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DP» y VAIAAAa ‘ala'a a i AA “aaprhAn AY Ary ale Dawaaaaa sala Fas ) Dp >. —- » Dd >») » 5 » > DD) »)) DD») ) 3 > » ))» SAAAAh ANAAAAA nAAAnAAAAY AR AAA AVAAAANAAAAAAAAANAAA VV, ) | \'A'/ A | \) RAiaA AAR AARY AAR SAR AAR SRASRAAAAAAAA } { ! a Y \ ! i / | Y | D»D D> — > AY\ A. lV VoVeo'.\ y | on An, AAA. pepnpnaacy aa AA ex VAR-Y | rt alae = An AAAAA) AAA wits ANS ; \ lalalala\ls | anna i, a. RARARL AARAS AA Aanaaaaa AAA my EN EN VN a NNN. —~w AA AAI A a\a\c) =~ an. A \\an\ RAAAAAAAAARAANAAAAAAAA TS. ae oie aber ' mou oh a ; ‘ , i : , a elt ae Pa f fey 1h : ay aoe i i ; 1 an 4 We Cn iipg jy ian) ee a mn ae i i : : : i my oe mh caw iw , : i ae ; i ; 1 Ws Sauna : c ’ 2 gat Oh 3 We, (ONE, : 7 a oh : ? Oa b ene , r : ris) 7 i : ; i ; Tes a | p ij ih nue 3 Ra, ee ON 7 i ; woh ith 7] . rs A > . \ , if ‘ i t 4 : ae wh THE JOURNAL s OF THE IN fa & V4 BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY INDEX AND TITLE PAGE VOL.. XL NOS. 1 & 2 Price ae Rs. 2-4-0 MADRAS PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS 1939 INSTRUCTIUNS TO BINDER The contents of these two parts. should be arranged in the following order when they are being bound :— Title page oz Contents of Nos. 1 and 2 of Vol. alk List of Contributors pe tree ae List of Plates... gre bon Index to Illustrations me Errata te oe : Index to Species ee te To follow frontis- piece in this order. To go at the end of two numbers. THE. JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY EDITED BY P, M. D. SANDERSON, F.Z.S.. S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S., M.L.A., J.P & C. MCCANN, F.L.S. VOL. XL Nos. 1 & 2 Containing 3 Coloured Plates, 31 Black and White Plates, 32 Text-figures, and 2 maps. Dates of Publication “Part 1. (Pages 1 to 136)... ~— April’ 1938. » 2 ( 4» 137 to 354) .. September 1938. LONDON AGENTS : DAVID NUTT, Esq., (A. G. BERRY) 212, Shaftesbury Avenue, London, W.C. 2. PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS 1O30 Tol i " 1 Cary: foe f . . . " f ’ yt A i = > e . ‘ CONTIGNLS OF VOLUME XL. No. 1 SomME NOTES ON THE RAISING OF A/B/SCUS SHRUBS FROM SEED. By Mrs. M. E. Robinson, m.A. (Cantab.) (W2th / one coloured and one black and white plate) .......... ry. os \MALayan GAUR OR SELADANG (8260s gaurus de) By a Tiibbacks “(Wain 1202 black and White Plates)... i242. Hiss om Wmorart PAr® iil. by Dr. sy Ul: Hors, wo sc.; _-*F.R.S.E., F.N.IL and K. S. Misra, M.sc. (Wzth three plates and six texl-figures)... eee reciente anni Puna fs SoME BiIrRDS OF A COene Doane ae F. N. Betts, M.3B.0.v. (With three plates) .. ees Sten ss SOME NOTES ON ee AND were cee IN eo By Col. W. M. Logan Home, 1.4. Retd. (With two plates)... Poneman ON THE Broo ncs OF A BUiee GENE Oe ee M. . ON Banana. By K. Brahmachari, M.A. (Wz7th one plate CHO SII LERL-ILOIUHES \n: see Stared: Para ramets NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE RCH ae ‘Conese (Mugil corsula Hamilton), WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROBABLE MODE OF ORIGIN OF AERIAL VISION IN Bismes. By Dr. 5. UL. HORA, D.Sc., F-R.S.E.;. F.L.S., F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., F.N.I. (With one coloured and three text- CULES ae, ere LEC re MEDICINAL AND Poisonous see OF oe Mena Dillentads, Anonads, Mentspernads, Berberids. By Rev. Ere hed Caiises.s, Faas. esse ab: 5 OBSERVATIONS ON THE enone OF me ae eee Cuvier and Valenciennes), WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ITS LARVICIDAL PROPENSITIES. By A. G. Fraser, TM. Bs. : ALAA ics sthcneten ty eer et Gipn us. OF Wren aan eer ee T. Hubback Ya OUr OI AGhe A7t0. LONLLE DIGLES) 0a: scion alee ise soee- ashes MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— I. Wild Beasts—Real and Apocryphal. By R. G. Burton .. a ee IE. Nerice cae: of Meer. Meer c. Sore ice oli a9 ILI. Curious behaviour of Wild Dogs and a Panther at a Kill. By Ramanuj Saren Singh Deo., ¢.B.E. LV. Unusual mauling by a Leopard. By A.C. Tutein- INGO GHG DNUIS oR ZAG tiie 5 .otiae acalts ude bien Sie an aeeees JUL 13 1939 56 62 69 96 100 XT. XI. Oe XVI. XV Al: XVIII. XIX. OG POG XXII. Tue GAME FISHES OF INDIA. D.SC.; F-R.S:Bi,) F284 BRAGS. Bs, ENE CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL Disappearance of Jackals. By R.C. Morris...... On Whistlhine.oL ‘Bison. eBy (RaCa Wieuiise.. Catise of Sore Neck in Sambar, By S. R. Daver. Some Birds observed in Kutch and Kathiawar. By Humayun Ali. Drumming of Watt ee a R. aS fhe Jones.. The Tene rane iiiea: ‘Nighti-a -ar © (CHE macrourus albonotatus ‘Tickeli), By R. M. Betham;c.1.&- ae On the parasitic Peni of ihe Pied Cretan Cacioe [Clamator jacobinus (Bodd.)]...... Egeg-laying of the Khasia Hills Cieae: (Ori c. baker?) in the nest of the Burmese Stone Chat (Sartcola caprata burman ae By aa: LAVESCY 2t.ke oe: Cuckoo Problems. “By T. Te ibaveccom Occurrence of the Black-capped Knees, [ Halcyon pileata(Bodd.)]| in the Gonda District, WER SB Wiikey ee eee yan ee Arrival and stay of Snipe in Assam. By R. E. PAaTrSOOS se Sear tea ee ae) Occurrence of the Sheldrake (Zadorna tadorna) in Murshidabad District, Bengal. By R: J, Clough wneticct con ae er ee Note: on the Python. By Ae Vandile ee An instance of the ‘ Viviparity’ in Mabuya cari- wate (SChn.).. By Ak Vy eshalya.c... ae A supplementary List of the PYRALIDA: of Calcutta... “By “Dv G. Sevastopulo; #.Rens=. A note on the Lycenid Butterfly (Zveves dipora Moore). By A. EB. Jones. (W2th one plate)... On the differences between Lycenopsts huegelii huegeliz and 2. ladonides o7gas, Wy VAs. SOMES CUAULIMOMLCDUQHIEY ..ac2 fiae sneer ene A note on our Vala Sanctuary. By vA“C@> Patein: Nolthemiusrenezcs:... 235; 3 eee No. 2 Part lV. By Dri S. Exbona, (With one colour- ed plate of The Silond Catfish S7/oxza stlondia (Hamiiton) and four Lentel EB UKES) charset a5 USi ve Sethe Reign eer toe CONTENDS, OF VOLUME XE THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE. Part IV. By Salim A. Ali and Humayun Abdulali. eae ‘wo black and white plates).. Saree DMO ual bored DS eee es THE Orca Hee OF THE EL Coconit ne P. V. Mayura- nathan .. : ROSE- PEN Ouse AND OTHER ones OF THE Wee area. Dye Wat OTR a5. baebates, 1.46) C7272 S22. DIALES) inate tess nos A FuRTHER CONTRIBUTION TO SOME OF THE COMMON FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE HYDERABAD STATE: THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND Economic IMPORTANCE. By Sayeed- tel OTN PLM RIAD) carck cwcrtersae es stianGinatin bah si shee ume sceees THE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF JODHPUR STATE. By H. Whistler, F.R.S., M.B.O.U.. oe Ss ON A NEW CoccIpIUM ee ee Sp. n. FROM THE INTESTINE OF A COBRA WVaja naja Linn. By Matiranjan Das-Gupta, M.sc. (With a plate)... THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND. iy. Cc. HL “Biddulph. (With a map)... re A NOVE ON DLLs a laca Cn (e 7. V. Saiaanatn. B.A., and K.P. Anantanarayanan, B. A. Ca ae a Pinte. THE ome oe AND Poronon Sera. OF Micoas oe Rev hie em he Cals) G7 5.0 atic, woe mineakess REVIEWS :— I. The Birds of British Somaliland and the Gulf of ee oAwis Den dveben Der WV OC ss. tia cscs cade sam oteatenn ee bile Phe Compleat [ndiam Ancler.. . fis-s.scak meee oe MVese he rials Ol aor lanter. ca. cc.kcn Proud seek eer rcie Vee Pe Te IAIN GL VSI 1@ alae aches + saelemei ederim den c ahedure snags VI. Uganda Game Department Annual Report forthe S/SIEI GES Stee en ea rm SCI En ras NR ee a ee MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— I. Panther with abnormal feet. By 8S. H. Prater, M.A. (CoM.ZS.. nae BE aareies cops rere oars i Sackals? aa a ee Panther, bs Noel J.S. Thompson... Piet: Leeda sete t ssa eee ae the =tancolin= and eahan a curious belief. By The Editors... yah TV... An albino Stnbace fee H. G. iChantatony. LF.S.. TOL 213 236 238 2a7 264 322 322 XVI. xVile AVIIT. XIX. OE XXI. DOM 2X XXIV. CONTENTS OF VOLUME RTL The mating of Elephants. By Paul de Launey.:. A Large Indian Elephant. By F. J. Mustill...... Behaviour of Gaur or Indian Bison. By R. C. Morris.. SE REN At Behaviour af (on or ina Bicon (eae gaur Was) By Major H. G. Rossel.. ane The use of firework or oe Bee: in ee protection Of crops... By, EF.) Must’. ee The Yellow-bellied Flycatcher (Chelidorynx hy poxanthum): An Extension of its range. By Rev. 2. A. otorrs Foxe, s The Status of the Koel Lunn pe ie ' in Sind, By Ky Re Hates, F:7:S., M.B.0.Us..2 5. Some interesting records of birds in the Punjab. A correction. “By He W.. Waite, M0B-0.U...... Cuckoo Problems. By T. R. Livesey........./e. sa Strange accident to a Vulture. By J. A.C. Green- wood. (With a photo)... Occurrence of the Lesser Ones Brensted (eee Pigeon. (Dendrophasa bicincta bicincta) at Keamari, Sind. By K. R:- Eates, F. z. s., M.B:O.U., Woodcock. iyood Seis ‘Pintail hee a jae Snipe in one day!. By R. F. Stoney... The Snipe-billed Godwit (L7mnodromus Ste nmowski N ert.) in, Orissa, Byso. Ele deraver, M.L.A.; C.M.Z.S.< os The Occurrence of ne Tie eone. he Re ea Phalarope, the Falcated Teal and the Sheldrake at Patna by. Ae Abreu. a: cesar sete kee Bewick'’s Swan, ee Sea near Delhi. By E. S. Lewis.. Occurrence of ie ene tai Wea bone Gone hyemalis, si near Quetta. By Major M. B.P. Reeve.. Sheldrake Cie na tne na nines ae in mone "Be Te ik (GO WG ac stot as wane oh terraces ee eee A Hybrid: Common Teal and Baikal Teal. By bt.-Col. JWT homson(Glower: cee Migration of Wild Fowl... s8y The Editors... -., The Food of the Mugger (Cvocodilus palustris). By Tlumay un 7A bduilaliesmeisne skeet: tenes es PAGE 323 324 S/45) 330 youl Soc 332 308 CONTENTS OF VOLUME XL XXV. The head-shields of the Hamadryad [Maza hannah (Cantor)|: An abnormal example. Byo Re Ne Chamipion-JiOneSisni.g, cx. cesccaezeee ass XXVI. Two Caterpillars of Economic importance, not recorded before from South India. By T. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar B.A., Ph.D.. si XXVII. Notes on the Earwig (Dine Pee en, INORERY. By Sir Frank Connor, D.S.O., F.R.C.S., I.M.S., (Major-General, Retd.)... : PROCEEDINGS OF THE ore Cunenan ieee ING OF THE BomBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOG ela Vere err emer ee ect eo ee ee erat Vii PAGE 336 Bile) 338 340 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUPORS VOLUME XL ABDULALI, HuMAvUN; The food of the Mugger (Cvroco- dilus palustris) > see Ali, Salim Some Birds observed in Kutch = and Kathiawar ame ee Al, SALIM and ABDULALT, HuMavuN; The Birds of Bombay and Salsette. Part IV (With two plates) ANANTANARAYANAN, K. P., B.A.; see SUBRAMANIAM, T.V. Ayvar, T. V. RAMAKRISHNA, B.A., Ph. D. Two Caterpil- lars of economic importance not recorded before from Dy india ye. Me fs BAres, MAIOR Ros, 2. ; Cn the Parasitic Habits of the Pied Crested Cuckoo (Clama- tor gacobinus, (Bodd.) - Rose-Finches and other Birds of the Ward- wan Valley (With six blates) BETHAM, BRIG.-GEN. R. M. Gire,>* “Pie Indian, “Lone tailed Nightjar ee Bers, fb N 4 B.0.U ss ome Birds of a Coorg Down (With three plates) by ares BrpputpeH, C.H,.: The Birds of Rameswararn Island (Wzth a map) : ee BRAHMACHARI, K., M.A.; On the Bionomics of a Bagworm (Kophene cuprea M.) on Ba- nana (With one plate anda six text-figures) an BURTON, R.G.; Wild Beasts, —Real and Apocryphal Nos. 1 and 2 PAGE 148 125 183 124 30 238 56 112 CAIUS, < ieee S gi Isc Medicinal, and poisonous Plants of India: Magnoliads, Dillenitads, Anonads, Ments- permads, Berberids aes ——; ‘The poisonous Medicinal and Spureges of India CHAMPION, FH OG;, 1.8S.3 Albino Sambar . ee CHAMPION-JONES, R. IN, & Drumming of Wocdpeckers... ———-—— ; The head-shields of the Hamadryad [(Nata hannah Cantor)] an abnormal example CrhouGH, @R. wu: Occurrerice cf the Sheldrake (7adorna tadorna) in Murshidabad District, Bengal An Sheldrake fadornma Linn ) in (Tadorna Orissa oe ze CONNOR, MAJOR-GENRL SIR PRANK Das. O07, (he ORUGwon ieM. se Notes. -on the Earwig (Dicrana kallipyga Dohrn) cat D’ABREU, E. A.; ‘The occur- rence of the Turnstene, the Red-necked Phalarope, the Falcated eal and the Shel- drake at Patna aoe Das-GuPTA, MATIRANJAN, M. Sc.; On anew Coccidium (fsospora minuta) sp. n. from the intestine of a .Cobra (Naja naja) (With three text- {1U7 eS) Sas ae DAVER, S. R.;: Cause of sore neck in Sambar gee PAGE 69 29 334 338 332 236 118 &. id : i & ‘ ; . | ‘ | | oo ee ee ae LIST (OF CONTRIBUTORS Dro, RAMANUJ SAREN SINGH, C.B.E.; Curious behaviour of Wild Dogs and a Panther at a Kill ee ATES. Re) 25S, 00. B.O.U The Status of the Koel (Eudynamis scolopaceus) in Sind ee ae ———-— ——— ;: Occurrence of the Lesser Orange: breasted Green Pigeon (Dendrophasa bicincta bicincia) at Keamari, Sind aa oe bees Epirors; Wild Beasts—Real and Apocryphal oe: Drumming of ———— eas 7 Note Om the Python: ——————-; Pangolin and Sambar : a curious belief —; Record Measure- ments of Indian Elephants ... The Mating of Elephants aes : Records of Bewick’s Swan within Indian limits ; Migration of Wild Fowl ; Function of the ‘Forceps’ in Earwigs ‘ EOxG, H.. vie. STORRS 3 “Lhe Yellow-bellied Fiyeatcher (Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum): an extension of its range FRASER, A.G., I.M.D. ; Obser- vations on the Bionomics of (Panchax ltinéatus Cuvier and Valenciennes), with special reference to its Larvi- cidal propensities GLOVER, J. W. ‘THOMSON: A Hybrid: Common Teal and Baikal Teal a GREENWOOD, J.A.C.; Strange accident to a Vulture (With a photo) dot sec Pawirr, W A.; Occurrence of the Black-capped King- fisher (Halcyon pileata) in te Gonda, District, U.P. PAGE Halls 328 334 330 128 Home, Cort. W. M. LoGan Some Notes on Butterflies and Big Game in Kashmir (With two plates) HORA SUNDER: CAL, D. Sti, FUReS.E B.Z.9.4 The Game Fishes of India Part IV. (With one plate and four text-figures) Ves e F.R.S.E., F.N.I. and MISRa, Keo. Ms S.c,% ish or Deolali Part III. (With three plates and six text figures ... HuBBACK, T.; Malayan Gaur or Seladang (Bibos gaurus hubbacki) (With five black and white plates) ; Principles of Wild Life Gonsenatied (With four black and white plates ... JonES A. E.; A note on the Lycaenid Butterfly (Averes dipora) With one plate ——; On the differences between Lycaeno- psis huegelit huegelit ard Lycaenopsts ladonides gigas (With one plate) LAUNEY, PAUL DE. Mating of Elephants LEwIs, E. S.; Bewick’s Swan (Cygnus bewitckit Yarrell) near Delhi baivesmy, “fs Re 3 of the Khasia Hills Cuckoo (Cuculus c. baker?) in the nest of the Burmese Stone-Chat > The (Saxicola caprata bur- mLanica) re ae = —* Cuckoo Pro- blems a, ae —— —— ; Cuckoo Pro- blems MAYURANATHAN, P. V. The Original Home of ane Coco- nut et * MORRIS. | Rav °C. ments of Tiger ; Disappearance of Jackalsy Were ~e — Measure- Ege-laying PAGE 49 20 og) 100 133 134 o20 309 MORRIS; On Whistling of Bison ae aS ——---—— — ; Behaviour of Gaur or Indian Bison we MustTILL F. J.; A Large Indian Elephant ; The use of Fire- work or rocket cartridges in the protection of crops ea Parsons, R. E.; Arrival and Stay of Snipe in Assam PRATER, ©... H., Mc As. C.M.Z.S.; Panther with abnormal feet ee ; The Snipe- billed Godwit [Lz:nodromus taczanowskit (Verr.)] in Orissa ais Lisi REEVE, Magor, M.B.P.; Oc- currence of the Lorg-tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis Linn.) near Quetta REVIEWS :— The Birds of British Somali- land and the Gulf of Aden... Aus Dem Leben der Vogel ... The Compleat Irdian Angler. The Trials of a Planter The Kandy Flora us Uganda Game Department... RoBINSON, M. E.; Some Notes on the raising of Azdiscus Shrubs from seed (With a coloured plate and one black and white plate) =a RossEt, Mayor H. G.; Be- haviour of Gaur or Indian Bison (Aibos gaurus) PAGE 7, 325 326 128 321 332 333 314 315 315 316 317 317 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS SAYEED-UD-DIN ; A Further Contribution to some of the common flowering Plants of the Hyderabad State; their distribution and Economic importance (With a map) SESHAIVA, R. V.; An instance of ‘ Viviparity’ in Mabuya carinata Bi, me SEVASTOPULO, D. G., F.R.E.S. ; A supplementary List of the Pyralidae of Calcutta STONEY, R. F.; Woodcock, Wood-Snipe, Pintail Snipe and Jack Snipe in one day ae Mie re SUBRAMANIAM, T. V.,_ B.A. and ANANTANARAYANAN, Ky RY BAe AY note tcon Metanastria hyrtaca, Cram. (With a plate) an THompson, NoEL J. S.; Jackals (?)} and a_ captive Panther ee ee TUTEIN-NOLTHENIUS, A. C,, F.z.S.; Unusual mauling by a Leopard —_ ; A note on our Yala Sanctuary ae WHISTLER, HUuUGH ; The Ornithological Survey of Jodhpur State aie WASTE, El. Wi, .-M.B:070-: Some interesting records of Birds in the Punjab. A Correction YANDLE, A. J.; Note on the Python PAGE 19 132 go 257 116 135 213 LISECOP BLATT ES VOLUME XL Nos. | and 2 PAGE Plate I. Varieties of Hzbiscus. Peach, Sunrise, Pale Salmon Pink and clear straw yellow variety ... me 1 Plate II. Seedlings of A/zbiscus ron A sae 7 Malayan Gaur or Seladang Plate I. An Old Bull, approaching a Salt-Lick ... a3 & Plate II. A Cow and her Calf in a Salt-Lick me tas 11 Plate III. Old Bull taken with a herd in a Salt-Lick oe 12 Plate IV. Old Bull with Young Bull in attendance a 14 Plate V. Old Bull—Kran Valley, Pahang, F.M.S. te 17 Fish of Deoiali Plate I. Barbus kolus id aes ay 28 Plate ll. Cyrosscchilus latins, and the aed forms ee 31 Plate Ill. Fish of Deolali ... oe , a a0 Some Birds of a Coorg Down Plate I, (A) Yellow-browed Bulbul ee ee) on nest (B) Hoopoe at nest . 41 Plate Il. (A) Yellow-wattled Lapwing obehiaein oleae (B) Indian Stone Curlew (Lurhinus wdicnemus indicus) sie on aa oe 47 Plate III. (A) Nesting ground of Stone Curlew (B) The Golf course—nesting ground of the Yellow- wattled Lapwing ee ake ae 48 Some Notes on Butterflies and Big Game in Kashmir Plate I. (A) Ibex ground, Bisal Nullah, September (B) The Satpa la, 14,500 ft., July ae a 51 Plate II. (A) In the Chogolungma, August (B) In the Kerolungma, August 58 re 52 Plate Bagworm (Kophene cuprea) on banana leaf aes 56 Plate Freshwater Grey Mullet (A7ugil corsula) aot 63 Principles of Wild Life Conservation Plate I. Sambhur Stags in a Salt-Lick ne oe JO Plate II. Cow Seladang and her calf, entering a Salt. Lick . 102 Plate Ill. Another Sambhur stag ae 105 Plate IV. Young Bull Seladarg of about tw Bie HoBths old taken in a Salt-Lick sae ee ise». 106 Note on the Lyceerid Butterfly (veres dipora). Plate I. (A) Ova (B) Larva = ac te fine w G4 Differences between Lycenopsis huegelit huegelit and Lycanopsis ladonides gigas Plate Lycenopsis huegelii huegelit left L. ladonides gigas (left) nee ioe Game Fishes of India Plate The Silond Catfish (Sz/onta stlondia) ... ive, 107 TST OFSVEALES Xi PAGE Birds of Bombay ard Salsette Plate I. Nest of the Rufous Woodpecker (A7icropternus brachyurus jerdont Malh. in carton-like nest of Crematogaster ants : ve See cy Plate II. (A) The Common Indian Bee-eater. (J/erops orientalis ortentalis, Lath. (B) The White-breasted Kingfisher (Halcyon smyr- nensis smyrnensis, Limn. ¥: i 169 Rose-Finches ard other birds of the Wardwan Valley Plate I. Himalayan Turtle Dove (Streptopelia orientalis meena me AA sae -* LOS Plate II. Kashmir Sooty Fly catcher (emer on stbirica gulmergt) 184 Plate if, Delta at junction of Bacacn Nullan wie ere River where large numbers of Hodgson’s Rose- Finches were nesting in July 185 Plate IV. Hodgson’s Rose-Finches SaaS erythrinus rosealus) : 186 Plate V.- Phe Camouderely man g Tent near a nest of Witherby’s Paddy-Field. “Warbler a 187 Plate VI. Witherby’s Paddy-Field Warbler (Avocepraius concinens haringtont) See Site eo Hyderabad State, Map of Toit Rameswaram Island, Map of 239 Plate Note on AVetanastria i "LACa; oa 257 Vip LOTLLOSTRATIONS PAGE 3-6 reo abet 41 237 and 51 58 VOLUME XL Nos. 1 and 2 PAGE Barbus traseri, fig. Ventral sur- Fiibiscus figs. 1-8, Leaves of face of head and anterior ——- seedlings of—PIl. part of body i o 39 | ————- varieties of —PIl. .__— -khudree, fig. 1. Lateral Hyderabad State, Map of view aa az - 296 | Lole icterica, on nest fic, 2. Ventral Pi. f(a) surface of head in two Lsospora minuta. specimens ; 27] Text-fig. 1. Section of intes- 17610, No.3, fueeeval Ties tine with sporobiasts con- of male and female : 29 taining sperozoites mee = ols, Pi, male and Text-fig. 2. Mature thin- female ‘ = 28 walled oocyst with two thick Birds of Bombay ee Sie walled spherical sporoblasts, Pl.i. Nest of the Rufcus Text-fig. 3. Oocyst with two Woodpecker (Micropter- sporoblasts each containing nus brachyurus jerdoni) 162 4 ripe sporozoites and a Pl. ii. (a) Common Indian small residue i Bee-eater (Merops Kashmir Notes on Butterflies orientalis ovien/a- Big game :— lis.) Pl. i. (a) Ibex ground, Bisal (6) White-breasted- Nullah, Sept. Kingfisher (6) = Salpa la 14,500 (fiatcyon ,July smyrnensis Piette Cd) tHe Chogolungma, smyrvnensis) ... 168 August Burhinus oedicnemus tndicus (6) In the Kerolungma, | 2) Lanatilven 2) 47 PUGS Us 5 ae Pl. ii. (6) On nest Kophene cuprea, Pl. Pl. iii. (a) Nesting ground ... 48 Fig. 1, Male Crossuchilus bur manicus. Fig. 2, Female PP for. 1. Fig. 3. Eggs latius. ot Fig, 4 Larva , BiestoS, 2,325 3. Fig. 5. Male Pupa ... —— — — punjabensis, Fig. 6. Female Pupa Pl. fig. 4 31 Lobipluvia malabarica. Everes dtpora Pie (a aii, 4(0) Ieee (a): Ova, Lycaenopsis huegelit huegelit. (6) Larva 134 Plo it. ptages of Pibi.(a) Pupa (6) Imago 135 Plo Stages:on XiV INDEX TOMLLOST RATIONS PAGE Malayan Gaur or Seladang. Pla. Anrwold Bull va re 8 Pl, it. A cow with her cali... d1 Pl. iii. Old Bull, taken with a herd ee : 12 Pl. iv. Old Bull with young Bull ae Bee 14 Pl.vy.7 Old Bull—-Krau valley, Pahang, PANS, ee bie 17 Metanastria hyrtaca. Plate. ca : sis ee ae Or Mugil corsula, Pl. oe 62 Figs. 1 a-d. Groups of isin: in natural posture Cts ees a 63 Fig. 2. Sketch of JZ. corsula wandering over mud-flats in search of larger pieces of water ... 64 Fig. 3. Head and anterior part of body seg 66 Parapbsilorhynchus pratert. Fig. 5a. Scale from below base of dorsal fin. Fig.6. Pharyngeal bone and teeth aie oa 33 —— tentaculatus Fig. 5 6. Scale: from below base of dorsal fin oe 32 Rameswaram Island, Map of 239 Silonia silondia, Pl. ... a 137 Text-fig. 1. An air-bladder . 139 Text-fig. 2. Lateral View of | a young specimen ... 142 Text-fig. 8. Photo of a fetes specimen 50 inches in length es see cas Text-fig. 4. Alimentary canal. Upupa epops, at nest. PaO) Vulture and calf Text-fig. Strange accident to ae re do ante Wardwan Valley, Rose-Finches and other birds of the Plate i. Himalayan Turtle- Dove (Streptopelia orien- talis meena ) Pl.ii. Kashmir BOCr: Fly- catcher (Hemichelidon sibirica gulimer gt Pl. iii. Delta at junction of Basmen Nullah with Ward- wan River ae ey Play Elodgson’s « Rao sie- Finches (Corpodacus evythrinus roseatus ) Pl. vy. Camouflaged Hiding tent neara nest of Wither- by’s Paddy-field Warbler ... Pl. vi. Witherby’s Paddy-field Warbler (Acrocephalus con- cinens haringtont Wild Life Conservation :— Pl.i. Sambhur Stags in a Salt Lick Boe ane Pl. ii. A Cow Seladang and her calf entering a Salt- Lick : Py ss SA pan Se Pl.iv. Young Bull Seladang about twelve months old, taken in a Salt-Lick Woodcock, Wood Snipe, Pintail Snipe and Jack Snipe Text- figs. Be ae PAGE 146 4} 330 183 184 185 186 187 188 101 102 105 106 Foi | ERRATA Vol. XL, No. 1 Page 179, para (4), the first sentence should read as follows :—‘ In the same District (Sadiya) during 1936-37 in August I shot a Pintail on the 13th, I saw a Snipe on the 19th August but failed to secure it. I bagged a Pintail Vol, XL, No. 2 Page 325, line 6 from top, for ‘ Forty Years among the Wild Beasts of India’ read‘ Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts of India.’ ia i - aH 1 : My : - re 7 z 4 a n aie v A r s a a . ee e ae 4 rT : ee <2 ’ t ~ ce 4 INDEX OF PAGE Acalypha fruticosa 268 | —_———-~ hispida 258 — indica 268 —_——- paniculata 259 —_——- siamensis 269 Acanthopsyche opacella 57 | Accipiter nisus 229 Achimines hirsuta 206 Achyranthus lanata 209 monsonia 209 | Acridotheres ginginianus sen. eee tristis tristis . 44, 222, 243 Acrocephalus concinens eee Sy, dumetorum 187, 220 —_—- stentoreus brunnescens. 220 Adenanthera pavonina ... 198 | Adhatoda vasica 207 Aerua lanata 209 = monsonia 209 AHgithina nigrolutea Z1G - - tiphia 216 ————- zeylonica 241 Atthiopsar fuscus mahrattensis 44 Aithopyga siparaja v-gorsi nae ste) Ageneiosus childreni 138, 139 Agrobates galactotes fam? hate 220 Alangium lamarckii 200 Alauda gulgula sie 224 - - gulgula... 156 Alcedo atthis bengalensis 170 —-—-- pallasii 227 ——-- taprobana 247 Alchornea rugosa eee 20d) Aleurites moluccana 2A 270) Allmania nodiflora 208 Aloysia citriodora 208 Alphonsea ventricosa 74 Alternanthera amabilis ... 209 ——~ sessilis 209 tr:andra ... 209 Amandava amandava ... a 150 ——-—__—_-- —__--—- amandava 222 Amaranthus caudatus a 209 -— hypochondriacus 209 SPECIES PAGE Amaranthus polygamus 208 —— polygonoides 208 ——_——_———. viridis 208 Amatissa consorta is 59 Amaurornis phcenicurus Hen ents, 250 Ambassis baculis 235-30 —————- hama a3 ———_——- ranga 23 Ammomanes phoenicura 225 -- _ phoenicura 157, 244 Anamirta paniculata a ol Anas platyrhyncha 234, 335 —-- peecilorhyncha 234 Anastomus oscitans Tevet days) Anaxagorea scortechinii Ths) Ancistrodon hypnale 347 -- nepa 347 Andrachne cordifolia 270 Andrographis echinoides 207 Anguilla anguilla 21 Anhinga melanogaster ... 233 Anisochilus carnosus 208 Anona muricata 76 reticulata 76 squamosa a sas et 75 Anogeissus latifolia 199 Antidesma bunius 271 ————— ghesembilla 271 zeylanicum 271 Antigone antigone 231 Antigonon leptopus 209 Anthropoides virgo Zou Anthus campestris 224 - —— griseus 156 eee thermophilus 156 — rufulus rufulus 156, 244 - rufus waitei 224 - spinoletta blakistoni 294 — trivialis 224 pee - igrinetont 155 ~ ~ trivialis 155 Aporia leucodice soracta SZ Aporosa lindleyana 272 Aquila clanga, 208, “248, 344 xviii Aquila rapax vindhiana ——— vindhiana Ardea cinerea ie rectirostris -——-- purpurea ... Ardeola grayii ; Arenaria interpres raterpres Argya caudata caudata malcolmi ... Argynnis adippe jainadeva SS pallida ————-- aglaia vitatha —-——-~ childreni sakontala ————-—- jerdoni jerdoni ————-~ kamala ———\- lathonia issoea ——-—— pales sipora ... Aristolochia elegans indica Arocarpus retusus Artabotrys odoratissimus -—— suaveolens Artamus fuscus Artemisia argentea -——~-——— maderaspatana Asclepias acida ... ——--—— volubilis Aspidoparia morar Asio lammeus flammeus Aster amellus Astur badius badius dussumieri Athene brama brama indica Aulocera padma padma ——— —- swaha garuna gilgitica swaha Bagarius bagarius os Balanites roxburghii Baliospermum axillare -- montanum Baoris discreta himalaya Barbus amphibius -- chola —-— chrysopoma - fraseri - hamiltonii - hexagonolepis - khudree ———- kolus ee ee a INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE 228 344 234 | 259 234 | 934, 255 251, 332 216, 241 125, 216 52, 55 53 53 50) . 50, 54 50 50 53 210 210 200 77 Ths 243 | 202 201 | 203 | 203. | 22 | 22/ | 202 249 229 248 227 50 55 53 52 137 196 272 272 51 se 29 . 22 22, 29 - 95 fa 05 22, 24, 26 22, 28 Barbus melanostigma - mosal - neilli - parrah - pinnauratus ————- progeneius ——- putitora .. - sarana - ticto - COr Barilius bendelisis - -- (Opsarius) bola Barleria cristata -- prionitis Belenois mesentina Berberis aristata ica -— lycium -——-—--- vulgaris... Beta vulgaris Bibos gaurus hubbacki Bischofia javanica Blepharis molluginifolia Bocchoris artificalis ————- inspersalis —~——- onychinalis —-—— ~ rotundalis Bombax gossypium Bongardia rauwolfii Borago officinale Bos indicus PAGE nie Brachypternus benghaler sis bengha- ee —---—--—— _ puncticollis Breynia patens ———— rhamnoides Bridelia montana ———--- retusa Bubalis bubalis Bubo bubo bengalensis -——- coromandus Bubulcus ibis coromandus Bucanetes githaginea crassirostris Buddleia asiatica Burhinus oedicnemus indicus .;. —- ——_- ——_ —_— saharae... Butastur teesa ie Buteo buteo eet puncti- collis... 162, 227. 47, 2 22 ee OG 348 347 206 206 INDEX OF SPECIES xix PACE. PAGE Buteo buteo japonicus ... 1. ws 229 '| Ceropegia juncea ee ab tim 9 Levee 208 ea = vulpinus ... Be .. 229+} Ceryle rudis leucomelanura ... 169, 227 ———-- rufinus rufinus ... an s+ 229;| Cestrum nocturnum ©... site a 200 Butorides striatus javanicus ... .. - 234: | Ceyx erithaca erithaca ... she # 170 Buxus sempervirens... on .. - 274 .| Chaliodes vitrea : bet vf 56 Cacomantis merulinus passerinus 165, 245 _| Chaptia aenea malayensis oe vee 42 Cesalpinia coriaria ... s. 9g .| Charadrius dubius jerdoni... 232, 202 Ceesulia axillaris ne 201 | ~~~ leschenaulti is an) “Zee Calandrella brachydactyla quia ensis «155. |. +7——== mMonogolus atrifrons 4. 252 Bee 8 longipennis- 224 ! | Chaulelasmus streperus — 234, 335 Calendula officinalis ... ... «. 202. | Chelaclupeoides... .. 21, 24 Callichrous bimaculatus = e 230 |e Dao x 54 ee ot Callistemon lanceolatus %. ao Ae) | Chelidorhyna hypo: anthum wee avs, GAY —-——-—-lilacinus ... .. .«. 199 | Ghettusia gregaria... 0 82 = fisidus. “ba; i Ce 1000 ta oe CUCUTA Pee 3 wea --* ZOD Callistephus hortensis ... a .. 202 | Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni ... 231 Bee -- wightianus wok ... 201 .| Chlidonias leucopareia indica nea 206 Calophyllum inophyllum Sie .. 195 | Chloroxylon swietenia ... ve ss 196 Calotes versicolor ou. vss Ses «= 347.-'| Choriotis nigriceps ww 231 Camellia japonica ah nee ... 195 | Chrysocolaptes delesserti vie az 123 Camponotus compressus Bh wee = AON Ga festivus es 162, 225 Canangium latifolium ai rn bc Naa eames guttacristatus sul- ——-- odoratum ... at die 78 taneus ... ss = 828 Cansjera rheedii a . - ae 197. | Chrysomma sinensis Be eiencos «-. 216 Capella gallinago cee. ves soe evse-- 233 | Ghrozophora disticha - ~~ s+ a- 276 -- stenura re ae ee e250. Ree ———— _prostrata ies ae = O16 Capparis spinosa ns aed beet ae Oe: rottleri — 3... sg sez- ~~ 246 Caprimulgus asiaticus ... - .. 173 | Ciconia ciconia an cy sie. 20 Caprimulgus asiaticus asi aticus we 247 ee Sra Peas ee a ur BO europzeus unwini 173, 227. | Cinchona catlisaya ae ais «. 201 —_- macrourus albononotus. 124 ——-ledgeriana ... és seas e201 ee mahrattensig -... ~ ee. LZ ————-- officinalis... ies eee 2 Caprinia conchylalis vas .. 133 | Cinnamomum camphora eae wz +> 2EO Carcharodus altheze dravira ... es 51 | Cinnyris asiatica asiatica 1S). 225, 226 Cardiospermum halicacabum ... vee. LOT —lotenia — as Pi 158 Carpodacus erythrinus aes .. 222 | ———— zeylonica a ee ‘159, 245 == roseatus ves 150, 186 | Circaétus ferox 9 se 228, 346 Carthamus tinctorius tee .. 202 | Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus 229, 249 Casarca ferruginea re wee «= 204 4 macrourus ale Be 229, 249 Cassia grandis see ve ...... 198 | Cirrepedesmus leschenaulti ... wae» B82 nodosa. sin a ene She) — mongolus ae i aD Cassytha filiformis ba re Bee LO Cirrhina reba ae oe ts ss 22 Casuarina equisetifclia Re: .. 4211: | Cissampelos. pareira ... ine ae OO OF Cataclysta fuscalis ee Bie .. 133?| Cissus quadrangilaris ..-- 2. .. 197 Cedrella toona ose 8 .. 197 | Cisticola juncidis cursitans ... be 220 Celosia cristata ie eas .. 208 | Citharexylum subserratum ... ele 208 Centropus sinensis _... ae 122, 226 || Clamator jacobinus ii 125, 226, 245 —_——__-- parrotii ... . 167,246 | -—-——-- ——-—_- pica se ae 3165 Ceratarcha umbrosa _... wee va, .. 182 . | Clangula hyemalis aes oo i 00 Ceratophyllum demersum ay «se 211; |: Clania cramer Ses a oes 5 Cercomela fusca pg ess eee GOES 4 | Cleistanthus collins 22... > | <¢e 211, 276 XX PAGE Clematis gouriana 193 Clerodendron inerme ea, oe Clitoria ternatea ue S198 Clupisoma garua 347 Cocculus hirsutus 84 —- laurifolius : 85 ———_———-- macrocarpus So, 193 —- pendulus 85 Cochlospermum gossypium 194 Codiszeum variegatum 211 Coleus aromaticus 208 ———- parviflora 336 Colias croceus edusina DOPO2. oO eogene francesca Ss) hyale ae 52 ——. = OV ACUALE ts 51 p. pyale 55 Columba intermedia 229 ———— livia intermedia 249 od subsp. 229 Convolvulus pes-capre... : 204 Copsychus saularis ceylonensis 242 —— saularis ... 218 Coracias benghalensis : AAS — indica ... 45, 168, 246 — garrula asa,, 60 —- — semenowl 168, 226 Corchorus acutangulus 196 Cordia sebestina 204 Coreopsis tinctoria 202 Corvus corax laurencei... Zale) - inacrorhynchos cs BANS ed -culminatus ... .. 241 - splendens splendens 215, 241 Coryllis vernalis subsp. 168 Coscinium fenestratum 85 Cosmos bipinnatus 202 Coturnix coromandelica 230 —-—— coturnix 230 Crambus atkinsoni ee 132 Crematogaster dohrni artifex.. 349 Crocethia alba 254 Crocodilus palustris os i018) Crocopus phcenicopterus chloro- gaster...45, 229 Crossandra undulefolia 207 Crossochilus burmanicus eg. 21 latius OQ: — punjabensis 31 Crotalaria ramossisima e211 (98 Croton argyratus bee? NeO77 INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE Croton caudatus 278 ——- cumingii 278 -—-—- oblongifolius 278 ——- reticulatus 278 ——- tiglium o 279 Cuculus canorus bakeri... 125 a ees ~ subsp. 164 ——-—— micropterus micropterus 164 Cursorius coromandelicus 232 —— ——- cursor 231 Cyanosylvia suecica pallidostianis Leaks) Cygnus bewickii go3 Cyphomandra betacea e 205 Cypsiurus batasiensis palmarum 172 —- parvus batassiensis 247 Dafila acuta 234 Dahlia variabilis 202 Dalenia speciosa 1g) Danio equipipinnatus ... ou fraseri 2. Deba surrectalis .. 133 Demiegretta asha 259 Dendrocitta vagabunda 43 ——- —--—— pallida 215 ——-- javanica .. 234 Dendronanthus indicus 155 Dendrophasa bicincta bicincta ye e330 -- —praetermissa... 331 Desmodium parvifolium 133 ——- pulchellum 198 Desmos chinensis 78 — cochinchinensis , ore 78 Diceeum erythrorhynchos — erythro- rhynchos... 160 Dichoceros bicornis 171 Dicrana kallipyga 338 Dicrostachys cinerea Wes 198 Dicrurus coerulescens eeeaaecens NAS 42 —- —~—— leucopygialis ... 43 ———- longicaudatus 43, 219 ——--—— macrocercus albirictus 219 an peninsularis - “43 243 Dillenia baillonii 72 —- indica 72, 193 -- ovata (Waredie) Dinopicum shorei 328 Diospyros kaki 203 z —-— tomentosa P 202 Dissemurus paradiseus faslamaoe 42 Dolichandrone falcata ... 206 Dombeya angula 195 INDEX. .OF SPECIES E PAGE Dregea volubilis aes 203 Dryobates mahrattensis aurocristatus. 226 Pete —-- mahrattensis. 161 Dupetor flavicollis flavicollis ... 255 Echinocactus multiflorus 200 Echinocereus SP..... 200. Echinops echinatus 201 Echinopsis aurea 200 Echites dichotoma 203 Eclipta alba 201 = — erecta 201 Egretta alba 234 - garzeita .. ; 234 - Ttcenicdia ietetmedia 29 Eleocarpus ganitrus 196 Elanus caeruleus vociferus 229 | Emberiza buchanani 223 —- icterica 223 ————- melanocephala 151, 223 Emberiza stewarti 223 -——— striolata striolata 223 Emilia sonchifolia 201 Endotricha decessalis 133 ——.- ruminalis 133 Eniscostema littorale 204 Epicrocis aegnusalis leis Epiphyllum sf. 200 EKranthemum bicolor 207 Ercta elutalis wos LOZ —- ornatalis 132 Erebia mani - wan o4 Eremopteryx albicollis re 225 ~-- - grisea grisea ... “157, 225, 244 Eriobotrya japonica ee leo Erolia minuta : 233, 254 —-— - - Fancollis 254 --—-— temminckii 233 testacea 254 Erythroxylum coca 196 Esacus recurvirostris 231, 250 Etiella zinckenella 133 Eucalyptus citriodora ae ee 199 Eudynamis scolopaceus... 226, 245, 328, 344 — ——— scolopaceus. 166 Eugenia michelii 199 EKumenis heydenreichi shandura 54 — mniszechii droshica ... 54 — parisatis parsis 52 Kunetta falcata ... 332 Eupatria nepalensis 344 Euphorbia antiquorum ... = VEOLOn eae ———-——-- dracunculoides -———--—— granulata —-——_ helioscopia ———_——_hirta ... ————. hypericifolia ~—_———— longifolia | ———-—— microphylla ... —_———-——- neriifolia —_+—_—-—_—— pivulia _—_— pilulifera —_——-——— rosea ——————- royleana ——- -——-. sanguinea See —— thomsoniana | —_-___- thymifolia —_—_—— tirucalli trigona —— turcomanica Eutropiichthys vacha Everes argiades indica ... ———— dipora Excoecaria acerifolia agallocha ... Falco chicquera ... —- jugeger as —- tinnunculus Rp uneatee Sr —- —-——-— tinnunculus Felis tigris .. Fibraurea Shioroleuca Ficus tsiela Filiceum decipiens Flacourtia ramontchi Flemingia fruticulosa Flueggea leucopyrus ——-——- virosa ... a Francolinus pondicerianus Franklin‘a buchanani gracilis | Fulica atra Fumaria parviflora Gaillardia aristata Galerida cristata chendoola ——-———- deva — malabarica Gallinula chloropus -— indicus Garra mullya Gelochelidon nilotica Gelonium multiflorum ..,, Zu; 210, 288 230, 249 xxi PAGE 210, 282 283 283 283 284 284 210, 286 286 210, 286 286 287 210 288 288 238 288 289 290 290 347 52 3 290 290 228 228, 248 248 228 114 86 ‘211 196 194 133 291 292 220 220 231 194 202 225 244 156 231 250 22 232, 251 292 XXli Glochidion hohenackeri... --— zeylanicum ... Glossocardia linearifoha Glossogob‘us giuris Glottis nebularia ... Gloxinia maculata | Glyptothorax annandalei honah Gomphrena globosa Gonepteryx aspasia zaneka --——.- rhamni nepalensis . Goniothalamus macrophyllus ... Grangea maderaspatana Graptophylium hortense Gratucalus javensis macei —--— macei layardi Grewia hirsuta Grus grus ... : Guazuma tomentosa Gymnorhis xanthocollis eee Gynandropsis pentaphylla Gyps fulvus fulvescens .. ——- indicus pallescens... aleyon pileata .. —_———- smyrnensis -—— fusca —--— -——— smyrnensis Haliaétus leucogaster - leucoryphus Haliastur indus indus Hamelia patens ‘ Cf Harpactes fasciatus feiepariste Hedera helix Helianthus arnus Helicteres isora Heliophorus Fade Oke c coruscans -—— - bakeri Heliotrop-um indicum paniculatum peruvianum zeylanicum Hlmicercus canente cordatus.... Hemipus picatus picatus Herculia tenius Heritiera littoralis Herpestes edwardsi fulvescens fulvus INDEX OF SPECIES ‘ PAGE 50, 42, xanthocollis. 150, ne3 248, —— -— - javanicus auropunctatus ... 293 293 201 23 233 206 36 36 209 50 Gb 79 201 207 242 243 196 231 196 222 244 194 228 228 171 227 247 170 346 228 248 201 172 200 202 195 o1 51 204 204. 204 204 123 163 42 133 195 341 341 341 341 , Herpestes lanka ... —-—-——- monniera ——-—--- nepalensis Hesperia alpina... ss Heteropneustes fossilis ... Hibiscus abelmoschus elatus ——--— mutabilis ———— rosa-sinensis ———— schizopetalus ... ———— splendens -———— syriacus tiliaceus _—_—_——._——_—_, Hieraétus fasciatus fasciatus ... Hierococcyx varius Himantopus himantopus Hippolais rama rama Hippomane mancinella Hirundo daurica erythropygia ——_——_ ——_—- nepalensis -——-—— fluvicola ————— rustica guituralis - rustica — smithii filifera Homonoia riparia Hura crepitans be Hydnocarpus Ciannene Hydroflax maritima Hydrophasianus chirurgus Hymenodictyon excelsum Hypsipyla robusta Ilicium anisatum — floridanum — griffithii ... ~ parviflorum ~ verum Inga xylocarpa Tole icter-ca Ibis leucocephalus [pomeea aquatica —_——— biloba ———— leari —— —— pes-tigridis —-.-— quamcclit Isospora minuta ... Iynx torquilla torquilla ... Jacaranda mimoszolia ... Jacquemontia caerulea ... Japalura kaulbacki ear Jasminum roxburghianum Jatropha curcas .., vv =- - 293 1535228 224 153 152 223 153 293 204 194 201 122, 231 200 133 69 ; 69 >, 69}, 70 69 69 fie ALS 41, 241 234 204 204 205 204 204 236 163 206 205 347 203 ‘210, 294 eRe Jatropha gossypifolia — grandulifera — multifida —---— nana — podagrica Jatrorrhiza palmata Juss cea repens Justicia adhatoda —— diffusa ——-—- repens ree Jynx torquilla torquilla ... Kadsura japonica — scandens Kalanchoe laciniata —— spathulata Karanasa hubneri hubneri Ketupa zeylonensis leschenaulti Kleinhovia hospita Kophene cuprea ... Labeo boggut calbasu porcellus .. Labidura riparia Lactuca scariola ... Lalage sykesii : Lanius cristatus bristanus -excubitor lahtora -~——-~- isabellinus -—_—— - schach caniceps ———-- ——--— erythronotus - vittatus ——.-- brunneicephalus ... ——-- ichthyaétus Lavendula vera Leea aspera Leiopicus mahrattensis temas Leonotis nepetzefolia Lepidocephalichthys guntea Leptadenia reticulata Leptoptilus dubius Leucas aspera -———- diffusus Leucocirea aureola aupeete Leucopolius alexandrinus Libythea 1. lepita Limnanthemum cristatum — indicum Limnodromus taczanowskii Limosa limosa ~ INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE 297 Ba 297 24 297 298 2 Melt 87 199 297 207 207 226 70 70 199 199 a Aas ar Ye) 227 195 56 22 22 22 339 202 42 42 219 : 229 41, 24? 219 a «s, At, 219, 242 Larus argentatus cachinnans ... 251 232, 250 250 208 197 344 208 22, 95 203 234 208 208 219 232° —- ———-—__—. alexandrinus 252 50 204 204 332 233 Lippia nodiflora ; Lobipluvia malabarica .. Lobivanellus indicus Lonicera periclymenum Lyceena thetis aditya -- kasyapa -- philoeas flavens - indicus Lycezenopsis huegelii huegelii ... Lygropia amyntus alis ... Lymnocryptes minutus Maba buxifolia Mabra eryxalis Mabuya carinata Macaranga indica —- peltata Magnolia grandiflora Mahonia napaulensis Mallotus cochinchinensis ———— philippinensis ... Manihot ultilissima Maniola coenonympha ... ——-—- davendra brevistigma ——-—- lupinus kashmirensis ——-—- pulchella Mastacembelus armatus Melanocorypha bimaculata Melitea arcesia balbita ... Melodorum kingti Melcphus lathami subcristatus.. Jelothria maderaspatana Memecylon edule Merops leschenaulti ibecheneuley ; XXJil PAGE 207 47, 252 232 200 30 54 % 54 Ole 134 50, 134 33 Ao 202 133 hoe 298 298 16 Q4 299 299 300 55 54 vo 5? 52, 54, 55 21 224 50 : 79 Bee oe 199 199 44 ——~—- orientalis orientalis 43, 169, 226, 246 - superciliosus javanicus Metanastria hyriaca Metopidius indicus Meyenia erecta Michelia champaca —— montana — nilagirica Microdesmis caseariaefolia Microgaster psarae Micropternus brachyurus ecdoni Micropus affinis i -— ——— affinis ... ———-— melba bakeri ... -———--ssp Microtarsus poicephalus persicus ... 169, 247 169; 227 KXiv Milvus migrans govinda Mimosa cinerea ... Mirafra affinis —-———-- cantillans Molpastes cafer cafer -—- heemorrhous maniac -—- leucogenys leucotis Moniera cuneifolia Monticola cyanus pandoo Morinda citrifolia Motacilla alba dukhunensis personata ——-_- cinerea caspica ——_——- citreola calcarata —_——__-——_ ——- citrcola —_—___- ———_—_-- werae —— ——- feldegg melanogriseus —_——_——-- flava beema ... thunbergi —_—_————— subsp. ——- maderaspatensis Mucialla rufivena Mugil corsula Mukia scabrella Murraya koenigii Musa paradisiaca Muscicapa striata neumanni .. Musseenda frondosa Mystus cavasius ... Naia hannah Naja naja Nandina domestica Nangra viridescens Nauciea cadamba Nelumbium speciosum ... Nemachilus aureus ———-——- botius ———--——— denisonii ——_-——-. evezardi —— ---—— sinuatus Neophron percnopterus ginginianus... Nepenthes khasiana Nephelium litchi Neptis s. sankara Netta rufina Nettapus Eoroman dened Nettion crecca crecca x N. foae oe Notioenews brachiata Notopterus notopterus .. —erythroptera s:ndiana INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE 228, 249 198 244 2250. ae oo 40, 241 216 217 205 218 =. 2200 153, 224 fe lee 154, 224 224 155 .. 155 155, 224 Prrece ss! 154, 244 see 074 154, 224 132 62 199 196 56 218 201 23 336 236 193 23 201 193 es .. 22, 35 120 136 22 35 228 209 197 50 235 122 234 334 209 21 PaGE Numenius arquata | 233, 293 —— phzopus pheopus 293 Nycticorax nycticorax 234 Nympheea stellata of 193 —————- parviflora ... 193 a ae versicolor .. 193 Nymphula affinialis 133 -—— foedalis 133 —— responsalis ... 133 Nyroca ferina 235 — fuligula 235 - rufa PSI) Ochna squarrosa ; i: 196 CEnanthe deserti atrogularis ... 217 —— --—— isabellina 217 ——--——- opistholeuca PANT —— --—— picata ; oF —— ---—— xanthoprymna chrvsopigie 218 CEnopopelia tranquebarica tranque- barica... 230 Olax scandens i 197 Oldenlandia umbellata 200 Oligostigma picale 133 Ophicephalus gachua ... 23 --——— leucopunctatus 23 ——-- --—— marulius 23 - ——— sp. 96 Oncoba spinosa 194 Origanum marjorana an e208 Oriolus oriolus kundoo... 43,221 Orophea hirsuta 79 = setosa 79 Orthaga euadrusalis Shee 1S) Orthotomus sutorius guzerata 220, 243 Otocompsa jocosa fuscicaudata 40 Pachygone ovata 87 Pachynoa pectinicornalis 133 Pachyzancla aegrotalis 133 — —— phoeopteralis 133 Panchax lineatus 96 ————. panchax 99 Pandion haliaétus haliaétus 248 Pangasius pangasius 137 Papilio arcturus arius.... Be 50 ~ machaon asiatica .. 00, 54 Parapsilorhynchus prateri 22; 305-83 ——— tentaculatus 2S Parage menava mezeroides Ki: 54 - menava menava Bo Ae -schakra ... 50 Paratelphusa guerini 348 Parmentiera cereifera ... Parnassius charltonius nicevillei ——-——-—- - epaphus nirius hardwickei — jacquemonti Parus major mahrattarum -nuchalis ... Passer domesticus indicus - parkine hispaneolensis Pastor roseus Pavo cristatus wan Pelicanus philippensis ... Peltophorum ferrugineum Penthoceryx sonneratii —— Se ————- — ——- delphius chitralica PAGE .. 92, 54 206 53 52 51, 52, 54 50, 51, 52 «. 52,54 122 151, 222) Perdicula argoondah ee Rete neeent. -_—_~-——-. aSiatica Pergularia minor —— odoratissima Pericampylus glaucus Pericrocotus brevirostris erythropygius ——— ——~— flammeus —— us roseus Periophthalmus ... Periophthalmodon Petrea volubilis ... Petunia nyctaginiflora ... — violacea ... Phalacrocorax carbo —_—_-—_-——. fuscicollis —— -——----—— niger Philomachus pugnax ‘Phlox drummondi Phlycteenodes massalis .. .Phoenicopterus ruber Se ee MOIST peregrinus peregrinus ... Phoeenicurus ochrurus Preemie nmordes: Phostria piasusalis Phryganodes analis Phyllanthus distichus = ——- elegans ——--—— emblica ——_—_-——-- maderaspatensis .. ——- niruri ——- ——--- reticulatus ——_—_-—— - simplex —. ——-- urinaria 3 211, 215 , 216 244 222 223 243 230 233 198 165 230 230 203 203 87 219 219 42 42 42 68 68 208 205 205 233 233 233 233 204 133 234 256 218 337 132 276 302 302 303 304 304 306 306 INDEX OF SPECIES XXV PAGE Phylloscopus collybita tristis ... 221 —-- griseolus .«.. 221 Physalis m’nima 205 ————- peruviara 205 Picuminus innominatus 123 Pieris brassicce ie : sve, D052 — callidice kallora ... 5055102, 35 ——- canidia indica 50 —— Napl ajaka 50 ——- rapz _~ ‘ , 00, 52 Pimelodus nceanara a ws, 138 — siiondia 138, 140, 141 Pionea ablactalis 133 Piprisoma agile agile 160 Pitta brachyura ... 161 Platalea leucorodia 233 Platytes argentisparsalis 132 Plegadis falcinellus 233 Ploceus benghalensis 148 — manyar se AS — philippinus Bhan pence 148, 222 Plumbago capensis -- 202 —— —-—— zeylanica eer |, 202 Pluvialis dominica fulva 232, 252 Podiceps ruficollis capensis 239;.220 Podophyllum emodi 95 —_—- peltatum ... 93 Polyalthia longifolia 79 —— — oliveri 79 — simiarum 80 Polygala chinensis 194 Polygonum plebejum 209 Polymnia grandis 202 Polyommatus astrarche bY —-—_-——- christophi samudra 52 ——_—_———_ - devanica devanica Jl —_— ————- epiron jermyni oe 53 ——_——- —-—— - eros 30, 52, 59 —_ ——_-——_- janetee . 32; 94 —_—--—_—.- m, metallica wet 54 —_—___--——— - omphisa Holl 4 —— ~ orbitulus is 02,000 ————-_—____——_ astorica se 02, 5A —-—— ——-— - sarta : 53 -— vicrama Coatimirensice ol oZ Porana paniculata 205 Porphyrio policcephalus 231 Premna integrifolia 207 ——-—— serratifolia 207 Primula involucrata 184 Prinia gracilis lepida “2et Xxvi Prinia inornata terricolor Pia socialis socialis — —- stewarti sylvatica gangetica Prinsepia utilis ... Proeutropicthys taakree . Prunus amygdalus - persica Psara bipunctalis Pseudibis papillosus Pseudogyps bengalensis Psittacula cyanocephala ——-——. eupatria subsp. SS — kramer! manitwiensis Pterocarpus marsupium Pterocles alchata caudacutus ——_—— - exustus ellioti ——_———- indicus ——-——-- orientalis —_——-- senegallus Pteroma plagiophleps ... Pterospermum acerifolium Pulicaria wightiana Putranjiva roxburghii ... Pycnarmon cribrata Pycnonotus gularis ——_———- luteolus Pyrausta phoenicealis ... Pyrus communis ——-- malus Python molurus Querquedula aneraneaue Rallus eurizonoides amuroptera Ramila acciusalis marginella Rapala micans setira Rasbora daniconius -- labiosa = Recurvirostra avocetta ... Rhododendron anthopogon arboreum aucklandii Rhopodytes viridirostris © Rhynchaea benghalensis _ Ricinus communis Riparia concolor _-+—..-- paludicola. preven neat ———-- rupestris Rohtee alfrediana . —- cy yiocepnale INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE 224 243 221 221 135 23 198 198 307. 233 eZ ZS 226, 246 168 167 167, 226, 246 198 230 230 230 230 230 56 195 201 307 337 4] 40 133 198 198 129 250 250 132 132 on we Zl . 21, 99 232, 253 184 202 202' 45, 246 Zoll 307 152, .223 223 {a2 22 - PAGE Rohtee cotio 22 - vigorsli ... ale 740 Rostellularia diffusa 207 Roupellia grata .. 203 Ruellia prostrata . 206 Rungia repens 207 Russelia-juncea ... 206 Sageraea laurifolia : 80 Salpornis spilonota Piupionee 217 Salvia involucrata 208 Sanchezia nobilis 207 Sapuim indicum = Sir —-— - insigne 311 ———- sebiferum Sid Sarcogyps calvus 227 Sarcostemma brevistigma 203 Sarkidiornois melanotus ... 234 Sauropus quadrangularis 31) Saxicola caprata b:color 217 ——-—— - - burmanica 125 ———— macrorhyncha 217 ————. torquata indica CRE Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis 218 a - — fulicata ... 242 Scirpophaga bisignata 132 Sebastiania chamaelea 312 Sesamum laciniatum 206 Sida acuta 195 — carpinifolia... 195 Silonia gangetica 140 — diaphina aa abs — lurida. ss 138, 140 --——— — silondia 137, 139, 141 Silonopangasius ... 138, 144 Silundia he ~ 138 ————- gangetica 138, 140 ———-— sykesii ... nso Siphia parva albicilla 4 242 7 ——-- parva. 218 Solanum indicum 205 — macrophyllum 205 Sopubia deiphinifolia 205 Soymida febrifuga Want at bs (6) Spatula clypeata 235, 335 Spermacoce hispida weer 201 Spilanthes acmelia.. geek ee O2 Squatarola squatarola ... 232 —_——_ — —— squatarola 252 Stachytarpheta cae ies 207 Stemmatophora pallidella 133 Stephania glabra 88 Stephania hernandifolia Stephanotis floribunda ... Sterculia foetida -— urens ‘tereospernum ehelonoides Bfema albifrons subsp. autantia: ... repressa ... Streptopelia chinensis eoyleneac seat. 249) --——-_ -—_-— suratensis oe 220 ove Shee, 20S INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE 87 195 95 206 Zou 232 251 ———--——- decaocto decaocto 229 ——- -- —— seregalensis cambayensis. 229, ' 249 Striga orobanchioides ... 205 Strix ocellata 227 Strophanthus-wallichii 203 Strymon sassanides - 52 Sturnus vulgaris 222 Sueeda maritima se 209 Surniculus lugubris lugubris .. 165 Sylvia communis rubecula 220 . crassirostris jerdoni 224 curruca blythi 221 —— --——- minuta 221 nana nana 221 Syngamia abruptalis 133 Sypheotides indica 231 Syringa vulgaris 203 Tabernzeemontana coronaria 203 Taccocua leschenaulti sirkee ... ay CLL Tadorna tadorna 129, 332, 334 Tagetes erecta 202 ‘Tamarix articulata 194 Tchitrea paradisi paradisi 242 Tecoma capensis 206 -— undulata 206 ‘Tecomaria capensis 206 Tecomella undulata 206 Telanthera ficoidea a oe US, Temenuchus pagodarum sa, D408 222,243 Tephrodornis gularis sylvicola 42 —— pondicerianus pallidus... 219 ——- ———— --—- - - pondiceria- rus «042, 242 Terminalia chebula 199 Tetracera alnifolia Ts) —— aspera 73 ——— -— assa fi ——-— indica 73 ——-— laevis 73 ——— -— macrophylla 73 Tetracera oblongata —— potatoria XXVIII PAGE Thalasseus bengalensis Hettealensis A Thereiceryx viridis Threskiornis melanocephalus .. Thriponax hodgsoni Thunbergia erecta Tiaridium indicum. ... Tigo rubropygialis Tiliacora acuminata Tinomiscium petiolare ... Tinospora cordifolia —— --—— crispa : ——--—— malJabarica ... Tockus griseus Tragia involucrata Trapa bispinosa quadrispinosa Trewia nudiflora Trichocercus candicans Trimeresurus albolabris gramineus ——- —— occidentalis popeiorum stejnegeri Tringa erythropus - glareola --—_—— - hypoleucos - nebularia - Stagnatil's —__- sOranllis Turdoides somervillei Haine ————-— striatus polioplocamus Turnix sylvatica dussumieri -- tanki tanki Upupa epops epops ——--— ——-- ceylonensis —- ssp. Uroloncha malabarica —___— -— striata Ursus arctos pruinosus ... ——-- gedrosianus ——-- isabellinus — -- malayarus ——-- tibetanus ... — -- torquatus ... Uvaria narum - dulcis Val'aris heynei -~—-—— zeylonicus faouratus ie Zao; 233, 233, Don aS 222. -— punctulata lineoventer 73 73 251 45 163 233 123 207 204 123 88 88 89 89 89 17 312 199 199 313 200 347 347 347 347 347 254 254 293 254 253 254 216 24] 230 230 227 247 171 243 149 149 114 113 114 113 113 113 80 80 203 XXVill INDEX OF ‘SPECTES ii, 2 PAGE (oe PAGE Vandellia crustacea eae Be R209 Vitis lanata a ae eee cage LOZ Vanellus vanellus § 0.9 2-2) 4: 2, 232) —— pallidus | aasfnt fase see re Vanessa cardui ... i an .. 00,52 | =— @aadrangularis ... 22.4 oo along SrICANIACE Gecetran a oos elea es ee 55 |P Wallagovattw ee lo nr «23; ses -—cashmirensis ... eas OU EOS Fea — dinema eee vee ee 2 __—... egea kashimira Ry --. 50,55 | Wendlandia exserta ... sie Thee 200 -—-urtice rizana ... hens Sei eeoO Xanthium strumarium ... oe Se 70) b -— xanthomela fervescens OU Oe Xantholaema heemacephala_ indica ... 45,.. Ventilago calyculata. ... a oo 197 . 163, 226 —— madaraspatana aa edema Oe ———— rubricapilla malabarica... 45 Verbena incisa ... = a .. 207 | Xenorhynchus asiaticus ee eis = — officinalis nee ae .. 207 | Xylia dolabrifermis 72, ase we aS Vicoa auriculata a ace a 201) Zinckenia perspectalisi m.. vee gens: JS 1s) ——-- indica ssa bead os sco 208 Zinnia elegans ... rae bce cco BeOS Vinca pusilla... a a .» 203 | Zizyphus cenopila Rae fos epg (0) Viola odorata:« © .s..-+ > -2 ee .. 194 | ——-——vxylopyrus ... Gs see. 1H ——— tricolor. ... a is ee pe). Zosterops palpebrosa occidentis. 158, 225 l‘istory S / ee EDT By Ye a. - AND C. McCANN, F.L.S. & ‘ ees ___'P. M.D, SANDERSON, F.Z.S., S. H. PRATER, M.L.A., C.M.Z.S.. PUBLISHED BY | ‘THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Tia _ 6, Apollo Street, Bombay Lonp On AGENTS = DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY) eee ae pee ; 212, SHAFTESBURY AVENUE, LONDON, W.C. 2. Game Birds of India, Vol. L, (Indi inst = ee ee ge (Price. ie ‘Mentors Rs. +35). 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The subscription of members pees in Ouchon November and Degeaibet covers the period from the date of their ee up till the end of the | following year. : —_ MEMBERS" RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA. The terms are the same for members living outside India. oa members should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 26-8-O—to the Society in Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £2-0-6 should be paid annually to the ‘Society’s London Bankere—The National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, Eee iO CONTEWVI SOF VOLUME XI, No. 71. SOME NOTES ON THE RAISING OF HIBISCUS SHRUBS FROM SEED. By Mrs. M. E. Robinson, m.A. (Cantab.) (With 2 coloured and 1 CUAGKIAGIOM LL MUL CE DUATON see eh at aire fae dyabenes Pee uiel ver ec a aban oho Mieka wewanaess MALAYAN GAUR OR SELADANC (&ibos gaurus hubbacki). By Meet back iC 71t 5 DLAC RANG WHILE PLATES ious cccanthveaevdes sui easises DiSH.Of DEOLALIZ Part Ml.- By.Dr.S. Lb. Hera, D.Sc., F-R.S.E , FiN.T. and WKS. Misra, M.Sc. -(W2th 3 plates and 6 tEXT-1T1 2 USES) 0 .ccekcenssess SOME BIRDS OF A CoOoRG Down. By F.N. Betts, M.B.o.u. (With 3 (HITIIOS cet BASE BEES GAC IONS BER PEE aE EEE PEE nC ote eet re ROT ree Hae SomME Notes ON BUTTERFLIES AND BIG GAMEIN Kasumir. By Col. Wier woganstome, 177A. Retd = (W112 Lio PIGLES.) aict iicidéddec cos 0% ON THE BIONOMICS OF A BAGWORM (Kophene cuprea M.) ON BANANA. By K. Brahmachari, M.A. (With a plate and 6 text-figures)............ NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE FRESHWATER GREY-MULLET, Mugil corsutla HAMILTON, WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROBABLE MODE OF ORIGIN OF AERIAL VISION IN FISHES. By Dr.S. L. Hora, D.sc., ER S,P., 2 ..5., §-Z.5., F.RoA.S.B:, F-N.1. (With a coloured plate DOE SILENT CUTIES Ne se actu tensicn set lea ss Agree ets Oat eelns ale ere ee NSN a MEDICINAL AND PoIsonous PLANTS OF INDIA: Magnoliads, Dil- leniads, Anonads, Menispermads, Berberids. By Rev. Fr. aN @ ANS ce Spe ee AG otc ten ccc cae igi tlewa cic ae bale We eaeniiay sae ques aeniens wae cau we eebs OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIONOMICS OF FPanchax lineatus Cuvier and Valenciennes, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO ITS LARVICIDAL PRODENSTEEE Ss auloy ore MTASEL BoM Ds oc scssciaensdene sess tbde ieee cs tvnged ceecus PRINCIPLES OF WILD LIFE CONSERVATION. By T. Hubback. (With 4 DUG CO LECE DUCES Matsa crina oe ee sie cts Nha vsti honey cebuisne dee shee con tenes de@ieves MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— I.—Wild Beasts—Real and Apocryphal. By R.G. Burton... .. _AI.—Measurements on Meer. By R/C. Morne ./8 aoe ts eee ~IiI.—Curious behaviour of Wild Dogs and a Panther ata Kill. Byekamantiq) SaremSimoh Deo, C.B.Bi..c...icenccesetsersocesases _1V.—Unusual mauling by a Leopard. By A. C. Tutein-Nol- [ THEMIMISS: “HEZSe.ccestesss RRR ee artes Moa baron civ ne sain ee Malta's ve Disappearance of Jackals.» By R. C. Morris...c...061 2051405, Nie On Whistling Of Bisons, 2 By RK: Co Morris sijncssc.) oecscess sec a /NUL—Cause Oinsore Neck in Sambar... By S. Re Daver...3:2 12... VII.—Some Birds observed in Kutch and Kathiawar. By Huma- PAGE DH 56 69 96 160 12 114 TS il CONTENTS OF Vol. i. wor? IX.—Drumming of Woodpeckers. By R. N. Champior-Jones...... 122 X.—The Irdian Long-tailed Nightjar (Caprimulgus macrourus alvononotus. Tickell\: (By R.AM. Betham, Chasse. ..0 124 XI.—On the parasitic habits of the Pied Crested Cuckoo [Clamator Jacobinus “(Bodd.)\|> (By Rass bs batess, acres eee 125 XII.—Ege-laying of the Khasia Hills Cuckoo (C.c. bakert) in the Nest of the Burmese Stone Chat (Saxicola caprata ourmanica), “By DR. LiveSeyec. ran ; fi om t ‘ 7 T a ¢ : cf i ee a - - - 1 > ico _ 7 : a $ , ay a Aataast z - z 2 4 ~ 1 , 4 é " FIStE OF DEOLALI 29 kind it was observed that the coloured specimens were males and the plain’ specimens were females. In the males a number of UM AW MY Text-fig. 3.—Lateral view of a male and a female specimen of Barbus ticto (Ham.), showing the nature of the secondary sexual characters. X12 - horny tubercles were present on the caudal fin, while a few of these ‘pearl organs’ were also present on other fins. Both the colouration and the horny tubercles thus seem to be the secondary sexual characters of the male. In the Deolali examples the lateral line extends over 10 to 12 scales. Barbus fraseri sp. nov. (Plate Ill, fig. 2), Wrenn 3/5 * Peta) Vi 8; Ce tos aly ageac, The new Carp-minnow, which we have great. pleasure in associating with the name of Mr. A. G. L. Fraser, is of the Puntius type. . Its dorsal and ventral profiles are slightly arched and the body is gracefully stream-lined. The head is small and broadly 30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL pointed; its length is contained about 5.4 times in the total length and 4 times in the length without the caudal. The width of the head is contained 1.7 times and its height 1.5 times in its length. The eyes are large and lateral; they are situated much nearer the tip of the snout than the posterior margin of the head; the diameter of the eye is contained 3 times in the length of the head, 0.8 times in the length of the snout and 1.2 times in the interorbital distance. The mouth.is small, lunate and sub- anterior; it is bordered by fleshy lips which are continuous at the angles of the mouth. The labial groove is widely interrupted in the middle. There are two short maxillary barbels which are less than half the diameter of the eye. Sensory pores are arrang- Text-fg. 4.—Ventral surface of ed in loops above and below the eyes; head and) anterior part of they meet posteriorly and are continued body of Barbus fraserit sp. , yy P oh EES. ee nov. X4. into the lateral line which extends over 8 to 10 scales. The depth of the body is considerably greater than the length of the head; it 1s contained from’4.3 to 4.4 times in the total length and about 3.2 times in the length without the caudal. The caudal peduncle is narrow; its least height being contained about 1.7 times in its length. The body is covered with small, more or less deciduous scales; there are 42 to 45 scales along the lateral line, 17 series of scales between the bases of the dorsal and ventral fins, 16 round the caudal peduncle and 15 to 16 before the base of the dorsal fin. There is a small scaly appendage at the base of the ventral fin. The anal opening is situated on a prominence close to the commencement of the anal fin. The dorsal fin commences midway between the tip of the snout and the base of the caudal fin, and almost opposite the commence- ment of the ventrals; it 1s almost as long as the head and con- siderably shorter than the depth of the body below it. The posterior free border of the fin is slightly concave and its last undivided ray ts osseous and serrated. The pectoral fin is shorter than the head and is separated from the ventral by a considerable distance; it is about four-fifths of the length of the head. The ventral fin is similar to the pectoral and extends to the commencement of the anal fin. The caudal fin is considerably longer than the head and is deeply forked; both the lobes are sharply pointed. The colour of the spirit specimens is pale-olivaceous; it is some- what darker along the dorsal surface. Along the middle of the body there is a silvery streak which becomes wider posteriorly. There is a rounded black spot at the sides of the tail slightly in front of the base of the caudal fin. A somewhat smaller black spot is also present at the base of the anterior rays of the dorsal fin. = ' PLATE II JouRN. Bomsay Nat. Hist. Soc. Crossochilus latius (Hamilton) and the allied forms. B. Bagchi, del. FISH OF DEOLALI 31 Locality :—Darna river, Deolali. Only seven specimens. of Barbus fraseri were collected at three different points on the river. Type-specimen :—F 12497/1, Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta. Remarks :—Barbus fraseri can be distinguished readily by the following combination of characters :— (1) Presence of only two barbels. (11) Presence of an osseous, serrated spine. (11) Incomplete lateral line. (iv) Small scales, about 42-45 along the lateral line. (v) Colouration. Judged by the above noted characters, our new species seems closely allied to the members of the Malayan genus Hampala Bleeker, but differs from it in the extent of the mouth opening, small scales and incomplete lateral line. We are not aware of any other species of the Puntius-type which bears any resemblance to the form described above. Measurements in millimetres. Total length excluding caudal vee r 34:0 Length of caudal 3 ihe ... | Damaged Length of head cs see — 8" &) Width of head AY ae Height of head at occiput Length of snout sg | Diameter of eye oe a apo Interorbital width Depth of body Width of body Length of caudal peduncle Least height of caudal peduncle Longest ray of dorsal Longest ray of anal Length of pectoral Length of ventral hm SE DHOnNNUNeBEDNOOMCS 4 os — SED DD STON IY DATE ey DRAINS WMV AIHE MOUNMNMAMNMRAWNNIOS SUD ab OFS RO ce MUOMMAHEAWUMOOBROS Crossochilus latius (Hamilton). (Plate IIT) 1934. Crossochilus latius (forma typica), Mukerji, Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. SOG.) XXXVil, py 50. In his detailed work on Crossochilus latius, Mukerji observed three distinct types—the typical form from the Brahmaputra river system, the Assamese and Burmese form and the Punjab form. Later work on these fishes from the Eastern Doons, Naga Hills and Kashmir has fully confirmed Mukerji’s conclusions. The Punjab and the Burmese forms are now regarded as distinct species—C. punjabensis Mukerji and C. burmanicus Hora respectively ; while the typical form was observed to be limited to the Ganges and the Brahmaputra systems in Northern India. The specimens collected by Mr. Fraser in the Deolali waters are of a considerably smaller 32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL size than those found in North India, but morphologically they seem to represent the typical C. latius. In the Deccan specimens, however, the eyes are relatively smaller, and in this respect they agree with the Burmese examples. The different species into which Crossochilus latius is now divided are figured on plate III. Parapsilorhynchus prateri sp. -nov. (Plate Tl figs. ata) D, 2/83 A. 2/5 .iPonse No Oa woneleale eae In Parapsilorhynchus prateri, a small Garra-like fish which we have great pleasure in associating with the name of Mr. S. H. Prater, the head and body are considerably depressed and _ the ventral surface flattened; the dorsal surface is gently arched while the ventral surface is horizontal. The head is broadly pointed anteriorly ; it is proportionately longer in young individuals, its length being contained from 4.4 to 5.3 times in the total length and from 3.5 to 4.2 times in the length without the caudal. The width of the head is contained about 1.3 times and its height at occiput 1.6 times in its length. The eyes are fairly prominent and lateral in position; they are visible both from above and below, and are situated almost in the middle of the->leneth. of the head.) ihe diameter of the eye is contained from 3.5 to 5 times in the length of the head, from 1.3 to 1.9 times in the length of the snout and from 1.6 to 2.5 times in the interorbital width; the eye is propor- * 9) of rvie< ura tees, eR ARES GOA \\ Vig. HOON UY : SNS ISSSESDS ASY SESE x Las aS an “AY LW, LY) + a = = A, SWS Stat iS S BY, Bas CNA SKY 2 ore S/S A >< ZZ Y Z es = Ly Ly GZ y ie a Text-fig. 5.—Scales from below base of dorsal fin of Parapsilorhynchus Hora. a. Parapsilorhynchus prateri sp. nov. ; b. Parapsilorhynchus tentaculatus (Annandale). tionately larger in young individuals. The mouth is small, inferior and horizontal. The upper lip is covered by a prominent rostral fold which is fringed and covered with minute tubercles. The lower JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE III B, Bagchi, del. Fish of Deolali, oe BiSHA OF DEOLALI 33 lip is also finely papillated. There is a groove round the corners of the mouth which is continued anteriorly round the outer margin of the rostral fold. There are two short and stumpy rostral barbels. The head is provided with a series of sensory pores. Behind the lower lip, which is slightly emarginate, there is a callous area of the skin which presumably helps the fish in adhering to rocks and stones in fast currents and is thus homologous with the post labial disc of Garra. The body is almost as broad as deep; its height is contained from 6.9 to 7.6 times in the total length and from 5.3 to 6.0 times in the length without the caudal. The caudal peduncle is almost as long as or slightly longer than its least height. The scales are small and firmly adherent; there are from 43 to 47 scales along the fateral: line, 45 between the lateral line and the base of the ventral fin, 16 round the caudal peduncle and 21-22 in front of the dorsal fin. The scales are totally absent on the ventral surface between the bases of the pectoral fins and only faintly marked in the area up to the ventral fins. The scales of P. prateri are of a remarkable type; their sculpture consists of a network of radii, all originating from the base and directed distally, and circuli, which enclose small rhomboidal areas. In the allied species P. tentaculatus (Annandale) there is a well- defined nucleus from which radii are given both towards the base and to the outer margin. The circuli are not so well developed. Text-fig. 6.—Pharyngeal bone and teeth of Parapsilorhynchus prateri, sp. nov. X 30. The alimentary canal is greatly convoluted showing that the fish feeds mainly on algal matter which it scrapes off the rocks with the help of its sharp-edged lower jaw. The pharyngeal teeth are sickle-shaped and are distributed in two rows (4.4/4.4). The air- bladder is of the normal Cyprinoid type, but is small and cylindrical. The eggs are of a large size, about 2 mm. in diameter in a fish about 50 mm. in total length. The dorsal fin commences in advance of the ventrals and is almost midway between the tip of the snout and the base of the 3 34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL caudal fin; sometimes it is slightly nearer to the latter than to the former; its longest ray is almost equal to the depth of the body below it. The paired fins are horizontally placed and fan-shaped ; the pectoral fins are almost as long as the head and are separated from the ventrals by a considerable distance. The outer rays of the pectoral fins are provided with adhesive pads on_ their ventral surface. The ventrals are similar to the pectorals and just extend to the anal opening, which is situated at a distance of one diameter of the eye from the commencement sof the anal fin. The anal fin is similar to the dorsal. The caudal fin is deeply forked. In spirit specimens the colouration is grayish above and pale- olivaceous on the lower half. Along the lateral line there is a broad longitudinal band of a somewhat deeper colour with a lighter band above it. There is a black mark near the upper angle ‘of the gill opening which is partly covered by the gill membrane. A short, narrow, vertical bar is present at base of the caudal fin and another, somewhat broader and more diffuse, in front of it. There is a series of black markings about the middle of the dorsal fin. In some specimens the body is covered with small black spots. Locality :—Several specimens of P. prateri were collected by Mr. Fraser in the North Nallah and Narsullah Wadi. Ly pe-specimen:-——-F 12498/1, Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta. Remarks:—The genus Parupsilorhynchus was proposed' to accommodate a species discovered by Annandale? from small streams in the Poona District and though I described another species in this genus at the same time, the two were afterwards*® found to be synonymous. P. prateri differs from P. tentaculatus in having smaller scales and in proportions. There are differences in the scale-sculpture also (text-fig. 5). In establishing Parapsilorhynchus as a distinct genus attention was directed to the features by which it can be distinguished from Psilorhynchus McClelland. The features common to both genera are the structures associated with the mouth, such as the rostral fold, grooves round the corners of the mouth, small mouth, sharp lower jaw, etc. A close study of these genera indicates that Parapsi- lorhynchus is less specialised and perhaps an ancestral form. To these two genera must also be added Gyrinocheilus Vaillant of Indo-China, Siam and the Malay Archipelago, in which the mouth structures are of the same type. The occurrence of Parapsilorhynchus at Pachmarhi in the Satpura Hills (Hora, op. cit., 1925) shows that the Satpura Mountains may have served at one time as a highway for the migration of the East ‘ Hora, S. L.—On a New Genus of Fish closely resembling Psilorhynchus, McClelland. Rec. Ind. Mus, xxii, pp. 13-17 (1921). ~ Annandale, N.—The Fauna of certain small streams in the Bombay Presidency. Rec. Ind. Mus., xvi, p. 128 (1919). * Hora, S. L.—On the Fishes of the genus Parapsilorhynchus Hora. Ree. Ind. Mus. xxvii, p. 457 (1925). FISH: OF DEOLALI 35 Himalayan forms to the Western Ghats and thence to the hills of the Peninsula.’ Measurements in millimetres. DN sss Total length including caudal eh eOOU 50°0 49:0 49°0 Length of caudal ... ae 12°0 11? 11:0 al 8) Length of head 11:0 10:0 10'9 10:0 Width of head as 8°0 v3 ae he Height of head at occiput Oe: 6:0 6:0 6°0 Length of snout 4°0 3°8 3°8 3°8 Diameter of eye ... are Varner oes} 2°0 2°0 220 Interorbital width ... 5°2 5.0 30 5:0 Height of body 8°0 7°0 ipl Tom Width of body i 7°9 Oe, 6:9 6:9 Length of caudal peduncle 6:1 5°0 5°0 5:0 Least height of caudal eee od 4°38. 4°5 5:0 Longest ray of dorsal 9°0 (es 7°3 728} Longest ray of anal 8°5 o°9 6:0 59 Length of pectoral 11:0 9°8 9°6 9:9 Length of ventral... 9°2 is Tess 75 _ Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Ham.). 1878. Lepidocephalichthys guntea, Day, Fish. India, p. 609, pl. clv, fig. 4. In the case of the Deccan specimens of Lepidocephalichthys guntea, Day noted that they possessed only about four rows of spots on the caudal fin and often two rows on the anal fin. In the specimens from the Deolali waters the colour is very variable and there are usually several rows of spots on the caudal fin. Some of the specimens were greatly compressed and attenuated, and superficially seemed to represent a different species. the three thoracic segments may indicate ni 6 iieepresence of the feet of. the larva. A Ihe stigmata are visible as also the Female Pupa (Figs. 6, 6A). genital opening on the 8th segment which is probably the combined onal and oviductal openings in the adult, a very primitive condition in the Lepidoptera. The terminal abdominal segment near the anus bears a number of protuberances. (Fig. 6A.) The general shape of the female pupa differs very much from that of the male and in fact from that of any other Lepidoptera. From the head downwards the segments get progressively bigger as far as the 7th segment and thereafter gradually taper to a blunt point. The colour of the pupa is as in the male yellowish brown and the adult female emerges from its pupal case on the 7th day. . PARASITES. No egg parasite was noted. But the larva, though much guarded by the outer bag, is subject to the attack of a small Tachinid of which two or three may be found in a single bag. The percentage of parasitism was very small varying between two to five. The Ichneumonids generally have a partiality for the Psychids. From Clania crameri, the author has bred the Cryptid Goryphus nursei Cam. An unidentified Bombylid fly has been noted as parasite on another Psychid. ACKNOWLEDGMENT. In conclusion the writer acknowledges his indebtedness to Dr. T. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar for his many suggestions and _ helpful criticisms during the course of this study and the preparation of the paper and for getting the insect identified. List OF PUBLICATIONS CONSULTED. 1. Chapman.—‘Note on the habits and structure of Acanthopsyche opacella itech, L£..S. Lond., pp. 403-410. (1900). 2. Heylaerts.—‘Essai d’une monographie des Psychides’. Ann. Soc. Ent. Bele 25, pp. 20-73 (1881). 3. Imms, A. D.—A General Text-Book of Entomology (1930). .4. Ramakrishna Ayyar, T. V.—‘List of injurious insects affecting crops in South India’. Madras Departmental Bulletin No. 27 (1932). 5. Watt & Mann.—The Pests and Blights of the Tea Plant (1903). i NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE FRESHWATER GRE ve MULLET, 2~.MUGIL CORSULA HAMIERON: aver OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROBABLE MODE OF ORIGIN OF AERIAL VISION IN -FISHES: BY SUNDER “LAL HORA, 2p/Sc., .FURYSSE., FileS., 2oZ0S.5 FoR. Aus Beer Noles Assistant Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. (With a coloured plate and 3 text-figures), (Read at the Silver Jubilee Session of the Indian Science Congress Association at Calcutta, and published with permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India). Grey-Mullets of the genus Mugil Artedi are mostly shore fishes, of which about two dozen species are known from the seas of India. Several- ot them. enter the» mouths’ of “larse rivers tom breeding purposes, but a few, such as Mugil corsula Hamilton, M. cascasia Hamilton and M. hamiltoni Day, mostly or entirely reside in fresh waters. Of these, M. corsula’ has the remarkable habit of swimming with its eyes above the surface of the water; it attains a foot-and-a-half or more in length and usually moves in small shoals. As aerial vision is unusual among fishes, the biology of the species was studied with a view to elucidate the probable mode of evolution of this habit. Observations detailed below were made at the Calcutta Corporation Water Works at Pulta where in the settling tanks this fish is found in great abundance at all times of the year. Normally, however, it is a fluviatile species. Hamilton,' who described this species in 1822, remarked: “The Corsula (Khorsula) is found in most rivers of the Gangetic provinces,’ and, in the southern parts of Bengal, has been introduced into some ponds. It grows to a foot in length, and swims with the nose and eyes above water, probably in search of insects. Although, no doubt, of a very different genus, it would seem to have much of the appearance and manners of Cobitis anableps (Bonnaterre, Tabl. Encycl., p. 148, Pl. Ixi, Fig. 240). It is very well tasted? and, by the Europeans, is much sought after for their tables.’ Day (Fish. India, p. 354, 1876) extended the range of the species to Burma agd gave the following vernacular names :—Kakunda, Ooriah; Hurd-wahre, Punj.; Corsula and In-ge-lee, Beng., Undala, Hind.; Nga-cen, Burma. — = = 1 Hamilton, F.—An Account of the Fishes. found in the river and its branches. \ Pp: 221, 338, pl. 1x, ng .67, (Edinbursiys 1822). * Day in his account of ‘The Fish and Fisheries of Bengal’ (Hunter’s Statistical Account of Bengal, xx, London: 1877) published Hamilton’s notes on the fish and fisheries of the various districts of Bengal. From these notes it is clear that Hamilton obtained specimens of M. corsula from the districts of Dinajpur, Rangpur, Purniah, Bhagalpur, Patna and Gorakhpur. He noted the following vernacular names for the species: Dinajpur—Ghobol; Rangpur (Goalpara)—Muji and Ingli; Dacca—Khold ; Calcutta—Khorsald; = Purniah (Nathpur)—Hundard; Purniah (Bholdhat)— Murdil; Bhagalpur—Andewdri; Patna—Angruyari ; Gorakhpur—Bhaga. ~- - a ate I AC THE FRESHWATER GREY MULLET. Mugil corsula (Hamilton). In the Settling Tanks of the Calcutta Corporation Water-Works at Pulta. BIOLOGY OF:A MULUBT :"ARRIAL VISION IN’ FISHES 63 I made observations on the locomotion, aerial vision, respira- tion, feeding and breeding of the species. Notes on these subjects are given below separately. Locomotion: When the fish js swimming at the surface, the eyes, a portion of the head and the anterior part of the body are entirely out of water; the rest of the body is obliquely inclined to the surface of the water. As the fish progresses, ripples of the displaced water are formed at the sides of the head. During locomotion the pectoral fins are constantly in action, and the pelvics are held out fully stretched. The tail fin moves gently from Text-fig. 1.—Sketches showing mode of life of Mugil corsula Hamilton in the settling tanks of the Calcutta Corporation Water-works at Pulta. Diagrammatic. a. A group of fishes in their natural posture at time of swimming; Db. A group of fishes swimming away in a hurry on approach of a person; c. Skipping and jumping posture; d. A fish keeping in sight the Caddis-flies hovering over water. side to side. Thus the fish moves through the water very gracefully (text-fig. 1a) and occasionally ducks its head below the surface, presumably to keep the eyes moist. On the approach of an individual the fish dives under water with great agility but does not stay there long and comes up to the surface at a_ short distance from its original position. On certain occasions the fish was observed to swim away rapidly and in this action the whole of the anterior part of the head was projected out of the water (text-fig. rb), presumably to decrease resistance. Sometimes, when suddenly alarmed, it skips along the surface by using its 64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HUST. (SOCIETY. Voln vate muscular tail and tail fin for giving a push to the water (text-fig. ic). The skipping is done only over a very short distance ames which the fish dives and clears away under cover of water. When the water is drained away from the pucca settling tanks for cleaning them, it was observed that the fish jumps out of the receding water (the narrow channels at the bottom by which the water is finally drained off) and wanders over the muddy bottom, presumably in search of larger pieces of water. The fish could thus wander over the mud for 15 to 20 feet, but it usually halted of s. nee Le Sify Text-fig. 2.—Sketch of Mugil corsula Hamilton wandering over mud flats in search of larger pieces of water. Diagrammatic. Sketches of tracks were made from a_ photograph. for a few seconds in the course of a long journey.. Dunng progression through mud the posterior part of the body is whipped about vigorously and a fairly deep zig-zag track is left behind (text-fig. 2). It was further observed that in a current the fish has the habit of swimming against it. Vision: Hamilton in describing Mugil corsula correctly remarked that his species had much of the appearance and manners of Anableps (Gronow) Scopoli, the so-called ‘Four-eyed Fish’ of Tropical America. ‘The four-eyed fish has only two eyes but each has become divided into an upper and lower section by ingrowth of- the iris. The lower pupil is shaded from the glare of the surface film by a double screen which, like horse ‘blinkers’, prevents the water-eyes from looking anywhere but in one direction, | BIOLOGY OF “A MULEET: AERIAL VISION IN FISHES 65 namely downward, where the fish’s enemies prowl about’.’ Mugul corsula, however, has no such bi-focal arrangement for a double vision. Its eyes are wholly out of water and are no doubt adapted mostly for an aerial vision. From a distance they shine like two white silvery balls, probably on account of the reflected light. When looked at from close quarters in an aquarium the pupil is black and the iris has a shade of orange yellow. ‘The eye-balls can be moved in all directions, especially antero-posteriorly. Even when the fish is under water the eye-balls are moved in various directions, showing thereby that the fish is probably capable of seeing to a limited extent under water also. In its protruding eyes, mobility of the eye-balls and perfect aerial vision, M. corsula agrees with the goggle-eyed fishes of the genera Periophthalmus Bloch & Schneider and Periophthalmodon Bleeker. Respiration: Respiration is mostly aquatic, as the fish keeps its mouth under water even when a considerable part of the head and eyes are out of it. Thus for respiratory purposes the fish normally makes use of the better oxygenated water at the surface. When, however, the water of an aquarium becomes foul, the fish takes gulps of air at irregular intervals, passes them over the gills and out at the gill-openings. As with most of the tropical fishes, the gills of M. corsula probably subserve both for aquatic and aerial respiration. It has been remarked above that the fish, when the water is drained away from its habitat, jumps out of the water and wriggles about on mud in search of a more congenial habitat. In such wanderings, which do not last more than a minute or two, the fish probably resorts to aerial respiration. To test the capacity of -M. corsula for aerial respiration, a specimen was left in a dish and its surface was kept moist by occasionally sprinkling a little water over it. The experiment was started about 7 p.m. After Io minutes, the fish was breathing air at the rate of 80 respiratory movements per minute and after about every 15 movements it took a sort of a deep breath. After-about 20 minutes, the rate of respiration was the same, but a couple of minutes afterwards the animal became restless and when placed in water revived fully within a very short period. The experiment was repeated with other specimens with more or less similar results. It would thus appear that the fish, though not fully adapted for aerial respiration, is capable of living out of water for a short time. The popular belief that M. corsula burrows in soft mud, when the waters dry up altogether in its habitat, is not borne out by my observations. It was found that if fishes moving on soft mud failed to reach a piece of water they lay at the surface and were usually found dead after a short time. They made no attempt to burrow, in spite of the fact that kites swooped over them from time to time and carried some of them away. Feeding: The mouth (text-fig. 3) is angular with the upper * Noble, G. K.—The Four-Eyed Fish. Journ. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., xxxvi, PP- 34, 36 (1935). 5 | 66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL jaw longer; it is overhung by the snout. There is a single row of fine teeth in either jaw. The lower jaw is provided with a Text-fig. 3.