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A TARE CA ems try i) y b TRU ae Giks ichoied Teoma 4 Parkeda be sliaie yee ay oymiet puting apheih behucerké 18) MAST ad aaeeys BNF a ATT HT Me aay Jal pethe bh beda bedlha SAS Ar aie hain ae “ We i Hat aaS Cy ey “4 Aras ola tye Oe he Ge ytda sy 3 ie We way aie tc 44 At kesh TU TMON OPEC tS eet 4 ‘ hovah rv ieiy nA f i Th ry ae, Vine vt ; ety) i ad | Mar oy as ny THE JOURNAL OF THE BomMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY INDEX AND TITLE PAGE VOL. XLII oe SlOnaL mused: Price ort Rs. 2-4-0 MADRAS PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS 1942 ae INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the following order when they are being bound :— Title page ee : Contents of Nos. Ll and Zof Vol7xLil: : List of Contributors as -. | To follow” “tromtts: 4 piece in this order. : Listto! Plates --- ue aoe Index to Illustrations on es Errata sas Index of Species re To go at the end of = two numbers. THE JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY EDITED BY * ey. Fr. J. FE. CAIUS, S.J. F-L.S.. H. M. MCGUSTY AND S.H. PRATER, MLL.A., J.P. VOL. XLil age Nos. 1 & 2 Containing 4 Coloured Plates, 45 Black and White Plates, 49 Text-figures, 4 Photos and 1 Map Dates of Publication Part I. (Pages 1, to 232)... December 1940. Fe lk. S(Ge 52 P2353 to,.454) ae April 1941. LONDON AGENTS DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY) 212, Shaftesbury Avenue, London, W.C. 2. PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS 1942 ye « s i mo Ss CONTENDS OL VOL OME Xi. No. 1 PAGE SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part V. By N. L. Bor, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., I.F.S., and M. B. Raizada, M.Sc. (With one coloured plate of Bauhinia Galpini N. E. Brown and three black and white plates, and seven TORU Al LOILHES) ee vaemet tats cota ese nro Sose hee Cas eee eS eed ook oe aowet 1 THE POMEGRANATE. By Father J. F. Caius, $.J., F.L.S........ 13 THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part V. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.. A ie kt 38 A REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN eee Sa Pari Lis aby. McCann, F.L.S. (With six black and white plates)....... 45 THE EcoLoGy OF A TEMPLE TANK CONTAINING A PER- MANENT BLOOM OF Microcystis aeruginosa Cad Fen it : By S. V. Ganapathi, M.SC., A.I.c.. BF 65 THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA. Part XL “By ioe S. ie eee D.SC., F.R.S.E., F.Z.8., F.R.A.S.B., FeN.I. (With one colour- ed plate and four text-figures)... Se vcah caste 78 A CONTRIBUTION TO THE LIFE Hetee oF Zr ie ee bens Linn. By I, Banerji. ae two plates and twenty- MEU BECIEI-NEO VE )eccnteueoseast ses See'vet fc kot usa sus tev celts endecleas ce 89 SOMETHING ABOUT ee By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, mACRetd.) \GW/2th a Olack and White: Plate) ....scsscsn.sb aes 100 Notes on SomE NEW AND INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BurRMA. PartII. By Major-General Sir Harry. Pytier, K:C:B., C.M.G.,/C.1.E.; -D.S.0.; Mises 109 A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF THE PUA Prae AND THE ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS. By Dr. T.S. Sabnis, B-A= (EIons.), D.SC., -FVA.S.GC,,. 1. AS: me 124 BurMA’s DECREASING WILD Lirz. By D’ Anew WWeatneche. (With two plates) . arated eree lee a2 a LOO SomE ComMMON TOSS Ramer WITH Nerke ON THEIR ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS. Part V. By M. Sayeedud- Din. (With two plates)... - 161 THE DEATH EXPEDITION OF EUASSIE Chememrecins ae of Crocallis sp.) By G.C. Bhattacharya. (With a plate). 164 THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FLAXWORTS OF INDIA. By J. F. Caius, S.3., F.L.S.....0.-..110-s0ncaeserserseeseesogesereecesees 167 iv | CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII A STUDY OF THE COURTING HABITS OF Myrmarachne platale- otdes (Cambr.) A SPIDER MIMIC OF THE INDIAN RED- ANT, Oecophylla smaragdina. By A. P. Mathew, M.A..... REVIEWS :— 1. A Facsimile of R. H.Beddome’s Articles on Indian Reptiles 1862-1870. By Malcolm Smith........... 2. The Tetrapod Reptiles of Ceylon. Volume I, Testudinates and Crocodilians: “By PE. PB: Deraniyagala... , ene WANTED INFORMATION ABOUT Nancens edits ian ne te MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— I. How the Mongoose counteracts Snake Bite. By A. L’E. Browniow.. bed LR eee ae ii Ae Wwarce Panne ante cor SrrechiOny ‘By Yashodaar Singh of Khilchipur... b III. The Short-nosed Fruit- mae (Ghichtegu 1S Me phiaie as an Agent of seed dispersal in the Wild Date (Phoentx sylvesiris L.). / By C.aMicCani. cer es {V. Jungle and House Crows as destroyers of Game. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji... V. Notes on the nesting of Wastes Ss eee (Acmonor-hynchus vincens [Sclater|). By Cicely Lushington, (wth a plate)... i VI. The Occurrence of the islieee bellied riggs pecker (Pachyglossa melanoxantha Uodgs.) at Almora, U.P. By S: H. Prater : VII. TheOccurrence of the Drongo Gucles (on es lugubrts oan in the Punjab. By Mrs. A. B. M. Way... VIII. A Note on ae “Alpines ae apes naib , bakeri Hartert). By C. McCann, F.L.s.. IX. Vultures ‘feeding’ atnight. By E.S. ee ee X. Injuries to the feet ofa Mallard. By W. P. Keelan. XI. Additional Notes on the Birds of Bombay and Salsette. By Humayun Abdulaliand Salim Ali. XII. Some Birds. of Lower Burma. By J. A. M. SVMS tee vie deprceabane iy Some Bird sae cite Oil fields, Borat ok A. M. XIV. Birds vere Batteriios ae S. F. Hopwood, 1.F.S. PAGE 171 181 181 182 1837 183 184 185 186 187 187 188 189 191 191 198 198 199. ogee eve VA. NOW XVIII. XIX. 2. XXII. OIL. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVITI. XXIX. XXX. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII The many Banded Krait (Bungarus multicinctus) {ieSsuininan wey er Nae Minho yas, ne eee ee Extension of the range of the Brown Whip Snake (Dryophis pulverulentus Jan.) By C. McCann. Frog eating a Snake. By R. K. Dharmakumar- SUA dee cer geteee cx < wee meee Cas ; Notes on the cat distribution and larvicidal propensities of Hloraichthys setnai imbkarnte | Dy vives COD) MSCs. J08.5 eo baste ccs Notes on the Early stages in the development of the Deccan Killifish Aplochetlus lineatus (Cuv. ande Vials) bys. UOneSs, Masc..and Vio J. Job, MEGG,, (tO7th LON TEXT 102 UTES). 22s one. css Butterflies attracted by moist earth. Parsons, F.R.E.S.. : On the larva of the moth ise ty ripitaa) and the destruction of the cocoons by Tree Shrewss) bye. 2). Parsons, PeR.E.S) ok leeks, Lagerstroemia indica as a food plant of the Silk Moth Cee ee By. KR. i: Parsons, F.R.E.S. The ee he Witlow (Salix hai iontaye asa food plant of the Moth Loefa katinka Westw. By Rio. Parsons, FRIES. Pet The Wood-cutting Wasp (SPnee te ie Bing and its prey in Salsette. By C. McCann........ Larva of Theretra lycetus Cr. parasitized by MACIIMIC INES eb y Co. VICCAnd, dec. 2 ee. keke March Lepidoptera at Gopalpur (Dist. Ganjam). Bye DaGe SCvaStOpUlo,s | FORKS. 0300 ..re.¢esaceee oes By R. E. Some insects from a Mango trunk ( Mangitera indica Love ©. MeCann .. fcc sccsss008 doa eee Insects at a street lamp at Andheri. By C. ic Caritaoanerrce ements al CMe Ie 8 cusck eran h Rotten Some Indian Spiders: Their season of prosperity. By T. V. Subrahmanyam... Theft of a watch by a Fiddler Poa ‘By Violet Dickson., atts eed os'c proceedings of ine es feoican bMesting: POU Sites dostt oe: 201 203 206 207 208 209 209 210 211 212 213 217 7A ee 221 vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII No. 2 SoME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part VI. By N.L. Bor, M.A., D.SC., F.L.S., I1.F.S., and M.B. Raizada, m.sc. (With one coloured plate of Mussenda frondosa Linn. and three black and white plates and three text- figures)... co0d00 “t oe see SOME DORN innOrOcTeat Reon OF THE Unni Wo Canaere EXPEDITION OF 1938/39 To NORTHERN BuRMA. By Major J. K. Stanford, 0.B.E., M.C., F.R.G.S., 1.C.S. (Retd.) (With two plates)... < Monee THE WHALE SHARK (Rep ineden ie ican in Tadic Coastal Waters with notes on its wanderings in other areas. By S.H. Prater, ¢.M.z.s. aes one map and SEVEN PIOTES) ccc s. cetes sete ceo madineseeeecsetee SomE COMMON ieOTACe Hone: WITH Nonae: ON THEIR ANA- TOMICAL CHARACTERS. By M. Sayeedud-Din. Part VI. (With two plates)... a bee danineia de oe pecsemese THE EARLY STAGES OF ee Lamoc me Dane VI. By D. G. Sevastonulo, F.R.E.S.. : OL ek Sie PHOTOGRAPHING IN CEYLON’S pen Ciena nane. By W. W... AC Phillips; #-LS4 B-Z:S. sCWiethisex Plaies) eae A CONTRIBUTION TI THE STUDY OF THE BIOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY OF INDIAN MARSH AND AguaTic Prants. By J. F. R. D’ALMEIDA, B.A., M.Sc. (With to PIGles) Wr. cccice eenene sa: 2+ ceslseccert Seneeee Tue GAME FisHes OF INbDIA. Part XII. ee aehs ibe Hora, D.SC., F.R:E:S.,. £.Z.S.) 92 -R-A.S.B.)) BN ban iene Misra, M.SC. ees one coloured plate and seven text-, A NEw ceren ae OF : (Srosarsta By K. CHERIAN JACOB, L.Ag., F.L.S: (Wth a plate)... : ee MARINE SHELLS OF Nor Ac | “8 M. 0) ‘CRICHTON. Wie four plates)... : A Conmeeuntoun TO THE ons. OF THE Poke AND THE ASsocIATED Hi1LL REcGions. Part II. By Dr. T. S. Sabnis, B-A. (Hons.); D.Sc, BSA-SC., I-A:s.. THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LAaBIATES ¢ OF “Tsao = Rev. PriJ. F.4GCAnus, Si-,8:E-S.- a On THE FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN Ve a AND Does (Heterocera). By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S............ OBITUARY :— FREDERICK VICTOR EVANS (1865-1940)... ...cceeceseeee toe cee eee ene 233 242 2595 280 283 295 298 323 342 380 421 431 a CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII vii PAGE REVIEW :— The Fauna of British India including the remainder of the Oriental Region, Dijtera. Vol. VI. Family Calltphoridae. By R. Senior White, Daphne PMUDEREM ANNU OMM SIMALGs cs cceskcccisscoctele ecteess ee ee 200 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— I. Rivers as barriers to the distribution of Gibbons. By R. E. Parsons. . Saran hace ceireeises ae Oo II. A pale colour form of the Panther: By H. A. Fooks. (With a photo)... pabcbisceseeee 435 III. A Brown form of the Hialayan Black Bene (Selenarctos thibetanus). By Botha VanIngen. 436 IV. The Indian Wild Dog. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.A. (Retd.)... ‘ Sees a FOO V. Village Dogs Hunting. as w. P. Sees bathe sts 437 VI. Vitality of a Hygena ee eee By t.. J: Phillips .. ue Si 438 VII. On the occurrence of “ihe Ghatiace Ueda coelebs Linn.) in Waziristan. By T. J. Phillips. 439 VIII. Vultures and Palms. By C. McCann......°......... 439 IX. Sandgrouse coming to water at mid-day. By Major R. C. Nicholas... : 440 X. Scarcity of Sandgrouse ati fie Soi ete 1939=1940, By Lt.-Col. EB. O’Brien...4....2...0. 440 XI. Habits of the See-see Partridge (Ammofperdix griseogularis griscogularis). By T.J. Phillips. 441 XII. Curious nesting site of the Red-wattled Lapwing (Lobivanellus indicus indicus Bodd.) By C. Mc Cann. (With a photo)... Ldmedoeeene O44). XIII. Records of Swinhce’s Sained in Coe oe JC. Higgins... A 442 XIV. Occurrence of etic’ S Jeunes in Seen ne R. 1 Clouahe: See ww. 442 XV. Moulting of ceeabion Teal “abseqtient: ae migra- tion to India. By the Secretary to Heir Apparent of Bikaner. (With a photo)............ 443 XVI. Occurrence of the Stiff-tailed Duck at Nowshera, NEWAHGP byob Col, Ha bs Rields. o8.cisee ceca 445 XVII. Injury toa Crocodile. By R. K. Dharmakumar- sinhji. (With a photo)... ee 445 XVIII. Food of Lizards. By D.C. Sevastopulo. ee 446 XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVIT. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII A New Family of Fishes. By Carl L. Hubbs.... Addenda to the list of Simla Butterflies. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth, M.A.. Butterflies attracted by TOIBEY eau: ae D. G. Sevastopulo.. Supplementary Notes on a life history Ba fae Moth (Brahmea pene By R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S.. bare Ue creeh dame ean tee Larva of ‘Tiere nee os parasitized by Tachinid Flies. By D. G. Sevastopulo.......... Lagerstroemia indica as a Foodsplant of Actias sélene. & By D.'G.-Sevastopulor.s.c-.iae- soe eee The death expedition of Hibiscus caterpillars. (A correcizon):. “By DW ~ Ge sevastopulorncs. ss Abnormal seedling of Mangifera indica Linn. N. O. Anacardiaceae. By G. A. Kapadia, m.sc. (With a text-figure)... Some Wild Flowers of igactnais Aaa ici ladicee ous use. By Samsar Chand Koul... PAGE 446 448 448 448 449 449 450 450 452 —-" MEPAHABEDICALS LIST OF ‘CONT RIBOTORS VOLUME XLII ABDULALI, HUMAYAN and ALI, ’ Sauim ; Additioral Notes on the Birds of Bombay and Salsette ... ALI, SALIM ; Humayan. ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING ; Proceedings of 1939 BANERJI, I; A Contribution to the Life History of Tvridax procumbens. Linn. ( With two dlates and twenty-five text- figures) .. ; eae a00 iyenoer enneye G. C.; Lhe Death Expedition of Hibiscus Caterpillars (larvae of Crocalt- lissp.) (With a plate) BIKANER, SECRETARY 10 HEIR APPARENT OF; Moulting of Common Teal subsequent to ‘migration to India. (With a photo) : ws Bor, N.L., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., TeE.So ana Ree M.B., M.Sc. ; Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. (With two coloured plates and six black and white plates and ten text-figures). Parts V & VI Beovucont A. L’E. ; How the Mongoose Sermforacis Snake Bite ao; es Burton, Lr.-CoLt. R. W., 1.4 (RETD.); Something about Swordfish. (With a black and white plate) se aa eS OS A See Abdulali, ._———- — The Indian Wild Dog CAIUS Je ES S.J. B.E.S) Pomegranate The Nos. 1 and 2 PAGE ahe)3 221 89 164 443 melKaao 183 100 436 13 CAIUS, J. F:; S.J.) F.1iS.; The Medicinal and Poisonous Flaxworts of India ——-—— —— - The Medicinal and Bo sonar Labiates of India CLOUGH, R. J. ; Occurrence of Swinhoe’s Gripe in Bengal ... Cricuton, M. D.; Marine Shells of Madras. (With four plates ) a a ae DAEMEIDA,| Ji. (2 0R., Bed. M.Sc., ; A Contribution to the Study of the Biology and Physiological Anatomy of Indian Marsh and Aquatic Piants. (With two plates) ... DHARMAKUMARSINGJI, K. S. ; Jungle and House Crows as Gestroyers of Game.. se DHARMAKUMARSINHUJI, Ry K. Frog eating a Snake ... ————— aie Injury to a Crocodile. a photo) .. DICKSON, Viooen Thett an a watch by a Fiddler Crab FIELD, Lt.-Col. F. F. ; Occur- rence of the Stiff-tailed Duck at Nowshera, N.-W.F.P. . Fooks, H.A.; A Pale colour form of the Panther. (With a photo) .. aie ee GANAPATI, S. Niij7 MSC.5) ATIC. The Ecology ‘of a ua Tank containing a permanent bloom of Microcystis aerugi- nosa (Kutz) Henfr. Hiccins, J. C. ; Records of Swinhoe’s . Snipe in Assam ... PAGE 380 442 323 298 185 200 445 219 445 435 65 442 x LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS - Hopwoop, S. F., 1.F.S. ; Birds eating Butterflies eae Hora, SuNDA LAL, D2.Sc., E.R.S.E., F.Z/S., -F.ReA.S-B F.N.I. ; The Game Fishes of India. Part XI. (With one coloured plate and four text- figures) .. Part XII. (With one te plate and seven text-figures) . Hupss, Cart L. ; A New Family of Fishes och JACOB, K. CHERIAN, L.Ag., F.L.S. ; A New Species of Coloeus. (Witha plate) Jos, T.J., M.sc., Notes on the Geographical Distribution and larvicidal propensities of Horaichthys setnat Kul- karni JONES, S., M.Sc. Nohen diy. im M.SC. 5 Notes on the Marly Stages in the development of the Deccan Killifish Aplochet- lus lineatus (Cuv. and Val.) ( With two text-figures) Kapapia, G. A., M.Sc. ; Abnor- mal Seedling of Mangifera indica Linn. N. O. Alnacar- diacee. (With a text-figure). KEELAN, W. P. ; Injuries to the feet of a Mallard ; Village dogs hunting .. KouL, Siar one Gasy. Some Wild Flowers of Kashmir and their indigenous use ... Lewis, E. S. ; Vultures ing’ at night LUSHINGTON, CICELY ; Nates 61 on the nesting of Legge’s Flower- ‘ feed- pecker [Acmonorhynchus vincens as (Witha plate) “ ne ioe MATHEW, A. P., M.A. ; A Study of the Syeesne Hanis of Myrmarachne plataleoides (Cambr.) a Spider mimic of the Indian Red-Ant, O¢eco- phylla smaragdina PAGE 199 78 305 201 203 450 191 437 452 189 186 171 McCann, C., F.L.S. ; A Reptile and Amphibian Miscellany. (With six black and white plates). Part II. ae — = +

... 200 siete 423 Pomatorhinus horsfieldi 193 Pongamia glabra es 302 Porphyrinia 426 | Porthesia scintillans 212 Portulaca oleracea 136 | Porzana bicolor... ae 254 | Pratapa vidura vidura ... 123 Proxentus ... a 425 Precis lemonias ... ves Zaye -— orithya 211 Primula erosa re 377 Procarduelis nipalensis 252 | Proden‘a oe 425 | ————- litura ... ’ 212 Propyrrhula Pahiimacnald 2a Prosopis alba 354 — juliflora 354 — specigera 354 Prospalta 425 —— ——— capensis 43 Prunella strophiata tne Os ae Prunus communis Mar mele) Psammogeton canescens 368 Pseudogyps bengalensis 439 | Psidium cattleianum 363 —.-— pumilum 363 Psittacula columboides 192 — eupatria subsp. 195 Psoralea plicata 345 Pterocles alchata 440 -— exustus 440 Pterodroma aterrima ¥ eae los Pteruthius erythropterus yunnanensis. 250 —- - melanotis melanotis 250 _ -- rufiventer rufiventer 251 --———-—- xanthochloris pallidus 250 Puffinus persicus 197 Pulicaria orispa ... 00 S/o Punica florida is 36 - granatum Adis vere - grandiflora ts see 37, - nana 37 - Spinosa 37 Pupalia lappacea a 162 Pyramidella terebellum ... 326 Pyrene terpsichore 337 Pyrois 424 KIX PAGE Pyrotrogon wardi 253 Pyrrhia a 425 Pyrrhoplectes epaniea 202 Pyrrhula erythaca 252 Pyrus communis 358 Querquedula neeradedals 137 Rana cyanophilictis 58 -—— hexadactyla a, ——- leithii ot) -—— malabarica 60 ——.- rufescens 59 -——— tigrina | 58, 200, 215 Randia tetrasperma 369 Ranunculus aquatilis 125 ~—— arvensis 126 —-muricatus ... 126 ———--—— pen nsylvanicus 126 -—— sceleratus 126 Rapala schistacea ae 41 Rapana bulbosa 320 Recurvirostra avocetta 254 Reinwardtia trigyna 169 Reptonia buxifolia 347 Rhacophorus maculatus 60 Rhamnus pentapomica 147 = - persicus 147 ——--——. ‘riqueter 147 —— ——- virgatus 147 Rheum webbianum 453 Rhineodon typus au2o5 Rhinoceros sondaicus ... ee 152, 223 — sumatranus 152 Rhinodon typicus 102 Rhoea Punica 37 Rhus copallina 342 -—- levigata 342 ——- rhodanthum 342 ——- semialata 342 Rhyacia ar wv» 422 Rhynchosia minima 285, 2905551 —- sericea 351 Rimella cancellata 332 Riparia concolor... 194 '- rupestris 194 Risoba 427 Rosa multiflora ie ae 358 Roucheria Griffithiana ... aise 169 Rousettus leschenauiti 184 Roylea elegans 414 Rubia cordifolia ... 239 Ruburs faticosus 358 SOX Ruta graveolens ... Sageretia Brandrethiana Saitis barbipes Salix babylonica Salvia zegyptiaca cabulica ——— glutinosa ... lanata macrosiphon moorcroftiana plebeia spinosa Sameodes cancellalis Saponaria Vaccaria Sarrothripus Satureia hortensis Saussurea albescens ——~—— candicans —— --—— sacra Saxicola torquata aiee Scabiosa Olivieri Schinus dependens Schinus molle Schoenobius bipunctifer Schotia brachypetala Scolopendra sf. ... Scopula emissaria Scotogramma Scrobigera proxima Scuteliaria galericulata Selenarctos thibetanus ... Senecio Coronopifolius Sepia prashadi Serissa foetida ... Sesamia Ae Sesbanié a hers Sendyra transiens Shorea robusta Sida cordifolia —— grewioides .. — humilis == TNOMItOlia-... —— spinosa Sideridis -— percussa Siegesbeckia orientalis .,. Silene arenosa - conoidea ... - Falconeriana ~— terebinthifolius —— egyptiaca vee PAGE 143 147 177 | 209 414 415 415 -415 415 415 | 415 416 212 leisy | 427 416 374 374 452 193 370 343 343 342 | Beh 354 | 215 294 423 421 416 436 374 — S27 370 426 346 346 421 | 137 138 | 138 | SY) 138 | 138) 423 212 | 373 135 135 135 INDEX OF SPECIES Simyra Sisymbrium Come -———--———— Irio ... : ee —— ——-——. var. dissectum —_—— rupestre ——— ——- strictum -—— Thalianum... Sitana ponticeriana Sitta himalayensis iiradlapenes Smaragdia oualaniensis... Solen annandalei... —-— lamarckii Soletellina diphos Solidago Virga-aurea Sonchus arvensis... ——-——- oleraceus Sophora mollis... me ae -~ secundiflora Speleornis longicaudatus amriengen —— souliei Spergula arvensis -— pentandra — rubra Spermacoce hispida Sphetta Sphex edax Spindasis ictis Spinus thibetanus Spireea prunifolia Spodoptera ——- mauritia Stachys palustris... — parviflora —- Sieboldi ... sylvatica... Standella pellucida Staphylea Emodi... Stellaria media Stephegyne parvifolia Sterculia diversifolia ,.., Sterna albifrons albifrons aurantia ... Stictoptera soe Stigmaphyllon periplocefolium Streptopelia orientalis meena . Strombus sibbaldii) —--~ succinctus ——_~-—— vittatus Strongyluris calotis Sturnia malabarica blythii --——_ malabarica PAGE 422 130 130 130 129 129 129 48 249 - 340 341 341 325 37i 376 376 351 352 251 251 136 136 136 370 426 209 212 252 358 425 212 417 417 417 417 339 149 135 369 140 196 192 427 142 196 332 332 332 52 194 194 INDEX OF SPECIES KKX! PAGE Sturnopastor contra contra... pace va Go) Surendra learmondi tae - He OA Surnicul us lugubris be: i ee eS, Sunetta scripta ... Me ee BeBe) Sylviparus modestus mnoresuiee ea: Symbrenthia brabira don! ... see ILI) Syngrapha... aes ane occ ee a70 Syntomis passalis ay sae LOS Tachornis batasiensis ... Bob . 440 Tamarix articulata ee ie fc aloO dioica ... ee Ape 236 ————— Parkeriana ... aS ae 1 ~- Troupii... er site noo | es) Tantalus leucocephalus ... ae ieee LUO Sorel © gay ignite ae eee ers gular mia 740 - Tarentula barpipes im ae ee eT. Tarsiger cyanurus a oh ae Zoe —- indicus yunnanensis... Pieri) efarucus nara ... ate ais a eee Taverniera nummularia... 1 Oy: Tchitrea paradisi paradisi ue ee LUO Telchinia vicle ... Ses a beth oa - Telescopium telescopium ay we = AO Tephrodornis gularis pelvica ... bic, ree ler Tephrosia Hamiltonii ... ... 2 7346.) ——-———--- purpurea... one Hee 2340) —_——--- tenuis... ae au fe 2 S46 Terebra eximia ... a on Te wee --tenera ... an ies one = 7300 Teredo clava 300 a) ae Soe ee) Terminalia Arjuna nor ae sg eR — belerica nes ae fk 359 Teucrium scordium _.... te Breet kaj T| ————-- Stocksianum ... ies we 418 Thais bufo ae “cio are ics O00 —--rudolphi ... bs ee ae OOO Thalasseus bergii Lae mah ee 192 Thalictrum foliolossum... ae Me dla) Thelaudros maplestoni ... jaa me oe ‘Theretra lycetus... a on 210, 449 Thespesia populnea _... ee bo kee Thlaspi arvense ... se ee Pte SO Thosea loesa ote oe sae. CON, Threskiornis Pris nceopiatis sate 198 = ——-— melano- cephalus .. tes soe Ys Thriponax javanensis ... oon eG Thymus serpyllum wee te fo © 249 Tilia cordata Jan aes eaele ee nel —-vulgaris ... 0... ae ged Gainolius ... Aan a oO | PAGE Tinospora cordifolia... ele, 290, 202 Tiracola ~... ae aoe ae eet 1 e2G Tonna dolium ... fs sae Sew es, Trachea... Sa Ane ae ed ae Trapa bispinosa ats ts oF clon Trianthema crystallina ... aie ae 2o00 -—— pentandra ....... wh S00 Tribulus alatus ... 1 AFD pe RD ——-—— terrestris Pes an hae NA Tricosanthes cucumerina ime O05 Tridax procumbens oie ec fe 89 Trigonella Foenum-grecum ... SOA EoaS Tripheena ... ae are As swe ee Trisidos tortuosa au, ee see OOD Trisula variegata ves : see Trochalopterum affine eieeaien ee ay) ——_——_-——-=— — subunicolor ... dg ee) Trochosa ruricola Se SHEE at Troglodytes troglodytes Ripsicasic 2s col Tudicla spirillus ... ies uf Ose oe Tujuria luculentus Inculentus . Baa che 38) —-——-~-~mantra .. ee se rea eles ~ yajna ellisi Se ‘ae ee Oke Turdus dixoni ... . eA — mollissima Holl esi te aae —naumanni eunomus ... i.) 20 — obscurus aes ast ae ah ot - rubrocanus gouldi sr te ol Turnaca acuta see wae et 28H Turritella duplicata ae wae see O39 Tylototriton verrucosus as a 63 Umbonium vestiarium ... aah i. ae SS Unona discolor ... tee ae Bima CAS) Uraria neglecta ... see aie . 348 Urena lobata ee es en wel3S Urocissa flavirostris Aevarostns Se ad) Ursus arctos tas ee oss 830 Wtetheisagloteixe’.) |,.th2e) ss ee oss 2A Vanessa cardui aureum an vay Ae LS urticae chinensis a Brice lea) Vernonia cinerea =, ve a ene Viburnum cotinifolium ear Pena elole: ~——--——— coriaceum .... a ae OOD Varanus monitor sae Se Pe 56 Viburnum stellulatum ... ies ea O08 Vicia bithynica ... — sie 349 ——-Griffithii ... as es .. 349 ——- hirsuta £7, ae aoe ee | OA ——- pallida ae oe pe eee OLS —- sativa — aes oe 1». 349 Vicoa vestita BAe ae ee - 3/2 X xxii INDEX OF SPECIES PAGE | PAGE © Viola cinereay. ©... abe ih .. 133 | Xylomania aoe sd Ae 2) ==. Patrinti 4. «4. > 8 183" |) XylosMa lonsifoltum 7). | ee ———- serpens Bo: ves sat .. - 133 , Ypthima hubneri 406 seis waa 39 -——-tricolor ... ee ea ... 133 | Yuhina bakeri ... ahs si . 250m Vitis arborea... te 2 ieee eae diademata ee eater ate ae I ——-Jacquemontii .... es .. 148 -——-—- gularis gularis ... oN: .. 250mm ——- trifolia ce de oy ie ese ——-nigrimentum ... Se > 20m Volutarella divaricata ... ae Sg —occipitalis obscurior ... . 2007 Volva sowerbyana ee a 3324) Zatania anulinora ae Wendlandia exerta wee Nee we 9869" Ziphias Gladius <0) 7.20 st.) se -——— puberula ... A .. 369 Zizeeria trochilus aes le! Westermantia ... oo Bc «. 428 Ziziphora clinopodioides ae +20 Woodfordia floribunda ... Re ay ele a ~~ tenuior oe 03) .. 2200 Xancus pyrum ... oa ahs .. 332 Zizyphus Hysudricus rie we 147 - rapa ue aM Sep woe =«=3932 ————-- Juiuba - 146, 284, 289, 293 7 Xanthium Strumarium ... iv .. 373 ——-—— oxyphylla_... ie Lok rn Xanthoxylum alatum ... a .. 144 | ——-—— Spina-Christi ... Ss . da 7a Xenophora solaris ve : 332 | ——-—— vulgaris ao! Ae . 147g Xiphiramphus superciliaris forresti... 250 | Zornia diphylla ... Se oth . 348m PRINTED At THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS—1942, C7682 pe ‘ >); VO aOURNAL - avurAL History Sociwry. EDITED BY REV. J. F. CAIUS, S.J., F.L.S., H. M. MCGUSTY, | | fs AND S.H. PRATER, M.L.A,C.M.ZS. _ Shae i i> CER QNIAN INSTIZSS ’ MAR 241941 +) coe - /y 12, Bar as | PUBLISHED BY _ THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. ae 6, Apollo Street, Bombay. te ~Lonpon AGENTS: — DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY) ae nee, aia 212, SHAFTESBURY AVENUE, | Sf get : ay LONDON, W.C. 2. | mi ( ots . ‘ ee fe é : Pe, A ae Game Birds of India, Vol. 1. (Indian Ducks. and their Alties), aaa ‘Edition. a A ~ Rs. 50. H 1 Me (Price, to Donhers ESE 3B )a! eee Game Birds of India, Vol. Il. (Woodcock, Snipe, Bustards ane Sandgrouse), 1st Edition. _ Rs. 42. . i : Mes (Price to Members RS Boyes aie ye Game Birds of India, Vol. III. Pheasants, 1st Edition. / GARs. 28. 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Such tember should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 26-8-o—to the Society in Bombay on the ist January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £2-0-6 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The - National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, felon, F.C. ! : \ CONTENDS OF VOLU Min -XGiik, No. 1. Some BeEAuTIFuL INDIAN ~ CLIMBERS AND ~~ SHRUBS. Bart WV. 2 By Nemes: BOG MeAs,, D-SG:.,. F.L-S., 1sF.S.,..and —N. J3.,Raizada, M.Sc. (With one coloured plate and three black and white plates, and seven text-figures) Ae a THE POMEGRANATE. By Father Jeep ee @ anus cS. Jere Heke S2 ss és THE Earty StTaGes oF InpiAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part V. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. aoe ae ti ss ce A REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MIsce.Lany. Part II. By C. McCann, F.L.s. (With six black and white plates) , THe EcoLtocy oF A TEMPLE TANK CONTAINING A PERMANENT BLOOM OF Microcystis aeruginosa (Kutz) Henfr. By S. V. Ganapati, M.Sc., A.1.C. THE GAME ee OFLINDIAs a lath Owl ee by (Die to le. Tora, D:SC.,, FR. S.E-, F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., F.N.1. (With one coloured plate and four text- fig gures) roc hon Me a A CONTRIBUTION TO THE LIFE HIsTory OF Tridax Weg ee chee By I. Banerji. (With two plates and twenty-five text-figures) . SOMETHING ABOUT SWworDFISH. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.4 - (Reed, (With a black and white plate) 5 ys a NoTEsS ON SOME NEW AND INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BORNE Part Il. By Major-General Sir Harry Tytler, k.c.B., C.M.G., C.I.E., D:S:0. ohh ats oes S:3 ; me a A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF THE PUNJAB PLAINS AND THE ASSOCIATED Hirt REGIONS. ey Dr. GS: Sabnis; BA. ieee DESC, HeAyS. Cs 1.A.S. : we 3 BurMa’s DECREASING cies nee. By D’ Arey Wienihiosbe. (With two plates) aes ae aes SoME COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON THEIR ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS. Part V. By M. Sayeedud-Din. (With two plates) “: ; Tue DeatH EXPEDITION OF Hipiscus CATERPILLARS (larvae of Crocallis oS By G. C. Bhattacharya. (IVith a plate) : =n THE MEDICINAL AND PolsoNnous FLAXWoORTS OF INDIA. By (Rae Gaile. S.J: F.L.S. A STUDY OF THE COURTING HABITS OF Niymiiictae Aapaleniaes (Cambr.) A SprpDER »™ATC OF THE INDIAN RED-ANT Ocecophylla smaragdina. By A. P. Mathew, M.a. REVIEWS :— 1. A Facsimile of R. H. Beddome’s Articles on Indian Reptiles 1862-1870. By Malcolm Smith on ane Sas 2. The Tetrapod Reptiles of Ceylon. Volume I, Testudinates and Crocodilians. By P. E. P. Deraniyagala WANTED INFORMATION ABOUT MAHSEER. Editors MASCEELANEOUS NOTES :— I. How the Mongoose counteracts Snake Bite. By A. L’E. Brownlow bse abe oa sues II. A Largé Panther—(A eae ne ms Yashodaar Singh of Khilchipur , Ill. The Short-nosed Fruit-bat (Copopterts caine) as an Recat of seed dispersal in the Wild Date gee sylvestris L.). By C. McCann a ae PAGE 109 124 181 181 182 i 1V. XVI. XVII. XVITT. XIX. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVIT. XXVIII. XXIX, NO CONTENTS OR Vole Crier orn ar Jungle and House Crows as ee of Game, oe K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji i Notes on the nesting of Legge’s ribaecpeeeee at venir hynchus vincens [Sclater]). By Cicely Lushington, (with a plate) ae agi ane ee The Occurrence of the Yellow-bellied Flowerpecker (Pachyglossa melanoxantha Hodgs.) at Almora, U. P. By= Sant.) ebakater, Drones Gace Su yniculus The Occurrence of the lugubris Horsf.) in the alas By Mrs. A. B. M. | Way i 4 A Note on the ee Swift uGiiseropes icles poner Hartert), By C. McCann, F.L.s. §, Vultures ‘feeding’ at night. By E. S. Rewis. oe Injuries to the feet of a Mallard. By W. P. Keelan .. Additional Notes on the Birds of Bombay and Salsette. By Humayun Abdulali and Salim Ali ee Some Birds of Lower Burma. By J. A. M. Symns ... Some Birds of the Oil fields, Burma. J. A. M. Symns Birds eating Butterflies. By S. F. Hopwood, L¥F-.s. The many Banded Krait (Bungarus multicinctus) in Burma. By J. A. M. Symns SAA Extension of the range of the Brown Whip (Dryophis pulverulentus Jan.) By C. McCann Frog eating a Snake. By R. K. Notes on the Geographical distribution and propensities of eas setnai Kulkarni. Job, M.sc. Notes on the Early stages in the ‘igbargeenens of the Deccan Killifish Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv. and Val.). By 3S. Jones, M.Se., ands (73 J Job, iesc.; ae two text-figures) 5 : Butterflies attracted My moist eae F.R.E.S. On the larva of the sat (Gireute Winer estiaia) and hs destruction of the cocoons ey Tree Shrews. et Rows Parsons, F.R.E.S. Lagerstroemia indica as a food vente ‘of the Silk Moth (Actias selene). By R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S. The Weeping Willow (Salix babylonica) as a food Sian of the Moth Loepa katinka Westw. a Reals: Parsons, F.R.E.S. The Wood-cutting Wasp (Sphex eine Bingham) and its prey in Salsette. By C. McCann Larva of Theretra lycetus Cr. ie orruen by Piachinid flies. By C. McCann. March Lepidoptera at Gopalpur D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. Some insects from a Mango trunk (Mansifera Rue L.) By C. McCann Insects at a street lamp at Roane Some Indian Spiders: Their season of prosperity. T. V. Subrahmanyam : ; Theft of a watch by a Fiddler Cae Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting—1939 Snake larvicidal By AN fs (Dist. Ganjam). By By ae Violet Dickson Dharmakumarsinhji ... By R. E. Parsons By G. Meoann ae PAGE 185 186 187 187 188 189 IQI 191 198 198 199 199 200 200 20I ro ba JouRN. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc. BAUHINIA GALPINI N. E. (93°4 per cent nat. size) PLATE 5. JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society. 1940. NW OLA Wels No. 1. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. BY INE ee BOR* UMUAS SCHR UeSi) Iv F Ss; Forest Botanist, AND M. B. Ratzapa, M.SC., Assistant Botanist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. ParRT V. (Continued from Vol, xli, No. 4 (1940), p. 690). (With 1 coloured and 3 black and white plates, and 7 text-figures). Bauhinia Linn. The genus Bauhinia was created in honour of the brothers Jean and Caspar Bauhin, French herbalists of the sixteenth century, in consequence of most of the species having their leaves composed of two lobes, which are either quite separate, or, more frequently, joined by a portion of their inner margins. This arrangement of the leaves was considered to be symbolic of the great services the two brothers had rendered to science. | The genus belongs to the family Caesalpineae, which was formerly considered to be a subsection of the Leguminosae, or sweet-pea family. The flowers are, however, not papilionaceous and the Caesalpineae is considered to be distinct from, though closely allied to, other sections of the Leguminosae, Papilionatae and Mimoseae, and like them has keen given full family rank. Blatter and Millard in Beautiful Indian Trees have treated two tree species, B. variegata and B. purpurea, but the genus contains a number of other species, shrubs and climbers, which are culti- vated in gardens in this country on account of their showy flowers or handsome foliage. The characters of the genus are as follows :— Trees, shrubs or climbers, the latter with tendrils. Leaves alternate, compound, usually consisting of two leaflets which are WAR 24 1%) 2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII joined together by the lower part of their inner margins, simulat- ing a 2-lobed leaf. The top of the common rib or nerve between the 2 leaflets is produced as a small spur; a vestigial structure which represents the remains of the rhachis of the compound leaf. The flowers are showy and are arranged in simple or panicled, terminal or axillary racemes. Calyx tube sometimes long and cylindrical, sometimes short and turbinate, with the disk produced to the top; limb entire or spathaceous or cleft into 2 or 5 teeth. Petals 5 in number, slightly unequal, usually narrowed at the base into a claw, variously coloured, ranging from red to purple, white or yellow. Stamens 1o or reduced to 5 or 3, if less than 10 with sterile filaments absent or present; filaments free, filiform. Anthers versatile, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary seated on a_ stalk (gynophore); ovules usually many. The style is long or short and usually curved, ending in an oblique or terminal stigma. The fruit is a linear pod, dehiscent or indehiscent. In many species the fowers are fragrant, and this characteristic combined with their showy appearance points to pollination through the agency of insects. | It is well known that the cotyledons of dicotyledonous seedlings, which are widely spread during the day, press their inner surfaces together during the night in order to prevent loss of heat and to protect the tender first leaves. This phenomenon is particularly well seen in the seedlings of all Bauhinias. The cotyledons, more- over, seem to function as ordinary foliage leaves to some extent, as well as performing their role of reservoirs of food. Bauhinia Vahliu, a climber, often reaches a length of over 100 yards and scrambles over the tallest trees. The exceedingly tough and fibrous bark of this particular species had, and still has, a great reputation as a suitable material for making strong ropes. Before steel came into use, ropes made from this species were used to carry suspension bridges. About the middle of the 19th century the ropes for the suspension bridge over the Jumna at Kalsi were made from the bark of B. Vahlii. The bark of certain Indian species smoulders very slowly when set alight. This property was made use of in bygone days to con- struct the slow matches whereby primitive artillery were discharged. Now-a-days such torches are often carried by cattle-boys to free themselves from the attention of sandflies and other insects. KEY TO THE SPECIES. Erect of prostrate shrubs. Stems spiny. Ae of seit ... B. candicans. Stems not spiny. Stamens Io. Flowers usually in axillary pairs . B. tomentosa. Flowers in axillary racemes. . B. acuminata. Stamens 3 . B. Galpint. Climbers. Stems flattened and undulate ... . B. anguina. Stems cylindrical. Leaves very large, 4 in. to 18 in. long ... » B. Vahlii. Leaves small not longer than 1.5 in. . B. corymbosa. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 3 Bauhinia candicans Benth. (candicans means hoary, covered with white hairs). Fig. 1.--Bauhinia candicans Benth. x 2/3. Description.—-A shrub or small tree with zigzag, very hoary, tomentose branches. Leaves compound, 2-3 in. long, ovate or somewhat oblong, shallowly cordate at the base, 2-lobed for one- third or almost to the base, with the common midrib produced as a short spur, 11-13-nerved from the base; glabrous on the upper surface, very hoary below, petiolate, stipulate; lobes obtusely rounded at the top; petioles hoary, up to 1 in. long; stipules represented by a pair of stout thorns. Flowers few, in axillary racemes. Pedicels short. Calyx tube short, turbinate, hoary. Calyx-limb spathaceous; segments valvate and connate in the bud, shortly 5-lobed at the apex, up to 2.5 in. long, densely and shortly hairy outside. Petals 5, free, long-clawed, with a pronounced midrib, spathulate, creamy-white in colour, opening at night. Stamens 10; 5 on short, 5 on long filaments; filaments bound together at the base by a short membrane which is apparently a prolongation of the disk. Ovary seated on a long gynophore, hairy, glabrescent, ending above in a long style and 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLU capitate stigma. Pod dehiscent, very leathery, polished, 3-4 in. long. Teloiiers = Saneayale Fruits.—Oct.-Nov. Distribution.—A native of Brazil, now commonly cultivated throughout the plains of India. Gardening.—An almost evergreen shrub with large creamy white flowers which usually open in Dehra during the night and last only for a day. Easily raised from seed. Bauhinia tomentosa Linn. St.. Thomas-Tree. (tomentosa is a Latin word meaning hairy and refers to the hairness of the leaves and pods). Fig. 2.—Bauhinia tomentosa Linn. xX 1/1. Description.—A handsome shrub which sometimes grows into a small tree. Leaves compound, on slender petioles up to 1 in. long, stipulate; stipules long, subulate, hairy. Leaf-blade of two M. N. Bakshi ‘ Bauhinia acuminata Linn. AULA ACUMIMALA “111 )1 SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS | 5) connate leaflets, coriaceous, 1-2 in. long, broader than long, 7-g-nerved from the base, glabrous on the upper surface, tomen- Pose below, 2-!obed; ene rounded at the apex; Pe culation conspicuous. Flowers axillary in pairs (sometimes 1 or 3) on pedicels bearing a pair of subulate persistent bracteoles. Calyx tube short, covered with appressed pubescence; limb spathe-like with 2 small teeth at the apex in bud, splitting down one side when the flower opens, about .5 in. long. Corolla of 5 distinct petals. Petals obovate in shape, .75-2 in. long, not clawed, yellow in colour, conspicuously veined, one with a red blotch on the inner surface. Stamens ro in number arising from the lip of the calyx tube; anthers sagittate. Ovary on a gynophore; style nearly .75 in. long. Pod dehiscent, stalked, 4-5 in. long, 6-10-seeded, tomentose or glabrous. Flowers. —August-Oct. Fruits.—Dec.-Feb. Distribution.—Throughout India, wild or cultivated, extending to China and tropical Africa. Now commonly cultivated in the tropics of both the old and the new worlds. Gardening.—A handsome shrub. New foliage and young parts downy brown. Flowers sulphur-yellow, drooping. Easily raised from seed sown in April. This shrub is partially deciduous in Dehra. According to J. D. Hooker it was introduced to the Royal Gardens, Kew, in 1860. Medicinal and economic uses.—The wood oe this species is tough and the heartwood black. It was formerly used in Java for the handles and sheaths of krises (Burkill). The bark, root and leaves are said to be efficacious as poultices for boils. The plant is also said to be anti-dysenteric, anthelmintic and of value in liver complaints. Bauhinia acuminata Linn. (acuminata is a Latin word meaning sharp pointed, and refers to the lobes of the leaf). Description.—An erect shrub with reddish-brown branches covered with minute hairs. Leaves alternate, stipulate; stipules lanceolate-subulate, covered with short hairs. Petioles 1-1.5 in. long, swollen at the base and apex, downy. Compound leaf-blade g-11-nerved from the base, the common midrib being produced as a very short spur, orbicular in shape, acuminately 2-lobed, thinly coriaceous in texture, glabrous above, pubescent on the nerves beneath, 3-6 in. long. Flowers a pure white, close, shortly peduncled, in axillary, corymbose racemes. Calyx tube about .3 in. long; limb spathe- like up to 1.5 in. long in the bud, ending above in 5 short subulate hairy lobes. As the flower opens the calyx splits along one side, becomes retlexed and eventually divides into five segments below. Petals 2 in. long, .75 in. wide, oblong-obtuse, white, not clawed but rounded at the base, seated on the margin of the calyx tube. Stamens 10, filaments white, of various lengths; anthers yellow, versatile, hairy. Ovary on a gynophore at the base of the calyx tube. Style short, .5 in. long; stigma a 2-lobed disk. Pod pendent 6 JOURNAL, (BOMBAY NATURAL HIST “SOGHETY,) VolseXxL ir from a .5 in. stalk, 4-5 in. long, .9 in. broad, firm, glabrous, 6-12-seeded, with a rib on each side of the upper suture. Fig. 3.—Bauhinia acuminata Linn. X 2/3. Flewers.—March-May. Fruits.—Cold season. Distribution.—Indigenous to Central India, Ceylon, Malaya and China. Very frequently cultivated in gardens all over the country. Gardening.—This is one of the most satisfactory species of Bauhinia for cultivation in the open. It is quite frost hardy and starts flowering when the plants are only a few months old and but a foot or so high. According to Aiton’s ‘Hortus Kewensis’ it was introduced from India into England by Dr. Francis Russell and flowered at Kew in the month of May and June. It grows readily from seed and bears its numerous, large, snow-white flowers practically all the year round but chiefly during March-May. _ ‘eruryneg s,utdyes Mq 0,04 , SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS fe Bauhinia Galpini N. E. Brown. Galpin’s Bauhinia. (This plant was named in honour of E. E. Galpin, who was one of the earliest collectors of the species). Description.—A rambling prostrate shrub with hairy stems. Leaves alternate, stipulate, consisting of two leaflets connate by their inner margins, with the common midrib produced as a minute spur, obtusely 2-lobed, 7-nerved, broader than long, up to 3 in. broad, minutely pubescent with white hairs on the lower surface; margins and under surface thickly or sparsely covered with yellow glandular exudations; petiole about .5 in. long. Flowers brick-red or crimson in colour, borne in 2-r10-flowered axillary racemes. Peduncles very short. Calyx tube up to 1 in. long, rather stout, somewhat striate, dark red in colour, sparsely covered with yellowish glandular exudations. Calyx limb at first spathe-like, reddish but appearing to be striped with yellow from the production of a glandular yellow substance, becoming reflexed after the flower opens and splitting down one side, subsequently dividing into 5 segments at the base which remain connate at the top. Petals 5, inserted at the top of the calyx tube, 1-1.5 in. long, clawed, the claw being as long as the limb. Limb orbicular in shape, cuspidate, rather undulate on the margins. The inner surface of the petals is clear red, the outer surface being dotted all over with yellow particles. Stamens 3 in number, inserted at the top of the calyx tube, together with seven very short, subulate staminodes. Filaments red, anthers versatile. Ovary linear, seated on a gynophore 3 in. long, covered with short white hairs and yellow glandular exudations. Style thick; stigma globose. Pod 3-5 in. long; seeds dark brown. This plant will often be found to be covered with ants which come to feed upon the yellowish product of the glands. Flowers.—Sept.-Oct. Fruits.—Cold season. Distribution.—Indigenous to the Transvaal and adjacent tropical Africa; commonly cultivated in gardens in the plains throughout India. ) Gardening.—This fine species, which in its native country is said to be a climber is found only as a straggling or prostrate shrub in India. It thrives better on a well-drained soil and bears its bright scarlet flowers profusely during Sept.-Oct. Propagated by seed which germinates rather sparingly. The seedlings are liable to damp off during the rains if not properly looked after. This beautiful shrub is well worth growing in spite of the initial difficulties of propagation. Bauhinia anguina Roxb. Snake Climber. (anguina means snake-like and refers to the peculiar stems of this species). Description.—A woody cirrhose climber with very peculiar com- pressed flattish stems, alternately concave and convex in the central 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII portion, with stout margins. This is an adaptation to take strain. The majority of the sap vessels are in the corrugated part so that if tension is applied the strain is taken by the margins and Fig. 4.—Bauhinia anguina Roxb. X 2/3. the ascent of sap is not impaired. Leaves alternate, densely tomen- tose when young, glabrous when old, thin, 2-5 in. long, shortly lobed or with 2 very long acuminate lobes. On old plants the leaves are often quite entire and acuminate, SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 9 The flowers are very small for the genus and are arranged racemosely in lax, pubescent, terminal panicles. Individual flowers seated on very short pedicels. Calyx very small about .05 in. long, broadly campanulate, with 5 deltoid teeth. Petals 5, oblong- lanceolate in shape, about .1t in. long. Fertile stamens 3. Pod thin flat, oblong or elliptic, glabrous, indehiscent, 1.5-2 in. long, 1-2 seeded. Flowers und fruits. —Cold season. Distribution.—Sikkim Tarai, ascending to 2,000 ft., Khasi hills, Chittagong, Martban, Malabar and Travancore. Fig. 5.—Stem of Bauhinia anguina Roxb. A.—A surface view of the strap-shaped stem. B.—A longitudinal section of the stem seen sideways to show the sinuous centre portion. Gardening.—A large evergreen climber having a curious stem and small inconspicuous white flowers. According to Roxburgh ‘the most regularly serpentine pieces of the stems and large branches are carried about by our numerous mendicants to keep off serpents’. Easily propagated by seed or layers. Bauhinia Vahlii W. & A. Camel’s foot Climber. (This species was called after Martin Vahl, a Danish botanist, 1749-1804). Description.—-A gigantic climber, with densely pubescent branches and abundant circinate tendrils, mostly leaf-opposed. Leaves com- pound, alternate, petiolate, deeply cordate at the base, lobed at the top, 11-15-nerved from the base, almost orbicular in shape, 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL) HIST. SOCTE RY A Vom up to 18 in. long, sparsely ‘hairy on the upper surface, densely ferrugineous-tomentose on the lower surface; petiole 3 in. long. Fig. 6.—Bauhinia Vahlii W. & A. X 2/3. Flowers numerous, arranged in long-peduncled, terminal, dense, subcorymbose racemes. Individual flowers seated on _ pedicels 1-2.5 in. long, with persistent bracteoles at the base. The whole inflorescence is covered with a dense rusty tomentum. Calyx tube short, it and the limb very hairy; limb splitting into 3-5 valvate segments when the flowers open and becoming reflexed. Petals 5, white fading to yellow, shortly clawed, broadly spathulate in shape, spreading, glabrous within, covered on the outside with rusty villae. Stamens 3, fertile; a number of staminodes may be found on the lip of the calyx tube. Ovary on a short gynophore, very densely hairy as is also the style. Pod woody, up to 12 in. long finally dehiscent, velvety, 8-12-seeded. Flowers.—April-June. Fruits.—Cold season. Distribution.--Subhimalayan tract and outer valleys ascending to 3,000 ft. from the Chenab eastwards, chiefly in sal forests; Assam, Bihar, Western Peninsula. Gardening.—TVhis gigantic woody climber needs plenty of space for its growth. It is useful for covering unsightly embankments and the like. Easily raised from seed. It is one of the most distinctive climbers in the Indian forests. The trunk may reach a girth of 4 feet and is often deeply fluted. When cut down shoots more JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. Photo by M.N. Bakshi Bauhinia corymbosa Roxb. New Forest, Dehra Dun. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 11 than 50 feet long may be produced in one season, and for this reason it is difficult to eradicate this plant which is considered a pest by forest officers. It is known as Camel’s foot Climber as the leaves are very much the size and shape of a camel’s footprint. Medicinal and economic uses.—The large leaves are used as plates by the local inhabitants, who also value the seeds as a source of food. To extract the seeds the pods are placed in the fire. The bark yields a strong fibre which is used for making ropes. The stem produces a valuable tanning material. The seeds are said to possess tonic and aphrodisiac qualities. Bauhinia corymbosa Roxb. (corymbosa refers to the arrangement of flowers in the inflorescence which are described as corymbose, but in Dehra they are decidedly racemose). Fig. 7.—Bauhinia corymbosa Roxb. xX 1/1. Description.—A woody climber, branching from the ground, with grooved branches and circinate tendrils. Leaves compound, 1-2 in. long, divided almost to the base; common midrib very short, pro- duced into a short spur; lobes rounded. The two leaflets fold to- gether at night. Petiole up to 1 in. long, swollen at base and apex, often covered with appressed brownish hairs. The fragrant flowers are borne in terminal long-peduncled racemes or corymbs. The individual flowers are seated on pedicels up to 1 in. long and are supported by bracts and bracteoles. The calyx tube is ,75 in. long, green in colour, with ro well-marked red ribs covered 12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST. SOCIETY; Vol} XLII with brownish hairs. Calyx-limb short, .25 in. long, red, 5-lobed; lobes valvate, splitting into 5 segments, which turn downwards as the flower opens. Petals white, with pink nervation, rather crumpled, seated on the margins of the calyx tube. Fertile stamens 3, on pink filaments, posterior; staminodes 5, pink, anterior, all seated on the calyx tube. Ovary on a gynophore arising from the calyx tube, red in colour, produced into a short style and globose stigma. Pod 4-5 in. long, .7 in. broad, thin, smooth, dark brown. Flowers.