ... ... 118 (4) Zogi La pass ... ... ... ... 118 (5) Baggage pony sunk in snow beyond Zogi La ... 118 (6) Buddist monasteries at Lamaguru ... ... 1^8 LIST OF PLATES xvii Page Plate II. (7) Fort and bridge over Indus at Khalatze 10,000 ft. ... 319 (8) Rungdum swamp at head of Suru Valley 13,000 ft. ... 319 .,(9) Crossing Dras River ... ... ... 319 (10) Junction at Shingo and Shigar Rivers ... ... 119 (11) Road to Skardu over Deosai Pass. 13,000 ft. ... 119 (12) Lake at 14,000 ft. Sirsangri La between the Deosai and Kashmir ... ... ,.. ... 119 Notes from an Expedition for Ovis poli— Plate I.. (1) Dung-Gelduk jilga, Russian Pamirs, Camp of the Morden— Clark Asiatic Expedition ... ... 144 (2) William J. Morden and James Clark with escort of of Russian Border Patrol from Kizil Rabat ... 144 Plate II. (3) Examining band of Ovis poli with telescopes, Rus- sian Pamirs ... ... ... ... 145 (4) Ovis poli ram shot by James Clark, Morden— Clark Expedition, American Museum of Natural History, Russian Pamirs, May 1926. Curl Fl\ inches ... 145 Report on a collection of ants in the Indian Museum, Calcutta— Plate. Nest of Cremastog aster sorror, Forel ... ... 153 Ants and the Lac Insect {Laccifer lacca)— Plate I. Fig. 1. Componotus compressus, soldier ... ... 183 ,, la, 1 6. Ventral and dorsal view of the mandible of the soldier ... ... ... 183 ,, 2. Componotus compressus, worker minor ... 183 ,, 2a, 2d. Ventral and dorsal view of the mandible of the worker minor ... ... ... 183 ,, 3. Solenopsis geminata, worker minor... ... 183 Plate II. ,, 4, Componotus near varians, worker ... ... 184 ,, Aa . Lateral view of the thorax of Componotus near varians, worker ... ... ... 184 ,, 5. Solenopsis genunata, soldier ... ... 184 Plate III. ,, 6. Merano plus bicolor, worker ... ... 185 ,, 7. Monomoruim near indicum, worker ... ... 185 Contributions to our knowledge of the Fresh Water Algse of Manipur, Assam— Plate I. Foreshore near Barkul in the Chilka Lake, Gan jam Dis* trict, Madras Presidency, showing one of the typical algal formation, in which Cladophora glomerata var. Calicoma is a predominant species Plate II. Fresh water Algse of Manipur, Assam Plate III. Fresh water Algse of Manipur, Assam Plate IV. Fresh water Algse of Manipur, Assam Methods of Fishing in the Punjab— Plate 1. Drag Net and Kuril Plate 2. Fixed Net {Nara Jdl) ... Plate 3. Stable Net {Bar Patta) ... 3 189 190 190 190 196 196 196 Page Xviii LIST OF PLATES Dwarf specimens of Butterflies— ' Plate A. — Dwarf example of Papilio polymnestor ... ... 262 Plate B.— Normal example of Papilio polymnestor ... ... 262 No. 2 Some Beautiful Indian Trees — Plate 7. Pagoda Tree ( Plumieria acutifolia) (right) Frangipani {Plumieria rubra) (left) .... ... 271 Plate VII. {A) Pagoda Tree (/Y?z77zz>rz0 tfzrzz/zAVz'tf) leafless and in flower ; March [B) Frangipani (. Plumieria rubra) in full leaf and flower ; March ... ... ... 272 Plate 8. Bhendi Tree {Thespesia populnea)... ... ... 274 Plate VIII. (A) Flowers of the Bhendi Tree ( Thespesia populnea) . ( B ) Bhendi Tree {Thepesia populnea) ... ... 275 Study of Indian Birds — Chart of the feet of Limicolse ..- ... ... 281 Panthers and Ounces of Asia — Plate VII. Indian Panther ( Panthera pardus fusca) ... ... 309 Plate VIII. Millard’s Panther {Panthera pardus millardi) ... 316 Plate IX. Amurland Panther {Panthera pardus orientalis) ... 318 Plate X. Duke of Bedford’s Panther {Panthera pardus bedfordi). 323 Plate XI. D elac our ’s Panther {Panthera pardus delqcouri) ... 325 Plate XII. {A) Skull of Ounce {Uncia uncia) {B) Summit of same, from above {C) Nasals of same {D){E) Left-side of occiput and auditory bulla of Ounce and Panther ... ... ... ... 331 Plate XIII. Flat skin of Ounce.cub-left - Made up skin of Panther cub-right ... ... 334 The Panther as I have known him— Plate I. {A) A Panther’s Haunt, Idar. {B) A Good Machan ... ... ... ... 361 Plate II. ( A ) Mahi Kantha Panther Country. {B) A Mahi Kantha Panther ... ... ... 364 Monitor Lizards of Burma— Plate I. Common Monitor ( Varanus bengaleusis) ... ... 369 Plate II. Young water Monitor ( Varanus salvator) ... ... 372 Flowerless Plants — Plate I. Some types of Thalloid Liverworts ... ... 420 Plate II. Some types of Foliose Liverworts... ... ... 422 Plate III. Gametophyte and spprogoniums of Liverworts ... 424 Plate IV. Different types of the Gametophyte in the Mosses ... 426 Plate V. Development of Mosses ... ... ... 423 LIST OF PLATES xix Page Noctuid Moth — Eublemma amabilis— Plate I. Fig. 1. Male ,, 2. Female ... ... ... ... 432 Plate II. Figs. Head, etc. ... ... ... ... 432 Plate III. ,, Genitalia, etc. ... ... ... 433 Plate IV. ,, Alimentary Canal, etc. ... ... ... 436 Plate V. ,, Larva, etc. ... ... ... ... 437 Aroids, notes on some cf the wild species of — Plate I. Fig. 1. Leaf of Sauromatum guttalum, Schott ,, 2. Flower of Amorphophallus. commutatus, Engler. 518 Plate II. ,, 1. A colony of Amorphophallus commutatus, Engler ,, 2. Abortive specimen of Amorphophallus cammu- tatus, Engler ... ... ... 519 Plate III. ,, 1. Corm and withered flower Amorphophallus campanulatus , Blume ,, 2. Leaf of Amorphophallus campanulatus , Blume. 520 'I iger or Panther ? — Plate I. [A) Facial portion of skull of Mr. Limouzin’s Tigress (B) The same of a large male Panther ... ... 544 Plate II. ( A and B) Teeth of upper jawT and palate of Mr, Li- mouzin’s Tigress (C and D) The same of a large male Panther ... 546 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS VOLUME XXXIV Page Acantkaspis, disguised in insect fragments, fig. A. divested of disguise fig, B. ... ... ... ... 171 — disguised in frag- ments of wood. fig. 2-A. divested of disguise fig. 2-B. 172 disguised in bark and leaves, fig. 3-A 173 carrying a thorn fig. 3-B. ... 173 disguised in granite crystals, fig. 3-C 174 Acantholepis annandelei, side view, fig. 4 156 Accipiter nisus , fig. 1, left 4 foot 279 Algae of Manipur, view of Fore- shore near Barkul, Pi. ... 189 Amorphophallus bulbifer , fig. 1, segments 519 campanulatns , PI. fig. 1, corm and withered flower ... 520 PI., fig. 2. Leaf. 520 commu t at u s PI. 1. fig. 2. Flower of ... 518 PI. II, fig. 1, colony of 519 PL II, fig. 2, abortive specimen of 519 — fig. 2, segments of .. ... 519 Anaptychia, sp. PI. fig. 1-B. ... 40 Aphcenogasler {At t o my r nia) annandelei , side view of thorax and 1st node 151 Aphis bidentis, fig. 8. ... 415 tridacuSy figs. 6 & 7. ... 414 Axis axis , Malformed head, fig. 245 Bubalis bubalis : Head of bull, fig 244 Map showing distribution ... 244 Page Calicoma , PI 189 Camponotus compressus, soldier, PI. fig. 1 183 Ventral and dorsal view of the mandible of the soldier PI. fig. 1-A, 1-B ... 183 Workers minor, PI. fig. 2 ... 183 Ventral and dorsal view of the worker minor, PI. figs. 2-A, 2-B 183 near v ar i a n s , worker PI. fig. 4 ... ... 184 Lateral view of the thorax, worker, PI. fig. 4-A 184 Ceylonolestes cyanea, anal append- ages, PI. fig. 9 wings fig. 88, 100 — — > davenporte, anal appendages, Pi. fig. 7 ... 88 gracilis gracilis anal appendages, PI. fig. 8 ... 88 — — — - pnlcherrima , anal appendages, PI. fig. 10 ... 88 Head, thorax and first two abdominal segments, fig. 2. 98 Chrysopa , disguised in mango petal, fig. 4-A. divested of disguise, fig. 4-B. 175 - — disguised in skins of monophlebus fig. 5-A. ... 177 disguised in insect fragments, fig. 5-B 178 carrying a thorn fig. 5-C 178 — hair tuft of larva, fig. 6 179 extremity of hair highly magnified, fig. 7 ... 179 Cladonia bacillaris , PI. fig. 3 40 Cladophora crispata var .genuina PI ... ... ... ... 191 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS xxi PAGE Cladophora g loin e rat a var. rivularis, PI. c ... 191 Collema, sp., PI. fig. 1 44 Cremastog aster soror nest of, Plate ... 152 Engramma incisum, front and side views of head, figs. ... 155 Eublemma amabilis , PI. figs. 1 & 2 Plate L-V and diagrams 1-10 ... 432 446, Felis caracal shot near Rutba, Mesopotamia, 1924, fig. ... 233 tigriSy Troth, PI. figs. A-B. 65 Flowerless Plants : — PL I. Some Types of Thalloid Liver- worts 420 PL II. Some Types of Foli- ose Liver worts ... 422 PL III. Gametophyte of small Liverwort, etc. 424 PL IV. Different Types of the Gametophyte in the Mosses ... 426 PL V. Development o f Mosses 428 Formica gravelyiy side view of thorax and abdomen fig. Front view of head, fig. ... 162 Gallinula chloropus , fig. 4, middle toe - 286 Glareola lactea, PL fig. 2 ... 1 Guaiacum of Hein ale, Pis. 83, 84 Hyalopterus earn, figs. 4 & 5 ... 413 Hydro phasianus chirurgus , fig. 2, left of foot 280 Indolestes indica, anal append- ages, PL figs. 11 88 Head, thorax and first two ab- dominal segments, fig. 4-A ... 106 Kashmir, a Tour in Further. views, Pis 118, 119 Lestes barbara, anal appendages Pl. fig. 1 ... ... ... 88 nodalis anal appendages, PI. fig- 2 thoracica, anal append- ages PL fig, 3 Page Lestes umbrina , anal appendages PL fig. 4 ... ... ... 88 Limicolce, chart of feet ... ... 281 Longicaudus hamelii, figs. 2 & 3. 412 Lyngbya martensiana , PL ... 192 Macrosip hum eleusince , fig. 1 ... 411 Marptodesmus , sp. fig. 1 coiled. 404 fig. 2 in union ... 406 Melanoplus bicolor , worker, Pl. fig. 6 185 Millingtonia hortensis, Pis. 85, 86 Monomorium near indie u in worker, PL fig. 7 185 ( Parholocomyrmex ) kempiy side view, fig. ... 154 Nemachilus acuticephalus , fig. 9 air bladder ... 382 brevis fig. 2-D air- bladder 377 — fig. 3 portion of bladder ... 377 — — ™ — — fig. 4 head and anterior portion 378 brunneanus , fig. 2-C air-bladder 377 kashmir ensis , fig. 6- A air-bladder .. 379 mani pur ensis, fig. A air-bladder 377 niarmoratus, fig. 6-B air bladder 379 raoe, fig. 5, air- bladder ... 378 revulicola fig. 2-B air-bladder ... 377 — — — rupecola , fig. B. air- bladder 377 ■ shanensis, fig. 2-A, air-bladder ... 377 — — - — — stewarti, fig. 8 air- bladder 381 strauchiiy fig. 7 air- bladder 380 vittatus, fig. 6, (C) air-bladder 379 Nostoc amplissimum , Pl. fig. 1. 191 Oregma mysorensis, fig. 9 ... 415 fig. 10—12. 416 Ovis poll. Expedition for Pis. I & II ... ... 144? 145 88 kxii INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS Page Pannaria pezizoides , PI. fig. 2 -A 40 Pan tfier as I have known him:-— Plate 1. (1) A Panther Haunt Idar, (2) AGood Machan 361 late II. (1) Mahi Kantha Country. (2) A Mahi Kantha Panther ... 364 Panthera , Skulls, Pis. ... 72, 73 Teeth and Nasal bones PI. figs. C-K. ... 65 Variety, Pis. ... 69,70 — — i— pardus bedfordi, PI. ... 323 — delacouri, PI.... 325 — * — fusca , PI. ... 309 miliar di, PI. ... 316 — orientalis, PL... 318 saxi color, PI... 79 ”■ — ■ — tiger fig. of fore- quarter 554 Papilio polymnestor — Dwarf example, PI. fig. A ... 262 Normal example, PI fig. B ... 262 Parmelia, sp. PI. I, fig. 2-B, C. 40 PI. II, figs. 1-3. PI. Ill, fig. 2 43, 44 Phalatrocorax , fig. of foot ... 289 Picus sqiiamatus , fig. of foot ... 283 Platy testes platyslyla , anal appendages, PI. fig. 5-6 ... 88 — wings fig. ... 93 Head, thorax and first two abdominal segments, fig. ... 98 Plunder ia acutifolia Pis. (light) 271, 272 rubra , Pis. (left) 271, 272 Podiceps fig. middle toe ... 287 J cri status, fig. of shank 2S8 Polyrachis ( Myrrna ) hemiopticoi- des side view fig. ... 161 Protococcus sp. Pi. fig. 2 ... 44 Punjab, Methods of Fishing in the Nets PI. 196 Ramalina sp. PI. fig. 1 .d. ... 40 Rhinoptilus bilorquatiis , PI . fig. 1 I Sauromatum guttatum , PI. I fig; 1. Leaf of ... ... 518 Page Solenopsis gemvnata worker minor, PL fig. 3 ... ... 183 soldier, PI. fig. 5 184 Spider Effect of bite of, on man Photo ... ... ... 592 Spirogyra s&tiformis var maior ' PL fig. 2 191 Study of Indian Birds Comparison of fore limb of man and Bird, Pl. 29 Comparison of the wings of Ptcrodactyle, Bat an 1 Bird, PL ... ... - 30 Hand and wrist of Domestic Fowl, fig. ... 32 Paddle of a Penguin, Pl. ... 38 Sympycna pcedisca , anal appen- dages, Pl. fig. 12 88 Head, thorax and first two abdo- minal segments, figs. 4-6 ... 106 ■ Synemosyna transversa Lateral view of the thoracic and abdominal regions, fig. 200 Dorsal view of the cephalic region, fig. 201 Tacca pinnatifida figs. 1-3 Development of the new corm. 598 Taxoptera aur ant'd, fig. 13 ... 417 Teloschistes flavicans, P\. fig. 1-a 40 Thespesia populnea , Pis. 274, 275 Tiger or Panther ? PL 1 ( a ) Facial portion of skull of Mr. Limonzin’s Tigress (b) 4 he same of large male Panther ... 544 Pl. 2 (a & b) Teeth of upper jaw and palate of Mr. Limouzin’s Tigress (c & d) The same of a large male Panther ... 546 Trapa sp. Fruit of fig. ... 597 Uncia uncia , Pis. 331, 334 Usnea articulata , PL fig, K. ... 40 V ar anus ben galensis, PL I ... 369 salvator , PL II ... 372 Xenorhynchus asiaticus asidticus fig. three nestlings ... 58Q ERRATA Vol. XXXIV, Nos. 1 & 2 Page 47 line „ 47 „ „ 48 „ „ 89 „ „ 109 „ „ 109 „ „ HO „ „ 111 „ „ 113 „ „ 114 „ „ 121 „ 133 „ 9 from bottom for atracapilla road atricapilia. 6 ,, ,, „ atricapilia read atricapilia. 19 for crythaca read erythaca. 12 from bottom for umbriana read umbrina. 20 for harringtonii read haring tonii. 21 „ strachey read stracheyi. 28 ,, longicatudatus read long ic and atus. 29 ,, affins read at finis. 6 from bottom for Doyobates read Dryobates. 31 for harringtonii read haringto?iii. 7 ,, rhodochalmys read rhodochlamys . 12 from bottom for sibrica read sibirica. 153 Legend to Plate for sorror read soror. 229 line 11 from bottom for crcca read crecca. 230 ,, 13 ,, top for Pulo.mnaeous read Palamnaeus . 246 ,, 18 ,, „ ,, Phyllocsopus read Phylloscopus. 348 ,, 16 ,, ,, for Piegades read Plegadis. 393 ,, 30 for Harrington read Harington. 479 ,, 9 for senagalensis read senegalensis. 481 ,, 12 ,, mecranesis read mecranensis. 481 ,, 18 ,, pondocerianus read pondicerianus. 481 ,, 26 ,, Hemipodus read Hemipodius. 483 ,, 23 ,, Geochilidon read Gelochelidon. 485 ,, 17 for Matthews read Mathews. 569 ,, 9 from bottom for Trichodroma read Tichodroma. 569 ,, 6 ,, ,, ,, trogolodytcs read troglodytes. 570 ,, 27 for creca read crecca. 571 ,, 20 from bottom for fulginosa fulginosa read fnligin- osa fuliginosa. 571 ,, 2 from bottom for Acvoceptalus read Acrocephalus. 572 ,, 21 for Inyx read lynx. 572 ,, 24 for pudis read rudis. 572 ,, 30 for Psitacula read Psitiacula. 572 ,, 4 from bottom Ccicabis read Caeca bis. 573 ,, 15 for Chelidonias read Chlidonias. 573 ,, 18 for nycliorax read nycticorax. INDEX OF SPECIES Page Abies excelsa ... 594 Acacia concinna ... 599 Acanthaspis ... 170 Acanthocladium penicillatum ... 600 Acantholepis annandalei ... 156 - — frauenfeldi ... 156 Acanthopneuste magnirostris ...132, 133 ■ occipitalis ... 111, 133 viridanus 130, 132 Accipiter gularis stevensoni ... ... 339 nisus ! 279, 339,572 melauoschistus. 339, 477 - nisosimilis ... 339 virgatus affinis 111, 339 Aceros nepalensis 60 Acridotheres tristis tiistis 47 — — - sp ... 572 Acrocoelia brunnea ... 153 politula ... 153 Acrocephalus dumetorum 113, 398 stentoreus ... 134 hriinnpcppric 119 sp ... 572 Adamsonia digitata ... 596 Adiantum sp ... 600 JEgialitis mongolica ... 124 ^Egithaliscus niveigularis ... 133 Aigithina tiphia ... 393 iEluropus 24, 25 ASthiopsar albocinctus 47 fuscus fuscus 47 - grandis infuscatus 47 ^Ethopyga andersoni ... 52 cara 52 dabryi 52 gouldise gouldise ... 52 isolata 52 ' ~~ ;;oauda exultans 52 ~~ ~~ nipalensis%yescens 52 . victor Ms 52 Sanguinipecta sanguis 52 pecta 4 ^Ethopyga saturata saturata siparaja scherise — — viridicauda ... Agrion barbara barbarum nympha Alauda gulgula coelivox gulgula guttata sp Alaudula raytal raytal Alcedo athis beugalensis — athis pallasi enryzona hercules megalia — meninting coltarti Alectoris chukar pallescens ... graeca Allium semenovii — — stracheyi Alloteropsis ... Alseonax ruficaudus Alsine media Alsinella wallichiana Alsocomus puniceus Alternanthera sessilis triandra Am and a va amandava flavidiventris Amaurornis bicolor fuscusbakeii — — — erythrothorax — — pnoenicurus phoenicurus Ambassis baculis ranga Ammoperdix griseogularis termeuleni Amorphophallus bulbifer — — — campanulatus — — commutatus... Page 52 52 52 87 87 87 ... 572 51 51 118, 124 ... 572 51 59 ... 472 59 ...59,472 ... 472 ... 472 59 ... 120 ... 480 ... 125 ... 125 ... 18, 25 111, 133 ... 304 ... 304 ... 340 ... 540 ... 540 ... 576 48 ... 345 344 345 345 169 168 480 480 .. 519 520 519, 520 113, Xxvi Index of species Page Ampeliceps coronatus ... 47 Amphilophis ... 16, 25 Anaphyllis maritima ... 126 xylorhiza ... ... 126 Anaptychia sp. ... 40 Anas platyrhyncha 255, 349, 568, 570, 573, 577 poeciloryncha haringtoni ... 349 — — zonoryncha ... 349 rufina ... 490 strepera ... 568 Andropogon ... 16, 25 Androsace zabulensis ... -*1 125 Anemone albana ... 125 Aneura levied . . # ... 428 - sp ... 423 Anhinga melanogaster ... 488 rufus ... 488 Annona muricata ... 292 reticulata ... 292 — — squamosa ... 292 Anona uncinata ... 291 Anoplolepsis longipes ... ... 157 Anous stolidus pileatus ... 484 Anser anser 255, 349, 489 brachyrhynchus ... ... 489 erythropus ... 489 ■ ferruginea ... 489 - — indicus ... ... 124, 255, 349, 489 sp, ... ... 573 Anthoceros 423, 429 Anthocinela phayrei 53 Anthraceros malabaricus leucogaster 60 L U.w . . . \J\J Anthroceros sp ... 600 Anthropoides virgo ... 346 Anthus cervinus 51 ■ hodgsoni hodgsoni 50, 569 ■ yunnanensis 50 richardi godlewskii ... 51 — richardi 51 rufulus 51 • roseatus 114, 131 • — sordidus jerdoni 50, 109 * spinoletta japonicus ... 51 trivialis ... 131 haringtonii ... 109, 114, 132 Antigone antigone ... 582 sharpei ... 346 Antilope cervicapra ... 565 Aoria aor ... .« ... 165 Page Aoria cavasius ... 166 vittatus ... 166 Aphsenogaster annan delei ... 151 smythiesi ... 151 Aphis bidentis ... 414 gossypii ... 418 odinae ... 418 tridacis ... 413 Apluda ... 13, 25 Apocopis ... 13, 25 Aquila clanga clanga ... 476 fulvescens ... 476 hastata ... 476 heliaca heliaca ... 476 nipalensis nipalensis ... ... 338 rapax vindhiana ... 278 Arabis tibetica ... 126 Arachnothera longirostra longirostra. 53 magna aurata ... 53 magna ... 53 Arboricola intermedia ... ... 480 Arborophila atrogularis ... 344 brunnespectus brunnes- pectus ... 344 — rufogularis ... 344 torqueola batemani ... 343 Ardea cinerea ... 573 — rectirostris ... 348 purpurea manillensis ... ... 348 Ardeola grayii ... ... 349 Arenaria ... 281 Ariopsis peltata ... 521 Aristida 20, 25, 541 Artabolrys odoratissimus ... 291 — uncinatus ... 291 Artamus fuscus ... ... 397 Arthraxon ... 15, 25 Arundinaria eiegans ... 136 falcata 136, 447, 448, 452, 459 — var. glomerata 136, 447, 448, 452 * falconed 447, 448, 452 — * hindsii ... 4cr hookeriana... 136 i ox''?f2 intermedia ... 136, 453 khasiana^ Mj 136, 453 448, 453 ■ I Li # racercosa ••• 448 • ••• 453 xxvii INDEX OF SPECIES Pagk Arundinaria simonii 448, 453 var. variegata ... 453 spathiflora ... 447 variabilis var. fortunei ... 453 wightana ... ... 136 Arundinella ... 20, 25 Arundo ... 20, 25 Arversia lasflingiae ... 305 Asarcornis scutulatus ... 349 Asio otus ... Ill Aster tibeticus ... 126 Astur badius cenchroides ... 476 poliopsis ... 339 trivirgatus trivirgatus ... ... 339 Athene brama ... 402 pulchra 62 — noctua ... 474 bactriana ... 127 Atta geminata ... 154 Auraphis helichryisi ... 418 Avena ... 20, 25 Axis axis ... 245 Baetis ... 383 Balitora ... 376 Bambusa arundinacea 137, 447, 449, 457, 459 elegantissima ... 137 gigantea ... 448 guada ... 135 lineata ... ... 137 nana ... 453 var. alphonse karri ... 453 nutans 447, 449 polymorpha... ... 139 tulda 141, 448, , 449, 459 var. gracillima ... 453 -sp 25 Bambusicola fytchii fytchii ... 343 — hopkinsoni ... 343 Barbella determesii ... 429 Barbus conchonius ... 167 — dukai ... 586 phutinio ... 167 ■ sarana ... 167 sophore ... 167 tor 500, 586 Barilius bendelisis ... 586 Bartramia indica ... 540 Batrachostomus javanensis hodgsoni. 62 Baza jerdoni jerdoni ... 340 leuphotes burmana ... 339 Beesha elegantissima ... Beilis perennis Belone cancila Berberis wallichiana Bibos banteng Blasia Blythipicus pyrrhotis pyrrhotis Bocagea dalzellii Bombax malabaricum Botaurus stellaris Botia geto Brachiaria Brachymenium acuminatum ... . — _ nepalense Brachyponera luteipes Brachypternus b. dilutus benghalensis puncti- Page 137 464 168 601 566 424 55 294 593 573 500 18, 25 600 600 151 283 469 collis 401 Brachysiphoniella gramini 418 Bracon tachardiae ... 442 Brassica alba ... ... ... ... 300 campestris ... ... 297, 298 napsus ... ... 298 subvar. depressa... 298 __ — _ , - Var. agrestis ... 298 ■ — — var. dichotoma ... 298 var. oleifera ... 298 var . rapa .. ... 298 vaT' tori a 298 — caulorapa ... 297 colza 298 juncea 299 — — — oleifera 299 — var. aspera 299 . var% elata 299 var. laevis ... ... 299 napus .. ... 297 nigra ... 299 oblonga 301 oleracea ... 297 olerata subvar. cauliflora ... 297 var. botrytis ... 297 var. gongylodes ... 297 oleracea subvar. gemmifera. 297 subvar. subauda ... 297 — var. acephala ... 297 — — var. bullata ... 297 — var . capitata ... 297 rapa 299 rapa ... ... ... £98 xxviii INDEX OF SPECIES Page Brassica rapa var. depressa ... ... 299 Bryophyllum pinnatum... ... 540 Bryum ... 426 — coronatum ... 600 sp ... 601 — — bubalis ... ... 242 Bubo bengalensis 109, 112 ■ — — — bubo bengalensis... 62 Bubulcus ibis coromandus ... 349 Buceros birostris ... 402 Bucia athertoni... 59 Buginvillsea ... ... 540 Bungarus fasciatus ... 256 Burhinus ... ... 282 cedicnemus indicus ... ... 403 Butastur liventer ... 338 — — - — teesa ... 279 Buteo buteo ... 132 desertorum 111 sp. ... 476 Butheolus bicolor 230, 526 melanurus ... 230, 526 Buthus australis 230, 266, 526 pachyurus 230, 526 rugiscutis 230, 526 — tamulus 230, 526 Butorides striatus javanicus ... ... 349 Buxbaumia aphylla ... 428 Byasa aristolochise ... 262 varuna astorion ... ... 262 Caccabis chukar ... 572 Cacomantis merulinus querulus 57 Cadaba farinosa ... ... 539 — indica ... 539 Calamoherpe montana ... ... 398 Calandrella acutirostris... ... 115 brachydactyla dukhunen- sis .... 51 Calidris ... 281 teniurostris ... 487 Callacanthis burtoni ... 133 Callichrous bimaculatus ... 165 Calliope pectoralis 123, 571 tschebaiewi ... 123 Callophis trimaculatus ... ... 585 Campomyrma rastrata ... ... 161 Camponula aristata ... 126 Camponotus angusticollis ... 158 compressus 158, 182, 186,442,591 — — — * maculatus mitis ... ... 158 — rqitis 158, 186 Camponotus nicobariensis nirvanse rufoglaucu — sericeus . — — singularis — varians variegatus rax Campy lopus sp. ... Canis lupus Capella gallinago ar. fuscitho- gallinago raddii megala — nemoricola — — solitaria — — - stenura Capillipedium Capparis brevispina spinosa zeylanica Capra falconeri ... hircus — — segragus — ■— blythii sibirica pedri skyn — wardi Capricorais sumatrensis Page ... 158 ... 186 ... 159 160, 184 ... 159 ... 184 humei Caprimulgus rodoni albonotatus asiaticus europseus unwini indicns jotaka macrourus bimaculatus mahrattensis monticolus moaticolus. nipalensis Cardamine hirsuta trichocarpa Cardnelis caniceps Carpinus betulus Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus — ■ roseatus rubicilloides severtzovi 119, 121, sp. ... 184 601 567 281 573 348 487 488 347 348 348 16, 25 540 119 540 566 566 566 566 566 566 566 566 565 565 566 290 473 61 473 61 61 473 61 ... 473 ... 295 ... 295 ... 572 ... 594 ... 400 48, 126, 130 ... 119 122, 123, 570 ... 572 INDEX OF SPECIES XXIX Page Carpophaga pusilla 402, 477 Casarca ferruginea 255, 349 ■ rutila ... 573 Castalia ... 294 pubescens ... 294 Castanea vulgaris ... 594 Cataglyphis biolor setipes ... 186 Cataglypus viaticus ... 162 Cataulaus taprobanse ... ... 155 Catharinea pallida ... 601 Catla buchanani ... 166 catla ... 166 Catopsilia pyranthe minna ... 262 Cayratia carnosa ... 540 pedata ... 540 Cedrus libani ... 594 Ceiba pentandra ... 540 Celastrus verticillata ... 302 Cenchrus ... 20, 25 Centotheca ... 24, 25 Centropus ... 283 •— — bengalensis bengalensis 58 sinensis intermedius 58 Cephalopyrus flammiceps ... 113 Cephalostachyum pergracile 141, 450 capitatum 141, 448 Cerchneis ... 475 interstinctus ... ... 247 — — tinnunculus ... 475, 572 interstinctus ... 338 • japonicus ... 475 saturatus ... 338 Certhia familiaris hodgsoni ... 114 himalayana 114, 133 — lotenia ... 400 — zeylonica ... ... 400 sp- ... 571 Cervaphis schoutedeniae ... 418 Cervus porcinus ... ... 565 Ceryle leucomelanura ... ... 472 rudis 472, 572 guttulata- ... 59 — leucomelanura 59 Cethosia cyane ... 262 Cetraria islandica 45 Ceylonolestes 94 pulcherrima ... 98 birmanus 97 — cyanea 99 — - davenport! 95 ^ — •- — divisa... 95 Ceylonolestes gracilis Ceyx tridactylus tridactylus . Chaetophora elegans ... Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus Chalcas panicnlata Chalcis tachardiae Chalcites maculatus maculatus xanthorhynclnis Chalcoparia singalensis singalensis ... Chalcophaps indica indica Chanda baculis ranga Charadrius coromandelicus cursor dubius Page 94 59 ... 599 127, 569, 571 ... 540 442 57 57 52 curomcus jerdoni hiaticulus Charana mandarinus ... Charaxes polyxena imna Chaulelasmus streperus Cheirostylis flabellata ... Chela bacaila • gora - — — punjabensis Chelidonais leucopareia leucoptera Chelidonias Chelobrachys gumorus Chettusia leucura Childonais leucopareia Chionostomum rostratum Chloris Chioropsis cochinchinensis jerdoni Chrysanthemum tibeticum ... Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus gutta- cristatus ... 55 Chrysolophus amherstias ... 342 Chrysopa 170, 174 Chrysophlegma flavinncha flavinucha. 54 ... 15, 25 ... 454 ... 570 ... 114 ... 113 ... 570 — sp 572 Cinnyris lotenia ... ... 400 340, 477 .. 169 .. 168 .. 281 3 2 573 ... 485 347, 485 ... 485 ... 258 ... 262 489, 573 ... 599 ... 168 ... 167 ... 167 ... 483 ... 281 ... 593 ... 281 ... 485 ... 573 ... 601 ... 23,25 ... 394 ... 393 ... 126 ... 283 Chrysopogon Chusquea abietifolia ... Cinclus cinclus cashmiriensis kashmiriensis ... — - pallasii ... — tenuirostris XXX INDEX OF SPECIES Page Cinnyris zeylonica ... 400 Circaetus gallicus 36 Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus ... 339 macrurus ... 569 melanoleucus ... 339 Cirrepedesmus 281, 485 ■ leschenaultii' ... ... 485 Cirrhina latia ... 500 mirgala ... 166 reba ... 166 Cladonia rangiferina 45 Cladophora crispata genuina ... ... 190 fracta ... 190 glomerata rivularis ... 190 Clamator coromandus ... 57 jacobinus 470, 572 jacobinus... 57 taprobanus ... 401 Cleistachne ... 15, 25 Cleome gynandra ... 539 Clupanodon chapra ... 168 ilisha ... 168 Clupea chapra ... 168 ilisha ... 168 Coccystes jacobinus ... 252 Coelachne ... 21, 25 Coelorrhacis ... ... 14, 25 Coix ... 12, 25 Colias hyale hyale ... 591 croceus edusina ... 591 Collemasp. 44 Collocalia 284, 473 fuciphaga brevirostris 61 Columba ... 284 bicolor... ... 477 chinensis ... 479 intermedia neglecta... 119, 121 leuconota 121, 125, 130, 570, 572 livia 121, 572 intermedia ... 340 livia ... ' ... ... 477 oenas ... 478 eversmanni ... ... 478 palumbus ... 477 casiotis ... 478, 572 — pulchricollis ... 340 rupestris 119, , 1.21, 125 — — — turkestanica ... 570 suratensis ... 402 Polumbella pedata ... 540 Page Columbella trifolia • • • 540 Colymbus ... ... 288 arcticus suschkini ... 490 — stellatus 490 Compsogene mansoni sp. nov. ... 202 Conocephalum ... 424 Copsychns saularis ... 395 Coracias benghalensis 578 affinis ... • •• 58 garrula 471 indica ... 572 semenowi ... 471 xanthornus 399 Corchorus acutangulus 540 sestuans 540 Corvus brachyurus ... 400 corax 571 tibetanus ... 569 ■ corone orientals 116 coronoides andamanensis • •• 390 anthracinus . # , 391 culminatus 390 intermedius... 113, 133, 390, 5/1 levaillanti... 390 culminatus 390 — monedula sommeringii 571 — paradisi 396 — rufus 391 — splendens 391 zugmayeri ... 571 Corydalis osmastonii 118 Coryllis vernalis vernalis 58 Corypha umbraculifera ... 464 Coturnix coromandelica 343 coturnix ... 255 japonica 343 Cratseva nurvala 539 — religiosa 539 Cremastogaster brunnea subnuda 153 dohrnii ... 186 potitula 153 soror 153 — — subnuda 153, , 186 nnl i f ii 1 o 1 pull lUla Crocethia 281, , 487 Crocodilus porosus 584 Crocopus chlorogaster ... ... 4 77 phoenicopterus chlorogaster 402 — phoenicopterus 477 INDEX OF SPECIES xxx i Page Crocopus phoenicopterus viridifrons. ... 340 Crucifera rapa .. 298 var. escnlenta .. 299 snburabellata ... 295 Cryptocercus bicolor .. 154 Cuculus canorus 124, 572 bakeri 56 canorus .. 470 — micropterus micropteius 57 optatus 57, 470 paradiseus ... 398 poliocephalus ... 470 poliocephalus 57 saturatus ... 113 • subtelephonus ... 247 varius ... 401 Cuon rutilans ... 236 Cupressus fastigiata ... 594 Cursorius ... 2S2 ■ coromandelicus ... 3, 482 cursor**. 2 gallicus 2 Cyanecula suecica ... 571 Cyanops asiatica... ... 470 asiatica 56 — davisoni 56 davisoni ... 470 duvancelli cyanotis ... 56 franklini franklin! ... 56 — ramsayi 56 robustircstris 56 Cyathodium cavernarum ... 600 kashyapii ... 600 Cymbopogon ... 16, 25 Cynaelurus jubatus ... 235 Cynodon ... ... ... 23, 25 Cyornis .bicolor ... 133 superciliaris ... 133 tickelliae ... 395 — tricolor ... HI Cyperus pulvinatus ... 541 purnilus ... 541 Cyprinus bacaila ... 168 — calbasu ... 166 catla ... 166 * conchonius ... 167 gonius ... 166 — gora ... ... 167 * mrigala ... 166 — phutunio ... 167 »i_ reba ... 166 Cyprinus rohita . * sarana Page ... 166 ... 167 stigma... ... 167 Cypselus ... 284 apos ... ... ... 112, 113 pekinen sis ... 116. 128 batasiensis ... ... 402 Cyrtococcum ... 19, 25 Cytisus pinnatus ... 540 Dactyloctenium ... ... 23, 25 Dafila acuta ... ... 229, 573 acuta ... 349 Danais chrysippus ... 262 plexippus ... ... ... 262 Danthonia ... ... 21, 25 Delias eucharis ... ... 261 , 262 Delichon urbica ... 116, 120, 125, 129 Dendrocalamus ... ... 25 brandisii ... 141, 448, 449 giganteus ... 448, 449, 459 hamiltonii ... 141, 450, 459 longispathus. .. 141, 447, 459 strictas 140, 448, 450, 459 - — - — • — — - var. sericea. . . 448 Dendrocitta kinneari ... 391 pallida 391 ■ — rufa 391 — saturatior 391 sclateri 391 vagabunda 391 Dendrecopus himalayensis 110 Dendrocygna fulva 349 — — -javanica 349 Dendronanthus indicus 56 Dendrophasa bicincta praetermissa ... 340 —— — — — porapadora phayrei ... 340 pompadora 4 77 praetermissa 477 Deudrotreron hodgsoni 340 Desmodium viscidum 540 Desmos chinensis 292 — cochinchinensis 291 — lawii 292 : pannosus 292 Desmostachya 22, 25 Diacamma scalpratum 150 — vagans 150 Dianthus angulatus 125 caryophyllus 304 chinensis 304 Dicaeum chrysorrheum chrysochlore 53 index of Species xxxii Page Dicanim cruentatum cruentatum ... 35 ignitum ... 53 — — — — erythrorhynchum erythror- hjuichum ... 53 ignipectum ignipectum ... 53 Dichanthium ... ... 16, 25 Dichoceros bicornis bicornis 60 Dicrurus sp. ... 572 . cserulescens ... ... ... 398 leucophseus ... ... ... 397 * macrocercus 397 ■ macrocercus ... 569 Digitaria 17, 25 Dimeria 13, 25 Dinebra 23, 25 Dinopicus intermedius 469 javanen sis intermedia ... 55 shorii ... 55 Dinopium 283 Diplachne 22, 25 Diplophysa cost a! a 380 — dalaicus 380 — intermedius ... ... 380 kungessana 380 — labiatus ... 380 — microphthalmus 380 nasalis 380 — — papillio-labiata 380 stranchi 380 Dissemurus paradiseus... ... 250, 398 Dissoura episcopa ... ... 575,579 episcopa 348 Ditrichum tortipes 601 Dorylus orientalis ... ... ... 149 Douepia tortuosa 296 Doacsena draco 594 Dryobates 572 • assimilis 468 atratus 55 cabanisi stressemani ... 54 cathparius pernyi 54 himalayensis ... 113, 133 macei 468 — * westermanni ... 469 scindeanus 468 Drypetes sepiaria ... ... ... 540 Ducula badia griseicapilla 340 Dumetia albigularis 392 hyperythra 392 Dumortiera 424 — hirsuta ... ... 599,600 PAGE Dypticus maculatus 498, 500 Echinochloa ... 19, 25 Eciton rufonigra ... 151 Egretta alba ... 349 garzetta garzetta ... 349 intermedia intermedia ... 349 El anus cseruleus 36 vcciferus ... 339 Elaphus indicus 237, 242 claripennis ... 442 Eleusine ... 23, 25 Elyonurus ... ... 14, 25 Elytrophorus ... 24, 25 Emberiza aureola 49 cia stracheyi 109, 117, 130, 572 yunnanensis 49 fucata ... 113 arcuata 49 -- fucata 49 pusilla 49 rutila 49 stewarti ... 109 Engramma incisum sp. nov. ... 155 Enicurus maculatus maculatus. ... 571 Enneapogon ... 24, 25 Enteromorpha compressa ... 191 Enteropogon ... 23, 25 Entodon sp. .. ... 601 Ephedra gerardiana ... 126 Ephestia sp ... 442 Eragrostis ... 22, 25 Ereraopogon ... 16, 25 Eriboea athamas agrarius ... 262 Eriocaulon miserum ... 383 Eriochloa ... 18, 25 Eriodendron pentandrum ... 540 Erismatura leucocephala 576, 577 Erolia ... 281 temminckii ... 487 Eruca sativa ... 296 Erythropus amurensis 338, 475 Erythrospiza ? roseata ... 400 Esacus recurvirostris ... 346 Esox cancila ... 168 Eublemma amabilis 183, 431 Euchlsena ... ... 12, 25 Eudynamis scolopaceus malayana 57 Eulabes javana intermedia ... 46 Eulalia ... 15. 25 Eunetta ... 489 Euplocamus diardi ... 479 Index of species Page Eupoda ... 281 vereda ... 484 Eurynorhynchus ... 281 pygmseus ... 487 Eurvstomus orientalis orientals 58 Eutropiichthys vacha ... 165 Excalfactoria chinensis ... 343 Exostoma blythii ... 586 stoliczkae ... 500 Fagus sylvatica ... 594 Falco calidus ... 475 subbuleo centralasias ... ... 475 - — — indicus ... 475 japonicus ... 475 — jugger ... 337 — ■ peregrinus ... 572 calidus ... 337 * peregrinator ... 337 * severus severus ... 337 subbuteo ... ... 116 — — jarkuterises ... ... 475 tinnunculus tinnunculus ... 117 Farsetia ... 295 Felis caracal ... 232 chaus ... 232 chinensis ... 318 fontanierii 318, 320, 323 fusca 307, 310 irbis ... 331 isabellina ... 232 japonensis ... 323 . leopardus 66, 77, 326 longicaudata ... 307 lynx ... 232 melas ... 326 orientalis ... 317 pardus 66, 74, 75, 350 panthura 75, 78, 80 pardus 307, 329 — saxicolor 75 — variegata ... 325 villosa ... 318 sumatrana ... ... 329 tulliana 75, 78, 80 uncia ... 331 uncioides ... 331 variegata ... 326 var . atro-malcuata ... 326 var. nigricans ... ... 326 villosa 317, 313 (Leopardus) grayi ... 320 5 xxxiir Page Ficus carica 596 gibbesa var. parasitica 540 religiosa 597 Fimbriaria ,,, 424 augusta 600 Fissiden crenutatifolius 600 Flos convolutus 272 Formica augusticollis ... 158 armata ... 160 compressus ... ... ... 158 gravelyi 162 longicornis 157 longipes ... ... ... 157 mitis 15S rufoglaucus 159 sericeus ... 160 smaragdina 157 Francolinus arabistanicus 481 bogdanowi ... ... 481 f. henrici 480 — pintadeanus phayrei ... 344 p. interpositus ... ... 481 p. raecranesis 481 Frankenia pulverulenta 303 Franklinia gracilis ... 398 Fraxinus excelsior ... ... ... 594 Fregata 285 andrewsi 488 minor aldabrensis 488 Fringilauda brandti ... 121 hsematopygia ... 127 Frulliania 425 campanulata ... 421,429 Fulica atra ... ... ... 287,573 — atra 345 Funaria ... ... 428 hygrometrica ... 429, 430, 600, 601 Gallicrex cinerea ... 345 Gallimila chloropus 287 indicus ... ... 345 Galloperdix 290 spadicea ... 402 Gallus bankiva robinsoni ... ... 341 lafayetti 479 sonneratii ... 402 Garnotia 21,25 Garrulus lanceolatus ... ... ... Ill Gauropicoides ... 283 Gazella bennetti 565, 568 fuscifrons ... 568 — seistanica .. 565 kxxiv Gecinulus — viridis Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica... Gennseus albocristatus cuvieri hamiltoni horsfieldii horsfieldii... williamsi ... — lineatus lineatus nyctheremns ... ripponi — rufipes ... rufipes Gentiana carinata Glareola lactea ■ maldivarum maldi varum orient alis pratincola pratincola Glaucidium brodiei — tubiger cuculoides rufescens radiatum Glossogobius giuris Glottis nebularia Gomphrena sessiJis Gracilaria conferoides ... Gracilea Gracul a saular is ... Gracupica burmanica ... — — leucocephala annamensis. nigricollis Grauculus macei Greenidea artcarpi Grus monachus Guadua angustifolia Guatteria cerasoides ... • laurifolia Gudusia chapra Guaiacum officinale Gymnoris xanthocollis xanthocollis ... Gymnotus notopteius Gynandropsis gynandra pentaphylla Gyps fulvescens fulvescens him alay anus indicus nudiceps tenuiceps r-— — tenuirostris ... 475 Page Haberlia grandis ... 540 Hcematopus ... 281 Haematornis luteolus ... 394 Halcyon pileata 60 smyrnensis ... 472 fusca 59 Halcyon sp. ... 572 Haliaetus leucoryphus 339, 592 Haliastur indus indus ... 339 Halopyrum ... 22, 25 Hapalosia lseflingi ... 305 Heleochloa ... 21, 25 Heliopais personata 287, 345 Heliotropium subulatum ... 540 zeylanicum ... 540 Hemarthria ... 13, 25 Hemichelidon sibirica ... ... 133 Hemicyclia sepiaria ... 540 Heraipodus plumbipes ... 481 taijoor ... 402 Hemiproene .... 284 — coronata ... 61 Hemiscorpiops lepturus ... 266 Hesperornis ... ... 287 Heteropogon ... 17, 25 Hieraetus fasciatus fasciatus ... ... 338 pennatus ... 338 Hierococcyx fugax nisicolor ... 57 ~ — • sparveroides 57 varius 57, 401 Hilsa ilisha ... 168 Himantopus ... 281 himantopus himantopus 485 Hippophas rhamnoides 119, 126 Hirundapus ... 284 giganteus indicus 61 Hirundo ... 285 coronatta MB 437 daurica erythropygia 50 ■ striolata 50 ■ francica ... 473 — pratincola 6 rustica ... 569 » gutturalis 49 rustica 112,' 120 — ■ tytleri ... 50 smithi filifera 50 sp ... 572 Hodgsonius phoenicuroides ... 132, 133 Holcocera pulverea ... 183 Homalocenchrus ... 24, 25 INDEX OF SPECIES Page ... 283 grantia 54 54 ... 483 ... 480 ... 342 ... 480 ... 342 ... 342 ... 342 ... 479 ... 342 ... 342 ... 480 ... 125 8, 346 ... 8, 346 1 .. 6, 482 .. 110 63 63, 474 474 63 169 281, 486 .. 573 ... 540 .. 191 23, 25 395 47 47 47 397 417 346 135 292 294 168 83 48 168 539 539 474 116 337 475 INDEX OF SPECIES XXXV Page Hoplopterus ... 281 ventralis 347, 4S5 Hordeum ... ... 24, 25 Horornis pallidus 111, 113 Houbaropsis ... 482 Huhua orientalis ...62, 473 suinatrana 474 - strepitans . . ... 474 Hyalopterus arundinis ... 418 Hyalopterus carii ... 413 Hydrophasianus chirnrgus ,..280, 345, 573 Hydroprogne c. caspia ... 483 Hygrorhiza ... 24, 25 Hymenachne ... 19, 25 Hymenophyllum sp ... 600 Hyophila streptocalypta ... 601 Hypacanthis spinoides ambiguus 48 Hypnum ... 428 Hypoclinea frauenfeldi 156 Hypolimnas bolina ... 262 Hypopicus hyperythrus... ... 468 hyperythrus.. 54 Hypopterigium ... 426 tenelleum ... 429 Hypotsenidia striata gularis ... 344 Hypothymis azurea sykesi ... 366 Ianthia rufilata 114, 133 Ibidorhynchus ... 115, 281 — struthersi ... 126 Icthyophaga humilis plumbeus 339, 476 Ictinaetus malayensis perniger ... 338 Impera.ta ... ... 14, 25 Indigofera aspalthoides ... 540 Indolestes bilineata ... 103 — buddha ... 102 — helena 99 indica 102, 106 veronica 99 Irena puella puella 46 Irididiomyrmex anceps ... 185 lsachsemum ... 13, 25 Isachne ... 20, 25 Iseilema ... 17, 25 Isometrus europseus 230, 526 Isopsera pedunculata ... .. 591 Ixobrychus cinnamorneus ,.. 349 Inyx torquilla ... 572 Jynx torquilla japonica 55, 170 Jacoona anasiya ... 258 Kalanehce pinniata ... 540 Ketupa flavipes ... 473 Page Ketupa leschenaulti ... 473 semenowi ... 476 zeylonensis ... 473 — leschenaulti 62 Kittacincla'malabarica ... 395 Labeo calbasu ... 166 diochelus ... ... 500 — gonius ... 166 - — - — rohita 166,376 Laccifer lacca ... 182 Lseflingra indica... ... 304 Laiscopus sp ... 571 Lalage sykesi ... 397 Larnprocorax panayensis affinis 46 Lancea tibetica ... ... 125 Lanius cserulescens ... 398 — — — cristatus cristatus 396, 569 erythronotus ... Ill schach caniceps ... 396 • — - — — erythronotus ... ... 571 tephronotus ... 118 vittatus ... 396 Lannea grandis ... 540 Larix europaea ... ... 594 Larus argentatus cachinnans ... ... 483 ■ brunneicephalus 110, 482, 573 genei ... 483 hemprichi... ... 482 ichthyaetus ... 482 — ridibundus 346, 482, 573 — sibiricus ... 482 Larvivora brunnea 113, 133, 569 Lasuirus ... ... 14, 25 Laptipes ... 22, 25 Lecanora pallescus 45 — ■ tarlarea 45 Leiopicus ... 469 — mahrattensis 55, 400 — blanfordi ... 469 Leontopodium leontopodium ... 126 Leopardus chinensis 318, 320 japonensis ... 320 pardus ciscaucasicus 78 orientalis ... ... 317 tunlliana ... 75, 78, 80 varius 74 Leptochloa ... 22, 25 Leptocoma asiatica intermedia 52 — __ brasiliana ... 53 — — flammaxillaris flammaxillaris 53 Leptogenys pequeti ... 150 INDEX OF SPECIES Page Lepturus ... ... 24, 25 Lerwa lerwa ... 481 Lestes barbara ... 87 bilineata ... 103 cyanea 99 divisa ... 95, 97 — gracilis birmanus 97 gracilis 94 nigriceps .. 90 — nodalis 88 orientalis ... 87 platystyla 92 thoracica 91 umbrina 89 Leuciscus duvaucelii ... 167 Leucocerca pectoralis ... 396 Leucopolius ... 281 — peronii ... 484 Levierella fabroniacea ... 601 Limicola ... 281 Limnanthemum nymphaides ... ... 134 Limnocryptes , ... 281 Limnadromus 281, 486 Limosa ... 281 limosa ... ... 486 lapponica ... 486 melanuroides ... 486 Lobipes ... 281 Lobipluva... 281, 485 Lobivanellus 281, 485 indicus atronuchalis ... 347 indicus ... 38, 403 Lobopetta diminuta ... 150 — pequeti ... 150 Locustella nseyia straminea ... ... 113 Loepa newara ... ... 262 Longicaudus hamelli sp. nov.... ... 412 Lophoceros birostris ... 402 Lophophanes melanolophus ... 114, 133, 571 rufonuchalis 114, 130, 133, 575 Lophophorus impejanus ... 572 Lophopogon ... 13, 25 Lophura diardi ... 342 Loxia philippina ... 399 — striata ... 400 Lycodon auliqus ... 585 Lyellia crispa ... 601 Lymnocryptes minima ... 348 Lyncornis cerviniceps 61 Lyngbya aesturii... ... 191 — martensiana ... 189 Lynx lynx Lyprops curticollis Macrognathus armatus... pancalus Macrones cavasius aor vittatus Macropisthodon plumbieolor Macropygia ■ ruficeps assimilis • unchall tusalia Macrorhamphus Macrosiphum compositae eleuisinae... rosaefolium Macrothela vidua Malacocercus albigularis Manisuris Manto hypoleuca martina Mantoides licinus. Marchantia palmata ... polymorph a Mareca penelope 349 Marptodesmus sp. Martensia echioides Mastacembelus armatus — pancalus Megalaima virens magnifica virens... Megalestris antarctica ... Megalophrys parva Melittophagus erythrocephalus rocephalus Melocanna bambusoides Melophus melanicterus ... Meranoplus bicolor Mergus albellus merganser merganser Merops apiaster orientalis Page 234 267 169 169 166 16 6 166 ’ 585 477 341 341, 479 4S6 417 411 416 593 392 14, 25 259 259 22, 429 600 428, 599 490, 56S, 573 404 126 169 169 56 56 482 382 471 eryth 139, biludschicus Merops orientalis birmanus ... superciliosus javanicus persicus sp. Merremia aegyptia pentaphylla Metapodius indicus Metopidius 59 451, 459 49 S4, 185 573 490 11, 472 401 472 59 59 472 572 540 540 481 280 INDEX OF SPECIES xxxvii Metopidius indicus Metoponia pusiila Metroxylon sagus Metzgeria Microcampylanus Microcampylotus s Microchloa .. 23, 25 Microhieraer cserulescens burmanicus 337 Micropternus brachyurus phaioceps. 55 Micropus 284 affinis subpircatus ... 61 melba .. 473 pacificus cooki 60 leuconyx ... .. 473 pacificus ... 60 tuneti ... 473 Microsarcops 281, 485 cinereus 112, 347 Microscelis psaroides psaroides ... 571 Miliusa eriocarpa ... 293 indica ... 293 tomentosa ... 293 Millingtonia hortensis 85 Milvns govinda ... 476, 572 lineatus ... 476 — migrans ... 476 govinda 39, 339 lineatus ... 339 Mirafra affinis ... 400 assamica affinis ... 400 . microptera ... 51 javanica williamsoni ... 51 Mnium ... ... 426, 428 coriaceum ... 429 Molpastes hsemorrhous ... 394 leucogenys ... 113 Monomorium indicum ... 185 (Parholocomyrmex) kempi ... 154 Monticola cincloryncha ... 569 cyanus ... 129 solitaria pandoo ... 109, 569 Montifringilla adamsi ... 119 Moricandia tortuosa ... 296 Motacilla alba ... 253 alboides ... 128 baicalensis 50 • dukhunensis ... 50 — hodgsoni ... 118 ocularis 50 — — — personata ... 50 Page Motacilla cinerea caspica 50, 569 citreola 112, 570 calcarata ... 50, 124 flava thunbergi 50 fulicata ... 395 lugubris ... 572 alboide ... 50 leucopsis ... 50 sutoria ... 398 tiphia ... 393 Mulleripicus pulverulentus harterti 55 Munia atricapilla rubronigra ... 47 Murraya exotica ... ... 540 kiongii ... 540 konigii ... 540 pauiculata ... 540 Muscadivora senea pusiila ... 402 — sylvatica ... ... 340 Muscicapa malabarica ... 395 . pondiceriana 397 Mycerobas melanoxanthus 48 Myiophoneus horsfieldi ... 468 temmincki temmincki 570, 571 Myricaria elegans ... 129 Myrma hemiopticoides ... 161 mayri ... ... 161 Myrmecocystus setipes ... 162 viaticus ... 162 Myrmicaria brunnea ... 152 Myrmhopla armata ... 160 simplex ... 160 Myrmoserisus rufoglaucus ... 159 Myrmothrinax thrinax ... 160 Mystus chitala ... 168 Myzus persicae ... 418 Nazia ... 21, 25 Nelumbium ... m speciosum 294, 539 Nelumbo ... 294 nucifera 294, 539 Nemachilus acuticephalus ... 381 botia ... 376 brevis 376, 377 brunneanus 376, 377 kashmirensis ... 379 . ~ marmoratus 379, 500 montana ... ... 586 — multifasciatus ... 586 — raoe... ... 378 rivulicola ... 376, 377 shanensis ... 376, 377 Page 345 110, 126, 130, 572 464 424 ... 428 mbnanus 429 xxxviii INDEX Page Nemachilus stewarti 380, 381 stoliczkae ... ... 500 vittatus ... 379 Neocheritra amitra ... 259 fabronia ... 259 Neofelis. nebulosa ... 329 Neohierax insignis insignis ... ... 338 Neohouzeana stricta ... 447 Neophron percnopterus 112, 572 Neopus perniger ... 278 Nerium indicura ... 540 odorum ... 540 Netta rufina ... 573 Nettapus coromandelianus ... ... 349 Nettion crecca 229, 570, 573 Nettium formosum 578 490 Ninox scutulata burmanica ... G3 isolata ... 474 Nostoc sp 44 amplissimum ... 189 Notopterus chitala ... 168 kapirat ... 168 notopterus ... 168 Notothylas, sp. 423, 600 Nucifraga multipunctata 114, 133 Numenius ... 281 arquata arquata ... ... 485 lineatus ... ... 485 phasopus phaeopus ... 347 Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax 349, 573 Nymphasa alba ... 294 lotus ... 294 - var. pubescens ... 294 — — rubra ... ... 294 pubescens ... 294 rubra ... 294 — — — stellata ... 294 Nyroca fuligula fuligula 490, 573 rufa ... 573 baeri ... 349 Oceanites oceanicus oceanicus... ... 488 Ochlandra 25 — beddomei ... 459 rheedbi 137, 587 stridula ... 137 talboti ... 459 travancorica 447, 587 Ocodoma diversus ... 154 Octoblepharum albidum ... 600 Odina wodier ... 540 Qdontoinachus punctulatus ... ... 149 OF SPECIES - Page CEcophylla smaragdina ... 157 CEdicnemus indicus ... 403 CEnanthe alboniger ... 121 deserti oreophila ... ... 118 picata ... 120 pleschanka 117, 118, 128 CEnopopelia tranquebarica humilis... 341 Ophiocephalus punctatus ... 169 ' striatus ... ... 169 stewarti ... 586 Ophioglossum vulgatum ... 600 Ophiurus ... 14, 25 Oplismenus ...19, 25 Oregma mysorensis ... 415 Oreinus sinuatus ... 500 Oreiostachys puilei ... 137 Oreoweisia laxifolia ... 601 Oriolus chinensis indicus 46 tenuirostris 46 kundoo ... 572 trailii 46 — — — xanthornus xanthornus ...46, 399 Oropetium ... 23, 25 Orthonotomyrmex sericeus ... ... 160 Orthotomus sutorius ... 398 Oryza ... 24, 25 Osterdamia ... 22, 25 Otis macqueenii ... 482 — - nigriceps ... 481 tetrax orientalis ... 481 Otocompsa emeria emeria ... 251. fuscicaudata 250, 394 Otocorys alpestris longirostris 116, 121, 123, 13L el wesi ... 118 Otus bakkamsena lettia 62 — — brucei ... 474 japonica ... 474 scops leggei ... 474 pulchellus ... 474 rufipennis ... 474 spilocephalus spilocephalus 62 sunia malayensis ... 474 modestus 62, 474 Ovis poli ... 142 Oxygyne soror ... 153 Oxytenanthera 25 albociliata 454, 459 Palamnseus bengalensis 230, 526 fulvipes 230, 526 gravimanus 230, 526 INDEX OF SPECIES XXXIX Palamnaeus liurus Ion gi mantis phipsoni ... swammerdami — xanthopus Pandion Pagoa Panicum Pannaria pezizoides Panthera anti quorum ... japonensis orientals pardus bedfordi ciscaucasica delacouri : — fontanierii ■ fuscus japonensis melas orientalis saxicolor sindica villosa Page 230, 526 230, 526 230, 526 230, 526 230, 526 279 485 19, 25 40 65 307, 308 318, 323 317 74, 325, 350, 544, 547 323, 330 .. 329 325, 330 317, 318 307,330 320, 330 326, 330 316, 330 ...317, 330, 332 77, 78, 329, 332 ...80, 330 ... 75, 329, 332 ... 317 tigris 544, 548, 553, 555, 556, 557 — variegata var. nigra vulgaris Papaver somniferum Papilo buddha demoieus liomedon ~ polymnestor Papillaria semitorta Parantirrhoea marshalli Pararge sch ak ra Paratrechina longicornis Parietarea erect a Parmela saxatilis Parmelia sp. Parus major kashmiriensis -sinensis Paspalidium Paspalum Passer domesticus comfucius parkini flaveolus indicus ... 326 74 ... 295 ... 260 262 ... 260 ... 261 ... 601 261, 587 ... 590 ... 157 ... 464 45 40, 43, 44 120, 571 ... 392 19, 254 ... 18, 25 ... 253 49 ... 116 49 .... 264 Passer indicus parkini montanus malaccensis... rutilans cinnamomeus ... intensior Pastor terricolor Pathysa antiphates naira Pavo cristatus muticus Pedicularis cornuta — — — — - pyramidata — - siphonantha Pelecanus crispus onocrotalus onocrotalus — — roseus ... Pellia Pellorneum granti ruficeps Peltophorus Pennisetum Penthoceryx sonneratti sonneratii Perdicula asiatica argoondah Pericrocotus brevirostris cinnamomeus peregrinus speciosns sp. Perissospeza sp. ... Pern is cristatus ■ ptilorynchus ruficollis Perotis Phsenthus Phaeton lepturus rubricauda Phalacrocorax fuscicollis sp. ... Phalavopus fuilicarius jourdaini lobatus elegans rufus Phidologiton diversus ... Philomachus pugnax ... Philonotis — longicollis Phodilus badius badius Phoenicopterus r. antiquorum Pliragmites Page .. 247 49 ... 49 49 ... 392 ... 589 ... 583 ... 341 ... 126 ... 126 ... 126 ... 575 488 ... 488 .. 425 ... .393 ... 393 ... 14, 25 ... 20, 25 ... 470 57 ... 480 109, 133 ... 397 ... 397 ... 575 ... 571 ... 572 ... 477 ... 339 ... 22, 25 ... 293 ... 488 ... -488 ... 289 ... 488 348, 488 ... 573 281, 21 287 487 487 342 479 154 281 487 426 601 62 489 , 25 xi INDEX OF SPECIES Phyllopneuste occipitalis Phyllornis jerdoni Phylloscopus affinis colly bita ... Page 399 393 121, 123, 124, 126 572 sindianus 111, 117, 124 hnmii 130, 133 indicus. 117, 118, 122, 123, 126, 128, 130 „ inornatus hnmii... .... 109 nitidus nitidus 246 • viridanus ... 399 occipitalis occipitalis ... 399 proregulus 36, 133 pulcher 122 tytleri 113, 569 sp. 572 Phyllostachys aurea 454 bambusoides var. castil- loni ... 454 flexuosa 454 H. de L. Var. nana pu- beruia nigra mitis nidnlaria puberula var. boryana 448 Physorrhynchus brahuicus — chamaerapistrum Pica pica bactriana 115 Picumnus innominatus innominatus malayorum Picus canns hessei — chlorolophus chlorolophoides chlorolophus ... 455 455 .. 454 .. 454 448, 454 455 flavirostris hardwickii mahrattensis squamatus viridis vittatus eisenhoferi myrmecophanes viridanus 110, 282, Pieris brassicae canidia indica Pimelodus aor — — cavasius vacha Pinusc cembra ... 455 301 301 571 469 55 574 54 54 54 468 400 402 46S 470 54 54 54 591 591 165 166 165 594 Pinus longifolia — sylvestris Piprisoma squalidum modestum Pitta brachyura cucullata cucullata cyanea cyanea moluccensis nepalensis oatesi Pittosporum dasycaulon floribundum - nepalense Plagiochasma articulatum Plagiochila sp Plagiolepis longipes Platunus orientalis Platylestes platystyla Plegadis falcinellus falcinellus Ploceus tnanyar peguensis * passerinus infortunatus — passerinus... — philippi nus Plumieria acutifolia - — — alba rubra Pluvialis dominions fulvus Podiceps capensis cristatus cristatus • ruficollis capensis Pogonatherum Pogonatum aloides leucopogon ...426 — microstomum Pohlia elongata ... s Poinciana regia ... Pollinidium Polyalthia cerasoides Polycarpea aurea corymbosa var. aurea spicata Polycarpon indicum laeflingi Polygala chinensis -- var . triflora Page ... 575 ... 594 53 ... 4C0 54 53 53 53 53 ... 302 ... 302 302 ... 599 ... 425 ... 429 ... 157 112, 596 92 ... 348 47 47 47 ... 399 ... 271 ... 274 ... 273 — 281 ... 347 ... 287 ... 289 ... 349 ... 573 ... 349 13, 25 428, 430 ... 601 ... 601 ... 601 600, 601 ... 601 ... 594 ... 13, 25 ... 292 ... 305 ... 305 ... 305 ... 305 ... 304 ... 304 ... 302 ... 302 INDEX OF SPECIES xli Polygala erioptera irregularis persicariaefolia Polyplestron bicalcaratum turn Polypogon Polyrachis armata hemiopticoides mayri... rastrata simplex thrinax Polytoea Pomatorhinus horsfieldi Ponera diminuta luteipes scalpratum — - — - vagans Pongamia glabra pinnata Populus alba Porphyrio poliocephalus Page 302 302 302 bicalcara- seistanicus Portulaca quadrifida suffruticosa ... tuberosa — wightiana Porzana maruetta pusilla pusilla... Potamogeton sp. Potentilla argyrophylla... Pratincola atrata Precis oritbya swinhoei ... Prenolepsis longicornis Primula minutissima nivalis rosea Prinia gracilis inornata socialis .. 341 21, 25 .. 160 .. 161 .. 161 .. 161 .. 160 .. 160 .. 12, 25 .. 392 .. 150 .. 151 .. 150 .. 150 .. 540 .. 540 .. 594 .. 572 .. 481 .. 305 .. 305 .. 305 .. 305 .. 113 113, 344 .. 599 ... 125 ... 394 ... 262 ... 357 ... 125 ... 125 ... 132 ... 398 ... 399 ... 396 ... 399 ... 261 48 — sylvatica Prioneris sita Procarduelis nipalensis intensicolor . Propasser rhodochlamys grandis 121, 129,130 483 48 48 44 121 124 54 npponi... — thura femininus — vinaceus vinaceus Protococus sp. Prunella fulvescens — rubeculoides ... Psarisomus daihousise ... 6 Pseudanthiria Pseudarthria viscida Pseudechenis sulcatus ... Pseudechinolaena Pseudeutropius garua ... Pseudogyps bengalensis... Psittacula alexandrifasciatus — bengalensis ... cyanocephala Page ... 17, 25 ... 540 ... 386 ... 18, 26 ... 165 ... 337 58 ... 471 254, 401, 471 bengalensis eupatrica indoburmanica . krameri borealis schisticeps finschi 119, 121, sp. Psittacus alexandri i cyanocephalus incertus Psittinus beryllinus Pterocles lichtensteini arabicus. . . — orientalis Ptychomitrium indicum Ptyonoprogne obsoleta obsoleta pallida rupestris Puffinus chlororhynchus pacificus hamiltoni ... — tenuirostris Purlisa gigantea... Pycnonotus luteolus Pycreus mitens — pulvinatus — punulus Pyctorhis bypoleucus nasalis — saturatior sinensis ... Pyrotrogon erythrocephaius erytbroce- phalus ... — oreskios uniformis Pyrrhocorax graculus Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax ... 130, Pyrrhospiza punicea humii Pyrrhula aurantiaca erythaca altera nipalensis victorise Pythonium wallichianum Quercus pedunculata pseudococcifeia Querquedula ... ... ... ... 58 58 58 ... Ill 58 ... 572 ... 471 ... 401 ... 471 ... 471 ... 479 ... 479 ... 601 ... 247 ... 247 49, 116, 247 ... 489 ... 488 ... 489 ... 260 252, 394, 57 ... 541 ... 541 ... 541 ... 393 ... 393 ... 393 ... 392 60 60 570 571 570 572 48 48 519 594 595 595 49Q xlii INDEX OF SPECIES Page Querquedula querquedula 349, 573 Rallina fasciata ... ... 344 superciliaris superciliaris ... 344 Rallus ... ... ... 285 Ramalina sp. 40 Ramphalcyon capensis burmanica 59 Ran a afghana ... 382 Randia dumetorum ... 540 Ranunculus chserophylla ... 125 — pulchellus ... 125 Rapa rotunda ... 298 Raphanus caudatus ... 301 niger ... ... 301 vulgaris ... 301 radicula ... 301 raphanistrum caudatus ... 301 - — — sativus 300, 301 Reboulia ... 424, 428 Recurvirostra ... 281, 485 avocetta avocetta ... 485 Rhinoceros sumatrensis ... 566 Rhinoptilus bitorquatus ... 5, 482 Rhipidura pectoralis ... 396 Rhizogonnm ... 428 spiniforme 429, 430 Rhodobryum ... 428 Rhopodytes longicaudatus 58 tristis 58 viridirostris ... 401 Rhyacornis fulginosa fulginosa ... 571 Rhynchops ... 281 ... _ albicollis ... 347 Rhynchostegiella scabriseta ... ... 601 Rhyticeros subruficollis 60 undulatus 60 Riccia 422, 428 — ■ himalayensis ... 599 Riceiocarpus ... 424 Riparia paludicola chinensis ... 49 ■ riparia ijimae ... 49 Roccella tinctoria 45 Rohtee alfrediana ... 167 - cotio var . alfrediana . . . ... 167 Rostratula benghalensis benghalensis 345 Rotboellia... ... 14, 26 Rucervus duvaucelli 236, 564 — eldi ... 564 — platyceros ... 564 — thamin ... 564 » brucei ... 564 Ryncostegnum ... ... 428 Page Ryncostegnum vagans ... . . . ... 429 Saccharum ... 14, 26 Sacciolepis ... 19, 26 Saccobranchus fossilis ... ... 165 Saccopetalum ... 293 Sagerasa dalzellii ... 294 laurifolia ... 294 laurina... ... 294 Sarcogyps calvus ... 337 Sarsidiornis melanotus ... ... 349 Saroglossa spiloptera assamensis 46 Sasa auricoma M| 137, 455 japonica • •• ... 455 Sasia ... 283 ochracea ochracea 55 querulivox 55 reichenowi 55 Sauromatum guttatum ... ... 518 Saxicola caprata atrata ... ... 394 torquata indica ... 109, 571 Saxicoloids fulicata ... 395 Saxifraga sibirica ... 125 Schizachyrium ... 16, 26 Schizostachyum elegantissimum ... 137 tenue ... ... 137 Schizothorax esocinus ... ... 500 intermedius ... 500 — progastus ... ... ... 586 Schlothemia grevilleana ... 429 Scolopax ... 281 rusticola rusticola ... 347, 573 simipulmatus ... ... .486 Scops sunia ... Ill Scorpiops asthenurus ... 230, 526 montanus ... 230, 526 Sehima ... 13, 26 Semiplotus macclellandi ... 586 Senacia nepaulensis ... 302 Serilophus lunatus lunatus 54 rubropygius 54 Serranus pantherinus ... ... ... 268 Setaria ... ... 20, 26 Shorea robusta ... ... 187 Silnrus attu ... ... 165 bimaculatus ... ... 165 fossilis ... ... 165 garua ... ... 165 vittatus ... ... 166 Sima allaborans ... 186 rufonigra ... ... 157 Simulium... ... ... ... 3§3 INDEX OF SPECIES xliii Sinapis alba dichotoma erysimoides juncea nigra ramosa ... Sitta kashmiriensis ••• 110,111, leucopsis tephronota Selenopsis geminata 154, rufa Sorghum Spatula clypeata 229, Sphagnum fimbriatum Sphenocercus apicaudus apicaudus sphenurus Spilornis cheela burmanicus ... Spinifex Spirogyra jugalis setiformis maior Spizaetus cirrhatus limnaetus ... nepalensis fokiensis... Splachnobryum indicum Spodiopogon ... Spodiopsar cineraceus Sporobolus Squatarola squatarola hypomela squatarola Stellaria media waliichiana Stenamma smythiesi Stercorarius pomarinus Sterna albifrons saundersi aurantia hirundo — longipennis ... tibetana ...123, innominata Sterna melanogaster praetermissa pusilla repressa ... saundersi ... Streptopelia agricola cambayensis chinensis forresti — suratensis w*—* — — tigrina ... Page 300 297 299 299 299 299 114, 133 110, 133 .. 575 186, 442 ... 185 ... 15, 26 , 349, 573 .. 427 ... 340 ... 477 ... 338 ... 17, 26 ... 191 ... 191 ... 338 ... 338 ... 600 ... 15, 26 46 ... 22, 26 ... 281 ... 484 ... 484 ... 304 ... 304 ... 151 ... 482 ... 484 ... 346 ... 484 ... 346 ... 483 ... 483 124, 483 ... 484 ... 346 ... 484 ... 484 ... 483 ... 484 ... 479 ... 247 ... 341 402, 479 ... 340 Streptopelia meena orientalis 133 — — - ferrago meena senegalensis ermanni turtur arenicola turtur Strix aluco biddulphi ... brama butleri indranee newarensis nivicola —orientalis seloputo sinensis Strobilanthus callosus Struthio ... . Sturnia malabarica malabarica — nemoricola Sturnopastor capensis superciliaris S turn us sp. Sula d. melanops leucogaster plotus ... Surniculus lugubris dicruroides Sus cristatus Sylibura phipsoni Sylvia althea ... curruca halimodendii ... Symblepharis reinwardtii Sympycna ... paedisca annulata ... Synemosyra transversa Sypheotides ... Syrmaticus humise burmanicus * — humias Syrnium biddulphi Syrrhopodon gardneri ... Tacca pinnatifkla Tachornis ... batasiensis infumatus palmarum Taccacua infuscata leschenaulti leschenaulti sirkee Tadorna tadorna Tajuria ceeta donatana ogyges ... Tamarix aphylla ... Page ... 478 , 478, 572 ... 478 ... 340 247, 479 ... 478 ... 478 ... 110 ... 402 473, 490 62 62 ... 473 ... 474 ... 474 ... 264 ... 282 47 47 47 ... 572 ... 488 ... 488 57 ... 245 ... 585 109,111 ... 575 ... 601 ... 104 105, 106 ... 105 ... 200 ... 482 ... 342 ... 341 ... 114 ... 601 ... 597 ... 284 ... 402 61 ... 473 ... 471 ... 471 ... 471 ... 349 ... 258 ... 258 ... 258 305, 306 xliv INDEX OF SPECIES Tamarix articulata dioica ericoides - — — gallica ... var. indica ... orientalis sticta troupii Tanaemyrmex compressus nicobarensis ... variegatus Tapinoma melanocephalum ... Targionia fimbriaria hypophylla Taxodum mexicannm * Taxoptera aurantii ... Taxus baccata Technomyrmex elatior mogdiliani Teinostachyum Teloschistes flavicans Temenuchus pagodarum Tephrodornis pondiceriana Terpsiphone paradisi paradisi Tetraneura hirsuta Tetrao coromandelica Tetraogallus himalayensis Tetrao spadicea Thai asseus bergi bakeri Thalictrum alpinnm Thelepogon Themeda Thereiceryx lineatus hodgsoni — • intermedins Theretra mansoni Thespesia populnea Thriponax javanensis fiddeni ... Thuidium cymbifolium Thuya aphylla ... Thymus, serpiphyllum Thysanolaena Tichodroma muraria Tilia grandiflora ... Trachypodopsis crispatula Trachys Tragopan blythii blythii temmincki ... Trapa bicornis bispinosa — jncisa ... ... Page 305, 306 305,306 305, 306 305, 306 ... 305 ... 306 ... 305 ... 305 ... 158 ... 158 ... 158 ... 186 ... 600 ... 600 ... 595 ... 417 ... 595 155 ... 155 26 40 ... 399 ... 397 ... 571 ... 396 ... 417 ... 480 121,572 ... 402 ... 483 ... 125 ... 13, 26 ... 17,26 56 56,470 ... 203 ... 274 55 ... 429 ... 306 ... 126 ... 21, 26 569, 571 ... 594 ... 601 ... 21, 26 ... 343 ... 343 ... 597 134, 597 .,. 597 Page Trapa natans ... ... 597 Treron curvirostris curvirostris ... 477 mpalensis 340, 477 Tribusa major ... 126 Trichopodus lalius ... 169 Trichogaster lalius ... 169 Tricholsena ... 20, 26 Tringa ... ... ... 281 canutus ... ... 487 glareola 347, 486' — hypoleucus 347, 569, 573 indica ... 403 — ochropus 347, 486, 569 stagnatilis ... 486 totanus eurhinus ... 486 terrignotae ... 486 totanus 347, 486, 573 Tripogon ... ... ... ... 23, 26 Tristachya ... ... 20, 26 Triticum ... ... 24, 26 Triumfetta bartramia ... ... 540 indica ... 510 rhomboidea ... '540 Trochalopterum lineatum griseicentior 571 Troglodytes troglodytes neglecta ... 569 Tropicoperdix chloropus ... 344 Turdoides polioplocamus ... 392 — striatus ... 392 terricolor ... 392 Turdus atrogularis ... 571 castaneus castaneus ... ... 571 pagodarum ... . 399 unicolor ... ... 571 - viscivorus ... ... ... 571 Turnix bengalensis ... 481 dussumieri ... 344 — maculatus maculatus ... ... 344 maculata tanki ... 402 — - suscitator blakistoni ... ... 344 isabellinus ... ... 481 taijoor ... 402 Tycosa narbonensis ... 593 Typhonium ... 540 Tyto alba javanica 62 longimembris 62 Uncia irbis ... 331 — — uncia ... 331 Unona cerasoides 292 cochinchinensis ... ... 291 desmos ... 291 discolor ... 292 INDEX OF SPECIES Page Unona dunalii ... ... 292 farinosa ... ... 292 lavvii ... 292 pannosa ... ... 292 Upupa epops epops ... 117, 472, 570, 572 longirostris 60 Urochloa ... ... 19, 26 Uroloncha pnnctulata subundulata ... 4S topela ... 48 — striata ... 4C0 — acuticauda .... 47 squamicollis 47 Usnea articulata ... ... 40 Utricularia sp. ... ... 599 Uvaria cerasoides ... 292 — hookeri ... ... 291 narum ... 291 Vanellus ... 281 vulgaris ... ... 347 Vanessa atlanta ... ... ... 590 Varanus bengalensis , 255, 367, 368 dumerilii 368, 371 flavescens ... ... 367, 368 nebulosus 368, 370 salvator 368, 372 Vetiveria ... ... 15, 26 Vinago chlorogaster ... 402 xlv Page Vipera russelli ... ... ... 256,585 Wallago attu ... ... 165 Waltheria americana ... 540 indica ... ... 540 Xantholsema hsemacephala ... ... 470 Xanthophyllum bombaj^anum ... 303 Xenentodon cancila ... ... ... 168 Xenorynchus asiaticus asiaticus 348, 579 Xenus ... 281 cinereus javanicus ... ... 486 Yungipicus ... 469 — hardwickii canicapiilus ... 55 hardwickii ... 400 mitchelli ... 469 omissus ... 55 Zamenis mucosus ... ... ... 585 Zanclostomus viridirostris 401 Zannchellia sp 599 Zea... 12,26 Zipoetis satis 261 Zosterops aureiventris mesoxantha ... 52 palpebrosa 573 ~ - cacharensis ... 51 elwesi ... ... 51 siamensis 51 simplex peguensis 51 THE if ** ■' May ; JOURNAL < 4 ■i'OA, wa Mu OF THE Bombay Natural History Society EDITED BY SIR REGINALD SPENCE* Kt„ F.Z.S, & S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S VOL. XXXIV, No. 1. Date of Publication , 1st March , 1930 Price to Non-Members ••• ••• Bs. 15-0-0 or £ 1-3-0 For terms of membership, see inside front cover. Honorary Secretary’s Address: Bombay natural history society, 6, Apollo Street^ Bombay. LONDON AGENTS : DULAU & Co., Ltd., 32, Old Bond Street, W. 1 . PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS Mesopotamia. A Survey of the Fauna of Iraq. — Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, etc. —made by Members of the Mesopotamia Expeditionary Force ‘ D 1915-1919.' Rc. 7-8 {Price to Members Rs. 6). Birds. A Hand List of Genera and Species of Birds of the Indian Empire, by E.C, Stuart Baker, O.B.E., M.B.O.U., F.Z.S., C.F.A.O.U. Rs. 6 ( Price to Members Rs. 4-12) . Game Birds of India, Vol. I. (Indian Ducks and their Allies) , 2nd Edition. Rs. 50 {Price to Members Rs. 35) . Game Birds of India, Vol. II. (Woodcock, Snipe, Bustards and Sandgrouse), 1st Edition. Rs. 42 {Price to Members Rs. 30). 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Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 20 and a Life Membership fee of Rs. 350. Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 20 and an annual subscription of Rs. 25. The subscription of members elected in October, November and December covers the period from the date of their election up till the end of the following year. MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA. The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription, plus postage— in all Rs. 26-8-0 to the Society in Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of .£2-0-6 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers— The National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. Contents of volume xxx/v, No. t Page The Game Birds of the Indian Empire. Part XI. ( With a coloured plate). By E. C. Stuart Baker, f.z.s., f.l.s., m.b.o.u., H.F.A.O.U, 1 Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency. Part XI. By Rev. E. Blatter, S.J., ph.D., f.l.s 12 The Study of Indian Birds. Part IV. ( With three black and white plates). By H. Whistler, f.z.s., m.b.o.u 27 Flowerless Plants. Part III. ( With one coloured and two black and white plates.) By Mrs. M. Robinson, b.a. (t.c.d.), nat. sci. trip, cam 40 Notes on the Birds of the Upper Burma Hills. Part II. (By P. F. Wickham 46 The Panthers and Ounces of Asia. ( With six black and white plates). By R. I. Pocock, f.r.s ... 64 Some Beautiful Indian Trees. Part III. ( With two coloured and two black and white plates.) By Rev. E. Blatter, S.J., ph.D., f.l.s. and W. S. Millard, F.z.s 83 Indian Dragonflies. Part XXXV. ( With one plate and four text- figures.) By Lt. -Col. F. C. Fraser, i.m.s., f.e.s 87 A Tour in Further Kashmir. ( With two plates). By B. B. Osmaston, c.i.e. ...^ 108 The Flowering of Bamboos. Part II. By Rev. E. Blatter, s.j., ph.D., f.l.s 135 Notes from an Expedition for Ovis poll. ( With two plates) . By W. J. Morden : 142 Report on a Collection of Ants in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. ( With one plate and six text- figures) , By Durgadas Mukerjee 149 On the Fishes of the Manchar Lake, Sind. By Dr. Baini Prashad, d.sc. 164 Wolves in Sheep’s Clothing. ( With seven text-figures) . By Major R. W. G. Kingston, i.m.s 170 Ants and the Lac Insect. ( With three plates). By P. S. Negi, M. P. Misra, and S. N. Gupta 182 Contributions to our Knowledge of the Fresh Water Alg,e of Manipur, Assam. {With four plates). By K. P. Biswas, m. a. ... 189 Methods of Fishing in the Punjab. {With a plate). By M. Hamid Khan, m.sc 193 Description of a New Ant-Mimicking Spider. ( With two text- figures). By Durgadas Mukerjee 200 Two New Species of Sphingid^e {Hawk Moths) from the Oriental Region. By C.E. Fellowes-Manson 202 The History and Progress of the Zoological Survey of India. Part II 205 B. N. H.S. Investigation into the Composition of Salt-Licks. Earth-eating and Salt-licking in India. Part II. By Rev. Fr. J. F. Caius, s.j., f.l.s. and K. H. Bharucha, b.a., b.sc 220 Reviews.— The Field-Book of a Jungle-Wallah 223 Trout Fishing from All Angles 225 A Guide to the Orchids of Sikkim 226 What Botany Really Means 227 Migration of Wildfowl 229 The Toxicity of the Venoms of Indian Scorpions. By Rev. J. F. Caius 230 Page Contents of voi. xxxiv, No. i MISCELLANEOUS NOTES— I.— Strange Behaviour of a Tigress. By A. Macdonald. 231 II.— The Caracal in Iraq. ( With a photo). By Dr. N. L. Corkhill. 232 III. — Distribution and Colouration of the Lynx {Lynx lynx). By Capt. D. G. Lowndes 234 IV. — The Hunting Leopard {Cyncelnrus jubatus) in the C. P. By J. M. Richardson 235 V.— Malay Beliefs and Legends about Tigers and Wild Dogs. By Alexander Cross 235 VI.— Season of shedding and growth of Antlers in the Swamp Deer ( Rucervus duvaucelli) in Assam. By Capt. D. Moncrieff Wright 236 VII. — Encounters with Elephants on the Billigirirangan Hills. By R. C. Morris ... 237 VIII. — Elephant Tusk wedged in a Tree. By R. C. Morris 242 IX. — The Distribution of Wild Buffalo in Orissa. ( With a map and a photo). By H. F. Mooney, t.f.s 242 X. — Malformed Cheetal Head ( Axis axis) ( With a Photo) By the Heir-Apparent, Bikaner 245 XI. — Partial Disappearance of the Wild Pig (Sus cristatus) By R. C. Morris ..... 245 XII. — Birds of Quetta. By C. B. Ticehurst. 246 XIII. — The Incubation of Eggs during the Hot Weather. By C. O. Lowsley 247 XIV. — The Tail-Racket of Dissemurus paradiseus. By H. Whistler. 250 XV. — Note on the Nesting Habits of the Southern Red-Whiskered Bulbul (Otocompsa emeria fuscicaudata). By Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, i.m.s. 250 XVI. — Migration of the Pied Crested-Cuckoo ( Coccystes jacobinus) By R. M. Simmons 252 XVII.— An Albino House Sparrow ( Passer doniesticus) . By N. K. Tiwary 253 XVIII.— Migratory Habits of Wagtails. By N. K. Tiwary 253 XIX. — The Mating of the Blossom-headed Paroquet ( Psittacula cyanocephala) . By N. K. Tiwary 254 XX. — Late Stay of Grey Quail (Coturnix cotnrnix) in Bihar, Chapra. By A. Macdonald 255 XXI. — Breeding of Geese and Ducks in Eastern Turkistan. By Capt. G. Sherriff, r.a 255 XXII. — How the Monitor Lizard Sits in its Burrow. By Beni Charan Mahendra 255 XXIII. — Occurrence of the Russell’s Viper in the Brahmaputra Valley By J. Loudon 256 XXIV.— The Distribution of the Banded Krait (Bungarus fasciatus) By Lt.-Col. J. Masson, i.m.s. (Retd.) 256 XXV. — A Duel between a Cat and a Cobra. By Miss H. Vick 257 XXVI. — Notes on the Rarer Lycsenidae. By G. E. R. Cooper 258 XXVII.— A Note on some Malabar Lepidoptera. By Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser, i.m.s 260 XXVIII.— Dwarf Specimens of Butterflies. ( With a plate). By W. M. Crawford, f.e.s 261 XXIX. — The Life History of the Silk-Moth (Lcepa newara). By C. E. Fellowes-Manson 262 XXX. — The Human Ear used as a Burrow by a Sphegid Wasp. By Lorna Boyd 263 XXXI.— Notes on the Flowering of Strobilanthus callosus). By C. McCann 264 XXXII.— Some Notes on Scorpions in Iraq. By Norman L. Corkill. ... 265 XXXIII.— Swarming of the Tenebrionid Beetle ( Lyprops curticolli s) . By D. A. Turkhud 267 Proceedings * * 268 Jgltrn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society March, 1930 Vol. XXXIV No. 1 THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE BY E. C. Stuart Baker, f.z.s., f.l.s., m.b.o.u., h.f.a.o.u. Vol. V THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS Part XI ( With a coloured plate) ( Continued from page 752 of Vol. XXXIII) Family: GLAREOLINAE Key to Sub-families A. No hind toe; tarsus equal to one-third of wing- or more ... ... ... Cursoriince. B. A small hind toe ; tarsus equal to about one- fifth of wing ... ... ... Glareolince. Sub-family : CURSORIINH3 Key to Genera A. Bill rather long, narrow and slightly curved ; no pectoral bands ... ... Cursorius. B. Bill straight; breast with two transverse bands ... ... ... Rhinoptilus. Genus : Cursorius Cursorius Lath., Ind. Orn., i, p. 751 (1790). Type by tautonomy, Charadhius cursor Latham. 2 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL NIST. SOCIETY, Vol . XXXIV Key to Species A. Crown rufous in front, grey behind ... C. cursor. B. Crown chestnut throughout ... ... C. coramandelicus. CURSORIUS CURSOR CURSOR The Cream-coloured Courser Charadrius cursor Latham, Gen. Synop. Birds, Suppl. i, p. 293, (1787) (England). Cursorius gallicus. — Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 211. V ernacidar Names. — None recorded. Description. — Forehead and fore-crown rufous, the lores paler; hind-crown and nape ashy-grey ; a nuchal patch black ; supercilia white, meeting behind the black patch ; a second line of black from the eye below the supercilium ; upper plumage, wing-coverts and inner secondaries rufous-sandy ; primaries and primary coverts black ; outer secondaries rufous-sancly, tipped white and with a subterminal patch ; tail-feathers sandy-rufous, the central with an obsolete black spot, the lateral with broad black subterminal spots and white tips, the white extending to the outer web of the outer- most feathers ; wing-lining and axillaries black ; lower plumage paler sandy-rufous, the chin and throat paler and the under tail-coverts almost or quite white. Colours of soft parts. — Iris brown; bill black; legs yellowish or fleshy-white. Measurements. — Wing 150 to 171 mm. ; tail 58 to 72 mm. ; tarsus 55 to 60 mm. ; culmen 21 to 26 mm. ; generally 23 to 25 mm. Sexes alike. Young birds are a paler duller sandy and are barred on the upper plumage with blackish-brown ; there is no grey or brown on the crown. Distribution. — North Africa, Morocco to Egypt ; South-West Asia from Palestine to North-West India, South Persia, Afghanistan and Baluchistan. In India' it occurs as far South-East as Ajmere, Jodhpur, Erinpura and South to Cutch. In Europe it occurs regularly as far as Italy and South France and sporadically to England. Nidification. — The Cream-coloured Courser does not breed within Indian limits but its eggs have been taken in Mesopotamia and it breeds thence West throughout Northern Africa. Sladen obtained their eggs in Palestine up to the end of June but in the Sinai Desert Pitman found them breeding from the end of March to early May and succeeded in obtaining a fine series of their eggs. The birds make no nest but lay their two eggs on the bare ground, sometimes scratching a shallow receptacle for them and at other times not even doing this. The ground selected is open desert, either sand or barren stony country and, though occasionally the eggs may be deposited under the protection of a tuft of grass or some small scrubby bush, they are, as a rule, laid absolutely in the open. Naturally under these circumstances the birds are very close sitters, as otherwise the eggs would soon become cooked by the sun. Siaden remarks that their nests are very difficult to find, as the The gAme birds of the Indian empire eggs assimilate so closely to the ground on which they are placed. The birds sneak away whilst the intruder is still at some distance but, if he remains still, within a very few moments she will be seen returning, approaching the eggs by short and rapid runs and immediately sitting down upon them. It is then easy to walk up to the eggs and pick them up. Although they do not breed actually in colonies, several nests may be found within a short distance of one another. The full clutch is two, though in one instance Dresser had a set of three sent him. The eggs have a ground colour of pale sandy grey or buff and are freckled all over with darker sandy brown or brown, the freckles occasionally becoming rather larger spots or tiny streaks. In most specimens there are secondary marks of pale grey equally numerous and similarly scattered over the entire surface; In a few eggs the markings are more numerous at the larger end, where they form an indefinite ring or cap. Twenty eggs average 34' 7 by 27'2 mm. ; maxima 39 3 by 29 0 mm. ; minima 32 2 by 26 5 mm. and 34 0 by 25 '5 mm. Habits. — This Courser frequents nothing but the most bare desert country ; either wide sandy wastes such as are found in Africa and Palestine, the more stony and barren, though equally desert, country further East or, the wide expanses of caked yellow mud of the Mesopotamian open lands. So closely does this bird blend with its surroundings that so long as it is quiescent it is extra- ordinarily difficult to detect but, as it is a very restless bird when feeding, its actions soon catch the eye. It runs with great speed and when disturbed will often continue to run in front of the disturber for some distance before it takes to flight. On the wing it is exceptionally strong and graceful, constantly wheeling and twisting in the air much in the manner of some of the Sand-Grouse. When suddenly frightened it often seeks to avoid detection by squatting close to the ground with head outstretched and eyes almost closed and, if it has not been spotted before squatting, it is possible to pass within a very few feet of it without detection. Its food consists almost entirely of insects, whilst it manages to keep fat and in splendid condition in country where one would have thought it was more likely to starve. It is quite good to eat and, so far as its flight goes, it is worthy of a shot but at the same time hardly ranks as a game bird. CURSORIUS COROMANDELICUS The Indian Courser Charadrius eoromandelicus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., i, p. 692 (1788) (Coromandel Coast.) Cursorius eoromandelicus.- — Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 210. V ernacular Names. — Nukri (Hind.) ; Yerro Chitawa , Durawayi (Tel.)- Description.— Crown rich rufous with a small black nuchal spot ; a broad white supercilium meeting behind this black spot ; lores black and a black band through the eye, down the neck and surrounding the white ; hind-neck rufous ; upper tail-coverts white ; remainder of upper plumage light brown, slightly sandy ; primaries black ; outer 4 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. XXXlV secondaries black with white tips and brown towards their ends ; inner secondaries, lesser and median coverts like the back ; greater coverts black ; lateral tail-feathers with broad white tips and black sub-tips; breast and flanks chestnut, deepening on the abdomen and succeeded by a black patch ; lower abdomen and posterior flanks grey, changing to white on the vent and lower tail-coverts ; chin and throat white ; fore-neck pale rufous ; under wing-coverts black. Colours of soft parts. — Iris dark brown or hazel; bill black; legs and feet ivory-white or creamy-white. Measurements. — Wing, S 136 to 147 mm., $ 141 to 156 mm.; tail 50 to 57 mm. ; tarsus 50 to 58 mm. ; culmen 19 to 21 mm. Young birds are dull buff above, irregularly barred with blackish brown ; there is a small pale supercilium but no black on the crown ; the breast is dull rufous, more or less barred with blackish ; chin and abdomen white. Distribution. — The drier, more open and desert portions of India from North Ceylon to North-West India and Western Bengal. It is common in the deforested parts of Travancore but is rare on the Malabar coast and, again, is absent from the pure desert country of Cutch, Sind and the North-West Province. Nidification. — The differences between the nidification of the Cream-coloured Courser and our Indian bird are very remarkable instances of the adaptation of birds to their natural surroundings and form an admirable example of evolution by environment. The present species, like the last, lays its eggs on the ground but, as a site for its nesting hollow, it selects either ploughed fields, dark coloured fallow land or dark brown sandy wastes, or even — as in Malabar — the sea coasts. In this latter instance, however, instead of depositing its eggs on the bare yellow sand, it selects either the debris just above high water mark or patches of dark coloured drift still higher up. In no case that has been recorded have its eggs ever been taken on sand or on pale coloured desert land. As we might expect, the eggs differ greatly from those of the preceding bird and closely match the black soil and yellow debris upon which they are laid. The ground colour varies from a pale stone colour to a rich yellow buff, whilst the markings consist of patches and smears or endless lines and scriggles of black which cover the greater part of the surface. In a few eggs the marks are more brown than black and in a few others, a considerable portion of the rich buff ground colour shows up distinctly. In shape the eggs are like all others of this family — very broad elipses, in some cases almost cylindrical. Forty eggs average 30*7 by 24*0 mm.; maxima 34 1 by 23-9 mm. and 3P5 by 26'1 mm.; minima 28'2 mm. by 23T mm. and 302 by 22 1 mm. The eggs are always two only and the principal breeding months are April and May, though eggs may be found as late as fune and sometimes in Western India as late as July. Habits. — The Indian Courser keeps entirely to open country but, unlike the Cream-coloured Courser, prefers cultivated country or waste ground which is covered by very thin scrub or a certain amount of grass, though it never resorts to the forest or to thick cover. Although it is found over such a large area, it is rather The game birds of the Indian empire 5 particular as to its habitat and whilst, on the one hand, it is not found in areas with the heaviest rainfall, it equally avoids completely desert country. When incubating its eggs this Courser sits very close, only creeping away at the very last moment on being disturbed and returning quickly to its eggs at the first opportunity. At other times it is shy and very difficult to approach, generally seeking safety by running away with great speed. In the non-breeding season it occasionally collects in small flocks and these are just as difficult to approach as single birds. At the first sign of danger they may be seen standing very erect with their heads stretched in the direction from which danger approaches. Then with one accord, down go heads and tails and every bird races off for a hundred yards or so, when the erect attitude is once more adopted and the approaching danger surveyed anew. They fly very strongly and swiftly, although they seem to have more confidence in their legs than in their wings. Their food is almost entirely insectivorous and their flesh not bad to eat though generally very dry. Genus : Rhinoptilus Rhinoptilus Strickland, P.Z.S., 1850, p. 220, Jan. 1852. Type. — Cursorius licinctus Temminck. Rhinoptilus bitorquatus Jerdon’s Courser Rhinoptilus bitorquatus Blyth, J.A. S.B., xvii, pt. 1, p. 254 (1848), ex Jerdon MS. (Eastern Ghats); Blanford and Oates, iv, p. 212. Vernacular Names. — Adava-wuta-titti (Tel.). Description. — Forehead, supercilia and a broken central coronal streak pale buff or white ; remainder of crown and hind-neck dark brown, surrounded by the pale buff ; tail-coverts white ; remainder of upper plumage, scapulars and inner secondaries brown ; tail- feathers blackish, the outermost broadly white at the base and all the lateral feathers with white apical spots on the outer webs ; median coverts paler grey-brown with broad white edges forming a conspicuous wing-bar ; greater and primary coverts black ; primaries black, the outermost with a broad white patch on the outer web, joining obliquely with a similar broad white subterminal patch on the inner web, the white decreasing to a small spot on the inner web of the fourth; outer secondaries black, broadly edged with white on the inner webs ; chin and throat white ; fore-neck rufous surrounded by a black-edged white band ; breast brown with a broad white belt across the lower part ; under wing-coverts black and white; axillaries, lower breast, flanks and abdomen creamy- white changing to white on the under tail-coverts. The feathers of the upper parts are obsoletely edged paler and the wing-coverts more definitely so, a character possibly of the juvenile plumage. 6 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XX XIV Colours of soft parts. — Iris dark brown; bill blackish-horny at the tips of both mandibles, pale yellow from the nostrils to' the gape, leg’s pale yellowish-white with a fleshy tinge, soles flesh- coloured, nails horny. Measurements. — Wing 161 to 168 mm. ; tail 64 to 65 mm. ; tarsus 68 mm. ; culmen 18 to1 19 mm. Distribution. — The forest country from the Godavery Valley to the neighbourhood of Madras^ Jerdon discovered it in Nellore and Cuddapah and Blanford obtained it close to Sironcha on the Godavery and again near Bhadrachalam, whilst, in 1900, Howard Campbell saw it near Anantapur, much farther West. Nidification. — Very little is known about the breeding of this rare bird but a writer in the ‘Asian’, about 1895, describes finding its eggs laid on the ground in thin scrub jungle. The eggs were said to be almost exactly like those of the Indian Courser, the ground colour a bright yellow, almost obliterated by black scrawls, patches and spots. They were laid on the ground, two in number, with no depression and without concealment. Habits. — Jerdon’s Courser, unlike all the other birds of this family, seems to frequent thin scfub or deciduous bush jungle, rather than completely open country. Jerdon and Blanford both record finding it, not only in scrub, but also' in thin forest. Campbell saw it in dry bush jungle and Howard obtained a male in quite thick scrub. It seems to keep always in pairs, both in and out of the breeding season and, whilst it generally seeks safety by running away on foot into denser cover, it is said to fly as well as, or even more strongly than, the more common Coursers. Jerdon says that it is has a plaintive cry. Sub-family : GLAREOLIN^ Genus : Glareola Glareola, Brisson, Orn., i, p. 48 (1760). Type by tautonomy Hirundo pratincola. Key to Species A. Tail deeply forked; wing exceeding 170 mm. (a) Outer tail-feathers exceeding central tail-feathers by about 50 mm. ... G. pratincola. (b) Outer tail-feathers exceeding central tail-feathers by 25 mm. or less ... G. maldivarurn. B. Tail nearly even; wing under 170 mm. ... G. lactea. Glareola pratincola pratincola The Collared Pratincole. Hirundo pratincola Linn., Syst. Nat., 12th ed., p. 315 (1766) (Austria). Glareola pratincola. — Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 216. Vernacular Names. — None recorded. THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 7 Description.^- Upper plumage brown, faintly tinged with olive the back and sides of the neck more pale rufous ; lores and a line under the eye running down the sides of the neck and in a narrow gorget across the upper breast black, indistinctly edged with white ; rump and shorter tail-coverts white; longer tail-coverts brown with paler edges ; tail feathers black with broad white bases ; chin and throat inside the gorget pale rufous ; breast pale isabelline-rufous changing to rufous on the lower breast and to pure white on the abdomen and under tail-coverts ; lesser and median under wing- coverts and axillaries deep rufous. Colours of soft parts. — Iris dark brown ; bill black, the gape reddish ; legs and feet dusky black. Measurements. — Wing 176 to 200 mm. ; tail, longest outermost feather 102 to 119 mm.; shortest central feathers 54 to 58 mm.; tarsus 30 to 32 mm. ; culmen 15 to 16 mm. Young birds are olive-brown above, the feathers pale tipped and with black sub-edges, there is no black neck-line or gorget and the breast is mottled brown and rufous-white. Distribution. — South Europe, Central and Western Asia to Sind and Cutch. In Winter it wanders into Africa. In India it breeds in Sind and on the Mekran coast and struggles as far as Allahabad, the Deccan and Ratnagiri. Nidification. — -Within Indian limits the Collared Pratincole breeds from April to May in Sind, Cutch and all up the Mekran coast, very often in company with the Large Indian Pratincole. It breeds in April and May over the greater part of Europe, whilst in Palestine and Mesopotamia it lays principally in June. The eggs, which number two or three, are laid on the ground, a depression being sometimes made by the birds for their reception but without any lining or nest of any kind. The ground selected is almost invariably dark-coloured waste ground, edges of swamps or wide stretches of sun-burnt mud, and, in the majority of cases, without grass, scrub or any other cover. Occasionally the bird selects a patch of ploughed land or even of land in which there is stubble or a crop of very short growth ; such instances are, however, quite exceptional. The eggs are very like those of the Indian Courser but are less richly coloured, the ground colour being more tinged with grey and less with rich yellow or buff. The markings consist of numerous spots and blotches of blackish brown scattered over the whole surface but generally rather less thickly than they are in the eggs of the Coursers. Scrolled eggs are quite unusual. Forty Indian eggs average 305 by 234 mm. ; maxima 31 6 by 23* 1 mm. and 30’7 by 24 2 mm. ; minima 29 2 by 240 mm. and 30 0 by 22 4 mm. Where one nest is found, two or three others may generally be found quite close by, whilst occasionally, the birds breed in colonies of considerable size though, even in these, the nests are often scattered over a wide area. Apparently both sexes take part in incubation but they are said not to sit very close and to leave their nests on but little provocation, though they return very quickly to them when the sun is at all high. Habits. — The Habits of the Pratincoles are very similar to those of the Coursers. They associate during the non-breeding season 8 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Jto/. XXXIV in small flocks which may generally be seen running about on the ground, or at other times wheeling and twisting about in rapid flight close above it. Whether running or flying, they always seem to be in a hurry and the energy they display is very great. At the same time they move about but little during the hottest hours of the day, though even during these they seldom seek the shelter of shade of any kind. Their favourite country is some bare and barren dark-coloured waste land or deserted patches of cultivation but, though they never enter forest or even thin scrub, they may often be seen in cultivated fields and thin short grassland. They are wary birds and difficult to approach within shot. Their food consists almost entirely of various insects, though sandhoppers, small grasshoppers and locusts probably form the great part of it. Glareola maldivarum maldivarum The Large Indian Pratincole or Swallow-Plover Glareola maldivarum Forster, Fauna Indica, p. 11 (1795) (Maidive Is.) Glareola orientalis. — Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 214. Vernacular Names. — None recorded. Description. — Differs from the preceding bird in being much darker both above and below and in having comparatively less white on the tail. The tail itself is much shorter and much less deeply forked. Colours of soft parts as in G. pratincola. Measurements. — Wing 173 to 191 mm. ; tail, longest outermost feathers 71 to 85 mm. ; shortest central feathers 52 to 62 mm. ; tarsus 30 to 33 mm. ; culmen 13 to 15 mm. Nestling. — ‘Greyish-buff down, much mottled with dark blackish- brown spots.’ (Butler). Distribution. — India, Ceylon, Burma, the Indo-Chinese Countries to Eastern Siberia and the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago. Mathews accepts Leach’s orientalis as a subspecies occurring from Java Eastwards. Nidification. — The nidification of this bird varies but little from that of the preceding but, both in Assam and in Burma, its favourite breeding haunts are grass-lands and rice-fields which have been burnt, where the little chips of half-burnt stalks of rice or grass speckle the black earth with yellow and make the eggs extraordinarily difficult to detect. In Burma both Hopwood and Mackenzie found them breeding on the banks of small islands in muddy creeks and, in Assam, I have also taken their eggs on the edges of mustard cultivation, where the village cattle and buffaloes have trampled the crops out of existence. Apparently this Pratincole always breeds in colonies which may number anything from half a dozen to fifty or more pairs. Sometimes, too, with this species the nests are placed close together not more than two or three yards apart, though sometimes they may be as much as fifty yards distant from one another. They are said to be much closer sitters than the European Pratincole and to refuse to' leave their eggs until the intruder is very close, when they frequently move away THE GAME BIRDS OF THE IND/A/V EMPIRE 9 feigning- illness, in the hopes of drawing the intruder away from the nest. It is very interesting too, to note that these actions cannot be caused, as Dewar would have us believe, by uncontrollab’e fright, for very often when the bird’s first efforts to entice the intruder away have failed, it will again return and make renewed attempts. This can easily be proved if a person on finding a nest, moves away from it and then, as soon as the parent bird ceases its antics, once more walks towards the eggs, when the pretence of being wounded or ill will once more be acted by the bird. It is not unusual for these manoeuvres to be repeated again and again long after the effect of the first sudden fright must have passed away, and they certainly seem to show a certain amount of reasoning power on the part of the parent bird. The eggs are quite undistinguishable from those of the preceding bird but perhaps average a trifle lighter. Sixty eggs average 30'8 by 23'9 mm. ; maxima 342 by 25*3 mm. ; minima 28'0 by 22-5 mm. and 31'4 by 2 1 4 mm. Habits. — These differ in no way from those of the Collared Pratincole but, whereas that bird sometimes breeds year after year in the same locality, the nesting places of the Indian bird seem to be frequently changed, although the change may be only temporary. When I was in Assam there were several fairly large flocks to be found in the dark soil above the sand limit of the larger rivers. For two or three years these birds would haunt and breed in one particular spot and then, for no obvious reason, desert it completely and move out of the district altogether, returning perhaps after a lapse of some four or five years. They are distinctly less shy birds than the preceding and, provided the watcher keeps very still, they will sometimes allow an observation from a very short distance. A curious habit I noticed with this little Pratincole was that of scratching in the soil rather like a small game bird, and this they do both when they feed and when dusting themselves. The stomachs of those birds which I examined were nearly always full of very small grasshoppers and their larvae, but one bird contained a mass of tiny beetles and another contained what looked like a mass of flying ants. Glareola lactea The Small Indian Pratincole or Sand-Plover Glareola lactea Temm., Man. d’Orn., del. ii. 2, p. 503 (1820) (Bengal); Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 216. Vernacular Names. — None recorded. Description. — Lores and a line round the front of the eye velvet- black ; whole upper plumage pale grey, faintly tinged sandy and browner on the forehead; scapulars, inner secondaries, lesser and median wing-coverts sandy-grey, the last tipped white ; greater and primary coverts black ; primaries black, all but the first two or three with a patch of white on the outer webs of the innermost ; secondaries white with black tips, broadest on the first, narrowest 2 10 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , P5/. XXXI V on the inner ; upper tail-coverts white ; tail white with a very broad subterminal black band ; chin, throat, fore-neck and upper breast sandy-buff changing- to pale grey on the breast and flanks ; under wing-coverts and axillaries black ; remainder of lower plumage white. Colours of soft parts. — Iris dark brown; bill black, red at the base and more yellow on the gape ; legs and feet dark brown or plumbeous to black. Measurements. — Wing 142 to 160 mm. ; tail 50 to 57 mm. ; tarsus 20 to 21 mm. ; culmen 9 to1 10 mm. Siamese and Burmese specimens are very small, wing 136 to 149 mm, and seem slightly greyer, less sandy, in colour but there is so' much overlapping both in size and colour that I hesitate to separate them. Young Birds have the feathers of the upper plumage obsoletely edged paler sandy and have the throat and fore-neck spotted with blackish. Distribution. — Ceylon, India and Burma. It occurs in Kashmir but not West of the Indus. Nidification. — Unlike the larger Pratincoles which select black or dark coloured soil on which to deposit their eggs, this beautiful little bird invariably breeds on the banks or islands of large rivers, where the sand and shingle is the usual pale yellow or sandy grey. As a rule the birds select the higher sand ridges for the purpose of nesting but I have occasionally seen them breeding on shingle and very often the eggs may be found amongst a very thin crop of grass or Equisetum, whilst at other times they may be placed absolutely in the open, without any cover whatsoever. The colonies generally are of great size. Occasionally one finds a dozen or so pairs of birds breeding on a small island but most colonies number over a hundred, whilst some contain as many as three or four hundred pairs of birds. They breed not only on the great rivers of India where they flow more or less placidly through the plains but often have their nesting places in these same rivers where they debouch from the hills and where the water comes rushing and tumbling past their nesting island. Occasionally, even, I have found smafl colonies well inside the hills but never at a height at which the rivers dwindle in size to. small streams. The birds are extraordinarily persistent in sticking to a favourite breeding haunt and I have known eggs washed out three times by the river rising* and flooding, before the birds eventually moved to a higher site. When in large colonies the eggs are often placed so close together that it is very difficult to avoid stepping on them and I have seen as many as a dozen nests within a space of four square yards. Never apparently are they widely scattered as is so often the case with the larger Pratincoles in some districts in India. The normal clutch of eggs is two only, three being exceptional, though in some parts of Assam I have found four to be the normal clutch. They are deposited in small depressions scratched out by the parent birds in the sand and, though there is no lining to this, I have never seen the eggs deposited on the bare ground without a hollow being scraped for them. As we might expect from the colour of the sand and stones among which they lie, the eggs are themselves of a pale sandy buff or sandy THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 11 grey — exceptional eggs having- a very faint ting-e of olive-green or creamy pink. The markings consist of small primary specks and blotches of light reddish brown with other secondary ones of pale lavender or neutral tint. These are scattered fairly thickly over the whole surface but are sometimes rather more dense at the larger end. They are never thick enough or dark enough to render the general tint of the egg anything but sand colour. Two hundred eggs average 25'9 by 20'5 mm. ; maxima 29-2 by 2T0 mm. and 28’5 by 22-0 mm. ; minima 23'9 by 19*9 mm. and 25*7 by 19-0 mm. Habits. — This little Pratincole seems invariably to' frequent the larger rivers where there are wide stretches of sand and shingle, where they collect in flocks of many hundreds. In the winter they may also be found on the sea coast and the estuaries where the banks of the rivers are more mud than sand and throughout the Sunderbands they are extraordinarily common. The size of the flocks in which they collect can be estimated from -the effects of a shot I once fired. As I only wanted to collect one or two birds out of the flock as specimens, I delayed my shot until I could fire at the last few birds passing me. Unfortunately, as I fired, the flock wheeled, so that I shot not only into the tail but into the head of the flock as well. After this shot my coolies picked up forty-two birds and many more fell or fluttered into the waters of the Megna, where the muggers who infested the river made any question of following them up utterly impossible. On the wing they certainly are one of the most beautiful and graceful of all our Indian birds. They come sweeping up to one at a tremendous pace and then without any apparent cause, suddenly wheel and twist first this way and then the other, every bird apparently actuated by the same idea at the same moment. After a few moments in the air, the birds settle in a cloud on some sandbank close to the edge of the river and one then sees each .individual making tiny little spurts here and there in the pursuit of their insect food. In this way, although each bird seems to be running independently of the others, back- wards and forwards, the whole flock by degrees gradually wanders up or down the river for some three or four hundred yards. Then once more, without a moment’s warning the whole flock simultane- ously rises and dashes off to some other feeding ground. The stomachs of those I have examined contained mainly insects and sandhoppers but I have also found small molusc.a, whilst in one bird there were three or four of what looked like tiny sand eels about an inch long. They follow the great Northern rivers into the Himalayas so far as these have suitable banks and islands for breeding purposes and their eggs have been taken at an elevation of nearly 6,000 feet. They are extraordinarily plump little birds, often coated with fat, and on one occasion when hard pressed for food I ate them in a pie and found them excellent, tasting almost exactly like ortolan. It is to be hoped, all the same, no one will ever consider them proper objects of sport or kill them to eat when other things are available. (To be continued) REVISION OE THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY BY E. Blatter, s.j., ph.d., f.l.s. PART XI GRAMINEiE E. Blatter, s.j., ph.d., f.l.s., and C. McCann {Continued from page 775 of Volume XXXIII) Key to the Genera We follow, where possible, the systematic arrangement given by Stapf in the Flora of Tropical Africa. We add in brackets the reference to the genera in our series. SUB=FAIWILY I : Panicoidcae. — Mature spikelets falling en- tire from their pedicels or with them, all alike or differing in sex and structure ; perfect spikelets with two heteromorphous florets, the upper herma- phrodite, the lower male or barren ; rhachilla not continued beyond the upper floret (Genera 1-61). TRIBE I : Mayde^:. — Sexes in different inflore- scences on the same plant, or the female spikelets at the base of the inflorescence, the male above them ; spikelets never awned, the male and female very dissimilar (Genera 1-4). 