—Head and anterior part of body of Mugil corsula Hamilton. x14. prominent symphysial knob in the middle and corresponding to it in the upper jaw there is a deep pit to receive it. These structures are similar to those found among Carps of the subfamily Abra- midinae. The alimentary canal is considerably convoluted. As a rule the adults living in the settling tanks of the Calcutta Corporation Water Works at Pulta feed on copious quantities of filamentous algae and one can notice them browsing near the shores in the evenings and mornings. In this process the incisor-like structure on the lower jaw probably helps in uprooting algae from the shores. When feeding, it appears from a distance as if the fish is resting near the edge of the water with a part of its head . out of the water. The stomach contents of several adult specimens contained nothing but algae and a few insects and young molluscs entangled among the plants. During May-June, when swarms of Caddis-flies (Trichoptera) are out in the evenings and hover about near the surface of the water, the fish keeps the insects in sight and usually moves about with them (text-fig. 31d). It was, however, never observed to jump out of the water to catch them, but as soon as an insect touched the water M. corsula was observed to raise its head and devour it with a jerk of the head. If, however, it missed to catch the insect at the first attempt, the insect usually started moving with great speed on the surface of the water and was chased by the fish. The fish was usually successful in its attempt. On such occasions, when there are swarms of insects, M. corsula feeds voraciously on insects, as within a period of 10 minutes a specimen, 6 to 8 inches in length, was noticed to devour about a dozen Caddis-flies. The stomach contents of small specimens from 6 to 8 ems. in length were found to consist mostly of large numbers of Copepods, and sometimes small insects. The almost toothless jaws, the presence of a symphysial knob, and convoluted alimentary canal indicate that the observed feeding habits of M. corsula: correspond with those of the ‘Carp-Minnows’ 1 BIOLOGY OF A MULLET: AERIAL VISION IN FISHES 67 (Rasborinae) and ‘Chilwas’ (Abramidinae). Though the mouth of M. corsula is situated on the ventral surface of the head, when the eyes and a part of the head are out of water, its position becomes almost anterior and the gape becomes obliquely directed upwards and forwards, as is usually the case with the fishes that feed near the surface. Thus the anterior position of the mouth for feeding actually results from the fact that the fish keeps a greater part of its snout out of the water. Breeding: No direct observations were made on the breeding habits of the species, but a large number of young ones appeared in the settling tanks and filter beds of the Water Works at Pulta during March and April. Presumably these months represent the peak-period of breeding for the species. M. corsula presumably breeds in the river and connected waters, and also in confined waters such as those of the Pulta Water Works. The presence of the fish in an isolated settling tank (Pucca Settling Tank No. 4) after cleaning shows that the fish must have come in a very early stage of development. This also indicates that M. corsula is in reality a fluviatile form and that its occurrence in confined waters at Pulta is only accidental. Though M. corsula is at present mostly confined to fresh waters, its habits, as detailed above, seem to have been acquired under estuarine conditions during the transition period from marine to freshwater life. In the estuaries during ebb-tides certain small animals are left high and dry on muddy banks and even a few fish become stranded in small pools and puddles. The partial aerial respiration and the habit of wriggling back to water-channels, no doubt developed under these conditions, must have been of immense value to M. corsula in tidal creeks. Further, its habit of swimming against the current probably helped it to invade fresh waters and prevented its being carried away to the sea. Its habit of swimming near the surface was probably induced by feeding on the floating matter. Those, who have observed the incoming tides, know what an immense amount of dead and living organic stuff is collected from the mud-flats and floats on the surface layer of the water. As indicated above, the position of the mouth in M. -corsula is ventral, but for feeding on the floating matter effort had to be made to bring the mouth to the level of the surface. The ventral profile of the head, which is sharply directed upwards (text-fig. 3), is very suggestive of such efforts having been made by the fish. In this effort the upper part of the head and the snout were continually being thrust out of the water. The eyes thus pushed out of water became gradually modified for aerial vision by an adjustment of the form of the lens. In the evolution of aerial vision the globular lens of the aquatic fishes, which is myopic both in water and on land, becomes flattened for hypermetropic vision on land. In M. corsula the ratio of the diameter of the lens to its thickness is as 7 : 6. As a rule, Mullets feed on algae and other minute water plants contained in mud near the sea shore or in lagoons, but the habit of feeding on the floating matter was, in my opinion, acquired 68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIERY, Vols: under estuarine conditions and led to the initial stages in the development of the aerial vision of M. corsula and also of such Gobies as Periophthalmus and Periophthalmodon, both of which possess a ventral mouth. The observed habit of M. corsula of browsing on algae is no doubt a secondary feature for life in con- fined waters. In the actual estuarine channels there is usually no growth of filamentous algae, though the connected pools may sometimes be full of them. The favourable position of the mouth must have been of great help in feeding on algae near the edges ef ponds. At the present day, the fish seems to be equally well adapted for feeding both at the open surface and on the sides of a piece of water. The terrestrial habit of the Gobies was probably acquired at a later period when during low tides they stayed on the mud-flats, instead of wriggling back to water channels as M. corsula does, and began to wander about in search of food. The cup-shaped ventral fins of the normal Gobies would, in the earlier stages, act as a support to enable the fish to prevent its head from sinking into the ‘soft mud. Later the pectoral fins became modified to support the weight of the fish and a terrestrial mode of locomotion was acquired by it. Noble (op. cit.) remarks that Anableps ‘has specialised in feeding on the floating material which it encounters in its wanderings in the dual realm of air and water.’ Here again it would seem probable that the richness of floating food and the comparative lack of competition in acquiring it must have induced the initial stages in the development of the remarkable modifications of the eyes in Anableps.- Anableps belongs to the freshwater group of ‘Top-min- nows’ (Cyprinodonts) which are mostly confined to fresh waters. With the exception of Anableps, all are small fishes, rarely exceed- ing 3 to 4 inches in length. As a group, they are-in every way adapted for feeding near the surface and have for the same reason been used all over the world for the control of insects, especially mosquitoes. Anableps seems to have acquired the habit of using the upper part of its eyes for aerial vision in its search for floating organisms. Thus the primary inducement for aerial vision—feeding at the surface on floating matter—was probably the same in both the cases, but modification of the eye proceeded along different lines owing to differences in the position of the mouth in the two types. of fishes. In M. ‘corsula the eyes had te be wholly out=oa the water for the mouth to come to the level of the surface, whereas the already anterior mouth of Anableps had only to be slightly raised to come to the level of the surface, and hence only a part of the eyes was exposed to aerial conditions. Noble has characterised the bi-focal vision of Anableps as ‘The first stage in the evolution of vision in the air’; but to me it seems that such a fine arrangement, probably perfected under the - circumstances detailed above, cannot be regarded as a generalised structure. At any rate, it seems probable that an aerial vision was acquired by estuarine animals of the type of Periophthalmus, Periophthalmodon, Boleophthalmus and M. corsula without under- going the Anableps-stage of bi-focal vision. MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA: MAGNOLIADS, DILLENIADS, ANONADS, MENISPERMADS, BERBERIDS. BY J.B CAIUS, S:jJ., F:L.S: I The MaAGNOLIACEAa are trees or shrubs, sometimes climbing, often aromatic. They are chiefly natives of the tropical and temperate Asiatic mountains and United States, a few are Australian. There are about 70 species belonging to ro genera, 9 of which are used medicinally in various parts of the world :—Drimys (South America; New Zealand to Borneo); EupTELEea (Japan to Bengal); ILzttcrum (Atlantic North America; Asia); KapDsuRA (tropical Asia, China, Japan); Liriop—ENDROoN (North America) ; Macnoria (Asia, North America); MicuHe.ta (tropical Asia, China) ; SCHIZANDRA (tropical and warm temperate Asia, North America) ; TaLauMA (eastern Asia, South America, West Indies). Many members yield essential oils. Among the products isolated the following may be mentioned :— (1) cyanogenetic glucosides and saponins; (2) crystalline compounds of alkaloidal (?) nature—tulipiferine—; (3) bitter principles—iirio- dendrin, magnolin, shikimin—; (4) toxic principles—sikimitoxin— ; (5) tannins and resins—; (6) mucilage. The medicinal Magnoliads of India belong to the three genera ILLIcCIUM, KapsuRA, and MICHELIA. A. Erect trees or shrubs. Stipules absent. Carpels in one whorl ... me SPELICIOM: Stipules conspicuous. Gynophore stalked ... ... MICHELIA. B. Climbing shrubs. Carpels of fruit capitate wats ses ... IKXADSURA. [LLICIUM. The genus consists of 20 species distributed over India, China, Japan, and Atlantic North America. The fruits are aromatic, stimulant, and carminative. The following species are used medicinally in China—I. ani- satum Linn.—;-in Indo-China—I. anisatum Linn., I. Griffithii Hook.f. & Th., I. verum Hook.f.—; in Malaya—I. verum Hook. f.—; in the Philippine Islands—I. anisatum Linn.—; in North America—I. floridanum EIl., I. parviflorum Michx.—. Sikimitoxin, a highly toxic substance, has been isolated from I. anisatum. The fruit of I. verum Hook. f. or the essential oil from it is official in Austria, Brazil, France, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and_ the United States. The essential oil from I. anisatum Linn. is official in Mexico, 70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NAT URATG SHS is 2S O CHETAN V0) smeKele illicitum Griffithii Hook. fil. & Th. occurs in Bhutan and the Khasia Hills between 4,000 and. 5,000 feet. The fruit is aromatic, stimulant, and carminative. Ivench: Faux badianier—; Indo-China: Dai hoi nui—. KADSURA., This genus includes 8 species, which inhabit tropical Asia, China, and Japan. K. japonica Juss. is used medicinally in Japan. Kadsura scandens Bl. is common in the forests of the Malay Peninsula and the Malay Islands at low elevations. A decoction of the root is used by the Malays for rheumatism. Malay: Akar dama daura, Akar kapala patong—. y I p § MICHELIA. The genus consists of 15 species inhabiting tropical Asia, and China. The barks are bitter and aromatic, stimulant and antiperiodic, The following are used medicinally in Indo-China—M. Cham- paca Linn.; in Malaya and Java—M. Champaca Linn., M. montana Blum. 1. Leaves 15-25 cm. long.: Flowers yellow. Sepals and petals 15 or more sie's te . M. Champaca. Leaves s-10 cm. long. Flowers white or with a tinge of yellow. Sepals and petals 9-12 wt Me onilagirica. Ny 3. Leaves up to 19 cm. long. Flowers white. Sepals and petals 8 fe ar ... M. montana. 1. Michelia Champaca Linn. occurs wild in the Eastern sub- Himalayan tract and lower hills up to 3,000 feet, Assam, Burma, Western Ghats and South India; it is much cultivated in various parts of India and Burma. It is distributed to Yunnan, Indo-China, Siam, and Malaya—not in the Malay Peninsula where, however, it is common in gardens. The root is bitter and demulcent; it is also considered purgative. The dried root and root-bark, mixed -.with curdled milk 1s useful as an.application to abscesses, clearing away or maturing the inflammation. In the form of an infusion it is a valuable emmenagogue. The bark has febrifugal properties; it is a stimulant, expectorant, | and astringent. It is described in Ayurveda as bitter with a sharp acrid taste, causing warmth in the abdomen, destroying poisons, removing worms, facilitating micturition and sweating, useful in bile and blood affections. A decoction of the bark was tried in sixteen mild cases of chronic gastritis. After using it for several days the patients obtained considerable relief from the pain and discomfort in the epigastrium with which they were troubled, but none of the cases was completely cured (IKoman). MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA Ch Ayurveda practitioners use the leaves in combination with other drugs to remove the foetid odour of vaginal discharges. In Dacca the juice of the leaves is given with honey in cases of colic. According to Ayurveda the flowers are bitter, stomachic, diuretic ; they remove bilious conditions; they are good in leprosy, skin diseases, and ulcers. Yunani doctors consider their smell a good stimulant; they use the flower as an expectorant and look upon it as useful in cough and rheumatism. The flowers and fruits are considered bitter and cool remedies, and are used in dyspepsia, nausea, and fever. The flowers mixed with sesamum oil form an external application, which is often prescribed in vertigo; they are also applied to foetid discharges from the nostrils. They are useful as a diuretic in renal diseases and in gonorrhoea. They are considered stimulant, antispasmodic, tonic, stomachic, and carminative. The perfumed oil prepared from the flowers is a useful applica- tion in cephalalgia, ophthalmia, and gout. The seeds and fruit are said to be useful for healing cracks in pie feet. The flowers and the fruit in combination with other drugs are recommended as an antidote to snake and scorpion venoms, but Caius and Mhaskar have shown experimentally that both the flower and the fruit are useless in the antidotal and symptomatic treat- ment of snake bite and scorpion sting. Annam: Dam bac, Su Nam—; Assam: Phulchopa, Phulsopa, Titasoppa—; Bengal: Champa, Champaka, Chumpa, Kotu—; Bombay: Champa, Chapha— $; Burma: Changal, Paranyam, Saga—; Canarese: Champaka, Kendasampige, Kolasampige, Sampage, Sampaghy, Sampige—; Deccan: Champa—; English: Golden Champa, Yellow Champa—; French: Champac—; Gujerati: Champo, Pitochampo, Raechampo, Sonchampa—; Hindi: Champ, Champa, Champac, Champaca—; Indo-China: Kim cuong moc—; Kathiawar: Pilochampo, Raya- champo, Sachochampo—; Konkani: Champa, Champo, Pudchampo—; Lao: Chum pi—; La Reunion: Champac—; Malay: Bongasjampacca, Mangliet— ; Malayalam : Champakam— Marathi: Kudchampa, Pivalachampa, Sonachampa— ; Matheran: Champaka, Pilachampa, Souchampa—; Mundari: Champabadaru— §; Nepal: Aulechamp, Ouliachamp—; North Western Provinces : Champa—; Philip- pines: Champaca, Champaga—; Portuguese: Champo—; Punjab: Chamba, Chamoti, Champa, Chamuti—; Sadanit: Campa—; Sanskrit: Anjana, Atigan- dhaka, Bramaratithi, Bhringmohi, Chambunala, Champaka, Champeya, Deepa- pushpa, Gandhaphali, Hemanga, Hemapushpa, Hemapushpaka, Hemavha, Kamabana, Kanchana, Katu, Kumara, Kusuma, Kusumadhipa, Kusumadhirata, Nagapshpa, Patichampaka, Peetapushpa, Punyagandha, Rajachampaka, Shata- padatithi, Shitala, Shitalachchada, Sthiragandha, Sthirpushpa, Subhaga, Suku- mara, Surabhi, Svarnachampakapaka, Svarnapushpa, Ugragandha, Vanadapika, Vanadeepa, Vanamalika, Varalbdha—; Sinhalese: Champak, Hapu, Sapu—; Tagalog: Champaga, Sampac, Sampaka, Tsampaka—; Tanul: Amariyam, Sambagam, Sembagam, Shampangi, Vandumarmalar—; Telugu: Champakmu, Champeyamu, Gandhaphali, Gangaravi, Hemangamu, Hemapushpamu, Kanj- anamu, Sampangi, Sampega—; Tulu: Champaka, Sampay—; Uriya: Chompa, Chompoko—. 2. Michelia nilagirica Zenk. is found in the shola forests of the Nilgiris, Anamalais and Pulneys above 5,000 feet. The bark is used as a febrifuge. Canarese: Bilisampage, Doddasampage, Sampana, Sapage—; Hindi: Pila- champa—; Marathi: Pilachampa—; Sinhalese: Walsapu—; Tamil: Kattu- chambagam, Nilagirishambagam, Shambagam—, 72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIEIW, Vol Gr 3. Michelia montana Bl. is found in the Himalaya, the mountains of Perak and Redah, and in Java. The bark is a bitter tonic useful in fevers. II The DILLENIACE2 are trees or shrubs, chiefly natives of the southern hemisphere. Tropical America and Asia possess about an equal number of species; they are rare in Africa, and hitherto none have been found in South Africa or temperate South America. 4 of the 16 genera are reputéd medicinal :— CUuROTELLA (tropical America, West Indies); DaviLia (tropical America, West Indies) ; DiLtLENtIA (Indo-Malaya); TETRACERA (tropics; chiefly America). Two of these—DILLENIA and TETRACERA-—are represented in India. I. Woody climbers; filaments dilated upwards. Carpels 2 Ors oe me ... TETRACERA. IJ.° Trees’; filaments not dilated. Follicles not expanding nor dehiscing enclosed in the thickened pulpy sepals; seeds not arillate ... DILLENIA. “DILLENIA. This genus includes 20 Indo-Malayan species. In Indo-China the calyces of D. Baillonii Pierre, D. indica Linn., and D. ovata Wall. are made into jellies and cooling drinks; the bark of D. ovata is used medicinally in Cambodia. 1. Flowering with the leaves; flowers large, 6 to 9 in. across, white; fruit very large os -1 DD. “ndica: 2. Flowering before leaves; flowers 2 to 5 in. wide, yellow; leaves 4 in. long, oblong, blunt, velvety beneath ye bs ee son) Looabas 1. Dillenia indica Linn. occurs from Nepal to Assam, extend- ing to the Malay Peninsula and Indo-China; southwards it spreads over to Céylon. A syrup of the juice of the unripe fruit allays coughs, assists expectoration, and cures angina and aphthae. The juice of the fruit, mixed with sugar and water, is used as a cooling beverage in fevers, and as a cough mixture. The fruit is slightly laxative, and is apt to induce diarrhoea if too freely indulged in. The bark and the leaves are astringent. The bruised bark is applied as a cataplasm in arthritis. The Malays use the pulp of the fruit as a hair-wash. Assam: Chalita, Otengah—; Bengal: Chalita, Chalta, Hargesa, Ruvya—+; Bombay : Karambel, Mothakarmel, Mothekaramala—; Burma: Thabyu, Thibuta, Zinbrun, Zinpyunngan—; Canarese: Bettadakanagal, Bettakanigala, Ganagalu, Kadkanagula, Kanagala, Kanigala, Neyitaku—; Deccan: Mutakurmul—; Garo: Panpui—; Gujerati: Karmbal, Otaphal—; Hindi: Chalta, Chaltr, Girnar—; Indo-China: Dok shan, So ba—; Kachin: Masang—; Kolami: Korkotta—; Konkani: Corombol—; Lepcha: Kyangmozhu, Phamsikol, Phan-se kung—; Magahi: Chauralesi, Thapru-—-; Malay: Chimpuh, Simpoh—; Malayalam: Chalita, Punna, Syalita, Valapunna—; Marathi: Karmbel, Motakarmal, Mota- karmbal— ; Monghyr: Chilta—; Mundari: Korkotadaru, Kurkutadaru—; Nepal: Panchkule, Panchphal, Ramphal—; Sanskrit: Bhavya, Ruvya—; Santal: Korkot, Korkotta—; Sinhalese: Hondapara, Wampara—; Taleing: Carllow—; Tamil: Akku, Ugakkay, Uva, Uvav, Uvatteku—; Telugu: Kalinga, Pedda- kalinga, Uvva—: Uriya: Chalota, Oao, Ou, Rai, Uau—. +7 MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 73 2. Dillenia ovata Wall. is found in the Eastern Peninsula, Malaya, Cambodia, Indo-China. In Cambodia the astringent bark is given for diarrhoea in the form of a strong infusion. Cambodia: Knang krepeu, Plou—; Cochinchina: Thu dau mot—. TETRACERA. The genus consists of 25 tropical species. The following are used medicinally in the Philippine Islands— T. indica Merrill, T. macrophylla Wall.—; in Nigeria and Guinea— T. alnifolia Willd., T. potatoria Azfl.—; in Guiana—T, alnifolia Willd., T. aspera Willd., T. ovalifolia DC.—; in Brazil—T. oblongata D.C.—. 1. Follicles 3-5-seeded. Leaves 2-5 in. long up to 2 in. wide, toothed, glabrous except the nerves beneath ... I. indica. 2. Follicles 1-2-seeded. Leaves 3-5 in. long, oblong or lanceolate. Sepals silky inside, glabrous outside, broadly oval... T. laevis. 3. Follicles 1-seeded. Leaves 5-7 in. long, 3-6 in. wide. Sepals silky inside, puberulous outside, obovate obtuse, edges ciliate ae aks ee ... IT. macrophylla. 1. Tetracera indica Merrill (=7. assa DC.) is found in Eastern Bengal and the Eastern Peninsula from Chittagong to Singapore. It extends to Siam, Cochin-China, Java, and _ the Philippine Islands. In the Philippines an infusion of the plant is used internally for pulmonary haemorrhage, and externally as a gargle for the treatment of aphthae. Malay: Ampelas, Mempelas minyak, P’las payah—; Tagalog: Malacatmon—. 2. Tetracera laevis Vahl is found in the Western Peninsula, the forests of ‘Malabar, Ceylon, Java and Borneo. In Malabar a decoction of the leaves is mixed with rice gruel and given for the treatment of aphthae. Malayalam: Piripu—; Tamil: Anaittichal—. y 3. Tetracera macrophylla Wall. occurs in the Eastern Peninsula from Penang to Singapore, extending to Sumatra. An infusion of the plant is used in the Philippine Islands as a drink for haemoptysis, and as a gargle for aphthae. Malay: Ampelas gajah, Ampelas lidah kuching, Ampelas rimau, Ampelas rimbah, Mempelas gajah, Mempelas lidah kuching, Mempelas rimau, Mempelas rimbah— ; Tagalog: Malacatmon—. III The ANONACE# are trees or shrubs, often climbing and frequently aromatic. There are 80 genera comprising 820 species, nearly all tropical, especially of the Old World. The medicinal and poisonous Anonads of the world belong to 22 genera: ALPHONSEA (tropical Asia): ANAXAGOREA (tropical 4 — JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIEIY= Vols wr Asia, America); Anona (Tropics; chiefly America); ARTABOTRYS (palaeotropics); Asimmna (Cuba, Mexico, Eastern United States); BocaceEa (tropical America and Asia); CANANcIUM (tropical eastern Asia to Australia); DEsmos (tropical Asia); ENnantia (West Africa) ; GONIOTHALAMUS (tropical Asia) ; HaBzELta (tropical Asia); HExALOBUS (tropical Africa, Madagascar); MELoporum (Tropics); Monopora (tropical Africa, Madagascar); OROpHEA (Indo-Malaya); OxyMiTRa (palaeotropics); PoLyaLtTuia (palaeotropics); ROLLINIA (tropical America); SAGERAEA (Indo-Malaya); UNona (tropical Asia, Africa); Uvaria (warm regions); XyLopia (Tropics). The medicinal and poisonous Anonads of India belong to 12 genera:—-ALPHONSEA, ANAXAGOREA, ANONA, ARTABOTRYS, CANAN- GIUM, DESMOS, GONIOTHALAMUS, MELODORUM, OROPHEA, POLYAL- THIA, SAGERAEA, UVARIA. A. Petals 2 in 2 rows, one or both rows imbricate in bud. Stamens many. Anther-cells concealed by a_ flat appendage 1. Sepals imbricate. Trees or shrubs. Ovules 6-8. Torus flat — ans ae ... SAGERAEA. 2. Sepals valvate. Climbers. Ovules many i: UVARTA, B. Petals valvate in bud, flat, or base only concave. Inner petals similar to outer. Stamens many, with overlapping appendages. Ovaries indefinite, rarely few 1. Petals connivent at concave base, covering stamens and ovaries. Climbers with hooked peduncles. Flowers rather large ae 2. Petals flat. Carpels indehiscent a. Trees. Ovules many in 2 _ rows. Stamen- ARTABOTRYS. appendages acute a A ... CANANGIUM. b. Trees. Ovules 1-2 rs Re +2) UROLVYALTHIA® c. Shrubs, half climbing. Ovules 6 in 1 row. Petals sometimes connate and reduced to 2 .... DESMos. d. Shrubs. Fruit follicular dehiscent ... ... ANAXAGOREA. C. Petals valvate, outer spreading ; inner concave connivent different, arching over stamens. Stamens and _pistils numerous and anther appendages overlapping except Orophea. Trees. Inner petals clawed. 1. Inner petals connivent, not vaulted. Flowers rather large i ah aoe ... GONIOTHALAMUS. 2. Inner petals vaulted, longer than outer. Stamens 6. OROPHEA. D. Petals valvate, thick, connivent; outer long narrow or broad, inner small but similar. 1. Trees or shrubs. Ovules solitary. Fruit fleshy of many connate carpels ae oh ... ANONA. 2. Climbers. Ovules 2 or more. Outer petals broad. Torus convex ae re ... MELODORUM. E. Petals valvate, outer often very small. Stamens definite loosely imbricate. Ovules 1 or many. Flowers usually solitary. Trees or shrubs. Ovaries indefinite. Petals all larger than sepals saccate at base ae a ae ... ALPHONSEA. ALPHONSEA. The genus consists of g to 10 Indo-Malayan species. Alphonsea ventricosa Hook. fil. & Th. occurs in Assam and Chittagong and extends to the Andamans and Penang. The plant contains a poisonous alkaloid, MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 75 ANAXAGOREA, The genus numbers about 8 species, natives of tropical Asia and America. Anaxagorea Scortechinii King is found in the woods of the Malay Peninsula. The Malays put the seeds among clothes. Malay: Bunga lerak, Pali monyet—. ANONA. The genus includes 70 tropical species, especially American. The following species are used medicinally in Senegal—A. senegalensis Pers.—; in Nigeria—A. cherimolia Mill., A. senegal- ensis Pers.—; in Guinea, Oubanghi-Chari and the Gold Coast— A. muricata Linn., A. senegalensis Pers.—; in Indo-China—A. muricata Linn., A. squamosa Linn.—; in the Philippine Islands— A. muricata Linn., A. reticulata Linn., A. squamosa Linn.—;}3 in North America—A. muricata Linn., A. palustris Linn., A. spines- cens Mart., A. squamosa Linn.—; in California—A. cherimolia Mill., 4. muricata Linn.—; in Porto Rico and Jamaica—A. muricata Linn.—; in Guiana—A. Ambotay Aubl.—; in Brazil—A. cherimolia Mill, A. Marcgravu, Mart., A. murncata Linn., A. palustris Linn., Ae Pisonis Mart., A. reticulata Linn., A. spinescens Mart., A. squamosa Linn.—. A, muricata Linn., A. reticulata Linn., and A. squamosa Linn. are used medicinally in India. Fruit tubercled isi oe wise ... I. A. squamosa. Fruit smooth, slightly areolate we fae 2a e VCHGULOLG. Fruit bearing numerous fleshy spines ee ... 3. A. muricata. 1. Anona squamosa Linn. is a native of the West Indies, now cultivated throughout India. The root is considered a drastic purgative, and is administered in acute dysentery. It is also employed internally in depression of spirits and in spinal diseases. The astringent bark is used as an antidiarrhoeal cure in Cambodia. An infusion of the leaves is considered efficacious in prolapsus ani of children; and the bruised leaves with salt make a cataplasm to induce suppuration. In Brazil they are applied as a poultice over boils and ulcers. In Gambia, the West Indies, Central and South America they are Heed to kill lice and to prevent bed bugs, etc. The ripe fruit is medicinally considered a maturant; and when bruised and mixed with salt, is applied to malignant tumours to hasten suppuration. The seeds contain an acrid principle fatal to insects, and the dried unripe fruit, powdered and mixed with gram flour, 1s used to destroy vermin. In Chota Nagpur the seeds are crushed and used for destroying worms in the wounds of cattle, 76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL The seeds are a powerful irritant of the conjunctiva. Annam: Mak khieb, Mang cau ta, Qua na, Tiep—; Antilles: Cachimant, Hattier, Pomme-canelle— ; Arabic: Ambeberesch, Beresch, Chermisch, Saripha— ; Assam: Ata, Katal—; Bengal: Ata, Luna, Meba, Sitaphal—; Brazil: Ata, Pinha, Frutta de Condessa—; Burma: Auza—; Cambodia: Tiep srok—; Canarese: Amritaphala, Duranji, Sitaphala—; Ceylon: Anoda—; Cuba: Anon—; Deccan: At, Sitaphul—; English: Custard Apple, Sugar apple, Sweet Sop—; Ewe: Eevunyikleng—; Fanti: Apre—; French: Anone écailleuse, Ate, Attier, Cachiman, Guanabane, Hattier, Marie baise, Pomme canelle—; Ga: Ngawyei, Nangwi, Ngaasie—; Guam: Atis—; Gujerati: Anan, Anuram, Seeta- phul, Sitaphal—; Hasada: Sarupa—; Hindi: At, Ata, Atasitaphal, Saripha, Shariphal, Sitaphal—; Ibo: Mbubo-ago—; Indo-China: Phan le chi—; Kolami: Mandal, Nenwa—; Konkani: At, Ath—; Kyrobo: Hangbue—; Lambadi: Sitaphal—; La Reunion: Attier—; Malay: Mannapapuwa, Srikaya—; Malay- alam: Antacheecha, Attachchakka, Sirpa, Sitapalam, Sutakanni—; Marathi: At, Sitaphal—; Mexico: Anona, Anona blanca—; Mundari: Borordaru, Neoa, Sampa, Sarupa—; Nagpuri: Neoa—; Nepal: Sharifal—; North-Western Pro- vinces: Behli, Sharifa—; Persian: Kaj, Sharifah—; Portuguese: Ateira, Fructo de Conde—; Puerto Rico: Anon, Anona con escamas, Atis—; Punjabi: Sharifa—; Sanskrit: Agrimakhya, Atripya, Bahubijaka, Gandagatra, Krishna- bija, Sitaphala, Subha, Suda, Vaidehivallabha—; Sakalave: Konkony—; Santal : Mandargom—; Sind: Sharifa—; Sinhalese: Anoda, Atta—; Sumatra: Siri- kayu—; Tagalog: Ates—; Tamil: Atta, Sitapalam—; Telugu: Gandagatramu, Sitapandu, Sitaphalamu—; Timne: Momina—; Tulu: Amritakay—; Twi: Apre, Bororfo nyankonga—; Uriya: Ato, Sitapholo—. 2. Anona reticulata Linn. is a native of the West Indies, now cultivated in India. The bark is a powerful astringent, and is used as a tonic by the Malays. In China it is used in the treatment of inflammation Gt the seve: In Brazil the leaves are used as a maturant. In the West Indies and in Central and South America the green fruit is much used as an antidysenteric and an anthelmintic. A. de Santos has isolated from the bark of the trunk an alkaloid which he has named anonaine. Antilles: Cachimen, Coeur de boeuf, Corossol réticulé, Mamilier—; Bengal: Luvuni, Nona—; Bombay: Ramphal—; Burma: Awza—; Canarese: Rama- phala, Ramphal—; Ceylon: Anona—; Chinese: Meng Pa—; Cuba: Anona, Mamon—; Deccan: Ramphal—; English: Bullock’s Heart, Custard Apple, Netted Custard Apple—; French: Anone en réseau, Cherimolier, Mamilier—; Goa: Anona—; Guam: Anonas—; Gujerati: Ramphai—; Haiti: Guanabano—; Hindi: Anta, Luvuni, Nagnewa, Nona, Ramphal—; Hova: Voankobohobo— ; Konkani: Anon—; La Reunion: Anone, Coeur de boeuf—; Malay: Manua, Nona, Nona Kapri—; Malayalam: Manilanilam, Parankichchakka, Ramach- chita— ; Marathi: Ramphal—; Mexico: Anona, Hama—; Mundari: Nagneva— $; Philippines : Anonas—; Portuguese: Anona—; Puerto Rico: Anona de redecilla, Corazon—; Sakalave: Hobohobo—; Sanskrit: Krishnabija, Lavali, Lavani, Mriduphala, Raktatvatch, Ramawhaya, Ramphala, Vasanta—; Santal: Gom—; Seychelles: Coeur de boeuf—; Sinhalese: Anoda—; Tamil: Aninuna, Rama- chita, Manilayatta—; Telugu: Ramaphalamu, Ramasitaphalamu—; Uriya: Barhial, Neua, Ramopholo, Ramositapholo—; Venezuela: Rinon—. 3. Anona muricata Linn. is a native of tropical America, now common in the tropics of the Old World. In La Reunion the root is considered antispasmodic and para- siticidal; the leaves are given in fevers, and also used in the form of a poultice to produce suppuration; the flower buds and the flowers are considered an excellent remedy for cough; the unripe fruits when dried and powdered are given in chronic dysentery, MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA vel and they are used for aphthae in the form of a decoction; the seeds are valued for their astringent and emetic properties. In Jamaica a decoction of the root is said to be an antidote against fish-poison. In Southern California and Tropical America the bark is used as a drastic purgative. In Brazil the leaves are steeped in hot water or ground with oil, and used as a maturant. An infusion of the leaves is used as a remedy for dysentery in Porto Rico. - In general the leaves are regarded as a useful remedy for fever and dysentery. In Guinea they are pounded and applied fresh to cicatrice wounds. In Gambia they are used to get rid of bed bugs. The seeds are emetic and astringent. In Southern California and Tropical America they are said to be poisonous and they are used as a parasiticide and an insecticide; they are used to poison fish. Akim: Abrorfontunkum—; Antillas: Anona de puntitas—; Antilles: Anone en bouclier, Cachiman épineuse, Corossol montagne, Grand corossol, Sapadille— ; California: Guanabana, Sour-sop—; Canarese: Mulluramphala—; Cartagena: Anona de broquel, Catuche, Guanabana—; English: Sour sop—; Ewe: Vo, Voti, Votsi—; Fanti: Apre—; French: Corrossolier—; Fula: Dukumeporto— ; Ga: Aluguntungung, Nkrangmrobe—; Guam: Laguana—; Indo-China: Mak khieb thet, Mang cau xiem, Tiep parang—; Krepi: Yevunyakle—; Krobo: Alukutum—; La Reunion: Corossol—; Malayalam: Mullanjakka, Vilattinuna— 3; Mexico: Anona, Anona amarilla, Cabeza de negro, Catuche, Guanabano— ; Peru: Guanabano—; Philippines: Goyabrano, Guanabano—; Sakalave: WKaor- aosaly— ; Sinhalese: Katuanoda—; Tamil: Mulluchitta, Pulippala—; Tschaudjo : Alola—; Twi: Aduatungnkungm, Apre, Deboo, Nkrangmrobe—. ARTABOTRYS. Vhis genus consists of 30 species distributed over the tropics of the Old World. A. odoratissimus R. Br. is used medicinally in Indo-China, the Philippine Islands, the Malay Archipelago; A. suaveolens Bl. in Java. 1. Limb of petals broad, lanceolate or elliptic-oblong ... 1. A. odoratissimus. 2. Limb of outer or all the petals linear, narrow-oblong, or subclavate aa ne ... 2. A. suaveolens. 1. Artabotrys odoratissimus R. Br. is largely cultivated in India, Ceylon, Java and China. A decoction of the leaves is given for cholera in some of the islands of the Malay Archipelago. Bombay: Vilayatichampa—; Canarese: Kandalisampage, Manoranjanballi— ; Deccan: Madanmast, Madmanti—; Hindi: Champa—; Indo-China: Day cong chua—; Malayalam: Madanakameswari, Manoranjitam—; Philippines: Mang- ilang de China—; Sanskrit: Harachampaka, Nilachampaka, Phalasampenga— ; Southern California: Climbing Vine, Climbing Ylang-ylang—; Tagalog: Alagalag sonson, Alangilang sonson—; Tamil: Manoranjidam—; Telugu: Manoranjidamu, Muddasampenga, Phalasampanga, Sakalaphalasampanga— ; Uriya: Kalomuro, Monasocompa—. 2. Artabotrys suaveolens Bl. is found in Sylhet, Chittagong, Mergui, the Malay Peninsula and the Malay Islands. 78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FISTS SOCIETY wViclm ce The Malays use the leaves to prepare an aromatic infusion whose good effects have been extolled in the treatment of cholera. Malay: Akar chenana, Durie carban—. CANANGIUM. This genus consists of 3 species inhabiting tropical Eastern Asia and extending through Burma to New Guinea and the Philippine Islands. 1. Leaves glabrous. Flowers over 2 in. long ... C. odoratum. 2. Leaves ovate to orbicular, woolly beneath, deciduous. Flowers large Bie ne ... C. latifolium. 1. Canangium odoratum Baill. is cultivated throughout India, From Ava and Tenasserim it extends to Java. The flowers yield the ‘ilang-ilang’ of perfumes. ‘Cananga Oil’ consists of the early portions of the distillate. The oil is used as an application in cephalalgia, ophthalmia, and gout. Burma: WKadapnyan, Kadatnyan—; Canarese: Apurvachampaka—; English: Ylang-ylang—; french: Bois de Bananen, Bois de lance batard, Caneng aro- matique—; Guam: Alangilang—; Ilocano: Alangilang, Ilangilang—; Jolo: Angilang—; Malay: Cananga, Ilangilang, Kenanga—; Rarotonga: Moto-oi—; Samoa: Moso’oi— ; Sinhalese : Wanasapu—; Tagalog: Alangilang, Ilangilang— ; Tamil: Karumugai, Maladi, Maramanoranjidam, Sadi, Sirusambagam— $; Telugu: Apurvachampakamu—; Visayan: Alangilang, Ilangilang—. 2. Canangium latifolium Pierre is distributed over Burma, the Malay Peninsula, and Cambodia. In Indo-China the wood is considered a febrifuge. Indo-China: Su tay, Tai nghe, Tom xui—. DESMOs. This genus numbers 20 species inhabiting tropical Asia. Flower opposite leaf. Leaves glabrous. 1. Pedicel 4 to 6 in. long; leaves hardly glaucous beneath see ae She ... D. cochinchinensis. 2. Pedicel 1 to 2 in. long; leaves quite glaucous beneath D. chinensis. 1. Desmos cochinchinensis Lour. is found in Assam, the Malay Peninsula, and Cochin-China. The Malays use a decoction of the roots for fever. Malay: Akar sugi-sugi, Larak salai—. 2. Desmos chinensis Lour. occurs in East Himalaya, Burma, the Malay Peninsula and Islands, and Cochin-China. The Malays use a decoction of the plant for dysentery. Malay: Akar darah, Akar mariam, Akar singa, Kenanga hutan, Poko sikenchong—, (GONIOTHALAMUS. The genus includes about 50 species distributed over tropical Asia. MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 79 Goniothalamus macrophyllus Hook. fil. is common in woods all over the Malay Peninsula whence it extends to Sumatra and Java. The wood is aromatic. The plant is used medicinally by the Malays. Malay: Bongsoi, Penawar hitam—. MELODORUM, The genus consists of about 4o species found in tropical Asia, Africa, and Australia. Melodorum Kingii Boerl. is found in the forests of Malacca and Perak. A decoction of the flowers is used by the Malays for dyspepsia. Malay: Poko achar—. OROPHEA. This genus consists of 30 Indo-Malayan species. Inner petals vaulted. = Stamens 12; stem hairy; carpels globose ... ee Oy SeLOsi. Stamens 6; stem hairy; carpels globose ... ee ey Sata. 1. Orophea setosa King is found in the woods of Perak and Negri Sembilan from 500 or 1,200 ft. altitude. A decoction of the roots is used by the Malays in malaria. Malay: Pialu—. 2. Orophea hirsuta’ King inhabits Perak, where it is how- ever rare. The Malays chew the plant with betel-nut in cases of cough. Malay: Supucha pelandok—. POLYALTHIA. The genus includes 70 palaeotropical species; mostly in tropical Asia, a few in Africa and Australasia. P, Oliveri Engl. is used medicinally in Sierra Leone, Liberia, and parts of Cameroon. 1. Leaves narrow, lanceolate, undulate ... 4 I. f. lOnSiolla. 2. Leaves oblong ve site 2 Ps SUIATUNY eXetel. eta 1. Polyalthia longifolia Benth. and Hook. fil. is cultivated throughout the hotter parts of India. The bark is used as a febrifuge in the Balasore District of Orissa. Bengal: Debdaru, Devadar, Devadaru—; Bombay: Asok, Asoka, Asopalav, Asupal, Asupala, Devadaru—; Canarese: Putrajivi—; Ceylon: Maraillupai— ; English: Indian Fir, Mast Tree—; Gujerati: Ashopalo—; Hindi: Asok, Debdari, Deodar, Devadar, Devadaru, Devidari— ; Konkani: Assok, Devandaru—; Madras : Nettilingam—; Malayalam: Aranei, Aruna, Ashokam, Ashvattam, Chorani, Hemapushpam, Vanjolam—; Sanskrit: Devadaru, Putrajiva—; Tamil: Asogam, Asuvattai, Kalgoli, Kasubam, Kolikkudi, Nettilingu, Pundi, Ravadam, Saribam, Selai, Sendu, Tevadaram, Vansulam—; Telugu: Asokamu, Asvattamu, Deva- daru—; Tulu: Asoka—; Uriya: Debodaru, Asoka, Oswottho, Putikashto—. 80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL 2. Polyalthia simiarum Benth. and Hook. fil. is found in Orissa, Pegu Yoma, Martaban and Tenasserim. The bark is used in Orissa as a cure for scorpion sting. Bhuia: Champa—; Modesia: Khari—; Nepal: Khutti, Labshi—; Orissa: Mongai, Ojarh, Mojarh—; Santali: Dighibentia—. SAGERAEA. The genus consists of 6 Indo-Malayan species. Sageraea laurifolia Blatter occurs in South Konkan. The leaves have a pungent, astringent, and bitter taste. In the Konkan they are used for fomentation. Bombay: Andi—; Canarese: Sagare—; Konkani: Sageree—; Marathi: Harkinjal, Sageri, Undie—. UVARIA. The genus numbers roo species distributed over the Tropics of the Old World. V. Chamae P. Beauv. is used medicinally in Gold Coast, Sierra Leone, Togo, Lagos, and Senegal; V. Afzelit Scott Elliot in Liberia; V. calamistrata Hance in Indo-China. 1. Stamens all cuneate oe ‘ wee wd artis 2. Outer stamens flat bee Pe seo Mi saulcis: 1. Uvaria Narum_ Bl. occurs in the Bombay Presidency— Konkan and North Kanara—, and the Madras Presidency—forests of the Western Ghats from South Kanara to Travancore, and hills of Salem up to 4,000 “feet. The oil obtained from the roots by distillation, as well as the root, are used medicinally in various diseases. The root is fragrant and aromatic, and the bruised leaves smell like cinnamon. Canarese: (ariballi, Unamini—; Malayalam: Narampanal—; Matheran: Narampanal— ; Tamil: Pulichan—; Tulu: Pandel—. 2. Uvaria dulcis Dunal occurs in Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Java and the Philippines. The bark of the root has astringent, stimulant, and alterative properties. Malay: Pisang-pisang hitam—; Visayan: Dalaganum, Dalagao—. IV The MENISPERMACEAE are scandent or twining shrubs, found chiefly in the tropics of the Old and New World. They number 65 genera and 360 species. Many of them figure among the poisonous plants used in making arrow and dart poisons. The medicinal and poisonous Menispermads of the world belong to 21 genera:—ABUTA (tropical South America); ANAmIRTA (Indo- Malaya); ANOMOSPERMuUmM (Brazil, Guiana); Burasata (Madagascar) ; CISSAMPELOs (tropical and subtropical regions); CoccuLus (tropical and subtropical regions); Coscintum (Indo-Malaya); CyCcLEA MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA ~ BI (tropical Asia); FIBRAUREA (tropical and subtropical Asia); JATROR- RHIZA (tropical Africa); MENISPERMUM (eastern Asia, Atlantic North America); PAcHYGONE (eastern Indo-Malaya); PENIANTHUS (western tropical Africa); PERICAMPYLUS (eastern Indo-Malaya) ; SPHENOCEN- TRUM (western tropical Africa); SpiRosPERMUM ( Madagascar) ; STEPHANIA (palaeotropics); STRyCHNOopsIS (Madagascar); TILtA- cora (Indo-Malaya); Tiomiscium (tropical Asia); TINOSPORA (Palaeotropics). | The following are among the products isolated:—(1) alkaloids— bebeerine, isobebeerine, beta-bebeerine, berberine, buxine, chondro- dine, curarine, menispermine, para-menispermine, pelosine, sango- line, tiliacorine—; (2) quaternary bases (none of which has been obtained in a free state)—columbamin, jatrorrhizin, palmatin—; (3) crystalline bitter principles—anamyrtin, columbin, picrotoxin, picro- toxinin, trilobin—; (4) acids—columbic, picrotoxic—. The medicinal and poisonous Menispermads of India belong to I2 genera:—ANAMIRTA, CISSAMPELOS, COCCULUS, COSCINIUM, FIBRAUREA, JATRORRHIZA, PACHYGONE, PERICAMPYLUS, STEPHANIA, TILIACORA, TINOMISCIUM, TINOSPORA. A. Flowers trimerous. Ovaries usually 3. Drupes with a subterminal, rarely ventral or basal style-scar. Seeds oblong or subglobose t. Sepals 6. Stamens 6 or 3, often connate ... JATRORRHIZA. 2. Sepals 6. Petals 6. Filaments free aa ... TINOSPORA. 3. Sepals 9. Petals 6. Filaments free a ... LINOMISCIUM: 4. Sepals 6. Petals o. Filaments free we ... FIBRAUREA. 5. Sepals 6. Filaments all connate ih ... ANAMIRTA. 6 . Sepals g. Outer filaments free is ... COSCINIUM. B. Flowers trimerous. Ovaries usually 3. Drupe with a subbasal, rarely subterminal style-scar. Seed horseshoe- ‘shaped. Albumen copious. Embryo slender, cotyledons linear or slightly dilated 1, Petais 6, minute. Ovaries 3-12. Style subulate .... TILIacora. me ectals 6. Ovaties’ 3-6. Styles ‘subulate .... she COCCULUS: ' imewetais 6.,Ovaties3; Stylés forked «4...» .. PERICAMPYLUS. C. .Flowers 3-5-merous. Ovaries usually solitary. Drupe - with a subbasal style-scar; endocarp dorsally muricate ~or echinate. Seeds horseshoe-shaped. Embryo linear ; cotyledons appressed 1. Sepals 6-10, free. Petals of male flower and female 3-5, free Bape oe Me ne ... STEPHANIA. - 2. Sepals 4, free. Petals of male 4, connate, of female 1 CISSAMPELOs. D. Flowers usually trimerous. Ovaries usually 3. Drupes with a subbasal or ventral style-scar. Seed curved, hooked or inflexed. __ Sepals, ‘petals and stamens 6 each He ... PACHYGONE. ANAMIRTA. ~~ Phe only’ Indian species of this genus, A. paniculata Colebr. is found in the Khasia Hills, Assam, Eastern Bengal, from Orissa and “the Bombay Konkan to Ceylon; it extends through the Malay Archipelago to New Guinea. | - According to -Yunani authors the berry ‘is. slightly bitter, expectorant, demulcent, and carminative; useful in the treatment of rheumatism; poisonous to fish. 6 83 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL The bitter berries are sometimes used in the form of an oint- ment. This ointment is employed as an insecticide to destroy pediculi, and in some obstinate forms of chronic skin diseases. Koman prepared an ointment containing 80 grains of finely powdered seeds to one ounce of vaseline, and used it as an external application in ringworm; cases of one to two months’ duration were cured by a few days application, but chronic cases did not derive benefit. The fresh leaves are used in Bengal as a snuff in the treatment of quotidian ague. In Ceylon the bruised fresh bark is applied to the bitten part in cases of snake-bite. But Mhaskar and Caius have found that the bark, leaves, and berries are equally useless as an external application in the treatment of snake-bite. The seeds are used in the nightsweats of phthisis. The jungle tribes of the Malay Peninsula use the plant to poison their arrows and their kriss. Both its poisonous properties and any therapeutic virtues the plant may contain depend upon picrotoxin of which the fruit is the source. The plant also contains two minor alkaloids of un- known constitution, menispermine and paramenispermine, both physiologically inactive. Arabic: Mahijehreh—; Bengal: Kakamari—; Bombay: Kakaphala, Kak- phal, Vatoli—; Burma: Hong—; Calcutta: Bacaenkaphal—; Canarese: Kaka- mari, Kakkisoppugade—; Deccan: Kakmari—; Dutch: Indiaansche rezies, Koklus—; English: Crow Killer, Fish Berry, Fish Killer, Indian Berry, Indian Cockles, Louse Berry, Oriental Berries, Poison Berry—; French: Arbre a enivrer, Bois a enivrer, Bois enivrant, Bois ivrant, Coque du Levant, Coque Levant, Herbe a tous maux, Pareire a feuilles rondes—; German: Fischkoerner baum, Kokkelskoernerbaum, Tollkoernerbaum—; Gujerati: Jermae, Kaka- phula, Kakmari—,; Hindi: Jermae, Kakmari—; Indo-China: Ben nau, Day tao, Seg Dom—; Italian: Coccole d’India—; Konkan: Garudphul, Kadul—; Malay: Dawonnboelann, Tubabidji—; Malayalam: Anakrytu, Garalaphala, Garaphala, Kantakakonnuveli, Kantakakunavam, © Karantakam, Miunannu, Machattinkaya, Nanninkuru, Pola, Pullukunavam—,; Oceania: Lacton, Lagton, Libtang, Soma, Suma, Tubaflava—; Pampangan: Balasin, Bayati, Lactang, Lanta, Lictang, Lingtangbaguin, Suma, Tuba—; Persian: Mahijehreh—; Philippines: Abutra, Pangmavan—,; Portuguese: Coca de Levante, Fruta matapeixe—; Sanskrit: Garalaphala, Kakahva, Kakamari, Kakanashika— $; Sinhalese: Pangan, Tittawel—; Spanish: Coca de Levante, Coca levantina—; Tagalog: Balasin, Bayati, Lactang, Lanta, Lictang, Lingtangbaguin, Suma, Tuba—; Telugu: Kakamari, Kakichempoo, Koditige, Tippatige—; Tulu: Chipulu—; Urdu: Mahijehreh—; Uriya: Kalabiti Nai, Kaumari—; Visayan: Balasin, Bayati, Lactang, Lagtal, Lanta, Lictang, Lintangbaguin, Suma, Tuba—. CISSAMPELOS. This genus includes 21 species inhabiting the warm regions of the world. The following are used medicinally in the Philippine Islands and Indo-China—C,. Pareira Linn.—; in the Antilles and Guiana— C. Pareiva Linn.—; in South America—C. caapeba Linn., C. Pare- iva Linn.—; in Brazil—C. glaberrima St. Hil., C. ovalifolia DC.—; in the Gold Coast and in Nigeria—C. mucronata A. Rich., C. owariensis P. Beauv.—; in Southern Africa—C. angustifolia Bucch., C. capensis Thunb., C. mucronata A. Rich., C. Pareira Linn., C. torulosa E. Mey.—; in Mauritius—C. mauritiana Pet. Th.—. MEDICINAL AND. POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA «83 Cissampelos Pareira Linn. occurs throughout tropical and sub- tropical India; and throughout the warm parts of Asia, East Africa, and America. The root is the part most esteemed; it has an agreeable, bitterish taste, and is considered-a valuable stomachic. It is frequently prescribed in the later stages of bowel complaints, in conjunction with aromatics. It is given for pains in the stomach and_ for dyspepsia, diarrhoea, dropsy and cough; also for prolapsus uteri. It is applied externally in snake-bite and scorpion-sting. Among the Mundas of Chota Nagpur the root, ground and mixed with water, is used against stomach-ache and diarrhoea, especially against infantile diorrhoea. In Hausaland the bitter root is sold as a medicine for many purposes. Fhe Chuanas,:-Subias, and Kobas of South Africa drink ah infusion of the powdered root for stomach-ache. The Filabusi natives and the Xosas drink a similar preparation for. snake-bite. The Pedis use a decoction of the root as a wash for children who have pimples over their body. In Madagascar the root is considered diuretic, emmenagogue, and antipyretic; it 1s given for urinary gravel. In La Reunion the bitter root is considered tonic, stomachic, and diuretic; and it is used in the treatment of bladder troubles. In French Guiana the roots are used as a diuretic in cases of dysuria and calcular nephritis. An infusion is expectorant and is considered a potent alexiteric. The root acts as an antiseptic of the bladder and is used in chronic inflammation of the urinary passages. In Yoruba it is used as an anti-emmenagogue. The leaves are said to have a peculiarly cooling quality, and they are used locally in cases of unhealthy sores and sinuses. In the Gold Coast they are applied to abscesses. The Xosas apply a paste of the leaf to wounds. The root in combination with other drugs is an Ayurveda cure for snake-bite and scorpion-sting. Mhaskar and Caius have, how- ever, demonstrated that the root is not an antidote to snake venom and that it is useless as an external application in the treatment of scorpion-sting. | The root contains the alkaloid bebeerine. It is official in Portugal. Annam: Moi tron, Tiet re—; Antsianaka: Voaravinaviavy—; Ashants: Akuraso—; Batangas: Calancalamayan—; Bengal: Akanadi, Nemuka, Nimuka, Tejomalla—; Betstleo: Vahemboatavo—; Betsimusaraka : Vahifotsy—; Bombay: Pahadmul, Pahadvel, Venivel—; Canarese: Padavali—: Cebu: Batangbatang— ; Chuana: Mokaekae— ; Dehra Dun: Parhe, Purhe—; East Africa: Kinukadjio —; English: False Pareira brava, Ice Vine, Velvet-leaf—: Filabusi: M’cessie —; French : Faux pareira brava, Liane a glacer l’eau, Liane A serpents—; French Guiana: Pareira brava, Paria brava—: Garhwal: Pahari, Parhe—; Goa: Parayel—; Gujerati: Venivel—; Hausa: Fiyaka, Jibdakassa, Judarkas, Piyaka—; Hindi: Akanadi, Dakhnirbissi, Harjeuri, Harjori,: Pari—; Hova: Vahivory, Voriravina—; Ilocano: Cuscusipa— ; Java: Areujtjantjuan—; Koba: Mokaekae—; Kolami: Pitu-singh, Ranu-sed—; La Reunion: Liane blanche Pareira brava—; Lepcha :- Tamshaprip— ; Madagascar: Ravinbury, Vahenosy—: Malaya: Akar mumpanang, -Gasinggasing, Gegasing—; Malayalam: Kattuvalli, Patuvalli— ;_ Marathi: Padavali, Padavel, Pahadvel, Paharmul, Paharvel—; 84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL Mexico: Oreja de raton—; Mundari: Cutulutur, Dirikakaru, Haruarajaite, Huringpitusing—; Nepal: Batulpoti—; North Western Provinces: Dakhnirbisi, Duknirbissi— ; Oudh: Harjewri—; Pedi: Lepeta—; Philippines: Calaad, Chanchae, Sansao—; Porebunder: WKardhiyunbang—; Porto Rico: Bejuca de mono—; Portuguese: Abutua, Pareira brava—; Punjab: Bat, Batindupath, Bel, Katori, Parbik, Pataki, Tikri, Zalkhmihaiyat, Zucumyeat—; Sakalave: Hama- fana—; Sanskrit: Ambashtha, Ambashthika, Avidhakarni, Brihattikta, Chchin- naveshika, Devi, Ekashthila, Kuchela, Kucheli, Laghupatha, Mahanjasi, Malati, Malavi, Papacheli, Papehelika, Patha, Patika, Prachina, Prachinam- bastika, Pratanini, Rasa, Ruchishya, Shishira, Shreyasi, Sthapini, Sushhira, Tiktapushpa, Trishira, Trivrita, Uthika, Vallika, Vara, Varatikta, Vatsadini, Venivalli, Vidhakarni, Vridhakarnika, Vriki, Vrittaparni—; Santal: Tejo- malla—; Saora: Paterutivu—; Sind: Belpath, Katori—; Sinhalese: Deyamitta, Diyamitta, Weniwela—; Spanish: Butua, Pareira brava—; Subia: Mokaekae— #; Tagalog: Chinchaochinchauan, Gulangulamanan, Sansaosansansaosan, Yemou- mohan—; Tamil: Appatta, Puimushti, Punaittitta, Punmushti, Puttutiruppi, Sina, Titta, Tuvan, Tuvigaba, Vattattiruppi—; Telugu: Adivibankatige, Pata, Visaboddi—; Thayu:Batulpati—; Twi: Aportororkungma—; Uriya: Okano- bindhi— ; Uruguay: Butua, Pareira brava—; Visayan: Hampapari, Himpapara, Pari, Sampapari—; Yoruba: Je-in-joko, Jo-ko-je—. COCCULUS. This genus consists of 11 species found in all warm countries. C. laurifolius DC. and C. trilobus DC. are used medicinally in Indo-China and Malaya, C. Thunbergii DC. in Japan, and C. pendulus Diels in the Sudan and in Senegal. I. Scandent shrubs. 1. Leaves suborbicular, glabrous; panicles large ... 4. C. macrocarpus. 2. Leaves deltoid or hastate, villous; panicles short 1. C. hirsutus. 3. Leaves oblong or trapezoidal, at length glabrous. Male flowers fascicled, female solitary bee 2a C. spenauliuce II. A shrub or small tree ae ie .» 3. C. laurtfolius: 1. Cocculus hirsutus Diels occurs in tropical and subtropical India from the foot of the Himalayas to South India and Ceylon and Pegu; it extends to Southern China, Arabia, and tropical Africa. The root is generally used as a refrigerant, and also as a gentle laxative. It has been extensively used as an alterative in chronic rheumatic and venereal diseases. A decoction of the fresh roots, with a few heads of pepper, in goat’s milk, is administered for rheumatic and old venereal pains; half a pint every morning is the dose. It is reckoned heating, laxative, and sudorific. ae : In the Konkan, the roots, rubbed with Bonduc nuts, are administered as a cure for belly-ache in children. In bilious dyspepsia, they are given in 6 massa doses, with ginger and sugar. In Sind, the root and leaves are used in headache and neuralgic pains. The juice of the leaves, mixed with water, has the property of coagulating into a green jelly-like substance, which is taken inter- nally, sweetened with sugar, as cure for gonorrhoea. In Baluchistan the mucilage is used to cure spermatorrhoea, taken in milk; it is used for coughs and to put on to sore eyelids. and to soften breasts Arabic: Haddal, Herrije, Luah, Schirwai Dusariballi, Sugadiballi, Yadaniballi—; English: Broom Creeper, Ink Berry—} ; Baluchistan: Afaband, Zan ; Bengal: Huyer—; Bombay: Parvel, Vasanvel—; Canarese: Dagadiballi,. MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 85 Gujeratti: Vevati, WVevdi—; Hansot: WVachhana—; Hindi: Chireta, Dier, Faridburti, Hier, Jalayamani, Jamtikibel—; Jaisalmer: Bajarbel—; Konkan: Vanatiktika—; Marathi: Hunder, Parvel, Tana, Vasanavela, Vasanel, Vasanvel —; Matheran: Tan, Vasanyel—; Nimar: Bochan—; North-Western Provinces : Patha— ; Oudh: Karsane—; Persian: Faridbutti—; Porebunder : Vadhinovelo— ; Sanskrit: Patalagarudi, Chchilihinda, Dirghakanda, Dirghavalli, Dridhakanda, Dridhalata, Garudi, Mahahala, Mahamula, Mochakabhida, Sauparni, Soma- valli, Tiktanga, Vanatiktika, Vasandi, Vasantitikta, Vatsadani—; Sind: Kursan, Zamir—; Tamil: Kattukodi—; Telugu: Chipurutige, Dusaritige, Katlatige— ; Urdu: Faridbutti—; Uriva: Musakani—. 2. Cocculus pendulus Diels occurs in Sind, Baluchistan, Waziristan, the Punjab Plains to the Northern Circars, Kathiawar, Deccan, Carnatic to Tinnevelly. It extends through Afghanistan and Arabia to tropical and subtropical Africa. The root is used in Sind and Afghanistan in the treatment of intermittent fevers and as a substitute for Anamirta paniculata. It is used by the natives in sanclefalls and in the French Sudan for the cure of periodic fevers. The flowers are added to food, and an infusion of the plant is used in Senegal to assist in removing thorns from the feet. The Arabs make an intoxicating drink from the fruits. Heckel and Schlagdenhauffen have found in the root about 2 per cent. of pelosine, and about 3 per cent of a new crystalline alkaloid ‘sangoline’. The root also contains columbin. Arabic: Ssag-el-ghorab, Turrach—; Baluchi: Zamor—; Brahui: Zamor— ; Egypt: Lebakh-el-gebel—; Falor: Tiati—; Gujerat: Parwatti—; Jaisalmer: Pilwan—; Jodhpur: Pilwan—; Punjab: Ilarbillar, Parwatti, Vallur, Vehri— =; Sind: Ullarbillar—; Senegal: Sangol—; Songhai: Liligui—; Telugu: Dusar- atige—; Tukulor: Safatou—; Waziri: Jadhai, Parwatiae—; Wolog: Mboum sehet, Mboum tiéré—. 3. Cocculus laurifolius DC. occurs in subtropical Himalaya from Nepal to Jammu up to 5,000 feet, in the Western Ghats of the Madras Presidency, Eastern Bengal, and Burma. It is distri- buted to South Cochin-China, South China, Java, Formosa, and Japan. The jungle tribes of the Malay Peninsula use the plant to poison their arrows and darts. China: Wu Yao—; Dehra Dun: Tildhara, Tilphara—; Garhwal: Tildhara— ; Japan: Kansirowujak, Vjaku, Wujak—; North-Western Provinces: Tilphara—. 4. Cocculus macrocarpus W. and A. is found in_ the Konkan, North Kanara, the South Mahratta Country, and China. The powdered leaves are taken in milk as a cure for biliousness, gonorrhoea, and syphilis. Matheran: Vatoli, Wat-yel, Watan-yel—; Tamil: WKottaityachachi—. COSCINIUM. The genus consists of 6 Indo-Malayan species. Coscinium fenestratum Colebr. occurs in South India and Ceylon, extending to Sumatra. The root is extensively used in Ceylon as an efficient bitter tonic, and is viewed as a very good substitute for Columba, It 86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XL has also antiseptic properties to a great extent, and can be used for dressing wounds and _ ulcers. The wood is valued as a bitter tonic by the Sinhalese. It is also much used as a cure for tetanus. A decoction of the stem is given internally im cases of bitess from monkeys, snakes, brahmin-lizards and geckos. Mhaskar and Caius have found experimentally that the stem is not an antidote to snake venom, whether colubrine or viperine. The decoction of the bark was administered in doses of one to two ounces three times a day to several patients suffering from malarial fever, but no beneficial effects were noticed (Koman). The plant is used by the Sakais in the preparation of their dart poisons. Tummin Katti and Shintre (1930) have analysed the alcoholic extract of the stems and they have reported inter alia a considerable amount of a mixture of alkaloids. Bengal: Haldigach—,; Canarese ? Doddamaradarasina, Maradarashina, Mara- manjali— ;_ Deccan: . Jhadihaladi, Jharkihaldi—; English: Calumba Wood, Ceylon Calumba Root, Columbo Wood, False Columbo, Tree Turmeric—; Malay: Akar kunyit, Kunyit babi—; Malayalam: Haridram, Maramannal—; Maratht: Venivel—; Sakai: Tol—; Sanskrit: Daruharidra, Darvi, Pitadru—; Sinhalese: Bangwellgetta, Venivel, Woniwol—; Tamil: Atturam, Imalam, Kadari, Manjalkodi, Maramanjal, Pasamantram, Sanniyam, Seyebasam, Tiya- ram, Udaravi, Udubadi—; Telugu: Manupasupu—; Tulu: Maramanjali—. FIBRAUREA. The genus consists of 4 species found in tropical and subtropical Asia. Fibraurea chloroleuca Miers is very common in hedges and woods from Singapore to Penang. It extends to Tavoy and to the Malay Islands and Celebes. The plant is used medicinally in Cochin-China and in thé Malay Peninsula. The root is used as a diuretic. The bitter stem is considered a valuable tonic, and is given in intermittent fevers and hepatic troubles. Indo-China: Day vang giang—; Malay: Akar kinching kerbau, Akar kuning—. JATRORRHIZA. The genus consists of 2 species, natives of tropical Africa. J. strigosa Miers is used medicinally by the Bakwiri and others in Cameroon. Jatrorrhiza palmata Miers is cultivated in some parts of India. The root is much used in Zambezi, Mozambique, Madagascar, and Indo-China as a bitter tonic and stomachic. By the natives of Mozambique it is used in dysentery and various other diseases. It is. a ‘mild bitter free from astringency. It is’ usetulim functional atonic conditions of the digestive organs, especially with other tonics, aromatics, or cathartics. The root contains three physiologically active bases : columbamin, jateorhizin, and palmatin, i i{ f \| \ t MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 87 J]. palmata Miers. is official in all pharmacopoeias. The difference in botanical origin is merely one'of synonymy; and there is considerable confusion in the spelling of both the generic and specific names. Austria: Kalumba—; Belgium: Colombo—; Bombay: Colombo—; Brazil: Calumba—; Denmark: Kolumbo—; England: Calumba, Colombo—; Finland : Kolumbo—; France: Colombo—; Germany: Kolombo—; Holland : Calumba— ; Hungary: Calumba—; Indo-China: Phong Ky—; Italy: Colombo—; Japan: Calumba— ; Mexico: Columbo—; Norway: Kolumbo—; Portugal: Calumba— ; Russia: Kolombo—; Spain: Colombo—; Sweden: Kalumba—; Switzerland : Colombo—; Tamil: Kolumbu—; Telugu: Kalamba—; Turkey: Guvercin, Kalumba—; United States: Calumb, Calumba, Columbo—; Uriya: Kolombo—. PACHYGONE. This genus consists of t1 Indo-Malayan species. Pachygone ovata Miers inhabits South India and Ceylon. The dried fruit is used to destroy vermin and to stupefy fish. Burma: Ngupyu—; Ceylon: Kadukkodi—; Tamil: Kadukkodi—. PERICAMPYLUS. This genus.consists of 6 Indo-Malayan species. Pericampylus glaucus Blatter occurs in Sikkim, Khasia, Assam, Pegu, Martaban, Tenasserim, Mergui, Chittagong, the Nicobars, and the Malay Peninsula. It extends to the Malay Archipelago, eastwards to the Moluccas, Cochin-China, Laos, Tongking, South China and Formosa. The roots have long been held in great repute among snake- charmers in India as an antidote to the bites of poisonous snakes; but Mhaskar and Caius have shown that they are not an antidote to snake venom. Bengal: Barakkanta—; Cochin-China: Day loi tien—; Java: Aroygeureung —; Nepal: Lahara, Pipalpati—; Sumatra: Currung—. STEPHANIA, The genus numbers 32 species, found in the Old World, chiefly in tropical Africa, China, and the Malayan Islands. S. abyssinica Walp. and S. Dinklagei Diels are used medicinally in Yorula, Liberia and Sierra Leone. 1. Leaves ovate or subdeltoid, peltate ae .. S. hernandifolia. 2. Leaves broadly ovate or suborbicular, at the base rotund ae ses pa dee eKIavT a. 1. Stephania hernandifolia Walp. is found on the western and eastern coasts of the Indian Peninsula, in Cachar, Sikkim, Eastern Bengal, Assam, and Penang; it is distributed over Siam and the Malay Archipelago to Australia. The bitter root enters into the composition of a good many Ayurveda preparations as a substitute for that of Cissampelos Pareira Linn. It is regarded as bitter, astringent, easily digestible and useful in fever, diarrhoea, urinary diseases, dyspepsia, etc. 88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL .HIST..SOCIETY,. Vol. XL The extract acts as a strong poison on frogs (Bancroft). Bengal: Agnadnemuka, Akanadi—; Burma: Sha ma say nway—; China: Chien Chin T’eng—; Hindi: Akanadi—; Java: Areujgeureung, Ojotminjak—; Malayalam: Patakilannu, Patavalli—; Mundari: Marangpitusing—; Nepal: Tambarki—; Sadani: Gaipari—; Sanskrit: Ambashtha, Patha, Vanatiktika— ; Saora: Duvgyatige—; Sinhalese: Lunuketigawel, Lupuketigawel—; Uriya: Musakani, Nimukha, Okanobhindi, Sondhimali—; Zulu: umTambane—. 2. Stephania glabra’ Roxb. occurs in the Himalaya from Simla to Sikkim, in the Khasia Hills, Assam, and Tenasserim. Roxburgh states that the acrid root is used medicinally in Sylhet. In Cochin-China it is used in pulmonary tuberculosis, asthma, dysentery, and fever. Annam: Cu binh voi, Cu mot, Tu nhien—; Dehra Dun: Parah, Purha—; Garhwal: Gindaru—; Nepal: Brakulilahara, Nimilahara, Tambarki—; Tong- king: Day moi tron—. ‘TILIACORA. The genus includes 15 species, which inhabit India and tropical Africa. Tiliacora acuminata Mlers occurs from Bengal to Orissa and Konkan, Ceylon, Singapore, Java, and Cochin-China. The root rubbed between stones and mixed with water, is given as a drink for the cure of venomous snake-bites; but, according to Mhaskar and Caius, the root is not an antidote to snake venom. Bengal: Tiliakora, ‘Tiliakoru—; Canarese: JKuri—; Hindi: Bagamushada, Karraath, Karwanth, Rangoe—; Malayalam: Vallikkanniram—; Oudh: Karw- anth, Rangoe—; Telugu: Kappatige, Nagamushini, Nallatige, Pataveru, Tigemushidi, Vettichitramulamu—; Urviya: Ralajati noi, Kolichiti—. TINOMISCIUM. This genus consists of 8 Malayan species. Tinomiscium petiolare Miers is very common in forests and secondary jungle, along roadsides, etc., from Singapore to Kedah. It is distributed to Tongking, Sumatra, and Borneo. The Malays use the plant as a drug in rheumatism, Malay: Akar langkap, Akar lempoyang, Akar lumpang, Akar. mumbulu, Akar nasi—. TINOSPORA. The genus numbers 4o species distributed over most of the palaeotropical regions, but chiefly in Indo-Malaya. The following species are used medicinally in Senegal—T. bakis Miers.—; in Indo-China—T. cordifolia Miers., T. crispa Miers., T. malabarica Miers.—; in the Philippine Islands—T, crispa Miers.—; in Java—T. Rumphii Boerl.—. I. Endocarp distinctly tuberculate 1. Leaves pilose on both sides or at least beneath ... 1. T. malabarica, 2. Leaves glabrous 2. Crispas II. Endocarp rotund-ovoid, ribbed on the back, otherwise. almost smooth eee aa Sit ge L. cordifolia, i MEDICINAL AND -POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA .- 89 1. Tinospora malabarica Miers is found in Bengal, Khasia, Assam, Orissa, Konkan, Kanara, nearly all the districts of the Madras Presidency, and Ceylon. The plant has tonic properties. In China and Tongking the fresh leaves and the stem are used in the treatment of chronic rheumatism. The whole plant is used medicinally in Cambodia. Fumigations are recommended for piles and ulcerated wounds. Medicated baths are prepared in cases of liver complaint. Almora: Gureh—; Annam: Khoan can dang—; Bengal: Bara padmagul- ancha, Padmagaluncha—; Cambodia: Kambaur—; Ceylon: Bukinda, Wal- kinda—; Garhwal: Gileh—; Hindi: Giloe, Gulancha, Gureh—; Malaya: Bara sarasati lat—; Marathi: Gulvel—; Ramnagar: Gurja—; Sinhalese : Bukinda—; Tamil: Potchindil—; Tongking: Day dan xuong—; Uriya: Guduchi, Gulochi, Podmogulochi—. 2. Tinospora crispa Miers occurs in Sylhet, Assam, and Burma. It is cultivated in the Malay Peninsula and Ceylon. It is found throughout the Malay Archipelago. The whole plant is exceedingly bitter, and is employed by the Malays in the cure of intermittent fevers. In Indo-China the stem is considered a febrifuge of great importance. Asa tonic it is said to give as good results as quinine. There is a widespread opinion that it is an excellent tonic during convalescence from exhausting diseases. In the Philippine Islands it is considered to’ be a panacea to be applied to all bodily afflictions. It is given in general debility, in chronic rheumatism, in malarial fevers. The jungle tribes of the Malay Peninsula use the plant in the preparation of their arrow and dart poisons. Annam: Day Ki nin, Day than thong—; Cambodia: Bandaul pech, Bora phet—; French: Liane-quinine—; Malay: Toba, Tuba, Tubabidyi—; Sinhalese : Tithakinda, Tittakinda—; Sunda Islands: Andawali—; Tagalog: Macabuhai— ; _Tongking: Thuoc sot ret—; Visayan: Paliavan, Panavan, Pangiavan—. The Indian names are the same as for T. cordifolia. 3. Tinospora cordifolia Miers is found throughout tropical India, Burma, the Andamans, and Ceylon. The stem is one of the most popular drugs in India, being held in high repute by Ayurveda and Yunani doctors alike. | The stem is a bitter stomachic; stimulates bile secretion; causes constipation; tonic; allays thirst, fever, burning sensation, vomit- ing; diuretic; enriches the blood; cures jaundice; useful in’ skin diseases; the juice is useful in diabetes, vaginal and urethral dis- charges, low fevers, and enlarged spleen (Ayurveda). Stem bitter; appetiser, stomachic, tonic, antipyretic, expectorant ; good in cough, jaundice, giddiness, vomiting, piles, anaemia, chronic fever; renews the blood; mixed with sesame oil it is useful for massaging the body (Yunani): An infusion of the powdered stem is used as an alterative and tonic, and has enjoyed the reputation among ancient Hindu writers of being an aphrodisiac. In Ceylon the stem is used in fevers, skin diseases, jaundice, and: syphilis. A decoction of the stem is given internally, and the 90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL bruised fresh leaves are applied externally for the bites of flies and the sting of bees. The starch obtained from the roots and stems of the plant is similar to Arrow-root in appearance and effect. It answers not only as a remedial medicinal agent in chronic diarrhoea and some forms of obstinate chronic dysentery, but it is also a valuable nutrient, when there is intestinal irritability and inability to digest any kind of food. I have myself had experience of the usefulness of this starch. 1 think that this drug is useful where there is an acid diarrhoea, due to an acidity of the intestinal canal or acid dyspepsia. It is useful in relieving the symptoms of rheumatism. There is another preparation of this plant, the swccus (juice), freshly prepared from the fresh plant. It acts as a powerful diuretic. It is pre- scribed by ancient Hindu physicians in gonorrhoea with advantage (Kirtikar). The Mundas of Chota Nagpur apply the ground plant on fractures. In certain parts of India the plant is regarded as a specific for the bites of poisonous insects and venomous snakes. The juice and decoction of the root are applied to the part bitten, poured frequently into the eyes and administered internally by mouth at intervals of half an hour. The majority of Sanskrit authors prescribe the root and stem in combination with other drugs as an antidote to snake-bite and scorpion-sting. Mbhaskar and Caius have, however, shown expert- mentally that the root and stem are useless in the antidotal treatment of snake-bite; the root is also useless as a collyrium or ‘as an external application to the bitten part; the root is equally useless in the treatment of scorpion-sting. A tincture was tried in mild cases of malaria and was found to be useless in such cases. The aqueous extract was tried in the low chronic fever of kala-azar and also in diabetes, but it was not found to possess the virtues attributed to it... . The drug was given, another fair trial in the form of a liquid extract in several cases of malarial fever, both in children and adults. Its action was found to be very slow. The drug had to be administered for several days before even mild cases were cured. In chronic cases it did not do any good, although it is a reputed medicine in the Hindu Pharmacopoeia for all fevers (Koman). Arabic: Gilo--; Bengal: Gadancha, Giloe, Gulancha, Guluncha, Gunchi, Nimgilo—; Bombay: Ambarvel, Gharol, Giroli, Guloe, Gulwel—; Burma: Singomone, Sinzamanne—; Canarese: Amrytaballi, Madhuparne, Uganiballi— ; Cantonese: Fun khu hang—; Central Provinces: Gulwel—; Ceylon: Chintil— ; Chinese: K’uan Chu Hsing—; Deccan: Gulbel, Gulo, Gulvel—; French: Culancha—; Goa: Amritvel, Amrityel—; Guyerati, Gado, Galo, Gulo, Gulwel— ; Hansot: Galavel—; Hindi: Giloe, Gulancha, Gulbel, Gulel, Guloh, Gurach, Gurcha— ; Indo-China: Day than thong—; Kathiawar: Galo, Galonowelo—; Khond: Gursilai—; Konkani: Amontevel, Ekoiss givanem—; Kumaon: Gulancha, Gurcha—; Lepcha: Kantherrik—; Malaya: Foon kan thang, Sarasati lat—; Malayalam: Amrytu, Peyamrytam, Sittamrytu—; Marathi: Ambarvel, Gharol, Giroli, Gulavela, Gulaveli, Guloe, Gulvel—; Mundari : Harajora, Hara- juri, Harjora—; Nepal: Garjo—; Persian: Gulbel—; Punjab : Batindu, Garham, Garum, Gilo, Gilogularich, Zakhmihaiyat—; Reddi: Korapattatige—; Sadani: Harjora—; Sanskrit: Amrita, Amritalata, Amritavallari, Amritavalli, Bhisha- kapriya, Chakralakshana, Chakrangi, Chandrahasa, Chandrapasa, Chchinna, ——$ MEDICINAL AND POTSONOUS PLANTS, OF INDIA 91 Chchinnaruha, Chchinnodbava, Chchinnodhana, Dhira, Goraksha, Guduchi, Guluchi, Jivanthika, Jivantiha, Jwaranashini, Jwarari, Kundalini, Kundalli, Madhuparni, Madhuparnika, Nagakumarika, Nirjara, Pamrodhara, Pittaghni, Rasayani, Shyama, Somalatika, Somavalli, Surakrita, Tantri, Tantrika, Uddhara, Vara, Vataraktari, Vatsadani, Vayastha, Vishalya—; Sikkim: Gurjo—; Sinhalese: Galuchi, Rasakinda, Rassakinda—; Tamil: Amridavalli, Amudam, Asasi, Kaippuchindil, Kunali, Narsindil, Niraidarudian, Paganrai, Padalamulam, Parivai, Pattigai, Sadi, Sagadundam, Sagamuli, Silam, Sindil, Sivandi, Sivedai, Ubavam, Vallikkandam, Vayamadu—; Telugu: Duyutige, Guduchi, Iruluchi, Jivantika, Madhuka, Manapala, Somida, Tellatippatige, Tippatige—; Tharu: Gulach—; Tulu: Amrytaburu—; Uriya: Gulancha, Gulochi—. Vi The BERBERIDACE2 are glabrous herbs or shrubs, sometimes climbing. They number 200 species included in 12 genera. They erow in the temperate regions of the northern hemispheres, in tropical mountains, in the Andes and extra-tropical South America. They. are absent from tropical and -South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. . The medicinal and poisonous Berberids of the world belong to 10 genera:—ACHLYs (Japan; Pacific North America); BERBERIS (Northern hemisphere; South America); BoNGarpia_ (Eastern Mediterranean); CAauULopHyLLum (North-eastern Asia; North-Ameri- ca); DipHyLLeiA (Atlantic North America; Japan); EPIMEDIUM (northern temperate regions) ; LEONTICE (northern temperate regions) ; Manonra (southern hemisphere; cultivated); Nanpina_ (China, Japan); PobpopHyLitum (northern temperate regions). In general the root and bark are purgative; the bitter bark is tonic and antiperiodic or depurative and cooling; the sour fruit is astringent and antiscorbutic. The following are among the products isolated :— (1) alkaloids —berbamine, berberine, oxyacanthine— ; (2) resins—podophylloresin, podophyllotoxin—; (3) colouring matter—podophylloquercetin— ; (4) acids—malic, citric—. The medicinal and poisonous Berberids of India belong to 4 genera—BERBERIS, BONGARDIA, MAHONIA, PODOPHYLLUM. Ay Stem o or erect. Flowers hermaphrodite. Carpel 1. Seeds usually small I. Leaves unequally pinnate. Leaflets opposite ... MAHOonIa, Il. Leaves simple, fascicled in the axils of 3-5-partite, rarely simple spines Be : . BERBERIS. III. Leaves simple, palmate. Ovules many ... ... PODOPHYLLUM, B. Glabrous herb with tuberous root. All the leaves radical = ah des ... BONGARDIA. BERBERIS. This genus includes 190 species inhabiting the northern hemisphere, and South America. About forty species of Berberis are used medicinally, and they all seem to have similar therapeutical properties. Their stems and barks are bitter tonics and mild laxatives. There are three well-defined medicinal groups:—(1) The Rocky Mountain group, including B. aquifolium Pursh.; (2) the Asiatic group, which includes B. aristata DC.; (3) the European group, _. which includes B, vulgaris Linn. 92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY WATURAL] HIST. SSOCIEIY {Vor onl The following deserve special mention in Europe—B. aetnensis Presl., B. vulgaris Linn.—; in China—B. Sieboldi Migq., B. vulgaris Linn.—; in Indo-China—B. asiatica Roxb., B. Lycium Royle, B. japonica R. Br., B. vulgaris Linn.—; in North America— B. aqujohum Pursh.,- B. nervosa Pursh.,;%B. pinnata "Vac, aeem valgaris Linn.—; in Central America—B. trifoliatus Moric.—; in Colombia—B. glauca DC.—. Berberine has been isolated from B. aetnensis, B, aquifolium, B. buxifolia, B. glauca, B. nervosa, B. vulgaris. Berbamine and oxyacanthine are contained in the root barks of B. aquifolium and B, vulgaris. A. Ripe fruit red. Inflorescence a simple raceme. Leaves usually toothed, lower pedicels 8-25 mm. long ol. B. vulgaris: B. Ripe fruit blue black. Inflorescence a simple raceme 1. Leaves glossy green not glaucous beneath no, 2. Be QMIStalae 2. Leaves pale glaucous beneath a. Leaves 1.3-3.8 cm. broad, secondary nerves prominent above te nae a0 4. DB Masiaticor b. Leaves .7.5-18 mm. broad, secondary nerves not prominent above ag Bs 123. DB. yeni: 1. Berberis vulgaris Linn. is found in the Western Himalaya from Kashmir to Nepal up to 12,000 feet. It also occurs in Western Tibet, and is generally distributed over temperate Asia and _ the greater part of Europe and Northern Africa. The root-bark and the stem-bark have the same composition and possess the same medicinal properties. Barberry bark is tonic, purgative, and antiseptic. As a bitter stomachic tonic, it proves an -excellent remedy for dyspepsia and functional derangement of the liver, regulating the digestive powers, and if given in larger doses, acting as a mild purgative and removing constipation. The bark is used for all cases of jaundice, general debility and biliousness, and for diarrhoea. It possesses febrifuge powers and is used as a remedy for intermittent fevers. It also forms an excellent gargle for a sore mouth. A good lotion for application to cutaneous eruptions has also been made from it. In the Punjab, the root bark is used as diuretic, and for the relief of heat, thirst and nausea. It is considered astringent, refrigerant and antibilious. In small doses it is tonie, in larger cathartic. In the form of decoction, it is useful in scarlet fever and brain affections. In Baluchistan the roots are boiled in water and the decoction given both to men and cattle for internal injuries. It is said to be good for fever, especially high fever. On the Pacific Coast of North America the root-bark is con- sidered tonic and aperient; the leaves are used as an antiscorbutic. The berries are official in France. They contain citric and malic acids, and possess astringent and antiscorbutic properties. They are useful in inflammatory fevers, especially typhus, also in_ bilious disorders and scurvy; and in the form of a jelly they are very refreshing in irritable sore throat, for which also a Syrup of Barberries made with water, proves. an excellent astringent gargle. . oe _MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 93 -In England the fruits are macerated in about twelve times their quantity of water, to which a little fennel seed has been added, and the liquid is used as a cooling draught in cases of fever. The Egyptians are said still to employ a diluted juice of the berries in pestilential fevers. In Ceylon the ripe fruits are used in the preparation of cooling, astringent, and antiscorbutic drinks which are given in febrile diseases and diarrhoea. In Persia the consumption of the berries is said to remove itch and other skin complaints. Arabic: Ambarbaris, Ambar-us-shahab—; Baluchi: MKaroskae, Korae, Zrolg—; Bombay: Zarishk—; Brahui: Zarch—; Catalan: Coralets—; Dutch: Barbarine, Berberis, Kweekdorn, Zuurdoorn—; English: Barbaryn, Barberry, Barboranne, Berber, Berberry, Guild, Jaundice Berry, Maiden Barberry, Pepper- ridge, Piperidge, Piperidge Bush, Piperidge Rilts, Pipperidge-bush, Piprage, Woodsore, Woodsour, Woodsower Tree—; French: Berbéris, Chivafou, Epine- aigrette, Epine-vinette, Verre-vinette, Vinette, Vinettier—; German Basselbeere Berberitze, Berberstrauch, Bramelbeere, Bromelbeere, Dreidorn, Erbselbeere, Erbsele, Essigdorn, Farsbeere, Gallhageldorn, Gelbbeere, Passelbeere, Peiselbeere> Reifbeere, Reisbeere, Reissbeere, Reisselbeere, Rhabarberbeere, Sauch, Sauerdorn, -Sauerrach, “Saurach, Spitzbeere, Versuchsbeere, Weinaengleinstrauch, Weinling, Weinnaegelein, Weinshade, Weinschaerl, Weinzaepfel, Wuetscherling, Zwack- holzbaum—; Greek: Axokanda—; Hamadan: Zirishk—; Hattu: Chamchur, Chochar— ; Hindi: Zarishk—,; Italian: Berberi, Berbero, Crespigno, Crespino, Spina santa, Trespino—; Jaunsar ; Chatrod—; Pacific Coast: Barberry, Common Barberry, European Barberry, Garden Barberry, Guild-tree, Jaundice-berry, Sow- berry, Wood-sour—; Persian: Bedana, Cutch, Karoskai, Zarishk—; Portuguese : Berberis—; Punjab: Chachar, Chochar, Kashmal, Zirishk—; Pushtu: Karos- kai—; Roumanian: Dracila, Lemn_ galben, Macris de riuri—; Russian: Barbaris—; Sibi: Karoskae, Zrolg—; Spanish: Acetin, Agracejo, Agracillo, Agraz, Agrecillo, Alarguez, Alguese, Azlacristo, Berberos—; Toba Hills: Karoskae, Zrolg—; Urdu: Ambar—; Zarghun: Karoskae, Zrolg—j; Zhob: Korae, Zrolg—. 2. Berberis aristata DC. occurs in the Himalaya from Chota Banghal to Nepal, between 6,000 and 10,500 feet. The wood, root-bark and extract of Indian Barberry have been used in Hindoo Medicine from a very remote period. Its properties are said to be analogous to those of turmeric. Indian Barberry and its extract, vasot, are regarded as alterative and deobstruent, and are used in skin diseases, menorrhagia, diarrhoea, jaundice, and above all in affections of the eyes. Sarangdhara recommends a simple decoction of Indian barberry to be given, with the addition of honey in jaundice. In painful micturition from bilious or acrid urine, a decoction of Indian- barberry and emblic myrobalan is given with honey. A decoction of the root-bark is used as a wash for unhealthy ulcers, and is said to improve their appearance and promote cicatrization. Rasot, mixed with honey, is said to be a useful application to aphthous sores. | | A decoction of the root bark in doses of one to two ounces Was given to several patients for malarial fever and was found to be beneficial, the effect being very slow (Koman). 7 Arabic: Aargis, Ambarbaris, Hhodhub, Itrarahh, Messuk—; Bagi: Chochar, -Kambra, Tharmala—; Bhutia: Tsema—; Canarese: Bagisutra—; English: Indian Barberry, Tree Turmeric—; Garhwal: Kingora—; Greek:. Lykion iindikon—; Hindi: Chitra, Chotra, Darhald, Hooshish, -Kashmal,- Kashmar, ~Rasvat, Rusot—; Jaunsar: Kashmoi—; Malayalam: Maradarisina, Maramanjal --3; Narkand: Chochar, Kambra, Tharmala—; Nepal: Chitra, Chutro—; North- ‘Western Provinces: Chitra—; Persian: Chitra; Zirishk—; Punjab: Chitra, 94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL Kasmal, Kemloo, Simlu, Sumlu, Tutrum—; Sanskrit: Daruharidra, Darvi, Kata, Katankati, Kateri, Pitadaru, Suvarnavarna—; Simla: Kammul, Kashmal, Kaumul— ; Tamil: Mullukala, Usikkala—. 3. Berberis lycium Royle is found in the Punjab Himalaya between 3,000 and g,ooo feet, and in Kumaon at 2,500-8,500 feet. The root is highly esteemed as a febrifuge and as a _ local application in eye diseases. An extract prepared by digesting in water sliced pieces of the root, stem, and branches, is called rusot, and is used advantageously in cases of ophthalmia. The leaves are administered in Baluchistan as a cure for jaundice. In Indo-China the fruit is given as a tonic in troubles of the kidney. The tincture was found to be useless as a remedial agent in fevers of malarial origin (Central Indigenous Drugs Committee). Arabic: Ambarbarin, Hooziz, Hoozizindi—; Baluchistan: Koroski, Zarch—; Cutch: Kasmal—; Hindi: Chitra, Kushmul—; Indo-China: Cau tu, Ky tu—; Jaunsar: Chahoi, Daruhaldli, Kashmal—; North-Western Provinces: Kushmul —; Persian: Unjebar—; Simla: Chochar, Chotra, Kashmal, Kasmal—; Sind: Kushmul— ; Waziri: Khadavanai, Sakazie, Sarghazie—. 4. Berberis asiatica Roxb. is found in the dry valleys of the Himalaya, from Garhwal to Bhutan, between 2,000 and 8,ooo feet. It also occurs in Bihar, Mount Abu, and Afghanistan. The plant is used for the same purpose and in the same ways as B. aristata. It is reputed useful in the treatment of snake-bite ; and scorpion-sting; but Mhaskar and Caius have shown the root, stem, and gum are all equally useless for the purpose. Almora: Kilmoru—; Bengal: Daruharitra—; Canarese: Maradarisina— ; Dehra Dun: Kingora—; Garhwal: Kingora—j; Gujerat: Daruhaldar—j; Hindi: Daruhaldi, Sumlu—-; Jaunsar: Kishornoi—; Kumaon: Kilmora, Kilmoru—; Marathi: Daruhaldi—; Nepal: Chitra, Kissie, Matekissie—; Persian: Darhuld, Daruhuld—; Ranikhet: Kilmoru—; Sanskrit: Daruharidra, Darupita, Daruni- sha, Darvi, Dvitiyabha, Haimavati, Haridra, Hemakanti, Hemkranta, Kaliyaka, Kamini, Kapitaka, Karkatini, Karnavati, Kashtha, Kashtharajani, Katankateri, Marnmari, Nirdishta, Pachampacha, Parjani, Parjaniya, Pita, Pitachandana, Pitadaru, Pitadru, Pitatvaka, Pitika, Sthirraga—; Simla: Kammula, Kashmala, Kaumula—. BONGARDIA. B. Rauwolfii C. A. Mey. The only species of this genus occurs in Baluchistan, whence it spreads to Afghanistan, Persia, Trans- caucasus, Syria, Palestine, Bithynia, and the Greek Islands. In Baluchistan the leaves are used as a cure for sore eyes in- horses. Ghandoba: Puccatutuka—; Kotra: Shrin—. MAHONIA. This genus includes 50 species, which inhabit the southern hemisphere. Many are cultivated as ornamental shrubs. In North America the berries of M. fascicularis DC. are con- sidered a cooling laxative medicine. Mahonia napaulensis DC. is found in the temperate Himalaya at 4,000-8,o00 feet, from*Garhwal to Bhutan; in the Khasia Hills MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA 95 between 4,000 and 5,000 feet; in Mergui; and in the Nilgiri mountains between 5,000 and 8,ooo feet. The berries are considered diuretic, and demulcent in dysentery. Chamba: Kandlu, Sharor—; Garhwal: Gurm, Haldia—; Jaunsar: Khoru —; Nepal: Chatri, Jamnemunola, Milkissie—; Punjab: Amudanda, Chiror— ; Ramnagar: Bankhilmana—; Travancore: Maranthu—. PODOPHYLLUM., The genus consists of 5 species distributed over the northern temperate regions. The rhizome of and resin from P. emodi Wall. are official in Great Britain; the dried rhizome and roots of P. peltatum Linn. are Officially recognized in Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Holland, Italy, Japan, Norway, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, United States; the resin from P. peltatum Linn. in Austria, Finland, Hungary and Yugoslavia. Podophyllum emodi Wall. is found in the interior ranges of the Himalaya from Hazara and Kashmir to Sikkim. The constituents of the Indian podophyllum and of the American podophyllum (,P. peltatum Linn.) are identical. The chief consti- tuent is podophyllotoxin. An uncrystallizable resin, podophylloresin, has also been isolated. : The drug was administered in the form of a tincture to six cases and was found to possess all the properties that the podo- phyllin of the British Pharmacopoeia possessed. It acts as a hepatic stimulant and cholagogue purgative (Koman). Gujerat ; Venivel— |; Hind: : Bakrachimyaka, Bhavanbakra, Papra, Papri, Nibishi, Pilijati—; Kashmir: Banwangan—;— Marathi: Podwel, Patvel—; Punjab: Banbakri, Bankakra, Bankakri, Chimyaka, Chyakri, Gulkakri, Gulkakru, Kakra, Papri, Wanwangan—. OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIONOMICS OF PANCHAX LINEATUS CUVIER AND VALENCIENNES, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO 1S VARVICIDAL PROPENSITIES. BY A. G. FRASER, I.M.D. The opportunity of making the following observations was provided by Mr. Adams who showed the writer a pool near Poona containing a large number of specimens of the ‘Top- Minnow’ Panchax lineatus Cuv. & Val. The local Hindi name of the fish is Konkani garah. It can be readily distinguished from the other local fishes by the possession of a silver star mark on the head. The pool referred to above is situated on the south bank of the Mutha-Mulla river and, at the time of our visit, contained specimens of P. lineatus only, though from the end of the channel connecting the pool with the river a young Ophicephalus was also obtained. The paucity of the fish-fauna of the pool was probably due to the fact that it was at the time stagnant and very foul with evidence of sulphuretted hydrogen emanations. There was a heavy scum on the greater portion of its surface with fragments of floating algae. The pool was about 15 feet in diameter with an average depth of 18 inches. The bed was practically rocky through- out and grown with algae; some portions of the bank and the bed at the edges were overgrown with long grasses and weeds. Field observations show that Panchax lineatus has the habit of lying for hours on end nearly flat with the surface film. When disturbed it dives below, and after 4 to 5 minutes reappears again to resume its position at the surface. Dorsally in a line with and behind the eyes there is a bright silver shield—shaped somewhat like the letter I in very thick type—the lustre of which when | viewed from the bank and also in the aquarium is very striking. Owing to the sheen on this silver patch one is able to spot these fishes in the clearer portions of the pool almost at once, especially if the sun is shining when the scintillation produced by it is very noticeable. In the aquarium, when the fish were placed in a_ very dark corner of the room, the silver shield faded away and was replaced by a black or greatly dulled blotch; and at times, when there was a dim light streaming into the room, the lustre of the shield waxed and waned. When exposed to the glare of sunlight, or in the hght of a dull day when clouds hide the sun, the lustre of the shield is always bright. The more light, the brighter does the sheen and scintillation become and the fishes themselves tend to turn towards the source from which _ the light is falling. Fishermen tell me that this species lies at the ON THE BIONOMICS OF PANCHAX LINEATUS 97 surface and waits for insects to fly over, when it leaps out for them. I was unable to confirm their statement as during my visits to the pool there was no ocular evidence of this habit. Owing to my observations having been made during the rainy season when the skies are overcast with clouds, and also because of an absence of small insects—large red and blue dragon flies were numerous and disturbed the fishes by darting down on the surface of the water—the fish, in the matter of insect food, were perhaps at a seasonal disadvantage. The habitat of Konkani garah and the evidence of fishermen indicate that it is probably an insectivorous fish. Mr. Adams informs me that he has never at any time of the year been able to find larvae of mosquitoes in the pool from which the fishes were mecovered. I. can certainly say there were no larvae present: in this pool at the time of my four visits within a period of a fortnight during June-July, 1937. In the aquarium, as in the pool, the fishes lie flat on the surface film, particularly if the water is foul. The same foul water from’ the pool was used to keep a batch of 6 fishes, and 6 others were kept in a receptacle containing clear tap water.' One fish in the clear water receptacle died after 24 hours, but five others lived on without showing any ill effects. They only occasionally rose to the surface, but remained most of the time below in mid- water; and even in this situation the silver shield on the head remained bright as long as the fishes were directly exposed mteht. When kept in a dark corner of the room the lustre. of the shield gradually faded to black. On the other hand, those kept in foul water with green algae in it, remained the whole time —night and day—at the surface film, practically motionless except for a slight wriggle of the caudal and pectoral fins and with them also the shield shone brightly when in _the light. The position of the fish at the surface film ts such that they lie almost Hat with it. The head with the silver shield is under water, but the dorsal ridge from this point backwards is flush with the surface right up to the caudal fin which is below the water line. The dorsal fin near to the caudal fin is partly above the water level. The fish will remain thus for hours unless disturbed. It should be noted that the mouth is only imperceptibly opened in the act of breathing and that the gill covers are seen to move very slightly as the respiratory rate is very slow. Some fishes leaped out of the receptacle and it was then noticed that the silver shield became black and remained so as long as the fishes were out of the water. As a matter of interest, I kept three of these fishes in a wet handkerchief and observed them from time to time and at the end of 6 hours all were alive and during the whole period they remained in a form of suspended animation with the shield showing up dulled and dark. There was no evidence of any respiratory movement or gasping for air as in the case of other — ——____. Z Tap water should usually be allowed to mature for at least 48 hour's before it is used for aquarium purposes.