—April-June. Fruits.—Cold season. Distrihution.— Native of China. Commonly cultivated in gardens throughout India. Gardening.—Bauhinia corymbosa is one of the most beautiful of climbing Bauhinias; and even with its rather small flowers, it is a most charming plant with exceedingly slender stems and very small, pretty, dark green shiny foliage. The rosy-white, fragrant flowers appear in great abundance during April-June. Easily raised by !ayers. It has long been cultivated in Indian gardens for its ornamental foliage alone. THE POMEGRANATE. BY Jee Has CAtUs. iS 4), Fo. S. Alphonse de Candolle sums up the results of his painstaking investigation into the origin and distribution of the pomegranate (Punica Granatum Linn., the sole genus with only two species within the family Punicaceae) as follows :—- ‘To conclude, botanical, historical, and philological data agree in showing that the modern species is a native of Persia and some adjacent countries. Its cultivation began in prehistoric times, and its early extension, first towards the west, and afterwards into China, has caused its naturalization in cases which may give rise to errors as to its true origin, for they are frequent, ancient, and enduring.’ In fact, many of these errors, if errors they be, are being perpetuated with effusion of much good ink and not a little bad blood. But there is no apparent reason why the question should ever be satisfactorily settled, because the pomegranate has been -so long under cultivation that it is impossible to say with any degree of certainty whether the plant is really native in any particular region. The antiquity of the tree as a cultivated plant is evidenced by the references to the fruit in the Old Testament— ‘Why have you made us come up out of Egypt, and have brought us into this wretched place, which cannot be ‘sowed, nor bringeth forth figs, nor vines, nor pomegranates... ’—. and in the Odyssey where it is spoken of as cultivated in the gardens of the kings of Phaeacia and Phrygia. In the villa garden of king Amenhotpou IV, of the Eighteenth Dynasty, may be seen painted on the wall of a tomb at Tell-el-Amarna, ten pomegranate trees easily recognizable from the shape of the fruits and the leaves. The fruit is, indeed, frequently represented in ancient Assyrian and Egyptian sculptures, and it figures prominently among the offerings made to the gods by Ramses IV, a Pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty. As a design it has been used in archi- tecture and needlework from the earliest times. It formed part of the decoration of the pillars of King Solomon’s Temple, and was embroidered on the hem of the High-Priest’s ephod. It had a religious significance in connection with several Oriental cults, especially the Phrygian cult of Cybele, and it is still used by the Jews in some ceremonials. The pomegranate was well known to the Greeks and Romans, who were acquainted with its medicinal properties and its use as a tanning material. The name given by the Romans, malus punica or malum punicum, indicates that they received it from Carthage, as indeed is expressly stated by Pliny—‘but the territorie of Carthage challengeth to itself the punicke apple’ (Holland)—; and this circumstance has given rise to the notion that the tree was indigenous in northern Africa. 14 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XLfi The pomegranate-tree was introduced into India from Persia or Afghanistan, presumably in the first centuries of our era. The tree is not mentioned in Vedic, Pali, or early Sanskrit literature; and the word ddlima or dddima is traceable to the Iranian dulim, as reconstructed by Berthold Laufer’ on the basis of the Chinese transcription. According to the Agnipurana ‘dadima’ is to be planted in the garden adjoining one’s house; and, on the authority of the Brihat-samhita, it is to be propagated by means of cuttings besmeared with cowdung. Varahamihira mentions the pomegranate as one of the trees growing in the Anupa region, Susruta gives it as one of the plants which act as cordials and increase the appetite, and Charaka recommends it for the wholesomeness of its fruit. CHARACTERISTICS. The pomegranate is a large deciduous shrub or small tree. As a tree it rises to a height of fifteen to twenty feet; it is covered with a desquamating greyish or pale brownish bark, and is divided into many slender, twiggy, nearly cylindrical branches, which are armed with spines. ‘The buds and young shoots are red. The leaves are opposite, or ternate, about three inches long, sessile, wavy, entire, oblong or lance-shaped, pointed at both ends, glossy green and with red veins. The flowers are large, raised on a short stalk, of a rich scarlet colour, solitary, or in twos or threes or fives at the extremities of the young branches. The calyx is turbinate, thick, fleshy, of a fine red colour, and divided into five acute segments, which are valvate in aestivation. The corolla is composed of five, or seven, large roundish crumpled petals, inserted on the throat of the calyx alternate with the sepals, rather spreading, and of a bright scarlet colour. The stamens are indefinite, many-seriate, perigyn- ous, inserted at different levels below the petals; the filaments are capillary and free, furnished with ovoid yellow anthers, 2-celled, dorsifixed, and bursting in front by two chinks. The ovary is inferior, roundish, many-celled, with a slender simple style—the length of the stamens, and capitate papulose stigma. The fruit is as big as a common orange, and not unfrequently much larger. It is globular, somewhat compressed, obscurely six- sided, and indehiscent. It contains numerous oblong or obconical, many-sided exalbuminous seeds, each enveloped in a distinct very juicy rose-coloured pulp enclosed in a thin skin, so that the inside’ of the pomegranate appears to be made up of a large number of reddish berries packed tightly together. The rind, which is the calycine tube, 1s smooth, hard, leathery and, when the fruit is ripe, of a brownish yellow tint, often finely shaded with red. The interior is divided into two chambers by some six spurious transverse membranous dissepiments meeting in the axis of the fruit. The upper chamber is 5- or 9-celled, the lower 3-celled. The placentas ? Sino-Iranica. Chicago Field Museum of Natural History, publication 201; Anthropological Series, Vol. xv, No. 3. THE POMEGRANATE | 15 of the upper division reach from the walls to the centre; those of the lower proceed irregularly from the bottom of the fruit. The embryo is oblong with a short straight radicle, and foliace- ous, spirally convolute cotyledons. As a botanical entity the pomegranate has been placed by various authorities in different orders wherein, for want of close relations, it has always occupied an anomalous position. Though nearly allied to the myrtles it differs from them in the absence of aromatic principles in the green parts, in the absence of dark dots and marginal veins in the leaves, and in the typical conformation of the fruit. It is chiefly owing to the singular structure of its fruit, a balausta, that the genus Punica has finally been formed into a separate order, Punicaceae. The family consists of only one genus with two species: PY “Granatum Winn. (=P. florida, Salisb., P. grandifiora Hort., P, nana Linn., P. spinosa Lam.), and P. protopunica Balf. dis- covered by Balfour in the island of Socotra. CULTIVATION. The pomegranate is a favourite in the East, and is grown both for its beautiful flowers and for its edible fruits. It is not particular as to soil, though it enjoys a deep calcareous ground and prefers a dry situation to. one that is surcharged with wet. Native gardeners in India recommend that the soil be mixed with a large proportion of bricks broken fine, together with old, decayed cowdung. The trees may be planted eight or ten feet apart, and the ground cultivated with irrigated crops until the trees occupy the soil. They can also be grown as a hedge. ‘They are usually raised from seed, but are also multiplied by hardwood and softwood cuttings, or by layers. As the plant forms many shoots, these are often used, as they are usually provided with rootlets. For latitudes higher than the 35th degree North, the plant ought to be cultivated in tubs, and given a conservatory during winter.’ Under cultivation there are several forms differing more or less in the colour of the flowers, both single and double, and only of ornamental value. The double-flowered varieties are specially desir- able for the beauty and long duration of their flowers. The better known are: double red, with a very large calyx, from which protrude numerous large bright scarlet petals, larger than those of the common single type, which give the flower the appearance of a bright scarlet pompon ; double dwarf, specially desirable for growing in pots, with bright scarlet flowers borne in clusters; double varie- gated, with very large flowers, the petals being striped and mottled with yellow and scarlet—as this is a sport of the Double Red it frequently reverts to type, and’consequently double red blooms are often to be found on the same stem with variegated blooms; double yellow, similar to the Double Variegated in the shape of the flower ; double white, with a pure white flower similar in shape to Double Red. +L. H. Bailey.—The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture ; 1916. 16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI1 Although of such ancient origin and cultivation, there are but few varieties of fruit-bearing trees, and the various kinds of pomegranate may be reduced to three: one very sour, the other two moderately sweet or very sweet. The distinction between a sweet and a sour pomegranate is already made by Theophrastus and, though Pliny distinguishes five varieties—dulcia, acria, mixta, acida, vinosa—, ancient authors discriminate between only two. The emperor Jahangir mentions in his Memoirs the sweet pomegranates of Yazd and the subacid ones of Farrah, and says of the former that they are celebrated all over the world. Crawford remarks in his History of the Indian Archipelago: ‘The only good pomegranates which, indeed, I have ever met with are those brought into upper India by the caravans from eastern Persia.’ And Firminger’ states: ‘The Pomegranate tree is common in all parts of India, but never produces fruit at all to be compared with that brought down annually by the Afghan traders from Kabul.’ The seedless pomegranates so highly prized by Akbar’s house- hold came from Kabul; and the sweet, pure, and_ full-flavoured pomegranates with white and very transparent seeds were from Baluchistan. In course of time the seeds of these high class fruits found their way from Afghanistan to Bengal, where there is made mention of several fine varieties of local growth: seedless’, very sweet, deliciously perfumed, the size of an ordinary human head or as large as a small shaddock. ‘A tree that bears fruit of good flavour with as few seeds as possible should be grafted on seedlings, and none but the grafted plants grown. Such trees need no more manure, water, or land than common seedlings, yet the value of their fruit is very great in comparison.’ Woodrow’s’ recommendation to graft from trees of a superior kind is sound, but not all superior varieties will thrive away from their natural surroundings. Thus, says Burns, the Kabul Pomegranate, both in its own roots and when grafted on Poona stocks, has done very badly in Poona, making little growth and producing few fruits. In North America, where pomegranates are grown commercially in several of the southern states, the following varieties are culti- vated for fruit :— ) Acid or Wild—with a sharp acid pulp; fruit often very large, from 3 to 4 inches diameter and with a bright-coloured rind. Dwarf—a form of the Acid variety, of very low and bushy growth; flowers single; fruit from 14 to 2 inches diameter; pulp very acid. This can be grown in a pot, as it fruits very abundantly. Paper Shell—very large, juicy, very sweet, and of excellent quality; skin thin, pale yellow with crimson cheek; sides crimson; fine grower, good bearer, and ships well. ee a a 6 ee een SE Sn NN AE * W. Burns.—Firminger’s Manual of Gardening for India, 1918. * ‘1 do not know any seedless variety is growing in Bengal.’ (N. Mitra, Curator, Royal Botanic Garden, Shibpur; 5th December 1939). * G. M. Woodrow.—Gardening in India, 1889. THE POMEGRANATE 1 aT Rhoda—fruit crimson, of large size; skin thin but tough; crisp, sweet, and of exquisite flavour. Spanish Ruby or Purple-seeded—is cultivated in Louisiana, seems to be only a form of the subacid. Fruit large and bright-coloured with deep crimson pulp. It is considered the best of its class. Subacid—differs only from the sweet in the more acidulated pulp. Sweet—fruit usually somewhat smaller than the Acid and with a darker-coloured rind; pulp sweet. Wonderful—said to be the largest of all pomegranates; fruit sometimes 5 inches in diameter, bright crimson; pulp highly coloured; very juicy; fine flavour; ripens early; good shipper. All these varieties are very ornamental from their abundant yield of bright scarlet flowers, which are produced upon the extremities of the young branches of the same year’s growth. When the plant is grown in a tree form, the branches should be annually cut back after the leaves drop. A great many shoots spring from the base of the plant; these should from time to time be cut clean out, as it is contended that they withdraw the nutriment which should go to the fruit-bearing stems. To yield fine fruit the plant must be manured each year. Writing about ‘Tropical and Subtropical Fruits in California,’ F. W. Popescoe notes!.—‘The Pomegranate is produced commerci- ally in a small way, the demand for the fruit being limited. The shrub succeeds best, and is most commonly grown, in the interior valleys. The inferiority of the varieties cultivated in the State has led to an attempt to secure superior ones; among those which have been introduced the variety ‘Wonderful’ has proved to be choice, and is now offered by the trade.’ Pomegranate ripening fruit on a wall at Trewarthenic, Tregony, was reported? as one of the effects of the fine summer of 1911. And in 1912, R. Irwin Lynch wrote*:—‘I have seen this | Punica Granatum, North Africa, West Asia] fruiting on the side of a house in East Cornwall; it has fruited at Henley-on-Thames, and should fruit generally without much assistance. The double form flowers on my house at Cambridge, and for some years a stool of it grew in the open, quite without protection, dying down in winter and coming up in spring like a Fuchsia.’ The longevity of the tree is said to be remarkable. CULTIVATION IN INDIA. In India the Pomegranate is cultivated in various places: North Kanara, Bijapur, Sholapur, Satara, Poona, Ahmednagar, Ahmedabad, Sind, Baluchistan, Muzaftargarh, Delhi, and Jodhpur. BomBay.—In the Bombay Province about 2,000 acres are under pomegranate. More than half the area is claimed by the Poona district, where most is grown in the Haveli, Bhimthadi and Purandhar talukas. The Dholka taluka of the Ahmedabad district * Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society; xxxix, part II, 1913. Gelbida we xZxxvill, part 1, 1912. Seluid xxXxvilt, part Il, roi2: 2 ig JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLii claims 15 per cent. of the total area in the Bombay Presidency. The Ahmednagar district grows about 15 per cent., mostly in the Pathardi, Rahuri, Ahmednagar, and Sangamner talukas. Except in a few places like the Dholka taluka, and a few villages in the Poona district, the fruit is not of a superior quality. 1. Sangamner'.—Pomegranates require a porous soil containing much lime; and generally farmers choose such soil. Sound and big fruits are selected for seeds. These fruits are kept longer than usual on the tree, and are plucked only when they begin to rot; they are then allowed to rot still further; the seeds are taken out, well mixed with ashes, and dried in the shade. A plot, about two or three gunthas in area, near a well is ploughed and dug out deeply down to 1 foot. The soil is made fine by breaking clods, and about a cartload of farmyard manure and household ashes is mixed with it. The seeds are then thinly broadcasted in walas about one hundred feet square. The seed is covered, and the plot is watered on the same day. The second watering is given on the sixth day, and then further waterings once in ten or twelve days as required. No weeds are allowed to grow in the plot. Generally the seedlings are transplanted in the early part of the monsoon, when six or twelve or even eighteen months old. The field into which the seedlings are to be transplanted is twice ploughed and harrowed, and the soil is mixed with about ten or twelve cartloads of farmyard manure. This ploughing and manur- ing is done to prepare the ground to receive onions, garlic, chillies, or any other plant which may be grown without injury to the young pomegranate. These sub-crops are cultivated during the first two or three years, that is up to the time when the fruit plants cover the ground and begin to yield. | Pits, about eighteen inches square and two feet deep, are then dug out. The distance between two pits cross-wise as well as length-wise varies from twelve to fifteen feet. In one acre about two to three hundred plants can easily be grown this way. Of late, however, some farmers have’ reduced the distance between the pits to ten feet. The earth that is dug out of the pits is separated into two portions, the upper layer being kept apart from the lower one. The earth of the upper layer, which is well weathered and con- tains ready plant food, is put first in the pits; it is then covered with a basketful of farmyard manure. When the plant has been fixed in the pit the earth from the lower layer mixed with house- hold ashes is thrown over the manure. About a cartload of ash is sufficient for one acre of land. _ Ring-like bands of three to five feet in diameter are then made round the plants and moderately filled with water. A second watering is given on the fourth or fifth day, and afterwards once in a week or ten days according to the season. = * Mirza Niazbeg—Pomegranate Cultivation at Sangamner. The Poona Agricultural College Magazine; March 1914. THE POMEGRANATE i9 The pomegranate plants begin to flower when they are three years old; but this first flowering brings very little fruit, and it is not until the fourth year that the garden is earnestly taken in hand. During those first four years the plants are manured once a year with farmyard manure and whenever possible, with fish manure also. The ringed area is dug out once in three months to give a better circulation of air. No weeds are allowed to grow. In the fourth year the rings are widened up to eight feet in diameter. Pomegranate plants flower thrice a year :—in February or March, ambe-bahar; in June, mrig-bahar; and in September, /atti-bahar. Five or six months after the flowering the fruit is ready for marketing. Except for the time of the first watering, which varies with every bahar, the routine is always the same. Let us take, for example, the mrig-bahar, since preference is generally given to it by the farmers for reasons of economy, the cost of watering being very much lessened on account of the rainy season. In April the ringed portion is dug out and the roots in the upper layer are exposed to the air for a week or two—the leaves that fall off are often used as manure for the same plants. A basketful of farmyard manure is given to each tree, and if fish manure is available a handful of it per plant is given in addition to the farmyard manure. The manure is thoroughly mixed with the soil. The first watering is given in Akshattritiya, which is generally in May, and further watering’s are given once in a fortnight. Flowers appear one month after the first watering. When the ovary is developed and fruits as big as small lemons are formed the ringed portion is lightly dug out every month before watering. | Each plant bears about forty fruits in the first year, and each year the number increases even up to four hundred when the tree is fully grown up. If good care is taken of them the trees bear fruit up to from twelve to fifteen years. When a plant does not bear a sufficient number of fruits it is pruned leaving the stem only from six to twelve inches above the ground. The cut surface is plastered with cowdung, and the plant is heavily manured and watered. New shoots come out and grow into trees which bear fruit for another ten years. Generally the garden is rented to Bagwans who pay Re, 1 to Rs. 1-4 per plant. The Bagwan takes care of the garden, but the farmer supplies him with water for irrigation. As a rule the Bagwan makes a net profit of Rs. 200 on one acre. His expenses are Rs. 150, and he pays Rs. 250 to the owner. So the gross in- come on one acre of land is Rs. 6oo. . 2. Ganeshkhind.’—Seven varieties of pomegranate were under trial from the year 1905. Three of these were local, two from Sangamner, and two foreign (Kabul and Muscat). All were grown from seeds of specially selected fruits. The foreign varieties made eee * S. H. Prayag—The Ganeshkhind Botanical Garden, Kirkee. Its genesis and development. Department of Agriculture, Bombay; Bulletin No. 104 of 1920. 20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol! XLIT poor and stunted growths, and failed to bear fruit even after eight years’ growth. Grafts of Kabul variety on local stocks also failed to fruit even after seven years’ growth. The following trials were conducted for nearly four years:—(i) The comparison of different methods of irrigation, viz., Basin, Trench, and Ring systems. The trench system proved to be unsatisfactory as the trees began to show signs of drought, reacting on the yield, which was conse- quently very low. The ring method showed the advantages of economy in the amount of water given and the avoidance of any rot of the stem at the collar.—(ii) Comparison of grassed and cultivated lines of fruit trees. In this experiment the weeds as they grew were cut and kept as a mulch three to four times during the year. The difference between the two plots was not appreciable. 3. Gokak.'—As evidenced from the growth of the plants and the quality of the fruits in one of the gardens at Gokak a limy or phosphatic soil seems to suit the pomegranate very well. Medium black soil with murum as sub-soil is fairly suitable, but black soil is no good. Before digging the pits the land is well ploughed, harrowed and clod-crushed, and the soil brought to a fine state of tilth. The pits are 3 ft. deep and 3 ft. square, and the distance between them is 13 to 14 ft. each way. To economize space the hexagonal system based on equilateral triangles 1s adopted, whereby all adjacent trees are equally distant from each other. The pits are dug in the summer months of April and May so that the earth, both in and out, may be thoroughly exposed to the action of the daily hot air for .a- space of two .or three months. When the pits are toibe filled up bone meal, if available, is spread at the bottom; this is then covered with the surface portion of the excavated earth; and this in its turn is covered with the bottom soil, if not too bad. When the bottom soil is too bad it is rejected, and good soil or fine silt brought from outside. Seedlings one year old are the best for planting; others take more time to establish themselves. July-August is the-proper time for planting, preferably late in the afternoon. The ideal conditions are a cool weather and light drizzling rains. The pits are watered one or two days before planting. When the young plant has been firmly fixed a small basin is made to hold the requisite quantity of water. At first the plant is watered lightly every day in the evening or at least once in two days. After the appearance of fresh sprouts the watering is given only twice a week for some time, and then gradually the interval is increased to once in a week or ten or even twelve days. After the seedlings have established themselves two or three handfuls of farmyard manure may be given. Three or four days after each watering, the basins are kept loose by stirring and all the weeds are removed. When the plants are one year old they * T. S. Kulkarni—Notes on the cultivation of Pomegranates as experienced on the Gokak Cana] Farm. The Poona Agricultural College Magazine ; January 1920. THE POMEGRANATE 21 are manured with about half a basketful or 10 Ibs. of farmyard manure per plant. In the second and third years, twice as much manure is applied. No further care need be taken except pruning, weeding, and watering at intervals, the interval varying with the nature of the soil and the time of the year. If the soil is good and if proper care is taken the plants will become fit for bearing even as early as the third year. For the first three years intercrops such as onion, garlic, ground- nut, gram, chilly, cabbage, pea, tomato, brinjal, knolkol may be grown; and the net income accruing from these will more than make up for the initial and the running expenditures involved in the cultivation of the pomegranates during the early stages. The, flowering periods are (i) January-February, ambebahar; (ii) June-July, mrigbahar; and (iii) August-September, hastabahar. On this farm the period selected for treatment is either ambebahar or mrigbahar, preferably the former when the plants are less subject to attacks from insect and fungus pests. Watering is stopped two months before the time of flowering; one month after, the roots are exposed and the branches pruned; then the roots are cov- ered again, the beds renewed, and the plants manured and watered. It takes from four to five months for the fruits to ripen. When the fruiting season is over all flower-buds, flowers, and stray fruits are removed and the trees left to themselves till the next year’s treatment. At Gokak the pomegranate is propagated from seeds. The fruit is allowed to ripen completely on the tree and to fall down to the ground of itself; it is then picked up and kept for some time to allow rotting. Then the seeds are squeezed out, mixed with earth or ashes and kept ready for sowing. Sinp!.—Shikarpur is famous as a centre for fruit-growing. There are altogether some 150 orchards, with an area of 868 acres, of which 139 are under pomegranate. With the advent of spring, mature branches are pruned out and cut in pieces nine to twelve inches long. These cuttings are buried two-thirds deep in the soil of the nursery bed, and their tops are covered with fresh cowdung. The beds are irrigated at intervals of three to four days, till the cuttings have sprouted, which they usually do in about a month’s time. The cuttings stand in the nursery bed for full two years, during which period they receive hoeings once a month regularly. They are planted in rows nine to twelve inches apart. This is by no means too close a planting because, while there are always some cuttings which do not germinate, the white ants do a good deal of thinning work. The cuttings are raised in gardens for sale and fetch Rs. 2-8-0 to Rs. 3 per hundred. The field operations begin during the inundation season. The plantation is irrigated, ploughed twice, levelled, and laid out in small “ Mahomed Umarkhan F. Barokzai.—Fruit Culture as practised near Shikarpur, Sind. Department of Agriculture, Bombay; Bulletin No. 08 of 1920. 22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII plots measuring from one quarter to one half of an acre each. Parallel channels or furrows, twelve inches by eighteen inches, are made twelve feet apart. Along each channel, but on one side of it only, circular holes are dug at a distance of twelve feet. After an exposure of a week to ten days, the excavated earth is mixed with fifty pounds of cattle manure and returned to the pits. The plants to be used are carefully lifted from the nursery beds and carried to the field some time about the 1t1th March, at the Maha- shivaratra. Irrigation during the first few months after the transplantation is given about twice a week, but when the plants are fairly estab- lished watering is limited to once a week throughout the year. In case of white ants proving a serious pest, the interval is shortened to suppress the attack. i For «the first three years the ‘soil round the plants is ‘stirred and weeds removed twice a month. The channels are also cleaned in order to grow sub-crops: brinjals, chillies, karela (Momordica Charantia), turi (Luffa acutangula), bhindi (Hibiscus esculentus), chuka (Rumex acetosa), methi (Trigonella Faenum-graecum), etc. With the fourth year, when the fruit plants cover the ground and begin to yield, the weedings cease altogether and the growth of natural grasses is encouraged as these provide an excellent green feed for cattle and consequently are readily sold. Cattle, camel, and horse owners purchase standing crops of weeds for the season. The weeds commonly found in pomegranate and other fruit planta- tions are dubh (Eragrostis cynosurioides), gandheer (Eleusine flagellifera), chhabar (Cynodon Dactylon), savri (Panicum Colonum), kabah (Cyperus rotundus), lulur (Digera arvensis), and dinuhi (Andropogon annulatus). Pruning of dead branches on the top and fresh growth at the roots of full-grown plants is effected in November. Manure is applied once a year in February when the trees are leafless; one jholi (cloth load) of manure weighing about thirty pounds is applied to every two plants. This costs about two annas. Before apply- ing manure, the soil round the roots is dug out and replaced by fresh canal earth. The pomegranate has two flowering seasons, the first commenc- ine from early Phalgun (March to April), and the second from Bhadra (September to October). The fruit of the former lasts till the Dassera (October) festival, and that of the latter till Marga- shirsh (January-February). Of these two seasons the Phalgun flowering is always the better. In addition to these distinct flower- ing seasons the plant is said to put on all the year round one or two flowers locally termed the Chorgul (thief flower). From the fifth to the fiftieth year of their age the trees produce excellent yields. The average number of fruits per plant is 70, the range being from 4o to roo, each weighing from half to three quarters of a pound. This gives an average yield of 30 pounds per tree, the maximum amounting to as much as a maund (80 lbs.) of fresh fruit. Calculating at the average price of Rs. 4-8-0 per maund, each plant produces Rs. 1-11-o on the average, and each acre of about 250 plants returns roughly Rs. 420. THE POMEGRANATE 23 _. Another product of the trees is the quantity of fallen flowers obtained from the Phalgun flowering. These are gathered, dried, and sold at Rs. 4 per maund of 80 lbs. Ten to twelve maunds are collected per acre fetching from Rs. 4o to Rs. 50. The third product consists of the rotten fruits which have been damaged by insects or by birds. The seeds are dried and sold as khat (sour substance used in curries), while the rind goes to the dyer to yield a yellow dye. The quantity collected is not large but, nevertheless from Rs. 10 to Rs. 15 per acre are usually obtained.’ There are twelve varieties of pomegranate commonly grown in the locality : bedaho, kandhari, vanga, chiho, sona, dandan, multani chiho, sehwani, green sehwani, sindi sehwani, jesalmeri, sindi jesalmeri. Of these sehwani, kandhari, sindi sehwani, sindi jesal- meri, and bedano are sweet-pulped varieties, while the rest have an acid sour taste. But all the twelve varieties, whatever their taste, command a ready sale in the market. Bedano (the seedless) 's a rare variety; it is not altogether free of seeds as the name would indicate. BALUCHISTAN’.—Pomegranate is cultivated commercially in. Balu- chistan. It is also imported from Kandahar in fairly large quantities through Chaman. There are four varieties of commercial import- ance in this Province, viz. :— | 1. Kandhari. Grown in Pishin sub-division, mostly in Killa Abdulla and Gulistan. It is slightly acid in taste, very juicy and large in size. Its skin is of brick red colour. 2p Vetha.g “Grown. im, Loralai district. ~75° per cent.) of -the total area in this district is under this variety. It is thick skinned, juicy, less acid in taste, and medium in size. 3. Khata. Grown in Loralai district. It is sour in taste, small in size, thick skinned, and less juicy. 4. Jhalari. Grown in Loralai district. Big size, soft skin, a little acid in taste, and juicy. The so-called Bedana, or seedless variety has no commercial im- portance. It is grown in Loralai district, but only a few plants are seen here and there in the orchards, which are kept for home con- sumption. It is a shy-bearer, which seems te be the chief reason for its limited cultivation. It is sweet and juicy, and a very small residue is left after the juice is extracted. PunjaB.—The following information was supplied by the Fruit Specialist, Punjab, Lyallpur: ‘Pomegranate is not a very important crop in the Punjab. It is grown in a tract known as Alipur in Muzaffargarh district of the Punjab. No separate figures of area are available, but the area in that tract as well as small patches of pomegranates found here and there in the Punjab would not exceed more than a few thousand acres. In Muzaffargarh district an average yield of 1 maund of fruit is obtained per tree which sells in the market at retail sale of annas 2 to annas 4 per seer depend- ing upon the quality.’ . * From the Agricultural Officer in Baluchistan ; 1940. 24, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL OSD. SOCIETY, “Wolk XeLit JODHPUR.—The area under Pomegranate cultivation, and also the estimate of the yield of Pomegranates per bigha in Jodhpur 1S shown in a statement sent by the Superintendent, Hawala Depart- ment! : Village Area under Pomegranate | Be es ay Bagan sop us : 3, bighas 10 biswas_... | 10 maunds Gavan | 30 4. = ceed 190 sy Suthla Eee ve — pkg ess Umaidsagar 2 7 _ ae: 6 mn Mandore | 12 — a 36 . 54 bighas 10 biswas__.... | 163 maunds PESTS AND DISEASES. The different varieties of pomegranate have been found to suffer from attacks of birds and insects, and from fungus infections. Birds.—Parrots are the only birds attacking pomegranates. They visit the plantation especially in the morning and in the evening and should be regularly watched. Insects.—In addition to white ants which do much. damage to cuttings in the nursery bed, various other insects are known to injure the pomegranate tree; they are fruit-borers, stem-borers, and sucking insects. z ‘An insect, says Firminger, which I have detected to be a certain hairy caterpillar, penetrates the hard rind when the fruit is a little more than a quarter grown, and by devouring part of the interior, causes the remaining part to canker and rot. To obviate this, the fruit, when as yet small, should have the large fleshy calyx by which it iS Surmounted cut cleanly off, and then be tied up loosely in a piece of linen cloth.’. Woodrow recommends ‘to gather every fruit that is infested even to a slight degree and burn them. If the cultivators of a district will unite to do this for several years, the stock of that particular insect will greatly be reduced and fair crops during some years may repay the trouble.’ Woodrow quotes the following account of the pest from the Catalogue of Indian Lepidoptera in the British Museum.—‘The larvae of this butterfly reside in the interior of the pomegranate, seven or eight at least having been reared in the interior of a small specimen of this fruit. Of the mode in which the eggs are deposited by the female in the interior of the pomegranate no information has been received; it is, however, probable that this is effected whilst the fruit is in its very young state. The caterpillars feed upon the seeds and the inner part of the fruit, which is thus weakened, and a $$ 1 toth February 1940, THE POMEGRANATE 25 rendered unable to support its own weight, and consequently liable to have its stem broken, and to fall to the ground with the first wind. This, however, would be destruction to the inclosed insects ; since, in all probability, they would find it impossible to make their escape were the fruit to be suffered to lie rotting on the ground. To obviate this evil, the caterpillars, when full fed, have the instinct to bore a hole about a quarter of an inch in diameter through the hard shell of the fruit whilst it remains on the tree; through this hole they then creep to the stem of the fruit, and spin a white web, which they attach to the basal part of the fruit as well as to the stem for about the distance of an inch along the latter. This web is sufficiently strong to support the pomegranate from falling after the wind has broken the stem near to the fruit.’ The fruit-boring insect is Virachola isocrates Fabr. (known as sursa in the Deccan), the most important economically of the butterflies, perhaps the only one that is constantly and regularly injurious, and sometimes a serious pest of pomegranate. ‘As is well known, writes Aitken in this Journal (Vol. I; 1886), the larva feeds inside the fruit of the pomegranate and, some time before becoming a pupa, eats its way through the tough rind and fastens the fruit with silk to its stalk, thus preventing it falling off in case it should wither before the butterfly escapes, as it generally does. I have taken a pomegranate infested with these larvae (several usually inhabit each fruit) and made it stand in an egg- cup, in the morning it was so securely fastened, that in taking up the fruit I lifted the cup.’ The treatments mentioned by Firminger and Woodrow are effective but expensive when applied to large gardens. Bainbrigge- Fletcher has suggested catching of butterflies by hand-nets; but they are difficult to catch, being exceedingly swift, wary, and given to sitting on high trees. Burns thinks that a spray of contact ’ poison when the fruits have just set is more likely to be effective ; for it is highly probable that the eggs are laid in the calyx of the flower of the young fruit. ‘At the time the pomegranate is in flower,’ says Downes, ‘and at a very early period, the Hair Streak may be seen very busily occupied about the flowers, and I have little doubt that the eggs are deposited at the bottom of the calyx, from the position in which I have seen the abdomen of the butter- fly placed; as the fruit enlarges the eggs are enclosed, and in this situation matured’. At the Botanical Garden of Ganeshkhind, Kirkee, attempts were made to prevent insect attack by bagging the fruits immediatelv after fertilisation. Paper bags proved most unsatisfactory as they tore badly. Even paper bags soaked in paraffin wax were not found to be of much use as water entered the bags along the fruit stalk and caused rotting of the fruits. Cloth bags were effective and the cost came to 4 pies each. If carefully used, each bag served for two years. Comparison was made with Gide oil emulsion versus tobacco water. This resulted in favour of the crude oil emulsion. At Sangamner the bagwan puts about a pound of asafoetida in the main water channel or in a small water reservoir which is 26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII generally built near wells and through which the water passes. This is done twice or thrice from the second or third watering. Thereby the attack is said to be much lessened. Mr. M. A. Wynter-Blyth mentions the larva of Dendoryx epyjarbas ancus Fruhs. as feeding inside the fruit of the pome- ae on the lower slopes of the Simla Hills.! - A hairy caterpillar (Euproctis fraterna Moore) sometimes appears on the pomegranate plant and does some damage to the foliage, but is not as serious a pest as the fruit borer. 3. Another serious pest is the stem borer Arbela tetraonis Moore, which bores into the stem and causes the branches to wither. The larva may be known by the peculiar patches of excrement and silk found on the bark of the trees near the bore of the caterpillar, which comes out at night, feeds on the bark, and makes the peculiar covering on the part it eats. The caterpillars may be destroyed by probing them with a piece of thin wire, or by syringing into the burrows either rock oil or a mixture of 2 parts chloroform and I part creosote. A good preventive remedy is not to grow shevari (Sesbania aegyptiaca Pers.) anywhere in the vicinity, for this is the plant from which the pest generally comes on to the pome- granates. _ 4. Occasionally small sucking insects, such as aphides, thrips, and mealy wings may become a nuisance in the pomegranate plant- ation. Mealy wings are of very little moment. Aphides and thrips are easily kept under control by spraying twice or thrice with crude oil emulsion (1 part of crude-oil stock emulsion to 66 parts of water), or better still with incosopal emulsion (1 part of incosopal to 80 parts ot water). Fungi.—Fruit rot is so very common in the pomegranate gardens of the Deccan that the gardeners, far from looking upon it as a calamity, welcome it as a sign of the high yielding capacity of their trees. It is more particularly severe in low situations, in crowded gardens, and in gardens that are neglected and unclean. The loss due to it amounts to about 15-20 per cent. Every garden seems to be attacked and, during the monsoon, every plant in the orchard. This disease is recognised? by the appearance of brown or orange black round pustules on the surface of the fruits, usually near the stalk-end. These pustules appear in regular patches, which may in some cases, extend to even half or more of the fruit surface. This discolouration of the surface extends slowly to the inner tissues and even the seeds, which, consequently, remain immature, small, and pale in colour. Rotting now sets in, especially in the case of young fruits, and the whole fruit becomes dried up and_ hollow. The fruit loses in weight, and shallow depressions occur on the discoloured portion. Flowers may also be affected and drop down in large numbers. The fungus may be seen even on the dried up twigs where it remains in the shape of small round pustules ready to infect the succeeding 1 Journ. Bomb.) Nat. Hist Soc.c i vole xhwsp. 727. *M. N. Kamat—Fruit Rot of Pomegranates. The Poona Agricultural College Magazine; xv, 3; December 1923. THE POMEGRANATE 27 crop of flowers and fruits. It is a weak parasite, and it has been found to be a species of Phomopsis. It is capable of living as a saprophyte on the dead branches and twigs of the trees. And this accounts for its yearly reappearance; for the amount of fruits, flowers, leaves, branches, and twigs that are allowed to decay on the ground all around the trees is enormous. | It is difficult and perhaps uneconomic to devise any direct method of controlling or treating this disease. The nature of the garden and the growth of the plants will not permit of any such operation. The only effective way of checking the infection is to regularly pick out all diseased fruits and flowers and burn them. No dead part of the tree, whether it be fruit, flower or twig should be allowed to remain in the garden, whether on or near the tree; and all those parts ought to be buried. Nor should any diseased part be allowed to rot in the manure pit, as is generally done by the cultivators. Specimens of pomegranates were received from a garden in Bombay’, in which the fruit, though of excellent external appearance, were blackened and rotting inside. The fruit appears perfectly healthy on the outside, but when cut open, the seeds and pulp are found blackened either wholly or in part. In the more advanced stages there are cavities inside, filled with a brown powdery substance, composed of the spores of the fungus. The rot was found to be due to a fungus known as Sterigmatocystis castanea Patterson, first observed in the United States in rogro. DomEstTic USEs. In his account of the Voyages of the Ambassadors of the Great Duke of Muscovy and the King of Persia (1633-39), Olearius writes: ‘The wild pomegranates, which you find almost everywhere, especi- ally at Karabag, are sharp or sowrith. They take out of them the seed, which they call Nardan, wherewith they drive a great trade, and the Persians make use of it in their sauces, whereto it gives a colour, and a picquant tast, having been steep’d in water, and strain’d through a cloath. Sometimes they boyl the juyce of these Pomegranates, and keep it to give a colour to the rice, which they serve up at their entertainments, and it gives it withall a tast which is not unpleasant.’ In the East the pomegranate is universally eaten and much esteemed as dessert. The fruit is cut open, seeded, strewn with sugar, and sometimes, as it is particularly the case in Syria, sprinkled with rose water. The Portuguese prefer wine to rose water. The seeds are also much used in syrups and conserves. The fruit is greatly valued in warm countries on account of the delicious, cooling, and refreshing pulpy seeds which, with the addi- tion of water and sugar, make a very pleasant cooling drink known as granadine or pomegranate-water. This is much used, not only in the East but also in certain parts of Europe and in the southern states of North America. In India pomegranate sherbet is highly esteemed, and justly appreciated by all who have tasted it. " The Agricultural Journai of- India; vol. ix, 1914; p. 205. 28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HiSE SOCIETY, Vol. Xuor It is but one step, one very short step, from the sweet juice to the ‘Pleasant liquor that distils from the pomgranet fine’ (Drayton), and man was not slow in taking that step. | Pomegranate-wine was known throughout the Near East at an early date. In the Canticle of Canticles the bride, when urging the groom to come to her mother’s house, says: ‘and I will give thee a cup of spiced wine and new wine of my pomegranates’. And in Papyrus Anastasi IV the fellah is advised to refrain from the alcohol of the pomegranate. Ye-lu Ch’u-ts’ai, in the account of his journey to Persia (1219-1224), speaking of the pomegranates of Khojand, which are as large as two fists and of a sour-sweet taste, says that the juice of three or five fruits is pressed out into a vessel and makes an excellent beverage. A jet-black smooth writing ink is made of the bark of the root. This is much used by Algerian scribes, and in particular by the ‘sopherim’ when copying the text of the sacred Mosaic books. The barks of both the root and the fruit enter into the composition of popular preparations used by Annamites to lacquer their teeth, or by Moroccans to dye their hair. The bark is of real value as a tan and dye for leather; it is largely employed in preparing the morocco leather of Tangiers. The flowers stain the saliva; they are used in various parts of India to impart a light-red colour, said to be fleeting, to cloth. The inhabitants of the Chinese province of Hainan make use of them for fermenting their wine. | The astringent rind of the fruit is a valuable tan, and is also employed as an auxiliary to colouring agents, generally turmeric or indigo, in dyeing. Alone, it imparts to cloth the greenish colour known in the North-West Provinces of India as kakrezi. When used for this purpose the rind is boiled in water till three-fourths of the latter has evaporated; and the cloth then dipped in the con- centrated infusion. Samples of the rind have been found to contain a small amount of yellow colouring matter, readily given up to boiling water, which imparted colours varying from a dull-yellowish green to a bright reddish-drab with tussur and corah silk, and cotton; and which with salts of iron produced an almost black dye on wool. In North Africa selected branches or young plants are used for making walking-sticks. The wood is light-yellow, with a small dark-coloured, irregularly- shaped heartwood, compact and close-grained; it is used for roofs in some parts of India. The plant makes a good fence, and for this purpose is established by sowing seeds in position, putting in stout cuttings, or trans- planting from the nursery. MEDICINAL USES. According to the Castel of Helth ‘pomegranates be of good iuyce and profytable to the stomacke, specially they which are sweete.” Their nourishing and digestant properties have been pro- verbially nutshelled by the Arabs: ‘If hungry, eat pomegranate ; THE POMEGRANATE. 59 if sated, eat pomegranate’. And they had to be eaten at the conclusion of royal banquets in order to facilitate the digestion of fatty viands. | Tobaiah Rofé distinguishes between the properties of the two varieties, sweet and acid. The sweet pomegranate rejoices the heart; and its bark, boiled with water or with wine, promotes the cicatrization of wounds. The acid fruit stops sanguinolent diarr- hoeas, allays thirst, and reduces the congestion of the liver and the stomach. The ancients valued the pomegranate fruit as a stomachic. Whether in the form of a sherbet or of a syrup, it has been used with advantage in typhus, gastric and asthenic fevers, inflammations of the urinary tract, haemorrhages, and colliquative sweats. Hippocrates prescribed it for heartburn, and van Swieten for dysentery and diarrhoea. Hindu physicians prescribe the juice of the ripe fruit combined with saffron as a cooling drink in dyspepsia and in fevers. The seeds are considered to be stomachic, the pulp cardiac and stomachic ; by some it is said to be diuretic and antibilious. Locally the acid juice is used as drops for the eyes in ophthalmia. In the Konkan the juice of the green fruit, rubbed with galls, cloves and ginger, is given in honey as a remedy for piles. In Cambodia the unripe fruit is used in the treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery. For diarrhoeas a small ball of kino is introduced into the fruit, green and about the size of a walnut, and the whole heated over a slow fire until it becomes burning hot; it is then cut and infused in 200-300 grammes of boiling water; the infusion is to be administered in two doses in one day. For dysentery a small pill of opium is used instead of kino, and the burning hot fragments are boiled in a tumblerful of water until two-thirds of it has evaporated; the decoction is to be adminis- tered in one single dose. According to the rabbi Maimonides the pomegranate taken internally with wine is an excellent remedy for the stings of wasps and hornets. The rind of the fruit, and the flowers were recognized as medicinal by the ancients. They are both powerfully artringent, and were employed in diarrhoea and similar diseases. They were also given for relaxation of the gums and throat, mucous dis- charges, prolapsus of the rectum or uterus. They are still used aS an injection in leucorrhoea, as a gargle in sore throat in its early stages, and in powder form in intermittent fevers. ‘A decoc- tion of them, says Culpeper, stops bleedings and purgings of all kinds, and is good for the whites . . . A strong infusion cures ulcers in tite mouth and throat, and fen teeth.’ In India the rind and the flowers in decoction with opium and an aromatic, such as cloves, cinnamon, coriander, or pepper, are used as an astringent in bowel affections unaccompanied with in- effectual and painful straining at stool. In Madeira an infusion of the flower buds and the rind of the fruit is given for inflammation of the throat, and also for dysentery. In Guia the decoction combined with lime juice is used as a gargle. When taken internally the decoction is sweetened with 30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. xiii honey and administered with the juice of the sorrel and of the water cress. The rinds of three wild pomegranates are said to be used in Java: the red-flowered merah, the white-flowered poetih, and the black-flowered hitam. The rind of the pomegranate is official in Holland under the name of cortex fructus granati. ; The juice of the flowers mixed with the root juice of Bermuda grass (Cynodon Dactylon Pers.) is used to stop bleeding from the nose. The flower-buds powdered, in doses of 4 to 5 grains, are useful in bronchitis; they are also much used in dysentery and diarrhoea. The Hausas use a tea-like infusion of the young flowers as a vermifuge. The Arabs rank the flowers of the male plant among their styptics, and the blossoms amongst their cicatrizants. In Shikarpur, Sind, unripe flowers are dried and pounded, to make a snuff, which is ‘considered to be the best astringent in nasal haemorrhage while internally it is very effective: during infantile diarrhoea and dysentery. Green leaves are made into a “paste and applied on the eyes during conjunctivitis. In some parts of India the expressed juice of the leaves and the young fruit is used in dysentery. In other parts the juice expressed from the leaves and flowers is sniffed to stop bleeding from. the nose. In Ceylon the leaves are boiled and used as: an eye- -wash. In the Philippine Islands the decoction is used as a ‘gargle in all affections of the buccal cavity. In Jamaica the leaves are beaten with oil of roses, and applied to an aching” head. The efficacy of the bark of the root of the pomegranate tree, as a remedy for the tape-worm, has long been established in India.? It is given in decoction prepared with two ounces of the. fresh bark, boiled in a pint and a half of water, till but three quarters, of a pint remain; of this, when cold, a wineglassful may be drunk every half-hour till the whole is taken. This quantity occasionally sickens the stomach a Hhttle, but seldom fails to destroy the worm, which is soon after passed. . Pomegranate root is known to have been long used by the Chinese for the expulsion of the tape-worm. And a decoction of it was recommended for a similar purpose by Celsus, Dioscorides, and’ Pliny. That the Egyptians knew the taeniacide properties of the root bark is evident from their mention in the Ebers and Berlin Papyri: the bark was bruised with beer, mixed with water, and allowed to stand overnight—a mode of preparation which is still followed in Egypt. While the efticacy of the root-bark as a taeniacide is admitted by every one, opinions differ as to the relative values of the root- bark and the stem-bark, the fresh bark and the dried bark, the bark of the wild pomegranate and the bark of the cultivated plant. * Udoy Chand Dutt, who made a thorough study of the Materia Medica of the Hindus compiled from Sanskrit medical books, remarks that he has not been able to find any notice of pomegranate root-bark in Sanskrit works. THE POMEGRANATE 31 According to Sheikh Abd .Erzeraq the flowers, the fruits, and the bark of the pomegranate have anthelmintic properties. The decoction of the root-bark 1s a common remedy for roundworm in Bengal; while in Bombay the flowers and the pericarp are prepared as ascaricides. In Europe the flowers, either in decoction or in the powder form, are used for roundworms and worms of the genus Sirongylus. Caius and Mhaskar have shown experimentally that the bark is ineffective against hookworms. In Cambodia a handful of toasted roots is given in infusion for colic accompanied with diarrhoea. The Arabs credit the seeds with stomachic properties. In India the seeds are considered cooling and useful in fevers; ground to a paste with milk they are a Tamil cure for renal lithiasis during pregnancy. The bark and fruit combined with other drugs are prescribed in India for the treatment of snake-bite (Sushruta, Vagbhata, Rasa- ratnakara); the bark is also prescribed for scorpion sting (Sush- ruta). Caius and Mhaskar have demonstrated that neither bark nor fruit are an antidote to either snake or scorpion venom. PHARMACOGNOSY. Pomegranate bark has a place in many pharmacopoeias. The bark of the root is official in Italy, Mexico, Portugal, and Yugo- Slavia; the bark of the root and stem in Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, France, Germany, Russia, Spain, and Turkey; the bark of the root, stem, and branches in Austria, Hungary, Japan, and Switzer- land; the bark of the root and stem, and the rind of the fruit in Holland. | The rind is in irregular, more or less concave fragments, some of which have the toothed, tubular calyx still enclosing the stamens and style. It breaks easily with a short corky fracture. Externaliy it is rather rough of a yellowish brown or reddish brown colour ; internally it is more or less brown or yellow, and honeycombed with depressions left by the seeds. It has hardly any odour, but has a strong astringent taste. The middle layer of the rind consists of large thin-walled and elongated, sometimes even branched, cells, among which occur thick-walled cells and fibro-vascular bundles. Both the outer and the inner surface are made up of smaller, nearly cubic and densely- packed cells. Small starch granules occur spraringly throughout the tissue, as well as crystals of calcium oxalate. The root bark occurs in transversely-curved pieces; externally brownish-yellow with. conchoidal depressions and dark brown irregular patches in the cork; internally dark yellow, the medullary rays extending to the outer surface. The odour is light, the taste astringent, somewhat bitter and nauseous. The stem bark occurs in pieces of variable length and thickness. The outer surface is yellowish or greyish-brown, with patches of greyish lichens, broadly elliptical lenticels and yellow-brown furrows or abraded patches of cork; longitudinally wrinkled. The inner surface is light yellow or yellowish-brown, finely striate. It breaks short, with dark green phelloderm and yellowish-green inner bark. 32. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit The stem bark differs from the root bark by the presence of a broader cortex whose outer cells contain chloroplastids, and by possessing shorter medullary rays. A transverse section of the bark exhibits the following structure: cork thin, of alternating rows of thin-walled suberized cells and lignified cells with greatly thickened inner walls; cortex of parenchyma with a few large stem cells isolated or in small groups; medullary rays mostly one-cell wide; rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate ‘very numerous in _ the parenchyma. The powder is from yellowish-brown to dark brown. It con- tains calcium oxalate crystals in rosette aggregates or monoclinic prisms; numerous starch grains, spherical, ellipsoidal, biconvex or irregular, and single or compound; fragments of whitish cork with prominent, thickened, lignified walls; stone cells with very thick and strongly lamellated walls; occasional long wood fibers associated with tracheae possessing simple and bordered pores. In the Dutch East Indies the local product, which mostly consists of small pieces and scrapings, is used instead of the European article. But, as the alkaloidal contents of the Indian bark, more especially that of the white-flowered variety, are relatively much higher than those of the European bark, the Dutch Pharmacopoeia rules that when Indian pomegranate bark is to be prescribed 1n Holland it shall be as Cortex Granati indicus. ADULTERATION. The commercial drug frequently consists partly or entirely of the bark of the stems or branches, characterized by its (less abundant cork-formation, with longitudinal bands or ridges of light brownish cork, but not conchoidal exfoliations. Such bark is considered adulterated in countries which recognize only the root bark as official. . The pomegranate bark is sometimes substituted oy the bark of other plants. Among these are Berberis vulgaris Linn., which is bitter and not astringent; Buxus sempervirens Linn., which 1s also bitter and free from tannin; and Strychnos Nux-vomica Linn., or false Angostura bark which has a dark inner surface and a very bitter taste. None of these barks have the characteristic checkered appearance of the transverse surface of genuine pomegranate bark. CHEMISTRY. The inner surface of the bark, steeped in water and then rubbed on paper, produces a yellow stain, which by the contact of ferrous sulphate is rendered blue, and by that of nitric acid acquires a slight rose tint, which soon vanishes. These properties serve to distinguish this bark from those of the box root and barberry. The root bark yields over 22 per cent. of tannin, and a con- siderable amount of mannitol. It contains five alkaloids, which bear a close relationship to the hemlock alkaloids. The active constituent is believed to be ‘pelletierine’, which is highly toxic to tapeworms, and explains the use of the bark, and the mixed alkaloids in the form of the so-called, ‘pelletierine tannate’ and. ‘pelletierine THE POMEGRANATE 33 sulphate’ as anthelmintics. The ‘tannate’ is official in the Pharma- copoeias of Brazil, Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, and United States of America, and the ‘sulphate’ in the French Codex. The bark of the stem usually contains slightly less alkaloid than the bark of the root. The amount in the stem bark has been determined by various investigators to range from maeeto ©.0 per cent., and in the root from 0.6 to 1.0 per cent. Stoeder, in 1890, found out that of the root bark of three varieties of the wild pomegranate recognized and used by the natives of Java, the red-flowered merah yielded 2.43 per cent., the white- flowered poetih yielded 3.75 per cent., and the black-flowered hitam yielded 1.71 per cent. POPULAR BELIEFS. In various parts of India the flower and the fruit of the pome- granate are given to women to eat, so that they may conceive sons. Among the Arabs, the bride, when dismounting before the tent of the bridegroom, receives a pomegranate, which she smashes on the threshold, and then flings the seeds into the interior of the tent. The Arabs would have a man like the pomegranate: ‘bitter- sweet, mild and affectionate with his friends in_ security, but tempered with a just anger if the time calls him to be a defender in his own or in his neighbour’s cause.’ In China the pomegranate is regarded as a symbol of fertility. We read in the ‘Pei si’ that two pomegranates were presented to king Nan-te of Ts’1 on the occasion of his marriage to the daughter of Li Tsu-sou, who explained that the fruit encloses many seeds, and implies the wish for many sons and grandsons. Thus the pomegranate is still a favourite marriage gift and plays a part in the marriage festival. The same obtains in modern Greece. In ancient Greece the pomegranate was one of the plant remedies for sterility. In cases of difficult labour the Romans gave the parturient woman pomegranates and a decoction of fenugreek. MyTHOLOGY., The pomegranate was one of the attributes of Aphrodite of Venus, the goddess of love and beauty; of Demeter or Ceres, the goddess of agriculture and vegetation; and of Dionysus or Bacchus, the youthful, beautiful, but effeminate god of wine. The attribute of Persephone or Proserpina as the wife of Hades or Pluto was the pomegranate, and her votaries had to abstain from this fruit. When carried off to the under-world Persephone resisted, begged, and implored gods and men to help her, but Zeus approving the transaction let it pass. Although she had been thus carried off by force she loved her husband, and when her mother, Demeter, implored her to come back to earth, her answer was that she had accepted from him the half of a pomegranate, or apple of love, and had eaten it. Persephone, who has eaten of the pomegranate, is the fructified flower that returns in spring, dwells in the region of light during a portion of the year, and nourishes men and animals with the fruits. 3 34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII RELIGION. The pomegranate is one of the fruits offered to the deity by a Hindu woman taking the ‘Saubhagya Vrat’, that cruel death may not snatch away from her the husband she loves. It is also one of the nine plants that make up the ‘Navapatrika’ worshipped on the occasion of the Durgapuja, as carried in some districts of Bengal. There is abundant proof that the ancient Egyptians offered pomegranates to the gods and to the dead, and that the tree was sacred both to the Semites and to the Greeks. The pomegranate figures in the New Year ceremonies of the Jews, and the blessing is as follows: ‘May your approbation be granted, O Lord, our and our forefathers’ God, to be full with good deeds as a pomegranate’.’ According to the Koran there are fruits in paradise: the date and the pomegranate. ; There is current among the Arabs a ‘hadi’ or traditional saying that: ‘whosoever eats pomegranates when he is hungry, his heart will be illumined for forty days and he ,will be immune from the temptations of the devil—and, therefore, will not sin, and, there- fore, will enter heaven.’ Another saying is that: ‘whenever the Imam Ali wanted to eat pomegranates he would spread a cloth. He was asked the reason for it; and he answered that every pomegranate contains a grain of the heavenly pomegranate and that whenever infidels want to eat that grain, by God’s command angels. take it to prevent them from eating it.’? ART. The pomegranate tree and its fruit occupy a prominent place in Egyptian and Assyrian decorations and works of art: ivory, metal, pottery. They may also be seen on preserved specimens of pottery from Jerusalem and on some Jewish coins. Among other details relating to the making of the ephod of the High Priest, the Exodus prescribes the following: ‘And beneath at the feet of the same tunick round about, thou shalt - make as it were pomegranates, of violet, and purple, and scarlet twice dyed, with little bells set between: so that there shall be a golden bell and a pomegranate, and again another golden bell and a pomegranate.’ In 1408, Quercia executed in Ferrara various sculptures, notably the ‘Madonna of the Pomegranate.’ ~ HERALDRY. The pomegranate appears in the escutcheons of the South American Republic of Colombia, and of Bogota, its capital. It is also found in the arms of the Spanish city of Granada, and in the seal of its University; in those of the towns of Granadella and ———————— 1 Dr. David Judah, M.p. * Prof. K. Dehdashti, B.A. (Hons.) THE POMEGRANATE 33 Santafé, in the Spanish province of Granada; and of Tregoney, in Cornwall. The arms of the Sassoon family are: ‘or, a palm tree eradicated proper between on the dexter a pomegranate, also proper, and on the sinister a branch of laurel fructed, vert, both proper, on a chief azure a lion passant of the first, in the dexter paw a rod erect, gold.’ LITERATURE. One of the most familiar of the Rabbinical interpretations designed to expound the symbolism of the priestly decoration prescribed in Exodus is that it indicates ‘something like an alterna- tion or mixture of music with discoursing, sound with sense, poetry with thought.’ And this is what Robert Browning meant to convey to the minds of his readers when he chose as a title for his poems Bells and Pomegranates’. Mrs. Browning refers to her husband’s successive pamphlets in her poem Lady Geraldine’s Courtship :— Or from Browning some ‘Pomegranate’, which If cut deep down in the middle, Shows a heart within blood-tinctured, of a veined humanity. Sanskrit poets often compared the redness of the cheeks or lips to the colour of the red seeds of the pomegranate. A simile not altogether unknown in the West:— _ Her cheeks like . . . faire pomegranade kernels washt in milke (Greene). : - Her. temples, peices of Pomegranates seeme (Robinson), — That small pomegranate-like mouth (Ouida). As a pomegranate, cut in twain, White-seeded is her crimson mouth (Oscar Wilde). The young pomegranate’s blossoms strew Their blooms in blushes ever new (Byron). As rosy as a half-opened pomegranate (Flaubert). In the Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (vol. xvii, part III, January 1940) Mr. R. O. Winstedt gives the following as an example of a Malay quatrain (pantun). Satu tangan bilangan lima, Dua tangan bilangan sa-puloh. Sahaya bértanam biji délima, Apa sébab péria tumboh? I find one hand has fingers five, I count up ten upon the two: What is the matter, man alive, Pomegranate planted and gourd grew! | Apparently the conundrum is about a gardener who counts his plants and finds their tale complete, but is astonished to discover a gourd growing where he had planted a pomegranate. However, to the Malay mind the pantun conveys much more than meets the ar; for in the Maiay language of fruits a pomegranate stands as rs i a a a JAE ron eee ete into, MAG: TeL.B. 36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIii a simile for the purple lips of the Eastern beauty and the bitter gourd as a symbol of disappointment. And here is a delightful little Marathi tale:—-‘In the house of learned men, who were profusely rewarded by king Bhoja, women, while playing in the yard got their pearl-necklaces broken and the pearls were scattered on the ground. These pearls were tinged by the lac-dye that was stamped on the floor, while the women were playing on the ground. The pearls thus coloured red by the lac-dye of the soles of the women’s feet attracted parrots who mistook them for pomegranate grains and began to pick them up.” PROVERBS. ‘Omni malo punico inest granum putre’, says the Latin: Every pomegranate has its rotten pip. Ek andar, sau bimdr’: one pomegranate to a hundred sick. A Hindustani proverb used when there are many candidates for the same post: ‘one post to a hundred applicants.’ ‘Kauvé kt dum mén anar ki kali’: pomegranate blossoms on a crow’s tail. A Hindustani proverb used to describe a black ugly person finely dressed. INDIAN MARKET. Bombay :—Regarding the Bombay Market the following infor- mation was supplied by Mr. D. S. Laud, Superintendent of Markets and Slaughter-Houses, Bombay :— ‘Pomegranates sold in our local markets are obtained from Bhawnagar, Dholka, Kabul, Maskat, Poona, and |Harnai. Most of the good quality ‘of fruits comes from Kabul. ‘The chief local fruit on sale is that from Poona, of which about 500 baskets are sold daily during the months of August, September and October. ‘The approximate quantities of pomegranates imported into Bombay from Kabul and other areas and the seasons are shown below :— _ from Bhawnagar and Dholka, 100 to 150 baskets per day during the months of March, April and May; from Poona about 500 baskets per day during the months of August, September and October ; from Maskat, 200 to 250 baskets per week during the months of October, November, December and January ; from Kabul, 75 to 100 kulus (long baskets) on every alternate day during the months of October, November, December and January.’ SYNONYMY. Granutum punicum St. Lag. in Ann. Soc. Bot. Lyon, vii (1880) 132. Punica florida Salisb, Prod. 354. 1 Prof. N. K. Bhagwat, M.a. THE POMEGRANATE 37 Punica Granatum Linn. Sp. Pl. 472. Punica grandiflora Hort. ex Steud. Nom. ed. I. 660. Parca nana Linn. Sp. Pls ed. II; 676. : Punica spinosa Lam, FI. Fr. iit. 485. Rhoea Punica St, Lag. in Ann. Soc. Bot. Lyon, vii (1880) 133. VERNACULAR NAMES. Afrikaans: Iralnate—; Amharic: Ruman—; Annam: Cay luu, Thach luu—; Arabic: Rana, Rana rumman, Rumman, Shajratur-rumman—; Aramaic: Rummana—; Assam: Dalim—; Baluchi: Anar, Nargosah—; Bengal: Dalim, Dalimgachh, Darim-—; Berber : Armoun—; Bombay : Anara, Dalimba, Darima— ; Brazil: Roma—; Burma: Salebin, Talibin, Thale—; Calcutta: Baidana—; Cam- bodia: Totim—; Canarese: Dadima, Dadimbe, Dalimbare, Dalimbe, Dalimbu, Hulidalimbe, Husidalimbe— ; Catalan: Magraner—; Cham: Dalim—; Chinese : An Shih Liu, Che Lieou, Liou Pi, Ngan Shih Liu, Shih Liu—; Cochin-China : Cay-thach-luu— ; Coptic: Erman, Herman—; Danish: Granattraee—; Deccani : Anar, Dhalim, Dharimb—; Dutch: Granatboom—; Egypt: Anhmani, Arhmani, Rumman—; English: Pomegranate Tree—; Ewe: Aboda—; French: Balaustier, Grenadier, Migraine, Miouganier—; German: Granaat baum, Granate—; Greek: Roa, Rodia, Roia, Roidia, Roidion—; Gujerat: Dadam, Dadum—; Hausa: Rumman, Rummani—; Hebrew: Rimaus, Rimmon, Rimnon—; Hindi: Anar, Dalim, Darim, Daru, Darum, Dhalim, Dharimb, Gulnar—; Hova: Aponga- beandanitra— ; Indo-China: An thach luu, Luu, Luu chua trap, Phila, Thap luu—; Iraq: Rumman—; Italian: Melogranato, Melograno—; Japanese : Sakaro, Sakuro, Zakuro—; Jaunsar: Danoi—; Javanese: Gangsalan— ; Jhalawan: Anar, Sor—; Jolo: Dalima—; Kharan: Hanor—; Khmer: Tatim—; Konkani: Dalimb, Dallimbini—; Kotra: Anar—; Kumaon: Darim—; Kurdish: Hannar—; Languedoc: Gronodié, Miouganié, Miougranié—; Malaya: Delima, Shak liu—; Malayalam: Dadimam, Matalam, Pumatalam, Raktabijam, Tali- matalam, Uruyampalam—; Malta: Pomegranate, Melogranato, Rimmien, Rummien—; Marathi: Dalimb, Dalimba—; Mexico: Granado, Granado de China—; Michi: Madala—-; Mendari: Anardaru—; Naples: Granato, Granato servaggio— ; North-Western Provinces: Anar, Darim—; Persian: Anar, Darakh- tenar, Dhalim, Dharimb—; Philippines: Dalima, Granada—; Polish: Drzewo granatowe—; Portuguese: Romanzeira, Romeira—; Potenza: Gronuto— ; Punjab: Anar, Daan, Danu, Daran, Dariun, Daru, Daruna, Daruni, Dhalim, Dharimb, Dharu, Jaman—; Pushtu: Anar, Anor, Gharnangoi, Nargosh— ; Quetta: Anarbedama—; Romagna: Melagrano, Melgarne, Melingarne— ; Roumanian: Pitligean, Pitlingean, Rodiu—; Russian: Granat, Granatnik— ; Sanskrit: Bijapura, Dadima, Dadimasara, Dadimba, Dalika, Dantabija, Danta- bijaka, Darimba, Karaka, Kuchaphala, Kuttima, Lohitapushpaka, Madhubija, Milapatra, Milapatraka, Mukhavallabha, Nagarata, Parvaruta, Phalashadava, Pindapushpa, Pindira, Raktabija, Raktapushpa, Shukadana, Shukavallabha, Sunila, Suphala, Svadvamla, Valkaphala, Vrittaphala—; Shahrig: Nargosa Sibi: Anar, Dahrun—; Sicily: Granatu—; Sind: Anar, Dhalim, Dharimb— ; Sinhalese: Delun, Delungaha, Delunghedi—; Sinjawi: Anangi—; Spanish: ° y Granada—; Swedish: Granatrad—; Syriac: Rumono—; Tamil: Kalumal, Madalai, Madulam, Madulungam, Magilan, Pumadalai, Pulimadalai, Tadimadalai, Tadimam, Tusagam—; Telugu: Dadimamu, Dadimba, Dalimma, Danimma, Karakamu, Pulladanimma, Puvvudanimma, Tiyyadanimma— ; Timne : Labo—; Treviso: Melogranato, Pomi ingranai—; Tuareg: Tarrumant— $; Tulu: Dalimbe—; Turkish: Nar—; Tuscany: Granata, Melagranata—; Urdu: Anarmitha—; Uriya: Dalimbo, Dalimo—; Verona: Magragnar—; Waziri: Narghesa— ; Yemen: Ruman—; Yugoslavia: Magranj, Nar, Sipak—. THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. BY D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S. PART /V. (Continued from Vol. xli, page 320). RHOPALOCERA. PAPILIONIDAE. pany doris hector “1, Moore, Cat. Lep. Mus. E.I.C., i, 93, pl. 2, figs. 4, 4a, rib 1857. Moore, Lep. Ceyl., i, 152. 1880-81. Moore, Dep. Ind53v, 173, plw435,, gcse 1, tay be weol-os: Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, ii, 19. 1907. , Bell, ‘Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. S0C., XxX). 1190-32 atom. Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies (2nd. Edits) 1)" 84. 1930: Head black, the clypeus outlined in crimson. Body blackish purple. 1st somite with a short sublateral and a long lateral orange red tubercle, a black dorsal plate with four orange red spots anteri- orly and two posteriorly. 2nd somite with a short lateral and sublateral and two longer subdorsal orange red tubercles. 3rd somite similar. 4th and 5th also similar but the outer subdorsal tubercle obsolescent on the 4th and absent on the 5th somite. 6th to 11th somites with a very low set sublateral short tubercle and a longer lateral and subdorsal. 12th and 13th somites with subdorsal tubercles only. 5th somite with a pale orange red spot above and posterior to the lateral -tubercle and another anterior to the subdorsal, an orange red transverse dorsal band. 6th to 8th somites each with a pale orange red spot anterior to the subdorsal tubercle, a pair of oval dorsal spots on the anterior margin and with traces of a transverse dorsal band. There is some variation in the amount of marking. Legs and Speaelcs black. . Prolegs blackish purple. Osmeterium orange. Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of black silk. Head flattened frontally and expanding into a slight lobe on each side. Thorax with a double keel and a slight lateral lobe. Wing cases expanded laterally and developing into a lateral lobe. 4th to 7th abdominal somites each with a pair of subdorsal rounded lobes. Colour pinkish russet, the wing cases slightly darker and mottled. The prothorax with two white subdorsal streaks, the abdomen marked with white above the wing cases. The pupa is very similar to that of P. aristolochiae F. (mihi, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl, 392), but the cephalic lobes are slightly smaller and those on the abdomen are smaller and more erect. The colour is more pinkish, that of aristolochiae being slightly tinged with olive, THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOFTERA 39 Food-plant—Aristolochia spp. Described from a full fed larva found at Gopalpur (Dist. Ganjam) 8-iii-40, pupated 14-ili-go, and a male emerged 1-iv-4o. SATYRIDAE. Ypthima hubnert Kirby, hubnert. dewNiceville, (/- ACS, Bi. 237, pl. 125, firs, 1;.4, b. 1886. Moore, Lep. Ind., 11, 77, pl: 111, fig. 1. 1893-06. Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, 1, 143. 1905. -. Ovum spherical, the base slightly flattened. Pale bluish green. Minutely punctate. Laid singly on the blades of grass. Deposited 30-vi-40. Hatched 6-vii-4o. Newly hatched larva pale buff marked laterally with purplish and clothed with short hairs. The body colour changes to green as soon as it has fed but the head remains buff. Resting attitude with the head and fore-part of the body curved downwards. Moulted 10-vii-4o. 2nd: instar—Head and body pale green. ‘A darker green dorsal line, a slightly waved white subdorsal and lateral line with a third line between them. Ventral surface paler. Anal plate divided into two points. Body clothed with short hairs. Moulted 14-vii-4o. ard i imi but with a pale subspiracular stripe. Moulted 18-vii-4o. Final instar--Head green. Body green, pubescent. A dark green dorsal stripe, becoming whitish on the 1st and 2nd somites. A slightly waved whitish subdorsal line with two more below it. A pale subspiracular stripe. Legs and prolegs green. Anal plate ending in two short pinkish processes. Length about seven-eighths of an inch. Two larvae in a batch of fifty bred from ova were pale purplish instead of green, with a dark purplish dorsal stripe and with the white lines more distinct. Pupated 24-vii-4o. Pupa suspended by the cremaster. Yellowish green in colour, the thorax and wing cases less tinged with yellow. A brownish black stripe along the dorsal edge of the wing case and a series of black specks along the outer margin. Thorax humped and slightly keeled, in some specimens the keel outlined in brownish black. A very few examples have the wing cases shaded with black. A female emerged 31-Vvii-4o. Food-plant—Grasses. The larvae usually hang up for pupation during the night and change late the following evening. The imagines usually emerge between eight and ten in the morning. Described from material bred from a female caught at Calcutta. de Niceville, quoted by Bingham, writes :—‘About one inch in length, with two divergent processes from the anal segment point- ing backwards. Colour entirely green with a dorsal line somewhat darker green, which becomes white at the fourth segment, and extends right through the crown of the head; there is also a paler green lateral line below the spiracles. Pupa green or brown, with the head rounded, the edges of the wing-cases raised and angled anteriorly; the thorax humped and marked like the abdominal seg- ments, with some dark brown waved lines and spots.’ 40 -- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII NYMPHALIDAE. Atella phalanta Drury. Moore, Lep. Ceyl.; 1,962, pl. 31,7) fic. aa, 1880-51, de Niceville, Butt. Ind., ii, 30. 1886. Davidson & Aitken, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., v, 269. 1890. Moore, Lep. Ind., iv, 197, pl. 360, figs. 1, 1a-1f. 1899-1900. Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i, 412. 1905. Head black with a small white pear-shaped central spot. Body grey, minutely speckled with white, the dorsum paler with a black dorsal line. A zig-zag sublateral cream coloured stripe. 1st and 2nd somites each with a lateral and subdorsal longish black branched spine, 3rd somite with the subdorsal spine only. 4th to r1th somites with a subdorsal, lateral and sublateral spine, 12th and 13th with subdorsal spines only. Legs black. Prolegs greyish. Spiracles black ringed with white. Venter tinged with yellow. One speci- men had the upper half of the head pale reddish brown. Before pupation the dorsum becomes tinged with yellow, the whole body finally turning green with the bases of the spines ieee ae white. Pupa with the head square in front with a pair of very Seal horns. Thorax slightly humped with a pair of short subdorsal spines on the pro- and meta-thorax. 4th, 6th, 8th and oth abdo- minal somites each with a pair of subdorsal spines, 1st and 3rd each with a pair of raised subdorsal spots, 5th and 7th each with a pair of very small subdorsal spines. Suspended by the cremaster from a pad of white silk and hanging at an angle of about thirtv degrees from the horizontal. Ground colour mother-of-pearl tinged with pink and with the following black and metallic silver markings. Black—-three small spots on the front of the head, a circle round the eye, the cephalic horns, the base of the prothoracic spines, the anterior portion of the metathoracic spines and an irregular blotch in front of them, the thorax along the junction with the wing cases, an irregular triangular costal mark a third of the way from their base, a series of lanceolate spots on the outer margin of the wing cases, the antenna and proboscis cases, the anterior part of the spines and raised spots on the rst, 3rd, 4th, 6th and 8th abdominal somites and the whole of the spines on the 5th, 7th and oth, a minute speck next to the spine on the 7th somite, a ~ series of short transverse dashes on the venter, a lateral blotch on the 3rd, ath and 5th abdominal somites and the cremaster. These black markings vary considerably in size. Metallic silver—the centre of the eye, the back of the prothoracic and metathoracic spines and also of the spines and raised spots on the rst, ard, 4th, 6th and 8th abdominal somites, the inner margin of the wing cases and a streak along the outer edge. Described from a number of full fed larvae found at Gopalpur (Dist. Ganjam) 16-iii-go, one of which pupated 19-ili-go, and a female emerged 24- -lii-40. Moore gives a very bad figure of both larva and pupa in The Lepidoptera of Ceylon and the following description :—‘Larva pur- ple-brown; head armed with two delicate branched spines, each THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 4] segment with two dorsal rows of similar spines and two lateral rows of shorter spines. Feeds on Flacourtia, Salix, etc. Pupa pale green, tubercular along the back.’ Bingham quotes Davidson and Aitken as follows.—‘Larva cylindrical, moderately thick, very smooth... . bears six longitudinal rows of branched spines. The head is unarmed. The colour varies from dark brown to pale yellowish-green, with a white or yellowish spot at the base of each spine. It feeds on one or more species of Flacourtia. Pupa colour very variable, some specimens being almost white and some bright green, the markings are usually silver soled, or tipped with red.’ He also quotes de Niceville’s description of the pupa ‘A beauti- _ ful green with a subdorsal series of five acutely pointed tubercles, marked with red between each pair of very small blunt ones, the upper edge of the wing-covers and a spot on each side of the head also marked with red.’ LYCAENIDAE. Rapala schistacea Moore. Head brown, very small and retractile. Body flattened, pale yellowish green. Somites deeply cut and with a subdorsal and sublateral series of slight humps. Skin pubescent, the subdorsal humps bearing short black bristly hairs, the sublateral humps white ones. Gland fairly large. The larva is well concealed by its appearance when resting among a bunch of the flower buds of its food-plant. Pupa formed in captivity on the bottom of the box under a leaf, resting on a very thin mat of silk and held in place by a slight girdle and the cremaster. Head and anal end obtuse, the abdomen rather swollen laterally, thorax and abdomen domed dorsally with a slight depression between the two, ventral surface flat, but this may be due to the situation in which the pupa was formed. Colour pinkish speckled with black, the wing cases tinged slightly with olive green, and with a blackish subdorsal stripe edg- ing the thoracic dome and then running along the abdominal somites. Under a lens the body is seen to be covered, with the exception of the wing cases, with short whitish hairs. Wing cases minutely punctate. Food-plant—Quisqualis indica Linn. Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 19-x-309, pupated 23-x-39, and a female emerged 31-x-39. HETEROCERA. LYMANTRIIDAE. Euproctis subfasciata Wk. Head very dark brown, the bases of the antennae white. rst somite black with two subdorsal white streaks, a smaller lateral white streak and a black subdorsal wart tufted with greyish hair. The rest of the body blackish grey, a double white dorsal line from the 6th to roth somite and a very faint whitish lateral line. 2nd and 3rd somites each with four brownish warts across the 42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII dorsum and a reddish lateral wart, all tufted with brownish hair. 4th and 5th somites each with a dorsal black hump, a subdorsal black wart and a reddish lateral wart, all tufted with brownish hair. 6th to 11th somites each with four black warts across the dorsum and a reddish lateral wart, all tufted with brownish hair. 1ath somite with four small greyish warts tufted with brownish hair. The dorsal glands on the 9th and 1oth somites pinkish red. Legs black. Venter and prolegs grey. . | Pupa olive brown,- the thorax more chestnut, the wing cases greener. Enclosed in a cocoon of thin whitish brown silk mixed with Jarval hairs. Food-plant—Quisqualis indica Linn. Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 26-v-40, spun I-vi-go, and a male emerged 16-vi-4o. - ARCTUDAE, - Creatonotus transiens Wk. ; Moore, Lep. E.I.C., 260, pli 13) tie. a5. 18577- 59. Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, ‘29. 1894. Ovum very pale yellow, spherical, flattened at the base, without sculpturing. Laid in large batches, each individual ovum touching the ones next to it. Hatched on the fourth day. Young larva greyish with transverse black bands on the 3rd, 4th and roth somites. Hair grey. Head black. Later with a white dorsal stripe edged with black between the transverse bands, the anal somite orange and a series of orange sublateral warts. Full-grown larva—Head black, marked with white ‘above the jaws and with a pale inverted V-shaped mark. outlining the clypeus. Body greyish black minutely speckled with white on the lateral areas. A broad white dorsal line interrupted on the 3rd, 4th, foth and 311th somites by wide black transverse bands. A pale’ cream lateral streak on the 2nd and 3rd somites. 5th to goth somites with double oblique pale ochreous lateral streaks, and with traées of similar streaks on the 1r1th and r2th somites. Hairs blackish brown. Spiracles white. Legs black. Prolegs deep purplish pink. Pupa in a thin cocoon of whitish silk mixed with larval hair. Pale chestnut brown, the intersegmental areas and a dorsal stripe on the abdomen darker. Not quite as dumpy as the usual Arctiine pupa. é Food-plant—Various Composites, and probably. many other species of low plants. Described from a number of larvae bred from ova in Calcutta, one of which pupated 29-vili-39, and a male emerged 5-ix-39. Hampson’s description, which is apparently based on that of Moore, is ‘black, blotched with red-brown and with tufts of -red- brown hair, the lateral tufts arising from ferruginous tubercles ; a dorsal broad white line; head black, marked with white.’ Asota caricae Bsd. (nie Cr); Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., x1, 402. 1938. The colouring of the head in this species is variable. Out of eh... THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA AS a batch of larvae found in Calcutta in August 1939, the majority had the head red, as recorded by Hampson and Moore. A smaller number had the head black with the vertex marked with red, as previously recorded by me, and there were a very few intermediates. ; SPHINGIDAE. Cephonodes hylas L., hylas. Sevastopulo, journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xli, 315. 1939. Head grey. 1st somite swollen, black with minute whitish tubercles. Ground colour very pale grey, the secondary segmental lines darker. A pale lavender subdorsal line edged below with white and with a small black spot immediately below it in the middle of each somite from the 2nd to the 1oth. Legs purple. Prolegs purplish. Anal flap and claspers purple with minute whitish tubercles. Horn black and tuberculate. Spiracles white with a transverse orange bar and with an ill-defined grey blotch immediately behind each. Another specimen had the subdorsal line and black spots obsolete and a third a black streak centred with white in place of the spots. In some cases the ground colour was considerably darker than in others. Described from a full-fed larva found at Gopalpur (Dist. Ganjam) I2-1li-40, pupated 16-ili-go, and a male emerged 30-ilI-40. The dark forms were considerably commoner than usual and outnumbered the green by about two to one. Three larvae found — when in the first instar were green but became almost jet black after ecdysis, and finally developed into the form with the broad black dorsal stripe. : NOCTUIDAE. Prospalta capensis Guen. Moore, Lep. Ceyl., iii, 29, pl. 147, fig. 2a. 1884-87. Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, 211. 1894. Warren Seitz, Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, xi, 346. Head brownish green with a broad black stripe on either side running from the outer edge of the mandibles to the vertex, where it is slightly broader. Ground colour pale brownish green, an inter- rupted white dorsal line edged with dark crimson and ending on the 11th somite in a white spot. A very fine white subdorsal line, between which and the dorsal line there are three minute crimson- ringed white spots on each somite from the 4th backwards, of these the central one is nearest the dorsal line and the anterior one is the smallest. 2nd and 3rd somites with a transverse series of four similar dots on each side of the dorsal line. A spiracular stripe, white and fairly broad and tinged with crimson, immediately above which there is a white dot broadly ringed with crimson over each spiracle from the 4th to 11th somite. 6th to 8th somites each with a pair of sublateral white crimson-ringed dots. Legs black. Prolegs and the whole area below the spiracular stripe very pale greenish. 11th somite slightly humped dorsally. Spira- cles white ringed with black, 44. JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL’ HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol, (XLTI Pupa in an earthen cell. Red brown, the thorax and wing cases tinged with olive green, a dark dorsal stripe and the inter- segmental areas of the abdomen darker. Cremaster ending in two sharp spines. Food-plant—Found on Marigold, but fed up on Cosmos, pre- ferring the flowers. Described from a_ full-fed larva found in Calcutta 12-i-40, pupated 17-1-40, and a male emerged 1-11-40. All the published descriptions that I have seen are based on that of Moore. This is: ‘Larva smooth, pale green, anal somite conical; with a dorsal and lateral series of purple-brown blotches dotted with white, and a sublateral row of white dots. Pupa greenish, with reddish segmental bands. Feeds on Acanthads.’ Moore’s plate shews a pupa with the head, thorax, wing cases and intersegmental abdominal areas bright green, the rest almost scarlet. (To be continued). A REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY. BY CHARLES MCCANN, F.L.S. Part Il (Continued- from. Vol. lr, po 76a). (With 6 plates). SUBORDER: SAURIA (contd.) Famity: Agamidae. Draco dussumieri Dum. & Bibr. Flying Dragonet. On the roth June, 1938, Mr. A. R. Hughes and I saw a specimen of this species in the forests of Gersoppa Falls, N. Kanara. The animal parachuted from one tree to another, a distance of some 60 feet. As soon as it alighted, it ran up the trunk for a foot or so, much after the fashion of a Tree-creeper (Certhia). Though I stoned it in an attempt to secure it, it made no attempt to para- chute again, but just moved round the trunk climbing a little higher each time, just as a Bloodsucker (Calotes versicolor) would do under similar circumstances. It eventually dropped after being hit, but was lost in the undergrowth. The upper surface was entirely black, like the bark of the tree, with no indication of marking’s. Habits.—Apparently nothing is known of the habits of Draco dussumieri, but under the heading of the genus the Fauna (vol. ii, p. 137, 2nd Ed.), referring to the gular appendage, states, ‘The gular pouch is usually much larger in the males than in the females’. In dussumieri the males always possess the larger ap- pendage. Continuing the Fauna adds, ‘Both it (appendage) and the wattles are distensible, or erectile, and are utilized by the males during courtship.” Though the gular appendage may be used during courtship, this does not appear to be its only use. As parachuting is under control, the triangular lateral expansions on the sides of the neck assist in flight, and the gular appendage acts as a possible ‘rudder’. Further, | am of opinion that the appendage plays a part in attracting insects. The appendage is flicked up ‘and down and, at the same time, the lateral neck expansions are spread out: the three appendages forming a badly shaped T. The dorsal surface of the neck expansions is coloured like the back, but the lower is a metallic bluish green with some scattered dark spots. The appendage is intermittently brought into play when the animal is travelling up a trunk or immediately after alighting. The appendage, when fully exerted, describes almost a semicircle, from the resting to the exerted position, and when at its fullest exceeds the length of the snout, in males. During the performance the animal stands high on its forelegs. Agitation, caused by 46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XLU disturbances, also make the animal perform. All three appendages are brought into play when the animal assumes a_ threatening attitude. The lateral expansions are spread, the gular appendage is detlexed (not to its fullest) and the mouth is opened. Actually, the whole eitect produced is that of a queer-looking orchid flower. In flight the animal appears like a highly coloured grasshopper. Breeding.—Keterring to the breeding in Draco, the Fauna states, “Ihe young are produced from eggs, from two to five being laid at a time. These are buried in the ground’. Thanks to the kindness of Dr. M. Suter, whose guest I was during a fortnight’s trip to Kanara, I was able to observe and collect some of these interesting lizards, ‘The period of the trip extended from the 3rd _ to 15th September 1940. The breeding season of this lizard is undoubtedly during the monsoon months. While at Karwar, 1 saw many young and secured four gravid females, one of which contained large eggs in the oviducts almost ready for laying. These eggs measured 15Xg mm. The other females con- tained smaller eggs still in the body cavity. The normal number of eggs in a clutch appears to be four. The condition of the male genitals in mature males indicated that the animals were passing out of the breeding season. Sexual differences.—The females are larger than the males. The gular appendage is not as long as in the males, but Pee the same colouring. Hood... he 1o0d!tor HSIN EE is apparently composed largely of ants, particularly the Red Tree-Ant (Oecophylla smaragdina Fabr.). ‘Lhe stomachs of some were Dooce exclusively with this species. Colouring.—In May 1939, iis D’Souza of our office brought in a living example which he had caught at Yellapore, N. Kanara. Apparently the colouration of this species from lite has never been recorded (vide Fauna). Now I attempt to describe the difficult colour pattern, but this is by no means constant as it keeps chang- ing within certain limits. The colouration, as I saw it, was as follows:—Head and dorsal portion of body (excluding parachute membrane), limbs and tail mottled with dark and light browns, buff and grey. On the nape there is a transverse ellipsoid, buffish patch. Along the vertebral column, from between the forelimbs to the region of the pelvis, there are four longitudinal narrow ellipsoid patches, the mid-dorsal patch being the largest. Each patch con- sists of a buffish ellipse with dark brown lineal ellipses within—- these patches under certain conditions turn almost white, and the rest of the body black. The tail is irregularly banded at intervals, with the same tones as the body. The dorsal surface of the parachute; the peripheral margin is radially streaked with thin lines of brown and buff; within this margin which has a depth of about 5 mm. it is very strongly blotched with black and gold or dull yellow, the blotches often confluent. The yellow gradually passes into the body. colours. The reverse has fewer black blotches, no margin as above and the entire area suffused with pale blue. The chin and throat are metallic yellow-green with a few brown markings near the mouth, 47 REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY A | ‘uoyorg = (q) 4 ‘sep autos jiids Ul Useq peYy S[VUlIUY 19}Je UWoeye} S}]UITIIINSBOW] , SS NS KS CS SE TE | SS TL PS EA NE ‘Suno x seeree see cee Sg IP | 66 sd 6 | 66 s eee ‘od 7 hee ory . fot €8 : ie i | - ee SOG OES Tae tga ss oo - 1h(q) sor | 08 . a ie | s ie P |e og “ bs ixe e cg «6 “ ce | 7 Oe ee “oct ' -paseureq baa Sees ae 78 ‘ rr, & 6 pols «oq os or S2I | 28 og ator | ‘ SOG oe SON orale ee ee ie ee “{Z 391 ‘“Z JUSII) AyAvo Apoq Ur BAC ¢ ee TPL 16 eae he A ec ‘od "(Z 3391 ‘Z WUSIt) oNpiao ursssq ) 6x GI ve be FPL | £6 i ec rans te Se ‘od "(2 Wer ‘Zz WS) AyAvo Apo Ut BAO | Q | eben CCT 16 | ereuey 'N ‘rearey | OPEL “Jdes) & [ 24aeue | | -ussnp “SOAJOWIIJUU U1 *4g1 ‘un dq” idatwnssnp ooIel O SJUAUIAANSDVAJV x Gui 1 44d & Gaol I Ws 48 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLU this passes imperceptibly into the bright chrome yellow of the gular appendage. The chest, abdomen, under-surfaces of the limbs and a part of the ventral of the tail are metallic blue-green. The eyes are almost black, surrounded by bluish eyelids. The inner | margin of the upper jaw is strongly demarked in pearly white. Sitana ponticeriana Cuv. Fan-throated Lizard. A female measuring from snout to vent 45 mm. and from vent to tip of tail (broken) 55 mm. was captured at Sutgutti, 16 miles north of Belgaum, on the 5th June, 1938. Two days later she laid eleven eggs. The Fauna records that this species lays six to eight eggs. The average measurements of the eleven eggs is 7.90x 5.76 mm. The largest measured 8x6 mm.; the smallest 7.5x6. The shape is ellipsoid, tapering somewhat towards both poles. Calotes versicolor (Daud.) Jerdon. The Bloodsucker. In volume xxxix of the Journal I described some of the habits of this lizard. With regard to the egg-laying period, the latest date on which eggs were discovered was the 22nd August (1937). A fresh clutch was unearthed in a flower pot on the 17th September, 1938. Late clutches may explain the appearance of a few immature animals after the aestivating period. Copulatory organs.—An anatomical detail which has puzzled me much is the ‘dual’ copulatory organs of certain reptilian groups, namely, the lizards and snakes. One can hardly resist asking, Why are these reptiles provided with a bifid, others with a single ee ae organ? Dr. Smith | Fauna British India (Reptilia), vol. il, p. 4, 2nd Ed.] referring to these organs in lizards writes :—. ‘Each organ consists of a tube of erectile tissue, which can be everted like the finger of a glove. *Only one organ 1s inserted, but which one is immaterial, and depends upon which side the male happens to be at the time of copulation.’ Referring to Gadow (Camb. Nat. Hist., Amphibia and Reptiles, Pp. 499) we find the same statement: ‘*Only one organ is inserted at one time.’ . On the other hand we have the view proposed by Jones [The Animal Kingdom, p. 758, para (2025)| discussing the copulatory organs of reptiles :— ‘The earliest appearance ot copulatory organs is .seen in Serpents and Lizards tribes: and in such reptiles it will be observed that *the penis is vather a provision for securing the juxtuposition of the sexual apertures of the male and female than an instrument of intromission. The two lateral halves of the penis (or corpora cavernosa as we shall have to call them hereafter, when they become conjointed in the mesial line) are as yet quite separate, and placed on either side of the cloacal fissure, from which they protrude when in a state of erection, so that there appears to be two distinct organs of excitement, or, more properly speaking, of prehension; for each division, being of course imperforate, is covered with sharp spinest, *and is obviously adapted to take a firm hold of the cloaca of the female than to form a channel for the introduction of the seminal fluid.’ * The italics are mine. t+ There are no spines in Calotes nor in Hemidactylus. A REPTILE AND AMPHiBIAN MISCELLANY 49 If the copulatory organs of snakes and lizards are organs of prehension, as suggested by Jones, then such prehension, to be effective, implies the use of both organs. In such lizards, as | have observed, i.e. Hemidactylus, Calotes and Mabuya, the male at first holds the female in its jaws, but the grip is released as soon as the copulatory organs are inserted. In these lizards the limbs are employed in securing a stance on vertical walls or the surface of a branch, and cannot be used for holding the female, and, once the grip of the jaws is relaxed, hold is maintained solely by the copulatory organs. In these conditions it 1s difficult to accept the contention that only one organ is employed; and one is inclined to the conclusion that security and effectiveness of hold depend upon the use of both organs. Fat bodies.—Before the gonads become active there are two large, ovate-oblong, yellow fat bodies present in both sexes, one on either side of the vertebral column. With the increase in the size ef the gonads there is a relative decrease in the size of these bodies and eventually become totally absorbed. In some specimens taken on the 16th June (1940) at the Tulsi Lake, the fat bodies had been absorbed though the ova were not mature, but still in the body cavity (see table). The main function of these bodies appears to be to ensure the proper development of the gonads at a time when the food supply is precarious, 1.e., during the dry months when few insects are about. Food.—In my previous paper on this lizard, I dealt with the question of food in somewhat general terms, but further observ- ations have enabled me to give more details, The following is a list of the stomach contents of several lizards :— Dysdercus cingulatus Fb. These bugs though very common at certain times of the year are only eaten in small numbers. Both species are eaten in large numbers, and in the dry months appear to form the main source of food, particularly, Cremastogaster sp. Plagiolepis sp. (Hymenoptera). This ant is very common in Salsette Island and at first looks very much like Oecophylla smaragdina Fabr, but the former is slightly smaller and does not bite, while the latter bites viciously. Scolopendra sp. occasional. Pavasa lepida Gam. (Limacodidae). ‘Three larvae of this moth were taken from a single Calotes. ‘This find is interesting in that these larvae are armed with strongly irritant spines which are sufficient to deter most enemies. The spines are believed to contain formic acid. Small Coleoptera are taken in plenty, and various caterpillars frequently. Numerous other insects were found but too far decom- posed to identify with certainty. Apart from the above list I have found the seeds of a grass, Coix Lachryma-Jobi Linn. These seeds were evidently taken in error for insects on account of the peculiar shape. Mr. H. Ali informs me that he found the fruit of ‘Lantana in the stomach. Other curious finds were a piece of clear glass about 6 mm. square: 4 Cremastogaster Sp. Camponotus compressus Fb, XLII Vol. SOCIETY, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. 0 5 (9 3321 | ‘g AIBAO JBI) SS we ‘981¥B] Satpog ey 9 eaeve z0z | 88 e a a 0F-S-92 & |e og = ‘< *paonpel serpod }By 17 Pas SE? | £6 a iS a op—s-st | S | cog 6 6 66 66 ¢ coo os OZ POL 66 bs (@ OF-F-0€ 5 Pe ‘od (a3 a3 6 66 T ecccee S61 $3 Re a 6s OF-P-0¢ 5 ee -O(] 66 6 66 46 Z eocces (q) ZEl Z5 66 66 66 Of-F-0¢ b aise “od *AyiAvo Apog Ul VAG *8BIe] SOIPOd }By CG eee OTZ | 68 x ‘‘ — Tleypuy| Of-P-OF Siac: = <0) *s9po} -CUIdN YIM p2}soJul SouNT *paqsosqe sarpoq je yy oe 9x hs OF 950 82 0G "SSPO}VUION UJI poj}sajur | Kanone ssun’] ‘paonpar A[qeiepisuoo sarpoq jez ae 8x¢.ZI €6z | GEIL es as cs 0-9-1 bo ORSAY *SOpoJeUION WIM peysojur A[IAvaY ssuny ‘osrel Airy sorpoq 124 ers 6x FL Z/2 | 82I “ ec ee 0F-S-92 2 ag : i ie ers. 9 cal OLGA NSGIL males - OP-7266 |) See 1 OG ‘Sel sorpoqyeg | "| §x¢.6 PlGaly EEA ee es z Ob-F-62 | 2 |" ‘od *psonpel sorpoq eq eoetee L x al L112 SIT (3 (Hf (ary OF-F-62 P eee ‘0d *sopo) “BUSN YJIM pajsajul Souny ‘osi¥y serpoq jeq ai) LXII 062 | 221 | ‘ISL evesTeg ‘toypuy) oOF-F-8zZ | YP | 4070718400 saqojn7 | syrvUay $339 sojsoy, | jI@Ujo usa 0} Aytpeoory Sag me soiade 10 92ZIG_ | JO-8ZTS |d1} 0} JUIA] JnNoUS "SAdJAWUIPJIUL UL AO[OIISIOA SojoTeD fo SJuawaansva jy i lie) MISCELLANY AMPHIBIAN ' ’ /PTILE AND AR "(¢ 391 “S aol) <5 2 ‘f *paeqiosqe saipoq ey : “(LT 91 ‘ZT wus) “ ‘* ‘peqiosqe serpoq je *(¢ 139] “9 yyst1) Ay1Aeo Apoq UI AQ “paqsosqe satpoq }¥y *sopo} -CUISN 9SIV] YIM pojsajur uswmopqy ‘(8 >] ‘6 }USII1) sjonpIAO Ul Séeq ‘“[[VUIS SeIpoq jey “(ZT 391 ns *‘l]euls soIpoq ey (9 HAT ‘8 JUSII) sjonplAo ul sésq ‘]]eUIS soIpoq jey "(9 Wa] ‘2 AIBvAO qysi1) Aytavs Apoq ul BAQ ‘]TeUIs soIpoq Jey ‘TL 34811) is Lx¢-21 8%*S-FL GeZaSi-Gk $-8 “wayoig = (q)x er2e0ee osecee cov cee eee .ce eseecee esocves OIz Oz (q) TOT C&G (a) SH (aq) TOT ~ O€c ce be £6 0F-9-9T 0F-9-9T 0F-9-9T Oral Ob-S-9Z 0b-S-9¢ OF-S-9¢ O+ Ot OF OF OF eee eee Measurements of Calotes versicolor. in millimetres. 0g | om | Pee 5 F : Snout |Vent to tip} Size of| Size of = Species Sex Date Locality teatuant me Tail P Testes Cra. Remarks S Ss Culotes = versicolor.| & 28-4-40 |Andheri, Salsette Isl.| 122 | 290 cL 7a | tases Fat bodies large. Lungs infested with Nema- ‘7 | ! todes. ie Do. d 29-440 » + 90 118 | 277 14x7 | Fat bodies reduced, ro) Do. é 29-4-40 A i x | 117 | 274 95«5 Fat bodies large. = Do. go | 29-440 ” ” 1 | 125 | 276 12x 6°5) ” » S Do. 3 26-S—40 y es 1» | 128 | 272 14x9 Fat bodies fairly large. Lungs heavily infested = with Nematodes. 2 Do. ¢ 1-6-40 oT * », | 139 | 293 L2:S'x) Siu eceseees | Fat bodies considerably reduced. Lungs elighdy S | infested with Nematodes. 8 Do. d 2-6-40 ” " » | 126 | 291 SEE) | ceceee Fat bodies absent. iS Do. g 2-6-40 ni », | 118 | 270 145x'535| i meneee Fat bodies reduced. Lungs infested with 2 Nematodes. — Do. é 9-6-40 1» 0 on 129 | 126 (B)* | 17x9 Fat bodies absent. ie, Do. d 9-640 * i i 118 | 275 14x7°5 Fat bodies reduced. iS Do. é 9-6-40 a » | 121 | 265 4x8 | Fat bodies small. Lungs slightly infested with &% Nematodes, ee De. 6 9-6-40 Di 5 >» | 119) 272 LS): 7c OH teceers Fat bodies absorbed. Lungs heavily infested % with Nemateodes. = Do, rae 16-6-40 (Tulsi Lake ,, 6H 137 | 310 } 15x9 oy Fat bodies absorbed. Lungs infested with Nema- S todes. 3 Do. dé 16-640 ” » » | 109 | 268 HEI |} Geo | Fat bodies absorbed. Lungs infested with Nema- e todes. % Do. 2 30-4-40 |Andheri, ,, af 89 | 210 2 Fat bodies large. Ova in body cavity. SS Do. @ | 30-4-40 ~ * » | $2 | 132 (B) 2 | . i 3 i b= Do. 2 30-4-40 on 7 7 83 | 193 1 ” ” i) YP be Do. fe) 30-4-40 om a 9 104 | 240 3 ” ” ” ” Ss Do. Q | 15-5-40 es si erly 893) |k235 ; 4 | Fat bodies reduced. ,, i 5 Do. 2 26-5-40 rm tA ow 881202 eee | mereenes 6 Fat bodies large. = Bn (right ovary 6, left 6). Wile 8-5 Fat bodies small. Ova in body cavity (right Do. 2 26-35-40 | ? ” ” 97 | 230 ovary 7, left 8). . Feu ee TOMB) elles 12°5x7'5 | Fat bodies small. Eggs in oviducts righ Do. 2 | 2540] ,, mpl 22) || HONEY 8, left 6). : (right 11 ey Quiml45i0B)e |) eevee 14:5x8 | Fat bodies small. ” ” rng , Do. Q | 26-5-40 fA ie ml) a6 (B) jeft 12). oe seaen = | 12°5x7 | Fat bodies small. ggs in oviducts (rig Do. g 1-640 v. 22 4 AUS} 28 left 8). Abdomen infested with large Nema- i todes. A, Gtaten ty (right ie + B 7 Fat bodies absorbed. va in body cavity (rig’ ica Do. Q@ | 16-640 |Tulsi Lake ,, » | 86 | 101 (B) 6. left 5). : his = 7 oe | axe 9 Fat bodies absorbed. ,, ” » (rig = Do. 2 16-6-40 ” ” ” 89 0 12, left 11). : ane SF 9, Bees 5 Fat bodies absorbed. ,, ” » (71g) is Do. 2 16-6-40 ” ” ” 82 | 210 5, left 5). = = = =: = 2 — = = a is} = BK iS = reas ey *(B) = Broken. 62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit -a valve of a bivalve shell. As there is no muscular pyloric region in Calotes, hard substances would serve no useful purpose, hence the only conclusion is that hard substances, such as these, are swallowed in error, Parasites.—In my paper referred to above, I mentioned the occurrence of some internal parasites taken from Calotes, but could not mention them specifically at the time. Since then some of the worms were identified. They are as follows :— Polydelphis rotundicaudatus (v. Linst., 1904) Baylis, taken from the stomach. Strongyluris calotis Baylis & Baubney, infesting the rectum. A Pentastomid was taken from the lungs, one in each. On the 26th May 1940 I removed 65 small worms, similar to Strongyluris, from the lungs of a single male—go in one and 25 in the other! Another male (on 16-6-40) yielded 55 Nematodes, 36 in one lung and 19 in the other! In spite of such heavy infections the lizards appeared healthy and behaved quite normally. The upper half of the lungs was seriously inflamed and the inner walls of the lower half were covered with nodular outgrowths. The Nematodes lie free in the lung cavity. It does seem curious that though these lizards are often heavily infected, externally, they appear healthy and normal. On the rst June (1940) I recovered seven large worms measuring 60 mm. long from the body cavity of a female. These worms moved among the viscera and the eggs. Though the animal harboured these. worms she seemed perfectly fit and contained 17 eggs in the oviducts. Besides the above-mentioned parasites the following have .been recorded from Calotes versicolor (vide Baylis, F.B.I. Nematoda) :—- ‘Ascaris’ brachyura (v. Linst., 1904) from Ceylon. Thelaudros maplestoni (Chatterji 1930) from Burma and Ceylon. © Conispiculum flavescens (Castellani & Willey, 1905) India & Ceylon. - Thubunaea dactyluris Karve 1938, India. Physaloptera archari Mirza 1935 (=? P. paradoxa v. Linst. 1908), India. Calotes rouxi Dum. and Bibr. The Forest Bloodsucker. Colour.—The Forest Bloodsucker is smaller than the common Bloodsucker (C. versicolor). In non-breeding garb it may be mis- taken sometimes for juveniles of versicolor, but in the breeding season it is very distinctive. At that season both males and females are black in tone throughout, except for the head and a narrow patch along the vertebral column which are bright scarlet, the scarlet gradually lessening in intensity posteriorly. In the females the scarlet markings are far less pronounced than in the males. In this phase of colouring the animal does not look unlike some bark fungus from a distance. In the non-breeding season the general colouring consists of sober browns, but like other lizards they are able to change colour considerably according to the ground they ate on. On the top of the head there are four characteristic black déts in both sexes throughout the year. The breeding colours are *(soyeur u10}}0q fsayeuay Mos doy) | . ‘suesi0 Surpaaiq jo uoljrpuos ey} Sulmoys (aqig ® ‘wn IxNOs sajo]VD) JaxONSpooj[g 3$e10.~ eyi JO suOT}assICT ‘UUDDIPL *) 2 0704 X FLVId 90S “JSIET “JUN Avquiog ‘‘usnor "UUDIIFY °“Q 20404 IX aLVI1g ae . 20S ‘SIT ‘JPN Avquiog ‘‘usmog A REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY 53 controllable and their intensity depends on the temperament of the animal at the time. Under disturbed conditions, such as handling, the colours almost disappear. Sexual difference.—The males are larger than the females. Habits.—Dressed in the contrasting breeding colours the males sit watching for females, and from time to time bob their heads and shoulders up and down just as the common Bloodsucker does. This form of display possibly serves a dual purpose; one as a challenge to other males who respond in the same manner before approaching each other to fight; and the other, to distinguish the females which do not adopt the same performance. Fights between males are not uncommon and some lizards may be seen with scars. Rival males may be seen going from tree to tree to chase one another away. The courtship is apparently short; the male will chase a female round a trunk, she will dodge, often arch her back and meet the male in an ‘aggressive’ attitude, then suddenly take to flight again. This sort of play continues for a time before actual copulation takes place. Many of the habits of the species are not unlike those of the Bloodsucker (C. versicolor). These lizards spend much of their time low down on the trunks of trees coming to the ground frequently to catch insects. They are inhabitants of deciduous forests. Their numbers have been considerably reduced in Salsette since the wholesale deforestation of certain parts of the island. Owing to this state of affairs large numbers were congregated where a few trees were available in June 1939, but since then, the trees have been demolished ! Breeding Season.—The breeding season commences during the hot weather, i.e. the middle of May and reaches its height in June when the eggs are laid. The clutch numbers from 4 to 9, but 6 or 7 appears to be the general rule. The accompanying table gives the size of the eggs. In Kanara the breeding season appears to be somewhat later than in Salsette Island. While at Karwar during the early part of September (1940) I noticed several males in breeding colour and secured a single female with fully matured eggs in the oviducts. At the same time there were a number of young about. Food.—This lizard is insectivorous. On one occasion I found it feed on a red Pyrrhocorid bug. The bugs are avoided by most other lizards. At the breeding season the bugs appear in large numbers. 7 , FAMILY: Scincidae: Skinks. Mabuya carinata Boulenger. The Common Skink. The Common Skink, is often referred to as the ‘Snake-leader’ or ‘Snake-ant (or aunt)’’—Snake-leader, because popular belief has it that this inoffensive creature is a ore nncr of snakes. There is, of course, no real foundation for this belief, but it must be remembered, that this lizard, like so many others, forms the chief 2 1 “Snake-ant’ is a literal and mutilated translation of the Marathi name Surpa chi moust (=snake’s aunt). JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, : Vol. XLII 54 _°Oo"d ‘od od jeoeyds ‘Ayiavo = Apoq. ss UL Ss BO “od ‘od ‘o9InjJeUl some ‘od ‘IIojN Ul S83q SYIVMIIY (uaxo1q) 60T age col 611 9ET 8cl (uaxo1q ) $6 SIL c&T (ueyo1q) At T&T TET EFL 8éI €bt Teg 09 LS ¢-ZS 8S 09 89 $-¢9 is) 99 RZ L9 TZ 89 S9 99 g9 ol Apog 23 peoH SS ——_— ——_$___——_ so8q JO 32Z1§ *$330 [[vUIs AUST =f eee W+6 & ‘od W+t eee eoe 5 ‘od : W+9 eee coe } ‘Od W+9 oe | eee 5 ‘0d Ww+9 wiaie coo b ‘0d W+9 ese eee 5 "0d Wirral alecem cee et x9 2 ‘od Ee GPX Z e ‘0d a pxZ rs ‘0d | eve S x i eae L ‘od eos ex / i wee P od Gx Z 2 ‘od Gx i ‘od es 2 ‘od ee px g ee P ‘od yx Z P 6£-9-8 | S383 sojsay, | solog jo -oN }j0 eig.| oo | S| °C "SaAJaWUyIW UL IXNOI Soayo[VgQ fo sjUuawmasnsvajy IS] oqjJesTeg eee "Iqhe 2 ‘od ‘od od ‘od “od ‘od ‘od ‘od ‘od ‘od 0d ‘od ‘od ‘od ‘od “od mocaala § “SOAVD WleUey\Z x MOL S3j0IDD Ayi[eoo'] sotoedg ie t ‘ Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PrAte X11 oer Photo: C. McCann. A. The Common Skink (Mabuya carinata Boulenger). | B. The Little Skink (Mabuya macularia Boulenger). E. eggs; ©. ova; “Ov oviduct. | | A. REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY 55 food of certain snakes, such as the Wolf-Snake (Lycodon aulicus), which is a frequent inhabitant of dwellings. There is, in the Society’s collection, an interesting specimen of a Lycodon, which had eaten a skink ‘too large’ for it, with the result that the skink forced all four legs through the body wall of the snake giving it the appearance of some prehistoric monster. In district bungalows this lizard is a frequent visitor, where it may be. seen gliding about in corners and under furniture in search of insects. If not molested it often becomes quite tame, pay- ing no attention to the inmates of the house. In forests it is fre- quently seen streaming in and out of fallen leaves, and under stones and rocks, its snake-like head peeping out now and again, looking very ‘snakish’ indeed. In the early hours of the morning, parti- cularly in the cold weather, it may often be seen basking in the sun, either on rocks or on the trunks of trees (it never climbs into the thin branches). When possible, it will also climb on to the roof and hunt among the tiles or thatch. In habit it is purely diurnal, resting at night in any suitable place. They are so attached to their resting places that they return to them in spite of disturbance. In my bungalow one always returned to a cloth-covered box, where it slept under the cloth. Mr. C. King, a neighbour of mine, always had one in his bed every night during the monsoon months (at no other season). The lizard would either get under his pillow or under the folded blanket at the foot of the bed. Here it would return night after night in spite of being rudely ejected at bed time. I can vouch for this statement as I have seen the lizard in question on many occasions. The young are numerous among the fallen leaves during the months of June and July. | It is perhaps unnecessary to say that this creature is perfectly harmless and even when handled rarely bites, but old beliefs die hard. In captivity it does well and lives for several years. The food consists chiefly, if not exclusively, of insects. I have kept several in captivity, feeding them largely on cockroaches, when other insects were not available. Recently I had two large lizards in the same box. I put in a large green mantis, one of them got hold of it and dusted it vigorously on the floor. The other tried to join in the meal but each time the second lizard approached, the one with the mantis would turn its hind portion towards the other to ward it off. ‘After the mantis had been beaten to pulp it was swallowed. The skink drinks water occasionally (noted in captivity). Mabuya macularia Boulenger. The Little Skink. This is quite common in the Island of Salsette, and may at first glance be mistaken for a young M. carinata. A_ pair was found on the 22nd June (1935) in copulation. I was only able to secure the female. It measured from snout to vent 48 mm. ; vent to tip of tail 59 mm. On dissection it was found to contain four eggs, approximately 5 mm. in diameter. On 8th June 1939, I secured a female measuring from snout to vent 52 mm., tail 74 mm. 56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL) HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. XLII She contained three, almost mature eggs in the uteri (2 in the right and one in the left) measuring 9x6 mm. Besides these large eggs there were numerous other small ones in the body cavity. The normal clutch appears to be four. It is more of a forest dweller than the Common Skink. FamIty: Varanidae: The Monitors. Varanus monitor (L.) The Common Indian Monitor. The Common Monitor is frequently referred to by many Europeans and Anglo-Indians as the Iguana. It is well known that true Iguanas are American, though Chalaradon and Hoplurus occur in Madagascar. To most Indians it is known as Gor, Gorpad, Or variations of the name. The young, owing to its very different markings from the adult, is referred to by other names, one of which is the mythical bis-cobra. In ancient wars and in criminology in India this monitor is said to have figured frequently, as a means of scaling walls. A rope was tied round the waist, and the animal allowed to ascend the wall. Once over, pulling on the rope forces the animal to secure itself. The owners would then climb up the rope. The well-known Marathi surname, Gorpade, arose from the belief that some ancestor of the family used this lizard effect- ively for scaling a fort wall. Be this as it may, to my mind this story is quite possibly true. From my own experience, I have found it exceedingly difficult to extract a monitor from a crevice once it has wedged itself in. The following will suffice to show the great strength with which it can hang on:—In Mt. Abu (5,000 ft.) I once caught one of these lizards just as it was disappearing into a crevice. It was about 30 inches long. Only the tail remained out. I hung on to it with my feet planted against the rock, I pulled and pulled, but the animal would not give way an inch. As I was close to our bungalow I called for assistance and a rope. The rope we managed to tie just ahead of the hind limbs. With the aid of three servants I tried again to dislodge the animal but it would not move. As this plan failed, I got some straw, lit it, and put it near the tail, thinking the heat would make it release its hold, but no. Later I discovered that I had unintention- ally burnt the tail a bit. In spite of this it still held out. Even- tually, I slackened the rope slightly and as the animal tried to go further in, I suddenly jerked the rope and out it came. It stood at bay until captured. As the monitor has such extraordinary strength, is it any wonder that it was used as a means of scaling? One man’s weight would be nothing, once the animal wedged itself into a crevice, or got down a hole. After such experiences as I have had with this lizard, I, for one, cannot discredit the probable use of these lizards as an aid to scaling rough walls. Anyone who has handled a fair sized, vigorous animal must have been impressed with its extra- ordinary strength. Though this monitor is perhaps commoner in dry districts, it is also found in dense forest. It swims and dives well, and often takes to water for safety, and remains submerged for a considerably A REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY 57 long time. When pursued over flat ground it runs exceedingly fast, but for a short distance only; it soon shows fatigue and stands at ‘bay when overtaken, blows itself up, hisses and lashes out with its tail. Having recovered itself, it takes to flight once more at the first opportunity. The monitor climbs trees with great ease, and may sometimes be seen up the tallest palms in search of birds’ nests. The young appear to climb more easily and oftener than the adults. Young.—In Salsette most young appear during the hot weather and the early part of the monsoon. Only once have I found eggs with well-developed embryos. Unfortunately, I did not keep a record at the time. A recently hatched young was caught by Mr. D. B. Barretto at Kurla in the month of February 1939. On the 24th May (1939) I caught an older one at Andheri. It was perhaps three weeks to a month old. The young are very varia- ble in colouring and are able to modify their colour to a certain extent, generally they are strongly banded. These markings dis- appear with age. Growth during the early period is fairly rapid, but beyond a certain size it slows down. Food.—The food is varied and consists of rats, birds, frogs, and perhaps any animal that can be overpowered. In captivity, adults live for many years when fed on raw meat, rats, birds and eges. The food is generally swallowed whole, but when it is too large it is torn to pieces with the aid of the forelimbs. Living prey is soon killed by vigorous dashing against the ground. In the process of swallowing, if portions of the prey protrude, the animal brushes them into its mouth by rubbing the jaws against the ground. The Common Monitor is purely diurnal. Captive specimens, due probably to confinement, get extremely fat and frequently suffer from a fusion of the vertebrae. The Monitor is often destructive to poultry, feeding both on the eges and the birds. The meat is eaten by the local people. ORDER: ECAUDATA. Famity. Ranidae: Frogs and Toads. Rana hexadactyla Lesson. The Six-toed Frog. In *olume xxxvii (p. 742) of the Journal I mentioned the occur- rence of this species in the Bombay Presidency, but unfortunately omitted to record the measurements. They are as follows: females, from snout to vent 60 mm. and 65 mm.; no males were obtained. On the 12th March 1939, Mr. H. Ali and I secured a male and female living in one of the dry cisterns at the Kanari Caves, Salsette Island. These two specimens I kept in an aquarium. As the female showed signs of being gravid, I lived in hope of being able to trace the life cycle, but it escaped just before the monsoon broke. It was last seen in the aquarium on 30-5-39. The male called frequently both day and night. The call is not unlike that of R. cyanophlictis. In the note referred to above, I mentioned, ‘It is curious that these frogs should be gravid at this time of the 58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIi year,’ (25-2-34) and concluded by saying, ‘they may possibly breed all the year round’. The present instance indicates that though the females may be gravid early in the year the eggs are not laid till the beginning of the rains, as do most other frogs. Together with this species we also found R. tigrina, R. leithii, and R. malabarica, all living together under the same stones. Rana cyanophlictis Schneid. The Skipper. During the latter part of May and early June I have often taken specimens full of ova. This indicates that the breeding season commences with the monsoon. Two females measured 62 mm. and 59 mm., respectively. The males are smaller. Amplexus takes place in lakes and not in small puddles as in the case of R. tigrina. Rana tigrina Daud. The Bull-Frog. Voice.—About the middle of May 1938, I heard a single Bull- Frog calling. As it was some time before the rains actually broke, it seemed rather unusual. Then again, I heard several croaking in the: fields, at Andheri, during the month of August (1938), long after the general breeding season was over. Usually croaking: in this species ceases after amplexus which occurs during the first week, or couple of weeks, of the rains, depending on weather con- ditions. The question naturally arises: Are these ‘croakers’ late comers in the season, or are they males that were unsuccessful in finding mates during the general breeding period? Whichever the reason, the sexual urge must have still lasted, though the frogs had lost their yellow garb-—a characteristic of males during the breeding season. Perhaps the croaking is intimately associated with the sexual urge and the condition of the testes, the croaking only ceasing after the testes are voided, or in the case of un- successful males till the contents have been absorbed and diminished to non-breeding condition. Here I must leave this interesting point. Colour.—In my paper, Notes on Indian Batrachians (J.B:N.H.S. xxxvi, 158), I dealt at some length on the life-history of the Bull- Frog. In that paper I made several references to the remarkable colour displayed by the males at the breeding season, but did not venture to offer any explanation for it, nor do I intend to do so here, but merely record some further observations. On page 160 of the paper I wrote, ‘Another curious point arises here. Tht males which remain above ground during the dry season, according to my observations, retain their normal colouring. Specimens kept in captivity by me exhibited no change...’ In the light of further observations one is frequently compelled to alter a previous state- ment, and this I must do here. During May 1937, I collected several adult specimens at the Powai Lake, for dissection and observation. Around the lakes in Salsette, this frog is found all the year round. An examination of the specimens caught on the 7th May showed that the males were in the ‘normal’ attire—brown—but the insides of the forelegs were suffused with yellow, and the same tint ex- tended along the flanks of the thighs. Dissection revealed that the °s9}S9] “J, fsateao °C {s88a “q soinjeuut (7 pur Q teinjeu Ayjenxes q pue y ‘nxojdwe ur uayv} (pneq vuusy vuny) 801 [Inq ay} Jo saydnos OM] “UUDIITY °Q 20104 ee : IX avIg 20$ ‘JSIET ‘JEN Avquiog ‘‘uamor rn ’ . Me M i : = oS ‘ 3 . * a ide , , Hf o° i 7° A. REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY 59 testes were distinctly enlarged, almost in breeding condition. Females were laden with almost mature ova. Specimens collected on the 21st May showed no appreciable difference from those collected earlier. But on the 24th May the males showed distinct signs of becoming yellow and by the 26th had become completely so. The yellow colouring appears to be under control, and the animal is able to vary it under certain conditions. A yellow frog, if handled, will change to greenish brown, but when at rest again will return to the yellow phase. Disturbances react on the colouring of the animal. In a subsequent paper on the Bull-Frog (Precocity in young Bull-Frogs, J.B.N.H.S. xxxviii, 409), I pointed out that young males also turn lemon yellow at the breeding season, in spite of the fact that the genitals are immature. It seems clear from these observations that the condition of the genital organs, namely, whether they are in breeding condition or not, does not directly influence the colouring of the males at the breeding season, if at all. A breeding male in amplexus measured from snout to vent 149 mm.; testes 20 mm. long. A breeding female 122 mm. Non- breeding male in amplexus: snout to vent 88 mm., testes 11.5 mm. ; female 76 mm. Rana rufescens Boulenger. The Rufescent Frog. A female measuring from snout to vent 31 mm. and containing almost mature ova was taken on the roth June 1938, at the Gersoppa Falls. Its general colouring was brick-red almost throughout the dorsal surface, and a slight mottling on the hind portion of the thighs. The ventral surface was greyish-white. Other specimens taken at the same time varied from light brown to dark brown with hardly any indication of the brick-red. Rana leithii Boulenger. Leith’s Frog. On the night of. roth June 1938, a female containing almost mature ova was taken in the compound of the Gersoppa Bungalow (British side). It measured from snout to vent 37 mm. A curious point about it was that at some time she had received a severe abdominal injury which tore open her left flank near the base of the foreleg for about half the distance to the middle of the abdomen. The wound was an old one and had healed up by the formation of a translucent stretch of skin over the once gaping area. Through this ‘window’ the ova could be seen easily. The piece of flesh which had been torn out at the time of the accident now formed a conical protuberance adhering to her side. Onethesi2thy March 1930, Mr.°H, Ali and I: secured several specimens in a cistern at the Kanari Caves, Salsette. Here the frogs were living under stones in the dry cisterns. In this situa- tion the animals were almost black in colour, corresponding with the dark rock of the cistern, but later assumed a sandy colour. On the 6th April 1939, I caught several specimens which were living under stones and among leaves in the dry bed of the stream 60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST, “S@GIETY" Vol. XEIT leading to the Lingmala Falls, near Mahableshwar (4,000 ft.). In this locality the animals were slate-black with just a slight indica- tion of marbling, but later became sandy in tone. These three records constitute a further extension of the range of this species. The type came from Matheran (3,000 ft.). Since then it has been found at Khandala, 1,600 ft., Poona District; Gersoppa Falls, > 1,800 ft., N. Kanara District; Kanari Caves, 1,300 ft., Salsette Island, and Lingmala Falls, 4,000 ft., near Mahableshwar. Rana malabarica Dum. and Bibr. The Fungoid Frog. After years, I was able to fix the author of a very peculiar metallic call in the Salsette jungles. It was made by this species, and may be said to be the breeding call. It can only be likened to the noise made by a tin rattle. It is audible a long way off, but as soon as one tries to locate it, though ever so near, it sud- denly ceases—the frog has spotted the intruder and stopped. In a former bungalow at Andheri several of these frogs took up their residence in a corner of the house, both during the rains and the dry weather. They would come out at dark and return with daybreak. They would frequently call on dull days and could be induced to do so repeatedly with a tin rattle, which imitated their call very closely. The cook slept in the same room and frequently complained of being disturbed during the night, either by calls of those that had not left, or because they jumped on him while he was asleep. He had orders not to kill them; so, frequently, there was a search during the night, and the frogs, when discovered, were rudely shot out into the compound. Naturally they returned later—such forcible ejections did not disturb their ‘homing instinct’ ! Breeding.—The frogs are evidently late breeders as I have taken females with ova in July. A breeding male measured from vent to snout 51 mm.; testes 6 mm. A breeding female 62 mm. The males are smaller than the females. Rhacophorus maculatus Boulenger. The Chunam Frog. In volume xxxvi, p. 172 of the Journal, I described some phases from the life-history of the Chunam Frog (Rh. maculatus). On page 172 I wrote, ‘It appears at the break of the rains,’. This sentence must be modified in the light of further observations. The statement is certainly true of animals living under unfavourable conditions, but near perennial water and in houses, where water is at hand, they may be seen all the year round. In my bungalow, at Andheri, this frog is a common resident throughout the year, except for a brief period during the rains, but even then it sometimes comes in. At the break of the rains they go afield to return when the rains stop and conditions are too dry outside. As many as six or seven reside with us annually. During the day, in the dry weather, they hide in vases, among clothes, behind bottles and the like with the limbs drawn up under the body as close as possible. Two regularly hide between the battens of my cot! The resting places are more or less regularly occupied, but sometimes two or three places are selected and these A REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY 61 are occupied on different days. Once their haunts are discovered one is sure to find them there. As soon as it is dark they emerge and first of all make for places where they are likely to get water. In such places they sit tor a considerable time absorbing water under the skin, betore starting on the night’s adventures. Early morning, just before it gets light, they return to their respective retreats, but belated frogs, like nocturnal revellers, are not un- common. Before proceeding further, I would like to make a few remarks on the peculiar habit of absorbing water under the skin. It is well known that frogs do absorb water through the skin, what is more, they are also able to breathe through the skin}. but in this species it appears to be developed to a remarkable degree. When the animal first emerges from its retreat it appears thin, but after a time at the water supply it has increased in bulk. The water accumulates partly under the abdomen, and partly under the skin between the hind legs, the spine forming a dividing line between the two ‘reservoirs’! As soon as sufficient water has been absorbed, the animal moves off. In this case we see a special provision for water transport for the next twenty-four hours during the dry season! Hence, perhaps it is that this species is able to remain active throughout the year in favourable localities. I have not observed this provision in any of our terrestrial species. During the rains such a provision would of course, be unnecessary. On arrival at the diurnal retreat, each frog goes through a process of ‘self-massage’, a somewhat ludicrous performance. The head is first rubbed down from the top over the snout, by the forelegs, and then down the throat and thorax as far as the limbs will reach. This is followed by a ‘massage’ of the back, flanks and abdomen, by the hindlegs. The hindlimbs then massage one another. When all this ‘toilet’ is over, the limbs are collected under the body and the frog ‘retires’. I have tried to figure out the reason for this performance and can only ascribe it to the possibility that the animal tries to clear its body of foreign matter adhering to its skin, perhaps also, an even coating of slime, when dry, acts as a sort of film, to prevent further evaporation of moisture. During the resting period, the body looks like a large chry- salis and the animals are very reluctant to move, even when dis- turbed. It takes quite a lot of provocation to make them jump. The pupils are reduced to a narrow horizontal sht, scarcely wider than a fine silk thread, but when on the move at night, the margins of the pupils coincide with the margins of the eyes—hence the entire eye appears black. Though, generally speaking, the size of a pupil is automatically controlled by the intensity of the prevailing light in most animals, in this frog, I have noticed that light is not entirely the controlling factor, but also the activity of the animal at the time. I have often seen ‘late-comers’ in bright davlight with the pupils fully dilated. Only on assuming the resting attitude do the pupils begin to diminish in size. Further, close observations of several animals, both during the night and during the day showed the following Gesults, “At 62 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol. XLII night, when they leave their resting places the pupils gradually enlarge to full size, even in bright lamp light, but when they sit about, in the resting attitude, for hours, as they are wont to do, in the same place, the pupils become mere slits once more. When I have found them in this condition, I gently ran a pin-point over the skin, at once the pupil began to open slightly, with a little harder treatment the pupils expanded still more, but as soon as the animal became active and jumped about the pupils opened to the fullest. Even the light of a powerful electric torch had no effect. During the day, similar experiments evinced the same be- haviour, except that the pupils in bright sunshine did not open to their fullest, but about half to three quarters. Hence it appears that the dilation of the pupils is closely associated with the activity of the animal and not entirely with the intensity of light. A frog that lived behind some books on my writing table got on the wrong side of a pane of glass on its way ‘home’. It made frantic efforts for several minutes to get through, as it could see its usual haunt, but the window-pane baffled it completely. It climbed up and down the pane, tried to force its head through, but eventually jumped on a neighbouring chair and thence to its usual retreat. . During the cold weather, though the frogs were about the house every night, they did not appear to be as active as when the weather got warmer. In the winter season they often sit about for hours in the same spot in a ‘semi-dose’. Incidentally, the chance of finding insects is then remote. Towards the middle of. April the males in the house began to call now and then. The calling became more frequent with the approach of the rains. No frogs called outside. As soon as the rains commenced the frogs in’ the house disappeared. Rh. maculatus is heard occasionally throughout the rains in the neighbouring vegetation. On, the 15th September (1938) the first frog was seen again in the house, the rains were diminishing. This arrival was followed by others as the season Wore on and once more we had our full complement of tree-frogs. Food.—The food, like that of most frogs consists chiefly of insects, but certain insects are definitely avoided, such as Cantharids, garden bugs, water beetles, fire-flies, and some carabids. In com- mon with its fraternity, it will only ‘lap up’ moving objects. Once I saw a Chunam Frog ‘lap up’ a fire-fly, the very next moment it ‘spat’ it out; a peculiar performance. The frog flapped its tongue out with the insect adhering to it, backed a bit, dragging its tongue along the floor till the insect was free of it. This ex- periment did not teach it that the fire-fly was distasteful, for 4a little later as the insect moved off the frog lapped it up again. The same ludicrous performance was repeated as before and the insect released. Eventually it left the fire-fly to go its way. Microhyla ornata Boulenger. The Black-throated F rog. This frog is not uncommon at Andheri during the rains. Ben during the dry weather it may be found occasionally in the earth of watered flower-beds. On the 11th July (1937), I secured a gravid cas . 4 a Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLaTeE XIV — Photo: C. McCann. The Indian Salamander (Tylototriton verrucosus Anders.) | BE. eggs. | A REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY 63 female measuring 20 mm. from snout to vent. Another female caught on the 5th June 1940 at Andheri showed the ovaries to be active, but the ova were far from mature, were creamy yellow and did not occupy the entire abdominal cavity as in the previous speci- men with almost mature, pigmented, ova. This apparently indicates a later breeding season than is the case with other frogs. In my paper in the Journal (xxxvi, p. 177) I wrote, ‘The number of eggs laid is comparatively few—3o-40’. This in the light of the specimen mentioned above must be modified as it contains a lot more—perhaps a couple of hundred at a rough estimate. As the mature specimen I have is the only one, | cannot give the exact number without destroying it. An examination of the stomach contents of the animal caught on the 5th June (1940) indicated that the animal fed on small Coleoptera and small ants. Philautus bombayensis. The Bombay Philautus. This species I was surprised to find some years ago during the dry months in fairly large numbers under stones in the bed of the stream leading to the Lingmala Falls, near Mahableshwar, 4,000 ft. It is most elusive during the rains, when it is more often heard than seen. During the Easter holidays of 1939 (April) I visited the same area and again found them to be very plentiful. The colour and markings are very varied. ORDER: CAUDATA Fami.y: Salamandridae: Salamanders. Tylototriton verrucosus Anders. The Indian Salamander. Mr. C. M. Inglis, Curator of the Darjeeling Museum, scnt some living specimens of this interesting amphibian to the Society for casting. After casting I dissected one specimen to find that it was a gravid female. The date was 11th November 1937. The speci- men measured from snout to vent 88 mm. and from vent to tip of tail 9g mm. I made an attempt to keep the remaining specimens alive under observation, but failed completely, they soon died away. The correct food was the main difficulty, I tried insects, snails and some aquatic insects, but nothing seemed to tempt their appetites, they would just lie about on the floats placed in the tank. Out of water they were extremely clumsy, water is their true element. ORDER: APODA. FaMILy: Caeciltidae. {chthyophis glutinosus Fitz. The yellow-striped Blind Worm. Mr. R. C. Morris sent me a couple of specimens of this curious amphibian in September 1937, from the Billigirirangan Hills, Mysore. On the 8th November, as the specimens died, I dissected one of 64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLil them, a female measuring 310 mm. It proved to be gravid and besides 22 large eggs measuring 10 mm. across, it contained 2-4 smaller ova adhering to each of the larger ones. The undissected second one measured 330 mm. “hy Ichthyophis monochrous Boulenger. The Brown Blind Worm. In volume xxxi, p. 1039 of the Journal I recorded the occurrence of this species from Khandala, Western Ghats. On the 6th Sep- tember 1931 while collecting frogs, I discovered another specimen living under a stone on the banks of the lake behind a range of hills, locally called the ‘Sausages’. I have repeatedly hunted for this animal since its. first discovery at Khandala, but without much success. The 1931 specimen measured 232 mm. T hough the Fauna gives the diameter of the body as half an inch my specinens measured considerably less. eee eka Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PratE XV Photo: C. McCann. The Yellow-striped Blind Worm (Ichthvophis glutinosus Fitz) Is Goes Hy heart; Ye tat bodies; Ib. lung; Lv. liver. ‘THE ECOLOGY OF A TEMPLE TANK CONTAINING A_ - PERMANENT BLOOM OF MICROCYSTIS AERUGINOSA (KUTZ) HENFR.! BY 5; Ve, GANAPATY., MSC., ,Ac1eC.,, Water Analyst, Municipal Corporation of Madras (From the Health Department of the Corporation of Madras). There are in the city of Madras some five hundred ponds or tanks, of which about a hundred or so are dry from June to September. The remaining contain water at all seasons of the year, but differ from one another in several important respects. They may, however, on the basis of their aquatic vegetation be broadly classified into three groups: (i) those containing abundant macrophytic vegetation without phyto- and zoo-plankton, (ii) those containing abundant phyto- and zoo-plankton without any macro- phytic vegetation, and (ili) those containing both macrophytic vegetation and phyto- and zoo-plankton. _ All these tanks or ponds are, in one way or another, sources of serious trouble to the health authorities of the Municipal Corpora- tion. Many of them afford breeding places for the larvae of malarial mosquitoes, and also produce a foul odour during the south-west monsoon season (July to September), when numerous complaints are received every year by the Corporation. Whether these tanks are really inimical to the health of man and animals drinking their waters remains a problem for investigation. In the case of the first group of ponds remedial measures are easily taken by dredging or removing physically all the aquatic weeds and plants. But the problem is not so simple in the case of the second and third groups. The second group are ponds of _ ‘artificial origin and often of very ancient date’, which consist absolutely of one or several species of a _ blue-green alga, Microcystis sp. These algal forms are present at all seasons of the year and in such abundance as to exclude almost all others; they may be said to have formed a permanent water bloom. By their death and decay, they not only affect the taste of the water but also produce a characteristic foul smell, which the health authorities of the Corporation are unable to prevent. These minute algal forms float freely in the water, so that it is not possible to remove them easily and completely unless all the water is pumped out. Such a procedure would be uneconomical. So, ways and means have to be found for the eradication of the algal pest. —— = * Abstracted from a paper read before the Indian Academy of Sciences at the meeting held in Madras in December 1938.—Eds. 5 66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIt Studies of the physical, chemical and biological conditions of the many Microcystis ponds in the city, under their natural conditions and during the different seasons of a year, will most probably throw light on the causes responsible for the permanent water bloom and for the production of the foul smell during certain seasons of the year. These studies, besides being of great significance from the health point of view are also of great scientific interest; for the ecology of lakes or ponds with a permanent water bloom is unknown in the temperate regions. Lakes or ponds with permanent water bloom are known only in the tropics, and the ecology of such waters, as far as the author is aware, has not been studied. In this paper, it is therefore proposed to put on record the changes noticed in the physical and chemical conditions of one of these ponds, during a year. The pond in Krishnappa Naicken Tank St. attached to Kasi Viswanather Temple has been selected for this purpose as numerous complaints have been received about it, from the residents of the locality. It is used by the people of that division for all religious purposes. It is a rectangular pond measuring 285 ft. by 230 ft., and 10 ft. deep. It is situated in the midst of a thickly populated part of the city, and is surrounded on all sides by rows of houses belonging to middle class people. On all four sides, perpendi- cular walls rise up to about twenty feet above the surface of the water. They are intended as a protection against falling into the tank, but they also prevent the wind from disturbing the surface water. The tank never runs dry, as the existence of a perennial spring somewhere near the centre is reported to be present. There are no trees in the neighbourhood, so that the rays of the sun fall directly upon the tank between 8 a.m. and 4 p.m. every day. Samples of water were collected, usually between 8 a.m. and g a.m., once a fortnight from one and the same place near the northern ghat or entrance into the tank. Bottles and the reagents required for the determination of the dissolved gases and hydrogen- ion concentration were taken in a carriage and the analyses for the same were done on the spot. A Winchester quart full of water was taken to the laboratory for the cther chemical tests. The investigation was begun on the 22nd February 1934 and continued — upto the goth January 10935. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS. (a) Colour :—The water was greenish throughout the year on account of the thick growth of Microcystis aeruginosa. (b) Transparency: This was measured by means of an aluminium Secchi’s disc of 20 cm. diameter. The figures varied from a minimum of 8 cm. in August and September to a maximum of 33 cm. in October. _ The records show that (i) the water was least transparent during the south-west monsoon and most transparent during the hot weather period ; (ii) the figures increased from February to May; decreased thereafter till the minimum was reached in September; increased again from October to December ; and finally began to decrease in January. (c) Temperature :—The temperature of the surface water was measured by means of an accurate thermometer graduated from 0.0 to 50°C., each degree being sub-divided into a fifth of a degree. It was found to vary between a minimum of 25°.1 in December and a maximum of 30°.8 in May. ECOLOGY OF A TANK CONTAINING M. AERUGINOSA HENFR 67 The records show that (i) the temperature of the water was highest during the hot weather and least during the north-east monsoon; (ii) it. increased from February to May when the maximum was reached, and later on decreased till September; increased again in October, only to decrease gradually till December when the minimum was reached. Finally from December to January, it increased again. Thus the temperature of the surface water in the tank follows closely the changes in the temperature of the atmosphere. CHEMICAL CONDITIONS. (d) Dissolved oxygen:—The dissolved oxygen content of the surface water was estimated according to Rideal and Stewart’s modification of the Winkler method. It was found to vary between a minimum of 0.0 cc. in September and October and a maximum of 8.49 cc. in July. j The results show that (i) the content of dissolved oxygen was greatest during the hot weather period and least during the latter half of the south- west monsoon season; (ii) it was found to increase generally from February to May, and to decrease thereafter till September or October, and again to increase from October to January. The surface water was found supersaturated with dissolved oxygen on 8-3-34, 14-7-34, and 23-11-34; it was in maximum (151.5%) on 14-7-34 and in minimum (103.4%) on 23-11-34. There was practically no oxygen present in the water in September, October and December; and during the remaining months, it was found to fluctuate between 23.9% and 84.3%. The oxygen content in any piece of water is dependent upon such factors as (i) solubility of oxygen, depending upon the temperature at the time of sample collection; (ii) intensity of illumination ; (iil) photosynthetic process ; (iv) respiratory process; (v) wind action; and (vi) abundance of vegetation. The amount of oxygen at any time of the year therefore will be the resultant of the several factors mentioned above. pees (i) Taking the first factor imto consideration, it will be seen from a few of our findings that the content of dissolved oxygen in the tank does not depend upon the physical factor of solubility. For according to the law of solubility of gases, periods of high temperature should be periods of low oxygen content and vice versa; but that it is not so in this case, is evident from the following : (a) from February to 8th March there was no change in temperature (29°.4c), but the oxygen content increased from 3.72 cc. /1 to 6.6 cc. /1; (b) from April to May, when the temperature increased from 29°.5 to 30°.6, the dissolved oxygen also increased from 1.34 cc./1 to 4.12 cc./1; (c) from May to June, the temperature decreased from 30°.8 to 29°.8, and the dissolved oxygen also decreased from 4.12 cc./1 to 2.87 cc./1; from June to July, the temperature decreased from 29°.8 to 29°.6, while the dissolved oxygen increased from 2.87 cc./1 to 8.49 cc./1; from July to August there was a fall in temperature from 29°.2 to 28°.2, and the oxygen content also decreased from 8.49 cc./1 to 1.75 cc./1; and finally from August to September there was an increase from 28°.1 to 29°,1, while the oxygen decreased from 1.7 to zero. So, it will be apparent from the above that the controlling factor was not the temperature of the water. (ii) The oxygen content of the tank, though the water be taken nearly at the same time of the day, varies greatly; and this variation appears to depend largely upon the intensity of illumination as measured by the hours of bright sunshine. Generally, the oxygen content was comparatively high in February, March, April, May, June, July, November, and January when the sky was clear and cloudless. The oxygen content decreased considerably from August to October, when the sky was cloudy with frequent rainfall. During the period when the sky was bright and clear, the algal vegetation of the pond carried on active photosynthesis and thus increased the oxygen content of the water. Thus the tank water was supersaturated on three occasions: 8-3-34, 14-7-34, and 23-11-34. The maximum amount of supersaturation of 151.5% was recorded on 14-7-34, and this can be explained only as being due to the photosynthetic activities of the dominant alga, Microcystis aeruginosa which was found in abundance. On those dates when there was no bright sunshine, and at night, the algal and animal forms consume the oxygen present in the water. During August to October, there was practically no 68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BISI. SOCIETY. Vol xem oxygen in the water, and its absence might be due to the absence of bright sunshine and to the presence of plenty of dead algal ‘slime floating near the place of sample collection. In November, the cloudy weather cleared up temporarily and the alga was able to resume its photosynthetic activities with the, ‘result that the amount of oxygen increased considerably. Again in December there was a great fall in the content of oxygen due to lack of bright sunshine when the respiratory activities were greater than the photo- synthetic activities. So, the amount of oxygen in a pond of this type depends largely upon the intensity of illumination, and the consequent photosynthetic processes, and also upon respiratory activities of the animal and vegetable life, and organic matter. (iii) Another important source of oxygen is the atmosphere, and it is of - particular importance in large and shallow lakes which are exposed to the action of the winds. Waves.are formed and thereby different layers of water are exposed to the air, so that the water is oxygenated by mechanical admixture of ‘air and water particles. Such a condition does not exist in the case of this tank, for its sides are steep and it is protected on all sides by high walls and rows of houses. So there is no possibility for the formation of big Waves which alone can expose different layers of water for oxygenation to the atmosphere. (iv) During photosynthesis, carbonic acid is split up by the aquatic vegetation in a piece of water whereby assimilation of carbon takes place and also libera- tion of oxygen to the surrounding water. The greater the abundance of vegetation, the greater the assimilation and consequently the greater the liberation of oxygen. So, in our tank which contains abundant algal vegetation, the quantity of oxygen also must be great. The tank water being supersaturated to the extent of 151% can be due only to the presence of abundant algal growth. (e) Free carbon dioxide:—This was not detected at any time during the period of investigation. Its absence can be explained in two ways: either free CO, was utilised during photosynthesis by the profuse algal growth as soon as it was formed or the carbonates were found in great quantities so that the free carbon dioxide formed during respiration and oxidation of organic matter was not sufficient to convert all of them into bicarbonates. The exact cause for its absence can be ascertained only after a further detailed study of its diurnal variations during the different seasons of the year. (f) Hydrogen-ion concentration (pH):—The hydrogen-ion concentration of the surface water expressed in terms of pH was found to vary from a minimum of 8.8 in January to a maximum of 9.7 in May. It was determined with a Hellige comparator, using thymol blue as an indicator. : The records show that (i) the pH values were highest during the hot Weather period and south-west monsoon, and lowest during the north-east inonsoon ; (ii) they were nearly constant or increased by a narrow margin of 0.1 or 0.2 units from February to September, and decreased gradually to the minimum thereafter in January. The hydrogen-ion concentration expressed in terms of pH dépends) upon the amount of carbonates of calcium and magnesium and the carbon dioxide tension in the water. The latter in its turn is influenced by the photosynthetic activities of the aquatic vegetation and the animal life present. In the case of this tank, animal life is poor (fish is totally absent) but the algal vegetation is extraordinarily great, so that the chief factor responsible in controlling the pH is the alga. The pH values during the year under investigation may be divided -into five periods :—from February to May, when the pH rose up from 9.3 to 9.7; from May to June, when it decreased slightly from 9.7 to 9.5; from June to September, when there was no change (9.6); from September to October, when it decreased from 9.6 to 9.1; and from October to January 1935, when it decreased further from.g.1 to 8.8. The tank water was there- fore extremely alkaline throughout the period of investigation. (i) It is well known that during photosynthesis the carbonates of calcium and magnesium are precipitated from their respective bicarbonates due to rapid carbon assimilation from the dissolved bicarbonates, and the water becomes more alkaline. So, if in a piece of water the pH values exceed 8.1, then it may be inferred that the photosynthetic activities are greater than the “respiratory processes, for a ‘saturated calcium bicarbonate solution in ECOLOGY OF A TANK CONTAINING M, AERUGINOSA HENFR ‘69 equilibrium with air containing about 3 parts per 100,000 of carbon dioxide is close to pH 8.1’ (Atkins and Harris 1924). In the case of our tank, the water became more and more alkaline (pH 9.3 to 9.7) from February to May when the temperature and hours of bright sunshine were higher. A value of pH=9.0 is usually recorded for a saturated solution of pure calcite (Atkins and Harris). And pH values higher than 9.0 have to be attributed to the presence of magnesium salts, for the pH value of a saturated solution of magnesium carbonate is close to pH=10’ (Atkins and Harris). Therefore the period during which the pH values reached 9.7, may be construed as being due to intense photosynthesis and to the resulting precipitation of magnesium salts. The high pH values of the tank water (8.8 to 9.7) which are far above 8.1 would seem: to show therefore that the photosynthetic activities are generally great; and that the period from February to September is one of intense photosynthesis, while that from October to January is one of mild photosynthesis. (ii) It was suggested from the high pH values that the photosynthetic activities must be very high at all times in the tank, so that one would expect the water to be always saturated or supersaturated. Atkins and Harris have taken 8.1, or any value above, to be a sure indication of supersaturation. The water of our Madras tank ought then to have been supersaturated with oxygen. Nevertheless this was not the case. Except on three occasions, the water was generally undersaturated or did not contain any dissolved oxygen. The presence of considerable quantities of organic matter may perhaps. be responsible for this strange behaviour. (g) Total and fixed solids :—The figures for the total solids varied from a minimum of 126.0 parts per 100,000 in December to a maximum of 180.4 parts in September; and the fixed solids varied from a minimum of 104.6 parts in February to a maximum of 139.2 parts in August. The records show that (i) the figures for total solids were highest during the south-west monsoon and least during the north-east monsoon; and (ii) they increased gradually from February to September when the maximum was recorded, and decreased thereafter till the minimum was reached in December. The fixed solids increased from February to August, when the maximum was reached and decreased thereafter till December, and increased again in January. Therefore, the fixed solids were highest during the south-west monsoon season and lowest during the cold weather period instead of during the north-east monsoon. Atkins and Harris have found the electrical conductivity (a measure of the dissolved solids) to vary inversely with the pH changes noticed in the ponds studied by them. ‘The explanation for this relationship has to be sought in the gradual decrease in the quantity of bicarbonates dissolved in a water resulting from the carbon assimilation and the consequent precipitation of the less soluble carbonates of calcium and magnesium. In the case of our pond, measurements of the electrical conductivity of the water were not made, but only of the total and fixed solids present in the original water. These were found to increase with the increase in pH. The total solids represent not only the suspended matter but also the dissolved matter. It is therefore quite likely that the presence of the abundant suspended matter has masked the true relationship. A measure of the total dissolved solids alone would probably have portrayed a true picture, but unfortunately that was not done. _ (hk) Hydrocarbonates and Bicarbonates:—The hydrocarbonates were found to vary from a minimum of 3.8 mg. per 100 cc. in December to a maximum of 21.2 mg. The bicarbonates were found to vary from a minimum of 6.1 mg. in May to a maximum of 31.4 mg. in January. The records show that (i) the hydrocarbonate ions were found to be highest during the hot weather and south-west monsoon, and least during the north- east monsoon and cold weather periods; and (ii) they increased gradually from February to July when the maximum was reached, and decreased there- after to the minimum in December, and increased again finally from December, to January. The curve for bicarbonates runs almost: opposite to the hydrocarbonates curve.. The findings are that (i) the bicarbonates were least during ‘the hot weather and south-west monsoon, and highest during the north-east monsoon and cold weather periods; and (ii) they decreased gradually from February to May when the minimum was reached: increased from Mav to July ; decreased 70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII again from July to September and increased thereafter till the maximum was reached in January. Generally, in the absence of ‘free carbon dioxide’ the bicarbonates are decomposed by algal vegetation which abstract the carbonic acid from them, precipitating the less soluble carbonates of calcium and magnésium. In_ this tank water, the bicarbonates appear to constitute the chief source of carbonic acid for the alga Microcystis aeruginosa. A study of the figures recorded shows that the whole period of investigation can be roughly divided as below: from February to May when the general trend of the bicarbonates was to decrease gradually (except on 27-4-34 when there was a spurt) and the carbonates to increase; from May to June there was a big increase in bicarbonates and a decrease in carbonates; from June to 8th August there was a decrease in bicarbonates and an increase in carbonates; from 8th August to 25th October there was a gradual increase in bicarbonates and a decrease in carbonates; from October to November there was a slight decrease in carbonates and bicarbonates; from November to December there was a slight increase in bicarbonates and a decrease in carbonates and finally from December to January there was an increase in both carbonates and bicarbonates. Normally the decrease or increase of bicarbonates may be respectively ascribed to the photosynthetic or respiratory process of the alga in the pond. There were however, a few occasions when both the carbonates and bicarbonates decreased or increased and the reasons for*this behaviour are not known. (i) During the periods February to May, June to 8th August, and October to November the atmospheric conditions were conducive to intense photosynthesis, so that the carbon dioxide from bicarbonates was utilised for assimilatory purposes by the alga, resulting in the increased precipitation of the less soluble carbonates. Under these circumstances one would have expected a progressively increasing amount of dissolved oxygen in the water tending towards super- saturation. But that was not always the case. Excepting 8th March, 14th July, and 23rd November, on all other dates the water was very much undersaturated. This indicated therefore that there was some other factor operating against an increase in the oxygen content of the water. This will be discussed later under ‘organic matter’. During the other periods (from 8th August to 25th October and from November to December) when the bicarbonates increased and _ carbonates decreased, there was very little or no oxygen in the water. This condition was most probably due to the prevailing weather conditions, which prevented the photosynthetic activities of the alga, but increased its respiratory activities, so that free carbonic acid was added to the water instead of oxygen. It may have been due also to its absorption by dissolved organic matter resulting in the liberation of carbon dioxide and also available nitrogen (Pearsall 1923). In spite of the interfering factor an intimate relation between the hydrogen-ion concentration and the several factors mentioned above has been noticed on some occasions in this tank. On 8th March and 14th July there was an increase in oxygen content, a fall in bicarbonates, and an increase in carbonates and pH, over the corresponding figures of z2nd February and 21st June, respectively. Again, on 25th October, there was a decrease in oxygen content, an increase in the amount of bicarbonates, a decrease in carbonates and in pH, over the corresponding figures for 22nd August. (‘) Phosphates :—Phosphates were present in small quantities and were found to vary from a minimum of 0.012 mg. in May to a maximum of 0.040 mg. in August. They were in minimum during the hot weather period and in maximum during the south-west and the north-east monsoon; and (ii) they were found to decrease gradually from January to June and to increase there- after till they were present in maximum on 22nd August. From August to January they were found to be nearly constant generally. Phosphates are among the important nutrient substances found in lakes or ponds. They are utilised by algae during the process of photosynthesis, so that they are usually reported to be absent or present in very small quantities during summer months and to be present in large amounts during winter months. In the pond under investigation, however, they were found in fairly large quantities throughout the year. Even during the period of intense photosynthesis they were not entirely absorbed by the profuse growth of Microcystis aeruginosa. The sources of phosphates may be either due to constant and daily contamination of the tank water by human agencies, or ECOLOGY OF A TANK CONTAINING M. AERUGINOSA HENFR 71 to the diurnal chemical stratification by day and circulation at night, so that phosphates are brought to the upper region of photosynthesis from below, where they are regenerated from the dead algal cells by bacterial action. (j) Silicates:—The quantity of silicates varied from a minimum of 2.0 mg. in November, December and January to a maximum of 3.604 mg. in May. The quantity of silicates was high during the hot weather and south-west monsoon, and low during the north-east monsoon; and (ii) it fluctuated between very narrow limits (3.0-3.6 mg.) between February and September, decreased thereafter, and reached a minimum in November, December and January. Though found in fairly large quantities in the tank water, the silicates do not seem to have any biological significance in view of the absence of diatoms. (k) Chlorides :—These were found to vary from a minimum of 40.2 parts in November to a maximum of 63.0 parts in July. They were very high during the south-west and low during the north-east monsoon; and (ii) they increased gradually from February to July when the maximum for the year was reached, and decreased later till November when the minimum was reached. From November onwards they increased again. The content of chlorides was very high in the tank and, therefore, showed that it was highly polluted. (1) Hardness :—The total hardness varied from a minimum of 4.0 parts in April and May to a maximum of 8.0 parts in February, June, August, Septem- ber, October, December, and January. It was least during the hot weather period and highest during the rest of the year; it decreased from February to May, increased thereafter generally jand varied between narrow limits from June to January. Although no relationship was evident between pH and total solids, a distinct relationship could be traced between the pH and the total hardness of the water. The pH increased from February to May from 9.2 to 9.7, while the total hardness showed a general decline from 8 to 4 parts per 100,000. The decrease in hardness has to be attributed to the precipitation of the less soluble carbonates of calcium and magnesium owing to the equilibrium being upset by the algal assimilation of carbon from the bicarbonates dissolved in the tank water. - (m) Organic substances and their decomposition products : (i) Ignitible matter: This was found to vary from a minimum of 15.6 parts per 100,000 in December to a maximum of 48.0 parts in August. The records show that (i) the content of ignitible matter was lowest during the hot weather period and highest during the south-west monsoon; and (ii) it was found to decrease from February to 27th April, and thereafter to increase till the maximum was reached on 22nd August, when it gradually decreased till December, reached a minimum, and again increased from December to January. (ii) Oxidisable organic matter (Tidy’s 4 hours’ Test):—This was found to vary from a minimum of 1.431 parts in February to a maximum of 2.327 parts in July. The content was least during the cold weather and hot weather periods and highest during the south-west monsoon; it was found to decrease gradually from February to 27th April and to increase later on till July when the maximum was reached; from July onwards it decreased till a second minimum was reached in November, when it again increased till January. (iii) Ammoniacal Nitrogen: This was found to vary from a minimum of 0.003 in March to a maximum of 0.216 part in October. The content was lowest during the hot weather period and highest during the south-west monsoon; it was found to decrease from February to May (when the minimum was reached) and to increase thereafter till October when the maximum was recorded ; it decreased again from October to January. . (iv) Albuminoid Nitrogen: This was found to vary from a minimum of 0.120 in August to a maximum of 0.280 in September. It was lowest during the hot weather and the first half of the south-west monsoon and highest during the latter half of the south-west monsoon and the north-east monsoon ;_ it was found to increase gradually from March to June when the first maximum was reached ; it thereafter decreased till 8th August, and increased till December when the second maximum was reached; from December decreased again. (v) Nitrites and nitrates: Except for one occasion in October when they were present in traces, they never were detected, V2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY; Val. XL Y (a) The relationship that exists in a piece of water between the oxidisable organic matter and dissolved oxygen has been admirably portrayed by. Knauthe (1898), Kolkwitz (1914), and Pearsall (1923). Similar observations have been made in this tank. Briefly stated, they are: (1) during bright sunny days, oxygen is liberated in such abundance that the water becomes supersaturated ; (2) during nights and on dark cloudy days (which are few and far between) the tank water is depleted of its oxygen content; (3) depletion of oxygen is also caused by the oxidation of organic matter dissolved in the water; (4) the second and third processes result in the liberation of carbon dioxide, thereby increasing the content of bicarbonates, and in the formation of free ammonia and other nitrogenous substances: and (5) thus extreme variations in the dissolved oxygen content result. (b) Normally, waters containing a large number of Myxophyceae are dis- tinguished by a high content of organic matter and nitrogenous substances (Pearsall 1923). Although the tank is populated almost entirely by a form of Microcystis. and contains also high organic content, nitrogenous substances like nitrites and nitrates are absent. Their absence may be explained in two ways. They are probably utilised during photosynthesis as soon as they are formed daily, leaving practically nothing behind, or they are acted upon by the de- nitrifying bacteria which are very active at higher temperatures (Pia 1934). But Atkins (1932-33) believes that this second reason is not so satisfactory as the first, in view of the fact that denitrifying bacteria do not act in the presence of an abundant ‘supply of oxygen in the surface waters of the tropical seas. According to him their absence in tropical seas is due to their rapid utilisation by algae in the well-lighted upper layers of water during long and intense photosynthesis. In any case, their absence from this tank water is not the only one on record. Hutchinson et al. (1932) have reported mere traces or total absence in all the ponds and lakes of South Africa, and Beadle (1932-34) has found the same to be the case, with the Rift Valley lakes of East Africa. Kolkwitz (1914) has recorded their absence in Lietensee under conditions almost identical with those found in our tank water. Harold (1934) has stated that a marked reduction in nitrites and nitrates is usually observed in cases of abnormal algal development. In their absence, therefore, free ammonia seems to have been utilised by the alga in the pond, as will be evident from ‘its low figure from February to May. On other dates, the free ammonia is considerably higher, especially when the content of dissolved oxygen is low, indicating the oxidation of the organic matter present in the water. (c) As for albuminoid nitrogen—this was found in ee quantities, and proved indirectly the presence of abnormal quantities of algal development in the tank water (Harold 1934). According to Drew (1914) the presence of a large quantity indicates the corresponding presence of a large amount of organic matter in solution; and a gradual rise from February to September indicated that a greater amount of decomposition was going on in the water; and the time when it was in maximum was when the bacteria were decom- posing the organic matter- into soluble substances. SEASONAL VARIATIONS. -Summarising briefly the changes which occurred in the physical “and chemical conditions of the pond during the four seasons of 1934, the following observations may be made. (a) The cold weather period (January 1935, and February 1934). This period was characterised by a large number of hours of bright sun- shine, small percentage of cloudy days, low ‘wind velocity, low temperature, and very little rainfall. ‘The tank water was greenish with plenty of leaves, flowers, and other vegetable debris, floating upon the surface. . cose : On oom MN @ W nie da o ve heics en nen =, mon Nod N N com a Snoeoennnos nw, nnn So OS q *oOOOME a) : S Sone eS oO). (O- O ae a0 rae} 2~OwWN paca 2 = SA An re N N ee - cae SOSnSSSOROSO mM mM NMOS FP FP ms = So oOocm ri t y vouy Mon FA Oo OD WN ren ee) SHAN TASS ao 28 BAN A A “I ~ = ES SSoninoocom. OC mmo OOS 4) 2 hMHOONMOMORHO Hh OH Ott Mm O O&O F& nica Bot) on Salone 4) ect ALD So) NH 90 6D rt Tt Ta N N re SSONSTOMMONFR M MH SOD WY 0 DCO DIROMAMOINA © tO OOW FTF HR OK nies BOBS wo > Ne aot A we AON q A ee ECS ee ee ae ee ee ee e . . e . ° e e e er eo Oe . mat e or . . Ww 7p) . Miter dncmatcsh NO ence tires eusteracmes in gt nO a ° ° ° ro) ; Ss q ae! ran} Jp) =a oa eo q 3 ofS fon uh Si ees tt fan} Cc — oO re) Le (e) Oo, Ore 4 3) Oliex oG ; nan ce ab) Sad rea ome 4H K oO eo w YOY Dee bn SGxna SZ @ we o o) oe oO Ciera MG 5 8s G2 a whag c OFS OO en SG Org qe Sic oY Oe ea ee ecto foe) LC ato ont GY ° OMe CuO pe OuO.O1. Cl ioe : Oooo 72 Gog eo> =saeGQ “54h G28 gad S€8Sanqs%¢aagt av ms BEES HE she bE HARES ADE n o SePee SPS SS Pass gga GEES gh sa ss 88 o 8 ; MASc seve cit ode oS Aa a 86 JOURNAL,’ BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCKERY, Wols xeon DISTRIBUTION AND SIZE. Though the final distribution of the species will be discussed in the next article after an account of the extra-Indian material, it may be noted that B. hexagonolepis is perhaps the commonest large-scaled Barbel of Assam and of the Eastern Himalayas. In the collection of the Indian Museum there are numerous specimens from the Eastern Himalayas, the Garo Hills, the Khasi Hills, the Naga Hills, and several other places in Assam. There is also a specimen from Nepal. The species has not hitherto been recorded from the Ganges River System or ‘any other part of India. Both McClelland and Day have noted that this species grows to upwards of two feet in length. Shaw and Shebbeare state that ‘Rarely, if ever, exceeding 10 lb. in our area, but W. Nelson records a Katli of 25 lb. caught by him in the Champamoli near Gorubasha (Assam).’ In a recent note. Holt (4, sp. 154) recorded the capture otma Katli weighing 21 lbs. from Jaldacca, so it would appear that in Duars also the fish grows to a fairly big size. Mr. S. J. Duncan informed me (vide 8, p. 334) that this was the mighty Mahseer of the region traversed by him and that it was found in almost ali the rivers of the hills. BIONOMICS AND FISHING NOTES. McClelland (10, pp. 336, 337) made the following observations regarding the bionomics of B. hexagonolepis:— ‘The stomach is about the. length of the. body,~ gradually contracting till it joins the intestines, which are thrice the length of the stomach, but of great capacity, expanding in size from their commencement, to about the middle of their length, and again gradually contracting until they reach the vent. In the stomach and intestines I found numerous minute bones of small fishes. Instead of the intestines of this species being disposed in trans- verse or longitudinal folds, they are convoluted transversely. Mr. Griffith remarks that the Bokar is to be found in all large rivers on the eastern frontier, from the base of the mountains to the situation at which the currents first become languid in the plains, keeping mostly in the middle of the stream, where it takes a red hackle very freely, as_ well as worms and other bait. It is very powerful, often attaining two feet and upwards in length, and usually weighing from eight to twelve pounds.’ Wood (13, pp. 71, 72) in his notes on Fishing in India and Europe recorded the following observations regarding Booka or the snub-nosed Mahseer :— ‘The Booka or snub-nosed Mahseer. This is a true Carp and the colour is duller than in the last; the fins are bluish-red and the pharyngeal teeth are broader and flatter. As the Booka is not such a cannibal as the true Mahseer, feeding more on falling fruits, weeds, grasses, etc., it does not attain to a very great size, 123 lbs. being the heaviest I ever got. A curious thing about him is that his fins are never entire, pieces especially in the caudal fin being bitten out. The Khasias have told me that this is done by a little fish with a beak like a parrot and which can blow itself out. They call it the Poothla Mas. I have seen little boys blowing these fish up as one does a toy balloon. Sometimes when bathing these fish will nip your legs. The Khasias hate the Booka and many will not eat them, as_ they say they devour the excrement of monkeys. I fancy there is something in this. A fruit which they are fond of, a species of small fig is often found on THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 87 -trees overhanging the water. I have seen hosts of monkeys feeding on the berries and when the fruit’? fell into the pool below it was eaten by the Booka and other fish; the excrement also dropped into the water and I do not think the Booka would object to eating this. The Booka does not make the terrific rush like the Mahseer, he rather bores down into the depths of the water and shakes the line like a bull dog. By this feeling you can always tell you have a Booka on. ‘They take a G and S_ spoon well but one has to spin deep for them and in a pool they soon get scared of a spoon. During a sudden heavy spate, when the river gets muddy like pea soup, I have seen Booka spring into the air to get more oxygen. The teeth of the true Mahseer are much longer and pointed than those of the Booka, some having a distinct notch. They play on a hinge system and the teeth point downwards into the pharynx. They are admirably adapted for cutting purposes and their strength can be gauged by putting one’s fingers down the throat of a small Mahseer.’ Shaw and Shebbeare (11, p. 38) noted that the habits of Katli are ‘Very similar to those of the Mahseer. As a sporting fish there is nothing to choose between them, weight for weight. It is unfortunate that, as both take the same lures, and are found in the same water, the smaller species is often taken on much too heavy tackle which does not give him a chance to show his power.’ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. I am indebted to the authorities of the Bombay Natural History Society for bearing the cost of the illustrations for this article. Mr. K. S. Misra very kindly prepared the table of measurements and for this my thanks are due to him. The colour sketch was made from a specimen caught by Mr. W. K. Langdale Smith of the Rungli Rungliot Tea Estate, Darjeeling District, from the Tista River and later kept by him in a Katchha tank. I am indebted to Mr. Langdale Smith for affording facilities to my artist to make the colour sketch. The illustrations were prepared by Babu B. Bagchi with his usual skill and care under my super- vision. List OF REFERENCES. 1. Day, I’.—Fishes of India, p. 564 (London, 1876-78). - 2. Gtinther, A.—Catalogue of the Fishes in the Grate Museum, vol. vii, pe20) (L. ondon, eee) 3. Hamilton, F.—An Account of the Fishes found in the River Ganges and its branches, pp. aoe 307 (Edinburgh, 1822). Aeartolt, S. —A large Cutli from the Jaldacca.’ Journ. Bengal Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xiv, p. 154 (1940). Hopwood, S. F.—‘Effect on Mahseer of eating the fruit of the Kalaw tree (Taraktogenos Kurzii).’ Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxvii, pp. 743-745 (1934). PibascOhe en ek 9. 6. Hora, S. L.—On a Collection of Fish from Siam.’ Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc. Siam, vol. vi, p. 155 (1923). 7. Hora, S. L.—On a further Collection of Fish from the Naga Hills.’ Rec. Ind Mus., vol. xxxviii, pp. 324-331 (1936). 8. Hora, S. L.—‘On a small Collection of Fish from the Upper Chindwin Drainage.” Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. -xxxix,-p. 334 (1937). * In this connection reference may be made to Hopwocd’s (5) observations on ‘Effect on Mahseer of eating the fruit of the Kalaw tree (Taraktogenos Kurzii)’. The flesh of the fish which eat the fruits of this tree becomes poisonous, 88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII 9. Hora, S. L.—'The Game Fishes of India. WIII.—The Mahseers or the Large-scaled Barbels of India. 1. The Putitor Mahseer, Barbus (Tor) putitora (Hamilton).’ Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xli, pp. 275-277. (1939). 1o. McClelland, J.—‘Indian Cyprinidae.’ Asiatic Researches, vol. xix, pp. 333-338 (1839). 11. Shaw, G. E. and Shebbeare, E. O.—‘The Fishes of Northern Bengal.’ Journ. Roy. As. Soc. Bengal Science, vol. iii, pp. 37-38, pl. v, fig. 6; text-fig. 33, 1937 (1938). 12. Weber, M. and de Beaufort, L. F.—The Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago, vol. ili, pp. 167-169 '(1916). 13- Wood, H. S.—‘ Fishing in India and in Buropee Journ. Darjeeling Nat,. Hist. Soc.; vol: vil “pp. 71,772" ‘(19g9). EXPLANATION OF PLATE. Colour sketch of a tame Katli, Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland of the Tista River. The specimen, 268 mm. in total length, was collected by Mr. W. K. Langdale Smith, and kept in a katchha tank at the Rungli Rungliot Tea Estate, Darjeeling District. The colours shown in the drawing probably differ from those of specimens living under natural conditions. A CONTRIBUTION TO THE LIFE HISTORY OF TRIDAX PROCUMBENS LINN. BY I. BANERJI. (Department of Botany, Calcutta University). (With two plates and 25 text-figures). The family Compositae includes over 23,000 species and con- tains about one-tenth of the total number of flowering plants. It is distributed throughout the world, and the plants show HBR cas ble diversity in habit. Although a considerable amount of work has been done on the embryology and cytology of the plants belonging to the family Compositae our knowledge is far from complete. Schnarf (16) and Bhargava (3) have reviewed the vast literature on the subject. It is interesting to note that various types of embryo-sac develop- ment, as also variation in the number and structure of antipodal cells have been recorded in different species. The literature on the cytology of the family is also very extensive. Of the interesting observations made in recent years, mention may be made’ of the occurrence of secondary association of chromosomes and polyploidy in several genera. Meiotic irregularities leading to the formation of sterile or multinucleated pollen grains, as also the partheno- genetic development of the egg have been recorded by several in- vestigatiors. Tridax procumbens is a common weed found in all waste places in Bengal. The plant flowers during the greater part of the year and is easily recognised in its natural environment by its straggl- ing habit, opposite pinnatifid leaves and long pedunculated flower—- heads containing pale yellow coloured ray florets. MATERIAL AND METHODS. The material used in this investigation was obtained from plants growing as weeds in the college compound. Fixation was usually made between 12 noon and 4 p.m. Various fixing fluids were tried of which Allen’s modified Bouin’s fluid, and Flemming’s weak solution gave the best results. The involucral bracts were removed before fixation and the flower-heads were cut into small pieces to facilitate penetration of the fixing fluid. An exhaust pump was always used for the same purpose. The material was dehydrated and cleared in the usual way. Sections were cut 8 to 14 microns thick, depend- ing on the stage required for study. Heidenhain’s iron-alum haematoxylin and Newton’s iodine gentian violet were the stains commonly used. OBSERVATIONS. 1. Flower development. The fiowers are arranged in long pedunculated heads which are about 1/3 to 1/2 inch in diameter. The ray florets are carpellate and the disc florets hermaphrodite. The opening of the florets is 90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCTEDY, Vol Xie centripetal, and the disc florets become differentiated first. The individual florets appear on the convex floral axis as minute papillate processes, each subtended by a bract (Fig. 1). The apex of the flower primordium very soon curves inwards and develops into the corolla. (Fig. 2). The primordia of the stamens, five in number, are seen to arise on the inner side of the petals (Figs. 3 and 4), and rapidly grow upwards and become differentiated into ¥ I 2 3 4 6 Figs. 1-6.—Tridax procumbens. Figs. 1-5, Stages in the development of the disc florets. Explanation in text. Fig. 6, Part of pappus showing arrangement of cells. Figs. 1-5,x940; Fig. 6, X 430. 5 comparatively large anthers and small filaments. Immediately after the appear- ance of the staminal primordia, the origin of the sepals is noted. In longi- tudinal sections of the flower these appear as twce_ scale-like projections on the outer side of the petals (Fig. 5). In the initial stages of their develop- ment they are composed of a few cells, but later develop into hairy structures known as ‘pappus’. Figure 6 represents~the arrangement of the cells com- posing the pappus. A spindle shaped nucleus is seen in each cell. The last floral whorl to appear is the gynaecium composed: of two carpels which arise on the inner side of the stamens and close to the centre of the floral axis. In the early stages of their development they remain side by ‘side, but with increased growth their distal ends come together to form the solid style, while their proximal ends separate out to form the ovarian chamber. The carpels open out again at the apex to form the bifid stigma. The stigma is clothed by unicellular subulate hairs. From the base of the ovary a papillate protu- berance develops which at first grows obliquely upwards, but very soon curves to form the single anatropous ovule. The development of the ray florets is similar to the above, except that the corolla becomes ligulate and the stamens are absent. The style in both types of flowers is surrounded at the base by a ring of glandular tissue. Figures 1 to 5 represent stages in the development of the disc florets. The sequence of development of the floral parts appears to be similar to that observed by Martin (10), Merrell (11), and others. ; 2. Microsporogenesis. The origin of the archesporial cells, or the early differentiation of the sporogenous cells could not be made out. When first noted the sporogenous cells appear to be separated from the epidermis by Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I a Tridax procumbens Linn. ‘| For explanation see end of article. AMCONTRIBUIION. TO, HISTORY OF T. PROCUMBENS LINN. 91 four or five layers of cells. In the resting stage the sporogenous cells are packed close together in the anther Joculus and they are mostly polygonal in outline. The nucleus is generally situated centrally inside the cell and contains a single nucleolus surrounded by a hyaline zone. At the periphery of the nucleus a granular reticulum is noted. With the onset of prophase a number of elongated and beaded threads are seen to lie scattered irregularly inside the nuclear cavity. (Plate I, fig. 1). The double nature of the threads could not be very clearly made out, but from their beaded appearance it is inferred that they are composed of two filaments which are spirally intertwined. Close approximation of the leptotene threads next takes place. Figure 2 in plate I represents a typical zygonema stage. The threads next contract away from the periphery. of the nucleus and ball up into a tight knot. (Plate I, fig. 3), the nucleolus being enclosed in the meshes of the thread. Synizesis lasts for a long time as is evidenced from a large number of preparations showing this stage. The spireme next opens out and gradually fills up the nuclear cavity. Careful examination at this stage reveals the double nature of the spireme (Plate I, fig. 4). At the pachynema stage the spireme appears as a uniform thread which lies loosely convoluted inside the nuclear cavity. (Plate I, fig. 5). At this stage the nucleolus decreases in size and its chromaticity also becomes reduced. The pachytene thread next segments into a number of unequal bits. These synapsed portions separate out markedly except at the portions where chiasmata are established. The four-partite nature of the diplotene threads is evident at certain regions only. The number of chiasmata depends on the Jength of the threads. As a rule the number varies from five to two (Text fig. 7). Some of the longer pairs have three interstital and two terminal chiasmata, while others have one interstital and two terminal chiasmata. In some others, especially in the shorter cnes, two terminal chiasmata are seen. In later diplotene stages there is a reduction in the number of chiasmata and Fig. 7.—Tridax procumbens. Some of the diplotene bivalents showing the number of chiasmata and the spiral nature of the strands X 3650. a shifting of their positions towards the ends. Terminalisation of the chiasmata appears to be complete in every instance and at diakinesis the bivalents are Seen to lie side by side. (Plate i, fig. 6). The nucleolus becomes still smaller and paler and finally disappears at this stage. The heterotypic spindle is next 92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII noted. The spindle is well defined with sharp ends, and the bivalent chromo- somes are aligned on the equatorial region. A polar view of an equatorial plate shows clearly eighteen bivalent chromosomes. (Plate I, fig. 7). The anaphasic movement of the chromosomes appears to be regular (Plate I, fig. 8). Non-disjunction or other meiotic irregularity has not been noted at this stage. 12 Figs. §8-12.—Tridax procumbens. Fig. 8, Microspore nucleus in prophase. Figs. 9 and 10, Division of the microspore nucleus. Fig. 11, Tube and generative nucleus separated by an ephimeral cell membrane. Fig. 12, A mature pollen grain (mounted in a liquid medium); note germ-pores and sculpturing on the exine. Figs. 8-11,X1555; Fig. 12,3650. On reaching the poles the chromosomes at first clump together, but very soon they open out and their spiral nature is once more apparent. A _ nuclear membrane is secreted and the two daughter nuclei are connected by cytoplasmic strands (Plate I, fig. 9). The spindles are oriented either at right angles, or parallel to each other. The chromosomes while oriented on the spindle appear to be somewhat elongated (Plate 4) /Gfig. 70): s2O@ni the completion of the second A CONTRIBUTION TO HISTORY OF T. PROCUMBENS LINN. 93 division four daughter nuclei are organised, inside which irregularly coiled threads are noted (Plate I, fig. 11). The microspore tetrads are either isobi- lateral or tetrahedral in arrangement and are encased by a _ mucilaginous pellicle (Plate I, fig. 12). Cytokinesis takes place by the advancement of peripheral furrows which meet at the centre of the protoplast. Quadripartition by furrowing is now believed to be the general method of cytokinesis in di- cotyledonous plants. The young microspores are at first enclosed in the mucilaginous pellicle, but as the latter gradually undergoes dissolution they are liberated and lie free inside the microsporangium. At this stage they have a wavy outline but very soon they round up and the exine becomes differen- tiated. The nucleus of the microspore increases in size and prepares for divi- sion. The various stages of the division are shown in text figures 8 to Io. The nucleus migrates towards the _ periphery before the commencement of division and the metaphase spindle lies at one side (Fig. 9), and occupies more than half the diameter of the microspore. According to Wulff and Maheshwari (19) this is the general condition in angiosperms though exceptions have also been recorded. On the completion of division two cells are formed which are unequal in size and are separated by a cytoplasmic membrane. The generative cell, as in most plants, is lens-shaped and lies close towards che periphery. Its nucleus is slightly smaller than that of the vegetative cell (Fig. 11). Geitler (6) believes that this might be due to the small amount of karyolymph present in the generative nucleus. The mature pollen grains are two celled, and ellipsoidal, but become spheroidal when mounted in a liquid medium. Their diameter varies from 32-5 to 36°8 microns. They are echinate, the spines having a broad base. Four broad and short furrows with tapering ends are present, each having a single germ pore, from the centre of which the intine protrudes as a tiny papilla (Fig. 12). The intra-colpar regions show the presence of vestigial spines. 3. Periplasmodium.—In the early stages of meiosis the tapetal cells are uninucleate and somewhat elongated. Before the pollen-mother cells have com- pleted the I division, the nuclei of the tapetal cells divide mitotically and the cells become binucleate due to the non-formation of a cell wall. The two Figs. 13-17.—Tridax procumbens. Stages in the amitotic division of the tapetal nuclei, X1555. nuclei mostly lie side by side. During the tetrad stage of the pollen mother cells, the first indication of plasmodium formation is observed. The walls deli- miting the individual cells disappear and their cytoplasm coalesce and protrude inside the anther cavity. As this process takes place from all sides, the microsporangium is soon filled by the tapetal plasmodium which closely surrounds 94 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit the young microspores. The tapetal nuclei before migration into the anther cavity become very much elongated. ‘They show the presence of fine chromatin granules and a few small nucleoli. At a later stage they are seen to divide amitotically. Text figures 13 to 17 represent the various stages of division. The daughter nuclei formed as a result of the disorganisation of the constricted area, withdraw the attenuated portion very soon and become elongated in form. They remain in this condition till the disappearance of the plasmodium when they degenerate. The formation of a tapetal plasmodium has been recorded in many plants of the family Compositae. Merrell (11) working on Silphium observed the collection of plasma around the microspores which later became encrusted by it in the form of a sheath. Gates and Rees (5) state ‘the plasmodium flows in among the pollen grains and may contribute directly to the sculpturing of the wall’. Similar observations have been made by the present writer (1) working on Carthamus tinctorius. In Tridax procumbens though the plasmodium was seen to be in intimate contact with the spinous projections of the exine, yet in the absence of further evidence it would be unsafe to suggest that the plasmodial substance is incorporated on the exine. The plasmodial substance is finally resorbed so that hardly any trace of it is left in the anther. 4. Multi-nucleated pollen mother cells. During the later stages of meiosis when the pollen mother cells have rounded up, in some anthers a few large cells have been noted. As a rule not more than one such cell is present in the anther and it lies close towards the periphery. These cells contain two, three or four nuclei. (Plate II, fig. 14). The nuclei in most cases show the early prophasic changes, while the surrounding pollen mother cells show all stages from diakinesis to pollen tetrads. Figure 15, in plate II, represents a stage in which the presence of eight nuclei is seen in the protoplast. From the form and arrangement of the nuclei it appears that they are the product of division of pre-existing nuclei. The nuclei being probably in the interkinetic stage. Figure 16 in the same plate illustrates another stage where the nuclei are in a state of division. Seven telophasic spindles with polar grouping of chromosomes are clearly seen. From the occurrence of a chromosome group at the position marked x in the diagram one is inclined to believe that another spindle is present at that region, probably masked by the adjacent chromosome groups. This condition would then represent an advanced stage to that observed in figure 15. (Plate II). But it is very rare, and has been observed in only one preparation out of a large number examined. Mostly the multi-nucleated pollen mother cells degenerate early, as is evidenced by their collapsed and irregular outlines and the presence of large dark shapeless masses in the anther. In no preparation was any giant microspore observed nor a polycaric condi- tion of the pollen grains noted. 