1. Male and female spikelets in separate inflore- scences ; male spikelets in a large terminal panicle; the female spikelets in the axils of the leaves. A. Female spikes distinct, articulated (vol. 32, 15) B. Female spikelets grown together into a sponey more or less cylindrical body (vol. 32, 15) 2. Male and female spikelets in separate portions of the same spike, the female below. A. Grain enclosed in the usually globose or ovoid ivory-like capsuliform supporting sheath (vol. 32, 17) B. Grain enclosed in the hardened outer glumes (vol. 32, 17) TRIBE II : Andropogone^e. — Spikelets usually in pairs, one sessile, the other pedicelled, very rarely both pedicelled, those of each pair alike as to sex (homogamous) or different (heterogamous) , rarely 3-nate or solitary on the axis of a usually spike-like raceme. Involucral glume more or less rigid and firmer than the floral glumes, the lower always 1. Euchlaena. 2. Zea. 3. Coix. 4. Poly toe a. kE VIS ION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY i3 longer than the florets ; floral glumes membranous, often hyaline, that cf tne upper floret usually awned or reduced to an awn (Genera 5-41). 1. Sub-tribe: Dimerincs . — Spikelets homogam- ous, second on a slender inarticulate rhachis, 1-flowered, diandrous (vol, 32, 18) ... ... ... ... 5. 2. Sub-tribe: Ischcemince . — Fertile spikelets 2- flowered ; fertile floret awned from the sinus of the bifid or bidentate upper floral glume, sometimes awnless in Apluda (Gei era 6-13 ) . A. Group Ischcemastrcs, . — Racemes several - to many-noded, espatheate ; spikelets of each pair homogamous or more often heterogamous, usually similar in shape and nervation, rarely distinctly hetero- morphous ; fertile spikelets awned (Genera 6-12). i. Margins of lower involucral glume of sessile spikelet inflexed. a. Stem not woolly below ; joints and pedicels stout ; spikelets heterogam- ous (Genera 6-8). (1) Spikes clustered; lower involucral glume not channelled (vol. 32, 19)... 6. (2) Spikes solitary ; lower involucral glume usually channelled (vol. 32, 22) ... ... ... 7. b. Rootstock and base of stem clothed with woolly sheaths ; spikelets similar and homogamous (vol. 32, 25) ... 8. ii. Margins of lower involucral glume of sessile spikelet not inflexed. a. Spikes solitary ; spikelets 2-nate, 1-2- flowered, 2-awned (vol. 32, 289) ... 9. b. Spikes solitary or 2-nate ; spikelets 2- flowered, diandrous ; lower involucral glume very broad truncate (vol. 32, 25) ... ... ... 10. c. Spikes digitate; spikelets 2-flowered ; lower involucral glume tubercled (vol. 32, 22) ... ... ... 11. d. Spikes 2-oo-nate ; spikelets 2-nate, upper alone awned (vol. 32, 25) ... 12. B. Group Apludastrce. — Racemes 1-noded, reduced to 3 heteromorphous spikelets, the sessile with a male and a herma- phrodite floret and an inflated callus, one pedicelled with 2 male florets, the other rudimentary on a glume-like pedicel ; fertile florets awned or awnless (vol. 32, 26) ... ... ... 13. 3. Sub-tribe: Rotboellince Fertile spikelets 1- or 2-flowered ; fertile florets awnless (Genera 14-21). Group Rotboelliastree . — Racemes at the ends of the culms and their branches in a false (rarely true) spatheate panicle or solitary and terminal on simple or sparingly branched culms. A . Spikelets all alike, also as to sex ; racemes tough or tardily disarticulating, much compressed, joints and pedicels fused (vol. 32,26) ... ... ... 14. Dimer ia. Ischcenmm. Sehima. Pollinidium. Pogonathermn . Apocopis. Thelepogon. Lophopogon. Apluda. Hemarthria. 14 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV B. Spikelets of each pair more or less dis- similar, at least as to sex, the pedicelled male, neuter or suppressed (Genera 15- 21). i. Sessile spikelets small, globose, foveolate, 1-flowered, pedicelled very dissimilar ; joints and pedicels fused (vol. 32, 28) ... ii. Sessile spikelets not globose (Genera 16- 21). a. Sessile spikelets winged from the trans- versely rugose or muricate lower involucral glumes, 1-fiowered, pedi- celled very dissimilar ; joints and pedicels fused (vol. 32, 29) b. Sessile spikelets not winged (Genera 17-21). (1) Racemes usually more or less villous, very rarely glabrous, never cylindri- cal , joints and pedicels moderately stout, gaping. i. Spikelets 2-flowered, very villous all over, the sessile sometimes 2 at a node and sub-opposite (vol. 32, 30) ii. Spikelets 1-fiowered ; racemes more or less villous from the joints and pedicels or the edges of the spike- lets, rarely glabrous ; lower in- volucral glume with a transparent oil-duct inside each keel or a fringe of penicillate warts (vol. 32, 30) ... (2) Racemes glabrous, cylindrical, parti- cularly when the spikelets are closed (Genera 19-21). i. Pedicels and joints fused. (a) Racemes stout, few from each culm ; sessile spikelets 2-flower- ed, pedicelled male or neuter (vol. 32, 31) (b) Racemes slender in ample spathe- ate panicles; sessile spikelets 1-flowered (vol. 32, 31) ii. Pedicels free from the joints ; racemes usually in terminal and lateral spatheate fascicles or fas- tigiate panicles ; coarse tall grasses (vol. 32, 32) 4. Sub-tribe : Saccharines . — All spikelets alike in shape and sex, or if different in sex, then the pedicelled female (Genera 22-25). A. Group Saccharastrcs . — Racemes in more or less compound panicles or racemosely arranged on an elongated common axis ; spikelets 1-flowered ; awn from the sinus of the 2-dentate floral glume or from the tip of the entire valve or 0 (Genera 22-24) . i. Rhachis quite tough ; racemes in spike- like or thyrsoid solitary panicles ; all spikelets pedicelled, muticous (vol. 32, 281) ii. Rhachis of racemes readily disarticulating. a. Spikelets in a wide, often thyrsoid, more or less plumose and silvery panicle, 2-flowered, usually awned, rarely mucronate or awnless (vol 32, 283) 15. Manisuris. 16. Peltophorus. 17. Lasiurus. 18. Elyonurus . 19. Rotboellia. 20. Ophiurus. 21. Coelor rhachis. 22. hnperata. 23. Saccharum . REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 15 b. Spikelets in panicled racemes, 2-flower- ed, awned (vol. 32, 288) ... B. Group Polliniastrcs . — Racemes digitate, rarely solitary ; spikelets 1-2-flowered ; awn from tbe sinus of the 2-fid or 2- dentate floral glume; spikelets dorsally compressed ; callus short, obtuse (vol. 32, 289) 5. Sub-tribe: Andropogonince. — Spikelets of each pair different in sex and frequently also in shape and size, or if those of some pairs of a raceme are alike in sex, then both male or neuter ; fertile spikelets 1- flowered (Genera 26-41). A. Racemes in more or less compound espa- theate panicles ; pedicels without a translucent middle line (Genera 26- 29). Group Sorghastrce. — Pedicel led spikelets male, neuter or suppressed (including the pedicel in Cleistachne) ; awn from the sinus of the 2- fid floral glume. i. Spikelets dorsally compressed, at least when in flower ; lower involucral glume of the fertile spikelets firmly charta- ceous to coriacous. a. Spikelets in threes, one of them fertile, or in racemes of 2-8 pairs ; the pedicelled male, neuter, or if quite suppressed, then at least the pedicels present (vol. 32, 290) b. Spikelets solitary (vol. 32, 408) ii. Spikelets laterally more or less com- pressed. a. Racemes of many pairs of spikelets ; primary branches of panicles in whorls of 6-20 (vol. 32, 408) b. Racemes usually reduced to 1 sessile hermaphrodite and 2 pedicelled male or barren spikelets, rarely of 2 or more but always few pairs (vol. 32, 410) ... B. Racemes not in compound espatheate panicles or if so ( Ccipillipedium) , then the pedicels with a translucent middle line (Genera 30-41). i. Fertile floral glume awned from low down on the back. Group Arthraxonastrce . — Sessile spike- lets convex on the back and rounded on the sides, often muriculate, particularly along the sides ; pedicelled usually rudimentary or 0, rarely male ; racemes digitate (vol. 32, 416) ii. Fertile florel glume awned from the sinus of a 2-fid or 2- dentate valve or continuing the more or less stipitiform floral glume (Genera 31-41) . a. Margins of the lower involucral glume of the fertile spikelet inflexecl and the glume therefore sharply 2-keeled more or less all along with a short obtuse cal 'us, rarely the keels rounded off downwards with the margins subinyolute, but then the 24. Spodiopogon. 25. Eulalia. 26. Sorghum 27. Cleistachne . 28. Vetiveria. 29. Chrysopogon. 30. Arthraxon. 16 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fb/. XXXIV back of the glume deeply sunk between the keels and the callus short or long and acute ; awn glabrous or scabrid, very rarely hirsute ( Andro - pogon sp.) ; spikelets awned (Genera 31-37) . (1) Awn forming a continuation of the stipitiform fertile floral glume. Group Amphilophiastrcz Racemes digitate or racemosely digitate, and then usually very numerous, all more or less peduncled on simple or almost simple culms, or solitary at the end of the culms and their branches and sometimes gathered into a scanty spatheate false panicle, rarely in compound espatbeate panicles ( Capilli - pedium) (Genera 31-34). i. Racemes in compound espatheate panicles (vol. 32, 419) ... 31. ii. Racemes not in compound espathe- ate paniclts (Genera 32-34). (a) Racemes digitate, or many race- mosely arranged on a common axis shorter than the raceme. a. Sessile spikelets of all pairs hermaphrodite, awned (vol. 32, 420) ... ... ... 32. b. Sessile spikelets of the lowest 1-3 * or 4 pairs male or neuter and awnless (vol. 32, 424) ... 33. (b) Racemes solitary at the ends of the culms and branches (vol. 33, 426) ... ... 34. (2) Awn from the sinus of the 2-fid or 2- dentate fertile floral glume (Genera 35-37). i. Group Schizachyriastrcz.-Ra.cem.es solitary at the ends of the culms and their branches, the branches usually gathered into a narrow, lax, spatheate, false panicle ; joints and pedicels thickened upward ; pedicelled spikelets male, neuter or suppressed (vol 32,428) ... 35. ii. Group Andropogonastrcz . — Racemes 2-nate at the end of simple or almost simple culms or gathered into spatheate false or true panicles. (a) Racemes 2-nate on a slender peduncle arising from a flatten- ed spathe ; sessile spikelets alike in sex and form ; joints opaque (vol. 32, 429) ... ... 36. (b) Racemes 2-nate, with a spathe supporting or surrounding each pair, gathered into often much decompound spatheate panicles; the lowest pair of one of the racemes homogamous, male or neuter ; all pairs of the other heterogamous ; mostly aromatic grasses (vol. 32, 429) ... 37. Capillipedium. Aniphilophis. Dichanthium . Eremo pogon. Schizachyrium . Andro pogon. Cynibo pogon. REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 17 b. Margins of the lower involucral glume of the fertile spikelets involute, inflex- ed and 2-keeled (if at all) only close to the tips, the spikelets, therefore, with rounded sides or quite terete ; callus elongate and acute or pungent ; awn more or less hirsute, from the stipitiform floral glume (Genera 38- 41). (1) Groiip Hetero pogonastrce . — Race- mes many-noded, solitary ; ail pairs of spikelets heterogamous and alike or the lowest 1-many homo- gamous and barren, very different from the fertile, not forming an involucre around them (vol. 32, 622) 38. Heteropogon. (2) Group Themedastrce . — Racemes fasciculiform, solitary at the apex of the stem and branches. Spikelets dimorphic, the 4 lower sessile form- ing an involucre round the upper, i. Rhachis articulate below the involu- cral spikelets (vol. 32, 626) ... 39. Iseilema. ii. Rhachis articulate above the involu- cral spikelets (vol. 32, 627) ... 40. Themeda. (3) Group Pseudothemedastrce . — Like Themedastrcs above but without the involucrant spikelets of that group (vol. 32, 631) ... ... 41. Pseudanthiria. TRIBE III : Panice^e. — Spikelets in usually con- tinuous spikes, racemes or panicles Involucral glumes herbaceous or membranous, the lower generally smaller, very small or suppressed. Lower floral glume generally resembling the involucral glumes in structure and nervation, the upper fertile firmer, at length rigid, often chartaceous or crustaceous, awnless, very rarely mucronate ( Urochloo ) (Genera 42-61). 1. Sub-tribe : Panicincs Upper floret only fertile ; lower floral glume usually resemb- ling the upper involucral glume, not indurated (Genera 42-60). A. Undershrubs ; flowers dioecious. Group Spinificastrace /—Male spikelets 2- flowered, articulate in rigid umbellate spikes ; female in large globose heads of stellately spreading quill -like rhachis, one spikelet at the base of each (vol. 33, 21) ... ... ... 42. Spinifex- B. Herbs ; flowers not dioecious (Genera 43- 60). i. Group Digitariastr^ /—Inflorescence of usually slender, spiciform, digitate or subdigitate or somewhat distant, very rarely solitary racemes : fruiting floral glume with usually flat, thin to hyaline margins, thinly cartilaginous, often brown or dark, with the usually minute, often microscopic, .scale-like pale of the barren floret attached to the base. a. Spikelets awnless ; lower involucral glume minute, rarely 0 ; lower floral glume usually with 5-7 close, straight, prominent nerves (vol. 32, 632) ... 43. Digitaria. 3 18 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV b. Spikelets slender avvned (vol. 32, 635). 44. Allo/eropsis . u. Inflorescence usually different (but see Axonopus and Paspaluvi) ; fruiting floral glume with more or less inrolled margins, usually crustaceous and straw-coloured or whitish ; pale of the barren floret, if developed, not attached to the false fruit (Genera 45-60). a. Spikelet falling entire and singly from the persistent pedicels (Genera 45- 58). (1) Group PanicastrcE ; — Spikelets not awned, or if awned, then sub-sessile in false second variously arranged spikes and with the awns from the entire tips of the upper involucral glume and lower floral glume (. tchinochloo sp.) or from the tips of both involucral glumes or at least the lower (Genera 45-57). i. Inflorescence of variously arranged (rarely solitary) simple or compound, usually second, spike- like, dense (rarely loose) racemes, not an open or contracted and cylindric panicle ; spikelets usually paired or sometimes particularly towards the base of the raceme in fascicles of 3 (rarely more) unequally pedicelled or solitary, alternately to the right and the left of the median line of a usually dorsi ventral rhachis ; fruit dorsally (very rarely laterally) compressed, its glume and pale crustaceous ; racemes usually rather dense (Genera 45-52). (a) Back of fruit abaxial (Genera 45-47). a. Spikelets strongly laterally com- pressed, distant on long slender rhachises ; lower involucral glume herbaceous, as long as the spikelet (vol 33, 7) .. ... ... 45. Pseudechinolcena . b. Spikelets more or less dorsally com- pressed ; lower involucral glume never herbaceous. (7) Lower involucral glume rudimentary with a swollen annular callus at the base of the rhachilla ; fruit mucronate (vol. 32, 636) ... 46. Eriochloa . (ii) No swollen annular callus at the base of the spikelet. Lowrer in- volucral glume present ; racemes racemosely arranged (vol. 32. 636). 47. Brachiciria (b) Back of the fruit adaxial (Genera48-52) . a. Lower involucral glume typically absent ; spikelets usually con- spicuously planoconvex, with the flat side turned away from the rhachis (vol. 32, 639) ... ... 48. Pa sp alum. b. Lower glumes developed ; rhachis persisting, not articulate ; spikelets falling from the pedicels (Genera 49-52). (i) Involucral glumes neither awned nor caudate ; if shortly cuspidate- acuminate, then the fruiting floral valve obtuse with an imposed REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBA 1 mucro and the margins inrolled all along. * Fruiting flowering glume acute, not mucronate ; spikelets solit- ary, closely biseriate, contiguous with their sides ; false spikes rigid, not several times longer than the internodes of the long common axis ; their lower parts more or less appressed to the alternately hollowed out flanges of the latter (vol. 32, 641) Fruiting flowering glume obtuse, abruptly mucronate or aristu late ; spikelets solitary or paired, when solitary contiguous with their backs ; false spikes often flexuous or curved, usually several times longer than the internodes of the relatively short common axis, spreading from the base (vol. 32, 642) ( ii ) Glumes caudate-or cuspidate-acumi- nate or awned. * Glumes awned from the entire acute or acuminate tip, or cau- date or cuspidate-acuminate ; margins of the fruiting flowering glume flat upwards, not em- bracing the tip of the - pale ; racemes dense, more or less secund, often very numerous (vol. 32, 645) ** Glumes awned from the slightly notched tips ; racemes elong- ated or short to very short, secund, compact, spreading from the common axis (vol. 33, 8) ii. Inflorescence an open panicle, rarely con- tracted, cylindrical and spike-like ( Sacci - ole pis, Setaria sp.) (Genera 53-57). (a) Spikelets not supported by bristle-like branches (Genera 53-56). a. Spikelets not gibbous or, if slightly so, then not in cylindrical false spikes (Genera 53-55). ( i ) Branches of panicle not adnate to the main axis. * Panicle much contracted, dense, very compound, with erect nar- rowly lanceolate spikelets ; lower floral glume beaked, upper floral glume rather thin (vol. 33, 15)... ** Panicle usually open ; lower floral glume not beaked, upper floral glume crustaceous (vol. 33, 9) (ii) Branches of panicles more or less adnate to the main axis so that the pedicels appear to spring more or less directly from the axis (vol. 33, 17) ... b. Spikelets distinctly gibbous, laterally much compressed (vol. 33, 16) PRESIDENCY 49. Paspalidium. 50. Urochloa. 51. Echinochloa . 52. Oplismenus . 53. Hymenachne . 54. Panic um. 55. Sacciolepis. 56 . Cyrtococcum . 20 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , Uh/. XXXIV (6) All the spikelets or only the upper of each branch supported by bristle-like branches (vol. 33, 19) ... ... 57. (2) Group Meliniastrcs. — Spikelets finely awn- ed or mucronate from the notched tips of the upper involucral glume and barren floral glumes (or if muticous, these at least slightly notched) delicately pedi- celled, panicled ; lower involucral glume very minute. Upper involucral glume and barren floral glume gibbous at or below the middle, both 5-nerved ; nerves hidden by copious and long silky hairs and anastomosing below the obtuse tips (vol. 33, 21) ... ... ... 58. b . Spikelets falling in groups or if singly, then surrounded by an involucral of bristles or at least supported by 1 to several bristles. Group CenchastrcE . — Spikelets falling by an involucral of bristles or spines or bract-like scales, or at least supported by 1 to several bristles ; or with the lower involucral glumes of each group forming a false involucre (1) Involucre of free naked or plumose bristles (vol. 33, 22) ... ... ... 59. (2) Involucres of spines or rigid bristles united at the base into a hard cup (vol. 33, 229) ... ... ... ... 60. 2. Sub-tribe: Isacknincs. — Both floiets fertile, or if the lower male, then its floral glume more or less resembling that of the upper floret and indurated. Group Isachnastrce . — Florets very similar, spikelets more or less panicled (vol. 33, 230). 61. SUB-FAMILY II : Pooideae. — Mature spikelets breaking up, leaving the persistent or subpersistent glumes on the pedicel, or if falling entire, then not consisting of 2 heteromorphous florets as in Panicoideae (Genera 62-109). 1. Blades not articulated on the sheath, rarely ( Centotheca ) transversely veined (Genera 62-104) A. Awn of the fertile floret, if present, kneed and twisted below the knee, or straight in reduced forms (Genera 62-78). i. Florets 2 or more (Genera 62-69) . TRIBE IV : Arundineule^s.— Florets 2, hetero- morphous, the lower awnless, or barren. Rhachilla not continued beyond the upper floret. Lower floral glume awnless, rather resembling the involucral glumes ; upper generally awned, at length firm or hard : awn from sinus between 2, sometimes minute or bristle-like, lobes, rarely from the entire obtuse tip, usually kneed and twisted below the knee. a . Upper floral glume 2-setose, minutely 2-toothed or entire ; awn sometimes reduced (vol. 33, 230) ... ... 62. b. Upper floral glume always distinctly 2-toothed or 2-lobed ; awn always kneed ; spikelets in clusters of 3 (vol. 33, 234) ... ... ... 63. TRIBE V : Avene^e. — Florets 2-many, all alike, ex- cept the uppermost which often are reduced. Floral glumes with hyaline shining margins or Setaria. Tricholaena. Pennisetum . Cenchrus. Isachne. Arundinella . Tr is tacky a . REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 21 firmer, 5-or more nerved, rarely 3-nerved ; awn, if present, from the back or sinus or between bristles, a. Floral glumes awn less or awned from the back ; florets 2 or more, the uppermost reduced. (1) Spikelets 2- or more-flowered, awned (vol. 33, 234) (2) Spikelets 2-flowered, awnless (vol. 33, 235) b. Floral glumes awned from the sinus of the bifid tip ; florets 3 to many, the uppermost reduced (vol. 33, 236) TRIBE VI : Arundineje. — Florets 2-many, enve- loped in very long hairs, springing either from the callus or from the back or margins of the floral glumes. a. Hairs springing from the margins of the upper floral glume (vol. 33, 234). b. Hairs springing from the callus (vol. 33, 236) ' ... c. Hairs springing from the involucral glumes (vol. 33, 237) ii. Florets 1 (Genera 70-78). TRIBE VII : Agroste.e. — Floret 1. Rhachilla rarely produced beyond the floret ; upper floral glume membranous, not changed when mature, usually 5-nerved, all the nerves or the outer side- nerves often slightly excurrent, parallel or at least not anastomosing. Spikelets awned or not. a. Spikelets in cjdindric spike-like pani- cles, not awned (vol. 33, 237) b. Spikelets in open or contracted many- flowered panicles, awned. (1) Involucral glumes acuminate or awned (vol. 33, 238) (2) Involucral glumes awned from the notched or lobed tips (vol. 33, 237)... TRIBE VIII: Stipe^e. — Floret 1. Rhachilla not produced beyond the upper floral glume wThich is bisexual, hardened when mature, tightly enveloping the fruit ; nerves joining or closely approaching at the tip. Awn terminal, rarely absent. Awns 3, from the entire tip, or 1, sim- ple below and 3-branched above, very rarely quite simple (vol. 33, 238) TRIBE IX: Zoysie^e.— Floret 1. Mature' spikelets falling entire and singly, or in clusters. Rhachilla not continued beyond the floret. Involucral glumes equal or the lower much smaller or sup- pressed. Floral glume small, delicately membra- nous, 3-1 -nerved ; spikelets in slender spiciform panicles or racemes (Genera 74-78). a. Spikelets falling in clusters of 2-4, fascicled. (1) Fascicles secund on a broad articu- late rhachis ; glumes 4 i upper involucral glume not echinate (vol. 33, 480) (2) Fascicles all round a slender rhachis ; glumes 3 ; upper involu- cral glume echinate (vol. 33, 480)... b. Spikelets falling singly. (1) Lower involucral glume with pecti- nate margins ; upper involucral 64. Avena. 65. Coelachne. 66. Danthonia. 67. Thysanolaena. 68. Phragmites. 69. AruncLo. 70. Heleochloa. 71. Garnotia. 72. Polypogon . 73. Aristida. 74. Trachys. 75. Nazia. 22 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV glume spinulosely tuberculate: glumes 3 (vol. 33, 481) (2) Involucral glumes neither pectinate nor tuberculate. i. Glumes 2 ; spikelets not awned (vol. 33, 481) ... ii. Glumes 3 ; spikelets with a long awn (vol 33, 481) ... B. Awn of the fertile floret, if present, never kneed and twisted below the knee (Genera 79-104) . (i) Floral glumes typically 3-nerved (Genera 79-94). TRIBE X : Spqrobole^.— Floret 1. Involucral and floral glumes very similar ; rhachilla not or rarely produced beyond the floret. Upper floral glumes membranous, acute or obtuse, not changed when ripe, 1-or more or less distinctly 3-nerved, awnless, usually olive-green or grey ; side-nerves, if present, delicate, evanescent above. Seed often free in the delicate pericarp. Spikelets small (vol. 33, 482) TRIBE XI : Eragroste^e.— Florets usually numer- ous and far exserted from the glumes. Spikelets variously panicled. sometimes spicate or sub- spicate ; involucral and floral glumes somewhat similar in general appearance ; floral glumes membranous or chartaceous, entire or 2-3-cleft, 3-nerved, the nerve evanescent above or excurrent into bristles; side-nerves usually submarginal, glabrous or pubescent or finely ciliate below ; pales often persistent or subpersistent (Genera 80-84) . a. Floral glumes entire (Genera 80-83). (X) Upper involucral glume 3-nerved (vol. 33, 486) (2) Upper involucral glume 5-nerved (vol. 33, 495) (3) Upper involucral glume 1-nerved. i. Floral glumes ovate subacute or obtuse (vol. 33, 495) ii. Floral glumes acute or acuminate (vol. 33, 486) b. Floral glumes toothed (vol. 33, 495)... TRIBE XII : Chlorides. — Florets 1 to many. Spikelets usually in 2-ranked secund spikes or spike-like racemes, rarely distinctly pedicellate and paniculate ; floral glumes usually membranous, truncate, emarginate or toothed, 3-nerved ; nerves distant, subparallel, distinct, percurrent or ex- current, and often ciliate all along, the lateral submarginal (in Eleusine there are sometimes addi- tional side-nerves close to the middle nerve of the glume). Awn, if present, straight, usually from a truncate or toothed tip (Genera 85-94) . a. Floral glumes entire, emarginate or more or less 2-dentate or 2-lobed, muticous or with the middle-nerve running out into an awn or mucro, or reduced in some species of Tri- pogon (Genera 85—93). (1) Spikelets 1-flowered (genera 85-88) . i. Spikes solitary, terminal (see also Chloris) (genera 85-87). 76. Latipes . 77. Osterdamia. 78. Perotis. 79, Sporobolus. 80. Eragrostis. 81. Halopyrum. 82. Leptochloa. 83. Desmostachya. 84. Diplachne. REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 23 (a) Spikelets minute, more or less sunk in the rhachis, 1-3-flowered (vol. 33, 753) (b) Spikelets not sunk in the rhachis a. Spikelets awnless, minute, 'unilateral on flattened rhachis, 1-flowered (vol. 33, 753) b. Spikelets awned, 1-2- flowered in deciduous articulate clusters (vol. 33,754) ii. Spikes digitate (vol. 33, 753) (2) Spikelets with several florets (Genera 89-93). i. Spikelets with 1 (rarely 2, Chloris sp.) fertile and 1 or several imperfect florets above or below the fertile (see also Microchloa ) . (a) Spikelets in long secund solitary spikes ; floral glumes narrow, firm, glabrous or scaberulous, with a short erect awn from the notched or subentire tips (vol. 33, 755) ... (b) Spikelets in digitate, rarely solitary or 2-nate spikes ; the florets much widened upwards, or if narrow, then delicate and usually with a fine awn from below the tips, often ciliate ; floral glumes or at least some of them awned, very rarely sub- muticous (vol. 33, 755) ii. Spikelets with 2 or more fertile florets and without imperfections below them (See also Chloris sp.) ; floral glumes awn less or with a rigid mucro or very short awn from the acumi- nate tips ( Daclyloctenium sp.), entire or subentire (Genera 91-93). (a) Spikelets in digitate or subdigitate spikes. a. Spikes terminated byaspikelet; involucral and floral glumes emucronate or obscurely mucronate (vol. 33, 761) b. Spikes terminating with a sharp point ; upper involucral glume and floral glumes rigidly mucronate or shortly awned (vol, 33, 760) (b) Spikelets in racemosely arranged spreading or deflexed, finally deciduous spikes (vol. 33,763)... b. Floral glumes various^ toothed or lobed with the middle and side-nerves running out into awns or mucros. Spikes solitary and terminal on the culms ; spikelets mostly olive-green or dark greyish ; all 3 nerves or at least the middle-nerve running out into a fine short awn or mucro (vol. 33. 764) (ii) Floral glumes 5 to many-nerved, very rarely 3-nerved (genera 95-104) . TRIBE XIII : Pappophore.® — Floral glumes broad 5-many-nerved, cleft into 3-man y subulate lobes. 85. Oropctium. 86. Microchloa. 87. Gracilea. 88. Cynodon. 89. Enteropogon. 90. Chloris. 91. Elen sine. 92 . Daclylocten ium . 93. Dinebra. 94. Tripogon. 24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV with or without alternating fine straight awns from the sinuses. Floral glumes 9-cleft (vol. 33, 766) ... ... 95. Enneapogon. TRIBE XIV : Oryzk^s. — Spikelets all alike or more or less heteromorphous and unisexual. Fertile Floret 1, awned or not, terminal with 2 minute empty florets (floral glumes) below it or solitary. Involucral glumes very minute or confluent into an annular rim or suppressed ; pale 3-9-nerved ; stamens usually 6, rarely more, or 1--3. a. A floating glabrous grass ; spikelets awned (vol. 33, 769) ... ... 96. Hygrorhiza. b. Leafy tall grasses, not floating ; spike- lets usually awnless. (1) Keels of floral glume and pale pec- tinately ciliate ; spikelets awrrless (vol. 33, 768) ... ... 97. Homalocenchrus. (2) Keels of floral glume and pale not pectin ately ciliate ; spikelets rarely awned (vol. 33, 767) ... ... 98. Oryza. TRIBE XV : FeStuceje.— Involucral glumes more, or less resembling the floral ones in general appear- ance. Fruiting florets 2 to many, very rarefy 1, often much exserted from the glumes. Floral glumes 5 -or more-nerved (rarely 1-3-nerved). Awns, if present, terminal or subterminal, never geniculate. a. Leaves narrow, not tessellately nerved ; fruiting glumes without submarginal bristles. ( 1) Leaves reaching 30 cm. long or more, flaccid ; inflorescence in long, often interrupted cylindric spikes (vol. 33, 769) ... ... 99. Elytrophorus . (2) Leaves less than 5 cm. long, rigid, pungent ; inflorescence in short subcapitate spikes (vol. 33, 769)... 100. Aeluropus . b. Leaves broad, tessellately nerved ; fruiting glumes with reflexed sub- marginal tubercle-based bristles (vol. 33, 770) ... ... ... 101. Centotheca. TRIBE XVI : Horded.— Spikelets sessile, singly or in clusters, more or less sunk in the hollows of the rhachis of a simple spike ; florets 1 or more. a. Spikelets solitary at the nodes of the spike. (1) Spikelets with their median plane radial to the rhachis ; florets 1-2 ; floral glumes membranous to sub- hyaline, 3-nerved (vol. 33, 770) ... 102. Lepturus. (2) Spikelets with their median plane tangential to the rhachis ; floral glumes more or less ventricose, keeled upwards, 5-9-nerved (vol. 33, 770) ... ... ... 103. Triticum. b. Spikelets in groups of 3 at the nodes of a dense spike ; floral glumes 5-nerved (vol. 33, 771) ... ... ... 104. Hordeum. 2. Blades articulate on the sheath and transversely veined. TRIBE XVII : Bambuse^e. --Shrubs or trees ; spike- lets all of one kind ; florets few to many (rarely 1) ; lower 2 or more glumes empty, gradually increas- ing in size up to the flowering, with sometimes small terminal imperfect ones ; floral glumes subherbace- REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 25 ons to subcoriaceous, 5 to many-nerved, usually awnless ; lodicules usually 3 ; stamens 3-6 or more ; styles 2 or 3 (genera 105-109). A. Pericarp thin, adnateto the seed. i. Pales all 2 to keeled ; stamens 6 ; fila- ments free (vol„ 33, 771) ... ... 105. Bambusa. ii. Pales of upper flowers 0 or glume-like, not keeled ; filaments connate (vol. 33, 773).. 106. Ox)tenanthera. B. Pericarp fleshy or crustaceous, not adnate to the seed 7. Spikelets 2 to many-flowered; pale 2-keeled; lodicules none ; stamens 6 ; pericarp crustaceous (vol. 33, 773) ... ... 107. Dendrocalamus . ii. Spikelets many-flowered ; pales 2-keeled; lodicules 3, conspicuous (vol. 33, 774)... 108. Teinostachywn. Hi. Spikelets 1-flowered ; pale absent or glume- like ; stamens 6-120 ; pericarp fleshy (vol. 33, 774) ... ... m. Ochlandra. An alphabetical list of the genera adopted in our series and meant to facilitate the finding of the genera in former articles. Aeluropus, vol. 33, 769 Alloteropsis, vol. 32, 635 Amphilophis, vol. 32, 420 Andropogon, vol. 32, 429 Apluda, vol. 32, 26 Apocopis, vol. 32, 25 Aristida, vol. 33, 238 Arthraxon, vol. 32, 416 Arundinella, vol. 33, 230 Arundo, vol. 33, 237 Avena, vol. 33, 234 Bambusa, vol. 33, 771 Brachiaria, vol. 32, 636 Capillipedium, vol. 32, 419 Cenchrus, vol. 33, 229 Centotheca, vol. 33, 770 Chloris, vol. 33, 755 Chrysopogon, vol. 32, 410 Cleistachne, vol. 32, 408 Coelachne, vol. 33, 235 Coelorrhachis, vol. 32, 32 Coix, vol. 32, 17 Cymbopogon, vol. 32, 429 Cynodon. vol. 33, 753 Cyrtococcum, vol. 33, 16 Dactyloctenium, vol. 33, 760 Dantbonia, vol. 33, 236 Dendrocalamus, vol. 33, 773 Desmostachya, vol. 33, 4S6 Dichanthium, vol. 32, 424 Digitaria, vol. 32, 632 Dimeria, vol. 32, 18 Dinebra, vol. 33, 763 Diplachne, vol. 33, 495 Echinochloa, vol. 32, 645 Kleusine, vol. 33, 761 Elyonurus, vol. 32, 30 Klytrophorus, vol. 33, 769 Enneapogon, vol. 33, 766 Enteropogon, vol. 33, 755 Eragrostis, vol. 33, 486 Eremopogon, vol. 32, 426 Eriochloa, vol. 32, 636 4 Euchlaena, vol. 32, 15 Eulalia, vol. 32, 289 Garnotia, vol. 33, 238 Gracilea, vol. 33, 754 Halopyrum, vol, 33, 495 Heleochloa, vol. 33, 237 Hemarthria, vol. 32, 26 Heteropogon, vol. 32, 622 Homalocenchrus, vol. 33, 768 Hordeum, vol 33, 771 Hygrorhiza, vol. 33, 769 Hymenachne, vol. 33, 15 Imperata, vol. 32, 281 Isachne, vol. 33, 230 Isachsemum, vol. 32, 19 Iseilema, vol. 32, 626 Lasiurus, vol. 32, 30 Latipes, vol. 33, 481 Leptochloa, vol. 33, 495 Lepturus, vol. 33, 770 Lophopogon, vol. 32, 25 Manisuris, vol. 32, 26 Microchloa, vol. 33, 753 Nazia, vol. 33, 480 Ochlandra, vol. 33, 774 Ophiurus, vol. 32, 31 Oplismenus, vol. 33, 8 Oropetium, vol. 33, 753 Oryza, vol. 33, 767 Osterdamia, vol. 33, 481 Oxytenanthera, vol. 33, 773 Panicum, vol. 33, 9 Paspalidium, vol. 32, 641 Paspalum, vol. 32, 639 Peltophorus, vol. 32, 29 Pennisetum, vol. 33, 22 Perotis, vol. 33, 481 Phragmites, vol. 33, 236 Pogonatherum, vol. 32, 289 Poilinidium, vol. 32, 25 Polypogon, vol. 33, 237 Polytoca, vol. 32, 17 Pseudanthiria, vol. 32, 631 26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV Pseudechinolaena, vol. 33, 7 Rotboellia, vol. 32, 31 Saccharum, vol. 32, 283 Sacciolepis, vol. 33, 17 Schizachyrium, vol. 32, 428 Sehima, vol. 32, 22 Setaria, vol. 33, 19 Sorghum, vol. 32, 290 Spinifex, vol. 33, 21 Spodiopogon, vol. 32, 288 Sporobolus, vol. 33, 482 Teinostachyum, vol. 33, 774 Thelepogon, vol. 32, 22 Themeda, vol. 32, 627 Thysanolaena, vol. 33, 234 Trachys, vol. 33, 480 Tricholaena, vol. 33, 21 Tripogon, vol. 33, 764 Tristachya, vol. 33, 234 Triticum, vol. 33, 770 Urochloa, 32, 642 Vetiveria, vol. 32, 408 Zea, vol. 32, 15 THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS BY Hugh Whistler, f.z.s. Part IV ( With plates A, B & C and one diagram) ( Continued f rom page 792 of V ol. XXXIII) Some external characteristics of a Bird The Wings All of us know that Birds and Insects are the two great classes which possess wings and in consequence attain that wonderful power of flight which has aroused the envy and emulation of man from the earliest ages. We do not all, however, realize that wings and flight have been also attained by two1 other classes, mammals and reptiles. Curiously enough, these two classes have never reached such a universal power of flight, though some of their members which have attained to it have been able to reach as perfect a degree of proficiency as will be found in the two . classes in which flying is very general. Before discussing the wings and flight of a bird in some detail, it will be instructive to consider the methods by which flight is attained in the various classes — birds, mammals, reptiles and insects. We have already seen, in discussing the origin of birds, that flight gradually evolved through the means of a patagium, a fold of skin on the forelimb which was used as a parachute. A jump into the air is the simplest means of overcoming the influence of gravity; a good ‘take-off’ increases the momentum and the length of a jump ; and if that take-off is at a height, the length of the jump need only be limited by the jumper’s power of resisting the shock entailed by the return to earth. The use of an artificial parachute is now firmly established as one of the means by which man returns to terra-firma from the most hazardous of heights; and the possibility that Nature could evolve her own natural parachutes in the manner postulated as a first step towards the attainment of the power of untrammelled flight is amply proved by the existence of such parachutes amongst the living animals of the world. Most of us in India are familiar with some form of flying-squirrel. The flying-squirrel shows the highest develop- ment that the parachute is capable of, simply as a parachute and without developing into something higher. These beautiful animals 1 I do not include Fish, as the flight of the Flying-fishes does not extend beyond the limits of the principle of the parachute. 28 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV cannot fly in the true sense of the word : they are, however, able to pass through the air from tree to tree, leaping from the higher branches of one tree and sailing in a lowering and diagonal direction to the lower part of an adjacent tree. Jerdon records the fact that he once saw a Brown Flying-Squirrel thus parachute a distance of 60 yards from tree to tree. It was, he says, of course very close to the ground when it neared the second tree and the last few feet of its flight were slightly upwards. This is usual, for the momentum of the flying leap allows the squirrel to shoot upwards for the short distance necessary to allow it to grasp the tree-trunk with all four feet. The parachute of the flying-squirrel is very simple in form and in some species would not ordinarily attract the notice of anyone who saw the animal at rest and had not previously heard of its powers. It is merely a loose lateral extension of the skin along the sides of the body which passes outwards between the limbs and terminates at the wrists and ankles. This lateral membrane is very elastic and, when the limbs are extended outwards on both sides of the body, it fills the space between them with a regular sail, so that the normal-looking squirrel becomes in flight much like a doormat — for so it once seemed to me on a Himalayan hillside when a flat red object suddenly shot through the trees down the slope in front of me. In addition to the lateral membrane, there is a narrow and inconspicuous one passing from the cheek along the front of the shoulder to the front of the wrist, and another — at least in some species — which stretches across behind the body from ankle to ankle, involving the base of the tail. Dissection shows long, osseous or cartilaginous appendages to the feet which serve to support the parachute in flight. These are interesting in view of the types of wings to be described hereafter. Given the possibility of flight with a parachute as a beginning, the attainment of free untrammelled flight becomes merely a question of degree and method. Nature has attained it along three separate lines of development, in Bird, in Mammal and in Reptile. Yet apparently all three lines were not equally successful and represent progress by the method of trial and error. So far as the record remains for us to read, we find that the Reptile was the first to attain to flight in the full sense of the word. The Pterodactyle flew above a world in which the bird and mammal were still earth bound ; but there must have been some inherent defect in that device for flight for the pterodactyles and their kind passed away leaving the reptile stock barren of a germ from which flight might anew be evolved. Then, in theft turn, the Bird and the Mammal attained to flight, each on a different principle. The merits of these two principles must, however, be judged, in my opinion, by their spread. Only one order of Mammals, namely the Bats, attained to perfect flight, and very perfect indeed it is in their case, whilst amongst the Birds flight became universal. I say universal advisedly, although it is possible to mention a number of birds which are flightless. For there is little doubt in my mind, though all do not share this opinion, that the number of species now found in the world which are unable to fly have lost a power that they once had. Journ. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc. < COMPARISON OF FORE-LIMB OF MAN AND BIRD. THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 2§ Their flightlessness is due to degeneracy, through misuse or some other cause. Their ancestors shared in the common possession. The Bird, the Mammal and the extinct Reptile all developed their powers of flight from a common starting point, the modification of the front pair of limbs into a wing. In other words, the wing in these three classes is homologous. We will proceed to examine the differences in a structure by which the three classes attained a common end. But, before doing so, we must emphasise the fact that the wing in all insects, using the word insect of course in its loose popular significance to cover a number of natural orders, is not homologous with the wing of the other three. It is merely analogous to their wing : that is to say, it fulfils a similar function. It gives the power of flight, but it has no connection with the forelimb of the vertebrates ; it is an entirely different structure, with an entirely different origin, derived apparently from modifications of the gills. There is an obvious difference between the wing of the bat and the pterodactyle and the wing of the bird. The first two depend on the original patagium or membrane skin. The latter has sacrificed the membrane and evolved the far superior feather. All three wings have evolved from the basis of a forelimb with five digits. To understand the differences, we must first pay a little attention to the structure of the forelimb. The main features of the vertebrate forelimb are well known. Glancing down at our own, we see first of all the upper arm terminating in the elbow, then the forearm terminating in the wrist and finally the hand. The upper arm consists of a single bone known as the humerus (from which is derived that classical pun of the ‘funny-bone’). The forearm consists of two bones, the ulna and the radius, two bones giving all that circular play in our forearm which is absent from the single bone of the upper arm. In bird and mammal and reptile these two main divisions of the arm with their three bones, the humerus, the ulna and the radius, persist but little altered, easily recognizable at a glance. In the wrist and hand the differences lie, just as we have already seen, in examining the origin of birds, there are differences in the corresponding parts of the hind-limbs. (See Plate A.) The wrist and hand contain three distinct series of bones, first the carpals or wrist proper (next to the ulna and radius), then the metacarpals which form the palm and finally the phalanges which form the digits. In man the number of carpal bones is eight. I do not propose to give full details of the bones of the wrist and hand in the pterodactyle and the bat, as we are not primarily interested in them. The description of the bones of the bird’s wrist and hand will follow later. Now the pterodactyle and the bat have both retained their five digits. There is, certainly, some doubt about the first digit of the pterodactyle which is at best rudimentary, but Nos. 2, 3 and 4 are perfectly distinct and free, terminating in small curved claws. These were probably used for climbing about rocks or trees or for suspending the reptile at rest, just in the way that a bat hangs itself up to rest with the tiny claws of its feet. The fifth digit, 30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV however, was enormously enlarged and served as the support for the membranes of the wings. Extending its arms and its little fingers, the pterodactyle held its membranes in position for flight, but we may well believe that it was capable of little beyond a clumsy flapping, a great advance indeed on the principle of the parachute but still far behind the perfect flight of a bird. Climbing about its movements must have been clumsy and slow, hampered by the weight and unwieldiness of the membranes. The bat attained a superior mobility by a better dispersal of the supports of its wing. In the bat all five digits are definitely retained. The first indeed is often small, but in some species it is fairly long and armed with a powerful claw. The other four are lengthened after the fashion of the fifth digit of the pterodactyle and like it support the membrane, recalling the ribs of an umbrella. The result is, however, to make the flying surface more rigid and at the same time more capable of modification to suit currents of air, and some of the bats are most accomplished fliers. But, though the bats have thus solved the problem of efficient flight, they still lie under the same disability as the pterodactyle. The membrane is heavy and clumsy and the forelimbs are so long in proportion to the rest of the structure that the animal loses all other mobility. A bat on the ground is virtually an animal disabled. A bat hanging in a crevice or from a bough is much the same. One has only to watch a colony of Flying-foxes hanging uneasily at rest in the sunshine on a tree, or squabbling over the fruits of a tree by night to decide that they have paid too heavily for the gift of flight. They can fly, but they have lost most other attributes and they are practically defenceless against all enemies. The other mammals have been wise to renounce the gift of flight on these terms. In the bird’s wing we meet an entirely new principle. The membranes are reduced to an almost irreducible minimum ; the limb is stiffened and flattened and shortened ; while the flying surface is provided by a new substance, that of feathers. The new arrangement has innumerable advantages over the old and we must examine it in detail. As we have seen, the flying membrane of the pterodactyle and the mammal is very cumbersome because of its attachment to all the limbs ; it requires to be attached to the limbs in order that it may be kept taut in flight by the extension of the limbs ; in itself it is no more capable of movement than a piece of elastic is capable of independent movement. Attached to the limbs, it impedes all other movements except that of flight. Unattached to them, it would flap loose and offer no support in the air, at the mercy of every varying current. The first requisite of any new departure in the form of the forelimb as an instrument of flight must be firmness. If the new flying surface is not to be kept taut by stays from the hind limb, as was the old, it must itself be sufficiently strong to withstand the enormous pressure from the air. The largest possible sail area on a ship would be valueless if it were allowed to flap loosely in the wind, and the sail of a ship is only required to move that ship along a horizontal plane ; it has not the further function of supporting Journ Bombay Nat Hist Soc. Plate B. COMPARISON OF THE WINGS OF PTERODACTYLE, BAT AND BIRD (after Pyecraft). THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 31 it in the vertical plane. T01 put the problem into terms of the sail — the flying membrane of the bat is like the sail held taut between two yards and the mast. If it were required to provide a sail area without these three supports to keep it taut, the material of the sail must change to a firmer one and the single support chosen must be greatly strengthened and modified for firmness. This is what has happened in the bird. The forelimb has been modified both for strength and for rigidity. The membrane has given place to a new material infinitely superior in strength, in lightness and in adaptability to the most varied strains; and the new modifications have at the same time proved infinitely more convenient. They do not affect mobility other than by flight. But by the inexorable laws of the universe these great advantages have had their price. The forelimb has become a marvellous wing, but it has lost its use for other purposes. The changes must be described in some detail. First, to deal with the actual modifications of the limb. Glancing again at one’s own arm and comparing it with that of the ordinary mammal, one realizes that the human forelimb has been modified in the direction of suppleness and mobility. Taking my hand from the paper, I notice I can move it about in every plane with an infinite variety of contortion and ease. I cannot fly ; but, on the other hand, I am capable of a thousand actions denied to the forelimb of the bird or the mammal : The bird’s wing, on the other hand, can move in all planes with relation to its body, but in itself it is capable of movement only in one plane. The upper arm, the forearm and the hand move only in one plane with each other, as the blade of a pocket knife in relation to the sheath, to use Professor Thompson’s illustration. In that one plane it is capable of a variety of positions, running the whole gamut between the closed wing tucked in under the shelter of the scapulars and the wing at its widest expanse. There is one interesting point : the bones cannot be quite completely extended when the wing is open. For, in the remains of the patagium running along the front of the wing from the upper arm to the lower arm, there is an elastic band ( tensor patagii longus by name) which prevents their complete extension. The reason for this would seem to be that, if in flight the wing were completely extended with the greatest pressure of the air along this fore-edge, there would be danger of the wing cockling up, being ‘blown inside-out’ like an umbrella. This immobility of the wing except on one plane of course greatly increases its strength in movement. No effort has to be wasted in flight on keeping the wing' itself firm as a basis for the feathers. Imagine a man rowing in a boat : if his feet are braced against a solid bar of wood, his strength is all exerted towards the movement of the boat. If he has nothing to brace his feet against or only a yielding substance like a net or rope, much of his muscular effort is expended in other directions than the movement of the boat. The value of this firmness in the bird’s wing is emphasized by the changes which have taken place in the hand and wrist. These support the primary feathers, the longest and most important feathers of flight. And firmness and lack of subsidiary movement 32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV are so important here that the mobile wrist and hand have become fused into a solid unmoving- block. This is how it has come about. We saw above that the typical wrist and hand contain three distinct series of bones, first the carpals or wrist proper, the metacarpals or palm, and finally the phalanges or digits. The mobility of the human wrist is attained by the presence of eight separate carpal bones with the varied play that they give. As play is not required in the bird’s wrist, these bones have gradually disappeared. If the wing of an adult fowl is dissected, only two carpal bones will be found, known respectively as the rcidiale and the idnare from their position with regard to the radius and the ulna bones. But in the embryo fowl there are still in addition three other carpal bones between the radiale and the ulnare and the metacarpals. These disappear by fusion with the ends of the first three metacarpals and with them vanish part of the mobility of the wrist. This, however, is not enough. The hand itself must become a solid shaft, and this is attained by the fusion of the metacarpals or palm and the disappearance of some of the digits. It is as if the hand withered and shrank and grew solid, needed not as a hand but as a firm support. Hand and wrist of Domestic Fowl, to show the origin of the carpo- metacarpal bone. Figures in circles show the metacarpals. Black areas show the separate bones and their point of fusion. The result is the carpo-metacarpal bone, which is peculiar to’ birds. This is best understood by reference to the figures above. Its base is composed of the three lost carpal bones and a vestige of the third metacarpal ; its main shaft is the second metacarpal swollen and flattened, while the arch of bone that springs from it to support the primaries is the third metacarpal. To the base of the last is fused the final vestige of the fourth metacarpal. The fifth has irre- trievably vanished. The scanty remains of the digits will be seen in the figure. They have already been referred to in the first article of this series (Vol. XXXIII, 173). This firmly built wing must have evolved gradually at the same time as the feathers, without which it would have been useless for flight. We have already seen (Vol. XXXIII, 170) how the feather THE STUDY Ob' INDIAN BIRDS 33 is believed to be a legacy from the reptilian scale. Its structure was described on p. 313. No better instrument for its purpose could be imagined. We saw that the structure of a feather combined the three attributes of strength, of elasticity and of lightness, all so important for its purpose. Considering the flight feathers alone, the primaries and secondaries and the feathers of the tail, we find that the shaft is a strong quadrilateral tube packed with a fine pith serving as a strut to support a given portion of the sail area, that is the web with the toughness and the play of its innumerable barbs, barbules and barbicels. At rest, when the wing is folded, each feather fits away beneath the next like the blades of a fan, occupying the minimum of space and in no way hindering the other movements of the. bird. Extended in flight, the feathers all overlap in just the right proportions, with one narrow and one broad vane, to attain the maximum effect with a minimum expenditure. On the down stroke each feather is held firm by the overlap of the feather behind it ; on the up stroke the vane gives and allows the air to pass through, minimising a resistance which would otherwise force the bird down and lose the value of the previous down stroke. Each feather is a separate entity and is easily replaced in case of damag'e without affecting the power of flight ; while moulted one by one on each wing in pairs, the whole are capable of renewal when wear has impaired their usefulness without the bird being deprived for a moment of the most essential attribute of its life. The space between the base of the larger feathers is carefully packed by the series of coverts, above and below, each functioning according to the direction of the stroke. Apart from the subtle play of the individual feathers, the bird’s flight also gains from the curvatures of the wing itself. The rounded curves vary considerably in different species of birds and in different areas of any particular wing. The convex upper surface allows the air to glide off easily during the up stroke, acting with the individual arrangement of the feathers to minimise resistance. The concave lower surface increases the sustaining power of the wing, whilst the firmness of the forelimb itself in front, compared with the resilience of the feather tips behind, forces the pressure of air out backwards and so drives the bird forward with each stroke. There are three small points of great interest which may well be cited as examples of the perfection of the adaptation of every part of the wing to its work. In systematic books under the descriptions of birds and especially under the keys to their identification, we often find it stated that the primaries are notched or emarginated, with often differences in these respects between closely allied species. A glance at the key to the Harriers ( Circus ) will at once supply an example. There is no doubt that these variations in the edges of these important feathers have two purposes. They serve to lock the primaries together in flight, strengthening the bases and where necessary allowing the ends of the primaries to splay out in flight like the fingers of a hand. In vultures and eagles, for instance, the widely spread feathers 5 34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV at the end of the wing curved upwards by the pressure of the air are a most characteristic feature of the silhouette in flight. It is believed that this device allows the air waves caused by the down stroke to pass gradually outwards without producing a dis- advantageous vortex. The third point is the presence in some species of a very mobile bastard-wing, as the feathers on the first digit are often called. This appears to have some braking or balancing quantities useful at the moment when the flying bird alights. The infinite variations of which the structure of the bones of the wing and of the various feathers are capable would themselves alone contain material for a book. The developments correspond of course with the powers of flight of the individual species. As a general rule, it may be stated that birds of weak flight have a short, rounded wing, whilst a long, pointed wing is the mark of a fast or skilful flier. The familiar Jungle Babbler ( Turdoides terricolov ) at once occurs to one as an example of the former, whilst the common Indian Swift (. Micropus affinis) supplies a type of the latter. The reason for this is apparently that the secondary and primary feathers have each a different function to perform. The secondaries are of major importance in the stroke ; they actually grip the air and support the bird. But all finesse of speed and steering is imparted by the primaries. In the short, rounded wing the primaries serve as little but an extension of the secondaries. The babbler therefore can fly efficiently as far as his needs and his strength allow, but he is quite incapable of speed above the average or of sudden turns aiid movements in every plane. Other factors of course enter into the character of flight. The ratio of the wing area to the total weight of the bird, the ratio of the length to the breadth of the wing, the strength of the pectoral muscles and the pace at which they are capable of moving the wings are ail of primary importance, whilst in highly specialized fliers the whole body may be altered to reduce the resistance of air-pressure. The big swifts of the genera Micropus and Hirundinapus are commonly accepted as the most highly specialised for flight of all birds. Their pace in the air easily exceeds that of all other birds, whilst their flying hours practically coincide with the hours of daylight. A superficial examination of their characteristics will give us some idea of what is required by a bird for perfection in flight, perfection for the moment being regarded solely in terms of speed and ease of steering-. Compared with the weight, the sail area in the Swift is reduced to a minimum ; the wings are long, thin and extremely pointed ; their line is that of a backward curve. The firmness of the forelimb is such that it is almost rigid, and this attribute is increased by the shortness of the humerus so that the Swift’s forelimb is almost as exaggerated and specialised a limb in its own way as that of the Mole. The secondaries and inner primaries are very short, the outer primaries are very long and both series are composed of hard narrow feathers which exaggerate the salient features of the wing. The wings themselves are thus perfect for speed and steering. Their effect is heightened by the attributes of the bird itself. The The study of ihd/aJv birds 35 head and body combine the characteristics of a ‘ torpedo-body ’ as the designer of a fast motor-craft would designate it. The head is set close into the body with a short stiff neck and the hard short feathers with their oily polish complete the stream-line. The wings are set forward and high on this torpedo-body, so that the centre of gravity is far below the centre of suspension. This is emphasised by the manner in which the body is ballasted. The lungs and air- sacs are in the upper part of the thorax, the pectoral muscles and the heavy vessels of the abdominal cavity with the heart and liver below. The tail is short and stiff, setting off the lines of the body and it is forked, that is, the unnecessary centre is cut away, leaving the sides for their work of adjustment of balance. The legs are tiny, partly because they are suffering from atrophy, nature’s penalty for disuse in a bird that lives on the wing, and partly that they may be tucked neatly away in the line of the feathers and afford no resistance to the air. Finally, that acute observer, Mr. B. B. Osmaston, has pointed out that the Swifts have apparently attained to the power of alternate strokes with the wings. In ordinary flight all birds flap their wings in unison, up stroke and down stroke in concert, like a man swimming with the breast stroke. But sometimes, at any rate, the Swift strikes the air with alternate wings ; it is the rotary engine with no loss of time or power between the strokes. Specialisation for flight can hardly go any further than in the Swift, but it has been gained by a loss of all the amenities and pleasures that we see in other birds’ lives. Off the wing the Swift can do nothing at all except brood its eggs or nest in a crevice. A great deal has been studied and written about the attributes and the mechanics of birds’ flight. But I do not propose to summarize the conclusions that have been arrived at as it is obvious that the subject requires treatment anew by someone who is both an airman and an ornithologist. The immense practical knowledge obtained from the designing and flying of air-craft in the last twenty years must necessarily revolutionise the theories advanced by the students of birds’ flight. It will suffice to say here that the flight of birds falls naturally into three main types. The first is that of ordinary flight, very variable as may be its forms. This combines the principle of the parachute and the oar. If the bird starts from an elevated perch, it leaps off headlong trusting to the wings as parachutes, like the primeval membrane, it starts as it would from the ground by raising the wing's vertically above the back. The speed and completeness of this movement is readily understood from a pigeon whose wings strike together above the back with a loud clap when the bird is suddenly startled. Then the wings move forward and downwards, backwards under the plane of the body and then upwards again. The upward stroke is very fast and thanks to the curves of the wing’s surface and the set of its feather it meets with far less air-resistance and so does not cause the bird to lose much way. The complete movement of the wing in ordinary flight is complex ; the line described by the tip of the wing for each stroke forms a sort of figure-of-eight, the lower loop of the eight being much smaller than the upper. 36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vot. XXXI V The simplest form of this flight may be seen any day amongst the various babblers. They flap their wings with these figure of eight strokes several times and then glide along, wings held rigidly outstretched, with the resulting momentum, until its finish compels them to work the wings again. Soaring and hovering are the other two types of flight and they are not so easily understood. The first may be seen any day in India. It is particularly characteristic of the vultures and storks which may be seen circling high in the sky, often at such a distance from the ground that the birds appear as faint specks. It is giddy work watching the vultures soaring. One stares up into the bright unending dome of the Indian sky across which several vultures are wheeling in huge unending circles ; the eye grows familiar with the light and distance, and then other vultures strike the consciousness, wheeling their unceasing patrol, minuter specks still higher in the dome until they melt out of sight. Round and round wind the circles, untiring, endless, to all seeming purposeless, though, as we know, the birds are watching for their food. There are no visible strokes of the wings. The huge birds simply float round without apparent volition, slightly banking as they turn. Now and again one changes its course and proceeds in the opposite direction. Occasionally the wings flap and the bird travels a short distance as if tired of its soaring- ; but speaking loosely, the birds can soar for an hour and more at a time without a stroke of the wings and with no apparent loss of speed or altitude. Many and conflicting theories have been advanced as to how the birds maintain their speed and altitude in this manner, but the air-men must study it all afresh. Hovering is the reverse of soaring ; the bird expends a maximum of effort to retain a stationary position in the air. Two very familiar examples will at once occur to the Indian ornithologist — the Kestrel ( Cerchneis tinnunculus) hovering high over the land, and the Pied Kingfisher ( Ceryle rudis) hovering over the water. In both cases the birds have the power of hanging absolutely stationary in the air to watch for their prey beneath. The effort involved must be very great, the wings beating at high pressure. The Humming Birds of America are the greatest exponents of this type of flying. They hang suspended before a flower while they probe it for food and their wings beat at such high speed that they are almost invisible. Many birds can hover just for a moment for a particular purpose. For instance, one sees many of the little warblers of the genus Phylloscopus dart up to capture an insect from the underside of a leaf, hovering just for a moment whilst they pick it off; and in this group the delicate little Pallas’s Willow-Warbler (. Phylloscopus proregulus) feeds so regularly in this way that one can identify it in the Himalayas by the habit which reveals its canary yellow rump to perfection. But very few species can hover thus for any length of time. Besides the Kestrel and the Kingfisher, only the Short-toed Eagle ( Circaetus gallicus) and the Black-winged Kite ( Elanus cceruleus) occur to me in India as equal exponents of the art. A point which always excites great interest is the speed at which THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 3/ various species of birds can .fly. Very little attention appears to have been paid to this subject in India, but various authors have studied it in other countries. The natural tendency is probably always to over-estimate the speed of birds. Gatke the veteran ornithologist of Heligoland, for instance, as a result of his studies of migration, estimated that Hooded Crows fly at 108 miles per hour and Bluethroats at 180 miles per hour while on passage. Some of the waders he was prepared to credit with a pace of 4 miles a minute ! There is also an oft-quoted case of a Swallow sent from Roubaix to Paris — 160 miles — which covered the distance at a speed of over 100 miles an hour. Gatke’s estimates were certainly wrong. In the Ibis for 1921, Colonel Meinertzhagen has given the result of a careful collection of available trustworthy records, original and otherwise. He arrived at the result that birds have two speeds — a normal rate which is used for everyday purposes and also migration, and an accelerated speed which is used for protection or pursuit or courtship and which in some cases nearly doubles the rate of their normal speed. He finally lays down a table of normal average speeds as follows in miles per hour : — Corvidae 31-45 Starlings 38-49 Sandgrouse 43-47 Smaller Passeres 20-37 Falcons 40-48 Waders 40-51 Geese 42-45 Ducks 44-59 He considers also that the normal speed of a Carrier-Pigeon is from 30-36 miles per hour, but that, when ‘homing’, they can attain a speed of 60 miles per hour and over. To this gift of speed and the gradually developed ability to maintain it for long distances is due the fact that birds are able to migrate. The possibility of migration with the consequence that they can vary their residence in accordance with the food supply has led to the wide dispersal of species, the multiplication of forms and the abundance of individuals. It is comparable to the sudden revolution in the habits of man which has come in the course of twenty years through the invention of the internal combustion engine, which has annihilated time and space. Before leaving the subject of the wing, it is necessary to touch on two other aspects of it, though they are not of equal importance. The first is the use of the wing as a paddle in water. The second is its use as an organ of offence. There are of course many birds which fly and are equally at home in the water, with or without special adaptations to it. The very simplest case is probably that of the Dipper ( Cinclus ) of which several forms are common along the Himalayas. To look at, the Dipper is a perfectly ordinary Passerine bird, rather stout and stumpy in appearance. Its only noticeable features are its very dense plumage and its feathered eyelids. Without previous acquaintance with the fact, I doubt whether one would guess that the Dipper was an aquatic bird on first handling a specimen. Yet the Dipper is equally at home on the wing, on the banks and stones of a mountain stream, swimming on the water, or feeding beneath its surface. The Dipper walks about on the bed of the stream as if 3s Journal, bomb ay natural hist, society , voi. xxxiV cn dry land. It can swim and dive using- its perfectly normal wings as paddles, wings which support it as easily in the air. The wings are short and rounded but no more so1 than those of innumerable other species of Passerine birds. Now the use of the wing as a paddle is not essential to a bird for swimming and diving under water. The Grebe and the Cormorant and the Darter, for instance, are all birds of strong flight which are at the same time absolutely at home under water but owe their powers under water simply to the use of their feet for pro- pulsion. The Little Auk and the Puffin use both their wings and legs under water, without in the case of the latter having in any way lost the power of flight, though the former is not very strong on the wing. Its extinct relative, the famous Great Auk, whose eggs fetch such great prices in the auction-room, swam with its legs and used its wings under water for diving. The great Auk had so neglected the proper use of its wings that it had become flightless and the wings were relatively small by atrophy, though they still retained the normal aspect of wings. In the Penguins (S phene scidce) the wing has, however, become a definite paddle resembling the flippers of a cetacean or turtle and scarcely recalling a wing at all. They' are clothed with feathers that in appearance have almost become scales again and which at the moult flake off in patches. There are no flight quills and the whole limb is incapable of flexure except at the shoulder joint. They cannot be folded up or held except in the stiff flipper-like manner to which we are all accustomed from pictures. No pollex or first digit is present. Yet a slight examination shows that this specialised paddle is merely a modified wing (Plate C). Its skeleton reveals all the essential features of a wing, albeit it is with a great flattening and broadening of the bones and an enlargement of the carpals ; and Pycraft has shown that in the embryo the bones agree still more closely with those of a normal wing, including the presence still of the first digit. In accordance with this great transformation, the Penguin differs from all other birds in its mode of swimming and diving. The paddles work with a rotary motion after the manner of the wing in flight, and the feet, instead of contributing to the progress, are stretched out stiffly backwards as in a flying bird. Yet from the bones of the pelvic girdle and the webbing of the feet Pycraft deduces that the Penguin originally swam with its feet and used its wings merely to help its progress, after the manner of the Auks. The use of the wing as a weapon of offence is far less important. Its use thus is probably best known amongst the Pigeons and Doves which strike at each other with their wings when fighting in a desultory and ineffective way. Some birds like the Jacanas (. Parridce ), the Spur-winged Plovers ( Hoplopterus ) and the Red- wattled Lapwing ( Lobivanellus indicus) possess a horny spur on the carpal joint, and it is commonly stated that they use the spur as an offensive weapon, though I have never seen any proof of the fact. Any discussion of wings and flight seems incomplete without some mention of the tail, though I cannot help feeling that the tail is not so completely an appanage of flight as we are accustomed Journ. Bombay Nat HisT. Soc. Plate u 12 a THE PADDLE OF A PENGUIN to show the bones of the hand and wrist (after Pyecraft). THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 39 to think it. We have got to remember its origin. We have already seen (Vol. XXXIII, p. 172) that in Archceopteryx the tail was quite distinct in appearance from that of the modern bird. It was a long tapering organ of about twenty-one vertebrae and from each of the last 13 or 16 vertebrae sprang a pair of well developed feathers, one on each side of the bone. This tail at once suggests to us the tail of a reptile with the addition of feathers, which of course it is. It also explains the construction of a modern bird’s tail. This consists of five to eight free vertebrae, followed by the fusion of six to ten others into a bony plate known as the Py gostyle , which supports the fan of tail feathers. To put it briefly, some of the vertebrae have been lost and the others have telescoped together, the opposing pairs of feathers being thereby drawn into a fan. The reason for the change seems obvious. To a reptile a long heavy tail must be a valuable fulcrum inducing to quickness of movement. To a reptile inclining to an upright position and to the arboreal life with tendencies to a parachuting flight, a long heavy tail must still be of value both as a fulcrum and as an aid to balance. But to the bird of perfect flight, gained by the adjusting of balance and gravity to the use of light feather wings a long vertebral tail could only be a hindrance ; muscular power and energy would be expended in keeping it horizontal in flight ; its weight so far behind would upset the other needs of gravity and flight. And if its feathers could take its place they would serve just as well for all the purposes of balance and steering. And this is what has happened. The feather tail of a bird is an extremely variable and mobile oigan; we find it in all sorts of shapes and sizes, long and short, broad and narrow, heavy and light. The feathers are modified for special uses as in the woodpeckers and tree-creepers where it sup- ports the birds against the tree trunks they climb ; they are adorned and modified for sexual displays both by colour and form ; where they are not required as in the Grebe and the Bustard-Quail, they are cut down to an absolute minimum. But in all guises and forms the tail remains not an instrument of flight, for it is just as important to the walking or perching bird, but an instrument of balance. The tail is used in flight of course — one has only to watch the Pariah Kite (M. m. govinda ) soaring above the bazaar to see that the feathers are in a constant state of movement. ' But it is not a necessary concomitant of flight. Pull out the tail feathers and the bird will not be disabled from flight. It is the balancing pole serving to emphasize the steering done by the primaries and head. With the tail the bird can perform its aerial evolutions more cleanly ; without the tail it can still perform them. ( To be continued ) FLOWERLESS PLANTS BY M. Robinson, b.a. (t.c.d.), nat. sci. trip. cam. Part III The Lichens ( With one coloured and two black and white plates) ( Continued from page 799 of Vol. XXXIII ) The Lichens form the third group, a large and well defined one, of the Cryptogams. They are plants of lowly organization, having affinities with both the algae and the fungi, and their structure is peculiar and unlike anything else in the plant-world. On this account, and from the fact that they have a world wide distribution and will grow on anything, they are a very interesting group to study. The collector may look anywhere and everywhere for lichens, and will seldom be disappointed. Trees, rocks, old walls and palings, dry banks of earth and wet mosses, all offer a habitat to these cosmopolitan little plants. No place seems too hot or dry, no place too cold or .wet for them. On the bare stems of the palmyra palm in the plains ; on bare rocks exposed all day to the burning heat of the sun, or to the spray of the waves that beat ceaselessly upon the sea-shore; on the damp tree trunks, and among the mosses of tropical forests ; and even in the icy desolation of the arctic regions where no other plants can live, lichens will be found. They are the pioneers of vegetation, and appear first among plants to clothe a bare hillside or rock face with their white or grey or orange incrustations, and their little fairy-like bushes of creamy white or gr°ld- The vegetative body or thallus of a lichen shows much variation in form and texture, and all lichens are very much affected by the presence or absence of water. When moist, some are gelatinous, others merely soft in texture, all becoming dry, and hard or leathery, when the atmosphere or substratum contains little moisture. The)7 do not die, but seem to be in a state of rest, and rapidly absorb moisture, and resume their active growth, when water is available. They can thus stand a long period of drought without perishing. The colour is also affected, as when dry most lichens are white or grey or brownish, becoming green, or grey-green or a dark olive green when wet. The orange coloured lichens do not show this change of colour to the same degree. The form of the thallus may be one of three main types. The Crustaceous , the Foliose or leafy, and the Fruticose or shrubby type Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I. FLOWERLESS PLANTS. LICHENS. Fig. 1. A twig bearing four typical fruticose lichens. (a) Teloschistes flavicans. (c) Usnea articulata. (b) Anaptychia sp. (d) Bamalina sp. Fig. 2. A twig bearing three typical foliose lichens. (a) Pannaria pezizoides. (b) Parmelia sp. (c) Parmelia sp. Fig. 3. Cladonia bacillaris. Fig. 4. A crustaceous lichen on bark, one of the order Graphidinece with linear fructifications. Fig. 5. A crustaceous saxicolous lichen with orange thallus. Fig. 6. A crustaceous saxicolous lichen with thallus divided into more or less regular segments. (All figures natural size.) FLOWERLESS PLANTS 4i and it is usual to distinguish three groups of lichens according to the form of their thallus. 1. Crustaceous Lichens (PL I, Nos. 4, 5, 6; PL II, Nos. 4 — 9). These, as the name denotes, spread over the . surface of the substratum like a thin dry crust, smooth and shining, or rough and v/arty. They are found on bare hard rocks, or the bark of trees, and on old palings and walls, and individual plants form more or less circular patches of varying size, though a number may meet and form large irregular patches with no differentiating lines. The thallus is. dorsiventral, that is, it has an upper and a lower surface, the upper surface being usually white or grey, becoming greenish when wet, or bright orange yellow. The under surface is very dark brown or black, and is generally firmly embedded in the substratum, so that it is extremely difficult to remove such lichens, and it is usually necessary to chip off a piece of the rock or tree, to add it to one’s collection. On the upper surface of the lichen are seen little round discs or nodules, scarlet or black, grey or yellow, which are the fructifications of the lichen. In some species they are long and narrow, like little black or grey streaks, and are then known as lirellae. 2. Foliose Lichens (PL I, No. 2; PL II, Nos. 1, 2, 3). These are also dorsiventral in structure, but of a more spreading and leafy nature, and while adhering more or less firmly to the substratum, curl and twist away from it at their edges, and are much more easily detached. The thallus is lobed and branches dichotomously resembling the red and brown algae in this characteristic. The lobes may be large or very small, broad and rounded as in PL II, fig. 1, or narrow giving a strap-shaped thallus as in fig. 2; the thallus may be flat with the lobes overlapping, or may curl and twist fantastically, showing in fact a wide variety of form. In some the lobes are so small that the thallus at first sight seems to be crustaceous, the lobes only being visible with a lens. They are then known as squamules and the thallus is said to be squamulose. The under side is always dark brown or black, and often bears long or short black hairs, which clothe the edge with a fringe, and act as organs of attachment ; they are also thought to absorb moisture from the air. The upper surface is white, yellowish grey or bluish grey, dark brown or black, always becoming more greenish when moist and is generally smooth and sometimes rather powdery. A few genera have the upper surface marked with regularly arranged criss-cross ridging, so that it rather resembles the skin of a snake or lizard. The fruits are generally open cup shaped structures of fairly large size, and are scattered over the upper surface, or on the edges of the thallus. 3. Fruticose Lichens (PL I, fig. 1 a, b, c, d). These have an upright or trailing, branched, thallus which is only attached to the substratum by one point or root. The branching is in the main dichotomous, though little side branches are often given off from the main stems. The thallus is radial in structure and is either cylindrical as in U snea and Thelochistes, or strap-shaped as in Ramalina and Anaptychia. Ramalina and U snea resemble dainty little bushes of creamy white, Anaptychia is bluish grey; the bright 6 42 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY \ Vol . XXXI V orange tufts of Thelockistes are common on the bare twigs of Rhododendrons and many other jungle trees. Bunches of Usnea articulata hang from branches of trees, and trail down the face of a rock, reminding one of long-straggling beards of matted, tow- coloured hair, and are aptly described by their name of ‘old man’s beard’. The fruits are rather fleshy nodules, growing at the edge of the thallus as in Ramalina or at the fork of the thallus as in Thelockistes , or they are flattened leathery discs, generally fringed with hairs or star points as in Usnea and Anaptychia and other genera. A fourth type of thallus which is usually known as the Cladonia type, from the fact that it occurs in the genus Cladonia, has some of the characteristics of both the last two types. Here the primary thallus is minutely foliose or squamulose and often buried in the substratum, though in several genera the small leafy segments are visible above the ground. On this thallus arise long-stalked structures known as podetia which bear the fructifications at the top. They are sometimes considered a stalked fructification on a foliose thallus, or more usually now, are regarded as a secondary thallus of the radial fruticose type which bears the fructifications. The podetia are sometimes simple unbranched stalks tapering to a point, sometimes they are branched, the tips become enlarged and coloured fructifications, scarlet, brown or black appear (PI. I, fig. 3), while in a third species the podetia spread out upwards and become trumpet-shaped, the edges being often fringed. These little podetia are often about an inch high, and covered with a delicate grey-green powdery bloom. A group of little ‘trumpets’, or pointed ‘candles’, or of bright scarlet-headed stalks, looks like some veritable little fairy-plant, standing up stiffly among the dark green mosses, on the old decaying tree trunks which are their favourite habitats. The internal structure of a lichen It was stated above that the lichen plant had a peculiar and unique structure. This cannot be seen without a microscope, but it a part of the thallus of a lichen is examined under a fairly high- power lens, the astonishing fact is revealed that the thallus is made up of two1 entirely different and distinct plants, one an alga and cne a fungus, living together in perfect harmony and interdepend- ence, and producing by their association, a plant which is entirely different from either of them. If the two are separated, the alga can continue a separate existence as an alga, the fungus as a fungus ; brought together again the fungus threads surround the algal cells, and a lichen thallus is formed. Neither partner is parasitic on the other in the ordinary sense of the word ; on the contrary, each derives benefit from its association with the other, and each carries on its own special functions to their mutual benefit. The alga which contains chlorophyll, supplies to the fungus, and the lichen, the products of the processes of assimilations and photo- synthesis which take place within its cells. These processes which were described in the first paper of this series result in the formation of carbon compounds from the free carbon-dioxide of the air and Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II. FLOWERLESS PLANTS. LICHENS. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Fig. 8. Fig. 9. Fig. 10. A species of Parmelia with broad lobed thallus, large stalked cup fructifi- cations and soredia on the margins. Another species of Parmelia with narrow ribbon-like thallus with black hairs on under side, medium-sized fructifications. A third species of Parmelia with thallus almost like a crustaceous lichen. A crustaceous lichen on bark, white thallus with bright scarlet centres to cups. The same magnified 10 times. A portion of the thallus of the orange lichen shown in Plate I, Fig. 5, magnified 10 times. The thallus of the lichen shown in Plate I, Fig. 4, magnified 10 times. Another species of the Graphidinece, magnified 10 times, showing somewhat, different linear fructifications. A saxicolous lichen, natural size. A portion of the thallus of the same magnified 10 times. FLOWERLESS PLANTS 43 take place under the influence of bright sunlight, and in the presence of chlorophyll. The fungus which contains no chlorophyll thus receives these products which it would otherwise have to obtain elsewhere, and in return attracts and holds moisture and dissolved salts, and passes them on to the alga, held and protected by its encircling hyphae. Such an alliance of two partners with mutual benefit to both is known as symbiosis which means literally ‘a living together ’ and the lichen plant affords a perfect and unique example. A section through part of the thallus of the lichen Collema which is a foliose lichen, and gelatinous when wet, will show as in PI. Ill, fig. 1, the little chains of cells of the alga Nostoc, one of the blue green algae, scattered about everywhere among the fungal hyphae. In fig. 3, the section is taken from a Parmelia and shows that here the alga, which is one of the bright green algae, is confined to a definite layer just below the surface, and not scattered indiscri- minately throughout the thallus. This arrangement is found in most of the more highly developed lichens of the foliose and fruticose type. In addition to their vegetative functions, such as assimilation and absorption of water, each partner carries on its own methods of reproduction. The alga divides up into spores, producing what are called gonidia so that the algal layer in the lichen is sometimes called the gonidial layer. The gonidia can only be seen under a high power of the microscope. The fungus constituent almost always belongs to the group Ascomycetes. The few exceptions are found in rare tropical lichens and belong to the Basidiomycetes , both Hynienomyceies and Gasteromycetes being represented. It is not always possible to trace the fungus back to any particular species or genus, certain modifica- tions having been produced as a result of its symbiotic life in the lichen thallus. The main characteristics, however, are those of the Ascomycetes or the Basidiomycetes and the spores of the fungus are produced in one case in an ascus, in the other on a basidium. These are borne in the usual way, grouped with paraphyses, in a special fructification which is disc-like or cup-shaped in the Ascomycetes or takes some from characteristic of the Basidiomycetes. These fructifications are large enough to be seen with the naked eye, and the cups and discs which have already been noted as the fructifications of the lichen, are indeed those of its fungus constituent. These fructifications are taken as the basis of classification of the lichens, and we get, therefore, the two1 main groups of the Ascolichens and Basidiolichens. The Ascolichens are divided into two series — 1. The Gymnocarpece where the fruit is an open disc-like structure or cup known as an Apothecium. 