—S. L. 7 98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, BiSi) SOCIETY Yo eae surface fishes when out of water. They only wriggled or jumped if touched. One was restored to water and it recovered inter minutes. The other two died after 6} hours and, only in the final stages of death, showed respiratory embarrassment by opening their mouths and muscularly exerting the gill covers. After death the colour tones became much darker. Another physical presenta- tion is that the body is semi-transparent; the vertebral column is visibly defined as a dark shadow, so also are the stomach and the lungs, but the swim bladder is not seen as is the case with the glass-perch Ambassis ranga. A curious fact is that the fish, which died after a stay of 24 hours in clear water, showed the silver head shield still fairly bright; this has not yet faded in preservative up to now—a period of about one month—it is quite white but without the sheen observed in the lving fish. The two fishes which were kept in a wet handkerchief and died after 6; hours also show a subdued discoloured patch. In all the others which had to be killed in preservative the shields have become black. The significance of the phenomenon observed in connection with the silver shield is at this stage very difficult to explain. The behaviour of the fish and the photosensitivity of the shield on the head appear to indicate that it may be a means of attracting those insects which are usually drawn towards light. It was observed in an aquarium that at night when there is no luminosity the shield is quite dark. It reacts to artificial electric light in the same way as to daylight. This would indicate that during moonlit nights, when myriads of small insects hover over pieces of water for breeding purposes, the silvery head spot is capable of shining and presumably of attracting insects. These facts therefore, appear to support the conjecture that the silvery spot is a specialization which enables the fish to attract the particular kinds of insects required as food. Further investigation is required to confirm this purely tentative theory. Colouration: When alive the fishes are pretty. Dorsally there is a dark colour tone on a background of buff with a slightly yellowish green tinge. The caudal and anal fins are piped in scarlet. The dorsal fin is yellow and faintly pink at the tips with a basal black dot, and the junction with the body is stippled with silver. The pectoral fins are also yellow and the area behind them is stippled with crimson dots. The body is semi-transparent. The anterior portion of the anal fin is prolonged into two red stained rays. ‘There are 7-8 transverse black bands on the posterior half of the body. | The mosquito-larvae eating propensities of the genus Panchax are well-known, and several workers have already reported the absence of mosquito larvae from pieces of water in which these ‘Top-Minnows’ live. Mr. Fraser’s observations show that P. lineatus can live in very foul waters and that it can subsist on aerial respiration alone for considerable periods. Moreover, the tentative hypothesis concerning the function of the silver spot on the head, advanced for the first time, seems to be well worth further investigation. If it proves to be a fact that the silver ON THE BIONOMICS OF PANCHAX LINEATUS 99 spot is used for attracting insects, then in. Panchax we shall not only have an agent for destroying mosquito larvae but also a trap for luring adult mosquitoes that visit suitable pieces of water for breeding purposes. It may be noted that adult mosquitoes have often been found among the stomach contents of P. panchax (Hamilton). Reference may also be made to certain fishes, which live in deep seas, and emit light from special organs to attract their prey. It would thus seem that Mr. Fraser’s view concerning the utility of the silver spot is not in any way extravagant. ‘The habits and habitat of P. panchax, the well-known Ti-Choki msi, (the three-eyed fish, in the third.eye reference is made to the shining, silvery spot on the head) of Bengal are similar to the Peninsular species—P. lineatus. While determining the utility of P. panchax in keeping pieces of water free of mosquito larvae, Nair and I kept one valve chamber opposite the Engine Room of the Pulta Pumping Station as a control and introduced no fish in it. In three. other chambers specimens of P. panchax were introduced early in July. Occasional inspection of the chambers showed that no mosquito larvae were present in the chambers. containing the fish, while in the control chamber the water became very foul and in about half a pint of water taken from the surface there were over 200 mosquito larvae on the 7th of August, 1937. Ten specimens of P. panchax were introduced in the evening, but two died during the night. More specimens were introduced the following day and by the evening the number of mosquito larvae in the chamber was reduced to 4 or 5 in half a pint of surface water. These observations show that P. panchax, like its congener P, lineatus, can live in very foul waters and is an effective larvicide. _ Two specimens of P. panchax were left in a small glass bowl on wet cotton wool and the bowl was covered with a wet piece of cloth at about 8 p.m. At 8 a.m. next morning both the specimens were alive, but one died an hour after, while the second was revived by keeping it in water. This experiment bears out the hardy nature of these fishes, and shows the ease with which it should be possible to transport them over long distances. In connection with the subject of the larvicidal fishes of India, it seems desirable to refer to an earlier observation made by Mr. Fraser while stationed at Deolali in the Nasik District. He found that a stagnant pool in a disused quarry was kept free of mosquito larvae by a small Carp-Minnow, Rasbora labiosa Mukerji, a remarkable fish which has developed a special contrivance, by the hypertrophy of the lower lip, for catching insects by jumping out of the water. The fishes of the genus Rasbora are usually regarded of moderate utility in destroying mosquito larvae, but it seems probable that they may prove very useful for local needs in certain areas.—S. L. Hora. | | PRINCIPLES, OF WILD LIFE CONSERVATION, By THEODORE HUBBACK. (With 4 black and white plates). INTRODUCTION. Are the principles of Wild Life Conservation to continue as elusive conceptions without material form, or are they to become a living presence increasing in virility year by year? There appears to be a danger that these principles will be sacrificed for: private profit. The present tendency to exploit all natural resources regardless of the future will eventually result in the disappearance of many species of the larger fauna unless such tendency is drastically checked. Until it is recognized that Wild Life is a valuable natural resource and that the bénefits derived from an unguarded resource are wasting benefits, waste will continue till the resource has gone and the benefits have vanished. * * * * * _No natural resource is more sensitive to conservation than wild life, and no natural resource has suffered more from lack off conservation. During the last fifty years species have been exterminated due to this deficiency. Wild life is only just being recognized as one of our valuable assets, but this recognition is so tardy, especially in some of our Colonies and Dependencies, that there.is a very real danger of the recognition coming too late. The days when efficient conserva- tion may be possible are rapidly passing away. Unfortunately it is a fact that those principles of conservation which it is imperative should be applied to wild life preservation are seldom understood by those who have the power to further or retard the measures desired. The lack of proper financial provision’ is, I believe, the real reason why in some of our Colonies and parts of India and Burma we are losing our wild life. Those who hold the keys of the money bag’s never appear to be conservationists ! I shall endeavour to show in this article how senseless it is to expect to save wild life unless the true principles of conservation are recognized and adopted. The ‘hit or miss method’ of a budget allowance for what is erroneously called ‘game protection’ will never achieve the saving of our wild life. To conserve wild life resources you must have a fairly accurate idea of what you have to. conserve and what you wish to conserve. In other words, you should know what your stock consists of} you should know where it is to be found; you should have a knowledge of its ecology, numbers and status. These alone are questions which cannot be answered except after careful research and skilled inquiry. "VAWIVIN NI YNHaWVS AO Y © 2 fo YY} Ll en fa < a] 2 5 ee Z, iad = © = PRINCIPLES OF WILD LIFE. CONSERVATION 103 a definite financial policy to deal with it. So long as funds can be cut off, which reduce, or even abrogate, the service for conserva- tion, while the methods of destruction are left unchecked by any practical application of the law, so long will our work fail. We must appreciate the fact that failure means the ultimate disappear- ance of the wild fauna. We are not concerned at the moment with the laws: their general principles are, broadly speaking, agreed to, and although not consistent throughout our Territories and Colonies could easily be brought more or less into a condition of co-ordination. The great importance of inviolate reserves is now widely recognized, but steps to implement the laws for such sanctuaries are awaited. What we are concerned with are ways and means to enable the laws we have to be properly enforced. A method has been adopted in many parts of the United States whereby a ‘Game Fund’ is established by law—embodied in fact in the Game and Fish laws—by which all revenue, direct and indirect, derived from Wild Life Resources is credited to the Fund. That money is kept apart from the general revenue and earmarked for the conservation of wild life. The most striking example of the success of this method can be seen in the results obtained in Pennsylvania, U.S.A. This State was ‘shot out’ in 1890, but in that year a few of the people realized that drastic steps would have to be taken if their wild life was to be saved. Finally a Board of Game Commissioners was appointed, and when the Board began its work in 1896 its funds consisted of the sum of G. $800 omy. Im roriz3-a sum of G. $97,000 was available; in 1930, G. $1,413,251 was the amount budgeted for the fiscal year, June 1, HQ29, to May 31, 1930. Not only was a large revenue obtained, but a ‘shot out’ State was turned into one of the best sporting States on the eastern side of North America. Can we afford to ignore such methods which have proved so strikingly successful? I think not. Another method is by the ‘yard-stick,’ whereby the amount to be spent on conservation of wild life is budgeted according to the estimated revenue for the year from Wild Life Resources. But whichever system is used it must be laid down by law that in the case of a fund—call it ‘Wild Life Fund’ if you like—that fund cannot be raided or interfered with by the Legislature. The Budget Commissioner, or whoever is the officer handling finance, cannot be allowed to interfere with the proposed expenditure pro- vided it is within the estimated revenue of the fund, or the limits of the measurement by ‘yard-stick.’ Whichever system is adopted it must be recognized that the service for the protection of wild life will be expected to protect certain types and forms of the fauna which do not produce any direct or indirect revenue, but still require expenditure on their preservation for other reasons. It may therefore be necessary before a substantial fund has been built up, to obtain from the general revenue funds for the conservation of insectivorous birds, and other forms of wild life 104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL VHIST,, SOCIETY, 3] Vol7 ee which are of utilitarian value. Later on, as in Pennsylvania, when a solid revenue is assured, such requests will be unnecessary. The direct and indirect revenue which should be credited to the department for the conservation of wild life should consist of: Game Licences. Licences and Permits for Sporting Arms. {mport and Export Licences for Sporting Arms. Duties on Sporting Arms. Duties on Sporting Cartridges. Licences for Purchase of Sporting Arms and Sporting Cart- ridges. Licences to Sell or Store Sporting Arms and Sporting Cart- ridges. Fishing Licences. Fines and Costs. Sales of Confiscated Articles and Picked-up Trophies. The expenditure should include: Salaries, Allowances and Transport of Officials. Construction work on and maintenance of- National Parks, Sanctuaries and Reserves. Building and Maintenance of Offices. Predatory Animal Control. Fencing. Rewards. Court Expenses. Sinking Fund for Leave, Gratuities and Pensions. The officer in charge of the conservation department, with the opportunities that a stable financial policy would give him, could surely organize a service which would not only benefit the wild life of his country but would be of inestimable value to the country itself. What we are now doing for conservation of wild life in many places is just so much waste of time, because we have never got past the stage of treating the work as a casual matter which can be undertaken by anyone. It is useless trying to build up a staff knowing that just as the work of conservation is beginning to make its mark it 1s lidble to be dispensed with at the behest of some ephemeral office holder. The whole matter turns on proper measures being taken to finance the work required. If the system of the ‘Wild Life Fund’ is adopted, and the organization necessary and possible with the funds obtainable placed in the hands of experienced conserva- tionists, success is assured. Adequate funds at the disposal of an efficient organization—you cannot have such an organization without adequate funds—would enable the proper guarding of wild life resources, the proper policing of sanctuaries and reserves, the building up of a loyal service for these objects, all of which are quite impossible so long as the position of the staff and the execution of the work has no foundation for lack of a financial policy. In actual practice the work of successfully conserving wild life 5 EE ENTE 2) fe) t x Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. PRINCIPLES OF WILD LIFE CONSERVATION 105 is one of considerable difficulty and is highly specialized work. lew have the aptitude to become practical conservationists, and still fewer have the knowledge or experience to enable them to exercise that aptitude if they possess it. j But the real menace to any sound policy of wild life conservation lies in that ugly word ‘indifference.’ This is generally synonymous with ‘ignorance’. The latter is easier to overcome. There is often a feeling, in a new country especially, that exploitation can be better carried on by not paying too much notice to the claims and rights of the indigenous fauna. In the United States of America there has frequently been an outcry against the creation or extension of a National Park by certain of the get-rich-quick fraternity. These people are sometimes described by the elusive expression ‘vested interests.’ This class of opposition to the conservation of natural resources will be found in many places, generally coming from local inhabitants who are looking for immediate profit and immediate ‘development.’ Sometimes this indifference to conservation is shown by Governments—no doubt for the same reason. The opposition to a National Park project may come from the fact that the conservation would then be real and effective. That, f think, is the truth. By leaving the financial arrangements for the service of con- servation to local Legislatures we are taking a great risk of losing our fauna altogether. Some Legislatures might not object to a dénouement ! India, Burma and Malaya have adopted a policy by which many firearms are now in the possession of those whose observance of the laws for the preservation of wild life is only governed by the chances of detection if such laws are disregarded; and although during the last few years the issue of weapons for the destruction of wild life has been great, funds or personnel to ensure the observance of the laws for preservation have not been increased, in some cases they have even been curtailed. Usually the argument used to justify the supply of arms to the ryot is to enable him to defend his crops; in most cases his crops can be much more efficiently protected by a stout stake and rail fence. In the case of large wild animals, such as elephant, the frequent wounding by firing at them with any sort of missile, even bird shot, merely aggravates the trouble. Guns issued for crop protection are used for poaching, and such poaching can only be kept in check by the enforcement of an energetic policy through an adequate organization. _ In the Dominions, especially Canada, the value of the conserva- tion of wild life is well recognized and the work well organized. It is in countries such as India, Burma, Ceylon, Malaya, British Borneo and parts of Africa that so much yet requires to be done. The principles of conservation have not been fully and generally applied in these countries. In India there are no appointments of Game Wardens as such, conservation work being entrusted, as a side-show, to the Forest Department. Burma had a Forest Officer appointed as a _ whole- time Game Warden, but directly there was financial stringency, the 106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL {HIST SOCIETY ji Vol. ce billet was discontinued, and is still discontinued. A Forest Officer with a full-time job was appointed as an Honorary Game Warden; he subsequently resigned. Another Forest Officer has now been appointed Game Warden. At the recent Conference on Indian Fauna it was resolved that the Provincial Governments should be asked to appoint Game Wardens. Also that licence fees, etc., accruing from wild life resources should be spent on conservation. Even these principles had not been recognized, or at least not publicly advocated, in India as vital to the conservation of wild life. Dr. R. L. Spittel, President of the Ceylon Game and Famag Protection Society, speaking in London at a meeting of the Society for the Preservation of the Fauna of the Empire on October 7 1934, did not hesitate to emphasize the parlous condition of the wild life in that Island. Here are some extracts from his address: ‘Those who know our jungles have long realized that unless protective measures are instituted, the wild life of so small an island as ours would soon be doomed. The story of the Ceylon Game Protection Society, since its birth some thirty-eight years ago, is that of a long-sustained struggle to interest Government in the protection of the larger fauna, which, but for its efforts, would hardly be worth speaking of, to-day. ; Owing to the interest taken by Sir Henry McCallum, the then Governor, the Dried Meat Ordinance was passed in 1908 and the Game Protection Ordinance in 1909, when the Yala and Wilpattu. Sanctuaries were established; the first real step in protection was then taken. But since that time things were allowed to drift, and the situation was becoming very alarming. Game is now scarce even in our remotest jungles, largely because thirsty animals are killed in months of drought (June- August) at water-holes, and their dried flesh bartered. Up to some years ago shooting had to be done by moonlight. The slaughter then was not anything like as terrible as it became with the introduction of the electric torch, by the aid of which animals could be killed nightly throughout the year. But worse than that, parties began to ply the jungle roads at night in cars equipped with powerful spot-lights, carrying a ~ battery of guns and hand-torches. They blazed away at the gleaming eyes of ‘‘timid hunted hares’’, deer, leopard, or anything they met. One such car to my knowledge was responsible for six deer and a dozen hare in a single night and another for twenty-eight hare in a few hours. One man, accustomed to driving out occasionally for an hour or two at night, accounted in about six years for no less than thirty-five leopards. ' When animals thus worried became shy of the roads, the ‘“spot-light sportsman’’ carried his torch along jungle paths, giving the creatures no quarter in their seclusion. ; _Then breech-loaders became cheap and began to replace the muzzle-loaders of villagers, who also acquired torches, and the Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. YIDQQnNH “L ‘1ysiaNdory “MOVT LTIVS V NI NaAVI AIO SHLNOW ie Sg: 2 HATAML LAOUV hd HO ONVGVTHS TING ONNOA wy Rr PRINCIPLES? OF ) WILD , LIFE «CONSERVATION 107 animals were harassed out of existence. Their carcasses always commanded a ready sale to passing buses. | You will inquire, “‘Were there no games laws to put a stop fomuniss §.' lhere were, but they were not enforced. A. policy of. laissez-faire made even people who should have known better forget the existence of these laws. There was no prohibition against the shooting of any but game animals by night, even with spot-lights from cars. And men going out on the pretence of shooting leopard and pig did not scruple to kill any sambhur and deer they met. Sport had degenerated into night-shooting with lights or driving jungles with gangs, legitimate stalking being practised by few. We, like other countries, realize to the full that this is the age of the destruction of the world fauna, and that many species will be exterminated unless provision is made for their protection. The spectacle of wild animals in their natural surroundings is one of the greatest joys of man. The true sportsman gradually becomes the champion of wild creatures, and it is chiefly owing to his initiative and understanding that sanctuaries have been established. Nowhere, perhaps, has this been better exemplified than in Ceylon. The religion of the land is mainly Buddhism— perhaps the only religion in the world that extends its benevolence to animals—yet the outcry for protection has come not from the Buddhist, but from the men who shoot.’ A sorry picture of the failure of a Colonial administration to enforce its own laws. Malaya has been, due to unstable and vacillating administrative methods, in a state of disturbance and uncertainty regarding what should be done for wild life, and is still in that state, despite the fact that a full constructive programme in the Report of a Com- mission appointed to inquire into the whole matter was submitted to the Malayan Governments so long ago as 1932. In Africa recent reports made at the instance of the Fauna Society showed that in West Africa at least no satisfactory methods of wild life conservation exist. The destruction of elephants in Uganda goes along merrily, and the following figures taken from the Game Warden’s Reports are instructive : UOGOM et a. | 892 oe Me These elephants were officially 25s Ue aie a ea destroyed. MOQ Qh a! stl! "sr. 360 HOGA: 2 sy. ae 14003 In the Annual Report of the Uganda Game Department for 1934, the following words appear (para. 34): ‘This gives an aggregate wastage of 13,096 elephants, which is the minimum for the period (ten years), and with the addition of tuskless juveniles which are not shown on the returns, and a percentage of elephants which perish in swamps and are never 108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY’ NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.- XE found, the grand total can be taken to be approximately 14,000, truly a stupendous figure.’ Stupendous indeed ! The stock of elephants must be enormous to stand _ this destruction, because in addition to the above figures, many hundreds of elephants must have been killed or died in other ways. But perhaps this is merely the backdoor to ‘birth control’, because such disturbance as must result from the harassing, inseparable from so much kijling, must react to hinder normal breeding. There is some fatal period reached in the life-history of wild animals when the continuing abnormality of a disturbed existence appears to break their spirit and they are then liable to cease to produce their species. This psychological phenomenon is not properly understood, but is recognized as existing by persons who have studied wild life at close quarters. These are only meagre outlines, space forbids an extensive review, but they indicate that we have a long way to go before the principles of conservation are applied as they should be applied in some of our Possessions. In America it is now fully recognized that organizations for wild life conservation are necessary and that proper financial support should be forthcoming based on the revenue which accrues from wild life resources. Wide latitude in dealing with the funds at their disposal is given to the officers who carry out the conservation programme. To illustrate this policy I wish to quote from a statement made by Mr. Slautterback, the Executive Secretary of the Pennsylvania Game Commission, at the annual meeting of the American Game Association, held in New York, in December, 1929. Mr. Slautter- back having addressed the meeting on the subject ‘Budgeting Game Funds,’ was asked certain questions and gave certain answers. Here they are: Mr. Apams: As I understand it, you have a separate game fund in Pennsylvania to which all the revenues from licences go auto- matically, but in making any expenditure against that fund must you receive legislative sanction? Mr. SLAUTTERBACK: No. Mr. Apams: Must you get sanction from any budget commission or any one outside of the game department? Mr. SLAUTTERBACK: We prepare our budget, holding it within our expected revenue. This is presented to the officer and he naturally approves the budget if our several items are within the estimated revenue. I am referring to the state budget officer. Mr. Apvams: In the last analysis have they the authority if they wish to use it of making any changes in your set-up, or simply inspect it to be sure that it stays inside of your anticipated revenue ? | Mr. SLAuTTERBACK: Your explanation is correct—to inspect it to see that it remains within our revenue but to be used for no other purpose except for game protection and propagation purposes, PRINCIPLES OF WILD LIFE CONSERVATION 109 CHAIRMAN QUINN: Your budget commissioner has no authority to disapprove the budget if it is within your income? Mr. SLAUTTERBACK: He has not. JupcE Mires: I would like to ask if it is necessary that the funds accumulated to this department have to be appropriated by the Legislature before it is available? haope OLAUTIERBACK:= They. are. not appropriated by the Legislature. The Game Commissioner is made responsible and is held responsible for the work and is given the power and means with which to do it. As the exact opposite of this, I should like to mention a case in Malaya where a Game Warden’s monthly bills were held up and sent back to him, although they were certified by the guarantee of the Game Warden’s signature, because one bill, a recovery for a small petty-cash payment to an illiterate native, was witnessed by one person only and not by two as required by a general order! Such red-tape entanglements can scarcely come within the category of the ‘principles of conservation.’ After all, what are the principles of conservation which we can apply to wild life? ) I think we may claim that the chief object of conservation of wild life must be to prevent the disappearance of species. We cannot say we don’t want such-and-such a species because it eats our fowls or disturbs our garden; its benefits to the universe in other ways may be more important than our pet fowls or our local garden. We can say we don’t want such species in our backyard and we can take steps to protect our property, but we are wrong if -we say such-and-such species should be exterminated. Our knowl- edge is much too incomplete to allow us to say anything of the sort. Most people would have answered in the affirmative a question regarding the desirability of the extermination of the shark, and yet the first discovery of insulin, a drug which has brought relief to thousands of diabetics, was made in the liver (pancreas ?) of a shark (see Journal of Mammalogy, No. 2, vol. 6, p. 87, 1925). Therefore, I think the practical application of steps to prevent extermination of species must be the foundation on which to build our framework of conservation. This can be done in many ways, but the most certain, most equitable and most spectacular method of achieving this is by setting aside certain areas of suitable land as permanent sanctuaries for the fauna. Conservation must be recognized as a specialized subject and the execution of the duties necessary to conserve any natural resource should be entrusted to, and undertaken by, persons whose training and practical experience enable them to know what is required to make such conservation a success. This sounds like a platitudinous argument which is redundant in its obviousness; and 110 jOURNAL;. BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. “SOCIEIV) 4 Val, wae so it is, but unfortunately the intelligent minds in this world are in the minority, and it often happens that conservation work is looked upon by the unenlightened mind belonging to someone who is in a position to place conservation on a low plane of activity, as work which can be looked after by anyone as a spare-time job. No greater mistake could be made. Until it is recognized. as essential to make full-time appointments for those in charge of the work of preservation and protection, so long will the work fail; as it has failed everywhere in countries where preservation of the fauna is professed but the application of the principles of conservation refused. Certainly we must recognize as one of the practical applications the entrusting of the work to persons with full responsibility to carry out the duties necessary. We must guard against a present tendency to treat a Game Warden as a conservationist only as a last resort. He may be expected to devote too much of his time looking after the interests of agriculturists leaving him insufficient time to attend to matters relating to conservation. Ftunds may be voted for control schemes, which generally mean destruction of some sort or other, rather than for guarding sanctuaries or for enforcing the game laws. A Game Warden is expected to take action to relieve cultivators when they allege damage to crops by wild life, irrespective of the condition of the cultivation; the indolence or industry of the cultivator; the feasibility of prevention of damage by fencing or other non-lethal methods. Advice which does not include the killing of something is unwelcomed, sometimes because a killing means a feast, and sometimes to satisfy a desire for revenge. Revenge on a wild animal! What a high ideal for a human being. But, if a Game Warden is to achieve the objects of conservation - he must only take extreme measures when really necessary. It is unfortunately the truth that much unnecessary killing, wounding and suffering is inflicted under the guise of crop protection. Have a proper financial policy with a Wild Life Fund; allow the Game Warden full powers to spend it; then these matters would be dealt with by those who would know what to do and relief could be, and no doubt would be, given to cultivators by fencing and other methods. The dangerous policy of ‘control’ if. not properly controlled is a real menace to the future of many species. An important principle of conservation is the utilization of natural resources for the benefit of mankind. We cannot improve on Theodore Roosevelt's definition of conservation as ‘preservation through wise use.’ Only such use may be made of wild life species which we desire to conserve as will ensure that the stock is not dangerously depleted. A wise policy of wild life conservation will provide for: (1) Adequate laws for protection. (2) Adequate areas as permanent sanctuaries | or refuges for species in their known habitat. (3) Adequate organizations to enforce the former and ad- minister the latter. | If these three principles are insisted on, then we may have some PRINCIPLES OF WILD LIFE CONSERVATION aa hope for the future of the fauna of our Empire, but unless steps are taken, and taken soon, to recognize the critical state of the wild life in many of our Colonies and Dependencies, and to check the present rate of destruction, the future can be contemplated only with apprehension. To those who know how inefficient and inadequate in many places our methods of wild life conservation are, the wild life in such places appears doomed to extinction. You can replace trees; you can sustain domestic animals by private breeding; but wild life must have an environment of its own in which to thrive and increase in a natural and normal fashion. The price to pay for the neglect of the observation of conserva- tion principles as applied to wild life is a terrible one—no less than the disappearance for ever of species after species. ‘Out nunc it per iter tenebricosum illuc unde negant redire quemquam.’ MISCELLANE®US NOTES- I.—WILD BEASTS—REAL AND APOCRYPHAL. The description of the skin of a Blue bear (Ursus arctos pruinosus) from Eastern Tibet, by Captain R. K. M. Battye and Mr. S. H. Prater in Volume xxxviii, No. 3, page 610 of the Journal is of special interest, not only as relating to an animal first des- cribed by Edward Blyth in 1853, but in view of recent correspon- dence in The Times regarding footprints of so-called ‘Mountain Men’, seen by Mr. Ronald Kaulback at an elevation of 16,000 feet in the Tibetan interior during a journey in December 1935. Mr. Kaulback could not identify the footprints as those of any particular animal, but he wrote that they were ‘very extraordinary tracks. There were five sets of them leading down the side of the valley through the snow, at an almost impossible angle, and on to the compara- tively level floor. Unfortunately there had been a very slight fall of snow, and the tracks were not completely clear, but they looked exactly as though they had been made by bare-footed men. There are no bears in that part of the country’. He thought they ‘might have been the pug-marks of snow-leopards going slowly with the hind-paws overlapping the fore, but had never heard of these animals travelling in a party’. There is, however, no reason why snow-leopards, like other felines, should not so travel; tigresses have been known with four well-grown cubs; a pack of six panthers were seen walking across a jungle glade in Berar, just like a pack of hounds; and lions are frequently observed in large parties. Four or five bears may be met with together. Two of Mr. Kaulback’s coolies favoured the snow-leopard theory, while two said the footprints were those of ‘Mountain Men’, a wild race which they all agreed lived in the snow, described as being ‘like men, white-skinned, naked, with long hair on the head, shoulders, and arms’. That is what a bear may look like. Its tracks, at least of the hind-feet, are just like those of a bare-footed man; the bear, like the man, has long hair that may fall over the head at times, when, for instance, it descends a mountain side ‘at an almost impossible angle’, as a sportsman who shoots at a bear above him will find; an isabelline bear may be as white as a polar bear; in India bhalu or reench, the bear, with his skin stripped off, is very like a grotesquely- shaped human being ; he is known as adamzad, ‘man-kind’, and the Hill-man, when in the depth of the forest, always refers to him as Rishi, that is ‘Master’, says Mr. F. W. Woods. One of my beaters in Berar had a strong growth of black hair on his shoulders and back; the other men nicknamed him ‘bhalu’. Certainly indications point to the tracks being those of bears, notwithstanding Mr. Kaulback says there are none in the district, where, however, he spent only five months. Even if they are not always found in that part of the country, these and other animals often travel and stray far from their usual haunts. The habitat MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 113 of the Blue Bear, described by Captain Battye as being ‘in the bare mountains where there is no jungle and where there is snow lying for seven months in the year’, corresponds with the description of this Tibetan region. There is no reason to look for marvels and suggest that the tracks ‘may have been made by some unknown relative of the Giant Panda or Snow Bear’, as does one correspondent writing from what The Times terms ‘the British Museum (Natural History) stable’, adding that ‘dramatists have so often used unknown relatives to explain away improbable occurrences that there seems no reason to make apocryphal additions to the Panda’s family circle in order to evade the issue’. Moreover, if improbable un- known Pandas, (the Panda feeds only on bamboo shoots), may exist in that region where there are no bamboos, why not far more probable bears? It may also be remarked that Pandas are bears to natives but not to science, while Ursus isabellinus has priority of claim to the name of ‘Snow Bear’. From the same source as the apocryphal Panda comes the suggestion that the tracks might be those of langur monkeys. This was ruled out by Mr. Kaulback, for the footmarks were found 3,000 feet above the tree-line, while the creatures that made the tracks had both come down and returned to a considerably higher point on the mountain. The only interest of this suggestion is that a similar one was made regarding the Mamh or black bear in Baluchistan, which excited considerable controversy in India some sixty years ago, ‘some writers maintaining that it was a mytho- logical animal, and others that it was a monkey’ (see Valentine Ball’s Jungle Life in India, 1880, page 447). Bears had hitherto been unknown in Baluchistan, when the production of a skin led Blanford to suppose that the animal was a new species which he called Ursus gedrosianus. It was afterwards identified as the Himalayan Black Bear, Ursus tibetanus or torquatus. The earlier specific name of that animal is itself of interest, for the species is unknown in Tibet. Lydekker, however, refers (Game Animals of India, p. 388) to a local race of Malayan Bear, Ursus malayanus, occurring in Eastern Tibet. As for mythical monsters, conjured up not only into the native imagination, it 1s surely time to put them in their proper place in the realms of mythology, whether they be Mountain Men in the Himalayas, Mahoni in Alaska, or Grey Seals in Scottish lochs, transformed by local imagination into ‘monsters of the prime’. Meanwhile reports of new species or varieties of fauna must be received with caution; even black tigers have proved to be leopards; obliterative colouration has strange effects, and a leopard in shadow may look like a lion in the way! BAFFORD GRANGE, R. G. BURTON. CHARLOTN KINGS, GLOUCESTERSHIRE. Wciober A, 1937. [The discovery of mysterious footprints in the snows of the higher Himalayas have drawn various conjectures as to the identity 8 114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURA BISTS"SOCIET V,. Vol age of the owners. Most appealing to the popular imagination is the theory that the footprints were made by a mysterious race of ‘Mountain Men’ to whom local legend ascribes the name ‘Abominable Snowmen’; the term ‘abominable’, it has been explained by a correspondent in the London Times, is used by the Himalayan folk, not in disparagement, but in the fear and reverence due to that which is ‘awful’. The belief in the existence of a race of demigods or their reincarnations has its origin in Hindu Mythology. Hindu Epic Literature abounds in stories of warriors and sages who, relinquishing the world and its vanities, retired into the Himalayan fastnesses, where by fasting and meditation, they overcame the forces of Evil and acquired such spiritual power as made Gods and Men tremble. Stripping the meat of fiction from the dry bones of fact, the most likely conclusion that we can arrive at is that the footprints were those of bears. The species concerned being either the Kashmir Brown Bear (Ursus arctos isabellinus), which ranges from Thian Shan to the Western Himalayas or the Tibetan Blue Bear (Ursus arctos pruinosus), which ranges from Western China into Tibet. These bears keep to the higher elevations in summer living chiefly on the grass slopes above the tree line close to the snow and the human-like impress of their broad feet in the snow, with some imagination, might be taken for the tracks of the so- called Abominable Snowmen—Ebs. | Il.—MEASUREMENTS OF TIGER. With reference to Mr. Marshall’s note on measurements of tiger in the Naga Hills, Assam, I give below measurements of a few tigers shot in the North Coimbatore jungles. One of these, a male, (length: g ft.) weighed 366 lbs. I also give measurements of panthers shot in the same area including, some weights, and also the weights of four bisons shot. Tiger Panther Bison Male : 88” Male c/s Bull: weight 1530 lbs.—height Female : 8'6” 6’—-spread= 37 = Female : 7’ Do, ahs Bull: weight 1900 1bs.—height Male : 9110" Do. dou 64’—spread : 34”. Female : 8'7” Bull: weight 1720 ibs.—spread : Dow 7 sor Do. as 335” (74” x 21”) very old bull. Don 7 10 Do: : 7'3” Buil: weight 1700 lbs.—spread ; Male : 8’ De. he O 304: Dor. 26'G2 ote a0" Do. » O12" Do. ee aa Do. 8/6” Do. St ne A Do. Sire ey Female : 6'6” 1 Tailless Tiger. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 115 Tiger Panther Bison Female : 8’2” Male : 8’2” (shot and measured by Capt. J. OLS! Todhunter, R. A.). | a : ye Female : 6’ pets . ae a Po. cy Male eOGLOG Female : 8/10” Do. : 7/4" Dos. + 8'2” Do. Sot 1 Do. © 73” Weight 131 lbs. ‘Do! : 6/8” 91 lbs. Do. meh 2a * 132 Ibs. Do. RaW Gee - 143 lbs. Do. 740 a 131 lbs. Do. : 6’64” =e 145 lbs. (abnormaliy short tail). Do. 6-107 yo OAs; Do. ed cons: Female : 5'94” »» 60% Ibs. HONNAMETTI ESTATE, ATTIKAN-—MysoreE P.O., R. C. MORRIS. SoutH INDIA. III.—CURIOUS BEHAVIOUR OF WILD DQGS AND A PANTHER AT A KILL. I am writing you a curious incident which I have personally come across while bringing to book a ‘notorious cattle lifting panther’. The panther measured 7 ft. 5 in. round the curves. It was a very cunning beast and it was causing a lot of damage to the calves. It was decided to tie a kill on a raised platform about 5 feet high and then to shoot the panther with a spot light. A kill was duly reported and as a major portion of the kill was already devoured, it was thought best to remove the old kill and tie up a fresh goat. I sat up and about 7 p.m. it was seen that two jungle dogs came near the raised. platform where the kill was tied up. Shortly. afterwards the panther also came, and sat at some distance from the tied-up goat. It did not at all mind the presence of the two wild dogs. The panther was killed with a neck shot while sitting, and the dogs were moving about when the shot was fired only at a distance of 20 yards from the panther. This is rather a curious incident and I thought it better to put this in writing as it may be interesting to the readers of your Journal. Could any reader kindly throw more light on the subject? RAMANUJ SAREN SINGH DEO; c.s.£., | RAGHUNATH PALACE, Maharaja of Surguja. AMBIKAPUR (SURGUJA), : EASTERN STATES AGENCY. November 13, 1937. 116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY WNALURAE HISTASOCIEI NG. Viol oxge IV.—UNUSUAL MAULING BY A LEOPARD. During May last year a party of Survey labourers were working on the re-survey and clearing of the old ‘cut’ boundary of the Yala Wild Life Sanctuary, which soon will be Ceylon’s Strict Natural Reserve. The place where the sad accident happened is very thick forest with hardly any small glades. K. Charlie, the deceased, was in charge of a party of five Survey labourers. Having returned at noon for their meals, the party left their camp again at I p.m., each man taking a katty, but no other tools or arms. Kk. Charlie went a little ahead of the men (it must be noted that | this was just after 1 p.m.), to try and locate an old picket and a blazed tree marking the old and overgrown boundary. Suddenly the men heard him screaming, and suspecting he had been attacked by some wild animals, they ran after him, shouting to scare away any animals, and found Charlie some 12 chains further on bleeding profusively from severe injuries all over his body, and crying out that a leopard had suddenly pounced on ‘him and wounded him. They tried to take the wretched man to the nearest hospital, at Tissamaharama, some 20 miles away, but he died en route and was given a last resting place near the scene of his labour in a wild and inhospitable part of the country where he lost his life when serving his Department. According to the enquiry the deceased had stated that the leopard had suddenly charged him, this at about mid-day, a most unusual time for a leopard to feed at a kill. It was stated that there was a carcass, but it is not stated where that carcass actually was when the animal so suddenly mauled the labourer. Perhaps the man disturbed the animal in its sleep near its kill, and in surprise and anger and by way of self-defence it at once went for and attacked the intruder. Nevertheless the sad accident is so unusual that I think it is worth recording. The hearsay report that ‘leopards sometimes attack pilgrims to Kataragama,’ (some twenty or twenty-five miles away,) and ‘there is every possibility of animals which have tasted human _ flesh roaming about in the neighbourhood’ seems to me most unlikely. It is also very unlikely that the man disturbed the leopard actually while it was feeding on the kill at that hour of the afternoon. It seems hardly possible to me that the man could have made his way through that very thick undergrowth so quietly that the leopard would not have heard his approach. The sad accident happened at a spot on the old boundary, miles from anywhere, and where no one had been for very many years until this Survey party arrived to re-survey the boundary. If the leopard was not wounded, the case is a very unusual one for Ceylon. The true facts of course can never be known, but in many years out here I have never yet heard of a leopard, which had not been MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 117 fired at, suddenly attacking a man in Ceylon, except for the well- known man-eater of Punanai, one of the rarest cases of man-eaters ever recorded for Ceylon. Not very far from there, walking quietly along a narrow game track and unarmed, a leopard, a very fine male, suddenly slipped -out of the jungle some ten yards from where I stood, a magnificent sight, I actually saw him ‘grin’ and with one bound he _ had disappeared. A. C. TUTEIN-NOLTHENIUS, West HApuTALe ESTATE, H,Z5Si Outya, CEYLON. V.—DISAPPEARANCE OF JACKALS. I should like to know whether cases of disappearances of jackals from an area or district have been recorded previously. Jackals were very numerous up to three or four years ago in this part of the Coimbatore District lying on the Mysore Plateau, but appear to have almost vanished from these jungles. This is probably due to an outbreak of some disease, wild dogs for instance have been attacked by mange badly in the last year or two, but it is curious that their disappearance appears to coincide with the last stages of a very serious outbreak of rinderpest among village cattle which lasted for three years. Jackals naturally fed their - full on the carcasses of cattle that died from this disease, and one wonders whether the jackals did not fall victims to a complaint brought on by a surfeit of stricken beef ! HONNAMETTI ESTATE, R. C. MORRIS. ATTTIKAN—Mysore_E P.O., SouTH INDIA. September 12, 1937. VI.—ON WHISTLING OF BISON. In regard to the whisting sound made by bison (Bibos gaurus) mentioned by Mr. Biddulph in the last Journal this ‘whistling’ noise, or high-pitched wail, is always made by a bull during the breeding season months, October-November to February-March. _ HONNAMETTI ESTATE, R. C. MORRIS. ATTIKAN—MysoreE P.O., SouTH INDIA. October 12, 1937. 118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL VII._CAUSE OF SORE NECK IN SAMBAR. A circular bare and hairless patch on the throat of sambar has been the subject of controversy going on from 1921 under the caption ‘Sore Neck in Sambar’ in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society and readers of this valuable Journal owe the editors a debt of gratitude for allowing many sportsmen and writers to express their own views. In this connection a note appeared in the Journal of the Natural History Society of Siam under the signature of Mr. P. R. Kemp. It was referred to in Volume xxxvil, No. 4, Misc. Note No. viii of the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal for the first time in IOQ2T. Although this subject is discussed in Shikar Books and in subsequent issues of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society in recent times, yet this phenomenon seems to have been observed for the first time, as early as 1890 by Mr. W. S. Thom (vide his interesting article in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, Vol. xxxix,: No.2): Before coming to the real cause for ‘Sore Neck’, it would not be out of place to summarise the opinion of various writers and tribes who live in forests where sambar abound. Mr. Kemp was told by the Siamese that this ‘Sore Neck’ is the leprosy of the Sambar and it is caused by the animal eating the fruit of the Ma-Kawk tree known as the wild olive or plum. The matter was referred to Mr. Dunbar Brander, I.F.s., who writes that he always observed this mark or sore during the period when hair and horn are undergoing a change. He naturally connected the two and came to the conclusion that the sore was the result of the changes taking place. He qualifies his remarks and states that this is merely’ his suggestion. On reading the above notes, Lieut. R. A. H. McConnel states that while shooting in the Southern Province of Ceylon, he ~ encountered a sambar hind which was incapable of movement. On examination he found that the under part of the neck was covered with festering sores. The hind was otherwise in fair con- dition and, as the sore was superficial, Lieut. McConnel supports the theory of disease. Here it may be mentioned that the sore neck due to a change in horn does not explain the phenomenon. (Vol. xxviii, No. 4, Misc. Note No. v, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society.) ; Then in Vol. xxviii, No.:2, Note No. ii appears the note from Mr. J. H. Hutton (now Dr. Hutton) with reference to ‘Sore Neck’. He was told by Nagas that it is due to the animals perpetually rubbing themselves to get rid of ticks. Dr. Hutton adds that ticks certainly attack the necks of sambar but suggests that it may — possibly be the result rather than the cause. A further reference was made to the Honorary Secretary, Bombay Natural History Society through Mr. Blackburn and he very kindly supplied me with a reference to ‘Sore Neck’ in Mr. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2 119 Dunbar Brander’s book Wild Animals in Central India. The author says that— ‘In parts of India, especially towards Assam, Sambar have often been observed to have a curious sore bare patch or spot on fhe base of the neck. The cause is not known: it has been suggested that it is the manifestation of some disease. The pheno- menon is not common in the Central Provinces, and I. have only noticed it late in the hot weather or at the commencement of the rains. At this season of course Sambar are subject to little intelligent observation so it is possible that these spots exist more frequently than we are aware of. Occurring as they do in the region of a hair whorl or centre, and at a time when rapid moult is taking place, I have associated the phenomenon as being in some way connected with the new growth of hair. When Sambar change their coats they often do so in large tufts, the old hair coming away in sections before the new hair has developed. During this stage they have a very ragged appearance.’ In the publication of 15th April, 1937 of the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal (Vol. xxxix, No. 2) a very interesting article on this subject appears. This is ‘The Malayan or Burmese Sambar’ by Mr. W. S. Thom. In this article Mr. Thom not only explains his own theory and observation but adds the experience of other sportsmen and observers. At the instance of Mr. Thom, tubes were supplied by Mr. Mitchell to Mr. Mustill, the Game Warden, Burma to collect some of the exudation from the sore of the sambar, so that Mr. Mitchell may be in a position to make an attempt to diagnose the disease, if disease it is. Mr. Thom thinks that if the sore or circular patch on the sambar’s neck is not the result of a parasite or a secretory gland such as is found in elephants, camels, black buck etc., then it may be the result of bites by ticks and the intense irritation: set up by the animals pushing their way through elephant grass and under growth. Mr. Thom suggests that plants like Mucuna pruriens whose pods are clothed with intensely irritating bristles, stinging nettles and the fine hairs of the bamboo set up irritation, and he adds that when sambar push their way through grass and tick-infested jungle, the animals hold their heads well up and these insects then find the throat and neck the most convenient spot on which to gather. Mr. Thom writes that he has been told that ‘Sore Neck’ has been seen ‘on the necks of brow-antlered deer and in one instance, on the neck of a barking deer. Captain S. R. Rippon informs Mr. Thom that skin on the bare patch on the tame sambar’s neck appeared to be quite normal, i.e., there was no sign of any parasitic disease to the naked eye nor did it appear as if the hair had been lost by rubbing. Captain Rippon thinks that the bare patch is probably a normal character- istic of the species and he doubts whether the sores are due to rubbing. He states also that it certainly would seem to be too much of a coincidence to find only this area on the neck affected in the way in every case, ticks must be found on other parts of the body. ~ . Mr. Thom gives further very interesting facts from Major C. P. 120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL Evans’ book Big Game Shooting in Upper Burma. This is quoted below :— ‘Major C. P. Evans in his book Big Game Shooting in Upper Burma has a lot to say on the subject of the sambar sore, vide pp. 144-48 of his book, but I will only quote a few extracts. He says that the Burman and Indian Shikaris state that the sambar is attacked by a parasite (I doubt whether they could explain what a parasite was) and that the sore is caused by the animal rubbing itself to get relief from the irritation. This he says no doubt is true so far as it goes; but they are quite unable to explain why sambar should invariably be attacked in exactly the same place or why the sore should be as circular as if it were made by a pair of compasses, and why sambar alone of all deer should be so afflicted. - But are sambar the only deer so afflicted. Hawena black buck in India got it? Evans goes on to say that he does not himself believe in the rubbing theory. If Wike beast rubbed itself against a tree or branch. to get rid of *the irritation it would do so with an up and down motion and the result would be irregular scratches along the throat. But strange to say in spite of the forbidding appearance of the sore sambar do not appear to be at all inconvenienced by it. Evans says that he has watched sambar, when out in the open both in India and Burma for half an hour or more at a time, on purpose to see whether the animals rubbed the sore; but he never saw any sambar whether young or old pay the slightest attention to it. That the disfigurement is caused by a peculiar parasite which only attacks the sambar is according to Evans quite certain; but why it should invariably confine its attentions to the throat, or why it should cause a complete circular sore and, having done so, desist from further attack he is unable to explain. Judgine by the bleeding spot in the centre of the circle it looks, according to Evans) jas if the parasite having reached its limits, returned to the original spot and fed there, since it is, in full-grown animals, always quite raw, the remainder of the circle being merely bare and pink-looking. Seen in the early dawn this raw spot has quite a gruesome appearance.’ The writer of this article has seen several sambar at close quarters during the course of 20 years of his roamingss in the jungle, but has never seen a single specimen of sambar with a ‘Sore Neck’ and never attempted to wait and watch for sambar as Major Evans did. Though there are several sportsmen and scientists in the field, seeking to unravel the mystery of this phenomenon, for the last 20 years, the writer had an uncommon bit of good luck to read a passage in a small book which explains the cause of ‘Sore Neck’ in such a manner that it leaves no room for any doubt. The fact of the matter is, our jungle friend the sambar although sometimes described as ‘Monarch of the Dale’ does not carry ‘blue blood’ in its veins. He has much humbler origin than _ people think. This ‘Sore Neck’ is nothing but a badge of inferiority complex which sambar and other higher forms of animals carry round their necks to remind them for all time, that they were MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 121 once marine animals. When the Himalayas were under water, these animals including sambar perhaps were swimming in the shallow sea. In the biological language, ‘Sore Neck’ in sambar is an insistence of ‘Atavistic Degeneracy’, i.e., a return to an ancestral type. What we see as a bare patch and a sore on the neck of the animals. used to be a place where gills were attached when these animals were leading a marine life. The disease is called ‘Cervical Fistula’. | recommend the readers to study Mr. B. Lindsay’s book The Story of Animal Life. I now quote the relevant passage from this book. ‘Nor do we need to go into the nursery to find links with our inferiors. Much, indeed far too much, has been written of late years about ‘‘atavistic degeneracy’’; that is to say degeneracy which imitates the characteristics of our forefathers. Many things which are classed as diseases, whether of the body, mind, or moral nature, may be explained in this way. Take the gills, which, as we have stated, exist in all vertebrates, but not in the adult of the highest groups. In a sickly individual, even among the highest vertebrates, traces of these are sometimes seen existing in the adult, as a gap or open space in the neck called by the medical man cervical fistula’’: this is an instance of degeneracy in the body. Take, for another instance, the kleptomaniac, who snatches up everything he takes—a degeneracy of the mind, a relic of savage nature out of place in civilised man. Yet the gill-space is an ancestral feature which has its right time to appear though it is out of place in the adult; and the ‘‘want-to-snatch’’ stage, as we have already seen, is quite natural in the young child.’ To understand clearly the development, position, and modification of ‘gills’ in the modern animal, I quote another passage from Mr. Lindsay’s book. ‘The classes of the Vertebrata are Fishes, Amphibia, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals. We used to learn that of these, fishes had gills, and Amphibia gills for a time; but, to be strictly accurate, we must say that fishes have gills, and all the rest of Vertebrata have gills for a time. There is no exception to this rule, not even among the highest vertebrates. But in those vertebrates which stand higher in the scale of life than Amphibia, viz., Reptiles, Birds and Mammals, these gills are never brought into use. They only exist in the early embryo, and afterwards disappear, giving rise by their modification to other structures. ‘Strange to say, one of these structures is the ear. This takes its origin from one of the gill-‘‘clefts’’ or spaces. The Eustachian tube, which communicates between ear and nose, is part of this cleft; and the little bones which are inside the ear represent the bones of the gill-cleft. For, in fishes, bones support each gill, and are connected together to form a complex arrangement. In the higher vertebrates, which possess gills only in the embryo, this gill-skeleton is much modified, and persists as a bone, the hyoid bone, supporting the tongue. ‘The gills of vertebrates, arranged in successive pairs along the Le) throat, are “‘perforating gills’’; that is to say, they consist 122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST? SOCIETY. Vole ue essentially of holes or spaces which pass right through the wall of the throat.’ JAGDALPUR, ©. R. DAY Bike BASTAR STATE, OCiobers 7291937: VIIIL—SOME BIRDS OBSERVED IN KUTCH AND KATHIAWAR. From the ornithological point of view Kutch appears to be one of the. least known of our Indian provinces, and Lester’s Birds of Kutch is the only reference work to it that I can trace A few notes jotted down during two short week-end visits (mid- June, 1936 and mid-August 1937) may be of interest. At Bedi Bunder in Kathiawar, a curlew was seen on 12th June. Lester cites a local sailor to the effect that curlew breed onmgae islands in the Gulf. At Rozi Bunder (also on the Kathiawar side), curlew and whimbrel were both common on the 16th June. Again in mid-August this year, both species were plentiful in the mangrove swamps around Kundla. Judging from the arrival and departure of these birds round Bombay, however, my notes alone would not justify a belief in the breeding of these birds in India. Further information on this point would be interesting. aa At the Hemisa Tank in the heart of Bhuj, I saw a solitary drake cotton teal (Nettapws coromandelicus) in full plumage. This is apparently the: first record of this bird in the States Subsequent to this I learnt from Prince Fatehsinghji of Kutch (who is taking a keen interest in birds) that two more had been obtained at a recent shoot and their identity confirmed in Bombay. I was also fortunate enough to meet during my short visit, a pair of those rare and elusive birds, the white-winged black tits (Parus nuchalis) on a scrub-covered hill-side. Unfortunately I had no occasion to add anything to our knowledge of this little-known bird. Other birds seen, apparently rare in Kutch (vide Lester) were the two Jacanas (Metopidius and Hydrophasianus) both of which were common at the Hemisa Tank in June. The Crow-pheasant (Centropus sinensis), which Lester particularly notes as absent in Kutch, was seen at Jamnagar, just across the Creek. ANDHERI, SALSETTE, HUMAYUN ALI. BOMBAY. December £5, 91937. IX.—DRUMMING OF WOODPECKERS. Anyone who lives in or near the jungles of this continent is familiar with the peculiar rat-a-tat or drumming on dead trees, a performance so often heard but not so often seen. I have the good fortune to have a vocation which permits of a study of bird ne MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 123 life and situated where woodpeckers abound After a number of years witnessing these performances I am still at a loss to account for the reason therefor. A woodpecker will fly to a dead tree which is often used time and again for this purpose and after sitting still for a short while will peck rapidly with ever quickening strokes of its bill at the bole or branch of the tree selected. It will keep up for some time with regular intervals between each bout of drumming the while looking round as if expecting something to turn up in response, but I have never seen any other of the species attracted in this manner so it would not appear to be a mating call. In any case why should a bird with usually loud vocal call go to the trouble of wasting its energy, tapping against trees to attract the female? It seems to be a practice common to all types of woodpecker and even those allied species which cannot be called true woodpeckers such as the Piculets. The other day I was attracted to a dead Grevillea tree by a persistent br-r-r-r, br-r-r-r sound at regular intervals and saw up at the top a Nilgiri Speckled Piculet performing. I give a list of the various woodpeckers I have observed drumming. Southern Golden Backed Woodpecker, Malabar Golden Backed Three-toed, Malherbe’s Golden Backed, Malabar Heart-spotted, Malabar Great Black Woodpeckers and the Nilgiri Speckled iculet, : It would be interesting to hear through the medium of the Journal others’ observations on this subject. I note that Whistler mentions that it apparently is an outlet for sexual emotion though he does not support it with any reasons why it should be. NADUAR ESTATE, R. N. CHAMPION-JONES. VALPARAI P.O., SOUTH INDIA. December 12, 1037. [The vocal or instrumental music of birds thecugh it has its origin in sex, cannot be interpreted as nothing more than an elaborate form of sex signalling. It may pass outside the immediate circle of sex relationship and become an outlet for such emotions as joy, fear, jealousy or even the expression of mere content. In an interesting article on the drumming of the Heart-Spotted Wood- pecker (Field, November 20, 1937), Major A. Buxton, writing about the performance of the birds at the nest, says that little drumming took place while the birds were sitting, but when he first entered his hide to film the birds in the act of drumming, the hen, disturbed ‘ by the noise he made, hit the trunk of the tree a resounding bang and ran up it drumming for all she was worth. The writer says that for two or three days he could always make her drum by making noises in the hide or by getting some one to hang about near the nest, for it was simply ‘a case of making her rather but not too annoyed’. But once the woodpecker became accustomed 124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISE. (SOCIETY, Volos to these disturbances, she ignored them and ceased to demonstrate. What part if any the drumming of the woodpecker plays in the inter-relationship of the sexes is not known. Both sexes apparently indulge in the habit—but Major Buxton’s note indicates that drumming may be a reaction to emotion not directly connected with the sexual impulse. It is interesting also here to include a comment by Mr. Eric Parker on Major Buxton’s note published in the “same issue of the field. The series of cine camera photographs which illustrate Buxton’s article record probably for the first time the movements of the woodpecker’s head when drumming—movements too quick to be caught by the eye, the head of the bird during the process becoming as blurred as a fast spinning top. The photos reveal a rotatory movement—the beak of the bird, first pointing half left, next points directly jan the tree and then reverts to the half left. Major Buxton holds the commonly accepted view that the sound is produced by the rapid striking of the bird’s beak against the wood and he observed that the sound varied according to the state of the wood, being much softer on dead wood than on live, and even varying in intensity on different parts of the trunk according to the state of decay. Mr. Parker holds that the drumming sound of the woodpecker is not produced by repercussion but that it is purely vocal and emanates from the bird’s throat. He submits that it would be impossible, with so small an instrument as the Spotted Woodpecker’s beak, to produce by hammering on any sort-of wood the long and sonorous volume of sound which can be heard more than a quarter of a mile away.—Ebs. | X.—THE INDIAN LONG-TAILED NIGHTJAR (CAPRIMULGUS MACROURUS ALBONONOTUS TICKELL). The article on Nightjars contributed by Mr. E. H. N. Lowther to the Journal, Vol. xxxix, No. 3, is most interesting, made more so by the admirable photos accompanying it which illustrate the wonderful provision of Nature in self-protection. The Indian Long-tailed Nightjar is quite common at Dehra Dun. During the hot weather it calls almost incessantly throughout the night. Deep and shady nullahs are features of this place, which are the resort of «this bird:- 4 so breeds in them, About the 15th April 1919, I flushed a bird, in one of these, off a single egg. The nest was just a few leaves scraped together. I marked the spot most carefully, so as to make sure of finding it again. I returned to the spot on the 18th, and although I looked hard and carefully at the spot where I was certain the nest was, I could detect absolutely nothing, so I thought there was ‘nothing doing’. I walked slowly towards this spot. When I had arrived there I stopped and with my stick I pointed to the place, practically. between my feet, when up flew the bird, disclosing two beautifully fresh eggs. The point of my stick must almost have touched her before she moved. The protection afforded her by her colouration could not have been better. LONDON, RY M. -BETHAM.-c.nEes Ocioben 22.) 19377 Brigadier-General. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 125 mir ON THE PARASITIC HABITS OF THE PIED CRESTED CUCKOO [CLAMATOR JACOBINUS (BODD.)]. Three weeks ago | returned from leave to find many young Pied Crested Cuckoos about the station. Now both Mr. Stuart- Baker in the Fauna and Mr. Hugh Whistler in his popular Hand- book of Indian Birds state that the young Clamator has that un- pleasant cuckoo habit of pushing the other inmates or eggs out of the nest. In fact, Mr. Stuart-Baker enlarges on the habit by saying that, although at times many eggs may be found in the one nest, obviously the products of more than one female cuckoo, the strongest and first-hatched youngster alone survives. Hume and Oates (Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds, 2nd Edition, page 388) only go so far as to say that ‘as a rule’ the young cuckoo is the only bird the foster-parents raise, and, on the same page, quote R. M. Adam as follows :—‘On the 13th August I observed in a garden in Agra two young birds of this species —being fed by an Argya malcolmi. There was also a young Argya malcolmi with the party.’ On August 23rd, I saw a Jungle Babbler feeding two young Clamator seated close together on a buttress root of a pipal tree close to the door of my office. The babbler first fed one, flew up into the tree, returned almost immediately and fed the other one. It then flew off followed by both young cuckoos. Two days afterwards I found we had a pair of young Pied Crested Cuckoos in our own garden, obviously just out of the nest. These were moving about together with a crowd of nine (at least) babblers, and are still to be seen together in the compound. Now are these really cases of two young cuckoos being brought up in the same nest? If so, it would seem that this species is not so black as it is painted. On the other hand I have seen four members of a gang of babblers feed the young babblers in one nest, so it is faintly possible that these young cuckoos actually came from different nests belonging to members of one gang. | wonder if any other members of the Society have anything to say on this subject? BAREILLY, Re ot Pe BAY DES: September 6, 1937. he Hh GG-LAYING. OF THE KHASIA HILES CUCKOO (CeCe BAKER IN THE NEST OF THE.BOURMESE STONE CHAT (SAXICOLA CAPRATA.BURMANICA). (May 1937). Yesterday, May 19, 1937, I went for a walk with my wife and children at about 5 p.m. at Taunggyi, S. Shan States. Elevation about 5,000 feet. On our return we passed a ploughed field just outside my north field and some two hundred yards from my cottage. It was then about twenty minutes past six in the evening and the 126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL VUAIST.SOCIEITY, Vol. Xue sun low. My dogs chased a bird off the plough, and then I noticed that it was a cuckoo. I stood there pondering when the cuckoo returned and perched on the bamboo rails. Two chats were after her, and so I suspected that they had a nest there, and that the cuckoo was going to lay. She then flew off with the chats after her—out of sight. We sat down to wait, and I got my field glasses ready. Back came the cuckoo and she flew low over the centre of the field, almost settling at a place some sixty yards in front of us. She then carried on to perch on the rails quite close to us. Then she flew back over the same area and carried on out of sight. In a couple of minutes’ time she came again with the chats - after her and dipping low in flight she settled at about the place I suspected the chat’s nest to be. I got my glasses on her, and though the light was failing a little, I could see her very plainly. She had the appearance of .a laying cuckoo, being a female with her throat feathers puffed out and her crown feathers raised from time to time. She began to search for the nest, hopping about in an ungainly fashion from clod to clod stretching her neck up looking everywhere. The chats were now mobbing her furiously, causing her to be continually ducking to avoid their onslaughts. As she did this she opened her beak at them and made faces. She did not appear to know exactly where the nest was and began a systematic search for it in an area of about five yards by three. The clods in the field were very large and lumpy with all manner of holes and cavities to conceal a chat’s nest in, so that she disappeared from sight from time to time as she hopped into the depressions. Backwards and forwards she went in a very persistent manner, mobbed the whole time. I should have perhaps driven her off and quickly erected a hide there, but it was getting so late and I did not know exactly where the chat’s nest was myself. I decided to risk it and continued to watch her with the glasses in the hopes that she would be in sight when she found the nest. With luck I should then be able to see her lay. She was, I think, a full ten minutes searching for the nest. It seemed to me a very long time. Her persistence astonished me. She really did not seem to know where it was as she frequently went to look into holes only to come out disappointed again. At last she dipped out of sight from me and a flutter of her wing tips suggested that she had found the nest and was in the act of laying. She was there just out of my sight for about six seconds—and then away she sped in a great hurry. She had undoubtedly laid! When she was about a hundred yards’ distance she gave two or three times her bubble note. We climbed the fence and walked up to the place, and there we found a very well concealed chat’s nest of the inaccessible type. The exact situation of it was obvious to me from the cuckoo’s feathers—six or seven of which were scattered about the nest entrance—mostly over it. As it was all soft earth thereabouts from recent rain her feathers must have been pecked out by the chats— both of which attacked her furiously at the time of laying. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 127 By stooping down with my head a foot above ground-level I could just make out that the nest contained two eggs—the cuckoo’s_ and one chat’s egg. From the outside to the edge of the nest would: be about three or four inches—that will be shown in the photograph. It was not a nest that I could get my hand into— although my hand is exceptionally small. By using just the tips of my forefinger and middle finger I was just able to get the cuckooo’s egg out—and then after it, the chat’s. One at a time and with difficulty. The cuckoo’s egg was warm and quite dry—with that lovely mat bloom on it of an egg just laid. The chat’s egg was whole and uninjured. We went home with the cuckoo’s egg, intending to photograph the nest next day. This incident confirms in every respect my observations of last year. The actual egg-laying took about three seconds, if we allow three seconds for the cuckoo to put her head into the chat’s nest Ho take out a chat’s egg. There were the usual preliminary flights to the vicinity of the nest to get her ready for her laying. The only thing that astonished me a little was that she really did not, on this occasion, seem certain of the exact situation of the nest but had to hunt diligently for it—for about ten minutes, and this proves that a cuckoo is able forcetain. her egg for ten minutes. The laying took place at six forty—the sun fis about to dip behind the hills. A photo with measurements of the nest concludes my account of this incident. TAR. LIVESEY. May 20, 1937. XTI.—CUCKOO PROBLEMS. In regard to my paper ‘Cuckoo Problems’ published in Vol. ceoxiil, NO. 4 of 25th August 1936, an-explanation is called for. The term I used to express my theory of the evolution of parasitism in the Cuckoos and the final adaptation of their eggs was ‘Desire’. That was perhaps an unfortunate term to use, as it suggests a sudden and independent volition on the part of the cuckoo amount- ing to almost conscious reasoning. Many people have given it this meaning, and so completely misread me, in spite of my having fully explained that my ‘desire’ was an inherited desire. ifemust- therefore explain that ‘desire’, has to be read as an ‘inherited urge to parasitism’ in most places where it occurs. TAUNGGYI, Te RSE RV SNe SOUTHERN SHAN STATES, Burma. Oelower 13, 1437: 128 JOURNAL, BOMBAYI NATURAL AISI20 SOCKET VY). Volswxas XIV.—OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACK-CAPPED KINGFISHER [HALCYON PEILEATA(BODD\: IN THE, GON DA DISTRICH War, I am sure you will be both surprised and interested to hear that a specimen of the Black-capped Kingfisher (Halcyon pileata) was caught alive in the garden next to mine this morning. It was found to have a very badly broken wing and I think it must have struck the electric light wires in its flight and so got its wing broken. According to the Fauna of British India, it has not, with one exception, been known further west than Monghyr on the Ganges and what it was doing up here, I fail to surmise. I have been in the stretch of country from Purneah on the east to Cawnpore on the west for the past 14 years and am always on the watch for birds, but I have never seen this species before. I shall be glad to know if it has ever been recorded. from these parts previously, if not, its occurrence here may be of sufficient interest to warrant publication in one of the next issues of the Society’s Journal. Beyond its broken wing, the bird is in beautiful condition, but I can only get it to eat with difficulty. BarRGaon P. O. WAL HE Wie Gonpba, U.P. September 25, 1937. [In India the Kingfisher is found in forests along the coasts and in the banks of tidal rivers, following these practically up to the hills. Its occurrence in the Gonda district, U.P. is unusual. The bird in question was probably a straggler from its normal habitat.—Ebs. | XV.—ARRIVAL AND STAY OF SNIPE IN ASSAM. I have read with interest the note on ‘Early and Late Snipe’ in Vol. xxxix, No. 4 of the Journal which I have just received and on turning up my Game register I find the following information which may be of interest :— (1) In the Rajshahi District in Bengal during the season 1931- 32 the first snipe I saw were three birds on the 19th August, but they were very wild and I failed to secure any. I saw another bird on the 25th August, but this also eluded me. It was not until the 30th August that I actually bagged one. Unfortunately I kept no record as to whether it was a Fantail or a Pintail. In the Game Book at the Police Mess at Sardah in the same district the earliest recorded snipe shot was on the 29th August up to the year 1930. The Game Book goes back a number of years. The latest snipe I secured in this district in this year was on the 3rd April when four couple were bagged all of which were Fantails; but a Pintail was shot by a friend who was _ shooting with me on the same date. He also got-three Fantails. (2) In the Sylhet District of Assam during the season 1932-33 the first snipe I saw was on the 25th August and I shot it. It MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 129 was a Pintail. I know of another Pintail shot in the same district the same year on the 13th August. Snipe have been heard of in Sylhet at the end of April. (3) During the season 1935-36 in the Sadiya Frontier Tract of Assam I shot a Fantail on the 8th August and a further eight couple Fantails on the 21st August. (4) In the same District (Sadiya) during 1936-37, I saw a snipe on the 19th August but failed to secure it. I bagged a Pintail on the 20th August, two more on the 21st August and a further 34 couple Pintails on the 22nd of the same month. Snipe do not appear to stay late in this District and I know of none shot after March. I feel certain however that the first birds reach the district at the end of July for all the birds shot in August have shown no signs of their long journey~ southwards being in very good condition and very lively. It is interesting to note that, whilst in August 1935 all the first birds shot were Fantails all the first birds shot in 1936 were Pintails! Further information as to the first arrivals and the latest re- corded snipe particularly from areas just south of the Himalayas would be interetsing. GAUHATI, Rk: Ey. PARSONS, KamMRuP DisTrRIcT, ASSAM. Indian Police. December-31,-1037. XVI.