5. The development of the megaspores and the female gametophyte. The ovule arises as a tiny protuberance from the base of the ovary when the sporogenous cells have just become differentiated in the anther. It grows obliquely upwards and curves inwards even before the differentiation of the megaspore mother cell. The curvature of the ovule is not brought about by its contact with the ovarian wall as has been noted by Reeves (15) in Medicago sativa. The direction of curvature of the ovules is not the same in all florets. The archesporial cell becomes. differentiated in the hypodermal layer of the nucellus and directly functions as the megaspore mother cell. (Fig. 18). The megaspore mother cell increases in size and then passes through the usual stages of reduction division (Figs. 19 and 20), and a linear tetrad of four megaspores is produced in every instance (Fig. 21). The nucellus is greatly reduced and consists of a single layer of cells lining the megaspores, which are completely encased by the integument. The lowest or the chalazal megaspore always functions, while the rest degenerate and could be made out by their dark shapeless masses capping the functional megaspore. The functional megaspore increases in size before division. The two nuclei pro- duced as the result of division show distinct polarity, and at this stage de- generation of the surrounding cells of the nucellus is first noted. The quadri nucleate stage is next reached and the embryo-sac becomes encased by the radially elongated cells of the integument. This condition appears to be a_ characteristic feature in the family Compositae, and the inner cells of the Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Piare II Tridax procumbens Linn. For explanation see end of article. ie) ye ‘ ae : a ' ‘ : . ‘ . * A CONTRIBUTION TO HISTORY OF T. PROCUMBENS LINN. 95 integument have often been referred to as the ‘integumental jacket’. The eight nucleate stage is next reached and the embryo-sac shows considerable increase in size. The mature embryo-sac is of the normal angiospermous type (Fig. 23). The synergids are pear shaped and have prominent beak like processes which extend inside the micropyle. A big vacuole occurs at the base of each synergid at the top of which the nucleus is placed. The egg is very much elongated, Figs. 18-25.—Tridax procumbens. Fig. 18, Longitudinal section of the ovule showing the hypodermal origin of the megaspore mother cell and the single integument. Fig. 19, Heterctypic division of the M.M.C. Fig. 20, Homotypic division of the M.M.C. Fig. 21, Tetrad of megaspores. Fig. 22, Eight-nucleate embryo-sac. Fig. 23, Mature embryo-sac, the antipodal cells bi-nucleate. Fig. 24, Antipodal region of an embryo-sac, showing two antipodal cells, of which the upper one is three-nucleate and _ the lower binucleate. Fig. 25, Same, showing two anti-podal cells, the lower cell has three nuclei and the upper two. Fig. 18,430; Figs. 19-21, X1050; Figs. 22-25, X 940. it lies below the synergids and shows the usual form. The secondary nucleus lies very close to the egg. It is bigger than. the egg nucleus and is surrounded by a dense mass of cytoplasm. The three antipodal cells which are separated JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST: SOCIETY, Vol. XLii co [epe} from one another by cytoplasmic membranes lie at the chalazal end of the embryo-sac. At first they are uni-nucleate, but very soon become binucleate. In a few instances only two antipodal cells have been noted in the mature embryo-sac. Of these cells sometimes the upper one’ was seen to be trinucleate and the lower binucleate (Fig. 24), or the reverse condition prevailed (Fig. 25). DISCUSSION. 1. Meiosis. The spiral structure of the chromosomes first observed by Baranetsky (4) has now been definitely established. There are, however, different views re- garding the number of spirals that compose the prophase chromosomes. Among the recent investigators on the subject Nathany (12), Huskins and Smith (8) and others are of opinion that the leptotene threads are single, while Koshy (9) and others believe that they are double. In Tridax procumbens the leptotene threads appear to be beaded, which is probably due to the close intertwining of two threads forming nodes and internodes. Such appearance of the leptotene threads has been observed by Koshy (9) in Aloe Iittoralis, and he is of opinion that the beaded nature is due to two closely intertwined chromonemata. The structure of the chromosomes during the later stages of meiosis could not be made out clearly on account of the unsuitability of the material for such investigation. The chromonematic structure of the chromosomes again becomes apparent in the interkinetic nuclei and in the nuclei of young microspores. It thus appears that each chromosome is composed of two spirally intertwined threads. Further indication of the spiral nature is obtained in the diplonema stage where the wavy outline of chromosomes is suggestive of the existence of coiled strands. The method of chromosome conjugation is parasynaptic. The pairing of the leptotene threads is apparent in the early prophasic stages and as the spireme recovers from synizesis, its double nature is evident at places. The absence of a ‘second contraction’ stage and the segmentation of the spireme to give rise to the bivalent chromosomes lend support to this view. Gates and Rees (5) working on Lactuca have observed a looping of the spireme dur- ing the second contraction stage. The number of loops corresponded to the number of chromosomes, and it was concluded that each loop represented a pair of chromosomes which later separated out. The above observation led the authors to believe that synizesis in Lactuca has no part in bringing about the pairing of the threads. It is difficult to accept this view as the observations on Tridax indicate that synizesis is a critical stage when the pairing of the threads takes place. Great variation in the number of chromosomes has been noted in the family Compositae. Tischler (17) gives a list of the numbers recorded till recently. Of the plants under the tribe Helianthoidae the chromosome numbers of the following have been recorded: Xanthium Strumarium, X. italicum, X. inflexum and X. pensylvanicum (n=18); Galinsoga parviflora (n=18); Helianthus annuus (n=17); Bidens sp. (n=24). It is interesting to note that Tridax procumbens possesses 18 haploid chromosomes and thus shows chromoso- mal affinity with some other plants of the tribe to which it belongs. 2. Multi-nucleated pollen mother cells. The presence of large multi-nucleated pollen mother cells in the micros- porangium during the later stages of meiosis is an interesting feature in Tridax. Careful examination of the synizetic and presynizetic stages failed to show the presence of such cells, and it can therefore be concluded that these cells are not differentiated as such during sporogenesis. The origin of these cells might be due to the union of the cytoplasm of two or more pollen mother cells or to a process of nuclear migration or cytomyxis. As the latter conditions have not been observed in any preparation, it is likely due to the former. Besides, measurements show that the size of the nuclei in the large pollen mother cells is nearly the same as those of the ordinary meiocytes in the same stage of meiosis. The number of separate truclei in the protoplast indicates the number of pollen mother cells involved in the process. Gates and Rees (5) have observed similar bi-nucleate pollen A €ONTRIBUTION TO HISTORY OF T. PROCUMBENS LINN. 9% mother cells in Lactuca. These were noted in the presynizetic and synizetic stages of the pollen mother cells and not later. It has been suggested that these cells owe their origin through a breakdown or due to the incomplete formation of a cell membrane between the two cells. The absence of any evidence in that direction and the presence of multi-nucleated cells in Tridax procumbens makes this interpretation difficult to accept. Holmgreen (7) has observed quadrinucleated pollen grains in Erigeron eriocephalus and E. malas- chkensis. According to him these resulted from the failure of wall formation ' after reduction division. Non-formation of walls after reduction division appears to be the condition in Tridax also, and it results in an increase in the number of nuclei. Such a condition is illustrated in figures 15 and 16, plate II. In the first figure, the arrangement of the nuclei indicates that they have just completed the division and are in the interkinetic stage, while in the second figure, all these eight nuclei are in a state of division. The large eight- nucleated cell (fig. 15, Plate II), therefore must have resulted from the coales- -cence of the cytoplasm of four pollen mother cells, and not as a result of non-formation of wall after reduction division. Besides, as in most other cases the nuclei of the aberrant pollen mother cells are seen in early prophase, they could not have possibly resulted from a process of division as suggested by Holmgreen (7). 3. Tapetal plasmodium. . The tapetal cells become bi-nucleate in the early stages of meiosis. Quadri- nucleate tapetal cells as reported by many workers on Compositae have not been observed. A true plasmodium was formed during the later stages of meiosis and as the tapetal nuclei migrated inside the micrcsporangium, they became very much elongated and divided amitotically. Similar amitotic division of the tapetal nuclei has been noted by the present writer (2) in Colocasia anti- quorum. Bhargava (3) has noted the occurrence of a tapetal plasmodium in Eclipta erecta—a member of the tribe Helianthoideae—but he does not mention the amitotic division of the tapetal nuclei. : ei Pollen grains. In recent years the study of pollen morphology has received considerable attention. Wodehouse (18) states—‘pollen grains of the same species and of closely related species tend to be alike, and if the environmental factors are alike, the degree of their similarity_is a measure of their closeness of relationship’. The pollen morphology of a few plants belonging to the tribe Helianthoideae has so far been studied. Helianthus annuus, Xanthium catharti- cum, Chrysanthemum coccineum, C. morifolium, C. carinatum and Eclipta erecta could be mentioned in this connection. The size of the pollen grains in this. tribe does not show great variation. The pollen grains of the differ- ent species of Chrysanthemum studied, range between’ 26-6—36:5 microns in diameter, while those of Xanthium, Helianthus and LEclipta are 20-9, 27°7 and 18’o0 respectively. The diameter of the pollen grains of Tridax procumbens has been found to vary from 32:5 to 36°8 microns (with. spines). ' Wodehouse (18) has observed the pollen grains of the different species of Chrysanthemum studied by him to be tetra- or hexa-colpate. It is interesting to note that the pollen grain of Tridax are also tetracolpate. In general, the pollen grains are similar to those of Helianthus. . _ The shape of mature pollen (mounted dry) of Tridax procumbens is ellipsoidal. This agrees with the observation of Wodehcuse (18) on other members of the tribe Helianthoideae. Bhargava (3) however, states: that the pollen. grains of Eclipta erecta to be spherical and questions. .Pope’s (14) observation on other Compositae. .In Tridax the, ellipsoidal condition is due to harmomegathy. of the germinal furrows and the pollen grains assume;.a «spheroidal form when mounted’ in a liquid medium. In the light of our present knowledge, a careful re-examination of the pollen grains of Eclipta erecta seems to be necessary. 5. Development of the female gametophyte. The development of the megaspores' and the female gametophyte is of the normal type. It is interesting to note that in .the few. plants ‘of thé< tribe Helianthoideae so far investigated, the same type of embryo-sac development prevails. The variability in the number of antipodal cells and their nuclei, as lord / 98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLli observed in the material investigated, appears to be a characteristic feature of this tribe. Fusion of the nuclei of the antipodal cells as observed by Palm (13) in Zinnia was not seen in any preparation. SUMMARY. : The paper gives an account of the development of the flower, pollen grains and the female gametophyte of Yridax procumbens. 1. The ray florets of the capitulum are carpellate and the disc florets hermaphrodite. The development of the latter takes place in the following sequence :—petals, stamens, sepals and carpels. 2. The chromonematic structure of the chromosomes is seen in the nuclei of the microspore mother cells in early prophase and also during interkinesis. 3. Chromosome conjugation is of the parasynaptic type. No _ irregularity was noted in the meiotic process. — 4. The haploid number of chromosomes is eighteen. 5. Cytokinesis takes place by a process of furrowing. 6. A true periplasmodium is formed, the nuclei of which divide amitotically when inside the microsporangium. 7. Large multinucleated cells have been observed to be present inside the microsporangium in some anthers. Generally the nuclei of these aberrant cells show early prophasic changes while the surrounding pollen mother cells show all stages from diakinesis upwards. In a few anthers the nuclei of these large cells have been observed to divide. 8. The pollen grains are bi-nucleate. They are ellipsoidal, echinate and tetracolpate. Germ-pores are four in number and are ‘situated in the centre of short furrows. 9g. The development of the embryo-sac is of the normal type. 1i6é =jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XL There are also before me two females from the extreme S.-E. end of the S. Shan States; these agree with the females from Hthawgaw, but without seeing a male it is not certain whether they are the same or not. It is curious that I have received no specimens from intermediate areas, but they probably occur. Euthalia lengba, s.sp. nov. In the J. B. Nat. Hist. Soc., Feb. 2nd, 1915, I recorded the capture of this species, in Manipur, erroneously under the name of EF. taooana, M., which is, however, quite different. Male. Smaller than EF. taooana, M. Upperside rather more yellowish, markings very similar, but discal band on forewing not so-broad and spots narrower; spot in 3 not touching spot in 4. Hindwing with three post-discal spots, and one or two black white-centred spots in 3 and 4; the outer edge of these spots convex. Underside more greenish- yellow than E. taooana; marking very similar. In appearance it is between E, taooana, M., and the form of confucius described below. Euthalia confucius sadona, s.sp. nov. Male: very like EF. lengba, Tytl., but upperside much darker green. Upperside. Forewing with post-discal band darker yellow; spot in 4 projecting outwards beyond spots on either side. Hindwing with three discal spots in 5, 6 and 7; no traces of spots below; spots in 5 and 6 excavated on the inner edges. Underside. Forewing with conspicuous black subterminal band _ bordering the subcostal spots and reaching spot 2; inner edge of all the spots in the post-discal band edged with black; a large black area below the white spot in 2, with two small white dots in the middle. It differs from E. confucius, Leech, in being much smaller, with more pointed wings; the colour is much darker green on the upperside; the post-discal band on forewing is much narrower; no spot in 1. Hindwing with three post-discal apical spots. Type ¢ from Sadon, N.-E. Burma, 16-7-1929, deposited in the British Museum. Also a male from Hthawgaw, N. Burma, 27-7-1927, in my collection. Limenitis austenia purpurascens, Tytl. This form occurs in N.-E. Burma as a variety of L. austenia austenia, M. ; of four males secured, three are very close to typical austenia, M., and one is identical with typical purpurascens, Tyt., with the rosy purple colour very conspicuous. Limenitis brunnea, s.sp. nov. Male. Upperside dark brown, with paler brown discal and subterminal bands parallel to the outer margin; edges of the bands even. Forewing with a white apical spot as in L. danava, M. Underside very similar to L. danava, M., but darker; the outer edge of the subterminal band on hindwing even and not crenulate. Two males were taken at Konglu and Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma. It appears to be very rare. A paratype has been deposited in the British Museum. There also are four males from Lingtsi, Bhutan, 6,500-7,500 feet, and one from the Mishmi Hills, 4,000 feet. Limenitis zayla, Doubl. A single male was taken at Hthawgaw N.-E. Burma. I believe this species has not been recorded from Burma. Limenitis oberthiri rileyi, s.sp. nov. Male. Upperside very similar to Hestina oberthiiri, Leech, from W. China but all, the pale grey. streaks between the veins broader. Underside ground colour reddish-brown and not grey-brown as in oberthiiri, Leech. Forewing — INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BURMA. 117 with grey markings broader as on upperside and dusted over with darker grey. Hindwing with grey markings dusted with reddish-brown, broader in the cell and in 5, 6 and 7, getting very indistinct towards the tornus. where the reddish- brown colour is superimposed. / I have much pleasure in naming this species after Capt. Riley who has afforded me the greatest assistance in working out my new form from Burma. Four males were taken at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, in June. A male paratype is deposited in the British Museum. Pantoporia sulpitia adamsoni, Moore. This butterfly has, I believe, only been recorded from N. Burma, and I have taken it from Putao N.-E. Burma to Maymyo N. Shan States. I have also taken one ¢ at Pattechaung, Karen Hills. This extends its range a good deal further south. It must be very rare in the Karen Hills as Pattechaung has been systematically worked by numerous collectors. y _ Pantoporia zeroca whitei, s.sp. nov. A single male taken at Fort White, Chin Hills, differs considerably from typical specimens from the Naga Hills and Manipur. , Upbperside. Both wings with pale bands broader and broadly edged with greyish-blue. Underside. Forewing: .the two apical spots are very narrow; the pale band in the cell has below it three dark vertical lines connecting this area with the lower edge of the cell. Hindwing post-discal band very narrow. It is a very beautiful and distinct looking insect. Pantoporia opalina shan, s.sp. nov. Male and female differ from P. opalina orientalis, El., from the Khasi and Naga Hills, in being smaller; the markings on the upperside are pure white and not sullied; the white spot beyond the apex of cell of forewing, blunt and short, not long and narrow and pointed. On the underside the terminal and dorsal area of the hindwing not washed with violet as in P. orientalis and P, opalina opalina, Koll., from the N.-W. Himalayas. It occurs commonly in the Northern and Southern Shan States. Types, male and female from Maymyo. From the extreme N.-E. Burma there is before me a male which agrees with true P. orientalis, El., from the Naga Hills and Assam. ¢ @ paratypes are deposited in the British Museum. Pantoporia punctata, Leech. Four males of this species were taken in Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, in June. They only differ from Leech’s figure in having the discal patch on the hindwing much larger. This is an interesting capture as it has not been recorded within Burmese limits before. Pantoporia jina jinoides, Moore. A large series was obtained at Sadon N.-E. Burma. Some of the specimens were hardly separable from P. jina, M. Neptis sankara guiltoides, s.sp. nov. Male and female differ from N. guilta, Swinh., in having all the bands on the upperside purer white and not sullied with brown; the markings -on the underside are broader, especially the submarginal pale band of the hind- wing. Numerous specimens of both seasonal forms were taken at Maymyo, N.. Shan States; and also in the Karen Hills. Two females taken in August and October differ from others taken in October in the pale markings on the upperside being tinged with yellow, as is sometimes the case with N. sankarq guilta, Swinh. 118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCISTY, Vol! XLIT A curious aberration taken by Dr. Haynes, and kindly presented to me, is very pale sepia-brown on both upper and lower surfaces. Specimens taken at Sadon, in the extreme N.-E. of Burma, are not typical but intermediate between this form and guilta, Swinh. Paratypes ¢ and Q, and the aberration noted above, have been deposited in the British Museum. Neptis cartica cartica, Moore. The range given for this insect. by Brig. Evans in his Ident. Ind. Butterflies (2nd Ed.) is ‘Sikkim-Assam’ and of N. cartica burmana, de N., ‘Assam-Burma’. I have a large series of both forms before me and _ find that no specimen of burmana has been taken further north than the Karen Hills; whereas the form occurring commonly from Manipur, through the Naga Hills, and N.-E. Burma to the S. Shan States is N. cartica cartica, M. N. cartica burmana, de N. does not appear to be so common as N, cartica cartica, M. Neptis ananta learmondi, s.sp. nov. Male. Upperside differs from N. ananta ochracea, Ev., in heving all the yellow markings larger and of a brighter and lighter colour. Underside. Forewing somewhat similar. Hindwing with discal band broader, and on its inner edge margined with blue from the dorsal margin to v. 5; the violet post-discal band is narrower, and the subterminal violet band is much. broader. Female. Upperside rich clear yellow; darker than the female of ochracea, Ev.; subterminal band very broad; somewhat similar in colour to the temale of N. ananta namba, Tytl., but the subterminal yellow band broader. Underside very similar to N. ananta namba, Tyt!., but the subterminal band on hindwing much _ broader. I'ifteen males and a female were obtained at Loimwe, S. Shan States, by Capt. Learmond after whom I have much pleasure in naming this form. Neptis ananta namba, Tytl. A large series was obtained on the Putao Road, N. -E. Burma, in March. Neptis melba gafuri, s.sp. nov. In the Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 1915, p. 508, I erroneously recorded this form from the Naga Hills as N. antilope, Leech. I recorded how it differed from Leech’s insect, and stated that in view of those differences it might prove to be a race of that species. It is very close to N. melba, Evans, and is un- doubtedly a race of that form, from which it only differs in the upperside being yellow instead of white. The underside also differs in being yellow instead of whitish. The female is very similar to the male. Neptis melba pila, s.sp. nov. This form is very like N. melba melba, Ev., but the colour on the upper- side is pale yellow and not white. It differs on ‘the upperside from N. melba gafuri, Tytl., in the yellow colour being much paler; on the hindwing the post-discal yellow band broader. The underside is very similer to N. melba melba, Ev., but the colour is very pale yellowish. Five males and two females were obtained at Loimwe, S. Shan States, in April, September, and December. A female was also taken in -Bhamo in May. I think it better to consider N. melba, Ev., as a distinct species and not as a sub-species of N. antilope,. Leech, to which insect it is very different in appearance. SG Q paratypes are deposited in the -B, M. Neptis aspasia, Leech. ii. it A single. d was taken at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, in July. INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BURMA © 119 Neptis radha asterastilis, Oberthiir. The type in the Oberthiir Collection came from Momeit, N. Shan States. It may be a dry season form, All the specimens I have seen from Burma, except two in the British Museum which agree with the type, are typical | vadha, M. Oberthiir’s fig. unfortunately accentuates the paleness and makes the ground-colour pale yellow, almost white in places, which is not the case in the type. I have before me three ¢ ¢ from N.-E. Burma which are typical N. radha, M., and one ¢ from Bhamo, N. Shan States, and close to where the type came from; this is slightly paler on the upperside and may be considered to be asterastilis, Obrth. Hy Neptis zaida thawgawa, s.sp. nov. Male. Upperside somewhat similar to N. saida drummondi, Tyt., but the apical and submarginal spots on forewing are larger. Hindwing with discal band broader, and the submarginal band narrower. Underside markings some- what similar to N. zaida manipurensis, Tytl., but the ground-colour is greenish-yellowish tinged with rufous. A single male was taken at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, between 5,000 feet and 8,o00 feet, in June. Neptis beroe, Leech. A single male was taken ot Loimwe, S. Shan States, in April 1928. ; This is an interesting capture as this Chinese insect has not previously been recorded from Burma. Doleschallia bisaltide kara, s.sp. nov. Male. Rainy season form differs from D. andamanensis, Fruh., on the upperside in being rather darker; interspaces 2 and 3 in the forewing are concolorous with the rest of the wing and not paler as in that form; the black terminal area darker, extending as far as the tornus; the fulvous bar across the apex narrower and more diffuse, especially the portion in 4 and 5; four subapical white spots instead of three. Hindwing terminal area with two very distinct marginal lines, and two discal black spots large and more distinct. Underside very dark, and all markings very prominent. Dry season male above as in the wet season form; below very dark but markings not very prominent. . Female. The dry season form does not differ very much from the Andaman form, types form Car Nicobar, except that the underside is uniform light ‘fulvous. Vanessa cardui aureum, Linn. A female was obtained on 16th December, 1924, at Loimwe, close to the Yunnan and Siam borders. It agrees entirely with specimens in the British Museum. It has not previously been recorded from Burma. Brig. Evans probably referred to this specimen in his ‘Identification of Indian Butterflies.’ Vanessa urticae chinensis, Leech. Three males were taken at Hthawgaw in July. This is an_ interesting capture as it has not been previously recorded from Burma. Araschnia prorsoides dohertyi, Moore. A large series was obtained at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, during July- October. Symbrenthia brabira doni, s.sp. nov. Male and female. Upperside ‘ with fulvous markings slightly broader. Specimens taken in May and June (dry season) ‘are very like S. brabira, M., taken in June and August. Underside very similar, but the ground-colour 120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII is not uniformly yellow and has some paler patches; the black markings are slightly heavier ; the post-discal band has no blue centres on the yellow ground. The wet season form, taken in August, is larger and darker, with narrower fulvous markings, otherwise similar. Types from the Naga Hills. It also occurs at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma. Argynnis laodice indroides, s.sp. nov. The form occurring in N.-E. Burma differs from the Khasi Hills form, A. laodice rudra, M., in the following respects :— Upperside paler and spots smaller. Underside of hindwing with subterminal pale pinkish band much _ broader. Six males and one female were taken at Hthawgaw, N.E. Burma, in June, 1927. Argynnis adippe astorica, s.sp. nov. Male and female smaller and paler than jainadeva, M., above and below, but darker and larger than pallida, Ev. A large series was taken at Rama, Astor, in August. Argynnis adippe gyala, s.sp. nov. Male. Upperside rather similar to jainadeva, M. Female. Very like the male, but paler. Underside of hindwing with all silver spots large; in inter- space 7 the third silver spot from base large and well separated from the fourth; an inner discal row of small silver spots above and close to the discal row. Three males and a female were kindly given me by Col. Bailey, and were taken at Gyala, S.-E. Tibet, in July. Argynnis pales hunzaica, s.sp. nov. Male. Upperside with all markings on both wings much smaller and less pronounced than in A. pales sipora, M. Underside of forewing with no spots on disc of wing; a subapical brown streak pointing to the dorsum; below this there is a submarginal row of five small black spots in 6-2, the spots in 2 and 3 being more inwardly placed. Hindwing ground-colour more extensive and yellowish than in A. pales sipora, M.; submarginal spots blackish-red and conspicuous. The hindwing is of a different shape to sipora, M., in hunzaica the termen is round; in sipora, M., it is rather straight from the apex to vein 4, and then sharply bent inwards io the tornus, giving the wing rather a square look. Eight males and a female were taken by my native collectors at Mizgah, Hunza, in August. ERYCINIDAE. Dodona dipoea dipoea, Hew. Two males were obtained at Hthawgaw, N.E. Burma. I believe this form has not previously been recorded from Burma. Dodona dracon, de Nicév. There are two forms of Q differing considerably from one another :— 1st form. A single female taken at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, in September, only differs from the male from the same locality in being larger and _ all markings on upperside and underside being larger and_ paler. 2nd form. A_ single female taken at Bhamo, N. Shan States, in July, and a single female taken at Loimwe, in December, differ from the 1st form in being more ochreous-brown with all the pale markings being tinged with ochreous on the forewing, and very ochreous on the hindwing. The males vary a good deal according to locality :— Four males taken near Putao, extreme north of N,-E, Burma, are much smaller and form a separate subspecies,. INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BURMA 121 Eighteen males, taken at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma; two males at Bhamo, N. Burma; and ten males taken at Loimwe, S. Shan States, agree with each other fairly closely; the form from Loimwe and Bhamo on the whole has the markings on the underside rather narrower than the form from Hthawgaw; the female from Hthawgaw however, as previously stated, differs from the female from Bhamo and Loimwe, and if this difference is constant the form from Hthawgaw will require a new name. The type of D. dracon, de N., is stated by Fruhstorfer as coming from the Ruby Mines; N. Burma, which is a good deal south of Hthawgaw but much further north than Loimwe. | Dodona dracon putaoa, s.sp. nov. Male. Much smaller than D. dracon, de N. Upperside markings very similar, except on the forewing the spots are fulvous and not white. Underside much warmer and darker reddish-ochracecus; markings rather broader. As previously stated, four males were taken at Putao on the extreme north of N.-E. Burma. The female was not obtained. Dodona adonira, Hew. The collective species has been divided into two races, D. adonira adonira, Hew., from Sikkim-Bhutan, and D. adonira argentea, Fruh., from the Ruby Mines, N. Burma. Fruhstorfer states that argentea differs from the Sikkim form in having a black base to forewing instead of a brown one, a much broader black distal border, and more extensive submarginal band. On underside, the long longi- tudinal bands are not black but brown; the space between the two sub- marginal bands and the two basal bands, as well as the subanal region, are covered with broad silvery stripes; also at the costal margin there is a square silvery spot. I have not seen any specimens from the Ruby Mines where the type came from, and I have no forms which agree altogether with Fruhstorfer’s description. The nearest locality to the Ruby Mines from which [ have received a male is Bhamo, 120 miles away. This might be considered to be typical, except that it has not a black base to the fore and hindwings, but agrees with Sikkim specimens in this respect. On the other hand I have before me numerous specimens from the Naga and Manipur Hills; from Hthawgaw, 150 miles North of Bhamo; and from the extreme S.-E. of the Shan States, about 300 miles S.-E. of the Ruby Mines, which vary a good deal and may form new subspecies. Fruhstorfer considered specimens from the Naga Hills and Bernardmyo might be referable to his argentea. The Naga Hills are a very long distance from the Ruby Mines, whereas Bernardmyo is so close to the Ruby Mines that there can be no doubt specimens taken there by Doherty are typical; on the other hand specimens from the Naga Hills, as before stated, may form a new sub-species. The following key will assist in separating the adonira from Assam, and the Burma forms of Fruh. (A) Upperside: base of both wings brown and not as dark as the black margin of the forewing. (ai) Upperside: very similar to D. adoniva from Sikkim, but on the under- side the markings are not quite so black, and the hindwing has the silvery markings of argentea but not quite so conspicuous. Dodona adonira naga, s.sp. nov. Naga Hills, Manipur. (aii) Upperside: fulvous markings broader and paler than the Sikkim form. Underside: all markings very narrow and fulvous. D. adonira argentea, Fruh. Ruby Mines, Upper Burma. (B) Upperside: base of both wings very dark, almost the same colour as the marginal border of forewing. (bi) large; markings on underside narrow, and only slightly fulvous; silvery markings well developed. i 122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST: “SOCIET Y> Viola XT D. adonira kala, s.sp. nov. Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma. (bii) smaller ; markings of upperside similar. Underside: dark bands on both wings broader and markedly fulvous; silver spaces still more developed. D. adonira learmondi, s.sp. nov. Loimwe, S. Shan States, Abisara chela amplifascia, s.sp. nov. The male differs from the typical form from Sikkim in having the white band on both sides of the forewing much wider. Two males were obtained on the Irang River, Manipur, in March and April; fourteen males at Sadon, N.-E. Burma, in October-——-December; a male taken in the Abor Hills in July belongs to this ferm; it is a wet season form and the white band is slightly narrower but still very much broader than the Sikkim form. 3 LYCAENIDAE. { Allotinus drumila grisea, Riley and Godfrey. The type was described from a single extreme dry season female from Siam, taken in April. A large series was obtained at Kalaw, S. Shan States, and at Loimwe on the extreme east of the S. Shan States, close to the Siam border. The male is very close to the typical form, and only differs in the apical pale band not being so pure white. The females, taken at Kalaw in October, belong to the wet season, the ground-colour is brown and not whitish; those caught in November are transitional forms to the dry season form, and one specimen agrees entirely with the type. Lycaena tseng mandersi, Elwes. This form only differs from the typical form from China in the colour of the upperside which is much _ brighter. Six males were obtained at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, and a female in the Bhamo Hills. A male was also obtained in Kalaw, S. Shan States. ° The type, a male, was taken at Bansan, Shan States. Surendra learmondi, sp. nov. Female. Upperside dark blackish-brown, with a large bright purple patch filling the cell and inner half of forewing and cell of hindwing; in one speci- men the cell of hindwing has only a little blue towards its apex. Underside vinous-brown with purplish-black spots, mostly rectangular. Forewing with two spots in cell, with a costal spot over the outer one; a large spot closing the cell, with a spot above and below it; a post-discal row of six spots in echelon, ‘those in 2, 4 and 6 being placed more outwardly than those in 3, 5 and 7. Hindwing with four basal round spots, followed by a discal and_post-discal band composed of peculiarly shaped markings, hard to describe; a well defined lobe at tornus, and a fairly long and stout tail. Expanse: @, 42 m.m. Two females were obtained at Loimwe, S. Shan States, in June. It is a very distinct species and unlike anything I know. Spindasis learmondi, sp. nov. Male. Upperside very like S. nipalicus evansi, Tyti., but smaller tornal area of hindwing in two specimens, not marked with black spots, one specimen with a maroon spot; inner tail rudimentary, outer tail thicker and mostly maroon with a white tip. Underside plumbeous wine-colour ; markings on outer margin inclined to be obsolescent, a maroon spot at tornus. This is a very distinct species and unlike anything I know; the underside is very distinctive. It agrees with S. mascinus, Elw. in having only the outer tail fully developed, the inner one being rudimentary. INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BURMA 123 Pratapa vidura vidura, Horsfield. Mr. G. Cooper has taken in Mergui several specimens of a form which agrees with the type from Java. There is a specimen from Lower Burma in the B. M. over the label P. burmana, M., and there is also a specimen from Perak over the label D. v. vidura, Horsf. It can easily be distinguished from D. v. burmana by the greater development of the orange spot above the inner tail of the hindwing. It would appear that typical viduwra extends to the extreme end of S. Burma, and burmana is from further north. The type of burmana was taken at Moulmein. Tajuria luculentus luculentus, Leech. Two males, which appear to be nearer the typical form than to T. lI. nela, Swinh., were taken at Loimwe, Tujuria mantra, Feld. Two females of this rare form were taken at Maymyo in July. Tujuria yajna ellisi, Evans, °. - The female, which I believe is undescribed, is very similar to the o, but on the upperside the blue is rather duller, and on the forewing is more extended; underside ground colour much paler. Biduanda melisa cooperi, s.sp. nov. Mr. G. Cooper took several specimens of a meiisa which differ from typical specimens from further south in having the blue area on the hindwing dark purplish-blue as in B. m. cyara, Hew., and not bright shining blue. It appears to be a good race. Type ¢ from Maymyo, Anisakan. There is a specimen in the B.M. taken by Mr. Godfrey in S.-E, Siam, in April, 1924. N.B.—-The location of the types of Spindasis learmondi and Tajuria yajna ellisi Q, omitted by the author, cannot be given as the specimens are not available. The former probably came from Loimwe (G._ T.). A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF THE PUNJAB PLAINS AND THE ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS BY Dr: 1. 5. SABNES, BoA. o| blonce; se. F.A.SC., I.A.S., Economic Botanist to Government, United Provinces, Cawnpore. The flora of the Punjab plains is closely related to the floras of the Indian desert and Sind and shows considerable similarity to the plant population of the latter. The area dealt with is approximately enclosed by the lines join- ing the South-West end of the Punjab to Mianwali, from Mianwali to Gujrat, south of the Salt Range, and from ‘Gujrat through Amritsar, Ludhiana and Saharanpur to the South end of the Punjab. It includes the following districts :— Bahawalpur, Muzaftargarh, Multan, Mianwali up to Salt Range, Montgomery, Lyallpur, Jhang, Shahpur, Gujrat south of Salt Range, Gujranwala, Lahore, Amritsar, Ferozepore, Ludhiana, Patiala, Hissar, Jind, Nabha, Karnal up to railway-line, Ambala, Saharanpur, Rohtak, Gurgaon, (the Jumna to form the E. boundary of the regions). The plants from the associated hill regions are also included to determine to what altitude the same species can grow. _ The present contribution is compiled from the data obtained from the plant collections in the Herbarium of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Original notes made by the several plant collectors are also incorporated. Localities mentioned under dis- tribution are largely drawn from the Flora of the British India by Hooker. The Flora represents 118 families which include 530 genera and 949 species. I wish to take this opportunity to thank Mr. C. E. Parkinson for facilities for studying the collections in the Herbarium of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Bibliography. 1. Aitchison, J. E. T.—A Catalogue of the Plants of the Punjab and Sind to which are added some others, that from their Geo- graphical proximities may be found hereafter to occur in the Punjab. London, 1869. 2. Bambar, C. J. Col.—Plants of the. Punjab, Lahore, 1916. 3. Blatter E. and Hallberg, F.—Flora of the Indian Desert (Jodhpur and Jaisalmir). Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., Dec. 1918. 4. Blatter, E. and Almeida, J. F. R.—The Ferns ‘of Bombay, D. ee Taraporevala Sons & Co., Bombay, 1922. Coventry, E. M.—A Catalogue of the Trees qnd Shrubs of the Pie IQOT. FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS — 125 6. Hooker, J. D. Sir,—Flora of British India Vols. I-VI. 7. Parker, R. N,—A forest Flora for the fe with Hazara and Delhi, Lahore, 1918. 8. Roxburgh, W.—Flora Indica. 9g. Stewart, J. L.—Punjab Plants, Govt. Press, Lahore, 1869. 10. Kashyap, S. R. and Joshi, A. C.—Lahore District Flora, University Punjab, Lahore, 1936. . I. RANUNCULACEAE. 1. Crematis L. 1. Clematis Gouriana Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814), 43. Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum. 66a!); Sindhiara in Chamba (66a!); Jhelum and Hoshiarpur (Ait. 436!). Flowers.—August-September. Distribution.—Java, Philippines. India—hilly districts from the Western Himalaya, alt. 1-3,000 ft., to Ceylon and the Eastern Peninsula. 2. Clematis grata Wall. Cat. (1828), 4,668. Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum. 4,586!, 68!, 67!, 70!). Flowers.—May-September. nee Distribution.—Afghanistan, China, Tropical Africa. India—subtropical and temperate Himalaya, from Kumaon westwards, alt. 2-8,000 ft. 3. Clematis graveolens Lindl. in Journ. Hort. Soc. I (1846) 307. Locality.—Kunawar (Nanak 1138 !). Flowers.—July-September, Distribution.—India—W. temperate Himalaya, from Murree to Kulu and Kumaon, alt. 6-11,000 ft. 4, Clematis Buchananiana DC. Syst I (1818), 140. Locality.x—Dalhousie (Drum. 71!). Flowers.—August-November. Distribution.—India—throughout temperate Himalaya, alt. 5-10,000 ft. 5. Clematis flammula L. Sp. Pl. 544. Locality.—Lahore, gardens (Parker 13622!, 13769 !). Flowers.—June-September. Distribution.—Mediterranean region, 2,°. LHALICTRUM LL. 6. Thalictrum foliolosum DC. Syst. I, 175. Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum. 79). Flowers.—August. Distribution.—India—temperate Himalaya, alt. 5-8,o00 ft.; Khasia Hills, alt. 4-6,000 ft. 8 RANUNCULUS- ZL: 3 7. Ranunculus aquatilis L. Sp. Pl. 556. Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 333 !). Flowers.—March. Distribution.—Temperate N. and S. hemispheres. _India—W. Himalaya, from Kumaon to Indus; plains of the Punjab, as far south as Delhi and Saharanpur. East and West Tibet. 126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XLII 8. Ranunculus sceleratus L. Sp. Pl. (1753) 551. Locality.—Ludhiana (Drum. 1172!); Karnal (Drum. 3020 !); Lahore (Stewart 2821!); Rawalpindi. Flowers.—January-April. Pe, Distribution. Throughout the N. Temperate Zone. India—river banks in Bengal and Northern India; marshes of Peshawar, warm valleys of the Himalaya; (unknown south of the Nerbudda). 9. Ranunculus pensylvanicus Linn. Locality.—Karnal (Drum. 4336!, 6278 !). Flowers.—August. Distribution.—Nerth China; Amurland; N. America. India. 10 Ranunculus muricatus L. Locality.—Gurdaspur (Drum. 81!); Lahore (Parker!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 306!); Near Peshawar (Collett !). Flowers.—February-April. Weed in wet places. Distribution.—Europe, W. Asia, temp. N. America. India—swampy places, at low elevations, in the Punjab-Himalaya, and in the plains at Peshawar and Ambala. 11. Ranunculus arvensis L. Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 305!); near Peshawar (Collett !).: Flowers.—February-April. ) In wet places. Distribution.—Europe, Asia Minor, Afghanistan, Western Siberia. India— Western Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon. 4. DELPHINIUM L. 12. Delphinium saniculaefolium. Boiss. Fl. Orient I, gr. Locality.— Rawalpindi (Ait. 307 !). Flowers.—March. Distribution.—Afghanistan. India—W. Punjab, on the dry hills from the Indus to the Jhelum. 13. Delphinium denudatum Wall. Cat. No. 4719. Locality.x—Dalhousie (Drum. 87!). Flowers.—July. f Distribution.—India—W. temperate Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon in grassy places. II. MAGNOLIACEAE. 5- Micueria L. 14, Michelia Champaca L. Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 555 !). | Distribution.—Java. India—commonly cultivated; but wild in the forests of the temperate Himalaya, from Nepal eastwards, and in Pegu, Tenasserim and Travancore. a ts Ili. . ANONACEAE. 6. Unona L. 15. Unona discolor Vah!. Symb. II 63, t. 36. Locality.—Lahore-Govt. Gdns. (Parker 13621!). Flowers.—June. i . Distribution.—Malayan Archipelago (all the forms). India-Tropical forests from Sikkim, Assam and Silhet, to Arakan and Malacca, Orissa and Konkan. FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 12% 7. PoryaLTHEa Bl, 16. Polyalthea longifolia Benth & H. f. Gen, Pl. I, 25. Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 552!); Parker 14383. Flowers.—May. Distribution.—Drier parts of Ceylon. Cultivated throughout the hotter parts of India. IV. MENISPERMACEAE. 8. TINOSPORA MIERS. 17. Tinospora cordifolia Micrs. Contrib. iii, 31. Locality.x—Karnal (Drum. Herb. 6291 !). Flowers.—April. Distribution.—Throughout India from Kumaon to Assam and Burma, and from Bihar and Konkan to Ceylon and the Carnatic. g. CoccuLus DC. 18. Cocculus Leaeba DC. Prodr. I, 99. Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 175!); Montgomery (Parker 6263!); Changa Manga (Kanjilal !). Flowers.—September ; Fr.—November. Distribution.—Afghanistan, Arabia, tropical and subtropical Africa. India— drier parts of Western India, the Punjab, Sind and the Carnatic. 19, Cocculus villosus DC. Prodr. I, 98. Localitykx—Karnal (Drum. 1647 !). Flowers.—May. Distribution.—-Tropical Africa. Throughout tropical and subtropical. India— from the base of the Himalaya to Malabar and Pegu (absent in the Eastern Peninsula and Ceylon). 10. CISSAMPELOS L. 20. Cissampelos Pareira L. Locality.—-Karnal (Parker 1220!, 1221!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 717!); Alt. 4,000-5,000 (Jerram!); Dalhousie (Drum. go!, 91 !). Flowers.—August. Distribution.—Cosmopolitan in warm regions. Undia—-tropical and subtropi- cal, from Sind and the Punjab to Ceylon and Singapore. V. BERBERIDACEAE. 1r. Berpseris L. 21. Berberis Lycium Royle Ill. 64. Locality.—Rawalpindi (Jerram !). Flowers.—April. ze Distribution.—India-——-Western Himalaya, in dry places, alt. 3-9,000 ft. from Gharwal to Hazara. VI. NYMPHAEACEAE. 12. NYMPHAEA L. 22. Nymphaea Lotus L. var. pubescens H, f. & T. Fl. Ind. 241. Locality.—Rawalpindi (308 !). Flowers.-—August. 128° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit Distribution.—Africa, Hungary, Java, Philippine Islands. India—common throughout the warmer parts. 23. Nymphaea stellata Willd. Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 289 !). Distribution.—Africa. | India—common throughout the: warmer parts. — 13. NELUMBIUM Juss. 24. Nelumbium speciosum Willd. Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 421 !). Distribution.—Persia, Malay Islands, China, Japan, tropical Australia, India—throughout, extending as far to the N.-W. as Kashmir. VII. PAPAVERACEAE. 14. Papaver L. 25 Papaver Hookeri Baker ex. Hook. f. Bot. Mag. t. 6729. Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2580!); Karnal (Drum. 6293 !). Flowers.—March. Distribution.—India—Punjab. 15. Escuscnottzia CHAM. 26. Eschscholtzia californica Cham. in Nees. Hor. Phys. Berol. 74. Locality.—Islamia College Peshawar (Quizilbush 56 !). Distribution.—California. VIII. FUMARIACEAE. 16. CorypaLtis DC. 27. Corydalis cornuta Royle Ill. 69. Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum. 97, 99). Distribution.—India—temperate Himalaya, alt. 8-10,000 ft. 17. Fumaria LAMK. 28. Fumaria parviflora Lamk. Locality.—Islamia College, Feshawar (Quizilbush 8!); Lahore (Parker 10!; Brandis 2954; Stewart 2832 !). Distribution.—India—Indo-Gangetic plain, lower Himalaya and Nilgiri Hills; a weed of cultivation. IX. CRUCIFERAE. 18. Nasturtium Br, 29. Nasturtium officinale Br. in Hort. Kew. ed. 2 IV, 110. Locality.x— Rawalpindi (Ait. 176!, 312!). Flowers.—September. Has been introduced in Salt Range. Distribution.—Afghanistan, temperate Europe and Asia. India—Rohilkhand, Punjab, also found near all the hill stations, but probably introduced. 30. Nasturtium palustre DC. Syst. Veg. II, 191. Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 1007 !). Flowers.—March. The fruit peculiarly eae and bloated. “FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 129 Distribution.—Many temperate regions. India—abundant in ‘temperate Himalaya, ascending to 10,000 ft., and in N.-W..India, rare in Assam and Bengal. 19. ARaBis L. 31. Arabis taraxacifolia Anders. Locality. —Rawalpindi (Ait: 319 !). Flowers.—March. Distribution.—India—Punjab. 20. Farsetia DESV. 32. Farsetia Jacquemontii H. f. & T. Journ. Linn. Soc. V, 148. Locality.—Hissar (Duthie 38331); Multan (1886, Munro 29!, 61!, 285 348!, Duthie 10784!), Punjab (Ait. 424!), Lahore (Stewart 2834 !, aan 2574 !). Flowers.—April-December. Eaten as a tonic, small branches eaten raw. Chutney prepared from it. Distribution.—Afghanistan, Baluchistan. India—sandy places in the Punjab and Sind. ; 21. Matcomia Br. 33. Malcomia africana Br. Hort. Kew. ed. 2 IV, 121. Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 315!); Lahore (Parker!; Stewart 2514!). Weed in wheat crop. ' Distribution.—W. Asia; Mediterranean _ region. idee notes and waste places in the Punjab, Kashmir and Western Tibet, ascending to 13,000 ft. 34, Malcomia africana Br. Vac cracihs OO: E. Schulz, Locality.—Muzaffargarh (Monro 161!). Flowers.—March. Eaten by cattle. Distribution.—S. Europe; Orient. 35. Malcomia strigosa Boiss. Fl. Orient. I, 224. Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 316!, 160!). Flowers.—Mach-July. Distribution.—Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Persia. India—in the Salt Range, Punjab. 22. SISYMBRIUM L. 36, Sisymbrium Thalianum Gay & Monn. in Gaud. Fl. Helv. IV, 348. Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum, 105!); Barrakow near Rawalpindi (Ait. 11yg2‘). Flowers.—March. | Distribution.—Temperate Europe, Asia, Abyssinia. India—temperate Hima- laya from Bhotan to Kashmir, and in Western Tibet, alt. 5-10,000 ft. — 37. Sisymbrium rupestre Edgew. in Trans. Linn. Soc. XX, 33. Locality.—Peshawar (Quizilbush 391 !). Distribution.—India—in the dry regions of the Western Himalaya, from Kumaon to Kashmir, alt. 8-14,000 ft. 38. Sisymbrium strictum H. f. & T. Jour. Linn. Soc. V, 161. Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum... 107!,° 111!, 1121). _ Distribution.—India—-Western Himalaya from Kumaon to Kashmir, alt. 5-10,000 ft. 9 130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII 39, Sisymbrium Columne Jacq. Fl. Austr. t. 323. ~ Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 318 !). Flowers.—March. Distribution.—Westwards to Central Europe. India—Western Himalaya from Kumaon to Kashmir, ascending: to 10,000 ft. 40. Sisymbrium Irio L. Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 313!, 317 !). Flowers.—April. Distribution.—Afghanistan and westwards to the Canary Islands... India— Northern India from Rajputana to the ‘Punjab. 