2. The Pyrenocarpece where the fruit is a more or less closed flask-shaped structure known as a perithecium. The Gymnocarpece contain the larger number of natural orders, genera and species and include families in which the apothecium is disc-like as in Usnea and Anaptychia (PI. I, fig. 1) or cup-shaped as in Parmelia and Pannaria; (PI. I, fig. 2) and (PI. II, figs. 1, 2 and 4) or in the form of lirellae the narrow streak-like fructification of the Graphis (PI. I, No. 4 and PI. II, Nos. 7 and 8). There is also a 44 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Fo/. XXXIV small family including Calicium and Sphcerophorus in which the apothecium is partially closed and is usually globular on a short stalk, resembling a small nail or a top, the whole being covered by a powdery bloom. In the Pyrenocarpece the thallus is almost always Crustaceous, and often thick and rough and divided into more or less regular segments with the perithecium appearing in the centre as a small wart-like protuberance (PI. II, Nos. 6, 9 and 10). In some cases the thallus is entirely submerged in the substratum, only the perithecia being seen as little pores on the surface. The sub-division of these two groups into natural orders, genera and species, depends upon the characters of the apothecia and perithecia, the nature of the spores, and also on the genus of the alga found in the thallus, and on the vegetative character of the thallus. The fungus spores, liberated from the asci when ripe, germinate under favourable conditions and send out hyphae in the usual manner. These hyphae coming in contact with algal spores, liberated from the gonidia, will rapidly invest them and a new lichen thallus is started. Another way in which lichens propagate themselves is a vegetative method. Here parts of the actual thallus break down into a fine powdery mass, each grain of the powder containing one or more algal cells already invested with its fungal hyphae. This fine white powder is almost always present on a lichen thallus, both of the foliose and fruticose type and can readily be seen, sometimes collected in definite regions, such as the edges of the lobes, or in little ridges or swellings on the thallus, sometimes scattered indiscriminately over the thallus. These vegetatively formed bodies are known as soredia and are shown highly magnified in PI. Ill, fig. 2, starting to develop into a lichen thallus. The lichen, for its best development, must be exposed to bright light, as the algal cells are situated well inside the thallus and below a protecting layer of fungal hyphae. We shall find lichens at their best then at the edges of woods rather than in the shady depths of the forest, and on the most exposed rocks and open hillsides. The climate of most Indian hill stations with abundant rain and plenty of sunshine is particularly favourable to their development, and they will be found in great variety in such localities. Different species usually prefer a different substratum ; certain species that are found on very hard rock, for instance, and are known as saxicolous lichens, are not found on wood. On the other hand, many kinds may choose the same substratum, as fourteen different species, belonging to almost as many genera, were found on the same branch of a peach tree, in a garden near Kodaikanal in the Pulni Hills. These lowly little plants, and more particularly the saxicolous lichens play an important part in the economy of nature, by carrying on the first stage in the formation of soil and humus. They settle upon the hardest and most barren of rocks, that are inhospitable to all other kinds of plants, and slowly but surely eat their way into them, as they cover the surface with their spreading crustaceous thalli. They thus start disintegration, gradually breaking down the rock to a condition more favourable to the growth of other plants. From an economic point of view, lichens are not now of very Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE III. FLOWERLESS PLANTS. LICHENS. Fig. 1. A section through the thallus of Collema, a gelatinous lichen. The blue green alga Nostoc, a, is mixed indiscriminately throughout the thallus with the hyphse of the fungal constituent, f. Magnified about 250 times. Fig. 2. Stages in the development of a thallus from soredia of a Parmelia. (a) One algal cell, Protococcus, surrounded by fungal hyphae. (b) The algal cell has divided into two. (c) Several algal cells now invested with fungal hyphse. Magnified about 250 times. Fig. 3. Section through the thallus of a Parmelia showing the algal cells of Proto- coccus confined to a definite layer immediately below the surface of the thallus. Magnified about 150 times. FLO WERLESS PLANTS 45 much use, though two or three are still used on a commercial scale for the production of dyes. In olden days, they were very exten- sively used among- country people, in many parts of Britain, particularly in Scotland, where a great variety of dye lichens were known and used. This form of home industry- is now vanishing rapidly owing to the introduction of chemically produced aniline dyes, but there are still a few districts in which it lingers. The famous ‘Harris’ tweed owes its familiar yellow-brown colour and characteristic smell to the dye with which it is treated. This is produced from a lichen, which grows in large quantities in Scotland, and is a species of Parmelia (P. saxatilis ). It is known locally and commercially as ‘crottle’. As the dye is rather uneven, the fleece is boiled up with the lichen, a small quantity of an alkali, either ammonia or potassium carbonate, being added to help the extraction of the dye. The unevenness of the dye can then be disguised by mingling the various shades in the processes of carding and combing which precede spinning. Several other species of Parmelia are also used to give a brown dye. Other species of lichens which include Ramalina scopulorum, Lecanora pallescus, and one or two others are used to give various shades of red, blue and purple dyes, but these all require a long process of fermentation with water and an alkali, before the dye can be extracted, and are troublesome to use. The lichen Lecanora tartar ea known commercially as ‘feorfefr’ is used to produce ‘cudbear’ a beautiful foxglove purple dye. Another well-known and useful purple dye commercially produced from a lichen, is ‘orchil’, or litmus, used so largely in the laboratory, on account of the property it has of becoming red in the presence of an acid, and blue with an alkali. It is made from Roccella tinctoria one of the earliest recorded lichens, which is found in great abundance along the Mediterranean coasts. A few lichens such as the Iceland Moss ( Cetraria Islandica ) are used as food in places of great scarcity, but they are unpleasantly acid to the taste, and of a tough and leathery consistency. In northern regions, vast tracts of country are covered by the well- known ‘Reindeer Moss’, which is also not a moss but a lichen (Cladonia rangiferina ) and this provides extensive grazing grounds for the wandering herds of the tundras. The writer would like to acknowledge here with grateful thanks the help received from Miss Lorrain Smith, f.l.s., whose Handbook of the British Lichens should be the vade mecum of all those interested in lichens; and also help from Mr. R. D. Ansteqd, c.i.e. in the identification of several species. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS BY P. F. Wickham PART II ( Continued from page 827 of Vol. XXXIII.) XVIII. —Family Irenid,® 327. The Fairy Blue Bird. Irena paella puella. An inhabitant of all these hills, but nowhere so common as I found it on the sea coast of Arakan. I think these birds collect in numbers where food is available and are not then at all shy. XIX.— Family Oriolid.® 328. The Indian Blackmiped Oriole. Oriolus chinensis indicus. 329. The Burmese Biack=naped Oriole. Oriolus chinensis tenuirostris. Both subspecies indicus and tenuirostris , the Indian and Burmese Black- naped Orioles appear to occur in the Kachin and Shan Hills. The Fauna says the latter was found ‘ Breeding by Hopwood at Mony wa in Upper Burma between 3,000 and 4,000 ft.’ Monywa, I may say, is in the plains, it should probably read Maymyo, but Hopwood recorded it from the North Chin Hills at 3,000 ft. 330. The Indian BIack=headed Oriole. Oriolus xanthornus xanthornus. Probably the commonest oriole in these hills. It breeds in May and June, the nests are difficult to get at as they are slung at the end of thin branches, but as the parent birds show great anxiety when the nest is approached, they are not difficult to find. I have generally heard them called by Burinans ‘ Hnet Wa ’ or yellow bird. 33L The Maroon Oriole. Oriolus trailli. Occurs throughout these hills, a very shy bird. XX. — Family Eulabetlcu® 332. The Indian Grackle. Eublabes iayana intermedia. To be found in all our hills, generally in large parties in heavy jungle, I only took this bird’s nest in the Andamans, a different subspecies. I have always considered they give the parrot points as ‘ cage bird ’ mimics. 333. Hodgson’s Glossy Stare. Lamprocorax panayensis affinis. Kachin and Shan Hills. Seems to have been missed by Harington in the former and I can only say I have seen it in the Shan Hills, but very rarely. 334. The Assam Spotted Stare. Saroglossa spiloptera assamensis. Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. I never came across it myself. XXI. — Family Sturnid.® 335. The Grey Starling. Spodiopsar cineraceus. Recorded by Harington from the plains of the Kachin Country. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 47 336. The GreyAieaded Myna. Sturnia malabarica, malabsrica. Chin Hills. 337. The White-winged Myna, Sturnia malabarica nemoricola. Kachin and Shan Hills, but more an inhabitant of the plains than hills. 338. The Gold=crested Myna. Ampeliceps coronatus. As this bird is found in Eastern Bengal and Assam, it is probable it occurs also in these hills although apparently not recorded. 339. The Black-necked Myna. Gracupica nigricollis. Kachin and Shan Hills. A familiar bird on any lawn. It is very interesting and amusing to watch the family following father and mother on the grass and being fed. The nest is the most untidy large collection of material one can imagine but I daresay a very snug nursery. Breeds in April and May laying 4 or 5 eggs. 340. Jerdon’s Myna. Gracupica burmanica. Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills, a provincial bird, and exceedingly common. It is surely more than one inch shorter than nigricollis . A typical myna in all its habits. 341. Welis’s Myna. Gracupica leucocephala annamensis. A Northern Shan States subspecies. Seems rather questionable. 342. The Common Myna. Acridotheres tristis tristis. Ubiquitous, but is a ‘ House ’ bird. 343. The Indian Jungle Myna. AEthiopsar fuscus fuscus . Chin Hills. 344. The Assam Jungle Myna. AEthiopsar grandis infuscatus. Kachin and Shan Hills. Breeds in tree holes, as a rule, about middle of April, but its nesting in river banks has been recorded. 345. The Collared Myna. AEthiopsar albocinctus. Commoner in the plains than the hills, according to Harington in writing of the birds round Bhamo (Kachin Hills) but in the Shan Hills it is quite a com- mon bird ; the nesting of this bird in river banks has been recorded, but tree hollows are generally used . 346. The Burmese Pied Myna. Sturnopastor capensis superciliaris. Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. Fairly common but commoner in the plains. XXII. — Family Ploceid^e 347. The Eastern Raya. Ploceus passerinus passerinus. An inhabitant of the lower valleys in these hills. The naturalist in North Burma, measuring his specimens very carefully, might find he has acquired the other subspecies infortunatus. I have often seen its nest attached to the thatch roof eaves. 348. The Burmese Striated Weaver Bird, Ploceus manyar peguensis. Distribution as in the case of the Eastern Baya, but the species does not seem to vary in size. The Burmese subspecies is distinguished by its richer and darker colouration. 349. The Northern Chestnut-bellied Munia. Mania atracapilla rubronigra. Fairly common in suitable parts of the Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. I can- not say I have noticed its partiality to nest in comparatively lofty trees ; my experience is that the description of the nesting of the subspecies atricapilia> applies to our bird also and the nearer water the better in their opinion. June, July and August are the breeding months. 350. Hodgson’s Munia. Uroloncha striata acuticauda. Is our common * white-backed ’ munia, but in the Eastern Shan Hills the subspecies squamicollis is found. 48 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , tf?/. XXXI V 351. The Burmese Spotted Munia. Uroloncha punctulata subundulata. Probably the Chin Hills and Western Kaehin Hills subspecies. I shot a specimen near Thunggyi and concluded this was the bird of this locality. This Munia breeds normally much higher up than the Chestnut-bellied Munia and the Rangoon birds frequently use street lamp-posts and under the eaves of houses as sites for the conglomeration of grass which serve them as nests. I think these birds build two nests to house the large family when they get too big to squeeze into the original nursery as they roost in the nests long after they are ‘ weaned.’ 352. The Chinese Spotted Munia. Uroloncha punctulata topela. Eastern Kaehin and Shan Hills. 353. The Burmese Red Munia. Amandava flavidiventris. Fairly common where they occur at all, i.e., in suitable grass plains. For a munia’s, it is really rather a difficult nest to find and I have seldom seen one off the ground. XXIII.— Family Fringillid^e 354 The Spotted=winged Grosbeak. Mycerobas melanoxanthus. Must be a rare bird in our hills as our elevations are not suitable. 355. Rippon’s Bullfinch. Pyrrhula crythaca altera. Shan States. 356. The Mount Victoria Bullfinch. Pyrrhula nipalensis victorise. S. Chin Hills. 357. The Yunnan White-browed Rose-Finch. Propasser ihura femininus. Shan Hills. 358. Sharpe’s Rose-Finch. Propasser ripponi. Shan Hills. 359. The Vinaceous Rose-Finch. Propasser vinaceus vinaceus. Kaehin and Shan Hills. 360. The Common Indian Rose=Fin;h. Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus. Probably the subspecies that visits us in winter in the eastern hills, Shan and Kaehin. The birds go about in small flocks in cultivated and open country. I shot the species at the end of February at Maymyo, Shan Hills, east of Mandalay. They are not uncommon all over the Southern Shan . States. Its occurrence is also recorded by Col. Rippon from Bhamo (Kaehin Country). 361. The Yunnan Dark Rosefinch. Procarduelis nipalensis intensicolor. Shan Hills, evidently rare. 362. The Yunnan Greenfinch, Hypacanthis spinoides ambiguus. Cook obtained this bird at Kalaw where! also obtained it but have never seen it anywhere else. Both Cook and Grant also found it nesting. There was a small party of them which came down to feed on the grass seeds round residences and when I shot one I thought it was the Himalayan Greenfinch (Cardnelis caniceps). Although it did not quite tally, it was very pleasing to hear of its identification later. Our finches are so rare and few that one rejoiced to see them about the place and it is very curious they do not seem to spread or increase in numbers. 363. The Yellowdhroated Sparrow. Gymnoris xanfhocollis xanthocollis. Recorded from the Kalaw, S. Shan States by Sir S. M. Robinson. After the recording of this bird I continually put my glasses across likely looking sparrows in these parts, but was never decided I had seen a Gymnoris and never managed to bag one. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OE THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 49 364. The Burmese House-Sparrow. Passer domesticus confucius. Ubiquitous. The Fauna says it turns out the Tree Sparrow ; that is not my experience, perhaps in the province it is named after, it behaves better. 365. The Malay Tree-Sparrow. Passer montanus tnalaccensis. All these Burma Hills. More common than the House-Sparrow. 366. The Cinnamon Tree-Sparrow. Passer rutilans cinnamomeus. Considerably less common than the preceding species of sparrows. 367. The Yunnan Cinnamon Sparrow. Passer rutilans intension The subspecies occurring in the Shan States. 368. The Pegu House Sparrow. Passer flaveolus. A Burmese bird entirely. It extends east of Burma. I do not think this bird is to be found in the Chin Hills, nor did Harington find it in the Kachin Hills, but it is very common in the Shan Hills up to 5,000 ft. Avery handsome sparrow is the male bird. Breeds in any hole and quite commonly inside a bamboo which is being used as a hedge post, etc. 369. The Grey-headed Bunting. Emberiza fucata fucata. 370. The Indian Grey=headed Bunting. Emberiza fucata arcuafa. The subspecies fucata and arcuata occur in our hills as winter visitors. 371. The Little Bunting. Emberiza pusilla. A winter visitor to These hills. I procured a specimen myself east of Mandalay at Maymyo. Shan Hills. 372. The Yunnan Meadow-Bunting. Emberiza cia yunnanensis. Said to have occurred in the Shan States, but a doubtful record, as a hill, of 10,000 ft. as far as I am aware, does not exist in Shan land. 373. The Yellow-breasted Bunting. Emberiza aureola. Rather a late winter migrant to the Shan States. It stays till the end of April when the male bird has begun to assume its breeding plumage and becomes a very conspicuous individual. 374. The Chestnut Bunting. Emberiza rutila. Chin Kachin and Shan Hills as a winter visitor. 375. The Crested Bunting. Melophus melanicterus. A very universal bird in all our hills and our one solitaty bunting to breed. Habits and nidification very nicely described in the Fautia, but I "have noted what I called its short plaintive song from the top of a bush in the breeding season. XXIV. — Family Hirundinid^e 376. The Eastern Sand-Martin. Riparia riparla ijims. Perhaps this bird does not occur in our hills. 377. The Indian Sand-Martin. Riparla paludicola chinensis. I am rather confused, but I always thought this was our Sand-Martin through- out Burma. Begins to breed in April in colonies which perhaps sometimes consist of only 2 or 3 nests. 378. The Crag-Martin. Ptyonoprogne rupestris. There is a small Crag-Martin which inhabits the Taunggyi Crags, Shan Hills about 5,000 ft. I failed to get a specimen through bad shooting with a 23 bore so I am not sure which species it is. It always hawked for insects round the rocky parts and I never met with it aw'ay from them. There were only a few, but I think were permanent residents. 379. The Eastern Swallow. Hirundo rustica gutturalis, 7 SO JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. SOCIETY , XXXIV 380. Tytler’s Swallow. Hirundo rustica tytleri. Both winter visitors to our hills. Col. Rippon seems to have recorded the subspecies rustica from round Bhamo, Kacbin Hills. 381. The Indian Wire-tailed Swallow. Hirundo smfthii filifera. A common bird in our hills. Begins to breed at end of March and goes on throughout the rains. 382. The Chinese Striated Swallow. Hirundo daurica striolata. A permanent resident in the Shan Hills at any rate and probably also in the Chin and Kachin Hills. It breeds in the Shan Hills making its retort-shaped mud nests, against the ceiling of rooms and verandahs of buildings and up against the roofs of caves in the limestone rocks. Sometimes just the one nest, but often in the case of the caves a few pairs may be found nesting together. If the nest. is destroyed, as sometimes it is a nuisance, they often build again in the same place. Dry grass is often used as lining. I have never seen any eggs with spots, five is the usual number, and nesting begins at the end of April. 383. Sykes’s Striated Swallow. Hirundo daurica erythropygia. Mackenzie records this subspecies from the North Chin Hills. XXV. — Family Motacilld^e 384. The Indian White Wagtail. Motacilla alba dukhunensis. Recorded by Rippon in the Kachin Hills. 385. The Masked Wagtail. Motacilla alba personata. I have shot one in the Shan Hills, or rather I pounced on a specimen shot by an urchin with a pellet bow. 386. Swinhoe’s White Wagtail. Motacilla alba baicalensis. Is also a Shan Hills bird. 387. The Streak=eyed Wagtail. Motacilla alba ocularis. Probably Shan Hills, all of course being winter visitors only. 388. Hodgson’s Pied Wagtail. Motacilla lugubris alboide. 389. The White-faced Wagtail. Motacilla lugubris leucopsis. Both recorded as wintering in Burma as a whole. 390. The Eastern Grey Wagtail. Motacilla cinerea caspica. Another winter visitor. 391. The Grey-headed Wagtail. Motacilla flava thunbergi. Probably a winter visitor to all three hills. Recorded by Harington in the Kachin Country. 392. Hodgson’s Yellow-headed Wagtail. Motacilla citreola calcarata. Winter visitor. Recorded by Harington as occurring in the Kachin Country. 393. The Forest Wagtail. Dendronantlms indicus. Occurs sparingly throughout our hills. A lonely bird. 394. The Indian Tree-Pipit. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni. 395. The Yunnan Tree-Pipit. Anthus hodgsoni yunnanensis. Both winter visitors to the Burmese Hills, the latter in the East. Small parties of 8 or 10 birds feed on the ground and when disturbed, fly up into trees ; partial to well watered country. 396. The Brown Rock Pipit. Anthus sordidus jerdoni. Winters in the Chin, KachnFand Shan Hills, NO TES ON THE BINDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 51 397. Richard’s Pipit. Anthus richardi richardi. 398. Blyth’s Pipit. Anthus richardi godlewskii. Apparently both subspecies richardi and godlewskii occur in the Burma Hills, but evidently, by their description of them in the Fauna , the two may perhaps turn out to be one subspecies. I found the bird breeding about 3,000 ft.* in the Shan Hills, but only found young. 399. The Indian Pipit. Anthus richardi rufulus. A very common bird which inhabits nearly every open grass space, and breeds where it lives. I found the nest of this bird very often contained the egg of Cuculus canorus. 400. The Red-throated Pipit. Anthus cervinus. Occurs throughout our hills. 401. The Japanese Water=Pipit. Anthus spinoletta japonicus. Recorded as nesting on Mt. Victoria, S. Chin Hills. XXVI.— Family Alaudid^e 402. The Small Indian Sky=Lark. Alauda gulgula gulgula. 403. The Small Chinese Sky=Lark. Alauda gulgula coelivox. The two subspecies, gulgula and coelivox , occur in our hills. I took some nests at about 8,000 ft. in the Chin Hills and apparently some collector obtain- ed nests and eggs on Mt. Victoria and these eggs were identified as belonging to the latter subspecies ; so probably mine from further north belong to coelivox also. The nests were typical larks’ nests taken in April, in each case a clutch of three only, rather long ovals and one clutch has a very distinct ring of marking round the big end. 404. The Rufous Short-toed Lark. Calandrella brachydactyla dukhunensis. Probably occurs in our hills. 405. The Ganges SandTark. Alaudula raytal raytal. May occur on the Irrawaddy River in the Kachin Country, but is not a hill bird. 406. The Siam Singing BushTark. Mirafra javanica williamsoni. I found this bird breeding in April, in the Shan Hills at about 3,000 ft. in grassy plains. Nest very similar to Anthus. r. rufulus , the bird being shot and skin identified for me in England : sings very like our English Lark soaring id the air. 407. The Burmese Bush-Lark. Mirafra assamica microptera. A very common bird in the north of Burma in the dry zone and to be found sparingly at low elevations in the hills. Although a bird of dry and arid land in Burma, it has the same habit as the Bengal Bush Lark in ‘ sailing down on outstretched wings.’ XXVII.— Family Zosteropid^e 408. The Northern White=Eye. Zosterops palpebrosa elwesi. North Shan Hills, and Kachin Hills. 409. The Cachar White’Eye. Zosterops palpebrosa cacharensis. Chin Hills. 410. The Pegu White=>Eye. Zosterops simplex peguensis. S. Shan Hills. 411. The Siamese White=Eye. Zosterops siamensis. Chin Hills. 52 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HJST. SOCIETY , He/. XXXIV 412. The Karen White-Eye. Zosterops aureiventris mesoxantha. Recorded by Rippon as occurring in Southern Shan Hills north of the Karen Country. I am probably only intimately acquainted with Z simplex peguensis and its nests and eggs ; a beautiful nest and a beautiful egg, but oh ! how one wishes birds like this species could be more standardised in colouration ! One descrip- tion of their habits, etc. would do for all of them. XXVIII. — Family Chalcopariid^e 413. The Malayan Ruby=Cheek. Chalcoparia singalensis singalensis. Said to occur in the foothills of all Burmese hills. I have only come across it in the plains and mostly in Lower Burma. XXIX. — Family Nectariniid^e 414. The Indian Yellow backed Sunbird. TEthopyga sfparaja seherise. Harington records that cara , the Tennasserim Yellow-backed Sunbird was recorded by Salvadori to occur in the Kachin Country but this is seemingly a mistake. The two sub-species, seherice (the Himalayan Yellow-backed Sunbird) and one called andersoni (Oates) are now not separated and the bird occurs in the Kachin Hills and probably also in the Chin Hills. In the Shan Hills the subspecies has been named viridicauda, the Yunnan Yellow-backed Sunbird, but the separation of this bird from s. seherice is doubtful. Osmaston took the eggs of this bird at Maymyo in 1915 and in 1923 I went to live in a house at that place where a pair had evidently used for sometime a creeper climbing over a sweeper’s staircase to build in and the pair did so all the three years I was there. I also found another nest in the jungle which was hanging from a bracken frond. The nest is like Leptocoma a. intermedia in shape but differs in material used which is mostly grass. My eggs are white with dark spots at the larger end. 415. Rippon’s Fire=tailed Sunbird. /Ethopyga ignicauda flavescens. This pretty sunbird was very plentiful on Mt. Victoria, at about 8,000 ft. but I could not find its nest. Kachin Hills. 416. The Yunnan Fire=tailed Sunbird. TEthopyga ignicauda exultans. Eastern Shan Hills. 417. Mrs. Gould’s Sunbird. TEthopyga gouldiae gouldise. Chin Hills ; high elevations. 418. The Manipur Yellow-backed Sunbird. TEthopyga gouldiae isolata. Chin Hills : at lower elevations. 419. Dabry’s Sunbird. yEthopyga dabryi. Seems to be the Shan Hills subspecies ; nest found by Sir S. Robinson (. B.N.H.S . Journal , Vol. XXIX, p. 1052). Harington also records it from round Bhamo, East Kachin Hills. 420. The Black-breasted Sunbird. TEthopyga saturata saturata. Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. I have, I believe, seen them in the latter part of the country almost as far east as one can go before reaching China. 421. Walden’s Yellow-backed Sunbird. 46thopyga sanguinipecta sanguinipecta. A bird of the Kachin and Shan Hills. 422. The Nepal Yellow-backed Sunbird. TEihopyga nipalensis nipalensis, Kachin and Shan Hills. 423. Rippon’s Yellow=backed Sunbird. /Ethopyga nipalensis victorias. Mt. Victoria, S. Chin Hills. 424. The Burmese Purple Sunbird. Leptocoma asiatica intermedia. A common bird in all these hills. A nest in my compound was hung from a rose bush. After one brood had been reared, the bird laid again and hatched NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HlLLS 53 out, but the nest could not stand the strain of a second brood and it fell, to ray surprise ; as far as 1 know, no additions were made to the nest after the 1st brood had been reared. As a rule the nest, when hanging, is seldom more than a foot or two off the ground. 425. Van Hasselt’s Sunbird. Leptocoma brasiliana, I think a bird of the plains only. I never saw it in the Hills. 426. The Burmese Yellow-breasted Sunbird. Leptocoma flammaxillaris flam- maxillaris. Shan Hills, at low elevation, probably 3,000 ft. I can find no record of this bird in the Kachin and Chin Hills. 427. The Indian Sireakel Spider-Hunter. Arachnothera niagna magna. Recorded by Mackenzie in the North Chin Hills, and Harington .from the Kachin Hills. I found this bird very local in the Shan Hills and as I did not actually shoot one, it may have been the subspecies aurata , the Pegu Streaked Spider-Hunter, in the South. It is not common by any means and I never discovered its nest. 428. The Little Spider-Hunter. Arachnothera longirostra longirostra. Rippon recorded this bird in the Kachin Hills. XXX. — Family Dicaeme: 429. The Indian ScarleLbacked Flower-pecker. Dicaeum cruentatum cruentatum. 430. The Burmese Scarlet=backed Flower=pecker. Dicaeum cruentatum ignitum. The Indian subspecies comes down as far as the North Chin Hills and its eastern and southern limits are unknown. The Burmese subspecies ignitum taking its place eventually. 431. The Burmese Yellowwented Flower-pecker. Dscaeum chrysorrheum chryso- chlore. Harington records it from the Kachin Hills, so it doubtless extends through the Shan Hills. 432. The Fire=breasted Flower=pecker. Dicaeum ignipectum ignipectuni. Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills. A nest I took in May contained two eggs and was built at the top of a small tree on a rocky hillside Taunggyi crags where it was plentiful. 433. Tickell’s Flower- pecker. Dicaeum erythrorhynchum erythrorhynchum. Probably all these hills, but recorded apparently for certain in the Shan Hills. 434. Hume’s Flower-pecker. Piprisoma squalidum modestum. All our hills. XXXI. — Family Pittiiee 435. Phayre’s Pitta. Anthocincla phayrei. Shan Hills. 436. The Bluemaped Pitta. Pitta nepalensis. Chin Hills. 437. The Fulvous Pitta. Pitta oatesi. S. Shan Hills. 438. The Blue Pitta. Pitta cyanea cyanea. All these hills. 439. The Lesser Blue-winged Pitta. Pitta moluccensis. I saw a Pitta once on the Taunggyi crag which I took to be this, evidently on migration, as they breed in numbers not far from Rangoon, 54 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST SOCIETY , Fh/. XXXIV 440. The Greembreasted Pitta. Pitta cuosllata cucullata. Apparently occurs in all our hills, XXXII. — Family Eurylaimim; I have found it difficult from my own knowledge to add to the notes given in the Fauna of the habits of the birds dealt with, but in the case of the Broad- bills, I could not anyhow have added to them as they are a race of birds which have studiously avoided me and I have never found a nest of any of this most interesting group. 441. Gould’s Broadbill. Serilophus lunatus lunatus. 442. Hodgson’s Broadbill. Serilophus rubropygius. The former recorded by Mackenzie and Hopwood from the N. Chin Hills, but it is evidently a commoner bird south of any of our bills. The same remarks apply equally to rubropygius — Hodgson’s Broadbill. 443. The Long=tailed Broadbill. Psarisomus dalhouslae. This seems from all accounts the commonest of our hill Broadbills. As an instance of fearlessness, a friend wrote me from Bhamo to say they suddenly appeared in numbers round the courts and, uttering their whistling call, entered rooms, almost interfering with the ends of justice. XXXIII.— Family Picid^e 444. The Little >caly=bellled Green Woodpecker. Picus vittatus myrmecophaneus. Chin Hills. 445. The Burmese Scaly=bellied Woodpecker. Picus vittatus viridanus. 446. The Siam Scaly=be!!ied Woodpecker. Picus vittatus eisenhoferi. The subspecies of the Kachin and Shan Hills. The subspecies eisenhoferi probably straggles into the extreme East. 447. The Burmese Black=naped Green Woodpecker. Picus canus hessei. Apparently in all these hills. Nest hole oftea near the ground. In one case I came across, the old bird had been killed by a rat or some similar animal which could just reach the bird to kill and eat a part of it, but not pull it out of the hole. 448. The Eastern Himalayan Small Yellowmaped Woodpecker. Picus chlorolophus chlorolophus. Chin and Kachin Hills and the Northern Shan Hills. 449. The Burmese Small Yellowmaped Woodpecker, Picus chlorolophus chlorolophoides. The more southerly subspecies. 450. The Large Yellow -naped Woodpecker. Chrvsophlegma ilavinucha flavinucha. All the Burmese Hills. 451. The Paledieaded Woodpecker. Gecinulus grantia. Chin Hills. 452. The Southern Pale-headed Woodpecker. Gecinulus viridis. Shan Hills. 453. The Eastern Rufous=be!lied Woodpecker. Hypopicus hyperythus hyperythus. Chin and Kachin Hills. 454. The Yunan Red=crowned Pied Woodpecker. Dryobates cabinisi stressemani. Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills a bird evidently of the higher elevations. 455. The Kansu Red-breasted Woodpecker. Dryobates cathparius pernyi. Shan States. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 55 456. The Stripe=breasted Pied Woodpecker. Dryobates atratus. All Burma Hills. At the end of March, I found it nesting’ on the Taunggyi crag, Shan Hills, about 5,000 ft., in a rotten stump about twelve feet from the ground. 457. The Northern Yellow=fronied Pied Woodpecker. Leiopicus mahratfensis blanfordi. The Burma Hills generally. 458. The Yunnan Pigmy Woodpecker. Yungipicus hardwickii omissus. Kachin Hills. (Harington). 459. The Burmese Pigmy Woodpecker. Yungipicus hardwickii canlcapillus. The rest of Burma and the Shan Hills. Two nests I found in the Shan States were in small (thin) rotten branches not very high up — one twelve feet and the other six feet. One contained a fully-fledged young bird (April). The other nest was opened out when I visited it a second time, but this was early May and the young birds may have flown although it did not appear so. 460. The Red=eared Bay Woodpecker. Blythipicus pyrrhotis pyrrhotis. All our hills. 461. Northern Rufous Woodpecker. Micropfernus brachyurus phaioceps. This woodpecker excavates holes in ants’ nests for its nest. Phaioceps is the subspecies of Burma. 462. The Burmese Goldembacked Three4oed Woodpecker. Dinopicus javanensis intermedia. All these Burma Hills. I see a note of young bird observed in the middle of April in the Shan States. This nest was about 5 ft. off the ground, but in a big trunk quite 2 ft. in diameter. 463. The Himalayan Golden-backed Three=toed Woodpecker- Dinopicus shorii. Chin Hills, and probably West Kachin Hills. 464. Tickell’s Goldembacked Woodpecker. Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus guttacrlstatus. A common woodpecker of all these hills. 465. The Indian Great Slaty Woodpecker. Mulleripicus pulverulentus harterti. Not a common bird by any means in our hills. I can record it in the Shan Hills. 466. The Burmese Great Black Woodpecker. Thripooax javanensis feddeni. Kachin Hills (Harington), It occurred in the Shan Hills in suitable jungle sparingly. I never found the nest, but the Fauna records Cook taking them at Maymyo, 40 miles east of Mandalay, early in Februry. I cannot recognize the place where Grant is stated in the Fauna to have taken another nest. 467. The /Malay Speckled Piculet. Picumnus innominatus malayorum. Harington records this bird in the Kachin Hills and the Fauna says the Southern Shan States ; so presumably it might be found anywhere in these hills. 463. The Rufous Piculet. Sasia ochracea ocliracea. In the Kachin Hills. 469. Cachar Rufous Piculet, Sasia ochracea querulivox. In the Chin Hills. 470. The Burmese Rufous Piculet. Sasia ochracea reichenowi. Probably in the Shan Hills. 471. The Japanese Wryneck. lynx torquilla japonica. Winter visitor to our hills. Have caught it more than once in the house probably coming in after insects and not being able to find its way out, 56 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV XXXIV. — Family Capitonid^e 472. The Great Chinese Barbet. Megalaima virens virens. In the Shan States and probably the Kachin Hills. 473. The Assam Great Barbel. Megalaima virens magnifica. In the Chin Hills. A nest I found in the Shan Hills had not been excavated by the bird, normally an early breeder and fairly common all over the Burma Hills. 474. The Assam Lineated Barbet. Thereiceryx lineatus hodgsoni. In the Chin Hills and N. Burma. 475. The Burmese Lineated Barbet. Thereiceryx lineatus intermedins. The Burmese subspecies in the Shan Hills south. 1 Po Toke’ is one of the Burmese names for this bird resembling the call. It nests, like all barbets, in rotten trees. In the plains I took the nest at the end of February, and in the hills at beginning of May, but I do not think that this substantiates a claim that the plain birds breed earlier than the Hill ones. 476. The Blue=throated Barbet. Cyanops asiatica asiatica. 477. Davison’s Blue-throated Barbet. Cyanops asiatica davisoni. The subspecies asiatica in the North and Western Hills, and davisoni in the S. Eastern Hills. Probably the subspecies are a bit mixed in the middle of the Shan States, anyway there seems to be a mistake in the Fauna in the descrip- tion of the band across the vertex of davisoni. Nests end of April. 478. The Indian Blue-eared Barbet. Cyanops duvaucelli cyanotis. Seems to have been missed by Mackenzie, Harington and even Rippon although it probably occurs in North Burma. 479. The Thick=billed Barbet, Cyanops robustirostris. May also occur in our Northern Hills. 480. The Golden-throated Barbet. Cyanops franklinii franklinii. 481. Ramsay’s Goldea=throated Barbet. Cyanops franklini ramsayi. Both appear to inhabit cur hills, the latter in the South Shan Hills. Haring- ton records this species as plentiful in the Kachin Hills, and Mackenzie took eggs in the North Chin Hills ; early May. Robinson obtained eggs of ramsayi in South Shan Hills ; end of April. 482. The Burmese Crimson=breasted Barbet. Xantholaema haemacephala indica. The Fauna the description of the subspecies X. h. hccniacephala , if it occurs in India, is omitted. In the key indica has a culmen 15 mm. or under, while in the description under the species the length of the culmen is recorded 17 to 18 mm. No doubt the mistake if any will be corrected. Occurs in all our hills, an early breeder generally. I found nests in thin rotten branches of trees, often so thin you would think a bird could hardly turn round in the hole. Quite common enough in Burma I may add ! All Barbets seem to take some time to make their nest cavities. XXXV. — Family Cuculid^e 483. The Khasia Hills Cuckoo. Cuculus canorus bakeri. The cuckoo of Burma. Begins to call the second week in March but does not seem to lay till the end of April. The eggs taken by me in the Shan Hills are nearly all of one colour rather like ‘ Suya but I have also taken blue eggs, and although I have frequently taken them from Anthus r. rufulus , the eggs were always of the same type. Hopwood found this cuckoo’s egg in nest of M. palustris but Saxicola caprata seemed the most favoured foster parents, NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 57 484. The Himalayan Cuckoo. Cuculus optatus. I think I obtained the egg of this bird in a nest of Phylloscopus in the Chin Hills. Mackenzie records its finding in nests of A . davisoni. 485. The Small Cuckoo. Cuculus poliocephaius poliocephaius. Probably occurs in the Northern Hills. 486. The Indian Cuckoo. Cuculus micropterus micropterus. The ‘ Youkhpa, Quay, Kor ’ of the Burmese. I took an egg out of a nest of S. caprata in the Shan Hills, where this cuckoo is however rather uncommon, especially compared to the Chin Hills and the plains of Burma. The egg was blue with reddish spots which I have always considered the egg of this bird. 487. The Large Hawk=Cuckoo. Hierococcyx sparveroides. In the Shan Hills I took an egg of this bird, I believe, from a nest of Garrulax 1. bdangeri ; middle of May : Hopwood and Mackenzie obtained several in the N. Chin Hills, P. maclellandi being the commonest fosterer. Mackenzie also records the finding of the eggs. 488. The Common Hawk-Cuckoo. Hierococcyx variiis. Eggs were taken by Mackenzie on two occasions in the North Chin Hills. The fosterers were Ianthocincla cineracea. 489. Hodgson’s Hawk=Cuckoo. Hierococcyx fugax nisicolor. Recorded from the Chin and Shan Hills and it must also occur in the Kachin Hills. 490. The Burmese Plaintive Cuckoo. Cacomautis merulinus querulus. A very common Burma bird but 1 do not remember it in the Chin Hills. In the Shan Hills it was found laying in nests of Franklinia and Cisticola. May and early June. 491. The Indian Banded Bay Cuckoo. Penthoceryx sonneratii sonneratii. Occurs in Burma but has been recorded by no one lately. 492. The Violet Cuckoo. Chalcites xanthorhynchus. I have an egg from a nest of Franklinia which must belong to either this or the next species. 493. The Emerald Cuckoo. Chalcites maculatus maculatus. Taken in the Shan Hills. Harington records the latter bird in the Kachin Hills. 494. The Indian Drongo Cuckoo. Surniculus lugubris dicruroides. Except the recording of it in all these hills little seems to be known of its nidification, although Mackenzie considered he found an egg in a drongo’s nest in the N. Chin Hills. I remember shooting a fully-fledged, young bird near Rangoon. The call is easily recognizable when once heard. 495. The Pied Crested Cuckoo. Clamator jacobinus jacobinus. Occurring in all these hills, but in my opinion very few in numbers compared to the plains. 496. The Red=winged Crested Cuckoo. Clamator coromandus. Common in all our hills. The eggs have been frequently taken. I have a clutch of 5 with 4 of G. moniliger the foster birds, taken at Maymyo, east of Mandalay in the Shan Hills. The bird seems a more frequent night caller than other cuckoos and it has a call different to its usual harsh screaming. 497. The Malay Koel. Eudynamis scolopaceus malayana. Found in all three hills. 8 58 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fh/. XXXIV 498. The Large Himalayan Green=billed Malkoha. Rhopodytes tristis. A fairly common bird in all these hills, especially the Shan Hills, where at about 3, GOO ft. elevation it thrives and nests and in any beat for jungle fowl, this bird is sure to appear. I notice the subspecies longicaudatus is mentioned in the Fauna as occurring in the Southern Shan Hills, but I have never had the opportunity of examining skins. 499. Hume’s Crow Pheasant. Centropus sinensis intermedius. Our Burma hill bird is presumably the subspecies intermedius. It differs from the Indian bird in size only, the Burmese bird being a little smaller all over except its length of tail. 500. The Lesser Coucal or Crow Pheasant. Centropus hengalensis bengalensis. In our hills, it appears to be an inhabitant mostly of the long thatch grass wherein it nests. It seems, if possible, a more feeble flier than its larger brother. I agree 3,000 ft. in the hills is its usual elevation. A rains breeder. XXXVI. —Family Psittacid,® 501. The Large Burmese Paroquet. Psittacula eupatria indoburmanica. Must be included in our hill birds, but it keeps to very low elevations as does. 502. The Eastern RoseHnged Paroquet. Psittacula krameri borealis. 503. The Eastern Blossomflieaded Paroquet. Psittacula cyanocephala bengalensis. I cannot say whether this bird occurs in the eastern hills, i.e. the Chin Hills of Burma. I found it breeding in the Shan Hills early in March and actually shot a nesting bird. Elevation 3,000 ft. Harington records its occurrence in the Kachin Hills. 504. The Burmese Slaty=headed Paroquet. Psittacula schisticeps tinschi. Recorded by Mackenzie in the N. Chin Hills and in the Southern Shan Hills (Kalaw) by Cooke, it also occurs, I believe, near Maymyo further north in these hills and probably in the Kachin Hills also. 505. The Indian Red=breasted Paroquet. Psittacula alexandri fasciatus. Not so common in these hills as one would expect as it is common enough in the plains of Burma. 506. The Indian Loriquet. Coryllis vernalis vernalis. One seldom sees this little bird in the hills of Burma, at least I have personally found it rare and it is only on occasions that one recognizes its familiar call when flying swiftly overhead. In the Andamans one found them breeding very early ; young birds in January, but I have no experience of their breeding in these hills. XXXVII. ---Family Coraciidje 507. The Burmese Roller. Coracias bengalensis alfinis. My experience is that this Burmese subspecies breeds at end of March and beginning of April all over Burma, often, if undisturbed, using the same tree- hollow — year after year. The wonderful flight contortions of this bird are truly recorded. 508. The Broad=billed Roller. Eurystomus orientalis orientalis. Occurring over all our hills in the jungle ; it is not difficult to find the nesting place but extremely difficult to rob it as it chooses as a rule a hollow at a considerable height up in a large forest tree. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 59 XXXVIII.— Family Meropid^e 509. The Burmese Green Bee-eater. Merops orientalis birmanus. A common bird in our hills ; the Telegraph lines seem its normal habitat ! 510. The Bluedailed Bee=eater. Merops superciliosus javanicus. Also fairly common in places and seems to have a preference for river valleys. A breeding colony is a sight worth seeing. 511. The Chestnut=headed Bee=eater. Melittophagus erythrocephalus erythrocephalus. Fairly common throughout our hills, it seems much more solitary in its habits than the other bee-eaters and certainly does not breed in colonies. 512. The BIue=>bearded Beefeater. Bucia athertonil. Occurs throughout our hills and is particularly common in the Shan Hills at the beginning of the rains which made me consider it was locally migratory. Nest holes I have seen were only just above the ground level and, considering how shy the birds are, sometimes in quite exposed situations-roadside drains and banks. I quite agree with the Fauna as to the difficulty of securing the eggs as I have opened a good many nest holes without ever obtaining them. XXXIX.— Family Alcedinid^e 513. The Indian Pied Kingfisher. Ceryle rudis leucomelanura. The bird may be found in the foothills and in the Shan Hills up to a bout 3,000 ft. wdiere the river valleys are wide ; one does not come across it frequenting the hill streams proper, it likes ‘open’ rivers, canals and lakes. The champion ‘hoverer’ of its tribe and one wishes the brilliant blue kingfisher would copy this habit to the same extent and in the same confiding manner ; nests in Burma in winter months, as recorded. 514. The Himalayan Pied Kingfisher. Ceryle lugubris guttulata. Common in the Chin Hills and recorded from the Kachin Hills. I cannot remember it in the Shan Hills but it probably occurs as it is found in Yunnan ; it is curiously shy for a kingfisher and liable to escape notice. 515. The Common Indian Kingfisher. Alcedo afhis bengalensis. Common in all our hills. 516. The Malay S3!ue=eared Kingfisher. Alcedo meningting coltarli. Recorded as occurring in Burma, but I knew it not in these hills. 517. Blyth’s Kingfisher. Alcedo hercules. Recorded in the Chin Hills according to the Fauna. 518. The Broad=zoned Kingfisher. Alcedo euryzona. I can record this bird from 40 miles north of Taunggyi in the Shan Hills. Rare and shy, but I once had it perched within a few feet of me, on the banks of a jungle stream far from man’s abode. 519. The Indian Three=toed Kingfisher. Ceyx tridactylus tridactylus. Occurs throughout the Burma Hills. One killed itself against the Civil Hospital Operating Room window at Maymyo, some 40 miles east of Mandalay, in the Shan Hills, Npwhere common. 520. The Burmese Sfork=billed Kingfisher. Ramphalcyon capensis burmanica. Inhabits all our hills. I found it nesting in the bank of a perennial stream in the Shan Hills at about 3,000 ft., end of April ; 4 eggs fresh, the entrance to the nest was large and the egg chamber only a little way in. 521. The Indian White=breasted Kingfisher. Halcyon smyrnensis fusca. Common everywhere in the hills and a great lover of a hill roadside bank to nest in. In Burma it is the commonest kingfisher. 60 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV 522. The Black=capped Kingfisher. Halcyon pileata. An inhabitant of the eastern hills being often met with in the Shan Hills up to the very eastern extremity. It probably also occurs in the Kachin Hills and, as it is found in Assam, probably also in the Chin Hills though I cannot recall seeing it there. My idea is that it is more numerous inland and up the hill streams in the breeding season. In April I found it quite common on an eastern tributary of the Salween River in the Shan Hills evidently breeding or about to breed. I never took a nest however. XL.— Family Bucerotid,® 523. The Great Hornbill. Bichoceros bicornis bicornis. More common in the Chin Hills than the Kachin and Shan Hills. I attri- buted the death of a tame bird I had, to its being given meat. This bird would have made a fine ‘ slip ’ at cricket as it caught anything within reach. I never tried throwing anything but fruit at it and the catch was made with the end of the bill and then tossed up and caught in the back of the throat when it could be swallowed. 524. The large Indian Pied Hornbill. Anthraceros malabaricus malabaricus. 525. The Burmese Pied Hornbili. Anthraceros malabaricus leucogaster. Both these subspecies inhabit the Burmese Hills probably the latter in the Southern Shan Hills only. I took fresh eggs on the 16th March in Tennasserim. Probably they breed in the hills about the same time. The Pied Hornbill is a very common bird in the Shan Hills, but the nest is difficult to locate. 526. The Malayan Wreathed Hornbill. Rhyticeros undulatus. A large hornbill which occurs somewhat sparingly in all these Burma Hills. 52 7. Blyth’s Wreathed Hornbill. Rhyticeros subruficollis. The swish caused by hornbills descending from high up in the air to their nesting tree is a noise worth hearing. I found a nest of this species solely by hearing this noise. Burmese name ‘ Goryin \ 528. The Rufous=necked Hornbill. Aceros nepalensis. Recorded in the Fauna as occurring in the Chin and Kachin Hills. XL1. — Family Upupidje 529. The Burmese Hoopoe. Upupa epops longirostris. A familiar and attractive bird in all hill stations as well as the plains. Nests beginning of April, but I have taken eggs in June although I should not say it normally had two broods. XLII. — Family Trogonid,® 530. The Redheaded Trogon. Pyrotrogon erythrochphalus erythrocephalus. Inhabits all these hills and is not uncommon where there is suitable heavy jungle and often seen when beating for jungle fowl. 531. Robinson’s Yellow-breasted Trogon. Pyrotrogon oreskios uniformis. This bird extends very much further north than Tenasserim. I have myself seen it on the west coast of Burma. Hopwood also records it from Arakan. A friend described this bird to me in the Kachin Country ; so it probably spreads up, sparingly, throughout Burma. The upright attitude of this bird when perching is very marked : one has the idea too that this bird is more sluggish in the day-time than the Red-headed Trogon. XLIII. — Family Micropid^e 532. The Large White=rumped Swift. Micropus pacificus pacificus. 533. The Burmese White-rumped Swift. Micropus pacificus cooki. The two subspecies pacificus and cooki occur in our hills, the latter recorded from the Shan Hillg where its breeding was the subject of a note in NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 61 the Journal by Col. Harington {Journ. B.N.H.S. , vol xxiii, p. 155). I paid a visit to that nesting site, the Gokteik Gorge, on March, 17, 1924 and there was not a swift of this species there. The roof of the cave was occupied by a small swift probably of the genus, Collocalia , 534. The Malay House=Swift. Micropus affinis subfurcatus. Occupies hills and plains alike all over Burma. Have taken the eggs out of nests in buildings and caves but have never seen a big colony of them. May to July seem the breeding months. 535. The Eastern Pa! m=Swift. Tachornis batasiensis infumatus. Chin Hills where it copies the Assam birds and breeds in the thatch of Hill- tribe houses. I have also taken its nest under palm leaves. Harington remarks that nearly every Kachin house has a few nests in the eaves. In the ShanHills, as similar thatched buildings do not exist, it breeds in the palm trees. 536. The Brown-throated Spine-tail. Hirundapus giganteus indicus. I knew this bird in the Andamans, but I have never noted it in our hills, Mackenzie thought he saw a flock in the North Chin Hills and I expect he was correct. The pace of their flight is wonderful. 537. The Himalayan Swiftlet. Collocalia fuciphaga brevirostris. Presuming my identification is correct, I noted this bird as breeding in many of the caves in limestone rocks in the Shan Hills in March. In the Gokteik Gorge Cave, which forms a natural bridge over a river in the Shan Hills not far from Maymyo and on which a high railway bridge has been constructed, the birds’ nests could not be seen as they were in the natural hollows of the cave itself ; these hollows are probably big, but the entrance to them from the cave is small and the nesting place must be practically in darkness. I noticed many birds going into the same entrance. There were no broken egg shells upon the ground. 538. Indian Crested Swift. Hemiprocne coronata. To be seen in all our hills haunting generally the jungle clearings for cultb vation where some trees have not been felled but which are dead. These trees or rather the branches of them are used as nesting sites. I have heard them making a call when in flight very similar to the call of the small Woodpecker, Dry ob ales. XLIV.— Family Caprimulgid^; 539. The Burmese Longdailed Nightjar. Caprimulgus raacrourus bimaculatus. This is the commonest Nightjar in the Shan Hills and has also been recorded from the Chin and Kachin Hills. I have heard this species calling quite early in the afternoon. 540. The Japanese Jungle Nightjar. Caprimulgus indicus jotaka. Two white ground eggs taken for me in the Chin Hills, Mt. Victoria, must have belonged to this bird as Mackenzie took it in the North Chin Hills. 541. Franklin’s Nightjar, Caprimulgus montscolus monticolus. Recorded as occurring throughout Burma in the Fauna , but latter day ornithologists in the country seem to have missed it as neither Harington, Mackenzie or anyone else, that I can find, record it. 542. The Comman Indian Nightjar. Caprimulgus asiaticus. Recorded by Mackenzie in the North Chin Hills, probably in the plains adjoining. 543. The Burmese Great Eared Nightjar. Lyncornis cerviniceps. Chin Hills, at any rate but if it occurs in the eastern hills, it is rare I should think, 62 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol . XXXIV XLV. — Family Podargid^e 544. Hodgson’s Frogmouth. Batrachostomus javanensis hodgsoni. The nests of this bird were taken by Mackenzie in the North Chin Hills. I regret I have never come across it. It appears to miss the eastern hills. XLVI.— Family Tytonid^e 545. The Indian Barn Owl. Tyto alba javanica. Inhabits all these hills. 546. The Grass Owl. Tyto longimembris. This bird is to be found in suitable places throughout the Shan Hills. It requires open grass spaces. Nests on the ground in the cold weather. The nests I have seen are very scanty grass affairs, in fact, look as if they were simply made of some of the surrounding grass trodden down, with a feather or two included. One nesting place was well hidden by overhanging grass, but one from which I obtained eggs was quite open. I examined the pellets of this bird and found them made up of mice remains, but one contained a skull and beak — the upper mandible of a Quail ( Turnix ), In the daytime when disturbed they do not fly far and soon flop down in the grass again, but at night, as may be expected, they are quick, silent hunters. I have seen them behaving as if they were catching insects of some sort like large white bats. I do not think the bird occurs in the Chin Hills and there is no record of it in the Kachin Hills that I can find. XLVII. — Family Asionid^e 547. The Bay Owl. Phodilus badius badius. Probably Shan Hills and Eastern Kachin Hills. 548. The Himalayan Wood=Owl. Strix nivicola. Shan Hills. 549. The Himalayan Brown Wood=Qwl. Slrix indranee newarensis. I should think this is the subspecies of the Shan Hills. 550. The Bengal Brown Fish=0wl. Ketupa zeylonensis leschenaulti. Recorded from the Chin and may occur in the Kachin and Shan Countries. 551. The Indian Great Horned=Owl. Bubo bubo bengalensis. 552. The Forest Eagle Owl. Huhua nipalensis. May probably both be obtained in our hills. I have heard the latter in the Chin Hills. 553. The Burmese Collared Scops Owl. Otus bakkamoena lettia. A common bird in all these hills. In the Shan Hills I notice my nests were generally taken the last week in March. In one case the hollow used was within easy reach, in another an old woodpecker’s nest much higher up had been used. 554. The Eastern Spotted Scops Owl. Otus spilocephalus spilocephalus. Recorded from Kachin Country and Shan Hills. 555. The Burmese Scops Owl. Otus sunia modesttis. Shan Hills, according to the Fauna. 556. The Burmese Spotted Owlet. Athene brama pulchra. Not nearly so common in the hills as in the plains. So noisy that one would think it was about the most quarrelsome bird in the country. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF THE UPPER BURMA HILLS 63 557. The Burmese Barred Owlet. Glaucldium cuculoides rufescens. Occurs in all these hills. 558. The Jungle Owlet. Gfaucidium radiatum radiatum. Recorded by Mackenmie in the Chin Hills. 559. The Eastern Collared Pigmy Owlet. Glaucidium brodiei tubiger. Harington records this little owl as being plentiful in the Kachin Hills and I have seen it in the Shan Hills ; it also probably occurs in the Chin Hills. 560. The Burmese Brown Hawk=Owl. Ninox scutulata burmanica. Chin, Kachin and Shan Hills : in the latter I often came across this bird when beating patches of jungle for woodcock and their flight is something similar to that bird. ( To be continued.) THE PANTHERS AND OUNCES OF ASIA BY R. I. PoCOCK, F.R.S. Temporary Assistant in the Zoological Department of ihe Natural History Museum ( With Plates I -VI) Introduction In this paper on the Panthers or Leopards of Asia I have followed the same lines as those adopted in my paper upon Tigers (Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. xxxiii, No. 3, pp. 505-41, 1929). The terms ‘panther’ and ‘leopard’ are used somewhat indis- criminately and inconsistently as synonyms. Leopard is the name by which the animal is commonly known amongst English-speaking people in Europe, America and Africa ; but I have given preference to the term panther because I have been told it is more usually employed by Indian sportsmen. In the tables of skull-measurements the same dimensions have been taken as in the case of the tigers, with the omission of the occiput. The total length is taken from the tip of the occipital crest to the tip of the premaxillae ; the condylo-basal length ( Cond . bas.) from the edge of the occipital condyle to the same point above the upper incisors; the zygomatic width ( Zygom .) is across the cheek bones; of the nasals the length from the middle line behind to the tip of the processes bounding the nostrils and the width across these processes are given. In the case of the teeth, the total length of the upper and lower flesh-teeth ( upper and lower carnal.) and the width of the canine from back to front close to the socket ( upper canine) are recorded. It is the custom amongst zoologists to record all measurements of skulls, and even of skins, by the metric system. But in deference to Indian sportsmen and naturalists for whom the paper is mainly written I have used English inches for the skins and skulls as in the paper on Tigers, the only change being the substitution of decimal for vulgar fractions. For the teeth, however, millimetres, of which twenty-five go to the English inch, have been employed as more suitable for small structures. My remarks regarding the inadequacy of specimens of skins and skulls of tigers apply equally to panthers and need not be repeated. The Kinship between Panthers and Tigers (pi. i) In" the paper on Tigers, above referred to, I gave reasons for separating the lion, tiger, panther and jaguar from the rest of the Felidae under the name Panthera, of which the panther is the typical Plate I. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. A, B. Upper carnassial tooth, with anterior tubercle (a) of Tiger from Nepal. C. The same, without tubercle, of Tiger from the Central Provinces. D, E. The same of Panther from Kashmir. P, G, H. Nasal bones of Panthers from Daltonganj, Pekin and Annam. I, K. Mesopterygoid fossa of Panthers from Dharwar and Kashmir. (All figures natural size.) THE PANTHERS AND OUNCES OF ASIA 65 species or geno-type ; and in refutation of the claim upheld by some modern authors that the differences between the lion and the tig'er justify their ascription to' distinct genera, named Leo and Tigris respectively, I insisted upon the tolerably close affinity' between them and showed that many of their alleged differences in cranial characters have no foundation in fact, being much too variable to be diagnostic. It now remains to be seen if there are any good reasons for regarding' the tiger and panther as different genera, a view held by the Russian zoologist, Satunin, ( Mitth . Kauk. Mus. IV, pp. 24-5, 1909), who enumerated three distinguishing characters in the skull, as follows : — (1) In the tiger the nasal bones considerably overlap the summit of the maxillae ; in the panther the summits of the four bones are approximately on a level. (2) In the tiger the infraorbital foramen, the hole on the cheek just below the eye, is oval; in the panther it is circular. (3) In the tiger the upper carnassial tooth has a small supplementary cusp on the front of its outer edge, its antero-external angle ; in the panther’s upper carnassial this cusp is absent. I will take these characters in order and show that not one of them holds good. (1) In my paper on Tigers I pointed out that, although as a rule, in this species, the nasal bones considerably overlap the maxillae, they do not always do so', sometimes only exceeding them very slightly, as in the skull of a tigress from Mergui, or indeed not at all as in the skull of a tiger from Surrtatra. The bones also vary in panthers, although as a rule they are approximately equal. For instance, the nasals fall slightly short of the maxillae in a female skull from Daltonganj in Bengal and in one from Annam ; but markedly exceed them in a skull from Pekin and are a little longer in all the Javan skulls I have seen (PI. I, figs. F, G, FI). Finally, it may be added that de Blainville ( Osteogr . atlas II, PI. VIII, 1839-64), figured the skulls of a male and female panther from Barbary in both of which the nasals pass beyond the maxillae. They only do so to a comparatively small extent in the male ; but in the female they surpass them perhaps quite as much as in typical tigers. (2) Examination of a series of skulls of tigers and panthers shows that the shape of the infra- orbital foramen is much too variable in both species for it to be used as a distinguishing feature. (3) The supplementary antero- external cusp on the upper carnassial in tigers may be conspicuously present, indistinctly defined or entirely absent. On PI. I, figs. A, B, C, I give drawings of this tooth in the skulls of tigers from Nepal, with the cusp tolerably well developed, and from the Central Provinces in which there is no trace of it. Its incidence is curious. Usually it is present and larger or smaller as the case may be; but in several skulls from Central India it is obsolete, as it is in the typical skull of the Chinese race and also in the Javan race. In the Caucasian and Persian race it is as large as in any ; and no doubt Satunin drew his conclusion regarding it solely from Caucasian material. In adult panthers it may be described as absent (PI. I, figs. D, E), although a vestige of it is not uncommonly just detectable by touch if not by sight; but in the unworn, newly erupted 9 66 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV tooth it is frequently at all events present. But clearly its variability in tigers alone excludes it even as a specific character between these animals and panthers. One or two additional cranial differences alleged to exist must also be dismissed. Blanford, who quite correctly, in my opinion, assigned tigers and panthers to the same genus, stated, for instance, that in the tiger the lower surface of the mandible is nearly straight to near the posterior angle, then slightly concave, so that the skull, with the lower jaw attached, rests firmly on a flat surface, whilst the posterior portion of the skull nowhere touches that surface. In the panther, on the contrary, he adds, the lower jaw is convex beneath and the skull, when placed on a flat surface with the mandible attached, almost always rests with its hinder portion on that surface. This last character was recently cited by Mr. Prater in corroboration of his view that the skull of a tiger shot by Mr. Limouzin near Ootacamund was a big panther’s. But, as I pointed out in my paper, the back of the skull in tigers frequently rests on a flat surface. In adult male skulls it is elevated, but in skulls of young males and tigresses the occiput is often in contact with the surface. So, too', in panthers’ skulls. In adult male skulls the occiput is generally raised to a slight extent. In the skull of an oldish male from Kashmir it is raised, indeed, almost half an inch. In females and young males, on the contrary, the condyles or mastoids of the occiput touch the surface. In the case of the mandible, the general straightness of the lower edge is tolerably constant in tigers ; but the shape of this edge is very variable in panthers. Sometimes it is convex in the middle with the chin raised, so that the skull ‘rocks’ as in lions; at other times the chin and the posterior angles are alike in contact with the surface, so that the skull rests as steadily as in tigers. These variations depend upon the effects on the skull of the development of the jaw- muscles and are mainly matters of age and sex. The cranial differences, indeed, between the two animals are comparatively slight and merely of specific value, the panther’s skull being smaller and having smaller teeth. The differences in size are very marked when the skulls of male tigers are compared with those of male panthers and of tigresses with female panthers ; but the skulls of the biggest male Indian panthers are almost as big as those of the tigresses from the Sunda Islands. And the same applies to bodily size. The differences in pattern and voice are well-known ; and panthers never appear to grow the fringes on the cheeks possessed by most tigers. They also have longer tails and appear to be relatively longer in the body and lower on the leg, differences which are no doubt correlated with arboreal habits. The identity between Panthers and Leopards Literature relating to this animal contains much controversial matter, dating from the days of Buffon, Cuvier and Temminck, regarding the existence of two distinct types described as Le Panth^re (Felis pardus) and Le Leopard (. Felis leopardus), the panther and the leopard of English writers. But there was much THE PANTHERS AND OUNCES OF ASIA 6 7 disagreement as to the characters of the two owing in a measure to conclusions being drawn from different data supplied by skins or living animals or even skulls from various countries. Some relied upon the size of the spots or the length of the tail and general build, and Temminck thought he had discovered an important and constant difference in the shape and dimensions of the skull ; but in support of his contention he figured the skulls of a male and female of the Javan race as representing respectively Le Leopard and Le Pan there. It would be waste of time and space to attempt to epitomise the diverse opinions on this point with reference to the leopards of Africa and Asia which the authors of the early part of the nineteenth century discussed, since all modern zoologists are agreed that it is not a question now of two kinds of leopards inhabiting those continents but of several ; and discussion has shifted to a decision as to how many there are and what their correct names may be. But in India, it appears, the two terms, panther and leopard, are still in use. From conversations with sportsmen, I have, however, been quite unable to discover any unanimity in their application. None now believes, as Sykes believed a century ago (Proc. Zool. Soc 1830, p. 102), that two distinct species exist in India; but many, I suspect, employ the terms in a general way as Jerdon employed them in 1867 (Mammals of India y p. 97) in his non- committal summary of the views of Blyth, Walter Elliot and others. The upshot of his remarks is that there is a larger, paler, more boldly spotted, closer coated variety, the panther, which is seldom found in dense forest but occurs in the ravines of rocky hills and more open country generally, and a smaller, darker, less boldly spotted, fuller coated variety, the leopard, which is found in forested districts. There is no doubt that some Indian writers of long ago confused the two sexes, as Temminck did, because we find one of the diagnostic features of the panther to be the cranial characters of the male; but Jerdon’s opinion no doubt was that the two varieties are environmental races. My own opinion on the matter, based on the material I have seen, is this. When, if it ever comes about, panthers or leopards are collected on the scale on which squirrels, mice, shrews and other animals have been collected by the Mammal Survey of India, with accurate records of dates, localities and habitats, it will be found that, not two only, but several local or environmental races occur in British India. At the present time there is sufficient material in the way of skins to suggest the truth of this opinion ; but a hopelessly insufficient amount to establish or refute it. And the question will remain unsettled so1 long as sportsmen’s interests in panthers are restricted to shooting them as dog-eaters, to keeping their skins as rugs, or to adding an inch to their recorded dimensions. The Distribution of Panthers The distribution of panthers, or leopards, coinciding, as it does, with those of lions and tigers combined, and in places overlapping them, has many points of interest. Fossil remains have been found 68 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vo!. XXXI V in Central and Southern Europe ; and from the close kinship between the panther of the old world and the jaguar of the new, it may be inferred that the common ancestor of the two lived at one time sufficiently far to the north to pass to N. America, when it was joined to Asia, by the route taken by wolves, foxes, wapitis, and other animals common to the two continents. In north-eastern Asia they survive at the present time in Manchuria and Korea and, it is alleged, in Amurland and Saghalien ; but there are none, and probably never were any, in japan. Extending throughout China they pass through Burma into the Malay Peninsula and thence into Java but not into Bali to the east of it. Their existence in Sumatra, whence they have been recorded, has been recently called in question. Their range, indeed, in the Sunda Islands suggests that they were later comers to that part of Asia . than tigers which are plentiful in Sumatra and Bali. On the other hand their presence in Ceylon, where tigers are not found, points to their occupation of peninsular India at an earlier date than tigers. Perhaps they invaded India by two routes, south of the eastern and of the western ends of the Himalayas respectively. At all events they are found in Baluchistan, on the Persian Gulf and all over Asia Minor, everywhere overlapping the tiger in south-western Asia and even passing into Europe north of the Caucasus by the Aral Sea. Since they accompanied the lion and the hunting leopard into Africa, they may equally well have accompanied them, or even preceded them, into India from the west. But their occurrence alongside tigers in China, Burma and along the southern slopes of the Himalayas is equally suggestive of their entry into India by the eastern route as well. Variations in colour and pattern of Panthers (Pis. II and III) The ground-colour of panthers varies normally to a slight extent individually in the same locality and very considerably in different habitats ; that is to say, from grey in Seistan and Persia to almost rusty brown in Java. Of abnormal types of coloration black is the commonest. This phase arises from the invasion of the normally yellowish hairs by black or blackish-brown pigment, called melanin. But the intensity of the tint of this pigment is variable. Sometimes it is as deep as the black of the spots which can then only be seen under reflected light by reason of their superior sheen. But quite commonly on the belly it is dark brown so that the spots show up clearly on this area. Black panthers of this type are particularly plentiful in Java and the southern parts of the Malay peninsula. Northwards they have been recorded from Burma, the Shan States, Assam and Nepal and they are alleged to be not uncommon in Iravancore and other parts of Southern India. Knox, indeed, referred to a Ceylonese specimen as ‘a black tiger’. In the Central Provinces they are comparatively rare; but Dunbar Brander mentions one he saw at Melghat in 1913 which was of exceptional interest, the ground colour being dark chestnut and the spots Joukn. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate II. Mh ^ m ||&.J Variety of Indian Panther from Cuddapah, THE PANTHERS AND OUNCES OF ASIA 09 distinctly visible. This specimen was apparently intermediate in tint between a typical black leopard and a normally coloured individual. In that respect it was, I believe, unique, for, as a rule, in Asiatic leopards melanism is a discontinuous variation, that is to say, the animal is either a definite melano or normally coloured and cubs of both types may occur in the same litter. In Africa, so far as I am aware, black leopards of the kind described above are almost unknown, except in Abyssinia. But in that country the variation is not discontinuous, every intermediate stage between blackening of the spinal area alone to, its extension all over the body and limbs being known. Panthers also exhibit, but much less commonly, the opposite phenomenon, namely, failure to develop pigment which in extreme cases results in albinism. In the British Museum there are a few skins which may be described as semi-albino. One is a reddish skin from Hankow, presented by Mr. Poland, in which the pattern is very indistinct owing to its assimilation in tint to the ground colour. In another from Hazaribagh, presented by R. E. S. Thomas, the ground colour is paler than usual and the spots are tan. In a third from Rhodesia, presented by Dr. Walter Fisher, the spots are sepia or pale chocolate brown and the interspaces sandy. I have only seen one white leopard skin. This is in Mr. Poland’s collection and is believed to have come from East Africa. Both the spots and the interspaces are colourless, the spots being visible only under reflected light. This animal was probably a pure albino with blue or pink eyes. In the variations of colour above described panthers are very similar to tigers. But there is this curious difference. Black leopards are tolerably common ; black tigers are very rare. Conversely, albino or semi-albino leopards are rare ; but albino or semi-albino tigers are not so very uncommon at least in certain districts of India. There is, on the other hand, a very great difference between the two species in variation affecting the pattern. Tigers vary in the number, width, depth of tint and looping of their stripes. Leopards vary similarly in their spots ; but in tigers there is nothing approaching the disintegration and fusion of the stripes such as occasionally occurs in the spots of leopards. So far as Asia is concerned, there are two very remarkable instances of this recorded from S. India. One of these is exhibited by the skin of a specimen shot by Mr. F. A. Coleridge at Putnam in Cuddapah and described and figured by Lydekker ( Proc . Zool. Soc 1908, pp. 1-3, text fig. 1, PI. II). The general colour is quite normal, the under side being white and the spaces between the spots tawny or yellowish buff ; but the rosettes of the typical leopard are in the first place broken up into a multitude of solid spots and dots and more or less concentrated to form large blotches, variable in size and shape, each consisting of a number of dots and spots surrounded by a thickish black, mostly interrupted rim ; and all over the flanks these blotches are surrounded and set off by a large-meshed network of narrow lines, paler than the ground tint of the blotches. The network nowhere crosses the spine but the blotches on the back touch or are continuous with a narrow, black, spinal stripe running 70 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Pc/. XXXI Y from the tail to the middle of the back and breaking up behind the shoulder into a number of narrow longitudinal black streaks which coalesce in front to form a black area running over the neck to the crown of the head. The limbs and tail are unusually heavily marked and the terminal third of the tail is black above. This skin excels that of the jaguar in the size and complexity of the blotches, the pattern recalling in a measure that of the so-called clouded leopard (pi. ii). Ihe second specimen, even more abnormal than the one just described, was shot in Southern Kanara and was secured from a native by Mr. C. A. Souter, I.C.S., who1 kindly lent it to me for description and illustration ( Proc . Zool. Soc., 1927, p. 791, text fig. I). The normal rosettes are broken up and fused to such an extent that, supplemented with additional pigment, they convey the impression of a black leopard speckled and streaked with yellow. From the crown of the head to the root of the tail there stretches a broad jet black band, here and there obscurely speckled or streaked and defined over the flanks by narrow longitudinal yellow stripes of varying length arranged subsymmetrically in two interrupted lines, one on each side. The flanks show no definite rosettes, being mostly black with yellow speckling and a few short yellow stripes, all that is left of the normal ground tint. On the thighs the blotches are more distinct and defined by zig-zag streaks recalling' forked lightning. The limbs and tail are blacker than in the specimen from Putnam but the belly is white as in that variety (PI. III). This Kanara leopard is clearly not a ‘melano’, like the ordinary black leopards of the East Indies. Only near Grahamstown in South Africa do we find parallel cases of the blackening process it exhibits. Here the pattern may consist of a multitude of small solid spots on a yellow ground ; or they may enlarge and coalesce to such an extent that the whole of the back and sides of the animal are glossy black, the spots only remaining distinct on the neck, the lower side and the extremities of the limbs. Finally I may add that the red leopard skin from Hankow, presented to the museum by Mr. Ernest Poland, shows a variation of pattern somewhat like that of the specimen from Cuddapah, the spots having fused on the back and sides to form abnormally large irregularly shaped rosettes. Indian and African Panthers There has been a good deal of misapprehension regarding alleged differences between Indian and African panthers and leopards Blanford, for instance, while disclaiming his ability always to distinguish the two Indian types he referred to as the bigger, paler, larger-spotted form inhabiting the hills and forests and the smaller, longer-tailed form with rougher fur and less clearly defined pattern commonly occurring in patches of grass and bushes amongst cultivated fields and gardens, said he could tell most African skins at a glance from both of these by their very much smaller spots. But I suspect his acquaintance with African leopards was restricted to the small-spotted forest type of the west coast and to Abyssinian Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate HI. Variety of Indian Panther from Kanara. THE PANTHERS AND OUNCES OF ASIA 71 skins and that he knew nothing of the larger-spotted East African types. As will be seen, moreover, from the descriptions of panther skins from India published below, some of the skins from that country have the spots quite as small as in the average small-spotted African forms. Blandford’s erroneous views on this subject were pictorially promulgated by Lydekker in Ward’s Game Animals of India , 1924, where plates representing skins of an Abyssinian leopard, with small, colse-set spots, and an Indian leopard, with large, dark spots, are juxtaposed to illustrate the alleged differences between the animals of the two countries. But the Indian skin selected for the purpose is, in my experience, quite exceptional in the large size of the rosettes. Another error, initiated apparently by de Winton and accepted without verification by Lydekker and other writers, is to the effect that African and Indian leopards may be distinguished by the nature of the spots on the neck, solid spots being more numerous and extending farther backwards in African than in Indian skins. This view I find repeated, for instance, in Dunbar Brander’s Wild Animals in Central India, pp. 128-29, 1923, where the author dismisses as finally settled and buried for some time to come the idea of the existence of more than one species of leopard in India. On this head I may add that I have entirely failed to establish any constant difference between African and Asiatic leopards either in cranial or colour characters ; and that I trust the view that there is more than one ‘species’ of this animal is buried for ever, although the existence of several environmental or local races, known as ‘subspecies’, cannot be ignored. Lengths of Asiatic Panthers Most of the recorded lengths of panthers are taken from tip to- tip without distinction between the head and body and the tail. In Rowland Ward’s Records, 1928, p. 483, for example, there are measurements on this basis of Indian panthers ranging from Kashmir and Nepal to Ceylon. Only the last on the list from Bijnor is marked as a female and she measures 7 ft. 4 in. Presumbaly the rest, varying between 8 ft. 6 in. to 7 ft. 8-J in., the average being 8 ft., were males. It must be remembered, however, that these examples were probably measured in the field because the sportsmen who shot them thought they were exceptionally large. At all events according to Dunbar Brander ( Wild Animals in Central India, p. 130, 1923) ‘a fair average male leopard measures 6 ft. 8 in . . . the large jungle-living animal is anything from 7 ft. 2 in, up to 7 ft. 9 in., a fair average specimen being 7 ft. 5 in.’ But these total dimensions are misleading- as to actual size. The tail varies in length very considerably, as was long ago noticed by early writers. Hence in the case of two panthers giving* the same total measurement, one with a long tail will be much smaller and less powerfully built in head and body than the other. In this paper I have recorded the measurements of the head and body separately of most of the skins of adult specimens in the 72 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV Natural History Museum ; but these are of no great value because most of the skins are probably stretched from being stripped and dressed. In the case of a few specimens, however, shot by trained collectors for the Mammal Survey or other scientifically organized expeditions, measurements in the flesh were recorded in millimetres. These, converted approximately into English feet and inches, are entered in the following table ; and to this table I have added the dimensions of half a dozen specimens from Berar in India, shot and measured in the flesh by Gen. R. G. Burton ( Journ . Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxi, p. 1063, 1911). It will be noted that the average total length of the males of Indian panthers according to the table is just about 7 ft., 1 foot shorter than the average of the specimens measured by sportsmen and entered in Ward’s Records. Locality and Sex Head and Body Tail Total Ft. In. Ft. 111 Ft. In. Berar dr 4 6 2 9 7 3 9 9 d ... 4 3 2 9 7 0 9 9 d 4 2 2 6 6 8 South Dharwar J 4 2 3 0 7 2 Berar ? 3 8 2 6 6 2 9 9 $ 3 7 2 7 6 2 Daltonganj ¥ 3 2 7 6 1 S.E. Shensi ¥ 3 n 2 7 6 3 Ton goo $ 3 10 2 101 6 81 Annam ¥ 3 7 2 8 G 3 J ava ¥ 3 6 2 4 6 14 Sexual differences in the skulls of Panthers (PI. IV) The skulls of full-grown male and female panthers differ not only in size but in shape ; and these differences, as stated f)elow, were at one time cited as evidence for the existence of two species, the panther and the leopard, in the same locality. By way of illustration of these differences I have figured on PI. IV the skull of a tolerably old male from Ashkote, Kashmir, and of a rather older female from Nasair, Kashmir, which in the colour and pattern of their skins are approximately alike. The male skull is much larger, has larger teeth and a less rounded cranial portion provided with a high median crest running into a more prominent occipital crest. It is also ‘long-waisted’, that is Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate IV. A, B. Part of the upper surface of skull of adult male and female Panthers from Kashmir. C. Side view of the female skull. D. The same of the male skull. (Half natural size.) Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate V. A. Skull of young male Panther from the United Provinces. B. Skull of adult male Panther from the United Provinces. 0. Skull of adult male Panther from Bhagalpur. (Half natural size.) THE PANTHERS AND OUNCES OF ASIA 73 to say, the constriction of the area behind the postorbital processes is deeper and longer, being actually narrower than in the female, although the width across the interorbital region, the postorbital processes and the hinder part of the cranium is greater. The median crest too in the male skull arises much farther forwards, only a little behind the posterior border of the postorbital processes to which it is joined on each side by a low, transverse, concave ridge. In the female skull these ridges meet the very low longitudinal crest some distance behind the processes. (PI. iv, figs. A, B, C, D.) Although not always quite so well marked, similar differences occur between male and female skulls of adults of all races of panthers ; and there is seldom any difficulty in distinguishing them. Only one skull has puzzled me. It was collected by G. C. Shortridge for the Mammal Survey at Potoli in Dharwar. It is obviously that of a full-grown animal and is ticketed as a male. Yet in all its characters it resembles a female skull, except in the size of the canine teeth which are unusually thick for that sex. Individual and Age Variation in the Skulls of Panthers (PI. V) Supplementing what was stated above with regard to cranial variations, I may add that I have failed to establish the existence of any constant differences between the skulls of the local races of panthers admitted in this paper, except in the matter of size. Skulls from the Caucasus, Persia, India and Ceylon are alike in size and do not apparently differ in character more than do individual skulls from the same province in India. On the other hand the skulls of the Chinese and Javan races are on the available evidence smaller than those of the Indian and Persian races. But examination of several skulls of Indian panthers, presumably belonging to the same race, has shown very marked individual variations. On PI. V, I have figured three of these side by side for comparison. Fig. A is the skull of an immature male from Bachkahi in the United Provinces (B. B. Osmaston). It is in the stage of development which is permanent in the adult female, a stage through which all male skulls pass before reaching maturity, the occipital crest being small and the median, or sagittal, crest on the cranium undeveloped. Its especial interest, however, lies in the elevation of the area just behind the postorbital processes, which is the highest point of the head. There is also a marked elevation at the point where the nasals join the frontals. Since these peculiarities are not shown by other male skulls of approxi- mately the same age, they are clearly not attributable to immaturity but are individual variations which would doubtless have persisted without much modification throughout life. Fig. B is an adult male skull also from the United Provinces (R. St. G. Burke). Apart from its larger size and better developed crests due to age, it differs markedly from the skull from Bachkahi in having its highest point in the interorbital region and in the absence of the swelling at the base of the nasals. Fig. C is an adult male skull from Bhagalpur. It is very nearly XO 74 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fb/. XXXIV flat along the top from a point behind the postorbital processes to the interorbital region, and there are slight indications of a swelling at the base of the nasals. In these particulars it is almost intermediate between figs. A and B. It is noticeable also that the occipital crest is more prominent than in fig. B, the adult male from the United Provinces, as prominent, indeed, as that of the old male from Ashkote in Kashmir and a little deeper, whereas the sagittal crest is much lower than in that specimen and in the one from the United Provinces. This Bhagalpur skull, indeed, in its upper contour recalls the skulls of typical male Indian tigers. It is the only adult male skull I have seen from Bengal, the district whence the typical race of Indian panther came. It may also be noticed that the Bhagalpur skull and the adult skull from the United Provinces are noticeably higher than the skull ot the older male from Ashkote in Kashmir. (PL IV, D.) This, I believe, is due to age. From the examination of many examples I believe that the skull in both sexes tends to flatten along the top as age advances so that it becomes lower and looks longer than in those that have just reached or slightly surpassed maturity. Some variations in the length of the nasal bones have already been described in the section discussing alleged cranial differences between tigers and panthers. But these bones vary also consider- ably in the shape of their upper ends, which may be either narrowed and apically pointed or broad and apically rounded. On the whole they are as a very general rule narrower and more pointed in Chinese, Malayan and Javanese than in Indian panthers; but amongst the latter there is considerable variation in this respect ; and the single skull from Annam, described below, is remarkable for the width of the upper ends of the nasals and the roundness of their edges. (PI. I, figs. F, G, H.) Another portion exhibiting great variation is the mesopterygoid fossa on the base of the skull into which the nasal chambers open. The range of this variation is exhibited in the skulls of two female Indian panthers depicted on PI. I. In a skull from Kashmir (fig. K) the fossa is very broad with thin arcuate lateral margins, whereas in one from Dharwar (fig. J) it is narrower and its margins are thick and parallel-sided. Every gradation between these extremes may be found in Indian panther skulls. The Subspecies or Local Races of Asiatic Panthers Panthera pardus Linn. Felis pardus Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. 10, p. 41, 1758; and of most subsequent authors. Panthera vulgaris Oken, Lehrb. Nat. pt. 3, p. 1052, 1816. Leopardus varius Gray, Mamm. of Brit. Mus., p. 40, 1843. Analysis of the literature shows that the names vulgaris and varius are substitutes for pardus Linn, and therefore synonyms of it. Since many subspecies of panthers or leopards are now admitted, it is necessary to know to which of them pardus Linn, belongs. This was settled by Oldfield Thomas when in his paper ( Proc , THE PANTHERS AND OUNCES OF ASIA 75 Zool. Soc ., 1911, pp. 120-58) he showed that the first author quoted by Linnaeus mentioning- a locality for the species, was Alpinus who gave an account of Leopards seen alive in captivity at Cairo- and Alexandria. Thomas therefore assigned pardus in the strict sense of the word to the Egyptian leopard which as a subspecies takes the trinominal title Panthera pardus pardus. I see no reason to dissent from Thomas’s decision on this point. But it was recently challenged by Allen (Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist ., 47, p. 248, 1924), mainly on the grounds that the specimens seen by Alpinus must have come from some point far up the Nile or from Arabia; and in support of this opinion he quoted a French author, who in 1740 declared that there are no lions or tigers or leopards in Egypt. I learn, however, from Major S. S. Flower, late Director of the Zoological Gardens in Cairo, that leopards are still found, not only in southern Sinai, which is politically part of Egypt, but also in the western desert of Egypt between Siwa and Dabaa, Dabaa being on the coast only some 100 miles west of Alexandria. Hence the leopards seen by Alpinus were probably locally captured; and the desert in question may be regarded, with good reason, as the typical locality of Panthera pardus pardus. It may be added that Allen, taking Buffon and Daubenton as the first revisers, if such they can be called, of the leopards, designated Algeria as the type locality of this race. The difference is likely enough to be of no great moment, because it is more probable than not that the leopards of the western confines of Lower Egypt and of Algeria are racially identical animals. However that may be, it is clear that the typical P. pardus pardus, being a North African animal, falls outside the scope of the present paper. There is only one- other question to be raised in this connection. Lydekker regarded ‘India’ as the typical locality of P. pardus pardus because Linnaeus added ‘habitat in Indiis’ to his diagnosis. This, however, is no indication of country, ‘the Indies’ to Linnaeus being a vague term for the tropics of the eastern or western hemispheres. } The Panthers of Asia Minor, Persia and Sind Panthera pardus tulliana, Val. Fells tulliana, Valenciennes CR. Acad. Sci. Paris, 42, p. 1039, 1856; Tchihatcheff, Asia Mineure, pt. 2, p. 613, PI. 1, 1856; Milne Edwards, Rech. Mamni. p. 214, 1867 ; Lydekker, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1899, p. 795, PL 54. Felis pardus, Alston and Danford, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1880, p. 51. Leopardus pardus tullianus, Satunin, Mitth. Rank. Mus. II, p. 152, 1905; id. Consp. Mamni. Imp. Ross., p. 158, 1914. Felis pardus panthera, Lydekker in Harmsworth* s Nat. Hist. I, p 385, 1910. Dollman, after Lydekker, Game Animals of India, p. 321, 1924. Felis pardus panthera or tulliana Lydekker, in Rowland Ward’s Records, 1910, p. 500, and 1914, p. 498 (at least in part). Felis pardus saxicolor, Dollman in Rowland Ward’s Records 1928, p. 482 (not Panthera pardus saxicolor , Pocock; cf. infra). 76 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Fb/. XXXlV Type locality. — Ninfe or Ninfi, 40 kilometres E. of Smyrna. Distribution. — Asia Minor and Transcaucasian Russia. Notes on synonymy. — There was at one time considerable difference of opinion about the status and characteristics of this panther. Although Valenciennes correctly described it as related to the ordinary leopard, D. G. Elliot, who examined the type in the Paris Museum, declared it to be nothing but a snow-leopard or ounce and made tulliana a synonym of uncia in his Monograph of the Felidce , 1883. He was, of course, quite wrong. Tchihatcheff’s figure of it leaves no doubt on that point. Nevertheless, Alston and Danford, unwisely trusting Elliot’s verdict, recorded the ounce, on the evidence of what he said, as an inhabitant of Asia Minor ( Proc . Zool. Soc., 1877, p. 272). Fortunately Milne Edwards showed the error of Elliot’s judgment, and Alston and Dandford made the necessary correction three years later (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1880, p. 51), quoting the Asia Minor panther as Felis par d us and dissenting from M. Edward’s view that it should rank as a distinct species. Later Prince Demidoff fell into the same error when he recorded the ounce from the Caucasus and gave a figure of that animal (Planting Trips to the Caucasus, p. 85, 1898). This error was corrected by Lydekker who published a description and coloured illustration of a Caucasian panther, shot by Prince Demidoff, which he saw at Messrs. Rowland Ward’s studios. He seems to have been a little doubtful about the name of the animal ; but there are at present no data to justify its separation from tulliana, which according to’ Satunin occurs in Transcaucasia, Erivan, Armenia and Mount Ararat, and according to Danford’s experience, was half a century ago generally distributed in the coastal mountainous districts of south-western and southern Asia Minor, although nowhere common. Blanford and, following him, Lydekker regarded this panther as identical with the Persian race and as ranging from Anatolia to the confines of India. Lydekker, however, called it panther a following Pallas who adopted that name for the panthers of the Caucasian area (Zoogr. Ross. Asiat. I, p. 18, 1811). But panthera is inadmissible for this race. It was originally assigned by Schreber ( Saug . Ill, p. 586, PI. 99, 1777) to a female panther figured and described by Buffon and Daubenton (Hist. Nat. ix, pp. 160 and 174, PI. XII, 1761), which was definitely stated to have come from Algeria. The typical example of this panther was sent by Tchihatcheff to Valenciennes who described it as equalling the largest African leopards in size and reddish grey in colour, with a long tail gradually thickening from the root to the tip, the terminal third being tufted. Tchihatcheff ’s figure, taken from the mounted skin, shows the pattern to consist of large rather widely separated rosettes, mostly broken and irregular and with decidedly darkened centres. The British Museum possesses the flat native prepared skin of an apparently adult specimen obtained by W. Forbes at Aidin in the Pachalie of Anatolia and to all intents and purposes therefore a topotype of tulliana. It measures 8 ft. 8 in., the head and body being 5 ft. 3 in. and the tail 3 ft. 5in. Allowing for stretching, 1 HE PAN TH ERS AND OUNCES OF ASIA 77 this probably indicates a panther of about 8 ft. from tip to tip. The hair of the skin is worn off in patches but enough remains to show that the general colour, although pale and probably somewhat faded, is decidedly tawny or buff on the back, paler on the flanks where it merges with the white of the belly. The rosettes are large, the largest up to 2J x 2 in., being larger, more widely spaced .and thinner-rimmed than in typical Indian panthers, with their centres slightly darker than the ground tint. The coat is soft, smooth and at most slightly longer and fuller, the hair on the nape being longish, f and the tail is a little more bushy than in Indian animals. According to Alston and Danford this race ‘presents considerable variety in coloration and in proportional length of tail’. The measurements they give of an adult female from Giaour Dagh near Osmanieh were: — head and body 4 ft. 11 in., tail 3 ft. 1 in., making a total of 8 ft. No doubt the skin was stretched. The mountains of Osmanieh extend southwards to the Lebanon range in northern Palestine and some sixty years ago leopards, according to Tristram, were common in that country even as far south as the Dead Sea. We have no information about these Syrian leopards. They may be identical with the Asia Minor race. But equally well they may be identical with the leopards of Sinai and western Egypt, which I regard as typical Panther a pardus. The panther of Asia Minor ( tulliana ) is, however, certainly distinct from the panther of Sinai. I have seen only one skull assignable to tulliana, namely, that of the female from Osmanieh obtained by Danford, which is in the British Museum. But Satunin records two skulls from Erivan in the northern portion of Asia Minor. The dimensions of these three skulls are as follows : — Inches Millimetres Locality & Sex Total length Cond. basal length Zygom. width Nasals Upper carnal Lower carnal Upper canine Erivan, 10-2 8*3 6 „ , $ ... 