—OGCURRENCE OF THE SHELDRAKE (TADORNA’ TADORNA) IN MURSHIDABAD DISTRICT, BENGAL. It might be of interest to record the occurrence of the Sheldrake (Tadorna tadorna) in district Murshidabad, Bengal, a small party of some 5 or 6 of the birds having been seen by a friend and myself on a piéce of open water on December 5th 1937. The _ Sheldrake which were observed at about 100 yards’ range through field-glasses were not mixing with the numerous other ducks on the water (mostly Pintail) but formed a small party of them- selves near the edge. I understand this species is a somewhat rare visitor to this part of India. Another fairly interesting occurrence of this season in the same district the Mallard (Anas platyrhyncha), two having been obtained on November 21st and one on November 28th, others having been seen on both days. I, CLIVE STREET, Rog) CLOUGH. GCAECUTTA, December 17, 1937. XVIT.—NOTE ON THE PYTHON. A few days ago I obtained a python near a small ‘busti’. The reptile was said to have caught and swallowed a goat the previous afternoon, at the edge of a paddy field, and had moved S) 130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST? SOCIETY, Vol-XxE a distance of only about twenty-five yards into thick undergrowth, to sleep off the effects of its rather large meal. In order to lighten the carcase for easy transport to my car, and also so that the owner of the goat might regain his lost property, (for he was of the opinion that it would still be quite good to eat), I opened up the snake and removed the goat, which latter was incidentally a large one and quite above average size. The goat had been swallowed head foremost and rather more on its back than side, as the sharp points of the horns could be seen in the tightly stretched belly skin of the python. Digestion had only slightly commenced round the head and neck, where some of the hair had gone, and the bare skin had turned a dark colour. This was at 11 a.m. and if my information was correct, about 19 to 20 hours after swallowing. (Pretty slow digestion !) With the exception of this discolouration the goat was absolutely intact, no wounds were visible and no bones appeared to be broken. The python was not a large one, measuring a bare 14 feet 6 inches. The few books in my possession that mention this subject, would have one believe that the python crushes its victim into a sausage- like mass before swallowing, but in this instance the crushing process had certainly not taken place. Even the legs were un- broken, the fore ones doubled back, and the eva ones forward, under the belly. Questions that seem to need answering, are:—(1) How was the goat killed without wounds being inflicted, or bones broken? (2) How did the hind legs assume the position mentioned above? (3) Why were the usual signs of crushing entirely absent? Is it possible that the goat was swallowed alive, and therefore died of suffocation, thus accounting for the lack of wounds and broken bones, and also the position of the hind legs, in that they were caught in this position by the jaws of the snake during its (the goat’s) death struggles? Finally, would a python of this size find the goat small enough to make crushing unnecessary, and only © employ this method on larger animals? It would be of great interest to know if the natural feeding habits of the python have been accurately observed, and also how such an apparently sluggish snake is able to catch wary creatures like wild pig, and barking deer, as they undoubtedly do. Since writing the foregoing I have discussed the matter with a friend, who is a very keen observer with long experience in Assam, and I quote with his permission, two out of many instances that go to prove his contention of the habits of the python, in obtaining its food. It is his opinion that the python waits beside a path used by domestic animals or game, near a tree stump or sapling that offers an anchorage for his tail, and lies (perhaps for days), with the fore part of his body in the form of an ‘S’. When the unsuspecting victim comes along, this ‘S’ is straightened out with lightning-like rapidity, and the snake using its head as a battering ram, delivers a blow that ‘knocks the wind out’ of the animal, if not actually killing it on the spot. It then throws its body upon the animal, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 131 and using the purchase of its tail from the convenient stump or sapling, presses down with terrific force until life is extinct. In support of this; in each of the two instances mentioned above, a goat was killed by a python, but the reptile was disturbed before swallowing had commenced. In each instance the animal had been killed with no apparent wounds, on a pathway. Again, in each case there was a tree stump or sapling nearby, and from the latter a definite impression of the snake (described by my friend, as resembling a small trench), leading towards the pathway, of about the right length to allow of a turn of the tail round the stump, with the ‘S’ formation at the head end, within striking distance of the path. My friend, on both occasions found the reptile lying up just where his experience had led him to expect it, and in the attitude described above. He also mentioned that both goats were found with the eyes wide open and a placid expression, giving no indication of having died in great pain or fear. TINKONG TEA ESTATE, hale YIN DEE: Tinkonc P.O., ASSAM. November 4, 1937. [Snakes being limbless invariably seize their prey with their jaws : but the teeth of snakes are fragile and ill-adapted to hold a struggling animal; movement of the prey is arrested either, with the paralysing effect of poison, or, when this is insufficient or wanting, the snake holds its quarry still by encircling it with its coils. Boas and Pythons deal with their prey according to size. Invariably the victim is seized with the jaws. It is a question of actual seizure; not merely of knocking the animal over with a battering blow of the head. The mouth and head of a python are not built for such usage. When seized in the jaws, if the prey is small and makes no struggle the snake does not attempt to wind its body around it but proceeds to swallow it. Frogs and lizards are frequently swallowed alive and have been rescued little the worse for their experience. If the prey is bulky or struggles, the coils are brought into use to stop movement. There is no intention to crush or break bones, and this seldom happens. The extent to which the quarry is encircled and the amount of pressure exerted is proportion- ate to the struggles of the victim. But the vice-like grip of the snake, preventing expansion of the lungs or the muscular action of the heart, results in killing the prey by asphyxiation. This explains why in the incident described above the goat was without wounds. The teeth would make little apparent impression on a_ hairy animal, and why there were no bones broken or apparent signs of crushing—death was brought about in the usual way by asphyxia- tion; the position of the hind legs was merely incidental to the manner of seizure in the coils of the snake. The python’s method of attack both under conditions of captivity or in the wild state has been frequently observed. The snake may make its seizure on 132 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL “BIST. SOCIETY, Vole Xie the ground. In forest country it may climb into trees, where it hides so securely that even so alert a creature as a monkey is frequently taken unawares and meets its death, or the snake, with the help of its prehensile tail, suspends itself partly from the branches like a great aerial root, and from this position strikes at the unsuspecting quarry passing below. The element of surprise is part of.the attack and the prey is seized and enmeshed in the coils before it is able to realise what has happened.—EDs. | XVITI.—MAN INSTANCE OF ‘VIVIPARITY’ IN MABUYA CARINATA (SCHN.). Malcolm A. Smith' in describing the habits of Mabuya carinata says ‘It is usually stated that this skink is viviparous, but such is not the case. A female kept by Father Dreckmann in captivity laid twenty-three eggs; from another female he recovered twenty- two eggs. All are about the same size—about 13 by 8 mm.; none of. those examined showed any trace of embryo’. My observations show that Mabuya carinata is ovoviviparous. Some years back I came across, one morning in a school garden, a partly mutilated skink. On opening the body of the animal I found a number of eggs all of which showed developing embryos. I could observe closely the heart beat and circulation of blood. The stage of development roughly corresponded to a three-day-old chick embryo. Two of these embryos which I stained and mounted are still with me. Subsequently I came across a case of oviparity in a skink in Annamalainagar. The egg clutch is now in the Zoology Laboratory of the Annamalai University. ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY, Rye VY. SESHATYA ANNAMALAI NAGAR. Lecturer in Zoology. XIX.—A SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF THE PYRALIDAE OF CALCU TAs Some time back (Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxviii, p. 204) I recorded 91 species of Pyralidae taken in Calcutta. One species, Ercta elutalis, Wlk., must be deleted from this list, the specimen in question being a particularly pale example of Ercta ornatalis, Dup., and two species, Ramila marginella, Moore and Ceratarcha umbrosa, Swinh. must be corrected to Ramila acciusalis, Wl1k. and Phryganodes analis, Snell. I now add a further 33 species, bringing the total to 123 to date: Mucialla rufivena, Wk. Crambus atkinsoni, Zell. Platytes argentisparsalis, Hmpsn. Scirpophaga bisignata, Swinh. om a * Fauna of British India Reptilia and Amphibia (Vol. ii) by Malcolm A, Smith. (New series.) MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 133 Epicrocis aegnusalis, Wk. Hypsipyla robusta, Moore. Etiella zinckenella, Treit. Orthaga euadrusalis, Wk. Endotricha decessalis, Wlk. Endotricha ruminalis, Wk. Stemmatophora pallidella, Hmpsn. Herculia tenuis, Btlr. Nymphula foedalis, Guen. Nymphula responsalis, Wik. Nymphula affinialis, Guen. Cataclysta fuscalis, Hmpsn. Oligostigma picale, Guen. Mabra eryxalis, Wk. Zinckenia perspectalis, Hbn. Syngamia abruptalis, Wk. Bocchoris rotundalis, Hmpsn. Bocchoris onychinalis, Guen. Bocchoris inspersalis, Zell. Bocchoris artificalis, Led. Caprinia conchylalis, Guen. Deba surrectalis, Wk. Lygropia amyntusalis, Wk. Pachynoa pectinicornalis, Guen. Pachyzancla phoeopteralis, Guen. Pachyzancla aegrotalis, Zell. Phlyctaenodes massalis, Wk. Pionea ablactalis, Wk. Pyrausta phoenicealis, Hbn. LONDON. Ds *G 7 SEV ASTOR ULG. e227, s. Wovember 20, 1937. XX.—A NOTE ON THE LYCAENID BUTTERFLY EVERES DIPORA (MOORE). (With a plate). During the warmer months (April-September) this delightful little butterfly may be observed in suitable localities between 3,000 ft. and 6,5co ft. in the Simla Hills. It is usually found in open grassy country about which the food plants grow. In the summer of 1936, I observed the females ovipositing on the leguminous plant Desmodium parvifolium. I took some of the eggs but due to the withering of the plant I had no success with the larva. This year I was surprised to see a female laying her eggs on another plant, Flemingia fruticulosa which also belongs to the Leguminosae. A few eggs were collected from time to time and, with the latter plant (see photo of larva), kept in glass-covered tin ento- mological boxes (which method I would stress keeps the contents 134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NADTURAE VAIS? ~SOCIE TN: aVoleas of the box perfectly fresh for a week) and several larvae were in due course reared to maturity. | It was interesting to note that the larvae were dimorphic, one brown with self-coloured longitudinal stripes, the other green similarly marked. These were separated, the green in one box, the brown ones in another box, but the pupae were all cream-coloured and the imagoes, irrespective of sex showed no differences. During the lifetime of the larva it is seldom seen feeding, as this it does entirely on the tiny immature flower buds enclosed by the folded bracts. Pupation also took place in the same safe situation. So that altogether the species is more or less immune from the attacks of would-be enemies. The sculpture of the egg is much the same as that of Lycaenopsis huegeli but 1s smaller and, whereas the latter’s is dead white, this is sea-green. Pupation lasts nine or ten days; the imago emerges between FO and /12 aun: It would appear that the ants do not enter into the economy of this species. In conclusion I would like to express my grateful thanks to Col. IX. A. Glennie for photographing the specimen. 2, THE Matt, SIMLa. A. FE, JONES: November 3, 1937. XXI.—ON THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LYCAENOPSIS HUEGELIT HUEGELTT AND LYCAENOPSIS LADONIDES GIGAS. (With a plate). When Brigadier Evans’ Identification of Indian Butterflies was published in 1927 there was no mention of the latter species, so when the second edition of this very admirable work appeared in 1932, with many additional species included, entomologists in India awoke to the fact that still more intense investigation might be profitably spent on solving some of the problems presented. The above two species are to the casual collector of Lepidoptera very much alike in the imago stage. Last year, I told Brigadier Evans I had been breeding some of these from larvae; he suggested that further experiments in this direction would be useful. This year more larvae were collected but it was difficult to separate the two species from these and the credit of solving the problem is entirely due to Col. E. A. Glennie who, while hunting for larvae, came across numbers of eggs and herein were found the great differences which will be observed by reference to the photographs. From these eggs, duly separated into their respective boxes, a number of larvae were reared and the imagoes eventually emerged, some were bred by Col. Glennie and some by myself and all came out true to species as discriminated in the egg stage. From the time the pupa was formed eleven days usually elapsed before the imago emerged, — JOURN. BomMBAY Nat. HIstT. Soc. PLATE I Ova x 40 Larva x3 Stages of Eveves dipora, Moore. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II} Imago, d x3 Stages of Everes dipora, Moore. Journ. Bompay Nat. His. Soc. Lycaenopsis Lycaenopsis huegelii huegelii ladonides gigas X 29 X 29 X1 ol L. huegelii huegelii 1 Xl Comparison of Stages of Lycaenopsis huegelii huegelii (Left) and Lycaenopsis ladonides gigas (right), i a) MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 135 from the photographs the respective larvae look distinct enough, both are green of various shades, the heads only being black. ‘Lhe only difterence, as the camera depicts, is that the markings on ladonides gigas are somewhat clearer than those of huegelit. The food plant is Prinsepia utilis, Royle, Order Rosaceae, a shrubby spiny bush attaining to a height of usually 4 to 5 ft. common in the Simla Hills from about 5,000 ft. to 7,500 ft. Ants have not been observed attending either of the above species so far aS we Can ascertain. 2, THE MALL, SIMLA, A, E. JONES. XXIT.—-A NOTE ON OUR YALA SANCTUARY. On May 5th my wife and myself had the pleasure of taking Sir Thomas Comyn-Platt to the wild life Sanctuary at Yala, so that he could get a ‘glimpse’ and an idea of that lovely country and see, if possible, some of our bigger fauna before his return to England after his visit to the F.M.S. where he was sent to obtain first-hand information for the Society for the Protection of the Fauna of the Empire. Our visit was very hurried but fortunately conditions were good and this note may be of interest to those who contemplate a visit to this splendid, and the best Sanctuary in Ceylon, before it may be too late. I knew it would be impossible to attempt it in our own car, but we were fortunate in finding a very ancient Chevrolet. at Tissamaharama, which is the last jumping off place and which is some 30 miles from Yala, where the Ranger lives, and where the Sanctuary starts at the other side of the river, the Menik Ganga. How that old car and the owner driver did that frightful journey would be a surprise to many. It is only a cart track-.and an apology at that. Every single obstacle where anyone else would have slowed down, or even stopped and got out, our driver simply charged at and over tree stumps and boulders we flew, only twice sticking in very deep and dry sand, where combined efforts of the .party made the ‘modern’ Ship of the Desert continue its weary way. What propaganda for the make of Chevrolet cars! The track is only possible for only some makes of cars, during the dry season, which of course is not the best time to see the country at its best or to expect to see very much of all the wild life it holds. One heavy shower of rain, and one might be held up or cut off for many days. Therefore a car is not advisable, and the usual method of travelling in the little bullock carts is the best. The first miles are not very interesting although parts are beautiful open park-country and huge salt pans, like Daytona Beach, After Palatapana, where the Game Reserve starts, the country soon becomes more interesting and very soon we began to see game, deer, buffalo and wild pig. Many of the deer simply stood and stared at our passing, or tried to race the car. Reaching Yala at 9 a.m., rather late, we crossed the river where in future, it is hoped, there will be a boat or a canoe or 136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XL a raft, as I have recommended for many years. This river very often suddenly comes down in flood when it would not be possible to cross without a boat. Some of my men have been cut off and have had to spend the night up a tree and in heavy rain, simply asking for death by malaria. A raft would be a simple matter and easy to make, but progress moves so slowly! It was very hot and rather late in the day when we reached the first huge open plain, but still we were lucky in being able to show Sir Thomas many buffalo, deer, pig, etc. while a bear ambled across our path, disturbed in its feeding on the delicious ripe palu fruit, which taste like small fresh dates and are very refreshing and said to be intoxicating, but we noticed no such effects. On our return a cup of tea with the Ranger was most welcome, when one of the men suddenly called out ‘Elephant’. This was luck, and from the small bungalow compound we could show our visitor a fine large bull slowly wandering about the river bank. If we had tied up a tame one, it could not have been arranged better ! It was a pity that time was all too short, as a few days camped in the very heart of the Sanctuary is an experience one never will forget. The camp-site is on a huge plain under some large shady trees, and from one’s camp chair or even camped, one sees the whole plain covered with wild life, practically throughout the whole day except during the hot noon hours. Herds of deer, small lots of sambhur, hundreds of buffalo, many fine lone old bulls, sounders of pig, jackals, peafowl, numerous waders and storks, and often a lone—or some herd elephants. It is an experience few would believe one could find in this world, where Nature and Wild Life are pushed back more and more by our unwelcome and destroying ‘civilisation’. Intending visitors should remember that permission to visit this Sanctuary must be obtained from the Minister for Agriculture in Colombo, while any information as how to. arrange such a trip and make all the arrangements, will be gladly given by the writer of this note. It must be remembered that when the Yala Wild Life Sanctuary has been declared a Strict Natural Reserve, permission to visit it will be most difficult, if not impossible, to obtain. Personally I think that a great mistake, I know that country very well, and I cannot possibly see what harm it could ever do for a small party to visit it and camp there a few days. That cannot disturb the game or the wild life in any way whatsoever, and it will be a sad day if that glorious country will be closed for ever for those who are genuinely interested in wild life and who love beautiful country so little known. WeEstT HApPuTALE ESTATE, A. C. TUTEIN-NOLTHENTUS; OHIyA, CEYLON. V.Z.S. PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18, CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS EDITORS: P. M. D. SANDERSON, S. H. PRATER, C. MCCANN, 6, APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY IE-BIRDS OF INDIA, BURMA & CEYLON. ¢. STUART BAKER, CLE, 0. BE, F.LS., E.Z.S., M.B.0. U., H. F.A.0.U.. Imperial 8vo. Half bound. VOL. 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THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA, Part IV. By Dr. S. L. Hora, psc, F.R.S.E., F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., FAN.I. (With one coloured plate and 4 MAIMED CS atest Gar see vaca he snipes sin rls solr Silane soc aS sa veskied obs 0eadss. sha veoset sabe THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE, Part IV. By Salim A. Ali, and Humayun Abdulali. (With two black and white DUGLES) Rauch heer ed THE ORIGINAL HOME OF THE Coconut. By P. V. Mayuranathan....... ROSE-FINCHES AND OTHER BIRDS OF THE WARDWAN VALLEY. By Major R. SP. Bates, t.A. (W2h 6 Plates) cscccvsisessescvesstlvsvescecccsate A FuRTHER CONTRIBUTION TO SOME OF THE COMMON FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE HYDERABAD STATE: THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. By M. Sayeedud-Din. (With a Map.).... THE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF JODHPUR STATE. By H. Whistler, ARE Sigs NisE Oliinateusts sc rncosnewtere sauna vole sneee Goad caheswabuber cr teadasndliety es a On A NEw Coccipium J/sospora minuta n. sp. FROM THE INTESTINE OF A CoBRA WVaja naja Linn, By Matiranjan Das-Gupta, M.sc. (With QED UGUE Na ctnecg oni: eh vars uecieyip stoma imeun bie dau cedssnesed iW eaeoutepatnweened se aioe twats THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND. By C. H. eae (With a LM) atc ntgen eens iuigsiaiaataeie caer Wank e Reteac yds ceea tia thunsiw bs pases abeecdtoareeey ene A Note on Metanastria hyrtaca Cram. By T. V. Subramaniam, B.a., and... P. Anantanarayanan, B.A. (Hon.). (W2th @ Plate) .tevc.cscsssres THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA. By Rev. Fr. J.F. WANTS NaCI Meee yearn i re cha ee tera canesrccmuecec uss Seite s loenane en tina cosa voor est Senides ic REVIEWS :— I.—The Birds of British Somaliland and the Gulf of Aden...... .. hes Wem Leben Der Voge lis c.ccdeisteve cnc wsebewest es vscnesens vereenes iM —The Compleat Indian: AMC. 3 6... us .csccserse cendeesiasneatescs veers IWee hel risis of a Plamter.. i. ene. Eee ete Peres ene ee Waa We wea EVOtas toss .scateee ve paesdl 600 voc cca e6 vacieey secieedvccese cs eae VI.—Uganda Game Department Annual Report for the year 1937, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— i-—Panther with abnormal feet. By Ss, H. Prater.......... eee IIl,—Jackals (?) and a captive Panther. By Noel J. S. Thompson. Ill.—Pangolin and Sambar: A curious belief. By Eds............ IV,—An albino Sambar. By H. G. Champion, 1.8.S.................. V.—The mating of elephants. By Paul de Launey................... VI.—A Large Indian Elephant. By F. J. Mustill...... wo... VII.—Behaviour of Gaur or Indian Bison. By R.C. Morris......... VIII.—Behaviour of Gaur or Indian Bison (760s gaurus). By NiO ele GOSS Cla my'wwnaa cscs onesivesssotcnddeeseuetact ore IX.—The use of firework or rocket cartridges in the protection of ChOps.: oy eed), NEUSHU: co cnesects.cesetecare.. Resarasepreeeecces aie 191. Zu3 236 238 257 i CONTENT SOF Vol.-XL Wo..2 PAGE X.—The Yellow-bellied Flycatcher (Chelidoryna hypoxanithum) : An extension of its range. By Rev. E. A. Storrs Fox....... 327 X1I.—The Status of the Koel (Audynamis scolopaceus L.) in Sind. Byek . KR. Hates; PeZiSs5 Mas On tentecscren-caceonmaconccae sear 328 XII.—Some interesting records of birds in the Punjab. A correc- tion. ‘By EW.” Walle MB iO Uses as Sere Cee cnaete ese maseoee 328 XIL—Cuckoo Problems. By D.WR: eivesey-e. 7. oe aeaes ee 329 XIV.—Strange accident to a Vulture. By J. A. C. Greemwocd: (WAL SG, BOLO) akicgeat sacle Siaencon eur dose ahenecn eae ee saceaan 330 XV.—Occurrence of the Lesser Cone Green Pigeon (Dendrophasa bicincta bicincta) at Keamari, Sird. By K... Ri: Bates .BiZS a MeB.O: Us cosets ask cas cnnuce cent cs ee eee sence 330 XVI.—Woocdcock, Wood Snipe, Pintail Snipe and Jack Snipe in one day. BY ARE, StOReY. igi. i cecse'nacsas bose caset ae aeeceneaeee 331 XVII.—The Snipe-billed Godwit ee taczanowskius (Werreatx) || in Orissa “By 82 Ea erate ccssete sera eene BIO XVIII.— The occurrence of the Turnstone, the Red-necked Phalarope, the Falcated Teal and the Sheldrake at Patna. By BH Ate: DO ADE CU cosas staenatenetnccuces rim orton: aetna conan cme 332 XIX.--Bewick’s Swan (Cygnus bewickii Pane near Delhi. By Ee) Dx, LLC WIS. sect 'aneoc esis ns cunvens Mouacensesemnces asta an et Geen eee eecee 333 XX.—Occurrence of the Long-tailed Duck (Clangula hyemalis Linn.) wear Quetta. By MiB. P.Reeve (Major) aes 333 XXI.—Sheldrake (Zadorna tadorna Linn.) in Orissa. By Re a) Cloueiie oresa she oase ota ee ose n ee noeweee es ae ioe 334 XXII.—A Hybrid : Common Tealand Baikal Teal. By Lt.-Col. J. W. Thomson: Glovers Jn. as5 seosea ese. seemtders adasues enue wens ome ae 334 XXL. Migration of Wald fowl. By HGS: icicawsscrsstouneeescseregent 335 XXIV.—The Food of the Mugger (Cvrocodilus palustris). By Humayun: ApGtlali css acsconece se ccvadoess iceman sat as eee 336 XXV.—The Head shields of the Hamadryad [Nata Hannah (Cantor) ]: Anabnormalexample. By R. N. Champion-Jones......... 336 XXVI—Two caterpillars of economic importance not recorded before from South India. By T. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar, Bea § PROD Asc. ceramics cute cee cen an Meo vonsomeas eocee tence ee ee eneee 336 XXVII.—Notes on the Earwig Dicrana Seer Dohrn. By sir Frank Connor, D.S.O., F.R.C.S., I1.M.Ss. (Major-General, RGEC: ) ca qudtainn sess Gresser nststqan de cose pets Gaaghcmen sivas oats Went acngtnnes 338 Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting of the Bombay Natural History, SOClEtVins. s.cstitaust oe ca scee eo aceeeeees ee er eee 340 ‘(uoz!WeH) eIPUO]IS BLUO|!S HsI4LV> GNONS JHL ‘90S “ISIE] “LVN ‘Wog ‘Nano[ JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society. 1988. Vou Xi. No. 2. THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA.! BY Sunper Lan Hora, D.8¢., F.R.S.E., F.Z.S., F-R.A.S.B., FNL Assistant Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. (With one plate and four text-figures). Continued from page 678 of Vol. xxxix. IV.—TueE Srtonp CatrFisu. SILONIA SILONDIA (Hamilton). CONTENTS. “= +. ee re PAGE __ Introduction ik ec” J ght Paras ae es OY - Nomenclature and Systematic Position | et he ee 38 Synonymy and Description ae a eee we dT Bionomics and Fishing Notes a oni oes va .. «144 Acknowledgments ae Thee Bes 2 (246 List of References a a fc its sor 146 Explanation of Plate sis =n ae bs saw «7 INTRODUCTION. Among a great variety of Indian Catfishes, there are four species, viz., Silonia silondia (Ham.), Pangasius pangasius (Tam.), Bagarius bagarius (Ham.) and Wallagonia attu? (Bloch), which attain a size of about five to seven feet in length, and on account of their voracious habits and powerful build are sometimes called ‘Freshwater Sharks’. They cause considerable damage to fisheries 1 Published with permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India. 2 Myers (Copeia, p. 98, June 1988) has restricted the use of the generic denomination Wallago to W. dinema Bleeker and has included the Indian Species in his new genus Wallagonia. NOV -5 1988 138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL and are very undesirable in several respects. However, they pro- vide considerable sport to anglers, and are regarded game fishes of ho mean value. ‘Lhe present article deals with the Silond Catfish, which is perhaps the most powerful of all the four species enu- merated above and whose flesh is certainly more prized than that of the others. The following three articles will be devoted to the treatment of the three other so-called freshwater sharks. NOMENCLATURE AND SYSTEMATIC POSITION. Hamilton (3)' who discovered the Silond Catfish for science, named it Pimelodus silondia, but later workers regarded Hamilton’s Pimelodus as a generalised, composite genus and split up his group of 383 species into several genera. Swainson (6) removed the first two species of Hamilton’s Pimelodus—P. silondia and P. chandra- mara, to a new subgenus Silonia of Ageniosus (sic) which was defined as follows:— ‘Body of equal thickness with the head, which is not dilated; eyes very large; cirri two, very minute; adipose dorsal very small, oval; gill-membrane ten-rayed; ventral fin beneath the first dorsal; caudal fin slightly lunate.’ The two species included by Swainson under Silonia, S. lurida Sw. (=P. silondia Ham.) and S. diaphina Sw. (=P. chandra- mara Ham.), are quite different from each other, except that both were characterised by Hamilton as possessing only two barbels. P. silondia is, however, designated as the type of the species and it is to the fishes of this kind that the generic designation of Silonia is now applied. Probably beimg unaware of Swainson’s classification, Cuvier and Valenciennes (1) also proposed a new genus Silundia for the same two species of Hamilton’s Pimelodus and characterised it as follows : — ‘Les Silondies sont des siluroides, voisines des Bagres, a petite téte lisse, fort semblable & celle des schilbes, & trés-petite nageoire dorsale adipeuse, 4 longue nageoire anale, qui n’ont que deux barbillons maxillaires, et tellement petits, qu'il faut de l’attention pour des découvrir. Leurs rayons branchiosteges sont au nombre de douze. Leurs dents de machoires, sur un on deux rangs seulement, sont plus longues et moins semées que dans les autres siluroides. Nous n’en connaissons bien qu’une espéce le pimelodus silundia de Buchanan; inais il me parait que le pimelodus chandramara du méme auteur s’en rapproche aul moins beaucoup.’ Cuvier and Valenciennes changed the specific name of Silond to Silundia gangetica and the later workers adopted this name without any reference to Swainson’s earlier work. As Silonia Swainson has priority over Silundia Cuvier and Valenciennes, in accordance with the International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature the species must now be designated as Silonia silondia (Hamilton), As recognised here Silonia is a monotypic genus. Some authors have regarded Sykes’ (7) Ageneiosus childreni as a doubtful mem- ber of this genus but I (4) have placed it in a separate genus Silonopangasius Hora. Day (2) described a new species of 1 Numerals in thick type within brackets refer to the serial numbers of the various publications listed in the bibliography at the end of the paper. THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 139 Silundia, S. sykesi, from Deccan and was doubtfully of the opinion that it may be synonymous with Sykes’ childrenit. In the col- lection of the Zoological Survey of India there is a considerable material of the Deccan form. Though both the species possess eaniniform.teeth which project outside the mouth-opening, Silono- pangasius childreni has two pairs of barbels while Silonia silondia has only one pair. The structure of the air-bladder is also differ- ent in the two species. Moreover, the Deccan form rarely exceeds a foot and a half in length. Taylor, Day, and Bridge and Haddon described the air-bladder of S. silondia,! but their accounts differ greatly from one another. On dissecting a number of specimens of various sizes it was observed that the form of the air-bladder undergoes considerable ee Text-fig. 1.—Air-Bladder, associated skeletal structures, and dentition of Stlonta stlondia (Ham.). a. Air-bladder of a specimen 53 mm. in length without caudal. x38; b. Air- bladder of a specimen 131 mm. in length without caudal. x3; ¢. Air-bladder of a specimen 237 mm. in length without caudal. x2}. The portion shaded by section lines represents a strong fibrous structure by which the bladder is attached to the neighbouring skeletal elements; d. Airebladder of a specimen about 1.070 mm. in length without caudal. x4. The bladder from the right side is removed to show the nature of the bones to which it is firmly attached; e. Longitudinal horizontal section of the air-bladder shown in d. X3%. The portion shaded by section lines represents the solid, fibrous part of the bladder, while its cavity is shaded black with dots; f. Upper dentition of a specimen 237 mm. in length without caudal. Nat. size. changes during growth. I reproduce here (text-fig. 1) four drawings of the air-bladders of specimens 53 mm., 181 mm., 237 mm. and * For references to the accounts of Taylor, Day, and Bridge and Haddon See the synonymy of the species on page 141, 140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL 1,070 mm. in length without the caudal, respectively. In both the earlier stages the form corresponds with that described by Bridge and Haddon, Hore that of the third specimen approaches the type described by Day. Fortunately, Taylor noted that his specimen was about 8 pounds in weight, so he was certainly deal- ing with a much larger specimen than those examined either by Day or by Bridge and Haddon. Taylor’s description more or less corresponds with the form of the bladder of the largest specimen examined by me. Nair (9) has recently given an account of the changes in the internal structure of the air-bladder of Silonia silondia during growth. The genus Silonia may now be defined as follows :— The body is elongated and compressed. The head and body are covered with soft skin. The head is of moderate size and is rounded anteriorly. The median fontanel extends throughout the length of the head. The occipital process is sharply pointed posteriorly and there is a considerable space between it and the basal bone of the dorsal fin. The eyes are situated laterally behind the angle of the mouth and are visible both from above and below; they are provided with circular adipose lds. The mouth is anterior, wide and obliquely directed upwards. The lower jaw is somewhat longer than the upper and broadly pointed in the middle. The teeth in the jaws are large and caniniform; they project out- side the mouth-opening. There is a continuous U-shaped band of villiform teeth across the palate. The lips are well developed near the angles of the mouth and are continuous. The _post-labial groove is widely interrupted in the middle. The nostrils are situated wide apart and are slit-like; the anterior nostrils are along the front edge of the snout while the posterior ones are placed backwards and inwards. There are only two small maxillary barbels which lie in grooves and are liable to be overlooked. The dorsal fin is situated considerably in advance of the ventrals; it is provided with a moderately developed bony spine which is roughened externally and serrated internally. A small adipose dorsal is present in the last fourth of the body length. The anal fin is very long. The pectoral fin is provided with a strong, bony spine which is roughened externally and serrated internally. The pelvic fins possess 6 rays each. The caudal fin is deeply forked. The gill-openings are wide. The gill-membranes are deeply notched; they are united with each other but are free from the isthmus. There are 11-12 branchiostegal rays. The air-bladder is greatly reduced, thick-walled and uniform in the earlier stages; it has its long axis transversely disposed and lies across the body of the anterior, modified vertebrae. It is not enclosed in bone but is supported laterally by the transverse processes of the fourth vertebrae. Genotype:—Silonia lurida Swainson 1838 -=Pimelodus silondta Hamilton 1822. Distribution: —Same as of the only species, vide infra, p. 143. __ Relationships:—Silonia belongs to the family Schilbeidae of the order Siluroidea. This family is represented by a number of genera both in the Oriental and the Ethiopian Regions. As I (4) i) i \ I t i | i} THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 141 have remarked elsewhere Silonia with one pair of barbels is probably a primitive form in the family, though owing to its highly preda- ceous habits it has developed large caniniform teeth in both the jaws. Its close allies are represented today by forms like Pangasia- nodon Chevy of Siam and Indo-China, and Silonopangasius Hora of Southern India. The former, like Silonia, grows to a very large size, while the latter rarely exceeds a foot and a half in length. SYNONYMY AND DESCRIPTION. Silonia silondia (Hamilton). 1822. Pimelodus silondia, Hamilton, Fish. Ganges, pp. 160, 3875, pl. vii, fig. 50. : 1830. Pimelodus silondia, Taylor, Gleanings in Science, p. 171 (air-bladder). 1838-39.. Silonia lurida, Swainson, Nat. Hist. Fish., etc., i, p. 345, fig. 85; woid., 11, p. 3805. 1840. Silundia gangetica, Cuvier & Valenciennes, Hist. Nat. Poiss., v, Be40, pl. ceccxxvi. 1858. Silundia gangetica, Bleeker, Verh. Bat. Gen., xxv, p. 118. 1858. Silundia gangetica, Blyth, Proc. As. Soc. Bengal, p. 28. - 1868. Silundia gangetica, Bleeker, Ned. Tijdschr. Dierk., i, p. 108. 1864. Silundia gangetica, Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., v, p. 66. 1873. Silundia gangetica, Day, Rep. Freshw. Fish Fisheries India and Burma, p. 269. . 1876. Silundia gangetica, Day, Journ. Linn. Soc. London, xii, p. 570. 1877. Silundia gangetica, Day, Fish. India, p. 488, pl. exiv, fig. 3. 1877. Silondia gangetica, Beavan, Freshw. Fish. India, p. 186. 1889. Silundia gangetica, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., 1, p. 145, fig. 62. 1894. Silundia gangetica, Bridge & Haddon, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London (B), clxxxiv, pp. 222, 223 (air-bladder). 1987. Silonia silondia, Hora, Curr. Sci., v, p. 852 (affinities and distri- bution). 1938. Silonia silondia, Nair, Rec. Ind. Mus., xl, pp. 5-11, 6 figs. (air- bladder). Vernacular Names:—Silun (Bengal, for young and half-grown), Dhdin (Bengal, for larger specimens); Silondia-vacha (Calcutta); Silon (Dinajpore and Rungpur); Baikar (Gorakhpur); Silond (Pun- jab); Ji-lung and Silond (Ooriah and Bengali). | In the higher Bengali dialect this species is known as Silandha while its Sanskrit names are Silendhra and Silindha (vide Hamil- ton’s list of Bhagalpur fishes). eee ii-i2; D. 1/7; A. 40-46; P, 11-18; V. 6; C. 17. Silonia silondia is herring-shaped in its younger stages, but in the adult condition its belly becomes very bulky. The dorsal and ventral profiles are almost equally arched in the young individuals (text-fig. 2 and plate), but im full-grown specimens the ventral profile is greatly arched (text-fig. 8). The length of the head is contained from 5-0 to 5-8 times in the total length and from 4-0 to 4-6 times in the length with the caudal. The head is propor- tionately shorter in the larger individuals. The width of the head. is about two-thirds of its length. The depth of the body undergoes considerable variations with age; it is contained from 4:7 to 7-4 times in the total length and from 4-0 to 6-0 times in the length without the caudal. The eyes are lateral in position and are visible both from above and below; the diameter of the eye is contained from 3-1 to 4:4 times in the length of the head, from 142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL 1:2 to 2-0 times in the interorbital width and from 1-0 to 1°5 times in the length of the snout. Proportionately the eyes are much smaller in larger individuals. The eyes are provided with narrow adipose lids. The head is provided with a median fontanel along its entire length which is shallow in front and somewhat ee sie rah ROT TY che a . Text-fig. 2.—Lateral view of a young specimen of Stlonia silondia (Ham.) 72 mm. in total length, collected from the river Hooghly in November 1937. deeper behind. The occipital process tapers to a fine point pos- teriorly; it is thrice as long as broad and is separated from the basal bone of the dorsal fin by a considerable distance. The mouth is slightly ascending. The lower jaw is broadly pointed in the middle and is somewhat longer than the upper. There is a pair of small maxillary barbels which lie in grooves and do not extend beyond the eyes. The teeth in the jaws are caniniform and arranged in two series in each jaw; those of the outer series in- variably project beyond the mouth-opening. The teeth on the palate are villiform and are arranged in a U-shaped band. The dorsal fin is considerably, but not wholly, in advance of the ventrals; its forward position is more marked in the young than in the full-grown specimens. The dorsal spine is rather slender; it is rugose anteriorly and, finely serrated posteriorly in its upper portion; it is about two-thirds the length of the head. The pectoral fin extends beyond the origin of the ventrals in young and half-grown specimens, but in larger specimens it does not reach to the base of the ventrals. The pectoral spine is similar to that of the dorsal fin. The adipose fin is small, but well-marked; it is situated above the posterior portion of the anal fin. In younger specimens it is in the posterior quarter of the length of the body, whereas in a fully mature specimen it lies in the posterior fifth of the body length. The ventrals just reach the anal opening and are separated from the anal fin by a short dis- tance. The caudal fin is deeply forked: both the lobes are of equal length. The least height of the caudal peduncle is contained from 1-4 to 1-7 times in its length. Colouration:—According to Hamilton (3) ‘The back is of a dusky green colour; and, although the sides are like silver, the fish has a dirty lurid appearance, with a shade of livid hue. The back and tail fins are greenish, the others are white.’ Some time after the fish is removed from water the back assumes a neutral tint while the ventral surface and sides become silvery. The opercle is shot with orange and yellow which is continued forwards to the mouth-opening. The iris is of an orange colour. The dorsal THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 143 fin is of a light neutral tint; the pectoral fin is also of the same colour but is provided with an orange band at the base. The ventrals are shghtly tinted with orange. The anal fin is lght purple with an orange band at the base. The adipose fin is of a purple colour. The tail fin is much darker and at the base is provided with a band of light Indian red colour. In young specimens, below 4 inches in length, the dorsal and the pectoral fins after preservation in spirit are deeply stained with black. The posterior margin of the caudal fin and a con- siderable part of its superior lobe are also stained with black. These colour marks gradually fade away during growth. Distribution: —Day in his Fishes of India states that this species is found in the ‘Estuaries of India and Burma, ascending high up the larger rivers to nearly their sources’. The collection in the Indian Museum contains no specimen of S. silondia from Burma. Prof. F. G. Meggitt, at my request, sent to the Museum a collection of the local Rangoon fishes, but this species is not Text-fig. 8.—Photograph of a large specimen of Silonia silondia (Ham.), 50 inches in total length, purchased from the Calcutta market. represented in that collection. It may also be noted that Vinci- guerra (8) in his account of the fishes of Burma does not record this species. It seems doubtful, therefore, whether the species is actually found in Burmese waters.’ If, however, it occurs in Burma, it will be worthwhile to make a detailed study of the Burmese specimens and to compare them with the Indian examples * Macdonald (Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxii, p. 306, 1929) records the occurrence of Silund (Silundia gangetica) in the higher reaches of the Trrawadi river. 144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL His. SOCIETY, Vol: cae to see the effect of isolation on them, as was found to be the case in Hutropiichthys vacha (Ham.) and Clupisoma garua (Ham.) (vide the second and the third articles of this series). In South India Silonia silondia is replaced by the allied form Silonopangasius, and from the information available it seems probable that Silonia is restricted only to the Indo-Gangetic basin of Northern India. As the body proportions vary considerably with growth, I give below in inches the measurements of a specimen over 4 feet in length (text-fig. 8). The measurements are only approximate. Measurements 7n inches. iN SEDAN DIB IR DAY Hwy Wry Sonnac Sd Total length without caudal Length of caudal > Length of head Length of snout Diameter of eye Depth of body Length of pectoral Length of dorsal Length of ventral Length of anal base Length of caudal peduncle Least height of caudal peduncle Distance between tip of snout and origin of first dorsal . Distance between tip of snout and origin of ventrals Distance between ventrals and ara! fin Distance between rayed dorsal and adipose dorsal — AAIMNIKHONA — = e BIONOMICS AND FisHinc NotTEs. Hamilton (3) noted that Silonia silondia ‘is very common in the Gangetic estuaries, and is considered by the natives as good eating. It commonly grows to three feet in length, and occasion- ally to twice that size.’ This species is a common food fish of Bengal and in the Calcutta markets large quantities of this fish are sold. The majority of the specimens, as stated by Hamilton, are below three feet in length. It is a voracious feeder and does considerable harm to the fisheries. The young specimens, below 4 inches in length, col- lected from the river Hooghly were found feeding on prawns, voung fish, etc. while the largest specimen examined had full- erown Hilsa ilisha (Ham.) in its stomach. The stomach is a large bag-lke structure about twice as long as broad (text-fig. 4); the alimentary canal is only slightly convoluted. In a young specimen about. 938 mm. in length, the length of the alimentary canal was about 80 mm. In a specimen 50 inches long, the stomach measured 11 inches in length and 5-5 inches in breadth. The iength of the intestine was 62 inches. Silonia silondia probably breeds in the rainy season as young specimens from three to eight inches in total length were found to be fairly common in November-December in the catches from the river Hooghly at Nawabgunge about 20 miles above Calcutta, 145 FISHES OF INDIA THE GAME ae SAi S02 0-dE 0-91 0-92 0-éP 0-87 0-02 posvureqd 0-0€¢ St | O-LT SFI GIr.:| 0-01. .|.0-8 “| $.9 OF 0-22 | 0-62 0-02 NEU Oe hoOel | Boat 0-2 Or | os 0-¢ 0-7 os 0-€ 0-F 0-€ 0-se | 0-S¢ 0-22 0-62 | og | 0-02 | 0.9t | 0-0F 0-0€ 0-TE pesvuvd 0.91 0-12 0-91 0-F1 0:8 al 0-S1 0-€T ¢-PT 0-IT 0-6 D8 0. 0-61 0-8t $61 OZE Oct Ie St ene. ye 0.0 O-IT | O-TT 0-01 0-6 0-6 08 | 08 0-F 0-1 | 0-Sh 0-66 ote | 0.92 | 0-02 | o-2t 9.6 0.92 | 0-S2 0-02 o-9t | 09t | Ozt | 0-0r 0-9 0-1E | 0-0€ 0-$2 0-12 | 0-02 | OST | 0-S1 $.8 0-Sh | 0.SF 0-F¢ ots | 00g | 0-82 | 0-2 0.81 0-17 | 0-8F 0-SF ote | oze | 082 | 0.92 paseueq 0-602 | 0-002 | 0-SST 0-FFL | O-SET | 0-80T | 0-001 0-45 "SIAJIMUAPITUL UL SJUIUMIANS DIY] ajounped jepnevo jo jYyS19y sve] ae g,ounped [epnvo jo ysus'T a laqreq AISIPIXVU Jo YASUI] re gaids peroyod jo y38u97T sat “* gutds Tesiop Jo qjsueT ma ta jnous jo 4}8user] a (IPIM [e}IqIo19}UT see 9A9 Jo 1OJOWIvICG, Apoq jo yideq ae ves Apoq JO UiPIM ne bse peey jo PIM pesy Jo usu] [epnvo jo yysue] “ag [epneo Suipnypoxs yysug] [210.1 146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL In the list of Gorakhpur fishes Hamilton noted under Bazkar that ‘in this district it is said never to exceed six inches in length’. Presumably Hamilton was in Gorakhpur after the rainy season when the young fish are common in the river. It also seems probable that Silonia ascends rivers for breeding purposes and when the waters fall after the rains it becomes stranded in large pools in the upper reaches of the river. Principally it is an estuarine fish. The Silond Catfish is a very game fish and fights well. It frequents the same type of habitats as the Goonch, but prefers stronger streams and clear white deep waters. The usual bait is a spoon or a fish, but specimens have also been caught on a Mahseer fly and provided good sport with this tackle also. Though Silonia silondia is primarily a fluviatile fish, it can flourish in tanks and large reservoirs as well. In the Settling Tanks of the Caleutta Corporation Water- works at Pulta the species is very common ‘ and attains a large size. It enters these reservoirs in the egg or larval stages. From Text-fig. 4.—Alimentary 4 practical fisheries point of view its culti- canal of Silonia silondia ae ; : ee (Hara.). vation should be discouraged, as it is very destructive to other types of edible fishes. a ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The Bombay Natural History Society very kindly made a grant towards the cost of the illustrations and for this I offer my sincere thanks to the authorities of the Society. Mr. K. 8. Misra, m.sc., my assistant in the Zoological Survey of India, has helped me in the preparation of the tables of measurements and for this I am indebted to him. The illustrations were prepared by Babu B. Bagchi with his usual skill and care under my supervision. List oF REFERENCES. 1. Cuvier, M. and Valenciennes, M. A.—Histoire naturelle des Poissons, vol. xv, p. 49 (1840). 2. Day, F.—‘On Some of the Fishes of the Deccan’. Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.), vol. xii, p. 569 (1876). 8. Hamilton, F.—An Account of the Fishes Found in the River Ganges and its branches, pp. 160, 875 (Edinburgh, 1822). 4. Hora, 5S. Lu.—Geographical Distribution of Indian Freshwater Fishes and its bearing on the probable land connections between India and the adjacent countries. Curr. Sci., vol. v, p. 352 (1987). De Nan ee aie — Changes in the Internal Structure of the Air-bladder of Silonia silondia (Ham.) during growth. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xl, pp. 5-11 (1938). 6. Swainson, W.—On the Natural History and Classification of Fishes, Amphibians and Reptiles, vol. ii, p. 305 (1889). THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 147 7. Sykes, W. H.—‘On the Fishes of the Dukhun’. Trans. Zool. Soc. London, vol. ii, p. 875 (1841). §. Vinciguerra, D.—' Viaggio di Leonardo Fea in Birmania e Regioni vicine. Pesci’. Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova (2), vol. ix, pp. 129-862 (1890). EXPLANATION OF PLATE. Colour sketch of the lateral view of a specimen, 214 mm. in length without caudal, of Silonia silondia (Hamilton) from the river Hooghly. Immediately after the fish is taken out of water its colour is golden, but it fades quickly. The fish then becomes blue-backed with a white belly. THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE. BY Vs / SALim ALI AND HuMayun ABDULALI Parr, [V. (With 2 plates). (Continued from p. 688 of Vol. xxxix). The Common Weaver-Bird or Baya: Ploceus philippinus philippinus (Linn.). Local name: S6n-chiri. Field identification: Size of the House-Sparrow. In non-breeding plumage both sexes very like the female of that bird, but with a thicker bill and somewhat shorter tail. In the breeding season the male acquires a_ golden- yellow head and breast, and the back is suffused with the same _ colour. The throat and sides of the head are dark brown. Flocks about rice cultivation. Specimens: B.N.H.S.: o? 21-3-24 Chembur (S.A.); 92 14-1-13 Santa) (@suz (N. B. Kinnear); St. Xavier’s College: 63 9, 64 3, 65 3 3-9-33 Jogéshwari; 186 d 19-3-34 Gorégaon; 205 Q, 206 o? November 734 (H.A.). Apparently a local migrant to some extent, as it becomes quite scarce in Salsette during January and February. Common on the open outskirts of the city, in the suburbs and throughout the island of Salsette. In the dry season flocks may usually be met with gleaning paddy in stubble fields. At this period, however, they split up into smaller or larger parties and spread far and wide over the countryside. They are also less noisy, and _ therefore not so conspicuous as when nesting. They do a certain amount of damage to ripening paddy crops. Erythrina flowers are largely resorted to in season both for the nectar and for the newly forming pods. Lantana berries are also eaten. At night, large numbers foregather to roost among tall grass patches and the mangroves by our tidal creeks, such as at Mahul and Godhbunder. Here, hundreds of birds may be observed any evening arriving from all quarters. They also roost amongst the reeds and bulrushes round the margin of Powai Lake. Breeding: Many males have already acquired breeding plumage by the middle of May, but the nesting is not in full swing until the monsoon is well set. During the rains nest colonies are to be seen dotted about on ber and babool trees and palmyra and date palms all over Salsette. By the middle of October all the chicks have left the nests. The retort-shaped, woven, fibre nests are too well known to need des- cription. The building work is done almost entirely by the males. In _ the earlier stages of a building colony the females are absent. They arrive only after some of the nests are half built, and take possession of these if approved. Thereafter the hen helps the cock in finishing off the interior. When the nest is ready, the eggs laid and the hen brooding, the cock commences to build another nest on a nearby twig which, in due course, may be appropriated by a second roving or prospecting female. In this way some cocks have three or more nests with as many wives, acquired one at a time. The usual number of eggs in a nest in Salsette is 2 to 4. They are pure white in colour. [The Black-throated Weaver-Bird : Ploceus benghalensis (Linn.). We have not come across this species in our area, but Wenden (N. & E., ii, 120) records finding 8 or ro nests, some containing eggs, at Bhandip on 28 August somewhere about 1880 (?).] [The Striated Weaver-Bird : Ploceus manyar ssp. Not met with by us, but there is a specimen listed in the Bombay Natural History Society’s Card Catalogue as from Bombay. It is doubtful however, if this was a wild bird or one procured in the local bird market. ] Oe THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE. 149 The White-backed Munia: Uvoloncha striata striata (Linn.). Field identification: Smaller than the House-Sparrow. A small black-and- white finch with a heavy conical bill and wedge-shaped tail. Sexes alilxe. Pairs or small flocks in scrub country, about roadside hedges, ete.—often feeding on the ground. No specimen. Noted: Salsette: Chembtr, Andheri, Borivli. Resident. Not common in Salsette though pairs and small flocks are occasionally seen. We have observed them feeding on grass seeds both on the ground and from off the stems. They are also very partial to bamboo seeds whenever available. _ Breeding: In Salsette and across the Harbour—at Kihim and Alibag, where it is common—we have found nests in various stages of construction or with eggs and young chiefly between March and November. August and September, however, appear to be the months when most eggs are laid. The nest is an untidy globular structure with entrance-hole on one side, occasionally in the form of a short tube. It is made of fine soft feathery grass, intermixed on occasion with a little coarse grass and even cocoanut fibre. It is placed between 5 and io feet up in a small bér, lime or similar tree or bush, in scrub country and gardens. We have frequently observed four birds working on a single nest, but whether more than one female uses it for laying in at a time is not known. The nests are certainly used as dormitories by the entire family long after the young have flown. The eggs, pure white in colour with a pinkish tinge when fresh, number four to seven. Both parents roost within the nest at night even before the first egg is laid, and continue to do so throughout the incubation period. Brooding seems to commence in earnest only after the laying of the last egg. In one clutch of 5 eggs the incubation period was ascertained to be 13-14 days from the last egg (or 19 from the first). Both parents feed the young, apparently largely by regurgitation. The nests become foul with the excreta of the young, which are not removed. ~The White-throated Munia : Uvoloncha malabarica (Linn.). Field identification: Size same as the last. A plain earthy-brown, thick- billed little bird with a pointed black tail, whitish underparts and a _ white rump. Flocks feeding by hedges and along cart tracks in open scrub country, gardens etc. Specimens: GB .N.H.S.: o? 5-7-25 Borivli-(S:A.)5 St. X. G.: 87° G;, 889 25-9-33 Juhu (H.A.). Resident. Not uncommon in our area but perhaps more plentiful across the harbour in the Kolaba District. It prefers open sparsely scrubbed country and: babool jungle. _H.A. has noted it as common on the Reclamation at Church Gate (1933-35) and Br. Navarro observed it making abortive attempts at: nest-building .there in September. Breeding: We have records of nests. from Borivli, Chembtr and elsewhere in Salsette, and from Kihim (across the Harbour, in Alibag Talika) for every month in the year except December,. January and February. This Munia habitually utilises disused Baya nests for laying purposes. Indeed it may almost invariably be seen haunting Baya nest-colonies even while the legitimate owners are still in occupation, entering the hanging tubes as opportunity offers. Although so far we have never found its eggs in occupied Baya nests but only in old and deserted ones, it is quite conceivable from its behaviour that it may in course of time develop a habit of parasitism on the Baya. When constructed by the bird itself, the nest is an untidy globular affair with a lateral entrance hole, similar to the Striated Munia’s but with. fine twigs on the exterior and often lined with feathers. Large feathers such as_ those of egrets and rollers are often used. The nest is placed in a babool, bér or other thorny bush usually at heights of 6-12 feet. We have found, as a rule, 4-7 white unmarked eggs in a clutch. Both when self-built and when appropriated from a Baya, the nests are used as dormitories when the breeding season is over, as many as 6 or 8 birds—probably parents and their brood— crowding into a single nest to roost. The Spotted Munia: Uvoloncha punctulata lineoventer (Hodgson). Field identification: Shape and size about the same as the last. In breeding plumage head and upper parts chocolate-brown. Underneath white with black speckles. In non-breeding plumage more or less plain brown. Pairs, parties 150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Volexr or flocks, according to season, feeding on ground in open scrub-and-grass country, and by cultivation. Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 00 7-2-24, 0 8-3-24 Pali Hill, Bandra (SAL) Rares I-12-12, Santa Cruz, Q 4-12-09 Andheri (N. B. Kinnear); Si. X. C.: 62 fet 3-11-33 Jogéshwari ; 73 0, 74 0, 75 G juv., 76 of 12-11-33 Andhéri (H.A.). Resident. Common. Otten met with in large flocks of 75-100 birds or more. In the cold weather these flocks comprise largely of individuals in the plain brown plumage. A conspicuous change is noticeable by the first week of March when a large number are in the chestnut and spotted phase. This increases gradually until by July or August, when the breeding season is at its height, the majority of birds (if not all) are in the speckled plumage. The flocks have of course then mostly broken up into pairs. When a flock is disturbed feeding on the ground, the birds fly up into trees and bushes uttering feeble chirrups. Breeding: The season in our area is a prolonged one lasting from about June to December. The nest is the usual globular structure of a Munia, made of grass blades, and is placed in the same sort of situations as that of the two previous species. We have, however, seen several nests in Salsette built at the bases of palmyra leaves, 4o ft. or more up. A normal clutch consists of 4-6 white eggs. The Indian Red Munia: 4mandava amandava (Linn.). Field identification: Slightly smaller than the foregoing, with a square (nol pointed) tail. In breeding plumage the male is a beautiful deep crimson with white spots on the breast and flanks. Female brownish with a red bill and crimson rump. ‘The male in non-breeding dress resembles the female. F locks about tall grassland and amongst reeds. Specimens not collected. Status? This Munia is rare in Salsette. We have come across it only on three occasions and it is possible that these were all escaped cage birds. The Red Munia or ‘Waxbill’ is a favourite with fanciers and large numbers from upcountry are always for sale in the Crawford Market. Breeding: Aitken (C.B.B., p. 138) saw a pair making a nest at Tardeo. According to Betham (J.B.N.H.S., xii, 78) it breeds in the neighbourhood of Poona at the beginning of September. The Common Indian, or Hodgson’s Rose-Finch : Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus (Blyth). Field identification: Size about that of the House-Sparrow, with thicker bill and slightly forked tail, the last being a conspicuous feature. The male in full plumage has a beautiful crimson-pink head, breast, back and shoulders ; the female is brown with an olive tinge. Flocks in flowering trees, Lantana bushes and sometimes on the ground. Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 8-12-25 Gédhbunder, ¢ 3-3-29 Tulsi Lake (S.A.); ¢@ 1-12-23 Andheri (S..H. Prater); Si. X. C.: 187 6 21-3-34 Borivli (HAS): Winter visitor and passage migrant. Fairly common. Flocks usually arrive in Salsette about mid-November and some individuals stay over till the first week of April. The birds are much more in evidence about March when their numbers are augmented by the return passage from the south. While with us, we have observed Rose-Finches feeding largely on Lantana berries and on nectar from the flowers of Calycopteris floribunda, Erythrina indica and various other species. Large quantities of Erythrina pollen were found on the forehead and chin of specimens shot off the flowers, and the birds doubtless do service in cross-pollination. The call note is a _ pleasant interrogative whistling tooee? The Yellow-throated Sparrow: Gyimnorhts xanthocollis xanthocollis (Burton). Field indentification: Size that of the House-Sparrow. Earthy-brown above, whitish below. The male has a lemon-yellow patch on the throat, two whitish bars on the closed wing and a bright chestnut patch near the shoulder. The female lacks the yellow throat-patch, and the chestnut on her shoulders is duller. Slightly but markedly forked tail. Pairs and flocks, according to season, by village cultivation, and in open deciduous forest. Specimens: B.N.H.S.: G 21-3-24 Chembir ; 0? 6-4-24 Sion Causeway (S.A.). ‘THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE. 151 Noted: Elephanta Island, Thana, Borivli etc. Common on the mainland— across the harbour—at Kihim, Alibag etc. The Yellow-throated Sparrow is a common breeding species in our area. It is a local migrant; during the monsoon months practically none are to be seen, but its numbers increase again after about the first week of October. Farties of from 8 to 20 birds may be seen gleaning in harvested paddy-fields and in the vicinity of threshing floors in villages. Along with numerous other bird species, they invariably teed on the nectar from Bombax and Erythrina flowers in season. During the heat of the day flocks collect in leafy trees and spend the hours in noisy chirping. The call-notes are very like those of the House-Sparrow, somewhat pleasanter. Breeding: The nesting season lasts from March to May. The nest is a pad of hair and fibres lined with feathers, and placed inside natural hollows in trees, barbet- and woodpecker-holes, pipes, old disused street lamps, etc. Iwo to four eggs—in appearance very like those of the House-Sparrow—is what we have tound to comprise a normal clutch. Both parents share in feeding the young. The Common House-Sparrow: Passer domesticus indicus Jardine & Selby. Local name: Chir. ; Field identification: Too well-known to everybody to need description. A commensal of man. Specimens: B.N.H.S.: ¢ 12-6-07 Worli, Bombay (Mr. Strong); St. X. C.: 192 dy 193 2 4-4-34 Bombay City (H.A.). Resident. Abundant alike in city and suburbs, as well as in villages farther afield, and by human habitations of every description. Often feeding in large flocks on the maidans and the Reclamation area. There is a recent record of a sparrow being struck in mid-air and killed by a cricket ball while a match was in progress on the grounds of the Islam Gymkhana! Large numbers collect every evening at sunset to roost in favourite trees and much noise and bickering prevails before the birds finally retire, usually well past dusk. It is difficult to conjecture what determines the choice of a particular roost out of several apparently equally suitable trees. How long the same tree continues to serve as a roost we do not know, but we know one that had been in occupation for three years at least. The Green Whip Snake (Dryophis mycterizans) commonly preys upon House-Sparrows in the suburbs, and crows and cats do great destruction amongst their fledglings everywhere. Albinism appears to be a not uncommon disease among the sparrows in Bombay. Several cases of complete or partial albinism have been reported from time to time. Breeding: Sparrows breed practically throughout the year and make them- selves a thorough nuisance in more ways than one to the inmates of the dwellings they select. Holes in the masonry ot buildings and wells are most commonly used. Every conceivable site, such as the angle behind a_ picture hung on a wall and the globes of lamps, is appropriated. The inverted glass bell-jars, so commonly seen in mosques and fire-temples, offer irresistible Opportunities for nesting. Gargoyles and drain pipes are everywhere much patronised. We have observed a bird trying to build up in a papaya tree and another on an fkrythrina. The nest is an untidy collection of grass and feathers, and during its construction a formidable accumulation of rubbish litters the ground below. The usual clutch here consists of 3-5 eggs, greenish- white in ground colour, blotched and speckled with greyish-brown. The Black-headed Bunting ; Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli. Field identification: Slightly larger than the House-Sparrow with a longer and noticeably forked tail. Head black. Bright yellow underparts and much of this colour in the rest of the plumage also. In the female the head appears rufous-brown and the yellow in her plumage is merely a suffusion of greyish-olive. Flocks, in and about cultivation. Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 30-12-07 Andhéri; ¢@ 9-11-12 Santa Cruz (Kinnear). Winter visitor. This Bunting is very common in the cold weather in Deccan and small numbers may also be met with in our area. Aitken (C.B.B., p. 144) mentions it as a winter visitor to Bombay. We have not come across it actually within Salsette, but in the Kolaba District across the harbour, flocks are not uncommon from the beginning of November up to 152 JOURNAL,- BOMBAY NATURAL GIST, SOCIETY. Volr xr March... The birds usually feed on hedged-in cross-country cart tracks, and in fields in the vicinity of villages. There are no records of the Red-headed Bunting (EKmberiza icterica) in Salsette, but it is not unlikely to occur here, as in the Deccan, in mixed flocks with the Black-headed Bunting. [The Crested Bunting : Melophus lathami subcristatus (Sykes). There is a specimen of this Bunting in the B.N.H.S. collection from Kalyan. We have come across it at Vasind. There is no record in Salsette.] [The Crag Martin: Riparia rupestris (Scop.). H.A. has observed this Crag Martin at Karnala and Panvél (Kolaba District) on the adjacent mainland in the cold weather (16-2-36), and it is therefore quite probable that it occurs in Salsette also at that season. EHA (C.B.B., p. 41) thought he saw it about Malabar Hill—quite a likely spot in Bombay City. As compared with the next species, which is our common crag martin in this area, it is whitish on the underparts which contrast with the blackish ~undertail coverts in overhead flight. It is also slightly paler above and larger than the Dusky Crag Martin. | The Dusky Crag Martin; Aipuria concolor (Sykes). Field identification : Somewhat smaller than the House-Sparrow. A uniformly sooty-brown bird with short square tail and swallow-like wings and flight. Usually seen about caves and rock-scarps, and in company with swallows, hawking winged insects. Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 2-3-24 Elephanta Island (S.A.); Si. X. Co: 231 o Bombay (H.A.). . Resident. Not uncommon in Bombay City, the suburbs, and in Salsette generally, In the city it keeps to large and old buildings such as the High Court and the University; farther afield caves—as at Kanhéri, Jogéshwari and Elephanta—and rocky cliffs, ruined forts and buildings are favourite resorts. Breeding : The nesting season is apparently much prolonged. We have noted nests in various stages of construction or with eggs or young in February, March, April, July, August, October and November. The birds are probably double brooded. H.A. has found them breeding in the city in July, but observes that if the nest is destroyed ‘the birds persist in rebuilding or laying again till they succeed, sometimes as late as October. The nest is a deepish half saucer of mud pellets collected while ‘damp, at-..a' rain puddle or the like. It is stuck to the perpendicular cliff or wall about. 2 incnes below the ceiling or rock projection. It is lined with tow or feathers as a rule. The. normal clutch consists of 3 eggs. These are white in ground colour, spotted and blotched with purplish-brown. Both sexes share in building the nest, incubating the eggs and feeding the young. An experiment in the ringing of nesting Crag Martins was tried by, H.A. A. pair had nested successfully in .a ground-floor verandah of St. Xavier’s College in the 1932 season. In the following year a pair (then presumed to be the. same) built in the verandah of the first floor. They succeeded in raising two young from the ‘second laying, the first clutch having been removed. The parents and young were ringed at the nest at night. In the 1934 season a pair took possession of the identical site, one of which was a ringed bird—obviously one of the four. At the end of the breeding season —during the college vacation—the ringed bird was accidentally destroyed and unfortunately the ring was not read. In the year following a ringless pair took possession of the site. There were no other nests here besides this one in. any season. All this shows that where the same site is used year after year, it is not necessarily by the same birds. The Eastern Swallow: [irundo rustica gutturalis Scop. Field identification: Smaller than the House-Sparrow. Head and_ throat chestnut. Upper plumage glossy blue-black with a band of the same. colour across breast. Underparts pale. Tail deeply forked—the conventional ‘swallow tail’. Gregariously, on telegraph wires, etc. Hawking insects on the wing, especially by water. : THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 153 Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 8-4-24 Mud Flats, Sion Causeway (S.A.); 0? mo=t2-12 Tulsi Lake (Kinnear); St. X: C.: (159 Q: 9-10-33. Powai; 184 6 i9g-3-34 Juhu (H.A.). Winter visitor. fairly common. Arriving in October in flocks, often quite large, which take up positions over long stretches of telegraph wires here and there. By the middle of April practically all birds have departed. All our specimens belong to this race, but the one from Tulsi Lake appears to be intermediate between this and rustica. Gutturalis is theretore evidently the race that visits Salsette and not rustica as should be the case according to the distribution given in the Fauna, vol. iii, pp. 241-2. The Indian Wire-tailed Swallow: Hirundo smithii filifera Stephens. Field identification: Size as the foregoing. Glossy steel-blue above white below, with chestnut crown. Two long wires in tail which in the female are shorter. May be differentiated on the wing from other swallows by the pure white underparts and the presence of tail-wires. Small flocks, often in association with other swallows, on telegraph wires, etc. or hawking winged insects usually near water. Specunems : BiV.S.: G2 12-12-23 Andheri (S. Hi. Prater). Noted: Mud Flats—Sion Causeway, Gdodhbunder. Resident? Sparsely distributed throughout North Konkan, being everywhere far less abundant than it is in the Deccan. breeding: We have no record of nests in Bombay or Salsette, but on 575-35 OMe was observed under the old pier at Dharamtar Ferry (Kolaba District) which contained young. The nest is a halt-cup of mud pellets stuck to the wall about 2 inches below the ceiling or an overhang. It is not unlike that of the Dusky Crag Martin. It is built under bridges and culverts, on cliffs near water, and occasionally in buildings. There is ,usually a lining of grass and feathers. The Wire-tailed Swallow breeds in some numbers at Khandala (ca. 2,000 ft. —Western Ghats) in April and May. [The Indian Cliff Swallow: Mirundo fluvicola Blyth. Hield identification: Much smaller than the other swallows with a_ short square tail and black-streaked white underparts. Gregarious; usually large numbers. Not met with by us, but EHA (C.B.B., p. 41) records seeing it in Bombay. It is common in the neignbournood ot Poona and Betham (/.Bb.N.H.S., xii, 78) found nests there built under arches of a low bridge, 4 or 5 feet above water level. | Sykes’s Striated Swallow : Hirundo daurica erythropygia Sykes. Field identification: Size about that of the House-Sparrow. Upper parts deep glossy blue except for the chestnut half collar on nape and the chestnut rump. Below pale rufous with fine blackish streaks. ‘Tail deeply forked. Gregariously, about old mosques and buildings and on telegraph wires. Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 8-4-24 Mud Flats, Sion Causeway (S.A.); St. Mee. : 58 of juv. 21-8-33 Goregaon (H.A.). Resident (?) in small numbers. During the cold weather large congregations are seen closely packed on telegraph wires in the early mornings, often covering several hundred yards of the line. Most of these birds are migrants, however, and possibly belong to the race nepalensis. Unfortunately we have no specimens collected from such flocks. Breeding: We have no record from Salsette. For four years in succession we found a nest with eggs on the ceiling of a small rock-cave in the hills near Kihim (Alibag Talika) between 15 and 31 May. The nest is_ retort- shaped, attached to the ceilings of domes, caves, etc. with an entrance passage about 6 inches long. It is made of miud-pellets, and the egg-chamber is lined with grass and feathers. The normal clutch is of 4 eggs, pure white in colour. The Indian White Wagtail ; \otacilla alba dukhunensis Sykes. Field identification: Size about that of the House-Sparrow, slimmer, with a slenderer bill and a much longer tail which is constantly wagged up and down, and longer legs. General colour grey above, white below with a black 2 154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL aape and bib. Ear coverts white at ali seasons. Singly or small scattered parties, running about on lawns, maidans and open spaces, picking up insects. _ Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 10-2-24, 0? 16-2-24 Pali Hiil, Bandra (S.A.); St. Xs C.: 151. gd . 27-10-33 Juhu (H.A.). Winter visitor. Common. The earliest record we have for Salsette is 2 October; the latest 8 April. During the cold weather months the birds may invariably be seen on all our maidans as well as on the grounds of the Willingdon Sports Club and the Race Course at Mahaluxmi, the various Gymkhanas and the Reclamation along Back Bay. When the inward migration (autumn) is in full swing, the fresh arrivals may frequently ibe seen ‘swarming’ in certain localities of the city and suburbs for a day or two, roosting for the night in large numbers among the roadside trees. ‘Lhe majority of birds pass on subsequently, but the remainder disperse over the countryside to spend the winter in our midst. At the commencement of the hot weather, March-April, there are similar waves of passage migrants from the south. The Masked Wagtail: Motacilla alba personata Gould. Field identification: Similar to the above, but with the ear-coverts black at all seasons. Specimens: .B.N.H.S.: .¢ 29-11-23 Andheri (S.: H.. Prater). Winter visitor. Much less common than the White Wagtail and, except for the ear-coverts, difficult to distinguish from it in the field. [The Large Pied Wagtail : Alotacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin. lield identification: Larger than the foregoing species—about the size of the Bulbul. Jet black above and on breast, white below, with conspicuous white stripes above the eyes and a broad white patch on the wings. General -colour scheme that of the Magpie-Robin. Pairs by rocky streams and_ near water. We have not come across this Wagtail in Salsette, neither have we seen any specimens hence. EHA (C.B.B., p. 114) says ‘not often seen in Bombay’ which would imply that he had seen it occasionally. We have noted it at Tansa Lake, and at Roha, Mahad, Panvel and elsewhere in the Kolaba District on the mainland opposite. Breeding: The nearest record we have is from Khandala (ca 2,000 ft.— Western Ghats) where Brother Navarro took a c/3 in October 1935.] The Indian Blue-headed Wagtail: Motacilla flava beema (Sykes). Field identification: Size same as the White Wagtail. Differentiated. only in summer plumage from the Grey-headed Wagtail principally by its paler greyish-blue, head.. Singly or scattered parties, on the wet grassy margins of tanks etc. Specimen: St. X. C.: 78 dG 12-9-33 Andhéri (H.A.). Winter visitor, arriving early. The Grey-headed Wagtail : Wotacilla flava thunbergi Billberg. Field identification : Size as above. In summer plumage distinguishable from the next species by the dark blue-grey head and bright yellow underparts, with no black on throat or breast. Usually several, widely separated, on grassy water-logged ground on the margin of tanks etc. Specimens :. B.N.H.S.: @Q 11-3-24 Pali Hull, Bandra. (S.A.); St.: Xos@as 115 0? 10-10-33 Juhu (H.A.). Winter visitor. Fairly common. Earliest date ?; latest 4 May, ’34 (Powai Lake). The Grey Wagtail: Motacilla cinerea caspica S. G. Gmelin. Field identification: Size as above. Grey above—with greenish-yellow rump —pale sulphur-yellow below, brighter on abdomen and under the tail. Whitish eyebrows. In summer plumage, just before the birds leave us, chin, throat and upper breast black in male, mottled in female. Almost invariably singly, on damp ground or near streamlets etc. Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 5-2-24 Pali Hill, Bandra; o? 12-10-24 Khar; @ 17-3-24 Tulsi Lake (S.A.); St. X. C.: 96 0? 28-90-33 Borivli (H-A): Winter visitor. Fairly common. » Earliest date 28 September; latest 12 April. THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 156 The Biack-headed Wagtail : Motacilla feldegg melanogriseus Homeyer. Field identification: Size as above. In summer plumage crown, sides of head and nape black without contrasting eyebrows; white throat, yellow under- parts. In winter plumage very confusing in the field and almost impossible to tell with certainty trom several other species. On water-logged ground or grassy margins of tanks, etc. Specimens: B.N.H.S.: 0? 8-3-24, @ -11-3-24 Pali. Hill, Bandra (S.A.); 0? 7-3-10 Gorégaon (N. B. Kinnear); St. X.'C,: 114 0?,.116 0? 10-10-33, 152 @ 27-10-33 Junu; 227 07, 228 G 8-3-35 Andhéri (H.A). . Winter visitor. Common. Noted on open meadows by the seashore about Danda and the Pali Hill Golf Course, feeding in company with White Wagtails and Pipits. Latest date 31 March. : : Motaciila citreola werae Buturlin. The Yellow-headed Wagtail : Motacilla citreola citreola Pall. Field identification: Size as above. In summer the male of the race werae has a bright yellow head and black back. In M. c. citreola the back is not black. The females are duller. Usually by tanks and streams with grassy margins. Commonly on floating vegetation in Powai Lake, etc. Specimens: M. c. citreola. ».N.11.S.: 00 8-4-24 Mud Flats, Sion Causeway, 0? 23-3-29 Tilsi Lake, 0? 10-3-24 Pali Hill, Bandra (S.A.) ¢ 7-3-10 Goérégaon (Kinnear); 0? 30-1-21 Santa Cruz (Ellison); QQ 14-3-26 Mud Flats, Bhayndar Creek; o? 17-3-24 Tulsi Lake (S.A.). Witercs wWerac + St. NX. C.. 233 07, 256 OP 22-3-35 Andher (H-A.), Winter visitors. Fairly common. It may here be remarked that in immature plumage many of the above species of wagtails are impossible to identify with certainty, and- while they are probably correctly named as above, we are far from being positive. The Forest Wagtail :; Dendronanthus indicus (Gmelin). . Field identification: Size as above. Olive brown above, white below, with a conspicuous black band across breast. Two: whitish bands on closed wing. Singly or pairs, feeding on ground under shady trees and vegetable ‘mandwas’ or bowers. Specimen: B.N.H.S.: 0? 30-3-24: Deonar, Chembur (S:A-). Not noted elsewhere in Salsette. a Winter visitor or passage migrant? Uncommon. At Kihim (Alibag Taluka) —across the harbour—we have observed it only at the end of March and in the first week of April, evidently on northward passage. When disturbed, the bird flies up into a nearby tree and wags its tail slowly up and down. It utters a soft pink, pink like the Crested Bunting. The Tree Pipit ; Anthus trivialis trivialis (Linn.). Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 20-2-13 Santa Cruz (Kinnear); Q 4-2-24, Q 7-2-24 Golf Links, Pali Hill, Bandra (S.A.). Witherby’s Pipit: Anthus trivialis haringtoni Witherby. Specimen: St. X. College: 176 0? Vihar Lake 12-9-34 (H.A.). Field identification: The Pipits. found in Bombay and _ Salsette are all birds about the size of the House-Sparrow, somewhat slimmer and with a longer tail that is constantly moved up and down like a wagtail’s. In general colouration they resemble the female House-Sparrow. They frequent open spaces such as maidans, golf links, the vicinity of tanks, and semi-barren stony ground. They feed entirely on the ground along which they run with ‘great agility, unlike the sparrow which hops. They .are usually seen singly or in small scattered parties. Their food consists mainly of insects. They fly up into trees when disturbed. They have the same undulating flight as wagtails. The different species are often impossible to tell in the field, Only one species, rufulus, is resident in our area. aaron Winter visitor. Earliest date 12 September. Usually found in shady tango topes, : 156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XL The Indian Pipit: Anihus rufulus rufulus Vieillot. __ Specimens: of 17-3-24; G 2-4-24 Pali,Hill, Bandra; 3 15-60-25, O 21-6-25 Trombay Hitl at ca. 1,000 tt.; ¢ 10-11-27 Mud Flats, Sion Causeway (S.A.); ¥ 20-1-13, G 12°11-12, . g ' 20-2-13 Santa Cruz (Kinnear); (00? 12-12-99, eave Esplanade, Bombay (J. W. Mason); St. X. C.: 208 2 -12-34 Andhéri Resident. Common. Seen in open fallow land with short grass, stones, ete. Breeding: On 15 April (1931) a nest was located on the coarse grass land, inundated during the monsoon but now hard and pitted, adjoining the Santa Cruz Match Works, opposite the Juha aerodrome. It was a pad of rootlets and hair placed in an old hoof-print of cattle. It contained 3 chicks about a week old. The Eastern Tawny Pipit: Anthus campestris griseus Nicoll. Specimens: St. X. C.: 14 0? (worn juvenile plumage) 14-10-32 ‘Salsette’; 18 d 13-1-33, 106 2. 