41. Sisymbrium Irio L. var. dissectum O. E. Schulz. Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2575!, 2576!). 23. Brassica L. 42. Brassica campestris L. Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 320!).. Flowers.—February. Distribution.—Cultivated for its seed for oil throughout India. 43. Brassica alba H. f. & T. Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 321 !). Flowers.—April. Distribution.—From Syria eastwards throughout S. Europe. fields at Ferozepore in the Punjab. India—cultivated 24. CapsELLA MOENCH. 41. Capsella Bursa-pastoris Moench. Locality.-—Peshawar (Quizilbush 26 !). A weed of cultivation. Distribution.—Cultivated places throughout temperate India. 25. Lepipium L. 45. Lepidium sativum L. Locality.—Lahore (Parker 21038!; Stewart 2515!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 324 !). Flowers.—March. Weed in wheat crop (Aitchison); but cultivated and spread, not indigenous. Distribution.—Cultivated throughout India and Western Tibet. 43. Lepidium Draba L. | Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 1012). Distribution.—Westwards to Europe. India—a weed of cultivation in’ the Punjab. . | 26. Tuteaspi L. prc ae 47. Thlaspi arvense L. Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 1015 !). Flowers.—March. / Distribution. —Europe, Asia, always in cultivated places. India—a weed of cultivation throughout the temperate and subalpine Himalaya, ascending to 14,000 ft. ‘' FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED. HILL REGIONS .131 27... Nesta DESV.. III, r62.- b 48. Neslia paniculata Desv. Jour. Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 323 !). Flowers.—March. Western Asia, temperate Europe. India—in the Distribution.—Persia, Punjab-Himalaya, from Hazara to the Beas; Kashmir, alt. 5-6,000 ft. 28. EUCLIDIUM Br. 49. Euclidium syriacum R. Br. in Hort. Kew. ed. 2, IV, 74. Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 10165 !). Flowers.—March. Distribution.—Westwards to Central Europe. India—Kashmir, alt. 5-6,000 ft., Punjab at Peshawar. 29. ~ Gorpgacuia DC, 50. Goldbachia laevigata DC. Syst. II 577. Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 325 !). Flowers.—March. Distribution.—Westwards to S, Russia. common in the Punjab. India—Kashmir, alt. 5,000 ft., X. CAPPARIDACEAE. 30. CLEOME L. 51. Cleome papillosa Steud. Nomencl. ed. 2., I. 382. Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 573!, 139!). Flowers.—August-October. Distribution.—Abyssinia; Kordofan; Arabia. India—Rajputana and arid districts of Sind and Western Punjab. 52. ‘Cleome brachycarpa Varl ex DC. Prodr. I, 240. Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2508!); Hissar (Duthie 3837!); Punjab (Ait. 196 !) Flowers.—August. _ Distribution.—Arabia, Abyssinia. India—N.-W. India from Agra_ to Peshawar. 53, Cleome viscosa L. Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. Flowers.—August. Distribution.—Abundant throughout tropical and warm India and the: rest a the we ES 326 !); Lahore (Stewart 2507 !). 31. GYNANDROPSIS DC: 54. Gynandropsis pentaphylla DC. Prodr. I, 238. Locality.x—Rawalpindi (327); Multan (* Monro 65!); Hissar (Duthie 3839!). Flowers.—June-August. * Leaves collected and made into plaster for sores. Leaves and flowers eaten cooked. Distribution.—Abundant throughout the warm parts of India and all tropical countries. 132. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII 32. Maerua FORSK. 55. Maerua arenaria H. f. & T. Locality.x—Hissar (Duthie 3840!). Flowers.—August. Distribution.—India—Western Himalaya and Central India abundant. 33- Capaspa FORSK. 56. Cadaba indica Lamk. ee ea so CIN Manga. (* Parker 14877); Kanjilal!; Chatterji 129!; Montgomery, Okara (Parker 4563 !). Flowers.—November-January ; Fr. January. ; Distribution. —India-—Western Peninsula, from Gujrat and the Konia south- wards, on old walls and in waste dry plains. * On unirrigated canal belt. 34- Capparis L. 57. Capparis spinosa L. Locality.—Bashahr (18256!, 18128!, 17131 !, 18125!); Jhelum (J. Prasad 32! alt. 2000); Rawalpindi (Ait. 177 !). Flowers.—August-November. Distribution.—Afghanistan, West Asia, Europe, N. Africa, Australia, Sandwich Islands. India—hot western Himalayan valleys eastwards to Nepal; West Tibet, ascending to 13,000 ft. 58. Capparis aphylla Roth. Locality.—Multan (Ram Nath 47327!); Ratchoany in Raw alpindi (Aity323. 3) Hissar (Duthie 3842! 4512!); Lahore (Ram Nath = 1795235): Flowers.—April-August; Fr. October to December. Distribution.—Arabia, Egypt, .N. tropical Africa. India—driest places in the Punjab, Sind, Gujrat, Rajputana, the Deccan and. South Carnatic. 59. Capparis sepiaria L. Locality.--Hissar (Duthie 3841!, 3843!); Karnal (Parker 1254!). Flowers.—August. Distribution.—Philippines, Ceylon. Dry places throughout India, from_ the Punjab and Sind to Burma, the Carnatic. and Pegu. 60. Capparis horrida L. Localitv.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 565 !). | Distribution.—Java, Philippines, Ceylon. India—Gangetic plain, .Western | Peninsula, Chittagong to Pegu. 35. CraTaEva L. 61. Crataeva religiosa Forst. Locality.—Jhelum (Ait.). Distribution.—Tropical Africa. India—near streams in Malabar and Canara; cultivated elsewhere in India. -XI; RESEDACEAE. | 36. OLicomreris CAMB. 62. Oligomeris glaucescens Cambess.—in Jacq. Voy. Bot. 23, t. ‘25. Locality.—Multan (Monro 247!): Lahore (Stewart 2519!); Hoshiarpur (Ait. 70!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 697 !). . FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 133 Flowers.—March-April. Distribution.—Westwards to Spain and the Canaries. India—Sind, and the Punjab, from the Jumna eastwards, common; rare in the Konkan hills. XII. VIOLACEAE. 37 NIOLAGL,. 63. Viola Patrinii DC. Prodr. I, 293. Locality.—-Peshawar, College (Quizilbash 34 !). Distribution.—Afghanistan, N. Asia, Japan, Middle Russia. India—temperate Himalaya, alt. 4-8,o00 ft. from Kashmir to Bhotan, Western Tibet, Khasia Hills, hills of the Western Peninsular, Ceylon. 64. Viola serpens Wall. in Roxb. Fl. Ind. ed. Wall. II 449 (not of Cat.) and in DC. Prodr. I, 296 Locality.x—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 541 !). Distribution.—Java, China. India—moist woods, ete., throughout temperate Himalaya, Khasia Hills, Pulney and Nilgiri Hills and Ceylon, alt. 5-7,000 ft. 65. Viola cinerea Boiss; FI. Orient I, 454. Locality.—-Rawalpindi (Ait. 30!). Distribution.—Afghanistan, Persia, Arabia. India—dry hilly regions of the Punjab and Sind, common. 66. Viola tricolor L. Localitykx—Rawalpindi (Ait. 331!); Lahore (Stewart 2822 !). Flowers.—April. Cultivated. A garden escape. Distribution.—Europe, Asia and N. America. XIV. BIXACEAE. 38. FrLacourtia Comm. 67. Flacourtia Ramontchi L’ Hérit Stirp. 59, t. 30, 31. Locality.—Kalesar, alt. 1,200 ft. (Lace :1!). Flowers.—March. Distribution.—Madagascar, the Eastern Archipelago. India—Common throughout, wild or cultivated. 68. Flacourtia Ramontchi L’ Hérit Stirp. 50, t. 30, 31. wan. sapinda HH. f. & T. Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 504!); Gurdaspur (Bisram 850!). Flowers.—May. } Distribution.—India—common in the western Ghats and elsewhere in_ the- Peninsula. 69. Flacourtia sepiaria Roxb. Cor. Pl. I, 48, t. 68. Locality.—Lahore—Gardens (Parker 6252 ye Flowers.—April. er: Distribution.—Java. India—dry jungles throughout Bengal, the Western Peninsula; Ceylon. 39. XYLOSMA FORST. 70. Xylosma longifolium Clos. in Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser.-4, VIII, 23. Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 597 !). - Distribution.—India—Western Himalaya on the outer ranges, ascending to 5,000 ft., from Kumaon to Murree; Assam: at Nowgang and Gowhatty: 134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII 40. AEE Ria HOCHST. 71. Aberia caffra Harv & Sond. Fl. Cat. II, 584. Locality.—Madhopur in Gurdaspur distritt G Parker 14862!, 14863 !). Flowers.—March. * A shrub 12 ft. high; dioecious. Distribution.—South Africa. XV. PITTOSPORACEAE. 41. Pittosporum BANKS. 72. Pittosporum floribundum W. & A. Prodr, 154. Locality.—Rawalpindi (6256!, 6258!); Bindaraban, Nurpur, Kangra Dis- trict (6257); “Kangra (212): = Flowervs.—-June-December. Distribution.—Tolerably common along the range of the ghats in the Bombay Presidency; subtropical Himalayas. 73. Pittosporum phillyraeoides DC. Prodr. I, 347. Locality.—Lahore—Gardens (Parker 11415 !). Flowers.—February. Distribution.—Australia. 74. Pittosporum Tobira Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. II, ii, 27. Locality.—\ahore—Gardens (Parker 12966 !). Flowers.—April. Distribution.—Japan ; China. 42. Citriopatus A. CUNN. 75. Citriobatus pauciflora A. Cunn. in Lond. Hort. Brit. Suppl. I, 585. Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38695 !). Flowers.—April. Distribution.—Australia. XVI. : POLYGALACEAE. 43.7" POLYGALA: “L. 76. Polygala abyssinica Fresen. in Mus. Senk. II 273. Locality.x—Rawalpindi, Barrakow to Tiete (Ait. 334 !). Flowers.—September e Distribution.—Afghanistan; Abyssinia to Natal. India—subtropical and temperate Himalayas, alt. 3-8,o00 ft., from Murree to Kumaon, Punjab- at Multan. ; 77. Polygala Hohenackeriana Fisch. & Mey. Ind. Sem. Hort. Petrop. IV 42. Locality.— Rawalpindi (Ait. 991 !). Flowers.-—July. as? ; Distribution.—Afghanistan ; Baluchistan; Persia; Caucasus. India—Western Punjab; Attock; Waziristan, ascending to "3, 500 ft. 78, Polygala erioptera DC. Prodr. I 326. Locality.—Maniniajra (Nanak 1275!); Hissar (1288!, 1287!); Ludhiana (1276!); Lahore (Stewart 2619 !). Flowers..—March-April. Distribution.—Kordofan; Baluchistan; Arabia; Tropical Asia and_ Africa. India—the Punjab; Sind; Rajputana; Bihar; the Western Peninsula; Ava; Burma. bs hiewsse FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 135 79. Polygala chinensis L. Locality.—Rawalpindi—Barrakow to Tiete (Ait. 333 !). Flowers.—September. ~ Distribution.—Tropical Asia, Australia and Ceylon. India—throughout, from the Punjab to Pegu, and in the Western Peninsula. XVII. CARYOPHYLLACEAE. 44. GypSsoPHILa L. 80. Gypsophila cerastioides Don Prodr. 213. Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum. 138!); Lahore (Stewart 2907 !). Flowers.—April. Distribution.—India—temperate Himalaya from Kashmir and Kunwar to Sikkim, Alt. 6-12,000 ft. 45. SApPonaria L, 81. Saponaria Vaccaria L. Lahore—Gardens (Parker 21032!; Stewart 2542!); Rawalpind: Locality. (ites 335 |) Flowers.—March. A weed of cultivation. Distribution.—In wheat fields throughout India. 46. SILENE L. 82. Silene conoidea L. Locality.—Peshawar—Gardens (* Quizilbash 53!); Lahore—(Stewart, 2918! ; Gdns-Parker 21029!, 21030 !); Hoshiarpur (* Ait. 57!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 336 a!) ;. Barrakow in Rawaipindi (336 b!); Peshawar (22 !). Flowers.—March-April. * On this specimen may be seen both forms conica L. & conoidea I.. Distribution.—Westwards to the Atlantic Ocean. India—Western Himalaya ; from Kumaon to the Indus, alt. 1-8,o00 ft., and from Oudh to the Punjab in the Plains. 83. Silene arenysa C. Koch in Linnaea XV, 711. (Quizilbash 30!); Rawalpindi—Hurror (Ait. 1021 !). Locality.—Peshawar Flowers.—-March. . Distribution.—Afghanistan ; Persia; Armenia. India—Western Punjab, com- mon at Peshawar, Attock. 84. Silene Falconeriana Benth. in Royle Ill. 79, t. 20. Locality.—Dalhousie (Duthie 136!). Distribution.—India—Western Himalaya, from Kumaon to Kunwar, alt, 3-9,000 ft. 47. STELLarIA L, 85. Stellaria media L. Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2544!); Changa Manga (* Parker 21714); Lahore- Nowoagarh (Stewart 2993!); Cachrah (Stewart 2914!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 337). * In most shady places. Completely covers the ground after good winter rain or cold weather irrigation. | Distribution.—Throughout the Punjab and temperate regions of India, ascend- ing in the Himalaya to 12,000 ft. Ceylon, all Arctic and N, temperate regions ; a doubtful native elsewhere. {6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII 48. ARENARIA L. 86. Arenaria serpyllifolia L. av Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 334 !). 49. SPERGULA L, 87. Spergula arvensis L. Locality.—Lahore—Gardens «(Parker 21704!); °Rawalpindi—Futtehganj (Ait. O22"). Flowers.—March-April. Distribution.—Cultivated fields in various cool parts a India; and through- out the Northern hemisphere. 88. Spergula pentandra I.. | ae Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2586! 2587!); Lyallpur (Inayat 27!); Hoshiarpur (Ant 57781). ° Flowers.—March. Distribution.—Cultivated fields in various cool parts of India; and through- out the Northern hemisphere. é 89. Spergula rubra L. Locality.—Lahore (* Stewart 2911!, 2588). Flowers.—March. * Named S. pentandra L,. in the Brandis collection. Distribution.—Europe. XVIII. PORTULACACEAE. 50.8 (PORTULACAS EL: 90. Portulaca oleracea Locality..- Rawalpindi (Ait. 339 !). Flowers.—July. Distribution.—Throughout Tinie ascending to 5,000 ft. in the Himalayas; adi: warm: climates. XIX. TAMARICACEAE. Sih sey to. ah 3 51. Tamarix L. Ql. Tamarix Troupii Hole in Indian Forester, 1919 XIV 248. Locality.—Montgomery—Chichwatni (Parker 20781!, 20778!, 20782!, 20783!, 20779!, 20787!); Hoshiarpur (Ait. 625!); Ludhiana (Duthie 10791 !). Flowers.—September-December. ee GAT: ea. India. 92. vamiatic dioica Roxb. Hort. Beng. 22. Locality.—Montgomery—Chichwatni (Parker 20513!, 20515!, 20518!, 20517!); Multan (Monro 36!; Duthie: 10792!);. Rawalpindi (Ait. 346!). Flowers.—September-December. Distribution.—India—from Rajputana, Sind and the Punjab to Assam, the SVE Peninsula and Burma, near rivers and on the Sea Coast. A 93. Tamarix articulata Vahl, Symb. II 48, t 32. Gligcatay, —Changa Manga (* Parker 21223 !); Lahore (Parker 6048! ; 38776 !); Rawalpinds (Ait. 341 !); Montgomery—Chichwatni (Parker 20522!; 20521 !). ff lowers.—August-October. a. * Small tree with nearly smooth bark. ‘FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 137 Distribution.—Baluchistan ; Algeria; S. Africa; Egypt; Arabia. India—very common, especially on Kalar soil throughout Sind, abundant in the Punjab. 94, Tamarix Parkeriana Hole. Vern. N. Phitlai. ee or ecaery Chichwan (Parker 20734!,'20777!, 20733 !,.20774!, 20731 !, 20735,!, 20736!, 20737!, 20776!, 20739!, 20740). Flowers.—September. XK. ELATINACEAE. Bei aia - §2. Bercia L. 95. Bergia aestivosa W. & A. Prodr. 41. Locality.—Lahore (* Parker 12971!); Multan (Monro 225 !). Flowers.—April; pink. * Branches lying flat on the SRS Distribution. —India—Punjab. XXI. HYPERICACEAE. 53. Hypericum L. 96. Hypericum cernuum Roxb. Hort. Beng. 59. Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum. 4827 !).. Distribution.—India—W. temperate Himalaya. 97. Hypericum patulum Thunb. Fl. Jap. 295 Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum. 4834!). Distribution..—Japan; Formosa. India—throughout temperate Himalaya; Khasia Hills. XXII. DIPTEROCARPACEAE. 54. SHOREA ROXB, 98. Shorea robusta Gaertn. f. Fruct. Lie 48, t. 186. Locality.—Hoshiarpur (* Ait. 539!). * Quite wild. Distribution.—Tropical Himalaya, and along its base from Assam to _ the Sutle}; Eastern districts of Central India, W. Bengal hills. XXIII. MALVACEAE. 55. ALTHAEA L. 99: Althaea rosea L. Cav. Diss. II, 91, t. 29. f. 3. Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2573 !). Distribution.—Orient. 56. SIDA LE. 100. Sida humilis Willd. Locality.—Jullandur (9727!); Gurdaspur (Drum. 4633 !). Flowers.—December. ; ‘Distribution.—Tropical Africa and America. Generally distributed through- out the hotter parts of India, hpi i38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII 101. Sida spinosa L. Locality.—Changa Manga (* Parker 15042 !). Flowers.—October. * Common; 2-3 occasionally 5 ft. high. Distribution.—Tropical and subtropical regions of both hemispheres. Hotter parts of India, from the N.-W. Provinces to Ceylon, Rajputana, Sind. 102. Sida grewioides Guill. & Perr. Fl. Seneg. I, 71. Locality.-Hoshiarpur (20698!); (Duthie 3876!); Pabbi Hills (Parker 24328 !). Flowers.—October-December. Distribution.—Baluchistan ; Arabia; Tropical Africa. India—N.-W. Provinces, Rajputana, Sind. 103, Sida rhombifolia L. Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 344!). Flowers.—September. | Distribution.—Tropics of both hemispheres. Widely distributed throughout India. ; 104. Sida cordifolia L. Locality.—Gurdaspur-Madhopur (Parker 14350!, 14351 !, 1,000 ft.); Jullandur (Parker 9726!). Flowers.—November-February. Distribution.—Generally distributed throughout tropical and subtropical India and both hemispheres. “ 7 . a hs 7 ak oe phase . 13 pa - = aes a - _ = 4 750 ; ead : a : ; 7 - - oe . : _ F ; 5 ; 7 : a es pexriEse eames Un BURMA’S DECREASING WILD LIFE 153 two rangers in the Sanctuary would be available for such protec- tion if it was really necessary. Also it is absurd that constant cultivation should be practised in a ‘sanctuary’. As my report on this area has appeared elsewhere (B.N.H.S’s Journal, 1939) it is unnecessary to enlarge further on its deficiencies as a sanctuary. Of the other sanctuaries, most of which are quite unimportant from the point of view of saving the fauna of the country, I will only comment on Mr. Moodie’s reference to the Mutayir SancTuaRy. He writes in The Field as follows:—‘It contains chiefly bison, serow and mouse deer.’ In the case of all of these sanctuaries to mention species particularly, one would be led to believe that they contained at least a fair and not easily exhaustible breeding stock of the animals for which they were set aside? Of this Sanctuary, the Mutayit, however, the Game Warden writes in his report for 1938:—‘The report of a subordinate, specially deputed to compile an estimate of the stock of wild animals here, is most disappointing. No traces of any big-game animals were seen. Wild dogs were the only animals encountered.’ SHAN STATES. Referring to these States the Game Warden’s report for 1938 says :—‘Legislation to provide protection would be almost value- less, considering the vast area of unclassed forest and the small number of Forest subordinates available.’ And again:—‘The Divisional Forest Officer, Northern Shan States, reports that jungle fowl appear to become scarcer every year,’ and he adds ‘it is not surprising in view of the energy with which local villagers hunt them down, wherever they are found, and so-called sportsmen cannot be said to be blameless in this matter. He might have truly said, further, that they are destroyed in and out of season equally relentlessly. In another place, referring to proposals for improvement of protective measures the Game Warden’s_ report says :—‘The Principal Forest Officer (Shan States) writes . . . one great stum- bling block will always exist, however, in the number of guns licensed as there seems to be no hope of their reduction to any- thing approaching reasonable numbers.’ Well might he complain for, incredible as it may seem, the official number of licences for guns issued in the Shan States alone, to say nothing of the rest of Burma, was over 27,000. Without the srongest protective measures, what chance has wild life of survival under such conditions ? In the 1936 report, the Game Warden wrote:—‘Throughout the Shan States a large number of offences against the Game Rules must be committed annually, but, with the very limited forest staff available, it is impossible to detect the majority of these offences,’ and, in another paragraph of the same report we find :--- ‘The Divisional Forest Officer, Moncamir Division, — reports that saing have been severely depleted by epidemic, especially in NAUHLIANG RESERVE. This is most unfortunate, as the NAUHLIANG RESERVE and the surrounding unclassed forests used to be well stocked with these animals.’ 154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII No mention of investigations as to cause or possible amelioration is made, but presumably that would be impossible without increased staff or the calling on Government veterinary officers or other skilled advice. After a recent tour in the Northern and Southern Shan States, covering in all upwards of 800 miles, the writer’s impression was that over a great portion of the whole area most of the larger fauna may be considered as practically extinct. There may be, however, extensive tracts more sparsely settled, where strict protective measures might still produce favourable results. If such measures are not instituted promptly, the first- mentioned condition will maintain over the whole area. A glance at the financial figures for the Shan States for 1934-5-6,—I have no figures for 1938—will make serious considera- tion of any protection in the region appear farcical. The revenue for 1934-5 from wild life was Rs. 832 and in 1935-6 was: Rs. 710, while for the same respective periods the expenditure was Rs. 70 and Rs. 25, the equivalent of £5-3-0 and £2-0-0. It might be of interest to know on what these sums were expended. Many more instances of the admittedly unsatisfactory state of Wild Life Protection in Burma generally might be quoted, were it necessary; but a summary of the specific causes of such unsatis- factory conditions with a few notes thereon will suffice. INSUFFICIENT PROVISION OF FUNDS. This is the primary cause and the one that must be remedied before any further reforms need be considered. Although destructive criticism may correctly analyse and call attention to ills it may not be very useful unless practical remedial suggestions are also given. In Burma’s case it may be thought that it is too late. That is a defeatist policy and not one to which I can subscribe. With regard to some of the fauna, determined and drastic measures may be necessary. Notably amongst species possibly doomed to early extinction in Burma is the Rhinoceros, followed by the Thamin deer. In the latter case the quick and efficient develop- ment and administration of the sanctuaries now proposed for its survival may save it as a species. Outside these areas it will not last long under present conditions. In some districts where they formeriy existed large bovines, bison and saing, are already extinct; in other districts they are fast becoming so; while in the Pidaung Reserve it is refreshing to note that so long as it 1s maintained as at present, including its necessary extensions, these two species should flourish there. It is curious to note that the one species naturally maintaining its existence in Burma is the very one that is now threatened by official slaughter at the hands of those selected to support its preservation. I refer of course to the Elephant and ‘Elephant Control’. [I hope to have more to say on this question elsewhere. Now I think that I can indicate where funds should come from and logically show how and why certain revenues should be allocated for the work of conservation. BURMA’S DECREASING WILD LIFE 155 In the summarized extracts of the Game Warden’s Reports for 1938, now before me, no figures of revenue and expenditure are available, but for comparison I have used the figures for 1935 and 1936. They are enlightening, though insufficient in detail. Under Wild Life Protection the figures are as follows :-—— 1935 1936 INS: Rs. Revenue ee a 38,189 Ba0 750 Expenditure nae om 3,445 10,350 In the last figure for expenditure the ‘Elephant Control’ figures are not inciuded, while the sum of Rs. 1,211 is not included in the revenue, the proceeds from fines. But the most important omission is the revenue from licences and import duties on sporting arms and ammunition, which the Game Warden roughly estimates as another lakh of rupees. (Rs. 100,000). It is not stated whether fees for export permits on trophies and wild life specimens are included but with a properly organized Game Department there is little doubt that on the present figures an approximate revenue from Wild Life Resources would amount to perhaps Rs. 150,000, which should be made available for conservation. From what I have written above it must be obvious that without reforms and funds it is a matter of time only when no further expenditure on Wild Life Protection will be required—there will be nothing to protect. Judging by the past, the period before we reach that condition will be short indeed, but before reaching it the revenue from wild life resources will also have disappeared. These implications are simple but will they be believed? The first question to be asked is:—Would a properly organized and independent department, with sufficient funds at its disposal, be able to save the majority of species holding their own and possibly resuscitate others now in danger? I think so, if present conditions are not allowed to drag on, and reforms completed within a couple of years at the most, though a few changes should be made immediately. Outside the sanctuaries matters are in a critical state; inside them, bar the Pidaung Reserve, most unsatisfactory. If the Gov- ernment of Burma are not satisfied that conditions are as represented above, then let them appoint an expert, but completely independent commission to inquire into the whole subject. Official findings, however disinterested, will never secure the complete confidence of the outside world. Let the work of inquiry be as competent and thorough as was that of the Wild Life Commission in Malaya, but for the sake of Wild Life Conservation, and for the reputation of the Burma Government, do not let the recommendations be ignored and wasted as were those in Malaya. The above facts summarized are as follows :— (a) There is an annual income from Wild Life Resources now being collected in Burma amounting to between Rs. 100,000 and 150,000, 156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAE “HIST: SOCTETY, Vol. XL (b) This income is derived solely through the existence of Wild Life. (c) Wild Life is diminishing rapidly. Long before it is actu- ally finished the greater part of the income from these resources will cease. (d) The Wild Life, .or a considerable portion of it, it is thought, if adequate measures are taken now, can be saved, and the income maintained. To do this the greater part of the income must be expended for the purpose to which it obvidusly belongs. This principle is well recognized in countries that have looked the question in the face and successfully tackled it. The reasons why the Burma Government has not done so must be put down to ignorance, disbelief or apathy, and the greatest of these is apathy. AN UNSCIENTIFIC AND COMPROMISING SYSTEM FORMING THE PRESENT MACHINERY FOR THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE GAME LAWS AND OTHER MEASURES FOR WILD LIFE PROTECTION. This heading refers to the fact that the administration at present is entirely under the Forest Department. This antiquated system is a relic of the Government of India’s jurisdiction over Burma during which the greater part of the wild life of both India and Burma has disappeared, and though this, perhaps, may be partly due to parsimony, until quite recently it was due to indifference to and lack of knowledge by the Forest Department of that branch of its work. One of the chief reasons for the employment of the Forest Department for the protection of wild life was economy and, judg- ing by results, a false economy; if we are to agree that the same serious considerations are to be given to this national possession as to others more definitely commercial. The work of the Forest Department is essentially utilitarian and commercial. Where its immediate objects may conflict with the principles and practice of wild life protection, and they may so conflict in a number of cases, the interests of the former would prevail. The use of the Forest Department is a makeshift, and its personnel, per se, is little if any better fitted for the duties of wild life protection than are members of a number of other depart- ments. In practice a number of Forest Officers are shooting men, but that in itself is not necessarily a qualification. It may be, I regret to say, and in some instances I have known it was, a detri- ment. Many Forest Officers have not, as might well be expected, any interest either in destruction or preservation of wild life. Such men may be, and upon occasions are, in charge of critical areas, in which are situated sanctuaries requiring special attention. Their attitude would naturally be one of indifference. To such men a voluntary policy of vigorous apprehension or prosecution of offenders could hardly be expected, even if they were allowed to spénd their time on such duties. BURMA’S DECREASING WILD LIFE 157 On principle I think that the term ‘whole-time’ Game Warden a misnomer, when applied to Forest Officers transferred temporarily to this position. I believe I am correct in saying that since the first Game Warden was seconded from that service some eleven years ago, there have been four incumbents, but for four years of that time there was no official Game Warden at all. One of these officers has acted in that position in an honorary capacity in addi- tion to his official duties. The position is not altogether independent, and is not looked upon either as a career or as a permanent occupation. When pro- motion comes, and perhaps before, for one reason or another, the Game Warden reverts to his position as Conservator or what- ever it may be in the Forest. Department. If on leave another Forest Officer is temporarily appointed as Game Warden, but whether in addition to his other duties or not, I do not know. During his tenure of office a Game Warden has not control of other officers of his department who are supposed to be assisting him in duties. They are under their own departmental chiefs and naturally their routine forest duties have first call on their time. The Game Warden cannot give them orders at all. The Chief Conservator of Forests is Head of the Department administrating preservation of wild life; but he has not reached the position of Chief Conservator through any special qualifications for that branch of his department’s work and might not, in fact, have the slightest interest in or knowledge of the subject. It is he, however, who is responsible, and who has to deal with the appropriate Ministry—a most important function. The Art of Conservation of Wild Life cannot be picked up in one’s spare time. There can hardly be two opinions but that the Wild Life Pro- tection Departments of countries of the Empire, like India, Burma and Malaya, should be entirely divorced and separated from any other department, and while in every way gratefully accepting co- operation and assistance, a completely independent department must be responsible for the work of Conservation. The Director of such a department should be a man of suitable age and selected for his technical ability for, and experience in, practical wild life eonservation, as well as his disinterested keen- ness in the work. In Burma, it is probable that such a man might be available from the Forest Department Service, could he be transferred from that department. But a separate department must be formed if success is to be obtained. We have sufficient proof of the failure of the present system. SHORTAGE IN THE NUMBER OF GAME WARDENS, GAME RANGERS, WATCHERS, GUARDIANS, ETC. At present there is only one Game Warden and whether he is ‘whole-time’ or not, it is physically impossible for him to. properly visit or supervise his vast area in the six months season of the ‘cold weather’ during which time it is customary, and in some cases only possible, to travel in Burma. It is a vast territory of forests, jungles, rivers, swamps and 158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII mountains, sparsely traversed by roads or railways; and travelling off the beaten track is slow and arduous. The area under the Game Warden, which contains some six sanctuaries, stretches north and south a thousand miles from above Myitkyina to Victoria Point, and from the China Border on the east to the Bay of Bengal and Assam on the west. The Game Warden writes :—‘In almost every Forest Division the Divisional Forest Officer admits that sufficient attention to wild life preservation cannot be given by the existing staff.’ He further points out that during the year, while some 15,000 licences for sporting fire-arms were taken out, exclusive of the Shan States, only 721 of these licensees took out game licences. The inference is obvious. Further he writes:—‘When it is realized that there are 31,300 square miles of Reserved Forests to which all of the Game Laws apply, and g2,o00 square miles of Unclassed Forests to which many of the Game laws apply, the difficulty of controlling the activity of poachers with a limited staff can be appreciated.’ The Conservator of Forests in Sittang Circle who was the first Game Warden, and who afterwards acted in an honorary capacity, is quoted by the present Game Warden, in the 1938 report, as follows :— Referring to South Toungoo and Pegu Divisions: ‘In both these Divisions during the hot weather all the available staff is moved from the hill forests down to the plains in order to cope with the annually increasing amount of (forest) work... . the area in both these Divisions. where game is most plentiful, or rather least scarce, are therefore left almost entirely unprotected during he period of the year in which protection is most needed.’ At the very minimum an additional two or three Game Wardens are urgently needed, whose duties should be in the field and not in an office, and who should be almost constantly touring the areas allotted to them. Although co-operation should maintain, as at present, with Forest Officers and subordinates in the field, a very much larger staff of permanently employed game rangers and other natives should be employed, and these should be under constant supervision of the Game Wardens. Watchers and others, who would be sources of information, in towns and _ villages, markets and fairs, should be regularly employed, and the police should be instructed to co-operate with them. Honorary Game Wardens should be appointed wherever keen men could be induced to act, more especially in the game bird districts, where their assistance should prove invaluable. There. are, [feel sure from omy Own experience, many ‘goed sportsmen who would willingly act in this capacity. This branch of the conservation service is of great use in East Africa and it also was used in Malaya. LAcK OF COMPREHENSIVE, CONSISTENT AND PRACTICAL Laws TO EMBRACE THE CONSERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN ALES) EHASES: A law which would ensure facile provision for prompt legal apprehension, prosecution and punishment of all offenders against BURMA’S DECREASING WILD LIFE 159 its provisions giving, at the same time, wide powers to the Game Warden to enable him to carry out his work without irksome and time-wasting references, would go a long way to solve the pro- blem which confronts wise conservation of wild life in Burma. No such law is on the statute book in Burma today. Protection of Wild Life was embodied in the Forest Department Act, in the Burma Game Rules published under that Act, and in the Wild Birds and Animals Potection Act. An attempt was made to better these provisions, and nearly three years ago a new act was drafted and called the ‘Burma Wild Life Protection Bill, 1936.’ At that time Burma was a Province of India, but before the draft with its rules was finally finished the inauguration of the new Burma Government became imminent. This dratt was a move in the right direction and its promoters deserve considerable credit for what they achieved. It does not, however, fulfil the requirements of a complete law on the subject. Besides being inadequate it is in some respects inconsistent, and in one ludicrous. ‘he provisions regarding rhinoceros prohibit the killing of the animal. In another clause, however, its blood may be legally sold by native medicine men and others though there is no special provision for killing it or importing it for this or any other purpose, except that there is one clause allowing the animal to be killed in protection of crops. In fairness I should say that it was reliably stated to me that the reason it was submitted in this form was the urgency of getting it approved before the new and independent Legislature ‘took office, as if not already approved the act might have been indefinitely delayed or not passed at all. While I leave the reader to judge the value of this excuse, | would point out that the Rules for the Act had not been passed up to March 1938. So the Game Rules of 1927 are still being followed where they do not conflict with the provisions of the new Act. THE INORDINATE ISSUE OF GUN LICENCES FOR ALL SORTS OF UNNECESSARY REASONS. Although’ the country is not at war there are over forty thousand licences issued for guns! For what purpose? These guns are not given to the police or to the armed forces, but to ordinary citizens. Such conditions are unknown elsewhere in the Empire. The populace should be disarmed and fire-arms only issued with the strictest supervision, and only for bona fide sporting purposes, and in conjunction with game _ licences, issued and renewable annually by the Game Warden alone. 1 Written before outbreak of war. i160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIii THE COLLECTION, SALE AND Export oF WILD ANIMALS FOR COMMERCIAL PURPOSES. This nefarious practice goes on, I believe, to a far greater extent than is perhaps supposed, and often upon the false plea that the animals are collected for scientific purposes. No animal should be captured or exported, except by special permit signed by the Game Warden himself, after the strictest inquiries as to the pur- pose. Co-operation of the police at all ports and elsewhere, to prevent the harbouring of wild animals or birds without permit, should be freely given, as also the good offices of the Customs Department to prevent illegal export. The lack of control is re- ferred to in the Game Warden’s Report for 1938. His Majesty’s Government has, I believe, on a number of occasions, through various Ministers, and through at least one ‘Prime Minister, clearly enunciated that preservation of the wild fauna of the Empire was a policy that had its firmest support. If, therefore, the suggestions I have made above fail with the Burma Government and with the Governor, then in that last resort persistent appeal must be carried to London. But through what organized channel is this appeal to be made? That is the difficulty. In my view, though it is a depressing admission, until public opinion becomes sufficiently interested in the subject, none exists to-day that has practical influence. *% Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE @ Sayeedud-Din—Allmania nodiflora R.Br. (Nat. Size). For explanation see end of article. SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON THEIR ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS. BY M. SAYEEDUD-DIN, Prof. of Botany, Osmania University, Hyderabad Deccan. (With two plates). (Continued from page 798 of volume xli, No. 4). V.—ALLMANIA NODIFLORA R. Br. (AMARANTACEAE). SYNONYMY AND SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION. Allmania nodiflora R. Br. (var, aspera Hook.) in Wall. Cat. esgosvexch By Hy F.' 8B: 1., 1V,..716; Gamble F. M; Pr,, Pt. VII, 1167-1168; Syn:—Chamissoa aspera, Wt. Ic.. t. 1772; Celosia aspera Roth Nov. Sp. 173. An annual, diffusely dichotomously branched, sparsely hispidly hairy herb with stout root-stock. Leaves alternate, lanceolate. Flowers in large axillary and terminal globose brownish orange heads which consist of small dichasia, in each of which there are 3 flowers, the centre one sessile with 1 bracteole, the side ones pedicellate with 1 bract and 2 bracteoles; bracts and bracteoles narrow, scarious, hispid, with filiform tips. Perianth. calycine, of 5 almost free lanceolate acuminate lobes. Stamens 5, filaments united in a membranous hypogynous cup, anthers 2-celled, opening by means of slits; pollen irregularly spherical and blackish when dry, round and brownish black when moistened. Ovary ovoid; ovule erect; style slender; stigma 2-lobed. Fruit an ovoid mem- branous utricle, circumscissly dehiscent. Seed erect, subglobose, in a cupular aril. (Plate I, & Pl. II, Fig. 4). Flowers practically throughout the year. HABITAT. Corn-fields, Coimbatore and Mysore (Hooker, 3); Deccan Districts, west to the FE. slopes of the Ghats, less common in Circars. or Carnatic, in fields (Gamble, 2); a common weed. in Hyderabad Deccan, very variable (Sayeedud-Din, 7); Deccan: Purandhar Fort, Bhiva, (Cooke, 1). Distrib. China, Malay Islands. 11 i62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII ANATOMICAL NOTES. Structure of the Leaf (Plate II, Fig. 3). Stomata are found on both sides of the leaf. They are surrounded by ordinary epidermal cells. The mesophyll is differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue. Epidermal cells are rather large. Oxalate of lime is present in the form of large clustered crystals in the mesopbyll, and in that of crystal-sand in the stem, as in Pupalia lappacea Mog. (Sabnis, 6). Mullan (5) has observed aggregate crystals and coarse granules in Celosia argentea L. The hairy covering (Plate IH, Figs. 1-3) consists of ordinary cloth- ing uniseriate trichomes both on the stem as well as on the leaves. Those on the stem are longer and in some cases provided with small protuberances in the upper portion. The hairs on the leaf form a fine tomentum. Capitate hairs with a unicellular or uniseriate stalk and unicellular spherical or ellipsoidal head, mentioned by Solereder (8) as having been observed by Nemnich in species of Allmania have not been seen. Structure of the Stem. The herbaceous stem possesses stomata. They are not provided with anv special subsidiary cells. No anomaly is found in the structure. The epidermis in the region of the ridges consists of small tabular cells with outer and inner walls slightly thickened and convexly arched outwards and inwards respectively. In the primary cortex chlorenchymatous cells occur | with the collenchymatous groups at the angles. Stone-cells are found in the pericycle. There is an extensive pith composed of large thin-walled parenchymatous cells. CONCLUSIONS. The main anatomical characters revealed by the study of Allmania nodiflora R. Br. are: (i) stomata are surrounded by Ordinary epidermal cells, and do not possess any special subsidiary cells; (2) oxalate of lime is present in the form of clustered crystals in the leaf, and in that of crystal-sand in the stem; (3) hairy cover- ing consists of ordinary clothing uniseriate trichomes; (4) glandular hairs are absent. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. As before the photograph and the drawings were prepared by Mr. Sri Ramloo under my supervision, for which I am thankful to him. My thanks are also due to Mr. M. Moinuddin for the pre- paration of several slides. , LITERATURE CONSULTED. 1.. Cook, T.—The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, vol. ii, Pt. iii, p. 487 (1906). 2. Gamble, J. S.—Flora of the Presidency of Madras, Pt. vii, pp. 1167-1168 (1925). 3. Hooker, J. D.-—The Flora of British India, vol. iv, pp. 716-717 (1885). Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE If Sayeedud-Din—Allmania nodiflora R. Br. For explanation see end of article. SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS 163 4. Mayuranathan, P. V.—The Flowering Plants of Madras City and _ its immediate Neighbourhood, p. 242 (1929). 5- Mullan, D. P.—‘Observations on the Biology and Physiological Anatomy of some Indian Halophytes.’ J.I.B.S., vol. xii, Nos. 3 & 4, pp. 235-253 (1933). 6. Sabnis, T. S.— The Physiological Anatomy of the Plants of the Indian Desert.’ -J.1.B.S., vol. ti, Nos. 4 & 5, pp. 103-106 (1921). \ 7. Sayeedud-Din, M.—*‘A Further Contribution to some of the Common Flowering Plants of the Hyderabad State; their distribution and economic im- portance’. Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc:, vol. xl, No. 2, p. 208 (1938). 8. Solereder, H.—Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. Engl. Ed., vol. ii, pp. 651-655 (1908). 9. Wight, R.—Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis, p. 1772. (1838-53). EXPLANATION OF PLaTEs I & II. Allmania nodiflora R. Br. PuaTe I. Fig. 1.—Black and white sketch of Allmania nodiflora R. Br. (Nat. size). Fig. 2.—A dichasium, showing three flowers. (X10). Fig. 3.—A single flower with the calycine perianth opened out to show the parts (X10). Figs. 4 & 5.—Two views of the stamens, showing in (4) the lateral slits in | the anthers for shedding of pollen. (xX 10). Fig. 6.—Pollen grain in dry condition. (xX 10). Fig. 7.—Pollen grain in moist condition. (x 10). Fig. 8.—Pistil, showing the circumsciss dehiscence of the future fruit. (x15). Prate II. Fig. 1.--Uniseriate clothing hair on stem. (X 420). Fig. 2.—Stem-epidermis, showing stomata, an ordinary trichome ahd crystal- sand. (xX 420). Leaf-epidermis, showing stomata, trichome and_ clustered crystals. ( X 420). Fig. 4.—Photograph of Allmania nodiflora Rk. Br. igs. (To be continued). THE DEATH-EXPEDITION OF HIBISCUS CATERPILLARS (larvae of Crocallis sp.) BY G. C. BHATTACHARYA, Bose Research Institute, Calcutta. (With a plate). The migratory instinct in lower animals often appears to be very peculiar and exceedingly interesting. The migration of the little rodent lemmings offers an excellent example. These little animals colonize a hill-side and multiply at an amazing rate, so much so, that when, owing to insufficiency of food supply, starva- tion becomes inevitable all the inmates of the colony, millions and millions strong, rush head-long from their dwelling place. Nothing can stop or divert this impetuous flow. Thousands and thousands of them die of starvation or of injuries, many more are devoured by predaceous birds or other enemies but still the stampede con- tinues relentlessly until the sea is reached, where this instinct still impels them to press forward to some promised land which they never reach. This instinct of the rodents of a breakneck migratory movement, heedless of the goal, is extraordinary indeed, but the instinct evinced by the larvae or caterpillars of the moth, ‘Crocallis. sp., which occupies a far more backward position in the process of biological evolution, in their reckless mode of migration is still more wonder- ful and thought provoking. ihe moth, Crocallis sp., lays her eggs on the leaves of Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis, Artabotrys odoratissima and some other plants. The young larvae or caterpillars about 4 to 5 mm. in length, hatch out after ten or fifteen days and assemble under the surface of the leaves where they scrape off all the chlorophyll bodies leaving the thin films of cellulose. ‘After a few days, growing larger, they devour the whole of the leaf and move over to a neighbouring one. Thus within a short period all the leaves of the plant are eaten up and the caterpillars begin to migrate to a new place for food and shelter. ; Once early in May, I happened to notice such a migration of Hibiscus caterpillars (larvae of Crocallis sp.). 1 was standing near a cemented platform, built over a cemented floor at the corner of an extensive lawn, observing the leaf movements of a sensitive mimosa plant (Mimosa pudica), when at the far end of the floor a procession of greenish white caterpillars, numbering about sixteen individuals, crawled forward in single file over the lawn towards the platform. The order and regularity of their movement speci- ally attracted my attention. The procession hurriedly approached ‘yuejd poqjod 9y4 SspieMmojy ouTy e UT suTyoIeUM ore sreypidiaze9 oy y, ‘10d 943 JO WII Ie[NdI1O 34 AuUOCTe SUIAOU Uses o1e sie|[Idieyeg oy, iascsassristbiiodien ‘90S ‘LSIH “LYN AVEnNog ‘Nanor THE DEATH EXPEDITION OF HIBISCUS CATERPILLARS — 165 the raised platform, but finding its vertical wall too smooth to scale, changed its course towards the grassy lawn. Progressing a few feet onwards along the base of the platform, the caterpillars turned back towards the cemented floor. It was apparent from their movements that they had scented the leaves of the mimosa and were searching for a way to get at them. At last they descended to the cemented floor and now marched quickly towards the corner of the platform where the mimosa plant grew in its earthen pot. Closely following one another, the caterpillars went round the base of the platform and now, finding a suitably rough surface, climbed the vertical wall and made straight for the plant. On reaching it they dispersed and raising their heads began to smell about. After a short while they fell into line and climbed the pot, eager for their meal on the leaves of the plant. The file of caterpillars attaining the circular rim of the pot, now commenc- ed—extraordinary to relate-——-what was going to be for them a con- tinuous and interminable journey round and round the rim. The surface of the soil in the pot was somewhat below the rim necessitat- ing a descent. While the close proximity of meal inspired them to brisker and brisker movement, the caterpillars did not take the one way which would have led them directly to the plant. They did not descend from the rim of the pot, blindly following the circular rim they were deceived into a vain and endless march. The circumference of the rim proved too small for the whole length of the caterpillar chain. They had to squeeze themselves in for accommodation and every individual looked very much shorter in length than it did in the open space. Incessantly they marched round the rim of the pot throughout the day without a halt or rest, and their journey never came to an end. Very carefully I removed the pot to my bedroom and watched the movement of the caterpillars every now and then during the night. As a rule, the larvae of moths refrain from eating after sunset and rest quietly until next morning, but these larvae marched through the night and carried on their unprofitable journey.? Through the next day, the march continued, but a slight slowing down was noticeable in the movement. On the third day, the Weariness was more apparent. The inability of two or three indi- viduals to keep pace with the others hampered the regular progress. At about tr o’clock in the morning, one of the stragglers fell out of the line in a comatose state and expired after half an hour or so. Three hours later, another caterpillar dropped out and died. Now the death of the two individuals gave the others space to stretch out their bodies a little, so that no gap was to be seen in the file even in the absence of two members. The caterpillars were moving as usual head to tail, but their progress was very much slower than before. More deaths occurred on the fourth day, while the survivors seemed to be totally exhausted. They moved reluctantly and halted at intervals. On the afternoon of the fifth ——— 1 Fabre described the processionary habits of tent caterpillars of the apple tree who kept following the line all day long but slept when night overtook them and resumed their journey with the morrow’s sun. 166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII day, some of the caterpillars dropped out of the regular line and took to crawling aimlessly over the pot but they never left it, for the smell of the green leaves was a constant and uncon- querable source of attraction. So after a few hours of fruitless straying those which did not succumb came back to the rim of the pot and resumed the weary march. The length of the chain was now greatly reduced owing to the death of several individuals and a gap was formed between the head and tail of the moving chain. On the morning of the sixth day most of the caterpillars were found lying dead on the platform or on the soil of the pot. The three that were still surviving and sticking to the rim were in a precarious condition and died soon after. Lured by the scent of food, and urged by the instinct to march relentlessly towards it, all of them ultimately embraced death but did not give up their pursuit for a moment. Later it was observed that the leaves of Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis planted beyond the wide lawn were infested with the caterpillars of Crocallis sp. These caterpillars, voracious eaters as they are, had eaten up almost all the green leaves of those plants, and scarcity of food there had compelled them to migrate elsewhere for food and shelter. On several occasions after the incident noted above I was able to persuade different processions of these caterpillars to climb to the rims of circular vessels and in everyone of these experiments, the results were the same as in my first observation. If during migration, water intercepts the path of their progress, the leading member by raising up its head looks around and, finding other means to avoid the obstacle changes its course, the rest of the party following in a regular line. When no alternative is available but to go through the water, they enter it, but reluctanily and as a last resort. As the film on the surface of water does not break under the weight of their bodies, the cater- pillars float on it like bits of cork. Like a flock of sheep un- hesitatingly following their leader, the caterpillars also follow the foremost member across the surface of water, some wriggling their bodies sideways try to proceed in a zig-zag manner. Unaccustomed to swimming, most of them by indiscriminate wriggling of’ bodies are led out of line. Those who are fortunate enough to cross the water assemble again in a line and resume their journey. THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FLAXWORTS OF INDIA, BY oR CAWSRSs. 