8-2 7 - 5-3 Osmanieh, $ ad. 8*2 7-5 5-2 2’5 x 1*3 23 17 13 The sexes of Satunin’s skulls are unstated; but I assume from their dimensions they were male and female. I can find no difference between the skull from Osmanieh and skulls from India, and the dimensions show that this panther from Asia Minor is as large as any recorded race. Panthera pardus saxicolor, Pocock (PI. VI) Felis leopardus, P. L. Sclater, P\roc. Zool. Soc 1878, p. 289. (Not leopardus , Schreber). 78 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Ph/. XXXIV Felis tulliana, Blanford (in part) ; not tulliana, Valenciennes. Felis pardus panthera or tulliana , Lydekker (in part); not panther a , Schreber. ? Leopardus pardus ciscaucasicus , Satunin, Consp. Marrim. Imp. Ross., p. 159, 1914. Panthera pardus saxicolor, Pocock, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9), xx, p. 213, 1927. Locality of type. — Asterabad in Persia. Distribution. — Persia eastward at least to Seistan. Notes on the synonymy. — This panther has long- been known and there are probably many earlier records of it than the one that heads the list of synonyms ; but it has passed under inadmissible names, being regarded by Blanford and Lydekker as identical with the race inhabiting Asia Minor. I have interrogatively inserted the name ciscaucasicus into the synonymy because Satunin Js very brief description of that race as differing from tulliana in being smaller, greyer and without any reddish shade, applies so far as it goes to the Persian animal. But as its name ciscaucasicus indicates, thi$ panther inhabits southern Russia, north of the Caucasus, the type specimen coming from the Province of Kuban by the Sea of Azov. Apparently only one specimen was available. This was thick coated, the hair being up to 1 inch in length. Its head and body measured 5 ft. 3 in. and its tail 3 ft. 1 in., making a total of 8 ft. 4 in.; the basal length of the skull was 7*7 in., and the zygomatic width 6 in. The skin measurements have little value ; but the cranial measurements agree very closely with those of the male example of tidliana from Erivan cited by Satunin, and hardly justify his description of this European leopard as smaller than the leopard of Asia Minor. There this race must be left, and pending further information regarding it, I think it wiser to retain for the Persian panther the name saxicolor which I gave it in 1927. Of this Persian race I have seen several skins from the following localities : — Asterabad. A mounted adult male (Type) in the British Museum, presented in 1882 by Lt.-Col. Beresford Lovett and identified by Lydekker as tulliana. The general colour is whitish grey very faintly washed with buff on the flanks, a little more deeply on the back, but without any trace of it on the head or limbs, the limbs being whiter than the head. The rosettes are of moderate size and moderately widely spaced and are smaller, thicker-rimmed and less annular than in tulliana, and deep chocolate brown in colour ; the largest on the flanks measure about 2 x 1J in. but are mostly about 1^ x 1^ in. in diameter. The coat is full, thick and soft, with a considerable quantity of underwool ; on the back it is about lj in long, on the belly oyer 2 in., and on the middle of the upper side of the thick, bushy tail about 1J in. The skin, as mounted, measures: head and body 4 ft.., tail 2 ft. 9 in., making a total of 6 ft. 9 in. Rowanduz, near Sulaimaine in Iraq Kurdistan (Capt. Littledale). This skin is more richly tinted than the Asterabad skin described Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate VI. mm 8%^f: | VifW w\ v #mW . *** i l QJtf**** ^ v* ^ 3, v; Persian Panther (P. pardus saxicolor). Skin from Pusht-i-Kuh, winter coat. THE PANTHERS AND OUNCES OF ASIA 79 above and than the other Persian skins recorded below, linking them with typical tulliana. Pusht-i-Kuh Range in Luristan. Three skins. (1) Flat skin, in summer coat, belonging to Mr. C. E. Capito, and measuring : head and body 49 in., tail 37^ in., total 7 ft. 2| in. Coat short, .close and smooth with very little underfur, the hair on the back and on the middle of the upper side of the tail is about f in. long, on the belly 1 in. The ground colour is a pale stone-grey, slightly darker and faintly, tinged with buff on the back and in the centres of the rosettes, colour of flanks passing imperceptibly into white of belly. Rosettes black, showing up conspicuously against the grey tint, not large, largest about by 1 in. in diameter, moderately spaced, the intervals about \ in. on flanks. This panther was shot in the hilly country to the N. E. of Dizful. (2) Skin of a subadult or adult male also in summer coat (Sir Percy Cox and Capt. Cheesman) and measuring : head and body 50 in., tail 35 in., total 7 ft. 7 in. The coat is about the same length as in Mr. Capito’s skin, but the colour is not so grey, being creamy-buff, and more resembling the skin from Rowanduz than either of the other two above described Persian skins. (3) Skin in winter coat, from Marsh Ao Gorge, 1,000 ft. alt., at the S.E. end of the Pusht-i-Kuh territory, kindly lent to me by Mrs. Lane and measuring: head and body 44-| in., tail 32 in., total 6 ft. 4|- in. Coat long, thick, woolly, showing distinct inclination to tufting, 1^ in. on back, 2 in. on belly and If in. in middle of upper side of tail. Colour almost as grey as in Mr. Capito’s skin in summer coat, the rosettes less conspicuous on account of the roug'hness of the coat and of their colour which is brown as in the specimen from Asterabad. (PI. VI.) Mishun in the western part of the Province of Fars, approximately 510 e. and 30° N. (1) A flat skin kindly lent by Mrs. Lane and measuring : head and body 56 in., tail 29| in., total 7 ft. 2^ in. The tail which is apparently complete being comparatively short. Coat in length and quantity of underwool intermediate between the summer and winter coats exhibited by the skins from Pusht-i-Kuh and similar to the coat of the specimen from Asterabad. The colour is also as in the latter and not so1 washed out as Mr. Capito’s skin from Pusht-i-Kuh. (2) Head-skin, with skull, belonging to Mr. Capito, a little darker than the head of his skin from Pusht-i-Kuh. (3) The undressed skin of a female, from Chak-i-Buzza Pa near Mishun, about 2,500 ft., belonging to Mrs. Lane and measuring: head and body 50 in., tail 32 in., total 6 ft. 10 in., closely resembles the complete skin from Mishun. Seistan, Palang Kuh. An imperfect skin, in winter coat, presented to the British Museum by Col. R. L. Kennion. Coat long, soft and very woolly breaking up into1 tufts as in the skin in winter coat from Pusht-i-Kuh, but the coat is thicker and more tufted and the rosettes are blacker. Colour pale and washed out, buffy grey on flanks and back, pure white below. The general appearance of the skin is very ounce-like both in colour and coat, 80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV In Col. Kenn ion’s By Mountain, Lake and Plain , p. 267, 1911, Lydekker referred to this skin as representing an undescribed variety of leopard. I have only seen one skull of this panther, namely, the skull of an adult male, accompanied by the head skin, brought by Mr. C. E. Capito from Mishun. Its measurements are as follows : — Inches Millimetres Locality & Sex Total length Cond. basal length Zygom. | width i ' Nasals l Upper carnal Lower carnal Canine Mishun g 9-6 1 8 6 6T 1 2 8 x 1*6 26 20 1 16 These measurements, as well as those given of the skin, show that the Persian panther is as large as the typical Indian panther. The skull, however, presents no distinguishing racial characters. In its general form, indeed, it is more like the skulls of two Indian panthers, namely, one from the United Provinces collected by Mr. R. St. G. Burke, and one from Mundiapani in Garwhal, collected by Mr. B. B. Osmaston, than these are like many another Indian skull. I gladly take this opportunity of expressing my indebtedness to Mr. C. E. Capito not only for the loan of the skin and skull of his own specimens of this panther but for asking Mrs. Lane to- lend me the three skins in her possession, a request she most willingly and promptly granted. According to Mr. Capito these panthers in South Persia inhabit caves and gorges in the barren limestone and gypsum hills down to about 900 ft. Singularly enough there is no reference to this panther in the papers on the Mammals of Mesopotamia and Shiraz by Major R. E. Cheesman and Capt. C. R. S. Pitman printed m A Survey of the Fauna of Iraq published by the Bombay Natural History Society in 1923. To this race belonged a pair of living panthers brought by Capt. Phillips from the Persian Gulf and presented to the Zoological Society in 1878. Dr. Sclater described them as being ‘remarkable for their long, hairy coats, bushy tails and pale body colour which remind one rather of the ounce ( Felis undo)9. Panthera pardus sindica, subsp. nov. Felis tulliana, Blanford, Mamm. Brit. India, p. 69, 1891 (in part). Felis pardus panthera and F. pardus panthera or tulliana, Lydekker, following Blanford (in part). Type locality. — Kirthar Range on the Sind-Baluchi boundary. Distribution. — Elsewhere unknown. Resembling and no doubt completely intergrading with the Persian panther and distinguishable from the typical Indian form in coat and coloration. THE PANTHERS AND OUNCES OF ASIA 81 Coat not soft, smooth and flat, but harsher and rough, almost as if singed, with a considerable quantity of underwool ; hair on the back about I in. long, on the belly about If in. and on the upper side of the middle of the tail about f in. Colour of the fulvous-buff type, richer than in the typical Persian panthers but very decidedly paler than in the average Indian form, the flanks washed with buff, which becomes intensified on the back ; the rosettes show up every- where against the pale ground on account of their large size, wide spacing and darker centres, the largest being' about 1|- x 1| in. in diameter, with the interspaces frequently as much as f in. ; on the average they are narrow-rimmed and inclined to be annuliform. The only known skin of this race, that of a young male, measures head and body 4 ft. 2 in., tail 2 ft. 10 in., total 7 ft. The dimensions of two. skulls are as follows : — Inches Millimetres Locality & Sex Total length Cond. basal length Zygom . width Nasals Upper carnal Lower carnal Upper canine Kirthar Range (young) ... ** oo 5-2 2 5 x 1-2 24 17-5 14*5 „ $ ad 7*7 7 4-9 2Txl-2 23 1 17 12 There is nothing remarkable about these skulls. Neither in shape nor size do they appear to differ from the skulls of either Persian panthers to the west or of typical Indian panthers to the east. The specimens upon which this subspecies is based were collected by H. E. Watson who gave them to1 Blanford and he in turn presented them to the Natural History Museum; and it was the skin above described that Blanford apparently had before him and identified as tultiana when he wrote ( Mamm . Brit. India, p. 69) : ‘There is a race inhabiting Persia and found in Baluchistan and the mountains of Sind that differs widely from all the others and is quite intermediate in coloration and spotting between the leopard and the ounce. ’ This statement is certainly not true of the skin from the Kirthar Range which is much more richly tinted than any ounce and has smaller and many more spots. Blanford probably knew, at least by hearsay, of the grey Persian leopard, which approaches the ounce in colour but emphatically not in pattern ; but he did not distinguish the Persian from the Sind type. He may have compared the Kirthar Range skin with the skin of tulliana in the British Museum, which was available for examination. This would account for his identification of the Sind race with the one inhabiting Asia Minor. There is certainly great similarity between the two in colour and pattern, although the Sind specimen is not apparently quite so pale ; but there is a great difference in the texture of the coat. More material of the two races will no doubt reveal further differences because there is apparently complete 11 82 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , P?/. XXXIV distributional discontinuity between the two, the greyer Persian race (P. pardus saxicolor) dividing them over a wide area of longitude. It may be added that the Sind race differs from the typical Persian race in its harsher coat, brighter colour, and thinner-rimmed, larger, more widely spaced and therefore more conspicuous pattern. Although this panther is strictly speaking Indian in a political sense, its affinities appear to be certainly nearer to the Persian type than to the panthers and leopards known to Indian sportsmen. 1 have therefore excluded it from the following section in which these are discussed. To this subspecies I also refer the skin of a half-grown specimen obtained by Capt. J. E. B. Plotson on the Perso-Baluchi border, no precise locality being recorded on the label. It is rougher coated and the spots are smaller and much less clearly defined than in the example from the Kirthar Range. Those, however, are common features in immature skins. The colour, nevertheless, is decidedly yellowish tawny as in tulliana. But possibly this skin may belong to the more northern paler race, saxicolor . (To be continued) Journt. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate 5 Lignum vitae Tree. Guaiacum officinale, Linn. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES BY E. Blatter, s.j., ph.d., f.l.s. and W. S. Millard, f.z.s. Part III. — ( With two coloured plates , two black a7id ivhite plates and I text-figures'). ( Continued from page 856 of Vol. XXXIII.) The Lignum Vitae Tree Popular names: Guaiacum (West Indies). Lignum Vitae Tree. Guaiacum officinale. Linn. Sp. PI. 381. The genus Guaiacum contains 4 species of trees or shrubs all indigenous to Tropical America. Description : The Lignum Vitae Tree grows to a height of 30 to 40 feet. The stem is generally crooked, the wood intensely hard, the branches knotty and the bark deeply furrowed. The dense crown of close-growing foliage gives the tree a roun- ded, compact, neat appearance. It is distinctly ornamental on a lawn. Each leaf is composed of two or three pairs of smooth, stalkless, leaflets arranged on a slender mid-rib. The leaflets are from inch in length. There is much irregularity both in their size and shape : some are rounded a t the apex(obo- vate), others almost blunt (obtuse). The tree flowers at the end of the cold season and the commencement of the hot weather. In Bombay some of the trees are in bloom the whole year round. The beautiful blue flowers grow in great profusion. They almost cover the tree. The flowers remain for a long time. As the older blooms fade from deep blue to paler shades, some 84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vo L XXXI V becoming almost white, a striking variegation ot colour is pro- duced. The flowers grow in clusters at the end of the branches. Each flower has five petals cupped in a small, finely hairy calyx, supported on a slender stalk. There are ten stamens bearing golden yellow anthers. The fruit appears as small, round, compressed capsules containing 5 cells ; occasionaly there are fewer. Each cell encloses a single seed. Distribution: The Lignum Vitae Tree is an inhabitant of the islands of the West Indies, from whence it was introduced into India. It also grows in the arid plains stretching from the Florida Keys to Venezuela. Gardening : Raised from seed. For many years we knew of only one tree in Bombay which was growing in the compound of the Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy Hospital. This had been introduced, we -were told, by Dr. Wellington Gray from the West Indies. Seeds were obtained from this tree by the late Mr. H. V. Kemball and now it is a fairly common tree in gardens in Bombay. It succeeds well at Madras and Bangalore, though at the latter station it is rare and somewhat stunted in growth. Uses : The wood, called Lignum Vitae (Pockholz or Franzosen- holz by the Germans) reached Europe via Spain probably towards the end of the fifteenth century. Soon it became famous as a remedy against the ‘ Morbus Gallicus ’, and was praised as such in nume- rous books of which the most important is : Ulrici de Hutten Eq. De Guaiaci medicina et morbo gallico liber unus. Moguntiae 1519. The heart-wood is greenish brown, the sap-wood pale yellow. It is remarkable for the direction of its fibres, each layer of which crosses the preceding diagonally. It sinks in water. It is of great value and is used for many purposes, chiefly by turners. Ship’s blocks, rulers, pulleys, skittle-balls, bowls are among the articles made of it. When rubbed and heated, it gives off a faint, disagreeable aromatic odour. Its taste is pungent and aromatic. Shavings and raspings of the wood are used by apothecaries for medicinal purposes. In the same way the bark is employed in medicine. The most important product is a resin obtained from the wood and bark, and used in powder, pill and tincture. It is an acrid stimulant and has- been found efficient against various diseases. The resin is an ingredient of the well-known Plummer’s Pills. It is also one of the chief means employed to detect blood stains. The resin sometimes flows spontaneously from the stem of the tree ; at other times, it is obtained artificially by jagging or notch- ing the stem and allowing the exuding juice to harden, or by boring- holes in logs of the wood and then placing them on a fire so that the resin is melted and runs through the hole, or by boiling the chips in salt and water, when the resin floats on the surface of the water. The resin is greenish brown in colour and has a brilliant resinous fracture. Qf taste there is scarcely any, but it leaves a burning sensation in the mouth. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate V. l’hotos by C. McCann. Flowers of the Lignum Yitae Tree ( Guaiacum officinale). Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate 6 . Indian Cork-Tree. Millingtonia hortensis, Lkin-f. 'SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES 85 The Indian Cork Tree Popular Names : Indian Cork Tree ; The Tree Jasmine. Cowla nim (Mar.); Nimi-chambel (Mar.); Akas-nim (Hind.); Kat mali (Tam.) ; Kavuki (Tel.) ; Egayit (Burm.). Millingtonia hortensis. Linn. f. Suppl. (1781) 291. Description : An elegant, straight tree reaching as much as 80 feet in height, with drooping branchlets and a graceful elongate crown of deep green foliage. Its yellowish grey bark is cracked and furrowed in various directions with corky fissures. The foliage is very handsome. The leaves attain a length of 2-3" . They are described as bi- pinnate or tri-pinnate, that is, each leaf is composed of two to three pairs of pinnae or minor leaves arranged in pairs along the main rib. The pinnae bear smooth, oval or lance-shaped leaflets, 2-3" long. The young shoots are slightly hairy below. Though never completely bare, the Cork tree sheds a good proportion of . its leaves between January and March and renews its foliage be- tween April and May. In Bombay and the Konkan, flowering commences about the end of October and continues right into December ; in other parts of W. India trees flower in August and September. Decked in drooping masses of snowy white flowers which stand out against the dark foliage, the tree presents a beautiful appearance. Like many of the members of its charming family, the Bignoidacece (Trumpet Flowers), the flowers have a delightful fragrance which fills the surrounding air. The flowers grow in large panicles at the end of the branchlets. The tiny bell-shaped calyx bears the pendant, slender tube-like flower. This tubular portion is from 2-3 " long and of a faint green tinge ; it expands into waxy white petals. These are sometimes flushed with pink. The petals are oval, pointed at the apex and the largest of them is deeply cleft. There are four stamens crowned with yellow anthers. The style protrudes well beyond the petals. The fruit is slender, compressed and pointed at both ends. It grows to a foot and a half in length. The seeds are flat. They measure an inch across. Each seed is surrounded by a tender wing which is narrowed at the top and absent 86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL XXXlV at the base. The tree does not produce fruit in Western India or in the Central Provinces. Distribution : The Indian Cork Tree is believed to be indi- genous in the tropical forests of Burma from Ava to Tenasserim and the Malay Archipelago. It is cultivated largely in many parts of India and runs wild in certain areas of Central India as in the valley of the Godavari river. Roxburgh mentions that about 1800, seeds of this tree were brought to Madras from the gardens of the Raja of Tanjore from whence a plant was also procured for the East India Company’s Botanic Garden at Calcutta. Gardening: It is a fairly common roadside tree in Western India. Though ornamental, it is not very suitable for avenues, as it is tall rather than spreading. The tree is fast growing. The specimen in the Botanic Gardens at Calcutta, to which we refer, reached a height of 50 ft. in twelve years. ‘ The tree is decidedly hardy, and is not particular as to soil ; although it grows best in a moist climate, it does fairly well in dry situations. It is, however, brittle and shallow-rooted, and is liable to be broken or uprooted by strong winds. It has a tendency to send up root-suckers in great profusion, which is a disadvantage in gardens. It is easily raised from seed when obtainable, from cuttings put down in the spring or from root-suckers put down and transplanted during the rainy season. Seed should be sown in the nursery as soon as it ripens, towards the end of the hot season, and the seedlings, which bear transplanting well, should be planted out a year later at the biginning of the rainy season.’ (Troup). Uses : The wood is soft and yellowish. It is close-grained and takes a fine polish and is used for furniture and ornamental work. From the bark, which is about an inch thick, an inferior kind of cork is made. (To be continued') Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate VI. Indian Cork Trees ( Millingtonia hortensis) on roadside in Bombay. rhotos by C. McCann , Flowers of the Indian Cork Tree (M. hortensis). INDIAN DRAGONFLIES BY F. C. Fraser, Lt.-Col., i.m.s-, f.e.s. Part XXXV ( With one plate and four text-figures ) . (i Continued from page 850 of Volume XXXIII) . Genus : Lestes. — Continued . lestes oiientaiis, Hagen (1859). Lestes orient alis Hagen, Syn. Neur. Ceylons , No. 119, Zool. bot. Gesell. Wien. (1859) ; Selys, Bull. Acad. Eelg. (2) xiii, p. 322 (1862) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon., p. 163 (1890) ; Id. Jcurn. Linn. Soc. Zool. xxiv, p. 566 (1893) ; Laid Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xix , p. 155 (1920) ; Id. Spolia Zeylanica , vol. xii, p. 357 (1924). Male. Abdomen 52 mm. Hindwing 38 mm. Head : labium yellow ; labrum, cheeks and bases of mandibles pale yellow, rest of head coppery bronze or green metallic ; eyes brown ; behind head pale yellow. Prothorax and thorax metallic green bronze on dorsum with ante-humeral stripes pale yellow on the latter ; laterally and beneath pale yellow with two brown spots on each s5de of chest. Legs black, bases of femora paler, especially on flexor surface. Wings hyaline, forewiogs with 18-20 postnodal nervures ; IRiii not zigzag- ged ; pterostigma dark yellow framed in black nervures, covering from 2 to 2-2- cells. Abdomen green metallic on dorsum and sides ; anal appendages black superiors forcipate, apices curving towards each other and terminating in a point, furnished near the base with a blunt spine, and, at about the middle, a small tubercle below. Inferiors rudimentary, conical, very short. Female. Abdomen 49 mm. Hindwing 40 mm. Closely similar to the male, differing only in sexual characters ; segment 10 brown, notched at its apical border. Anal appendages conical, pointed at apex ; vulvar scale yellow, extending to end of abdomen, with serrate border. Distribution. Rhambodda Pass, Ceylon. Type in the Hagen collection. This species, which greatly resembles a Megalestes, must be either extremely local or very rare as it has never been taken since the type was procured in 1858, seventy years ago. It differs from Magalestes major by the presence of intercalated sectors between lltiii and Riv+v, but is possibly closely allied to it. It is to be hoped that some one of the entomologists in Ceylon may re-discover this beautiful and interesting insect. Lestes barbara, Fabr., (1798). (PI. I. 1.) Agrion barbara Fabr., Suppl. Ent. Syst., p. 286 (1798); Fonscolomb, Ann. Soc. Ent. France, vii, p. 554, t. 33, fig. 2. (1838). Agrion barbarum Charp., Hors. Ent., p. 9 (1825) ; Id. Libell. Eur., p. 142, t. 35, figs. 3 and 4 (1840). Agrion nympha Hansem, Wieden. Zool. Mag. ii (1), p. 161 (1823). Lestes barbara ($) Lind. Mon. Lib. Eur., p. 36 (1825) ; Selys. (rf et §), Mon. Lib. Eur., p. 142 (1840) ; Ramb. Ins. Nevrop., p. 251 (1841) ; Selys. Rev. Odon., p. 159 (1850) ; Id. Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) xiii, p. 318 (1862) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xix, p. 155 (1920). Lestes barbarus Kirby, Cat. Odon., p. 162 (18b0) ; Calv. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelph., p. 147 (1898). 88 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV Male. Abdomen 26-34 mm. Hindwing 21-25 mm. Head : labium pale brownish white ; labrum, cheeks and bases of mandi- bles yellowish or pale olivaceous ; penultimate joint of antennae and behind eyes yellow ; rest of head dark bronzed green with a coppery or golden reflex,- eyes brown. Prothorax green metallic on dorsum, yellow at the sides and finely along borders of posterior lobe, which is rounded, very small and narrow. A black spot low down on each side. Thorax brilliant metallic green on dorsum as far lateral as the middle of mesepimeron ; old specimens with a golden or coppery reflex ; dorsum marked with a narrow humeral yellow stripe narrowly bordered with black. In Kashmir examples this black border is more extensive, so that in some specimens the yellow line is greatly narrowed at its middle or entirely obliterated by a conflu- ence of the black borders. Middorsal carina finely yellow in European examples, dull black in Kashmir ones. Laterally and beneath bright citron yellow from beyond the middle of mesepimeron ; postero-lateral suture finely mapped out in black. Legs yellow, femora and tibiae with a narrow black line on the outer side, flexor surface of tibiae black, tarsi black. Wings hyaline, palely tinted with yellow ; pterostigma bicolorous, rather more than the proximal half blackish brown, outer part white or creamy, braced, covering 2 cells, framed in thick black nervurcs, 1‘5 mm. in length ; 10-14 postnodals to forewings, 10-12 in the hind ; Riii arising 24 to 3 cells beyond the node in both wings ; IRii arising 7 cells after the node in forewing, 5 in the hind. Abdomen yellow at the sides, metallic green to coppery on the dorsum and with narrow apical rings to most segments ; segment 2 with the middorsal carina finely yellow ; segments 3 to '6 with narrow basal yellow rings often interrupted at the middle line ; segment 10 matt black on dorsum, non- metallic, yellow at the sides, pulverulent white on the dorsum in old specimens. Anal appendages. Superiors yellow tipped with black, Kashmir examples being yellow at the base and outwardly only, the whole of inner side including the basal tooth and the apex being black ; ratler longer than segment 10, forcipate, the apices curling in with rounded overlapping ends, a robust inner basal spine followed by a shell-like dilatation minutely denticulated on its inner free border. Inferior appendages yellow finely tipped with black, thick, tumid and apposed at bases, then strongly divaricate, markedly tapered, turned up to end in a fine point. Female. Hindwing 22-27 mm. Abdomen 29-33 mm. Similar to the male except for sexual differences. A small oval yellow spot on the outer side of each posterior ocellus ; occiput bordered narrowly with yellow ; humeral stripe not bordered with black, the Kashmir examples not differing from type in this respect ; legs rather more broadly striped with black ; wings similar to male, 11-14 postnodal nervures to all wings ; abdomen coppery bronze on dorsum, segment 10 yellow with a rather narrow well- defined blackish brown stripe on dorsum, which, in some, tapers to the apical border of segment. Anal appendages yellow, tipped with black in Kashmir specimens, conical, pointed, slightly shorter than segment 10. Vulvar scale very robust, yellow or yellow bordered with black in Kashmir specimens. Distribution. Restricted to Kashmir and N. W. India, within Indian limits, but widely distributed throughout S. Europe, Asia Minor and Algeria. As a rule, Kashmir examples exhibit some melanism and are decidedly larger than European specimens. Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher took fair numbers at Yusimarg, 7,500 ft. Kashmir during August, and I have specimens from France taken during the same month. Lestes nodalis Selys (1891). (PI. I. 2.) LeAes nodalis Selys, O donates de Birmaniey Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova x (xxx) pp. 496, 497 (1891) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xix, p. 151 (1920). Male. Abdomen 30-35 mm. Hind wing 19-21 mm. Head: labium brownish white; labrum, bases of mandibles and cheeks pale blue but piceous in the dried state ; rest of head blackish brown but paler behind eyes ; eyes brown. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate 1 1. Dorsal view of anal appendages of Lestes barbara (Fabr.) 2. The same of Lestes nodalis Selys. 3. The same of Lestes thoracica Laid. 4. The same of Lestes umbrina Selys. 5. The same of Platy lestes platystyla (Ramb.) 6. The same of the female appendages of P. platystyla (Ramb.) 7. The same of Ceylonolestes davenporti Ris. nov. nom. 8. The same of Ceylonolestes gracilis gracilis Selys. 9. The same of Ceylonolestes cyanea Selys. 10. The same of Ceylonolestes pulcherrima Fras. 1 1 . The same of Indolestes indica Fras . 12. The same of Sympycna pcedisca Eversm. INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 89 Prothorax olivaceous brown on dorsum, bluish laterally, two black horizontal stripes on the anterior trochanters. Thorax dark brown on dorsum as far out as the humeral suture, and slightly overlapping this above, laterally pale blue or palest olivaceous in the dried state, a small black spot on the upper part of the postero-lateral suture and a large more conspicuous spot near the ventral border on fore part of metepi- meron. Beneath olivaceous with a triangular black area just behind the hind pair of limbs. Wings palely and evenly tinted with yellow, with dark conspicuous neura- tion ; pterostigma bicolorous longitudinally, blackish brown at centre, yellow along costal and inner borders, elongate, tapering distad, oblique at both ends, non-braced, covering two to three cells ; node thickened and showing as a conspicuous black point at costa ; 13 to 15 postnodals to forewings, 9-13 in the hind. Legs reddish yellow, the anterior pair of femora and the distal ends of the others, on the outer side, brownish black. Abdomen light olivaceous brown peppered with black and marked with blackish brown on the dorsum of segments 1 and 2, and the apical ends of segments 3 to 6, where this colour forms a broad apical ring, enclosing on the dorsum a pale spot shaped like a barbed arrow-head with its point directed basad. On dorsum of segment 2 this spot is reproduced on a much larger scale ; segments 7 and 8 dark brown ; 9 and 10, especially the latter, appear to be bluish during life, but are pale olive in the dried state. Anal appendages reddish brown, superiors about equal in length to segment 10, broad and robust, the apices abruptly rightangled inwards to meet in the middle line, the apex broad but tapering rapidly to a fine point and bordered outwardly by blackish spines ; the usual inner scale-like lamina broad, occupying about the middle third of appendage and with thickened inner and outer borders, the latter projecting slightly as a fine spine. Inferior appendage short conical, coated with short coarse hairs. Female. Abdomen 28-32 mm. Hindwing 20-21 mm. Very similar to the male. In the single female I possess, the labrum, bases of mandibles and cheeks are dark reddish brown, as also the rest of the head ; the prothorax and thorax are similar to the male; the wings are more deeply tinted a pale golden brown, the pterostigma is similar but the nervures forming its inner angle are creamy white ; postnodal nervures to forewings 13-16, 9-12 in the hind, the small spines along costa are conspicuously blackish brown against the vellowT costa, and the space after the pterostigma is enfumed brown ; the abdomen differs by the marking on segment 2, very obscure, the apical rings on 3 to 7 present as paired spots on the subdorsum, whilst segment 9 has, on each side, a very large black spot extending for about the basal two-thirds ; segment 10 appears to have been bluish during life, as also the sides of segment 2. Legs similar to the male. Aual appendages conical, pointed at apex, as long as segment 10, carneous. Vulvar scale round robust, dark brown. Distribution . Assam, Margherita, sparingly during May and June ; Burma, Palon in September; Yunnan. Probably widely and sparingly distributed throughout N. F. India and Burma ; its dull colouring may render it very inconspicuous so that it may have often been overlooked. The longitudinally bicolorous pterostigma, the small black nodal point on the costa and the characteristically broad right angled anal appendages easily serve to distinguish it from other species. Lestes umbriana Selys(1891). (PI. I. 4.) Lestes umbrina Selys, ‘ , O donates de Birmanie ’, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova x (xxx) pp. 497, 498 (1891) ; Laid. Rec, Ind. Mus., vol. xix, pp. 150-151 (1920). Male, Abdomen 32 mm. Hindwing 20 mm. Head : labium dirty yellow or pale brown ; labrum, bases of mandibles and cheeks pale yellowish brown ; rest of head pale reddish brown ; antennae dark brown except the two basal segments which are yellowish ; eyes brown above, yellow beneath. Prothorax and thorax dark reddish brown on dorsum, pale yellowish brown laterally without markings. Legs reddish yellow ; the anterior limbs black on the outer surface, all femora and tibiae black on the flexor surface 12 90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV and the mid pair of femora with an ill-defined interrupted stripe on the outer surface. Wings palely enfumed, hyaline ; pterostigma elongate, pale brown, the outer and inner borders creamy white or palest brown, covering about 1£ cells, braced ; 9-11 postnodal nervures in forewings, 9 in the hind. Abdomen reddish brown, the dorsum darker brown but paler in some specimens; the intersegmental sutures dark brown. Anal appendages brownish yellow darkening at apices ; superiors slightly longer than segment 10, coarsely spined along the outer border, forcipate, the apices curling in to meet each other and rounded at the ends, furnished on the inner border, at junction of basal and middle thirds, with a small spine, the middle third occupied with the usual scale-like expansion which terminates distad in a small inconspicuous spine. Inferior appendages conical and opposed, but the apices slightly divergent, about half the length only of the superiors. Female. Abdomen 29-30 mm Hindwing 21 mm. Almost exactly similar to the male, differing mainly in sexual characters. Wings as for male with 9 to 10 postnodal nervures to forewings and 9 in the hind ; head, thorax and legs as for male ; abdomen darker on the dorsum from segment 3 to 7, with a pair of subdorsal subapical comma-like spots placed transversely ; segments 8 to 10 and the apical half of 7 broadly blackish brown on dorsum, this colour tapering apicad on 9 and 10 ; segments 8 and 9 also with a large blackish brown spot on each side at the ventral borker. Anal appendages short conical, pale yellow and with a short conical protuberance notched at its apex placed between them at the apical border of segment 10. Vulvar scale short but robust, brownish yellow, minutely serrate along its under border. Distribution. The type comes from Burma (Bhamo), August, and is now in the Selysian collection. In this same collection is a pair from Pamizah, Bengal ?, and in the MacLachlan collection, a female from Yunnan, I possess a female from Baghwonie, Duars, Bengal, taken in June. The Indian Museum possesses specimens from Kutch, Allahabad and Panch Mahals. A specimen in the same collection is labelled as from Waltair, but during two years’ residence in that district, I never once came across it, so that the label may be wrong. The species, however, appears to be widely scattered although sparsely so. Laidlaw is of opinion that it is synonymous with L. concinna Selys, from the Philippines and Java ; after carefully comparing the description of this species with umbrina , I feel inclined to share his opinion. If, as he says, Selys had compared the two insects, he would probably have hesitated before describing umbrina as a separate species ; the shape of the male anal appendages and the markings of segments 8 to 10 in the female do not differ from L. concinna. Superficially L. umbrina resembles C. olivaceum found in similar places, among long dried grasses. It is distinguished from other Indian species by its uniform colouring and its pterostigma with outer and inner borders paler than the body of the organ. It is to be noted that artifects in colouring of the thorax, usually in the form of stripes on the dorsum and sides, are quite common in the dried state of these small insects, which may account for a number of errors which have crept into the Selysian descriptions. Lestes nlgriceps Fraser (1924.) Lestes nigriceps Fras., Mem. Dept. Agricul. India, No. 8, vol. vii, Aug. (1924). Male. Abdomen 32 mm. Hindwing 21 mm. Head : labium, labrum, cheeks and bases of mandibles pale brown ; rest of head matt black ; behind eyes and head pruinosed white. Prothorax black, largely obscured by white pruinescence. Thorax black, marked with a narrow reddish brown (possibly blue during life) humeral stripe and a narrow irregular stripe on the mespimeron pale yellowish green. The sides near the ventral border also pale greenish yellow. On the dorsum, internal to the humeral sttipe, an obscure green metallic stripe of even width similar to that seen in L. viridula. Legs yellow, femora and tibiae striped longitudinally with black. - Wings hyaline ; pterostigma long and narrow, about 4 times as long as INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 91 broad, pale brown ; 11-12 postnodal nervures in forewing, 9 to 10 in the hind. Abdomen brownish yellow broadly marked on dorsum with bronzed black or metallic-green as follows: — Segments 2 to 6 and the basal half of 7 metallic green or bronzed black, remaining segments black ; segment 2 with the middorsal carina finely black for its basal three-fourths but widely so thereafter ; on all segments the dorsal black expanding apically and confluent with a narrow black apical ring. Anal appendages yellowish brown, superiors black at apex and base, and furnished with a robust inner basal spine followed by the usual expansion which occupies the middle third of appendage, the apical third sharply angulated in- ward and downward and s pined along its outer border. Inferior appendages short, angulate, about half the length of superiors. Female. Abdomen 30-32 mm. Hindwing 21-22 mm, Somewhat similar to the male but without the extensive melanism, especially on the thorax. The black marking of head is more restricted and has a bronzed or metallic reflex ; the back of head is reddish brown without pruiue- scence ; the prothorax is pale brown with two fine dark brown lines on the middorsum and without overlying pruinescence. Thorax pale brown without black markings but with the narrow metallic green humeral stripes very conspicuous. Abdomen paler, segments 1, the sides and apical end of 9 and the whole of 10 pale brown. Anal appendages brown, conical, short, pointed at apex : vulvar scale brown, robust, finely serrate below. Distribution. The type is a ma'e in the B.M., from Pusa, Bihar, and apart from 2 females from the same locality, is the only specimen knowm. It is related to L. viridula by the green thoracic stripe and by the close similarity of the anal appendages, but it differs by the extreme melanism, unknown in viridula and by the longer pterostigma. I have hesitated to include this species as I have not had the opportunity of comparing it with L . malabarica which it closely resembles ; should the two species be synonymous, nigriceps will have priority. The ground colour of malabarica is blue, but the type of nigriceps may have undergone colour changes from decomposition. Lestes thoracica Laid law (1920) (PI. I. 3.), Lestes thoracica Laid., Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xix, pp. 152-153 (1920). Male. Abdomen 30-32 mm. Hindwing 20 mm. Head: labium white; labrum, bases of ‘mandibles and cheeks turquoise blue ; rest of head matt black except occiput and behind head which are creamy white ; eyes dark blue above, pale beneath. Prothorax black on dorsum, creamy white laterally, marked with a large black spot on the anterior trochanter. Thorax pale olive green with a pinkish tinting towTards the middorsum ; the middorsal carina finely black, as also the upper parts of the humeral and lateral sutures. Legs yellow striped in their length with black on the outer side ; tarsi black ; flexor surface of femora also black. Wings hyaline; 10-11 postnodal nervures to both fore- and hind-wings,* pterostigma pale brown, framed in blackish nervures and with the outer distal end pale ; braced, covering 1 to 2 cells. Abdomen black on dorsum, pale azure blue at the sides, the dorsal black expanded subapically on segments 2 to 7, completely ringing the latter segment ; segments 8 to 10 entirely black on dorsum, sides and beneath, except for a small latero-apical spot, bluish white, on both sides of the latter two segments. Anal appendages creamy white tipped with black ; superiors one and a half times the length of segment 10, forcipate, apices rounded at the ends, curling in to meet each other, coarsely spined along the outer border, furnished at •junction of basal and middle thirds with a robust inner spine which is followed by the usual scale-like expansion which occupies rather more than the middle third of appendage and is finely denticulate along its inuer border. Inferior appendages not quite half the length of superiors, thick at base, ungulate thereafter, rounded and furnished at apex with coarse hairs. Female : Abdomen 28-31 mm. Hindwing 20-22 mm. Very similar to the male. Head : labrum, cheeks and bases of mandibles pale yellowish green, rest of 92 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vo l. XXXIV head olivaceous with a small dark brownish mark on each side of clypeus and some small spots in the ocellar space. Prothorax and thorax olivaceous green on dorsum, paler laterally and beneath without any markings. Legs as for male, but the lateral stripes restricted to the distal ends of the femora. Wings palely enfutned ; pterostigma as for male. 10-12 postnodal nervures to fore wings, 9 to 10 in the hind. Abdomen pale olivaceous, greenish yellow at the sides, dark markings of dorsum poorly defined ; segments 2 to 7 with a pair of small spots transversely placed subapicad on dorsum ; segments 8 and 10 and the apical two-thirds of 7 with the dorsum black only, broad on 7 and 8, abruptly narrowed on 9 and 10 ; ventral borders of 8 to 10 blackish brown. Anal appendages very short, conical, pointed, creamy white. Vulvar scale pale robust, extending to end of abdomen, finely serrate along lower border. Distribution. The type is a male taken at Agra, U. P., now in the Indian Museum, and there are other specimens in the same Museum from the Chilka Lake. I have a pair from Pusa, Bihar, taken in July. The species appears to be confined to Orssa, Bengal, Bihar and the U. P. It is easily recognized by the jet black head (spotted with black in the female). The female resembles that of L. umbrina rather closely but is distinguished by the head marked with black and by the pterostigma bordered outwardly only with pale brown. Genus Platylestes : Selys (1862). (Text fig. 1.) Small dragonflies of the size of Lestes and considerably smaller than Megalestes, resting with wings expanded, rather dull in colouring, non- metallic ; wings long and narrow, hyaline ; pterostigma subquadrate, about twice as long as broad, more or less, braced ; postnodal nervures moderately numerous ; ac (postcostal nervure) situate about midway between the two antenodal nervures ; ab meeting ac at border of wing ; discoidal cells narrow, acute distad, differing but slightly in shape and of the same length in fore and hind-wings, that of fore-wing with the hinder border more than twice the length of costal and at least three times the length of basal, that of hind-wing only twice the length of costal but four times the length of basal ; IRiii and Riv + v arising much closer to arc than to node and running parallel for some distance ; Riii arising from Rii about 3 to 4 cells after the node ; an oblique nervure always present between Riii and IRiii ; intercalated sectors at apical end of wing similar to genus Lestes. Abdomen slender, longer than wings ; superior anal appendages forcipate, long and attenuated, with two spines on the inner border. Female with anal appendages markedly flattened and spatulate. Genotype— Platylestes platystyla (Ramb.). Venationally Platylestes differs scarcely from Lestes , although its author emphasized that the nervure IRiii is zigzagged in contradistinction to Lestes where it is not so ; this character is not however at all evident in any of the three specimens mentioned below under pi at sty la , so that it may have been an aberration in the type female wing. The slight but very evident difference between the discoidal cells of fore- and hind-wings, together with the elongate attenuated anal appendages of the male point to a close relation to Ceylono- lestes or at least to a passage from Lestes to that genus, which may therefore be considered as a link between the two. Platylestes platystyla (Ramb) (1842) (PL I. 5 and 6 and Text fig. 2. b.) Lestes platystyla Ramb. Ins., Nevrop. p. 254 ( 1842; . Platylestes platystyla Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) xiii, p. 338 (1862) ; Id Odonates de Birmanie , Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, x (xxx), p. 499 (1891) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xix, pp. 155-157 (1920). Platylestes platystylus Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 164 (1890) ; id. Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. xxiv, p. 566 (1893). Male. Abomen 33 mm. Hindwing 21 mm. Head : labium dirty yellow ; labrum, bases of mandibles and cheeks olivace- ous, the former with a medio-basal dark brown spot lying in a median sulcus ; rest of head violaceous brown with three small black spots at base of postclypeus and similar spots at base of antennae and anterior to the median ocellus ; behind eyes yellowish ; eyes olivaceous above, paler below. INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 93 Fig. 1. Wings of Plaiylestes platysiyla (Ramb.) Prothorax and thorax palest khaki brown, paler at the sides and pruinosed white beneath, the thorax with a large number of black spots disposed as follows, — one at the anterior end of the antealar sinus, an antehumeral spot lying near the middle of the middorsal carina, 3 humeral spots, a superior, a medial and an inferior, 4 spots on the mesepimeron, one at its upper third, one over the spiracle and two at its lower part, a spot at the upper part of the postero-lateral suture, 2 spots on the ventro-lateral border and two small points closely apposed beneath thorax behind the hind limbs. Legs pale whitish yellow with black spines, the anterior pair of tibiae with a black outer stripe and a similar line along the extensor surface of femora. Wings palely enfumed petiolated as far as ac , rather pointed at apices ; pterostigma short and broad, not quite twice as long as broad, distal end nearly straight, proximal oblique and in line with the brace, costal border shorter than hinder, covering about 2 cells, dark brown with white or pale inner and outer ends; 10-11 postnodal nervures in the forewings, 9 in the hind, more rarely 8. Abdomen olivaceous changing to warm reddish brown on the hinder segments ; segments 1 to 6 with small paired subdorsal lanceolate subapical spots dark brown, these segments paler at both ends especially at the base where the ground colour tapers to a point ; segments 8 to 10 with similar subapical spots, but yellow and conspicuous against the dark background. Segments 2 to 7 with black apical rings. Anal appendages whitish, the superiors black at base, curling in at apices to meet each other in a gradual and regular curve, but the extreme apices curling a little outwards again, the outer border coarsely spined, the inner border with a thin shell-like plaque beginning from near the base as an obtuse spine and terminating about the junction of the middle and outer thirds of the appendage in an acute spine ; apex furnished with a tuft of stiff hairs. The whole append- age longer and narrower than in Lestes and the inner expansion much narrower and resembling rather closely the type of Ceylcnolestes. Inferior appendages about half the length, thick at base, apposed at extreme apices, then divergent and abruptly narrowed and ungulate, finally convergent at apices so as to enclose a small oval space. Female. Abdomen 33 mm. Hindwing 23 mm. Closely resembles the male in most respects, differing mainly in sexual characters. The black spots on the postclypeus and head are absent ; labrum and bases of mandibles pale brown or yellowish ; eyes brown ; thorax, legs and wings similar to the male ; forewings with 10 postnodal nervures, hind with only 8 ; pterostigma about twice as long as broad ; abdomen dark brown on 94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , W. XXXIV dorsum, segments 8 and 9 dark ochreous, 10 golden brown clouded with dark brown near the base and along the middorsal carina, otherwise marked as for the male. Anal appendages yellow, blackish brown at base, as long as segment 10, flattened, lanceolate but inner border rather sinuous, apex obtusely pointed. Vulvar scale robust, not extending to end of abdomen, yellow clouded with brown. Distribution. Bengal and Burma. Very few specimens of this rare and interesting species are known ; the type is a female in the Selysian collection, the original Rambur type . Its description differs considerably from the above, but the differences are probably due to its poor condition and perhaps decom- position ; the above description is made from a fine specimen from Hasimara, Duars, Bengal, taken by Mr. H. V.O’Donel, 7, viii, 23, a female with one anal appendage missing and now in my collection. The description of the male is from a specimen in the Indian Museum taken in Calcutta in November. There is another male in the Pusa collection from Burma and these four specimens are the only ones known. The quadrate pterostigma will at once distinguish the species from any other Lestes. It is possible that more than one species exists among these four, but I doubt it ; it is to be hoped that more material will come to hand to settle this point. Genus: Ceylonolestes, Kennedy (1920), (Text fig. 3.) Ceylonolestes Kennedy, Ohio, Journ. Sci. vol. xxi, No. 2, p. 84 (1920). Ceylanicolestes , Fraser, Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxvi, p. 487 (1924). Lestes , Section 2, 1st Group , A , Selys, Syn. Lestes, p. 42 (1862). Dragonflies of small stature resting with wings closed over dorsum ; body non-metallic, ground colour bright azure blue ; wings hyaline, untinted, petiolated as far as ac, ab meeting ac at hinder border of wing, ac situated at a level more or less distad of the midpoint between the two antenodals, discoidal cells differing in shape and size in fore- and hind wings, narrow, long and acutely pointed at the distal angle, discoidal cell of fore wing with posterior border more than twice the length of costal and nearly four times the length of basal, that of hind wing with posterior border not quite twice the length of costal and five times the length of basal, Riii arising about 4 cells distad the node in fore wing, 3 cells distad in the hind ; IRiii and Riv-^v arising much closer to arc than to node, IRiii slightly zigzagged towards its apical end, MA zigzagged from level of node, oblique vein present between Riii and IRiii ; pterostigma unicolorous, narrow, more than twice as long as broad, braced, outer end not oblique ; intercalated sectors similar to genus Lestes. Posterior lobe of prothorax simple, rounded, not lobed. Superior anal appendages forcipate, long and attenuated, furnished along the middle third of its inner border with a narrow expansion which begins and ends in a sharp spine ; inferior appendages variable, anal appendages of female conical, short. Distribution. "Ceylon, South India, Burma and Japan. Four species are confined to South India and Ceylon, one to Burma and the remaining one (peregrinus Ris.) to Japan. Genotype— Ceylonolestes gracilis (Selys). Ceylonolestes gracilis (Hagen) (1858) (PI. 1.8). Lestes gracilis Hagen, Syn. Near. Ceylons , No. 57, Zool. Bot. Gesellsch. Wien. (1858) ; Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) xiii, p. 327 (1862) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon, p. 163 (1890) ; Id. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond, p. 206 (1891) ; Id. Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. xxiv, p. 566 (1893) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xix, p. 158 (1920). Lestes gracilis gracilis Ris, Suppl. Ent. No. v, pp. 13-15, Pl, I, fig. 4 (1916) ; Id. Spolia Zeylauica, vol. xii, p. 358 (1920). Male. Abdomen 30-33 mm. Hindwing 20-22 mm . Head: labium yellowish white; labium, cheeks and bases of mandibles, pale azure blue ; rest of head matt black with a cupreous reflex ; eyes deep blue above paler beneath. Prothorax blue at the sides with two thick brownish black bands on the dorsum. Thorax azure blue, paler on sides and beneath, dorsum with a thick cupreous or bronzed black band extending outwrards nearly as far as the humeral suture ; upper part of humeral suture black and, slightly posterior to it, a chain of three bronzed black spots ; a spot on the lower part of mesepi- meron just behind the trochanter and another on the upper part of the postero- Indian dragonflies 95 lateral suture. Beneath two small triangular blackish areas on the paired sclerites. Legs ochreous on the extensor surfaces, black on the flexor, as also the tarsi; spines moderately long and numerous. Wings hyaline ; 10-12 postnodal nervures to forewings, 10-11 in the hind ; pterostigma rather more than twice as long as broad, outer end not oblique, covering 2 cells, braced, dark reddish brown. Abdomen azure blue, marked on dorsum with bronzed black ; segment 1 with a small baso-dorsal quadrate black spot, 2 with a broad dorsal band falling short of the apical border, sometimes split up into two broad parallel stripes by the dorsal crest which is bluish, but in adults, the stripes confluent for rather more than the basal half, after which is seen a small round blue spot on the dorsal carina continuous with a fine blue line which runs into an apical blue ring; segments 3-8 with narrow blue basal rings and the middoisal carina finely yellow, rest of dorsum bronzed black ; segment 9 with the dorsal black ending well before apical border as two widely divergent points, the apical portion blue, as also the whole of segment 10 except for a small basal spot of black on each side. Anal appendages black, very long, sinuous and forcipate, curling gradually inwards until the apices meet, after which they are directed straight back in a bayonet-like angulation to end in a moderately acute point ; the inner border at its middle third furnished with a scale-like dilatation which begins rather abruptly as a rounded angle and ends in a long fine spine ; beneath this dilatation, at its middle, a small pointed tubercle visible only in profile, outer- border near apex coarsely spined. Inferior appendages tumid, apposed, rounded at apex, about half the length of superiors which are about half as long again as segment 10. Female. Abdomen 29-30 mm. Hindwing 23 mm. Marked exactly as in the male but the ground colour greenish blue. In some specimens the dorsal markings of segments 2 to 5 or 6 are metallic green and the middorsal carina is finely ochreous as far as segment 7. Wings with 9-10 postnodal nervures in the fore and 9 in the hind : pterostigma similar to the male. Anal appendages brown, paler at the base, black at apices, pointed, conical, about as long as segment 10 ; vulvar scale yellow or pale brown, broadly black along lower border which is not serrate. Distribution . Ceylon hill tracts up to 6,000 ft. The type, a male in the Hagen collection, is from Rhambodda, Ceylon. I have a large series collected by Col. F. Wall, J.M.S., at Banderewela, 5,000 ft. during October. The species is distinguished from others by the bifid dorsal marking on segment 9 and by the posthumeral chain of 3 spots. As pointed out by Dr. Ris, these spots are not mentioned in the original description. Ceylonolestes divisa (Hagen-Selys) (1862). Lestes divisa Hagen-Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) xiii, p. 328 (1862) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol.xix, p. 158 (1920); Laid. Spolia Zeylanica, vol. xii, pp. 358-360 (1924). Lestes divisus, Kirby, Cat. Odon., p. 163 ( 1890) ; Id. Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool.,xxiv, p. 566 (1893) ; Ris. Ent. Suppl. No. v, p. 13 (1916). Male. Abdomen 33 mm. Hindwing 21 mm. Head : labium yellow ; labrum, cheeks, bases of mandibles and anteclypeus turquoise blue, rest of head bronzed black. Prothorax similar to gracilis. Thorax with a broad dorsal bronzed or metallic green band tapering somewhat anteriorly and not extending as far out as the humeral suture ; laterally azure blue changing to pale yellow below and beneath ; marked with small black spots on the upper parts of humeral and postero-lateral sutures and a similar spot after the origin of each hinder limb. Wings hyaline, palely enfumed ; pterostigma blackish brown, about 3 times as long as broad, not dilated, outer border straight, covering 2 cells ; 11 to 12 postnodal nervures to forewings. Legs with extensor surfaces yellowish, flexor black as in gracilis. Abdomen azure blue marked on dorsum broadly with bronzed black, but segments 1 and 2 metallic green as in some specimens of gracilis , but on segment 2 the band extending as far as apical border ; segments 3 to 8 bronzed 96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV black on dorsum, this colour tapered at the base of each segment so as to leave a basal ring of blue ; segment 9 with the dark colour of dorsum tapering towards apical end but not reaching it, the apex blue ; segment 10 entirely blue. Anal appendages yellow, black at base and apex ; superiors forcipate, finely spined along outer border near apex, furnished at the inner middie third with an expansion which begins gradually and is bevelled off into body of appendage, whilst, at the apical end, it tapers into a long fine spine ; apex rounded, not bevelled and without any tubercle beneath. Inferior appendages half the length of the superiors, apposed at base, very tumid at origin, ungulate there- after and with a blunt apex. Female. Abdomen 31 mm. Hindwing 21 mm. Very similar to the male but the ground colour greenish or pale olivaceous ; markings similar to the male. Anal appendages short conical brown, shorter than segment 10 ; vulvar scale short, dark brown, minutely serrate along lower border. Distribution. The type is a male in the Hagen collection from Rhambodda, Ceylon ; there is a female in the same collection. I have not seen this species which resembles gracilis very closely and comes from the same district. It differs by the dorsal thoracic marking tapering anteriorly, by the dorsum of thorax and the two first abdominal segments bronzed metallic green, and by the dorsal marking on segment 9 ending apicad in a point instead of bifid. The inner dilatation of the superior appendages also begins gradually instead of abruptly as in gracilis. For the rest it is to be remarked that specimens of gracilis with the thorax and first few segments of abdomen green metallic are not uncommon and the bifid character of the dorsal marking on segment 9 is often very much obscured from postmortem changes and darkening from decomposition, so that it is quite possible that the two species are synonymous. Laidlaw records divisa from Kandy, Ceylon, from May to July. Ceylonolestes davenporti (Ris) nov. nom. (PI. I. 7.1 Lestes gracilis birmanus Ris nec Selys, Suppl. Ent. No. v, pp. 13, 14 (1916) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus, vol. xix, p. 158 (1920). Male. Abdomen 30-33 mm. Hindwing 19-23 mm. Head : labium pale yellow ; labrum, bases of mandibles, cheeks and clypeus turquoise blue, postclypeus with its outer ends broadly black, only the central part blue ; head above bronzed or cupreous black; occiput yellow at the median parts of its hinder border. Prothorax black on dorsum, broadly blue laterally and with a median dorsal stripe on the middle lobe tapering anteriorly ; anterior lobe blue with a small black spot posteriorly on its middorsum ; posterior lobe with a fine middorsal blue line which broadens anteriorly to become confluent with the middorsal blue of middle lobe. Thorax black on dorsum with a cupreous reflex as far back as nearly to middle of mesepimeron, the border of the black being broadly angulate or crenulate ; a narrow antehumeral blue stripe bordering the humeral suture, incomplete above where it slightly overlaps the suture ; laterally azure blue with a small linear spot on mesepimeron near its upper part, and a second black spot on upper part of postero-lateral suture. Beneath pale blue or yellow clouded with brown, two oblique spots on the paired sclerites just behind the hinder pair of limbs and a pair of tiny pyriform black spots at centre. Legs bluish green on whole of extensor surfaces from femora to tarsi, black on flexor. Wings hyaline ; pterostigma blackish or dark reddish brown, the termina- tions of the bordering nervures posteriorly white, covering nearly two cells, braced, nearly three times as long as broad ; 10-13 postnodal nervures in fore- wings, 10-11 in the hind. Abdomen azure blue laterally, broadly black on dorsum with a green metallic reflex as far as segment 5 then with cupreous reflex to the end of segment 8 ; the greater part of 9 and the whole of segment 10 azure blue save for a narrow mediobasal black line and a lateral black spot on each side of segment 10 ; segment 1 black on dorsum from base to apex ; segment 2 marked as for divisa , the metallic band extending from base to apex but tapering to a point at apex of segment to become confluent with a narrow apical black ring, INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 97 middorsal carina finely ochreous expanding into a small blue spot just apicad of the middle of segment ; segments 3 to 5 with the middorsal carina finely ochreous, with narrow blue basal rings and with the dorsal black expanded subapicad on each segment ; segments 7 and 8 entirely black save for the ven- tral borders of 8 narrowly ; segment 9 with a broad triangular black spot on each side narrowly confluent over dorsum at base, tapering apicad but not nearly reaching end of segment. Anal appendages blue, apices and inner border black or entirely black in old specimens, the apices thickly coated with white hairs. Superiors forcipate, long attenuated and curved gently towards each other to meet at apices which are thickened and with the point directed straight back, coarsely spined along outer border near apex and with the usual expansion on the inner border at the middle third beginning as an abrupt rounded angle and ending in a long acute spine; beneath the appendages, near the middle of the expansion, a small tubercle seen in profile. Inferior appendages half the length of superiors, which are about half as long again as segment 10, broad, rounded, apposed at bases ; apices rounded, black. Female. Abdomen 31 mm. Hind wing 24 mm. Closely similar to the male, the markings only differing on segments 8 and 9 where the sides are broadly blue ; segment 9 has the whole of dorsum cupreous black, whilst 10 has two large triangular black spots confluent or not over dorsum as on segment 9 in the male. Wings hyaline, palely enfumed in very old specimens ; 11 postnodal nervures in forewings, 9 in the hind ; pterostigma reddish brown. Anal appendages greenish blue, about as long as segment 10, conical pointed : vulvar scale yellow, brownly black along border which is very minutely serrate. Distribution . Western Ghats south of the Palghat Gap from 4,000 ft. to 6,000 ft. I have specimens from the Palni plateau and from the Mudis, Annaimallai Hills, the latter being decidedly smaller than the Palni specimens which are taken at a greater altitude. Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher and Col. Frere took this species in some plenty in the Palm's from May to July, but I found it by no means common in the Mudis where it required much searching for. Here it frequented only one locality amongst scrub, near a river, resting almost vertically and with closed wings. I was much struck with how blue it appeared as compared with dried specimens, or even with C. pulcherrima in the living state. It is distinguished easily from gracilis and divisa by the blue antehumeral stripe. From C. birmanus Selys, which Dr. Ris thinks the species to be synonymous with, the differentiation is far more difficult, but as the Selysian description is very brief, I have no doubt differences will easily be found. All species of the genus are so local in their distribution that I am unable to reconcile birmanus with occurring in Continental India and in so far removed a district as the Western Ghats. It is thus, for geographical reasons only, that I consider them to be two distinct species. Ceylonolestes birmanus (Selys) (1891). Lestes divisa nec Selys, Odonotes de Birmanie, Ann. Mus. civ. Genov, x (xxx), p. 495 (1891). Lestes gracilis birmanus Ris, nec Selys, Suppl. Ent. No. v., pp. 13-14 (1916) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus, vol. xix, p. 158 (1920). Male. Abdomen 30 mm. Hindwing 21 mm. The Selysian description of a single male taken at Puepoli, Burma, in June is as follows : * I am not certain that this single male is divisa Hagen, which I do not possess and which I know only from a short description which I published in 1862 in Syn Lestes, No. 40. In the Puepoli specimen there is immediately after the humeral suture on the sides of the thorax, a moderately broad band black of which the outer border has three angles en echelon some- what like that seen in L . colensonis of New Zealand. This black band is not mentioned in the description of divisa and if not a simple omission, the species of Fea will be new and I propose for it the name of Lestes birmanus , distin- guished from L . divisa , Ceylon, by the front of thorax black with a blue antehumeral band on each side.’ Thus the description, if such a brief one may be so called, fits C. davenporti exactly, but even so, such is the extremely local character of all species of Ceylonolestes that the vast distance separating Burma from the Western 13 98 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV Ghats of India seems to me an insuperable difficulty in regarding the two insects as conspecific. Further material from Burma is needed to settle this point and it is to be hoped that some of our entomological members in Burma will assist us in this respect. Ceylonolestes pulcherrima (Fraser) (1924). (PI. I, 10 and text-fig. 2. a.) Ceylanicolestes pulcherrima Fras., Rec. Ind. Mus., vol xxvi, pp. 487-489. PI. xxvi, fig. 6 (1924) Fig. 2. a. Head, thorax and first two abdominal segments of Ceylonolestes pulcherrima (Fras.). b. The same of Plalylesles platystyla (Ramb.) Male. Abdomen 34 mm. Hindwing 21 mm. Head : labium white ; labrum, bases of mandibles, cheeks and antecly- peus turquoise blue: postclypeus darker blue marked with two small black points, rest of head black with a dull green metallic reflex ; eyes deep blue above, turquoise blue in front, greenish yellow beneath. Prothorax blue laterally, brownish above, marked with two dark green metallic parallel stripes. Thorax turquoise blue laterally, the dorsum narrowly dark metallic green, the middorsal carina and margins of antealar sinus finely blue. Laterally marked with a large black spot behind the upper part of the first lateral suture INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 99 and a smaller one behind its middle ; the upper ends of sutures black. Beneath dirty white with two large black spots converging at the anterior part of the unpaired sclerites, and a larger blackish brown spot on either side posterior to them. Legs brown, flexor surfaces black. Wings hyaline, postncdal nervures to forewings 12, in the hind 11 ; ptero- stigma blackish brown with paler borders, about three times as long as broad, inner side oblique, outer straight. Abdomen azure blue marked with black as follows:— segment 1 with a small basal black spot ; segment 2 with a narrow apical ring and a broad dorsal band shaped like the head of a thistle extending from base to apex ; segments 3 to 7 with dorsal bands not quite extending to base of segments where tuey' leave a small blue ring, apieally expanding and then contracting again to become confluent with narrow apical black rings ; segment 8 all black except the apical suture which is blue ; segment 9 with the basal third black, the remainder blue, as is whole of segment 10. Anal appendages. Superiors blue at base turning to white and finally brown at apices which are tipped with wnite hairs, narrow, forcipate, apices curling gradually in until they meet, outer border near apices coarsely spmed, furnished on the inner border with a very narrow expansion which begins to emerge from appendage gradually, not abruptly as in other species (except divisa) and ends in a long fine spine. Inferior appendages about half the length of superiors which are about half as long again as segment 10, very tumid, apposed except at extreme apices, broadly conical. Female. Abdomen 33 mm. Hindwing 24 mm. Head : eyes olivaceous green above, pale greenish yellow beneath ; labrum very pale blue, rest of head as in the male, Prothorax and thorax pale olivaceous brown with a somewhat violaceous tint, the middorsal carina and margins of antealar sinus finely reddish brown, black markings exactly similar to the male. Legs pale yellowish brown, flexor surfaces black. Wings similar but in old adults evenly tinted with pale brown ; 11-12 postnodal nervures to forewings, 30 in the hind ; pterostigma as for the male. Abdomen violaceous brown changing to reddish brown on the distal seg- ments, marked with black as follows segment 1 with a basal black dorsal spot; segment 2 with a broad dorsal band split by the reddish brown dorsal carina for its apical two-thirds, the band unevenly. expanded towards the basal border of segment, abruptly expanded towards the apical ; segments 3 to 5 as for the male ; segments. 5 and 7 with blue basal rings ; segments 6 and 7 with the dorsal band rather ill-defined towards the base of segments, whilst segments 8 to 10 are uniform dark brown. Anal appendages as long as segment 10, conical, pointed, pale blue ; vulvar scale robust, dark brown, very minutely serrate along free border. Distribution. Found only in Coorg but in many swampy localities, at about 2,500 ft. to 3,500 ft. in that area. Usually found in jungly retreats, a belt of dense scrub or trees surrounding a small pond is the favourite situation. In such a place they may be found perched on the tips of twigs at any height up to about fifteen feet from the ground. The species is essentially arboreal, males being found in the above described swampy retreats, females in the surround- ing jungle not far from the breeding places. Ceylonolestes cyanea (Selys) (1862). (PI. 1. 9 and text fig. 3.) Lestes cyanea Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) xiii, p. 335 (1862) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xix, pp. 158-161 (1920). Lestes cyaneus Kirby, Cat. Odom., p. 163 (1890). Indolestes helena Fras., Mem. Dept. Agric. Pusa, India, vol. vii, pp. 60-61, PI. vii, fig. 1. (1922). Indolestes veronica Fras., Ibid., vol. viii, No. 8, p. 85 (1924). Male. Abdomen 32-36 mm. Hindwing 21-24 mm. Head: labium palest brown or dirty white; labrum, cheeks and bases of mandibles turquoise blue ; rest of head matt black with a coppery reflex behind the bases of antennae ; eyes dark blue above, paler below. Prothorax black on dorsum with a blue middorsal stripe, narrow on the posterior lobe, broadening abruptly on the median lobe. Laterally pale blue traversed by a thick longitudinal black stripe. 100 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , W. XXXIV Fig. 3. Wings of Ceylonolestes cyanea (Selys.) Thorax with the dorsum and sides as far posterior as the middle of mesepimeron black with a violet or coppery reflex, the borders of antealar sinus and the middorsal carina finely mapped out in pale greenish blue, a narrow antehumeral stripe gradually broadening below limited posteriorly by the humeral suture and incomplete above but continued posterior to the suture by a narrow dagger-shaped stripe, the upper portion of which may be cut off to form an isolated small spot. Laterally blue, the margin where it meets the black anteriorly being irregularly zigzagged or angulated, the black extending back above and gradually tapering away on the metepimeron and descending for a short distance along the postero-lateral suture. Beneath pale brown with two triangular areas dark brown. Legs with the flexor surfaces of femora and tibiae and the tarsi black, the extensor surfaces of femora and tibiae bright ochreous. Wings hyaline, palely enfumed in very old adults only ; 13-14 postnodal nervures to forewings, 11—12 in the hind ; pterostigma rather squared at both ends, especially distad, braced but the brace occasionally proximad of the pterostigma, about times as long as broad, black or blackish brown, covering 3 or more cells ; Riii arising 3-4 cells distad of the node ; posterior border of discoidal cell in the forewing about 4 times as long as -the basal, and about 5 times as long in the hind ; ac slightly nearer the level of the distal antenodal nervure Abdomen azure blue marked with black as follows: — segment 1 with the base black, the -outer borders of this marking prolonged apicad as a narrow black line as far as the apical border ; segment 2 with a narrow sub- dorsal black stripe on each side which become confluent at a point over the dorsum at apical border of segment and send up a subapical pointed prolonga- tion over dorsum to nearly enclose a small subapical spot of the ground colour ; segments 3 to 6 with apical paired wedge-shaped spots confluent finely over the dorsum at apical border but tapering basad, the middorsal carina finely blue between them, these spots gradually lengthening from segment 3 to 6, on the latter of which they extend for about halfway to base ; segment 7 nearly entirely black, this leaving only a narrow basal ring and the whole length of the middorsal carina finely blue ; segments 8 and 9 all black except the middorsal carina which is finely blue ; segment 10 entirely blue but some black spines along its apical border. Anal appendages blue changing to ferruginous and finally blackish brown at extreme apex, about half as long again as segment 10, forcipate, curving gradually in to meet at apices which are directed straight back posterior wards (the two appendages resembling the arms and hands of a man in the act of INDIAN DR A G ON FLIES ioi diving), furnished near the base with a narrow expansion occupying the middle third of appendage, arising insensibly from the body of appendage and not as a blunt spine and terminating in a long thin acutely pointed spine directed towards apex of appendage ; apex obtusely pointed and directed a little down- wards and slightly expanded as seen in profile, tipped with fine white hairs, outer border rather coarsely spined. Inferior appendages rudimentary, tumid, rounded at apices, closely apposed, about one-fourth the length of superiors. Female. Abdomen 33-36 mm. Hindwing 24-28 mm. Head, thorax and legs marked exactly as in the male but the ground colour pale greenish blue ; wings in elderly adult specimens more deeply enfumed especially towards the apices ; 12-14 postnodal nervures to forewings, 11-12 in the hind ; pterostigma dark reddish brown, the inner and outer borders finely bright ochreous. Abdomen with the black markings more extensive as follows: — segment 1 with whole of dorsum black save for a small middorsal spot of blue ; segment 2 with the subdorsal black stripes thicker and confluent at base as well as apical border of segment, the included ground colour narrow at apex and base but broadening at the middle three-fifths; segments 3 to 6 with the apical spots prolonged basad as narrow black stripes almost as far as the base where they leave a broad basal blue ring confluent with a broad middorsal blue stripe which extends as far as apex of segments ; segment 7 similar to the male but the basal blue ring broader ; segment 8 with the dorsum all black save for the basal half of middorsal carina which is finely blue ; segment 9 entirely black and segment 10 ail blue save for a minute middorsal basal triangle of black. Anal appendages pale ochreous or carneous, about as long as segment 10, conical, pointed ; vulvar scale blackish brown, yellow along attached border, lower margin not serrate. Distribution . Bengal and hills of the Northern Punjab from 3,500 to 9,000 ft. during May and June. I possess specimens from Simla and Darjeeling, and at the latter place, I found larvae breeding in swift cold mountain streams at Ghoom. A thousand feet lower down I found the imago on the wing at the same date. This species is one of the most beautiful Lestids known and is easily distinguished from all others by its abdominal markings. It is much larger than all other species of genus Ceylonolestes and differs from them also by the short spines on its legs. It appears to be more closely allied to genus Austrolestes and should perhaps be placed in a genus of its own. After due consideration I have come to the conclusion that my species /. Helena and veronica are merely varieties of this species, the difference in ground colour and markings being due probably to their age. I have come to this conclusion after perusing Dr. Laidlaw’s discussion on some teneral specimens of cyanea which greatly puzzled him as did the specimens of Helena and veronica the author, and which Dr.Laidlaw grouped in his second category * B ’. The anal appendages of I. Helena are similar to those of cyanea and the difference in the markings may well be explained through decomposition. The specimens of I. veronica are the largest known specimens of cyanea if indeed they are synonymous with that species. The type of C. cyanea is in the Selysian collection, veronica and Helena in the Br. Mus. collection. Genus Indolestes Fraser (1922). InAolest.es Fraser, Mem. Dept. Agric, Pusa, India, vol. vii, p. 57 (1922). Dragonflies of small stature resting with wings closed over dorsum ; body non- metallic or this restricted to some small spots on the basal abdominal segments, ground colour pale brown ; wings hyaline, always more or less tinted evenly pale brown, very narrow and with pointed apices, petjolated as far as ac ; ac meets ab at hinder border of wing ; postnodal nervures numerous ; discoidal cells differing in shape and size in fore and hind-wings, very narrow and elongate and very acutely pointed at distal angle, discoidal cell of forewing with posterior border 3 times as long as basal and twice the length of costal, that of hindwing with posterior border not quite double the length of costal and 6 times as long as basal ; Riii arising ?>}> cells distad of node in forewing, 2\ cells in the hind (5 cells in both wings of /. buddha (Laid) ) ; IRiii and Riv+ v arising much nearer arc than node ; IRiii slightly angulated towards its apical end, MA zigzagged from level of node ; oblique vein present between Riii and IRiii ; pterostigma bicolorous, narrow, 3 times as long as broad, outer end not oblique ; intercalated sectors similar to genus Lestes. Posterior- lobe of prothorax simple, rounded, not lobed. 102 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vo l. XXXI V Superior anal appendages narrow, elongate, forcipate, furnished at the middle third of inner border with a narrow expansion which begins with an obtuse spine and ends with a long acute one ; inferior appendages short, tumid ; anal appendages of female conical, short. Distribution. N. E. India and Burma. This genus is very similar to Ceylonolestes and so nearly related that I have been unable to find any very satisfactory characters by which to differentiate them. The points which have influenced me in bestowing separate generic rank are the bright blue ground colour of all species of Ceylonolestes contrasting so strikingly with the dull pale browns of Indolestes. The enfumed tinted wings and the bicoiorous pterostigma of the latter are other striking points ; the discoidal cell, especially that of hindwing, is narrower in Indolestes and strongly suggests that there is an evolutionary tendency for that structure to disappear entirely by a fusion of the costal and hinder borders. The straight distal border of the pterostigma and the simple posterior lobe of the prothorax separate it from genus Sympycnci which it greatly resembles otherwise. Indolestes indica Fraser (1922). (PI. I. 11 and text-fig. 4. a.) Indolestes indica Fras., Mem. Dept. Agricult. Pusa, India, vol, vii, pp. 58- 59 (1922). Lestes st>. Laid., Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xix, pp. 161-162 (1920), Indolestes buddha Laid. nov. nom. Fras. 1. c, pp. 57 and 59 (1922). Male. Abdomen 30 mm. Hindwing 19 mm. Head : labium palest brown ; labrum brown, paler at the sides ; base of mandibles, cheeks, the basal three segments of antennae except the apex of the third and two small triangular spots just posterior to and to the outer side of the hinder ocelli pale yellowish brown ; rest of head black with a cupreous sheen or dull blackish brown ; middle of occipital border yellowish ; eye bluish grey with five dark brown bars running from above out and forwards. Prothorax dark reddish, brown on dorsum with the middorsum of middle lobe paler brown and the sides pale bi'own. Thorax black on dorsum with a cupreous reflex, this colour forming a band extending from middorsal carina outwards to about halfway to humeral suture, the outer border sending out processes somewhat like those seen in L. prce~ morsa, one above extending to the humeral suture, another at the middle of band which falls far short of the suture, the border of the band thus exhibiting two deep concavities ; the upper prolongation enclosing a tiny point of the ground colour ; laterally very pale brown marked with linear black spots at the upper ends of the lateral sutures and by two or three small black or green metallic spots just posterior to the humeral suture. Beneath whitish brown marked with two oblique streaks of blackish brown. Legs yellow or ocbreous on the extensor surface, black on the flexor ; spines moderately numerous and short, black. Wings hyaline, neuration dark brown, membrane evenly enfumed with pale brown ; pterostigma pale brown with the distal end bright yellow, proximal end oblique, distal nearly straight ; 11 to 13 postnodal nervures to fore wings, 11 to 12 in the hind. Abdomen pale reddish brown or ochreous marked with metallic green and black as follows, — segment 1 with a basal lunar spot, followed immediately by, or actually confluent wfith, a small triangular subdorsal spot on each side metallic green ; segment 2 with a broad basal spot on dorsum shaped like the ace of clubs but with the middle lobe tapered apicad for rather more than half the length of segment, immediately following this a broad subdorsal comma-like spot on each side metallic green , or cupreous black (in some specimens, the narrow apical end of the basal spot is squared and each corner becomes confluent with the apical spots to enclose a bright yellow oval dorsal spot) ; segments 3 to 6 with paired apical and sub-basal spots, the former pyriform with the thick end towards base of segment and separated narrowly by the ochreous middorsal carina, the apical spots triangular and confluent over dorsum where they are narrowly separated from fine black apical rings ; segments 7 and 8 wholely black on dorsum, but on 8 the black not quite reaching base of segment and bisected finely by the ochreous middorsal carina for nearly its whole length ; segment 10 palest brown, unmarked. Anal appendages almost .white ; superiors very long, about half as long again as segment 10, forcipate, curved evenly and gradually towards each other INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 103 until the apices meet, dilatation at inner third barely perceptible but beginning as an angle and ending as a long sharp spine, apex sinuous and tapered to'a point, its outer border finely spined. Inferior appendages not half the length of superiors, bases formed by two broad cones, from the outer side of apex of which springs a short thick tapered ungulate process, coated with hairs. Female. Abdomen 23‘5 to 28‘5 mm. Hindwing 19 to 21 mm. Closely similar to the male, the ground colour and markings not differing except on the abdomen. Wings more deeply enfumed ; 13 postnodal nervures to forewings, 12 in the hind, pterostigma as in the male ; segment 1 with the subdorsal spots quadrate and always confluent with the basal; segment 2 with the spots confluent and forming a dumb-bell-shaped marking not quite extending to apex of segment, the middorsal carina in the apical half of the marking ochreous expanding into a small fusiform spot near the middle of segment (the combined comma-like spots are together broader than the basal spot, although shown in the reverse order in Laidlaw’s figure, but they may be subject to some variation) ; segments 3 to 5 similar to the male but on 5 the basal pair of spots are very small and may be quite absent ; segment 6 with only a diffuse, poorly defined brown apical ring ; segment 7 with the apical pair of spots continued basad as a diffuse broad brown stripe and with the middorsal carina pale brown ; segment 8 with two broad subdorsal stripes separated by the ochreous middorsal carina ; segment 9 with a broad subdorsal reddish brown stripe on each side. Anal appendages shorter than segment 10, pale yellow, flattened, slightly but distinctly notched at apex ; vulvar scale palest brown or yellow, not extending to end of abdomen, minutely serrate along lower border. Distribution. Known only from Assam. The type of Laidlaw’s Lestes sp. is a female from Cherrapunji, Assam, 4,400 ft., 8. X. 14, in the Indian Museum collection, No. 8204/20. The author’s type is a male in the British Museum, from Shillong, Assam, 6,000 ft., June 20. Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher took this species in June and again throughout October and found them resting with closed wings on bushes beside a stream, but others were found far from water in a pine tope at the top of a hill. Since the author first described the species, more material has come to hand and from the variability in the size and markings of the insects, it is clear that it is conspecific with Dr. Laidlaw’s Lestes sp . The latter was described from a subadult specimen in which the markings were not fully developed and of which the size is decidedly smaller than the Shillong specimens Distinguished from 1 , bilineata (Selys) and /. assamica sp. nov., by the abdominal markings and presence of posthumeral thoracic markings. Indolestes bilineata (Selys) (1891). Lestes bilineata Selys, Odonates de Birmanie , Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, x (xxxx) p. 498 (1891) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xix, p. 163 (1920). Female. Abdomen 30 mm. Hindwing 20 mm. (Male unknown.) Head : labium palest brown ; labrum, cheeks and bases of mandibles, and clypeus and frons as far as origin of antennae olivaceous ; rest of head and behind eyes bronzed black except the space between the ocelli and occiput which is pale brown ; eyes brown. Prothorax pale brown with a small darkish spot on each side the middle lobe. Thorax pale reddish brown on dorsum passing to whitish brown laterally and beneath ; the middorsum narrowly black bisected by the ochreous mid- dorsal carina ; laterally a short dark spot at the upper ends of the lateral sutures. Legs pale brown, the anterior pair of femora with a black stripe on the outer side ; spines long, black. Wings hyaline, palely enfumed brown, with brown reticulation ; pterostigma greyish brown between black nervures, short, thick, only twice as long as broad, distal end straight, proximal oblique, covering H to 2 cells ; .10 to 12 postnodal nervures to forewings. Abdomen pinkish brown marked with bronzed green as follows segment 1 with a middorsal spot ; segment 2 with a broad dorsal stripe finely bisected by the ochreous middorsal carina ; segments 3 to 6 with a poorly defined dorsal bronzed fascia ending in a darker subapical ring ; segment 7 with the dorsum 104 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV bronzed metallic except at both ends which are pale ; segments 8 to 10 brown ; beneath black. Anal appendages as long as segment 10, palest brown, sublanceolate, pointed ; vulvar scale brown, not quite extending to end of abdomen, finely serrate beneath. Distribution. Burma only. The type is a female in the Selysian collection from Palon, Burma, taken in September. Only three specimens are known, the third being also a female in the British Museum. It is evidently closely allied to/, indica from which it is distinguished by the totally different markings of abdomen. From /. assamica sp. nov., it is distinguished by the relatively short pterostigma, by the different character of the anal appendages and by the markings of anterior pair of femora, etc. Indolestes assamica sp. nov. Female. Abdomen 32 mm. Hindwing 21 mm. (Male unknown.) Head : labium palest brown, almost white; labrum, bases of mandibles, cheeks, clypeus and anterior border of frons pale yellow, the postclypeus with a black point at each end and two larger submedian black spots ; the three basal joints of antennae yellow as also a tiny point behind each posterior ocellus and the whole of the occiput from eye to eye ; rest of head matt black ; eyes olivaceous brown. Prothorax pale brown with a pair of parallel black subdorsal stripes expand- ing on the posterior lobe, narrow on the middle lobe where they are very narrowly separated. Thorax pale brown, the middorsum matt black as far as midway from middorsal carina to humeral suture, the outer border of the band quite straight, the carina finely ochreous ; laterally a small black spot on the upper part of the humeral suture and a similar but smaller on the upper part of the postero- lateral suture. Beneath unmarked. Legs pale straw coloured with black spines, quite unmarked. Wings evenly enfumed pale brown, reticulation darker brown ; pterostigma long and narrow, inner and outer ends oblique, reddish brown between dark brown nervures, covering 2 to 3 cells ; discoidal cells as for genus ; 12 to 13 postnodal nervures to forewirrgs, 10 in the hind. Abdomen pale brown or yellowish brown marked with dark brown, black and reddish brown as follows segment 1 with a quadrate dorsal spot extend- ing from end to end of segment ; segment 2 with a narrow black band, its ends slightly expanded, extending from base to apex of segment, the middorsal carina finely dark ochreous ; segments 3 to 7 similar to 2 but the bands tapeied abruptly at each end of segment ; segments 8 to 10 reddish brown on dorsum. Anal appendages yellow, conical, pointed, as long as segment 10 ; vulvar scale robust, extending to end of abdomen, yellow. Distribution. Confined to Assam so far as known. The type is a female in the author’s collection and is the only specimen known ; the specimen has been labelled * Lestes bilineata Selys ? ’ since 1918, but after a careful re-examina- tion and contrast with the description of that species, the following insuperable differences were noted The pterostigma is nearly four times as long as broad instead of * nearly quadrate ’ as in bilineata, as noted by Selys, it is also oblique at both ends, whereas bilineata has ‘ the outer margin straight. The legs have no markings and the vulvar scale extends to the end of abdomen. From 1. indica it is easily distinguished by the outer border of the middorsal marking of thorax quite straight, whereas it is deeply indented in /. indica ; the totally different character of the abdominal markings and the shape and size of the pterostigma are additional distinguishing characters. Genus : Sympycna Charpentier (1840). Sympycna Charp., Lib. Eur., p. 19 (1840) ; Selys, Rev. Odon., p. 161 (1850); Id. Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) xiii, p. 336 (1862) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xix, pp. 145-146 (1920) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon., p. 163 (1890). Sympecma Selys, Mon. Lib, Eur. p. 144 (1840). Dragonflies of small stature very similar to Indolestes and resting like them with wings closed over dorsum ; ground colour pale brown with metallic markings on head, thorax and abdomen ; wings hyaline tinted with pale brown, very narrow and with pointed apices, petiolated as far as ac, ac meets (ib at hinder border of wing ; postnodal nervures fairly numerous ; discoidal INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 105 cells differing in shape and size in fore- and hind-wings, very narrow and elongate and very acute at distal angle, discoidal cell of forewing with posterior border at least 3 times as long as basal and twice the length of costal, that of hindwing with posterior border 5 or 6 times the length of basal and slightly less than twice the length of costal ; Riii arising 5 to 4 cells after the node in forewing and hindwing respectively ; IRiii and Riv + v arising much nearer arc than to node ; IRiii not or scarcely angulated ; MA zigzagged from level oh node ; oblique nervure present between Riii and IRiii ; pterostigma uni- or bi-colorous, three or four times as long as broad, inner and outer ends oblique ; intercalated sectors as for Lestes. Posterior lobe of prothorax trilobed. the middle lobe being much more pro- minent than the lateral. Superior anal appendages narrow, elongate, forcipate, furnished at the middle third of the inner border with a narrow dilatation which begins with a very robust tcoth or spine and ends in an obtuse angulation ; inferior append- ages short, tumid ; anal appendages of female sublanceolate, pointed, longer than segment 10 ; vulvar scale robust, extending only to middle of segment 10. Distribution. Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa, Central Asia (Meso- potamia, Persia, Kashmir). The genus is closely allied to Indolestes but is easily recognized by the long pterostigma oblique at both ends and by the trilobate character of the posterior lobe of the prothorax. Only one species or subspecies found within Indian limits, viz. from Kashmir and Quetta. Genotype,— S. fusca Lind. Sympycna paedisca antmlata Selys (1887). (PI. I. 12 and text fig. 4. b.) Sympycna paedisca annulata Selys, Ann. Soc Ent. Pelg. xxxi, p. 43 (1887) ; Morton, nec fusca, Trans, Ent. Soc. London, p. 308 (1907) ; Id. Ent Month. Mag. Ser. 3. vol. v, pp. 145-146 (1919) ; Bartenef, Ann. Mus. Zool. Acad. Impl. Sci., St. Pet. t. xvii, (1912). Sympycna paedisca paedisca Laid., Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xix, p. 163 (1920.) Male. Abdomen 30 mm. Hindwing 21 mm. Head : labium whitish ; labrum, bases of mandibles and cheeks pale olivaceous brown ; rest of head slightly darker warmer brown marked with blackish brown and metallic green as follows postclypeus with a small spot at each end and a large submedian quadrate blackish brown spot at each side of middle line ; frons with a sinuous linear stripe of metallic green curling outwards on each side and narrowly interrupted by the middle line, a hour- glass shaped spot on the outer side of each posterior ocellus, the whole of the ocellar space, the occiput and a foliate spot behind each eye, which is confluent with it, all brilliant metallic green ; eyes brown above, yellow beneath. Prothorax pale brown, its middle lobe with a large dorsal spot on each side, its posterior lobe metallic emerald green and border finely yellowish. Thorax palest brown, its dorsum broadly metallic green nearly as far out as the humeral suture, the outer border of this marking irregular and usually with a hooked-like prolongation about its middle ; antealar sinus metallic green within its borders, which latter as well as the middorsal carina are finely cchreous. Laterally a narrow, very irregular and somewhat zigzagged bright metallic green stripe running from the antero-lateral suture above obliquely down to lower end of humeral suture. Wings hyaline, enfumed pale brown, venation brownish yellow ; node thickened ; pterostigma yellow to dark brown with bordering nervures yellow, oblique at both ends, covering 2 cells ; 14 postnodal nervures to forewings, 12 in the hind. Legs yellow, femora with a chain of small dark brown spots ; numerous and moderately long dark spines. Abdomen pale brown or coloured like dry grass marked with metallic green as follows segment 1 with a pair of triangular apical spots barely confluent over dorsum ; segment 2 with a pair of parallel stripes narrowly separated by the pale yellow middorsal carina, each shaped like a note of exclamation mark, the basal half pyriform, the apical rounded, apposed surfaces flat ; segments 3 to 7 similar, the stripes being longer and narrower and separated by the yellow middorsal carina and falling a little short of the base ; segments 8 and 9 with stripes approximating to that on segment 2 but broader and clumsier in build 14 106 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL LUST. SOCIETY , Vo l. XXXI V Fig. 4. a. Head, thorax and first two abdominal segments of Indolestes indica Fras. b. The same of Sympycna paedisca annulata Selys. and with a cupreous reflex ; segment 10 with the dorsum narrowly dark cupreous brown, deeply notched at apex and bordered with black spines. Anal appendages yellowish white, bordered near apices with black spines ; superiors narrow, forcipate, apices curling gradually in to meet each other, furnished at the middle third of inner border with a dilatation which begins with a very large and robust tooth and ends in an angulation tipped with a minute black spine ; apices rounded, tipped with white hairs, appendages about one and a half times as long as segment 10 ; inferiors rudimentary, about one-third the length of superiors, conical, closely apposed. Female. Abdomen 30 mm. Hindwing 21 mm. Exactly similar to the male but some variation of the middorsal stripe of thorax which may have the outer border quite straight or with a markedly conspicuous medial prolongation ; the wavy posthumeral stripe often inter- rupted once or twice. Femora of first two pairs of legs with a black outer stripe or chain of spots ; segment 10 with a dorsal stripe tapering apicad but not reaching the apex. Anal appendages very large and robust, cylindrical, pointed, longer than segment 10, pale buff in colour ; vulvar scale short, extending only to middle of segment 10, lower border minutely serrated with black teeth. Pterostigma palest brown, covering H to 2 cells. INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 107 Distribution. Kashmir and N. W. India within our limits, The specimen described by Morton from Quetta as S. fusca is really this subspecies of paedisca. Laidlaw mentions specimens from the Jhelum Valley, Kashmir, 5,000 ft. and I have seen a number of specimens collected by Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher at Sirinagar, Kashmir, in July. The author found S. paedisca annulata moder- ately common at Kerna at the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates in November, 1914, and Morton mentions specimens collected higher up the river at Amarah. So far as known, it extends from Asia Minor to Kashmir through Mesopotamia and Persia and the N. W. Frontier Provinces. Mesopotamian specimens have the wavy posthumeral stripe split up into three widely separated spots ; the prothorax has a median spot on the anterior lobe, a pair of angulated spots on the middle lobe and the whole middle section of the posterior lobe dark cupreous metallic ; pterostigma bright ochreous. The shape of the pterostigma and the posterior lobe of prothorax will serve to distinguish this species from any of Indolestes. ( To be continued.) A TOUR IN FURTHER KASHMIR BY B. B. OSMASTON ( With two plates) A summer trip to the Highlands of Kashmir to study bird life in the less-frequented parts, more especially' at high altitudes, was our object. From the following account the reader will be able to judge how far it was achieved. Our party, to start with, was three strong consisting of — Real Admiral Hubert Lynes, r.n., Hugh Whistler (Indian Police, Retired) and the writer. We left Marseilles on March 24th in the P. and O. Rawalpindi in which we were luxuriously accommodated in three separate single- berthed cabins. Our passage through the Mediterranean was devoid of much interest, and we reached Port Said early on the 28th. As we had four or five hours here we decided to visit the Sewage Farm, a well-known bird locality about three miles out of the town. Here we found plenty of bird life, the spring migration being apparently in full swing. The native population take a very heavy toll from these little birds, largely songsters, in passage, catching vast numbers in small spring traps which are so constructed as to kill the bird usually instantaneously by a blow near the base of the skull. We saw large bags of such birds, including many wagtails7 and pipits — about to be carried in to the town where they are sold in the bazaar for eating at about a penny each. We purchased several as specimens and they were duly skinned on board ship afterwards. The different kinds of birds seen at the Sewage Farm included : — White Wagtails. Black-headed Yellow Wagtails. Grey-headed Yellow Wagtails. Lesser Whitethroats. Bonelli’s Willow-Warbler. Redstart. Wryneck. Rufous-throated Pipit. Tree-Pipit. Streaked Wren-Warblers. House-Sparrow. April 1. We arrived at Aden but were not allowed ashore on account of plague. It was pleasantly cool with a N.E. wind blowing. We had to content ourselves by feeding the Gulls (chiefly Hemprich’s Sooty Gulls, Herring Gulls and Black-headed Gulls) and kites, with bits of biscuit. A TOUR IN FURTHER KASHMIR 109 April 6. We arrived at Bombay about midnight and got ashore at 6 a.m. It was decidedly hot and we were glad to be off by the new extra-rapid Peshawar Express, which landed us at Rawalpindi in about thirty-nine hours. We had intended stopping a night here, but found to our surprise and disappointment that no accommodation could be had anywhere, so we quickly made arrangements for a car to take us through to Srinagar in Kashmir (200 miles) and a lorry for our kit. We managed to get through about half way to Garhi that night and the following day, April 9, we reached Srinagar and occupied three comfortable single rooms in Nedou’s new Hotel (annex). The next ten days were spent in Srinagar completing the arrange- ments for our trip, engaging servants and transport, hiring tents and camp furniture, and laying in provisions for four months. During our halt in Srinagar the weather was decidedly cool — often cold — and we had some heavy rain storms. Spring was well on, and some of the summer migrants had already commenced breeding, e.g. , Saxicola torquata indica and Emberiza stewarti, both building- on the Takht. Other birds observed on the Takht were Anthu 9 trivialis harringtonii and A. sordidus jerdoni, Monticola solitaria pandoo , Emberiza cia strachey ; Sylvia althcea, Phylloscopus iornatus humii, Pericrocotus brevirostris and Bubo bengalensis. One of the latter was sitting in an empty nest hole on the rocky hill face and another was found killed, possibly by a Bonelli’s Eagle. April 19. Having got all our servants and kit on to two house- boats— a larger one for ourselves and a smaller for the kitchen and servants — we started off down stream in the Jhelum river, our objective bring Bandipur on the north side of the Wular lake and distant some thirty miles. The river was in full flood, so manual propulsion was scarcely necessary. We reached Sumbul bridge, a little over half way, after dark and were afraid to attempt passing under the bridge in the dark, the river being in such high flood, we might have found insufficient clearance for our boats, so we tied up for the night. The weather was most depressing, cold, windy and wet. Our spirits revived with the morning light and we ran under the bridge in safety — only a few inches to spare ! and reached the Wular Lake about midday. Owing to the unusually high floods the lake had become a very extensive sheet of water probably not less than 100 square miles whereas it is usually very much smaller, especially in the late autumn. As we entered the lake, which had flooded out extensive areas of cultivation, we saw numbers of rats, apparently the ordinary large brown field variety, swimming for their lives. Many were drowning and still more had already succumbed — a few were striking out bravely for the land, miles away, which they could never reach. A few more fortunate ones had found a stick or a weed tuft to rest on. We also saw near by several apparently, well-fed specimens of Pallas’s Fishing-Eagle which were evidently already gorged to repletion with these rats. We also saw a pair of Ospreys over the lake but they were not interested in the rats. 110 JOURNAL , BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , XXXIV Numbers of Garganey Teal on migration, a party of Godwits and a Glossy Ibis were other interesting birds seen on the lake. After three hours paddling we reached Bandipur, on the north side of the lake, where our kit was put on shore and loaded up on to some thirty ponies. Three miles up the road brought us to the Sunarwani Rest House by the Gilgit Road, a fairly good centre for birds, with a river close at hand. Passing through the large village of Bandipur, we noticed a large heronry on the tops of two or three large Chenar trees. Some of the birds appeared to be incubating and others building. The nests were inaccessible without a climbing outfit. The birds were the common Grey Heron. April 21. Explored the Madmati river for a few miles. Saw Brown Dippers with young strong on wing and Plumbeous Redstarts with eggs. White-capped Redstarts and Grey Wagtails were not yet breeding. April 22. Went out in a boat on the Wular lake. Saw large flocks of gulls which were rather wary. We however ultimately succeeded in securing three nice specimens which proved to be Brown-headed Gulls ( Larus brunneicephalus). These birds winter along the Indian coast and breed at high altitudes in Tibet by the Salt lakes, e.g. , Tso Kar and Tso Moriri lakes in Rupshu at 15,000'. Those we saw were evidently on their way to their breeding grounds. April 23. Bandipur to Olus, seven miles along the northern shore of the Wular lake. On the march we saw Paradise Fly-catchers and Wrynecks, doubtless recently arrived, Goldfinches, King Crows ( D . longicatudatus ), Stewart’s Bunting and many Rufous-backed Shrikes. The camp was a pretty one among willow and mulberry trees and near the village. We noticed a fine large Tawny Owl ( Strix aluco biddulphi) sitting all day in a willow near our tents. His mate was probably sitting on eggs in a neighbouring hollow tree but we failed to find her. We secured several specimens of the Gold-fronted Finch ( Metoponia pusilla ) which were in fair sized flocks on the dry hillside, studded with low thorny scrub and weed growth. April 21/.. A march of eight miles, first up valley to a pass at 8,000' and then down again to about 6,000' in the well-known Lolab Valley. Snow was still lying in patches near the pass. Here among the silver firSj spruce and blue pine we noticed parties of Warblers (. Phylloscopus ) and Black-crested Tits (two species) also Nuthatches ( Sitta leucopsis) and S. liaskmifiensis , and several large green woodpeckers — doubtless Picas squamatus, though we failed to secure one, Himalayan Pied Woodpeckers ( Dendrocopus himala- yensis ) were also in evidence — and we heard several Collared Pigmy Owlets ( Glaucidium brodiei) calling*. While resting in the open near the pass we observed a pair of Golden Eagle soaring at a great height overhead. The shape of this splendid eagle is unmistakable on the wing. We also saw a Buzzard at close quarters. As we descended into the Lolab valley we passed through a forest A TOUR IN FURTHER KASHMIR 1]1 of deodars, a tree which is absent from a large portion of Kashmir but is common in the Lolab and adjacent Kishanganga valley, and also in Bhadarwah. April 25 to 28. We spent four days in the Lolab valley exploring the country round Makam (our camp). We saw the usual birds of the Kashmir valley including our first Cuckoo and Indian Oriole. TickelPs Ouzel were singing both morning and evening. One of the commonest birds in the Lolab is the Slaty-headed Paroquet ( Psittac-ula schisticeps). We found them mostly in small flocks feeding on the flowers (petals) of the apple trees and on the catkins of the walnut trees. This bird is not at all common in the valley of Kashmir. We also shot a Long-eared Owl ( Asio otus ), being mobbed by a pair of Jays ( G . lanceolatus). This Jay I had not previously seen in Kashmir. It is one of the truly Himalayan birds which is largely confined to the southern face of the Pir Panjal and the Chenab Valley. Lastly we heard on several occasions the monotonous and characteristic call of a Scops Owl. We failed to obtain or even to see this owl, but the call is identical with that of Scops suriia, a bird I know well in the sal forest of the Sub- Himalayan tract. On April 27, Admiral Lynes received bad news from home and decided he must give up the expedition and return at once to England. This was a great blow and disappointment to all of us. The Admiral would not hear of our returning home with him, and insisted on our carrying out the programme as arranged, and the following day we sadly bid him farewell as he left in a car for Srinagar. April 29. A Besra Sparrow-Hawk ( Accipiter virgatus afjins) was secured which proved to be laying eggs , but we failed to find the nest. April 30. Return march to Olus. On the way we found the nest of Sitta kashmiriensis in a hole in a deodar tree which had been closed up with clay masonry leaving a hole of in diameter only. The nest was lined with thin bits of yew bark and was empty. Near by we noticed a pair of Buzzards ( B . desertorum) on the top of a big deodar tree, and a search revealed their nest near the top of another deodar. As it was a difficult tree to climb and the nest might not have been new, we left it unexamined. May 1. Olus to Sunarwani. On the march we saw Bee Eaters (M. apiaster). These birds have apparently just arrived. We also fired at and wounded, a chiffchaff which flew away heavily and was quickly seized by a shrike (L. erythronotus) which we shot with the bird in its beak and eventually obtained both. The chiffchaff was P. coltybita sindianus . The next two days we halted and reduced our stores, etc., which had been arranged for a party of three. We saw and obtained a fair number of birds here including Alseonax ruficaudus , Cyornis tricolor , Horornis pallidus , Acantho- pneuste occipitalis and Sylvia althcea. Wrynecks, Hoopes and TickelPs Ouzels were common. We also 112 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fb/. XXXIV saw numbers of swifts of two kinds, viz., a large Spine-tail Swift and also Cypselus apus — flying high and probably moving up to their breeding grounds. We failed to secure specimens. We also noticed a small party of four black storks resting on a hill top and evidently also' on migration. May 5. We marched nine miles south along the eastern margin of the Wular lake, as far as Ajas, a pretty camp close to the lake, under mulberry trees. There were many Whiskered Terns and Pheasant-tailed Jacanas over and on the lake and we secured specimens. We also saw Dicrurus longicaudatus and W. secured a Molacilla citreola which is a passage migrant in Kashmir. Rock Horned Owls ( Bubo bengalensis ) and Scavenger Vultures ( Neophron percnopterus) were both breeding on the steep rocky precipices north of* our camp. May 6. Ajas to Manasbal. Seven miles. Saw three male Paradise Flycatchers near our camp, of which two were white and one rufous. Reed Warblers ( Acrocephalus stentoreus bninnescens) were already very noisy in the reed beds in the lake. May 7. Our camp at Manasbal was under gigantic Chenar trees -( Platanus orientalis) full of Jackdaws mostly with nests and eggs in their hollows. The view over the Manasbal lake was very fine. We climbed to the top of a neighbouring isolated mountain, Ahateng 6,200' where we found Skylarks, Jerdon’s Pipit, Stonechats, Stewart’s Buntings and the Chukor — all breeding and with eggs, except the Skylarks. In the village below we found several swallows’ nests with eggs. The nests were all in the dwelling rooms of villagers, who do not disturb the birds. The nests and eggs resemble those in Europe. The Kashmir swallow is Hirundo rustica rustica. May 8: Manasbal to Ganderbal. The shortest road across country is only six miles. We made a detour in order to explore the Krahom swamp, an extensive bog near which, in previous years, I had found Harrington’s Paddy-field Warbler in large numbers. We were, however, apparently rather too early for this bird as we only saw two and secured one. Our camp at Ganderbal was alongside the Sind river full of icy water straight down from the glaciers. In the eve : we went up stream and saw a good many Did-he-do-it Plovers and also little Ringed Plovers both breeding on the islands. One solitary stranger was also seen — a Plover, which I had never seen before. It was as large as a Did-he-do-it, but quite differently marked. It was being attacked by a pair of little Ringed Plovers which had freshly hatched young. It was seen again by both of us in the evening and although we failed to secure it, we satisfied ourselves that it was undoubtedly a Grey-headed Lapwing (Microsarcops cinereus). This would be an addition to the list of Kashmir birds. On the islands in the Sind river we found three nests of the Common Sandpiper containing four nearly fresh eggs in each. The eggs were laid in depressions in the sandy ground under low spreading clematis. A Did-he-do-it’ s nest on the same island also contained four eggs. A TOUR IN FURTHER KASHMIR 113 May 11. Took a tonga to Tula Mull village and thence made a very thorough re-examination of the Krahom jhil. In the drier area we shot two Grasshopper Warblers ( Locustella ncevia straminea ) and one Blyth’s Reed-Warbler. ( Acrocephalus dumetorum), and one Cypselus apus. Later on assisted by a line of coolies we explored a quaking bog, where it was necessary to walk very circumspectly. Here we put up a number of rails and shot : — Eastern Ruddy Crake (. Amaurornis fascas bakeri) ... 4 Eastern Baillon’s Crake ( Porzana pusilla pusilla) ... 2 Spotted Crake ( Porzana maruetta ) ... ... ... 1 We saw no water rails, a bird which we had hoped to find in the swamp. May 12. Before leaving Ganderbal we had a day on the mountain side, which rises up rather abruptly from the valley level (5,000') up to about 11,000'. On the lower slopes we found Stewart’s Bunting, Jerdon’s Pipit, the Eastern Stonechat and Hume’s Lesser Whitethroat all breeding and with eggs. We also saw and secured specimens of the Grey-headed Bunting ( E . fucata ), which were also about to' breed. May 13. Marched about ten miles up the Sind valley to Kangan. The weather was perfect. We secured a nest with four fresh eg:gs of the Jungle Crow ( Corvus coronoides intermedins ) near the top of a blue pine. These birds are common up to the limits of tree growth. Near our camp we noticed a pair of King Crows (Dicrurus leucophceus longicaudatus) which gave a very perfect imitation of the call of the Kestrel. They evidently were also about to breed as they vigorously attacked any crow which approached the large walnut tree in which they had taken up their quarters. May Ilf. Kangan to Gund. Fifteen miles. A delightfully cold morning : our path followed the river. On the march we saw several European Rollers and secured a pair. These birds are of course migrating, spending the summer months and breeding in Kashmir. We also shot a pair of Yellow-vented Bulbuls ( Molpastes leucogenys) which are common throughout the Kashmir main and side valleys up to about 6,000'. We also shot a young Brown Dipper ( Cinclus pallasii) in spotted plumage. These birds are evidently very early breeders. May 15. Gund to Gaggan Gir. Seven miles. Our path still follows the valley, and we are now at 7,000' altitude among the Firs and Pines. The scenery is much grander and the river is begin- ning to assume the characters of a torrent. The Indian Blue Chat ( Larvivora brunnea) was common in the mixed deciduous forest on the hillside above Gund. The cock has a loud, clear but short song. The birds are extremely shy and we secured three specimens only and that with some difficulty. We also shot three specimens of the Himalayan Pied Wood- pecker ( Doyobates himalayensis ) — also examples of the Pale Bush- Warbler ( Horornis pallidus) and of Tytler’s Willow-Warbler ( Phylloscopus tytleri). A pair of Fire-caps ( Cephalopyrus flam- miceps) were also seen, doubtless about to breed — and two specimens of Cuculus saturatus were both seen and heard calling — the Himalayan Cuckoo is not very common in Kashmir. ’ 15 114 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV May 16. Gaggan Gir to Sonamarg. Seven miles. The ascent has become a good deal steeper, the river being a veritable torrent and even a cascade in places and the valley a rocky defile passing between very steep rocky precipices thousands of feet above. Avalanches had done much damage sweeping away bits of fir forest and piling up the debris of smashed timber in huge masses alongside the river. In three separate places the river was bridged by substantial snow bridges a most unusual state of affairs below Sonamarg so late in the season. When we arrived at the Tajwaz camping ground, altitude 9,0007, near Sonamarg we experienced considerable difficulty in finding a spot clear of snow and fit to camp on. Here we halted five days during which time the snow rapidly disappeared in the hot sun and the ground all around our tents became a veritable cloth of gold from the flowers of a pretty little yellow crocus-like flower. This is probably the origan of the name ‘Sonamarg’ (Golden meadow). The view from our tents looking straight on to a row of peaks 16,000; high with a glacier in the foreground only two miles distant, was very grand. We found birds fairly numerous in spite of the snowy conditions. The Larger-spotted Nutcracker ( Nucifraga multi punctata) was fairly common and we came across a family of fully-fledged young, probably at least two months old. Other birds seen in and around Sonamarg were Nuthatches (S. leucopsis kashmiriensis) , Crested Black Tits ( Lophophanes melanolophus and rufonuchalis ), Tree-Creepers ( Certhia himalayana and familiaris hodgsoni ), the Black and Yellow Grossbeak, Mistle- Thrush, Red-flanked Bush-Robin, Red-browed Finch, Orange Bull- finch, Stolicka’s Mountain-Finch, Skylarks, the Eastern Meadow- Bunting, the Rufous-tailed Flycatcher, Pipits (A. roseatus and trivialis harringtonii ), also Alpine Choughs, Jungle-Crows, and Scully’s Wood-Owl. A few of these were already commencing to breed and before we left we secured eggs of Ianthia rufilata, Lophophanes rufonuchalis , Lophophanes melanolophus and Certhia familiaris hodgsoni. May 22. Sonamarg to Baltal. Ten miles. The path still follows the river which is now again slow flowing, and the rise to Baltal is only a few hundred feet. Red-billed Choughs were seen on the march, and we secured also a nest of the Jungle-Crow with four hard set eggs. We found the out-buildings of the Baltal rest-house had been completely wrecked by an avalanche and the bridge over the stream giving access to the camping ground had also been carried away. The valley above Baltal was very full of snow and from about two miles up the river disappeared altogether under beds of snow and snowfield. W. found the nest of Scully’s Wood-Owl ( Syrnium biddulphi) in a large hole in a birch tree only six feet from the ground containing two slightly-set eggs and portions of the shell of a third egg lay on the ground outside the hole. A White-beasted Dipper ( Cinclus kashmiriensis ) was shot by the stream below our camp. May 2$. Baltal to Matayan. Fifteen miles. As we were to cross A TOUR In further kashmir iis the Zoji La Pass to-day we had to make an early start to1 avoid risk of avalanches. We got off with our retainers and our kit loaded on twenty-five ponies at 5.30 a^m. Owing to1 the heavy winter snowfall the pass was not yet open for pony traffic and instead of going* up by the road we had to follow the much steeper and shorter route up the snow-filled gully. An icy wind blew down the valley. We reached the pass after a climb of about 2,000 feet, at 8 a.m. and were glad of the sun. In ordinary years the route from this point down to Matayan is easy, being a gentle decline over snow. On this occasion, however, things were quite different, and our troubles began after leaving the Pass. Owing to the exceptionally heavy winter snowfall our track lay over a series of avalanches which made the going slow and difficult for men and almost impossible for laden ponies, which frequently sank up to their girths in snow and had to be unloaded and lifted out. Moreover the track lay often along steep snow slopes overhanging a rushing icy torrent and we were extremely fortunate in not losing any of our animals or kit. We reached the hut at Matayan at 3.30, cold and tired, and were glad of the welcome shelter. We had seen very few birds en route. Chiffchaffs, Bluethroats and Sandpipers were on their breeding grounds which were mostly tinder snow. Some deluded bird, possibly a bunting, had started building a nest in a hole in a snow cornice ! We shot a cock Ruby- throat, two Horned Larks, a Skylark, two Tree-Pipits and two Hodg*son’s Pipits. We were surprised to, find the Tree-Pipits on the bare open hillsides, there being no tree growth after leaving the Zoji La above Pandras. May 2Jf. Maty an to Dras. Fourteen miles. A dull, cold morning — a pair of Tibetan Ravens greeted us outside the hut. The march was over snow as far as Pandras. At Pandras we came on a small plantation of poplars and willows — the first trees we had seen since the Zoji La. Here we found our first Magpie’s nest — which contained a single fresh egg. The Ladakh Magpie (Pica pica bactriana) is very similar to the English Magpie in note and appearance, but is not found in forest localities. It frequents the stony sandy wastes of Ladakh and Pakistan, keeping in the vicinity of villages where it finds food and also willow trees in which it builds its nests. A pair of these magpies have for years built their nest in a hole under the roof and above the front door of the Dak Bungalow at Dras ! An unusual site for this species. Below Pandras we saw many Short-toed Larks (Calandrella acutirostris) and a single Ibidorhynchus. At Dras there was practically no snow. The altitude of the village is 10,000', and there is a Post and Telegraph office as well as a Meteorological station. The minimum temperatures recorded at this station in winter are lower than any others in the Indian region, and not infrequently temperatures of 30° below zero Fahrenheit are experienced early in January. We halted five days at Dras which gave promise of good things in the bird line, but as a matter of fact we found we were ready about a month too’ early for most breeding birds. 16 Journal , Bombay natural hist, society , w. xxxiv By far the commonest birds around Dras at this time of the year are Horned Larks. There are also a considerable number of Short- toed Larks. The former are in flocks feeding- in the corn fields on the young germinating grain. A little later as the snow melts from 11,000' to 13,000/ they will retire to these higher altitudes to breed. All the Horned Larks we saw were Otocorys alpestris longirostris. Magpies were fairly common and we found several nests in willow trees at a height of from KT to 20' with five or six eggs generally fresh. The Eastern Carrion Crow ( Corvus corone orientalis) was also not rare, being found in the vicinity of villages. A pair had a nest with three eggs in a poplar tree in our camping ground at Dras. The birds were most confiding and did not display any of the cunning or devilry so usual to members of the Crow tribe. Both species of Dipper were . found here, the Brown and the White- breasted but whereas the former had bred some months ago the latter had not apparently commenced building. Other birds seen in the vicinity were Swifts ( Cypselus apus pekinensis ), Martins ( Delichon urbica ) and Crag-Martins ( Ptyono - progne rupestris). Redstarts were also common, and mostly building but we obtained one nest in a hole in a wall containing four fresh eggs. Kestrels were quite common and a few Ravens and Choughs were seen, the latter chiefly at higher elevations. A pair of Ravens frequented the camping ground, close to our tents. They were not very shy and they watched our bird-skinning operations and carried off the bodies of the birds we had skinned and thrown away. A Lammergeyer also found our camp interesting and after soaring around for a little, alighted a short distance away. The House Sparrow ( Passer domesticus parkini) is exceedingly' common but they had not yet commenced to lay. May SO. Dras to Tashgam. Fifteen miles. Our path lay down the Treaty road which follows the Dras river. Soon after leaving Dras we saw a kestrel swoop down into a party of larks one of which it secured and carried off in its claws. The lark was, I think, a Calandrella. The Kestrel in Ladakh and Baltistan seems to be much more addicted to attacking birds than the European bird, as we saw it seize and carry off birds on two other occasions the victim being in one case a Bluethroat and on the other apparently Stoliczka’s Mountain Finch. The march down the valley was very hot indeed about midday and we were glad to reach the welcome shade of our camping ground which was in an irrigated walled in plantation of willows and poplars. A pair of Carrion Crows had a nest with young in a tree close to our tents but the parent birds were curiously shy about returning to the nest. A pair of Hobbys ( Falco subbuteo) also frequented the willow plantation in which they evidently intended to breed later. A Golden Eagle was seen to-day soaring at a considerable height. Also a number of vultures and a raven collected round the carcase of a horse. The vultures varied considerably in colour some being brownish, others nearly white — different stages no doubt of Gyps hifnaiayanus. May 31. Tashgam to Karkitchu. Fourteen miles. Still following A TOUR IN FURTHER kashmir 117 the Dras river clown to our camp at 9,000, on the way we passed a large patch of cultivation with patches of scrub, briars, etc., and here we found numbers of Bluethroats, some in full song. We noticed cocks with a red spot, a white spot and unspotted blue, probably all one species, showing how variable is the throat colouration in this species. Phylloscopus indicus was not uncommon on the dry rocky slopes with small bushes near our camp. We also saw the Sind Willow-Warbler ( Phylloscopus collybitus s indianus ) and the Eastern Meadow Bunting ( Emberiza cia stracheyi ) building. Currant bushes of three kinds as well as juniper bushes were very common on the hillsides round our camp. June 1. Karkitchu to Kargil. Seven miles. A short march down to the junction of the Dras and Suru rivers and then up the latter two miles to the large village of Karg'il. This is rather an important place being near the junction of two trade routes, viz. that from Yarkhand via Leh and another from Skardu. There is much valuable cultivation and an excellent system of irrigation channels, with plenty of tree growth (all planted and dependent on irrigation). There is a Post and Telegraph office, a dispensary and many small native shops. Here we halted four days. On the march from Karkitchu we saw for the first time several Chats ( CEnanthe pleschanka). The valley around Kargil is very beautiful at this time of the year with its poplars, willows and apricot trees in delicate new green leaf and the crops, chiefly barley, about a span high. Between the fields are masses of beautiful blue irises. The altitude of Kargil is about 8,900' and was the lowest place visited by us beyond the Zoji La. The maximum and minimum temperatures at this time of the year were 80° and 50° respectively. The common birds of Kargil met with by us were : — Carrion-Crows, Magpies, Kestrels, Skylarks, Short-toed Larks, Bluethroats, Redstarts, Hume’s Lesser Whitethroat, Chiffchaffs, Common Rose-Finches, Gold-fronted Finches, the Large-billed Bush- Warbler and a few Hoopoes and Orioles. The Kestrel, of which we found two nests with three and four fresh eggs respectively proved to be Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus . The nests were in holes in sandstone cliffs, one overhanging the river. The larks were not yet breeding- but we found two Bluethroats’ nests in grass at the base of small thorn bushes with four and five nearly fresh eggs. Whitethroats were mostly building but one nest with four fresh eggs was found in a briar. Nest and eggs much resemble those of the European Lesser Whitethroat. Several Chiifchaff nests were found chiefly in low thorny bushes, containing generally four eggs which are white-spotted and speckled with chestnut and not chocolate markings as in the English bird. The Ladakh Chiffchaff proves to be Phylloscopus collybita sindianus. We obtained the nest of a Hoopoe ( Upupa epops epops) in a hole in a willow tree in the village containing eight fresh eggs. Most of our time in Kargil was how- ever spent in watching a Wheatear ( CEnanthe pleschanka) which was not uncommon on the neighbouring sandy, rocky plateaux 118 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , kb/ XXX IV above the river. Each pair occupies an area of about half a square mile of the driest and most desolate country imaginable. The cock is a dapper little fellow in his pure black and white plumage. The hen is pale sandy brown and very inconspicuous in the sandy wastes she frequents. The cock has a bright clear song sometimes uttered from the top of a rock, and at. others on the wing* while flying round in circles at a considerable height. After singing on the wing the bird will sometimes execute a remarkable dive to earth carried out at lightning speed. It was some time before we discovered the nest of this chat, as the birds are wary and do not readily give away the position of the nest. Eventually however we found a good many nests under construction, which about ten days later contained four or five eggs each. Nests were situated in holes under rocks or stones, usually invisible from outside, and were composed of dry grass or weed stems, with a dense, warm lining of wool and hair. The eg*gs pale blue, spotted pinkish. June 6. Kargil to Paskyum. Six miles. Our route led over a sandy plateau frequented only by Siberian Chats and a few Short- toed Larks. Our camp at about 9,300' was alongside the Wakka stream, a tributary of the Suru river. There was plenty of dense willow and thorn growth near our camp which was full of Bluethroats and Chiffchaffs. We watched a pair of Chiffchaffs building their nest near the top of a pollard willow, fifteen feet from the ground. This is a most unusual situation for the nest. We saw the Grey-backed Shrike ( Lanius tephronotus ) for the first time here. Also a Lammergeyer was noted. On the hill above our camp we shot a Desert Chat (CEnanthc deserii oreophila) a bird chiefly found at much greater altitudes. We also found a Skylark’s ( Alauda gulgula guttata ) nest with four fresh eggs in a lucerne field and a dessicated adult Horned-Lark which appeared to be O. elwesi, as well a nest of CEnanthe pleschanka in a pile of stones which contained five fresh eggs. The Olivaceous Tree Warbler ( Phylloscopus indicus ) was along the Wakka stream. Nests of the Bluethroat, Grey-backed Shrike (two eggs) and Chiffchaff were found on the march. The Olivaceous Tree Warbler ( Phylloscopus indicus ) was observed in a side valley 1,500' above our camp. June 9. Lotsam to Maulbekh. Nine miles. Following the Wakka stream up a rather narrow valley we reached an open cultivated area at 10,750' at Maulbekh. This is our first experience of Buddhist country with its chortens and mane walls. We found the vicinity of the stream near Maulbekh an excellent place for several birds, chiefly Bluethroats, Pied Wagtails, Chiff- chaffs, Skylarks and Common Sandpipers all of which were breeding. The Pied Wagtails ( Motacilla alba hodgsoni ) built well-concealed nests under stones on stony islands in mid stream. Sandpipers had eggs on the same islands which were mostly near hatching. A pretty little yellow flowering plant, a Corydalis was found growing out of the interstices of dry rocks. This has proved to be a new species, C. osmastonii. June 11. Maulbekh to Bod Kharbu. Sixteen miles. Making an early start we passed literally hundreds of Blue Rock Pigeons PLATE I. ourn. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc. 3. — Glacier opposite our camp at Sona- merg. 4. — Zogi La pass. 5. — Baggage pony sunk in snow beyond Zogi La. 6. — Buddhist monasteries at Lamaguru. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II 7. — Fort and bridge over Indus at Khalatze. 10,000 ft. 8. — Rungdum swamp at head of Suru Valley. 13,000 ft. 11. — Road to Skardu over Deosai Pass. 13,000 ft. 12. — -Lake at 14,000 ft., Sirsangri La between the Deosai and Kashmir. A TOUR IN FURTHER KASHMIR 119 feeding in the cultivated fields. These were C. intermedia neglecta and C. rupestris. They spend the middle of the day sitting on the cliffs above Maulbekh. We also saw a party of no less than eleven Magpies apparently engaged in a ‘Panchayat’. We crossed the Namika La Pass (13,000') about half way and then commenced the gradual descent. On the way we came across two Desert Chats and also the first Adam’s Finches ( Montifringilla adamsi ) we had seen. These latter are conspicuous from the large amount of white in their plumage which they display especially on the wing. They are very tame and confiding and they show no hesitation in visiting their nests in the presence of a spectator. June 12. We halted one day at Bodkharbu which is 11,550' above sea level. Here we found Adam’s Finch building among stones. Also two nests of the Robin Accentor ( Prunella rubeculoides) built almost on the ground in low dense Caragana bushes (resembling gorse). We also found several Bluethroats’ nests with eggs in the thorny scrub by the river. This thorny scrub ( Hippophce rhamnoides ) is always a safe find for Bluethroats and Chiffchaffs. A snow cock was heard calling on the rocks far above our camp. June IS. Bodkharbu to Lamaguru. Fifteen miles. Our march to-day led over the Fotu La Pass, 13,500'. We sat and ate our lunch close to a little bit of swampy ground near the £*ass and watched a pair of red-billed choughs feeding close by. Afterwards, on the descent, we heard a new bird call which reminded me of the Great Rose Finch ( Carpodacus rubicilloides) which I had previously found common and breeding near the Pangong Lake. We stalked these birds and W. shot two out of three at one shot — one a beautiful male in pink and grey plumage, the other a young male in brown striped plumage. Both were breeding birds. They proved to be Severtzoff’s Rosefinch ( Carpodacus severtzovi). Lamaguru where we arrived in the afternoon, is at an altitude of 11,500'. It is extremely picturesque with its monastery perched on sandstone cliffs and with numerous chortens and mane walls lining the approaches to the village. The surrounding hills, especially on the south and east, are composed of a soft cream- coloured silty material fully a thousand feet in thickness — whether this was laid down under water or by air is not known. June lJf. Lamaguru to Khalatze. Ten miles. The march led first down a rather narrow ravine and later on down a valley with a big stream, to its junction ' with the Indus river two miles below Khalatze. The Indus here is about 10,000' above the sea. The valley is hot and dry. We crossed the Indus by a fine suspension bridge constructed on the site of an old stone bridge built by King Naglug in a.d. 1150. The rocky gorge down which our path lay to the Indus was remarkable for the metamorphic rocks of various striking colours red and green predominating. Wild roses with deep crimson blossoms were flowering in profusion near the stream and one bush about seven feet high bore I estimated no less than 700 flowers. Another conspicuous plant was Capparis spinosa, with large handsome white flowers growing on the driest and hottest of sandy slopes. We halted a day at Khalatze which, however, we did not find 120 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , W. XXXIV very rich in bird life. Skylarks and Mag-pies were common, and we secured an old cock Chukor, weighing twenty ounces which belonged to the pale race C. chukar pallescens. The Whistling Thrush ( Myiophoneus ) was also seen by the river and also a pair of Grey Tits [Parus major kashmiriensis) . June 16. Khalatze to Lamayuru. On this return march we secured a specimen of the Pied Chat ( OEnanthe picata ). We also shot a Martin [Delichon urbica). In the evening we climbed up above the camp to about 12,000' and came on a family of fully-fledged young Desert Chats, on the wing. Wild Rhubarb was coming up on the hillside at the same altitude. June 17. We halted a day at Lamayuru, climbed up to about 14,000' but saw very few birds. Found the nest of Adam’s Finch ready for eggs in hole near base of mane wall. The birds came quite close to me as 1 examined a nest and did not seem to be a bit anxious. According to plan, our next objective was the head of the Suru valley. To reach this from Lamayuru in ordinary years would be a simple matter — first two marches up the Kangi stream, and then over the Kangi Pass. This entails fording the Kangi stream about half a dozen times, which is not ordinarily difficult. This year however owing to the exceptionally heavy snowfall the Kangi stream was a formidable torrent and quite unfordable; so we had to seek out some other route. We were told that we could get through from Lamayuru via Wanla and Zanskar but that the route would be longer, perhaps four marches and also more difficult. We decided to adopt this route, but we might have hesitated to do so had we known how long' and difficult it was to be ; for it took us ten days to do' about ninety miles of very hard marching over bad tracks which were in places both difficult and dangerous. June 18. Lamayuru to Wanla. Nine miles. First an ascent to a pass 12,000' and then gradually down to a valley and fair sized stream with cultivation and thorny scrub at Wanla 10,500'. Here we found Bluethroats again and also House Martins and a pair of Swallows ( H . rustica). Also a few Crag Martins with unfinished nests in a cave above the river. June 19. Wfanla to Hanupatta. Ten miles. The path follows the stream and the valley soon becomes a gorge, almost a defile and the path is reduced almost to vanishing point. We crossed the stream three times by bridges and then had to ford it twice, the first time up to our middles in water nearly ice-cold. We took off our boots and nether garments and threw them across the stream before tackling it. W. ’s boots tied together, with stockings inserted, made a forced landing in midstream and were instantly whirled away in the torrent ! I had visions of W. toiling up the valley bare- footed ; however a plucky Ladakhi retainer who plunged into the stream without hesitation and rescued the boots a little further down in a backwater eddy where their downward journey had fortunately been arrested. The count rv we were passing through was very remarkable, A TOUR IN FURTHER KASHMIR 121 Huge vertical cliffs and precipices on either side running up fully a couple of thousand feet almost shut out the sunlight. How our laden ponies got safely through this march was a marvel. There were no casualties. We arrived at Hanupatta in a more open valley and camped at 12,300' by a solitary juniper tree nine feet in girth. Not very many birds were seen but we secured a specimen of a Red-mantled Rose-Finch ( Propasser rhodochalmys grandis S) and also Hume’s Chat ( (Enanthe abboniger 9) as well as two Mountain- Finches. June 20. Hanupatta to Patoksar. Ten miles. A gradual ascent, fording a stream at 14,500' (very cold !) and then on up to the Shirshir Pass, 16,600' where there was snow still lying. View over the hills from the pass very fine. On the ascent to-day we came across the same large Rose-Finch ( Carpodacus severtzovi). Also Prunella fulvescens and rubeculoides, Phylloscopus affinis, pigeons of three kinds ( Columba livia neglecta, rupestris and leuconota), a Raven, Choughs, Adam’s Finch and Brandit’s Finch ( Fringilauda brandti). We also met with some Horned-Larks (Otocorys longirostris) which all appeared to be males. Eventually we reached Patoksar and camped by a stream at 13,500'. This is the highest cultivation we have seen. June 21. Patoksar to Ilchung. Twelve miles. A very cold, clear morning. Ice on shallow pools, and sponge frozen ! Made an early start as usual and shortly got the sun which was most grateful. A little above our camp we came on three great Snow-Cock waddling along the path in front of us, like geese! Having no suitable weapon handy, they escaped. Further on heard many snow cock calling a musical loud whistle of about four notes, reminding one somewhat of the wild note of the Curlew. On this march W. found the nest of Adam’s Finch under a rock with four fresh eggs — pure white. The path ascended gradually, culminating in the Singhe Pass 16,500' where there was much snow including a snow cornice on the ridge. Saw many Stoliczka’s Mountain-Finch and Brandt’s Mountain-Finch in this march and found a Redstart’s nest with hard-set eggs under a rock, and a nest of the Horned Lark ( Otocoris longirostris ) with two fresh eggs under a tuft of grass. The full clutch of this species is three or two eggs only. Our camp at Ilchung was at 13,200'. Here we found House Martins again and Choughs of both kinds. June 22. Ilchung to Linshet. Eleven miles. First a steady climb of three miles up to the Chupa La 14,600' — Snow-Cock calling all the way — then steeply down to a valley 13,100', followed by a second steep climb up to the Nirgum La at 14,400', and lastly a gradual descent to a large village and monastery at Linshet which is 13,000'. Birds seen in the march to-day were Snow-Cock (T etrao gallus himalayensis), Rose-Finch ( Carpodacus severtzovi) and the Olivace- ous Tree-Warbler (P. indicus). The latter has a song not unlike that of the Lesser Whitethroat but not often heard. June 23. Linshet to Oma River. Nine miles. We struck camp and packed early, as usual but for some reason no> transport arrived. We waited and waited. It was evident that the people were trying 16 122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXIV to boycott us and did not want us to go on any further. Among other objections they stated that we should meet with an unfordable river. This we found was true, but as we did not have to cross the river it was no obstacle ! However by dint of much pressure and persuasion we eventually collected a mixed lot including yaks, ponies, monks and even nuns who carried our kit on to the next camp by the Oma river at 12,500'. The march was first uphill to the Barma La, 15,500', a very cold exposed and windy spot, then down over many snow bridges to the junction of our small stream with the big unfordable Oma river. Here we found Common Rose-Finches and Chiffchaffs again and plenty of welcome firewood (dwarf willow). June 2 If. Oma river to Debring. Seven miles. The path to-day was the worst we had so far experienced. It follows the Oma river — at times along the edge of the stony bed, at others up along and over hanging precipices — involving many ups and downs of several hundreds of feet. Here, too, the path is reduced to a minimum, often only just room for one to put his foot, and it is no place for any one who has not a good head or who suffers from vertigo, as a fall would take one down several hundred feet into the riverbed with certain death. However we got through safely and what was much more wonderful was the fact that our kit loaded on eight yaks and twenty coolies also got through with no casualty. Yaks are really marvellous on bad rocky, steep slopes. On the march we secured a fine specimen of Carpodacus severtzovi which frequents rocky slopes. Debring is a fair sized village at 13,100' — with a considerable amount of cultivation and a good many willow trees, — also ample water for irrigation from two streams. Here we found Choughs (both kinds), Short-toed Larks, Redstarts, House-Martins and Adam’s Finch all common and on the dry slopes above, Phylloscopus indicus. June 25. Debring to camp. Four miles. A short march up the valley to a camping ground below the Pass which we must cross to-morrow. Our camp was at 13,900' among rocks with much low scrub consisting of dwarf Lonicera, Ephedra, dwarf willows, etc. W. secured an Orange-barred Willow-Warbler ( Phylloscopus pulcher ) in the willow trees near our last camp, the only one seen throughout the tour. Near our camp below the Pass we saw several of the large Rose-Finches, and our shikari found a nest built under a stone, ready for eggs. There were many Marmots about, the Himalayan — not the Tibetan species. We also found the nest of Phylloscopus indicus in a dwarf Lonicera bush with four fresh eggs, and secured a second specimen of the pale race of Chukor, which is characteristic of this dry, stony, sandy country. June 26. Camp to camp above Gompa. Nine miles. Made a very early start. The march to-day started with a climb of 2,500'. Nearly all over snow and a good deal of it deep snow, often in conical peaks or ridges making going difficult. We reached the Pass, the Pig Dong La, altitude 16,600', at 8.30 and then started down. Our path led down a valley which gradually increased in dimensions. A Tour in further kashmir 123 At midday when we stopped for lunch it began to sleet and was very cold. We took shelter under some steep rocks and waited patiently for our kit to arrive which it eventually did and we got our camp pitched on a small plateau, everything very wet. Now, however, the sun came out brightly and every one soon revived. Otocoris longirostris were common round our camp at 14,500k Also a pair of Desert Chats, Redstarts, Mountain-Finches, Robin Accentors and the ubiquitous Eastern Meadow-Bunting. This latter was on the whole commonest and most widespread of all the birds we met with, the House-Sparrow only excepted. June 27. Camp to Zuildo. Ten miles. A fine frosty morning. Saw a few Himalayan Rubythroats ( Calliope pectoralis). We must now be near the meeting point of the two races, the Himalayan and the Tibetan (C. p. tschebaiewi) as the latter occurs in Southern Ladakh. We saw and compared Phylloscopus affinis and P. indicus together. They are very similar in colour and appearance and their songs are also very similar but that of affinis is preceded by a single separate note which is not the case with indicus. Saw a pair of Carpodacus severtzovi. Now we caught sight of the Gompa (monastery) and knew we were at the head of the Suru valley and approaching the great Rungdum Swamp which was our objective and which we had been keenly looking forward to as the home of the Eastern Redshank, the Lesser Mongolian Plover and the Eastern Common Tern ( Sterna hirundo tibetana ). Three miles down the open valley from the Gompa we arrived at a miserable collection of huts — the village of Zuildo, on the northern and eastern margin of the Rungdum Swamp and here we pitched our camp. It was a cold, bleak spot, very windy and with snow on the mountains on both sides of us right down to the valley. The altitude of Zuildo is 13,100k After ten days’ very strenuous marching we arranged for a halt of five days, more especially because we were anxious to work the Rungdum Swamp thoroughly before moving down the Suru valley. The Suru river at Zuildo is already a broad body of water and unfordable at this time of the year. The stream is not very rapid probably averaging about three miles per hour for the eight miles as it skirts the Rungdum Swamp. The swamp occupies the whole valley which in this portion has widened out and is nearly a mile across. It is caused by a series of large springs which arise at the base of the mountain range which constitutes the northern flank of the valley. A fair proportion of the swamp consists of marshy grass land with tussocks of coarse grass, reeds and sedges, and innumerable little pools and channels of water, some fairly deep. Progress here is not easy but with care and circumspection combined with considerable activity it is possible to explore a good deal of it on foot. Another type, well represented, is covered with dwarf willow of which three or four species are com- mon. Mosquitoes (Culex sp.) are very numerous, but owing to the unusual cold they were not nearly as bad as had been experienced by the writer on a previous visit. Our camp at Zuildo was close to the river with the swamp on 124 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , H?/. XXXIV one side of us and a large area of stony, sandy waste, a ‘fan’ resulting from a side stream, occupying the other. We were surprised to see a party of eight Bar-headed Geese [Anser indicus ) swimming about on the river close to our camp and throughout our stay they appeared from time to time and disported themselves sometimes in the water and sometimes in the land. They did not appear to be breeding, though at this time of the year they would have eggs or freshly-hatched young in Southern Ladakh near the Tsomoriri Lake or at Shushal. We also saw a few Goosanders on the river on one or two occasions and a flight of eight Pintail Ducks were also seen. The Eastern Redshanks were fairly common in the swampy area. They were naturally shy but we soon found that they had in most cases either hard set eggs or freshly hatched young. As a result of much searching in the swamp and watching with glasses we found one nest with fresh eggs and several chicks. The eggs were laid in a tussock of grass in the swamp. Several pairs of the Lesser Sand Plover (AJgialitis mongolica ) occupied the stony ‘fan’ west of our camp and others on similar ground nearer Gompa. The birds are extremely difficult to follow as they run about at great speed on the sand and their eggs, three in number, are extraordinarily difficult to locate. One may pass them over and over again at close quarters without seeing them. We succeeded in finding three nests with eggs and several chicks, but one nest of eggs, an incomplete clutch, was washed away by a rise in the river and another lot were very hard set. One lot of three fresh eggs was however secured — which were pale cafe-au-lait rather densely speckled and spotted with dark brown. The eggs are laid in little saucer-shaped hollows in the sand scraped out by the bird generally at some considerable distance from the water. A few of the terns we were in search of were seen from time to time generally fishing over the larger pools near the swamp. They were usually either single birds or in pairs. We could see no signs of breeding. Three specimens were secured. The bird turns out to be Sterna hirundo tibetana. Other birds seen in and around the Rungdum Swamp were : — Skylarks (Alauda arvensis guttata), very common and breeding. We found several nests in the drier portions of the -swamp. Horned Larks ( Otocoris alpestris longirostris) and Yellow-headed Wagtails ( Motacilla citreola calcaratus) extremely common every- where in the swamp. Many nests found with eggs usually very well concealed in grass or at base of dwarf willow. The Robin Accentor ( Prunella rubeculoides) was also very common and breeding on ground at base of dwarf willow or merely in hole in tussock. Eggs three ; colour as in hedge-sparrows. Tickell’s Willow Warbler (Phylloscpous affinis). Fairly common and breeding in the low willow scrub in the swamp. Fresh eggs taken. The Chiffchaff ( Phylloscopus collybita sindianus). Fairly abundant, breeding in the dwarf willows in the swamp. The Himalayan Rubythroat was also occasionally seen near the edge of the swamp or on the hillsides above it. The Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) was also heard calling nearly every day. Choughs — the A TOUR IN FURTHER KASHMIR 125 red-billed variety — were often seen near our camp. Pigeons, chiefly the Blue Hill-Pigeon (C. rupestris) and also the Snow Pig-eon ( Columba leuconota) were commonly seen. Lastly, House-Martins (. Delichon urbica urbica ) and Crag-Martins were observed on several occasions and were breeding- on the cliffs. July 3. Zuildo to Gulma Tongas. Eleven miles. Our march to-day was alongside the Rungdum Swamp for about six or seven miles and then through thickets of willow and open country. Our camp was near the site of the Gulma Tongas village, now deserted. It is a delightful open spot, elevation 12,200' with a tarn of about an acre in extent close to the camping ground. There were ten Bar- headed Geese on the river close by, and a few Green Sandpipers, very wild, on the margin of the tarn. Those were doubtless non- breeding birds. We found a Horned Lark’s nest with two slightly- set eggs close to1 our tents. This was discovered in a curious way. All through the bustle of men and animals involved in the pitching of our tents the lark had sat tight and refused to leave her nest. Later on I had opened up my Botanical press and spread the paper out in front of my tent to dry. Even this did not disturb the bird. Suddenly a gust of wind took away several sheets of paper one of which blew away close over the nest. This was too much for the bird which flew off, disclosing the nest. The nest was in a depression in the ground surrounded by a rampart of stones, some of which weighed from half to one ounce each ! We also found the nest of a Lesser Sand-Plover on a stony, sandy flat containing two freshly-hatched chicks and one egg. The nest was discovered owing to the extraordinary antics of the mother bird which shuffled about on the ground looking more like an animated bunch of feathers than a bird. We sat down within a few feet of the nest and the parent bird came slowly up to within about six feet of us. She did this for some time and finally got tired of the performance and stood up. While engaged in her strange antics we took a photo — but unfortunately, it does not show the bird ! The next morning she was covering the chicks a short way off and we removed the single egg which proved to be addled. July If. Gluma Tongas to Parkachik. Ten miles. Our march to-day was through a lot of interesting rocky country still following the Suru river. The river had become much more rapid in places, in fact a roaring torrent or cascade and the valleys was in places full of enormous boulders weighing many hundreds of tons which had come down from the steep and lofty mountains on either side. The flowers were extraordinarily beautiful including the lovely little purple Primula minutissima, the large purple blue Primula nivalis, in masses by the streams, the yellow onion, Allium semenovii and the small Allium stracheyi in the swamp, two buttercups (Ranunculus pulchellus and choerophylla), the dwarf Thalictrum alpinum, the golden Potentilla argyrophylla, the pink Dianthus angulatus, the beautiful little Androsace zabulensis, Anemone albana, Saxifraga sibirica, the purple Lancea tibetica. Also Draba glacialis in golden masses, the deep the blue Gentian, Gentiana carinata in swampy places, and on dry warm slopes Arabis 126 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY . D?/. XXXI V tibetica , the deep blue Martensia echioides and the pink Thyme ( Thymus serpiphyllum). Three species of Louse-wort, crimson, pink and yellow ( Pedicu - laris pyramidata, siphonantha and cornuta ) were common on damp ground. Also the Edelweis (Leontop odium leontopodium) and the lovely silvery Anaphyllis xylorhiza and maritima. Campa- nula aristata was also seen, though not common, and also Chry- santhemum tibeticum and Aster tibeticus. The curious gnetaceous, dwarf, shrub-like plant Ephedra Gerardiana with its golden flowers was also exceedingly common on dry rocky slopes and several species of sedge and rush were dispersed throughout the swamp. There was no tree growth at all, with the exception of dwarf- willows usually only three or four feet high or less, exceptionally about eight feet high. As we approached Parkachik we came under the lower slopes of the giant Nun Kun whose three-fold summit exceeds 23,000'. This mountain was explored by Dr. E. Neve and subsequently two of its three peaks were climbed by Dr. and Mrs. Bullock Workman and Count Calciati. The highest peak of the three, the Dome, has not yet been attempted. The Nun Kun mountain is an extraordinary fine mass and the view of it from Parkachik is most imposing. Several large glaciers descend from its slopes. One of these ends abruptly in the Suru river close to Parkachik where its tail is washed by the waters of the river. The great Barmal glacier which also takes its rise on this mountain after a course of no less than fifteen miles flows into the Wardwan Valley below the Bhotkhol Pass. A month or two in June, July and August might be profitably spent exploring the slopes, the peaks and glaciers of this mighty mountain mass, and I commend this adventure to any enterprising naturalist with a penchant for exploration. On the march to Parkachik young Horned-Larks, well on the wing, were seen, also several Ruby throats, and a nest of this species in a hole on a grassy slope among shrubby growth, contain- ing three half-fledged young. Phylloscopus indicus and affinis were again common and a nest of the latter with fresh eggs was found. Also a Chiffchaff’s nest with four eggs. A single Lammergeyer was seen. July 5. A halt at Parkachik, a picturesque village perced up on the hillside at 11,000', five hundred feet above the river. The morning was spent down in the thorny scrub (Hippo phce rhamnoides) of which there are large areas occupying many acres of the wide stony bed of the Suru river. The Ibis-bill (Ibidorhynchus struthersi ) was seen on an island, where it had doubtless bred. Common Sandpipers were also seen here. This altitude (11,000') appears to be about the upper limit of the breeding of both these species. In the thorny scrub Bluethroats, Rubythroats and the Large-billed Bush-Warbler ( Tribura major) were common. Chiff- chaffs, Common Rose-Finches ( Carpodacus roseatus) and the Gold- fronted Finch (Metoponia pusilla) were also numerous. A nest of Tribura deep in a thorn and artfully concealed in grass wras discovered. It contained four fresh eggs. These, and the nest, A TOUR IN FURTHER KASHMIR 127 resemble those of the European Grasshopper-Warbler, and indeed these species are evidently very nearly allied. The bird of this nest, when disturbed, ran away through the grass exactly like a mouse and never took flight. She was betrayed by the movement of the grass as she ran and had I not been specially on the look out for this bird with whose habits I was acquainted I should never have been aware of the nest. A brood of young Rubythroats strong on the wing, was also seen, and a nest of the White-qapped Redstart ( Chaim arrhomis leucocephalus ) was discovered, with four fresh eggs in a hole in a rocky cliff. July 6. Parkachik to Suru Bridge. Five miles. The Suru river takes a great U shaped bend at this point fully twelve miles in circuit whereas by crossing over a pass at the narrow neck of the U above Parkachik the distance is reduced to about two or three miles only. The climb up to the pass is steep and rocky. The view from this point which is about 12,000' is very grand, as it commands the whole of the Nunkun massiff on the one side and the Himalaya trending- in the direction of the Zoji La in the other. On this march we were anxious to search for a little owl which our shikari Lala had reported the previous day, and so far we had found no owl inhabiting this dry, rocky, sandy country above the tree limit. Lala led us up to a very steep rocky ridge and sure enough there was a little owl looking at us from a ledge some way up. Before we could secure him he retreated into a crack in the rock and obstinately refused to show himself again. We scanned the rocks above and below and shortly W. spotted another similar owl a good deal higher up. I stalked this bird with the *410 keeping very carefully out of sight and directed by W. from below. It was exciting work as we did not know what this owl would be and were most anxious therefore to secure a specimen. At last a point was reached from which I judged I should see the bird within easy shot, and exposed my head, but no, it had moved on. Another short stalk and a shot was obtained and the bird disappeared over the edge of the rock on which it was sitting. When I fired it had a small bird in its claws. I hurried forward and looked over the precipice but saw no signs of the owl. I then climbed down to where, if hit, it should be lying, but at first could find nothing but the body of a Stewart’s Bunting which it had held in its claws. Shortly, to my joy I spied the owl on the ground. It proved to be a fine specimen of a race of the Little Owl ( Athene noctua bactriana), previously unrecorded from Ladakh, Baltistan or Kashmir. It appears to be a rare bird in Ladakh, and we only saw one other pair, also not far from Suru Bridge. On the way down beyond the pass a Specimen of Brandt’s Mountain-Finch (F rin gillauda brandti hoematopygia ) was secured. - These rather large finches of dull brownish colouration, except for a pinkish patch on the rump, are fairly common from 12,000' upwards, especially in moist places. They occur in pairs and small parties and doubtless breed under rocks and stones though I have never succeeded in finding a nest, in spite of much time and trouble spent in search. Two days were spent at Suru Bridge, our camp being pitched near 128 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , W. XXXI V the wooden bridge — a rather perilous affair — but the only available crossing for many miles up and down river. We found nothing new at Suru Bridge but found nests with eggs of Bluethroats, Large-billed Bush-Warblers, Robin Accentor, Yellow-headed Wagtail, Chiffchaffs, Tickell’s Willow-Warbler, the Skylark, the Eastern Meadow-Bunting, the Horned-Lark, the Short-toed Lark and Gold-fronted Finch. The last had just commenced to breed — a beautiful little nest lined with white willow cotton resembling that of a Lesser Redpole or Gold Finch, only not quite so neat, placed in a low briar with usually five eggs similar in colouration to those of the Linnet, only of course smaller. July 9. Suru Bridge to Sanku. Thirteen miles. All our kit had to be carried over the bridge by our pony men as we did not wish to risk losing it. One pony belonging to another caravan fell over the bridge but without a load and was rescued down below. Skylarks, Bluethroats, Gold-fronted Finches and Common Rose- Finches were common on the march. Pied Wagtails (M. alba alboides) were also seen and a hobby. A Lammergeyer was also seen and a pair of Kestrels with a nest high up on a cliff. Carrion- Crows and Magpies are now common again, and willow trees and poplars are found everywhere. An Ibis-bill was seen by the river. Sankhu is a large village occupying a fine, broad area of good cultivation opposite the tri-junction of the Kartse, and Umba streams with the Suru river. H ere we found Large-billed Bush-Warblers, Bluethroats, Gold- fronted Finches, the Rose-Finch, Skylarks and Yellow-headed Wagtails all extremely common. The Rose-Finches are now first beginning to lay. The nest resembles that of a linnet and is built usually in a low thorny bush ( Hippophoe ). The eggs, four, very rarely five, in number are dark blue marked with brownish or black specks. Many swifts ( Cypselus apus pekinensis) were seen hawking flies, and two cuckoos, were still calling. July 11. Sankhu to Tsalikot. Ten miles. Our road still follows the river and our camp was at 9,400'. Rose-Finches were common and several nests with eggs were found. Gold-Finches also seen but no nests found. A lesser Whitethroat’s nest ( Sylvia alihca ) was seen with three young and a pair of Phylloscopus indicus feeding young. A fully-fledged young CEnanthe pleschanka was secured. July 12. Tsaliskot to Maingni. Eight miles. Ne new birds seen except three Ravens and a pair of Grey Wagtails. The common grey Quail was calling ‘Wet-my lips’ round our camp but we could not discover its eggs. July 13. Maingni to Kargil. Seven miles. We are now back in ‘civilization’ again — the first ‘shops’ we have seen for six weeks, and a big budget of letters. It was warm with bad sandflies at night. Ripe apricots were arriving from Skardu, a welcome change as we had seen no fresh fruit since we left Srinagar three months Two days were spent at Kargil repacking our kit and sorting out spare stores, etc., to be sent back direct to Srinagar, A TOUR IN FURTHER KASHMIR 129 Our next objective was the Deosai Plains to be reached via the Shingo-Shigar River, a difficult route. Bluethroats’ nests with eggs and with young, a Tribura nest with eggs, two lesser Whitethroats’ nests and a Chiffchaff’s nest were all we found at Kargil. Apricots were not yet ripe here. July 16. Kargil to Karkitchu. Seven miles. Our road took us down the Suru river for about two miles then across the Skardu suspension bridge, over the Dras river and up its left bank as far as the village of Karkitchu where we camped in the welcome shade of apricot tree's. A Bluethroat’s nest, found the previous day with three fledged young, was taken and the young fed on insects, grass- hoppers, earwigs and beetles, etc., on the march. A young Blue Rock-Thrush ( Monticola cyanus) was obtained. July 17. Karkitchu to Chani-Kai. Ten miles. Visited the nest of a new species of Rose-Finch found the evening before in a low briar. The nest contained one young bird and three addled eggs ; pale blue sparingly spotted black. The bird was identified satis- factorily as Propasser rhodochlamys grandis. The path was very rocky and difficult. While resting for lunch under an apricot tree a mouse-hare about as big' as a guinea pig came out and munched green leaves quite close by. Our march followed the Shingo-Shigar river which has a large volume of water beautifully clear and is a great contrast to the Indus, Dras, Suru and Oma rivers all of which were more or less muddy or turbid with glacier water. July 18. Chani-Khai to Matiyal. Twelve miles. We made an extra early start as the heat of the previous day had been very trying in spite of the elevation (nearly 11,000'). Soon after the start we came on a number of House Martins hawking flies over the fields. We shot one for identification. It was Delichon urbica urbica. The path was the worst we had ever experienced. There was in fact practically no path, and we had to climb over broken stone and boulders, often of large size, which was very tiring work as one had to place one’s feet carefully. How our loaded coolies managed it was really a marvel. This was the hottest march of the whole tour, and we had a perpetual thirst which, however, we could slake in the almost ice-cold streamlets which we crossed at frequent intervals. We halted at midday in a delightful shady place by the river, a thicket of willows, juniper and Myricaria elegans, the latter a characteristic large shrub of many of the valleys of Ladakh with very lovely spikes of small pinkish white flowers. Wild roses with deep crimson flowers were also in evidence. We were told it was two miles on to Matiyal ; so we decided to push on though we were rather done. It proved to be fully five miles with a steep climb of 800 feet at the finish ! We passed the junction of the Shingo with the Shigar river on this march. The former drains the Chota Deosai Valley. We follow the latter, which is now of a beautiful clear dark green, and in places a roaring torrent. Matiyal village consists of only a few huts. It is situated on a large cultivated plateau well above the river with a scattered forest of juniper and Pinus excelsa not far off. The presence of forest trees indicates a moister climate. 17 130 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fb/. XXXIV We halted a day at Matiyal to arrange ponies to replace our coolie transport. We explored the forest area and saw, among others, the Simla Black-Tit ( Lophophanes melanolophus) only seen in this valley since crossing the Zoji La. Also Phylloscopus humii and indicus, Propasser rhodochlamys grandis, Carpodacus roseatus, Metoponia, Emberiza cia stracheyi, Phyrrocorax phyrrocorax and Columba leuconota. Also, near our camp, skylarks and short-toed larks. Two species of juniper were common, one an erect tree and the other a squat spreading shrub. A species of Rubus was also observed. Biting flies were very troublesome, a species of Tabanus as well as a Simulium. July 20. Matiyal to Karbos. Nine miles. A river had to be forded by our ponies shortly after leaving Matiyal, after which the path was much up and down and often over very bad rocky ground over which one would not think of leading an ordinary pony without a load, but the wonderful little local ponies carried our loads right through without a casualty. On the march we saw Bluethroats (white spot), a large Rose-Finch ( ? Propasser grandis), Gold-Finches and Black-Tits ( Lophophanes rufonuchalis again. Many beautiful flowers including pure white King-cups yellow Louse-wort — some two feet high, and masses of purple Cranes-bill. Butterflies were also fairly numerous, Blues and Coppers and a Fritillary new to us. Biting flies and mosquitoes were again very bad. Jidy 21. Kartos to camp by river. Eight miles. A muggy damp morning. Mosquitoes very bad. The path was better than the previous day but still bad in parts. On the march we saw traces of Red Bear and came across Acanthopneuste viridanus for the first time and secured a specimen. They frequent the willow patches on the hillside. We also heard Phylloscopus, indicus, humii and collybitus. Other birds seen were Swifts, Redstarts, Sky-larks, White-capped Redstarts, Common Rose-Finch, Tree-Pipits, Blue-headed Robins and Rubythroat. May flies were very numerous at our camp. July 22. Camp to camp Domel. Ten miles. We are now nearing the ‘Promised Land’ — the Deosai Plain, which we have been eagerly looking forward to ! The whole of this march was through millions of May-fly ( Ephemera ) sometimes in dense clouds in the air, and also seated upon the vegetation, chiefly on Dock leaves. There were many swifts about feeding no doubt on the May-flies. The May-flies were a godsend to my young Bluethroats who consumed them in large quantities. Our path gradually became easier as we approached the Deosai. Finally we were confronted with a broad swiftly flowing river which had to be forded before we could reach our camp. It looked a tough proposition, the more so since the water was nearly ice-cold. However we decided to tackle it, and W. and I stripped of all clothing, set out armed with a stout stick each. We managed with much difficulty to get nearly to midstream but the current was very strong, and we were constantly losing our feet and in this cold water there was some danger of being completely A TOUR IN FURTHER KASHMIR 131 carried away. We struggled back with difficulty and held a council of war. We decided to try again with the help of the ponies. I mounted one and W. seized its tail. A pony man held on to the bridle. In this way we managed to get safely across but it was touch anid go. Our kit was rearranged on the ponies with such articles as it was essential should not get wet loaded on the top, and the ponies and men then came across in a mass the men hanging on to the ponies. All got safely over. We were feeling very cold and lay down in the sun on the hot stones with our clothes spread out to dry. This soon gave us fresh life, and we pushed on two miles to our camp on the Deosai. Birds on to-day’s march were a strange, large eagle, two Pallas’s Fishing-Eagles, Rubythroats, Redstarts, Horned-Larks, Skylarks, Tree-Pipits, Common Rose-Finch, Mountain-Finch, Swifts, Yellow-headed Wagtails and Chiffchaffs. Also a cuckoo being mobbed by a Rubythroat. July 23. Halt — Domel. We had been eagerly looking forward to the Deosai plains, this strange extensive uninhabited plateau of moorland and swamp some 300 square miles in area, drained by numerous big streams, full of fish, surrounded by lofty snow clad mountains and subject to icy blizzards in almost every month of the year. The wild beauty of the moorland with its lush green grass and carpets of alpine flowers alternating with drier stony or sandy areas and its clear, cold streams with dwarf-willow beds is undeniable, but it was absolutely spoilt at the time of our visit by the almost indescribable plague of mosquitoes. These bloodthirsty pests were present in millions and the swiftness and pertinacity of their attacks was quite extraordinary. I had had many years’ experience of mosquitoes in the tropics, including Burma, but they were as nothing compared to these voracious tigers of the Deosai Plains. Their attacks commenced about half an hour after sunrise and went on to about an hour after sunset. They were at their worst in the morning and evening hours. The species was a Culex of rather large dimensions. Fortunately we had been warned and had pro- vided ourselves with head nets, but working in head nets is a nuisance at best. We had not been an hour on the Deosai when we were as anxious to leave it as we had been to reach it. Red Bears are said to be numerous on the Deosai and to catch fish from the streams with their claws. We did not actually see any but we saw their traces. Marmots were very numerous in places. Birds were not very numerous either in individuals or in species. The chief birds seen were Horned Larks ( O . longirostris), Pipits (A. roseatus and trivialis ), Rubythroats, Robin Accentors and Yellowy- headed Wagtails. Also a few cuckoos. On the dry, stony plain a few of the Lesser Sand-Plover were seen. We collected several Horned-Larks which appear to be identical with the Otocoris alpestris longirostris found at Dras and elsewhere on our totir. July 21f. Domel to Chandarkot. Nine miles. Our march lay over the moor. Mosquitoes were terribly bad till about midday when'a. cold wind got up and banished them. We saw a grey Heron, i.32 JOURNAL , BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXtV a Peregrine and a Golden Eagle to-day. The latter probably feeds on marmots in this part of the country. Our camp was in a delightful spot near the meeting of two streams with swampy ground rich in flowers, near by. Here I found among other things the beautiful little Primula rosea previously unrecorded from Baltistan. July 25. Chandarkot to Chota Deosai. Eleven miles. Our path followed the Kalapani stream up to its source near the San Sangri La (Pass) altitude 14,200k At the pass there are two beautiful tarns, half a mile or so across. There was much snow at the pass and on the neighbouring mountains. From the pass we had a steep descent to the valley of the Chota Deosai where we camped by a large stream, the head waters of the Shingo1 river. We saw a pair of ravens standing by the body of a dead pony by the way. No new birds were seen. Fortunately a cold wind was blowing near our camp so that we were not much troubled by mosquitoes. A most unfortunate incident was the loss of W’s field glasses, which he left lying not far off where we rested for lunch and which were almost certainly stolen by a Gujar who passed by, the only man who had passed us for days. July 26. Chota Deosai to Minimarg. Fifteen miles. The night at Chota Deosai was marked by a hard frost. Our tents were white with rime and our sponges and water in basins frozen. A gradual ascent of one and a half miles brought us to the Panzil La at 13,000', from which point a gradual descent to Minimarg at 9,333' near the head waters of the Kishanganga river. We passed the Burzil Resthouse on the Gilgit road a few miles before reaching Minimarg. Here we obtained specimens of Acanthopneuste viridanus and the Tree-Pipit ( Anthus trivialis harringtoni). Since we crossed the Panzil Pass there has been a marked change in the climate and vegetation, hillsides being clothed with forest of birch and lower down with silver fir and blue pine and shrubs of various kinds. Minimarg is a small village with a post office. We were disappointed to find that mosquitoes were fairly bad at Minimarg. We had hoped to have left them behind at the pass ! We halted a day at Minimarg. July 27. Explored the Nagai valley. We found Hodgson’s Shortwing ( Hodgsonius phoenicuroides) common in the open parts of the fir forest and secured specimens of both old and young birds. Also a young Buzzard ( Buteo huteo). July 28. Minimarg to Dudgai. Fourteen miles. Our march led dowm the Gilgit road on the sunny side of the valley, the opposite side being clothed with forest of silver fir and blue pine. We heard Hodgonius calling, a rather melancholy refrain of three notes, the middle one lowest. Also Acanthopneuste magnirostris, its call, tee — tee-tee — tee-tee, a descending cadence of loud and shrill notes could be heard above the noisy turmoil of the torrent. We were delighted to find no mosquitoes at our camp at Dudgai, 8,350' altitude. July 29. Dudgai to Barman. Ten miles. A pretty march down the Burzil river. At Gurais the valley opens out and there is much cultivation and several large villages. We camped near a big poplar A TOUR IN FURTHER KASHMIR 133 wood, with excellent shade and water. The poplars were up to twelve feet in girth and eighty feet in height. We were surprised to hear Chiffchaffs calling in the willow beds near the river. We did not know they bred in Kashmir proper. We also saw a Magpie. Rufous-backed Shrikes and Grey Tits were common. July 30. Barwan to Gorai. Eleven miles. Our road led us at first down stream through a fine wood of silver fir, blue pine, walnut, hazel and elm. ITeard many Acanthopneuste magnirostris and secured specimens with some difficulty. The last part of our march was steadily up a side valley to our camp at Gorai, 9,000'. There is still snow lying in considerable quantities in nalas, which is very unusual here in July. We had a very heavy thunderstorm in the evening. July 31. Gorai' to Tragbal. Twelve miles. A glorious morning', Myiophoneus , A. magnirostris and Hodgsonius all very noisy. The road climbs steadily up to the Raj Diangan Pass altitude 11,580' from which point we obtained magnificent views over the valley of Kashmir, the Wular Lake, the Pir Panjal Range, Plara Mukh Mountain, etc. The open grassy slopes were a mass of golden Poteniillas and Geum with dark blue Martensia , and many other flowers. Before reaching camp we came across a number of AEgiihaliscus niveigularis in a hunting party and secured specimens. Red-browed-F inches ( Callacanthis burtoni ) were also common and we shot a young bird of the year. Our camp at Tragbal 9,500' was in the shade of deodar trees, a delightful spot. We experienced a sharp thunderstorm in the evening, fortunately after our tents were pitched. We halted three days at Tragbal. August 1, 3. The country around Tragbal is mostly densely wooded, with deodar, silver fir and blue pine on the prevailing species. 'Also wild cherry, maple and elm, with birch at higher levels. Birds were very numerous. Among those seen were Nutcrackers ( N . multipunctata) , Jungle-Crows (C. coronoides intermedius ), Tits (Lophophanes melanolophus and rufonuchalis , TEgithaliscus niveigul- aris), Tree-creepers (C. himalayana ), Nuthatches (S. leucopsis and kashmiriensis), Warblers ( Phylloscopus proregulus and humii ), Blue Chats ( Larvivora brunnea ), Bush- Robins ( Ianthia rufilata ), Scarlet Minivets (P. brevirostris), Pied Woodpeckers [Dryobates himalayanus), Willow-Warblers ( Acanthopneuste occipitalis ), Fly- catchers (H emichelidon sibrica, Cyornis superciliaris and bicolor, and Alseonax ruficauda), Red-browed Finches, Eastern Meadow- Bunting and Turtle doves ( Streptopelia orientalis). We secured a young Larvivora brunuea with short tail which had evidently only just left the nest. The body plumage was squamated as in young robins but the wings and tail were decidedly bluish as in the adult male, which is interesting. August 4 \. Tragbal to Bandipore. Twelve miles. A steep descent from 9,500' to 5,000' through dense forest. It was rather hot when we got down and we were glad of the shelter of our house-boat which we found moored to the bank of the Wular Lake. We waited for our kit to be loaded on board and then started across the lake. 134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vot. XXXIV It was very different to our last crossing in April. The water of the lake was much lower and various water plants, chiefly the yellow flowering Limnanthemum nymphoeides (which is excellent pony and cattle fodder) and the water nut (Trapa bispinosa) almost covered the surface in places. We arrived safely on the far side of the lake in time for a cup of tea and then entered the Jhelum river, August 5. This was spent being paddled, poled or towed up the Jhelum river. We stopped at Sumbal en route and spent an hour or two on a jhil in a dug out. Here we saw numbers of great Reed- Warblers ( Acrocephalus stentoreus)y Whiskered Terns, Little Bitterns and Dabchicks and found nests, with eggs of the Reed- Warbler, and nests with eggs and young of the Tern. A nest of the Little Bittern contained six young of various ages from about three to nine days. They were the most comic little scare-crows with their tufts of long cream coloured hairs. August 6. We arrived back in Srinagar after 109 days on trek. It was a great relief to relapse into the luxuries of hotel life for a few days. We were however quite busy for the next five days re-sorting and packing our collections and kit, selling off our spare stuff and making ourselves respectable before returning to Europe. Of the three young Bluethroats I got at Kargil, one escaped on the Deosai, and another was killed by the large black ants so common in Rawalpindi. The sole survivor got safely to England after numerous vicissitudes and after a successful moult carried out in September on board ship settled down in excellent health in Oxford and lived through the extra severe winter on a diet of raw meat, pea meal and hard boiled egg helped out with meal worms. Unfortunately it escaped on March 10 and has never been heard of since. Possibly it will be produced in a stuffed condition as the latest addition to the list of British Birds ! The photographs illustrating the tour are by Mr. Whistler. THE FLOWERING OF BAMBOOS BY E. Blatter, s. j., ph.d., f.l.s. Part II ( Continued from page 921 of Vol. XXXIII) When Munro, in 1868, published his ‘ Monograph of the Bambusese, including descriptions of all the Species’, he enumerated 220 species. Gamble in his * Bambusese of British India ’ (1896) described 119 species from India, Burma, the Malay Peninsula and Ceylon. Since then 24 new species have been added and a few of the old ones reduced (See the writer’s paper ‘ The Indian Bam- boos brought up-to-date ’ in the Ind. Forester , Oct. and Nov. 1929.) At present the total number of species of Bamboos from all parts of the world amounts to about 500. I say on purpose c about ’, because not a few species are doubtful or very imperfectly known. As far as India and Burma are con- cerned, future explorations, especially in Burma, will add at least thirty-five species, including all those which are so imperfectly known at present that we are not even able to assign them to the right genus. As mentioned in the introduction, the list given above contains all those species of bamboos of the Old and New World of which any records as to the flowering time came under my notice. But the majority are Indian. The total number of species in the list is 137 and of varieties 11. Of 58 species and 2 varieties we possess only one record and we cannot, therefore, make use of them for our purpose. The difficulty of obtaining flowers of bamboos has always been very great. Humboldt mentions that Mons. Mutis botanized for 20 years in a country where Bambusa Guada H. & B. (now Guadua angzistifolia Kunth) formed marshy forests stretching for miles, without finding one specimen in flower. Humboldt found it worth while mentioning that Bonpland found it in flower once. Roxburgh, whose power of observation cannot be denied, confesses that he had only once the opportunity of seeing Bambusa Balcooa in flower. This was at the beginning of the nineteenth century and since then very few specimens have been gathered. A perusal of Gamble’s Monograph leads one almost to the conclusion that bamboos were avoided on purpose. I suppose practical diffi- culties in gathering and preserving such stubborn and unmanageable specimens has to do a good deal with the scarcity of bamboos in herbaria. In order to make a number of statements in the following pages intelligible, we must first explain some structures which are peculiar to the bamboos and which greatly influence the phenomena of flowering characteristic of the various groups and species. Two kinds of Rhizome The woody stems or culms of bamboos always arise from woody root stocks or rhizomes. There are two more or less distinct types of rootstock. One kind consists of short twisted and entangled masses producing clumps or tufts of more or less densely packed stems. In this case the bamboo is described as csespitose. Here the rootstock is short, and more or less directed downwards ; the nodes are close to each other and provided with a cluster of small rootlets. In addition we mostly find at every node a bud which will develop either into a root-branch or into astern. The branches of the rhizome get entangled and increase in number with the age of the rhizome, and, if they are very close together, it may happen that the whole clump of bamboos is raised more than a yard above ground. These root-branches develop during the same year which produced that part of the rhizome from which the branches sprang. 136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY \ Vol. XXXI V The rhizomes and their branches give rise to stems during the following 3 or 4 years. The stems first grow horizontally fora very short distance, then turn at a right angle and grow upwards close to the existing culms. Two very common Indian bam boos, viz.- Bambusa arundinacea Willd. and Dendrocalanius strictus Nees, can serve as examples of this type of root-stock. In the other kind of rhizome long underground branches are produced from which single stems or tufts of stems arise. The depth at which the root- branches creep underground is very variable ; it may reach two and even three feet or the branches may creep on the ground. Usually these branches follow fairly regularly a straight line which is only diverted by some obstacle. Very often the branches go round the obstacle and again assume the original direc- tion. The rootstock and its branches often show considerable vegetative action during the greater part of the year which is only reduced in winter. It is especially after the plant is several years old that the life-intensity becomes more pronounced. As in the preceding group the nodes of the rootstock are provided with clusters of rootlets and with buds arranged alternately to the right and left and at a distance from each other which remains fairly constant for specimens of the same species. The young shoots are lateral, arranged on an almost straight line. In opposition to the caespitose or tufted bamboo, the stems growing from the second type of rootstock are called isolated or spaced. It must, however, be noted that there is no strict rule for this classification and that the climate may, within certain limits, cause modifications. From the rhizome-branches of Melocanna v. g. there arise at intervals single stems. Stapf reproduces a note supplied by C. B. Clarke on a species of Melocanna. * When I was at Dacca in 1868, an officer who had been on survey in the East Cachar Hills, showed me a large seed of Melocanna ..... He told me that this bamboo occupied 6,000 square miles of country ; that it had fruited the last season ; that he stopped his survey six weeks earlier owing to the fall of seeds breaking theodolites and plane tables ; that the whole of the old plants had died after seeding ; that the whole country could be seen covered with seedlings ; in 1885 I marched from Muneypoor to Cachar, across the country reported to me by the surveyor in 1868, and was for several days in a uniform, almost pure iungle of Melocanna. — The powerful stolons formed a horizontal mass, and I with difficulty dug up the end of one, . . The stems of this bamboo, erect, solitary, about 1-2 yards apart, occupied the ground almost exclusively, with no jungle under them, and shut out all view.’ Other bamboos again, with the same type of rhizome, produce from the horizontal root-branches tufts of stems instead of only one culm ; this can be observed in several species of Phyllostachys. Intermediate forms between the single-stemmed and tufted bamboos are not wanting. Here belongs Dendro- calamus membranaceus Munro which produces loose or open clumps. Various Types of Flowering The habit of flowering in bamboos is very varied. Brandis, the pioneer in the exploration of this important group of Grasses, distinguishes three classes : — 1. Those which flower annually or nearly so, 2. Those which flower gregariously and periodically. 3. Those which flower irregularly. This division is fairly complete, especially as all those species which cannot be grouped under 1 or 2 will necessarily go to class 3, though it might, theoretically, be advisable to make some subdivisions as there are a few species which occupy an intermediate place. Annual Flowering In annually flowering species the same plant produces leaf-bearing and flowering culms. The flowering stems have a panicle of flowers at the top and bear no leaves or leaves in the lower part, and the plant does not die after seeding. To this class belong the Indian Arnndinaria Wightana Nees (Brandis has by mistake Wightii in Ind. Trees 662) and A. elegans Kurz1. It is strange 1 Munro in his Monograph puts Arnndinaria falcata Nees, A ■ khasiana Munro, A. hookeriana Munro and A. intermedia Munro under section II THE FLOWERING OF BAMBOOS 137 that A. falcata Nees flowers periodically at long intervals, whilst its variety glomeraia flowered almost every year at Kew on a certain number of culms, but the plant as a whole did not suffer, and must, therefore, be classed with the annually flowering species. In Brazil the annually flowering bamboos are better represented than in India and they belong chiefly to the genera Arundinaria, Guaduay Bambusa and others. Of Indian species we may still mention Bambusa lineata Munro which, according to Gamble, is constantly found in flower in the Botanic Gardens of Calcutta and Peradeniya, but other- wise indigenous in the Andamans and the Indian Archipelago. Ochlandra stridula Thw. of Ceylon and O. Rheedei Benth. & Hook, of South India are other species that flower annually and regularly and do not die down after flowering. It is very likely that several other species in India will have to be added to this class. Beans mentions that ot the Japanese plant Sasa auricoma E. G. Camus a few culms flower at Kew every year and that the plant is not affected.* 1 Gregarious and Periodical Flowering, In this case all stems of one clump and all clumps in one particular area flower at the same time. That area may be comparatively small or extend over hundreds of square miles. The leaves are shed and there is nothing left on the stem but one large panicle of flowers. After ripening their seed the culms die and with them, as a rule, also the rootstocks. The period which elapses between two gregarious flowerings is shorter or longer, but seems to be more or less regular for every species. How TO CALCULATE THE LENGTH OF PERIODS, I take for an example a very common species of bamboo, Bambusa arundinacea Willd. The periodicity of flowering is very pronounced in this characterized by the following words : — ‘ Culmi foliiferi et floriferi distinctly quotannis florigerentes , hieme necati vere surculis progerminant .’ In this he 'is not correct. A. falcata flowers both sporadicalty and gregariously, and the other species do not flower annually. 1 Troup (Silvicult. p.981) makes mention of Schizostachyumelegantissimum , a Java plant, of which Kurz says that it flowers and dies every third year, reaching a height of 20-25 feet. I cannot put this species in any of the three classes. But this is not of much importance as .S. elegantissimum is of very doubtful identity. Munro found in the herbarium some spathes with this note : ■ Beesha elegantissima , Kurz. Caulibus tenuibus , gracillimis , altissimis, ramis terminalibus pend alls culmos truncosque arborum hosce sustinentes velantibus .’ Hassk. PI. Jav. rar. 42 includes this species under the name of Bambusa elegantissima Hassk. and gives as locality ‘ Java, in sylvis elalis .’ Then the species lay dormant till Gamble in his Ind. Bambusece (p. 114) revived it under Schizostachyum tenue Gamble. 1 1 cannot help thinking this (S. tenue ) may be the plant described as Schizostachyum elegantissimumy Kurz in Ind. For. I 348 = Ba7nbusa elegantissima Hassk. PI. Jav. rar. 42 - Beesha elegantissima Kurz, Munro in Trans. Linn, Soc. xxvi. 146, but the specimens in the Calcutta Herbarium do not agree very well, and I have therefore preferred to describe it afresh. It is near .S’, chilianthum , but it is much more slender and has fewer heads, often reduced to 1 only.’ Surely these are sufficient reasons for not identifying Kurz’s species with S. tenue. But here the story does not end. In 1908 Gamble described the new genus Oreiostachys in Proc. Roy. Acad. Amsterdam X (1908), 685. In the same place he published the new species O. Pull-el Gamble. In 1913 Camus (Bambusees, p. 26) gives the following synonymy of O. Pullei : O. elegantissima (Kurz) Val. — Beesha elegantissima Kurz ? —Schizostachyum elegantissimum Kurz ? Here we have another puzzle. Camus says that his plate 80, f. B. was drawn from a specimen sent to him from Buitenzorg under the name Oreiostachys elegantissimum (No. 63, Herb. Hort. Bog.). Apparently the Buitenzorg authorities considered their specimen to be identical with Kurz’s plant. But why does Camus doubt it ? There is one point that shows that Kurz had a different plant before him and it is this : Schizostachyum elegantissimum Kurz flowered every third year, whilst Oreiostachys Pullei flowers rarely. Kurz’s species is therefore neither Schizostachyum tenue Gamble nor Oreiostachys Pullei Gamble. Sed quid est ? 18 138 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXX TV bamboo, though isolated clumps are found occasionally, some in the year previous to the flowering, and others in the year following. Brandis has calculated that general flowering takes place in periods of 30-32 years, Gamble at intervals of 30 roughly, Troup of 32-34 years, Parker of 45 years. What is the meaning of these periods ? it does not mean that the same clumps which have flowered together in one year continue growing for a certain period and flower again gregariously over a certain area. It was pointed out above that after gregarious flowering the stems and generally even the rootstock die down. The period, therefore, indicates at the same time the age of the species or its physiological life-cycle. As soon as the bamboo has flowered, the seeds begin to develop and in the year following start germinating. This is the beginning of the life-cycle of the new plant or of a new period. I invite the reader to look up Bambusa arundinacea in the list of Pt. 1. About 18 records of flowering are put down as gregarious. About the rest I was not sure. Gregarious flowering took place in 1804, 1836, 1866, 1869, 1878, 1881, 1882, 1896, 1900, 1910, 1912, 1912-15, 1913, 1913-15, and after a recent note by Parker in 1926. It is evident that not all the records can be utilized for .ascertaining the length of the period. The records must refer to the same area. It will not dov.g. to connect 1804 of the W. Coast of India with 1836 of Dehra Dun and to conclude from it that the period is 32 years, or 1862 of the W. Coast of India with 1896 of Coimbatore concluding that the period is 34 years. This method is wrong, though the result might, by chance, be correct. Brandis utilized the following records made in one area, viz., Malabar, South Kanara, the Wynaad and Coorg : 1804, 1836 (not mentioned in my list) and 1866. The first two records give a period of 32 years, the second and third of 30 years. Then he takes two records from the Narbudda river: 1839 near Jubbul pore and 1870 at Jubbulpore. Result : a period of 31 years. Troup says that the period lasts 34 years, but he does not point out which data he utilized. I do not doubt the correctness of his records when he says that there were gregarious flowerings about 1874 to 1884, ‘ mainly in 1878 ’ and ‘ about 1905 to 1918, chiefly 1912’, all observed in Kanara, Belgaum and Dharwar. If we take those data which he qualifies as ‘ mainly’ and ‘chiefly’, viz. 1878 and 1912, then the period must be 34 years. What he exactly means by ‘ about 1874 to 1884’ and ‘about 1905 to 1918’ is not quite clear from his account ; very likely he had more definite details about those years and the corres- ponding areas before him, otherwise he would not have mentioned them. The flowering period would therefore be 30-34 years. But then we have two records from Dehra Dun where a general flowering of this species was noted in 1836, 1881 and 1926, i.e., at an interval of 45 years. But before we accept this conclusion, it may be useful to remember that the bamboos of Dehra Dun were not a natural growth, but had been planted. How cultivated bamboos behave with regard to their flowering we shall see later on. The question would now naturally arise whether one and the same species has different flowering periods in one and the same area, considering climatic conditions or, to put it more clearly : Can the climate influence the length of flowering periods ? We shall come back to this question later on. Bambusa arundinacea is a characteristic example of gregarious periodical flowering. We must not, however, think that between two gregarious flower- ings it is never seen in flower. Occasionally we find isolated clumps in flower. It is not rare that a few clumps flower during the year preceding the general flowering and others during the year succeeding it. Another phenomenon must be mentioned which has been observed in this and other species. Troup describes it in this way : ‘ In many cases it (the flowering) has been observed to commence in one locality and to spread like a wave in a definite direction, taking a few years to extend over the whole flowering area.’ Bambusa arundinacea v.g. according to the same author began flowering in 1912 on plateau tracts of the Wynaad and spread south- wards to Kollegal and Coimbatore where it ended in 1915. There are no records to show that in succeeding general flowerings the same wave-like progress over a greater area has occurred. We shall return to this point below. There is no bamboo of which we possess more numerous and better records as to its flowering than Bambusa arundinacea , and still we have to admit that they are not quite satisfactory. If we wish to obtain reliable results. THE FLOWERING OF BAMBOOS 139 we must have exact data for some particular district with uniform conditions of soil, rain, moisture, temperature, wind, exposure and elevation. If there are isolated flowerings preliminary to or following the general flowerings, the possible cause should be ascertained which under the above conditions are very likely to be found in the quality of the soil and its water-content in that particular spot where the flowering occurred. The other conditions, as they are supposed to be uniform, cannot vary so easily within a limited area. Another point must not be overlooked. If an observer in his botanical rambles is on a sudden confronted with a general flowering, it is evident that he cannot know when the last flowering in that precise locality took place. But he cannot even be sure that all the bamboos he has before him are the result of the last general flowering. There are very few people who have seen two successive general flowerings of a long-lived bamboo. It is, therefore, not the individual who can be expected to make reliable observations on this point, but the Botanical and Forest Departments which, on account of their continuity, are in a position to start experiments and observations for a prolonged period. Other Species with Characteristic Periodic Flowering Bambusa polymorpha Munro has always been considered to flower at long intervals and the flowering itself as remarkably gregarious. After flowering the plants die. In 1899 Brandis writes : ‘ It may not, I fear, be possible to put together at the present time, a complete history of the flowering of Bambusa polymorpha in Pegu in 1859 and subsequent years.’ As a matter of fact he had only a few records at his disposal and it was impossible to connect them in such a way as to enable him to draw a satisfactory conclusion. When Troup states that in Prome it is reported to have flowered over an area of about 3 square miles in 1914, he adds •• ‘ This is the first record of anything approaching gregarious flowering for about 55 years ’. He evidently refers to the general flowerings of 1859 on the west side of the Pegu Yoma. Immediately afterwards he says that in 1918 there have been signs of an approaching general flowering on the west side of the Pegu Yoma and ‘ if this materializes ’ he continues, ‘ the life-cycle of the bamboo may be placed at about 60 years or a little more.’ Here, too, Troup seems to connect the possible general flowering with that of 1859. It seems to me that the records of flowering of this species are too scanty and that especially the localities where general flowering has occurred are not sufficiently well defined to furnish an accurate conclusion. In some cases the information is not even definite. This applies to the gatherings of 1862 and 1871. I draw attention to what Brandis says : ‘ I am disposed to think that the specimens gathered in 1862 and 1871, must have come from clumps which had flowered out of their time.’ After all they may have flowered in time. Melocanna bambusoides Trin. is another species exhibiting gregarious and periodic flowering. The length of the period, according to Gamble, is about 30 years, according to Kurz 30-35 years, and according to Troup about 45 years. Our list in Pt. I yields almost any length of flowering period. The bamboo flowered in Chittagong and Arakan in 1863-1866 and again in 1901, 1902 and 1904 over restricted areas ; the period, therefore, would be about 38 years. There was again an extensive flowering from 1908-12, therefore, a period of about 10 years. Arakan saw once more extensive flowering between 1910-13 and a gregarious flowering between 1915-16. If we connect this latter flowering with the big gregarious event of 1863 -1866, the period reaches at least about 50 years. But if we take the flowering of 1908-12 and 1863-1866 in Chittagong we obtain Troup’s period, i.e., 45 years. This seems to make it evident that the records are not sufficient for any definite conclusion. It is not enough to know that there was a gregarious or extensive flowering in a certain country or district and that after some time another extensive flowering took place in the same country or district. We have to know the exact area and without that important detail all our records and, consequently, all our conclusions, are vitiated. This defect can be clearly illustrated by the following facts : — Melocanna flowered in the Garo Hills in 1889, in Assam in 1892, again in the Garo Hills from 1900-1902. (We are allowed to include Assam, as by Assam evidently the south-west corner of the Kamrup District is meant). We have, therefore, in the Garo Hills at least 3 flowerings during a period of about 12 years, and that 140 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fb/. XXXIV within a limited area. But we have no evidence to show which part of the area was affected in each case, nor can we ascertain, how far the flowering was general in the affected areas. Irregularly Flowering Species Brandis gives the following description of this class of bamboos : — ‘ One or a few culms in one clump, or a few clumps in one locality, are in flower at any one time, while at other times all culms of one clump and all clumps in one district are simultaneously covered with flowers.’ ( Ind . Trees , 662). Some years earlier, Brandis expressed the same in the following words which bring out some points more clearly : — * Some [species] at times are found in flower over large areas and after a series of years they are found to flower again in the same locality. The same species, however, is also found to flower sporadically, and in such cases leaf-bearing stems are not rarely found in a flowering clump, and at times some of the flowering stems bear leaves.* It comes to this that irregularly flowering' species flower gregariously and periodicaily at apparently definite intervals and at the same time sporadically at shorter intervals. Logically considered, it is not a good class, because it is practically impossible to draw a sharp line between gregarious flowering on a smaller scale and sporadic flowering on a larger scale, because in nature the two merge into each other. We also know that some species exhibit a distinct tendency to produce flowers gregariously at long intervals and rarely sporadi- cally, whilst other species show sporadical flowering almost every year and gregarious flowering occasionally. But where can we draw a definite line between the two? Still, for convenience’s sake, I retain this class. Some Types of Irregularly Flowering Bamboos Dendrocalamus strictus Nees, a bamboo of very wide distribution, furnishes a good example of this kind of flowering. There seems to be no doubt that there are gregarious flowerings. Troup connects the general flowering of 1872— 76 in the Garhwal outer Himalayan tract with that of 1908-13 in the same country and concludes the period to be 36-40 years. But how do we know that there was no gregarious flowering between the two dates in the same tract ? And if there have been none, how can we find out that the second flowering took place on bamboos derived from the seeds of the first flowering ? In a hilly country like the Garhwal outer Himalayan tract, there are possibilities of seed- dispersal which justify my question. My doubt about the complete absence of flowerings during the period above mentioned is founded on the following consideration : —Dendrocalamus strictus is the most common and most widely spread of the Indian bamboos, occurring throughout the greater part of India, except in Northern and Eastern Bengal and Assam. In the drier types of mixed forest in Burma it is common. In many parts of the Siwalik tract and outer Himalaya from the Punjab eastward to Nepal, it is abundant (Troup). It is common throughout the hills of the Eastern and Western Ghats and of Central and Southern India. It also extends to Singapore and Java. Now7 of this bamboo we possess for the last 60 years about 35 records of gregarious flowering for the whole area occupied by this species, or roughly, one for two years. This is an extremely poor record when we consider that in every botanical region of India general flowering must take place at different times in different smaller areas. Of the Bombay Presidency we have one record, of the Central Provinces five, of the whole of Burma only nine. If we take the latter records as they stand, we might connect for Tharrawaddy the years 1865, 1888, 1895, 1912 and 1913, with the results that there were flowering periods of 23, 7, 17 and 1'8 years. But then Tharrawaddy is a comparatively large area and we don’t know where exactly gregarious flowering occurred. It is again the absence of definite information on the exact locality of flowering which makes it impossible to draw7 reliable conclusions. In addition to gregarious flowering, we can observe in this bamboo sporadic flowering, i.e., isolated clumps or small groups of clumps are in flower almost every year. According to Troup, gregarious flowering usually takes some years to complete, and is often progressing in a definite direction in successive years. Troup evidently considers this progressive flowering as one big gregarious flowering, instead of as many gregarious flowerings on a smaller scale as there THE FLOWERING OF BAMBOOS 141 are years of records. This is one way of looking at things, and perhaps the correct one, and one which will very likely help us in the explanation of the periodicity later on ; but for ascertaining periods of flowering the separation of years with the area occupied by flowering bamboos during those years respectively will, I have no doubt, prove more advantageous. To the same class of irregularly flowering species belong Dendrocalamus Brandisii Kurz, D. longispathus Kurz, D. HamiUonii Nees & Arn. Of the last we have three records of gregarious flowering from the Ruby Mines Districts in Upper Burma 1910, 1911, 1914. How far did the gregarious flowering in each year extend ? We have no data to ascertain the periods of gregarious flowering. Hooker f. says that it flowers every year ; I suppose he means sporadically. Parker mentions that it flowers periodically at long intervals. Our records go back to 1894 only, too short a time to calculate long intervals, even if we had more data at our disposal. Of Dendrocalamus Brandisii Kurz, Brandis says that it flowers frequently, and according to Troup it flowers sporadically as well as gregariously. Period not known. Dendrocalamus longispathus behaves in the same way. Cephalostachyum pergracile Munro, one of the commonest and most widely spread bamboos of Burma, flowers frequently and may be found flowering sporadically almost any year. Though we possess quite a number of records of gregarious flowering from 1859 up to 1917, there are not two data which we could connect for the purpose of measuring the periods. Cephalostachyum capitatum Munro is a bamboo of the N. E. Himalaya and Assam. Gamble thinks that it * appears to flower at very frequent intervals’ as it has been recorded in Sikkim in 1848 ?, 1866, 1869, 1874, 1878, 1892, and in the Khasia Hills in 1830, 1835, 1850, 1871-72. All these dates refer to sporadic flowering. I cannot agree with Gamble when he thinks that these 11 records indicate flowering at ‘ very frequent intervals.’ After all the area is a very extensive one and it has been explored during a period of over 60 years, by men who were known as able collectors and botanists — Griffith, Anderson, Clarke, King and Gammie. This gives for the whole about one record for 10 years over the whole area. Of gregarious flowerings of this species we have only one record. The seeding happened in Gamble’s own observation in 1874, ‘ when large tracts in the Chel and Neora valleys in British Bhutan covered with this species died off and became the scene of a great conflagration in the following year.’ Bambusa Tidda Roxb. is a native of Central and Eastern Bengal, Assam and Burma, and very commonly cultivated around the villages of Lower Bengal. Of this species the records 1 are fairly numerous but not sufficient to show whether the periods are long or short. As to sporadic flowering we have only the general statetment by Brandis : ‘ At times flowers gregariously, while at other times single clumps are in flower.’ It is strange that amongst all the data of flowering there is not one recording a sporadic flowering, unless we call Troup’s record of 1903-5 from Tharrawaddy a case of sporadic flowering. He characterizes it as a fairly extensive flowering in single clumps or groups of varying extent, and calls it gregarious flowering. Here we have a case where it is difficult to say whether it should go by the name of gregarious or sporadic- flowering. 1 Troup says that Brandis \ lnd. For , xxv (1899) 12] records various flowering years, but he is not certain if these refer to gregarious flowering or to years in which flowers were gathered. It seems to me there can be no doubt about the meaning of the records given by Brandis judging from the context. After giving a list of them he continues : ‘ Isolated clumps of this species, however, not rarely come into flower.’ This evidently indicates an opposition of isolated or sporadic to gregarious flowering. ( To be continued. ) NOTES FROM AN EXPEDITION FOR OVIS POLI BY William J. Morden Field Associate in Mammalogy American Museum of Natural History New York City ( With two plates) The collection of a series of Great Pamir Sheep ( Ovis poli) for exhibition and study purposes was one of the primary objects of the Morden-Clark Asiatic Expedition of the American Museum of Natural History, of which I was the leader, and of which James L. Clark, Assistant Director of the Museum was the other member. Mr. Clark and I left New York the latter part of January, 1926 and went to Srinagar, Kashmir, from where we started northward via the Gilgit Road. For several years I had been working on plans for an expedition to the Pamirs and Central Asia, and during six months spent in Baitistan, Astor, Ladakh and Kashmir, I had made all possible inquiries regarding routes and seasons and the best localities in which to work. Replies to my inquiries had indicated, however, that for some ten or fifteen years there had been very few good specimens of Marco Polo’s sheep brought out from the Pamirs. Opinions seemed to be divided as to the cause of the scarcity of these animals. Some said that an epidemic had decimated the once numerous herds, others that since the war, modern fire-arms in the hands of natives had caused a great thinning-out of the animals. Altogether the reports were very discouraging. One thing, however, was noticeable. I was able to find no one who had been, for some years at least, inside the Russian border. All reports as to the numbers of sheep came from the Tagdumbash Pamir, the only portion of the range of Ovis poli at present available to sportsmen. It occurred to me that, were I able to obtain permission to operate in the Russian Pamirs, it might be that the sheep would be found in sufficient numbers to warrant a Museum expedition to collect a representative series. Through the courtesy of friends in India and in London, I was accorded permission to take my expedition from Kashmir directly northward throug'h Gilgit and Hunza, and, after some negotiation with Moscow, I was also accorded special permission to enter and travel in the Russian Pamirs, which, of course, are normally strictly forbidden to foreigners. NOTES FROM AN EXPEDITION FOR OVIS POLI 143 A portion of our equipment, including arms and ammunition, sleeping bags, saddles and bridles, and most of our clothing, was taken with us from New York; tents and a few items of food we purchased in London, while the balance of our supplies we obtained from Cockburn’s Agency in Srinagar. The Agency also engaged our Kashmiri staff, only one of whom needs special comment. Hassan Bat, our Shikari , had previously been to the Pamirs and to the Thian Shan Mountains and knew a quite useful amount of Turki. Although Hassan Bat had the usual Kashmiri failings, he served us very well. Owing to the early season at which we were leaving Srinagar, we were requested by the Government to limit our transportation requirements to sixty coolies, as it was the planting season in the territories of Gilgit and Hunza. We took with us supplies for five months only, for after our work in the Pamirs, we expected to continue northward to the Thian Shan Mountains, collect ibex, roe-deer and such other animals as time permitted, and then push eastward to Hami, where by arrangement we were to meet Dr. Roy Chapman Andrews, Leader of the Central Asiatic Expeditions of the American. Museum. With him we were to travel eastward across the Gobi Desert to' China. It became necessary, however, due to Andrews’ being held in Peking by the Civil War in China, for us to make our five months’ supplies, eked out by what could be purchased in the bazaars of Kashgar and Urumchi, last until we reached the Trans-Siberian Railroad, just nine months after leaving Srinagar. Travel over the Gilgit Road is so familiar to the readers of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society that there is no need of my enlarging upon the journey from Srinagar to the Mintaka Pass, except to say that we started from Bandipur on April 1st, and found heavy going over the Tragbal and Burzil Passes. Through the courtesy of Major Lock in Gilgit and Major Gillan at Kashgar, we made excellent time northward from Srinagar and crossed the Mintaka Pass on April 24:th. In the Tagdumbash Pamir, snow conditions were much less severe than they had been found in the higher country near the Pass. Kirghiz encampments were found at Lupgoz and Mintaka Karaul, and from these we were able to obtain yaks for riding and transport. We were also able to use yurts , which are by far the most comfortable accommodation that I have ever used in the open. From Mintaka Karaul, we went to Peyik, and at that point turned from the Tagdumbash Pamir, by Peyik-jilga, to just below the foot of Peyik Pass, which there divides Chinese and Russian territory. We arrived at Peyik Pass on the 28th of April. At our request, Major Gillan, the British Consul-General at Kashgar, had sent thirty ponies to meet us at Peyik, and eight of these we loaded with equipment which would not be needed in the Pamirs and sent them direct to Kashgar. The balance of the ponies we took with us, but found that due to the lack of forage at that season of the year, they had to be sent back to Kashgar. On our way to Peyik, we were joined by a well-known character of the Tagdumbash Pamir, Nadir Beg, a Sarakoli from Tashkurgan, 144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Voh XXXIV who has been with many shooting- parties both in the Tagdumbash and on the Russian side of the border. Nadir Beg- was with us during the entire month spent in the Pamirs, and was of the greatest assistance to us. From him and from other Sarakolis, we heard many tales regarding the treatment which travellers in the Russian territory might expect to receive. According to them, the best that we could hope for would be arrest, robbery and deportation. Although our credentials were of the best, we thought it wise to send a messenger ahead with our papers and to' await his return on the Tagdumbash side of Peyik Pass. While waiting for him, we spent a few days looking for Ovis poli in Peyik-jilga, but though we saw old tracks and a few old heads, it was evident that sheep were very scarce, at least at that season. Our messenger finally returned with word that we might go ahead, so we proceeded over Peyik Pass on April 30th. About ten miles in- side the border we were met by a detachment of the Russian Border Patrol, who brought a letter of welcome from the commanding officer of Kizil Rabat Post. These chaps were very friendly, and appeared clean, well-disciplined and excellently equipped. The officer in command of the detachment told us that yurts had been prepared for our use some five miles down the valley, and we followed our escort to them. On our way down, thirteen poli rams were seen on a snow field high up on the ' side of a mountain. Examination through glasses and telescopes showed that one, at least, carried quite an excellent head. It was a comforting sight, for we had been a little discouraged at not finding recent signs of sheep in Peyik-jilga. After a day at that camp, we followed our escort to Kizil Rabat Post, a small mud building with two or three yurts and a tiny compound, about thirty miles from Peyik Pass. We were told by the commanding officer at Kizil Rabat, after he had examined our credentials, that we were free to travel wherever we wished in the Pamirs, and that, if we desired, he would arrange for yurts to1 be placed at our disposal at each camp. This was done, and except for one camp which was simply an over-night stop, it was not necessary to use tents during the month we spent in the Pamirs. From Kizil Rabat we returned to our first camp near Peyik Pass and spent several days in hunting, but snow still lay deeply in the mountains, which made the work exceedingly difficult. We saw several bands of rams, but no large heads were seen and as the deep snow made it impossible to travel far from camp during any one day’s hunt, we moved camp beyond Kizil Rabat to a location locally known as Ak-Tsoi, on the edge of the Little Pamir. Although no specimens were collected here we were able to make some sketches and studies of poli by observing the animal through telescopes. After two or three days we again moved camp to Dunggelduk, the local name for a narrow jilga which proved to be excellent sheep country. Around that section we saw many large bands of poli , and it was there that we obtained four mature rams for the collection. The largest of these measured 5-7.J inches around the curl, which was, with one or two exceptions, the largest we saw during our month in the Pamirs. f OURN. Bombay Nat. Htst. Soc. PLATE I. i. — Dung-Gelduk jilga, Russian Pamirs. Camp of the Morden-Clark Asiatic Expedition. 2. — William J. Morden and James Clark with escort of Russian Border Patrol from Kizil Rabat. (Morden right, Clark left.) 3- — Examining band of Ovis poli with telescopes, Russian Pamirs. PLATE II. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 4. — Ovis poli ram shot by James Clark, Morden-Clark Expedition, American Museum of Natural History, Russian Pamirs, May, 1926. Curl 57^ inches. NOTES FROM AN EXPEDITION FOR OVIS POLI 14S Previous to my work in the Pamirs, I had had considerable experience in sheep hunting, having shot seven varieties of wild sheep in North America and Asia. Before going to the Pamirs, I had made a careful study of the horns of Ovis poli so that I felt that I was able to1 judge, fairly accurately, their length when viewed through a telescope. Clark, also, was not a novice with sheep, as his position in the Museum and his private work as a taxidermist had brought him into contact with many different sheep heads from various parts of the world. It was our mature opinion that of the large number of Ovis poli rams which we examined through the telescope, none were appreciably larger than the ones which we collected. From experience gained in measuring many old heads and from the study and observation of fully a thousand living animals and from the specimens which we collected, we came to the conclusion that at present the average length of adult Ovis poli horns is about 52 inches. That there are many with horns of greater length there can be no doubt, for we ourselves obtained five which measured from 55 inches to 57-J inches. It is quite possible, also, that a world’s record head now ranges somewhere among the secluded valleys of the Pamirs, but we ourselves are quite positive that large head^are scarce at the present time. From our examination of old heads and those collected, it is our judgment that about 15 inches is the average base measurement of the heads of full-grown rams, although one or two of ours measured slightly over 16 inches, and there are records of base measurements of 17 inches. Generally speaking, Ovis poli horns form an open spiral. This is particularly true in younger animals. Usually the horns form almost a complete circle and are not as ‘nipped in’ at the bottom of the first curl as is typical of the Ovis ammon of the Altai. There are exceptions to this rule, however. We saw several rams which carried horns of much the same type as those of Ovis canadensis of North America; others had the horns ‘nipped in’ close to the face with the wide flares typical of the Altai sheep. Many rams with broken horns were observed during our hunting and observation. Frequently it was the right horn which was broken, though there seemed no good reason for it to be the right horn rather than the left. Often the broken stump appeared to be not much over a foot long and usually the break seemed clean and square. Horns which were broken at the top due to fighting were frequently seen ; one ram with an otherwise beautiful head had the cores of both horns showing for several inches along the tops. Quite frequently the tips of the horns were broken or worn away, and nearly all of our large specimens would have been at least three inches longer had the tips been intact. Every adult male that we obtained had scars on the head due to fighting, and there were deeply rubbed spots on the front of each shoulder caused by the horns when the animal turned his head. In every specimen the hair on the back of the lower front legs was badly worn away from pawing through the snow. Ovis poli are rather lightly built, and their bones seem very delicate for animals living in such rocky country. Neither are they exceptionally muscular, and the necks of the rams hardly seem 19 146 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , XXXIV adequate for the carrying of such heavy heads. A carefully weighed large ram totalled 239 pounds. It must be remembered, however, that this was a spring weight, which in the fall would probably be increased by 25 to 50 pounds. All of the specimens which we collected were exceedingly thin and their ribs showed noticeably. All the sheep collected by us were in excellent winter pelage and their heavy coats made them appear larger than they really were. Winter coats are shed about the end of May and this process was just beginning when we left the Pamirs. The coats on specimens collected in summer and early fall are short and differ somewhat from the winter pelage. In early morning and at a distance, poli appear creamy white with light brownish saddles. Closer examination confirms this first impression, except that the white and the brown connect by an intermediate grayish tinge which blends the two and runs up the back of the neck. This gray fades out just behind the horns where the hair is almost white. The horns are yellow-white, something like the shade of old ivory. When the mirage of bright noon-day makes all objects at a distance indistinct, counter-shading will sometimes cause a band of poli to be almost invisible against slopes of broken rock, even when the animals are but two or three hundred yards away. Young lambs are a uniform dark gray, and this coloration seems to continue until after the first year, for yearlings, while lighter than lambs, are what might be termed a ‘mouse-gray.1 Poli are infested with great numbers of parasites. All adult specimens collected by us had quantities of grubs under the skin ; sometimes large areas, particularly along the back, would be perforated and the hair would be quite loose at those points. There were grubs also in the noses of many specimens and all were infested with ticks. As is usual with wild sheep, in the spring-time the rams herd strictly by themselves. It was noticeable that the larger males usually kept together, though we saw a few bands which contained one or two immature rams of two or three years and we once saw a yearling with a number of full grown rams. Large herds of ewes and yearlings were common during early May, but about the 20th of the month, ewes became scarce and the yearlings were seen in groups by themselves or with one or two immature rams. We first saw new born lambs on the 24th of May and from then' on in increasing numbers. Ewes undoubtedly seek secluded places among the peaks at lambing time, which would account for their scarcity on the lower levels at that season. One morning we sighted a ewe from a distance and were attracted by her strange actions. She appeared lost, for she went uncertainly forward, gazed back, and then returned a little way, apparently to feed. It was only by careful use of the telescope that we finally distinguished the tiny dark form of a lamb stumbling along after its mother. Although the new born lambs were very wobbly for the first day or two, later when we tried to capture one of them we found that they attained surprising agility in a very few days. During the summer, when it becomes quite hot in the middle of the day, there is a fair growth of grass over portions of the Pamir NOTES FROM AN EXPEDITION FOR OVIS POLI 147 region, but in the spring-time the diet of the poli is very limited. Tiny bunches of wiry grass grow here and there among the rocks, and about the middle of May a variety of wild onion makes its appearance in sandy areas. We saw sheep pawing through the sand to obtain the first shoots of the onions which had not yet reached the surface. This apparently forms a considerable portion of the spring forage of the poli and at that season the animals have a strong odour and their meat is richly flavoured. After we had pretty thoroughly exhausted the possibilities of the region around Dung-gelduk, we moved to another, known locally as Kuzgun, and after a day or two there, to Ak-jilga, which we found to contain a larger number of sheep than any we had worked in previously. For ten days we covered the country on yaks and were able to complete the series with females, young and one or two other large rams. Almost everywhere we found Kirghiz camp sites, and around these were always many old poli heads. In fact, bleaching horns and skulls dotted the country everywhere. At first we thought that this great number of sheep had been killed by wolves or by severe winters. We learned, however, that the Kirghiz annually kill a considerable number of poli for their meat and hides. At the present time modern fire-arms are just making their appearance, but every camp contains one or more ancient home- made matchlock guns, and once or twice we were shown Russian breech-loading rifles. The usual method of hunting of the Kirghiz shikaris is to lie behind rocks or blinds while other members of the hunting party drive the sheep past the waiting guns. It would seem probable that in a few years, with modern fire-arms becoming more widely used, the herds of Ovis poli will be considerably decimated. While it is, of course, impossible accurately to estimate the number of Ovis poli now ranging in the Pamirs, it is certain that their number is considerable. In the month that Clark and I hunted and travelled in the Russian Pamirs, we actually counted 1,052 rams and 607 ewes and young. These figures are on the conservative side, for we made generous allowances for possible duplications. Furthermore, in this number were included no animals we did not actually ’ see and count ourselves. Several times, our shikaris told us of large herds which they had seen, but these we did not include in the total. Roughly, the range of Ovis poli may be said to extend from the Thian Shan Mountains on the north, south through the Pamirs to the Valley of the Oxus, usually at an altitude of from twelve to eighteen thousand feet. In the Tagdumbash Pamir it would seem that they are now scarce. We were told by the Russians at Kizil Rabat Post that they extend on the west to the limits of the Pamirs. We, of course, though we covered considerable territory in actual area, saw but a small portion of their range. Other large mammals of the Pamirs are ibex, wolves, foxes, snow-leopards and bears. Marmots are, of course, everywhere. Ibex usually range among the higher and more rocky hills dividing the valleys, though once or twice we saw ibex low on the slopes not far from bands of poli. A few old ibex horns were seen 148 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV in various places, but not in the numbers that Asheep heads were found. The Kirghiz do not kill many ibex, probably because the sheep are easier to get and their meat is better. Wolves and foxes are common all over the Pamir region. We were told that wolves were very plentiful, particularly in the Great Pamir, where they were a pest. The single, specimen which came under our observation was silvery gray and at a distance looked considerably smaller than the North American timber wolf. We saw many wolf tracks in fresh snow and some otherwise inexplicable movements of bands of poli were probably due to the unseen presence of wolves. Red foxes were seen on several occasions ; once I saw a red fox trying to kill a marmot. The two rolled down a rocky slope just ahead of me, and so far as I could see, the fox did not seem to be having much the better of the battle. I took a hurried shot at. the moving mass which, although it missed, served to1 disentangle the two and the marmot dived among the rocks, seemingly little the worse for the encounter. We saw no snow-leopards, although natives said that they were occasionally seen. A few tracks in the snow were the only evidences of their presence, but as they are almost entirely nocturnal, it is not surprising* that we saw none. One day, while watching a distant band of poli from a hillside, we saw a large bear with two cubs rapidly climbing a rocky slope some distance to our right. Before we could get a shot at them they were out of range, and although we followed as rapidly as possible to the ridge over which they had disappeared, there was no sign of the animals in the valley beyond. The old bear had looked large, with a heavy coat of fur much like that of a big ‘silver- tip’ grizzly. The Kirghiz told us that bears, although sometimes seen, are not common in the Pamirs. Those that we saw probably belonged to the Ursus arctus group, of which the Himalayan Brown Bear ( Ursus arctus isabellinus), is a member. I have purposely not given any day by day report of our experiences in hunting, for the actual hunting of O vis poli is very similar to the hunting of other varieties of mountain sheep. The country is not unlike the ‘ammon’ country of Rupshu in Ladakh, though altitudes, on the whole, average somewhat lower. Yaks are used for riding, of course, and are of the greatest assistance, for often long distances must be covered in a single day’s hunting. Local guides may be obtained from various Kirghiz camps, but these shikaris are principally useful because they know the immediate Terrain. They cannot be relied upon to judge the size of Ovis poli horns, for to them, as to the usual native shikari , every head is ‘the best head’. In conclusion I can only say that, if one is able to obtain a permit to enter the Russian Pamirs, a hunting trip for Ovis poli presents no unusual difficulties and is a thoroughly enjoyable experience. REPORT ON A COLLECTION OF ANTS IN THE INDIAN MUSEUM, CALCUTTA1 BY Durgadas Mukerjee, Lecturer in Zoology , Calcutta University . ( With a plate and 6 text-figures ) This report is based on a collection of ants received through the courtesy of Lieut. -Colonel R. B. Seymour Sewell, Director of the Zoological Survey of India, to whom my best thanks are due. The collection consists of 42 species representing five different sub-families. The majority of the collection is from the Himalayas, but there are a few specimens from the Palni Hills, South India, and from Calcutta. In the report besides recording several of the well- known older species I have included descriptions of six new species. I have followed here Bingham’s nomenclature as used in his volume on Hymenoptera in the Fauna of British India Series, and have given only a few of the synonyms of the species for the purpose of reference. The arrangement into different sub-families and tribes, however, is based on Emery’s recent classification as expounded in the Genera Insectorum. Sub-family : Dorylin^e Leach. Dorylus orientalis Westw. 1835. Dorylus orientalis , Westwood, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, v, p. 72. 3903. Dorylus orientalis , Bingham, Faun . Brit . Ind ., Hymenoptera , ii, p. 4, fig. 7. 1910. Dorylus ( Alaopone ) orientalis , Emery, Genera Insectorum , Hymen* optera , p. 10. This species, as was pointed out by Lefroy,2 is subterranean in habits and attacks plants at their bases or roots. Workers of this species were found by Lancaster on Dahlias and on a fungoid pest of Larkspur in the Agri-Horti- culture Garden, Alipore, Calcutta, while their nests in the earth under bricks and stones, were noted by Rothney3 in Barrackpore. Wheeler4 recorded many workers from Lobo (alt. 400 ft.) in rotten wood. The species has a wide distribution in India, Burma, and has also been recorded from the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra and Java. Sub-family : Ponerin^e Lepeletier, TRIBE: ODONTOMACHINI Mayr. Odontomachus punctulatus Forel. 1900. Odontomachus monticola , race punctulatus , Forel, Jou. n . Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xii, p. 58. 1903. Odontomachus p2inctulatus, Bingham, op. cit., p. 49, fig. 28. The collection includes a single specimen of this species which was collected by Dr. F. H. Gravely at Kalimpong (alt. 4,500 ft ), Darjeeling district, Eastern Himalayas. The species occurs also in Sikkim and Upper Burma. 1 Read before the Fifteenth Session of the Indian Science Congress held at Calcutta, 1928. 2 Lefroy, H. M., Indian Insect Life, p. 227 (1909). 3 Rothney, G. A., Trans. EnT.'Soir: London, i, p. 109 (1903). 4 Wheeler, W.M., Rec. Ind. Mus., viii, p. 233 (1913). 150 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV Lobopelta diminuta Smith. 1857. Ponera diminuta , Smith, Journ . Linn. Soc., London, ii, p. 69. 1903. Lobopelta diminuta, Bingham, op. cit., p. 61. 1911. Lobopelta diminuta , Emery, op. cit ., p. 103. A nest of this species, containing eggs, larvae, cocoons, males and workers, was found below the grasses in the College compound at Ballygunge, Calcutta. The eggs are minute and oval in shape. The larvae are elongated and possess a long narrow and curved neck terminating in a head provided with mouth parts. The larvae are enclosed within a thin chitinous integument bearing a number of tubercles and minute hairs. The cocoons are torpedo-shaped and covered with a tough, brown membrane. The ants of this species have the habit of moving their camps from place to place. At the time of changing the nests the workers seize the larvae and the cocoons in their mouth and remove them ; while the males follow the workers to their new home. The eggs owing to their minute size, cannot be carried like the larvae from place to place, but owing to their sticking to the body of the larvae, they are carried along with them. The adult is black, while the colouration of the callows varies from yellowish brown to reddish brown. These ants, as has been pointed out by Rothney, march in long lines, two deep. Several examples of the species were collected by the late Lord Carmichael from Singla, (alt. 1500 ft.), Darjeeling district. The species is common in Bengal and occurs throughout India with the exception of the Punjab and the dry desert portions of Central India ; it has also been recorded from the Malayan region. Lobopelta pequeti Er. Andre. 1887. Lobopelta pequeti E. Andrea, Rev. d'Ent., vi, p. 292. 1903. Lobopelta pequeti , Bingham, op. cit., p. 71, fig. 37. 1911. Leptogenys ( Lobopelta ) Pequeti , Emery, op. cit., p. 104. These ants travel in files, two abreast. Wroughton1 records that the species makes stridulatory sounds which are audible when the ear is placed close to them. Aitken observes also that sounds produced by the ants of this species are loud enough to be audible to the human ear. Bingham, however, doubts their ability to make any sounds, but I have observed that the sound is actually produced by the rubbing one against the other of the anterior and posterior portions of the gaster near its constriction. TRIBE : PONERINI Forel. Diacamma scalpratum (Smith). 1858. Ponera scalpratum, Smith, Brit. Mus. Cat., vi, p. 84. 1903. Diacamma scalpratum, Bingham, op. cit., p. 77, fig. 40. 1911. Diacamma scalpratum, Emery, op. cit., p. 65. Bingham records the species from Burma and Tenasserim ; Long and Jewett found it in Assam, and Forel reports it from Sikkim. Examples of species were collected by the late Lord Carmichael at Sukna (alt. 100 ft.), Darjeeling district. Diacamma Vagans (Smith) . 1861. Ponera vagans, Smith, Journ. Linn. Soc. Zool. London, v, p. 103. 1903. Diacamma vagans, Bingham, op. cit., p. 81, fig. 43. 1911. Diacamma vagans , Emery, op. cit., p. 67. A colony of about 20 workers and a male was obtained during the month of July 1927 from a nest beneath a mango tree at Calcutta. The nest was composed of loose moist earth and was four or five inches deep. It is interest- ing to note that, although the nest contained larvae and cocoons, no females were found in it. A few workers of Platythyrea victories Forel, were, however found within the nest associated with the inmates, it is possible that they might have been ‘ thieve-ants \ The species is very common in Bengal and is found throughout India, Burma, and Ceylon ; it has also been recorded from the Malayan sub-region. 1 Wroughton, R. C., Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vii, p. 27 (1892). REPORT ON A COLLECTION OF ANTS 151 Brachyponera luteipes (Mayr). 1862. Ponera luteipes , Mayr, Verb. Zool-bot. Ges. Wien , xii ; p. 722. 1903. Brachyponera luteipes , Bingham, op. cit ., p. 101. The species is widely distributed in India. Specimens were collected by Dr. B.N. Chopra from Eagles Crag, Kurseong (alt. 5,000 ft.), Eastern Himalayas. Sub-family : Myrmicin^: Lepeletier. TRIBE: PSEUDOMYRMINI Fore!. Sima rufonigra (Jerdon). 1851. Eciton rufonigra , Jerdon, Madras Journ. Lit. Sci ., xvii ; p. 111. 1903. Sima rufonigra , Bingham, op. cit.. p. 108. 1921. Sima rufonigra. Emery, op. cit ., p. 23. The workers of this species differ from those of other Indian species of the genus in possessing ocelli and in having the 2nd node of the pedicel, the abdomen and the head black ; the thorax and the 1st joint of the pedicel vary in colour from light orange-yellow or orange-red to brick-red. A few specimens, however, collected in Calcutta with the typical workers were found to possess a second node that was concolorous with the first node and the thorax, the coloura- tion being yellowish orange. In other individuals both the nodes are black like the abdomen, and in all other respects these examples resemble the typical form. On measuring those forms, which exhibited variation in the colour of the nodes, it was found that they were more or less of the same length. They occupied different nests, and it is, therefore, improbable that the difference in colour was due to age. I consider these forms to be simply varieties of the species. The species, including the varieties noted above, inhabits tree-trunks and tends Coccids. Their sting is severe and the pain caused by it lasts for several hours. In Calcutta they are always mimicked by the spider, Salticus pataleoides Camb. Sometimes they come into houses and attack honey, of which they are very fond. S. rufonigra is distributed throughout the limits of India and the late Lord Carmichael obtained it at an altitude of 1,000 ft. at Sukna, Darjeeling district. It has also been reported from North-East Assam at Kobo (alt. 400 ft.). TRIBE : PHEIDGLINI Emery. Sub=fribe : Stenammini Ashmead emend Emery. Aphcenogaster smythiesi Forel. 1902. Sienamma {Aphcenogaster) smythiesi Forel, Rev. Suisse. Zool ., x, p. 222. 1903. Aphcenogaster smythiesi, Bingham, op. cit.y p. 276. 1921. Aphcenogaster ( Attomyrma ) smythiesi , Emery, op. cit., p. 59. A. smythiesi has been recorded from the North-West Himalayas and from the East Himalayas area. I found specimens of it in the Indian Museum col- lection from Senchal (alt. 8,000 ft.) Darjeeling district. Aphcenogaster (. Attomyrma ) antiandalei, sp. nov. Fig. 1. Aphcenogaster ( Attomyrma ) annandelei, sp. nov. x 30. Side vi^w of tfie thorax and the first node. 152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , VoL XXXIV Worker. Length, 8 mm., head oval, longer than broad, convex at the occiput, sides anteriorly straight, gradually narrowing posteriorly but not forming a neck ; eyes small, round, placed a little in front of the middle of the sides of the head; mandibles triangular, with two apical teeth and masticatory border dentate ; antennal carinse convergent posteriorly ; antennal and clypeal hollows deep and confluent; frontal area small , depressed ; clypeus posteriorly produced between the bases of the antennae, convex in the middle, its anterior border rounded ; antennae slender, the scape passing beyond the top of the head by about one-fourth of its length, joints of the flagellum longer than broad. Pronotum rounded on sides, convex above, anteriorly produced into a very short neck ; pro-mesonotal suture distinct ; mesonotum long, narrow, its anterior portion raised into an oval area as in A. smythiesi Forel, the posterior portion sloping back ; meso-metanotal suture well marked ; thorax emarginate at the latter suture ; basal portion of the metanotum elongate anteriorly con- vex from side to side,, the portion between the metanotal spines and just in front of them longitudinally excavated, apical portion slightly concave ; meta- notal spines short, acute and directed upwards ; the first node petiolate, rounded above ; the second node sub-conical and higher than the first ; abdomen oval. Mandibles punctate and longitudinally striate ; the head feebly reticulate- rugose, anteriorly longitudinally striate ; anterior basal portion of the metanotum distinctly striate transversely ; nodes and abdomen smooth and shining. A few erect hairs scattered on head and thorax ; hairs more abundant on abdomen and nodes ; pubescence absent. Head and thorax dark reddish brown, mandibles yellowish brown, antennae brownish yellow, legs pale yellow. Remarks.— The species is allied to A. cristata Forel, but is sharply marked off from the latter in having transverse striations on the ' metanotum and in the absence of a transverse medial impression in the mesonotum. Further, the head in this species is not constricted behind the eyes as in A. cristata. It differs from A. smythiesi in the outline of the head. Types collected by the late Dr. N. Annandale from Simla (alt. 7,000 ft.) Western Himalayas, in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta. TRIBE : MYRMICARIINI Forel. Myrmicaria brunnea Saunders. 1841. Myrmicaria brunnea , Saunders, Trans. Ent. Soc. London , iii, p. 57, 1903. Myrmicaria brunnea , Bingham, op. cit., p. 118. 1922. Myrmicaria brunnea, Emery, op. cit., p. 122. Three nests of this species were found in the College compound, Bally- gunge, Calcutta. The nests were situated at the bases of trees a few yards off a tank. The ground was soft, moist and shaded from the direct rays of the sun by the trees. The nests were tenanted by populous colonies including males, females and many hundreds of workers, and must have been in existence on the same spot for several years. Rothney noted a colony occupying a spot for twenty years. In the year 1927 during the rains I excavated a nest which occupied an area of approximately four square feet and was two feet in depth. The nest had a single outlet but had several galleries inside. In the furthest recesses of the nest, very near the chamber containing the ant larvae, were located a few termites’ nests. Each termite’s nest contained a few termite workers and had a fungus garden in it. The galleries of the nests of these two distinct species were in communication with one another. The close proximity of the termites’ nest to the larval chamber of the ants suggests the possibility that the ant-larvae enjoyed the benefit of having food, in the form of termites, within easy access, and the termites, in their turn, enjoyed protection from other enemies owing to their being placed within the ants’ nest. On the other hand, the possibility that the ant-larvae derived benefit from the fungus garden cannot be ignored. As, however, the termitophagus habits of M. brunnea have not been observed and the fungus garden has not been found in other nests, it is not possible to lay down the exact relationships between these two species. Nest of Cremastog aster sorror F orel REPORT ON A COLLECTION OF ANTS 153 An incident, which strongly bears out the termitophagus and predatory habits of Lobopelta pequeti and their behaviour towards 71/. br untie a may, however, be mentioned in this connection A few days after the excavation had been carried out, I observed that the nest, with the exception of a few workers, who vainly tried to rebuild it, had been deserted. In the meanwhile very near this nest a small colony of Lobopelta pequeti was seen to build a temporary nest, which was superficially covered overby grasses and contained their eggs, larvae and cocoons. Some of the workers of L. pequeti had made their way into the demolished nest of M. brunnea and were found escaping from the nest with termites and larvae of M. brunnea in their mouths. The workers of L. pequeti in this way carried out systematic depredations into the nests of M. brunnea. The peculiarity was that the latter apparently tolerated the pre- sence of L. pequeti , and neither offered any resistance to them, nor made any counter reprisals on their enemies’ nests, of the existence of which they were fully aware. It is clear from the behaviour of M . brunnea that this species is naturally timid and is not fond of termites as food, as otherwise they would have eaten them up long before the workers of A. pequeti made their appear- ance on the scene. The species occurs in Bengal, Burma and Ceylon, and has been recorded from Borneo and Sumatra. TRIBE : CREMATOGASTRINI Forel. Cremastogaster subnuda Mayr. 1878. Cremastogaster subnuda , Mayr, Verb. Zool-bot. Ges. Wien, xxviii, pp. 680, 682. 1903. Cremastogaster subnuda, Bingham, op. cit., p. 1?9. 1922. Cremastogaster ( Acrocoelia ) brunnea subsp. subnuda , Emery, op. cit., p. 149. Cremastogaster submuda has been reported from different parts of India (except in the dry desert parts), Assam, Burma, Tenasserim and Ceylon. In the Indian Museum collection the species is represented by two specimens from Neutral Saddle (alt. 5,000 ft.), Palni Hills, South India, collected by Dr. S. W. Kemp on September 13, 1922. Cremastogaster politula (Mayr.). 1902. Cremastogaster subnuda race politula Forel, Rev. Suisse Zool., x, p. 207. 1903. Cremastogaster politula , Bingham, op. cit.. p. 131. 1922. Cremastogaster ( Acrocoelia ) politula , Emery, op. cit., p. 150. The species was found living in association with aphids on the plant Lowsinia alba at Ballygunge. The distribution of the species is Bengal, Assam and Upper Burma. Cremastogaster soror Forel. 1902. Cremastogaster soror , Forel, Rev. Suisse Zool., x, p. 200. 1903. Cremastogaster soror, Bingham, op. cit., p. 134. 1922. Cremastogaster ( Oxygyne ) soror , Emery, op. cit., p. 157. A big nest of this species was found on the trunk of the tree, Grevillea robusta, Cunn, at Ballygunge in the month of July, 1927. The nest was situated nearly 12 feet above the ground and was attached to one side of the stem. Its colour resembled so closely that of the tree that it was at first mistaken for the stump of a branch of the tree and it was only by following the ants that the nest was detected. The nest was made of a papery substance intermixed with vegetable fibres, clay and sand debris (Plate). Prof. Hans Molisch of Vienna, to whom I had the pleasure of sending a portion of the dried nest, kindly informed me that the nest was chiefly composed of a fungus. It contained an enormous number of galleries and had numerous exits in the form of pores on the side facing the tree trunk. Although the nest was exposed to the rain, the interior of the nest was perfectly dry and contained thousands of larvae, nymphs and workers. It is of interest to note the difference in colouration between individuals of different ages. The callows are generally grey, while the adults are dark in colour. The workers were seen tending Coecids on the same tree, a little distance from the nest. 20 154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY t Vol. XXXIV The distribution of the species is Western India, Poona, Bombay, Upper Burma and Northern Shan States. The species is also recorded from Calcutta. TRIBE : SOLENOPSIDINI Forel emend Emery. Subtribe: Monomoriini Emery. Monomorium ( Parholocomyrmex ) kempi , sp. nov. Fig. 2. Monomorium {Parholocomyrmex) kempi , sp. nov. x 30. Side view. Worker Major. Length, 3’5 mm., head rectangular, longer than broad, slightly emarginate at the occiput ; eyes prominent, placed laterally at about the middle of the sides of the head, antennal carinae short ; clypeus bicarinate, anteriorly truncate, posteriorly produced between the bases of the antennae; antennal and clypeal hollows confluent ; mandibles toothed ; antennae 12-jointed, with a three-jointed club nearly as long as the rest of the flagellum ; 1st and 2nd joints of the flagellum subequal, joints 2-7 smaller than the rest. Scape clavate extending beyond the top of thd head. Thorax narrower than head ; pronotum convex above, its angles rounded ; promosonotal suture distinct ; thorax emarginate at the meso-metanotal suture ; metanotum slightly gibbous and without any teeth or spines. First node petiolate, sub-conical and raised higher than the second node; second node cuboid; abdomen elongate oval. Legs moderately long. Head punctate, a few obsolete striae at its anterior end, rest of the body smooth, without any sculpture ; body devoid of pubescence and hairs. Head and nodes reddish brown ; thorax yellowish brown ; abdomen shining black with a metallic tint. Worker Minor— smaller than the major worker; otherwise resembling it in all respects. Described from several specimens collected by the late Dr. N. Annandale and Dr. S. W. Kemp from Seistan desert, Labi Baring at the bases of tamarish bushes. Types in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta. Subtribe : Solenopsidinii (Forel) emend Emery. Solenopsis geminata (Fabr.) 1804. Atta geminata , Fabricius, Syst. Piez ., p. 423. 1903. Solenopsis geminata , Bingham, op. cit ., p. 158., fig. 64. 1922. Solenopsis geminata , Emery, op. cit., p. 197. The species is very common in India. It nests in the earth in the open fields, and swarms several times from March to October. Phidologiton diver sus (Jerdon.). 1851. Ocodoma diversus, Jerdon, Madras Journ. Lit. Sci., xvii, p. 109. 1903. Phidologiton diversus , Bingham, op. cit., p. 162. 1922. Phidologiton diversus , Emery, op. cit., p. 212. The species has a wide distribution in India and Burma and extends as far as the Malayan region. A few specimens of it were collected by Dr. S.W. Kemp at the foot of Palni Hills, South India. TRIBE : MERAN0PL1NI Emery. Meranoplus bicolor (Guerin.). 1838. Cryptocefus bicolor, Guerin Cuv. Iconogr. Regn. Anitn . Ins., iii, p. 425, 155 REPORT ON A COLLECTION OF ANTS 1875. Meranoplus bicolor , Smith, Trans. Ent . Soc. London , i, p. 34. 1903. Meranoplus bicolor, Bingham, op. cit., p. 168, fig. 66. 1922. Meranoplus bicolor , Emery, op. cit., p. 228. It is a common species in Bengal and nests in the earth. It is distributed throughout India and Burma and extends to the Malayan sub-region, but is absent from the dry plains of the North-Western Provinces, Punjab and Central India ; a single worker has also been recorded from Sadiya, North- East Assam. TRIBE : CATAULACINI Emery. Cataulacus taProbance (Smith.) 1853. Cataulacus taprobancs , Smith, op. cit., p. 225. 1903. Cataulacus taprobance , Bingham, op. cit., p. 123. 1922. Cataulacus taprobance , Emery, op. cit., p. 299. Two specimens of this species were obtained by Dr. B.N. Chopra from the bank of Mahanada River near Siliguri. This species has also been reported from Colombo, Kandy and Ceylon. Sub-family Dolichoderinje. TRIBE : TAPINOMINI Emery. Technomyrmex elatior (Mayr). 1902. Technomyrmex mogdiliani , Emery, race elatior , Forel, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., xlvi, p. 293. 1903. Technomyrynex elatior, Bingham, op. cit., p. 302. 1912. Technomyrmex modiglianii, Emery, op. cit., p. 44. Examples of the species were obtained from the base of leaf-fronds of Sago plants in Calcutta. It is also found in Assam, Bhamo, Upper Burma and Southern Shan States. Engramma Forel.1 En gramma incisum, sp. nov. Fig. 3(a). Front view of its head. 156 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL NIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXlV Head quadrate, nearly as broad as long, slightly emarginate behind, with the posterior end wider than the anterior. Eyes placed at about the middle of the head, round; anterior border of the clypeus distinctly incised in the middle. Thorax arched, pronotum convex, elliptical in outline. Pro-mesonotal and meso-metanotal sutures distinct ; thorax slightly emarginate at the meso- metanotal suture ; basal portion of metanotum small, convex and passing by a gentle curve into the slanting apical portion. Abdomen overhanging the pedicel, punctured ; pedicel without nodes. Head, thorax and abdomen black. Legs dark reddish brown. Types in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta, collected by the late Dr. N. Annandale and Dr. S. W. Kemp in the Consulate Garden, Nasartabad, Seistan, in the months of November and December, 1918. Sub-family : Camponotin^e Forel. ( Formic incs Mayr in part ; Formicince Lepeletier). TRIBE : PLAGiOLEPiDINI Forel. Acantholepis annandelei, sp. nov. Fig. 4. Acantholepis annandelei , sp. nov. x 30. Its side view. Worker. Length, 2 mm. Head sub-quadrate, nearly as long as broad ; occiput not emarginate ; antennal and clypeal hollows confluent ; antennal carinse sub- parallel, short ; clypeus triangular, convex, carinate in the middle ; antennae 11-jointed, the scapes extending beyond the posterior corners of the head by one-half their length ; maxillary palpi 6-jointed ; labial palpi 4-jointed ; eyes prominent, about the middle of the head ; ocelli present. Pronotum convex, circular in outline when viewed from above, pro-mesonotum viewed dorsally obvate ; pro-mesonotal suture distinct ; mesonotum convex from side to side, wider than long. Thorax deeply emarginate at the meso-metanotal suture. Scutellar region distinct and dorsally provided with two blunt tubercles. Basal portion of the metanotum with two short, stout, conical and blunt spines thick at the base and directed backwards and upwards ; apical portion with small lateral blunt tubercles ; node squamiform, shallowly emarginate at its upper surface and with two minute straight spines. Gaster broadly oval. Body black, abdomen shining, pubescence absent, with a few scattered erect hairs on the head and the posterior end of abdomen. Types in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta, collected by the late Dr. N. Annandale from Simla (alt. 7,000 ft.), Western Himalayas, on May 12 and 13, 1923. Acantholepis frauenfeldi (Mayr). 1855. Hypoclinea frauenfeldi , Mayr, op. cit ., p. 378. 1894. Acantholepis frauenfeldi , Forel, Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.} viii, pp. 411, 413. 1903. Acantholepis frauenfeldi , Bingham, op. cit., p. 316. 1925. Acantholepis frauenfeldi , Emery, op. cit., p. 25. This species is chiefly confined to the hills but has also been found at Barrackpore, near Calcutta. The specimens under report are from Simla (alt. 7,000 ft.), Western Himalayas. REPORT ON A COLLECTION OF ANTS 1 57 Plagiolepis longipes (Jerdon). 1851. Formica longipes , Jerdon, op. cit ., p. 122. 1894. Plagiolepis longipes , Forel, op. cit., p.414. 1903. Plagiolepis longipes , Bingham, op. cit., p. 320, fig. 97. 1925. Plagiolepis ( Anoplolepsis ) longipes, Emery, op. cit., p. 17. The species is cosmopolitan in its distribution. It is believed that it has been disseminated by commerce throughout the tropical regions of the old world. It lives in nests tunnelled under stones, and is common in all parts of India except in the dry portions of the North-Western Provinces, Punjab and Central India. A single worker from Misty Hill, east side of Dawna Hills, was recorded in the results of the Abor expedition by Wheeler. TRIBE: PRENGLEPIDINI Forel. Prenolepis longicornis (Latr). 1802. Formica longicornis , Latreille, Hist. Nat. Fourm., p. 113. 1894. Prenolepis longicornis , Forel, op. cit., pp. 406, 407. 1903. Prenolepis longicornis , Bingham, op. cit., p, 326. 1925. Prenolepis {Paratrechina) longicornis , Emery, op. cit., p, 217. The species is the common ant of Calcutta and lives in the crevices of the buildings. The workers may be found throughout the day prowling round food material and carrying away food to their nests. They generally change their nests following any sudden changes of weather, especially during the rains. When changing the nest, they move in columns with pupae in their mouths and accompanied by the Gryllide Myrmecophila prenolepidis, a species of small beetle and the big female ants who have cast off their wings. This Myrinecophilous gryllid was observed by Assmuth at Bombay ; but the Myrmecophilous beetle mentioned here has not been noted before in their company ; unfortunately I have not been able to identify it. It is interesting to note that the beetle does not accompany the ants when they go out foraging. It lives within the nest of the ant but follows them spontaneously when the latter change their nest. Several beetles and M. prenolepidis occur in any colony of the ants. The species is cosmopolitan in distribution and is quite common in Bengal and in other parts of India. TRIBE : GECOPHYLLINI Forel, CEcophylla smaragdina (Fabr). 1775. Formica smaragdina, Fabricius, Syst. Ent., p. 828. 1894. CEcophylla smaragdina, Forel, op. cit., p. 400. 1903. CEcophylla smaragdina, Bingham, op. cit., p. 311. 1925. CEcophylla smaragdina, Emery, op. cit., p. 52. The ants of this species are very common on trees and shrubs in Bengal and also occur in other parts of India. They build nests of leaves fastened together by silk spun by their larvas. They are gregarious in their habits, and often several colonies, each having a separate nest, may be found living amicably together on the same tree. The species is peculiar in having the females of the same nest differently coloured. The colourations vary from emerald-green to pale yellow. They are partial to insect-food and the workers may be seen carrying living grubs and dead insects to their nests. A number of larvas of moths and butterflies have also been found living in their nests. Often a group of both the mature and immature forms of the insect Hilda bengalensis Dist. (family Fulgoridce) , lives in association with these ants on the shoots of plants. The ants lick up the cellular secretion on the bodies of these insects and in return protect them. The ants of this species are much feared for their bites. In Calcutta it is mimicked by the spider Amycicea forticeps (Cambr.), which was first observed by Ridley in Malaya in its company. The spiders have two prominent black spots on their abdomen and being of yellow colour simulate the appearance of the ants. The nature of the mimicry is also mentioned by Hings- ton.1 Both male and female spiders occur on trees inhabited by the ants. Hingston, R. W. G., Proc. Zool. Soc. London, ii, pp. 844-848 (1927). 158 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL LUST. SOCIETY , Fb/. XXXI V They move singly along, parallel with the marching columns of the ants, but keeping a little off their lines, possibly with the object of waylaying a solitary ant. While watching them, I observed a female spider with an ant caught between its limbs descending from a tree by hanging a line. When I put an ant and a spider together in a small collecting tube, the ant attacked the spider and caught it by its leg. The spider, however, warded off the attack with the help of its cheliceras and ultimately entrapped its opponent by spinning a web round it. The genus is confined to the tropical region of the old world and ranges over the Indo-Malayan, Papuan and Ethiopian regions but does not occur in Madagascar. O. smaragdina is widely distributed in India. Lord Carmichael’s collection contains specimens from Singla (alt. 1,500 ft.), Darjeeling district. Wheeler (1913) also records three workers from Dibrugarh, North-East Assam, and Kobo (alt. 400 ft.) in the Abor country. TRIBE : CAMP0N0T1NI Forel. Group : dorycus— extensus. Camponotus angusticollis (Jerdon). 1851. Formica angusticollis , Jerdon, Madr. Journ . Lit. Sci., xvii, p. 120. 1892. Camponotus angusticollis , Forel, op. cit pp. 226, 235. 1903. Camponotus angusticollis , Bingham, op. cit., p. 366, figs. 115, 116. 1925. Camponotus angusticollis , Emery, op. cit., p. 89. The species is black in colour and is known from Western and Central India, Assam and Burma. An example of this species was collected at Parambikulam (alt. 1,700-3,200 ft.), Cochin State, by Dr. F. H. Gravely in September 1914. The species is a variable one, and the variety sanguinolentus Forel with yellowish red head and yellowish red thorax and black abdomen is recorded from Assam and Burma by Bingham. This variety is, however, not uncommon in other parts of India ; specimens of this variety were collected at Kalim- pong (alt. 600-4,500 ft.), Darjeeling district, Eastern Himalayas, by Dr. F, H. Gravely during the months of April and May, 1925. Camponotus nicobarensis Mayr. 1865. Camponotus nicobarensis , Mayr, Novara Reise. Formicid., p. 31. 1903. Camponotus nicobarensis , Bingham, op. cit., p. 364. 1925. Camponotus ( Tenaemyrmex ) nicobarensis , Emery, op. cit., p. 95. The distribution of the species is Nicobars, Cochin-China, Burma and Assam. Lord Carmichael’s collection includes specimens from Singla (alt. 1,500 ft.), Darjeeling district and Dr. F. H. Gravely obtained others from Kalimpong (alt. 500-4,500 ft.), Darjeeling district, Eastern Himalayas. Wheeler (1913) records many workers and a single dealated female from Kobo (alt. 400 ft.) under bark, Rotung (alt. 1,400 ft.) in dead bamboo and Dibrugarh, North-East Assam. Camponotus mitis (Smith). 1858. Formica mitis , Smith, Brit. Mus. Cat., vi, p. 20. 1892. Camponotus maculatus race mitis , Forel, op. cit., pp. 230, 242. 1903. Camponotus mitis , Bingham, op. cit., p. 355, figs. 112, 113. 1925. Camponotus ( Tancemyrmex ) variegatus, Emery, op. cit., p. 95. The species has been recorded from different parts of India and Burma, and extends through the Indo-Malayan region to New Guinea. Several specimens were collected by the late Lord Carmichael at Simla (alt. 1,500 ft.) in 1913. Group : COMPRESSUS— SYLVATICUS. Camponotus compressus (Fabr). 1787. Formica compressus, Fabricius, Mant. Ins., i, p. 307. 1903. Camponotus compressios, Bingham, op. cit., p. 351, Fig. 109. 192‘5. Camponotus ( Tancemyrmex ) compressus, Emery, op. cit., p. 98. The species occurs plentifully in Bengal and is also reported from other parts of India, Burma and Ceylon. It ranges from plains to mountains to an REPORT ON A COLLECTION OF ANTS 159 altitude of about 7,000 feet. Like most of the widely distributed ants, it exhibits remarkable variations in colour and size and several sub-species and races have been recognised. The race compressus is black in colour, and is the common house ant in Calcutta. It dwells in the crevices of our buildings and lives upon our food. The same race may be found on trees feeding upon the products of ant-cattle, such as Coccids, Fulgorids and Membracids. The individuals inhabiting trees generally nest in the soil round the roots of the tree, and form, like those living in our houses, big colonies. They swarm generally towards the evening in the months of June and July. Two females of the species with enlarged abdomens were found living together in a common nest at the base of a palm tree. The nest contained also a few cocoons, but there was no food stored in it. The nest was situated a few inches below the ground and had no outlet. Apparently the ants together with the cocoons were living buried in the ground. The presence of the cocoons in the same nest is interesting, as it suggests the particular method adopted by the queen in founding a colony. It is probable that the queen would first rear a set of workers that hatch out of these cocoons, and these workers in turn would rear the following broods laid by the queen and help her in founding the colony. The association of two queens at the time of founding new colonies, in the same nest, is of special interest as such occurrence is seldom noticed. A race which I cannot refer to any previously described form was found at the foot of Palni Hills (alt. 500-800 ft.), South India, by Dr. S. W. Kemp in 1922, I refrain from giving it a name as I am not definite of its being a distinct and un described race. I, however, give a description of it below : — Camponotus compressus , a new race. The head of the worker 18 mm. long, of this race differs from Camponotus compressus Fabr. in being rectangular in shape and in the absence of promi- nent occipital lobes. The scape extends greatly beyond the top of the head and is black in colouration except at its point of insertion to the head. The flagellum is long and castaneous. In other respects the head resembles that of C. compressus . The thorax is yellowish-brown and forms a regular arch as in C. compressus. The abdomen differs from that of C. compressus in not having a shining- appearance ; it is reddish-brown in colour, and each of its segments is shaded transversely with a fuscous tinge. The posterior margin of the abdominal segments is testaceous. The legs are long, prismatic and spined beneath. They are characterised by having the longitudinal edges of their dorsal surface raised above so as to form a longitudinal channel along the dorsal surface of each leg. The femur is honey yellow and tibise and tarsi yellowish brown. Camponotus rufoglaucus (Jerdon). 1851. Formica rufoglaucus, Jerdon, op. cit., p. 124. 1892. Camponotus rufoglaucus , Forel, op cit., pp. 226, 237. 1903. Camponotus rufoglaucus, Bingham, op. cit., p. 363. 1925. Camponotus ( Myrmoserisus ) rufoglaucus , Emery op. cit., p. 105. Camponotus rufoglaucus exhibits great variation in colour. In most forms the head is blood-red ; in a few, however, it is black. In all the forms the abdomen is pilose. The species nests in ground and the workers forage singly on small shrubs. The distribution of the species is Calcutta, Assam, Burma, Central India, Travancore and Ceylon. Camponotus singularis (Smith). Brit. Mus. Cat., Hymenoptera , vi, p. 27. The ant described as C. singularis (Smith) is, as Bingham has shown, only a variety of C. camelinus (Smith). The head of the variety is blood-red in colour. Examples of this variety were collected from Kalimpong at altitudes varying from 600 to 4,500 feet, Eastern Himalayas and from Singla (alt. 1,500 ft.), Darjeeling district, by Dr. F. H. Gravely and the late Lord Carmichael respectively. 160 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , W. XXXIV Camponotus sericeus (Fabr). 1798. Formica sericeus , Fabricius, Ent. Syst. Supply p. 279. 1892. Camponotus sericeus , Forel, op. cit., pp. 223, 231. 1903. Camponotus sericeus , Bingham, czA, p. 376. 1925. Camponotus ( Orthonotomyrmex ) sericeus , Emery, op. cit., p. 125. The workers, having black sericeous bodies, are generally found in Calcutta during the rains. They nest in hard soil and form large, well populated colo- nies. The nest opens to the outside by a small circular aperture, the opening being flush with the ground. The interior of the nest could not be explored as earth loosened during digging choked up the hole of the nest and obliterat- ed its view. The foraging habit of the workers is similar to that of Prenelopis {Nylanderia) imparis (Say), and their abdomen also becomes distended as in P. imparts owing to storage of honey in their crops. A row of nests was discovered by the side of a road at Ballygunge, Calcutta. On the opposite side of the road nearly 30 feet from the nests, stood a Ficus religiosa with new leaves blossoming out. The workers coming out of the nests crossed the road and went up the tree trunk and its branches in search of food. On their return journey they made their way to their respective nests with all possible speed. Their abdomens were considerably distended, the scelerites of the abdomen being separated and the white intersegmental mem- branes exposed. During the return journey, if the head of a worker with the distended abdomen is gently pressed or their mandibles are drawn apart in an attempt to bite, a big drop of a clear transparent fluid with a sweet taste and smell runs out of their mouth. It is apparent that the liquid collected by them from the tree was meant for feeding others within the nest. Two different forms of the species are found in Calcutta. In one the whole body is black and the abdomen is provided with a silky pubescence. In the second form, which is considered as a variety of the first, the head is blood-red in colour and the rest of the body black. Further, in this variety the posterior portion of the head and the protonotum are granular and the abdomen is devoid of the silky pubescence. The excavation of the posterior face of the metanotum of the variety is also slighty different from the type. The tibiae and the antennae of this variety are castaneous red. The rest of the characters are similar. Bingham reports the variety with the blood-red head from Burma and Ceylon. The species is fairly widely distributed over India and Burma- Polyrachis thrinax Roger. 1863. Polyrachis thrinax, Roger, Berlin. Ent. Zeit., vii, p. 152. 1893. Polyrachis thrinax , Forel, op. cit., pp. 18, 28. 1903. Polyrachis thrinax , Bingham, op. cit., p. 410, fig. 143. 1925. Polyrachis ( Myrmothrinax ) thrinax , Emery, op. cit , p. 183. In the Indian Museum collection this species is represented from Calcutta. Polyrachis armata (Le Guill). 1841. Formica armata, Le Guill, Ann. Soc. Ent . France , x, p. 313. 1903. Polyrachis armata, Bingham, op. cit., p. 393, fig. 132. 1925. Polyrachis {Myrmhopla) armata , Emery, op. cit., pp. 190, 192. The distribution of the species is Assam, Burma extending to Borneo, Java and the Philippines. Individuals of this species is recorded from Singla (ait. 1,500 ft.), Darjeeling district, collected by the late Lord Carmichael. Polyrachis simplex Mayr. 1862. Polyrachis simplex, Mayr, op. cit., p. 682. 1903. Polyrachis simplex , Bingham, op. cit. , p. 394. 1925. Polyrachis ( Myrmhopla ) simplex , Emery, op. cit., p. 196. Several specimens and a nest, containing Coccids inside it were collected by Dr. F. H. Gravely from Durgapur Salt Lake in the vicinity of Calcutta. The nest consisting of a single chamber and made up of silky threads woven together was suspended on a tree. The species is widely distributed in India,. REPORT ON A COLLECTION OF ANTS 16] Polyrachis rastrata Emery. 1889. Polyrachis rastrata, Emery, Ann. Mus.-Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova , xxvii, p. 517. 1903. Polyrachis rastrata , Bingham, op. cit:, p. 412. 1925. Polyrachis { Campomyrma ) rastrata , Emery, op. cit., p. 179. The species is known from Tenasserim, Dr. S. W. Kemp during the Abor expedition in 1911 obtained several workers of the species in association with Aphids from Dibrugarh. Polyrachis mayri Roger. 1863. Polyrachis mayri , Roger, Berlin Ent. Zeit., vi, p. 7. 1903. Polyrachis mayri , Bingham, op. cit.. p. 404, fig. 140. 1925. Polyrachis ( Myrma ) mayri, Emery, op. cit ., p. 29. The distribution of the species is Bengal, Sikkim, Kan ara, Travan core, Ceylon, Tenasserim and Burma. Lord Carmichael collected this species from Singla (alt. 1,500 ft.) Darjeeling district, and Wheeler in 1913 recorded several workers from Upper Rotung (alt. 2,000 ft.). Polyrachis {Myrma) hemiopticoides , sp. nov. Fig. 5. Polyrachis {Myrma) hemiopticoides, sp. nov. x 11. Its side view. Worker. Length 7 mm., head oval, convex above in the posterior region and wider behind ; antennal carinas prominent, long and sinuate eyes, prominent pro- truding, posteriorly slightly truncate, placed at the posterior third of the side of the head. The scape extending beyond the top of the head and nearly reaching the pro-mesonotal suture. Lateral margins of the thorax sharply marginate, the sides of the thorax vertical. Thorax seen from the side forming a continuous flat arch. Pronotum wide, convex above and round, and on each side is provided with a long and acute spine lamelliform at its base, directed forward and outward and con- tinuous behind with the lateral carinae. The lateral carinae projecting and notched at the pro-mesonotal sutures. Pro-mesonotal and meso-metanotal sutures distinct, mesonotum broader than long and unarmed with either spines or teeth. Basal portion of the metanotum convex, gently sloping down posteriorly, its postero lateral corners with very small blunt tubercles ; apical portion of metanotum concave. The node of the pedicel trapeziform when viewed from above, its posterior lateral angles surmounted by spines, two very small teeth at the base of these spines on the outerwards. Body jet-black, polished, highly shining ; sparse hairs on the body. Gaster very minutely punctate, mandibles feebly striate. Femurs, trochanters, tibiae, castaneous ; whole of the tarsi and the extremities of the tibiae and the femurs fuscous ; flagella fuscous. Remarks: — The species closely resembles Hemioptica aculeata{ Mayr.). It differs from the latter in having tarsi black and in the form of spines on the pronotum and in the absence of sericeous pubescence on the body. Types in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta, collected in Calcutta by the late Mr. C. A. Paiva, Entomological Assistant, Zoological section of the Indian Museum. 21 162 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FW. XXXIV TRIBE : LASIINI Ashmead emend Emery. Myrmecocystus setipes (Forel.). 18S4. Myrmecocystus viaticus Fabr race setipes , Forel, op. cit,, p. 401. 1905. Myrmecocystus setipes , Bingham, op. cit., p. 312, fig. 94. 1925. Myrmecocystus ( Cataglypus ) viaticus, Emery, op. cit., p. 266. The American representatives of the genus are known as honey ants ; the workers which store up honey in their crops and act in this way as living store- houses of the colony, have their abdomens inflated and are known as repletes. The Indian species is so far not known to form any replete workers and they generally feed upon vegetable seeds and dead insects. The distribution of the species in India is interesting. The species is reported by Rothney 1 as not occurring in Bengal but is found in Bihar, the United Provinces and the Punjab. The species though rare in Bengal is not altogether absent. I have collected it at Krishnagar, Bengal. It extends westwards from the Punjab into Persia ; a few specimens were collected in Seistan by the late Dr. N. Annandale and Dr. S. W. Kemp. In Bengal, however, as pointed out by Rothney, Camponotus compress us is the prevailing form, but in Bihar and Oudh this species becomes rare and is replaced by M. setipes. The crater nests of the species are found in hard soil and extend deep down in the ground. Two of such nests were observed in Madhupur to be situated very near one another. TRIBE : FORMICINI Forel. Formica gravelyi, sp. nov. Fig. 6 a. Formica gravelyi, sp. nov. x 30. The side view of its thorax and abdomen. Worker. Length, 4 mm. Head a little longer than broad, somewhat convex above, slightly emarginate behind ; eyes placed at about the middle of the sides of the head, ocelli, present ; clypeus triangular, convex in the middle and its anterior margin transverse ; antennal carinse short and parallel ; antennal and clypeal hollows confluent ; antennae 12-jointed, first and second joints subequal, and larger than the rest, the scapes slightly sinuately curved and 1 Rothney, G., Trans. Ent. Soc. London, iii, p. 347 (1889). REPORT ON A COLLECTION OF ANTS 163 extending just beyond the top of the head, flagella longer than the scapes ; maxillary palpi 6-jointed, the 4th joint a little longer than the 5th ; labial palpi with four joints; mandibles triangular, masticatory margin serrated, apical teeth very small. Pronotum broad and flat above, a little narrower than the head, anteriorly produced into a short flat neck. Pro-mesonotal suture distinct. Mesonotum convex and a little raised above the rest of the thorax and circular in outline ; scuteller region distinct but depressed ; thorax emarginate at the meso-metanotal suture ; basal portion of metanotnm slightly convex, apical portion slightly concave in the middle. Node flattened and inclined forwards. Abdomen sub-globose. Head faintly punctate, neck minutely transversely striated, body smooth and glabrous. Thorax, antennae yellowish brown, head a shade darker. Abdomen dark brown and covered with silky pubescence ; sparse erect hairs on the body, pilosity abundant on flagella. Types in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta, collected by Dr. F. H. Gravely on a tree in the Zoological Garden, Calcutta. As the species is rare in Calcutta, I think the specimens described above were probably imported into Calcutta. ON THE FISHES OF THE MANCHAR LAKE (Sind). BY B. Pbashad, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.A.S.B., and D. D. Mukerji, M.Sc. Zoological Survey of India , Indian Museum , Calcutta. Mr. Salim A; Ali 1 11 1 recently published a fairly detailed account of the topography., etc., of the Manchar Lake in Sind, and in his account included short notes on the peculiar methods of fishing and fowling as practised in the lake ; he also published a list of the birds observed by him in this interesting freshwater area. A party of the Zoological Survey of India consisting of Dr. B- N. Chopra, the senior author of this paper, Mr, R. A. Hodgart, Zoologi- cal collector, and an Entomological assistant spent about three weeks in Novem- ber, 1927, surveying the lake and the surrounding area from the point of view of its freshwater fauna, and the following short paper deals with the species of fish collected or observed by the party. In view of the recent paper by Mr. Ali cited above, it is not necessary to go into details about the topography of the area, but since the author in his account mentions only three species of fish from the lake, and as the fisheries of the area are of great importance — thousands of maunds of fish are caught and exported to all parts of the Punjab, Sind and Baluchistan every cold weather — we have thought it desirable to publish this paper on the different species observ- ed or collected by the party Hume 2 is the only author, who has, so far as we can find, referred to the importance of the fisheries of the lake. He ‘ estimated the weight of the fish taken in a single “ drive ” at a ton. The biggest were “ huge siluroids 1 ’ six or seven feet in length.’ This statement is not strictly correct, as the catches now a days are not so large, and in addition to the cat-fishes a very large quantity of Cyprinoids of the species mentioned below, are caught in the lake every year. The Cyprinoids, from the point of their value, are certainly of far greater importance to the fishermen and the Dumra — Labeo rohita (Ham. Buch.) is one of the most highly prized fish. None of the Siluroids in the lake during the survey of the area were found to exceed a length of 4 feet. List of fishes obtained from the Manchar Lake. 1. Saccobranchus fossilis (Bloch.). 2. Walla go attu (Bl. Schn.). 3. Eutropiichthys vacha (Ham. Buch.). 4. Callichrous bimaculatus (Bloch.). 5. Pseudeutro plus gar ua (Ham. Buch.). 6. Aoria aor ( Ham. Buch.). 7. Aoria cavasius (Ham. Buch.). 8. Aoria vittatus (Bloch.). 9. Labeo calbasu (Ham. Buch.). 10. Labeo gonius (Ham. Buch.). 11. Labeo rohita (Ham. Buch.). 12. Cirrhina mrigala (Ham. Buch.). 13. (firrhina reba (Ham. Buch.). 14. Catla catla (Ham. Buch.). 15. Barbus sar ana (Ham. Buch.). 16. Barbus conchonius (Ham. Buch.), 17. Barbus phutunio (Ham. Buch.). 18. Barbus sophore (Ham. Buch.). 19. Rohtee alfrediana (Cuv. & Val.). 20. Chela gora (Ham. Buch.). 21. Chela punjabensis Day. 22. Chela bacaila (Ham. Buch.). 23. Gudusia chapra (Ham. Buch.). 24. Hilsa ilisha (Ham. Buch.). 25. Notopterus notopterus (Pallas). 26. Notopterus chit ala (Ham. Buch.) . 27. Xenentodon cancila (Ham. Buch.). 28 Ambassis ranga (Ham. Buch.). 1 Ali, Salim A., Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxii, pp. 460-471 (1928). 2 Vide Gazetteer of the Province of Sind, B Volume iv, Larkana District, by j, W. Smyth, p. 6. (1919). ON THE FISHES OF THE MANCHAR LAKE 165 29. Ambassis baculis (Ham. Buch,). 30. Glossogobius giuris (Ham. Buch.). 31. Mastacembelus pancalus (Ham. Buch.). 32. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacep.). 33. Ophicephalus striatus Bloch. 34. Ophicephalus punct at us Bloch. 35. Trichogaster lalius (Ham. Buch.). As will be seen from this list, none of the species is new and all of them have a more or less wide distribution all over India. The following ten families are represented in the area: — Siluridae (8 species). Cyprinidm (14 species) Clupeidae (2 species), Notopteridae (2 species), Belonidae (l species), Percidse (2 species), Gobiidge (1 species), Mastacembelidae (2 species), Ophicephalidse (2 species) and Anabantidse (1 species). The families Siluridae and Cyprinidae are best represented in the lake and some of the members of these two families grow to a fairly large size, The species which deserve a special mention in this connection are Wallago attu (Bloch. Schn.), Aoria aor (Ham. Buch.), Aoria cavasius (Ham. Buch.), Labeo gonius (Ham. Buch.), Labeo rohita (Ham. Buch)., Cirrhina mrigala (Ham. Buch.) and Notopterus chitala (Ham. Buch.). Family Siluridae. Saccobranchus fossilis (Bloch ). 