13-11-33, 199 Q 27-9-34, 226 dO 13-11-35 Andhéri (H.A.). Blyth’s Pipit: Anthus campestris thermophilus (Jerdon). specimens: “St. AC. 155 20 | 31-10-33 sJuhu (nas 4), Both these races of the Tawny Pipit visit our area during the winter. Griseus appears to be by far the commoner. H.A. finds that it is possible to differentiate Tawny Pipits from the Indian Pipit in the field by the brighter coloured legs and more ‘nasal’ notes of the former. é The Small Indian Skylark : Alauda gulgula gulgula Franklin. Iield identification: Somewhat smaller than the House-Sparrow but in general appearance not unlike the female of that bird. Rather squat and with a shorter tail. Pairs or small parties, about the tidal mud flats, in the rank grass patches bordering salt pans, and in the surrounding fields. Males soaring, ‘hovering’ and singing. Specimens: B.N.H.S.: ¢d. 10-11-27 Mud Flats, Sion. Gauseway’ (S:AD5 Q 7-4-24 Andhéri-(S. H. Prater); St. X. C.: 43 0, 198 0, 203 0 Salsettes (Ear ._ Resident. Common. It is plentiful in short grass near the Golf Course at Andheri. Breeding: On 11 April (1934) H.A. flushed a bird off a nest with c/2, slightly set, at Andhéri. The nest was cup-shaped, made of grass and buttressed ‘with pieces of thick grass stems. It was placed in the shelter of a grass tussock. On 26 April he noted flying young, and has a record of a bird feeding fledged young out of nest on 30 September (1935) on the Churchgate Reclamation. On 10 June (1930) S.A. observed an adult feeding a full-fledged young one, about 3 weeks old, in among cut paddy fields. The season, therefore, appears to be a prolonged one in our area, April to ‘October. The Short-toed Lark ;: Calandrella brachydactyla dukhunensis Sykes. Field identification: Somewhat smaller than the House-Sparrow and _ not unlike the Skylark to look at except that it is more whitish underneath. Large flocks in open country, about mud flats and fallow fields. Specimens: Si. X:. Co: 106 G, 107 Gy 108d, 109 1d, 11077 eae 8-10-33, 165 CG 10-11-33 Andhéri (H.A.). Winter visitor. Fairly abundant in Salsette and on the mainland across the harbour chiefly between November and January. The flocks keep to open, stony, scraggy grass-covered country, tidal mudflats and stubble fields. Occasional chirps are uttered in flight. They drink regularly in the mornings and have favourite watering places at which enormous numbers foregather for the purpose. The Malabar Crested Lark: Galerida malabarica (Scop.). Field identification: Size about that of the House-Sparrow. General appearance above, streaked brown somewhat like the female of that bird. Breast streaked black. Small parties or scattered flocks on the dry open ground about tidal mudflats and creeks, and on the scraggy grass-covered hills as at Trombay. Specimens: B.N.H.S.: og 22-3-24 Godhbunder, 0? 6-4-24 Sion Causeway, QO? juv. 1§-6-25 Trombay Hill at ca. 800 ft. (S.A.);\ G 30-12-23 Andhéri THE BIRDS OF BOMBAY AND SALSETTE 157 (Prater); 9 5-11-12, 9 18-1-13, -G: 6-4-13 Santa Cruz (Kinnear);. St X. Cy: 56 do, 57 @ 21-8-33 Andhéri, 232 9, 235 OG 24-4-35 Gorégaon (H.A.). Resident. Common. Larger flocks are seen during the cold weather, and at that season evidently some local movements take place in Salsette. We have observed these larks feeding on the seeds of Spermacoce stricta picked off the living plant. Breeding: In Salsette S.A. has noted fledglings out of nest on 15 June. At Thal (Kolaba District) on the sea-coast—across the harbour—H.A. found a nest with 2 young on 25 October. Both parents were bringing in caterpillars. The nest was a shallow cup of grass placed under a stone, in open stony land. The mouth-colour of the nestlings was a bright orange red and the tongue (of the same colour) had 3 conspicuous black spots upon it. The Indian Rufous-tailed Finch-Lark: Ammomanes phoenicura phoenicura (Franklin). Field identification : Somewhat larger than the House-Sparrow. A plain dark brown sparrow-like bird, rather squat, with a black-tipped bright rufous tail conspicuous in flight. Pairs, running about on fallow land near the tidal mudflats, stubble fields, etc. Specimens: B.N.H.S.: Q 10-11-27 Mud Flats, Sion Causeway (S.A.). Resident. Fairly common. Feeds on the ground upon grass seeds, paddy grains, etc. and also insects. We have frequently observed its habit of rapidly opening and shutting its wings as it moves about in search of food. This manoeuvre is effective in dislodging lurking insects from the little unevennesses of the ground. Males are usually seen, apparently even in the non-breeding season, rising into the air every now and again and rocketing downwards in steps—nose- diving—with wings pulled in to the sides, and singing on each dive. Breeding: This is a most elusive and circumspect species when breeding and we have not as yet succeeded in marking down a nest in Salsette although between March and May we have several records of birds carrying building | material or food for the young. Eremopterix grisea grisea The Ashy-crowned or Black-bellied Finch-Lark : (Scopoli). Field identification: A squat, finch-like bird, rather smaller than the House- Sparrow, seen in pairs, parties or small flocks on mudflats and open stony country. The male has black underparts, ashy crown and sandy hen-sparrow- like upper plumage. The female is sandy hen-sparrow-like all over. Specimens: B.N.H.S: 0? 27-2-24 Pali Hill, Bandra; 0? 7-6-25 Trombay Hii at. ca, 900 ft. (S.A.); G 30-1-21 Santa .Cruz (B. C,. Ellison); ¢. juv, II-11-12; Oo 11-10-12; 9 19-1-13, Q 25-1-13 Santa Cruz (Kinnear); ¢ imm. 21-1-11 Bombay (P. F. Gomes); St. X. C.: 67 6 8-9-33 Andhéri (H.A.). Resident. Common. Males constantly soar into space on quivering wings for about 30 feet or so, and sing. The same sort of aerobatics are indulged in as by the Rufous-tailed Finch-Lark, namely shooting up almost perpendicularly and nose-diving in steps with closed wings. In the final step it looks perilously as if the bird was going to dash itself to smithereens on the ground, but the wings are opened out at the last moment and it alights safely on a clod or stone. The grace and ease with which all these moves are executed are a delight to watch. There is a very marked decrease in the numbers of these larks in Salsette during the monsoon months—June to September—and evidently they then emigrate into drier country as in the Deccan. By about the beginning of October the birds are back again in considerable numbers. ._ Breeding: We have seen many nests in all stages of construction or with eggs and young in Salsette during March and April. There is a fledgling in the Society’s collection dated 11 November and another immature bird 21 January. This indicates that the birds are double brooded, i.e., some breed in the earlier part of the year and some in the latter part. The nest is a tiny cup-like depression in the ground, lined with fine grass or tow, under the shelter of a stone or small bush in open country. It is usually rimmed with gravel or small stones. In our area c/2 seems to be invariable. The com- monest colouration of the eggs is a pale yellowish stone, blotched and speckled with brownish-lavender. 158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, -Vol. XL The White-eye : Zosterops palpebrosa occidentis Ticehurst. Field identification: Size about half that of the House-Sparrow. A tiny bird greenish-yellow above, bright yellow and greyish-white below, with a conspicuous ring of white feathers round the eyes. Slender slightly curved bill. In flocks, in trees .and bushes in wooded country and gardens. A pleasant but feeble tinkling or cheeping call, sometimes like a miniature woodpecker ‘laugh’. Specimens: B:N.H.S.: <6 25-3-29 Tulsi Lake (S.A\);"St. X. Co @2nemoe 24-11-35 Borivli (H.A.). Noted: City: Warden Road, Cumbala Hill; Government House Grounds, Malabar Hill; Salsette: Godhbunder, Chembur, Powai Lake environs, Shendtr Hill; common on mainland across the harbour. Resident. Not uncommon in suitable localities. Feeding largely on the nectar of various flowers. Almost invariably present on those of Bombax, Erythrina, Woodfordia, Calycopteris floribunda and Loranthus clumps. Of the last particularly, it is an important cross-pollinating agent. Flocks move about from tree to tree, keeping up their musical cheeping calls and often clinging upside. down on the sprigs in search of insects. They are very partial to the sticky exudation from the petioles of Banyan (Ficus bengalensis) leaves. Breeding: Although we have no actual record, we have no doubt that the White-eye nests in Salsette. The specimen of 25 March had enlarged gonads and was evidently preparing to breed. During the breeding season the male develops a_ pretty, rather feeble, tinkling song reminiscent of the Nilgiri Verditer Flycatcher’s. This is uttered from some exposed perch. Vigors’ Yellow-backed Sunbird: thopyga siparaja vigorsi (Sykes). Field identification: Size same as the White-eye or the Purple or Purple- rumped Sunbird. ovawNs. 1 n 3 z ‘ w ‘ Seca emanate eo of wails ‘, wd a . NA 1S ao \x ‘ 8 ° Aa Wy al MAN, : c : 2 moe Vv : aN 40% - of . Cars, LITT Nee f . Wr, UH avevao ‘, ive yu8 ave + NE 4 ae Me 7 OR by COON VW os, CACO LEE] | wa Bon tee nie nf 4 y # eons Q : ew 3 UG A : oe 0 = at @ PYIUC ID 8 AY . é ou a Pare 6 i “Tem emg, My I] eed are ey Oy av? ° SS: Jaay i fs a a og a y ee ’ Ow yp 4g % hy Eos M : Pa wae Sy 94 + ae¢gaVonyeg 2 : 4. iho poyy0 i ee, 7 Se ORS pee ¢ Oo \ Cig 2 ‘ ‘ g eines \ igh, be Cities ae oes ‘a i" wee meme P5 », 4 THN ARR SYUY 2 yews HAY ME MY MY We RI oo : ‘v a 4, bP DIL) ALL & a oe ihe iy! ed aug ye ys u? wh ae fae roe Vn-y oe ‘ qos ee: sayy aN DN . . = > ’ omen tan Lo 8 A : at 2 Qe . a bo ee 4 s \ ¥ ° on ° i) = qn v . 7 ‘ < 7 Oo re aanvn Se | vaou!s . ew : Bae g ve, = é > a" . ‘ i : AS 4 7. / Ow “ST Ler TYATL Ye en eitred y res d i ee ° ° se awh) Ay > 4 Suateea dl" Ov Wiy ors Fa PB e co MMMM TTI TAZ EN & ; ! J OP Wey re) ! i \ 2 i > i ae a ee wa sony): We a AY Phy Wage ook al Xy Dare “a S 4 aa Lr fg 14 ee Qqaa3agq a Ba, Ae 5 en SS ay) : Hye 2 wo ts Ze SAW = ‘ a) g Frypegne™ Wy =<; HON > A 7) aise ie Fae + wy, & Gry vy CN oat AM WP Pays Wy, Ze it & muy, N SER > awww Sz Ong ‘ [=) 4 pvayaieyien “@ “Get ; Y ° ““""@BAUISBY 293404 “* SA9VTTIA ““AUYENNOD LOWLEIO ve yoouvs > = B augaretale was és VINVONIVd “Y < ) Py SIVILNNOW A ByeN NS, x i \ 5 =S3 u3j33u— BY ~ SOTTO) 7 aS RN] BN 4 N » Ly > | vou vy a >. SESS SSS NYSIIG ‘GVEVUIGAH SOGVW ‘0c9 « ISIHR ‘3eN Aequiog ‘‘uanop A FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO SOME OF THE COMMON FLOWERING PLANTS OF THE HYDERABAD STATE; THEIR DISTRIBUTION AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. DICOPTYV ILE DONS BY M. SAYEEDUD-DIN. (With a map), INTRODUCTION. The present paper places on record some of the dicotyledonous plants: collected and identified by the author since the publication of his last paper! on dicotyledons. In order to widen the scope of this paper some of the commonly cultivated plants are also listed. Its scope is further widened by the inclusion of material from several representative districts—representative in the sense of their floristic characteristics—of H.E.H. The Nizam’s Dominions. The two large distinct divisions of this extensive land, viz., the Marathwari and the Telangana are not only distinct as regards their geology but are also markedly different in their floristic composition. Out of the places visited for the collections for this paper Aurangabad District is typical of the Marathwari side, and Warangal District typical of the Telangana side. Plants from the following places are listed in this paper—Ajanta, Phoolmari, Doulata- bad, Khuldabad (Aurangabad District); Nizamabad District; Mulug, Pakhal (Warangal District); Vikarabad, and the suburbs of the Hyderabad City. A few words must be said regarding the topography and ecology of some of the important localities, if the reader is to get a general idea of the floristic composition with reference to the different habitats. In the vicinity of the Hyderabad city, Adigmet presents an interesting flora, and is therefore worthy of a little consideration. It is an open country full of characteristic boulders, and the highest place, 1,725 feet above sea level is occupied by the Osmania University. The soil is gravelly with sheets of big rocks underneath at several places. Naturally the soil. does not retain water for any considerable length of time, and . the plants show marked xerophytic characters. The following communities are readily distinguished: the Turf-community, con- sisting of small herbs which are found in a marked association on —_————_. ' The Paper published in J.A.S.B., vol. i, p. 9 (1935), is ‘Dicotyledons—Part 1’ 192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOGIBEY, Volo xe untrodden portions of lawns and grassy places; the Sand-binders, which are in abundance and serve to bind the sand; the so-called Mat-plants which spread out like a mat without much binding the sand. Then there are the cosmopolitan weeds and shrubs. Trees are scarce. The majority of the trees found round about Adigmet are those planted for shade. The natural growths are perhaps only the Acacias, Ficus and a few other plants belonging to different families. In summer the ground lies bare except for a few hardy herbs and grasses. A great damage is being done to the natural vegetation by the grazing of ‘cattle. The effect of grazing on the vegetation of Adigmet will form the subject of a subsequent paper. So far about Adigmet. As I have to a great extent already dealt with the Warangal District on the Telangana side in my last paper, I shall now briefly describe the topography and ecology of the Aurangabad District on the Marathwari side. Aurangabad les north-west of Hyderabad. Travelling along the Marathwari side towards Aurangabad one comes across with very poor tree-vegetation, except for the several species of Acacia along vast expanse of cultivated land and for distantly scattered patches of forests. The soil is typical black-cotton soil and apart from cotton many useful crops already detailed in the last paper are grown. The chief Hill Range—the Sahyadri Parvat—running along the north, from Nirmal in Indur District in the east, reaches Ajanta after passing Parbhani. Hundred miles of its length are styled as the Ajanta Hills. It is here that thick vegetation is met with, and some of our collections were made along this region. The flora of the river-beds in this part of the country is very interesting. Further collections were made along the country between Doulatabad and Ellora. The vegetation of the valleys near the Ellora caves presents a marked contrast to the vegetation met with in scrub jungle. The forest on this side seems to be a Rain-forest and a transitional form between rain and monsoon-forest in contrast to the mixed deciduous forest and Rain- forest on the Telangana side. Apart from these the typical thorn- forest consisting of the dominant members of the Leguminosz family, and the open forests are also readily distinguishable. The families have been arranged in accordance with the classi- fication adopted by Bentham and Hooker in Genera Plantarum. Altogether 255 species belonging to 70 families have been recorded. Apart from the economic uses mentioned the plants of medicinal importance have been marked as such, and their medicinal properties may be referred to in the literature cited and to any further literature existing on the subject. Regarding the botanical names of plants the most common and well-known names are given, although in some cases synonyms have also been given especially when different names are used for the same plant in standard works, thus making the work of reference comparatively easier. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. I am indebted to my assistants Messrs. M. A. Waheed and Sri Ram Loo, and particularly to Mr. M. Abdus Salam who has FLOWERING PLANTS OF HYDERABAD STATE 193 been of great help to me in my tours for the collection of the material. My thanks are due to Mr. Mayuranathan of the Madras Museum who has kindly confirmed some of the doubtful species after comparing them with the type-specimens. I am very much thankful to Dr. B. Sahni for his suggestions and appreciation of the work on the flora of Hyderabad. 1 cannot adequately express my thankfulness to Sir Arthur Hill and Prof. F. E. Fritsch for their encouragement. SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT. I. RANUNCULACE.-E. 1. Clematis GourianaRoxb., H.F.B.I., i, p. 4. (Indian Travellers’ Joy). Vernacular name.—Morvel (Mar.). Habitat.—Western Himalayas to Ceylon, extending to Java and the Philip- pines; throughout the Bombay Presidency both in the Konkan and Deccan. I have not so far found it wild in Hyderabad, but it is successfully cultivated in gardens.’ Uses.—Leaves are medicinal. Il. DILLENIACEA. 2. Dillenia indica Linn., H.F.B.I., i, p. 36. Vernacular name.—Chalta (Hind.); Karmbel (Mar.); Walinga (Tel.). Habitat.—Himalayas, from Nepal to Assam; Behar and Ceylon. Cultivated as an ornamental tree. Uses.—Bark, leaves and fruits are medicinal. Ill. MAGNOLIACE/. 3. Magnolia grandiflora. Habitat.—Cultivated. Flowers in April. IV. MENISPERMACE. 4. Cocculus macrocarpus W. & A., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Pt. I, p. 20 Habitat.—Wild on the Anantgiri Hill, Vikarabad. V. BERBERIDACE/Z. 5. Nandina domestica Thunb., Willis’s Flow. Plts. and Ferns, p. 443. Habitat.—Native of China and Japan. Cultivated. VI. NYMPHASACEA, 6. Nymphea stellata Willd., H.F.B.I., i, p. 114. Vernacular name.—Nilkamal (Hind.). Habitat.—Common in ponds and tanks. The collection was made towards Kamareddy side. Flowers in October. There are two varieties :— (a) parviflora H.F. & T.—flowers small, blue. (b) versicolor H.F. & T.—flowers large, white, blue, purple or flesh- coloured. Uses.—Roots and seeds are edible, especially in famines. Rootstock and flower¢ are medicinal. 7. Nelumbium speciosum Willd., H.F.B.J., i, p. 116. Vernacular names.—Nilofar, Kanwal. Habitat.--Common throughout India. Extensively cultivated for its magni- ficent flowers. * This plant has since been collected from the Telangana forests. 194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. XL U'ses.—Filaments, seeds, leaves and roots are medicinal. Underground stems are eaten. The flowers are considered sacred and are worshipped by. the Hindus. VII. FUMARIACEA. 8. Fumaria parviflora Lamk., H.F.B.I., i, p. 128. Vernaculay names.—Pitpapada (Hind.); Tura (Tam.); Chatarashi (Gels): Habitat.—A common weed on cultivated ground. Uses.—Except the root entire plant is used in medicine. VIII. CAPPARIDACEE. 9g. Gynandropsis pentaphylla DC., H.F.B.I., i, p. 171. Vernacular names.—Hulhul, Hurhur (Hind.); Mambli (Mar.); Vela-kura (Tele) Habitat.—A common weed in waste places. Uses.—Seeds, leaves and roots are medicinal. 10. Capparis spinosa Linn., H.F.B.I., i, p. 173. Vernacular name.—Kabra (Hind.). Habitat.—A_ prostrate shrub often seen in dry places. Uses.—Root and root-bark are medicinal. IX. VIOLACEA#. 11. Viola odorata Linn., H.F.B.I., i, p. 184. (Sweet Violet). Habitat.—Kashmir etc. Cultivated for its flowers. 12. Viola tricoler Linn. (Pansy). Habitat.—Cultivated for its handsome flowers. Xx, - BIXACEA!. 13. Cochlospermum Gossypium DC., H.F.B.I., i, p. 199. Syn.—Bombax gossypium Linn. Vernacular names.—kumbi, ganiar, gangal (Hind.); Gungu, gondugogu (Tel); Kalir-gond, Kathalya gonda (Mar.). Habitat.—May be it is wild, but I have not found it so far. It is cultivated. Uses.—A kind of silk cotton obtained from the seeds is of economic importance. Gum, leaves and flowers are medicinal. 14. Flacourtia Ramontchi L’Hérit., H.F.B.I., i, p. 193. Vernacular names.—Bilangra, Katti (Hind.) ; Kangregu (Tel.). Habitat.—Wild in many parts of India, also in the Hyderabad forests. Cultivated. 15. Hydnocarpus Wightiana Blume., H.F.B.1., i, p. 196. Vernacular names.—Nowti (Hind.); Niradivittulu (for seeds Tel.). Habitat.—The Konkans and Kanara chiefly on hill ranges near the coast. Cultivated for its medicinal importance. Uses.—The oil from the seeds is medicinal. 16. Oncoba spinosa. Habitat.—Cultivated. XI. POLYGALACEA:. 17. Polygala chinensis Linn., H.F.B.I., i, p. 204. Vernacular names.—Miragu (Hind.); Negli (Mar.). Habitat.—A very common weed at Adigmet and elsewhere. Uses.—The- root is . medicinal. XII. TAMARICACE/, 18. Tamarix articulata Vahl., H.F.B.I., i, p. 249. Vernaculay names.—Faras, Sarru, (Hind.); Farwa,’ Marlet (Pb.). FLOWERING PLANTS OF. HYDERABAD. STATE 195 Habitat.—Common in river beds on the Marathwari side, viz., in the river bed at Phoolinari in Aurangabad. Uses.—The bark and galls are used in medicine. ) 154. Heliotropium paniculatum R. Br., H.F.B.I. iv, p. 151. Habitat.—Very common at Adigmet, growing in patches. Flowers: April. 155- Heliotropium indicum Linn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 152. Syn.—Tiaridium indicum Lehm. Vernacular name.—Bhurunadti. Habitat.—A common weed in waste places.—Flowers—Oct.-Dec. 156. Heliotropium zeylanicum Lamk., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 148. Habitat.—Same as that of the preceding species. The following are cultivated :— 157. Cordia Sebestina Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Il, 1, p. 202. 158. Heliotropium peruvianum Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., UW, 1, p. 213. 159. Borago officinale. Lil. -CONVOLVULACEZAS, 160. Ipomoea Quamoclit Linn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 199. . Vernacular Names.—Vishnukrant (Mar. ); : Kamlata (Hind.); Ganesh-vel, Sita che kesh (Bomb.). Habitat.—Native of tropical America, commonly grown in gardens throughout India. Uses.—Leaves are said to be medicinal. 161. Ipomoea pes-tigridis Linn., H.F.B.J., iv, p. 204. Habitat.—Common in_ hedges. Uses.—Medicinal. 162. Ipomeea aquatica Forsk., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 210. Vernacular names.—Kalambi (Sans.); Nari, Nali (Pb.); Nalichibhaji (Bomb.) ; Koilangu (Tam.); Tuti-kura (Tel.). Habitat.—Wild, growing in shallow ponds and marshy ground. Uses.—The juice is described as medicinal. 163. Ipomea biloba Forsk., H.F.B.J., iv, p. 212. Syn.—Convolvulus Pes-caprae Linn. Vernacular names.—Dopti-lata (Hind.); Marjadvel (Bomb.); Balabandi tige (Lelia). Habitat. sandy or morum soil. Uses.—Root and leaves are medicinal. FLOWERING PLANTS OF HYDERABAD STATE 205 164. Porana paniculata Roxb., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 222. Habitat.—It is wild in many parts of India, and is commonly grown in Hyderabad, and is also found as an escape. The following are commonly cultivated :— 165. Jacquemontia caerulea Choisy, Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. I, p. 236. Habitat.—Native of South America. 166. Ipomoea Leari Purt., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. II, p. 251. Habitat.—Native of tropical America, a favourite ornament of verandahs. The large blue flowers become reddish on fading. LIV. SOLANACE. 167. Solanumindicum Linn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 234. Vernacular names.—Barhanta (Hind.); Mulli (Tam.); Kuk-machi (Tel.); Dorli, Ringani (Bomb.). Habitat.—A common _ undershrub. Uses.—The root and leaves are medicinal. 168. Physalis minima Linn., H.F.B.1., iv, p. 238. Vernacular names.—Kupanti (Tel.); Chirbott, Ran-popati (Bomb.). Habitat.—A common weed in fields and hedges. Uses.—Medicinal. The following are commonly cultivated :— 169. Solanum macrophyllum Hort., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. I, Pp, 269. Habitat.—Native of Mexico with large leaves and showy blue flowers which turn white on fading. 170. Physalis peruyiana Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. Il, Pt. II, p. 270. (Cape Goose-berry). Habitat.—Native of Tropical America. 171. Cyphomandra betacea Sendt., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. U1, Pt. II, Pp. 275: Cooke menticns on the authority of Woodrow that it has been unable to resist the south-west monsoon in the Deccan, but in the Botanic Garden, Osmania University, it seems to have adapted itself. 172. Cestrum nocturnum. Flowers greenish-yellow, very fragrant. 173. Petunia nyctaginiflora Juss., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. II, p. 276. 174. Petunia violacea Lindl., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. II, p. 276. Both are natives of the Argentine. Several varieties are grown in gardens. ElV>. SCROPHULARIACEZS, 175. Herpestis Monniera H. B. & K., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 272. Syn.—Moniera cuneifolia Michaux. Vernacular names.—Brahmi, jal-nim (Hind.); Beami nirpirimie (Tam.) Sembrani-chettu (Tel.). Habitat.—Common in damp places, particularly on untrodden portions of lawns. Flowers—Feb.-April. It Uses.—Root, stalks and leaves are medicinal. 176. Vandellia crustacea Benth., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 270. ' Habitat.—Quite common. Flowers in August. 177. Striga orobanchioides Benth., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 299. Habitat—A common root-parasite. It was found on Lepidagathis cristata. dries black. Flowers—October-November. 178. Sopubia delphinifolia G. Don., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 302. Vernacular name.—Dudhali (Bomb.). Habitat.—Very common in cultivated fields, Flowers at the close of the rains—A ugust-October. 206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL Uses.—The juice of the plant is said to be medicinal. The following are cultivated :— 179. Russelia junceaZucc., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II. Pt. II, p. 310. A Mexican plant grown in gardens for its handsome showy scarlet flowers. LV. GESNERIACEA., The following are grown in gardens :— 180. Achimines hirsuta DC., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. II, p. 325. A native of Brazil. Several varieties are grown. Gloxinia maculata L’Herit, Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. I, p. 325. LVI. BIGNONIACEA, 181. Dolichandrone falcata Seem., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 382. Vernacular names.—Mersinge (Bomb.); Mersingi (Mar.); Kodatathie (Tam.) ; Udda, Wodi (Tel.). Habitat.—Rather rare. Uses.—Fruit and bark are said to be medicinal. 182. Stereospermum chelonoides DC.,H.F.B.1I., iv, p. 382. Vernacular names.—Padri, Parral (Hind.); Dharmar (Beng.); Padal (Bomb.) ; Kirsel, padhri (Mar.); Padri, Appu (Tam.); Moka-yapa, Pisul (Tel.). Habitat.—Common in moist forests. Uses.—Roots, leaves and flowers are medicinal. The following are commonly cultivated :— 183. Tecoma undulata D. Don., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 378. Syn.—Tecomella undulata Seem. 184. Tecomaria capensis Spach., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. Il, Pt. II, P. 335: Syn.—Tecoma capensis Lindl. 185. Parmentiera cereifera Seem., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. HI, Ds 330. (Candle tree of Panama). 186. Jacaranda mimoszolia D. Don. LVII. PEDALIACEZ:, 187. Sesamum laciniatum Klein., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 387. Habitat.—It was in abundance at Adigmet in 1935, but owing to grazing and clearance of weeds it has not been seen last season, that is, at the close of rains about September. It has dark purple flowers. LVIIT. ACANTHACEZAS. 188. Ruellia prostrata Lamk., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 411. Habitat.—A common weed. Flowers after the rains. Uses.—Leaves are medicinal. 189. Blepharis molluginifolia Pers., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 479. Habitat.—Wild. The material was collected from a field in Mulug. 190. Barleria Prionitis Linn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 482. Vernacular names.—Karuntaka (Sans.); Katsareya (Hind.); Korhanti, Vijradanti (Bomb.); Piwala koranta (Mar.); Varamulti (Tam.); Muli-goranta (Tel.): Habitat.—Common throughout the Dominions, also often planted as a hedge. Flowers, October-January. Uses.—Medicinal. 19t. Barleria cristata Linn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 488. Vernacular names.—Jhinti (Sans.); Thanti, Sada-jati; Gokran (Bomb.); Bansa siyah (Pb.). Habitat.—A common plant with purple-blue or white flowers. Uses.—Root, leaves and seeds are said to be medicinal. FLOWERING PLANTS OF HYDERABAD STATE 207 192. Andrographis echinoides Nees., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 505. Habitat.—Wild, very common in the vicinity of Adigmet and elsewhere. Uses.—Medicinal. 193. Adhatoda vasica Nees., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 540. Syn.—Justicia Adhatoda Linn. Vernacular names.—Arusak, Vasa etc. (Sans.); Arusha (Hind.); Bakas, vasaka (Beng.); Bansa (Pers.); Adhadode (Tam.); Adasara (Tel.). Habitat.—A common hedge plant about villages near Aurangabad and elsewhere. Uses. medicinal. A yellow dye is obtained from the leaves. The leaves and root are 194. Rungia repens Nees., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 548. Syn.—Justicia repens Linn. Vernacular names.—Kodaga saleh (Tam.); Ghatipitpada (Bomb.). Habitat.—An extremely common weed. Flowers, October-January. Uses.—Medicinal. 195. Justicia diffusa Willd.. H.F.B.1., iv, p. 538. Syn.—Rostellularia diffusa Nees. Habitat.—As common as the preceding species. The following are garden favourites :— 196. Meyenia erecta Benth., Cooke. Fl Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. II, p. 343. Syn.—Thunbergia erecta T. Anders. 197. Eranthemum bicolor Schrank, Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. II, p. 390. he (Several varieties are grown.) 198. Graptophyllum hortense Nees.. Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. I, p. 416. Uses.—Leaves are medicinal. 199. Crossandra undulefolia Salisb., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 492. 200. Sanchezia nobilis Hook, Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. I, Pt. II, p. 416. LIX. VERBENACE. 201. Lippia nodiflora Rich., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 563. Vernacular names.—Vashira (Sans.); Bhin-okra (Hind.); Ratolia (Bomb.) ; Podutabi (Tam.); Bokenaku (Tel.). Habitat.—Very common on untrodden portions of lawns and grassy places. Flowers: February-April. Cooke mentions that they are found more or less all the year which is true, but in Hyderabad they are seen in abundance during the months of February and March. Uses.—Medicinal. 202. Stachytarpheta indica Vahl., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 564. Habitat.—A common herb. It is so common that it can easily be taken as indigenous, although, perhaps, it is not. 203. Premna integrifolia Linn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 574. Syn.—Premna serratifolia Linn. Vernacular names.—Ganikarika, Agnimantha (Sans.); Agetha, arnt (Hind.): Ganiari (Beng.); Erumaimullai, Munnay (Tam.); Pinuanelli (Tel.); Chamani (Mar.). _ Habitat.—I am doubtful about its being wild here, although it is very common near the sea. Flowers in July. Uses.—Medicinal. The following are commonly cultivated :— 204 Verbena officinalis vinn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 656. Uses.—Medicinal. 205. Verbena incisa Hook., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. I, Pt. III, p. 436. 206. Clerodendron inerme Gaertn., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 589. Uses,—Medicinal, 208 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL BIST? SOCEETRY) Vol. Xi 207. Aloysia citriodora Orteg., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., vol. II, Pt, III, P- 436. Syn.—Lippia citriodora H. B. (Lemon-scented Aloysia or Verbena). 208. Petrea volubilis Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. III, p. 436 209. Citharexylum subserratum Sw., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres. Vol. II, Pte Ul pao4ar. Vernacular name.—Din-ka-Raja (local). LX. LABIATA. 210. Coleus aromaticus Benth., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 625. Vernacular names.—Pashana Chedi (Sans.) Pathar chur (Hind. and Bomb.) ; Karpura valli (Tel.); Panacha onva (Mar.). Habitat.—Commonly cultivated. Uses.—Medicinal. 211. Amnisochilus carnosus Wall., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 627. Vernacular names.—Ajapada, induparni (Sans.); Panjiri-ka-pat (Hind.); Ajvan-ka-patta (local); Karpuravalli (Tel.); Panajiren (Mar.). Habitat.—Wild in many parts of India. Cultivated. Uses.—Leaves and oil are medicinal. 212. Leucas diffusa Benth., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 680. Habitat.—Very wild in gravelly soil at Adigmet and elsewhere. 213. Leucas aspera Spreng., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 690. Vernacular names.—Tamba (Bomb.); Tunbai-chedi (Tam.); Thiumma-chettu (Tel.). Habitat.—The same as that of the preceding species. Uses.—Leaves are said to be medicinal. 214. Leonotis nepetefolia Br., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 601. Vernacular names.—Dipmal, Ekri (Mar.);. Rana bheri (Tel.). Habitat.—Commonly found, but doubtfully indigenous. Uses.—Flowers are considered medicinal. The following are commonly cultivated :— 215. Lavendula vera D.C., Cooke. Fl.- Bomb. -Pres., Vol. 1, Pt. ITI, p. 453. (True Lavender). Cooke is right in remarking that it sometimes drags out a sickly existence as a pot plant. I have to add that it often does so in Hyderabad. Economically and medicinally important. 216. Salvia involucrata Cav., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. 11, Pt. IIT, Dp: 475: 217. Origanum Marjorana Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. III, P. 475- (The Marjorum). Vernacular names.—Murva (Hind.); Maroo (Tam.). Uses.—An essential oil is distilled from the leaves and is used as a perfume. Seeds, leaves and oil are medicinal. LXI. AMARANTACEZ:. 218. Celosia cristata Linn., H.F.B.I., -iv, p. 715. (Cock’s comb). Vernacular names.—Murgha-ka-phul, Pila-murgha, Lal-murgha (Hind.). Habitat.—Cultivated. Uses.—Medicinal. 219. Allmania nodiflora Br., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 716 Habitat.—A common ‘weed. It is very variable, and hence there are many varieties. 220. Amarantus viridis Linn., H.F.B.J., iv, p. 720. Habitat.—A common weed in gardens and waste places. 221. Amarantus polygamus Linn., H.F.B.J., iv, p 721. Syn.—Amarantus polygonoides Willd. Habitat.—Also a common weed, FLOWERING PLANTS OF HYDERABAD STATE 209 The following species of Amarantus are cultivated :— 222. Amarantus caudatus Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. Il, Pt. III, *p. 4gI. (Love-lies-bleeding). 223. Amarantus hypochondriacus Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pte IIT; p.-4or. (The Prince’s Feather). 244. Nothoserua brachiata Wight., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 726. Habitat—Pretty common. 225. Aerua lanata Juss., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 728. Syn.—Achyranthus lanata Linn. Vernacular mnames.—Kapur-madhura (Mar.); Sirru-pulay vayr (Tam.); Pindie-conda (Tel.). J Habitat.—Quite a common weed. Flowers: September-November. Uses.—Medicinal. 226. AeruaMonsonia Mart., H.F.B.I., iv, p. 728. Syn.—Achyranthus Monsonia Pers. Habitat.—Very common. Flowers: October-January. 227. Alternanthera sessilis Br.. H.F.B.I., iv, p. 731. Syn.—Alternanthera triandra Lam. Vernacular names.—Kanchri, Jaljamba. Habitat.—A very common weed at Adigmet and other places. Flowers: August-January. The following are commonly cultivated in gardens :— 228. Telanthera ficoidea Mog., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. If, Pt. UI, Be 499. Syn.—Alternanthera amabilis of gardeners. It makes an excellent edging for small beds. 229. Gomphrena globosa Linn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres, Vol. II, Pt. MI, P. 499. (The Globe Amaranth). Vernacular name.—Jafri-gundi. LX. CHENOPODIACEZA:, 230. Susda maritima Dumort., H.F.B.I., v, p. 14. Habitat.—Apparently a common weed in grassy places. 231. Beta vulgaris Linn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 5. (The Beet-root). Vernacular names.-——Chukhander (Hind.); Palak (Bomb.). Uses.—It is much used in curries and salads. LXITI. POLYGONACEE. 232. Polygonum plebejum Br., H.F.B.I., v, 27. Habitat.—A common herb, very variable. Uses.—Medicinal. 233. Antigonon leptopus H. & Arn., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. I, Pt. WI, P- 519. Habitat—A native of South America, commonly cultivated. LXIV. NEPENTHACE:. 234. Nepenthes khasiana Hook., H.F.B.I., v, p. 7o. (The Pitcher-plant). Habitat.—Khasia and Jyntea mountains. It is seldom cultivated. It is being grown in the Botanic Garden, Osmania University. But the climate does not seem to suit it, as it often puts on a sickly appearance. 210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL LAV. ARISTOLOCHIACE:. 235. Aristolochia indica Linn., H.F.BI., v, p. 75. Vernacular names.—Rudrajata, Ishvari (Sans.); Isharmul (Hind.); Sapsund, Sampsum (Bomb. and Mar.); Perumarindu (Tam.); Ishvara-veru, govila (Tel.). Habitat.—Common in_ bushes. Uses.—Root and leaves are medicinal. 236. Aristolochia elegans Masters, Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. IIT, > Habitat.—A native of Brazil, commonly cultivated. LXVI. LAURACEZ:, 237. Cassytha filiformis Linn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 188. Vernacular names.—Akas Valli (Sans.); Amarbeli (Hind.); Akaswel, Amar- vellu (Mar). ; Cottan (Tam.); Paunch figa (Tel.). Habitat.—A common parasite on trees and shrubs. It is often mistaken for Cuscuta. Uses.—Medicinal. The following are cultivated :— 238. Cinnamomum zeylanicum Breyn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 131. (The Cinnamon of commerce). Vernaculay names.—Dalchini (Hind.); Karruwa (Tam.); Sanalingul (Tel.). Uses.—The bark (Dalchini) is used to flavour curries and some_ sweets. Officinal. 239. Cinnamomum camphora F. Nees., H.F.B.I., v, p. 134. (The Camphor tree). Vernacular name.—Kafoor-ka-jhar. Uses.—Medicinal. LXVII. EUPHORBIACE., 240. Euphorbia antiquorum Linn., H.F.B.J., v, p. 2 Vernacular names.—Sihunda (Sans.); Tindhara schund (Hind.); Naraseja (Mar.); Shadhurak-kalli, Tirikalli (Tam.); Bonta-chemudu (Tel.). Habitat.—Common in dry places. Uses.—Medicinal. 241. Euphorbia hypericifolia Linn., H.F.B.J., v, p. 249. Vernacular names.—Hazardana (Pb.); Nayeti Dudh mogra (Bomb.); Dhakti- dudhi (Mar.). Habitat.—Wild. Uses.—Medicinal. 242. Euphorbia hirta Linn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 250. Syn.—Euphorbia pilulifera Linn. Vernacular names.—Dudhi (Hind.); Nayeti (Bomb.); Dudhi or mothidudhi (Mar.); Amumpatchay-arissi (Tam.); Nanabala (Tel.). Habitat.—A very common weed. Uses.—Medicinal. 243. Euphorbia microphylla Heyne., H.F.B.I., v, p. 252. Habitat.—Wild throughout. Uses.—Medicinal. 244. Euphorbia thymifolia Burn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 252. Vernacular names.—Rakta vinda chada (Sans.); Dudhi, Chotka dudhi (Hind.) ; Hazardana (Pb.); Chinamam (Tam.); Biduru’ nana biyyam (Tel.); Nayeti (Bomb.); Mathi-dudhi (Mar.). Habitat.—Also a common weed. Uses.—Medicinal. 245. Jatropha Curcas Linn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 383. Vernacular names.—Nepalam (Tel); Mogali-eranda (Tel. and Bomb.). Habitat.—Common near villages. Uses.—Medicinal. FLOWERING PLANTS OF HYDERABAD STATE 211 246. Jatropha multifida Linn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 383. Habitat.—A native of America. Cultivated. 247. Jatropha podagrica Hook., Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. III, p. 598. Habitat—A native of Grenada. It has a curious gouty stem. Often cultivated. 248. Cleistanthus collinus Benth., H.F.B.I., v, p. 274. Vernacular names.—Korsi, kurchi-chettu (Tel.); Woadugu mayam (Tam.); Garari (Mar.). Habitat.—Fruits were collected from the Mulug forest. Uses.—Outer crust of capsule is said to be exceedingly poisonous. Medicinal. 249. Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir., H.F.B.I., v, p. 288. Vernacular names—Krishna-kamboji (Sans.); Panjoli, Kala mahmooda (Hind.); Pavan, Datvan (Bomb.); Pillanji, Karappu-pillanji (Tam.); Purugudu, phulser (Tel.). Habitat.—Common in the vicinity of the city, and extremely common in Doulatabad and Khuldabad (Aurangabad District). Uses.—The berries are edible. Leaves and bark are medicinal. 250. Tragia involucrata Linn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 465. Vernaculay names.—Vrischi-kali (Sans.); Barhanta’ (Hind.); Nan-churi (Tam.); Kauch kuri (Bomb.); China-dulagondi, druda-gunti (Tel.); Kauch-kuri (local name, but the real Kauch-kuri is Mucuna Pruriens of the Leguminosae family). Habitat.—A common twining herb in many hill-forests. The material was collected from a hillock near Kamareddy. Uses.—Medicinal. 251. Codizum variegatum Blume, Cooke. Fl. Bomb. Pres., Vol. II, Pt. IV, p. 626—the croton of gardens. 252. Aleurites moluccana Willd., H.F.B.I., v, p. 384. (The Belgaum Walnut). Vernacular names—Akosta (Sans.); Jangli-akhrot (Hind.); Girdagane hindi, Chahar maghze hindi (Fers.); Jangli akhrota Japhala, Akhod (Mar.); Nattuwu akrotu kottai (Tam.). Uses.—Medicinal. LXVIIT. URTICACEAS, 253. Ficus Tsiela Roxb., H.F.B.I., v, p. 515. Habitat.—Common near villages in Aurangabad. LXIX. CASUARINACE, 254. Casuarina equlsetifolia Forst, H.F.B.I., v, p. 508. Habitat.—Extensively planted, but not indigenous. LXX. CERATOPHYLLACE. 255. Ceratophvilum demersum Linn., H.F.B.I., v, p. 639. Habitat.—A very common water-plant. LITERATURE CONSULTED. Brandis, D.—The Indian Trees (1906). Chopra, R. N.—Indigenous Drugs of India (1933). Cooke, T.—The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay (1903-08). Dalzell, N. A. and Gibson, A.—The Bombay Flora (1861). Hooker, T. D.—Flora of British India (1875-79). Kirtikar, K. R. and Basu, B. D.—Indian Medicinal Plants (1918). Mayuranathan, P. V.—The Flowering Plants of the Madras City and its Immediate Neighbourhood (1929). Partridge, E. A.—Forest Flora of the Hyderabad State (1911). Roxburgh, W.—Flora Indica (1874). Sayeeduddin, M.—Some of the Common Flowering Plants of the Hyderabad State; their distribution, economic and medicinal importance. ‘J.A.S.B., vol. i, No. 1’ (1935). bo he 1 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOGIETYZ Volt Xa Sayeeduddin, M.—Vegetation of Hyderabad (India). ‘The Sc. Forum, the official Jour. of I.F.Sc. (London), vol. i, Nos (1935). Talbot, W: A.—Forest Flora of the Bombay Presidency and Sind (1909). Watt. G.—Dictionary of the Economic Products of India (1889-96). Watt, G.—The Commercial Products of India (1908). Wight, R.—Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis (1838-53). Wight, R.—lIllustrations of Indian Botany (18309). Willis, J. C.—A Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and Ferns (1931). THE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF JODHPUR STATE. BY HoucH W ISTLER: In 1933 His Highness the Ruler of Jodhpur State suggested that our Society should make arrangements for an ornithological survey of Jodhpur State on ‘the lines of the previous surveys undertaken by the Society and he further expressed his willingness to defray the cost of such a survey for a period of three months. Needless to say this handsome offer was gratefully accepted and the work in the field was put into the hands of Mr. V. S. La Personne, one of the Society’s officers who had already taken part in the Eastern Ghats Survey. It was not expected that any novelties would be discovered in Jodhpur State. This was quite unlikely in view of the arid and semi-desert character of the greater part of the State and its close correspondence with the neighbouring areas of Sindh, Rajputana and the Punjab, of which the birds were already very generally known. But it was felt that careful collecting over a period of three months could hardly fail to add something to our knowledge of an area of which so little was on record, even though it could only furnish a picture of part of the bird year. Our previous knowledge of the birds of Jodhpur State is derived from three main sources. The first is the work of Mr. R. M. Adam who was resident at Sambhur for several years. About 1870-74 he was a correspondent of A. O. Hume’s and made a large collection of birds which are now in the British Museum. The result of his observations was recorded in Stray Feathers as follows:—‘Notes on the Birds of the Sambhur Lake and _ its vicinity’, Stray Feathers, vol. 1, pp. 361-404. ‘Additional Note on the birds of the Sambhur Lake and its vicinity’, Stray Feathers, ii, PP. 337-41 and pp. 465-6. Sambhur Lake cuts across the north-east boundary of Jodhpur State and Adam treated of the area of the lake as a whole without considering political boundaries. As many of the birds mentioned are water birds and the area is not typical of Jodhpur State proper and as there is nothing to show in many cases which side of the boundary the birds came from this list has to be used with some discretion by the student of Jodhpur State. The second authority for Jodhpur is Dr. King who collected at Mount Aboo and in Jodhpur for nearly two years. His birds are also in the British Museum. He unfortunately published no account of his observations but he supplied Hume with a manuscript list of species obtained in the plains of Jodhpur in spring, summer and autumn and that was largely drawn on by Hume in his notes to Captain Butler’s paper, to be mentioned below (vide S.F., iii P- 440). ) 214. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL The third authority for the State is Allen Octavian Hume himself. He appears to have been in Jodhpur on more than one occasion but his only paper dealing with his own collecting in the area will be found in Stray Feathers, vol. vii, pp. 52-68, ‘The Birds of a Drought’. This deals with a stay at Jodhpur city from 15 January to 15 February and with intensive collecting in an area of 8 to 10 miles round the city. Conditions were not however normal owing to the severe drought. He did however contribute a series of notes on the neighbouring areas, including Jodhpur, to an important paper by Captain E. A. Butler, ‘Notes on the avifauna of Mount Aboo and Northern Gujerat’ (Stray Feathers, iti, pp. 437- 500 and iv, pp. 1-41). To this paper Hume also contributed one of his customary regional analyses which is of interest to the student of Jodhpur. From these three sources I have abstracted as far as is practicable—for many of the references are in very general terms —the information which refers to Jodhpur State and adding it to the information which has been obtained by the present survey have thus prepared what can only be regarded as a very imperfect nominal list of the birds of Jodhpur State. My hope is that it may serve as a starting point for any fresh observer who may be stationed in Jodhpur and is able and willing to study the birds of the State in the way that they should be studied. Mr. La Personne collected 361 birds during the survey. The following list shows the serial numbers of the specimens collected at each camp together with the period spent there. Nos. 1-18; 8 Oct. 1933—9 Oct. 1933; Pali, Marwar District. Nos. 19-140; 10 Oct. 1933—31 Oct. 1933; Hamavas Lake, Pali. Nos. 141-211; 2 Nov. 1933—10 Nov. 1933; Jalor. Nos. 212-238; 13 Nov. 1933—16 Nov. 1933; Bhinmal. Nos. 239-300; 21 Nov. 1933—2 Dec. 1933; Sunda Hill, Jaswant- pura District. Nos. 301-316; 2 Dec. 1933—5 Dec. 1933; Jawar, Jaswantpura District. Nos. 317-330; © Dec. 1933—27 Déc. 1933 =) Vilwara’ Nos. 331-351; 1 January 1934—5 January 1934; Phalodi. Nos. 354-361; 8 January 1934—14 January 1934; Pichiak Lake, Bilara District. It will be realised, therefore that Mr. La Personne must have worked very hard in collecting and skinning. He did not however furnish any field notes of importance on the collection or any notes on the collecting areas so I fear that my report can be little but a nominal list of the specimens collected, supplemented by such notes as I have procured from the three main sources outlined above. Critical discussions of races have not been called for as whatever might have been said on these particular species has already been said by Dr. Ticehurst in his Sind papers or by myself in connection with the Punjab or in the various survey papers. Any Gazetteer may be consulted for a general description of Jodhpur State. With these few preliminary remarks I now proceed to enumerate the species and subspecies either procured by the survey or otherwise recorded as occurring in Jodhpur State, CHE ORNITHOLOGICAL’ SURVEY “OF fODHPUR STATE 215 Corvus corax laurencei Hume. Specimen collected :—338 Q 2-1-34 Phalodi; 358 9 12-1-34 Pichiak Lake, Bilara. Found throughout the whole State in the winter months. Hume remarks on the boldness of this Raven. ‘Our camp, he says, was a large one perhaps containing a thousand souls and in amongst the tents from dawn till dark, familiar and fearless as sparrows, were at all times from 50 to too of these Ravens, stalking about singly and croaking vigorously to each other’. La Personne also remarks on the tameness of the bird in the desert towns. In Phalodi they actually entered the bungalow verandas and no. 338 was caught with a basket and string trap. A nest with 2 fresh eggs was seen on 19 December on a signal platform of the railway at Tilwara, the birds being but little disturbed by passing trains. Many old nests were seen in the desert outside Chanod, mostly placed on acacia trees barely 6 foot high. . Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler. La Personne reports that a single Jungle-Crow was seen in His Highness’ garden at Jaswantpura, no doubt as a straggler from the Aravallis. Hume and Adam failed to meet it either at Jodhpur or Sambhur. Corvus splendens spletidens Vieillot. Specimens collected :—187 ¢ ad. 6-11-33, Qad. 10-11-33 Jalor 500 ft. Hume found the House-Crow rare at Jodhpur under drought conditions, but La Personne says it occurs throughout the greater part of the State except in the more arid regions. It was common at Barmer in December. In some localities, such as Puchbunddra, according to Hume the House-Crow is only a rains visitor (S.F., iii, 493). La Personne furnishes an interesting note on the roosting flight of this species in Jaswantpura district. The evening flight passed over his camp at 3,400 ft. on Sunda Hill and from that elevation he could see the birds leaving the plains in huge flocks and crossing the hill at one particular dip in the ridge, making for the Abu range. The first flock would cross (at the end of November and beginning of December) about 5.30 p.m. and then with intervals of a minute or two between each flock the flight would continue until about 6-45 to 7 p.m. The morning flight was over before sunrise. Some of these birds doubtless came from great distances, as when the survey was at Jalor and Tilwara the start of the evening flights was noticed. Both specimens collected belong to the typical form and La_ Personne particularly remarks that throughout the survey he noticed that all House- Crows were typical in colour and not of the paler zugmayeri form. Dendrocitta vagabunda pallida Blyth. Specimens collected :—Q imm. 10-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 306 @ ad. 4-12-33, 313 6 ad. 5-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura District. The Indian Tree Pie was common in and around Jodhpur town but the specimen collected at Hamavas Lake appeared to be the only individual in the strip of Babul jungle growing along the dam. A pair visited the camp on Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft. Specimens collected will pass in colour as pallida though their measurements (39 ad. wing 161, 150 tail 259, 235 mm.) are a little on the small side. Lal Personne remarks, however, that the pair on Sunda Hill appeared to be larger with longer tails. Parus major mahrattarum Hartert. Specimens collected :—244 9 245 CG 21-11-33, 248 sex ? 22-11-33, 262 oO 23-11-33, 271 © 25-59-33,. 286 CG 28-11-33, 204 9, 205 G 20- Hills, 3,400 ft., Jaswantpura. The Indian Grey Tit was plentiful on Sunda Hill frequenting the ravines and old watercourses and being found in the hunting parties with White-eyes and Willow-wrens. There is a specimen in the Hume collection obtained on the Desuri Road from Jodhpur on 10 February 1878 and it is also found in the Marot and Koochamun jungles to the north of the Sambhur Lake. bo o> 1 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL Parus nuchalis Jerdon. The survey unfortunately failed to meet with the White-winged Black Tit but it occurs along the eastern borders of the Jodhpur State as Adam found it quite common towards Marot and Mokrana, and Hume (S.F., iii, 492) obtained it from the neighbourhood of Pali. Turdoides somervillei sindiamus (Ticehurst). Specimens collected :—279g Q 27-11-33, Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft. This specimen of the Jungle Babbler was secured from a family party on Sunda Hill. The species was not otherwise observed though Hume included the bird in his Jodhpur list. Argya caudata caudata (Dumont). Specimens collected :—4 sex ? juv., 9 @ ad. to dG -juv., 8-10-33 Pali; 178 3, 119 g, 120 Q 21-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali district ; 323 ¢ 19-12-33 Tilwara, 348 9 ad., 349 Q@ imm. 5-1-34 Phalodi. The Common Babbler is one of the most common and generally distributed birds in the State though it was not found in the hill area of Jaswantpura district. Young and eggs were noted in October. Argya malcoimi (Sykes). Specimens collected :—142 ¢G 31-10-33, 164 @ 3-11-33, 170 Q 4-11-33 Jalor. The Large Grey Babbler is very common at Jodhpur and extends to Balotra, Siwaria and Jalor, though it is absent according to La Personne from the desert region further west and from the hills of Jaswantpura. Chrysomma sinensis hypoleucos (Franklin). Specimens collected :—19 CG 10-10-33, 34 OG II-10-33, 49 CG 13-10-33, 138 ¢& 25-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 259 d, 260 d, 261d juv., 23-11-33, 267 Q 25-11-33, Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft.; 301 ¢, 302 2 2-12-33, Jawar, Jaswantpura district; 354 d 355 & 8-1-34, Pichiak Lake. The Yellow-eyed Babbler is common on Sunda Hill in the bamboo-jungle and was also found on the plains in Tamarisk and Babool forests and in the reed beds and grass lands round the larger lakes, but was met by the Survey nowhere west of a line roughly through Jodhpur, Jalor, Bhinmal and Jasw- antpura. Adam obtained it from the hills near NKoochamun. The young male no. 261 was probably not more than a month old and was secured from family party. Aegithina nigrolutea (Marshall). Aegithina tiphia (L.). Specimens collected :—268 dg imm. 25-11-33, Sunda Hill, 3,000 ft. La Personne says that an [ora was not uncommon on Sunda. Hill. When Hume wrote in 1875, before the two species of Iora had been differentiated, he said that the Tora was common in the eastern portions of Jodhpur but occurred for the most part only in the rains in western Jodhpur. The solitary specimen obtained by the Survey—which was in company with a party of White-eyes in a large Banyan tree—is immature and therefore cannot be identified subspecifically but it appears to me to be of the species tiphia. A specimen in the Hume collection from the hills near Koochamun is, however, nigrolutea to which species also belong the Ioras collected by Adam at Sambhur and a specimen from Anadra (just over the Jodhpur border near Mount Aboo) in the Hume collection. It is evident, therefore, that both forms of Iora occur in Jodhpur State but their status and distribution and the exact relationship between them remain to be worked out. Molpastes haemorrhous pallidus Stuart Baker. Specimens collected :—108 @Q, 109 ¢ 20-10-33, 116 @Q 21-10-33, Hamavas Lake, Pali. The Red-vented Bulbul is common on the hills of the Jaswantpura district and extends into the plains, as at Jodhpur, Barmer and Phalodi where conditions are suitable. In western Jodhpur, according to Hume it occurs for CEE MORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF JODHPUR STATE 217 the most part only in the rains. Fledged young were seen. being fed. by their parents on 18 October. Molpastes leucogenys leucotis (Gould). Specimens collected :—26 ¢ 11-10-33, 64 @ 15-10-33, 105 C 20-10-33, 117 OF 21-10-33, 126 CG 22-10-33, 130 Q 132 sex ? 23-10-333: Hamavas . Lake, ali; =163 .4 3-11-33, Jalor. The White-eared Bulbul is one of the most familiar and widely spread birds in the State, inhabiting light babul forest, cactus-covered land and _ the semi-desert country round villages. It is plentiful at Barmer and Phalodi and about Nawa and Mata Pahar on the Sambhur Lake. La Personne remarks that both species of Bulbul were common on the hillside at Hamavas which was thickly covered with cactus, and on more than one occasion individuals of the two species were observed in company, though no hybrids were observed. Salpornis spilonota rajputanae Meinertzhagen. There are a pair of specimens of the Spotted Grey Creeper in the British, Museum collected by Adam on the 6th and 25th of June 1873 and _ labelled Sambhur. These are presumably the two specimens which Adam_ says he obtained in the jungle near Jkoochamun. Saxicola caprata bicolor Sykes. Sepcimens collected :—38 @Q 12-10-33, 72 SG 16-10-33, 79 GO 17-10-33, 88 6 18-10-33;) Hamavas Lake; 161 °¢ 3-11-33, 165 OG 4-11-33, 173 6; 174 3, 175 @ 5-11-33, 184 SO 6-11-33; Jalor; 232 9 16-11-33, Bhinmal. The Pied Bush-chat is very common and generally distributed in Jodhpur, occurring both in the desert country and on the hill top at Sunda. Saxicola torquata indica (Blyth). Specimens collected :—87 ¢ 18-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 178 ¢ 5-11-33 Jalor; 212 OG 13-11-33, 244 GO 15-11-33 Bhinmal. The Stone-chat is a common winter visitor. Saxicola macrorhyncha (Stoliczka). Stoliczka’s Whin-chat was not procured by the Survey but Hume found it ‘extremely common in the thin, stunted scrub jungle that here and there studs the sandy, semi-desert, waterless tracts that occur all round Jodhpur’. He procured a large series of over 30 specimens (now in the British Museum) at the: end of January and during the first week in February and wrote an interesting note on them (S.F., vii, 55). It is no doubt resident. Oenanthe picata (Blyth). Specimens collected :—2 (¢ 8-16-33 Pali; 150 G 2-11-33 Jalor. Although scarce at the beginning of October the Pied Wheatear, says La Personne, increased in numbers with the colder weather and was very generally distributed except in the forested areas. At Jalor and other rest- houses they often rested on the doors and windows during the heat of the day and at Jalor a fine male roosted regularly on the ‘kass-kass’ door. Oenanthe opistholeuca (Strickland). Strickland’s Wheatear was not procured by the Survey but Hume says it occurs here and there throughout Jodhpur, of course as a winter visitor only. Oenanthe isabellina (Temm.). Specimens collected :—1 ¢ 3-10-33, 7 G 8-10-33 Pall. The Isabelline Wheatear is said by La Personne to be very generally distributed except in the hill tracts of Jaswantpura. Oenanthe deserti atrogularis (Blyth). Specimens collected :—146 Q 1-11-33, 183 J 6-11-33 Jalor; 337° Q 2-1-34 Phalodi. The Desert-Wheatear was found to be very common at Barmer and Phalodi. 6 218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST) SOCTERY Vole Oenanthe xanthoprymna chrysopygia (De Filippi). The Red-tailed Wheatear was not procured by the Survey but Hume obtained it in the neighbourhood of Jodhpur and wrote a long note on its correct name (p. 57). Cercomela fusca (Blyth). Specimens collected :—162 ¢ 3-11-33, 188-9 Od 6-11-33, I91 ¢ 194-5 QQ 7-11-33 alot; 240 9, 243 CG. 21-11-33, 275 cG 26-11-33. Sunda Hill 2,400 La Personne says that the Brown Rock-chat is very irregularly distributed in Jodhpur State. He found it common at Phalodi, at Jalor and on the Sunda Hill whereas it was not observed at Marwar Pali or at Barmer and further west of the latter place. Phoenicurus ochrurus phoenicuroides (Horsfield and Moore). Specimens collected :—45 Q 12-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 167 ¢@ 4-11-33, 182 Q 6-11-33, 208 OG 10-11-33 Jalor. The Black Redstart was found to be very generally distributed. Cyanosylvia suecica pallidogularis (Sarudny). Specimens collected: 46 qd 12-10-33, 61 Q 14-10-33, 62 Q 15-10-33, 112 S 21-10-33, 127 GO 22-10-33 Hamavas Lake. La Personne says that a large influx of Bluethroats was observed on the 21 October at Hamavas where there is mest suitable ground for them covered with reeds and tamarisk beyond the Jake-dam. Many were flushed from chilli crops at Jalor and a single bird was seen in a patch of pulse in the Rest-house garden at Barmer. Hume remarked long ago that in_ the more desert portions of Jodhpur the Bluethroat seems to be chiefly found towards the close of the rains, that is on the autumn passage. The identification of Bluethroats in winter plumage in India is largely a matter of guess work but these specimens apparently belong to the race pallidogularis. Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis (Latham). Specimens collected :—83-84 92 17-10-33, 107 3 20-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 151 OG 2-11-30 Jalor. The Brown-backed Indian Robin is absent from the desert areas, such as Barmer and Phalodi, but seems to be generally distributed and common on the eastern side of the State. Hume was of opinion that specimens from western Jodhpur (S.F., ili, 474) were of the type which I have since named imtermedia but the Survey specimens are clearly cambaiensis. Copsychus saularis saularis (Linnaeus). Specimen collected :—310 4-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura District. Local and apparently absent from the desert tracts, the Magpie Robin is said by La Personne to occur at Chanod, along the Jawai River and at Jodhpur, Balotra and Pali. Monticola cyanus pandoo (Sykes). Specimens collected :—133 23-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 186 39 6-11-33 Jalor. The Blue Rock Thrush was first seen on 20 October at Hamavas. It was noted on Sunda Hill. Hume includes it in his list from the neighbourhood of Jodhpur. Muscicapa striata neumanni Poche. The autumn passage route of the Spotted Flycatcher includes Jodhpur as Hume received specimens collected in the State on September 8th and 16th. The Survey was too late to meet with it. Siphia parva parva (Bechstein). Specimens collected i— 55 sex 2? 14-10-33, 58 G 12-10-33 Hamavas” Lake: The Red-breasted Flycatcher is also included in Hume’s Jodhpur list. THE SORNITHOLOGICAL: SURVEY, OF -fJODHPUR. STATE 319 Leucocirca aurevla aureola (Lesson). Specimens collected :—53 ¢ 14-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 314 9 5-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura district. The White-browed Fantail-Flycatcher is a common bird in the gardens of Jodhpur town and in the Babul groves of the eastern side of the State. Adam met a few pairs about Nawa and Marot. According to La Personne it does not occur west of Balotra. Lanius excubitora lahtora (Sykes). Specimens collected :—3 dj, 8 sex ?, 15 ¢ 8-10-33 Pali; 144 ¢ 1-11-33 Jalor. The Indian Grey Shrike is extremely common throughout the State except in the forests of Jaswantpura and the wetter areas round the lakes. Occurs on Sunda Hill. Lanius vittatus Valenciennes. Specimens collected:—7o0 ( juv. 16-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 305 GO 4-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura district. According to La Personne the Bay-backed Shrike is found all along the eastern side of the State, and also wherever suitable conditions occur on the western side though it avoids the desert country. Noted at Barmer and Phalodi and in most Rest-house gardens. Adam found it breeding commonly in the Marot jungles. on 1 August 1872. Lanius schach erythronotus (Vigors). Specimens collected :—8o0-81 92 G 17-10-33 Hamavas Lake. The Rufous-backed Shrike was fairly generally distributed, being also noted by the Survey at Phalodi, Godra Road and Barmer and in the Jaswantpura district. Lanius isabellinus Hempich Ehrenberg. Specimens collected :—25 9 11-10-33, 111 ¢ 20-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 160 3-11-33 Jalor; 216 3 14-11-33 Bhinmal; 328 @Q 21-12-33 Tilwara. The Isabelline Shrike is common throughout the whole State, according to La Personne, in all the drier and semi-desert areas. Tephrodornis pondicerianus pallidus Ticehurst. Specimens collected:— 168 sex ? 4-11-33, 176 @ 5-22-33 Jalor; 281 27-11-33 Sunda Hill 3,400 ft.; 308-309 Oo 4-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura district. The Common Woodshrike occurs wherever there is suitable Babul forest or bush-covered country and it was noted in the tamarisk forest at Tilwara. The specimens collected are intermediate between the typical race and T. p. pallidus but on the whole. are closer to the latter. Pericrocotus brevirostris (Vigors). Hume states that the Short-billed minivet appears in winter in the southern portions of Jodhpur but it was not procured by the Survey. Pericrocotus erythropygius (Jerdon). No minivets were collected by the Survey but Hume procured the White- bellied Minivet in the neighbourhood of Jodhpur town and Adam _ collected specimens in the jungles near Marot and Koochamun. Dicrurus macrocercus albirictus (Hodgson). Specimens collected :—56-7 GQ 14-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali; 153-4 do 2-11-33 Jalor, 500 ft.; 235 Q 16-11-33 Bhinmal. The King Crow is very generally distributed throughout the State in suitable country. Dicrurus longicaudatus Jerdon. Specimen collected :—297 ¢ 29-11-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft. This specimen appears to provide the only record of the Grey Drongo for Jodhpur State. It is doubtless a winter visitor only. 220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCHET VY: Vol. ee Agrobates galactotes familiaris (Meénetries). As in the case of certain other species which take the Arabian route te their winter quarters in Africa, the Rufous Warbler appears in Jodhpur on passage in September in which month in 1868 Dr. King obtained two specimens now in the British Museum (vide S.F., ili, 476 and Ibis, 1869, 355). Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens (Jerdon). Specimens collected :—45-48 ¢ d.2 d 13-10-33, 63 OG 15-10-33, 69 SG 16-10-33, 75 92, 77 SG 16-10-33, 113 ¢G 20-10-33, 115 CG 21-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali. The Great Reed Warbler was abundant in the extensive reed beds _ that were examined by Hamavas Lake and they were found to visit the neighbouring tamarisk forest. All the specimens are undergoing a complete moult and _ it seems extremely probable that the birds breed where they were found, though no old nests were remarked by the Survey, and there are no juveniles amongst the specimens collected. Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth. Specimens collected :—30, 32 sex ? 11-10-33 Hamavas Lake. Mr. La Personne is of opinion that Blyth’s Reed Warbler was very generally distributed in gardens and other suitable places. It was probably on passage. Orthotomus sutorius guzerata (Latham). Specimens collected :—123-124 GQ 22-10-33, 134 ¢ 23-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 155 dG 2-11-33, 192d 7-11-33, 197-198 Gd 8-11-33 Jalor; 250-251 ¢ QO 22-112ge Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft. The Tailor-bird was not observed westwards of Tilwara and it does not occur in the desert areas. Cisticola juncidis cursitans (Franklin). Specimens collected :—104 juv. 20-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 220-222 9d sex ? 14-11-33, 229 Q 15-11-33, 231 So 16-11-33 Bhinmal. — In addition to the above localities the Fantail Warbler was noted, a single specimen only, at Tilwara. It is of course absent from the desert tracts. Franklinia gracilis (Franklin). Specimens collected :—246-7 @d 21-11-33, 249 @Q 22-11-33, 256-7 Jjuvs. 23-11-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft.; 316 od 5-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura. Franklin’s Wren-Warbler was found in the grasslands which grow to a height of over 4 feet in places, on the Sunda Hill. Adam’s collector found it fairly common in the hills near Koochamun. Franklinia buchanani (Blyth). Specimens collected:—6 ¢ juv. 8-10-33 Pali; 27° ¢ 11-10-33, 99 sex ? 102 juv. 19-10-33, 106 @, 110 Q juv. 20-10-33, 122 juv. 22-10-33, 131 o 23-10-33, 137 Q 24-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 141 ¢ 31-10-33, 152 9, 156 ¢ 2-11-33; 199 6 8-11-33 Jalor; 329 ¢ 21-12-33 Tilwara; 343 d 3-1-34 Phalodi. Hume stated that the Rufous-fronted Wren-Warbler was very common about Jodhpur and La Personne adds that it is very widely distributed in the State, being there as elsewhere more particularly addicted to the semi-desert tracts thickly studded with the Zyziphus bush. Hippolais rama rama (Sykes). Specimen collected :—29 @Q 11-10-33 Hamavas Lake. Syke’s Tree Warbler is probably a passage migrant. Sylvia communis rubecula Stresemann. According to Hume (S.F., iii, 488) Dr. King collected specimens of the Common White-throat at Jodhpur itself and near Pali in September. The specimens are not in the British Museum but they doubtless belong to this race. This is another of the species that pass through north-west India on ate “ORNILHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF [ODHPUR STATE 221 the autumn passage to take the Arabian route to Africa and their winter quarters. Sylvia crassirostis jerdoni (Blyth). Specimens collected:—136 Q 24-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali. Hume procured the Orphean Warbler at Jodhpur but considered it rare. Sylvia nana nana (Hemprich & Ehrenberg). Specimens collected :—331-333 ¢ 9 @Q _ 1-1-34 Phalodi. The desert areas of Jodhpur State are particularly suited to the requirements of the Desert Warbler and Hume found it extremely abundant in the low scrub round Jodhpur. Sylvia curruca blythi Ticehurst & Whistler | Sylvia affinis auct. ]. Specimens collected :—14 © 8-10-33 Pali; 21 ¢ 10-10-33, 35 OG 11-10-33, 121 G 22-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali; 159 ¢ 3-11-33 Jalor; 241 Q 21-11-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft. Sylvia curruca minuta Hume. Specimen collected :—219 Q 14-11-33 Bhinmal. These two subspecies of the Lesser White-throat were ‘excessively common’ when Hume was collecting at Jodhpur in January and February. His paper contains very important notes on the discrimination and distribution of these two subspecies and of the allied Sylvia althaea. Phylloscopus collybita tristis Blyth. Specimens collected :—33 CG 11-10-33, 39 @Q 12-10-33, 140 sex ? 25-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali; 330 Q 21-12-33 Tilwara. Phylloscopus griseolus Blyth. Specimens collected :—252 d 22-11-33, 263 Q 24-11-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft. x Prinia gracilis lepida Blyth. Hume says that the Streaked Wren Warbler was very common about Jodhpur but it was not procured by the Survey. Prinia socialis stewarti Blyth. _ This race of the Ashy Wren Warbler is said by Hume to occur in Jodhpur though he adds that it is nowhere common. It was not procured by the Survey. Prinia sylvatica gangetica (Blyth). Specimens collected :—239 CG juv.. 21-11-33, 253-4 @ oS juv. 22-11-33; 258 do 23-11-33, 265 G juv. 24-11-33, 270 juv. 25-11-33, 272 @ 26-11-33, 278 Q@ juv. 27-11-33, 285 d juv., 287 Q ad. 288 juv. 28-11-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft. These specimens of the Jungle Wren-Warbler are of particular interest in that they confirm my opinion, given in full in Jour. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., Xxxvi, 575, that birds from Mount Aboo could not be separated from those of the rest of northern India. Specimens were procured by Adam_ in. the Koochamun jungles and by Dr. King at Jodhpur. Prinia inornata terricolor (Hume). Specimens collected :—28 ¢ 11-10-33, 47 @ juv. 12-10-33, 82 Q juv. 17-10-33, 86 juv. 18-10-33, 128 ¢G juv. 22-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali. The specimens of the Indian Wren-Warbler are all either juveniles or adults in heavy moult and therefore cannot be identified’ racially with complete certainty. They presumably belong to the northern race. Oriolus oriolus kundoo Sykes. The Golden Oriole was not procured by the Survey. Hume however states that it is ‘common in the eastern, rare in the western portions of Jodhpur’, bo iw) bo JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIERY,. Vols XE Pastor roseus (Li nnaeus). The Rosy Pastor is said by Hume to be common in Jodhpur in the cold weather. It was not procured by the Survey. Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus. Hume says that the Starling is a very common visitor to Jodhpur but i have seen no specimens from the area and cannot say what race or races occur. Temenuchus pagodarum (Gmelin). Specimens collected :—11 Q 8-10-33 Pali; 139 9 25-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 185 Q 6-11-33 Jalor. Hume considered the Brahminy Mynah to be fairly common in Jodhpur. Acridotheres tristis tristis Linnaeus. The Common Mynah is not represented among the specimens collected by the Survey but Hume says it is common in the State. Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham). Hume says that the Bank Mynah is common in the State. Ploceus philippinus philippinus (Linnaeus). Specimens collected :— 13 @ 8-10-33 Pali, 22 Q 10-10-33, 40, 43, 44 juvs. 12-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali. According to Hume the Baya is common during the rains but less plentiful and more local during the rest of the year. Uroloncha malabarica (Linn.). Specimens collected.—37 CO 11-10-33, 65 dG 66 3 68 OG 15-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 223 Q 14-11-33 Bhinmal. Judging by the organs of the specimens collected the White-throated Munia was about to breed at Hamavas Lake. Amandava amandava amandava (Linnaeus). Specimens collected :—51-52 GQ _ 13-10-33, 78 @ 16-10-33, 90-92 ddA 18-10-33, 100-101 GQ _ 19-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali. The Red Avadavat was evidently breeding at Hamavas Lake as the males had the organs enlarged and the females were laying eggs. Carpodacus erythrinus (Pallas). Recorded by Hume for Jodhpur State. Bucanetes githaginea crassirostris (Blyth). Hume saw and obtained a single male of the Trumpeter Bullfinch near Jodhpur and it also occurs in Jaisalmer but the Survey failed to meet with it. Gymnorhis xanthocollis transfuga Hartert. Specimens collected:—71 d, 76 @ 16-10-33, 129 ¢ 22-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali; 172 OG 4-11-33 Jalor. These specimens of the Yellow-throated Sparrow are somewhat intermediate in colour between the typical race and G. x. transfuga, but they are on the whole closer to the latter. Passer domesticus parkini Whistler. Specimens collected :—217 @, 218 o 14-11-33, 225 CG 15-11-33 Bhinmal. No. 218 with a wing measurement of 81 mm. clearly belongs to the large race of the House-Sparrow. So the probability is that the other two birds, which are on the larger side of the overlap of measurements common to both parkini and indicus, belong also to parkini. No doubt it is a winter visitor here as I found a marked passage through Jhang in September (Ibis; 1922;-.272). | ThE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY “OF JODHPUR STATE 22: bo wu) Passer hispaneolensis (Temminck). Adam informs us that he found the Spanish Sparrow very plentiful in the ‘‘Neggara’’ jungles near to the town of Koochamun during the cold season. Emberiza stewarti Blyth. Specimens collectéd :—264 @ 24-11-33, 280 3 27-11-33, 283 Q 28-11-33, 291-2 3 Q 29-11-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft. The White-headed Bunting is of course only a winter visitor to Jodhpur. Emberiza buchanani Blyth. Specimens collected :—18 ¢ 8-10-33 Pali; 346 C 5-1-34 Phalodi. The Grey-necked Bunting was found ‘in huge flocks’ at Pali according to the label of the specimen. Adams procured specimens in the low range of hills close to Nawa and about Koochamun. Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli. Specimen collected :—143 @ 1-11-33 Jalor. The survey specimen is completing an entire moult. Hume says that at Soojut (north-east of Pali) he found the Black-headed Bunting in ‘simply millions’ at the time of the spring harvest. Emberiza icterica Eversmann. Specimen collected :—179 CG 5-11-33 Jalor, 500 ft. This bird is also completing an entire moult. Hume says that he procured the Red-headed Bunting at Soojut and Pali where it was closely associated with the Black-headed Buntings. Both species occurred in joint flocks. Emberiza striolata striolata Lichtenstein. Specimen collected :—196 ¢ 7-11-33 Jalor, 1,000 ft. Hume met with the Striolated Bunting near Jodhpur but says that it was only found on the flanks of the rocky hills. Adams found it in the scrub jungles about the hills near to Nawa and Marot. Melophus lathami subcristata Sykes. Specimens collected :—268 dQ 25-11-33, 276 CO 26-11-33, 293 Q 29-11-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft. Adam’s collector found the Crested Bunting common in the Koochamun hills. Riparia paludicola brevicaudata Horsfield. According to Hume the Indian Sand Martin is found in Jodhpur but is comparatively rare. Riparia concolor (Sykes). Specimens collected:—190 9, 193 OG 7-11-33 Jalor, 1,000 ft. Hume met with the Dusky Crag Martin near Jodhpur but says that it was rare. Adam obtained it near Mata Pahar and the western end of the Sambhur Lake, and at Mata Pahar it was found by Hume to be breeding. Hirundo rustica rustica Linnaeus. Specimen collected :—g95 Q 19-10-33 Hamavas Lake. Hume obtained the Common Swallow at Jodhpur in the winter. From his remarks (S.F., iii, 451) it seems that the Eastern race H. r. gutturalis may also occur in Jodhpur. Hirundo daurica erythropygia Sykes. Specimens collected :—200-202 ¢ ¢ Q 8-11-33 Jalor. All three specimens are completing an entire moult. Hume remarks that this Red-rumped Swallow is common during the rains in Jodhpur but rare in the hot season. bo bo 224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIEI 7) Vol xr Hirundo daurica nepalensis Hodgson. | ?]. Specimen collected :—g93 @Q 19-10-33 Hamavas Lake. This is a poor specimen, probably immature, very worn and with the wings commencing to moult but it seems to me to belong to the Himalayan race of Red-rumped Swallow. Motacilla alba dukhunensis Sykes. The White Wagtail was procured by Hume at Jodhpur in the winter but the Survey did not obtain it. Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin. The Large Indian Wagtail is said by Hume to occur about Jodhpur town but only sparingly. Motacilla cinerea caspica (S. G. Gmelin). The Grey Wagtail is said by Hume to occur in Jodhpur. Motacilla feldegg melanogriseus (Homeyer). The Black-headed Wagtail is said by Hume to occur in. Jodhpur. Metacilla flava subsp ? Specimens collected :—67 Q 15-10-33, 103 @ 19-10-33 Hamavas Lakke. It is not possible to identify these female wagtails subspecifically. Motacilla citreola calcarata Hodgson. Hume received the Yellow-headed Wagtail from Jodhpur. Anthus trivialis Linnaeus. Recorded by Hume from Jodhpur. Anthus rufulus waitei Whistler. Specimen collected :—230 3 16-11-33, Bhinmal. Hume remarks that he had received no specimen of the Common Indian Pipit from Jodhpur. Anthus spinoletta blakestoni Swinhoe. There are no Jodhpur examples in the British Museum but Hume recorded this species and the race may be inferred. Anthus campestris (Linnaeus). The Survey curiously enough did not procure the Tawny Pipit but Hume includes it in his Jodhpur list. Melanocorypha bimaculata (Meénétries). Specimens collected :—344-345 OC 4-31-34, 350-353 OSC 5-1-34. Phalodi. Calandrella brachydactyla longipennis (Eversmann). Specimens collected :—145 od, 147-8 Oo 1-11-33, 204-206 GSS 10-11-33 Jalor; 226-7 OQ 15-11-33 Bhinmal; 318 Go 19-12-33 Tilwara; 341-2 @9Q 2-1-34, 347 OG 5-1-34 Phalodi. Hume found the Short-toed Lark very common at Jodhpur, and it is no doubt general and common as a winter visitor as King procured it at Pali on 16 September 1868 and Blanford got it east of Bahmir-Malani on 10 February 1876. Alauda gulgula (Franklin). Said by Hume to occur in Jodhpur. PAE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF -(ODEHPUR STATE 225 Mirafra cantillans (Blyth). According to Hume the Singing Bush-Lark occurs sparingly in the western parts of Jodhpur. Mirafra erythroptera sindiana Ticehurst. Specimen collected :—94 (¢ 19-10-33 Hamavas Lake. ‘Hume considered the Red-winged Bush-Lark common in Jodhpur. Galerida cristata chendoola (Franklin). Specimens collected :—319-321 9 @Q@¢ Tilwara, R. Luni. The Crested Lark was very common at Jodhpur according to Hume. Ammomanes phoenicura (Franklin). The Rufous-tailed Finch-Lark is said by Hume to be common in Jodhpur. Eremopteryx grisea grisea (Scopoll). Specimens collected:—17 Q 8-10-33 Pali; 157-158 $92 3-11-33, 166 Q juv. 4-11-33, 177 Q@ 5-11-33, 207 @ 10-11-33, 209 G imm., 210 Q juv. 10-11-33 Jalor; 214 @ 13-11-33, 215 juv. 14-11-33 Bhinmal. The above specimens of the Ashy-crowned Finch-Lark are intermediate in colour between the typical race and EF. g. siccata but they are if anything closer to the typical race. Hume got no specimens of this Lark at Jodhpur but it was collected there by Dr. King and is said to be common. Eremopteryx albicollis affinis (Blyth). Specimens collected :—334-336 ¢€ SS I-1-34, 339-340 36 Q 2-1-34 Phalodi. Hume found the Black-crowned Finch-Lark extremely common _ in_ the sandy wastes about Jodhpur and he says that it extends into Jaisalmer. He collected a good series and gives a detailed note on the various plumages. Zosterops palpebrosa occidentis Ticehurst. Specimens collected :—242 ¢ 21-11-33, 273 3 25-11-33 Sunda hill, 3,400 ft. ; 303-4 OQ 2-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura. Cinnyris asiatica asiatica (Latham). Specimens collected :—16 ¢ 8-10-33 Pali; 114 CG 21-10-33, 135 CG 24-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 315 @ imm. 5-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura. Hume says of his specimens collected at Jodhpur that they are ‘short-billed and green, closely approaching the brevirostris form’. He collected in a year of extreme drought which may have brought in birds from further west, but the specimens collected by the Survey appear to me to be closer to the typical form. : Chrysocolaptes festivus (Boddaert). Adam collected a single specimen of the Black-backed Woodpecker in the Koochamun jungles. Brachypternus benghalensis benghalensis (Linnaeus). Specimens collected :—298 ¢, 300 ¢ 2-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura District. These specimens of the Golden-backed Woodpecker definitely belong to the typical form. The bird is evidently not common as in the Sambhur area. Adam only saw one individual in the Koochamun jungles. nw bo 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOGIN IRV = Viole Dryobates mahrattensis aurocristatus (Tickell). Specimens collected :—41-42 ¢$Q 12-10-93, 54. 6 14-10-33, 74 Q 16-10-33, 125 dO 22-10-33 Hamavas nae 266 ¢ 25-11-33, 289-290 dd 29-11-33, 299 CG 2-12-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft., Jaswantpura. Hume also procured the Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker near Jodhpur. Jynx torquilla torquilla (Linnaeus). Specimens collected :—31 G 11-10-33, 73 db 16-10-33, 89 S 18-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 180 sex ? 5-11-33 Jalor; 274 3S 25-11-33, 284 @ 28-11-33 Sunda Hill, 3m00 it. Hume procured the Wryneck at Pali in April. Xantholaema haemacephala indica Latham. Specimen collected :—296 9 29-11-33 Sunda Hill. Hume records the Crimson-breasted Barbet from Jodhpur State. Hierococcyx varius Vahl. Hume includes the Common Hawk-Cuckoo in his Jodhpur list as a monsoon. straggler. Clamator jacobinus (Boddaert). Hume says that the Pied Crested Cuckoo is only found in Jodhpur in the rains. Eudynamis scolopaceus (Linnaeus). The Koel is included by Hume in his Jodhpur list. Centropus sinensis (Stephens). The Crow-Pheasant is included by Hume in his Jodhpur list. Taccocua leschenaultii sirkee (Gray). Specimen collected :—60 Q 14-10-33 Hamavas Lake. The ovary of this Sirkeer Cuckoo was much enlarged as if the bird was just about to lay. Adam considered the Sirkeer rare as he only met and procured a pair in a patch of jungle near Marot. Dr. King obtained the bird at Jodhpur in the rains. Psittacula krameri manillensis (Bechstein) No specimen of the Common Indian Roller was preserved by the Survey but Hume includes it in his Jodhpur list. Psittacula cyanocephala (Linnaeus). The Blossom-headed Parralkeet is included in Hume’s Jodhpur list. Coracias benghalensis (Linnaeus). No specimen of the Common Indian Roller was preserved by the Survey but Hume includes it in his Jodhpur list. Coracias garrula semenovi Loudon and Tschusi. Specimen collected :—24 Q 10-10-33 Hamavas Lake. An immature specimen of the Roller, evidently on passage. Merops orientalis orientalis Latham. Specimens collected :—233-234 ¢ OG 16-11-33 Bhinmal. Hume remarks that the Little Green Bee-eater was ‘scarce’ near Jodhpur in January and February. EE OMNI OLOGICATE “SURVEY -OF -fODHPUR “STALE tb i) “I Merops superciliosus persicus Pallas. Specimens collected :—97 ad. 9, 98 juv. 3 19-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali. According to Hume the Blue-cheeked Bee-eater is a summer visitor only to Jodhpur. Adam found it common in the Marot hills. Ceryle rudis leucomelanura Reichenbach. Hume includes the Pied Wingfisher in his Jodhpur list. Alcedo atthis pallasii Reichenbach. Specimen collected :—59 ¢ 14-10-33 Hamavas Lake. This specimen of the Common Kingfisher is an adult in complete moult but it appears to belong to the above migratory race and not to the resident bengalensis. Halcyon smyrnensis Linnaeus. The White-breasted Kingfisher was not procured by the Survey. Hume met with it by some little tanks near Jodhpur, though he called it ‘very rare’. Upupa epops epops Linnaeus. Specimen collected :—12 Q 8-10-1933, Pali. Hume also noted the Hoopoe at Jodhpur. Micropus affinis (Gray). The Common Indian Swift is included by Hume in his Jodhpur list. Caprimulgus europaeus unwini Hume. Specimens collected :—36 Q 11-10-33, 50 [9] 13-10-33, Hamavas Lake. Asio flammeus flammeus (Pontoppidan). Specimens collected :—273 @Q@, 238 CO 17-11-33, Bhinmal. Strix occellata (Lesson). Specimen collected :—312 @ 5-10-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura. Ketupa zeylonensis leschenaulti (Temminck). The Fish-Owl was not procured by the Survey but Hume saw and collected a single specimen near Jodhpur. Bubo bubo bengalensis (Franklin). Specimens collected :—85 Q 17-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 359 3 12-1-34 Pichiak Lake, Bilara. Hume considered the Rock Horned Owl rare in Jodhpur. Bubo coromandus (Latham). Specimen collected :—356 @ 12-1-34 Pichiak Lake, Bilara. The Dusky Eagle-Owl is included in Hume’s list. Athene brama indica (Franklin). Specimens collected :—20 © 10-10-33 Hamavas Lake; 326 21-12 Tilwara. Hume met with the Spotted Owlet near Jodhpur. Sarcogyps calvus (Scopoli). Hume met with the King Vulture near Jodhpur and Adam mentions a rock nest. in March in the hills near the town of Nawa. tw Ww 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL Gyps fulvus fulvescens Hume. Hume shot the Indian Griffin himself at Jodhpur. Gyps indicus pallescens Hume. Also procured by Hume at Jodhpur where it is apparently common. No | specimens of Vultures were preserved by the Survey. Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmelin). Noted by Hume near Jodhpur and apparently common. | Neophron percnopterus ginginianus (Latham). | The Egyptian Vulture is very common in Jodhpur State. Hume _ records it as of this form. Falco jugger Gray. Specimens collected : Tilwara. Hume met with the Lugger Falcon at Balmeer and Jodhpur but considered it) rare. 307 dO 4-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura; 327 21-12-33 Falco checquera Daudin. The Torumti was noted by Hume near Jodhpur but no specimen’ was procured by the Survey. Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linnaeus. Specimen collected :—203 Q 8-11-33, Jalor. Hume called the Kestrel rare in the neighbourhood of Jodhpur. Aquila rapax vindhiana Franklin. Specimens collected:—149 1-11-33 Jalor; 228 Q 15-11-33 Bhinmal; 317 Q 6-12-33 Jawar, Jaswantpura ; 325. 20-12-33 Tilwara. Hume also records the Tawny Eagle from the neighbourhood of Jodhpur. Aquila clanga Pallas. Specimen collected :—360 Q imm. 14-1-34 Pichiak Lake, Bilara District. The Large Spotted Eagle is included by Hume in his Jodhpur list. Hieraétus fasciatus fasciatus (Vieillot). Specimen collected :—361 Q 14-1-34 Pichiak Lake, Bilara District. Hume had a specimen of Bonelli’s Eagle from the State. Circaétus ferox (S. G. Gmelin) [gallicus auct.]. Hume states that he took the nest and saw several specimens of the Short- toed Eagle in Jodhpur. For the change of the name of this Eagle see Ibis, 1934, P- 645. Butastur teesa (Franklin). Specimens collected :—311 G 4-12-33. Jawar, Jaswantpura; 236 ¢ imm. 16-11-33 Bhinmal. The White-eyed Buzzard is included by Hume in his list. vA Haliaétus leucoryphus (Pallas). Pallas’ Fishing Eagle is said by Hume to occur in Jodhpur but it is necessarily rare there. Milvus migrans govinda Sykes. No specimen of the Common Pariah Kite was brought back by the Survey but Hume includes the bird in his Jodhpur list and it is presumably common. PHEDORNITHOEOGICAL “SURVEY. .OF J[ODHPUR STATE 229 Elanus caeruleus vociferus (Latham). Specimen collected:—171 dG 4-11-33 Jalor. Included by Hume in his Jodhpur list. Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin). Specimen collected :—277 Q 26-11-33 Sunda hill, 3,400 ft. The Pale Harrier is said by Hume to be common. Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus (Linnaeus). Specimen collected :—357 ¢ 10-1-34 Bilara. Also said by Hume to be common but suitable jheels are scarce in the State. Buteo rufinus rufinus (Cretzschmar). Specimens collected :—322 @, 324 OG 19-12-33 Tilwara. Hume found the Long-legged Buzzard ‘rather scarce’ in the neighbourhocd of Jodhpur. Buteo buteo burmanicus Hume. Specimens collected :—255 G 23-11-33, 282 dG 27-11-33 Sunda Hill, 3,400 ft. In attributing these two Buzzards to the above race I am following con- ventional usage rather than any profound conviction of my own as the whole question of the identity of Indian Buzzards seems to be uncertain. No. 282 is the smallest Buzzard I have ever seen (bill from = skull 32.5, wing 342, tail 182 tarsus 7.5 mm.) and smaller than the measurements given by Witherby for vulpinus (g wing 350-85 mm.) and by Hartert for japonicus (=burmanicus) | (3 wing 355-87 mm.). It seems to me equally likely to belong. to either form. It will be remembered that Hume was very puzzled by a small Buzzard with a wing of 13.4 ins.=34o0 mm. obtained on the Brahmagherries. S.F., X, Pp- 159, 327 and 338. Astur badius dussumieri (Temminck). Specimens collected :—181 9 6-11-33 Jalor; 213° Q@ 13-11-33 Bhinmal. Hume records the Shikra from Jodhpur but considered it local and absent from the more barren areas. Accipiter nisus (Linnaeus). Hume says that the Sparrowhawk occurs in) Jodhpur but is apparently very rare. Crocopus phoenicopterus chlorogaster (Blyth). The Southern Green Pigeon is stated by Hume to oceur in Jodhpur. 4 P Columba livia subsp. No specimen of the Blue Rock-Pigeon was procured by the Survey. Under the name of intermedia Hume stated that he found this species extraordinarily scarce in Jodhpur even though its killing was strictly forbidden. This was in a year of drought and he was informed that it was more common. in normal years. Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis (Gmelin). Streptopelia chinensis suratensis (Gmelin). Streptopelia decaocto decaocto Frivalsky. 230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY INATO RAE HiSis SOCIBIOG kal Ge Oenopopelia tranquebarica tranquebarica (Hermann). No specimens of doves were preserved by the Survey but Hume includes these four species in his Jodhpur list. Pterocles orientalis (Linnaeus), The Imperial Sandgrouse is said by Hume to be very common in Jodhpur and he describes (Game Birds, i, 49) how he came upon a pack of fully two thousand, grouped together in a clump little, if at all, more than thirty yards long by ten wide. Pterocles indicus (Gmelin). Adam found the Painted Sandgrouse common in the Koochamun Hills in March 1871 and gives a full account (S.F., i, 391) of how he shot them over water there. He subsequently obtained eggs from that locality in April and May. Pterocles alchata caudacutus (S. G. Gmelin). According to Stuart Baker (Game Birds, ii, 283) the Large Pin-tailed Sandgrouse has been obtained in Jodhpur but no details are given. Pterocles exustus ellioti Bogdanow. The Common Sandgrouse is common in Jodhpur according to Hume. Pterocles senegallus (Linnaeus). Dr. Newman obtained the Spotted Sandgrouse at Polkurun and found it very common between that place and the town of Jaisalmer as well as throughout the country for about 20 miles south of Jaisalmer. This tract is hard and stony but intermingled with sand. A male skin and the wing of a female were sent to Butler in verification of this record (cf. S.F., iv, 508 and v, 60). Pavo cristatus Linnaeus. In spite of the drought and famine Hume found a few Peafowl still at Jodhpur and he remarks that as the bird is more or less sacred in Rajputana it becomes very common wherever there is suitable cover. Perdicula argoondah meinertzhageni Whistler. Specimen collected :—169 Q 4-11-33 Jalor, 500 ft. The Rock Bush-quail is said by Hume to be common. Either this or P. asiatica occurs in the Ioochamun_ Hills. Francolinus pendicerianus (Gmelin). Included by Hume in his Jodhpur list. Coturnix coturnix (Linnacus). In Hume’s Jodhpur list. Coturnix coromandelica (Gmelin). According to Hume the Black-breasted quail is found in western Jodhpur only in the rains. Turnix tanki tanki Blyth. Hume states that the Button-quail has been obtained in Jodhpur towards the close of the rains in August and September. Turnix sylvatica dussumieri (Temm. & Lang.). The Little Button-quail is included by Hume in his Jodhpur list. = -> r ee ; — THE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF JODHPUR STATE 231 Gallinula chloropus (Linnaeus). The Waterhen is given in Hume's list. Porphyrio poliocephalus (Latham). Very rare in Jodhpur (Hume). Fulica atra Linnaeus. Given in Hume’s list. Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli). Given in Hume’s list. Rhynchaea benghalensis (Linnacus). Occurs in Jodhpur according to Hume but is more common in the rains. Grus grus (Linnaeus). The Common Crane is more or less common in the cold season according to Hume. Antigone antigone (Linnaeus). Common in Jodhpur according to Hume. Anthropcides virgo (Linnaeus). The Demoiselle is common in Jodhpur according to Hume. Adam mentions seeing a flock near Nawa on 13 March 1873. Choriotis nigriceps (Vigors). In Hunie’s day the Great Bustard was ‘uncommon’ in Jodhpur. Chlamydotis undulata macqueenii (Gray) Common in Jodhpur (Hume). Sy pheotides indica (Miller). Common in Jodhpur as a rain’s visitor according to Hume. Burhinus oedicnemus saharae (Reichw). Specimen collected :—g96 ¢ 19-10-33 Hamavas Lake, Pali. Adam says that he met with the Stone-curlew in the scrub jungle near to Mata Pahar and in the low range of hills to the west of Nawa; in the latter place he saw a party of four. Mack-worth-Praed and Grant ([bis., 1936, p- 200) have come to the same opinion which I reached independently that saharae and astutus are only sandy and greyish phases of the same_ bird, phases which Ticehurst has suggested (Ibis. 1937, pp. 406-407) may have some connection with soil and locality as in the case of various larks. Bates’ suggestion (Ibis., 1937, p.308) that the sandy phase was connected with immaturity is refuted by this specimen which is very sandy in colour and is an adult undergoing the complete post-nuptial moult. Esacus recurvirostris (Cuvier). The Great Stone Plover is found in suitable river beds in Jodhpur (Hume). Cursorius cursor (Latham). According to Hume the Cream-coloured Courser replaces the next species throughout the greater part of Jodhpur. 232 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIEDY> WV olgexte Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin). Hume notes that he saw the Indian Courser near Jodhpur town. Larus brunneicephalus Jerdon. Chlidonias leuccpareia indica (Stephens). Gelochelidon nilotica (Gmelin). Sterna aurantia Gray. Hume notes that these 4 species occur in Jodhpur. Squatarola squatarola (Linnacus). ‘In Jodhpur I do not know of its occurring except when migrating in autumn and spring when stragglers are met with at many large pieces of water’ (Hume). Leucopolius alexandrinus (Linnaeus). Included on Hume’s authority. Charadrius dubius jerdoni (Legge). Specimen collected :—5 ¢ 8-10-33 Pali. According to Hume the Little Ring Plover is common in Jodhpur. Cirrepedesmus mongolus (Pallas). Cirrepedesmus leschenaultii (Lesson). According to Hume both these Plovers may be met on migration in Jodhpur between 15 August and 15 September or during April and May. Pluvialis dominicus fulvus (Gmelin). Hume states that he has only seen one specimen of the Eastern Golden Plover from Jodhpur and that was taken at Pali. Vanellus vanellus (Linnaeus). Adam says that he only saw the Lapwing twice at a lake near Koochamun and only obtained one specimen. Chettusia gregaria (Pallas). A cold weather visitor and common according to Hume. Chettusia leucura (Lichtenstein), Included in Hume’s list. Lobivanellus indicus (Boddaert). Although the Red-Wattled Lapwing was not procured by the survey it is common in Jodhpur according to Hume and during the drought he found a pair or two about every hamlet. The little village ponds, around which these birds usually live, were then empty and Hume describes in amusing language how they had. in consequence betaken themselves to the village Golgathas, living on the maggots and the flesh of the carcases of dead animals. Himantopus himantepus (Linnaeus). Common (Hume). Recurvirostra avocetta Linnaeus. Comparatively rare in Jodhpur (Hume). THE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF JODHPUR STATE — 233 Numenius arquata Linnaeus. Rare in Jodhpur where the localities suited to it are few (Hume). Limosa limosa (Linnaeus). Common according to Hume. Tringa stagnatilis (Bechstein). Not uncommon in suitable localities in Jodhpur (Hume). Tringa giareola Linnaeus. Tringa totanus (Linnaeus). Tringa erythropus (Vroeg). Glottis nebularia (Gunnerus). These four species are all included by Hume in his list. Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus). The Ruff is common according to Hume. Erolia minuta (Leisler). Erolia temminckii (Leisler). Both these Stints are included in Hume's ist. Capella gallinago (Linnaeus). Lymnocryptes minutus (Brinnich). Both these Snipe are included in Hume’s list, the former being said to be common. Pelicanus philippensis Gmelin. Hume includes the Spot-billed Pelican in his Jodhpur list. Phalacrocorax carbo (Linnaeus). Included in Hume’s list. Phalacrocorax fuscicollis Stephens. Dr. King noted the Indian Shag from Jodhpur but Hume says that he personally had not examined any specimen from there. Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot). Said by Hume to be common in suitable localities. Anhinga melanogaster Pennant. Included in Hume’s list. Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus. Threskiornis melanocephalus (Latham). Pseudibis papillesus (Temm. & Laug.). All three species are included by Hume in his list apparently as more or less common birds. Plegadis falcinellus (Linnaeus). ‘Very rare in Jodhpur’ (Hume). 7 234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL Ciconia ciconia (Linnaeus).. Hume did not think the White Stork was very rare in parts of Jodhpur suited to its tastes. Ciconia nigra (Linnaeus). The Black Stork has been obtained in Jodhpur (Hume). Xenorhynchus asiaticus (Latham). Rare in Jodhpur (Hume). Leptoptilos dubius (Gmelin). Hume says that the adjutant in his day was scarcely seen in Jodhpur except during the rains, but I imagine that it is no longer found there. Ibis leucocephalus (Pennant). Common in Jodhpur according to Hume. Anastomus oscitans (Boddaert). Hume says that the Open-bill is not uncommon in Jodhpur. Ardea purpurea Linnaeus. Ardea cinerea Linnaeus. Egretta alba (Linnaeus). Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus). Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Boddaert). Ardeola grayii Sykes. Butorides striatus javanicus (Horsfield). Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus). All the above species of Heron are included by Hume in his Jodhpur list. Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus. According to Hume Dr. King obtained the Flamingo at Pali in October. Sarkidiornis melanotus (Pennant). The Nukta is common in Jodhpur according to Hume. Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield). Very rare in Jodhpur (Hume). Casarca ferruginea (Pallas). Occurs in Jodhpur (Hume). Anas platyrhyncka (Linnaeus). ‘I have only seen one killed in Jodhpur near Pallae* (Hume). Anas poecilorhyncha Forster. Chaulelasmus streperus (Linnaeus). Nettion crecca (Linnaeus). Dafila acuta (Linnaeus). THE ORNITHOLOGICAL SURVEY OF JODHPUR STATE Querquedula querquedula (Linnaeus). Spatula clypeata (Linn.). Netta rufina (Pallas). Nyroca ferina (Linnaeus). Nyroca rufa (Linnaeus). Nyroca fuligula (Linnaeus). The above ducks are all included by Hume in his Jodhpur list. Podiceps ruficollis capensis Salvadori. Finally the Little Grebe is also included by Hume in his Jodhpur list. 3D ON A NEW COCCIDIUM ISOSPORA MINUTA n. sp. FROM THE INTESTINE OF A COBRA NAJA NAJA LINN. BY MATIRANJAN DAS-GUPTA, M.SC. (rom the Dept. of Zoology, University of Calcutta). (With three text-figures). INTRODUCTION. July 1935, some specimens of Cobra Naja naja bought from local dealers who captured them from Sunderbans, Bengal, were examined. Oocysts of a coccidium belonging to the genus Isospora, were directly recovered from the natural droppings and rectal contents on dissection of some of the specimens kept in captivity. From the literature on the subject the following species of Isospora from snakes are found to have been recorded :— Isospora sp. Grassi (1881) from Coronella austriaca; I. laverani Hagenmuller (1898) from Coelopeltis lacertina; I. fragilis Leger (1904) from Vipera aspis; I. crotal (Trifitt, 1925) Hoare from Crotalus confluentus; I. neivai Pinto and Maciel (1929) from Bothrops jararaca; I, naiae Fantham (1932) from Naja flava; I. dirumpens Hoare (1933) from Bitis arietans; I. phisalix Yakimoft and Gousseff (1934) from Elaphe quatuor lineata sauromotes; I. lenti Pinto (1934) from Bothrops jararaca. The development of the oocysts of this coccidium took place outside the body of the host and thus it differs from I. dirumpens Hoare in which the oocysts become mature in the wall of the intestine (intra and sub-epithelial regions). It also differs from I. naiae Fantham by the absence of oocystic residue and the presence of sporocystic one. This parasite obtained from cobra differs from other known species of Isospora from snakes by its shape, size and nature of the oocysts and the name Isospora minuta n. sp. 1s proposed for it. MATERIAL AND METHODS. Rectal contents diluted with saline was examined systematically in sealed preparations. The oocysts were transferred to 1 per cent chromic acid solution where the development was completed in three days. . Portions of the intestine were fixed in Buin’s fluid and then cut sections 6m thick and stained in Heidenhain’s hzmatoxylin. Measurements of oocysts were taken from samples both fresh and in chromic acid solution. OBSERVATIONS ON Isospora minuta n. sp. In the sub-epithelium of the sections of the intestine oocysts were found with two sporocysts containing ripe sporozoites (Fig. 1). Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Bde 2 ote roe haat OF IMP Brung se: (s - °f®ese cos oe’ aie, ie eter opm. cee = ae Pereay oe Sy A G0 f , / . we Sree a cy : pi. . sare Bis Oia LAS . be Poe EO Poe pers ee Siise ec n ets . Va Spee ia OC Ra HD “eee? get Arve it C A at Someta ok Pigs Fig 3 Sp (For explanation see end of article). Isospora minuta n. ~ Ae ON A NEW COCCIDIUM TSOSPORA MINUTA 237 No other endogenous stages were observed. The fully matured oocysts in chromic acid solution measure 15 x 7.5 (Fig. 2). The oocystic membrane is very thin and there is no oocystic residue. The two thick-walled sporocysts (Fig. 3) are spherical and measure 7.5 w« in diameter. A small sporocystic residue is present. The sporozoites are arranged in a regular manner and lie on one side of the small sporocystic residue. The presence of innumerable mature oocysts in the sub-epithelium and the total absence of a single ripe oocyst or any sporocysts in the faeces and the absence of the other endogenous stages of the parasite may be accounted for. In one stage in the life of this parasite the ripe sporozoites by rapturing the sporocystic wall, may infect the neighbouring cells and then by some of them oocysts are formed which come out with the faces to infect a new host. Diagnosis.— Systematic position Isospora minuta n. sp. (Coccidiida, Eimeriidae). Oocysts very small, thin-walled, development extra corporal, no oocystic residue; sporocyst spherical, thick-walled; small sporocystic residue present; unsegmented oocysts discharged from host; sporulation time 3 days. Habitat.—Small intestine of cobra Naja naja. Locality.—Sunderbans, Bengal. REFERENCE TO LITERATURE. Fantham, H. B.—‘Some parasitic protozoa found in South Africa’. S. Afric. Journ.. Sci., 29; 627 (1932). Grassi, B.—‘ Intorno ad alcuni protisti endoparassitici ed appartenenti alle classe dei flagellati, lobosi sporozoi e ciliati’. Atli. Soc. Ital. Sci. Nat., 24, 135 (1881). Hagenmuller, P.—‘Sur une nouvelle coccidie diplosporée (Diplospora laverant) Hgm. parasite d’un ophidien’. C.R. Soc. Biol., 150, 309 (1898).* Hoare, C. A.—‘Studies on some new ophidian and avian coccidia from Uganda, with a revision of the classification of the Eimeriidea’. Parasit. Cambridge, 25, 359 (1933). Leger, L.—‘Protozoaires parasites des vipéres (Vipera aspis)’. Bull. mensuel Assoc. Franc. Avanc. Sciences, No. 9, 268 (1904). Pinto, C.—‘Isospora lenti n. sp. parasita de ofidio venenose do Brasil. Eimeridia, sporozoa’. Ann. Acad. Bras. Sci. Rio., 6, 11 (1934). Pinto e Maciel, J.—‘Eimeria arnaldoi e Isospora neivai’. Revista medico- cirurgica do Brasil, No. 6 (1929). Trifftt, M. J.—‘Observations on two new species of coccidia parasitic in snakes’. Protozoology, 1, 19 (1925). Yakimoff, W. L. and Gousseff, W. F.—‘Isospora phisalix n. sp. neue schlangencoccidie’. Arch. Protistenk., 81, 547 (1934). ExPLANATIONS OF FIGURES. All the drawings were made under camera lucida. 1. Section of intestine with sporoblasts containing sporozoites. X750. 2. Mature thin-walled oocyst with two thick-walled spherical sporoblasts. X 2700. 3. Oocyst with two sporoblasts each containing 4 ripe sporozoites and a small residue. 2700. THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND. BY C. H. -BIDDULP rH (With a map). Rameswaram Island, situated at the southern end of the Ramnad District in the Madras Presidency and forming the Indian end of Adams Bridge between India and Ceylon, is of importance, other than as regards the bird life which is found on it. Besides being a spot venerated by Hindus it is the terminus, at the Indian end, of the Indo-Ceylon rail connection between Dhanushkodi and Talaimannar. The island, which is roughly triangular in shape, is approxi- mately seventeen miles in length and seven miles in width at the widest part. It is separated from the mainland of India by the Pamban Pass which is something over a mile in width and is bridged to enable trains to cross over to the island and proceed to the rail terminus at Dhanushkodi. The northern half of the island is really the only portion with any appreciable width and elevation above the sea and is sparsely covered with trees and vegetation, the vegetation being thicker where the swamps and backwaters occur. Practically the entire southern half consists of bare sandy plains and sand hills, which are continually moving during the heavy seasonal winds. The vegetation in this area consists of a few babool trees with coarse grasses and a few stunted bushes. The common trees are the tamarind, neem, casuarina and mango with coconut and palmyrah palms. All the above have been planted by the inhabitants of the island. The remaining vegetation, which has not been cultivated, consists of babool trees, dwarf date palms, screwpine, various thorn bushes, creepers, mangrove in the swampy areas, cactus in the drier areas and various varieties of coarse grasses, which in some parts cover considerable areas. All the commoner birds are found in the northern, or wooded half of the island, whereas the southern half is admirably suited to the Plovers, Gulls, Terns, Flamingoes and Waders. The Flamingoes are restricted to the extreme southern end of the island, where it tapers to a point and the low-lying sand flats become shallow lagoons during the north-east monsoon. Apart from the bird life the island is singularly devoid of animals, squirrels and mongooses only being seen. The only reptiles observed were the common bloodsucker and a few rat and water-snakes. The sea surrounding the island is one of the few areas in which the Dugong is found and occasionally caught by the fishermen. Turtles, both Green and Hawk-billed, are also caught in fairly TCT : den ee Sistine ies Die He se! 4 - Saale pe es i : ; : 5 - ‘ 7 7 : : 7 ; Pi ; : ’ : . t , . i f 7 : ' 7 1 . . 1 1 t : . ' . te . | - - | 2 ; | ' o a 3 : | r3 . bs | : , ; | it ee a ib) : ’ . : | Wy : os , 3 ° : + 70 ONYISI Dawn “SLONYy 6/ “-pug[s] Uleiemsourey jo spilg | ANIQS JOONHSANUWG Ren vad “‘SL£ONMW 40 3IV IS o1 008 “SIH ‘3eN Avquiog = INL TANS LAW A ‘-uanor eS - > THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND 239 large numbers; the former for food and the latter for the tortoise shell. The average rainfall for the past sixty years is 36.81 inches, of which 27.90 inches is accounted for during the north-east monsoon in October, November and December. June, July and August are the driest months of the year, the rainfall being under an inch per month during this period. The heavy winds at the time of the south-west monsoon are responsible for a great deal of the drifting sand which forms big sand-dunes which move from west to east across the island until anchored by encountering trees and being covered by a growth of grasses and shrubs. The island is fairly healthy except for malarial fever which is prevalent at certain seasons of the year. The main occupation of the inhabitants is fishing and_ fish curing, the salted fish being exported to Ceylon. This occupation has a direct bearing on a certain section of the bird life. At this season there is a large influx of Pariah Kites, Brahminy Kites, Common Crows and Jungle Crows from the mainland. They can then be seen in large numbers where the fish are spread out to dry. These birds are seen each morning flying over from the mainland and returning again in the evening. These non-resident birds do not appear to consider the island a home, or even a temporary home, during this period as they return to the mainland each night. Observations of the bird life extended over the period June 1929 to May 1931, records being maintained of all the resident species, local migrants and true migrants for each month of the year. The list of birds furnished is not to be considered as complete, but covers only such birds as were readily seen during the two- year period under review. Such birds as the Golden Oriole, Coppersmith and Spoonbill have been reported to occur, but have not been included as they were not observed by me. Attention was directed mainly to the water birds because of the restricted area in the Presidency where their movements could be studied under such favourable conditions. These birds appear to find the island admirably suited to their requirements, both as a permanent or semi-permanent feeding ground, as also a convenient resting place on their journeys through India to Ceylon and back again at the end of the north-east monsoon. It will be observed that certain of the waders have been recorded in practically every month of the year and it is presumed that such of them as are seen during the summer months are non- breeding birds that have found conditions on the island suitable and have remained, when the majority have left for their breeding grounds in Central Asia and Siberia. The list of birds shows that the permanent bird population consists of only the commoner birds seen on the plains of the mainland of India, but there appears to be scope for a detailed examination of all the resident birds, as also the local migrants, as there would be every possibility of finding inter- 240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL mediate races between the true Indian and Ceylon forms on the island. It is regretted that a series of skins of all the birds under these classes was not secured at the time, as a detailed paper was not contemplated with a view to establishing the existence of local races, but merely to cataloguing the number of species found on this small island. This paper may be considered as an introduction to a more detailed examination of the resident bird life on the island by an investigator with more time at his disposal, who can obtain a series of skins for comparison with collections of skins from India and Ceylon already available in the British Museum collection. A perusal of the articles in the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal, in connection with the ‘Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats’, shows that considerable information is still required in connection with some of the commonest birds found in the Madras Presidency. It is hoped that information furnished against some of the species found on Rameswaram Island may in a measure supplement what has so far been placed on record. In Volume xxxv, No. 3, page 505 of the Journal, in the ficst article in connection with the Survey the attention of members has been drawn to this lack of knowledge and it is felt that although Rameswaram Island lies outside the actual area of the Eastern Ghats that it is still one of the interesting areas where careful bird-watching will result in clearing up some of the problems before investigators interested in a detailed study and comparison of the birds of India and Ceylon. The ‘only other -reference to a study of the bird life of Rameswaram Island which I have been able to find, through references given in the published accounts of the Vernay Scientific Survey, is a list of twenty-four birds secured by Doctor Armstrong near Pamban in March 1875. The skins of these birds were sent to Hume and published in Stray Feathers, 1876, pp. 457-459. Twenty-three of these birds have been marked with an asterisk in the list of birds now furnished. One bird, Otocompsa emeria fuscicaudata, appears unusual as it was never seen on the island by me and is practically a permanent resident in the hills. It may be presumed that the bird secured was a very rare stray migrant or else an escaped cage- bird which had been brought to the island. | I have to acknowledge reference to the Manual of the Birds of Ceylon by W. E. Wait of the Ceylon Civil Service, from which I have quoted in certain instances where it is thought that observations recorded in the case of the Ceylon birds confirmed those of the birds from Rameswaram Island; or accounted for certain uncommon birds which may have come, or been blown over from Ceylon during the monsoons. I have also to acknowledge the valuable assistance and advice given me by Mr. N. B. Kinnear, M.B.0.U., of the British Museum of Natural History, South Kensington, in the preparation of this paper. It was with his permission that I was able to consult reference books in the Museum Library and study the valuable THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND 241 collection of birds’ skins secured by the collectors of the Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats of the Madras Presidency. In this paper Rameswaram Island has been considered as lying with its longest length due north and south; actually the map shows that it lies almost due east and west. It is however not considered sufficiently important to alter the notes to agree with its actual situation. The Jungle Crow Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus (Sykes). A common bird seen everywhere on the island. Greater numbers are seen during the months of May and June and again in August and September when fish curing operations are in progress. A pair of these birds were seen building a nest on a palmyrah palm on 12-6-1930. The Common House Crow Corvus splendens splendens (Vieillot). A common bird seen everywhere on the island. As in the case of the Jungle Crow much larger numbers are observed on the island during the months of May and June and August and September. The birds breed freely on the island and five nests were seen in June 1929. Coconut palms were used in two instances, casuarina trees in two instances and one nest in a tamarind. In one case the nest was only 9g feet off the ground in a casuarina tree. In every instance the birds were sitting on the nests and four eggs were taken from one of the nests in a coconut palm on 11-6-1929. Three of the eggs were heavily incubated but the fourth. which was much smaller, was practically fresh and was thought to be that of a Koel. It will be noticed however that Koels have only been observed on the island during the months of October, November and December. Crows were again seen building in September and on 1-10-1930 a nest with young was seen in the steel lattice jib of the pier crane at Dhanushkodi. Baker and Inglis in The Birds of Southern India give the breeding season of the Crow as February to August. “The White-headed Babbler Turdoides striatus polioplocamus (Oberholser). A common bird found in the northern half of the island. These birds are more in evidence during the months of July, August and September. *The Common Babbler Argya caudata caudata (Dumont). A fairly common bird, but not nearly so common as _ the_ preceding species. They are seen in small parties, in every month of the year, in the northern half of the island. *The Ceylon flora githina tiphia zeylonica. A fairly common bird in the northern half of the island. The birds seen are generally very dark in colour and are almost certainly the Ceylon Tora, although this matter cannot be settled satisfactorily until a series of skins has been examined. The Red-vented Bulbul Molpastes cafer cafer (Linn.). A common bird seen in the northern half of the island. These birds are more in evidence during the months of November, December, January and February. The Yellow-browed Bulbul Jole icterica (Strickland). A fairly common bird seen moving about the undergrowth, in small parties, in the northern half of the island. The numbers seen are fairly constant for every month of the year. A bird was shot on 29-9-1930 for purposes of identification, bo bo 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST“ SOCIETY, Vol. XE The Black-backed Indian Robin = Saxicoloides fulicata fulicata (Linn): A rare bird on the island as a male of this species was only once seen ON 31-I-1g30. It is reported as abundant all over the low country in Ceylon and may have been a stray bird blown over during the heavy winds of the north-east monsoon. *The Magpie Robin = Copsychus saularis ceylonensis. A very uncommon bird only seen on two occasions in May and August. On each occasion only a single bird was seen in the northern half of. the island. . Hume however had a skin which was obtained from Pamban in March 187s. The Red-breasted Flycatcher Siphia parva albicilla. A rare bird seen during the month of October near Rameswaram town in the thick babool scrub jungle. Four birds were seen on the same day. It is suggested in the account of the ‘Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern Ghats’ that this bird should be omitted from the Madras Presidency list. I am of the opinion however that it should be considered one of the Presidency birds as it has been frequently seen by me in the Villupuram, Tanjore and Madura Districts during the winter months. Wait remarks that it would appear to migrate down the centre of the Indian peninsula and that it has been observed in the Deccan in October. *The Paradise Flycatcher Tchitrea paradisi paradisi (L.). A fairly common bird seen in the northern half of the island in gardens near dwellings at Pamban. Usually seen during the months of October, November, December and January. I have a single record of one seen on 29-3-1930, which appears to be late for the island. None of the pure white and black males were observed, nor did any of the males have the median chestnut tail feathers fully developed. Reported by Wait as only being seen in its white and black plumage on one occasion although a common resident bird in Ceylon. The Bay-backed Shrike Lanius vittatus (Valenciennes). A fairly common bird seen in the northern and central portions of the island where it was drier and babool trees and thorn bushes were found. The numbers appear to increase during the months of July, August and September. The Grey-backed Shrike Lanius schach caniceps (Blyth). A fairly common bird which is seen in the same areas as the preceding one, but not in the same numbers. My notes do not record the bird in the month of September, but this may be due to the one or two birds usually seen being in some other part of the island during that month. *The Common Wood Shrike TJephrodornis pondicerianus pondicerianus (Gmelin). | An uncommon bird on the island, three being the greatest number seen on a single day. Usually found in the same area as the two _ preceding species. My records show that these birds were not observed on the island during the months of March, April and May and again in November and December. Hume records this bird from the island in March 1875. There appears to be no reason why it should not be resident. The Large Indian Cuckoo Shrike Graucalus javensis macei (Lesson). An uncommon bird only seen during the months of January and February and in a single instance one was observed in October. THE BIRDS OF RAMESWARAM ISLAND 243 Three birds was the largest number seen on any single day. It is possible that the birds seen on the island were the Ceylon type Graucalus macei layardt. *The Ashy Swallow Shrike (y t-- Se Btw eo OF FOO wm & & 60% oe ot eta eorserh Tf £3 ie os SSL Om, oA Metanastria hyrtaca Cram. (For explanation see end of article). i — NOTE ON METANASTRIA HYRTACA CRAM. i BY T. V. SUBRAMANIAM, B.A. AND K. P. ANANTANARAYANAN, B.A. (Hons.) (Madras Agricultural Department) (With a Plate) INTRODUCTION. Of the members of the family Lasiocampid@e very few are serious pests of cultivated crops in South India. Taragama_ siva and Trabala vishnu are the only two, appearing occasionally in large numbers and doing appreciable damage to economic plants; and even these are rather rare. Metanastria hyrtaca probably comes third in the list. In the year 1934 this insect appeared in large numbers and the caterpillars almost completely defoliated a few Sapota plants in the orchard of the Central Farm of the Agricultural Research Institute at Coimbatore. The following is a short account of the observations made by the authors at that time. THE MotTH. ‘The adult moth is fairly big with grey brown wings and rather thick-set body. The male is smaller than the female, has pectinate antennz and has a black patch on the forewing with a white spot in the centre of it. The abdomen is long and slender and extends behind beyond the wings and has a brush of long hairs at its end. In the female the wings are longer and broader and have short wavy lines or bands across them; the black patch on the forewing is absent. The antennz are thinner and smaller. The moths are sluggish and do not fly. Hampson in Fauna of British India, ‘Moths’, Vol. I. gives the following description of the moth on page 410: ‘Male: Pale or dark red brown; palpi dark below. Forewing with two ante-medial pale lines and two post-medial angulated lines, with an almost black patch between the upper part of the ante- and post-medial lines crossed by the pale veins and with a white lunule on it; a lunulate sub-marginal line. Underside of the hind wing with two pale lines. ‘Female: Forewing with the two ante-medial and the two post- medial lines more distinct and without the dark patch and white lunule; the sub-marginal lunulate line very indistinct. Hind wings with an indistinct pale line,’ 258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL Moore’s Lepidoptera of Ceylon, Vol. II, page 148 has the following description of the moth: ‘Dark purplish ferruginous. Male: Forewing with a transverse ante-medial and a post-medial slightly waved ferruginous-grey line, and two similar medial lines, the outer one being convexly angular beyond the cell; between the two lateral lines is a dark purple brown patch extending from the costa to the lower median vein, this patch being marked by a pure white lobate spot; exterior border darker, crossed by a very indistinct submarginal row of dark brown speckled spots. Female: Forewing with four similar transverse ferruginous grey equidistant lines; the basal area between the medial lines, and the outer border darker coloured, the sub- marginal row of spots more distinct and grey speckled. Front of thorax, head, palpi and antennz greyish ferruginous. Expanse: Male 1% in. Female 3 in.’ LIFE HIsTorRY. The moths copulate the very next day after emerging from the pupz and the female lays eggs in groups or rows on the surface of the leaves or twigs of the food plant. Each female is capable of laying about 140 eggs, which it does in several batches in the course of two or three days. The eggs hatch in nine to twelve days. The caterpillars are active from the second day and lead a gregarious life. They move about on the leaves and stem in single file. They feed on the tender leaves by scraping the surface for three to five days and then undergo the first moult. There are generally six or seven moults during the caterpillar stage, though, in exceptional cases, the number may go up to ten or be reduced to four; but there is no marked change in them after the fifth moult. Just before moulting the caterpillars remain motionless on the stem or the leaf, having ceased feeding a day or two earlier. In the actual process of moulting the head shield is first pushed forward by the formation of fresh growth below and gradually gets detached; this is followed by the rupture of the outer skin all along the body and the caterpillar emerging out of the larval skin, which is often left almost entire. The new larva is smaller in size but regains the normal size in a short time. The caterpillars feed voraciously, and become full grown in 45 to 60 days. The larval period may be reduced to 43 and increased to over 100 days in rare cases. A few prolong their larval period by cessation of growth for a long time after the fourth moult, so that in the same brood some caterpillars grow in advance of others, a good number lagging behind. The full grown caterpillars construct loose cocoons of silk inter-woven with hairs from their bodies and pupate inside. The cocoons are generally attached to the stem or leaf; and often two or more cocoons are found grouped together. The pupal period varies from 9 to 18 days. Thus, the whole life cycle from egg to adult takes 75 to tog days depending on weather and other conditions. Egg: The egg is spherical in shape and about 13 mm.. in diameter, i.e., about the size of a mustard seed. It is dull white A NOTE ON METANASTRIA HYRTACA CRAM. 259 in colour with two big brownish black round markings and a smaller one between. It is covered with dirty grey irregular faint markings making the colour appear ashy grey at a distance. The shell is hard and finely sculptured on the surface. Larva (1st stage): The newly hatched larva is about 2} mm. long with the head 7/10 mm. broad. The segments of the head and the thorax are slightly bigger than the remaining segments so that the body appears to taper slightly towards the hind end. The head is black and covered with minute hairs. Segment I is blackish with a dorsal prothoracic chitinous shield bounded by a thin greyish white area. This is separated from segment II by a double ring, greyish pale white in colour with a black transverse streak in the middle. The three thoracic segments have a fairly broad dorso-median longitudinal blackish grey band with a central whitish area or streak which broadens towards the third segment. Fach segment has on the ventral side a pair of well developed black legs covered with minute velvety hairs. The abdomen is black with the dorsal side of the first three segments slightly greyish as a continuation of the thoracic longitudinal streak. The greyish colour is interrupted by the inter-segmental rings which are dirty pale white. On the ventral side are the four pairs of brownish black slender prolegs on the third to the sixth abdominal segments and a fifth pair on the last or anal segment. The whole body of the caterpillar is covered with numerous hairs arising singly or in tufts from black tubercles. On the prothorax are a large number of long hairs directed forwards and sideways. The spiracles are seen as small dots on the sides of the body on segment I and the first eight segments of the abdomen, the first pair being slightly bigger than the rest. The caterpillar leads a very active and gregarious life, feeding on the tender leaves for three to five days and attains a length of nearly 6 mm. Then it ceases feeding and undergoes the first moult. Larva (2nd stage): The caterpillar is now about 8 mm. long. The thoracic segments are only slightly broader than the rest of the body and the anterior portion appears a little tapering as the head is narrower than the thoracic segments. The head is blackish with three slight ashy grey bands extending from the prothoracic region down to the clypeus. There are a large number of short hairs arising from the head near the jaws. The dorsal side of the prothorax is black with a pair of light grey longitudinal bands on either side of the median line. The black chitinised area is bounded by greyish brown patches in front and behind; and there are more irregular patches on the sides. The prothoracic processes are short, thick and black with numerous short soft whitish hairs extending forward. Some of these hairs are black or brownish. In the prothorax are also numerous isolated smaller and thinner brown hairs along the middle frontal fringe, the sides and the posterior edges. The mesothorax is black with greyish brown mottlings; the dorsal tubercle on each side of the median line is bluish black covered with short irregular hairs; two small erect groups of hairs are found on the dorsal side of the segment marking the position of the transverse groove. Segment III is greyish 260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL brown with irregular black spots and patches and with bluish black tubercles. Towards the posterior end of the segment a transverse slit is visible, its inner sides are lined with very minute shining velvety hairs of a brick red colour. In the abdominal segments the mid-dorsal double line of the previous stage is broken up into irregular ash coloured mottlings and the lateral whitish bands are continued behind upto the eighth segment. The first two segments appear greyish brown and the rest are darker. The eighth, ninth and tenth segments are black with white thick intersegmental transverse patches or rings. The abdominal tubercles are bluisi: black and more prominent with blackish hairs arising from them. One sub-dorsal and one ventro-lateral row of tubercles are seen on each side of the body, the latter row being on short blunt protuber- ances of the skin on the sides. The whole body is covered with irregularly distributed short brown hairs. The hairs on the sub- dorsal tubercles arise erect while those on the ventro-lateral tubercles are directed sideways. They are directed forwards in the anterior segments and backwards in the posterior or anal segment. The prolegs which are more conspicuous than in the previous stage are slender, long, pale red, and are beset with numerous small hairs. The caterpillar during this stage is more active and feeds voraciously. It grows to a size of 10 or 11 mm. in. the course of 4 to 6 days and then undergoes the second moult. Larva (3rd stage): The average caterpillar is about 16 mm. long. It is black grey with reddish and brown dots and pale white streaks irregularly distributed over the body. The newly moulted caterpillar has its head as broad as the thorax so that there is no tapering towards the head as in the previous stage. The head, the first and second segments of the thorax, and the eighth, ninth and tenth abdominal segments are black and separated from their neighbouring segments by whitish double transverse bands. The three whitish grey bands of the first thoracic segment are continued into the head region. The prothoracic processes are more pronounced with tufts of hairs. Over the second thoracic segment the paired tufts of small hairs on the mid-dorsal line, one behind the other, enclose between them a transverse depression which is lined black. The third thoracic segment has the red streak more pronounced and the posterior border of the segment is whitish as a _ distinct transverse band. Similarly between segments 4, 5 and 7 and 8 whitish transverse bands appear borne on the posterior border of the one and the anterior border of the following segment. Segment 8 is black and bears a somewhat conspicuous pair of dorsal tubercles more prominent than others. Segments g and 10 and the legs are black. The prolegs are yellowish with a black patch on the outer side. The spiracles are white vertically oval spots with black borders situated in a’ line on the sides of the body wall. The ventro-lateral processes from the body wall are more prominent with denser and longer hairs. The hairs are of varying length, shape and shade; they are at first whitish turning brown or brownish black later on. The hairs on the dorsal side of the body are generally shorter than the rest. The ventral side of the body is blackish or of cement colour, A NOTE ON METANASTRIA HYRTACA CRAM. 261 The caterpillar feeds gregariously and grows to about 20-22 mm. and,.as it grows, the head appears a little narrower. than the body. The white central band in the region of the head bifurcates near the front and three more parallel.lines of whitish tinge on each epicranium extend down to the ocellar region the one next to the central streak being more prominent than the others. It is not uncommon to find caterpillars at this stage reaching a length of 30-40 mm. Larva (4th stage): Immediately after emerging from the moult the caterpillar is 25-40 mm. long. The brown colour of the hairs on the surface of the body becomes more pronounced. Secondary hairs appear all over the body, the base of the legs, the prolegs and the head, making the tubercles rarely visible. The erect comb- like hairs over segment II and the lateral hair groups on the ventro-lateral processes on the body are more prominent than in the previous stage. Besides the soft hairs there are also whitish or yellowish brown shorter flattened spatulate hairs arising in the midst of the ventro-lateral tufts. Segment III is the biggest and the thoracic segments are progressively smaller anteriorly, with the head appearing smallest. The dorsal bands on the thorax are darker and are continued into the head region. The general colour is greyish brown with irregular mottlings, simulating the bark of the stem of the food plant. Beyond this stage the caterpillars show no marked changes except in size. They remain on the stem in groups closely packed together. Some of the larvz moult at the end of 5 to 7 days and reach a size of nearly 40-50 mm. But the length of this stage and the size of the larva at the end of it vary greatly. Larva (5th stage): This is generally the last stage in the growth of the larva, the caterpillar becoming full grown at its end. Beginning with a size of nearly 4o mm. it finally reaches about 65 mm. The body is stout and hairy and is cylindrical though slightly flattened on the ventral side. The head is small when compared with the other segments of the body, and black with whitish, brownish and dark bands. A dorso-median brownish band extends from the erect mid-dorsal tufts on segment II over the thorax into the head region and merges with the colour pattern of the head. The ad-frontal area is whitish and is in continuation of the central white streak on the cranial suture. The front is small and black. The ocelli are black and surrounded by brownish black patches at the sides. Numerous small brownish soft hairs are found over the head and mouth region. The skin of the body is tough and leathery beset with various kinds of hairs. The general colour varies, being greyish black or greyish dark brown. The hairs are of different colours and sizes. The longest hairs found in bunches rising from the vento-lateral body processes are soft and brownish. Some of the hairs rising from bluish black tubercles on the dorsal surface are fairly long and spike-like, are easily detached from the body and run into the fingers of the operator when the caterpillars are handled. Thinner, shorter and greyish dark hairs are seen in the region of the thoracic segments, legs, prolegs, lateral processes and posterior ends. A few yellowish 262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIELY, Vol: XL white spatulate hair-like structures arise in front of the dorsal tuft in segment II and-irregularly in the midst of the lateral tufts in all the segments. Several groups of very soft minute hairs are found in the dorsal transverse grooves in segments II and III and in the intersegmental areas on the dorsal side. The ventro-lateral processes from the body wall are more prominent and the tufts of hairs are directed forwards in thoracic segments, horizontally over the sub-stratum in the abdominal region and backwards in the posterior segments. The latero-ventral processes on the prothorax are very long and thickset with hairs. These processes simulate prolegs and hide the true legs when viewed from above. The dorsal setae are comparatively small and reduced. In segment II the transverse cleft of skin placed dorsally about the middle of the segment exposes a jet black area bounded in front by a short tuft. of whitish yellow hairs and behind by a shorter erect tuft of black hairs. In segment III the transverse slit placed about the posterior third of the segment, is broader and longer, extending to the sides and exposes a crimson red surface with a black streak in the middle. The skin in the slit is lined by very minute hairs and is smooth. The slit is exposed to view with its vivid colouration when the caterpillar is disturbed. The legs are black, well chitinised and covered with numerous hairs. The abdomen is long and stout with tufts of hairs on the sides. The dorsal hairs and setae are reduced in number and size. There are two pairs of bluish black tubercles on each segment; the front pair are subdorsal and the hind pair posterior-lateral in position. In the mid-dorsal region two blackish brown bands begin to appear in some specimens and this band is produced into angular projections outwards in segments III to VIII. In some specimens a lateral pale grey streak contined from the first to the eighth abdominal segment appears as a faint band and persists during the later stages of the caterpillar. The prolegs are long and slender with the crotchets biordinal and arranged in meso- series. The spiracles are clearly seen as long vertical slits, more or less oval in shape, whitish in the centre and bounded by a thick black rim enclosing a thin black streak in the central line; the spiracle in segment I is the biggest and that on segment VIII bigger than the rest; they are located on the sides, just above the region of the ventro-lateral processes. Pupa: When full grown the caterpillars construct loose cocoons of silk interwoven with ‘hairs detached from their bodies and pupate inside. The cocoon is generally attached to the stem or leaf and often two or more are found grouped together. The pupa is dark brown and covered with numerous. short hairs irregularly distributed in front, but in rows round the pupa behind. The moth emerges by splitting open the pupal skin at the dorso- median anterior end. The pupal period lasts from 9 to 18 days. OTHER Foop PLANTS. The caterpillars which are characteristic in their appearance and habits and are easily distinguished from others have been recorded to breed on Guazuma tomentosa H.B. & K., Terminalia catappa A NOTE ON METANASTRIA HYRTACA CRAM. 263 Linn. (Country almond), Mimusops elengi Linn., Nyctanthes Arbor-tristis Linn. (Tam. Pavizha mall), Bassia longifolia Linn. (Tam. [luppai), Schima Wallichii Choisy, Eugenia Jambolana Lam., Acacia arabica Willd., Albizzia stipulata Boiv., and Anthocephalus morindaefolius Korth. REMEDIAL MEASURES. As already pointed out the insect has not been noted to be a serious economic pest and as such no elaborate arrangements are necessary for its control. But if and when it becomes a pest, the gregarious nature of the caterpillars makes it easy to handpick and destroy them. In more severe cases a stomach poison may be tried. BIBLIOGRAPHY, Moore.—Lepidoptera of Ceylon, vol. ii, p. 148. Hampson.—Fauna of British India—Moths, vol. i, p. 410. Elwes.—Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xiii, p. 407. Fletcher.—Some South Indian Insects, p. 409. . Fletcher.—Report of the Proceedings of the Second Entomological Meeting, Pusa, pp. 38 and 249. 6. Fletcher.—Report of the Proceedings of the Second Entomological Meeting, Fusa, vol. iil, pp. 103 and 564. 7. Fletcher.—Catalogue of Indian Insects—Lasiocampidae. 8. Fletcher.—Bulletin 59 of the Imperial Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, p. 25. g. Lefroy.—Indian Insect Life, p. 497. MB Owe EXPLANATION OF PLATE. A leaf showing eggs on it. One egg magnified. A young caterpillar. A full grown caterpillar. The anterior portion of a grown up caterpillar showing the hairs. Cocoon on a leaf. Pupa. Moth (female). Moth (male). 0 OMNI AmB) DN & THE -MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA. BY |... 2 GAIUS; Soles. The EUPHORBIACE2 represent almost all habits of growth, and exhibit a high degree of adaptability to varying environments. This large family includes 220 genera, and about 4,000 species distributed all over the world, except in arctic and antarctic regions. About half the species inhabit equatorial America; they are much rarer in temperate America. In the Old World they are more abundant in the Mediterranean region and in temperate Asia than between the tropics. The properties of the spurgeworts are as distinctive as their botanical characters, and the ancients had so accurately recognized this, that all plants with a 3-coccus fruit were regarded by them as hurtful and suspicious. The members of the family secrete a very acrid milky juice, varying in. strength with the species, the organ of the plant, and the climate. In some this juice is one of the most deleterious of poisons, in others its acridity is so far neutralized by mucilage and resins as to reduce it to a simple purgative and diuretic. Some species are slightly narcotic-acrid, others aromatic. The albumen usually contains a fixed bland oil, without the acridity which is found in the embryo and the integu- ments of the seed. It is to a liquid resin and a volatile principle that all the properties of the spurgeworts are due; they are thus strongest in alcoholic tinctures, but are dissipated or weakened by the application of heat. The root of the Manihot offers a remarkable example: there is scarcely a more poisonous juice than this, yet the action of fire converts the plant into very wholesome food. Enormous though it be, the research work purporting to deal with the juice has not yet been crowned with success, and the literature regarding the toxic principles isolated from spurges is but one great mass of confusion. The medicinal and poisonous spurges of the world belong to 76 genera :—ACALYPHA (tropics and subtropics of both hemispheres) ; ALCHORNEA (all tropics); ALEuURITES (Asia and Pacific); ANDRACHNE (tropics and subtropics); ANrHosTEMA (Madagascar ; tropical Africa) ; ANTIDESMA (palaeotropics); APoRosA (tropical Asia); BALIOSPERMUM (Indo-Malaya); BiscHorira (Indo-Malaya, Pacific Islands); BREyNtIA (Africa, Asia, Polynesia); BripELia (Africa, Asia, Australia); Buxus (temperate regions of the Old World); CHRozopHoRA (Mediterranean region, Asia, Africa); Cicca (Asia); CLEristantTuus (Africa, Indo- Malaya); CNesmMonE (India, Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra); Croton (tropics and subtropics); DALECHAMPIA (tropics); DapPHnti- PHYLLUM (tropical Asia); DICHOSTEMMA (tropical Africa); DRYPETES (Africa, Indo-Malaya, tropical America); ELAEOPpHORBIA (tropical THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 265 Africa); ERemMocARPUS (California); ERYTHROCOCCA (tropical Africa) ; EUPHORBIA (subtropical and warm temperate regions); EXCOECARIA (Old World tropics); FLUEGGEA (Old World tropics); GELONIUM (Asia, Africa); \GLOCHIDION (tropical); Hevea (Brazil, Guiana) ; HIPPOMANE (warm America, West Indies); Homonora Indo- Malaya); Hura (tropical America); HyMENocarpiA (Indo-Malaya, Africa); ICHTHYOTHERE (Brazil); JATROPHA (America, Malaya); JonanneEsia (Brazil); JULOcROoTON (Central and South America) ; Masea (Central America, Brazil, Guiana); MacaRANGa (tropics of the Old World); Marsosotrya (tropical Africa); Matiotus (Asia, Africa); Manihot (South America to Mexico); MANNIOPHYTON (tropical Africa); Maprounea (Brazil, Guiana, West Africa) ; Mareya (tropical Africa); MERCURIALIS (Europe, Western Asia, Japan); Micropesmis (Asia, Africa); NECEpsiA (tropical Africa) ; OLDFIELDIA (tropical Africa); OOMPHALEA (tropical Africa and America); OPHTHALMOBLAPTON (Brazil); Paris (Europe, northern Asia); PEpiLantHus (Central and South America, West Indies) ; PETALOsTIGMA (Australia); PHYLLANTHUS (tropics); PSEUDOLACHNOS- TYLIS (tropical Africa); PuTRANJIVA (India); Pycnocoma (tropical Africa, Comoro Islands, Madagascar); RICHERIA (tropical America) ; RICINODENDRON (tropical Africa); Ricinus (tropical Africa); SAPIUM (all tropics); Sauropus (Indo-Malaya); SEBAsTIANIA (America, Africa) ; SPONDIANTHUS (tropical Africa); STILLINGA (America, Africa, Mauritius, Madagascar, Fiji); SyNapEniuM (tropical and South Africa, La Reunion); TETRACARPIDIUM (tropical Africa); TETROR- CHIDIUM (tropical America and Africa); ToxICODENDRUM (South Africa); Tracia (Asia, Africa); TRewia (India); TRIGONOSTEMON (Indo-Malaya); TRitaxts (Indo-Malaya); Uapaca (tropical Africa, Madagascar). The medicinal and poisonous spurges of India belong to 36 genera :—ACALYPHA, ALCHORNEA, ALEURITES,’ ANDRACHNE, ANTI- DESMA, APOROSA, BALIOSPERMUM, BISCHOFIA, BREYNIA, BRIDELIA, Buxus, CHROZOPHORA, CICCA, CLEISTANTHUS, CROTON, EUPHORBIA, EXCOECARIA, FLUEGGEA, GELONIUM, GLOCHIDION, HIPPOMANE, HomonoliA, Hura, JATROPHA, MAcCARANGA, Matiotus, MantHot, MICRODESMIS, PHYLLANTHUS, PUTRANJIVA, RIcINUS, SAPIUM, SAURO- PUS, SEBASTIANIA, TRAGIA, TREWIA. A. Cells of ovary 2-ovuled. {. Male flowers of one pedicelled stamen numerous sufround- ing a single-pedicelled female, all enclosed in a cup- like involucre me am bes ... EUPHORBIA. II. Flowers apetalous; sepals 4 in male, imbricate; sepals 4 or 6 in female. a. Leaves alternate... “a oe veer ELUIRAS b. Leaves opposite ea wie at ie DUxUS, III. Sepals 1-2-seriate. Petals minute or absent. Stamens 1-2-seriate. Ovary 2-many-celled; cells 2-ovuled. a. Leaves. alternate, undivided, quite entire. Flowers petaliferous. Stamens 3-6. 1. Calyx valvate, stamens in a column. i. Fruit a drupe; ovary 2-celled i. DBRIDELIA ii. Fruit capsular; ovary 3-celled ... CLEISTANTHUS. 2. Calyx imbricate, stamens free. Flowers small. Disc of 10 glands. Herb a --» ANDRACHNE. 9 266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, b. Leaves alternate, rarely eae eae undivided, quite entire. Sepals imbricate. etals absent. Stamens 3 or more. Flowers See or in axillary fascicles. 1. Fruit dry capsular of 3 bivalved cocci. i. Herbs, shrubs or trees; styles free or united below ; disc present, of scales or a ring li. Shrubs or trees; styles long united in a column, rarely free; disc absent 2 rat Of i6..cocci epicarp fleshy white 3. Fruit baccate of 3 10, 6 hard cocci 4inwa fleshy epicarp. i. Sepals 4; stamens 4; fruit large; tree ii. Male flowers turbinate or hemispheric, lobes minute ; fruit small; shrubs or treelets ili. Male flowers rotate or discoid, lobes minute ; fruit medium; shrublets c. Leaves alternate, undivided, entire or serrate. Sepals imbricate. Petals absent. Stamens few or many. Styles or stigmas 2-3, dilated. Fruit a drupe. Stamens 2-3. Ovary 2-3-celled. Drupe_ 1-celled d. Leaves alternate, trifoliolate. Sepals imbricate. Petals absent. Fruit a berry. Sepals. .5., otamens. 5 sisi oe Bh Leaves alternate quite entire. Styles or stigmas usually very minute. Fruit various. 1. Fruit drupaceous; disc circular pulvinate or conic; seeds laterally flattened reticulate; filaments long ae a ve 2. Fruit capsular dehiscent; flowers in catkins; filaments long B. Cells of ovary 1-ovuled. I. Perianth double, of calyx and corolla. filaments free. Ovary 1-3-celled. Flowers . in axillary panicles. Stamens 5-10 En II. Perianth single, or of the male, or of both sexes, double: Stamens 1-2-seriate. Ovary 2-3-celled. Inflorescence terminal or axillary. Stamens 4-10; Petals a. Flowers in terminal 2-3-chotomous cymes; cymes unisexual, or with the central flower female, petaliferous. 1. Leaves digitately merved or lobed. Stamens many. Fruit capsular ah te 2. Leaves palmilobed. Juice usually milky. Sta- mens 10 in two whorls $66 ae 3. Leaves digitately nerved. Stamens 8-20. Fruit a drupe ‘ ; i b. Flowers wm terminal androgynous spikes « or racemes. Petals usually villous. Stamens strongly incurved in bud alternate with the sepals. Capsule of 3 cocci. c. Flowers in axillary racemes. Stamens erect in bud. Petals present. Sepals valvate. Anther-cells con- nate. Styles bifid. Fruit cies gies) tomentose herbs or shrubs : _d. Flowers in axillary rarely terminal spikes | racemes or panicles, apetalous. Calyx valvate in bud. 1. Filaments free; anthers erect, 2-celled, cells united by their base only. Styles very long fimbriate or lacerate. Female flowers in large bracts 2. Filaments free; anthers 2-celled or 4-locellate ; cells oblong or globose, laterally attached by a narrow or broad connective. Stamens 4 to to. Anthers 2-celled. Fila- ments slender, anther-cells oblong parallel. Fruit a small drupe. imbricate. Viol. wore PHYLLANTHUS. (GLOCHIDION. FLUEGGEA. CICCA: BREYNIA. SAUROPUS. PUTRANJIVA. BISCHOFIA. ANTIDESMA. APOROSA. MICRODESMIS. JATROPHA. MANIHOT. ALEURITES. CROTON. CHROZOPHORA, ACALYPHA. ALCHORNEA,. ~" THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 267 ii. Stamens very numerous. Anthers 2-celled. t Leaves opposite. Anther-cells parallel. Fruit fleshy or capsular one ... DREWIA. tt Leaves opposite or alternate. Stamens very many, central in the flower; anther-cells usually globose, adnate to the often broad connective 8 we) MALLOTUS. ili. Stamens one or more central; anthers 3-4- locellate; anther-cells subglobose. — Styles entire. Fruit capsular ... ... MACARANGA. 3. Filaments variously connate in bundles. i. Male and female flowers in axillary spikes. Staminal bundles indefinite. Capsule un- armed — a ass ... HOMONOIA. ul. Flowers in terminal panicles. Leaves palm- ate, serrate. Staminal bundles indefinite .... RICINUs. e. Flowers in axillary or leaf-opposed clusters, rarely panicled or racemed, apetalous. Sepals of male imbricate or calyx shortly toothed. Stamens numer- ous, central in the flower. 1. Male-flowers fascicled. Sepals 5. Fruit smooth, indehiscent vas See ... GELONIUM. 2. Male-flowers in panicled cymes. Sepals 4-5. Capsule of three 2-valved cocci ... BALIOSPERMUM. f. Flowers in axillary spikes or racemes, apetalous. Male calyx valvate. Styles connate. Fruit capsular. Racemes androgynous. Male calyx 3-5-partite ; female calyx of 5 sepals. Stamens 1-3. Styles spreading above TRAGIA. [IIl. Perianth single. Calyx of. male minute and open in bud, or obsolete. a. Herb with very short leaf opposed bisexual spikes. se SEBASTIANIA. Annual b. Trees or shrubs. 1. Racemes terminal. Male calyx terete, 2-3-lobed. © SAPIUM. 2. Racemes lateral or terminal. Calyx terete, 3- partite. Stamens 3 a ae oe 3. A tree. Flowers monoecious. Male calyx 2-3- lobed at sis EXCOECARIA. HIPPOMANE.- ACALYPHA. The genus includes 320 tropical and subtropical species. The following species are used medicinally in the Philippine Islands—A. indica Linn.—; in Madagascar—A. spiciflora Burm. f.—- in La Reumion—A. indica Minn., A. integrifolia Willd.—+* in Zululand—A. peduncularis Meissn.—; in Southern Rhodesia—4A. petiolaris Krauss—; in Gold Coast and Nigeria—A. ciliata Forsk.—; in Oubanghi-Chari—A. ornata Hochst.—; in Indo-China —A, Evrardu Gagnep., A. indica Linn.—; in the Malay Peninsula —A. siamensis Gage—; in India—A. fruticosa Forsk., A. hispida Burm., A. indica Linn., A paniculata Migq.—. A. Herb. Leaves long-petioled, ovate or rhombic-ovate, crenate-serrate 8 3. A.. indica, B. Shrub. a. Leaves ovate-acute or subacute, crenate, glabrous and glandular beneath 2 ons mee) ts Ae Jvilicose, b. Leaves broadly rhombic-ovate, at the base shortly cuneate, at the apex cuspidate-acuminate, sub- acutely and coarsely serrate ays fo 2a. ispida, 288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XL c. Leaves long-petioled, ovate-acuminate 3 -4.-A. panrveulata: d. Leaves sub-coriaceous rhomboid narrowed to blunt base, bluntly serrate, tip blunt Be engl See A eStanven sass 1. Acalypha fruticosa Forsk. occurs in the Deccan Peninsula, Ceylon, Pegu, Martaban and Ava... It extends to Arabiay and tropical Africa. The leaves are attenuant and alterative, and an agreeable stomachic in dyspepsia and other ailments. The dose of the in- fusion of the leaves as ordered by the Vaidyas in Southern India is half a teacupful twice in the day. The leaves are a Chinese remedy for colic and diarrheea. In Arabia the leaves are macerated in water, and children with pustules washed in the liquid. Arabic: Bortam—; Canarese: Chinni—; Chinese: Tch’a Iang—; Deccan: Chinni—; French: Ricinelle—; Hadie: Defran—; Surdud: Shohat—; Tamil: Sinni— ; Telugu: Chinni—; Uahfat: Ansthat—; Yemen: Bortom, Defran—. 2. Acalypha hispida Burm. is cultivated in Indian gardens. The leaves are beaten up with green tobacco leaf and an in- fusion of rice, and applied to inveterate ulcers. The flowers, boiled in water or administered in the form of a conserve, are said to be specific in diarrhoea and similar disorders. Malayalam: Vattattali—. 3. Acalypha indica Linn. occurs throughout the hotter parts of India and Ceylon. It extends to the Philippine Islands and tropical Africa. The plant is used as expectorant as a substitute for senega. It has also a diuretic action. It is a useful remedy for bronchitis, asthma and pneumonia; also for rheumatism. It was formerly employed as a purgative and anthelmintic. The root, bruised in hot water, is employed as a cathartic, and the leaves as a laxative in decoction mixed with common salt. The leaves are used in scabies and, mixed with lime, in other cutaneous diseases. The powder of the dry leaves is given to children in worm cases, also a decoction prepared from the leaves with the addition of a little garlic. The juice of the same part of the plant, together with that of the tender shoots, is occasionally mixed with a small portion of margosa oil, and rubbed on the tongues of infants for the purpose of sickening them and clearing their stomachs of viscid phlegm. The expressed juice of the leaves is in great repute, wherever the plant grows, as an emetic for children, and is safe, certain and speedy in its action. Like Ipecacuanha, it seems to have little tendency to act on the bowels or to depress the vital powers, and it decidedly increases the secretion of the pulmonary organs. A decoction of the leaves is given in ear-ache; a cataplasm of the leaves is applied as a local application to syphilitic ulcers, and as a means of relieving the pain of snake-bite and the irritation caused by the bite of the centipede. THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 269 Fresh leaves ground into a paste, made into a ball to the size of a large marble, and introduced into the rectum, are very useful in relieving obstinate constipation of children. The plant is used in congestive headaches: a piece of cotton is saturated with the expressed juice and inserted into each nostril, relieving head symptoms by causing hemorrhage from the nose. The powder of the dry leaves is used in bed sores and wounds attacked by worms. The leaf of this plant is said to be a parasiticide and is applied externally, ground with common salt or quicklime or lime juice. A paste of the leaves with lime juice was prescribed for cases of ringworm (different varieties of cutaneous tinea). In chronic cases it had no effect, but in recent cases it did some good (IXoman). Caius and Mhaskar have had nothing but disappointment with the plant. They found it quite ineffective as an anthelmintic; and the leaves proved useless as an external application in the treatment of snake-bite. Arabic : Harram-ed-dhibbel—; Bengal: Kanda-amadu, Muktajari, Murk- anta, Shwetbusunta—; Bombay: WKhokali, Khokli, Kuppi—; Canarese: Chalmari, Kuppi—; Chinese: T’ie Han Ts’ai—; English: Indian Mercury— ; French: Bois queue de rat—; Godavari: Murkandachettu, Murukonda— ; Gujerati: Vanchhikanto—; Hindi: Khokali, Khokhla, Khokli, Kuppi—; Indo- China: Tai tuong xanh—; Malay: Rumput lislis—; Malayalam : Kuppamani— ; Marathi: Khajoti, Khokli, Kupi—; Mauritius: Herbe chatte, Ortie de 1l’Inde—; Philippines: Bugos—; Porebunder: Dadro—; Sanskrit: Arittamunjariye— ; Sinhalese: Kupamenya, Kuppamaniya, Waelkupamenya—; Tamil: Kuppaimeni, Kuppamani— ; Telugu: Kuppaichettu, Kuppintaku, Murkandachettu—; Uriya: Indramaris—. 4. Acalypha paniculata Miq. is found in the Deccan Peninsula, from Malabar southwards, and in Ceylon; it ascends to 3,000 feet. It is distributed over to Java and tropical Africa. It is often used as a substitute for A. indica. Aguku: Odukwe—; Ibo: Odukwe—; Yoruba: Ilewu—. 5 Acalypha siamensis Gage is found in sandy open country on the east coast and in the north of the Malay Peninsula, whence it spreads over Siam. The Malays use the leaves for making tea. Malay: Tumput—. ALCHORNEA. The genus numbers about 50 tropical species, rarest in Asia. A. cordifolia Muell.-Arg. and A. hirtella Benth. are used medicinally in tropical West Africa. The root of A. floribunda Muell.-Arg has properties similar to those of Indian hemp and is much used in the Belgian Congo as ~a stimulant and narcotic. Alchornea rugosa Muell.-Arg. is found at Amherst in Burma, in the Andaman Islands and Malacca, extending eastwards to China, the Malay Archipelago and Bouton Straits, 270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. “SOCIELY, Wolke The seeds are used as a purgative in Indo-China. Indo-China: Bo met, Bo net, Chua mot, Dat mot, Muoi, Soi giai—; Lao: Khang poi—. ALEURITES. The genus consists of 6 species, inhabiting warm Asia. A cordata Steud. is used medicinally in China; A. moluccana Willd. in India, the Philippine Islands, Madagascar, Brazil and Guiana. Aleurites moluccana Willd. is typically a seashore plant. It is found wild and planted in the Malay Peninsula, on the sea-coasts and on limestone rocks at 1,000 to 1,500 feet altitude. It is distributed over the Malay and Polynesian islands. The tree is cultivated in India, and very much so in South India. The oil obtained from the kernels by expression, has been found, in doses from one to two ounces, to act as a mild and sure purgative, producing in from three to six hours after ingestion free bilious evacuations. It was found to approach nearly to castor oil in the mildness and certainty of its operation, but superior to it as having neither taste nor smell, and as producing its cathartic action without any nausea. In Madagascar and La Reunion the leaves, heated with a flat iron, are applied several times in succession to articulations in cases of acute rheumatism. Arabic: Jouzebarri, Khasifehindi—; Bengal: Akola, Akrot, Jangliakrot—; Bombay: Akrod, Jaiphul, Jangliakrot, Janglieranda, Japhal, Jelapa—; Brazil: Noz de Bancoul, Noz da India—; Burma: Tosikyasi—; Canarese: Akroda, Natakrodu Caroline Islands: Raguar—; Chinese: Shih Leih—; Cutch: Akrota—; English: Belgaum Walnut, Bengal Walnut, Camiri Nut, Candleberry Tree, Candle Nut, Indian Walnut, Singapore Nut—; French: Aleurit des Molluques, Bancoulier—; Guam: Lumbang, Raguar—; Gujerati: Akhoda, Jangli-akhroda— ; Hawaii: Eboc, Kukui—; Hindi: Akola, Akrot, Jangliakrot— ; Hova: Bakoly, Savoga, Savokara—; Ilocano: Balucanag—; Jamaica: Country Walnut—; Kemirih-Malay: Buaktas—; La Reunion: Bancoul, Bancoulier— ; Madagascar: Mofotra—; Malay: Buahkeras, Kanieri—; Malayalam: Akrottu, Akshotam, Karankolam—,; Marathi: Akhod, Japhala, Ranakhrot—; Mauritius : Bancoul—; Persian: Chaharmaghz-e-hindi, Girdagan-e-hindi—; Samoa: Lama —; Sanskrit: Akharota, Akhota, Akshota, Asphotaka, Gudashaya, Kandarala, Karparala, Kaureshta, Madanabhaphala, Parvatiya, Phalasneha, Pritakchhada, Bekhaphala, Svadumajja, Vrittaphala—; Shan: Kanyin, Mak man yau, Mak yau. lik—; Sinhalese: Kakkuna, Ratakekuna, Tel-kekuna—; Tagalog: Baguilumban, Balocanad, Balucanad, Calumban, Capili, Lumban, Lumbang— $; Tamil: Nattakkar-ottu—; Telugu: Natakrotu, Uduga Urdu: Akharut—; Uriya: Akuroto—; Visayan: Rumbang—. ANDRACHNE, This genus consists of 15 species, broadly distributed over the tropical and temperate regions of both hemispheres. A. ovalis Mill.-Arg. is used in South Africa as an anthelmintic and insecticide. Andrachne cordifolia Miill.-Arg. is found at altitudes of 5,000- 8,000 feet in the Central and Western temperate Himalaya, from Nepal westwards to Murree and Afghanistan, THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 271 The plant is poisonous, and the twigs and leaves are said to kill cattle when browsed in the early morning on an empty stomach. Beas: Chirmutti, Mutkar, Pin—; Chenab: Barsu—; Garhwal: Bhatula—: Jaunsar: Bharti, Bhartoi—; Jhelum: Gurguli, Kurkni—; Punjab: Gurguli, Kurkni, Kurkuli—; Ravi: Barotri, Madare—; Sutlej: Tsatin—. ANTIDESMA. This genus includes 90 palaeotropical species. A. madagascariense Linn. is used medicinally in La Reunion ; A. membranaceum Muell.-Arg. in Liberia; A. venosum E. Mey. in South and tropical West Africa; A. zeylanicum Lam. in Ceylon; A. ghaesembilla Gaertn. in Cambodia; A. bunius Spreng, in India. A. Ovary tomentose or pubescent —... oe wa 2. A. ghaesemobilla. B. Ovary glabrous. a. Leaves 3-6 in. Spikes stout often 4-5 in. Sar Aa buns. b. Leaves 1-3 in, Spikes slender 1-14 in. ... i. 3- A. geylanicum. 1. Antidesma bunius Spreng. is a small evergreen tree found throughout the hotter parts of India, from the Nepal and Sikkim Terai and Assam, southwards to Singapore and Penang; and from Parusnath in Behar to Ceylon. It extends to the Malay Islands and China. . The acid leaves are used in snake-bites; and, when young, they are boiled and used in syphilitic cachexia. Mhaskar and Caius have demonstrated that the leaves are not an antidote to snake venom. Burma: WKywepyisin—; Canarese: Nayikute—; Lepcha: Kantjer—; Malay- alam: Cherutali, Nulittali—; Marathi: Amati—; Nepal: Himalcheri— ; Pampangan: Bignay—; Philippines: Bubbugnay—; Sinhalese: Karawellake- bella—; Tagalog: Bignai—; Tamil: Nolaidali—; Telugu: Anepu, Janupolari— ; Visayan: Bugnai—. 2. Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn. is a small tree found in the tropical Himalaya, from Simla to Bhutan and southwards to Ceylon, Singapore, Perak and Penang. It extends to Siam and. China, the Malay Islands, Australia and Africa. The bark, the leaves, and the wood are used medicinally in Cambodia. The bark is considered astringent and tonic. The leaves are finely crushed in a mortar and applied to the fontanel of newly-born babes, and to the head of children suffering from dengue or from a cold with cephalalgia. The wood, or better the young stems with their bark, are used as an emmenagogue. Cambodia: Dangkiep kdam—j; Canarese: Pulimpurase, Pullampurasigida— ; Central Provinces: Jhondri—; Malay: Balng ayam, Gunchiak—; Malayalam : Cheriyannatam—; Mundari: Koetang, Koetangnuetasura, Matasuradaru—; Telugu: Janupulisaru, Kondapolari, Lona, Nallaballi, Polari—; Uriya: Nihanahari—. 3. Antidesma zeylanicum Lam. occurs in the southern Deccan . Peninsula, and is common in Ceylon. A decoction of the leaves is used as a snake remedy; but Mhaskar and Caius have shown experimentally that it is useless as an antidotal as well as a symptomatic treatment. Sinhalese ; Hinembilla—; Tamil: Nolaidali—, i) “I HS JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Volw xe APOROSA. The genus consists of 35 Indo-Malayan species. Aporosa lindleyana Baill., a much-branched evergreen tree, occurs in the Deccan Peninsula from the Konkan southwards, and is abundant in Ceylon. A decoction of the root is given in jaundice, fever, headache, insanity, and seminal loss. Canarese: Sarali—; Malayalam: Kotili, Vetti, Vittil—; Sinhalese: Baranaembilla, Kebella—; Tamil: Kotili, Vittil—; Tulu: Sarali—. BALIOSPERMUM. This genus consists of to Indo-Malayan species. Baliospermum montanum Mill.-Arg. (=B. axillare Bl.) is a stout subherbaceous leafy shrub. It is found in the tropical and subtropical Himalaya, from Kashmir to Bhutan; in Assam and the Khasia Hills down to Chittagong, Pegu, Tenasserim, Burma, and Penang; in the Deccan Peninsula, from Berar and the Konkan to Travancore. It also occurs in Siam and Java. This plant is much used in Hindu medicine, where purgation is indicated, the root being generally prescribed. This is described as ‘pungent, heating; purgative, anthelmintic, diuretic, alexiteric; useful in pains, diseases of the skin and of the abdomen, piles, wounds, enlarged spleen, itching, inflammations, anzmia, leucod- erma, jaundice’. The seeds are used as a drastic purgative, but in overdoses are an acro-narcotic poison; they are sometimes used as a substi- tute for Croton Tiglium. ‘They are also used externally as a stimulant and rubefacient. The oil is a powerful hydragogue cathartic, and is useful for external application in rheumatism. Madden states that to the east of the Sutlej the leaves are in high repute for wounds, and the sap is believed to corrode iron. The root is considered cathartic, and is used in dropsy, anasarca, and jaundice. A decoction of the leaves is said to be useful in asthma. Caius and Mhaskar have found the root equally useless in the treatment of snake-bite and of scorpion-sting. Arabic: WHabbussalatinebarri, Habbussalatinesahrai—; Bengal: Danti, Hak- um, Hakun—; Berar: Boa—; Bombay: Dantimul, Jamakgota—; Burma: Natcho—; Canarese: Danti, Kaduharalu—; Cutch: Dantimul, Jamalgota—; Gujerati: Dantimul, Jamalgota—; Hindi: Dante, Danti, Hakum, Hakun—,; Lepcha: Poguntig—; Malayalam: Dantika, Katalavanakku, Nakadanti, Ner- valam, Niratimuttu—; Marathi: Danti—; Melghat: Danti, Jangli jamalgota—; North-Western Provinces: Janglijamalgota—; Persian: Bedanjirekhatai— ; Sanskrit: Amukheti, Anukula, Bhadra, Danti, Dantika, Erandapatri, Eranda- phala, Gunapriya, Jayapala, Kumbhi, Madhupushpa, Makunaka, Nagadanti, Nagasphota, Nepala, Nikumbhi, Nishalya, Nishkumbha, Pratyakparni, Rakta: danti, Rechani, Ruksha, Shighra, Shwetaghanta, Shyenaghanta, Taruni, Udumbaraparni, Upachitra, Varahangi, Vishalya, Vishodhini—; Tamil: Kattamanakku, Niradimuttu, Nirettimuttu, Peyamanakku—; Telugu: Ettadun- diga, Kanakapata, Kondamudamu, Nelajidi—; Uriya: Donti—. BISCHOFIA. The only species of this genus, B. javanica BI., is a large evergreen tree occurring in the sub-Himalayan forests and outer | ~I co THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF. INDIA 2 hills, spreading over Chota Nagpur, Assam, Burma, Chittagong, and the Western Peninsula. It is found in the Malay and the Pacific Islands. In Assam the juice of the leaves is considered a cure for sores. Assam: Uriam, Uriana—; Bombay: Bok—; Burma: Aukhyu, Pogaungza, Yepadauk— ; Cagayan: Toogan—; Canarese: Gobranerul, Goparimgurulle. Govarnellu, Nigurulle, Nile, Nilimara—; Dehra Dun: Paniala—; English: Java Cedar, Vinegar Wood—; Formosa: Ka-tang—; Garhwal: Kaen, Kan}}, Kot semla—; Haldwani: Pankoen—; Hindi: Bhillar, Irum, Kain, Kein, Kotsemba, Paniala, Pankain—; Igorrote: Tuel—; Ilocano: Quitaquita—- ; Kadir: Naunal, Nira, Tirippu—; Kumaon: Koen—; Lepcha: Sa-nong kung—; Malayalam : Nira, Tirippu—; Malkot: Billar—; Mundari: Daruhajam, Hajam— ; Nilgiris: Red Cedar—; Oudh: Irum—; Philippines: Canarem, Dueg, Tua—; Santali: Pader—; Saora: Panta—; Tagalog: Dampol, Toa, Toob, Tooc, Toog—; Tanul: Madagirvembu, Milachadayan, Milachittyan, Tondi—; Telugu : Nalupumushti— ; Tharu:; Areng—; Uriya: Dingiri—; Visayan: Tooc—. BREYNIA. This. genus consists of 12 species, found in Africa, Asia and Polynesia. Calyx greatly enlarged in fruit... 3 ee le Bn POLens. Calyx not or scarcely enlarged in fruit... ... 2. B. rhamnoides. 1. Breynia patens Rolfe is found in the tropical Himalaya from Nepal to Mishmi, in Assam, Chittagong, Burma, the Western Peninsula, and Ceylon. The plant is astringent to the bowels. The juice of the stem is given in conjunctivitis. Gujerati: Kamboi, Kedakamboi, Khedakamboi—; Hindi: WKalamahomad. Kambhi— ; Malayalam: Peruniruri—; Marathi: SKalichikali—; Porebunder : Kali-kamboi, Kamboi—; Sanskrit: Bahupraja, Bahupushpa, Devadaru, Kam. boji—; Saora: Kintaipude—; Telugu: Devadari—; Uriya: Deulopohora, Jajan, Medhokotahotoru—. 2. Breynia rhamnoides Miill.-Arg. is found throughout tropical India, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula; extending to the Malay and the Philippine Islands, and China. The bark is astringent. In Behar the dried leaves are smoked like tobacco, in cases in which uvula and tonsils are swelled. Canarese : Bamari, Gandupachcheri, Huli, Kadunugge, Karisuli, Kempehur:, Kempuhili, Suli—; Ceylon: Manippulanti—; Hindi: Surasaruni—; Malay: Suruyian—; Malayalam: Chuvannaniruri, Kattuniruri, Pavilappula—; Oudh: Tikkar—; Sanskrit: Aruin—; Santali: Kadrupala, Karki—j; Sinhalese: Gaskayila— ; Tamil: Kattuniruri, Manippulanji, Pavalappul, Pavalappula, Pamari., Sigappuppula—; Telugu: Ettaballi, Ettapurugudu, Nagalipachchari, Pagadapu, Pagadurugudu, Vellari, Yellari—; Uriya: Jajan—. BRIDELIA. This genus includes 60 species, spread over the tropics and subtropics of the Old World. B. cambodiana Gagnep. is used medicinally in Cambodia, B. schlechteri Hutch. in South Africa; B. atroviridis Muell.