1794. Silurus fossilis , Bloch, Nat. Ausl. Fische, VIII, p. 46, pi. ccclxx, fig. 2. 1889. Saccobranchus fossilis , Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish. I, p. 126, fig. 53. This species is represented in the collection by three young specimens, the largest of which is 100 mm. long. Wallago attu (Bl. Schn.). 1801. Silurus attu , Bloch & Schneider, Syst. Ichth ., p. 378. 1889. Wallago attu , Day, Faun. Brit . Ind., Fish., I, p. 126, fig. 54. A single specimen of this species, 270 mm. long, was collected from the Manchar Lake. Eutropiichthys vacha (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Pimelodus vacha, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges , pp. 196, 379, pi. xix, fig. 64. 1889. Eutropiichthys vacha. Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., I, p. 128, fig. 55. This species is represented in the collection by two specimens of about 140 mm. length. As we have recently pointed out 1 there appear to be two distinct varieties of E. vacha, one in which the snout is sharp and pointed, and the other in which it is blunt and rounded. The specimens from the Manchar Lake have a pointed snout. Callichrous bimaculatus (Bloch.), 1794. Silurus bimaculatus, Bloch, Nat. Ausl. Fische, VIII, p. 24. 1889. Callichrous bimaculatus, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish, I, p. 131, fig. 57. C. bimaculatus is fairly common in the fresh waters of Sind and occurs in the Manchar Lake in large numbers. Seven specimens were collected, the largest of which is 160 mm. long. Pseudeutropius garua (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Silurus garua, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 156, 375 pi. xxi, fig. 50. 1889. Pseudeutropius garua , Day, Faun. Brit hid. Fish, I, p. 141. The species is represented in the collection by four specimens, the largest of which is. 185 mm. long. Aoria aor (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Pimelodus aor, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 205, 379, pi. xx, fig. 68. Prashad & Mukerji, Rec. Ind. Mus., xxxi, p. 176 (1929). 166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol, XXXIV 1889. Macrones aor, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. , Fish, I, p. 149. Two specimens of this species were collected from the lake ; the larger of the two is well over a foot in length. Aoria cavasius (Ham. Buch.). 1822, Pimelodus cavasius ., Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 203, 379, pi. xi, fig. 67. 1889. Macrones cavasius, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., I, p. 155. The maxillary barbels extend up to or even beyond the middle of the caudal fin. In addition to the usual black spot covering the basal bone of the dorsal fin, there is also a blackish spot behind the operculum. The maxillary barbels are dusky above. This species is quite common in the Manchar Lake and a good series of it was collected. The largest specimen in the collection is 155 mm. long. Aoria vittatus (Bloch.). 1794. Silurus vittatus, Bloch, Nat. Ausl. Fische , v, p. 50. 1889. Macrones vittatus, Day, Faun . Brit. Ind., Fish., I, p. 157. The maxillary barbels extend as far as the middle of the anal fin and in some specimens even to the base of the caudal ; they are blackish in colour. Tne adipose dorsal fin, in a specimen 90 mm. long, commences immediately behind the rayed dorsal and is three times as long as the base of the latter, while in younger specimens it is not more than twice the length of the base. Eight specimens of different sizes were collected from the lake. Family Cyprinid^e. Labeo calbasu (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Cyprinus calbasu, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 297, 307, pi. ii, fig. 33. 1889. Labeo calbasu, Day, Faun . Brit. Ind., Fish,, I, p. 259, fig. 93. This species is represented in the collection by five young- specimens, the largest of which is 150 mm. long. Labeo gonius (Ham. Buch.). 1822. CyPrinus gonius, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 292, 387, pi. iv, fig. 82. 1889. Labeo gonius. Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish, I, p. 261. Five specimens of this species were collected from the lake. The largest of the series is 250 mm. long. Labeo rohita (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Cyprinus rohita, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 301, 388, pi . xxxvi, fig. 85. 1889. Labeo rohita, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., I, p. 262. Five specimens of this species were collected from the lake. The largest of the series is 235 mm. long. Cirrhlna mrigala (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Cyprinus mrigala, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 2 79, 386, pi. vi, fig. 79. 1889. Cirrhina mrigala, Day, Faun . Brit. Ind., Fish., I, p. 278. Three specimens of this species were collected from the lake. The largest individual is 280 mm. long. Cirfhina reba (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Cyprinus reba, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 280, 386. 1889. Cirrhina reba , Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., I, p. 279, fig. 96. A pair of short rostral barbels are present. Five specimens which vary from 115 to 124 mm in length, were collected from the lake. Catla catla (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Cyprinus catla, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 287, 3874 ph xiii, fig. 81. 1889. Catla buchanani, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., I, p. 287, fig. 99, ON THE FISHES OF THE MANCHAR LAKE 167 Two specimens of the species were brought back by the Survey party. None of the specimens is more than 230 mm. long. Barbus sarana (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Cyprinus sarana, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges , pp. 307, 388. 1889. Barbus sarana, Day, Faun. Brit . Bid. , Fish., I, p. 300. In young individuals there is a faint blackish blotch near the base of the caudal fin, and another blackish mark is present behind the operculum, both in the young and adult individuals. The number of scales between the lateral line and the base of the ventral fins is 4L This species is very common in the Manchar Lake and a large series of specimens of different sizes was collected. The largest specimen from the lake in the collection is 235 mm. long. Barbus conchouius (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Cyprinus conchonius , Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 317, 389. 1889. Barbus conchonius , Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish , I, p. 325. Two specimens, about 35 mm. long, were collected from the lake. Barbus phutunio (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Cyprinus phutunio , Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges , pp. 319, 390. 1889. Barbus phutunio , Day, Faun. Brit. Bid., Fish., I, p. 327. Two specimens, the length of which is about 35 mm., were taken at the lake. Barbus sophore (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Cyprinus stigma, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 310, 389, pi. xix, fig. 86. 1889. Barbus sophore , Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish. I, p. 329. A large series of specimens of this fish was collected. In all the specimens examined the barbels are entirely absent. The largest individual of the series is 75 mm. long. Rohtee alfrediana (Cuv. & Val.). 1844. Leuciscus Duvaucelii , Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poisson , XVII, p. 77, pi. 491. 1889. Rohtee cotioM ar. alfrediana , Day, Faun . Brit. Ind., Fish., I, p. 341, fig. 109. A large number of specimens, varying in length from 65-75 mm., was collected from the lake. All the specimens have a faint blackish blotch behind the operculum. Chela gora (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Cyprinus gora, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 263, 384. 1889. Chela gora, Day, Faun . Brit. Ind., Fish., I, p. 362. A single specimen, 145 mm. long, was collected from the lake. In this specimen the lateral line is interrupted above and slightly posterior to the middle of the pectoral fins. We have examined Day’s specimens from Sind and several others from different localities in the collection of the Indian Museum, and find that in the majority of cases the lateral line is similarly interrupted. It is of interest to note that in specimens about 130-170 mm. long, the suborbital bones are narrower than or equal to the orbital width ; it is only in considerably larger specimens that they are slightly “ broader than the diameter of the eye ” (Day). The colouration of the specimen preserved in spirit is uniformly silvery except for the dorsum, which is blackish. Chela punjabensis Day. 1872. Chela punjabensis, Day, Journ. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, XLI (2), p. 25. 1889. Chela punjabensis, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., I, p. 365. A large series of specimens was collected from the lake. The colouration of the specimens in spirit is silvery with a distinct bright silvery lateral band. The dorsum including the snout is mottled with fine dark spots. The specimens are not more than 40 mm. long. 168 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV Chela bacaita (Ham. Buch.). 182?. Cyprinus bacaila, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges , pp. 265, 384, pi. viii, fig. 76. 1889. Chela bacaila , Day, Faun . Brit. Bid., Fish., I, p. 367. The species is represented in the collection by six specimens, the largest of which is 110 mm. long. The number of rays in the anal fin in Sind specimens, according to Day, is “A. 2/11-12”, but in all the specimens from the Manchar Lake there are three simple and twelve branched rays in the anal fin, The symphysis of the lower jaw is tipped with black. Family Clupeid^e. Gudusia1 chapra (Ham, Buch.). 1822. Clupanodon chapra , Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 248, 383. 1889. Clupea chapra , Day, Faun. Brit. Ind ., Fish., I, p. 375. A large series was collected from the lake. In some specimens a single blackish humeral spot is present, in others it is followed by a series, while in many such spots are entirely absent. The largest individual in the collection is 150 mm. long. Hilsa2 ilisha (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Clupanodon ilisha, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Gangest pp. 243, 382, pi. xix, fig. 73. 1889. Clupea ilisha , Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., I, p. 376, fig. 115. This fish which ascends the Indus during the rains also occurs in the lake at certain times of the year. It is known as Pulla all over Sind. The species was not common in the lake at the time of the Survey, but a specimen was seen with the fishermen at Shah Hasan. Family Notopterid^e. Notopterus notopterus (Pall.). 1769. Gymnotus notopterus, Pallas, Spicil. Zool., VII, p. 40. 1889 Notopterus kapirat , Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., I, p. 406, fig. 129. Eight young and four grown-up specimens were taken from the lake. The largest individual is 280 mm. long. Notopterus chitala (Ham. Buch.). 1822. My stus chitala, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 236, 382. 1889. Notopterus chitala , Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish .. I, p. 407. The species is represented in the collection by a single specimen, 285 mm. long. This specimen has a number of pea-shaped dark spots on the caudal portion arranged in a single longitudinal row ; a few spots are also present on the rest of the body. Family Belonid^e. Xenentodon3 cancila (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Esox cancila , Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges , pp. 214, 380, pi. xxvii, fig. 70. 1889. Belone cancila, Day, Faun. Brit. Bid., Fish., I, p. 420, fig. 136. Three specimens of the species were collected from the lake ; the largest of these is 200 mm. long. Family Percid,e. Ambassis ranga (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Chanda ranga, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges , pp. 113, 371, pi. xvi, fig. 38. 1889. Ambassis ranga , Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., I, p. 485. 1 Regan, C.T., Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., xix (8), p. 307 (1917). 2 Regan, C.T., Ann . Mag. Nat. Hist., xix (8), p. 306 (1917). 3 Weber, M. & L. F. de Beaufort, Fishes, Indo- Austral. Archipel., iv, p. 134 (1922). 169 ON THE FISHES OF THE MAN CHAR LAKE A large series of young and middle-sized specimens was obtained from the lake. Ambassis baculis (Ham. Buck.). 1822. Chanda baculis, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish., Ganges , pp. 112, 371. 1889. Ambassis baculis , Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., I, p. 485. Only young individuals of this species were collected from the lake. Family Gobiid^e. Glossogobius1 giuris (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Gobius giuris , Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 51, 360, pi. xxxiii, fig. 15. 1889. Gobius giuris, Day, Faun . Brit. Ind., Fish., II, p. 266. The species is represented in the collection by many young and middle- sized specimens, the largest of which is 110 mm. long. Family Mastacembelid^e. Mastacembelus pancalus (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Macrognathus pancalus , Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 30, 361, pi. xxii, fig. 7. 1889. Mastacembelus pancalus , Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., II, p. 333. Seven young individuals of the species were collected from the lake. They vary from 50-60 mm. in length. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacep.). 1822. Macrognathus armatus , Lacepede, Hist. A Tat. Poisson, II, p. 286. 1889. Mastacembelus armatus , Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., II, p. 334. There are six adult and one young specimen in the collection. The largest adult is 560 mm. long. The colouration, which is very bright in young indivi- duals, becomes duller with age. Family Ophicephalid^e. Ophicephalus stnVus Bloch. 1793. Ophicephalus striatus, Bloch, Nat. Ansi. Fische, VII, p. 141, 1889. Ophiocephalus striatus, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., II. p. 363. Two specimens of the species, about 165 mm. long, were collected from the lake. O. striatus appears to be less common than O . punctatus in the Manchar Lake. Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch. 1793. Ophicephalus Punctatus , Bloch, Nat. Ausl. Fische, VII, p. 139. 1889. Ophiocephalus punctatus, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., II, p. 364. A large series of specimens of different sizes was collected from the lake ; the largest individual is 155 mm. long. Family Anabantid^e. Trichogaster lalius (Ham. Buch.). 1822. Trichopodus lalius , Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 120, 372. 1889. Trichogaster lalius, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., II, p.373. This species is very common in the Manchar Lake and a large series of specimens of different sizes was collected. The dorsal and the anal fins are pointed posteriorly in most specimens, but in some they are more or less rounded. In T. lalius the lateral line is very variable. Besides the specimens from the lake, we have examined large series of specimens from different localities preserved in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, and find that the lateral line in this species may either pierce 4-6 anterior scales, or be vestigial ; in some specimens, however, it is entirely absent. In T. fascia- tus the lateral line is complete or interrupted about the middle of the body. 1 McCulloch, R., and Ogilby, D., Rec. Austral. Mus., XII, p. 235 (1919), 22 Wolves in sheep’s clothing (. ACANTHASPIS AND CHRYSOPA) ( With seven illustrations) BY Major R. W. G. Hingston Here we investigate a problem in protection. Certain creatures prowl about like wolves in sheep’s clothing". Outwardly they look perfectly harmless. They have put on a dress of innocence that hides the ravenous nature underneath. Disguises, of course, are widespread in Nature. A host of insects assume the appearance of something altogether different from themselves. Instances innumerable could be given. Certain beetles simulate dangerous wasps ; the enemy imagines they are armed with a sting. Certain flies are dressed like humble-bees ; it enables them to pillage the humble-bees’ nest. Certain spiders are coloured and shaped like ants; it gives them a chance to grab their prey. Certain mantids are made to resemble flowers ; the unsuspecting victim walks into their claws. And so on. There are many examples. This principle of unconscious simulation is real and widespread in the entomological world. But what are all these types of disguises? They are anatomical, part of the natural structure of the insect. The creature has been formed in this special way in order to secure some particular end. In this paper I deal with a different class, not with creatures whose disguise is part of their anatomy, but with ones which employ extraneous materials as a kind of protective, shield. They fall into two divisions ; those which belong to the Rhynchota, and those which belong to the Neuroptera. Examples from Rhynchota A place well worth entomological investigation is the foot of a tropical tree. There the student of minute things, though not necessarily little ones, will come across much of interest and delight. If he watches with particular care, he is likely to meet with an Acanihaspis bug moving slowly on the mottled coloured bark. Then again he may find one in a crumbling hollow or on the ground under fallen leaves. I have usually found them in the wet season when the foliage drips with moisture and pools collect in the hollow trunks. When noticed, they are worth some close attention, for they illustrate the wolves-in-sheep’s clothing principle in a number of different ways. WOLVES IN SHEEP'S CLOTHING 171 Observation 1. Fig. 1. (a) Acanthaspis disguised ( b ) Acant/iaspis divested in insect fragments of disguise. The first I observed was on the trunk of a Peepul. It was quite small, obviously immature, only one quarter of an inch in length. What did it look like? Just like nothing at all. Because its whole body was covered with a remarkably efficient disguise. In fact all one saw was a heap of rubbish. The insect’s shape was completely concealed. Let us first examine the heap. It was made up of a quantity of fragments. There was the abdomen of one ant, the head and thorax of another kind, some yellow shreds of a dried-up spider, and some grey particles of organic waste. All were heaped into a shapeless pile with the insect hidden underneath it. What a strange assemblage of dessicated materials ! What a way to hide oneself from view ! The whole collection made a pile considerably larger than the insect itself. It removed completely all insect-like appearance. The lump was not a living form, but merely some nodular excrescence on the bark. Further, the scheme of coloration had a distinctly concealing effect. It may be that the insect picked out its materials. More probably the blending came about by chance. But at all events the heap of fragments harmonized exactly with the mottled bark. The blending was not due to any special colour, but to the intermingling of different shades which assimilated with the variegation of the tree. I tilted off the load of debris. The owner was exposed, a triangular shaped insect with a flattened abdomen and conical thorax that narrowed into a small head. The tilting up of the fragmentary heap disclosed the way it was fastened on. Some filaments of thread came into' view. They connected the fragments with the creature’s back. The insect seemed dissatisfied when its burden was removed. Very soon it made efforts to get hold of it, first thrusting its legs under the lump and finally hoisting it on to its back. The lump, being restored, stuck firmly in place, getting entangled in the viscid threads that seemed to be emitted from some small papillae situated close to the insect’s tail. The main load was in position, yet the creature was not satisfied. It searched about for any fragments that had fallen loose, hoisted them up in the same way, and piled 172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV them in rear of the main mass. A few more threads anchored these, some connecting the fragments to the mass, others linking them to the insect’s back. Thus the whole collection was bound with threads, the individual fragments to one another, and the whole burden to' the body of its host. Now for another point. How did the insect get its burden? Without doubt from the desiccated carcasses of victims which it had itself destroyed. For this creature is both rapacious and carnivorous. Its beak is a curved penetrating lance, hollow like a suctorial needle, an instrument for sucking fluid from its prey. It is strong enough to penetrate the human skin, and, when it does so, a stiffening follows, which shows that the needle is not only suctorial, but also that through it a discharge of poison has been shot underneath the skin. We can, therefore, construct the follow- ing drama. Acanthaspis grabs its victim, probably a spider or an ant. In goes the lance ; there is a squirt of poison ; almost immediately the prey is numbed. Then a sucking follows. The victim is eviscerated. Lastly comes the extraordinary act. Acanthaspis puts the empty carcass on its back. This brings us to the purpose of the garment. I think it must serve a double purpose. First, it must help the creature’s depreda- tions. The garment is a cloak that conceals the attacker and allows it get within reach of its prey. Second, it must have a protective value. The bark of a tree swarms with enemies, birds, ants, spiders and others. Beneath its disguise Acanthaspis is concealed from them. All they see is the excrescence on the bark. I captured another of these bugs in a hollow tree. The hollow was lined with woody debris, reddish bits of crumbling dust. The Acanthaspis of this hollow was perfectly disguised. It had not gone in for a cloak of carcasses, but had clothed itself completely in particles of wood and a quantity of powdery dust. It had heaped the biggest bits on to its back, the smaller ones on its thorax and along its legs, the finest dust over its head, even fixing a few granules to the roots of its antennae, and making the whole so complete a Observation 2. Fig. 2. (a) Acanthaspis disguised ( b ) Acanthaspis divested in fragments of wood. of disguise. WOLVES IN SHEEP'S CLOTHING 173 garment that it altered entirely its appearance and shape. Its under surface was clear of debris. Obviously nothing- was needed there. What did it look like? Just a granulated nodule with fluffy legs, a mere lump of woody debris stuck in the crumbling hole. Only when the heap of fragments moved did one suspect the presence of life. No kind of artificial concealment could have been more perfect and exact. Observation 3. This one was found on the trunk of a dhak tree, freely on the bark, yet could be detected only with difficulty. It had clothed itself with bits of bark and leaves, the larger pieces on its abdomen and thorax, the smallest fragments on its antennae and legs. Again the disguise was absolutely perfect, for the bark of the dhak tree is a network of fissures which give it a kind of nodular surface. The result was that the bug with its load of fragments looked as if it were one of these nodules on the bark. It moved about Fig. 3. (a) Acanthaspis disguised in bark and leaves. Observation 4. Here is another example. The bug was on open bark, and, as usual, hidden in its shield. But, in addition to the woody fragments, it had fixed a pointed thorn to the top of the fragmentary load. The thorn was fully as large as itself and gave it a still more unnatural shape. How had it hap- pened? Probably the creature could not get enough fragments, and when searching for them, found the thorn which it then anchored firmly on top. Again see how efficient it was. Most of the trees in the neighbourhood were thorny. The bug, therefore, became a mere thorn like the ordinary thorns sticking from the bark. I pulled off its thorn. Acanthaspis pulled it back. Clearly it valued this spiny armour, and would have it on the top of its load. Fig. 3. [b) Acanthaspis carrying a thorn Observation 5. I met another beneath a fig tree in the carpet of fallen foliage that lies profusely on the ground. To the insect this debris is a dense jungle, a world teeming with minute life. What had this creature of the jungle done? It had covered its whole body with earth, both its upper and under surfaces. Its head, its legs, even its antennae were hidden completely in dust. It reminded one of a naked Hindu 174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Ua/. XXXIV priest who smears himself all over with ashes and earth. Again we have another exact concealment, a cloak of dust in dusty haunts. On the leaves it might have been conspicuous enough, but it stuck to the greyish soil, just a lump of dust surrounded by dust. Observation 6. My last example was under a stone. I found it on the granite rocks which cover so much area in Central India. Again its materials were perfect for concealment. On its back was a pile of granite crystals, and along its legs some sandy girt. Under such a hillock it was perfectly concealed, just a bit of rock living underneath and surrounded by rock. Thus we see that these creatures are efficiently protected in accordance with the nature of their haunts. The coat may be made of all kinds of things, of animal remains, of decomposing wood, of rugged nodules, of projecting thorns, of earth, of dust, of stones. The environment varies, so does the investment. Surely a simple, yet wonderful defence. Is this disguise of vital importance? Could the creature survive in its absence? I doubt it. Remember how acute is the struggle for life, and what a host of insectivorous creatures inhabit the bark of trees. A tropical tree-trunk, where these bugs mainly live, is a world of competing life. Nature’s struggle is nowhere more insistent and anything may turn the scale. Examples from Neuroptera I pass now to illustrations from another group. The device is similar ; the insect is quite different ; also the contrivance for fixing the burden is of an altogether different kind. Observation 1. One evening in March, when the mango was in bloom, I was watching the habits of the Red Ants. Many of them searched the inflorescences where they eagerly sipped up sap. The mango inflorescence was an excellent hunting ground. All kinds of creatures visited it repeatedly. But what do I see in one of these inflorescences? A slight agitation, a small movement, as though a bit of mango flower was slowly wandering about. It was only a heap of half-dried petals ; nevertheless it changed its place and crept along the stem. What was it? Another of these artificial disguises. Underneath the heap was a fragile creature. The cluster of petals was only a cloak. I removed the garment. A delicate creature came into view. It was a Chrysopa larva, a minute insect belonging to the order of Lace-Wing Flies. It was quite insignificant, completely defenceless, only three-sixteenths of an inch long. Of spindle shape, its flat Fig. 3. [c) Acanthaspis disguised in granite crystals WOL VES IN SHEEP'S CLOTHING 175 (6) Chrysopa divested of disguise. body was broad in the middle and graduated to both ends. Its head was square. Long slender jaws jutted out in front. Its hind end was more acute and tapered to a flexible tail. This tail was an important organ of progression. The larva used it as a seventh leg to propel itself from place to place. But the special thing to notice were the long hairs that projected from both sides of its back. They rose in tufts from elevated nipples. Each segment had two tufts. Combined, the tufts made two rows, one down either side. They were absent from the middle of the back which was perfectly smooth. What were these hairs for? Few could guess their peculiar purpose. We will learn it by examining the creature with its load. Its back is completely covered with petals : they conceal it from head to tail. Only the leg tips on each side and the points of the jaws in front stick out beyond the flowery heap. I put it with some petals in a glass tube. Its concealment was complete. Not the slightest trace of it could be detected until it began to move. I removed its petals. It seemed discomfited. Like the Acanthaspis, it wanted to get them back. I then put it on an inflorescence. It crept through the bloom, searching for petals, climbing across from flower to flower. Then it began replacing the heap. It continually took petals in its jaws. Some were fixed and could not be shifted ; others were too large to fit into the cloak. These ones were rejected after iexaminaion. But here and there it found a suitable bit. Up went the fragment on to its back. The hoisting method differed from that of the bugs. They use their legs as a kind of derrick and hoist up the materials from behind. The larva gets them between its jaws and tilts them on to its back. The act is done by bending the neck. Only a very flexible creature could do it. Chrysopa can 176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV manage it through its great flexibility and its particularly long jaws. Its* jaws, in fact, can transfer the petals right back to the point of its tail. In this way petal after petal is pushed backward, and Chrysopa rapidly gets covered up. Now for the purpose of the hairy tufts. I noticed that the larva, when making its cloak, put the petals on the middle of its back between the lines of tufts. The hairs of the tufts then caught the petals. They were the anchors that held the cloak. It was perfectly obvious how they held it on each side. Being, long and stiff and arranged in lines, they made a wall on each side of the load. But also I feel sure they had a gripping function. Their tips were slightly curved, and I imagine that, under the stimulus of the petals, they even bend a little more. It is difficult to be certain, but I suspect that these hairs are delicately sensitive, have the power to' curl on themselves and actually clutch the load. Here then we have a highly specialized machinery. The fragments are gripped very efficiently. A shake will not shift them, nor will the movements of the larva. The petals are fixed tight. The contrivance is quite different from that of Acanthaspis. The bug has a spinning-wheel which shoots out threads ; the lace-wing has two lines of grappling- irons which literally seize the load. We note how two creatures so different in structure gain concealment by the same plan. How did they come by it? Perhaps, one may say, from a common ancestor. Some creature in the past learnt the trick and handed it down to both lace-wings and bugs. That is the explanation usually given to1 these similarities. Similar structures or similar instincts, and we postulate a Common source. But here the explanation is inadmissible. Lace-wings and bugs are too distantly related. They are as different as a dragon-fly from a cicada. They could never have derived the habit from a common ancestral stock. Moreover their methods of hoisting are quite different which would not be the case had they come from the same source. A common origin is out of the question. What has happened is that bugs and lace-wings have hit on the same device independently. It is an instance of convergent evolution. Each has made the discovery for itself. Again we ask what is the reason? Does the disguise benefit Chrysopa in the same way that it did Acanthaspis ? Undoubtedly. A glance shows us that Chrysopa is rapacious. What other purpose for its long curved jaws. Its business in the flower is to catch insects. I gave it some fragments of a small insects In went its jaws to suck out the juice. Obviously it captures only small species, mainly, I think, Aphids and Coccids which live on flowers and stems. Its disguise must assist it to approach these creatures. To them Chrysopa is only a flower. But the shield must also have protective significance. A mango inflorescence, like the bark of a tree, is a busy active world. A myriad of insects inhabit its bloom. Bugs of many kinds, predacious ants, visiting hymenoptera, parasitic diptera, many varieties of hunting-spiders perpetually hunt it for food. Some come to get the nectar ; others to catch prey. Chrysopa has to live through all this competition. Enemies surround it. It has no weapons. Its movements are so slow that it could never escape. WOLVES IN SHEEP'S CLOTHING Ml What then does it do? Becomes part of the flower by heaping petals on to its back. Observation 2. Here is another example that I met with, this one on the stems and leaves of the mango. It had not gone in for a floral covering. Its disguise consisted of a white skin. The garment is interesting. Obviously a coat of white skins could not shield an insect on a yellow flower. There was nothing of a har- monizing character about it. The skin was conspicuously, even glaringly, white. But it soon became clear that the wearers of the skins were not in the habit of haunting the inflorescences. They lived on the stems and leaves. There they looked like white flakes quite conspicuous against the green. How can Chrysopa be pro- tected on a leaf by looking like a white skin ? The explanation is simple. That conspicuous Coccid, Monophlebus stebbingi, is very common on mango leaves and stems. The females look like white lumps that collect in clusters around the stalks. There they develop, cast their skins, which remain like snow-flakes sticking to the tree. The cast skins, of course, are perfectly worthless, yet Chrysopa gets hold of them, hoists them on its back and fixes them with its grappling-hooks. It is the abundance of these skins which gives protection. Some- times the leaves almost look as if snowed on. What then does the larva become? Why, merely a snow-flake surrounded by snow. A garment of flowers would be useless on foliage. Chrysopa behaves as if it knew this. It puts on what it finds on the leaves. Most that I met with had one or two skins. But one had collected a regular heap of them. On its back was a mountain of skins, one piled on top of the other, and many times the larva’s size. Observation 3. I come to a third illustration. This one lived on the soil underneath a tree. The place was infested with many ants. I suspect that Chrysopa killed them in numbers. At any rate on its back was a pile of their carcasses. It had made a disguise out of their remains. How like the Acanthaspis inhabiting the bark which had manufactured a similar cloak. Let us look at it in detail. There was one large black abdomen, two pale yellow heads, the 23 Fig. 5. (a) Chrysopa disguised in skins of Monophlebus. 173 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , W. XXXlV complete carcass of a small red ant, and a quantity of indefinable debris, all collected into one heap. The disguise was motely in materials and colour. Its non- descript appearance made it suited to its haunts. It was a bit of insect debris lying on the insect haunted ground. An incident in respect of this example showed how strong is the creature’s instinct to pile materials on to its back. I happened to put it with its load into spirit. When I thought it must be dead I took it out. But it soon revived. And what was its first act? To heap on its back the fragments of ants that had happened to get separated from its load ! Fig. 5. ( b ) Chrysopa disguised in „ insect fragments. Observation 4. I saw some red ants carrying another one. They were pulling it away to their nest. On its back was a slender thorn, the base of the thorn being fixed to the hairs, and the point directed away from its back. This again was a device employed by Acanthaspis. It shows how similar objects are chosen by creatures of widely different types. Observation 5. I met with still another example. It must have belonged to a different species, for its anchoring machinery was differently devised. I found it on the bark of a fig tree. Its disguise, as in the last mentioned illustration, was composed of a heterogeneous mixture of ants. They covered its back in a nodulated heap, which overhung its body all round. Numerous fragments went to make the heap. There were the complete heads of two brown ants, three yellow abdomens, a quantity of fragments in which could be distinguished some dried up legs and jaws. The whole assemblage was held together without difficulty, and the tent of carcasses moved about whenever its occupant stirred. The larva was seated near a file of ants. I saw it try to capture Fig. 5. (c) Chrysopa carrying a thorn. WOLVES IN SHEEP'S CLOTHING 179 one of them. No doubt they form its habitual food. Hence the value of the cloak is clear. When an animal stalks a victim, can it have a better disguise than to hide itself in its victim’s skin? But the special point of interest in this example lay in the method by which the load was attached. I noticed that the heap was very firmly secured. A more than usual effort was needed in order to pull away the bits. One would think that the hairs had some sticky stuff on them, so firmly did they cling to the load. To the naked eye there was nothing peculiar. All one saw was the usual system of nipples, a line along either side, each supporting a tuft of hairs. One noticed, however, that the hairs were longer ; also there were many more of them, and that when a hair was touched with a needle it was inclined to stick to the steel. The microscope, however, disclosed the reason. On high magnification it could be detected that these were not ordinary simple hairs of the type which were present in the previous illustrations. This Chrysopa had specialized hairs. Each was something like a delicate saw. It was furnished throughout its length with teeth, the opposite sides being similarly armed. (See fig. 6). This fact tells us why the fragments are secure. Fig. 6. Hair tuft of Chrysopa larva. This larva has a special kind of gripping apparatus, a double row of microscopic saws. Hairs, we have seen, can grip of themselves; they can easily hold a heap of petals. But this species seems to require something better. It needs a set of gripping teeth. We ask ourselves. — Why? I expect it is because of the nature of its load. Crumpled petals are light as air. Their surface is rough and outline irregular. They can be kept down by the touch of a hair. But this species lives habitually on ants. The fragments of ants have smooth surfaces ; their heads and abdomens are polished and slippery. Simple hairs will not grip them properly ; something additional is required. Nature steps in and supplies the addition. Teeth are placed along the hairs, which grip and secure in the tightest manner the smoothest fragments of the cadaverous pile (Fig. 7). Fig 7 Extremity of hair highly magnified. 180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL LUST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV How wonderful it all is ! Nobody notices these insignificant creatures. They possess no practical utility ; hence they are almost beneath contempt. Admittedly they are very minute. The combina- tion of insect and shield is not the size of an ordinary pea. Moreover their lives are strictly obscure. They haunt the nooks and crannies of the world and must be sought for in order to be seen. But surely their habits are highly remarkable, and none the less so because they are minute. We so often look to what is large and striking and forget that a thing is no less wonderful because it merely happens to be small. What would it be if these creatures were big? Were a lion discovered that stalked its prey, then heaped the dried up carcasses on its back in order to make a stalking disguise. Were it found in addition that the beast possessed a machinery of saws for the purpose of fixing these carcasses, then surely the animal would be regarded as one of the greatest wonders of creation. All the world would flock to see it carrying its burden of zebras and gazelles. Perhaps the comparison may seem too fanciful, yet Chrysopa presents an identical picture on a very reduced scale. Forget that Chrysopa is pinhead in size; forget that it is rare and seldom seen ; then it becomes the imaginary lion and our wonder should be exactly the same. We have seen the variety of materials used in making these shields. Acanthaspis uses ants, wood-dust, bark, a convenient thorn, a coat of earth. Chrysopa puts- on petals, skins or thorns. Do they select these particular materials? Can they think out what is best for their protection, and then choose in accordance with their thoughts? Let us see. I deprive Chrysopa of its coat of skins and put it on some bits of leaves. What happens? It hoists the leaves on to its back and uses them instead of the skins. I put it on earth, then amongst petals, then on a layer of wool. The same thing happens. It hoists on its back whatever it meets with. The earth, the petals, the wool are used indiscriminately to make a shield. Thus the larva uses whatever is available, if suitable in size and weight. Can we then say that it chooses its materials? Only if we may regard as choice the capacity to make the simplest discriminations. It can separate the big from the small, the heavy from the light. But this is about all. It does not choose the character of its materials. Earth, wool, petals; each will satisfy it equally well. Its instinct is to use whatever lies near to it. The instinct,' though so simple, yet is highly efficient ; for the things that lie near it are the bits of its environment, hence it clothes itself instinctively in things best fitted to blend with its haunts. These creatures survive by reason of their clothing. Let us look for a moment to the struggle they endure. Take that favoured haunt, the bark of a tree, particularly some old and crumbling trunk on which a varied fauna lives. We can scarcely exaggerate the endless intricacies that exist in this battle of the bark. Two1 armies live in ceaseless competition, the army of destroyers and the army of destroyed. First for the destroyers. Who are they? They consist of columns of carnivorous ants that seize on every creature they meet with, of rapacious spiders that pounce on their victims or ensnare them in hollows and clefts, of predacious bugs, raptorial WOLVES IN SHEEP'S CLOTHING 181 beetles, a mantis that waits with scissor-like legs, a scorpion that lurks in a narrow fissure with its claws sticking out from the chink. Acid to these the crowd of occasional visitors : insectivorous birds, plundering reptiles, predacious hymenoptera, parasitic diptera, and some idea will be gained of the host of destroyers that invade the bark. Turn now to- the crowd undergoing destruction. There are night-haunting moths that come to it for shelter, wood-boring beetles that eat their way into it, fish-insects in its crannies, diptera in its hollows, coccicls climbing up to its leaves. Then there is a myriad which seeks safety by the device of harmonization. There are Jassids and Cicadas that blend with its surface, Membracids that look like projecting thorns, butterflies like decaying leaves. There are caterpillars the image of withered sticks and their pupae that look like mere nodules of bark. A raptorial host is waging destruction ; another host is struggling to escape. So it goes on, battle within battle. One lot is searching ; another lot hiding. Never for an instant does the contest cease. In the midst of this battle live these wolves in sheep’s clothing. They cannot keep in holes and fissures, but must come into the open and search for food. Yet like their competitors they must have protection. Hence the artificial disguise. ANTS AND THE LAC INSECT ( LACCIFER LACCA) BY P. S. Negi, M. P. Misra and S. N. Gupta (Department of Entomology , Indian Lac Research Institute, Namkum) ( With three plates) Introduction There is a strongly held idea that ants in general and some of them in particular are very injurious to the lac insect and during the last three years there have been complaints from cultivators, that ants have been doing a great deal of mischief to their lac crops. Stebbing as early as 1910 quotes authoritative letters of Joshi, a forest ranger, and Stevens, an I. F. S. Officer in charge of Kumaon Division, about the havoc done by Camponotus compressus to the lac insects. Lefroy and Misra did not consider ants injurious, though the latter in his Bulletin No. 185 has hinted at the probable injury done by the ants to the lac insect. Hautefeuille, who apparently did not attach much weight to the information received from Indo-Chinese cultivators that there are species of ants which devour the stick lac, considered perhaps on the balance of evidence that there are species of ants which interfere with the formation of lac. According to the informants of Hautefeuille, the small black species of ants are harmful and the large pale red species of ants useful. Imms and Chatterjee considered ants useful rather than harmful. De Flacourt also mentions of the ravages of ants in Indo-China, but does not give the specific names of either useful or harmful species. Camponotus compressus, Fabr. (PI. I, figs. 1, la, 2, 2a). General description. — Hingston has given an admirable account of this ant in his book A N aturalist in Hindustan. The formicary generally lies at the base of a tree, at times in the open field. It has also been found living with the termites in their nest. To the lac insect the ant is supposed to be the most injurious species, and is very common throughout India. Ant and intruder. — On the approach of a person to a plant visited by the ant, the smaller worker minors drop down to the ground, probably to warn the soldiers of the approach of any enemy. But the big worker minors and the soldiers present keep moving excitedly round their ‘cattle’ (the insect which gives them honey). If the intruder touches the ‘cattle’ with a needle, the nearest soldier or worker minor of bigger size darts forward, catches the needle with its powerful jaws, and bites it angrily; other ants ERRATA ANTS AND THE LAC INSECT The Editors regret that the following printing mistakes have occurred in the above article in the last issue of the Journal, viz. No. 1 Vol. XXXIV Page 184 line 24 for Netaceous read Testaceous . Page 186 line 6 for ‘ strenth * read ‘ strength ’ Page 186 line 10 insert after * takes * * hours to kill it, but does not dare to approach a healthy uninjured’ (line 11; Page 187 line 29 insert after ‘ catch ’ ‘ Small birds. With mixtures of the latex of the above Ficus ’ (line 31) Line 30 must be omitted. Jours?.? Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate I Sjf/cbe* Fig. 1. Camponotus compressus , soldier, x 3. Fig. la, lb. Ventral and dorsal view of the mandible of the soldier, x 3. Fic. 2. Camponotus compressus, worker minor . x 3. Fig. ?a, 2b. Ventral and dorsal view of the mandible of the worker minor, x 3. Fig. 3. Solenopsis geminata, worker minor, x 12. ANTS AND THE LAC INSECT ( LACC1FER LACCA) 183 in the neighbourhood follow to help it and try to reach parts of the body of the intruder. They fight tenaciously, unless one shakes them off with a jerk of the needle. Behaviour towards lac insect and its enemies. — The ant Camponotus compressus has never been found meddling with the crawling larva of the lac insect; but it visits the lac insect from the time it has fixed itself on the plant for the ‘honey-dew’, which it exudes. The worker applies its mouth close to the anal orifice of the lac insect through which ‘honey-dew’ is excreted. If the lac insect does not emit the ‘honey-dew’ the ant strokes it with her antennae at the anal orifice and waits patiently. When the honey exudes the ant presses its jaws into the drop, grips it and runs away. But if the lac insect fails to respond to the coaxing of the ant, it bites at the encrustation round the anal tube and sometimes even thrusts its jaws into the anal orifice to find the ‘honey-dew’. In neither case does it injure the insect nor the covering of resinous matter Of its benefactor, although it might easily do so with its powerful jaws. If this threat fails to fetch the coveted drop of honey, it passes to the next insect. This in itself shows that the ant does not prey on the lac insect. This was however further confirmed by pricking the lac insects, when it was found that the workers which come to visit the insects for ‘honey-dew’, on scenting the smell of the body juice ran away thereby showing that the smell of the body juice is repugnant to the ant. It has never been seen taking away even the injured insects. On the other hand if a living or injured Eublemma amabilis , Holcocera pulverea or Chalcid larva be exposed, the worker on the look-out steps forward, catches the larva in its jaws and carries it off to the formicary. To avail itself of this booty, the ant even leaves the ‘honey-dew’ for which, at other times, it waits so patiently near its cattle. The ant would prove still more useful to the lac insect if it would take out the larvae of these enemies of the lac insect from under the damaged incrustation. But unfortunately in, spite of its powerful jaws, it has never been found attempting to tear off the thin film of the damaged incrustation, which separates it from the coveted food. Choice of cattle. — In plants infested both with the lac insect and membracids, the ant pays more attention to the membracid nymphs than to the lac insect, because it gets more honey from the latter than the former ; this is especially the case in the young stages of the lac insect, when it excretes only a small amount of honey. At times the ant practically avoids the lac insect and attends the membracid continuously. Beneficial to the lac insect. — The above ant is therefore useful to the lac insect in at least two ways : — (1) It removes the excreted ‘honey-dew’, which, in the absence of ants and rains, would accumulate along with the dust on the encrustation and suffocate the insect by blocking its brachial pores. (2) It picks up the Eublemma and Holcocera larvae while they are trying to enter the encrustation after hatching from the egg s, i84 Journal, bomb aV natural hist, society, voL xxxiv and thereby reduces the number of lac enemies before they have actually done any injury. Probable injury to the Lac insect. — The only apparent injury the ant does to the lac insect, is that while walking about on the lac encrustation, it breaks off the brachial waxy filaments, the profuse growth of which is the only sign of a healthy lac insect for a layman, and in so doing, it may block the brachial pores of the lac insect with the wax, but this appears to be rare because the brachial filaments are not very fragile, and in the insects, on the trees which are constantly visited by the ants, the brachial filaments seldom grow long, as the constant movements of the ants keep them short ; moreover, the function of the wax in itself seems to save the brachial passages from being clogged up. However if some insects meet their death by this unconscious behaviour of the ants, the injury can only be called mechanical and unintentional. The above information regarding the relations of Camponotus compressus to the lac insect, also applies to the ants discussed in the following pages, varying in degree. Camponotus variegatus var. fuscithorax, Forel. Worker (J) major. Head, scape of antenna, thorax and abdomen dark fuscous brown ; flagellum and legs yellowish brown. The colour of the thorax in the Fauna ‘Yellowish brown’, length in Fauna 8-10 mm., our specimens 9'6-10 mm. Worker ( fj?) minor. Netaceous brown all over, as in Fauna, but the apical portion of the abdominal segments slightly darker in colour, length 6-7*5 mm. This ant also behaves to some extent like Camponotus compressus but the worker minor of this ant does not get so easily frightened as the smaller ones of C. compressus nor is the worker major so ferocious in battle as that of C. compressus. It is also a much less frequent visitor of the lac incest. Camponotus sericeus, Fabr. Worker (j£) major. Resembles in all details the description given in the Fauna. It is black opaque. Head very broad, opaque, massive, almost as broad at the base of the mandibles as at the posterior end of the head ; mandibles have five teeth. Thorax broad in front, strongly compressed posteriorly. Metanotum (the last thoracic segment) forming an angle with the mesonotum (the middle thoracic segment), the basal portion of the metanotum horizontal, flat; apical portion excavate. It is found visiting the lac insect along with Camponotus compressus, but is not very common. Camponotus near varians, Roger. (PI. II, figs. 4, 4a). So far, we have not been able to find the males and females of this ant. It is met in large numbers in the winter months and especially in February and March. It picks up the crawling lac larva, but does not meddle with the insect once it has fixed itself on the plant ; and thereafter visits it only Journ>) Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate II Fig. 4. Camponotus near varians , worker, x 20. Fig. 4a. Lateral view of the thorax of Camponotus near varians, worker, x 60. Fig. 5. \Solenopsis gcminata , soldier, x 12. Journ«, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pi ATE 111 Fig. 6. Meranoplus bicolor, worker, x 20. Fig. 7. Monomorium near indicum, worker x 20. ANTS AND THE LAC INSECT (LACCIFER LACCA) 185 for the ‘honey-dew’. It also picks up injured lac insects, but is incapable of breaking open the incrustation. Meranoplus bicolor •, Guer. (PL III, fig. 6). The ant picks up crawling larvae and rarely visits plants over six feet high. It shows no abhorrence to the injured lac insect, sometimes even tastes the fluid of the lac insect, but afterwards shows signs of intoxication. It has not been noticed breaking open the incrustation. Monomorium near indicum, Smith. (PI. Ill, fig. 7) So far the ant has been found visiting the lac insect during the summer only. It takes slight interest in the lac insect, and shows no signs of excitement at the approach of an intruder. It neither cares for the body juice of the lac insect nor shows repugnance to it, but abstains from taking away an injured insect, and it appears to visit the lac insect for the ‘honey-dew’ alone. Solenopsis geminata, sub-sp. rufa Jerdon. (Pis. I, II, figs. 3, 5). It bites virulently. Formicary under a tree or in the open field. This ant is as prevalent as C. compressus at Namkum ; and due to the large number of workers the trees visited by it are practically fully covered by the ant. It does not tolerate intruders and bites virulently. The ant picks up the lac insect larvae, while the latter crawl about the branches to fix themselves, but once the insect has fixed itself, it does not meddle with it, otherwise it would be quite an easy task for it to remove the majority of the settled lac larvae, before they could form a sufficient covering of resin to save themselves. However the ant has been observed to take away the intact male pupa, which it managed to reach by raising the opercular lid of the test ; but it refuses to carry or does so, after great hesitation, if it be offered injured male or female cells. In the presence of sugar tubes on the plant, it neglects the lac insect altogether. This shows that it does not carry the living lac larvae and the males in order to feed on them, but in the foolish hope that it could keep its ‘cattle’ safe in its nest and get the ‘honey-dew’ in exchange. The ant kills exposed Eublemma and Holcocera larvae in a few seconds and takes the booty to its nest. It also carries Eublemma and Holcocera larvae from under the encrustation, if it finds a small opening available. Iridiomyrmex anceps} Roger Worker (^) Head, thorax and abdomen dark castaneous brown, the first two and especially the latter with a black tinge ; with a beautiful tinge of iridescence in certain lights ; antennae and legs paler reddish brown, the latter with a slight tinge of black. Other characters as in the Fauna. Length — in Fauna ‘3*5-4*5 mm.’ Namkum specimens 4-4*3 mm. The female. Black and granular; antennae dark castaneous brown ; mesonotum raised and triangularly rounded posteriorly length 7*2-7*68 mm. 24 186 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Nol. XXXIV The male. Dark castaneous brown. Head small, ocelli forming an equilateral triangle on the vertex ; thorax massive, mesonotum as in female, length 3'12 mm. The ant picks up the lac larvae and perhaps the male insects also, while they are crawling about. It shows signs of excitement at the approach of an intruder but has neither the strenth of Camponotus compressus nor the pluck and virulent biting power of Solenopsis geminata. It does not relish the body juice of the lac insect but appears to enjoy injured Eublemma or Holcocera larvae. It very cautiously attacks the healthy uninjured Eublemma larva and takes Holcocera larva as the latter is very active. Cataglyphis bicolor sub-sp. setipes, Forel. This ant is very common at Namkum but never associated with lac. It has the formicary either near the path or in the broad field. Though the majority of workers are of large size ‘10-12 mm.’ as given in the Fauna , yet one also comes across workers measuring about 7 mm. in length. Ants associated with lac received from other districts. 1. Camponotus compressus , Fabr. 2. Camponotus mitis , Smith 3. Camponotus nirvance, Forel 4. Cataglyphis bicolor sub-sp. Forel. Denkanikota, Salem District, Madras, do. do. setipes } 5. Cremastogaster subnuda, Mayr. 6. Cremastogaster dohrni Mayr. do. It is also found at Namkum but never associated with lac. Barbala Estate, Assam. Denkanikota, Salem District, Madras. The specimens of C. dohrni were collected at the time of the male emergence and some of the specimens had male insects in their jaws. This shows that this ant does pick up the lac larvae and the males. 7. Sima near allaborans , Walker ... Salem District, Madras. Only two specimens of this were received. Mayurbhanj Estate, Behar. Denkanikota, Salem District, Madras. 8. Solenopsis geminata Fabr. 9. Tapinoma melanocephalum, Mayr. Preventive measures. As far as work has gone in this district, we consider measures against ants not only unnecessary but to a certain extent harmful. However, in places, where a species of ant predominates which ANtS AND THE LAC INSECT (LACCIFER LACCA) ±87 is suspected of being- harmful to the lac insect, especially at the times of larval and male emergence, it can be successfully kept away from the lac insect, by either (1) pasting cheap molasses (i chhoha or seera) round the bases of the stems of the host plants or sprinkling it on some long weeds and tying these round the base of the stems, or (2) by pasting bands of crude oil round the base of the stems. The ants can also be distracted from the lac insect, if chewed or crushed sugarcane bits or honey combs from which all the honey has been extracted or any other sweet substance be strewn round the base of the stems of the host plants. In Assam, according to Mrs. D. Norris, the Director of this Institute, a mixture, either of the gum or correctly speaking dried latex of Ficus sp. locally called Barh or of Sal ( Shorea robusta) and mustard oil, in the ratio of one seer of gum to about half a chhatack of oil, prepared by heating over a fire for a few minutes and then applied round the base of the stem of the host plants, is employed with great advantage. We tried the Assam method on a small experimental scale and found that the Sal ( Shorea robusta) gum requires to soften it almost an equal quantity of oil, and even then, it is useless, as it becomes hard soon after taking out from the fire and is unable to catch the ants. The fresh latex of Ficus bengalensis (Bar), Ficus religiosa (Pipal), and Ficus injectoria (Putkal), each, requires about one- fourth its own quantity of oil to save it from drying and keep it fit to entangle ants, for a sufficient length of time. The dried latex of these require much larger quantities of mustard oil to bring the mixtures to a suitable consistency to catch ants. In Chota Nagpur the village boys use equal quantities of oil and latex of pipal to’ catch small red ant Solenopsis geminata, which bites virulently, out-witted trees and mustard oil, we found that about fifty workers of the small red ant Solenopsis geminata, which bites virulently, out-witted us by covering the one inch wide snare prepared for them with particles of earth in less than six hours. They thus prepared a good road to go to the lac insect; but our friend, C. compressus, the big black ant was not so wise and got entangled in the snare. Most of the species of ants of the sub-family Myrmecince wrill probably act like S. geminata. From the above it appears that the expenditure required to meet the cost of the mustard oil which sells from about twelve annas to a rupee per seer and the cost of collecting the latex are not worth incurring, as the snare does not act for all the species of ants. Acknowledgments The authors wish to express their sincerest thanks to Lieut. -Col. R. B. Seymour Sewell, the Director of the Zoological Survey of India for the facilities given for the use of the Library of the Indian Museum, and to Mrs. Dorothy Norris, the Director of the Institute, for going through the manuscript, and to donors of specimens from different parts of India. We are also indebted to Messrs. C. F. C. Beeson and J. C. M. Gardner of the Forest Research Institute, 1SS JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, VoL XXXIV Dehra Dun for their valuable criticisms of the work now being- published. Summary Eight more species of ants other than hitherto1 recorded associated with lac, are listed. A brief description of the relations of various species of ants to the lac insect is given. Ants in general are not injurious to' the lac insect, but some species undoubtedly pick up the crawling lac larvae and the male insects ; at the same time all of them are useful to the lac insect as they remove the excreted ‘honey-dew’, which, otherwise mixed with dust in the absence of rains is likely to block up the respira- tory organs of the lac insect, and cause its death by suffocation. In addition, many of them and especially Camponotus compressus and S. geminata help the lac insect by feeding on the larvae of the predator moths. Use of cheap molasses is suggested to1 prevent the access of ants to the lac insect, in places where they are suspected of being harmful chiefly at the times of larval and male emergence. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Foreshore near Barkul in the Chilka Lake, Ganjam District, Madras Presidency, showing one of the typical algal formation, in which Cladophora glomevata, var. Calicoma is a predominant species. * Reprinted from the Memoirs of the Indian Museum, Vol. V., PI, I, 1915, with the kind permission of the late Dr. N. Annandat-e, F.R.S., CONTRIBUTIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE FRESH WATER ALGAS OF MANIPUR, ASSAM. BY K. P. Biswas, m.a. ( Curator of the Herbarium , Royal Botanic Garden , Calcutta , September 2 , 1929.) ( With 4 plates) . In 1925, I received from Dr. S. L. Hora, Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, a collection of Algse in six tubes from the running water of streams and rivulets of Manipur. In tne same year Mr. S. N. Bal, Curator, Industrial Section, Botanical Survey of India, added two more tubes to this collection, during his tour in Assam. Seven tubes out of the total number of eight tubes contained freshwater Algse from the running water of streams and rivulets and a few from tanks and jhils of the Manipur valley. One of these contained sterile specimens of a Fungus. The collections show that the hill-streams of Manipur, owing to their strong current, do not harbour many forms of Algse. Only one species of each of the genera Nostoc and Cylindrospermum and two species of Cladophora grow- ing on rocks, pebbles and stones formed the chief vegetation on the beds of the swiftly flowing hill-streams. A species of Lyngbya and a new variety of Spirogyra setiformis were found to grow in still water. The species of Cylindrospermum and one of Spirogyra were not in fruiting stage and hence could not be definitely identified. Except Cladophora Crispata , none of these five species mentioned in this paper appears to have been reported from India yet. My best thanks are due to Prof. Paul Bruhl for his valuable suggestions, during the preparation of this paper. Systematic Enumeration of Species. CYANOPHYCEAL Family. — Oscillatoriace^; . Genus.— Lyngbya. 1. Lyngbya Martensiana, Meneghini. De Toni , Syll. Alg. Myx ., p. 279 , 1907 ; Siisswasserflora Deutschlands , Osterreichs u. d. Schweiz , Heft— 12, p, 405, Fig. 521 a, 1925. PI. iv. Figs. 12, 13. Filaments long, flexuous, 10-16 A in width ; sheaths colourless becoming thick and roughened with age, 1-3 P in thickness ; trichomes 8-10 P in dia- meter, not constricted at the joints ; apex of trichome not tapering, not capitate, apical cell broadly rounded ; cells 2-4 ^ in length ; partition walls marked by protoplasmic granules ; cell-contents granular, blue-green. Hab.—\ n a jhil at Imphal, Manipur. Collected by S. N. Bal, October 20, 1925. Geogr. Distribution.— Europe ; Tropical Africa; Is, S. Halena> Central America ; West Indies. ' . . . . : Family. — NostocaCe^e. Genus. —Nostoc. 2. Nostoc amplissimum, Setchell. De Toni, Syll. Alg. Myx., p. 421 , 1907 ; Til den, Minnesota Algw, pp. 164, 180, PI. viii, Figs. 17-19, 1910 f PI. i, Fig. 1. 190 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , #?/. XXXIV Plantmass forming lobulated, expanding irregularly, more or less verucose* brownish grey sack of mucilage adhering to rocks ; filaments numerous, con" torted, arranged irregularly ; sheaths colourless ; trichomes 2-3 V in diameter, more or less torulose ; cells D 2-4 V in length, depressed spherical or sometimes somewhat oblong ; heterocyst elliptic, 3-4 p in diameter ; gonidia ellipsoidal, single or in cantinate series, 3-4 V in diameter, 5-6 V in length, contents granular, wall of gonidum smooth. Hab.— In a small stream by the hill-side, near Bishenpur, Manipur. Collec- ted by S. L. Hora, March 1920. Geogr. Distribution . — North America ; California. /CHLOROPHYCEvE. Family — Cladophoraceae. Genus— Cladophora. 3. Cladophora glomerata, (L) Kuetzing ; /hrwa-RivULARis, Raben- horst. De Toni , Syll. Alg. Chlo., p. 295, 18S9 ; Siisswasserflora Deutschlauds, Osterreichs u. d. Schweiz , Heft — 7, p . 55, Figs. 14, 15, 39, 1921. PI. Hi, Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. Plantmass fasciculate, penicellate ; cells of older branches 275-300 V in length, 75-80 V in width, cells of younger filaments 115-200 h long and 25-35 V broad, apical cells 135-350 V long and 20-25 V in diameter ; intermediate or apical cells sometimes fructiferous ; spores spherical or slightly oval, 10 /j tin diameter, contents coarsely granular. Hab . — In a swiftly running stream on rocks, Thoubaltural, Manipur. Collect- ed by S. L- Hora, March 1920. Geogr. Distribution.— Germany ; Bohemia ; United States; America ; Ceylon. 4. Cladophora crispata (Roth.) Kuetzing; var. genuina ( Kuet .) Rabenhorst. De Toni, Syll . Alg, Chlo., p. 291, 1889; Siisswasserflora Deutsch- lands, Osterreichs u. d. Schweiz, p. 41, 1921. PI. In, Figs. ' 8, 9, 10, 11. Plantmass caespetose, filaments rather sparingly branched, subdichotomous, lateral branches short, sometimes unilateral ; cells cylindrical, membrane thin, tenuous ; diameter of the cells in older filaments varying from 40-70 V, in younger 20-35 V, about 5-10 times or more longer than broad ; cell- contents disposed in a loosely spiral manner. Hab. — In a rapidly flowing stream, Manipur. Collected by S. L. Hora, February 1920. Geogr. Distribution .—Europe ; North America ; India ; Burma The systematic position of the different species of the genus Cladophora has been discussed in detail by F. Brandt in his papers published during 1899 to 1909. Brandt’s results have been excellently summarised by W. Hearing in Siisswasserflora Deutschlands Osterreichs mid der Schweitz , Heft 7 , pp. 3-62, 1921. In this monograph the anomalous situation of the varieties and forms of the three well marked species, namely — C. glomerata , C. crispata , and C. fracta— has been made clear as far as possible, although, it becomes very difficult to distinguish them, especially when they are not found in natural condition. The short note in ‘ A Treatise on the British Fresh Water Algce ’ by G. S. West, revised and rewritten by F. E. Fritsch, pp. 169-170, 1927, is very useful for distinguishing these three main recognized species without much difficulty both in the field and the laboratory. F. Oltman’s account in ‘ Mor photo, gie und Biologie der Algen Band i, pp. 347-356 , 1922, is very important for the study of this genus. The information given under Clado- phoracece, in Band 3, Chlorophycece by H. Printz, in the revised edition of 1 Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien ’, pp. 275-279, 1927, is an important contribution to our general knowledge of this family. The interesting resiilts revealed in the paper entitled ‘ The Cytology of Cladophoraccce ’ by Nellie Carter, published in the Annals of Botany, vol. xxxiii, pp 467-478, 1919, are valuable for those who wish to undertake further investigations in this line on Indian Cladophoras. The marine form of C. glomerata, var. calicoma has been described by the author in the ‘ Algal Flora of the Chilka Lake ’ (now in the Press).1 1 Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1930. Journ,,, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate II. FRESH WATER ALGA2 OF MANIPUR, ASSAM. For explanation see end of article . {K. Biswas. Dil. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, Plate III. FRESH WATER ALGiE OF MANIPUR, ASSAM. For explanation see end of article. K. Biswas. Del. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. t’LATE IV. FRESH WATER ALG^ OF MANIPUR, ASSAM. K. Biswas • Del . For explanation see end of article . FRESH WATER A LG AS OF MANIPUR , ASSAM 191 This variety of C. glower at a grows profusely on stones and boulders along the rocky margin of the lake forming more or less a characteristic type of vege- tation covering the areas sloping down into the water consisting of dried, half-dried and fresh plants, often mixed up with Enteromorpha compressa , Gracilaria conferoides and interwoven by Lyngbya aesturii. Plate I shows a portion of such a formation. Fa mily— Z ygnem ace.e . Genus— Spirogyra. 5. Spirogyra setiformis {.Roth) Kuetzing, var. maior. var. nov. PL ii Figs. 2 (i a-d ). Cellulis vegetativis 135-175 p latis, 165-225 p longis, diametro subsequalibis vel duplo longioribus, fructiferis ad genicula non constrictis ; membrana 6-8 p crassa, distincta lamellosa ; Chlorophoris 4-8, 10-12 P latis, dentatis, densis, subverticalibus, anfractibus 4-1 ; Zygotis prolato— ellipsoideis, Secus axin majorem visis globosis, 100-115 p latis, 140-180 P longis. Hab.— In locis stagnalibns, Manipur. Lecta S. L. Hora, February to March, 1920. Spirogyra setiformis and Spirogyra jugalis ( Dillw .) Kuetzing , are closely allied species, and hence Cooke in his ‘ British Fresh Water Algce ’—p. 87 , 1882-84, suggests uniting both these species into one. Wolle too in his * Fresh Water Algce of the United States* , p. 219 , 1887, although maintains their separate position after Mons Petit, is of opinion that these two species ought to be taken as one species. De Toni, however, considers them as two separate species and describes them accordingly in Syll. Alg. Chlo ., pp. 751-753, 1889. O. Borge in his contribution on Zygnemacece , in ‘ Sii sswasserf lor a Deutschlands , Ostterreichs und der Schwetz,* Heft 9, pp. 16 and 29, 1913, has given more or less well defined characters for which these two species can be retained separate. jugalis differs from S. setiformis in the following two main characters : the constricted and longer forms of cells, often twice as long as broad and some- what tumid shape of the fruiting cells. Moreover, -S. setiformis is distinctly larger than 5. jugalis in dimensions. Again, S. setiformis is related to S. polytceneata, Strasb., but the former differs from the latter in the smaller size of the cells and less number of Chlorophyll bands and their turns in each cell. The new variety ‘ maior ' of setiformis is an intermediate form of S. setiformis and polytceniata. This variety is larger in dimensions than the typical form of S’, setiformis but smaller than S. polytaeneata. The cells are 165 to 225 p long and 125 to 175 p broad. Cell wall is 6-8 p thick. Chlorophyll bands are 4-8 in number, having \ to 1 turn in each cell (not 1-H turns in each cell as in S. polytaeniata) and more distinctly dentate, varying from 10-12 P in width. Pyrenoids are 8 to 10 p in diameter. Conjugating tubes vary from 40-50 P in width. Zygote is a prolate ellipsoid, elliptic in front view but spherical in top view, and varies from 100-115 p in diameter. Hab.— In a tank in the residency at Imphal, Manipur. Collected by S. L. Hora, February to March, 1920. Explanation of Figures. Plate II. Fig. 1. Nostoc amplissimum, x800. Fig. 2. Spirogyra setiformis, var. maior ; a. part of a vegetative filament, x75 ; b, c. part of the filament with zygotes and conjugating tubes, x80 ; d. part of a Chlorophyll baud, x550. Plate III Fig. 3. Part of the thallus of Cladophora glomerata, var. rivularis , with the branches, x80. Fig. 4. Portion of an older branch with lateral branchlets, x250. 192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV Fig. 5. Portion of a filament with fructiferous cells, x300. Fig. 6. An apical cell with spores, x?50. Fig. 7. Part of the plant mass, slightly magnified. Plate IV Fig. 8. Part of the filament of Cladophora crispata , var. genuina , wiih subdichotomous branches, xlOO. Fig. 9. Portion of basal filament, x75. Fig 10 Portion of filaments with unilateral branches, xlOO. Fig. 11. An intermediate cell with its spirally reticulate Chloroplast, x400. Fig. 12. Part of the filament of Lyngbya Martemiana , x600 ; Fig. 13. Apical portion of the trichome, x600« METHODS OF FISHING IN THE PUNJAB BY M. Hamid Khan, m.sc. (. Fisheries Research Officer, Punjab) ( With a plate) A. Illegal Methods. The methods of fishing- in the Province before the Fisheries Regulations came into1 force were innumerable, and most of these seemed to be devised with the express purpose of allowing nothing however small to escape. The following are some of the most harmful methods which have been instrumental in diminishing the supply of fish in the Province : — (1) Poisoning. (2) Dynamiting. (3) Fixed Engines. (4) Diversion of water for killing fish. (5) Erection of dams, weirs, traps, etc., for killing fry and young fish. (6) Continuous netting with small meshed nets. Poisoning. — The Indian Fisheries Act IV of 1897 prohibited both poisoning and using explosives for the purpose of killing fish. The practice, has, however, been prevalent throughout the Province, especially in the hilly tracts, and each year during the months of May and June when the streams are very low and all the fish congregate in what pools still remain, they are ruthlessly poisoned and wanton * destruction, of not only the fish but of the tiny fry and the entire animal life which forms the food of the fish, is incalculable. The slaughter does not end in the pools, but as the water trickles out and down the stream carrying the poison with it, it takes its toll all along the stream for ofte' a mile or more. The poisons used are: — (i) Lime. (ii) The juice of the Cactus or Thohar ( Euphorbia royleana ) also called Chhui. (iii) Pounded Tirmal seeds ( Xanthoxylum aletum). (iv) Chila seeds ( Cascaria tormentosa). (v) Boiled tea leaves mixed with lime. These poisons called Mohan are thrown into pools and there stirred up and made to- mix with the water by men swimming in the pool and stirring the water with bamboos. The water becomes milky, and about an hour or less after the poison is thrown in, the fish ’ come to the surface stupefied or dead. No bad effects are produced by eating them. Dynamiting. — Notwithstanding the dangers to which the offender is exposed dynamiting is still indulged in. Many accidents have 25 194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY . Vol. XXXIV occurred. Fish become stupified or dead due to sudden explosion in the water and are picked up. Fixed Engines. — Urli is a conical shaped contrivance of basket work. It varies in depth from 4 to 6 feet, the mouth being at the broader end. A dam is made across a stream with one aperture into which is fitted the mouth of the Urli on the downstream side. The narrow end is sunk in the stream. All fish dropping down the stream must necessarily be carried into the Urli. The force of the stream pouring into it prevents the fish from escaping. It destroys large number of small fry. Jciri is of two kinds — (i) A drag net is fixed across the stream with its lower end fixed at the bottom, while the free upper end projecting out of the water is turned back and supported on sticks. Another drag net is joined at its lower end with the fixed end of the first net, while its free end is turned back to face the free end of the former net, and is supported on sticks and lies submerged under water. There is hardly three or four inches water above the second net and two or three yards distance between the free ends of both the nets. Fish passing over the submerged end of the second net fall into the pockets of the first net and cannot find their way out. They soon tire themselves and are then taken out by the fishermen. (ii) A second kind of Jari is just like a big mouse trap. It is made of two big bag-like nets fitted into one another. The first net’s mouth, supported by sticks, is fixed across the stream. Posteriorly it has got another aperture with a wooden ring opening into the second net, which encircles the posterior half of the first net and is free posteriorly. Its free posterior end has got an opening which is kept closed and is opened whenever it is desired to take the fish out. Fish get into the first net through the mouth and then pass into the second net through the posterior opening and there they are caught like a rat. Erection of dams, weirs, traps, etc., for killing fry and fish— (i) Trop. A very impenetrable fence of thorn is made across the stream, and behind a net like patti (stake net) is stretched horizontally supported by means of four sticks one on each end. The fish going down or coming up the stream see the fence and try to jump over it and are caught in the net. (ii) Patal, Dhingri or Adhani. Thorny branches are fixed across a stream, leaving some clear area near the banks. The fish on finding their way obstructed by the fence try to pass along the sides near the bank and are then caught by fishermen with casting net. (iii) Dhap. An open mouthed vessel just like a platter of any metal or of earth is taken. A ball of flour is placed in the middle of the vessel: The vessel is then wrapped in white cloth and a hole is made in the cloth just above the ball of the flour, and then placed at the bottom of the stream. The fish being enticed by the flour begin to enter through the hole. The owner of the vessel remains on the lookout and when he sees that sufficient number of fish have entered in the trap, he goes slowly, puts his hand on the hole, and brings out the vessel. Then he unties the cloth and takes out the fish. METHODS OF FISHING IN THE PUNJAB 193 (iv) Batarru. Stones are placed in the stream near the bank in a circle, surrounding- a hollow. The fish in summer come to take shelter there. The fisherman covers these stones with a net and kills every fish. This method is very harmful for young Mahsir. (v) Dhanu. Holes are made in the dams of the Kuhls (streamlets diverted for watermills) and the water passing through them is allowed to fall on a stony platform. The platform is covered all round with stones. The fish going through these- holes are deposited on the platform, and are taken out of it by putting the hand through a hole kept in some convenient place. It ensures a fresh and ready supply to the owner. Continuous netting with small meshed nets — (i) Dou. It is a small but very fine meshed net, having two sticks, one on the right and the other on the left side, and a few sinkers in front. It is held in both hands and used in disconnected pools. (ii) Sambi resembles Dou , but is bigger in size and is used in catching Chilwa. It is a triangular-shaped fine meshed net with two bamboos twelve feet each, one on each side and a well stretched, tight cord in front. The net can be used by single man who holds it at the apex. Generally, however, two men use it, each holding the bamboo on the side. When Chilwa run up the river in shoals the sambi is fixed at places where a small whirlpool is formed near the bank. Men hold the net in front and face the fish. When fish reach the whirlpool they are forced into the net by the whirling current. A sambi is sometimes lifted with many pounds of fish in it. With one sambi 400 to 600 pounds of fish have been caught in one day. B. Legal Methods. In addition to the prohibition of poisoning and dynamiting under the Indian Fisheries Act IV of 1897, fishing in the Punjab has been restricted under the Punjab Fisheries Act II of 1914 and is only permitted under a licence by any of the following methods : — (1) Drag net used in conjunction with stake net (i.e. Bhiga , Kadh, Kurga, Chhatta or Mahjal) with a minimum mesh of 1J inches square or 5 inches all round in the hills and 1-| inches square or 6 inches all round in the plains. (2) Fixed nets, e.g. Nilotu , Band, etc. (3) Casting nets, e.g. Sotwan, Palku, Dobajju, Weru, Soru or Pakha. (4) Hand nets, e.g.- — (i) ‘ KochbP and ‘ Saggan ’ with prescribed mesh of one inch square or 4 inches all round. (ii) (Dhangla’ with lj- inches square mesh or 6 inches all round. (5) Dip net, e.g. Kurli or Khonche. (6) Fixed Engines, e.g. — (i) Chip and Chipli; (ii) Bar patta or Stake net. (7) Lines — (i) Long line with hooks ( Lang or dor). 196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV (ii) Hand Line ( Dori ). (iii) Rod and Line ( Bansi , Birhi, Chheep). (8) Horse hair noose or Kalerni. (9) Grains or Spear ( Bhalla or Tin). Draff net. — It varies in length from 13 to 15 feet and in depth from 9 to 12 feet. The universal method is to fix a stake net (Banda) athwart the current at the tail of the pool, and to work a drag net gradually down the pool by a line of men swimming, diving, working sarnais (inflated skins) and doing all they can to drive the fish before them. Weights are attached to the lower end of the net, so that at the time of drawing it downstream, the lower end should remain close to the bottom, and should not permit any fish to escape. Sometimes two or three such drag nets are thus worked one behind the other. Another method is to fasten twenty or more drag nets so as to form a seine (para) which is shot from one bank of the river when the river is low. Fixed nets.- — (i) Nilotu or Pand. This net is smaller than the drag net. It is fixed in pools in certain places which the fisherman knows by experience to be the favourite resort of the fish. The net is placed at night, the bottom resting on the bed of the pool, and the upper edge on the surface, and is removed in the morning. Fish leaving their strongholds or returning to them during the night are frequently caught by the head in the net. (ii) The Nara is 100 feet or less in length and 6 feet in depth. There are no sinkers or weights at its bottom, and it is kept floating by naras i.e. short, hollow, bamboo sticks or reeds attached to its upper end. It is fixed at one end of the pool whether shallow or deep, and men from the other end frighten the fish by throwing stones or by swimming and diving and drive fish towards the net where they are caught. Casting nets. — There are different local names given to casting nets of various meshes : — (i) Sorru : having \ inch square mesh. (ii) Werru : having f inch square mesh. (iii) Dobajju : having one inch square mesh. (iv) Palka : having 1J inch square mesh. (v) Sotwan or Pakha : having 1J inch square mesh. The diameter of the net when extended by casting varies from 3 feet to 16 feet. It is circular in form, with weights attached to its circumference. In using it the fisherman wades into shallow water and throws the net with a rotatory movement some 5 or 6 feet away from him, holding it by a cord. The net spreads itself and is carried to the bottom by the weight of the sinkers. Casting nets, used on sandy bottoms in the plains, have puckering strings (sag) while those used in the hills are devoid of them. Fishing with casting nets is very common in the Province and various methods are employed to entice the fish. For example — (i) During the months of March, April and May the fisherman finds a place near the banks of the river where cowdung is in abundance. There he fixes a small stand of three sticks in water and places a small hand-made lamp with wick and oil on the stand, and Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Journ i. — Drag Net and “ Kurli.” 2. — Fixed Net ( Nava Jdl). 3. — Stake Net ( Bar Patta). METHODS OF FISHING IN THE PUNJAB. METHODS OF FISHING IN THE PUNJAB 197 lights it during- the night. Flies and moths from the cowdung* are attracted by the light in large numbers. Their wings are burnt and they fall into the stream and are carried down by the current. Fish find the delicious morsels and are consequently attracted to the place wherefrom they are coming. The fisherman with a casting net sits on watch and as soon as large number of fish have collected near the light he throws his net and gets a good catch. (ii) Catching Bachwa ( Psuedeutropius garua). Small fish (Chilwa) are caught and placed in an earthen vessel without any water and decomposed. They soon begin to1 smell foul. Some sticks projecting 2 or 3 feet out of water are fixed in places where Bachwa are known to abound. To the free ends of the sticks are attached some bunches of cords sufficiently long to trail in water, and to these cords are tied the decomposing Chilwa as bait. Their smell attracts the fish which come in large numbers to devour the bait. At that time the fisherman wades into water and covers the whole lot with a casting net and takes them out. Hand nets — (i) ‘Kochbi’ is a bag net, circular in form, about 3 feet in diameter and the same in depth, with a bamboo handle about 3 feet long. The (SagganJ has a deeper pocket, a greater diameter and a slightly longer handle, and is either circular or triangular in form. These nets are generally used either (a) near falls for catching fish ascending during the months of March to June, or ( b ) during floods to take spawners or small fish which take shelter in eddies and breakwaters close to the banks. (ii) Dhangla is a combination of dip and drag nets. It is a rectangular piece of net, with" a stick, 3 or 4 feet long, on each of the smaller sides to serve as handles and tight cords on the lower and upper sides. Two men, one on each side, drag it in small streams or shallow waters. Dip nets. — Kurli and Khonche are used in shallow waters. The Kurli is said to derive its name from Kurl (Fish-Eagle) as it is put on the fish in manner similar to the swoop of the Fish-Eagle. It is conical in shape, and is made of 4 sticks tied together at the top, and with a circular piece of net, fastened to the free ends of the sticks at the broad end. Khonche is a conical basket. Fixed Engines — (i) Chip. — A Chip is a platform of split bamboos or sticks, inter- woven or tied together in such a way as to leave interstices of 14 inches square between the sticks. The platform is erected under a fall natural or artificial, in such a way that the portion furthest from the fall is higher than that directly under the fall, i.e. the whole platform slopes upwards on the downstream side. The portion between the fall and the platform is extended to well below the fall so1 that none of the fish can drop through. All the fish coming down the stream must necessarily fall on to the platform. The little ones and the water run through the interstices leaving the bigger fish high and dry on the platform. In the past, the interstices were carefully filled up with grass, sb That nothing could escape, but as the punishment for this bit of sharp practice is a fine with the addition of forfeiture of the licences and the destruction of 198 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV the Chip, it is not much indulged in now. As a Chip is built in a narrow portion of the stream, and the entire stream practically flows over it there is not much that can escape it. The fee for the Chip is Rs. 12 per season, and as many villagers as please can be partners therein. The Chip is erected towards the end of monsoons, and accounts for mostly spent fish (i.e. those which have spawned) and those descending the streams with the fall in the volume of water. (ii) The Chipli is a chip in miniature. Its use is permitted in places for the capture of Chilwa. (iii) Bar Pattas (Stake nets). A stake net with a minimum mesh of 1^ inches square or 6 inches all round is fixed across a stream with stones and perpendicular stakes only. The net is kept lower in height near both the banks. Fish working down to the river after the rains are caught on these Bar Pattas. The fish on finding their way obstructed by the net try to pass through along the sides near the bank, and are there caught by the fisherman with casting net. Bar Pattas are erected for three and a half months from 1st August to the 15th November each year. Lines. — Long Line with hooks (Lang or dor) is set across a river or Jhil, and has as many hooks as can be tied at six inches intervals. Baits used are generally earthworm, chilwa and larvae of dragonflies. Hand Line (Dori) has one or two hooks at the end with a sinker. Hooks are baited and line thrown into water. It is generally used to catch ground feeders. Rod and Line ( Bansi , Blrhi or Chheep ) is universal method of catching fish, and is becoming very popular in the Province. The following portions of the rivers in the Province have been reserved for Rod and Line fishing only : — Kangra District — (i) Beas River and its tributaries from the source of the Beas to the milestone ‘Kulu’ 2 near the old Akhara Bridge, the Sarbari River and its tributaries, from the source of the intake of the Tahsil Kuhl, the Sainj River and its tributaries, and the Tirthan River and its tributaries from and above its confluence with the Jibi stream in so far as they are situated within the jurisdiction of the Assistant Commissioner, Kulu. (ii) Baner stream and its tributaries from its source down to near the shop in Jia village. Rawalpindi District — (i) The Kurang River from Rawal waterfall down to the Kurang Railway Bridge, and (ii) The Sohan River from the old Railway Bridge Piers to the tail of Jalalia pool below Shahpur village. Lahore and Sheikhpura Districts. — Within a distance of f of a mile on either side of the Road Bridge over the Ravi River between Lahore and Shahdara. For all Districts. — Within a distant of one hundred yards from any bridge. Canal Head Works.— (i) Jehlum River from one mile upstream to | mile downstream of the Mangla Head Regulator ; METHODS OF FISHING IN THE PUNJAB 199 (ii) Jehlum River from 1J mile upstream to f mile downstream of the Rasul Weir. (iii) Chenab River from one mile upstream to \ mile down- stream of the Marala Weir. (iv) Chenab River from 1^ mile upstream to f mile downstream of the Khanki Weir. (v) Ravi River from one mile upstream to \ mile downstream of the Madhopur Weir. (vi) Ravi River from one mile upstream to \ mile downstream of the weir at Balloki. (vii) Ravi River from \ mile upstream to j mile downstream of the Sidhnai Weir. (viii) Sutlej River from upstream end of Spur No. 2, 1 \ miles above Rupar to \ mile downstream of the weir. (ix) Right Bank of the Jumna River from Cross Section No. 1 marked at the sight of Hathni Kund Gauge upstream of the Tajewala Weir down to the Cross Section No. 14, near Mandewala Village downstream of the Weir which lies within the Punjab. (x) Somb Nala from J- mile above Spur A upstream of the level crossing down to the confluence of the Nala with the River Jumna near Dadupura. (xi) The Western Jumna Canal from half a mile above to half a mile below the Dadupur Regulator. (xii) Sutlej River from one mile upstream to f mile downstream of the weir at Ferozepur (Gunda Singh Wala). (xiii) Sutlej River from one mile upstream to f mile down- stream of the weir at Suleimanki. Horse Hair Noose or Kalerni. — A horse hair noose or Kalerni is used in Kangra District just after the rains for catching small variety of fish, e.g. Kurka ( Garra lamta ), Tatler ( Cirrhina latia) and others. It is a kind of a trap made in the form of a horse hair noose, and is put under water the depth of which does not exceed three feet. Grains {Tin) or Spears ( Bhala ) are used in shallow waters. Tin is a kind of harpoon with four or five barbed points. DESCRIPTION OF A NEW ANT-MIMICKING SPIDER, SYNEMOSYNA TRANSVERSA. sp. nov. BY Durgadas Mukerjee, Lecturer in Zoology. Calcutta University. ( With 2 text-figures) . Synemosyna transversa , sp. nov. No ant-like spiders of the group Synemosynece 1 are so fat known from India, though a few species of the genus Synemosyna Hentz (Silliman’s Amerc. Jo urn. Sci. Art. xxi, p. 108, 1832) have been recorded by Thorell1 2 from Burma. In 1927, while collecting ants from Barrackpore I came across a single female spider belonging to the genus Synemosyna , in company with the ants Diacamma vagans (Smith) and Componotus sericeous (Fabr.). The spider showed a striking resemblance to the Ponerine ants in possessing a constriction in the abdomen, a node in the pedicel and in its cephalo-thorax being separated into a broad head and a convex thorax. The specimen does not conform to any previously described species, and is described below under the name Synemosy- na transversa. Female, length — 5 mm. The dorsal surface of cephalic area (Fig. 2) which is bounded by the anterior and posterior rows of eyes, is flat and broader than long ; the sides are clothed with short hairs. The eyes are arranged in three rows. The anterior row is recurved, and the eyes in this row are equally spaced ; the distance between the centrals is the same as that between the central and the anterior lateral. The anterior central eyes are the largest in diameter and about two and a half times the diameter of the anterior lateral eyes. The middle row is nearer the anterior row ; the third row is situated near the posterior margin of the cephalic area and these eyes are as wide apart as the cephalo-thorax at that place. The palp is longer than the cephalic area. The digital joint is larger than the radial. The, cubital is shorter than the radial. The chelicerae are vertical and pluridentate. The cephalo-thorax is divided by a deep transverse constriction into the cephalic and the thoracic regions (Fig. 1). The cephalic region is as broad as long, while the thoracic region is longer than broad and exceeds the cephalic region in length. The thoracic region is convex above and its posterior edge near the pedicel is slightly turned upward. The cephalo-thorax is pubescent, Fig. 1. Synemosyna transversa , sp. nov. Lateral view of the thoracic and abdominal regions. The anterior portion of the cephalo-thorax uot shown. and the dorsal surface of the thoracic region in the middle bears two long hairs. The pedicel is a little longer than broad and is about half the length 1 Simon, E , Hist. Nat. Araignees, ( Paris 1897), T. ii, pp. 508-512. 2 Thorell, T., Spiders of Burma (. London , 1895), pp. 320-322, 325 and 328 and Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova ., xxv, p. 339, (1887). DESCRIPTION OF A NE W ANT-MIMICKING SPIDER 201 of the distance between the anterior and the third row of eyes. The pedicel possesses a small flat node at its middle. The abdomen is oval in form and Fig. 2. Dorsal view of the cephalic region. a little longer than the thoracic region ; it is clothed with a silky pubescence while the pilosity on its posterior region is dense. The sides of the abdomen are rugose. A deep and broad transverse groove separates the anterior third of the abdomen from its posterior portion. The dorsal surface of the abdomen lying in front of the transverse groove is depressed between its dorso lateral surfaces and its posterior edge overhangs the transverse groove. A longitudinal groove is present on the ventral surface of the abdomen aud extends from the posterior limit of the epigynum to as far as the spinnerets. The legs are slender, 4, 3, 1, 2. The femur of the last pair of legs is the longest, and its tibia and protarsus are subequal. The legs are furnished with spines ; those on the protarsus and tarsus being very numerous and densely situated. The dorsal surface of the cephalic area, which is bounded by the eyes, is reddish brown. The sides of the cephalic region and the whole of the thorax are brownish-black, while the abdomen is black. The coxae and the trochanters of 2nd, 3rd and 4th pairs of legs are black. The femur, patella and tibia are fuscous, while the other portions of the legs are yellowish-brown. The type specimen is preserved in the Museum of the Zoological Department of the University of Calcutta. 26 TWO NEW SPECIES OF SPHINGID sE (Hawk Moths) FROM THE ORIENTAL REGION BY C, E. Fellowes-Manson The two new species of Sphingidae which are herein described have been acquired from me by my friend, Mr. B. Preston Clark, of Boston, Massachusetts, U.S. A., who is as keen a collector of Sp king idee as myself. Mr. Preston Clark originally described them in the Proceedings of the Nezv England Zoological Club, Vol. ix, pp. 17-19, Cambridge, Massachusetts, May 1, 1924. As it is impos- sible for me to improve upon his able descriptions, I will take the liberty of quoting them verbatim, and adding ether notes of my own. I also take this op- portunity of acknowledging with thanks the honour he has conferred upon me by naming these two new Sphingids after me. The specimens were previously shown to Lord Rothschild and Dr. Karl Jordan, m. a. l., ph. d., at the Tring Museum, Herts, England, who kindly examined them, and not only pronounced them to be new species but also very remarkable forms, especially Compsogene mansoni (Clark), a large species measuring 160 millimetres in expanse. Pre- vious to its discovery there was only one other known species in this Genus, viz. Compsogene paziopus (Cramer), the larva of which feeds on the leaves of the Mango {Mangifera) . The discovery is therefore highly interesting. Compsogene mansoni , sp. nov. Compsogene mansoni Clark, Proc. New Eng. Zool. Club, vol. ix, p. 17. Camb- ridge, Mass. (1924). ‘ Al. ant. long., 70 mm. Al. ant. lat. 24 mm. Marg. ext., rf, 36. mm. ’ ‘ Habitat. — Sikkim, North-Eastern India. One male (the type) in collection B. Preston Clark, collected by Mr. C. E. Fellowes-Manson, and acquired by me from him. This specimen lacks antennae, is faded, and in very poor condi- tion. ’ ‘ Palpi yellow, bordered with brown along the eye and to the tips. Thorax and posterior portion of the abdomen above darker brown than the anterior portion of the abdomen, as in C. panopus (Cr.). ‘ Forewing above : — A light brown basal area extends from a point on costal margin 36. mm. distant from the wing base to a point on the inner margin 21 mm. from the base, and includes the entire area basad of these points. ’ ‘ This basal area has within it three heavy sub-basal angled lines along costal margin, 3, 6 and 9 mm. distant from the base, continued irregularly and obscurely towards inner margin. There are also within this basal area two angled lines on costal margin, 22 and 25 mm. distant from the base. From the posterior of these lines extends an irregular band roughly parallel to the basal edge of a dark brown median area ; this band is interrupted at the veins and extends to the inner margin. The dark brown median area extends straight across the wing basally, more obliquely than in C. panopus. On the costal margin it is 11 mm. in width, thence it broadens to a width of 16 mm. on Rl. Between Rl and R2 it narrows sharply to 6 mm. Its narrowest point is between R2 and R3, where it is but 5 mm. wide. From this point it broadens to the hinder angle, where it is 14 mm. in width. Within this area, between M2 and SM2 and extending somewhat beyond M2, is a black area, which lacks the five white lines basad of it of C. panopus. ’ ‘ The apical portion of the wing d'stad from the dark brown median area is light yellow, slightly irrorated with brown, with a darker marginal band extending from SC5 to hinder angle. This marginal band is a mere line at SC5, but broadens regularly to a point between Rl and R2, where it is 4\5 mm. in width, thence it narrows to M2 ; from M2 to hinder angle it is hardly more than a marginal line. Distal border of wing between SC4 and SC5 is blunt.’ TWO NEW SPECIES OF S PH IN G ID FE 203 ‘ Forewing beneath ; Basal half light yellow, sub-basally dark brown, and including an irregular, brown line roughly parallel to the basal margin of a dark median area. This, broadens to a roughly rectangular area within the apical portion of the cell. The dark brown median area follows in general the form of that on the upper side of the wing, as do the light yellow apical area and the marginal band.’ ‘ Hind wing above : Light yellow with very dark brown markings. The wing is crossed by four distinct bands. The first is antemedian, narrow, curved basad costaily. The second, median, broad (2 to 4 mm.), irregular, widest at Rl, The third, narrow, made up of lunulate lines between the veins, from anal margin to Rl ; from Rl to costal margin it is broader and continuous, curving basad. The fourth line is marginal at the anal angle, and narrow ; it broadens continuously to the costal margin, where it is 4 mm. in width, and 5 mm. distant from the wing apex. Between these bands the yellow ground tone of the wing is sparsely irrorated with brown.’ ‘ Hindwing beneath : Light yellow with dark brown markings, which roughly duplicate those on the upper side of the wing.’ — (B.P.-C.). Habitat.— Sikhim, N. E. Himalayas Localities. — Darjeeling District, Brit. Sikhim. Elevation. — (altitudinal range). — 7,000 ft. (at electric light). Months of appearance.— June. Comparative abundance. — Extremely rare. There is only one known specimen (the type) in coll. B. Preston Clark. Expanse.— C 160 mm. $ $ and early stages not known. The 2 Luva most probably feeds on the leaves of a wild species of Mangifera (Mango). It is doubtful if this tree grows in Sikhim at a higher elevation than 3,000 to 4,000 ft. and my opinion is that the specimen I captured at the electric arc lamp in Darjeeling 7,000 ft. elevation must have been attracted by its brilliant light from a much lower elevation than this. Therelra mansoni , sp. nov. Theretra mansoni Clark, Proc. New Eng. Zool. Club, vol. ix, pp. 18-19 Cambridge, Mass. (1924). ‘ Al. ant. long., 31 mm. Al. ant. lat , $, 16 mm. Marg. ext., $, 23 mm.’ ‘ Habitat.— Sikhim, North-Eastern India. One female (the type) in coll. B. Preston-Clark collected by Mr. C. E. Fellowes-Manson, and acquired by me from him. This specimen is in very poor condit:on, lacking both antennae and abdomen, but its characters are sufficiently well marked to make a description possible.’ ‘ This species is nearly related to Theretra alecto (Linne) and to T. suffusa (Walker), being closer to the former species.’ ‘Head and thorax above dark brown with no median line, both as in T. alecto. Side stripe along the head and thorax as in T. alecto. but less brightly white ; duller in coiour with a pink tinge. Thorax beneath gray in median area and pink laterally.’ ‘ Forewing above : Cilia pink with brown tips. Ground tone wood- brown ; a darker wood-brown marginal band extends from the wing tip to hinder angle, widening evenly to this _ansrle, where it is 9 mm. in width. This marginal band is made of three, the distal one exceeding in width the other two, and the three separated by light brown lines. Basad of this marginal band the wood-brown of the entire wing area becomes lighter in tone as it ap- proaches the marginal band. Inconspicuous light brown stigma with dark dot in its centre. Black and white basal tufts as in T. alecto ’. ‘ Fore wing beneath : Cilia pink. Basal half of wing wood-brown, this colour extending along costal margin to wing tip. Marginal band, similar in outline and in width to that of T. alecto , but a much darker wood-brown. Between the basal wood-brown area and the dark wood-brown marginal band is a light pink area, very narrow (2 mm. in width) between SC 5 and R2, and much broader (10 mm. in width) bet wen R2 and SM2.’ ‘ Hindwing above : In all respects similar to T. alecto , except that the wing is a deeper pink at anal angle. Cilia white.’ ‘ Hindwing beneath : Cilia gray. Wing differs markedly from T. alecto. The latter form is unicolourous save for the marginal band. In T. mansoni 204 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV the marginal band and the entire basal half of the wing are wood-brown, the pink tone being broadly present towards anal angle and narrowing towards costal margin.’— (B. P,-C.). Habitat . — Sikhim, N. E. Himalayas. Localities. — Darjeeling District, Brit. Sikhim. Elevation . — (altitudinal range). — 7,000 ft. Months of appearance , — June and July. Comparative abundance. —Extremely rare. I only captured two specimens, a J and $ of this new species ; the J specimen was very badly damaged and is not now in existence ; so there is now only one known specimen (the type) a $ in coll. B. Preston-Clark. Expanse J 76 mm. $ 82 mm. Early stages not known. Both these specimens were captured at an electric arc lamp in Darjeeling, 7,000 ft. elevation, but may have been attracted from a lower or higher eleva- tion than this. THE HISTORY AND PROGRESS OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA Part II ( Continued from page 9 SO of Volume XXXIII, No. Jf) INVERTEBRATE SECTION By H. Srinivasa Rao, m.a., d.sc. The Invertebrate Section of the Zoological Survey of India (formerly the Natural History Section of the Indian Museum) includes a large assemblage of mostly small terrestrial, fresh- water, brackish-water, and marine animals belonging to various Invertebrate groups of Phyla other than the Arthropoda and the Mollusca. The Arthropod and Mollusc collections are in charge of three officers who look after the Sections of (1) Insecta, Arachuida. and Myriapoda, (2) Crustacea, and (3) Mollusca respectively. The other Invertebrate collections of the Animal Kingdom are in charge of a fourth officer, and include those belonging to the groups Porifera (Sponges), Coelenterata (Corals, Hydroids, Medusae, Sea- Anemones, etc.), Echinodermata (Sea-urchins, Brittle-stars, Sea- cucumbers, etc.), and ‘Vermes’ — the last named being a convenient though arbitrary term used to designate a varied assemblage of worms (free-living and parasitic) and other forms of animals, some closely, and the others remotely, or not at all allied to the worms proper which also include members of the Phylum Annelida. In the introductory part of the article by Col. Sewell reference has been made in general to the sources from which the Zoological collections of the Survey have been derived.1 It is unnecessary to enumerate them again here, but it may be mentioned that so far as the Invertebrate Section is concerned the part played in the acquisition of zoological collections by the Asiatic Society of Bengal, by private donors, and by the various political and military expeditions, has been, comparatively, small. Zoological material obtained from these sources consisted chiefly of terrestrial and aquatic Invertebrates, many of them not belonging to groups of the section with which the present account deals. It was not till after the Royal Indian Marine Survey Steamer ‘Investigator’ actually started biological work in Indian seas that the Invertebrate collections began to accumulate and gain in importance. It will be convenient to deal with the Invertebrate Section h\ two distinct parts, (i) the terrestrial, freshwater and brackish-water 1 For full details on this subject reference may be made to the article by the late Dr. Annandale on the zoological collections in a book entitled The Indian Museum, 1814-1914 (Calcutta, 1914) published in commemoration of the centenary celebrations of the foundation of the Asiatic Society’s Museum Vvhich later developed into the Indian Museum. 206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. XXXIV collections, and (ii) the marine collections, as the history of the one is different from that of the other. The study in India of the Invertebrate animals referred to in this section may be said to have commenced in 1847 with the late Dr. H. J. Carter of the Bombay Medical Service, who laid the foundation for the study of fresh water sponges in India. His work on freshwater Invertebrates was continued by the late Dr. F. Stoliczka whose varied interest in zoology led him to study other groups of animals besides sponges, and especially those living in brackish water areas. The work of these pioneers in fresh and brackish water Biology was greatly extended by the late Mr. J. Wood-Mason, Col. A. W. Alcock, and the late Dr. N. Annandale; all three of them were, it may be noted, intimately connected with the Indian Museum by virtue of their office as Superintendents.1 The fresh-and brackish-water, as well as the terrestrial, collections consist of animals belonging chiefly to the groups Porifera, Polyzoa, Hydrozoa, Hirudinea, Oligochaeta, and Platyhelminthes. Those of the first three groups are found both in fresh- and brackish-water areas, and in the sea. The fourth consists of land and aquatic forms, some of them predaceous or parasitic in a wide sense. The fifth and the last named groups include aquatic and terrestrial forms, some of the latter group including internal parasites of animals and plants. The very rich collections of animals included in this section we owe in part to the sources mentioned above, but for the most part, to the enthusiasm and enterprise of the late Dr. Annandale, who with the help of his colleagues in the Indian Museum and later in the Zoological Survey and of the associates in India and abroad caused extensive collections to be made. Dr. Annandale was himself a very keen field-zoologist, and in the course of his official and private tours in Asia and Europe collected a large amount of material for this section. With the increased touring, which the officers of the Zoological Survey of India have been enabled to do in recent years, the collections in this section have been considerably augmented. It will perhaps be of some interest to note that the volume or extent of a collection has apparently varied with the workers available and their choice in the matter of groups to which they have devoted special attention. For instance we have in the Zoological Survey a large collection of Sponges and Polyzoa on which the late Dr. Annandale did very valuable work at the beginning of his career in the Indian Museum. In recent years additions to this part of our collection have been small in comparison. We have again a very large collection of earthworms and other aquatic Oligochaetes, chiefly as a result of the unceasing devotion to this group of Lt.-Col. J. Stephenson of the Edinburgh University (for many years Professor of Zoology in the Government College, Lahore) who has worked out the great bulk of our Oligochaetes, and is still continuing the work. Similarly 1 The advances in our knowledge of the fresh and brackish water fauna of the Indian Empire were summarised by the late Dr. Annandale in two papers, the Journ. As. Socy. Bengal, N.S. viii, pp. 39-52 (1912) and xviii. pp. 527-533 (1922). THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 207 \ye owe our collection of parasitic Helminthes to the interest evinced in this group by Dr. T. Southwell, late Director of Fisheries in Bengal, who was intimately associated with the work of the Zoo- logical Survey, and by Dr. H. A. Baylis, of the British Museum, London, an authority on Nematodes. The large named collection of Leeches in this section is due mostly to the enthusiasm of specialists like Drs. Kaburaki, Oka, Profs. Harding and Moore, who have always been eager to study Indian material. The volume of work done on these groups has been of such great importance that the results of the studies of some of these specialists have been, or will be, embodied in the ‘Fauna of British India’ series.1 Other monographs, as for instance the one on Indian Cercariae by Col. Sewell2, have been prepared entirely in India based on fresh material obtained in the field. Special volumes of the ‘Records’ and ‘Memoirs of the Indian Museum’ dealing with the fauna of definite regions in the Indian Empire also contain several valuable papers on the Invertebrates. A few among these are on the fauna of the Chilka Lake in the Madras Presidency, of the Inle Valley in the Southern Shan States of Burma, and of the Siju Cave in Assam. The history of the marine Invertebrate collections in the Zoo- logical Survey may be said to date virtually from 1875 with the appointment of the Surgeon-Naturalist to the Royal Indian Marine Survey Steamer ‘Investigator’. It must, however, be mentioned that previous to this appointment the late Mr. J. Wood-Mason, Superintendent, Indian Museum, carried out biological investigations in the Indian seas in 1872-73. He visited the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and succeeded in making a large collection of marine animals not only in shallow waters, but also in depths varying from 50 to 300 fathoms. The pioneer work of Wood-Mason in the investigation of marine animals in Indian waters was continued by the late Dr. J. Anderson (also Superintendent, Indian Museum) who visited the Mergui Archipelago in 1881-82. The results of his investiga- tions are embodied in his Contributions to the Fauna of Mergui and Its Archipelago published in 1889. Deep-sea investigation was, however, not undertaken till three years after the launching of the ‘Investigator’ in 1881. From 1884 upto 1926 the biological work of the ‘Investigator’ in Indian seas has been carried out, with several breaks due to war, etc., in close connection with the zoological section of the Indian Museum, and later the Zoological Survey of India.3 The accumulation of the rich collections of marine organisms, particularly deep-sea Invertebrates of great 1 Fauna, of British India , Fresh water Sponges, Hydrozoa and Polyzoa, by N. Annandale (1911). Fauna of British India, Oligochaeta by J. Stephenson (1923). Fauna of British India, Hirudinea by W. A. Harding and J. Percy Moore (1927). ? Cercariae Indicae’, Ind. Journ. Med. Res. X (Suppl. No.), pp. 310, 3 pis. (1922). 3 A full account of the biological work of the ‘Investigator’ upto 1914 and of the contributions of’ the successive Surgeon-Naturalists to our knowledge of the marine fauna is given by Capt. Sewell (now Lt.-Col.) in ‘The Indian Museum, 1814-1914’ (Calcutta, 1914). 208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV interest in the Indian Museum is in the main due to the energy and zeal of successive Surgeon-Naturalists among whom were, to mention only a few, Lt.-Col. A. W. Alcock, Lt.-Col. R. E. Lloyd, and Lt.-Col. Seymour Sewell. A large proportion of these collections was studied by zoologists in India and abroad. The value of these collections may be judged from the fact that several important monographs on various groups of animals were published from time to time; Col. Alcock was himself responsible for several of the monographs. The Bengal Fisheries Steamer ‘Golden Crown’, and the Hughli Pilot vessels stationed near the Sandheads at the mouth of the Hughli river have also contributed largely to our collection of Invertebrates, particularly those characteristic of the shallower waters of the Bay of Bengal, and of the mouths of the Ganges. The Invertebrate marine fauna of the Indian coasts has been very little explored, but animals from a few isolated areas have been collected on different occasions chiefly by Surgeon-Naturalists to the ‘Investigator’. The officers of the Indian Museum, and later those of the Zoological Survey have also contributed small collec- tions from the Orissa coasts, the Andamans and the extreme south of the Madras Presidency. Presentations and exchanges from individual Zoologists or Museums and Zoological institutions both in this country and abroad have brought together a fairly representative collection of Invertebrates. It will be seen that the Invertebrate collections in the Zoological Survey have thus been brought together from various sources for over a century. But it was mainly due to the enterprise of Col. Alcock and the late Dr. Annandale that the greater part of the marine Invertebrate collections has been named by specialists, mostly from abroad. The Echinoderms, Sponges and certain groups of Corals have been specially studied and reported on. We have still a large collection of other Invertebrate animals waiting to be studied and named. In the words of the late Dr. Annandale we have to deplore in regard to our collections that in India ‘the harvest is rich, but the labourers are so few’. Special- ists in various groups of zoology are still so few in India that many of our collections have often to wait for years before any foreign workers can be induced to name them. But it must be said to the credit of the zoologists abroad that whenever their own work and time permit they are always ready to study and report on our collections. It is this willingness on their part to co-operate with- us that has given the impetus to greater and better efforts in the work of extended survey in various regions. The most important of the monographs published so far on the marine Invertebrates of the Indian Museum, particularly deep-sea forms collected by the ‘Investigator’ are ‘The Indian Triaxonia’ by F. E. Schulze, the ‘Hexactinellida and Tetraxonida’ by A. Dendy and M. Burton, the ‘Deep-sea Madreporarian Corals’ bv A. Alcock, the littoral ‘Madreporarian Corals of the Indian Museum’ by G. Matthai, the ‘Asteroids, Ophiuroids and Echinoids’ by R. Koehler (Holothurians, in collaboration with C. Vaney), the Crinoids THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 209 by A. H. Clark and ‘Alcyonaria’ by J. A. Thomson and W. D. Henderson. The sources from which the Zoological Survey used to obtain marine Invertebrates have been few in recent years. With the retirement of Major R. W. G. Hingston, the last of the Surgeon- Naturalists attached to the R.I.M.S.S. ‘Investigator’ the survey work since 1926 is at a standstill. It is hoped, however, that the post of a Naturalist on the ‘Investigator’ in the regular cadre of the Zoological Survey of India will be created at an early date by the Government of India to continue the valuable work done by successive Surgeon- Naturalists for the last fifty-five years. What material is obtained at present for the marine Invertebrate collections is due to the interest taken by the Hughli Pilots in obtaining specimens from the Sandheads in the Bay of Bengal, and to the officers of the Zoological Survey, who on account of other work are enabled to visit only occasionally regions where marine animals are obtain • able without any costly equipment or apparatus. I have been in charge of the Invertebrate Section since 1926, although my special group was the Mollusca. In the absence of Dr. Baini Prashad (the permanent officer in charge of Mollusca) on long leave in Europe from August 1925, the Mollusc Section was also in my charge upto April 1927. From the time of the breaking up of the Invertebrate gallery of the Indian Museum before the war upto its rearrangement in 1925 the reserve collections of the Invertebrate Section were never put in order except for an attempt made by Dr. F. H. Gravely before his connection with this department ceased. Work in this direction was commenced early in 1926, but was frequently interrupted owing to the inade- quacy of skilled assistance, the pressure of other work, and frequent touring. The named collections of Polyzoa and Hirudinea were, however, rearranged, and a card catalogue of the species present in the collection was prepared. The reserve collections in other groups, some of them very large, have similarly to be put in order before catalogues can be prepared. With an increased staff of assistants it is hoped that this work will be completed in due course. The study of the Scyphomedusae in the Zoological Survey collections was commenced in the early part of the year 1926, but unavoidable interruptions due to research on other more important problems retarded the progress of this work. It is, however, hoped to publish a report on this subject at an early date. Since 1926 I have toured in various parts of India and Burma on an average for about four months in the year. Early in 1926 a visit was paid to the Pearl Fisheries at Tuticorin in South India conducted by the Fisheries Department of the Madras Government, and large collections of various marine organisms associated with the pearl banks off the coast of Tuticorin within a distance of twenty miles were obtained. When the whole collection is studied, it will be a valuable addition to our knowledge of the fauna peculiar to the pearl banks and to the littoral area along the Indian coasts. The study of the fauna of brackish water areas commenced by Stoliczka, and so ably continued by the late Dr. Annandale for some years before his death, was resumed within the last three 27 210 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL MIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI V years. With this object in view I visited the backwater at Vizagapatam (which is now being converted into a harbour) in May 1926, and made collections of the different organisms living in the backwater proper, and in channels and streams connected with it but subject to the tidal influence of the sea. The same area was again visited early this year when profound changes had been introduced in its contour and in the composition of its floor as a result of the progress in the construction of the harbour. The fauna was found to be appreciably poorer than it was three years ago, no doubt as a direct consequence of the continuous changes in the settled habitat of many groups of animals. The harbour when completed will be investigated again to study the changes in the character and composition of the fauna. In October 1926 I was deputed to conduct a Mollusc survey of the Northern Shan States of Burma on behalf of the Pasteur Institute, Rangoon.1 The survey was in connection with the enquiry relating to the probable spread of Schistosomiasis in Burma from the adjacent Chinese provinces on the Frontier, where the disease is reported to be common. During the earlier stages of its life-history the fluke parasite of this disease lives in the body of an aquatic or semi-aquatic snail, while the adult parasite is found in man. It is believed that only certain species of snails belonging to one family are capable of harbouring the larval stages of these parasites in parts of Eastern Asia. In 1924 a few cases of Schistosomiasis were reported among Chinese coolies from Yunnan, working at Namtu in the Northern Shan States and it was feared that if the particular species of intermediate host snail occurred in any part of the Northern Shan States the disease would spread rapidly in Burma. It was with a view to finding out whether any such carrier of the disease was present in the neighbourhood of the country where the disease was first detected that a survey of the freshwater and amphibious snails was undertaken. The survey was conducted for three months in various parts of the Northern Shan States, and more particularly along the Chinese Frontier and along the trade routes by which the Chinese coolies immigrate. Snails from every kind of habitat were collected in the living state and examined for the particular type of Cercaria. The results of the survey were negative, as neither the particular species of snail, and its nearest allies, nor the type of Cercaria associated with the spread of the disease was found. From a faunistic point of view, however, the collection of Molluscs proved of great interest and has been recently reported on.2 It may be of interest to mention that a similar enquiry throughout India was undertaken by the officers of the Zoological Survey at the instance of the medical authorities in India in connection with the much-feared spread of the disease from Egypt and Mesopotamia by infected sepoys returning to India at the close of the war. The results of this enquiry were also negative in as much as the inter- 1 At a later stage in the Mollusc survey my colleague Dr. B. Chopra in the Zoological Survey joined my party in the Northern Shan States. 2 Rao, H. S., Rec. Ind. Mus., XXX, pp. 399-468, pis. xii-xiv (1928), THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 211 mediate host of human Schistosoma was not found in India, and the type of Cercaria implicated in the transmission of the disease failed to infect species of Indian snails closely allied to those which act as carriers in Egypt. The preventive measures, which the medical authorities were prepared to take to combat the spread of the disease at considerable cost to the Government, were, there- fore, not taken as a result of the findings of the officers of the Zoological Survey. A preliminary survey of the backwaters on the coasts of Cochin and Travancore States in South India was undertaken by the Zoological Survey in December 1927. The backwaters are extensive being over a hundred miles in length and over ten miles in breadth. They open into the sea in some places, but for the most part they are separated from the sea by a narrow strip of land along the coast. Several streams from the adjacent hills which become torrential during the S.W. monsoon empty themselves into the backwater in that season, but are also subject to tidal influence during the dry weather, from October to March. These back- waters are thus subject to violent changes in the salinity of water, and the fauna is, therefore, believed to be of considerable interest. As so little is known of the animal inhabitants of these waters a preliminary survey of the backwaters was conducted by me in collaboration with Mr. M. Sharif at various places. The collection seems to be of great interest, but unfortunately owing to the paucity of workers in India much of it will remain unworkecl for some time to come. Meanwhile further information on the nature, of the fauna under different conditions will be collected and collections made at other times of the year. In accordance with the policy of the Zoological Survey to confine its attention to definite biological areas in its investigations, & survey of the fauna of the Malabar Zone on the West Coast of India inaugurated by the late Dr. Annandale some years ago was continued in November and December last year. Dr. Baini Prashad and I visited the Belgaum and N. Kanara Districts of the Bombay Presidency and later on I surveyed the freshwater fauna of the Shimoga and Kadur Districts of Mysore State. Extensive collections have been brought back and will in due course be worked out by the officers of the Zoological Survey. During the period I have been in charge of the Invertebrate section a few collections which had accumulated for a number of years have been sent out to specialists abroad who' were kind enough to ag'ree to examine and report on them. The large collection of Polychaetes from littoral seas on the coasts of India is at present being examined by Mons. P. Fauvel, an authority on Polychaetes, and it is hoped that his report will be ready for publication sometime next year. The whole of our Cestode collection has been sent to Dr. T. Southwell, who has under prepara- tion a volume (on the Indian Cestodes parasitic in Vertebrates) lor the ‘Fauna of British India’ series. Our collections are still incomplete in many respects, and as a result there are wide gaps in our knowledge of the Invertebrate fauna of this country. The free-living worms belonging to the 212 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV groups Platyhelmia, Nematoda and Nematomorpha, the parasitic Trematodes,1 the Hydroza, Actiniaria, Gephyrea and Polyzoa of the shallow seas on the coasts of India, are as yet very little known, though short papers on these groups have been published in the ‘Records' and ‘Memoirs of the Indian Museum I cannot, in con- cluding this brief review of our activities in the Zoological Survey, do better than appeal to1 those interested in the Natural History Society, in the words of that distinguished and keen zoologist, the late Dr. Annandale, ‘to give us their support and to take a practical interest in our work; for scientific work, like other branches of human activity, if it fails to attract the sympathy of educated men, is in danger of becoming either a valley of dry bones or a slough of despond. Even those who are completely ignorant of the technicalities of any science can help us greatly by sending us specimens of the animals that occur in ponds, rivers or lakes in different parts of the Indian Empire, and nobody need hesitate to send us such specimens because they are common. Most animals that are rare in museums are actually common somewhere, in a state of nature : they only appear to be rare because no one has taken the trouble to collect them in the particular locality in which they abound.’ What has been said above regarding the fresh- water fauna of the Indian Empire is equally true of the terrestrial fauna in our vast jungles, in our extensive ranges of hills, and in our plains and desert areas, of the fauna of the sandy or rocky shores of the Indian coast, and of the brackish water areas. It will greatly add to the value of collections of animals sent to us if they are accompanied by notes, however brief, on the locality, the time and date of collection, on the nature of the habitat in which they were found, on the natural colouration of animals collected, and on any other interesting feature which strikes the collectors as of biological importance. MOLLUSCA SECTION By B. Prashad, d.sc., f.r.s.e., f.a.s.b., f.l.s., f.z.s. When in 1918 the offer of the services of the Zoological Survey of India for war work was definitely accepted in connection with the investigations of the Mollusc hosts of Schistosoma, it was decided that the time had come for an officer to' be appointed to take charge of the Mollusc collections of the Zoological Survey and to carry out systematic work on the freshwater Molluscs of this vast territory. I was unofficially connected with this work from its inception, but it was not till April, 1920 when I was relieved from the charge of the Director of Fisheries of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa that I was appointed as the officer in charge of the Molluscs. In addition for a time I held charge of the Insect collections and other groups for which no officers existed in the cadre of the department. 1 In recent years the study of Helminthology in India seems to be receiving increasing attention, particularly in some of the universities of northern India. THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 213 The Mollusc collections which were transferred, together with all their other zoological collections, to the Zoological Survey by the Trustees of the Indian Museum in 1916, formed a very important part of the collections that had been acquired by the Trustees, but since 1883 when the Curator of Molluscs, Mr. G. Nevill, retit ed owing to ill health, no special officer was appointed to look after these collections. As a natural result not only had the collections in this section not been augmented as in other sections, but even in the library of the Indian Museum there were big- lacuna? in the conchological and malacological literature. As the history of Indian Conchology is intimately bound up with the development of the collection of Molluscs in the Indian Museum it will not be without interest to trace shortly its develop- ment. In the very early days of the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal the Mollusc collections were not of very great importance, but it is of interest to note that in 1836 W. H. Benson, a member of the Bengal Civil Service and an enthusiastic and gifted Conchologist, prepared and published in the Journal of the Society a catalogue of the land and freshwater shells in the Society’s Museum. Later in 1860, one of the first separate catalogues to be prepared and published of the collections in the same Museum was that of the Molluscs by Theobald. The collections at this time, as a reference to this catalogue shows, were neither very rich in numbers nor in species, but a very good beginning had been made. Benson and Hutton were two of the early pioneers, who began to study the land and freshwater Molluscs of India and the adjacent countries, such as Afghanistan and Baluchistan, and, in addition to presenting valuable material to the Society’s Museum, started publishing a series of papers on these animals in the Society’s Journal and in the Gleanings in Science. In 1841 Dr. T. Cantor, who had accompanied a diplomatic mission to Chusan, China, brought back a rich collection of animals from that area. His collection of Molluscs, which was one of the most important collections from this region, was worked out by Benson, and was added to the collections in the Museum of the Society ; a report on it was published in the Annals and Magazines of Natural History, London, vol. ix, 1842, and later in the Journal of the Society in 1855. In 1857 W. Theobald commenced a very valuable series of papers on the land and fresh water shells of India and Burma, and presented several series of new and rare forms to the Society and later to the Indian Museum. In 1870 in collaboration with the celebrated English Conchologist, Sylvanus Hanley, he started a comprehensive illustrated treatise on the land and freshwater shells of India under the title of Conchologia Indica. This work was issued in eight parts during the years 1870-1876, while the text of this joint work was supplemented in 1876 by the issue of Theobald’s Catalogue of Land and Freshwater Shells of British India. In 1860 the Blanford brothers began publishing a very important series of papers entitled ‘Contributions to Indian Malacology’ in the Society’s Journal, and this series was continued by W. T. Blanford in the Annals and Magazines of Natural History and Proceedings 214 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , W. XXXI V of the Malacological Society of London. This series culminated with the publication of the first volume on Indian land Molluscs in the Fauna of British India ; owing to the unfortunate death of Dr. W. T. Blanford the work was left incomplete, but Godwin-Austen from the manuscript notes was able to complete it as a joint work in 1908. In 1868 H. H. Godwin-Austen started a valuable series of contri- butions on the land shells of Assam and Eastern Bengal. For several years he published various conchological and malacological papers on Indian and foreign Gastropods in different journals both in India and abroad, but from 1882 onwards his energies were chiefly devoted to publishing a supplementary work to Conchologia Indica entitled ‘Land and Freshwater Molluscs of India’, in which the animals of the different species were studied equally with their shells. Up to 1920, three years before his death, he had published two complete volumes and the first part of the third volume, both text and plates, of this valuable work. In 1869 F. Stoliczka laid the foundations of a systematic study of Indian animals in reference to their anatomy and physiology, and more particularly in connection with the Molluscs. He caused extensive collections to be made not only in various parts of India but as far east as Penang and Singapore, and started getting together excellent figures of the animals of different genera and species ; the originals of these manuscript drawings are preserved in the library of the Zoological Survey, while some of these were reproduced in Godwin-Austen ’s works. His sad death at a very early age was a great blow to the cause of Indian Conchology and Malacology, but his monumental works on the classification of Molluscs in the Palceontologia Indica will always bear testimony to the great service he rendered to the study of these branches. His large collections were all bequeathed to the Indian Museum and are preserved in this institution. The Museum of the Asiatic Society was transferred to the newly- erected building of the Indian Museum in 1875, though the collections had been transferred by an Act of the Legislature to the Government of India in 1866. Shortly after the transfer of the collections Geoffrey Nevill, one of the leading eonchologists of the last century, was appointed Assistant Secretary and Librarian of the Indian Museum. In 1879 his designation was changed to that of the First Assistant to the Superintendent, and he was definitely placed in charge of the Mollusc collections. Before he became connected with the Museum, Nevill, in collaboration with his brother H. Nevill of the Ceylon Civil Service, had published a number of valuable papers on the marine shells of Ceylon and India, and had amassed a large and varied collection. On his joining the Indian Museum as the Officer in charge of the Molluscs the Trustees purchased his private collection, while he presented to the library of the Museum several rare and valuable treatises on Molluscs which formed part of his personal library. On taking charge of the Mollusc collections Nevill energetically started to classify the collections and prepare hand-lists. He further augmented the collections by purchase, by exchanges with collectors all over the world and by THE ZOOLOGICAL SUE FEY OF INDIA 215 encouraging amateurs interested in shells to' present specimens to the collections of the Indian Museum. The names of the various contributors to the collections of the Indian Museum are published after the prefaces in each of the two volumes of the Hand-List of Mollusca which were published in 1878 and 1885. The two1 volumes were devoted to the Gastropoda and dealt only with the Pulmonates and Prosobranchiates. In 1883 Nevill, owing to ill health, resigned bis appointment and the completion of the Hand-List has ever since been in abeyance. The indices to these volumes were prepared by W. Theobald and published in 1889. During his tenure of office Nevill further published a small fascicle containing detailed descrip- tions of various species of Ampullaridae and Viviparidae in 1877, as well as several papers on collections from different parts cf India and adjacent countries in the Journal of the Asiatic Society and in other publications, and it would not be wrong to ascribe to him the leading position amongst the workers on Indian Conch- ology in the last century. The excellent condition in which the collections in the Indian Museum were found, even roughly forty years after his retirement, bears testimony to the care with which he had arranged the material under his charge. Before passing on to the work on the Mollusc collections within recent years, a reference is necessary to the great service done to Indian Conchology by the work of the several enthusiastic Surgeon-Naturalists on board the R.I.M.S. ‘Investigator,’ as a result of which the Indian Museum collections are very rich in deep-sea forms. The history of the biological work of the ‘Investigator’ dates back to the year 1871 when the Council of the Asiatic Society of Bengal urged the Government of India to start investigations in the Indian seas similar to those of the ‘Challenger’ in the other great oceans. One of the chief arguments put forward by the Society was the hope that deep-sea investigations would probably discover many forms which were previously known to science only in the fossil state. The Government of India approved of the scheme put forward by the Asiatic Society, but the first Surgeon- Naturalist to the Marine Survey was not appointed till 1875, and though from this date researches on the shallow water and littoral fauna were carried out, it was not till 1884 that deep-sea work in its strict sense was first started. As this section deals with the Molluscs only, it is unnecessary to go into details of the work of the ‘Investigator’ here, but it may be mentioned that during 1880- 1906 several valuable reports on the deep-sea Molluscs of the Indian waters, dredged by the ‘Investigator’, were prepared by such authorities as Nevill, Wood-Mason and Alcock, Smith, Sowerby and Goodrich. These reports were published in the Journal of the Asiatic Society, Annals and Magazines of Natural History, London, Proceedings of the Malacological Society of London and the Transactions of the Linnean Society, London, while the figures of the new and rare species were issued separately through the Indian Museum by the Directors of the Royal Indian Marine as Illustrations of the Zoology of the R.I.M.S. f Investigator* . The entire collections, including the types of the different species, are 216 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Col. XXXIV all preserved in the Indian Museum. It is also of interest to note that since the initiation by the Trustees of the* Indian Museum of their own zoological publications, viz. the Records and the Memoirs of the Indian Museum , the results of all zoological work connected with the Indian Museum collections are published in these serials, and the Illustrations of the Zoology of the R.I.M.S. ‘Investigator’ are also now incorporated in the Memoirs. In passing one may also' mention the collections of Molluscs, among those of other marine animals, made by the Bengal Fishery trawlers, S.T. ‘Golden Crown’ and some of the collections made by the collector of the Zoological Survey of India on board the S.T. ‘William Carrick’ in the Arabian Sea, which are also deposited in the Indian Museum. Since Nevill’s retirement in 1883 to 1918 the only work on the Mollusc collection of the Indian Museum, apart from the reports on the ‘Investigator’ collections mentioned above, consisted of reports, which were prepared by Fleure, Goclwin-Austen, Germain and Preston, on some of the collections made by the officers of the Natural History Section of the Museum and later by the officers of the Zoological Survey. The three volumes in the ‘Fauna of British India’ series, one on freshwater forms by Preston and two on land shells by Gude, issued during 1914-1921, which were partly based on the collections of the Indian Museum, may also be mentioned here. Another very important source from which rich collections were received in the Indian Museum, was the private enterprise of two of the officers of the Museum, viz. Dr. John Anderson and Dr. N. Annandale. The former of the two undertook at his own expense an expedition to the Mergui Archipelago and brought back a very rich collection of littoral and insular forms from that area. The Molluscs of this expedition were named by the famous authority on Molluscs, Dr. E. von Martens of the Berlin Museum; a report on the collection was published in the Journal of the Linnean Society of London for 1888, and all the named collections were presented to the Indian Museum. The late Dr. Annandale similarly during several periods of leave investigated the fauna of freshwater lakes in different parts of Asia. His work extended from the Lake of Tiberias in Palestine on the one hand, to Lake Biwa in Japan on the other. He brought back large collections of freshwater Molluscs and presented them to the Indian Museum. A number of these collections were made since the inauguration of the Zoological Survey and the greater part of this material was worked out by the officers of the department in Calcutta. Valuable collections have also been received from officers of sister Surveys like the Topographical Survey, the Geological Survey and some members of the Indian Forest Service and Indian Civil Service, who collected specimens during their tours in outlying places and presented these to the Indian Museum. Before closing this survey of the sources of the collections in the Indian Museum it is necessary to mention the various military and political expeditions on which zoological collections were pbtained for the Indian Museum, and as a result of which this THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 217 institution possesses collections from such widely separated areas as Persia in the north-west to the province of Yunnan in China in the extreme east. The various expeditions, to mention only the names, were : Persian Boundary Commission (1870-72), Afghan Delimitation Commission (1885), Seistan Arbitration Commission (1903-05), Pamir Boundary Commission (1896), Second Yarkand Mission (1873-74), several private donations from the members of the Dafla Expedition (1874-75) and the. Military Expedition to Lhassa (1903-04), the Abor Expedition (1911-12) and the two expeditions which passed from Burma to Western China in 1866 and 1875, and in both of which Dr. j. Anderson of the Indian Museum took a prominent part as a medical man and a naturalist. On my appointment in 1920 the first consideration was' to re- arrange the collections and to have these properly stored in boxes in place of the old pill and match boxes in which the specimens had been stored. At the same time it was necessary to fill up the gaps in the collections, and in the conchological and malaco- logical literature in the library. Since my appointment the work of this section of the department has, as far as possible, been brought up to date, while besides large additions in the library, I have personally got together a very extensive collection of rare old monographs, reprints and separates for supplementing the rich collections now available in the departmental library. The work on Indian Molluscs since my appointment has consisted in preparing and publishing fully illustrated monographs on different families — mainly of freshwater Molluscs, but land, marine and estuarine Molluscs have not been entirely neglected. Of the various monographs published, attention may be drawn to the anatomical and systematic account of some Indian Viviparidae by Col. R. B. S. Sewell and the late Dr. N. Annandale, Dr. H. Srinivasa Rao and myself, anatomical account of the Indian Planorbids by Dr. H, Srinivasa Rao, a detailed descriptive catalogue of the Planorbidae in the Indian Museum by Dr. L. Germain of the Paris Museum, and anatomical, systematic and zoogeographical monographs on Union idae, Cyrenidae, Ampullaridae and Viviparidae by myself. In addition to these special reports on collections made in different parts of the country have also been published. The collections of the Indian Museum to-day are not only very extensive but are fairly representative of nearly all parts of the Indian Empire. Without going- into details it will probably be enough to indicate the lines along which the work is now being carried on. As long ago as the early fifties of the last century it was recognised that for a proper understanding of the relationships of the different Molluscs it was necessary to study not only the shells but the soft parts of the animals as well. Unfortunately, however, the study of the anatomy of these animals, except in some cases of the radulae, does not appeal to most Conchologists, and it has invariably been left for specialists who deal only with the soft parts. The results attained, by correlating researches on the soft parts with those on the shells of Indian forms, have fully justified the view that work on shells alone is in most cases very misleading. Further, in connection with the systematic studies on the Molluscs 28 218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIV of India, it has been found necessary to study their plasticity, variation in reference to different habitats and geographical distribution, all of which are of very great importance in connection with the systematic and faunistic work, which is one of the primary duties of the Zoological Survey of India. For a proper under- standing of the relationships of the various recent forms it has also been found necessary to study the fossil remains from different parts of India and other countries and to correlate the results with those obtained from a study of the living forms. A research on which I have recently been engaged is the systematic revision of the Asiatic species of the freshwater bivalve Molluscs of the genus Corbicula. Our knowledge of the different species of this genus was in a very confused state, and it was found necessary not only to study very large collections from all areas but also to examine the old collections containing the ‘types’ in various Natural History Museums in different countries of Europe. Fortunately through the co-operation of the authorities of these Museums it was found possible to get almost all the collections for study in Calcutta, and the results of the work have fully justified the necessity of a careful revision of this genus. Similar studies are being carried out on other genera of freshwater and marine bivalves, and in many cases the fossil species have to be studied equally with the recent forms. In connection with the work on the Indian freshwater mussels or the Unionids, this is of particular interest, as the distribution of recent and fossil forms of this family is often of great help in determining the changes in the courses of the different river-systems during the past geological ages. In connection with the revision of the different families of marine Lamellibranchs, through the generosity of Professor Max Weber of Holland, the entire unnamed collection of the Lamellibranchs obtained by the ‘Siboga’ from the seas round the Dutch East- Indies has been sent to me for identification and study. This work, it is hoped, will enable one not only to settle several difficult questions of taxonomy and distribution, but also, to some extent, determine the interchange which has taken place between the forms found in the Indian and the Pacific Oceans respectively. The land and marine Gastropods of India are not being ignored, but naturally these forms have not so far been studied with the same thoroughness as the freshwater and estuarine types mentioned above. In connection with the studies on Molluscs it has also been necessary to get a thorough acquaintance with the various sources for determining the exact dates of issue and publication of the various old monographs and periodicals and settling the verv puzzling questions of priority in reference to the names of different genera and species. As a further extension of my work on the distribution of Molluscs 1 have also made a special study of Zoogeography and Animal Distribution in particular reference to the Indian Fauna. Molluscs in the form of dry shells from all parts of India will be gratefully received for the collection of the Zoological Survey THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA 219 of India in the Indian Museum, while to those who are prepared to help a little further, we shall be glad to send instructions, as well as materials for collecting- and preserving the animals in addition to the shells ; such anatomical material, it need hardly be reiterated, is of far greater value than the dry shells alone. The areas from which collections will be particularly welcome arc, the Northern districts of the Bombay Presidency, including Gujarat and Kathiawar, Western Ghats below Goa, Mysore, inland districts of the Madras Presidency near the West Coast, Central India, Assam, Burma and Kashmir, including Gilgit and Western Hima- layas. Named duplicates will, if desired, be returned to the collectors from the collections presented by them. THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S INVESTIGATION INTO THE COMPOSITION OF SALT-LICKS EARTH-EATING AND SALT-LICKING IN INDIA BY J. F. CAIUS, S.J., F.L.S., AND K. H. Bharucha, B.A., B.SC., (. Pharmacological Laboratory , Par el, Bombay ). PART II ( Continued from page 676 of Volume XXXIII). ANALYSES IV- VII. IV. Common Earth. Serial No. 4. Locality— Nalonwalag, Chandi Range, Lansdowne Forest Division, U.P. ; 900 ft. Procured by — R. C. Singh, Forest Ranger. Sent by— Mr. F. W. Champion, i.f.s. Grey lumps of clay with organic debris, mostly rootlets. Powder soft. Clay Sand Organic debris Humus ... Moisture Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) Insoluble in nitric acid Soda (Na20) Potash (KzO) Magnesia (MgO) ... Lime (CaO) Alumina (A1203) Silica (Si02) soluble Sulphur (SOs) ... Phosphorus (P2Os) Manganese (Mn) Ferric oxide (Fe2Oa) Moisture and organic matte 56-05 34 83 0-22 3-87 2-01 93-03 84-330 0-201 3*664 0-452 0-245 2-793 0-056 0-032 0-508 0-036 2-145 4*280 per cent. Remarks : — 1. The soil contains a little over 2 per cent, water-soluble organic matter. 2. The earth was taken from an area which adjoins salt-lick No, 5, but is not visited by animals. Investigation into the composition of salt-licks 22 1 V. Soil from Salt-Lick (Nalki Salt Lick). Serial No. 5. Locality— Nalonwalag, Chandl Range, Lansdowne Forest Division, U. P 900 ft. Procured by— R. C. Singh, Forest Ranger. Sent by — Mr. F. W. Champion, Yellowish grey lumps of clay with Clay Sand Organic debris Moisture Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) Insoluble in nitric acid Potash (KaO) Magnesia (MgO) Lime (CaO) Alumina (Al2Os) Silica soluble (Si02) Sulphur (S03) Phosphorus (P2Os) Chlorine (Cl) Manganese (Mn) Ferric oxide (Fe203) Moisture and organic matter •ganic debris. Powder soft. 87*47 per cent. P50 0-04 3-71 96*89 74 640 5*812 0*999 2526 ,, 4*284 „ 1*600 0*135 0*164 0*120 0*072 4*000 2*500 Remarks : — 1. The soil contains traces of sodium and carbon dioxide ; also 4 per cent, water-soluble organic and inorganic matter. 2. The lick is frequented by wild elephants, tigers, deer, cows and oxen. VI. Earth for Human Consumption. Serial No. 6. Locality— Shampur 8, Chandi Range ; Lansdowne Forest Division, Garhwal ; 325 feet. Procured by— R. C. Singh, Forest Ranger. Sent by — Mr. F. W. Champion. Drab lumps of clay with a few rootlets. Clay Powder soft. 77*71 Sand 10*33 Organic debris 0*09 Humus 5*53 Moisture 3*29 Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) ... 96*71 Insoluble in nitric acid 78*500 Potash (K20) • 0 • 3*789 Magnesia (MgO) 0*594 Lime (CaO) 0*472 Alumina (A1203) 6*461 Silicia (Si02) soluble . 6 . 0*015 Sulphur (S03) 0*092 Phosphorus (P2Os) 0*814 Manganese (Mn) 0*003 Ferric oxide (Fe203) 3*002 Moisture and organic matter ... 4*000 per cent. i i per cent. » > Remarks .*— -1. 2. The soil contains traces of odium. This earth is eaten by women at the time of pregnancy. VII. Soil from Salt-Lick. Serial No, 7a. Locality— Bellatur, Kollegal Taluka, Mysore. Obtained and sent by— Mr. R. C, Morris, Honnametti Estate, Attikan P.O., via Mysore. 222 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI V Gritty, light buff, coarsely granular earth ; finer portion soapy. Minerals (mostly quartz) 36-62 per cent. J ) Clay 8-39 Sand 41-20 Organic debris 1-23 ) ) Moisture 4° 48 y > Fine Earth (20 mesh sieve) 58-900 y i Insoluble in nitric acid 42-680 j y Soda f Na20) 0-202 f y Potash (K20) 6-203 Magnesia (MgO) 0*028 y j Lime (CaO) 1-480 y Alumina (A1203) 3-120 y y Silica (Si02) soluble 0-450 y y Sulphur (S03) ... 0-125 > y Chlorine (Cl) 1-380 s y Ferric oxide (Fe203) 1-564 y y Moisture and organic matter 1-670 y y Remarks : — 1. The soil contain traces of phosphorus and manganese. 2. The lick is frequented by cattle. REVIEWS. ‘THE FIELD-BOOK OF A JUNGLE-WALLAH \ BEING A DESCRIPTION OF SHORE, RIVER, AND FOREST LIFE IN SARAWAK. — By Charles Hose, hon. d. sc. (Cantab), Author of The Pagan Tribes of Borneo , etc., with Frontispiece in colour, and 25 plates in Black and White, 216 pages. Published by H. F. & G, Witherby & Co., London. 1929. The majority of the members of the Bombay Natural Society have no personal knowledge of Sarawak, but here is a book which will introduce them to the tropical forests of that country and provide them with a wealth of information concerning its animals and its birds ; its trees and its insects ; its flowers and its fishes ; its minerals and its poisons ; and all this in a most interesting manner. The readerlwill journey in vivid imagination with the author who, with the experience and trained observation of many years (he entered the Sarawak Service in 1884), tells him of all he sees, or can see. For it is not all of us who have the eyes to see unaided, as that faculty comes only to those who have real interest in Nature, and the life so well expressed by the appellation Mr. Hose applies to himself of ‘ Jungle-Wallah.’ The forests of Borneo are more tropical than those of most parts of India, but we read and learn of much that is familiar to us, and that always lends added interest to a subjecL The walk along the Bornean shore with the casuarinas and the screw pines ; the bare cliffs and the amber-coloured waterfalls ; for scenery, introduces us to turtles and sea-eagles, prawns and pirates, and to something more familiar to us, viz., the green Bee-eater. We learn that this small bird, with the seemingly wholly unsuitable beak and feet has the surprising habit of nesting like a Kingfisher by making holes in the ground. Then we come across the Pangolin, a species also known to us in India, and a Honey-bear which is a stranger. Later on, we learn all about that curious fish, known from Africa to New Guinea as ‘ Mud-skippers ’ or ‘ Jumping-Johnnies ’, which are fast becoming land animals. Further on, we see the strange and beautiful fish captured by the native fishermen in a drag net. Some of these are similar to those of the seas which lap the shores of India ; for instance, the Buntalor Balloon fish which, when inflated, resembles a gigantic horse-chestnut. Finally we see the nest of the Megapode, or Mound-building bird, and learn all about it and the many enemies it has ; so it is fortunate that it is usually only found in the forests near the shores of uninhabited islands. The spiral maze-trap — the Kilong — used at. the mouth of the Baram river, is an ingenious and labour-saving contrivance, — in fact it is fishing made as easy as it is possible to imagine. Here we are 1,000 miles from China, the nearest land to the north, and during the 224 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Fo/. XXXIV north-east monsoon can see immigrant birds in large numbers. Here also are fine wild water buffaloes with large horns, similar to the wild buffalo of India and Burma, which have been domesticated and trained to various uses among others as mounts for the District Police ! We learn that there are three species of wild pig and that here, as in India and other countries, the gallant boar fears neither beast nor man. Travelling up the river to Baram Fort, we meet all those biting and stinging insects with which we are familiar, and many others besides. Higher up the river we are introduced to the untouched primeval forest the abode of the real ‘ Dayak ’ and the pagan tribes who have communal houses three hundred yards long and containing perhaps a thousand souls. Journeying on for a hundred miles and more, we take to canoes and ascend rapid streams where the natives ‘ fish ’ with the root of a plant which stupefies everything in the water, a practice not strange to the native of India. Crocodiles are large and numerous, and captured by means of the chicken and cross bar arrangement as in other parts of the East. Among birds we meet the Indian Darter, Herons and Ibises ; while, further on, are the wild cattle of Borneo, the Banting, the same animal as the tsaing of Burma. Of butterflies little mention is made, but two of the most beautiful are noticed, one of them five inches across the wings. Of the deer tribe are the Sambur, the Barking deer, and the Mouse deer ; and we meet hosts of birds and insects peculiar to the Bornean forests and their phosphorescent nights. If you will go with the author on ‘ Short-Leave Holiday ’ and to ‘a Mountain Treasure-House’, you will have a most absorbing time ; for these chapters are packed wTith interesting things about birds, animals, and plants; and you will hear about several mammals named after Mr. Hose, their original discoverer. The ‘ Wealth of the Jungle ’ will tell you all about Cutch, Antimony, Sago, Gutta-percha, and Camphor ; also of Rubber and Pepper and Rice : and of this last the means by which the toper of strong drink can literally take it lying down and in as large or small quantities as pleases him. Here you will also read of the iodized salt which probably anticipated by an uncounted period of time the lately ‘ discovered ’ treatment of goitre; an illustration of the saying that, ‘ there is nothing new under the sun’. The closing chapter of this very interesting book treats of the minerals and poisons of that country which is so rich in many things. There is the Datura which we know of and the Upas tree and other poisons which are strange to us. There is a shrub the product of which is, to man, only a partial and cumulative poison. It induces a feeling of numbness about the tongue and soft palate, and ultimately speech is. affected. As Mr. Hose remarks in regard to it : ‘ In view of the increasing spread of democracy, it is possible that up to now its value has been under-estimated.’ The illustrations in the body of the work are good, and clear, and the index a full one, in which, however, the word ‘ goitre’ is not to be found; and that is the sum of the adverse criticism there is to offer ! REVIEWS 225 With a final look at the excellent photograph at page 66 which illustrates a ‘Typical Sarawak Jungle Scene’, the volume under review is, for the present, regretfully closed. R.B. TROUT FISHING FROM ALL ANGLES.— By Eric Taverner, with a chapter on Trout Scales by G. Herbert Nall, m. a., f. r. m. s., and the Legal Aspect of Fishing by Alban Bacon, Barrister-at-Law, 448 pages, with 250 Illustrations. Seely Service and Co., Ltd., London, S. 21. This book is one of the Lonsdale Library series, and it is hardly necessary to say that, sponsored as it is by one of England’s leading sportsmen, it is the last word in modern angling methods. Many years have elapsed since the fishing volumes of the Badminton Library were published, and in that time great changes have taken place as a glance at the text and illustrations of the earlier volumes will show. The present book, with its exhaustive survey of modern methods of trout fishing, is a worthy successor to the Badminton volumes and though it is intended primarily for the beginner, there can be but few anglers who will not read it with both interest and advantage. The first two chapters are devoted to a review of early angling literature and it will be news to most that as many as twelve artificial flies were, in use upwards of 500 years ago, most of which were definitely copied from the natural insect and can be identified to-day. It is also of interest to note that one of the most valuable early publications was a treatise in 1600 by a namesake of the present author. The succeeding chapters on the life history of the trout are well written, but it is to be regretted that more information is not available as to the migratory tendency of the rainbow, a subject of the greatest interest especially to those responsible for the fisheries in India and Ceylon. The size to which trout attain is given as 3J" to 5" the first year and 5" to 8" the second ; this of course refers to fish under natural condi- tions ; in a hatchery with abundant food throughout the year, they will greatly exceed these limits. Mention is made of crayfish forming part of the trout’s food supply under certain conditions ; in the Nilgiris experience shows that the fish feed chiefly on small fresh-water crabs with which the streams abound, and as a result, seldom rise to a fly after attaining a weight of ljlbs. We agree with the author that the theory of colour-blindness in trout has little to support it and much practical observation to discredit it, but experience with the white moth makes us somewhat doubtful as to extent of the powers of nocto-vision claimed for them. There is an interesting paper on the nocturnal behaviour of fish as observed in the London Aquarium, published in Zoological Society’s Proceed- ings for August, 1929. The plate on p. 62 illustrating a fish’s cone of vision deserves careful study by the novice, as success in fishing depends so largely on the angler remaining unseen. Chapters V and VI are devoted to tackle ; the author favours the split cane rod which is no doubt correct for Home conditions, but in India the green heart will be found more lasting as well as considerably cheaper. The 29 226 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , Vol. XXXIV author’s careful consideration of varnish, rings, reel and tackle deserve the closest attention by the beginner. In the chapter on casting the importance of two-handed control of the line and of ‘ shooting ’ is emphasized ; t.he;method is so easy to learn that it is surprising that it has not been more generally adopted. The various casts are well illustrated by diagrams and will repay careful study. The chapters on entomology, trout flies, etc., make interesting reading, but most anglers will prefer to skip these for the moment and pass on to the ‘ Practice ’ of angling which, with its admirable photographs, recalls the Home waters so w^ell known to many anglers in India. The author holds an even balance between the wet and the dry fly and the sections of Chapter XVI dealing with the former afford most instructive reading to the Indian angler who seldom has an opportunity of using the dry fly. In the Nilgiris, practically all fishing is done with a well sunk fly and from the direction of the wind casting can seldom be up-stream. Anglers who live in out-of-the-way parts of India and have to re-condition or repair their rods themselves, will find much helpful instruction in the chapters on knots and splices. As regards hooks, there can be no question of the superiority of the eyed type for India; hooks to gut are most liable to draw if exposed to heat. The chapter on rise-forms deals with the subject at greater length than we have come across elsewhere ; the author’s conclusions are sound and instructive, but, like the subsequent chapter on trout scales, more for the advanced fisherman than for the beginner. Chapters XX and XX[ deal with fly dressing materials and methods ; they are illustrated by a coloured plate and numerous diagrams. It is unfortunate that so few anglers nowadays learn to tie their flies ; with a little practice, it is by no means difficult and the satisfaction of taking a good fish on a home-made fly has to be experienced to be realized. The remaining chapters on loch fishing, spinning and worming are all instructive, while those on the legal aspect of fishing and on fishery management are of importance to anglers in India who intend to take a fishing at Home or who have control of fisheries in this country. A list of the various close seasons in different part of Great Britain would have been of special interest to any one returning Home on leave. Mr. Eric Taverner is to be congratulated on having compiled such a practical and instructive work which must long remain a standard on modern methods of angling. The book should be in every fisherman’s library. E. P. A. 3. A GUIDE TO THE ORCHIDS OF SIKKIM.— By P. Bruhl. Pp. xvi and 207. Calcutta and Simla. Thacker, Spink & Co. 1926. Rs. 5. This is a guide to a group of plants which, while exhibiting in great variety jsome of the most beautiful flowers in the plant kingdom, are not only of absorbing interest to the amateur plant collector and the horticulturist, but are also objects of fascinating study 'hi REV IE WS to serious students of botany. The little book intended to enable its possessor to identify orchids with the minimum equip- ment in training and apparatus. The diagnostic characters of genera and species have been so chosen that they can be easily made out by the naked eye, except in a very few cases, where the use of a simple pocket lens and a razor or a sharp knife are the only other tools required. The book, we are told, is primarily meant for the non-botanists, wherefore the minimum number of . easily-learnt technical terms have been introduced. The 95 genera and 45o species (only 453 are mentioned in the preface) are arranged in the form of what is known as the dichotomous plan, exemplified in the preface by wmrking through a concrete case. Although dealing primarily with species from between the Terai and the northern frontier of independent Sikkim, including the Chumbi valley— a region particularly rich in Orchid flora — it will also be found useful in other parts of India, chiefly the Himalayas, where most of the species dealt with here are also of general occurrence. The reader is assured that the key has been tested over and over again ‘ in the field and the forest, in the green house and the verandah,’ and the book is of such size that it can easily be carried in one’s pocket, a feature which will greatly add to its usefulness. Orchid lovers will particularly feel grateful to the author and the publishers for the publication of this guide. N. K. T. 4. WHAT BOTANY REALLY MEANS— Twelve plain Chap* ters on the Modern Study of Plants. By James Small, d.sc., f.l.s.; 1928 : London George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., Pp. 200. 5 Shillings net. The true appreciation of the fundamental importance of plants as being responsible not only for the maintenance and progress of civilization but of its very existence is not usually recognized by the generality of mankind. This is not due always to their indifference but also to the fact that most books on botany — and sometimes even the so-called popular ones — are written in a language which fails to appeal to them and is positively frighten- ing by reason of the manner in which the subject matter is presented and the injudicious use of ‘ big words ’ (as the author of the present book calls the technical terms). The result is that an impression has gradually grown up and gone abroad that the study of plants is the monopoly of the selected few and is therefore of very restricted use and application. The resulting ignorance has not only prejudicially affected the course of civili- zation but its consequences have often been appalling. Fortunately of late, there has been a tendency among botanists to realize the necessity of presenting in a popular way the funda- mental facts of plant life in simple and intelligible language. To such books the present work is a welcome addition. It ‘ is an 228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI V attempt as the author puts it, ‘ to make plain something of what we know about plants and plant life.’ The subject-matter of the book contained in twelve chapters is based largely on half-hour talks broadcast to schools by the author. The conversational form of the text has been retained on purpose and is sure to appeal to the class of readers for whom it was intend- ed and whom the author now seeks to approach. In the 200 pages the author has endeavoured to present the various phases of plant life, with particular emphasis on the economic aspects, in langu- age which is simple and in a manner which makes the book read like a romance. Throughout the book the author, discriminatingly and with full effect, makes use of many facts of everyday experi- ence in order to drive home some obscure or important idea or conception otherwise difficult to express in a popular language. The central idea with which the author starts and which runs throughout the book and is again and again referred to and elaborated is that of an ‘ Effervescent World According to this idea, life is likened to a lemonade bottle consisting fundamentally in the bringing together of carbon dioxide and water, followed by a separation of the two. Between these two events lies spread the whole pageant of life whether manifested by the simplest types of living organisms or by the most advanced. The lemonade factory where the first change is effected is the Green Leaf. The author clearly describes how this factory works, and how later it trans- forms the simple substances absorbed from the soil into products which are indispensable alike for the continued existence of life as for the progress of the world. While the whole book reads like a fairy tale, the chapter dealing with the the adventures of the running sap has a special charm of its own, and grips the attention of the reader, while he follows, with pathos, the changing fortunes of a drop of water (personified into a human being) from the time it descends to earth as rain till it escapes out again as water vapour from the leaf. The book should be of great help to teachers of Nature Study and to such others as wish to acquaint themselves with the fundamental facts of plant life without taking a course in Botany. The author lays claim to using not more than three technical terms. The class of readers whom he seems to have had in mind is manifestly different from those in India, for it will be difficult for many lay people here to comprehend the meaning of many more words which are to be found in the text. At the same time it must be admitted that the number of such technical words has been reduced to a minimum. N. K. T. MIGRATION OF WILDFOWL The Society’s Ringing Scheme Since the publication of the last lists in Vol. XXXIII, No. 3 and No. 4 of the Journal, 719, the following recoveries oi ringed birds have been reported to us, the first two by the Central Bureau of Regional Survey, and the last named by the Commissariat of Agriculture, Moscow. Place of ringing No. Date Species Riuged by Date of recovery Locality Manchar 2783 Jan. 26. Mallard R.B. Mac- April, 25, Ishimsk, District lake, Lar- kana Dist. Sind. 1929 A. platy- ryncha . lachan. 1929. Ural ( circa 56° O' N. lat. 66° 05E. long). Karachi Sind. 2875 Dec. 12. 1928 Do. C. Chat- t°rji. August, 1929. Omsk Siberia {circa 55° 0' N, lat. 75°0' E. long.). Sujawal, 1810 Feb. 9, Pintail Meherally May 15, Samarovo, Karachi District Sind. 1929 P. acuta. Shah Bukhari. 1929. Tobolsk Dist., Siberia (60° N. lat. 70° E. long The Central Bureau of Regional Survey, Moscow, which is collecting data in connection with the ringing of birds in Soviet Russia, would be glad to receive reports of recoveries of birds ringed by them in Russia and Siberia. During the summer of 1929 this scientific organization ringed a great quantity of ducks in the Barabinsk Steppe, Siberia ( circa 53°-50' N. lat.; 75° -85' E. long.). The birds ringed belonged chiefly to the following species : — Pintail ( Daiila acuta). Common Teal (Nettion creed). Shoveller ( Spatula clypeata ). The Russian rings bear the marks : — “ 5 K)H. Moskwa ” Recoveries should be reported to the Director, Central Bureau of Regional Survey, Moscow, or to the Honorary Secretary of this Society. Editors. Bombay Natural History Society, 6, Apollo Street, October 15 , 1929. THE TOXICITY OF THE VENOMS OF INDIAN SCORPIONS. Progress of the Society’s Investigation. Scorpion Venom . Number of Weight of dry Venom Scorpions in milligrams Buiheolus bicolor 1 0-0 , , melanurus 5 0-0 Buthus australis 1 0-9 ,, pachyurus 57 25-5 ,, rugiscutis 12 2*6 ,, lamulus 357 786-5 Pulamnaeous bengalensis 2 9-7 ,, iiilvipes 53 174-7 , , gravimanus 4 14 6 „ liurus 19 12-5 ,, lo?igimanus 5 18*5 ,, phipsoni 10 48-d „ swammerdami ... 40 559-4 , , xanlhop2is 4 14-5 Scorpio ps asthenurus 5 5-6 ,, motitanus 7 3-6 Isometrus europaeus ( vesicles ) , . . 10 7-9 Pharmacological Laboratory, J. F. CAIUS. Parel, Bombay. October U, 1929 . MISCELLANEOUS NOTES I.— STRANGE BEHAVIOUR OF A TIGRESS. Reading- Mr. Morris’s further reference to the sense of smell in the Indian Felidae in the current issue of the Journal, Vol. XXXIII, 3, the following experience may be of interest and worth recording in the Joufnal : — - I was touring in the C.P. last January with a well-known sportsman Forest Officer, when we had news late one afternoon of a kill. We packed up and made for the spot, getting there about 4 p.m. and, having tied up a machan in haste without any cover, got into it, a most uncomfortable one, at 4.45. Shortly after, a barking- deer warned us of the tigress moving, and at 5.45, exactly an hour of waiting, we saw her come down a dry nallah on our right, only about 30' from us and in full view the whole time. She did not appear the least bit suspicious and it was not until she came to what we estimated was the direct line of wind from us and the kill to her, that she stopped. It was most interesting to see her sniffing the wind like a spaniel which wind, we imagined, was from her kill. After standing here for a couple of minutes, she moved further down the main nallah up to its junction with the smaller nallah, into which the kill had been dragged and lay. Previous to getting up into the machan, I had walked down the smaller nallah to the junction to see a good pug impression of my likely trophy, unknown to my host of course. It was here that I had my object lesson, as, when the tigress came to this point and started moving towards her kill, she stopped, half crouched, with her nose to the earth, and after uttering a low growl turned and walked off down the main nallah. This was behind us and over my right shoulder, or I could have killed her when she made her first appearance. That she had smelt me from my foot impression there could be no doubt. She turned up again at 8.10 p.m. when she made loud snarling sounds under our machan and again moved off. We decided to cheek at 9.45, and blew two long blasts on a trumpeter’s whistle for the elephant and the ladder men. Hardly had this been done when we spotted her in a patch of bright moon-light looking in our direction, head on, still on the right. It was most trying, we could hear the men approaching with a light, and she also made a few steps in the direction of the kill. When the men were 40' of us we saw her move off at a walk up stream. No sooner had the men arrived than they were told in a whisper to return ; and, hardly had they done so, when she again appeared, this time from in front of us. 1 ’ It was a most interesting experience, as in the first instance she showed such great caution, and latterly made the bold march up to her kill hardly before the men were out of hearing. 232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI V My host, who has shot 50 odd tigers himself and been in at the death of nearly three times this number, could make nothing of the experience. It is worth mentioning that in between the visits she paid us, we heard her calling at intervals, what is commonly believed to be the mate call. She was a young animal and had not had cubs ; she taped 8 foot. Urna Estate, A. MACDONALD. Marowrah P.O., B. & N.W.Ry., August 1, 1929. II. -THE CARCAL IN IRAQ. ( With a photo). Blandford gives Mesopotamia as the distribution of the Caracal, Felis caracal. Pitman in the Survey of Iraq Fauna, records a possible occurrence. Tristram in the Survey of Western Palestine refers to it as the Red Lynx, mentions its scarcity in Palestine, and states that it has a wide distribution occurring through ‘all Africa, Arabia, Persia and India’. Sterndale gives Africa, east to Western Asia and India. Protheroe gives S. Africa, Egypt, Arabia and India. Loftus has recorded a specimen from Dizful. One would expect, therefore, that the animal would be found within the confines of present political Iraq. One possible source of confusion is the jungle cat, Felis chaus, possessed of large size, black ear-tufts, yellow tinge, and short tail ; it has, however, pronounced markings. The caracal has no obvious markings and is usually of a brick-red colour. One must remember, however, that Buxton in his Animal Life in Deserts (p. 160) refers to a desert type from Asben in the South Central Sahara, described by Thomas as differing from all known caracals ‘in its exceptionally pallid colouration and silvery ears’. A further source of confusion is of course the true Old World lynx, Felis lynx or isabellina. Points of difference are the occurrence of a defined ruff in the lynx and the relatively greater length of the tail in' the caracal. Tail length to body length ratio in the lynx is about 1:4, whereas in the caracal it is at least 1 : 3. The lynx again is of a stolid build, the caracal smaller and of more delicate proportions. The lynx is grey or fawn and may have a suggestion of spotting, particularly in summer (Sterndale’s Mammalia of India, p. 94). It is stated by Protheroe that the under-parts of the caracal also are slightly besprinkled with black and chestnut spots ; the general tinge of the caracal, however, as mentioned above, is reddish. The lynx appears to be the more decidedly ‘spotted’ animal of the two. The Arabs in Iraq certainly recognize several sorts of wild cat and various names are current. They seem to me, however, to be applied quite fortuitously and to have no particular classical appli- cation. What is ‘ gurta’ tc one man is ‘ herrelY to another and merely MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ?33 a ‘ bizoon ’ or ‘ saba ’ to a third; ‘ washa ’ is another common name for a ‘big cat’. The descriptive abilities again hardly come up to the requirements of classification. CARACAL SHOT NEAR RUTBA, MESOPOTAMIA, 1924. An animal is described, however, from time to time which suggests the Caracal. I have seen no skins unfortunately and was very pleased to get hold of two photographs of an animal shot by Mr. Reid of the Nairn Transport Company near Rutba in 1924. The animal has the flat face and pointed ears that one associates with the lynx or caracal. The tail is not ‘bobby’ and relatively too long for the lynx ; there is no ruff, spots are missing and the animal lacks the stolidity of a lynx ; it has the finer proportions suggestive of the caracal. A suspicion that this was a specimen of the latter animal was confirmed by the Bombay Natural History Society. Royal College of Medicine, NORMAN L. CORKHILL. Baghdad, October 21, 1929 . 30 234 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fb/. XXXIV III.— DISTRIBUTION AND COLOURATION OF THE LYNX This morning-, while looking- for Ibex, I saw, what I take to have been four lynxes — one, an old animal and three cubs of about a year old. They were under observation with binoculars for over an hour at a range of 300-500 yards. I am acquainted with the skins seen in the furrier’s shops in Northern India and called Tibetan Lynx. These are a soft brownish grey turning to almost white on the under-parts. The old lynx which I saw this morning was a bright orange red — the colour almost of a tortoise-shell cat : whereas the cubs were a grey brown, though one of them showed signs of turning red. My shikari called them * phiauku ’ and said that they were plentiful hereabouts. He says that when he was with one of the Mammal Survey collectors here, about ten years ago, he saw seven of them together. When first seen, the old one was lying- down in the shade of a rock, whilst the cubs were playing about like kittens. However, they soon settled to sleep in some long grass and the family was finally disturbed by my tiffin cooly and made off — the kittens a long way in the rear of their parent. Since writing the above, I have seen another ‘phiauku’. It was also bright red. [Blanford gives the distribution of the Lynx as the ‘Upper Indus Valley, Gilgit, Ladak, Tibet, etc. ; also throughout Asia north of the Himalayas, and Europe north of the Alps. Lahoul, where Capt. Lowndes observed the animals he refers to, is a province which is formed mainly of the watersheds of the Chandra and Baga Rivers which rise in the great Baralacha Range of the Western Himalayas. This gives a more southerly record of their distribution of these animals, though Lydekker in his Great and Small Game of India mentions that Lynx cubs are occasionally taken by the natives of Spiti which, like Lahoul, is one of the provinces grouped about the Rotang and Baralacha Ranges. In Rowland Ward’s Records of Big Game there is a record of a skin obtained by Col. A. E. Ward in the United Provinces — where exactly is not mentioned. In the Tibetan Lynx ( Lynx lynx isabellina) the general colour is pale sandy grey or isabelline. The under-parts of the body are white. The animal is regarded as a pale coloured local race of the ordinary lynx of Northern Europe and Asia. This pale race occurs in the plateaux of Eastern and Western Tibet. In the neighbourhood of Gilgit, where there is a certain amount of forest, the lynxes assume a more rufous tinge and thus imperceptibly pass into the typical European form in which the colour may occasionally be a rusty red (Lydekker). Lahoul is described as a treeless country. Amidst the waste of rock, stone, snow, there are small patches of birch and (LYNX LYNX). Kyelang, Lahoul, Kangra District, D. G. LOWNDES, Captain , Royal Garhwal Rifles. August 11, 1929. MISCELLANEOUS notes 235 rhododendron and here and there stretches of hillside covered with blue pine. — Eds.] IV.— THE HUNTING LEOPARD ( CYNsELURUS JUBATUS) IN THE CENTRAL PROVINCES. I shot a Hunting- Leopard on December 26, 1926, in the Harrai Jagir (Chhindwara district) very near the Narsinghpur border, at a place called Kodari, lying on the main Narsinghpur-Chhindwara Road. The skin and head were mounted for me by Messrs. Van Ingen & Var Ingen, Mysore, who pronounced it to be ( Cyncelurus jubatus). It is a splendid specimen. Mr. C. F. Turner, c.i.e. , i.c.s., Commissioner of this Division, suggests that I should report this to the Natural History Society for record, as he believes no wild hunting leopards have been known in these parts for the last 50 years. [Writing of the Hunting Leopard, Dunbar Brander ( Wild Animals of Central India , p. 273) states that the animal has now almost entirely disappeared from the Central Provinces without apparent reason. He only knew of three animals being procured in the last 20 years. Rumours of their existence in parts of Berar, the Seoni Plateau and Saugor still persist, and the writer believes that one or two may still be found. In Vol. XXVII, p. 397 of the Society’s Journal, Brig. Genl. R. G. Burton gives several records of Hunting Leopards shot in the Berar District between the years 1890 and 1895. They appear to have been fairly common in that district about the period mentioned. On the same page, the late Col. L. L. Fenton records the distribution of the Hunting Leopard in Kathiawar. In Vol. XXVI, p. 1041, there is an account of its occurrence in the Mirzapur District, U.P. Little is known of the present distribution of this animal in India. It is said to be still fairly common in the Hyderabad State, but we have no authentic records. Further information from readers of this Journal would be welcome. — Eds. ] V.— MALAY BELIEFS AND LEGENDS ABOUT TIGERS AND WILD DOGS. One evening, recently, a friend, who is a great Malay scholar asked me how many tiger cubs there were in a litter. On replying that to my belief, there were two or three, he proceeded to tell me a Malay legend regarding the number of cubs in a tigress’s litter. The Malays maintain that a tigress gives birth to seven or eight cubs and explain the fact that only two or three are seen with the mother as follows : — When the cubs are a few weeks old, the tigress makes them lie in a row and commands them that on no account are Narsingpur, July 12, 1929. J. M. RICHARDSON, I.M.D. 236 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , W. XXXlV they to touch her tail. She then lies down and twitches her tail in front of them. Should a cub try to touch her tail, the irate mother kills it. The remainder are then tempted and, on disobeying- the command, are killed until there are only two or three left. Another belief with regard to the tiger is that the cubs do not suckle but that the mother squirts her milk on to leaves, etc., and the cubs lick the leaves. Miscellaneous note No. 9 in Vol. XXXIII, No. i, on the Malayan Wild Dog (Cuon rutilans ) prompts me to write giving a Malay superstition regarding that little hunter. The Wild Dog, the sirgala or arjing kutar as he is called by the Malays, is not uncommon in some parts of the north of the Malay Peninsula, but is extremely rare in the south. The Malays consider it unlucky to meet a pack, believing that disaster is inevitable within a year if the dogs give tongue without their being forestalled by those unfortunate enough to meet them. The Malays also believe that the urine of the sirgala causes blindness and that the dogs purposely urinate against trees and grass through which their prey is likely to pass. i j j i Sungei Patani, ALEXANDER CROSS. June 18, 1929. [Stories of wild dogs ejecting a fluid or using urine to blind their quarry are current in many parts of India. One explanation put forward is that the myth may have arisen through the fact that when wounded and pursued, they will sometimes, through fear, lose control of their functions and so wet or defile their tails. — Eds.] VL— SEASON OF SHEDDING AND GROWTH OF ANTLERS IN THE SWAMP DEER (RUCERVUS DUVAUCELLI) IN ASSAM. In Dunbar Brander’s Wild Animals of Central India, p. 200, Lydekker’s statement that Swamp Deer grow horns in March and April appears to be doubted. Whilst in Assam, last April, I saw stags with horns fully grown in velvet and in process of shedding the velvet. Cherat, D. MONCRIEFF WRIGHT, N.W.F.P., Capt. July 25, 1929. j [Referring to Lydekker’s statement in his book, Dunbar Brander writes : ‘I am in no position to contradict this statement as regards Assam, but it is certainly not true with regard to the United Provinces and Central Provinces. The herds do not disperse in spring, and stags do not shed their antlers in April, and many small stags are still in horn at the end of the month. To find a stag in velvet in March presupposes that, the horn was shed in February or even January.’ Presumably this is what exactly happens in Assam. — Eds.] MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 237 VII.— ENCOUNTERS WITH ELEPHANTS ON THE BILLIGIRIRANGAN HILLS Scene : Camp-Namagundi — Billigirirangans. Event I — A party of four were in camp : two men and two ladies. Soon after nightfall, a herd of elephants started trumpeting near camp, and shortly after this the herd entered the shola the camp was in from the western side, surrounded the camp on three sides, commenced to demonstrate, and things looked decidedly nasty. The Sholagas (jungle tribe, excellent trackers) feverishly made a ring of fires round the camp with all available firewood, and shots were fired. Every now and then an elephant would crash through the jungle with a shrill trumpet, to within a few yards of the ring of fires, to be met with shouts and yells and a volley of shots. It was a weird and wild scene; the glare of the fires round the camp lighting up the figures of the two sportsmen standing with guns at the ready (shot guns were being used) with loaded rifles at hand for any elephant that might break through the ring of fires, the two women standing behind trees, and the Sholagas running from fire to fire, waving fire-brands, banging kerosene tins, and yelling vociferously. There was not a tree in the vicinity that an elephant could not knock down with ease. Beyond the light shed by the fires was inky blackness, and from here issued terrifying roars, trumpets, and a medley of other sounds and crashes from the elephants. Every now and then the whole herd seemed to advance,