-Arg., B. ferruginea Benth. and B. micrantha Baill. are used in Nigeria and in Gold Coast; B. montana Willd. and B. retusa Spreng, in India. Leaves membranous “aes ges .. I. B. montana. Leaves rigidly coriaceous a re a 2. Peruse, 274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 2b; 1. Bridelia montana Willd. is found in the sub-Himalayan tract from the Jhelum eastwards; it also occurs in the Khasia Hills, the Central Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, and Upper Burma. The root and the bark are much used as an astringent medicine in Bombay and Goa. The plant has been credited with anthelmintic properties. Assam: Kaisho—; Bombay: Asano—; Canarese: Kittoe, Sidigulige— ; Cutch: Asana—; Garhwal: Gaya—; Goa: Faturfoda—; Gujerati: Asano—; Hindi: Geia, Gondni, Kargnalia, Khaja, Kusi—; Nhond: Balli—; Kumaon : Kurgnulia—; Marathi: Asana—; Mundari: Karakadaru—; ‘Nepal: Geio-—-; Saharanpur : Gondni— ; Tamil: Vengaimaram—; Telugu: Gundubigalu, Pancha- voni, Pantangi, Pantegi, Pantiga, Patunga, Sannakodari, Tellavegisa—; Uriya: Marda, Nuanali—. 2. Bridelia retusa Spreng. is found throughout India, and ae Ceylon, Burma and Malacca. The root and the bark are valuable astringents. Hindu practitioners in Western India use the bark for the removal of urinary concretions. The bark is used as a liniment with gingelly oil in rheumatism. Ajmere: Lamkana—; Assam: Kohir—; Banswara: Angnera—; Bengal: Kasai, Kosai—; Betul: Kasai, Sankana—; Bhil: Asana, Gunjan, Katiain-— ; Bhunij : WKarika—; Bombay: Asauna, Assana, Phatarphod—; Burma: Seikche, Seikchi, Seikgyi, Tseichyi—; Canarese: Asana, Garige, Goje, Gojji, Guju. Gurige, Gworgie, Havugandha, Kogyamunji, Maguva, Muljane, Mullahonne, Mullubenga, Mulluhonne, Nasinagandha, Nasinage, Phatterphodi, Siruhonne— ; Central Provinces: Warka, Kassei, Kassi—; Chittagong: Kamkui—; Deccan: Sun—; Dehra Dun: Gaya, Khaja—; Garhwal: Gauli, Gaya, Khaja—; Garo: Kashi— ; Gond: Kassei—; Gujerati: Asana, Ekalakanto, Monj—; Hindi: Gauli, Kaj, Kajja, Kassi, Khaja—; Ho: Kaka—; Kalagarh: Goli—; Kharwar: Kaj, Kaji, Kanj—; Khond: Rugendi—; WKolami: Kaka, MKharaka—; Konkani: Kongy—; Kurku: Karka, Karkha—; Lambadi: Makhiro—; Lepcha: Pengji—-; Malayalam: Chalaru, Komanji, Mullukayani, Mulluvenya, _Mulluvenna—- ; Mandevi: Haklo—; Marathi: Asana, Asanakutgi, Gunjan, Kantakauchi, Kati- ain, Katiyen, Kutki, Palapasana, Patharaphoda, Phatharaphoda—; Matheran : Asana, Hasana, Palehasan, Phatarphod—; Mechi: Katakuchi—; Monghyr: Kuj—; Mundari: Karaka—; Nepal: Geio—; Nimar: Kasai, Sankana—; Portuguese India: Bentka—j; Punjab: Mark, Pathor—; Rajbanshi: Nanda— ; Rajputana: Angnera, Lamkana—; Ramnagar: Goli—; Reddi: Annemu—; Saharanpur: Ekdania, Gondni—; Sanskrit: Asana, Ekadivi, Ekavira, Mahi- vira, Sakridvira, Suvarika—; Santali: Kadrupala—; Saora: Annemu—; Sinhalese: Kattakaala, Ketakala, Ketakele—; Tamil: Adamarudu, Asuvai, Kadugai, Komanji, Malaivengai, Mullumarudu, Mulluvengai, Mulvengai, Sem, Singattan, Siruvengai—; Telugu: Annemu, Bontavegita, Duriyamaddi, Etta- pattaka, Kodaratti, Koramaddi, Koramanu, Kosengi, Peddayanemu, Poramanu, Selaka—; Tharu: Khooj—; Tinnevelly: Adamaradu—; Tulu: Mullugunje—; Uriya: Kasai, Kasi, Kosai, Kosi, Panikasi—. BUXUS. The genus consists of 25 species, inhabiting the temperate regions of the Old World. B. balearica Lam. is used medicinally in Majorca, B. semper- virens Linn. in Europe and North America. Buxus sempervirens Linn. occurs in the temperate Himalaya, from Kumaon to Simla and Bhutan at 5,000-9,000 feet, and on the Salt Range in the Punjab. Westwards it extends to North Africa, and to western and southern Europe, where it abounds in DHE IMEDIGINAE, AND. POISONOUS SPURGES OF “INDIA 275 limestone districts. Northwards it extends to western Siberia, Turkestan, China and Japan. Yunani practitioners use both the leaves and seeds :—‘The leaves are good for headache, pain, prolapsus ani. The seeds are bitter, astringent, tonic to the heart and brain; used in stomatitis, to dry the bad humours of the liver’. The wood in its native countries is considered diaphoretic, being given in decoction as an alterative for rheumatism and secondary syphilis. It is used as a substitute for guaiacum in the treatment of venereal disease when sudorifics are considered to be the correct specifics. Boxwood has been found narcotic and sedative in full doses; emetico-cathartic and convulsant in overdose. The tincture was formerly used as a bitter tonic and antiperiodic, and had_ the reputation of curing leprosy. A volatile oi] distilled from the wood has been prescribed in cases of epilepsy. The oil has been employed for piles and also for toothache. The leaves, which have a nauseous bitter taste, have sudorific, alterative, and cathartic properties; they are given in powder, in which form they are also an excellent vermifuge. Various extracts and perfumes were formerly made from the leaves and bark. A decoction was recommended as an application to promote the growth of the hair. Dried and powdered, the leaves are still given to horses for the purpose of improving their coats. The powder is regarded by carters as highly poisonous, to be given with great care. In Devonshire, farriers still employ the old remedy of powdered Box leaves for bot-worms in horses. In some parts of Europe Box is one of the active ingredients in a cure for the bite of a mad dog. Camels readily eat the leaves; but they are poisoned by them. The bark of the root is officinal in Portugal. Afghanistan: Shandalaghune—; Arabic: Bakas—; Catalan: Boix—; Dutch: Boxboom, Palm, Palmboom—; English: Box Tree, Dudgeon, Evergreen Box—: French: Bois bénit, Buis, Buis commun, Ozanne—; German: Buchsbaum— ; Greek: Pyxos—; Italian: Bosso, Bossolo, Busso, Buxo, Mortella—j; Jaunsar : Papri, Sansadu—; Kashmir: Chikri—; Kumaon: Papri—; Mashudi: Sham- shath—; North America: Box-tree, Bush-tree, Common Box, ‘'Dudgepn—; North-Western Himalayas: Chikri, Papri, Poppar, Sansadu, Shamshad— ; Persian: Shamshad—; Portuguese: Buxo—; Punjab: Chikri, Papar, Paprang, Papri, Papur, Shamshad, Shumaj—; Roumanian: Cimisu, Cimsu, Merisor tureesc—; Russian: Buksus, Samshit—; Spanish: Boj—; Swedish: Buxbom— ; Urdu: Shamshad—. CHROZOPHORA. This genus consists of 11 species, natives of the Mediterranean region, tropical Asia and tropical Africa. C. plicata A. Juss. is a poison with acrid properties. C. senega- lensis A. Juss. is used medicinally in Northern Nigeria. A prostrate herb. Stamens 15 in two whorls. Ovary and capsule with stellate tomentum and silvery scales. 2. C. rottlert. A procumbent stellately woolly herb. Ovary and capsule with stellate tomentum but without silvery scales ... I. C. prostrata, 276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISE SOCIED Y= Vol. ocr 1. Chrozophora prostrata Dalz. is found throughout India: the Punjab, the Upper Gangetic Plain, Bihar, Gujerat, Konkan, Deccan, North Kanara, Sind, Central and South India. It extends westwards to North Africa and Spain. The ashes of the root are given to children for cough. The leaves are considered depurative. The seeds are used as purgative. The Santals mix the root with that of Carissa Carandas for blistering purposes. Bengal: Khudiokra—; Chinese: Pa Teou Nan—; French: Bancoulier— :; Gujerati: Betookharada, Okharada—; Hindi: Shadevi, Sonballi, Subali--; Punjab: Nilakrai, Nilkhanti, Putkhanda—; Sanskrit: Suryavarta—; Santal: Pangonari— ; Sind: Shadevi, Sonballi, Subali—; Tank: Nealboti—; Telugu: Guruguchettu, Lingamiriyam—. 2. Chrozophora rottleri A. Juss. occurs through the whole of India. It extends to Afghanistan and thence to the Mediter- ranean region. The plant has emetic, drastic, and corrosive properties. The seeds are used as a cathartic. . Afghanistan : Kapochist— ; English: Turnsole—; French: Morelle a indigo— ; Gujerat: WKalookharad—,; Hindi: Shadevi, Sonballi, Subali—; Marathi: Suravarta—; Punjab: Kukronda, Nilan, Tappalbuti—; Sanskrit: Suryavarta—:; Sind: Shadevi, Sonballi, Subali—; Spanish: Tornasol—. CICCA. C. disticha Linn. (=Phvllanthus distichus Miull.-Arg.) is culti- vated in India and the Malay Peninsula. It occurs in the Malay Islands and in Madagascar. The,.root and the seed are cathartic, Ihe fruit is acid and astringent. The juice of the root-bark is used as a poison, often for criminal purposes. It produces headache, sleepiness, and death accompanied by severe abdominal pains. Bengal: Hariphal, Hariphul, Loda, Noari—; Bombay: Harparawri, Rais- vala—; Burma: Thimbawzibyu, Thinbawniyu, Thinbozihpyu—; Canarese : Aranelli, WKarinelli, Kirinelli, Kirunelli, Rayaranelli—; English: The Country Gooseberry, Star Gooseberry—; French: Brignolier—; Goa: Cherambola— ; Hindi: Chatmeri, Harfarauri, Nuree, Nurphal—; Konkani: Rojanvalli, Rosan- valli— ;_ La Reunion: Cherimbelier—; Malay: Chermela—; Malayalam: Arinelli, Nellipuli— ; Mauritius : Chérimbolier—; Pampangan: Iba—; Sanskrit : Ghana, Komalavalkala, Lavali, Lavalippala, Lavani, Pandu, Skandhaphala, Srigdha, Sugandhamula—; Sinhalese: Ratanelli—; Tagalog: Bangquiling, -Ban- quilin, Iba, Yba—; Tamil: Arunelli, Sadadaram, Sadagam—; Telugu: Rachayusirika, Ratsavusiriki—; Tulu: Karinelli—; Urdu: WHarpharuri—; Uriya: Aurakuli, Bungarada, Narokoli—; Visayan: Bangquiling, Layohan, Poras—. CLEISTANTHUS. The genus includes rio African and Indo-Malayan species. Cleistanthus collinus Benth. occurs in Bihar, Chota Nagpur, the Satpura Range, the Chanda District. and the Western Peninsula. It is rare in Ceylon. The plant is poisonous. An extract of the leaves and fruit acts as a violent gastro-intestinal irritant, ~ ni THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA ta In Chota Nagpur the fruit and bark are employed to poison fish; the latter is also considered a useful application in cutaneous diseases. For severe headache, the head and upper part of the body are bathed in water in which the leaves have been steeped. The Mundas throw the leaves, dried and pounded, into pools and ponds to kill fish. Berar: Ghara—, Canarese: Badedarige, Bodadaraga, Kadagargari, IKoda- sige—; Central Provinces: Ganari, Garar, Garari—; Gond: Garari—; Hasada: Parasudaru—; MHindi: Garari, Garrar, Karla—; Ho: Pasu—; Kharwar: Wargali, Kergali—; Khond: Kadise—; NKolami: Larshuter, Parasu, Pas, Pasu—; Malayalam: Nilappala—j; Marathi: Garari—; Mundari: WKarge. lung, Parasu—; Nagurt: Wargelodaru, Kargelungdaru—; Sanskrit: Indrayava, Kaudigam, IXutaja, Nandi—; Santali: JNargali, Iargalli—; Tamil: Nilaippalai, Odaichi, Odan, Odishi, Odu, Odugu, Oduppai, Oduvan—; Telugu: Iadise, Kkorshe, Korsi, Vadise—; Uriya: Karada, WKoroda, Korora—. CROTON. This genus includes 600 species, inhabiting all tropical and subtropical countries. _ The ‘Crotons’ of gardens do not belong to this genus, but to the genus Codiaeum of Papua and Polynesia. The following species are used medicinally in China, Malaya, the Philippine Islands—C. Tighum Linn.—; in Indo-China— C. argyraius Bl., C. Cumingu Miull.-Are., C. maieuticus Gagnep., C. oblongifolius Roxb., C. poilanei Gagnep., C. Vighum Linn., C. tonkinensis Gagnep.—; in North America— C. californicus Miull.- Arg.—; in Mexico — C. dioicus Cav., C. draco Cham. and Schlecht., C. niveus Jacq., C. vulpinus Sesse and Mog.—; in Venezuela and Colombia— C. leptostachyus H. B. and K., C. mdlasubo Karst.—; in Peru— C. suberosus H. B. and K.—; in Brazil— C. antisiphiliticus Mart., C. campesiris St. Hil., C. fulvus Mart.—}; in Guiana— C. origanifolius Lam.—; in the West Indies— C. cascarilla Benn., C. eluteria Benn., C. flavens Linn., C. glabellus Linn., C. lucidus Linn.—; in Gambia and Nigeria— C. amabilis Muell.-Arg., C. lobatus Linn.—; in Gold Coast— C. lobatus Linn., C. penduliflorus Hutch—; in East Africa— C. elliotianus Baill., C. gubouga S. Moore; in Southern Africa— C. gratissimus Burch., C. gubouga S. Moore, C. sylvaticus Hochst.—; in Madagascar— C. macrobuxus Baill.—. A. Inflorescence lepidote. a. Leaves densely lepidote beneath 1. A tree ee aad ae ie te Ce Gyeyrarus. 2, A) shrub. i. Petiole 3-13 in. Stamens 15-18. Capsule 3} in. long, broadly oblong = abe Ge reltculatus, ii. Petiole 3 in. Stamens 12-15. Capsule 3 in. long, scaly a re vs 3. C. Camingi. b. Leaves glabrous when old 8 Be a. 4. C. oblongifolius. B. Inflorescence stellately tomentose or glabrous. a. Leaves 3-§-plinerved at the base, scabrid or softly pubescent with stellate hairs beneath .. 2° C. catidatus. b. Leaves strongly triple-nerved ees are, 100 C,, Lagiium. 1. Croton argyratus Bl. is a small evergreen tree, common in the forests and woods of Burma, Malaya, Sumatra, Java, and Borneo, 7 278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL In Indo-China the leaves are infused for a digestive tea. Indo-China: Bac la, Day mang—; Malay: Cherit badak, Mungke, Sim- mungke—. 2. Croton caudatus Geisel is found in the Eastern Himalaya, in Assam and Bengal down to the Deccan, Malacca, and Ceylon; extending to Java and the Philippine Islands. The leaves are applied as a poultice to sprains. In Lakhimpur the young leaf buds are powdered with the leaves of Caesalpinia sappan and used for liver diseases. Bengal: Nanbhantur—; Lakhimpur: Latamahundi—; Lepcha: Tackcha- brik—; Malay: Akar guroh periat, Akar tuku takal—; Uriya: Pholancokriti, Sanaushnota, Wusta—. 3. Croton Cumingii Miull.-Arg. is a straggling shrub found on rocks, usually limestone, throughout the Malay Peninsula, Siam, Indo-China, and the Philippine Islands. The plant is used medicinally in Annam. Indo-China: Co chu lon—. 4. Croton oblongifolius Roxb. is found in Sylhet, Bengal, Chota Nagpur, the Central Provinces, Burma, the western Penin- sula, and Ceylon. The seeds and fruits are purgative. The Goanese and the inhabitants of Southern Konkan administer the bark in chronic enlargements of the liver and in remittent fever. In the former disease, it is both taken internally and applied locally. As an application to sprains, bruises, rheumatic swellings, etc., it is in great request. In the Southern Konkan, it has a reputation as a remedy in snake-bites. The Santals use the bark and root as a purgative and as an alterative in dysentery. The roots enter into the composition of pills used by the Mundas of Chota Nagpur for chronic rheumatism. The root bark is given in small doses as a purge; a larger quantity is said to be poisonous. The leaves are used externally in Cambodia for liver complaints and scabies. The leaves are often boiled in water, and the liquid applied hot to the itch. The root, bark, and seeds are equally useless in the antidotal and symptomatic treatment of snake-bite; the root is useless as an external application (Mhaskar and Caius). Assam: Burmaparokupi—,;, Bengal: Baragach, Putri—; Bombay: Ganasuar, Gunsur— ; Burma: Theyin, Thityin—; Cambodia: Trapung—; Goa: Gonsur—; Hindi: Buragach—; Indo-China: Cui den, Tra poung—; Kharwar: Bhain swan—; Koderma: Maisonda—; Kolami: Konya, Kuli, Kurti, Kutikonyer, Poter—; Lohardugga: Putri—; Malay: Kote, Putol—; Mal Paharia: Putol—; Marathi: Ganasura, Gunsur—; Mundari: Kuti, Kutidaru—; Nepal: Ach—; Oudh ; Arjunna—; Patna: Chucka—; Sanskrit : Bhutankusa— ; Santali : Gote—; Tamil: Milgunari—; Telugu: Bhutalabhairi, Bhutankusamu—; Tharw: Mah- son—; Uran: Poter—; Uriya: Masundi—. ja 5. Croton reticulatus Heyne is found in the Deccan Peninsula, from the Konkan southwards. It also occurs in the Central Province of Ceylon. | tHE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDid 279 The bark is used as a bitter stomachic. bombay : Panduray—; Marathi: Pandhari, Pandharisala Pandhri, Fandurai—. Matheran: 2) 6. Croton Tigiium = Linn. is found naturalized and cultivated in Bengal, Assam, and southwards to Burma, Malacca, and Ceylon. It extends to the Malay Islands and Ceyion. According to Ayurveda the fruit and the seed are purgative; and the oil from the seed is purgative, carminative, useful in diseases of the abdomen, mental troubles, convulsions, fever, insanity, inflammations, bronchitis. According to Yunani practitioners the seeds have a bitter bad taste, causing a burning sensation; cathartic, expectorant, emetic; good in sore eyes, excessive phlegm, leucoderma.—The oil is cathartic, tonic; removes pus and bad matter from the body. The seeds and the oil are officinal and their properties are well known: irritant, rubefacient, cathartic. The seeds are officinal in Finland and Portugal; the oil is officinal in Austria, Belgium, Beazil, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Russia, Spain, Switzerland, the United States, and Yugoslavia. In Lakhimpur the seeds are ground in water, and the infusion is used to kill insect pests. The fruits are employed by Dayaks in Borneo to poison fish. The root is used in Kelantan as an abortifacient. On account of their drastic purgative properties the seeds and oil are regarded by the Chinese as entirely poisonous. The bark is used as a tonic in Annam. Caius and Mhaskar gave two adult males one minim of croton oil in one dose. The patients had several motions, but passed no worms though they were ultimately found to have been harbouring 356 hookworms. These same workers found that the seeds are not an antidote to snake venom, and that they are useless as a collyrium in the treatment of snake-bite or as an external applica- tion to the sting of the scorpion; they also demonstrated that the leaves have no action when applied externally to the site of the bite from a poisonous snake. Annam: Ba dau—; Arabic: Batu, Dand, Datun, Habbussalatin—; Bengal: Jamalgota, Jaypal, Jhayal, Rechuk—; Bombay: Jaipa, Jaipal, Jamalgota— =; Burma: Kanako—; Canarese: Danti, Japala, Jayapala, Nepala—; Chinese: Pa Teou, Pa Teou Seou, Pa Tou—; Deccan: Jamalgota—; English: Purging Croton—; French: Bois des Mollugues, Bois de Pavana, Bois de Pavanna, Pois purgatif, Graine de Tilly, Graine de Moluques, Petit pignon d’ Inde—; Gujerati: Nepal—; Hamadan: Habb-el-salatin—; Hindi: Jamalgot, Jamal- gota— Indo-China: Ba dau, Ba tau, Bat khlot, Cong khoi—,; Italian: Grana tiglio—; Japan: Hazu—; Java: Cheraken—j; Lakhimpur: Kanibhi— ; Malay: Chemkian, Chengkian—; Malaya: Bori, Pai Tow—; Malayalam: Dantibijam, Katalavanakku, Nirvalam—j; Marathi: Jamalagota, Jepal, Jeya- pal— ;x Mauritius: Croton tilly, Tilly—; Persian: , Badanjirekhatai, Bidend- jirehkhatai, Dund, Habbdilmaluk, Habbelkhatai—; Portuguese : Croton tiglio— ; Sanskrit: Danti, Jayapala, Nepala—; Sinhalese: Jayapala, Nepalam— #; Tagalog: Camaisa, Tuba, Tubacamaisa—; Tamil: Kattukkattai, Naganam, Nagandi, Nervalam, Nigumbam, Nirvalam, Sambari, Sayabalam, Sevalangottai, Siduram, Sittudu, Tendi—; Telugu: Nepalamu, Nepalavemu—; Tulu: Berada, Pyaribittu—; Uriya: Jaipalo Joyopalo, Konika—; Visayam : Camarandag, Macasla,- Tubasabuquid—. : 2830 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL EUPHORBIA. The genus comprises 750 species, inhabiting chiefly subtropical and warm temperate countries. It is very various in habit. Some species have a fleshy angular stem, furnished with _ spines, resembling that of a Cactus; these species yield by incision a resinous juice which is strongly drastic, and used externally as a vesicant. The other Euphorbias, which have a normal stem and leaves, have a purgative milky juice; some are considered efficacious in syphilitic cachexia; others are emetic, or slightly astringent and aromatic, or astringent and slightly narcotic. : The following species are used medicinally in Europe— E£, amy gdaloides Linn., E. Chamaesyce Linn., E. Characias Linn., E. Cyparissias Linn.,’ E. ~Esula Linn, 22.0 Gererdiana = \acqun 2: hehoscopia Linn.,. E. hyberna Linn,, EB. Lathyas Minng 22 Morse nites Linn., &. palustris Linns,H. Peps Linn Es Peplus winne E. resinifera Berg., E. serrata Linn.—; in the Mediterranean region— E. aleppica Linn., E. Apios Linn., E. dendroides Linn., E. Peplis Linn., E. spinosa Linn.—; in Arabia— FE. antiquorum Linn., E. officinarum Linn.—; in China— E. adenochlora Morr. and Dene., E. helioscopia Linn., E. humifusa Willd., E. ‘Lathyris Linn., E. pekinensis Rupr., E. Sieboldiana Morr. and Dene.—; in Indo- China: E. antiquorum Linn,., E. Atoto Forst., E. Chamaesya Linn., E. edulis Lour., E. hirta Linn., E. hypericifolia Linn., E. neriifolia Linn., E. parviflora Linn., E. rosea Retz, E, thymifolia Linn., E. Tirucalli Linn.—; in Malaya— FE. Lathyris Linn., E. pekinensis Rupr., E, Sieboldiana’ Morr. and Dcne——; in the Philippine Islands— E. hirta Linn:, E,-nernfoha Linas, Ef. Tirucaih aime. in Australia— E. Drummond Boiss.—; in Fiji— E. hirta Linn.—; in North America— £. albomarginata Torr. and Gray, E. coral- loides Linn., E. corollata Linn., £.. hirta Linn., E. humistvaia Engl., E. Ipecacuanha Linn., E. Lathyris Linn., E. maculata Linn., E. marginata Pursh., E. ocellata Durand, E. Preslii Guss., E. serpyllifolia Pers.—; in the West Indies— E. buxifolia Lam., E. linearis Retz, E. pulcherrima Wild.—; in Mexico— E. glypto- sperma Linn., E. prostrata Ait., E. pulcherrima Willd.—; in Peru— E. laurifolia Lam., E. pulcherrima Willd.—; in Chile— E. portu- lacoides Linn.—; in Brazil— FE. brasiliensis Lam., E. caecorum Mart., E. cotinifolia Linn., E. heterodoxa Muell.-Arg., E. hyperici- folia Linn., E. papillosa St. Hil., E. phosphorea Mart.—; in Guiana— E. cotinoides Miq., E. hirta Linn., E. hypericifolia Linn., E. punicea Sw.—; in the West Indies— E. hirta Linn., E. pulcher- vima Willd.—; in the Canary Islands and in Guinea— E. balsamifera Ait., E. canariensis Linn.—; in West Africa— E. aegyptiaca Boiss., E. balsamifera Ait., E. convolvuloides Hochst., E. hirta Linn.,: EF. kamerunica Pax, E: lateriflora Schum: sand ‘honns.e leonensis N. E. Br., B. Potssoni Pax, &. polycnemoides Hochst.—; in Abyssinia— FE. cerebrina Hochst.—; in Ethiopia— E. officinarum Linn.—; in Madagascar— FE. anagalloides Bak., E. Bojeri Hook., E. emivnensis Bak:, E. erythroxyloides Bak. Eo mirta Winn.) see splendens Boj., E. trichophylla Bak.—; in La Reunion— E, dissi- milis Cordem., E. goliana Lam., E. heyneana Boiss., E. hirta Linn., THE-MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES ‘OF .INDIA 281 E. hypericifolia Linn., E: Peplus Linn., FE. prostrata Ait., E. thymifola Burm., E. Tirucalli Linn.—; in Southern Africa— E. abyssinica J. F. Gmel., E. basutica Marl., E. bupleurifolia Jacq., E. clavarioides Boiss., E. helioscopia Linn., E. ingens E. Mey., E. mauritanica Linn., E. procumbens Mill., E. restituta N. E. Br., E. sanguinea Hochst. and Steud., EF. striata Thunb., FE. truncata N. E. Br., E. virosa Willd:—. E. Candelabrum Tremaut, E. mauritanica Linn., E. striata Thunb., and FE. virosa Willd. are used as arrow poisons by the Bushmen of Southern Africa; E. sapini de Wild. is similarly used by the tribes of Oubanghi- -Chari. The latex of E. canariensis Linn. is officinal in Portugal and Spain; that of E. resinifera Berg. in Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, and Yugoslavia. A. Herbs, rarely shrubby below; prostrate or ascending. Leaves all opposite. Glands 4-5, usually furnished with a membranous petaloid limb. I. Erect or decumbent ‘branching herbs or shrubs, with leaves 4-3 in. long or thereabouts. Involucres in axillary and subterminal cymes or crowded in the uppermost leaves. Limb of gland conspicuous though small. a. Glabrous. Stem stout swollen at the nodes... 2. E. Atoto. b. Glabrous or sparsely pubescent 1. Annual. Seeds smooth or with broad shallow transverse pits i ee) ww. J &E. hypericifolia. 2. Perennial. Seed rugose se 12. H. rosea. c. Hispid with copious crisped hairs... na 6. E. hirton II. Prostrate, sa erect plants, with leaves }-4 in. long, rarely more. Involucres solitary, or in very short subsessile cymes, usually crowded along one side of the stem, or of short lateral branches. Limb of gland obscure or absent. a. Stems hispidly hairy. Capsules pubescent or hirsute. 1. Leaves crenulate. Capsules pubescent. Seeds furrowed sis aoe ves 16. B. thymifolia. 2. Leaves entire. Capsules hirsute. Seeds pitted {ae a .» 4. E&. granulata. b. Stems glabrous. Capsules glabrous. 1. Leaves nearly as broad as long. Seeds smooth .. 9. E. microphylla. . Leaves from a very “unequal base, elliptic- rhomboid, very obtuse sla .. 14. 4. sanguinea. Cotes glabrous or short-hairy - .. Ig. E,. turcomanica,. B. Shrubs or trees with fleshy terete ribbed angled or ’ flattened stems and branches. Leaves absent or alternate or the upper opposite. I. An erect unarmed shrub or tree. Branches spreading, cylindric, scattered, whorled or clustered. Leaves absent or few small linear-oblong be ee ages Legiicaiin. II. Erect shrubs or trees, with stout angled ribbed or winged branches that are crenate or nodose at the angles or wings, and there provided with 2 or 3 stipular prickles. a. Pairs of stipular spines on tubercles or swellings of the branchlets ee er .. 10. E. nertifolia. 10 282 C,. .Herbs, rarely .shrubby below, usually erect. Leaves JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XL b. Pairs of stipular spines on flat brown or black corky areas, not on swellings of the branchlets. 11. E. nivuiia. c. Pairs of stipular spines in the sinuses of the thick Sinuate, Wings! «-...... . 1. KE. antiquorum. d. Pairs of stipular spines on the margins of the thick obtuse undulate wings « 13. E. Royleana. e. Pairs of stipular spines on the lobes of the lobu- late wings oe oe ne 3. 18: Es trigona. alternate, upper opposite. Ie me I. Involucral glands transversely oblong with rounded | margins. | a. Perennial herbs. | 1. Capsule smooth. Plant quite glabrous... 15. E. Thomsoniana. 2. Capsule warted. Plant glabrous or sparsely | hairy sie a ee .. 8. E. longifolia. | b. Annuals. Capsule smooth. Seeds pitted sas De. La, HeEloscopia, | Involucral glands truncate retuse or 2-cornate. Annuals. Seeds oblong leprous se ... 3. E. dracunculoides. Euphorbia antiquorum Linn. occurs throughout the hotter parts of India and Ceylon, in dry places, ascending to 2,000 feet. It is common all over Burma, being often cultivated for hedges. It is found on the limestone rocks of the Malay Peninsula, where the plant is also cultivated occasionally. In the Nighantas the plant is described as purgative, pungent, digestive, bitter and heavy, and is said to be useful in constipation, flatulent distention, tumours, swellings, abdominal enlargements, rheumatism, spleen, leprosy, mania and jaundice. A plaster, prepared from the roots and mixed with asafcetida, is applied externally to the stomachs of children suffering from worms. The bark of the root is purgative, and the stem is given in decoction in gout. The juice, which flows from the branches, is used as a purgative to relieve pain in the loins. It is an acrid irritant in rheumatism and tooth-ache. When taken internally, it acts as a drastic pur- gative. It is also employed in nervine diseases, dropsy, palsy, deafness and amaurosis. It is a popular application to warts and other cutaneous affections. The juice is prescribed as a purge and deobstruent in those visceral obstructions and dropsical affections which are consequent on long-continued intermittent fever. Externally, mixed with margosa oil, it is applied to limbs which have become contracted from rheumatism. In Bombay the root is mixed with country liquor to make it more intoxicating, and the juice is used to kill maggots in wounds, and is dropped into the ear to cure earache, a practice common to many parts of India. In the Konkan the stem is roasted in ashes, and the expressed juice, with honey and borax, given in small doses to promote the expectoration of phlegm. The Mundas of Chota } Nagpur use the milky juice to poison and catch fish. The juice is also used as a purge: mixed in a raw ege it gives as many stools as there are drops of the juice in the mixture, A preparation from this plant is given as a cure for cough by the -Santals: THE MEDICINAL AND. POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 283 The hard woody part of the stem is used medicinally by the Malays. In Cambodia the latex is used as an emetic; the core of the plant is administered in dysentery and in febrile conditions. Throughout Indo-China the milky juice is reputed emetic, purgative, and hydragogue. The Hindus employ the root mixed with black pepper as a medicine for the cure of snake-bites internally and_ externally. Mhaskar and Caius have experimented with both the root and the milky juice, and they have found that, whether given internally or applied externally, those drugs are seless in the treatment of snake-bite. Annam: Xuong rong—; Arabic: Zaqqum-e-hindi— ; Belgaum : Tindarisend— ; Bengal: Bajvaran, Lariyadaona, Nagri, Narasij, Tekatasij—; Burma: Pyathal, Shasoung-pyathal, Shazanoji, Tazaung—; Cambodia: Chanlat day—; Bombay: Bontakalli, Bontegalli, Bontekalli, Chaturagalli, Jadekalli, Mundugalli— ; Ceylon: Chaturakkalli—; Deccan: ‘Tidharisend, Tindharisend—; English: Spurge Cactus—; Gujerati: Tandharisend—; Hasada: Siddaru—; Hindi: Narashij, Sayord, Tidharasend—; Indo-China: Chan leat day, Thanh long, Xuong rong—; Malayalam: Chaturakalli, Kalli, Ratakkali—; Marathi: Naraseja, Narsej—; Michi; Shidu—; Mundari: Eteke, Etete, Siddaru, Marangeteke— $; Persian : Zaqqum-e-hindi, Zaqunniya-e-hindi— ; Sadant : Sid—; Sanskrit : Sihunda, Simhunda, Snuhi, Tridharaka, Vajra, Vajrakantaka, Vajri—; Santal: Etke, Etkec’-—; Sinhalese: Daluk—; Tamil: Amudangam, Kalli, MKandiravam, Kaniravam, Kodiravam, Mavirukkam, Murittargalli, Sadurakkalli, Saduchi, Sunakkudam, Tiruvargalli, Vachiram, Vachirangam, Valangalli—; Telugu: Bommajemudu, Bontajemudu, Bontakalli, Peddajemudu, Simhundumu—; Tuluw: Darekhalli— ; Urdu: Zakum—; Uriya: Dokahanasiju, Dokanasij, Lohasiju— ; Yemen: Gholak, Kelah—. 2. Euphorbia Atoto Forst. is found on the Malabar Coast, from Canara southwards. It is common on the sandy seashores of the Malay Peninsula, the Andaman Islands, and Ceylon. It is distri- buted to the Malay Archipelago, China, Australia, and the Pacific Islands. In Indo-China women use the milky juice as an emmenagogue, and also as an abortifacient. According to Sallet, when prepared in a certain way and cooked with honey over the water bath the latex is a good remedy for tuberculosis. In New Caledonia sea-water in which the plant has been soaked and malaxated is very much used as a purgative. Indo-China: Thuoc doi—. 3. Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. is met with throughout India in the plains and low hills. It extends westwards to Arabia and tropical Africa. - The fruit is used to remove warts. Bengal: Chhagulpuputi, Jychee—; Hindi: Chagulputputi—; Punjab: Kangi, Richni, Sudab—; Rajputana: Bamburi—; Santal; Parwa—; Telugu: Tillalk- ada—. 4. Euphorbia granulata Forsk. inhabits the Western Peninsula, Chota Nagpur, Malwa, the Rajputana Desert, the Punjab, Sind, Afghanistan, Arabia, Egypt, and the Canary Islands, 284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS? SS OCIETL Verio nae. -In Las Bela the plant is said to purify the blood. Arabic: Lebbaejde, Lebbejn, Libbein, Melachene—; Jhalawan: Gwandar— ; Kharan; Shirgonah—; Las Bela: Khirwal—; Rajputana: Dudeli—; Santali: Kantha arak—. 2 BE ake i. 2 me 5. Euphorbia helioscopia Linn. is a common field-weed in spring throughout the Punjab plains and. the - Siwahk-~---tract, ascending to 7,000 feet in the outer Himalaya. iIt has--been introduced into the Nilghiris. It spreads over Afghanistan, and westwards to the Atlantic. It also occurs in Japan. The plant is used as a hydragogue cathartic,. and-the juice is applied to remove warts. The juice is sometimes, though im- properly, used to cure sore eyelids, causing in many _ instances intolerable pain and inflammation. In the Punjab the milky juice is applied to eruptions, and the seeds are given with roasted pepper in cholera. In Waziristan the juice is used in herpes. In Sind the juice is used in the form of a liniment in neuralgia and rheumatism, and the root is employed as an anthelmintic. The latex is successfully used for the removal of warts in South al tie (erste Afrikaans: Mellxbos, Melkgras, Wolfsemelk—; Arabic: Rumude, Ssaade— ; Baluchistan: Gurbagund, Sohrbulok, Zahrihk—,; Catalan: Lletera, Lleterola, Mal d’ulls—; Chinese: Tse Ch’i—; English: Cat’s milk, Churn-staff, Sun Spurge, Wartwort—; French: Lait de couleuvre, Omblette, Réveille matin, Tithymale Hindi: Hirruseeth, Mahabi—; Iraq: WKhannaq-ad-dijaj, Um-al- halib—; Italian: Esula, Titimaglio, Titimalo, Tutumaglio Kharan: Gur- bagund—; Malta: Cat’s Milk, Spurge, Sun Spurge, Erba calenzuola, Teng- houd—; Punjab: Chatriwal, Dudal, Gandabute, Kulfadodakak—; South Africa: Milkweed, Spurge—; Spanish: Lechetrezna, Mirasol—; Wasiri: Sagergotiae—. oa Sie al 6. Euphorbia hirta Linn. (=£. pilulifera Linn.) is a common weed in waste ground, found throughout the hotter parts of India from the Punjab eastwards, and southwards to Ceylon and Singapore. It inhabits most of the tropical and subtropical countries. pate a ae The. dried herb is stimulant, expectorant, and diuretic. _ It has been frequently reported useful for bronchitis and asthma affections. The juice of the plant is given in dysentery and colic, and the milk applied to destroy warts. A decoction is used in asthma and chronic bronchial affections. The plant is chiefly used in the affections of childhood, in worms, bowel complaints, and cough. It is sometimes prescribed in gonorrheea. The root is given by the Santals.to allay vomiting, and the plant to nursing mothers when the supply of milk is deficient or fails. a The plant is widely used in West Africa as a medicine. In Gold Coast it is ground and mixed with water for use as an enema for constipation. The white juice is used by women to increase the flow of milk. The leaves are used in curing sorés; their juice is sometimes squeezed into the eyes to cure eye trouble. RHE MEDICINAL. AND” ROTSONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 285 Similarly in Liberia the plant is given along with lime juice as a laxative, and the latex is applied for conjunctivitis; a thorn or other foreign body is extracted with the help of the latex, which is also applied locally as an antidote to arrow poison or to assist extraction of the head. The herb is very much used in La Reunion as an astringent in chronic diarrhceas and dysenteries. It is also applied topically to, ulcers: oedemas,, and *phicomons. The juice js* -siven» for aphthae. It is considered tonic, narcotic, and antiasthmatic. A popular astringent and haemostatic in the Philippine Islands. It is used in the treatment of dysenteries in Annam. The plant is much used in Guiana as a febrifuge. As a poultice it is applied to abscesses and inflamed glands. The plant is known in Australia as ‘Queensland asthma herb’. It is used there as a remedy for coughs, bronchial and pulmonary disorders, but more especially in paroxysmal asthma. There is no doubt that an extract of this plant has a sedative effect on the mucous membrane of the respiratory and genito- urinary tract. It has been found by me very beneficial in cases of asthma. I have been using a tincture of it in my private practice in diseases of the genito-urinary tract and in chronic bronchitis and asthma. The result has been very satisfactory (IKoman). According to Dikshit and Kameshwar Rao experiments conduct- ed on cats, dogs, and rabbits, with and without anaesthesia; show that the drug has got a fairly marked action on the respiratory system, depressing the respiration and producing a well marked dilatation of the bronchioles. The drug produces a local irritation of the stomach when given by mouth in larger doses and produces nausea and vomiting. If injected intravenously in animals, how- ever, it has got a depressant action on the movements of the intestines. There is an immediate cessation of the automatic movements of the intestines and a relaxation of the tone of the muscle. The cardiovascular system is depressed, and an intravenous injection leads to a fall of blood pressure chiefly due to the depression of the heart. Perfusion experiments show a depression of the heart. Other systems of the body like the genito-urinary system are not markedly affected (18th Ind. Sc. Congress; Nagpur, 1931). Australia: Queensland Asthma Herb—; Awuna: Ahinkodze, Notsigbeng— ; Bengal: Barakerui, Burakeru, Burokeruee—; Betsileo: Aidinono—; Bombay : Nayeti—; Canarese: Achchegida—; Central Provinces: Gordon—; Ceylon: Madduppachcharichippillu, Palavi—; English: Asthma Herb, Asthma-weed, Australian Asthma Herb, Euphorbia, Pill-bearing Spurge, Snake Weed—; Ewe: Notsigbee— ; Fiji: Do ni osi—; French: Euphorbe a globules, Euphorbe a pilules, Herbe 4 Jean Renaud, Herbe Jean Robert, Herbe a serpents, Madelone plat, Mal famée, Malnommée, Pilulier, Poil de chat—; French Guiana: Grande malnommée, Petite malnommée rouge, Malnommée—; Guam: Golondrina— ; Gujerati: Dudeli, Dudh, Nagladudheli, Ratidudheli— ; Hausa: Nonankurchiya— ; Hindi: Bahidudhi, Dudhi, Laldudhi—; Indo-China: Co sua lon la, Ka ta, Phi duong thao, Vu sua—; Kolami: Pusitoa—; Konkani: Dudurly—; Kwang Tung : Yu Tchou Ts’ao—; La Reunion: Jean Robert—; Lepcha: Sung-gryong muk— ; Majay: Ambin jantan, Gelang susu, Kurumak susu—; Malayalam: Nelapalai— ; Mano: To a gbondo—; Marathi: Dudhi, Dudnali, Govardhan, Mothidudhi, Nayati— ; Mauritius: Jean Robert—; Mundari: Kodasing—; Nztma: Akubaa— ; Oloke Meji: Emi-ile, Emile—; Pampangan: Bolobotones, Magatas, Malismhalis, 286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ AIST... SOCIELY.. Vols ox Sisiohan, Sisiwhan—; Philippines: Batabotonis, Botobotones, Golandrina— ; Porebunder: Mothidudheli, Motodakardumaro, Ratodakardumaro—; Sanskrit : Nagarjuni, Pusitoa—; Sinhalese: Budadakiriya, Dadakiriya, Kiritala—; Susu: Boxeforotai, Nyalefoxe, Nyayafoke—; Tagalog: Batobatonis, Gatasgatas, Sayi- can— ; Tamil : Amumpatchaiyarissi, Patchaiyarissi— ; Telugu: Bidarie, Nanabala, Nanabiyan, Reddinanabrolu—; Timne: Ebit, Yankara-ebit—; Twi: Ahin- kodge—; Visayan: Bovi, Buyayava, Gatasgatas, Tavava—; Wolof: Homgue- lem—; Yoruba: Egele, Ege-ile, Emi-ile—. 7. Euphorbia hypericifolia Linn. is common throughout the hotter parts of India and Ceylon, and occurs up to 4,000 feet on the Himalaya. It is found in the tropics generally, with the exception of Australia and Pacific Islands. An infusion of the dried leaves is a remedy in dysentery, diarrhoea, menorrhagia, and leucorrhoea, and it affects the system as an astringent and feeble narcotic. It is given with milk to children in colic. In Guiana cataplasms of the plant are applied in cephalalgia. In La Reunion the plant is considered drastic, but rarely used as such; it is better known as an astringent and styptic. In Annam a decoction of the plant is used in measles and in gravel. Arabic: Melachene—; Bombay: Nayeti—; Brazil: Erva de Santa Luzia— ; French Guiana: Marie claire—; Gujerati: Dudheli—; Hindi: Dudhi, Dudhi- kalava, Hakshardana—; Indo-China: Chanleat, Co sua, Vu sua—; La Re- union: Herbe Saint-Jean, Jean Belan—; Marathi: Dhaktidudhi, Dudhi, Dudhmogra—; Mauritius: Herbe colique, Herbe mal lévé—; Porebunder: Dhakradunmaro, Dudheli—; Punjab: MWHazardana—; Rajputana: Dudeli— ; Sansknt: Dugdhika—; Sinhalese: Eladadakiriya—. 8. Euphorbia longifolia D. Don has been reported from Thoucote in Nepal. It is also reported that the juice is applied to fistulous sores in Kashmir and the Punjab. | Euphorbia microphylla Heyne is found in Bengal, Bundel- khand, Southern India, Burma and Java. In Chota Nagpur, a preparation of this plant, along with that of Cryptolepis Buchanani is given to nursing mothers when the supply of milk fails or is deficient. | Bengal : Chotokeruee— ; Gujerati: Dudhi—; Marathi: Dudhi— ; Porebunder : Ekphulidudheli— ;_ Santali: Dudhiaphul—. 10. Euphorbia neriifolia Linn. is common in rocky places throughout the Western Peninsula. It is cultivated elsewhere in India, as also in Ceylon, Burma, Baluchistan and the Malay Islands. The plant is a reputed Ayurveda medicine. The Nighantas describe it as ‘bitter, pungent; laxative, carminative, alexipharmic ; improves the appetite; useful in abdominal troubles, bronchitis, tumours, loss of consciousness, delirium, leucoderma, piles, inflam- mations, enlargement of the spleen, anaemia, ulcers, fevers.—The milk is pungent, laxative; good for abdominal troubles, tumours, leucoderma.—The leaves are heating, carminative; improve the appetite; good for tumours, pains, inflammations, abdominal swellings. The Yunanists consider it a good substitute for E. Tirucalli. THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES Of INDIA 287 The milky juice is used as a purgative and a rubefacient. It is prescribed as a cathartic and deobstruent in visceral obstructions and dropsical affections consequent on long continued fever. It enters into the composition of most of the drastic purgatives. The juice is empolyed in earache; mixed with shoot it is applied to the eye in ophthalmia; mixed with margosa oil it is used as an application in rheumatic affections. | On the Western coast the bark of the root, boiled in rice water with the addition of arrack, is considered useful in dropsy. In the Rajputana Desert the milky juice is used as a cure for coughs, and is applied to the skin as a blister. The leaves are used as a diuretic in Indo-China. The juice of the leaves is a popular cure for earache in the Philippine Islands. A succus consisting of equal parts of the juice of this plant and simple syrup was prepared and administered in doses of 10 to 20 minims three times a day in cases of asthma, and was found to give relief to the fits of that disease (Koman). The milk and the root enjoy an almost universal repute as remedies in snake-bite. Mhaskar and Caius have, however, found the two drugs useless in the antidotal and symptomatic treatment of snake-bite and scorpion-sting, and equally useless when applied topically to the bite or the sting. Annam: Xuong rong rao—; Arabic: Wurzizuker—; Bengal: Hijdaona, Mansasij, Patashij, Shij—; Berar: Thuar, Thuhar—,; Bombay: Minguta, Newarang, Thor—; Burma: Shasaung, Shasoung, Shazawnminna, Zizaung— ; Canarese: Elegalli, Yalekalli—; Deccan: Kuttekijibhkapatta, Kuttekijibhkasend. Newrung, Putteunkesaynd, Thoor—; Goa: Nevulkanta—; Gujerati: Thor, Tuaria—; Hindi: Munsasej, Pattonkisend, Putteun, Sehund, Senhur, Sij, Thohar, Thor—; Ilocano: Carambuaya—; Indo-China: Giang lam, Xuong rong, Xuong rong rao, Xuong rong ta—; Kolami: Etke—; Konkani: Nival- kantem, Nivalkanti Malay: Sesudu—; Malayalam: Ilakalli, Kalli—; Marathi: Mingut, Nevagunda, Newrang, Niwarung—; Nimar: Thuar, Thu- har—; Pampangan: Bait, Sorogsorog, Sorosoro—; Philippines: Lengua de perro—; Portuguese: Cardeira—; Punjab: Gangichu—; Rajputana: Thor— ; Sanskrit: Patrasnuhi, Pattakari, Snuhi, Svarasana—; Santali: Etke—; Sind: Minaguta, Nivadunga, Thohur, Thoor—; Sinhalese: Paluk, Patuk—; Tagalog : Bait, Sorogsorog, Sorosoro—; Tamil: Ilaikkalli, Kalli, Manjevi, Nadangi, Naynakki—; Telugu: Akujemudu—; Tulu: TIrekalli—; Urdu: Zakum— =; Uriya: Siju—. pe 11. Euphorbia nivulia Ham. is found in dry rocky places throughout Bengal, South India, and Bengal. It is often planted for hedges. The Yunanists use the plant as a substitute for FE. Tirucalli. The juice of the leaves is used internally as a purgative and a diuretic; mixed with nim oil it is applied externally.in rheumatism. The warm juice is a good cure for earache, and it is occasionally rubbed over the eyes to remove dimness of sight. On the Western Coast the root bark is boiled in rice water and arrack, and given in dropsy. The pulp of the stem, mixed with green ginger, is: given to persons bitten by mad dogs. Bengal: Sij—; Berar: Thuar, Thuhar—; Burma: Shasoung—; Canarese : Dubbakalli, Dundukalli, Gutagalli, Yellakalli—; Deccan: Patteoon—; Dehra Dun: Thor, Thuor—; Gujerati: Thorkantalo—; Hasada: Eteke—; Hindi: 288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIEEY Vol Or Katathohar, Senhur, Sij, Thor, Thuhar, Thura—; Jaunsar: Suru—; Kolami: Etke, Etki—; Lambadi: Motataria—; Malayalam: IMlakalli—; Marathi: Kaudenivdung, Newrang, Nivdung, Niwarung—; Mundari: Burueteke—; y Nimar: Thuar, Thuhar—; Porebunder: Kautalio, Thorkantalo—; Rajputana: Raj, Tor—; Sanskrit: Patrasnuhi, Sehuda, Svarasana, Vajradruksha, Vajri—; Santali: Etke—; Tamil: Makalli, Manjevi, Nanangalli—; Telugu: Akujemudu, Akukall, Bonthajamudu—; Urdu: Zakum—; Uriya: Kolosiju, Siju—. 12. Euphorbia rosea Retz is found in the Deccan Peninsula, from the Carnatic to Tranquebar, on the coast. It is common near the sea in Ceylon and Indo-China. It also occurs in Afghanistan. : The plant is used as a drastic purgative in Indo-China. The leaves and seeds are considered to be a good worm remedy. Indo-China: Co sua, Nohn la—. 13. Euphorbia Royleana Boiss. is common on dry rocky hillsides of the outer Himalaya from the Indus to Kumaon, ascending to 6,000 feet. It occurs also on the Salt Range. The acrid milky juice possesses cathartic and anthelmintic properties. Beas: Chu, Chunga, Surs—; Chenab: Chula—; Dehra Dun: Thor, Thuor— ; Garhwal: Surai—; Hindi: Senhur, Shakarpitan, Thar, Thor—; Jaunsar: Suru—; Jhelum: Suli—; Kumaon: Sihund, Sohund—; Punjab: Shakarpitan, Thar, Thor—; Rajputana: Thor—; Ravi: Chun—; Salt Range: Tordanda— ; Sutlej : Suro, Tsui—. 14. Euphorbia sanguinea Hochst. occurs in Baluchistan, spreading over to Afghanistan, tropical Arabia and Africa. When used for medicinal purposes it is prepared like ‘bhang’ (Hotson). | The Sutos use it as an application to sore nipples in suckling mothers. Brahui: Meshir—; Pretoria: Spurge—; Suto: Kxamamaswana,_ Selwe, Tatampoi-e-nyenyane—. 15. Euphorbia Thomsoniana Boiss. is found in Kashmir between 10,000 and 12,000 feet. The crushed root-stocks are employed by the natives of Kuram as detergents for washing the hair, and, when boiled, are given as purgatives. Kashmir: Hirtiz—. 16. Euphorbia thymifolia Linn. is common in paths and gravelly spots in the plains and lower hills of India, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula; ascending up 5,500 feet in Kashmir. It is found in all hot countries except Australia. The dried leaves and seeds are slightly aromatic and astringent. They are given in worm cases and in certain bowel affections of children in the Tamil country. In Northern India they are con- sidered stimulant and laxative. They are commonly used as a purgative in Sind. ; The Santals use the root as a remedy for amenorrhcea. THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA — 289 In the Konkan the juice is used to cure ringworm. Among the Mundas of Chota Nagpur it is employed to stop diarrhoea; half a handful of the whole plant being pounded and drunk in a mixture with water and sugar-candy. In Indo-China the plant is used as a cathartic; the seeds and leaves are considered anthelmintic. | In Arabia the juice of the plant is made into a paste with wheat flour, and administered as a purgative in the form of pills. The bruised plant is applied to wounds. In La Reunion the herb is used as an astringent in diarrhoea and dysentery. The expressed juice or the powdered plant is administered internally with wine as a remedy for snake-bite, and it is applied externally to the part bitten; but whether given internally or applied externally the plant is equally useless in the treatment of snake- bite (Mhaskar and Caius). Arabic: Rummid—; Bengal: Dudiya, Shweetkeruee, Swetkerua, Swetkirui— ; Bombay: Nayata, Nayeti—; Ceylon: Ammanpachcharichippillu, Chittirapalavi— ; Gujerati: Nahanidudheli—; Hindi: Chhotidudhi, Chothaduhi—; Indo-China : Co sua, Nhon la—; La Reunion: Rougette—; Malay: Segan padang— =; Marathi: Ghakdidudhi, Lahandudhi, Mothidudhi— ; Mauritius : Petite rougette— ; Mundarni: Kdoasingjaite—; Nasirabad: Khiri—; Persian: Gazardanah— ; Porebunder: Jhinkidudheli, Jhinkodhakardhumaro—; Punjab: Baradodak, Dhoduk, Hazardana—; Sanskrit: Laghudugdhika, Raktavindachada—; Santali : Nanhapusitoa, Nanhapusituar—; Sind: Dhoduk, Hazardhana—; Sinhalese : Bindadakuriya—; Tamil: Chinamampatchaiyarisi, Sittrapaiadi—; Telugu: Bidurunadabiyam, Reddivarimanubala—; Yemen: Rummid—. 17. Euphorbia Tirucalli Linn., a native of Africa, has become naturalised in the drier parts of Bengal, the Deccan, South India, and Ceylon; elsewhere it is largely cultivated for hedges, and in Rerar is much grown to shelter young mango plants from direct sunlight. According to Yunani practitioners the juice of this plant is purgative, carminative; useful in gonorrhoea, whooping cough, asthma, dropsy, leprosy, enlargement of the spleen, dyspepsia, jaundice, colic, tumours, stone in the bladder. The fresh milky juice is applied to warts and used as a rubefacient embrocation in rheumatism. It is good alterative in syphilis, and a good application in neuralgia. In the Konkan it iS given as a purge; and the charcoal, which is very light, is used in making pastilles. In Goa it is used to poison fish. The milky juice is a dangerous drug to handle, causing severe and tenacious conjunctivitis. In Cambodia the plant is used to stupefy fish. The root is used in La Reunion as a vesicant, more rarely as an emeto-cathartic. | The bark is used as a vesicant in Java, and is also applied to fractures. In some parts of India a decoction of the root is given in certain cases of colic, and the milky juice mixed with melted butter is prescribed as a purge. The juice is also applied topically in neuralgia. a 290 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST) 3S OCI Yet Viol. CL In Malaya the latex is inserted into cuts in bullocks to form the elevated recognition marks. Annam: Cay san ho, San ho—; Arabic: Azfur-zukkum, Zaqqum-e-hindi— ; Baluchi: Dedar Bengal: Gul, Lankasij, Latadaona—; Bombay: Niwal, Sehund, Seyr, Shera, Tej, Thor, Thora—; Burma: Shashoungleknyo, Shasoung- leknyo, Tazaunglekhnyo—; Canarese: Bontakalli, Bottugalli, Kadunevali, Kalli, Kodukalli, Kolugalli, Kolukalli, Nandugalli, Pachanegalli, Yellegulla—; Cochin- China: Cay san ho xanh—; Deccan: Barkisend, Karikisend, Send—; English : Milk Bush, Milk Hedge, Indian Tree Spurge—; Goa: Nival—; Gwujerati: Dandalithora, Pardeshithora, Thordandalio— ; Hindi: Konpahlsehnd, Sair, Sehud, Sehund, Sendh, Shirthohar, Sij—; Indo-China: Ramok, San ho xanh, Thanh san ho, Thap nhi, Xuong kho—; Java: Kayoo-oorb—; Lambadi: Taria—; La Reunion: Laine sans feuilles, Tirucalli—; Malayalam: Guda, Katerumakkali, Kolkalli, Tirukalli—; Marathi: Nevli, Nirval, Nivla, Niwarung, Seyr, Seyrteg, Shar, Shera, Tej, Thuvar, Vajraduhu—; Mauritius: Calli—; Melghat: Thuar, Thuhar—; Nimar: Thuar, Thuhar—; Persian: Shirtothar, Zaquniya-e-hindi— ; Porebunder: Kharsanithora, Thora—; Sanskrit: Bahukshira, Dandasruha, Ganderi, Snuka, Trikuntaka, Vajradruma—; Santali: Siju—j; Sind: Sair, Sij, Thora—; Sinhalese: Navahandi, Thovar—; Tagalog: Catuit—; Tamil: Kalli, Kiri, Kombukkalli, Pachankalli, Parchanu, Tirukkalli, Tiruvatti—; Telugu: Chemudu, Jemudu, Kadujemudu, Kalli, Kanjiemudu, Sannajemudu, Tirukalli— ; Tigrinia: Qoutscheh—; Tulu: WKodukalli—; Urdu: Zakum—; Uriya: Lonk- asiju—; Yemen: Dahan, Rummid—; Zulu: uMunde, umIululu—. 18. Euphorbia trigona Haworth inhabits dry. rocky hills in the Deccan, and probably other parts of India. It is found in the Andaman Islands and the Moluccas. The fresh milky juice is a direct irritant both when taken internally and applied externally. Taken in very small quantities, it is a drastic purgative. Telugu: Kattimandu—. 19. Euphorbia turcomanica Boiss. is found in Baluchistan, whence it extends to Persia and Mesopotamia. In Baluchistan the plant is boiled and used as a medicine for gripe. Brahui: Meshir—. EXCOECARIA. The genus consists of 30 species, inhabiting the tropics of the Old World. A deciduous shrub ee ae ae .. I. E. acerifolia. A small evergreen tree... oa “2 oo 2. Ee agallocha, 1. Excoecaria acerifolia Fr. Didrichs. is found at 5,000-6,000 feet in the western and central Himalayas from Nepal to Kumaon. It also occurs in the Khasia Hills. The Bhutias of East Kumaon use the leaves as a remedy for rheumatism. Garhwal: Dudhila—; Kumaon: Basingh—. 2. Excoecaria agallocha Linn. is a common small evergreen tree of the Coast and tidal forests of India, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, the Andaman Islands, the Malay Archipelago, North Australia, New Caledonia to Tonga. THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 291 The milky juice, which exudes from the bark of this tree when green and fresh, is very acrid and injurious to the eyes, hence it is called ‘the blinding tree of India’. A decoction of the leaves is occasionally given by Hindu doctors in epilepsy, in the quantity of a quarter of a tea-cupful twice daily. This decoction is also used as an application to ulcers. From the lower part of the trunk and roots, a soft, light, reddish suber is obtained, which is sold by the itinerant medicine men of Western India, under the name of Tejbul, as an aphrodisiacal tonic. The natives of Eastern Australia, as well as those of New Guinea, use the milky juice to cure certain ulcerous chronic diseases, e.g., leprosy. In Fiji, it is employed for the cure of leprosy, its mode of application being very singular. The body of the patient is first rubbed with green leaves; he is then placed in a small room and bound hand and foot, when a small fire is made of pieces of the wood of this tree from which rises a thick smoke; the patient is suspended over this fire, and remains for some hours in the midst of the poisonous smoke and under the most agonizing torture, often fainting. When thoroughly smoked, he is removed, and the slime is scraped from his body; he is then scarified and left to await the result. In some cases he is cured, but frequently the patient dies under the ordeal. The milky latex obtained from the bark when it is green is used by Malays as an irritant poison; it is so acrid when fresh that it blisters the skin. In Kelantan it is given internally as a poison. . Andamans: Yekin—; Australia: Blind-your-eyes, River Poisonous Tree— ; Bengal: Gangwa, Gengwa, Geogheria, Geor, Geria, Goria, Uguru—; Bombay : Geva—; Burma: Kayau, Kayaw, Tayau, Tayaw—; Canarese: Hara, Haro—; English: Blinding Tree, Milky Mangrove—; Jiji: Sinu-gaga Formosa : Hsiang shu—; Hindi: Gewa—; Igorrote: Ali—; Indo-China: Gia, Ngai, Soen gia, Tia mu, Va, Ya—; Malay: Aquila, Baboeta, Babooter, Bebuta, Bubuta, Butabuta, Garamataboeta, Noto—; Malayalam: \Katappala, Karmmatti, Komatti— ; Marathi: Geva, Phungali, Suran, Surind, Surund—; Marinduque : Diladila—; Pampangan: Butabuta, Himbabao—; Queensland: Balavola_ kar- ping—; Samoa: Toto—; Sanskrit: Agaru, Uguru—; Sinhalese: Talakiriya, Telakiriya, Tellakwiya—; Spanish: Arbol del ciego, Buta de _ Filipinas— ; Tagalog: Botabota, Buta, Butabuta—; Tamil: Agadil, Agi, Ambalatti, Ambalavirukkam, Tillai, Perundillai—; Telugu: Chilla, Tella, Tilla—; Uriya: Ghona, Gowan—; Visayan: Alipata, Himbabao, Lipata, Siac—. FLUEGGEA. The genus consists of 6 species, found in the tropics of the Old World. Branchlets stout ending in spines bee ve. I. df. lewcopyrus. Branchlets slender unarmed a a. Zel Avinosa, tr. Flueggea leucopyrus Willd. occurs in Sind, the Punjab Plain, Burma, the Western Peninsula from Canara southwards. It is abundant in Ceylon. The juice of the leaves, or the leaves made into a paste with tobacco, are used to destroy worms in sores, = ° bo bo 3 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. SL The plant is said to be a fish poison. Afghanistan: Perapastawane—; Canarese: Bilchuli, Gudahale, - Huli—; Central Provinces: Challamanta, Salemanta—; Goa: Parpo—; Gujerati : Shinavi— ;_ Hindi: Suffaidmahommad—; Malayalam: Perinklavu—; Marathi: Kandekuvana, Pandharphali— ; Matheran: Pandharphali—; Merwara: Halepan, Salipan—; Nepal: Achal—; North-Western Provinces: Aintha, Hartho—; Porebunder : Tumari—; Punjab: Bata, Bhathi, Gargas, Girk, Girthan, Kakun, Vanuthi— ; Rajputana: Halepan, Salepan—; Sanskrit: Apiyadruma, Bhuriphali, Panduphali, Svetakamboja—; Sind: Kiran—; Sinhalese : Hinkatupila—; Tamil ; Irubulai, Mudbulanji, Mulluppulatti, Pula, Pulanji, Varadbul, Varadbula, Vedbula, Vellaippula, Vellaippulanji—; Telugu: Challamunta, Mekarayi, Puli, Tellapulisaru, Tellapuliyudu, Tellapurugudu—. 2. Flueggea virosa Baill. (=F. muicrocarpa BI.) occurs throughout India, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula. It extends to the Malay Islands, China, Australia, and tropical Africa. The juice of the leaves, or the leaves made into a paste with tobacco, are used to destroy worms in sores. The West Ashantis use the roots to cure gonorrhcea. They boil the whole plant in water and wash themselves in the water to ‘become strong’. ; In Rhodesia the root is used as an aphrodisiac. The Ewe people of Togoland use the leaves to cure constipation. For this purpose they are boiled and the water is drunk. In Indo-China the astringent bark is used to stupefy fish. Arabic: Dabalab, Hamrur, Hemmele, Hennet-el-bagar, Kartjikartji— ; Ashanti: Nkangnaa—; Bedde: Zandanu—; Bombay: Kantepuwan, Pandhar- phali— ; Buldana: Pittor—,; Burma: Konchiny a—; Canarese: Belahuli, Bilisuli, Gudahale—; Chindao: Umsosoti—; Dagomba: Susuwuluga—; Dehra Dun: Rithoul—; Ewe: Esre, Hesre, Hlese—; Fulani: Chamal, Chambe, Chame— ; Ga: Ghekebii able-tcho—; Goa: Papo—; Gujerati: Shaunavi—; Hausa: Gussu, Gwiwar kare, Tsa, Tsugawun kare, Tswa—; Hindi: Dalme, Patala—; Indo- China: Bong ne, Bong no, Cang pa, Mai ten, Nhat giep thu, Xeur nam—; Kumaon: Athaina—; Kanuri: Shimshim—; Laimbadi: Jarigaro—; Lepcha: Hik-ti bi—; Malayalam: Perinklavu—; Marathi: Wodarai—; Melghat: Pith- ondi—; Merwara: Halepan, Salipan—; Nimar: Jhonri—; Sanskrit: Apiya- druma, Bhuriphala, Dhusara, Nilishila, Panduphali, FPatali, Vrittabijaka— ; Saora: Jungjang—; Sierra Leone: Tigwi—; Sokoto: Tsa, Tswa—; Tamil: Irubulai, Pula, Varadbula, Vedbula, Vellaippula—; Telugu: Mekarayi, Sula- munta, Tellapuli, Tellapurugudu—; Uriya: Janjingi, Kanilehya—; Yoruba: Tranje—. GELONIUM. The genus includes 20 Asiatic and African species. Gelonium multiflorum A. Juss. occurs in Bengal and_ the Circars, reaching northwards to the foot of the Sikkim Himalaya. It extends from Chittagong to Tenasserim and Malacca, and is found in the woods of Upper and Lower Burma, and the Malay Peninsula. It is distributed over the Malay Islands, Siam, and . China, The bark is considered a good tonic for the gums, and is prescribed for gingivitis in Cambodia; it is also used as a purgative in hepatic troubles. Burma : Setahanbaya— ; Cambodia: Tromung sek—; Hindi: Ban naringa—; Malay: Buah_ punei, Lampun_ hitam, Mingantok, Ruas-ruas 75 Telugu: Sarugata—. . Say LHE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES .OF INDIA 293 GLOCHIDION. The genus includes 160 species spread over tropical Asia and Polynesia. G. rubrum Bl. is used medicinally in Indo-China. Leaves 2-4 in. thin. Anthers 3 sei ue eG. HoOhenackers. Leaves 4-8 in. coriaceous. Anthers 5-6 én on 2. G. Zeylanicunr. 1. Glochidion hohenackeri Bedd. is found in Chota Nagpur and Orissa, and in the Western Peninsula; it is very common in the Konkan. The bark is given medicinally when the stomach revolts against food. Canarese: Banavara, Nirchalli, Nirchelli, Nirjani, Sullai—; Malayalam : Kuluchan—; Marathi: Bhoma—; Uriya: Banialkandhum, Chilni, Kalchia—. 2. Glochidion zeylanicum A. Juss. occurs in the Western Peninsula. The bark is used as a stomachic. Canarese: Banda, Savregidda—j; Malayalam: Nirvetti—; Tamil: Iumba- lam—; Telugu: Itepulla—. HIPPOMANE. H. mancinella Linn. is a native of tropical America, introduced into Indian gardens. The bark and the berries yield a highly poisonous milky acrid juice. It is a violent irritant and powerful cathartic, diuretic, and vesicant. The least drop applied to the eye will cause blindness for some days; the smoke from the wood when burnt will also seriously affect the eyes. The juice is much used in Cuba for tetanus and in Guiana for worms in children. Indians use it to poison their arrows. Cayenne: Figuier—; Cuba: Manzanillo—; English: Manchineal Tree— ; French: Arbre de mort, Arbre poison, Bois de lait, Figuier vénéneux, Man- cenillier, Noyer vénéneux—; German: Manzenillerbaum—. HOMONOIA. The genus consists of 4 Indo-Malayan species. Homonoia riparia Lour. is a small rigid evergreen shrub, found on the rocky and stony river-beds of the Sikkim Himalaya at an altitude of 1,000 to 2,000 feet; also in Assam, the Khasia Hills, and southwards to Burma, Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula, the Andaman Islands, and Bundelkhund; and in the Deccan Peninsula from the Konkan southwards. It is also common in Ceylon up to an elevation of 2,000 feet. It extends to Siam, Cochinchina, Sumatra, Java, and the Philippine Islands. The root is given for ulcers. It is laxative and diuretic, and a decoction is given in piles, stone in the bladder, gonorrhoea and syphilis. In Cambodia an infusion of the wood is given in paludism. The whole plant is considered depurative. Burma: Momaca, Yactagyiben, Yactakyee Cambodia: Rey tuk—; Gond: Sundeh—; Indo-China: Bo song, Rey tuk, Ri ri—; Wonkan: Sherana . , 294 JOURNAL, OMBAY NATURAL HIST: “SOCIETY. Vol xe Kumaon: Kandayar—; Kurku: Jeljambu—; Lao: Kai—; Lepcha: Mongthel, Mung-thel kung—; Malayalam: Katalluri—; Mundari; Garahuri, Garahuru— ; Nepal: Kholaruis—; Philippines: Lumanaja, Mimbre—; Sanskrit: Kshudrapa- shanabheda, Pashanabedaka—j; Santali: Gurjor, Sunukui—; Tagalog: Agoyoy, Agucuc, Balanti, Dumanai, Lumanai—; Telugu: Cheppunjerinjal, Taniki— ; Uriya: Jamla—; Visayan: Mayagos, Mayoyos, Miayos. Hora. The genus consists of 2 tropical American species. Hura crepitans Linn., indigenous in tropical America, has been introduced into India from Jamaica. oe The juice of the bark is a Brazilian remedy for leprosy. It is considered caustic and irritant in Guiana and Mexico, and is said to cause blindness. At Guadas the latex is used as a fish poison. In Mexico and Guiana the leaves are much used for chronic pains; the fresh seeds are emetic and purgative and in great demand; the oil from the seeds is said to be a useful though very drastic purgative. The bark and the latex are officinal in Portugal. Canarese: Retidani—; English: West India Sandbox Tree—; French: Arbre du diable, Sablier, Sablier élastique—j; French Guiana: Maman cacao, Sablier, Sablier élastique Indo-China: Ba dau tay, Diep tay, Ngo dong— $; Mauritius ; Sablier—; Portuguese: Assacu, Oassacu—; Surinam: Postentree— ; Tamil : Mullarasomam—; Telugu: Simaburuga—; West Indies : Sandbox Tree— ; Youri-Taboca : Oassacu—. JATROPHA. This genus includes 160 tropical and subtropical species, chiefly American, The following species are used medicinally in Arabia— J. glandulifera Roxb.—; in Cambodia, Indo-China, the Philippine Islands and Guiana— J. Curcas Linn., J. multifida Linn.—; in Mexico— /|. macrorhiza Benth.—; in South America and the West Indies— |. Curcas Linn., J. gossypifolia Linn., Jf.. multifida Linn.—; in Gold Coast— J. Curcas Linn., J. gossypifolia Linn.—; in West Africa, Madagascar, La Reunion— Jf. Curcas Linn.—; in South Africa— J. capensis Sond., J. hirsuta Hoch., Jf. Zeyheri Sond.—. A. Evergreen tree or large shrub 1. Leaves simple and ovate or 3-5-lobed : as 2. Leaves long-petioled, orbicular-cordate or 3-5-lobed or angled bof B. Shrubs 1. Leaves entire or 3-lobed, base cuneate, lobes entire. 2. Leaves 5-lobed or -partite, lobes glandular-serrulate ... 3. Leaves long-petioled, orbicular, palmately cut into many narrow entire or lobulate caudate acuminate » segments om he wa fool. anelionda. to =) glandulifera. i. |, eureas: . nana. . J. gossypifolia. wg pe 1. Jatropha Curcas Linn. is an evergreen shrub, indigenous to America, but cultivated in most parts of India, especially on the Coromandel Coast and in Travancore. It 1s a common hedge- plant in the Konkan, and in the Malay Peninsula. , THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 295 According to Ayurvedic practitioners ‘the fruit and the seed are anthelmintic; useful in chronic dysentery, thirst, urinary discharges, abdominal complaints, biliousness, anemia, fistula, and diseases of the heart’. The oil is reckoned a valuable external application to itch, herpes, chronic rheumatism, and sores or wounds. The leaves are applied as a rubefacient and discutient, and a decoction of them is said to excite the secretion of milk in women. The viscid juice which flows from the stem upon incision is painted over cuts and wounds to check bleeding and promote healing. In Goa the root-bark is applied externally in rheumatism. | In the Konkan it is rubbed with a little asafoetida and given with buttermilk in dyspepsia and diarrhoea; the fresh stems are used as a tooth brush to stop bleeding from the gums. The roasted nuts are used as a purgative by the Mundas, one nut producing three or four stools. In Cambodia the leaves are considered insecticidal, the latex styptic, the oils from the seeds abortive. The leaves are extensively used in the Cape Verde Islands, in the form of decoction and cataplasm to the mammae, as a lactagogue. The Bakwiri of Cameroons add a decoction of the young leaves to beer as a diuretic for rheumatism. In Nigeria a decoction of the leaves with native natron is used by women as a wash for a month before childbirth. In Gambia the leaves are used to make a mouth-wash. In Southern Nigeria they are a remedy for jaundice, applied by rectal injection. In West Africa the sap of the plant is used to cure toothache. It is also used as a styptic, for stopping bleeding. It is said to blind the eyes. The bark of the roots is ground and used as a dressing for sores. In Western Ashanti the leaves are burned and the ashes applied to guinea worms, which are said to come out quickly in consequence. The seeds are used in native Hausa medicine; the oil extracted from them is used as an application for sores in domestic stock. In Gabon the seeds are ground and mixed with palm oil to kill rats. The oil from the seeds is applied topically in Guinea in rheu- matism, herpes, and pruritus. The juice of the plant and _ the pounded leaves are applied to wounds and refractory ulcers. In Gold Coast the leaves are ground and used with pounded palm nuts to make a mixture which is used as an enema for weak babies to strengthen them. They are also used for smoking bedbugs out of a house. They are often crushed in water and used as an enema. The juice of the leaves is squeezed into water, lemon or lime added, and the liquid used as a bath for curing fever. When the young leaves are boiled, the liquor is drunk to cure fever also. The seeds are commonly used as a very effective purgative. Sometimes they are used in curing eye trouble. Indians in Natal use the seeds as a purgative. The wood is used in Madagascar and Guiana as an anti- diarrhceic; the latex is applied to decayed teeth and to wounds, and is used as a styptic; the roots are given as emetic and purgative. 296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST. “SOGIEPY, Vol. The seed is a Brazilian anthelmintic; the principle is contained in the embryo. The blacks of Rio Nunez saponify the oil with the ashes of the Papaw, and use the preparation to heal the wounds caused b ) yi circumcision. A toxalbumin, curcin, is present in the seeds. Ada: Kwadidicho— ; Agolo: Ubolu, Ubwolu—; Agona: Kaneadua—; Akim: Nkrangye dua—; Akwapim: Aborotortor—; Anang: Mbubok—; Antilles: Feve d’enfer, Herbe du Bon Dieu, Herbe du diable, Mancenillier bénit, Médicinier bénit, Médicinier des Barbades, Noix américaine, Pignon de Barbarie, Pignon d’Inde—; Antsianaka: Valavenola, Voanongo—; Arabic: Dandebarri, Dande- nahri,, Habb el meluk—; Ashanti: Akanedua—; Awka: Elu—; Awuna: Krorti— ; Bambara: Baga-ni, Iridingue—; Baoule: Propo—; Bengal: Baghba- rinda, Bagbherenda, Bonbheranda, Erandagachh, Paharierand, Safedind—; Benin : Aru-ebo—; Bete: Badaguigui—; Betsimisaraka: Kizika—; Bhil: Ratan—; Bobo-Dioula: Manan-naga Bobo-Fing: Daya-naga—; Bombay: Irundi, Jaiphal, Jepal, Kurikarlu, Maraharalu, Mogalieranda, Yerand—; Brazil: Figo do inferno, Mandubiguasu, Munduyguasu, Pinhao do Paraguay, Pinhao de purga, Pinhao paraguay, Pinheiro do inferno, Finheiro de purga—; Burma: Kesugi, Thinbankyekku, Thinbaukyeksu, Thinbawkyetsu—; Cambodia: Lohong khvang sa—; Canarese: Adaluharalu, Bettadaharalu, Bettaharalu, Doddaharalu, Dundiga, Kadandla, Kaduharalu, Karnochchi, Maraharalu, Maraharlu, Maraharuli, Marayavudula, Parangiharalu, Turukaharalu—; Cape de Verde: Pulguiera— j; Ceylon: Kaddamanakku—; Chinese: Ma Fong Chou—; Cuba: Pifion botija—; Deccan: Ehanduejot, Erundi, Jangli-yarandi— ; Efik : Eto-mkpa—; Egypt : Habb- el-meluk—; English: Barbados Nut, Physic Nut, Poison Nut, Purging Nut—; Ewe: Babatsi, Gbomagboti, Kpoti, Krorti—; Fanti: Aburokyiriaba, Adadze— ; Formosa: T’ung yu-shu—; French: Grand médicinier, Grand pignon d’Inde, Gros ricin, Haricot du Pérou, Manioc batard, Médicinier, Oignon d’Inde, Pignon des Barbades, Pignon d’Inde, Pourghére, Pulguere, Purghére, Ricin d’Amérique— ; I'rench Guiana: Médicinier—; French Guinea: Barané—; Fulani: Kidi, Kola- debbe, Kolakolaje, Kwolkwolaje—; Ga: Kplukacho—; Gaboon: Ogombo—; Gbari: Kwotewi—; German: Purgirnuss, Schwarzelrechnuss—; Golunga Alto: Mupuluca—; Guam: Tubatuba—; Guyjerali: Jamalgota, Jangliarandi, Ratan- jota—; Hascda: WKulaiaradaru—; Hausa: Binidazugu, Chinidazugu—; Hindi: Bagberenda, Bagbherenda, Baghrandi, Bhernda, Jangliarandi, Pharierand, Safeda- rand, Safedind—; Hova: Tanantanambazaha, Tanantanamposy, Tanantananki- soa—; Ibibio: Etomkpo—; Jbo: Buluolu, Okweni, Olulu-idu, Owulu-idu— ; Ilocano: Tavatova, Tawatawa—; Indo-China: Ba dau me, Ba dau nam, Coc dau, Dau me, Dong thu, Kuang, Lohong, Vao, Vong dau ngo—; Java: Dijarak—; Kolani: Kulajara, Kulejera, Totkabendi— ; Konkani: Erond, Erondd, Jemphal—; NKontagora: Binidazugu— ; Krepi: Abrortorto—; Krobo: Kitigblaicho, KKutugblaicho—; Lambadi: Ranniarendero—; La Reunion: Pignon d’Inde—; Madagascar: Kinampotsy, SKinanafotsy, Kinapotsy, Kinopotsy—; Malay: Jarak b’landa—; Malayalam: Kattavanakku—; Malinke: Bagha, Baha—; Mandingo: Baga, Bagauro, Bagha—; Marathi: Mogalieranda, Ranayerandi— $; Mauritius: Pignon d’Inde—; Melghat: Mogali yerand—; Mende: Katawi, Kata-wului— ; Mexico: Avellanes purgantes, Sangregaod— ; Misahohe : Wabati— ; Mozambique: Sassi—; Mundari: Jadabindi, Totkabindi—; Naguri: Kulabindi- daru, Totkabindidaru—; Nepal: Kadam—,; Nzima: Taprika, Tapuleka—; Ibu: Okwata, Ubwolu—; Orissa: Baigab—; Pahouin: Ofossn tang—; Panama: Arbol santo, Coquillo, Jaquillo, Pifion de purga, Tapate—; Persian: Dandebarri, Dandenahri— ; Philippines : Bolongcauit, Casta, Cator, Kator, Tavatava, Tuba—; Porto- Rico: Tartago— ; Portuguese : Grao malucco, Grao muluco, Pinhao de purga, Pulza, Purgheira, Purgueira, Ricino maior—;. Quittah: Abrortorto—; Sakalave: Savoa, Valavelo, Voanongo—; Samoa: Puavai—; Sanskrit: Chitra, Dravanti, Kananeranda, Mushikaparni, Nyagrodhi, Parva- Akhuparnika, teranda, Pratyakshreni, Randa, Shanbari, Sutashreni, Vrisha—; Santali: Bhernda—; Saora: Peddanepalemu—; Serere: Tabanani—; Sierra Leone: Bagauro—; Sinhalese: Endaru, Erandu, Rata-endaru, -Velendaru—; Soussou: Barané, Barhane, Baxane—; Spanish : Ar Kol de los Binonse de Indias, Pifoncillo— ; Tagalog: Tatataba—; Tamil: Adalai, Kadalamanakku, Kaitta, Kattamanaklu, Kattukkottai, Kuribaravuni, Naligadi, Nikkurottam, Tiravadi, Vellaiyamanalk- ku—; Yelugu: Adaviyamudamu, Katiyamudamu, ‘Kondamudamu, Nepalemu, THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 297 . ne beg td Peddanepalemu, Pepalemu—; Timne: Esigororopetr—; Tivi: Igadam—,; Tulu: Kadalambudu— ; Twi: Aborotortor, Akanedua, Nkrangyedua—; Uriya: Baigoba, Norokokalo—; Visayan: Casla—; Wolof: Tuba—; Yoruba: Botije, Botuje, Botuje-ubo, Lobotuje, Olobontuje, Shenrijun, Ubo—. 2. Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. is common near villages in Bengal, Burma, the Northern Circars, and the Deccan, rare in Oudh and the Punjab. One of the most abundant of hedge plants in the lower provinces, but also prevalent on village waste lands. The juice of the plant is used in various parts of the country as an escharotic to remove films from the eyes. The root brayed with water is given to children suffering from abdominal enlargements. It purges, and is said to reduce glandular swellings. The fixed oil from the seeds has purgative properties. It is applied to sinuses, ulcers, foul wounds, ringworm, and also in rheumatism and paralysis. Arabic: Abab, Kharub—; Bengal: Lalbherenda—; Bombay: Janglierandi, Undarbibi— ; Canarese: Kariturukahalugida, Totlagida—; Hindi: Janglierandi, Undarbibi— ; Kolami: Verendi—; Konkani: Ranerandi—; Malayalam: Atala, Nakadanti— ; Marathi: Jangliarandi—; Persian: Baide anjira—j; Sanskrit : Nikumbha—; Tamil: Adalai, Eliyamenakku, Erikkaraikattamanaku, Kattam- anaku, Puliyamanakku—; Telugu: Dundigamu, Dundigapu, Nelaamida, Nela- nepalemu, Nepalemu, Nelayamudamu, Vettiyamudamu—; Urdu: Jangli eranda Uriya: Simanorokokalo—. 3. Jatropha gessypifolia Linn. is a native of Brazil naturalized in many parts of India. It is now established in Burma and Singapore. A decoction of the bark is used as an emmenagogue. The leaves are applied to boils and carbuncles, eczema and itches. : The seeds act as an emetic; but they are said to cause insanity. ‘In the pith of the oid thick stems a yellowish-brown substance is found which is sold in Gold Coast medicine markets. It is put into a clean cloth and squeezed into the nostrils, causing the patient to sneeze and effectively curing headache. In Gold Coast the leaves and the seeds are used as purgatives. The leaves are boiled and used in the bath to cure fever.’ Their juice is used to cure sores on the tongues of babies. Antioquia: Tua-tua—,; Ashanti: Kaagya—; Bambara: Baga, Bagha, Baha, Santanan—; Bengal: Lalbherenda—; Benin: Oru-ebo—; Canarese: Warituru- kaharalu—; Ewe: Babatsi, Gbomagboti, Nakrakpoti—; Fanti: Aburokyiraba, Akandedua—; Ga: Engmelbii, Kpitikpitsho—; Hindi: Bhernda, Verenda—; Ibo: Akimbogho—; Kolami: Bhernda, Verenda—; Lagos: Lobotuje pupa— ; Malayalam: Simayavanakku—; Malinke: Baga, Bagha, Baha—,; Mandingo : Baga, Bagha, Baha—; Mende: Katawi, Kata-wului—; Oloke-meji : Olobontije- pipa—; Panama: Frailecillo, Frailejon, Purga de fraile, Purga de Huane— =; Santali: Bhernda, Verenda—; Tamil: Adalai, Kattamanakku, Simaiyamanak- ku—; Telugu: Nepalemu, Simanepalemu—; Uriya: Rangakalo— ; Venezuela: Tua-tua—; Yoruba: Botuje pua, Lapalapa pupa, Lobotuje, Olobontuje—. 4. Jatropha multifida Linn. is a native of South America, cultivated and naturalized in various parts of India. a The seeds are regarded as a powerful purgative. In French Guiana they are used fresh as a purgative and emetic. a 11 298 ‘jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL In Cambodia the leaves, the latex, and the oil from the seeds are used medicinally. The leaves are used in scabies; the latex is applied to wounds and ulcers; the oil is used both internally and externally as an abortifacient. In Indo-China the dried root is given as a decoction for indi- gestion and colic; it is also prescribed as a tonic, in orchitis and in oedema. Benin: Iboisa—; Brazil: Flor de coral, Pinhoen—; Cambodia: Lohong khvang kraham—; Canarese: Sime auvdala, Vilayatiharalu—; English: Coral Plant, French Physic Nut, Purging nut, Small Physic Nut—; French: Arbre corail, Médicinier batard, Médicinier d’Espagne, Noisetier purgatif, Petit médicinier— ; French Guiana: Bouquet corail—; Ilocano: Mana—; Indo-China : Bach phu tu—; Lagos: Ege—; Mauritius: Arbre corail—; Sanskrit: Bhadra- danti, Brihaddanti, Dugdhagarbha, Guchhphala, Jayavaha, Jyotishka, Virechani, Vishabhadra— ; Spanish: Avellana purgante de Santo Domingo, Pifiol de Cumana, Purgante de Espaha—; Tagalog: Mana, Tuba—; Tamil: Kattuner- valam,. Malaiyamanakku—. 5. Jatropha nana Dalz. is found in the Deccan, in stony places near Poona, Bombay, and throughout the Konkan. The juice is employed as a counter-irritant in ophthalmia. Marathi: Kirkundi—. MACARANGA. The genus includes 180 species, occurring in the tropics of the Old World. M. huraefolia Beille is used medicinally in tropical West Africa. Leaves deltoid-ovate, peltate, entire. Evergreen tree, 50-60 {t. cae ae ao i Vi aindica: Leaves peltate, entire. Small resinous tree wo. 2: WL. peliata: 1. Macaranga indica Wight is found in Sikkim up to 3,000 feet, the Mishmi and Khasia Hills, the Deccan Peninsula, the Andaman Islands, and Ceylon. The gum is applied to sores. ‘Kumaon: Ramalo—; Malayalam: Puthatamara Sinhalese: WKenda—-; Tamil: Vuttuttamara—. ; Malkot: Papri—; 2, Macaranga peltata Muell.-Arg. is found on the hills of Orissa and the Circars, and on the Ghats from the Konkan to Travancore. It is abundant in Ceylon, up to 3,000 feet. The’ gum, powdered and made into a paste, is reckoned a good external application for venereal sores. Bombay: Chanda—j; Canarese: Chandakanne, Chandkal, Chenthakanni, Chinthakanni, Jatiyuppalige, Kanchupranti, Kanjupparanti, Upaligi, Uppalige, Upparanti—; Ceylon: Vaddakkanni—; Kadiy: Pimugam—; Kanara: Chand- kal—,; Konkani: Chandori—; Malayalam : Pattavanni, Uppila, Vatta—; Marahi : Chanda, Chandoda, Chandora, Chandwar—; Matheran: Chandara—; Mayur- bhanj: Tabhari—; Mysore: Chenthakanni—; Sinhalese: Bukenda, Kenda, Patkenda—; Tamil: Vatta, Vattikanni, Vattittuttim; Telugu: Boddi, Konda- japhara, Kondatamara, Pulichinjalamu—; Uriya: Gondaguria, Piania—. MALLOTUS. The genus includes 120 species, found in, the tropics of the Old World. THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 299 M. apelta Mill.-Arg., M. cochinchinensis Lour., M. furetianus Mill.-Arg., M. philippinensis Miull.-Arg. are used medicinally in Indo-China; M. japonicus Mill.-Arg. is used in Japan; M. philip- pinensis Mill.-Arg. in the Philippine Islands; M. oppositifolius Miull.-Arg. in Nigeria and Gold Coast. Capsule echinate or woolly; stamens 45 to 100... 1. M. cochinchinensis. Capsule not spiny; stamens 4o to 50... .. 2. M. philtppinensis. 1. Mallotus cochinchinensis Lour. is very common in_ the secondary jungle and woods of Burma, the Malay Peninsula, the Malay Islands, Cambodia, Indo-China, and China. The root and the fruit are applied topically to bruises in Indo- China. Indo-China : Bai bai, Bet, Bo, Bong bet, Giay, Plan—; Malay: Balik angin—. 2. Malletus philippinensis Miull.-Arg. is found throughout tropical India; along the foot of the Himalaya from Kashmir eastwards, ascending to 5,c0o0 feet; all over Bengal and Burma, Singapore, and the Andaman Islands; and from Sind southwards to Ceylon. It is distributed to China, the Malay Islands, Neiv Guinea; and Australia. . | The leaves are bitter, cooling; give appetite; cause flatulence and constipation. The glands on the fruit are pungent, heating; purgative, anthelmintic, vulnerary, detergent, maturant, carminative, alexiteric; heal ulcers and wounds, tumours, stone in the bladder; useful in bronchitis, diseases of the abdomen, enlargement of the spleen (Ayurveda). : | The glands and hairs on the fruit are bitter; anthelmintic, styptic; lessen intestinal pain; useful in scabies, ring-worm, and other skin diseases (Yunani). a Among the Mundas of Chota Nagpur the root, well ground, 1s rubbed on the painful parts in articular rheumatism. The root is used internally by the Arabs for leprosy, and in solution to remove freckles and pustules. The leaves, fruit, and rcot with honey are applied to poisoned bites, bruises, ring-worm, pimples and freckles. In Katha, Burma, the seeds are ground to a paste, and applied to wounds and dah cuts. The powder prepared from the fruit is used as an anthelmintic, vermifuge and purgative medicine. It is also said to possess cathartic properties. This powder, which is known as ‘Kamala’ and consists of the small glands and hairs on the ripe fruits, is officinal in Austria, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Portugal, and Switzerland. _..In most European and American works it is stated that Kamala has long been used in India in the treatment of tapeworm; but neither literature nor tradition bear this out. It would appear from results obtained recently under controlled conditions that the value of the drug as apm anthelmintic has been greatly overrated. As .for: its antidotal .propérties ‘they have been experimentally 300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. Xt disproved by Mhaskar and Caius in the case of cobra and daboia venoms. Akola: Kunkumphal—; Almora: Roli—; Arabic: Kampileh, Kinbil—; Assam: Gangai, Jaggaru, Fuddum—; Banda: Kamela, Reoni, Roli—; Bengal : Kamalagundi, Kamila, Tung—; Berar: Kuku, Sendri— ;_ Betul: Kunkuma, Rauni, Rori—; Bhil: Shendrya—; Bijnor: Kamela, Ruinia—; Birbhum: Dholasinua— ; Bombay: Kamala, Kamela, Kapela, Kapila, Ruhin, Shendri—; Bundelkhand: Rori—; Burma: Tanthieden, Tawtheeteng, Tawthidin—; Canarese: Chandrahittu, Ettunalige, Honne, Hullichellu, Kapila, Kesari, Kesarimavu, Kunkuma, Kunkumada, Kunkume, Munnaga, Punnaga, Purusha- tunga, Surahonne, Suraparni, Suvarnakesari, Vasare—; Central Provinces : Cha- margular, Ningur, Rauni, Rori—; Ceylon: Kamalama, Kapila—; Darjeeling : Sin- duri— ; Deccan: Kambhal, Kamila, Ruin, Ruli, Wussunthagunda— ; Dehra Dun: Raini— ; English: Monkey Face Tree, Spoonwood—; Garhwal: Rohni, Roini, Ruina— ; Garo: Chinderpang, Machugan—; Gond : Koku—; Gujerati: Kapilo—; Haldwani: Roli—; Hindi: Kamala, Kambhal, Kambila, Kamela, Kanula, Kamud, Raini, Rauni, Rohni, Roini, Roli, Rora, Ruin, Ruli, Rulu, Wassan- thaganda— ; Ilocano: Buas, Vuas—; Indo-China: Aloang lay sa lang, Ba bet, Bae thau, Buom, Canh kién, Du ma thich, Ema da, Giay rung, Skuoi—; Jaunsar: Kambel—; Kadir: Manjanai, Maunana, Ponni—; Kashmir: Kaim- bil—; Kharwar: Rori—; Kolami: Garasinduri—; Kumaon: Rauni, Rert, Riuna, Roli, Ruen—; Lambadi: Dholo—; Lepcha: Numboonghor, Puroa, Purva, Tukla—; Lohardugga: Rori—; Malayalam: Chenkolli, Kapila, Kura- matukka, Manjana, Maunana, Piponnakam, Ponnakam, Ponni, Poonagam, Punna, Tavitu—; Mal Paharia: Daosindra—; Marathi: Shendri, Shindur— =; Matheran,: Asli, Rohen—; Melghat: Kuku—; Merwara: Senduria—; Michi: Baraiburi, Sindurpong—; Mundari: Garisinduri—; Nepal: Safedmallata, Sin- duria—; Nimar: Kunkuma, Rauni, Rori—; North-Western Provinces: Purvahung, Sinduria—; Oudh: Rohni—; Persian: WKampileh, Kanbela—; Peshawar: Kambalia—; Punjab: Kamal, Kambal, Kamela, Kumila, Reini, Reun, Rulya—; Queensland: Poodgee-poodgera—; Ramnagar: Roli—; Sénskrit: Bahupushpa, Chandra, Kampilla, Kampillaka, Kapila, Karkatha, Kesara, Laghupatraka, Lohitanga, Madhuka, Nadivasa, Pikaksha, Punnaga, Punnagakesara, Punnama, Raktachurnaka, Raktanga, Raktaphala, Ranjaka, Rechanaka, Rechani, Rechi, Rochana—; Santali: Rora—;° Shan: Tawthadin— ; Sinhalese: Hamparandella, Hamparila, Kamala—; Tagalog: Banato, Sala—; Tamil: Avam, Kabilam, Kabilappodi, Kamala, Kambosam, Kapila, Kopilapodi, Kungumam, Kurangumanjanatti, Manjanai, Suvanagesari, Tavattai, Tiruch- alai—; Telugu: Adavigubbatuda, Benduruppu, Chendiramu, Kunkuma, Naga- rakta, Sinduragunda, Sinduri, Tunga, Vasantagandhamu, Veligarapu—; Tulu: Ponne—; Urdu: Kalileh—; Uriya: Bosontogundi, Kunkumo, Kopilogundi, Punango, Sinduri, Sindurogundi—; Visayan: Sala—; Zambales: Apuyot—. MANIHOT. The genus consists of 150 American species, mostly Brazilian and Mexican. M. loureirii Pohl, a native of Cochin-China, is used medicinally in China; M. ulttlissima is used in Brazil, Guiana, and Cambodia. Manihot ultilissima Pohl is cultivated in various parts of India. In Cambodia the pounded tuber is applied to ulcerated wounds. It is considered antiseptic in Brazil, and is used to preserve meat; as an ointment it 1s reputed useful in ulcers of the cornea. The juice is very poisonous. In Guiana it is boiled down to a syrup and given as an aperient. The fresh rhizome is made into poultice and applied to ulcers. The fruit is used as a fish poison in California and in Brazil. The starch is officinal in Holland. | Ashagti: Bankye—; Bajo: Makwamba, Ngaho, Ngawa, Sanagal—. Bahamas: Bay Rush, Bitter Cassava, Cassava, Manioc, Tapioca—; Bakundu: THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 301 Kasara— ; Bakwiri : Mionde— ; Balondo : Ewa—; Balong : Sanagal—; Bambara: Bananiku—; Banda: Ngali—; Basari: Banking, Kambohando—; Batanga: Ewa—; Bemoba: Jangbwanguyuya—; Benin: Bobozi, Ebobozi, Igari, Igari- makole, Ikeripia—; Betsileo: Balahazo, Mangahazo—; Betstmisaraka: M”’ Bazaha—; Bota:. Makwamba—; Brazil: Mandioca, Maniba, Manioc, Manira—; Cambodia : Kdouch— ; Canarese : Kadugenasu, Maragenasu—; Central America: Yuca—; Dagomba: Bankye, Kambonjule—; East Africa: Mhogo—; Ebrie: Bede— ; Efik: Ibo iwa, Iwa unenge, Okpo ofop iwa—; English: Bitter Cassava, Brazilian Arrowroot, Cassava, Tapioca Plant—; Ewe: Agbeli—; Fanti: Bankye—; French: Mandioc, Manioc, Manioc doux, Manioque, Pain des négres—; French Guiana: Manioc, Manioc amer, Manioc petit Louis—; Fufulde: Mbai—; Fulani: Bantara, Nyambe—; Ga: Duade—; Gold Coast: Bantshi, Duaday— ; Guam: Mandioka, Mandiuka, Mendioka, Mendiuka, Yuka— ; Hausa: Baushin kurege, Doyar kundu, Kandirin \beguwa, Karaji, Karaza, Rogo—; Hindi: Sakarkanda—; Hova: Vomangahazo—; Ibo: Abacha, Abaja, Akbo, Akbonkono, Akbunkolo, Akpu, Akpu-ji, Ji-akpu, Ji-gbo, Oi-akpu—; Jamaica: Cassada—; Java: Hoci dangdua—; Kabure: Mbaumhae—; Kano: Rogo—; Kanuri: Garisa—; Kissi: Yambale, Yambale fulalei—; Konkomba: Akombanul—; Konno: Tanga—; MJKoranko: Banake, Tankaso—; Krept: Gbedi, Gbeli—; NKrobo: Agbeli—; Limba: Kopintan—; Loanda: Quisaca— ; Lokko: Bororanga—; Losso: Bondoronde—; Madagascar: Kajaha, Kazaha, Matreoka, Ropotra, Tsiveritelo, Vihazo—; Malinke: Bananku, Bananku gue, Bara bananku—; Mamprussi: Kukulajo—; Mandingo: Mandioca, Nyambo— ; Mano: Bai, Bei—; Mauritius: Manioc—;.Mbonge: Kasara—; Mende: Tangei, Rande, Nguwo—; Mexico: Huacamotl—; Mundari: Edelsangga—; Nigeria: Bara banankou—; North America: Brazitian Arrowroot, Cassava, Manioc, Tapioca Flant—; Nupe: Rogo, Reso dzurugi— ; Nzima: Bairdair—; Portuguese : Mandioca, Pau de farinha—; Roumanian: Manioc—; Russian: Manioc—; Sakalave: Ambazaha, Balafanapaka, Mohogo—; Sherbro: Yeke—; Shuwa Arabic : Baghut, Nagasha—; Sinhalese : Manyokka— ; Sobo : Madaka, Medaka— ; Spanish: Mandiiba, Maniba del Brasil, Manihot amarga, Manioc amarga, Mondioca, Yuca. Vuca amarga, Y'ca brava, Yuca casave de las Antillas, Yuca casavi de las Antillas, Yuca mortifera—; Susa: Yoka, Yoka-fore—; Tagalog: Caomtingcahoy—; Timne: Ayoka Batsanka, Ekanda, Erogbo, Nafange, Yoka- ibi—; Tivi: Rougou, Vambeyon—; Tschandjo: Kungola—; Twi: Bankye— ; Vai: Dumbai—; Visayan: Camotingcahoy—; Uruguay: Mandioca—; West Africa: Mandioca—; West Indies: Yuca—; Wolof: Gniambi, Nyambe—; Yalunka: Kunde, Kunde-ghrabi-na—; Yoruba: Ege—. MICRODESMIS. The genus consists of 2 species, one Asiatic, and one African. M. caseariaefolia Planch. is used medicinally in Indo-China; M. puberula Hook. and M. Zenkeri Pax. in tropical West Africa. Microdesmis caseariaefolia Pianch. ccurs in Tenasserim, and is found in woods and forests all over the Malay Peninsula. It is distributed to Borneo and South China. The fresh sap is used in Indo-China for caries of the teeth. Indo-China: A luan te he, Chanh oc, Dock ko bang—; Malay: Chateng, Chereh rambeh, Kenidei badak, Sigoniah—. PHYLLANTHUS. The genus includes 500 species, temperate and tropical, absent from Europe and northern Asia. The following species are used medicinally in Indo-China— P. elegans Wall., P..Embhca Linn., P. Niruvt Linn., P. veticulatus Poir., P. urinaria Linn.—; in China— P. Emblica Linn.—; in the Philippine Islands— P. Niruri Linn., P. reticulatus Poir., P. urinaria Linn. ;— in Colombia— P. ichthyomethius Rusby, P. salviaefolius H.B.K.—; in Brazil— P. conami Sw., P. lathyroides H.B.K., P, 302 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. “SOCIETY Vole Ge Jighl fet : ; Nirurt Linn.—j; in Guiana— P. conami Sw., P. epiphyllanthus Linn., P. guyanensis Klotsch, P. Niruri Linn., -P. wrinaria Linn.—; in the West Indies— P. Niruri Linn.—; in Lagos and Gold Coast— P,.-amarus Schum. and Thonn.,° P.: discoideus Muell.-Arg., ‘P: floribundus Mill.-Arg., P. Niruni Linn.,.P. pentandrus Schum. and Thonn., P. reticulatus Poir., P. Wildemanni Beille—; in Mada- gascar— P. casticum Soy.-Will., P. madagascariensis Muell.-Arg.— ; ing La Reunion— “P. -casticum ~Soy--Wills (Ps Nirvan Pini ae. phillyreaefolius Poir., P. urinaria Linn.—. ; A. A large deciduous tree; bark flaking conchoidally ; branchlets. slender, pubescent. Leaves equal and symmetrically set Vol. (XE to Ceylon. It occurs also in tropical Africa, sArabial. lavas wand Australia. In Southern India an infusion of the leaves is given for headache. ; The seeds are used medicinally on account of the mucilage which they afford when soaked in water. Arabic: Cholf, Marur—; Gujerati: Kanochha—; Hindi: Hazarmani, Kanocha, Kanochha, Niruri, Sadamanni—; Matheran: Wanocha—; Persian: Marurshatu—; Porebunder: Bakrado—; Sind: Niruri, Sadamanni—; Telugu: Nalausereki— ; Urdu: Kanochha—. 4. Phyllanthus Niruri Linn. is found throughout the hotter parts of India, from the Punjab eastwards to Assam, and southwards to Travancore, Ceylon, and the Malay Peninsula, ascending the hills to -3,6co. feet. It ‘inhabits the-~ tropics generally, vexcept Australia. Hindu physicians credit the plant with the same therapeutical properties as P. urinaria; they, moreover, use the leaves-as a diuretic and in menorrhagia. According to Mahommedan physicians the plant is stomachic, good fer sores and in chronic dysentery; the fruit is bitter, useful for tubercular ulcers, wounds, sores, bruises, scabies, and ringworm. The plant is much used as a diuretic in dropsical affections, gonorrhoea, and cther troubles of the genito-urinary tract. It is a South Indian diuretic and antidysenteric. In Indo-China it is reputed to be diuretic, depurant and antisyphilitic. In La Reunion ‘it is very much used in blennorrhagia, dropsy, and diarrhoea. The fresh root is said to be an excellent remedy for jaundice. {n the Konkan it is rubbed down with rice water and given as a remedy for menorrhagia. Bruised with a little water and administer- ed internally with milk, it is a popular Tamil galactagogue. In the Rajputana Desert the root, pounded and mixed with Commiphora mukul Engl., is given to camels suffering from indigestion. The leaves are stomachic. A poultice of the leaves with salt cures scabby affections, and without salt may be applied to bruises and wounds; made with rice water the poultice lessens cedematous swellings and ulcers. In Gold Coast’ the leaves are pounded and “used ‘to ctire gonorrhcea. Parts of the plant are used to cure constipation. The leaves are boiled and the liquor drunk to stop acute pains in the stomach. The chief use of the plant is to allay griping in cases of dysentery. The milky juice is a good application to offensive sores. The bark is used as a purgative and in the treatment of various diseases, and yields a bitter principle ‘phyllanthin’, which is a fish poison. An infusion of the young shoots is given in dysentery. The infusion of the root and leaves is a good tonic and diuretic, when taken cold in repeated doses. The decoction of the root and leaves is very bitter and is a favourite remedy among the natives of Santo Domingo and Porto Rico, for the cure of intermittent fevers, I have myself many THE MEDICINAL AND. POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 305 times proved its efficacy in preventing the expected paroxysm. I[ was accustomed to employ a tincture made by myself with the whole plant, the dose being two drachms in the morning. Sometimes I repeated the dose, which acted upon the bowels as a slight purg- ative and this is very useful in inveterate intermittents with infracts of the spleen and liver. The infusion of the root and leaves is a _ good tonic, and a diuretic when taken cold in repeated doses (A. J. Amadeo; Pharmaceut. Journ., April 28, 1888). A decoction of the bitter root and leaves is given in Haiti for stomach-ache. An aqueous extract or a decoction of the fresh roots. stem, and leaves is given internally in snake-bite (Roberts); but the root, stem, and leaf, are all useless as an antidotal treatment (Mhaskar and Caius). Arabic: Mekatkata, Meneckete—; Ashanti: Bommaguwakyi—; Bengal: Bhujamla, Jiraneli, Sadahazurmani—; Bombay: Bhuiavala—; Brazil: Erva pombinha—; Burma: . Miziphiyu—; Canarese: Kiranelligida, WKirinelligide— ; Ceylon: Vellaikkilkaynelli—; Chinese: So Cheu—; Deccan: Bhuinavalah— $; Efik : Oyomo-ke-iso-amon-ke-edem— ; French : Herbe du chagrin— ; Ga : Ombato- atshi— ; Guam: Maigo-lalo, Maigu-lalo—; Gujerat?: Bhonya anmali—; Hindi: Bhonya abali, Bhuinanvalah, Jangli amli, Jaramla, Niruri, Sadahazurmani— ; Ibibio : Oyomo-ke-iso-amon-ke-edem— ; Indo-China: Cho de—; Java: Aijlaun- -mahaij— ; Krobo: Ofobiokpab—; La Reunion: Petit tamarin blanc—; Malaya- lam: Wirganelli, Kizhanelli, Kizhkkayinelli—; Marathi: Bhui avali—; Mauritius: Curanellie blanche, Herbe au chagrin—; Mundari: Muikoa kantara, Pirikantara— ; Nupe: Ebogi, Ebo zunmaggi— ; Philippines : Hierba de San Paulo, Hierba de San Pedro—; Porebunder: Bhonya anmari—; Portuguese: Erva pou- binha—; Rajputana: Gugerati bawal—; Sanskrit: Adhyanda, Ajata, Ajuta, Amala, Amlika, Amrita, Aphala, Bahupatra, Bahupatri, Bahuphala, Bahupushpi, Bhudatra, Bhudhatri, Rhumyamalaki, Bhuparva, Charati, Chorata, Dalaparshini, Dridhapadi, Hilolika, Jada, Jharika, Jhatamala, Kshetramali, Mala, Nilolika, Putrashronika, Shiva, Sukshmadala, Sukshmaphala, Uchchata, Vishaghni, Vishva- parni, Vitunnaka, Vituntika, Vrishya—,; Seychelles: Herbe au chagrin—; Sind: Niruri— ;_ Sinhalese: Pittawaka—; Spanish: Yerba de quinina, Yerba de quinono—; Tamil: Kilanelli, Kilkkaynelli—; Telugu: Nelausirika, Nelavusari— ; Twi: Bommaguwakyi—; Urdu: Bhui amla—; Uriya: Bhui aola—; West Indies: Petit tamarin blanc, Quinine créole, Yerba de quinino—; Yemen: Mekatkata, Meneckete—; Yoruba: Yoloba—. 5. Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. is common throughout tropical India, Burma, Malaya, and Ceylon. It extends to the Malay Islands, China, and tropical Africa. The fruit is astringent to the bowels; useful in inflammations, and diseases of the blood (Ayurveda). The bark is considered alterative and attenuant, and is prescribed in decoction in the quantity of four ounces or more twice daily. The leaves are employed as a diuretic and cooling medicine in Sind. The juice of the leaves is used medicinally in the Konkan. It is made into a pill with camphor and cubebs, which is allowed to dissolve in the mouth as a remedy for bleeding from the gums. _ It is also reduced to a thin extract along with the juice of other altera- tive plants and made into a pill with aromatics; this pill is given twice a day, rubbed down in milk, as an alterative in heat of the blood. In Lakhimpur the juice of the leaves is used for diarrhoea in infants, 306 ‘JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, -Vol. XL In Ashanti the leaves are mixed with palm nuts (Eleis guineensis) and made into a broth, which is given to newly delivered women to relieve them. In Gold Coast the stems are used to cure sore eyes, the juice from them being blown into the eyes. The Rongas and Europeans of East Rirics use the powdered leaf as a local application to sores, burns, and suppurations, and chafing of the skin. The Rongas also apply it to venereal sores. In Indo-China the plant is used in the treatment of smallpox and syphilis. Akola: Pithor, Pittur—; Assam: Amluki—; Bengal: Panjuli—; Bombay: Pavana—; Canarese: Anamsula, Chippulinellu, Huli, Karesuli, Karihuli, Sannahagesoppu— ; Deccan: Buinowla, Kalemadhkajhar—; Fanti :- Nkokobro— ; Gorakhpur: Sikat—; Gujerati: Datwan—; Hausa: Alambu, Alambu na tudu, Bak’, in) alamba, K’alambu—; Hindi: Buinowla, Kalemadhkaper, Makhi, Panjoli, Panjuli—; Indo-China: No kang pa, No phen den—; Katagum: Tsah—; Konkani: Kaili—; Lambadi: Kombhoiro—; Malayalam: Kattu- niruri, Kilanelli, Nirnelli, Niruri—; Marathi: Pavan—; Melghat: Pithor, Pittur—; Merwara: Kabonan—; Nimar: Kamoi—; Punjab: Panjuli—; Raj- putana: Kabonan—; Ronga: Tetenya Sanskrit: Bahupraja, Bahupushpa, Kamboji, Kambojini, Krishnakambhoji— ; Sie Kamohi, Kamohijopun, Kamu, Pikapiru—; Sinhalese: Welkyla—; Tagalog: Malaiba, Malatinta, Tinatinam, Tintatintahan—; Tamil: Abirangi, Karuppuppilanji, Karunelli, Kattukkilanelli, Melanelli, Nirppul, Nirppula, Nirppulanji, Pul, Pula, Pulanji—; Telugu Nallapuli, Nallapurugudu, Nelapurugudu, Pandibarangi, Pulisar, Purugud—; Timne: Egbeli—; Tulu: Kakesoppu—; Twi: Awobe—; Uriya: Bonotihudi, Jojangi, Phajoli—; Visayan: Matangolang, Sungotolang—; Yoruba: Iranje—; Zamboanga : Nipin—. 6. Phyllanthus simplex Retz is found in the plains and low hills throughout India, from Kumaon to Assam and southwards to Travancore, Ceylon and Malacca, ascending to 6,000 feet. It is distributed to China, the Malay and the Pacific Islands. The natives use the fresh leaves, flowers and fruit, with cumin seeds and sugar, of each equal parts made into an electuary, for the cure of gonorrhcea, a teaspoonful is given twice a day. The fresh leaves, bruised and mixed with buttermilk, make a wash to cure the itch in children. The root is used in Chota Nagpur as an external application for mammary abscess. Gujerati: Motibhonya anmali— ; Indo-China: Vay oc—j; Marathi: Bhuiavali, Motibhuiavali— ;_ Mundari: Otemeral, Pirimeral—; Porebunder: Motibhonya anmari—; Santali: Tandimeral—; Telugu: Uchchiyusirika. 7. Phyllanthus urinaria Linn. is met with throughout India, from the Punjab to Assam, Burma, Malacca, Penang, pnd Ceylon ; it is Common in Singapore and Selangor. It inhabits the tropics generally. The fruit and plant are acrid, sour, cooling, bitter, sweetish; alexipharmic; useful in thirst, bronchitis, leprosy, anaemia, urinary discharges, anuria, biliousness, asthma, hiccough (Ayurveda). Thee plant is much used as a diuretic in dropsical affections, also in gonorrhoea and other genito- ‘urinary troubles. In Chota Nagpur the root is given to sleepless children, THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES -OF INDIA 307 In La Reunion the plant is considered diuretic, sudorific, depura- tive, and emmenagogue. It is given as a drink in dysentery and cystitis. In Cambodia the plant is used as a bitter, tonic, astringent, and febrifuge. An infusion is given for liver complaint, diarrhoea and paludism. Bengal: Hazarmani—; Burma: Miziphiyuani—; Cambodia: Prak phle—; Canarese: Kempukiranelli—; Ceylon: Chivappukkilkaynelli— ; Chinese: Ko Cheu—; Gujerati: Kharsadabhonya anmali, Kharsadabhonya ansari—; Hindi : Hazarmani, Lalbhuinanvalah—; Indo-China: Cho de, Giap ha chau, Kho ham, Prak phle—; [Ia Reunton: Petit tamarin rouge—; Malay: Ambin buah—; Malayalam: Chirukizhukanelli, Chukannakizhanelli—; Marathi: WLalmundajan- vali— ; Matheran: Lalbhiuawali— ; Mauritius :Curanellie rouge, Curanellie urin- aire—; Sanskrit: Adhyanda, Ajata, Ajuta, Amala, Aphala, Arudha, Bahupatra, Bahuphala, Bahupushpa, Charati, Chotata, Dalasparshini, Drirdhapadi, Hilkolika, Jada, Jharika, Thatamala, Mala, NiJolika, Putrashronika, Shiva, Sukshmadala, Sukshmaphala Tali, Tamalika, Tamalini, Tamravalli, Uchchata, Vishaghni, Vishvaparni, Vitunnaka, Vituntika, Vrishya—; Santali: Badarzhapi— ; Sinhalese : Binnelli,, Ratpittaawka—; Tagalag: Ibaibaan—j; Tamil: Shivappunelli— ; Telugu: Ettausirika, Yerrausereki—. PUTRANJIVA. The genus consists of 4 Indo-Malayan species. Putranjiva Roxburghii Wall. is found, wild and cultivated, throughout tropical India, from the lower Himalaya in Kumaon eastwards and southwards to Pegu and Ceylon. The leaves, the fruit, and the stones of the fruit are given in decoction in colds and fevers. In Siam a medicine for rheumatism is made out of the leaves and fruit. Bengal: Jiaputa, Putranjiva—; Bombay: Jewanputr, Jivputrak, Putajan, Putrajiva—; Burma: Badibyu, Egayit, Taukyat, Toukyap, Toukyat—j; Canarese: Amani, Menasinakale, Putrajiva, Putremjiva—; Chindwin: Badi- byu—; Haldwani: Juti—; Hazaribagh: Piten—; Hindi: Jiaputa, Jivputrak, Joti, Juti, Patigia, Patji, Putajan, Putijia, Putrajiva, Putranjiva—; Kumaon: Juti—; Lambadi: Kalo—; Malayalam: Pongalam, Ponkolam—; Marathi: Jewanputr, Jivputrak, Jiwanputr, Putajan, Putrajwa—,; North-Western Pro- vinces: Jiaputa, Joti, Juti, Putrajiva—; Oudh: Patji—; Pegu: Daukyat—; Punjab: Jiyaputra, Patajan—; Ramnagar: Juti—; Reddi: Veku—; Sanskrit : Ardhasadhaka, Apatyajiva, Garbhada, Garbhakara, Jivanaputra, Kumarajiva, Mavu, Pavitra, Putrajiva, Putranjiva, Shlipadapaha, Sidhida, Sutajivaka, Sutrajiva, Yashtipushpa—; Santali: Pitoj, Pitonj—; Tamil: ITrukolli, Karupah, Karupilai—; Telugu: Kadrojuvi, WKudrajinik, Iwudurujivi, IKudurujivir, Maha- putrajivi, Putrajivika—; Uriva: Bholokoli, Pohunjona, Poichandia, Poitundia—. RICINUS. Ricinus communis Linn. is indigenous to tropical Africa, and is found, wild or ‘cultivated, throughout the Tropics. By cultiva- tion it has been distributed through not only all tropical and sub- tropical regions, but also in many of the temperate countries of the globe. In the south of England the plant ripens its seeds in favourable situations, and it has been known to come to maturity as far north as Oslo in Norway. The root is sweetish, heating; carminative; useful in inflam- mations, pains, ascites, fever, glands, asthma, eructations, bron- chitis, leprosy, diseases of the rectum, and the head.—The leaves 308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIELY, Vol XE are useful in intestinal worms, strangury, night blindness, earache; increase biliousness.—The flowers are useful in glandular tumours, anal troubles, vaginal pain.—The fruit is heating and an appetiser ; useful in tumours, pains, piles, diseases of the liver and spleen.—The seed is cathartic and aphrodisiac.—The oil is sweetish; cathartic, aphrodisiac, anthelmintic, alterative, useful in tumours, diseases of the heart, slow fevers, ascites, inflammations, typhoid, pain in the back, lumbago, leprosy, elephantiasis, convulsions; causes bilious- ness (Ayurveda). The roct bark is purgative, alterative; good in skin diseases.— The leaves are galactagogue; good for burns.—The seeds and the oil from them have a bad taste; purgative; useful in liver troubles, pains in the body, lumbago, boils, piles, ringworm, paralysis, inflammations, ascites, asthma, rheumatism, dropsy, amenorrhoea (Yunani). In Chota Nagpore the bark is ground and applied to burns by the Mundas. A fibre of the bark is tied round the neck to stop vomiting. The leaf is arplied to the head to relieve headache, and is com- monly used as a poultice for boils. It 1s said to possess considerable power as a lactagogue, being applied warm to the breasts. The fresh leaves are used by nursing mothers in the Canary Islands as an external application, to increase the flow of milk. On the other hand it is generally admitted in Indo-China that the leaves act as an antilactagcgue, whether applied topically on the breasts or taken internally. In general the plant is credited with a number of peculiar properties, and is said to be useful in difficult parturition, spasmodic twitchings of the face, facial malformations, and cancer of the stomach. The seeds and the oil from the seeds are used as a purgative wherever the plant is found growing. The Chinese use the crushed seeds more frequently than they do the oil, the paste is applied to relieve scrofulous seres. In some parts of West Africa a decoction of the leaves is taken to purge. In Las Bela the oil is expressed and used medicinally; and a fomentation is made with the leaves to cure wounds. At Turbat in Makran it 1s used as an ointment for sores. At Kotra in Kachhi the leaves are used for fomentations; in Kharan they are bound over boils, and are a good cure. In French Guinea the leaves are boiled and used as a febrifuge. In native medicine in West Africa the leaves are boiled to form a lotion for fevers, and pounded for application as a poultice to swellings. The leaf is sometimes tied on the forehead for head- ache. In Togo the leaves of the larger-leaved variety are crushed with cold water to form a useful eye lotion. An infusion of the leaf is a Zulu remedy for stomach-ache. It is administered orally or as an enema. The Zulus also apply a paste of the root,in toothache. In South Africa the root is the basis of several native remedies for toothache. In Southern Rhodesia the bark is used by natives for stitching up wounds, and as a dressing for wounds and sores. The Chewas THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 309 boil the root in water which has been previously boiled with the ashes of maize stalks. The sediment from the second boiling ts smeared on the teeth and gums to relieve toothache, the material not being swallowed. The Transvaal Sutos apply the powdered roasted seeds to sores, boils, ete., in children. The foliage is considered emmenagogue, the root-bark purgative, and the leaf useful as a local application in rheumatism. The local application of the leaf to the mammae is said to produce a powerful galactagogic action. In West Africa a decoction is taken internally as a lactagogue and emmenagogue. The bruised leaves are used fer caries of the teeth and given with water for colic in Madagascar. In La Reunion the leaves are considered lactagogue and are given in infusion or applied to the breasts. In Guiana the leaves are applied to the breasts to help the secretion of milk. Soaked in vinegar they are applied to the forehad in cases of sunstroke. They act as a powerful sudorific. A treatment for chancre in Northern Nigeria consists in fumigation by burning stems of Ricinus along with those of Calotropis procera, The oil, combined with citron ointment, is used as a_ topical application in common leprosy. In West Africa, castor oil is not used as a medicine internally, but externally as an unguent alone or mixed with other substances, such as groundnut or other oil. It is used as an application for parasitic skin-diseases, craw-craw, etc., and as a dressing for sores and parasitic conditions in domestic stock. In South Africa a mixture of castor oil and kerosene is known as a cheap and efficient culicide in the fight against malaria. Castor oil has been found to be almost the only agent which prevents gad-flies from attacking camels for any length of time. Rendered soft and pulpy by heat, the leaves are applied to the Guinea-worm sore to facilitate its extraction. Ancient Sanskrit writers prescribed the seed in the treatment of snake-bite and scorpion-sting; but Caius and Mhaskar have shown experimentally that it 1s not an antidote to either snake or scorpion venom. The leaves and the seeds are cfficinal in Portugal; the seeds and the oil in France and Italy; the oil in Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, Finland, Great Britain, Holland, Hungary, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Russia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, the United States, and Yugoslavia. Afghanistan: Bazanjir, Buzanjir—; Afrikaans: WKasterolieboom—; Almora: In—; Amboyana: Camiri—; Aowin: Ateende—; Arabic: Charua, Djar, Hurua, Khirurwi, Khirwa, Tebscha, zaejt—; Assam: Eri—; Awuna: Dzonggdaleng— ; Bafo: Bokuri—; Balong: Bokuri—; Bambara: Subarabana—; Behar: Anda, Amar, Lenr, Renr—; Bengal: Bheranda, Bherenda—; Benin: Era ogi—; Berar: Yerandi—; Betsileo: Winamena—; Bombay: Erendi—; Brazil: Carapateiro, Figueira d’inferno, Mannona, Nhambuguasu—; British Central Africa: Mbaliki—; Burma: Kesu, Kyeksu—j; Cambodia: Lohong preng—; Canarese: Avudala, Avudalu, Chittuharalu, Eranda, Haralu, Manda, Vardha- mana—; Catalan: Rici, Figuera infernal, Rissino—,;, Central Provinces: Grundi—; Chinese: Pi Ma Coimbatore: Wotteimuttu—; Danish: Under- troee—; Deccan: Erund, Ind, Rund, Yarand—; Qutch: Wonderboom— ; 310 :=fJOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XL Efik: Etighi-unenge, Eto-aran-ukebe—; Egypt: Kharwa, Kiki—; English : Castor-oir Plant, Palma’ “Christi---*- we. Dzegbele, Dzongbati, Kasuwelti, Kasuworliti, Longo—; Fanti: Abronkruma, Adedenkuruma, Esusonkuruma, Sunsumnkuruma— ; French: Avanacoé, Avanacu, Bois de carapat, Carapat, Grand ricin, Palma Christi, Paume Dieu, Pignon de Barbarie, Ricin, Ricin commun, Ricin vulgaire—; French Guiana: Palma Christi—; French Guinea: Diakoula—; siilan: Diakoula—; Fuiani: Derre, Diakoula, Kolakolaje gor’de, Zurmaje—; Ga: Abromkruma, Adedengkuruma—; Genoa: Ricin, Ricinu—; German : Wunderbaum— ; Gond: Nerinda—; Greek: Kiki—; Guam: Agaliya— ; Gujerati: Diveli, Diveligo, Tirki—; Hamadan: Kercheng—; Hasada: Rang- gajara, Risajara—; Hausa: Chika gida, ’Dan kwasare, Kulakula, Zurma— ; Hindi: Arand, Arandi, Arend, Arind, Erand, Erandi, Erend, Ind, Rand—; Hova: Tanantanankisoa— ; Hungarian: Ricinus—; Ibo: Obwa, Ogba, Ogili-obwa, Ogili-ogba, Ogilisi, Ogiri-aro, Osisi-ogili— ; Ilocano: Tangantangan, Tavatavang- sina, Tawatawasinga—; Indo-China: Dau dau, Du du, Huong thet, Khnhe, Lohong, Miet ma, Thu du tia—; Iraq: Khirwa—; Italian: Caffee da’ olio, Catapuzia maggiore, Erba venaria, Fagiolo d’ India, Fagiolo romano, Fava d’ India, Fico d’ inferno, Girasole, Mirasole, Palma Christi, Palmaperta, Ricino— ; Kabure: Assimballo—; Wachhi: Harnoli—; Kalabari: Alamba-ngbole— ; Kharan: Murghpad—; Nikuyu: Mubariki—; Kolami: Jarabindi—; Konkani: Erendi—; Koranko: Maraban keyo barambe—; WKordofan: Hurna—; Krepr: Atornggor, Kasuwelti, Kasuwoliti, Yevu-tongo— ;, Xxrobo : Kumenglo—; Kumaon : Andi, Arandi, Indrendi—; La Reunion: Ricin tantan—; Las Bela: Hiranr—; Lepcha: Hilk bu ruk-lop, Raklop—; Loanda: Bafureira— ; Lokko: Tawabawa—; Makaran: Murpad—; Malabar: Tonda—; Malaya: Jarak, Pee mah—; Malaya- lam: Anandam, Avanaka, Chittavanaku, Erandam, Gandharvahastakam, Kotta, Panjangulam, Pantiyavanakku, Varddhamanam—; Malta: Castor-oil Plant, Palma Christi, Ricino, Rionu—; Marathi: Erandi, Yarandicha—; “Masai: Oldule—; Mauritius: Palma Christi—; Mbonge: Boku-balondu—; Mende: Bonde, Ngele-bonei— ; Mentone: Ricinu—; Mexican: Tlaplatl—; Mozambique : Ambona—; Mundari: Bindidaru, Ranggabindi, Ranggafara—; Naguri: Rangga- bindidaru, Risabindi, Sutamranggabindi—; Nandi: Imanyet—; Nasirabad: Harnauli—; Nepal: Alha, Areta, Orer—; Nimar: Arand—; North America: Castor Bean, Castor Plant, Palma Christi—; North-Western Provinces: Arand, Bhatreri, Rendi, Reri—; Nupe: Kpamfini gulu—; Pahouin: N’zoum—; Pedi: Mokhura—; Fersian: beaanjir, Eedanjira, Garchak, Karchak, Tochme kerchek— ; Portuguese: Carrapateiro, Mammona, Palma Christi, Ricino— ; Portuguese Africa: Bafureira—; Potenza: Ricin—; Punjab: Aneru, Arand, Arind, Bedanjir, Harnauli—; Pushtu: Arhand—,; Rajputana: Arend, Edia—; Reggio: Rizoin—; Roumanian: Ritina—; Russian: Kleshtshexika—j; Sakalave : Kinana, Tanantanamanga—; Samoa: Lama-papalangi—; San Remo: Ricin—; Sanskrit: Amanda, Amangala, Bhanda, Chankuka, Chitrabija, Chitraka, Dirghadantaka, Eranda, Gandharvahasta, Gandharvahastaka, Ishta, Kanta, -anchangula, Panjangula, Ruvuka, Shukla, Shulashatru, Svehaprada, Taruna, Triputi, Triputiphala, Tuchhadru, Vardhamana, Vatari, Vranaha, Vuka, Vyada- tvaka, Vyaghradala, Vyaghrapuchha—; Santali: Eradom—; Sarawan: Bedan- jir—;. Sardinia: Cacamengiu—; Sibi: Harnauli—; Sicily: Rigginu—; Sind: Ayrunkukri, Heran—; Sinhalese: Eudaru, Telendaru—; South Africa: Castor Bean, Castoroil Plant, Palma Christi—; Spanish: Higuera del diablo, Higuera infernal, Palma Christi;. Ricino—; Sumatra: Jarak—; Susu: Limbiaxule, Mbiakule—; Suto: Mokhura—; Swahili: Mbariki—; Swedish: Undertrard—; Tagalog: Lansina, Lingasina, Tangantangan—; Tamil: Aimugi, Amanakku, Andagam, Asaram, Attagam, Attamanam, Attugam, Erandam, Kottai, Kottai- muttu, Muttukkottai, Peramanakku, Sanju, Sasambari, Sigandi, Sittaman, Sittamanakku, Sittiram, Tabinjam, Urppulam, Vattamam—; Telugu: Amudamu, Chittamudamu, Erandamu, Peramudamu—; Tigre: Kella—; Tigrinia: Vulleh— ; Timne: An-fentoel, Lamirenda—; Tivi: Harev, Ihurua_ dzengo,. Ijija, Jija Masev, Sherai jongo, Showara jongo—; Treviso: Rizin, Rizino—; Tschaudjo: Dendelle, Sau— ;- Tuareg: Fueni—; Turkish: Hint—; Tuscany: Erba de latte, Erba lattaria, Girasole maggiore, Girasole piccolo, Manoaperta, Meo, Scatapuzia, Zecea, -Zeccha—; Twi: -Abronkruma, Adadenkuruma—; Urdu: Eranda—; Uriya: Bheronta, Chitroko, Erondo, Gobo, Joda, Kalo, Monto—; Tindoko— ; Uruguay: Ricino, Tartago—; Verona: Rizino—;. Waziri: Randanh—;. Xosa: umiHlavuthwa—; Yemen: Jar, Febsha, Zeit—; .Yorubw: -lara;.Flarun,° -Laa, Lapalapa adengteng, Lara—,; Zulu : umHdakuva—. : of THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA © 3ii SAPIUM The genus includes 100 species, inhabiting warm countries. See seovyermm Koxbt is=used medicinally in “China and Indo- China, S$. Graham Prain in Gold Coast. The latex of S. ellipticum Pax is in Kenya an ingredient in arrow-poison. Leaves shortly petioled, — elliptic-lanceolate, © obtusely acuminate, serrate or subserrate — .«. ©6t. 9. tndicum. Leaves elliptic or oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, crenate- serrate ee ea Dat SPILe. Leaves long-petioled, ovate, orbicular-ovate or — sub- rhombic, quite entire, finely acuminate 3. S. sebiferum. 1. Sapium indicum Willd. is found in the Sunderbund and in the tidal forests of Tenasserim and Ceylon. It occurs on the sea coasts of the Malay Peninsula, and is distributed to the Malay Islands and New Guinea. The juice cf this tree is reckoned of a very poisonous nature. The taste of the fruit is nauseous beyond description. The seeds are used for intoxicating fish. Bengal: Batan, Batul, Huru, Hurua—; Bombay: Hurna—; Borneo: Booroo—; Hindi: Hurua—; Malay: Gurah, Guring—; Malayalam: Karm- matti, Venkshiri—; Sinhalese: Wirimakulu, Wirrimakalu—. 2. Sapium insigne Vrim. is found in the sub-Himalayan tract, from the Beas eastwards to Assam, Chittagong, Burma, and Ceylon, ascending to 4,300 feet. ~The whole tree is full of an acrid milk which, when applied to the skin, produces vesication. Almora: Khin—; Anamalais: Garpathola—; Bombay: Dudla—; Canarese : Kannupade, Kurda, Nanaka—; Dehra. Dun: Khindra, Khinna, Khinni, Khirni— ; Garhwal: Khindra, Khinna, Whinni, Khirni, Kinna—; Hindi: Khina, Khindra, Khinna, Khiria, Khirni, Khirun, Lendwa, Lienda—; Wadir: WKarup- puchchulai—; Marathi: Dudla, Hure, Ura, Ure—; North-Western Himalaya: Boddar, Khinna—; Punjab: Bilodar, Biloja, Dudla, Karalla, Ledra—; Telugu: Garbhasula— ; Tulu: Kannupade—. 3. Sapium sebiferum Roxb., indigenous to China and Japan, is found as a cultivated plant in various parts of India and else- where in warm countries. The acrid juice is a powerful vesicant. The oil is reputed similar to castor oil. In China the bark is used as a -tonic,. and the resin as a purgative. In Indo-China the root bark in decoction is given in dyspepsia. The fat from the seeds is used in the treatment of skin diseases. Bengal: Momchina—; Chinese: Pa Teou Seou, Wu Chiu—; Dehra Dun: Tarcharbi— ; English: Chinese Tallow Tree—; Hindi: Bilaitisissu, Vilayatishis- ham—;° Indo-China: O cut. moc, Sach, Soi, Soi tia u; kiu, Soi trang—; Mauritius: Arbre & suif—; North America: Chinese Tallow Tree, Tankawang Fat Tree, Vegetable Tallow Tree—,; Saharanpur: Pahari shisham—; Sanskrit : Agaru, Toyapippali—; Uriya: Ronojita—. SAUROPUS. The genus consists of 20 Indo-Malayan species. - Sauropus quadrangularis Miull.-Arg. is found in Bihar, Chota Nagpur, and the Western Peninsula; it is common in Burma. Si9' JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCInTY, Vor xr The dried leaves are smoked in tonsilitis. Matheran: Chickli—; Telugu: Tellavusirika—. SEBASTIANIA, The genus consists of 80 tropical species, mostly American. Sebastiania chamaelea Miill.-Arg. occurs in Bihar, the Deccan Peninsula, Ceylon, ~Burma, ‘and the “Malay- Peninstulae “it “is distributed to China, the Malay Islands, tropical Australia, and ATfriea. The juice of the ‘plant ‘in. wine is used as” ane astiimeent\ decoction of the plant in clarified butter is considered to be tonic, and is applied to the head in vertigo. In Indo-China the plant is used in the treatment of syphilis and diarrheea. Konkan: Bhui crendi—; Sinhalese: Ratpitawakka—. PRACTA, The genus includes 55 tropical and subtrepical species. T. volubilis Linn. is used medicinally in South America and the West Indies. | T. angustifolia Benth. and 7. cordifolia Benth. are considered toxic in Madagascar. Tragia involucrata Linn., a common stinging weed, is found in dry places throughout India, from the Punjab and the: lower Himalaya of Kumaon, eastwards to Assam and Burma, southwards Travancore and Ceylon. It extends to China. The root is considered diaphoretic and alterative; an infusion is given in ardent fever and in itching of the skin. In the Konkan a paste of the root 1s used to aid the extraction of guinea-worm; mixed with the juice of Ocimum sanctum it is employed as a cure for itchy skin eruptions. In Chota Nagpur the root is given when the extremities are cold during fever; also for pains in the legs and arms. The root also ferms the basis of an external application in leprosy. The leaves enter into the preparation of an errhine which is prescribed in cases of headache. The fruit rubbed over the head with a little water is useful in cases of baldness. The root of this plant has diaphoretic property and is therefore given in fevers to cause perspiration. A decoction of this roct I in’ 10 was found to be useful in relieving bronchitis and the attendant fever (IKXoman). The fruit is not an antidote to scorpion venom (Caius and Mhaskar). Bengal: Bichati, Bichiti—; Bombay: WKanchkuri, Khajkhotii—; Canarese: Dulagondi, Haligilu, WKiriberalu, Kiruberalu, WKiriturache, Sannaturachi, Tura- chi—; Deccan: Kanchkure—; Hindi: Baraanta—; Ho: Jipenda—; WNolami: Sengelsing—; Malayalam: Cherukodithuva, Chorinnanam, Choriyanam, Kotit- tuva~; Marathi: Kanchkuri, Khajkolti—; Matheran: Katavi, Kulti—; Sanskrit: Duralabha, Dusparcha, Dustaparisha, Grahini, Kachchura, Kasaghni, THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS SPURGES OF INDIA 818 Samudranta, Virupa, Vrishchikali, Vrishchikapatri—; Santal: Sengelsing— ; Tamil; Ambu, Cherukanjuru, Erumaikkanjori, JSanjori, Kandudi, Kannichi, KKaruppukkanjori, Kunasagam, Kurundotti, Punaikkanjori, Samuttirandam, Sendotti, Siruganjori, Tanavaiyadam, Turalobam, Turpparigam, Vellaikkan- jori—; Telugu: ~ Chinnadulagondi, Dulagondi, Dulagundi, Peddadulagondi, Kegadadula, Revatidulagondi, Telumani, Tigedulagondi—; Tulu: Pachcherengi, Turuse—; Uriya: Bichati, Bichchuati—. TREWIA. The genus consists of 2 Indo-Malayan species. Trewia nudiflora Linn. is common in the hotter parts of India from Kumaon southwards and eastwards to Assam, Malacca, and Ceylon. It extends to Sumatra and Java. The plant is cooling, tonic, alexiteric; improves taste; removes biliousness (Ayurveda). The plant is used for the removal of swelling, bile, and phlegm. The root in decoction is given to relieve flatulence and is applied locally in gouty or rheumatic affections. Bengal: Pitali, Pitoli—; Bombay: Bhillauri, Petari, Tumri—; Burma: Setkadon, Thitmyoka, Yehhmyot, Yemyot—; Canarese: Kadukanji, Kadukere, Kadukumbala, Kanji, Katkumbala, Katkumbla, Padye, Shillauri, Tumri—; Dehra Dun: Gamhar, Tumri—; Haldwani: Gutel—; Hindi: Bhillaura, Gamb- har, Gamhar, Khamara, Pindara, Pitoli, Tumri—; Kolami: Garalohadaru— $; Kumaon: Khamara, Tumri—; Lepcha: Tungplam—; Magahi: Hruprukban— ; Malayalam: Kanji, Kattukumil, Malankumil, Pamarakkumil, Pambarakmubil— ; Marathi: Petari, Pitari—; Monghyr: Gamhar—; Mundan: Garalupung—; Nepal: Gamari, Garum, Kurong—,; Oudh: Bhillaur, Bhillaura—; Saharanpur : Dhaulpedda—; Sanskrit: Karahata, Karangaha, Pindara—; Santali: Gada lopong—; Tamil: Attarasu, Attupuvarasu, Kanji, Naykkumil, Sannattuvarai— ; Telugu: Eruponaku—; Tharu: Bilur—; Uriya: Monda, Panigambhar, Pitalu, Pithaliya—. 12 REVIEWS. THE BIRDS OF BRITISH SOMALILAND AND THE .GULF OF ADEN. Their life-histories, breeding habits and eggs. By Sir Geoftrey Archer, K.c.M.G. and Eva M. Godman. Vols. i and u. 68/-. We feel that no apology is needed for bringing to the notice of the members of our Society this beautiful book on the birds of British Somaliland and the Gulf of Aden. There is a traditional connection between these areas and the Society which is evident to anyone acquainted with the back volumes of the Journal. No student of N.-W. India and the countries thereto contiguous can afford to disregard Somaliland and the Gulf for the light which they can throw on all problems and species connected with desert areas, for the fact that many species are common to both areas, and because many of the summer visitors and passage migrants of N.-W. India pass through or winter in the countries round the Gulf of Aden. Sir Geoffrey Archer is well known for his thirty years’ service in Africa. He is a nephew of Sir Frederick Jackson, whose book on the birds of Kenya and Uganda has just been published, and that relationship had its share in developing his interest in Natural History, and particularly in birds. In May 1914 he became Administrator of the Protectorate of Somaliland and when the status of the country was changed he became the first Governor, a post which he held until August 1922. During those years in Somaliland his leisure hours were largely given up to ornithology and by the time he left the country he had made a collection of some 38,000 bird-skins and 1,000 clutches of eggs, as well as the mass of field notes which have made this book possible. In working up this material Sir Geoffrey Archer has had the active help and collaboration of his kinswoman Miss Eva Godman who is a daughter of the late Frederick Ducane Godman, so well known to an elder generation of ornithologists. The completed book is to consist of four volumes of which the first two have now appeared together. These show that the book will be in format an ornament to any library whether purely ornithological or more general in scope. They are handsome in appearance and the printing and paper are excellent. The illustrations merit a few remarks. These consist of eighteen coloured plates of birds and four coloured plates of eggs as well as a number of beautiful photographs which illustrate the introduction. The plates of eggs are by Mr. H. Gronvold and are executed with the fidelity for which that name is a guarantee. The birds have been painted by the late Archibald Thorburn and will bear comparison with the best of his work. It should be remarked that this is the only book of non-British birds illustrated by Thorburn and for that reason it is bound to hold a special place in any critical study of his work. The backgrounds of the pictures, moreover, provide a good series of pictures of the scenery in Somaliland and afford an eloquent testimony to the careful collaboration between the authors and the artist which enabled the latter to paint a country that he never saw. To turn to the text of the book it is much fuller and more readable than most faunistic works. The introductory matter is unusually interesting, occupy- ing nearly a hundred pages. These include chapters on both the history of the country and the history of its ornithological exploration and a very full description of Somaliland and the Somali as they exist today with some very graphic pictures of the bird life typical of certain areas. These make fascinat,- ing reading, and make one long to visit a country that so far appears to have escaped the devastating march of progress. An admirable map in colours. will be found at the end of the second volume. The main text follows the system of classification which starts with the Stratheonida and ends with the Passeres. The authors admit 422 species and subspecies to their list and out of these 170 forms have been found breeding within the limits of the work. The account of each species is most ably written. Sir Geoffrey Archer is not and does not claim to be an expert sys- tematist and his work will here and there be found lacking on the scientific REVIEWS 315 side. He has however a fluent pen and a wide knowledge of his birds in the field and using these and the work of other writers in ~ happy combination he has produced a text which is very interesting. From it the HEnglshman in Somaliland will learn the points of interest about his birds and how and where to find them. At the same time the worker in other areas and the general reader will find this a book that helps him to appreciate the avifauna of a country which he may never see. We can only hope that the remaining tivo volumes will soon appear to join their most attractive predecessors. H. W. AUS DEM LEBEN DER VOGEL. By Dr. Oskar Heinroth. x+165 pp., with 98 insets of line drawings and photos. Berlin, 1938 (Julius Springer). Price 4:8 RM. This littl volume is the thirty-fourth of the series Verstdndliche Wissenschaft or Popular Science, published by the well-known house of Julius Springer. ‘The author, Dr. Oskar Heinroth, needs no introduction to students of ornithology. His monumental work, in four profusely illustrated volumes, on Central Iuropean birds—Die Végel Mittelewropas—is the record of practically a life- time devoted to the most thorough investigation of the life-history of almost evely species found on the continent of Kurope, most of which were reared, photographed and studied by him from egg upwards. As the author remarks in his Foreword, there is probably no other group of vertebrate animals about whick so much has been written and yet such misconceptions prevail in the popular mind, as Birds. The object of this booklet is not to go into such purely technical matters as systematics and anatomy for which many good manuals already exist. Neither is it a purely ‘popular’ book on birds in general. It purports to discuss only a few aspects of bird hfe, but what a wide range of topics it really does cover will be readily seen from the chapter- headings in the list of contents, some of which are the following: The Chief Characteristics of Birds—How Birds Sleep—Nesting Habits—Nest-building and Breeding—The Laying of Hggs—Clutches—Does the Bird Know its Hgg?— Does the Bird Recognise its Young ?—Does the Incubation Period Depend upon the Size of the Hgg?—Does the Size of the Egg Correspond with the Size of the Bird? Other subjects dealt with are: Cuckoo lore and Parasitism—The Egg, Development of Kmbryo and Growth of Young—Moult and Colouration— ing, etc. From the concise nature of the discussions backed by the authoritativeness one has a right to expect from an ornithologist of Dr. Heinroth’s calibre and experience, the book is refreshing to read. in these days, when the spate of ornithological literature has become physically impossible to keep abreast of, even by a full-time ornithologist, one is otherwise lable to be left bewildered as to what is and what is not the final answer to many of the questions herein discussed. This volume is bound to prove interesting and educative not only to the man who studies birds as a hobby, but also to the more serious student. « Lt is our misfortune, however, that it should be in a language that will perhaps debar it to many bird- lovers in India. ‘The illustrations are carefully selected and well reproduced and add greatly to the interest and attractiveness of the book. Se ABest, THE COMPLEAT INDIAN ANGLER, by John Masters, well bound and put together, covers some 115 pages of large spacious print, 34 pen and ink sketches, and 16 plates. Price 10s. 6d. It is not a thesis on Indian fishing in the sense that Thomas’ ‘Rod in India’ was, or even an up-to-date Anglers Hand Book or Mighty Mahseer. The author has cleverly dialogued in the shade of Isac Walton, his remini- scences of Service in India woven round his favourite sport Angling. ‘I'he book. makes good reading, but adds nothing new to past works. His keen 316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST.”SOCIETY, Vol. XE knowledge of the common Indian fishes, is given in a colourful story, supported by pen and ink sketches and in order not to weary the reader he gives some amusing anecdotes of every-day life that befalls the soldier or civihan during his sojourn of service in India. The sketches of the fish, in most cases, are excellent in outlne and _ pro- portion, though the finer details of Fin Rays and scales set, so important in the identification of fish, he has neglected. In the text the author has given the scientific names and partly described the fish, but has not always supported these in his sketches. This is unfortunate and defeats his own object. The Boka (B. hexagonolepis) is just one example on page 26, he mentions the scales in the L. Line as 28-31, but his sketch only shows 25. On page 101 of his book the author gives an unusual setting for Butchwa (Ha vacha). As far as I know Butchwa (EH. vacha) lke the broken water and eddies of slow running rivers, round and about the piers of bridges, submerged trees or where smaller streams join. They often feed in shoals when the surface is considerably disturbed. JI have never seen or heard of them ‘sucking in air’ in the manner as set down by the author, this is surely exceptional. He mentions 121 lbs. as the record Mahseer taken on Rod and line. Revitt Carnac, so far as I know, holds the record with his fish of 119 lbs. taken in Mysore on December 28, 1919, in the Cauvery. His experience takes him from the North-Eastern [Frontier of Assam, through Hyderabad, Sind, the Punjab and Kashmere, over to the barren N.-W. frontier to the Tochi and Kabul. The author wisely concludes his book with a paragraph warning the reader of the names of the fish he gives as purely local to the text of his book, and not general over all India. Mr. Masters would have done well to have resurrected, instead, the Immortal Thomas, and brought up-to-date that classic, The Rod in India. y Neg wails THE TRIALS OF A PLANTER, by Oscar Lindgren; printed by S. Mani Pradhan at the Mani Press, Kalimpong; and published by the author in 1933. Price Rs. 38. This little book of 206 pages has 384 chapters. There are 7 illustrations depicting some of the more exciting incidents and these will probably afford the reader as much pleasure and amusement as the drawing of them no doubt did to the, presumably, youthful artist. The author was at Bloxham School, and being by nature a wanderer chafed sorely at his hard lot of polishing an office stool in the city. Fortune, a bene- volent uncle, and ready replies to a Board of Examiners saved him, so he came out to India in 1877 at the age of 20 bound for the career of a Tea Planter in Assam. The voyage to Calcutta was uneventful except for frequent stoppages to repair decrepit engines; and that up the Brahmaputra river in a paddle steamer afforded plenty of mild incident. A Captain who was somewhat of a character introduced the lad to various peculiarities of life in the Hast, and the sight of muggers, buffaloes, wild fowl, the varied bird-life of the great river, and the teeming human life at the various stopping places gave interest to the long voyage of 383 days to Dibrugarh. His first ‘trial’ was a Manager who was more fond of a whisky bottle than tea, but he was kind to the author who became an independent Manager through his recommendation. In the early days of Tea ‘leaf rolling by hand was carried on in most of the Assam Tea Gardens, it was a slow and tedious process and with a rush of leaf it was a hard task to get a cooli man to roll his maund of withered leaf’. The rolled tea was made up into balls and left to ferment, the process being hastened by wet cloths. Firing was carried out on wire sieves over brick fireplaces. It was long before these primitive devices gave way to methods in use at the present day. After six years the author discarded Tea and entered the career of sleeper- cutter and sleeper-contractor for the Dibrugarh-Sadya Railway the construction of which began in 1888, While working in this capacity he laid the founda- REVIEWS 317 tions of the present settlement of Makum; and to this period obtain the tales of ‘The Mad Mukna of Makum’, ‘A Romance of the Sabansiri River’, ‘A “Night Encounter and its Sequel’, ‘The Dehing Saw Mills’, ‘A Man Hater’, etc. etc. A return to Tea planting was made and in 1887 he was opening a new tea garden in the Dibrugarh district on the Dehing river ‘in a howling muddle of forests and undergrowth’; ‘a white woman was as scarce as a white elephant and the less said about the way we dressed the better’. Malaria was bad and the life a hard one. About this time he saw something of elephant keddah operations and there were various fishing and shikar excursions with Miri tribesmen, of whom he speaks well. In the chapter ‘Some Snakes I have met’ we read of his escape from an anery hamadryad which he afterwards shot. It measured 17 feet. A planter saves himself from another of the species by holding his coat to the furious snake. Then there was an attack on his boat by a big black snake which might have been a king cobra except that its underside was a dull red. On the wrapper of the book is a coloured picture of a large snake in typical cobra attitude which is perhaps intended to represent a hamadryad; but it is banded like a krait. The youthful artist drawing on his imagination? By the way, is there such a weapon as ‘a smooth bore rifle’? And do domestic cattle eat green tea bushes? This is not known in South India. Some chapters are devoted to voyages and incidents unconnected with life as a planter. There is ‘The Wreck of the S. 8. Delhi’ in 1911; ‘A Visit to Canada’, etc. Then there is a description of the Darjiling earthquake of 1897, and of a great flood one year which did much damage along the Rangeet and Teesta rivers and in the Darjiling district. The putting together of this small book of reminiscences has no doubt afforded much pleasure to Mr. Lindgren and been of interest to his friends. Tt is a great pity the proof reading was not more carefully done for every page is full of misspellings and faulty annotation. R. W. 5; THE KANDY FLORA. Bv A. H. G. Alston. Pp. xvii+109. Colombo: Government Record Office, 1938. Price Rs. 3-50. This is a sure and safe guide to the identification of the flowering plants found within easy walking distance of Kandy. Simple, reliable keys are given for families, genera, and, when needed, for species; and there are 404 good illustrations. The book opens with an excellent account of ‘formations’ or ‘associations’, and ends with a useful glossary of botanical terms. The statement in the foreword that the book ‘has been prepared for the use of the Schools’ and that its ‘price has been kept down as low as possible in order that purchase may be within the means of every student’ invites criticism from this side of Adam’s Bridge where Rs. 3:50 is an amount that few school-going boys or girls could afford to pay. We do not know the Ceylon Government rules about the spelling of vernacular names, but the transliterations ‘ch’ and ‘chch’ in some of the Tamil names leave us pensive. 5 eee tee OF UGANDA GAME DEPARTMENT, Annual Report for the year 1937. What should be the functions of a Game Department? This must imme- diately occur to the mind of any Conservationist reading the Annual Report of the Game Department of the Uganda Protectorate for 1937. TI do not think that a correct answer can be found in this report. Section I dealing with Administration gives some illuminating details regard- ing the successful financial position of the department and discloses the fact that a very large profit is made from the sale of ivory, chiefly obtained by the destruction of elephants under an activity called ‘elephant control’. The small amount of the total revenue which is placed at the disposal of the Game Warden is significant. 318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL YVHIST. “SOCIETY. 2Vol. axes An expenditure of £6,554 only out of a gross revenue of £21,072 seems to be a poor percentage for what should be the chief work of a Game Warden, i.e. the Conservation of Wild Life. Detailed expenditure on such work is not given in the report, although commercial statistics are given at considerable length. At two auctions held in Mombasa during the year the average price of ivory per pound realized Shs. 7/68 and Shs. 7/10, compared with Shs. 6 and Shs. 6/55 in 1986. The price of ivory seems to be an important factor and is mentioned several times in the report, but does not appear to help the Game Warden to obtain more funds for Wild life Conservation. Here are one or two examples showing how little of the large balances is given for the work of the Game Warden. In 1926 the revenue of the Uganda Game Department was £12,316, ex- penditure £6,691, leaving a balance of revenue over expenditure of £5,625. In 1934 the revenue was £11,676, expenditure £5,111, leaving a balance of revenue over expenditure of £6,565. In 1937 the gross revenue was £21,072, expenditure £6,554, actually less than in 1926, leaving a balance of revenue over expenditure of £12,818, after deducting £1,700, estimated cost of internal and external transport of ivory. Evidently in Uganda there is no relation between the money received from wild-life resources and the expenditure to conserve the same resources. The value of the yard-stick appears to be unrecognized. It must be remembered that the revenue does not include the fees collected from registration of sporting firearms, etc. Tt does include the fees from Game Licences. The magnitude of the business may be gathered from the fact that 44,577 nounds of ivory were sold during the year, as well as 314 pounds of rhino horns and 8091 pounds of hippo teeth, realizing the sum of £16.507. We are then given in paragraph 6 under Tvory, etc., statistics showing stocks in hand at the end of the vear. A chapter headed ‘Tllecal Killing of Game and Breaches of Game Laws’, is quickly disposed of. No details here. No information regarding numbers of prosecutions, amounts of fines, etc. But the market value of ivory comes into the picture as affecting breaches of the law. Commencing with paragraph 11 a chapter headed ‘Game Reserves’, which one might imagine would be the most important and informative chapter in the book, is colourless, sketchy and disappointing in the bareness of all interesting detail. In view of what I have written about ivory and lower down about ‘elephant control’ JT should like to point out that in this chapter ‘Game Reserves’—it only takes up about three-quarters of a page—no information is given regarding: (1) Staff for the protection of the game reserves. (2) Steps taken for the guarding of the reserves. (83) Details regarding the expenditure on reserves. But we are told that plenty of game was seen and observed. We are not told how many reserves there are or what is their acreage. A little food for thought is given to us about the Damba Island Reserve. We are told that it is impossible to guard Damba Island effectively but we are not told why, unless the effect of the inhabited island of Kome is the excuse.. With a surplus of nearly £13,000 of revenue over expenditure such an impossibility should be impossible. A chapter headed ‘Game Trophies’ contains some interesting statistics regard- ing the elephant trophies obtained. A total of 337 elephants were shot under lieence. The price of ivory seems to be an influencing factor in the snort of elephant hunting in Uganda acconding to paragraphs 15 and 18 in this chapter. Incidentally it is mentioned that 2,627 tusks of ivory weighing 77,118 pounds, valued at £27,046 passed mone Uganda from the Belgian Congo. In Section II, ‘Elephant Control’, we find the report wetting down to the real thing. Here perhaps is the chief activity of the Game Department and if meticulous detail is a criterion it is the chief activity. Paragraph 25 reads as follows: ‘Owing to the absence on leave of both Game Rangers during the greater part of the year control operations in certain important localities “have become somewhat disor ganised and this, combined with frequent restrictions on elephant REVIEWS 319 hunting in rinderpest infected areas, has resulted in a considerable falling off in the numbers killed under organised control. In spite of these drawbacks, however, the results can be considered satisfactory. : Satisfaction appears to consist in the numbers of elephants killed. The absence of the Game Rangers appears to have saved us from accounts of wonderful feats and paeans of hearty congratulations such as have appeared in previous reports. We are told that the reference to decreasing damage in certain District reports is most heartening. We were told much the same thing in 1926, yet the toll of increasing killings has steadily gone up until this year and this falling off in 1987 is reported to be due to shortage of staff. We have a plethora of statistics. Twenty-six African ‘control’ ouards were employed, and in the control area 1,519 elephants were killed, mostly, I presume, by the guards. In addition to this other elephants paid the extreme penalty because 298 tusks were found in the control area which can, I think, be taken as from elephants wounded by the operations of the control. Of the first figure of 1,519 elephants about half of the number had tusks weighing under ten pounds, which means that they were taken from immature males and females. Of the second number of 228 tusks, about half came within the same category. There are no details showing the proportion of cow ivory but it is fairly evident from the figures shown that a large number of smali elephants must have been killed by “the control. The African control guards came in for their share of praise. We then have under several chapters detailed accounts of damage by and destruction of elephants in the different provinces. In these accounts it is shown that licence holders obtained some fine trophies. Details are given of incidents in connexion with the work of the control. It is to be presumed, from lack of all information on the subject, that no other methods than killing are undertaken to effect any control over elephant herds which cause depredations. In Section III we have ‘Notes on the Fauna’. Unfortunately practically nothing appears in this report about Gorilla, although there has been, T believe, considerable agitation to obtain a gorilla sanctuary in Uganda. If this sanctuary is a fait accompli one would have expected to hear something about it; if not one would expect to be told why nothing has been done. But there is always a good deal to be found in this report “about the misdeeds of the fauna and this section is no exception. Baboons, red monkeys, leopards, lions, buffaloes, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses, giraffes, bush pigs and zebras, as well as elephants, are all indicated. The chapter on Birds is interesting and instructive. The list of recoveries in Uganda during 1937 of White Storks, ringed in Europe, is no doubt of great scientific interest. Under reptiles we have a long reference to a crocodile known as Tutembe. IT think the Game Warden presumes that Lutembe is as well known to the rest of the world as it is to him, but as this report may be read by many whose knowledge even of Uganda is somewhat vague, much more vague must be their knowledge of Lutembe, and a little enlightenment on the subject would have been useful. Crocodiles are not popular ‘and efforts were made by the Game Department to deal with them by setting poison baits (phosphorus) at Katebo which were believed to have been successful. In Section IV ‘General’ under a chapter headed ‘Notes of General Interest’ we are informed that a party of eminent South Africans had a svlendid view of Imtembe. On reading this for the first time I thought it referred to a mountain! This chapter ends the references to mammals and we now turn to. Section V, Fisheries. The chapters in this section give very detailed statistics of the fishing industry in Uganda. The mass of detail collected is a great testimony to the industry of the Game Department. The economics of the business are thoroughly gone into and much information of great commercial value is to be found in “this section. The fisheries, while being of vital importance to the natives are, one would have thought, so far as a Game Department is concerned, a consideration which should take a second place after the mammal fauna, especially the larger fauna, which can, through lack of proper care and careful conservation, very easily disappear. 320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SO CLE TVeVol male The conclusion drawn from a study of this report is bound to leave the impression that the dominating factor governing the major activities of the Game Department is ‘control’. One cannot help coming to such a conclusion, it may be a wrong conclusion but due to the meagre information regarding the important work of conservation and the emphasis placed on the importance of ‘control’ there is to my mind no alternative. The numbers of elephants known to have been killed in Uganda during the last ten years—there must have been other deaths—amount to over 14,000, mostly killed by an organization especially formed to kill them. At least that is what the Uganda Game Department’s Reports lead us to believe. In the report for 1937 we have records of the killing of— 3387 elephants by licence holders. 1,519 elephants by the Game Department. and approximately 120 elephants found dead, based on found ivory; a_ total of 1,976 dead elephants. Uganda is not a very big country, about 223,500 square miles, less than twice the area of the British Isles. The continual drain on the elephant herds is a heavy one. Can they stand it? That is the first question. Is it necessary? That is the second question. Is the motive purely altruistic? That is the third question. Is there no alternative? That is the fourth question. No answers will be found in the report. because the information on which to base such answers are not there. We can, however, draw certain deductions. The large revenue from the sale of ivory is not used for the conservation of wild life nor for steps to counteract the depredations of wild life except on a basis of destruction. In other words the killing of large numbers of elephants is, at present, a profitable business. If there was no profit, if elephants had no. tusks, would the official killings reach these figures? If this question can be answered in the affirmative it means that no important significance attaches to the revenue obtained from the ivory sales? Therefore one is led to ask why this large revenue is not used to conserve wild life, utilized in research work, or expended on works to try to overcome the elephant difficulty ? If on the other hand the large revenue is appreciated as profit for general expenditure, while at the same time it is clear that little money is allocated to conservation work, then the elephant is being exploited for gain. Many years ago an officer of a Game Department in Africa said words to this effect: ‘The key note of successful conservation of wild life is the prevention of killing for profit.’ with which sentiment every conservationist will agree. Perhaps Government profit and individual profit are two different matters ? That may be so; but the principle applies to both profits. I believe that I am correct when I write that scientists in many parts of the world view with alarm the destruction of wild life in Africa. The present policy being followed in Uganda may or may not be necessary; we cannot form a complete judgement from the accounts given to us by those responsible for the destruction. Some of the Annual Reports of the Uganda Government Game Department have been disturbing to conservationists and distressing to many others. It seems that the time has come when an impartial inauiry should be held by persons expert in the art of practical conservation of wild life into this question of the organized destruction of elephants and other large fauna. It would take a long time to make a thorough inquiry. It would cost a lot of money. But it would not cost as much money as the annual profit the Uganda Government are making out of the sale of government ivory. June 19, 1988, As He MISCELLANEOUS NOTES I.—PANTHER WITH ABNORMAL FEET. Writing to the Society in connection with two panther skins sent to them for mounting by H. H. the Maharao of Cutch, Messrs Van Ingen & Van Ingen state “You might be interested to know that one of these panthers has two extra phalangeal bones and claws—twenty in all’. In vol. xxx, p. 909 of the Journal (1925) the Mahara} Kumar Shree Vijayarajji of Cutch published a photo- ereph and a note on a panther with an extra claw-bearing toe on each hind foot, and in a recent letter H. H. the Maharao comment- ing on the reference to his trophy made by Messrs. Van Ingen «& Van Ingen says ‘This is the third one I have shot having the same character. All three have been found in more or less the same part of Cutch. Apparently the extra toe in some cases is hereditary.’ The recurrence of these abnormalities within the area appears to see ears His Highness’ suggestion is possibly correct. In vol. xi, 734 of our Journal, Mr. 8. Eardley-Wilmot refers to a panther ae by him in Oude, with five fully developed claws and toes on each hind foot. BomBay. S. HH: PRATER. May 30, 1938. TI.—JACKALS (?) AND A CAPTIVE PANTHER. T have just recently read Mr. F. W. Champion’s book entitled With a Camera in Tiger-land and was very much interested in his remarks on leopards and hyaenas in the chapter entitled ‘Hyaenas and others’. In July 1936 IT came into possession of a young male leopard some four months old and I kept this animal which was perfectly tame until December of the same year when I gave him to the Zoo at Trivandrum, Travancore. During the time the animal remained in my possession he occupied a fairly large cage in my compound with a bare earth floor, and on many occa- sions on my visiting the leopard in the early morning T found that holes had been burrowed ae the edge of the cage presumably so that the burrowing animal could ste all scraps of food which had been left. After keeping watch several times on hearing my dog bark late one night I ran around to the cage and found ie pani hiding behind a small box and a couple of animals engaged at piece of meat which had been purposely given extra to the eee in his evening meal. Tmmediately on hearing me the ‘raiders’ made off and as far as I could make out they were only ordinary jackals or perhaps wild dog. I thought it rather amazing that the aap should endeavour to hide from the marauders but did not think it worth recording until T had read Mr. Champion’s book, It 322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL (HIST @ SO Clb IY: "Viola should be observed that, although on every occasion raids were made holes were made which were big enough to let the leopard walk out without any difficulty, he made no attempt to do so but instead appeared next day very much cowed. (UILON, TRAVANCORE, SouTH INDIA. NOEL J. 8S. THOMPSON, February 22, 1988. FLR.S.A., F.Z.S., ALAA. IIT.—PANGOLIN AND SAMBAR: A CURIOUS BELIEF. We publish below an extract from the Chief Forest Officer’s Report of 11th February 19388 to the Administrator, Bastar State. ‘I may say that though I have not seen the Pangolin in this State (Bastar) but I am certain that it does exist for the reasons civen Het les (1) That it is a nocturnal animal, and moves slowly and hence the chances of locating it in forests are few and far between. (2) That the bony scales of this animal are made into finger rings and buckles by professional men in Jagdalpur and other vil- lages and sold to the patients suffering from rheumatic diseases. The writer of this note in his recent tour was seriously offered a set of rings and buckles made of Pangolin scales at Ulnar camp to relieve the nerve pains. This harmless creature certainly requires protection, otherwise it would be wiped off completely. I suggest a thorough survey of this animal through §8.D.O. Tahsildars, $8.1. Range Officers and Revenue Inspectors. Incidentally I heard very curious story about this animal from the aborigines. They believe that when a sambar comes across al Pangolin it rears up on his hind legs and at the same moment the Pangolin rolls itself into a ball a then Sambar comes down —with all his w eight on to the back of Pangolin—delivers blow after blow until the Sambar succeeds in dislodging a couple of bony scales. As soon as this operation is over, the Sambar picks up the loose scales and swallows them. In support of this story, the aborigines told me that, once the Pangolin is on his defensive (i.e. rolls up), you may strike dozens of blows with either butt end or sharp end of an axe it makes no impression on the animal. On the other hand, a Sambar on many occasions succeeds in killing the animal.’ EDITORS. TV.—AN ALBINO SAMBAR. Records of albino wild animals always have a certain amount of interest, so the following note is submitted. In the course of an evening stroll in the mixed sal and chir pine forests at 1,500 ft, near Chaukhamb in the hills of the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 323 Kohtri valley not far from Lansdowne, my wife and I saw a verv conspicuous white object standing some 35 yards away and about the same number of feet below us. For a moment we thought we must be getting near a forest camp (we did not know the country), and that we were looking at the rear view of a white hill pony with phenomenally shortly docked tail; then that it was only a barkless bleached stump of that shape. But after the first moment, there was no question but that it was a sambhar hind standing with its back to us, with head turned to watch us through some thin scrub. We watched it with and without bino- culars at the short range mentioned for as long as we wished, for, despite our movements, it did not stir. Phe muzzle was conspicuously pink and completely pigmentless as also were the fleshy parts round the eyes; the eyes also appeared pink, but we could not be absolutely certain of this; the ears with the light showing through them appeared possibly very slightly pigmented, Over the whole body the hair was definitely white, perhaps a bit dingy as though in need of grooming, as sambhar mostly look to be at this season, but impossible to describe as merely ‘pale buff’ or ‘pale fawn’. It seems surprising that so conspicuous an animal could survive to maturity in forests with plenty of tiger and leopard, not to mention poachers. . NAT An. WP. Hy G. CHAMPION. tars... April 1, 1988. Conservator of Forests, Western Circle. V.—THE MATING OF ELEPHANTS. The manner in which elephants mate has long been a moot point. Owing perhaps to the position of the generative opening in the Cow it has been suggested that during congress she lies on her back—some have held that she digs a hole. The question if there yet remains any doubt as to the manner of fecundation may definitely be set at rest by the authentic photograph which IT enclose. The female was purchased on the 18th February 1936 being wild and just caught in a Khedda. Her age is about 30 years and height 7 ft. 6 in. The tusker is aged 35-36 having been in captivity for about 80 years, his height is 8 ft. 5 in. At the time the snap was taken the female had been partly broken in—she could carry a pad but did not know all the words of command. The pair had been brought in from the hills where they are let loose fettered and lead a semi-natural life often mixing with wild herds. The snap was taken from a distance of 60 yards in an open field with seores of villagers looking on. The tusker mounted about eight times, but the female did not respond as she kept crossing her hind legs. Subsequent to this the tusker mounted on several occasions, either in the compound or in the hills. The female is now in calf. The tusker has been getting musth for the last 5 vears, the attack generally lasting from 10 days to a fort- night when he is unapproachable, The attack comes on usually 324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL SHISd. SOCIETY Volo ak in April or May. When in musth he always seeks the company of a female, and mounts whether she is willing or not. He NUD Sis, Hebruary 11, 1988. Game Warden. X.—THE YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHER (CHELIDORYNX HYPOXANTHUM): AN EXTENSION OF ITS RANGE. I shall be glad if you can kindly tell me whether you have Chelidoryna hypoxanthum, the Yellow-bellied Flycatcher, noted for this district (in winter only). I saw a pair of these birds in a wood about 8 miles along the Jammu road in the first week in March 1986. Last year I was at Home, so did not have any opportunity of observing them. But this month I have again seen two or three of these birds at places between here and Jammu. I] see from the old Fauna that they do not appear to be noted west of Simla, but possibly the new edition of the Fauna, of which I have no copy, may give further information. As I was on two oceasions able to get within a few feet of the bird (which was hawking from a small bush) and examine it very thoroughly through 323 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BIST. “SOCIETY, Vol, AL my glasses, there can be no doubt about the identity of the species. SIALKOT, PUNJAB. HA. STORRS 4HOx February 18, 1938. XI.—THE STATUS OF THE KOEL (HUDYNAMIS SCOLOPACEUS lL.) IN SIND. Since writing the article on this subject, which appeared in Vol. xxxix, No. 2, of the Society’s Journal, dated the 15th April 1937, I had oceasion to visit Shikarpur in June last after a lapse of several years. I was in Shikarpur from the 4th to the 8th June 1987 and found that the Koel had continued its movement north and arrived there. I heard several Koel call repeatedly on the early morning of the doth. The day following I paid a flying visit to the mango topes and gardens round about the town and both heard and saw several birds, both male and female, in the short time that I had at my disposal. From the 6th to the 8th, the date of my departure, I heard birds calling daily, early mornings, and a pair daily visited some fig trees in the Rest House garden, where I often saw them at very close range. Purbia malis and others in the P.W.D. garden, Shahi Bagh and other gardens told me that the Koel had made its first appearance in Shikarpur only two summers previously (1985) and that it had been there regularly every summer since. As the Crows had not then commenced their domestic affairs I was unable to obtain first-hand knowledge of its breeding in Shikarpur, but a Purbia mali in Shahi Bagh told me that the year before (19386) he had seen a pair of crows feeding a young {Soel which was just able to fly. 1 have no reason to doubt this information as the Purbia of the U.P. knows the Koel only too well. Karacuu. Kk. BATES.) January 27, 1988. F.Z.8., M, Bir. XIT.—SOME INTERESTING RECORDS OF BIRDS IN THE PUNJAB. -A- CORRECTION. In my note under the above heading on page 861 of vol. xxxix it was stated that ¢ Q Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus sultaneus were obtained on 24th and 26th February, 19386. I have now been informed by Mr. Hugh Whistler that, by an oversight, the 2 was wrongly identified. It is Dinopicum shorei (Gould,) the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 329 Himalayan Golden-backed Three-toed Woodpecker, which also is new to the Punjab List. : RAWALPINDI, H, W. WAITE, m.B.0.v., PUNJAB. Indian Police. April 3, 1938; XITI.—CUCKOO PROBLEMS. It is already April and so rather late to ask for the following observations to be carried out this year, but I am going to make a start myself and I would ask for co-operation from all those interested in the cuckoo. It is desirable to find out what are the reactions exactly, if any, betrayed by those species of small birds that habitually foster the cuckoo, when they find a strange ege in their nest. I suggest that a light bamboo hide be constructed which is easily portable. This can be set up near such nests and observa- tions can be carried out from it. A suitable egg must be chosen for the experiments. It should be either a cuckoo’s egg, or some other bird’s egg about the size of a cuckoo’s egg, and the greater the contrast between it and the eges of the nest-owner the better. I am starting with a bulbul’s ege on which I have painted a startling, wide zone of white—in white enamelled paint. This is in violent contrast to the eggs of the Burmese Stone Chat and Blyth’s Pipit—species of common fosterers I am experimenting on this year. Some authorities on the cuckoo maintain that the nest-owners frequently ‘eject’ cuckoo’s eggs which contrast too violently with their own. They do not suggest how this feat is accomplished and have not as yet proved that it takes place. They are however convinced that it does happen. On the face of it it would appear to be physically impossible for such small birds to remove a cuckoo’s egg from their nests unless they first broke the egg in their nest and then carried off the fragments in their bili. To try and clear up this lttle problem I have suggested that experiments be conducted as I have described. These experi- ments must be of course carefully recorded in a note-book and the data published in due course when a_ sufficient number of experiments have been carried out. To avoid unnecessary bother in waiting in the hide I suggest that the hide be set up and left unoccupied for a few hours till the nest-owners are used to it. If it is then occupied the birds will return at once to their nest and the observation can then be made in the least possible time. Many hundreds of such observations are necessary before we can form an opinion, but these observations are quick and easy enough to conduct and should afford interest, if not amusement, while they are being carried out, and so I hope those interested in the cuckoo will 13 330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. GE help. and later record with full data the results of — their experiments. TaunaGyi, S. SHAN STATES, BurRMaA. Tt Rab eS hie Apr i, 1958: XIV.—STRANGE ACCIDENT TO A VULTURE. (With a photo). A young friend of mine took three photos of a vulture which attacked a dying calf a few miles out of Bone but apparently was too venturesome and was caught by the head in the calf’s mouth. Both were found dead together. He wants to know if it ig a Common occurrence. 21, RAVELIN STREET, Bomsay. J. A. C, GREENWOOD. March 16, 1988. | Most unusual we believe.—Ebs. }. XV.—OCCURRENCE OF THE LESSER ORANGE-BREASTED SREEN PIGHON (DENDROPHASA BICINCTA BICINCT. 4) : AT KEAMARI, SIND. On the 3rd January 1988 a Green Pigeon was shot at Keamari by D. Lyons, son of Lieut. G. Lyons, p.1.A.8:c. The bird, thanks to Major W. J. Dixie, R.1.4.s.c., was brought to me by Lieut. Lyons himself the same day for identification and proved to be an adult female of the species named above The bird was very fat and its plumage was in perfect condition. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 331 It was obviously no ‘escape’. The crop contained a number of freshly eaten pipal berries. The pigeon when shot was seated at the top of a pipal tree. The young shikari, who was using a :22 air gun, did not think at the time of looking carefully in the tree for other birds but says that a couple of days later he saw another bird in Keamari sitting at the top of a pipal tree. About the 4th or 5th, yet another Green Pigeon, species not known, was seen seated at the top of a leafy tree in Karachi by a lady. So far as I am aware no others came to notice. The Society very kindly examined the skin of the bird shot by young Lyons at Keamari and informed me that it had been correctly identified as Dendrophasa bicincta bicincta. Regarding its occurrence in Sind the Society writes, ‘With regard to its distribution we can find no reference to its occurring so far west as Karachi. The Fauna gives its north-western distri- bution as follows:—‘Northern India from the United Provinces along the Terai through the foot hills and adjoining plains to Kastern Assam, north of the Brahmaputra; Bengal and Bihar, but replaced in the extreme east by praetermissa. It is difficult to ascribe any real reason for its occurrence at Karachi, but it is quite possible that the bird may have been driven southwards by the prevalent cold wave.’ KKARACHI. K. R. EATES, February 2, 1988. F.Z.S., M.B.O.U. XVI.—WOODCOCK, WOOD SNIPE, PINTAIL SNIPE AND JACK SNIPE IN ONE DAY! { | i | The enclosed photograph may be of some interest, as showing the relative sizes of Woodcock, Wood Snipe, Pintail Snipe and Jack Snipe. The respective weights were 113, 5$, 42 and 2 oz. 332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ist. SOCIETY, Vol. XL -2 Ttis very doubtful if all four species have ever been shot on the same day on these hills, prior to this... They were shot by me on the 16th February 1988, not very far from Ootacamund,- ‘LANSDOWN’, OOTACAMUND.- | aii Afarch 25, 1988... . RK. Fa STONEY. XVI.—PHE SNIPE-BILLED GODWIT : GU LD SE CEM UES, (Y RIOR SNS) I ORISSA. | ae The head and legs of a Snipe-Billed Godwit were sent to the Society by Mr. R. 8. Clough. The bird was shot at the Chilka Lake, Orissa, in December 1987. There are a few previous records of the occurrence of this winter migrant within Indian- limits. But as Mr. Stuart Baker indicates it doubtless occurs far more often than it is recognised and _ shot. Bompay. 5. Ho PRAT: May 31, 1988. XVITI.—THE OCCURRENCE OF THE TURNSTONE, THE RED-NECKED PHALAROPE, THE FALCATED TEAL .- AND THE SHELDRAKE AT PATNA. On 28rd September 1937 a young male Turnstone (Arenaria interpres Li.) was brought to me by a local bird-catcher who declared it was trapped on a Jheel in the outskirts of the town. It had a wing measurement of 149 mm. The same man also brought me on 6th November 19387 a female Red-necked Phalarope in winter plumage. Its legs were black but the lobes of the web between the inner and middle toes were bright orange and the tibia was pale orange. An adult male Falcated Teal (Hunetta falcata Georgi.) was also brought to me on the 80th January 19388 being trapped along with Widgeons and Shovellers. The Sheldrake (Tadorna tadorna Oy is a rare visitor to these parts. Thirty years ago I once noticed a solitary bird on the Ganges which would not let me get within range though it could be distinctly identified through classes, Last year, ‘in December, I noticed a small flock and again came across a flock of eight birds on 5th January 1938 which were probably the same birds. Two attempts were made to get within range but they were too shy and would not let me eet “anywhere Salhi range, Parwa.- E. A. D’ABREU. February 10, 1988. ji MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 333 XIX.—BEWICK’S SWAN (CYGNUS BEWICKI YARRELL) NEAR DELHI. I enclose a snap of myself holding up a bird shot on the 26th instant by Mr. R. E. Grant Govan of Delhi at Sutana about 45 miles north of Delhi. There seems to me to be little doubt that it is a Bewick’s Swan (C. bewickii). The upper part of the beak. upto the eye-was vellowish and the beak and legs jet black. Other particulars are neck 2 ft. long, spread 6 ft. 6 in., base of neck to tip of tail 2 £.; lees 1 ft. 6 in. The bird appeared to be slightly immature for though the feathers were white, there were a few slightly grevish feathers on the neck and wings. It was sitting in a piece of water about 2 ft. deep and 100 x 800 yds. in extent. The water or jhor was not far from a village. It was clear in the centre with the ordinary reeds and a few weeds near the edges. When shot the bird was alone and appeared on the whole to be confiding. The Manager of the Manton’s, to whom this bird was given, intends to preserve the skin and send it to Bombay. _ There appears to be no previous record of Swan near Delhi and perhaps some of your other readers would be interested to see this and possibly supply useful information. | DELHI. BE. 8. LEWIS. December 29, 1987 [The bird was sent to the Society’s Museum. It is an example of Bewick’s Swan (Cygnus bewickii Yarrell). There are two previ- ous records of the occurrence of this swan within Indian lmits.. One is a specimen shot at Jacobabad, Sind, by Mr. B. L. McCulloék on the 2nd December 1907, and the second is a female shot by Captain: P. C. Elliot-Lockhart near Mandan, N.-W.E.P.,.on-the 80th December 1910. Both these specimens are in the Society’s collection.—EDs. ]. | | XX.—OCCURRENCE OF THE LONG-TAILED DUCK (CLANGULA HYEMALIS LINN.) NEAR QUETTA. Perhaps it may interest your Society to eon ‘that a female specimen of the Long-tailed Duck in full. plumage was shot on Khush Dil Khan Lake, 40 miles from here on the 2nd January 19388. 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SS Cai aan eS \ “SE6I YILDPW IS] ‘KVANOG —————————————————— SS SS SSS sss SSS JeOYy 9ouy[eVg 0} portieo souy[eg ** ADAING [BOLSO[04ZIUIO uo Sesuaedxy ‘° ASAING [eo sojoyqyWUIC JOYS 9oUue]e_ O} palsivo souvleg ** oF s[Teusnor uo oinjIpuedxy ‘* puny jeuanor yerseds J20YQ souvleg 0} poliieo souvjeg * - eee eee suIp[Ing ul soseg MOYS UO sInjIpuedxy| ** c ON puny sosey MOUS JOOS souv[eg 0} pollivo aouvleg ** ‘OJ9 AIOT[VH YSIY UO sinupuedxq oy, T ‘ON puny “10 ie lend ae 5 te Rees, » a) SF oe a eit SAN ht hele AA Ne a a ek SR a Rae I RG ee ve Co tes ETP * u } : ck oe ee aa OES EES vr Dy sheeted sx, hs 2 aS: Se a4 a eis Leth Rest ya Moe < Vitnsre ate ats eae! ee 2 - brett 4 ¥ 4 Bo x Se 2 g bs oF Es a peapere es ra ‘ae ae EY - GAME BIRDS OF INDIA, en & CEYLON. BY E C. STUART BAKER, C.LE., 0.B.E., F.LS., ELS. M.B.0.U., H.F.A.O.U. Imperial ovo. =Half bound: VOL. Ill. = PHEASANTS AND BUSTARD- QUAIL. About 320 pp. With 12 Coloured Plates and numerous Black and White Plates. Price to Members who have not purchased , Wools. lac: PR or ... £ 1-15-0O=Rs. 23 Members who have purchased one of the above Volumes ... 4 1-10-0O=Rs. 20 Members who have purchased both the above Volumes ... £ 1- 5-O=Rs. 17. Price to Non-members. : Two Guineas—Rs. 28 Packing and postage extra. COMMON INDIAN BIRDS. ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR. | ALBUM. Coloured illustrations of 196 Common Indian Birds neatly bound in soft rexine as a Volume of reference. Size 11 x 94 inches. Price to Members Jaks. 32 ! paleee an Packing extra. ,. Non-members ... Rs. 40 | : Apply to:— 2 The Bombay Natural History Society, | 6, Apollo Street, BOMBAY. SOME BEAUTIFUL | | INDI A N i R E E S- BY The late Rev. E. BLATTER, SJ. PhD. i . and | W. S. MILLARD. With 31 Coloured and 37 Black and White Illustrations. Extract from Introduction Tae book consists of the description in popular _ language of some of the Beautiful Indian Trees, of which 31 coloured and 37 black and white illustrations are riven. It . is been prompted by the many inquiries which are constantly being made as to the correct names of the — trees so conspicuous when in flower, and it is hoped that it will prove of assistance to those who take an interest in these beautiful trees and wish to know not only their correct names, but also something about their Py : | These trees are not all indigenous as the majority have been introduced into oa = = sty Price to Members __ Rs. 10 Se a ee : See Postage extra. | Price to Non-members Rs. 15 i eS - Apply to: — The Bombay Natural History Society, : : 6, Apollo Street, BOMBAY. SS ESE EE a =, SS STS SSS SS AT ee ce RATT RES | SR EE a ane ay ca ones Sree? Pe hs : 0 ve Oren y if Bie are Dye) RAW ; Se tib aly 1 Ni at reat ty in Mik) ven i ra i i 7 i leit aby iM fect iN ah ee iy a Me A uh , ik aw i) . q y - if thes h : t f Ny +e Ae { } . ee: dui ’ : * ie 7 ' . i » q and rit, ( a . cos d ‘ . - le 9 f % I , ‘ = i \A\A WAAAas ARAN AAAAARAANAAAA AAA 5333 i> >») » >_ yD PD p>. 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