5 Fi .S: The LinaceE® are herbs, shrubs or trees, broadly distributed, especially in the northern hemisphere. They consist of g genera with 150 species. The medicinal and poisonous Flaxworts of the world belong to 5 genera: Huconia (Tropics); IXONANTHES (tropical Asia); Linum (temperate and _ subtropical regions, especially Mediter- ranean); REINDWARTIA (North India, China); ROoUCHERIA (Guiana). Ixonanthes cochinchinensis Pierre, which is used medicinally in Annam, is not found in India. A. Petals contorted, fugacious. Perfect stamens as many as the petals. Herbs rarely shrubs I. Calyx glabrous or pubescent. Styles 5. Capsule 5-celled see “ie LINUM. II. Calyx glabrous. Styles 3-4. Capsule 3-4-celled .,.. REINWARDTIA, B. Petals contorted, fugacious. Perfect stamens 2-3-times as many as the petals. Fruit a drupe. Usually scandent shrubs I. Sepals subacute, tomentose, ebracteolate ... HUGONIA. II. Sepals obtuse, bracteolate Bd ... ROUCHERIA. HuGONIA. The genus consists of 11 species, inhabiting the Tropics of the Old World. AH. Planchonit Hook. f. is used medicinally in Liberia and Sierra Leone, H. serrata Lam. in La Reunion. Hugonia Mystax Linn. is found in the Konkan and North Kanara of the Bombay Presidency, throughout the dry forests of the Madras Presidency, and in Ceylon. The bruised roots are employed externally in reducing inflam- matory swellings, and as an antidote to snake-bites. In the form of a powder, it is administered internally as an anthelmintic and febrifuge. The bark of the root is also employed as an antidote to poisons. Mhaskar and Caius have shown experimentally that the root is not an antidote to snake venom. Canarese : Modirakkanni—; English: Climbing Flax—; Malayalam : Modera- kkanni, Motirakkanni—; Sinhalese: Bugatteya, Mahagetiya—; Tamil: Agori, Kodivirai, Modirakkanni—; Telugu: Gatrinta, Kakibira, Penkebedali, Pisangi, Renangi, Tivvaputiki, Ungaralapidemu, Vendapa— ; Tulu; Mullankola—; Uriya: Chulijinka—, 168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURATP GIST] SS CCIET Yo Vols ew LINUM. The genus numbers go species, inhabiting the temperate and subtropical regions of the world, but especially Mediterranean. The seeds are oleaginous, emollient, and sometimes purgative. Glucosides—linamarin, phaseolunatin—are among the products isolated. Linin, a peculiar drastic principle has been obtained from L. catharticum Linn. The following are used medicinally in Europe—L. alpinum Linn., TL. angustifolium Huds., L. austriacum Linn., L. catharticum Linn., L. gallicum Linn., L. flavum Linn., L. hirsutum Linn. L. mane timum Linn., L. narbonense Linn., L. nodiflorum Linn., L. perenne Linn., UL. strictum Linn., L. suffruticosum Winm., EL tenwjohunm Linn., L. usitatissimum Linn., L. viscosum Linn.—; in China— L.° perenne Linn.—; in North America— L. catharticum Linn., L. usitatisstrmum Linn.—; in Brazil—L. usitatissimum Linn.— in Uruguay—L. selaginoides Lam.—; in Chili—L. Chamissonis Schiede, L. Macraei Benth., L. selaginoides Lam.—; in South Africa LL. Thunbergiit: Eckl. and Zeyh.—; in Mauritius—. L. usitatissimum Linn.—. A. Petals blue I. Capsule scarcely exceeding the narrowly’ white- margined sepals... E as .. L. usitatissimum. / {I. Capsule much longer than the white-margined sepals an L. perenne. B. Petals yellow me Bee ws soe bas USEYECTUAD. 1. Linum perenne Linn. is fourd in the North-Western Himalaya, extending westwards to the Canaries. In Europe and in China the seeds are used as an emollient. Country people, in England, boil the fresh herb and take it for rheumatic pains, colds, cough and dropsy. Chinese: Ya Ma—; English: Perennial Flax—-; French: Lin de Sibérie—. 2. Linum strictum Linn. occurs in the Punjab and the North- Western Himalaya, from Soongaria to the Mediterranean. The seeds are used as an emollient in Spain. Arabic: Farq, Kittan, Zir—; Punjab: Bab-basant, Basant—. 3. Linum usitatissimum Linn. is cultivated throughout India up to 6,000 feet. The bark and the leaves are useful in gonorrhoea. The bark when burnt and applied to wounds stops the bleeding and promotes the healing process. The flowers are considered a nervine and cardiac tonic. The roasted seeds are said to be astringent. Fumigation with the smoke is recommended for colds in the head and hysteria, and the tinder is used to staunch haemorrhages. Linseed poultice is recommended for gouty and rheumatic swellings; as an emollient, the mucilage is dropped into the eye; with honey it is prescribed in coughs and colds, ; THE MEDICINAL AND .POISONOUS FLAXWORTS OF INDIA 169 The seeds are used internally for gonorrhoea and irritation of the genito-urinary system. The decoction is used _ extensively. Occasionally the seeds are powdered and taken with sugar. In Iraq local druggists recommend linseed poultice for chest troubles. An infusion of the seeds has long been given in Europe for soothing a sore chest or throat in severe catarrh or pulmonary complaints. As a domestic remedy for colds, coughs, and irritation of the urinary organs, linseed tea is most valuable. A little honey and lemon juice makes it very agreeable and more efficacious. It is taken in wineglassful doses, which may be repeated ad libitum. The crushed seeds, or linseed meal, make a very useful poultice, either alone or with mustard. In ulceration dnd superficial or deep-seated inflammation a linseed poultice allays irritation and pain and promotes suppuration. It is commonly used for boils, abscesses and other local affections. Tumours of a simple nature, and sprains, may be usefully rubbed with linseed oil. The oil forms, when mixed with lime water or with spirit of turpentine, a capital external application to recent burns or scalds. Internally, the oil is sometimes given as a laxative; in cases of gravel and stone it is excellent, and has been administered in pleurisy with great success. It may also be used as an injection in constipation. Mixed with honey, linseed oil has been used as a cosmetic for removing spots from the face. The oil enters into veterinary pharmacy as a purgative for sheep and horses, and a jelly formed by boiling the seeds is often given to calves. Linseed has occasionally been employed as human food; but it affords little actual nourishment and is apparently unwholesome, being difficult of digestion and provoking flatulence. It has been mixed with corn for making bread, but it proved indigestible and hurtful to the stomach, and even was responsible for the death of many. There is in England an Act of. Parliament still in force which forbids the steeping of flax in rivers, or any waters which cattle are accustomed to drink, as it is found to communicate a poison destructive to cattle, and to the fish inhabiting such waters: Cattle poisoning by linseed flowers is fairly common in Bengal and Bihar. The linseed flowers and the immature seeds contain the maximum amount of a cyanogenetic glucoside producing as much as 0.69 per cent of free hydrocvanic acid. About half a pound of flowers is sufficient to kill a bullock. The seeds of L. usitatissimum Linn. and the oil from them are officinal in all pharmacopoeias, except that of Mexico. Amam: Ho ma—; Arabic: Bazar-ul-katan, Bazr-ut-kattan, Kattan—; Behar: Chikna, Tisi—; Bengal: Masina, Mosina, Musni, Tisi—; Bombay: Alasi, Javas, Javasa—; Brazil: Linho—; Bundelkhand: Bijri—; Canarese: Agashi, Alashi, Alsi—; Catalan: Lli—; Celtic: Lin—; Chinese: Hou Ma—; Danish: Hoer—; Deccan: Alshi, Javas—:; Dutch: Vlas—; Egypt: Kittan—; English: Common Flax, Flax, Linseed, Lint, Lyne—; Finland: Lin, Pellavan—; Formosa: Hu-ma—; French: Lin, Lin chaud, Lin. commun, Lin cultivé— ; 170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST: SOCIEDY> Volx iii German: Flachs, Haarlinsen, Lein, Saatlein—; Greek: Linon—; Gujerat: Alshi, Alsi—; Hamadan: Basarak—; Hebrew: Bad—; Hindi: Alsi, Tisi—; Hungarian: Len—; Iraq: Kittan—; Italian: Lino—; Kashghar: Zighir—; Kashmir: Alish, Keun—; Kolami: Unshi—; Konkani: Sonnbium—; Kumaon: Alsi, Tisi—; Kurdish: Gosh—,; Loralai: Alsi—; Madagascar: Rongonimbazaha —; Malayalam: Cheruchanavittintevilta—; Marathi: Alashi, Javas, Javasa—; North-Western Provinces: Bijri—; Norwegian: Lin—j; Persian: Basarak katun, Bazarug, Bazr-ul-katan, Tulkhm-e-katan, Zaghir, Zaghu—; Polish: Len—; Porebunder: Alasi, Javas—; Portuguese: Linhaca, Linho—; Punjab: Alish, Alsi, Tisi—; Roumanian: In—; Russian: Len, Lyon—; Sanskrit: Atasi, Auma, Chanaka, Devi, Haimwati, Kshauma, Kshaumi, Kshuma, Madagandha, Madotkata, Malina, Masina, Masrina, Masruna, Masuna, Matasi, Nilapushpi, Nilpushpika, Parvathi, Pichhila, Rudrapatni, San, Sunila, Suvarchala, Tailot- tama, Uma—; Spanish: Lino—; Swedish: Lin—; Tamil: Alshi—; Telugu: Atasi, Madanginjalu, Ullusulu—; Turki: Ziggar—; Turkish: Keten—; Urdu: Alasi-—-; Uriya: Pesu—; Yugoslavia: Lan—. REINWARDTIA. The genus consists of only 2 species, one Indian and the other Chinese. Reinwardtia trigyna Planch. is found along the Himalaya from the Indus eastwards, the Salt Range, Simla, Kumaon to Sikkim up to 6,000 feet, Assam, Chittagong, Bihar, Mount Abu, Bombay Konkan and Ghats, the Western Ghats, the forests of South Kanara and Mysore. It is distributed to Siam, Tongking and China. It is used.as a medicine for ‘founder’ in cattle. Deccan: Abai—; Dehra Dun: Basant—; Jaunsar: Pengun—; Kumaon: Piuli, Piunli—; Matheran: Abai Punjab: Balbasant, Basant, Gudhbatal, Gulashruf, Karkun, Kaur—; Saora: Labodatar—. ROUCHERIA. The genus consists of 4 species, natives of Guiana. Roucheria Griffithiana Planch. is found in Malaya; common in low country, Singapore, Malacca to Perak and Penang. It is distributed to Sumatra and Borneo. The plant is used in the preparation of the dart-poison of the Sakais. Malay: Akar biji, Akar kait putih, Akar musiang, Garam-garam, Ipoh akar putih—; Sakai: Bhoi—. ; rm SPUDY OF THE COURTING. HABITS OF MYRMARACHNE PLATALEOIDES (CAMBR.)— A SPIDER MIMIC OF THE INDIAN RED-ANT OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA., BY A. P. MaTHEW, M.A., Lecturer in Zoology, The University of Travancore. The familiar red ant is mimicked by a few insects and spiders. Two spider mimics are fairly common and well known to naturalists in this country—the attid mimic, Myrmarachne plataleoides and the thomisid mimic Amyciaea_ forticeps. The habits of these spiders were studied by me, and in the course of my studies I made interesting observations on their mating habits. Comparison of these mating habits with the ordinary behaviour of these spiders in the field under different conditions, was found to be instructive. In this article the mating habits of M.plataleoides as observed in the field and in artificial cages, are described. This spider moves about on plants infested by the red ants amongst which it would easily be overlooked. Though when it moves about ordinarily it is truly Oecophylla—like, while distrubed it betrays its arachnid and attid characters and to one who would patiently observe, the distinction becomes fairly easy. One evening while out searching for these spiders during the Christmas holidays 1928, at Mavalikara, Central Travancore, I came across a nest outside which there was a full-grown male. It was observed for nearly half an hour: but I could not understand what it was about. Except for an occasional show of restlessness it remained patiently and calmly outside the nest. Evidently something inside was engaging its attention. As I did not want to wait longer, I thought of securing the specimen. Getting closer I was just attempting to drive it into an open tube, when, to my surprise, a female ran out of the nest and began ‘staring’ at me. Quite probably they were courting. Both the specimens were soon secured in tubes. | At home the specimens were placed in a large glass cage and watched closely. They wandered about the cage erratically for some time during which they met each other a number of times. At first they were too frightened to take notice of each other but later on there were signs of ‘recognition’. They would pause and look at each other for a while, the male showing some signs of excitement. As the male however approached the female, the latter would run away. But after a little while they stopped and faced each other, The male raised its body on its legs and inclined the 2) /OURNAL, BOMBAY; NATURAL AIST. SOCHERY. Wiol.mxaeih falces downwards giving the body an arched form. In this attitude it approached the female in a series of short sudden jerks. As it drew nearer, the excitement increased and its movements became more jerky, turning now to the right and then to the left. Thus it ‘displayed’ itself before the female with bowed falces arched and — uplifted body and with the first pair of legs lifted up; moving in | sharp sudden jerks sideways and forwards. All the while the female was closely watching the ‘antics’ of the male, often turning in such a way as to keep it in full view. Both were in a state of great excitement. The male advanced slowly towards the female in this queer jerky manner till their front legs just touched. A few rapid mutual strokes by the palpi followed and with this the short ‘dance’ ceased. The arched body of the male resumed its normal position and all excitement seemed ended. The female remained quiet, slightly raising the abdomen and twisting it slightly to one side. The male moved forwards, got astride the female on one side, and felt with its palpus for the epigynum. The palpus on that side nearest to the female’s abdomen was applied to the epigynum and for about five minutes they remained in this position. The male then moved backwards and then again moving forwards got astride the female on the other side and the other palpus was applied to the epigynum. The copulation over, the male moved away, while the female remained guiet for a little time. Similar modes of courtship and pairing have been observed a number of times in my cages where mature males and females were kept together. But a few other observations which I have made on these spiders and their allies in the field have convinced me that this is not the normal way in which pairing takes place under natural conditions but that this occurs only under artificial conditions. On several occasions I have taken males and females from the same nests and their behaviour and the readiness with which they paired when put together make one feel certain that they must have been pairing or preparing for pairing within the nests. On one occasion I observed a male and a female of this spider moving about on the same leaf. As it was very inconvenient to watch them there I secured them and placed them in a cage. - Thev ran about for sometime and eventually faced each other. The male soon began to pay attention to the female. It approached the latter in the usual jerky excited manner turning to one side and then to the other in regular alternation; but the female would turn round and run away. The male however persisted in paying his attentions and at last the female stopped, turned round, and faced the male. They touched each other by their forelezs and them the female stroked the falces of the male by her palpi. Some mutual recog- nition must have passed between them! For, this time, unlike the previous instances, no attempt was made at immediate pairing but after an ‘agreement’ as it were, the female hurried off teva corner of the cage and began busily to make a nest. The male showed no anxiety to pursue her. It watched the female closely, and leisurely moved towards her. When he neared, the female left off her work, came out and stroked the male with her palpi for a second and immediately hastened away to her work. . The male COURTING HABITS OF MYRMARACHNE PLATALEOIDES 173 quietly continued waiting outside. The female worked very fast and soon got a nest ready. The next day the male was found to get in and pair. Similar observations I have made in a mimic of the small red ant Solenopsis and also in certain dark mimics. During the summer of 1930 and again in 1931 I had further ' opportunities to observe the courting habits of these spiders at Parur in North Travancore. While these observations generally con- firmed the view given above that pairing takes place within the nest, certain other interesting details were noted. On the 4th June 1930 I came across a nest in which were a male and a female. Closer scrutiny showed that they were not in the same chamber but were in two separate compartments of the same nest. There was a well-built nest in which the female was. This nest was completely covered over by a larger silken dome, rather sparsely woven, and within this was the male. From this chamber he had free access to the female’s compartment. They remained each in its respective compartment quietly for four days. On the morning of the 8th I was surprised to note that the female had moulted and that its cast off skin was lying. on a Sid@erein the mest. It was very surprising for it -meant that the spider was, till then, only in the penultimate stage and was not a mature female. After some time the male who appeared to have been watching all these events showed restlessness, got out of its retreat and began to wander about the leaf for some time. Then it returned to the female’s. nest, was admitted into it, the female meeting it at the entrance and showi ing the usual expressions of excitement and then they paired inside the nest. On the 8th June 1930 two of these spiders, a male and a female were seen on the underside of a plantain leaf. The female was very busy weaving a nest while the male was quietly observing from the outside, occasionally fastening a few strands overhead making the outer nest. In a short time the nest was completed and the female took her position in the inner and well constructed nest. The male waited outside for a long time. Then it was noticed to wander away returning in about an hour. It waited outside and made no attempt to get into the female’s nest. Till the 12th June I observed them in the same position. On the 12th inorning the female had moulted; the male was still waiting outside. These were not further observed but there is no doubt that soon the male must have got into the female’s nest and paired. Again at Parur, on the 8th May 1931, a female was observed in the hollow of a leaf within a nest of closely woven silk. Outside this and enclosing it, was a larger nest which was not however so carefully constructed as the inner one but consisted merely of a large number of silk strands. In this outer enclosure, was a male. They remained quietly till the 1oth when the female was found moulted. The male came out of the retreat, moved about the leaf for a while and then returning to the female’s nest entered the nest and paired. On the 17th December 1931 I again observed a female in a fully formed nest with a male watching outside. The next morning 174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY) Vol; XLII the female had moulted and by noon they were observed to pair inside the nest. A few double nest of the same pattern as described above were observed at Mavalikara, Central Travancore, on the 16th September 1932. One of these was kept under observation. On the 1oth night the female moulted and-on the 20th I noticed them pairing within the nest. Since making these observations, I have, almost every time I was out in the field searching for these spiders, come across one or more of these double nests or mating nests each having a female in the penultimate stage in the inner chamber and an adult male in the larger outer chamber. A number of times I have taken these females to examine if they are in the penultimate stage. On a few occasions they were found to be adults; but in all these cases the moulted skin lying inside the nest bore unmistakable testimony to the fact that its moulting to the adult was quite recent and took place only after she retreated into the mating nest. In the few previous instances of pairing which I observed and have recorded above, it is likely that the cast off skins in the nests were overlooked since such a phenomenon was not suspected at all. | In August 1933 I made very similar observations on _ the courting habits of two black mimics—M. manducator and another species not yet identified—from Cape Comorin and Vattakottai near the Cape. A number of mating nests with the females in the penultimate stage guarded by adult males were seen. Similar mating nests were also observed at Courtallam beyond the Ghauts, in August 1934. In January 1932 the following observation was made. eek ages * coon MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — 187 the nest was so well screened by leaves, that it was very difficult to get a good view of it. The trials of getting it down were much enhanced by the large red ants which swarmed among the leaves,—-and at times all over the Sinhalese climber. They give a very painful bite. I have seen fledgelings of this Flowerpecker in August, so it is probably double-brooded. eam ‘much indebted to W. W. A. Phillips, moe for the excellent photographs of the nest, which he has kindly allowed me to use to illustrate these notes. I found another nest of this species in June. The young were just leaving it. It was built in the same species of tree, but in a very large specimen. It was well within the crown, and about half way up it, built in a topmost spray of an erect branchlet about 3 feet high, growing from the main portion of a large limb. The height from the ground was estimated at 125 feet. The tree was rather isolated and in an exposed position, standing on the edge of the jungle where it adjoined tea. This tree was about fifty yards from the tree where the first nest was found, and I have every reason to believe it was built by the same pair. CICELY LUSHINGTON. HoupPE, KAHAWATTA, CEYLON. April to, 1940. VI.—THE OCCURRENCE OF THE YELLOW-BELLIED FLOWERPECKER (PACHYGLCSSA MELANOXANTHA HODGS.) AT ALMORA, U.P. Among the small collection of birds made at Almora_ by Mr. W. A. Hewitt, is a specimen of the Yellow-bellied Flower- pecker (Pachyglossa melanoxantha) 2. This specimen was obtained at Almora Kumaon District—altitude 6,800—in August 1940. The range of this species, according to New Fauna, is given as ‘Sikkim and Nepal to Eastern Assam and the higher hill ranges south of the Brahmaputra’. S: He PRAGER, BomBay NATuRAL ‘History SOcIETY, August 27, 1940. VII.—THE OCCURRENCE OF THE DRONGO CUCKOO (SAR NICULUS LUGUBRIS HORSE.) IN THE PUNJAB. I thought it might interest you to know that I am almost certain I have seen a pair of Surniculus lugubris here. The bird answers the description of the Drongo Cuckoo given tine Mauna of British: India,’ vol. tii, p. 223. J should say 188 [OURNAL, (BOMBAY (NATURAL, BISESSOCIED You Vola the birds are young though, as I did not handle them, I did not see any white feathers. I first noticed them sitting on the tele- graph wire beside the golf club house, and at first glance thought they were the King Crow until I noticed the tail, which had the outer feathers considerably shorter than the rest and _ slightly protruding. According to the distribution of this bird given in F.B.1. it is rare in the Indian Peninsula and this part of India is not given as a likely locality. The paragraph finishes up by saying that it is probably more widely distributed, but owing to its great resemblance to the King Crow it is apt to be overlooked. This encourages me to believe that it may be the bird, and I would be very grateful if you would tell me whether you think this is pos- sible or not. The King Crow itself is not a common bird here in Jullundur except in the breeding season. 1 only saw Surniculus (?) a week ago; and on four consecutive days they have been in the same place, and I venture to think they have only just arrived or I would have seen them before as I spend a great deal of time watching birds. 7, NAPIER Roap, MRS. Ay Bi AMS vea JULLUNDUR, PUNJAB. September 5, 1940. [The Indian Drongo Cuckoo S$. 1. dicruroides is described as being found in Upper India and Assam, extending into Northern Burma. It is obviously a rare visitor to the Punjab. Col. Rattray in a paper on the Birds of the Murree Hills, (vol. xvi, 661) des- cribes it as a very rare species, which was shot in the Murree Hills at 5,000 ft. in 1899. Then A. J. Currie, in a note on the Cuckoos of the Punjab (vol. xxiv, p. 549), states that he heard the notes of this bird in a garden in Lahore, and identifies the call unmis- takably as belonging to this species. EDs. | VIIE—A NOTE “ON THE ALPINE SWIFT (MIChORUS MELBA BAKERI HARTER). In a letter to me, Mr. Humayun Abdulali has pointed out that the resident race of M. melba is bakevi Hartert, and not M. m. melba, a point we overlooked in the joint paper by Mr. A. R. Hughes and myself, On the road to Gersoppa and back (fourn. BUNCHES. ivol’ elt} Cp: a6). With regard to the breeding of this bird, we were merely quot- ing from the Fauna [F.B.1. (Birds) 2nd Ed. vol. iv, p- 225 )8 If the birds breed ‘during June and perhaps the last week of May,’ then it was quite reasonable to expect the swifts there in numbers, but this was not. the case at the time of our visit in June 1938. Mr. Ali’s record in the Journal (vol. xxxviii, p. 830), ‘The male, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 189 with fairly large salivary glands had testes measuring 188 mm. The female with a shelled egg in the oviduct, had the salivary glands very much more enlarged.’ seems to definitely establish ‘that this swift breeds in December at the Gersoppa Falls, and not in June as mentioned in the Fauna. Commenting further on my observations Mr. Ali writes, ‘But your note raises an interesting question. Where do the birds go during the rains? You found them absent in June, and I did not see them either, when I was down at Gersoppa on the grd August, last year (1939). A friend of mine however, was there on the 7th September and almost certainly saw the swifts. As a matter of fact, he dropped his camera lens over the ledge on the British side, he saw ‘many small birds flying about in the mist’. The birds appear to leave the falls from June to August, or, as you must have heard from the Chowkidar at the Dak Bungalow, the pigeons and swifts store large reserves of food in the crevices and thus hibernate through the monsoon’ !! ~ As already stated in the joint article Mr. Hughes and I saw no birds in June (1938), but I have seen them in thousands in October (1919). I also stated that I shot this bird in the Pulnai Hills during June and July (1921). At that time they were about those hills in fair numbers. My observations, and Mr. Ali’s subsequent visit in August, seem to suggest that there is a definite migration to other parts during the full force of the monsoon, but where the thousands of birds go to is yet to be discovered. C. McCANN. BomBpAy NATURAL History SOCIETY, Bombay. July 31, 1940. IX VULTURES “FEEDING? AT NIGHT. Mr. Livesey’s interesting experience with vultures feeding on a carcase at night--on page 55 of your Journal (vol. xlI—No. 4— May 1939)—has prompted me to quote the following entry from my “shikar diary’ in respect of very similar proceedings witnessed by me when shooting in the Nepal Tarai and the Maharani of Khairigarh’s jungles early this month with the Maharaj Kumar of Vizianagram. ‘On 6-4-40 the Maharaj Kumar and I sat up for tiger in the Nepal jungles. This was in dense tree and grass jungle where it joined the narkul and ratwa grass jungles. A pair of tigers had overnight killed one of our large-size buffalo paddas at cross- paths some 50 yards into the tree jungle. At the crossing was a clearance some 30x40 yards with a few big trees and right round was dense tree and cane jungle. The kill had been dragged towards clumps of cane. We decided to sit up and so the kill was dragged back into the clearing at about 4-30 p.m. Half an 190 -JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XM hour later we took our seats in a comfortable machan and had hopes of the tigers, which were certainly present earlier in the evening, turning up. But alas! all our hopes were blasted by vultures who must have been particularly tamished! When we arrived, several of the high trees round about were full of these birds waiting patiently. Up to the time we got into the machan our men were about, but they left when we were comfortably settled in, two of them remaining hidden about too yards away for some time in case anything was required. The sun was high, and from 5-30 p.m. to 8-o p.m. the men did nothing but charge the vultures, who every to minutes or so fell on the kill. After 8-o p.m. no further attempt was made to get rid of them and, when we got down from the machan half an hour later, some 20/30 of them were still feeding. We flashed our torches on them and, after craning their necks at us, they continued their repast as if nothing had happened. Several of them, which had tea to repletion, were sitting about at the edge of the tree jungle and, owing to the darkness, could not fly to safety. Some of them tried to do so, missed their mark, and tell to the ground. those on the ground were not molested by any animal and were none the worse lor being on the ground on a dark night. ihis episode was astonishing to me for | was always under the impression that alter sun-aown vultures never alighted at kills, especially in jungle where they could easily be ambushed. On returning to camp I| consulted the two head shikaris, one a local man tad the otner of Murzapur, who said that nothing unusual had happened. According to them vultures, which have had even a partial teed, will not come down atter sunset, but, it they have been kept off, as was the case here, they are very bold and throw discretion to the wind. ‘Lhey may have a shrewd knowledge of the presence of the killer, but when hungry very frequently take their chance. One of the shikaris told me that he was once watching a kill from a tree. At about 6 p.m. a tew vultures, from among many that were sitting round, ventured to alight and peck at the kul. dhis brought tne tigress out and she chased some birds for 20/30 yards. While she did this other birds, which had meantime alighted, tackled the kill. These pro- ceedings were repeated a dozen times till the tigress left in disgust and the birds had their feed. No vulture was killed though 3/4 had been hurt by blows aimed at them by the tigress. ‘This incident took place in Khairigarh jungles bordering on the Nepal Tarai.’ I can offer no comment beyond that 1 was truly surprised at the conduct of the vultures who seemed to suffer from a type of fatalism. We had had several other kills where such behaviour was not resorted to. It would be interesting to learn of the experiences of others. 10, RajJPORE Roap, E; ee MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 199 XIV.—BIRDS EATING BUTTERFLIES. I have been up in Nepal (Katmandu) for the last month and while there an incident occurred which might be worth recording in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. I visited a Mr. and Mrs. Kilburne who have a house with a garden in the town of Katmandu and Mrs. K. said that a pair of Paradise Flycatchers lived in the garden having made a nest in the same tree for some years. They arrived each year about 30th March, and a friend of hers who had been observing these birds in Calcutta had told her that they arrived in Calcutta on the same date. I said I should like to see them, and after about one minute the birds appeared; the hen with some material in her mouth flew to the nesting tree. This was about 24th April. There were several ‘cabbage white’ butterflies flying about the garden and one of the birds seized one on the wing and carried it to a perch and there ate it—the wings, which I enclose, fell to the ground. The birds then made several attempts to catch another butterfly. I know birds do eat butterflies— I wrote a letter in 1930 or thereabouts to the Journal relating that I had seen the red-legged Falconet catch and eat a butterfly, but the extraordinary part about this incident is that the Paradise Flycatcher carried the butterfly to its perch, not into beak but in its feet like a kite. I was not the only one who saw this; there were several of us in the garden and they all saw it, but it was all done so quickly no one could say whether the butterfly was caught by the bird’s beak and transferred to the feet or whether it was caught by the feet of the bird—the white wings showed up vividly under the body of the bird as it flew to the perch. S. F. HOPWOOD, 1.F.s. C/o Messrs. THos. Cook & Son, Lrp., PHAYRE STREET, RANGOON, April, 30 1940. [In the December 1939 issue of the Journal (vol. xli, No. 2, P- 445) we published a note by Mr. Hubback on the Paradise Flycatcher eating butterflies: a discussion on birds eating butterflies will be found in the editorial comment to a note on the Red-legged Falconet (Microhierax eutolmus) hawking butterflies contributed to the Journal by Mr. S. F. Hopwood (vol. xxxi, p. 826). Eps. | XV.—THE MANY BANDED KRAIT (BUNGARUS MULTICINCTUS) IN BURMA. In his ‘Poisonous Snakes of India’ Wall remarks that this snake is rare in Burma and that only one specimen has_ been recorded, somewhat dubiously, from Rangoon. I was therefore very interested when Mr. L. C. Glass showed me a specimen killed in his garden in Rangoon on May artst, He says two were seen, but the larger one got away. 200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL.:HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII The specimen killed had 31 white stripes on the body and IO stripes on the tail, and was about 2! 4” in length. ay RANGOON 0 gh gk OE MIN ie _ May 28, 1940. : _, Ae —EXTENSION OF THE RANGE OF THE BROWN | - WHIP SNAKE. (DRYOPHIS PULVERULENTUS JAN.) F ppaopie pulverulentus has so far been recorded from Ceylon aa the Anamallai Hills, South India [vide Fauna British India (Reptilia). p. 371, 1st Ed. 1: While on a visit to Karwar, N. Kanara, I, secured a male on the 14th September 1g40. It measured 53. inches. This, however, is not the first record of this species from Karwar. There is a specimen in the Society’s collection labelled ‘Karwar’ and another, ‘Kanara’. Both are without the names of the donors and were collected in 1907. There are other specimens from, Castle Rock (P. Gerhardt, 1907) ; Nelliampatty Hills, S. India (A. M. Kinlock, Nov. 1911); Ceylon (BE. £.. Green): and, Matigama, Ceylon (f. JVall). Thus it. is clear that D. pulverulentus is a lot more widespread than originally recorded. My specimen is of interest as there are some slight differences exhibited by it when compared with the details given in the Fauna. In the first place there is a small ovate oblong scale bounded by the internasal, praefrontal and 2nd upper labial. Secondly, the number of ventrals is 195 as against 194 (maximum) mentioned in the Fauna—a very minor difference, indeed. Lastly there are 199 subcaudals as against 173 (maximum). These are all points of minor importance, but, nevertheless, I think, worth recording. BomBay NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, C. McCANN. BOMBAY, September 21, 1940. asf XVIL—FROG EATING A SNAKE, I was glad to read Mr. Charrington’s note on ‘Snake attacked by Frogs’ in the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal Vol. “if No. 3, because I witnessed a similar incident a few years ago. It was during the monsoon when I was returning from a dinner party and had just entered my gate, when in the headlights of my car I caught sight of a large frog (Rana tigrina) and a snake close to each other on the lawn. I stopped the car keeping the headlights on the frog. and the snake, and got down to see what would happen. In a few minutes the frog hopped closer and leaped onto the snake taking hold of it by the neck. The snake which was only 10 to 12 inches long made frantic efforts MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 201 to escape but could not release itself from its adversary’s. grip. When the snake’s struggles weakened the frog slowly began to swallow it. I watched this performance for over 15 minutes until nothing but a few inches of the snake still remained. I think the snake was a wolf-snake, a harmless species. _ >. BHAVNAGAR, | 3 eG DHARMAKUMARSINHII. July 8, 1940. 7 [A number .of notes have appeared in the Journal on ‘Frogs eating Snakes’. \In volume xxxvi, p. 161 of the Journal McCann records that the Bull-Frog (Rana tigrina Daud.) readily devours such small..snakes as it can overpower. Eps. | : 1a XVIII. NOTES ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND: LARVICIDAL PROPENSITIES OF ROUSSE ENS SETNAI KULKARNI. | Observations made on fish fry collected by me from the terri- torial waters of Cochin and Travancore at Manjummel and Cheranellore in the months of May and June, 1938, have revealed the presence, among them, of larvae of Horaichthys setnai, the sole known representative of a new family of fish recently described by Kulkarni (1940, pp. 379-423). Regarding the distribution of the species, Kulkarni records it as occurring in the coastal areas about ‘100 miles north and south of the city of Bombay’. After the larvae were found, adults were looked for and collected on various occasions from Manjummel and Cheranellore from shallow inlets within tidal influence of the backwaters. It is thus evident that the fish thrives and breeds in the coastal backwaters of Cochin and Travancore. In all probability, the fish extends throughout the western coast of Peninsular India. Regarding the feeding habits of the fish, Kulkarni lists ‘copepods, diatoms, minute crustacean larvae, etc.” as the main items, while he mentions, amidst .the stomach-contents of the fish, ‘fine particles of sand, pieces of grass, leaves and other debris’, which evidently do not form part ‘of its dict. Observations made by me on the larvicidal tendencies of the fish, however, show. that it is destructive to mosquito larvae of the first and second instars whenever available. As the fish is small and provided with delicate mouth parts it is more successful in tackling the earlier instars than the later ones. In this respect the fish is likely to prove a valuable adjunct to other major larvivores like Aplocheilus lineatus (Job, 1940; John, 1940) and A. panchax (Job, 1940a) especially in the brackish waters of coastal districts. 7 The bionomics of H. setnai, as revealed from the interesting. observations of Kulkarni, are quite favourable for utilising the Species in anti-malarial work. ~While a typical backwater species common in puddles and pools of stagnant brackish-water, and breeding in sheltered places along the edges of the creeks, it extends ‘to waters under tidal influence’, Even after the monsoon it is 202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII noted to remain in large perennial pools within tidal limits to propagate the species. Covell’s (1935, p. 40) requirements for larvicidal fish are to a great extent satisfied by this tiny toothed carp. Thus (1) the fish is ‘small, so that it can get about in shallow water among weeds, etc.’ (2) It is hardy, being recorded to be able to withstand a wide range of salinity varying from 4.363 to 1.348 per cent, and can even tolerate fresh-water within limits. (3) It breeds easily throughout the year (with a peak period during July and August). (4) It stands transport very well. A stock stood the train journey from Bombay to Calcutta! and _ thrived quite well thereafter. (5) It-is an agile active fish with large eyes which are helpful in locating its prey and in detecting the approach of enemies. (6) It is absolutely insignificant and worthless as food. (7) It is carnivorous as is proved by a study of its stomach- contents as also by its short intestine. The fish is remarkably adapted for surface life. The head, which is flat dorsally and the upturned mouth are suitable adaptations.. As Kulkarni has men- tioned, the species, like Aplocheilus, occurs invariably near the surface of the water and mostly in the midst of aquatic plants, and ‘is often found in swarms which move about in_ close formations’. Thus it will be seen that Horaichthys setnai is a suitable species for use in malarious areas of coastal waters, and its efficiency lies in its capacity to destroy mosquito larvae in their early instars.’ Teo). (OB Messe - Lady Tata Memorial Research Scholar. LABORATORIES OF THE ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, CALCUTTA. REFERENCES. Covell, G., 1935.—Anti-Mosquito Measures with special reference to India. Malaria Bureau, No. 3, Health Bulletin, No. 11, Calcutta, 4th edition, pp. 1-62. Job, T. J., 1940.—On the Breeding and Development of Indian ‘Mosquito- fish’ of the genera Aplocheilus McClelland and Oryzias Jordan and Snyder. Rec. Ind. iMus.,! XLAI,. pp. 51-79: Job, T. J., 1940 a.—Practical Utility of Miillifish Aplochetlus panchax | (Hamilton) in the Biological Control of Mosquitoes. I. Efficiency. (In course of publication). I. Efficiency. (In the course of publication). John, C. C., 1940.—Observations on the Utility of Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv. & Val.) for Mosquito Control. Journ. Malar. Inst. India, III, 1, pp. 67-80. Kulkarni, C. V., 1940.—On the Systematic Position, Structural Modifica- tions, Bionomics and Development of a remarkable new family of Cyprinodont Fishes from the Province of Bombay. Rec. Ind. Mus., XLII, pp. 379-423. 1 Mr. Kulkarni kindly gave me some fish to experiment with from this stock which was brought by him to Calcutta, and my thanks are due to him for the same, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — . 203 XIX._NOTES ON THE EARLY STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE DECCAN KILLIFISH [APLOCHEILUS LINEATUS (CUV. AND VAL.)]. (With 2 text-figures) INTRODUCTION. The sexual dimorphism and breeding habits of the Deccan Kullifish, Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv. and Val.) have already been discussed by one of us (Job, 1940). Its egg and a juvenile stage of 14.7 mm, have also been described. Observa- tions on the early devlopment of the fish made from eggs collected from natural habitat are detailed in the present paper. It may be pointed out that from the beginning of this century, when Aitken (1902, cited by Bannerman, 1910, p. 525) observed the larvivorous propensities of A. lineatus, the fish has attracted the attention of various workers, and several observations (vide Job, p. 52) point to its being of special value in anti-malarial cam- paigns, especially in the Deccan. Prashad and Hora (1936, p. 643) have emphasized that it is essential, for control measures to be successful, that the biology of the natural agent proposed for control work should be known in all possible details. It is hoped, therefore, that a thorough knowledge of the breeding and develop- ment of A. lineatus will prove helpful in the culture and use of this efficient larvivore, which is known to be of proved utility in mosquito-control. In r910 Willey (p. 122) wrote that A. lineatus lays eggs which become attached by glutinous threads to water plants, but added that he had ‘not found them so attached’, though he had seen them freshly extruded in the month of July. Again, Job’s des- cription of the eggs of the species was based on those laid in the month of May, 1938, under artificial conditions of the aquarium in which a few large-sized adult fish were kept. Search for the eggs laid under natural conditions was since then continued. On_ several occasions empty egg-cases were found attached to water weeds and roots of other aquatic vegeta- tion. Young fry were found in the tanks and ponds in and around Trivandrum throughout the year. Eggs with healthy embryos were collected by one of us (S.J.) from the large tank in the Public Gardens, Trivandrum, in the month of September, 1939 and these were found attached singly to submerged bamboo sheaths near the margin of the tank by the tuft of anchoring filaments, which have already been described in detail by Willey (p. 122) and Job (p.. 69). The eggs were carefully transferred to troughs of clean water and their development followed. DEVELOPMENT. The course of development of Aplocheilus lineatus is so similar to that of its North Indian congener, A. panchax, which was 204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII recently described by. one of us, that only some of the salient features in the development of A. lineatus need be described. Embryonic stages.—The fairly large eggs are transparent during the early stages, but turn brownish as the development pro- ceeds, owing to pigmentation within and accumulation of dirt outside the egg. The period of embryonic development is variable as was observed in the case of A. panchax, but usually lasts for about ten days. In the course of development the central mass of oil globules gets broken up, but the Kupfer’s vesicle is not distinct as in A. panchax. Ban rm Text-fig. 1.—Developing egg and early larvae of Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv. and Val.). , a. Six days old egg x ca. 22; —b. Newly hatched larva (dorsal view) x ca. 18; “c. Larva of twelve days’ growth (lateral view). xX ca 145 p. f. pectoral fin, thr. .c. cut ends of adhesive threads ; y: ' yolk. The six days embryo (text-fig. 1 a) is well developed with large pectoral fins which are kept in constant motion. The mouth and gill openings are present, the eyes are dark, the vitelline circulation is complete, the caudal fin bears rays and the embryo wriggles actively inside the egg-membrane. The embryo is seen to occupy a greater space within the egg-membrane than that in A. panchax. The nature of the hatchling depends on the period of incubation, the quantity of yolk being less in late hatchers. Metamorphosis: —In general appearance the newly hatched larva (text-fig. 1-b) of A. .Jineatus resembles. very much that of MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 205 A. panchax, but exceeds the latter in length by about one milli- metre. Some yolk-remnant with oil globules is present; the eyes are bright and shining, and the air-bladder is clear. The larva very seldom comes to the surface of the water. The pectorals, though without fin-rays, are large and functional. The caudal, which is lanceolate in shape possesses seven fin-rays, of which the third from above is the longest. All the median fins are continu- ous, and the dorsal and the anal are devoid of rays. The lower jaw extends slightly beyond the upper. The distribution of pigmenta- tion is very much as in A. panchax. A remarkable feature that has been noticed in the early larva of A. lineatus is its capacity to adhere to the smooth vertical sides of the aquarium by the antero-dorsal region of its head for fairly long periods. The usual position is oblique with the tail directed either obliquely upwards or obliquely downwards. Even a_ very careful examination has failed to reveal any special adhesive organ. Probably the adhesion is effected through adpression. The ad- hesive habit, however, lasts only for a couple of days after hatch- ing. A more or less similar, though less apparent adhesive habit has also been observed in the case of A. panchax (Job, p. 64). By the second day the larva makes more frequent visits to the surface. The yolk is reduced, the air-bladder becomes larger, and two more fin-rays are developed in the caudal fin. In another day practically all the yolk is absorbed, and the larva moves about actively, feeding on minute organisms in the water at the bottom and on the sides of the aquarium. The air- bladder grows larger and extends further backwards. The chro- matophores on the head turn brownish, while some of those between the eyes acquire a silvery lustre. The main change that takes place within the next few days 1s in regard to the fins. The anal fin becomes gradually marked off from the caudal, and rays are formed in its posterior portion, which becomes broader. A week after hatching, the larva has fourteen rays in the caudal and. ten in the anal fin. Text-fig. 1 c shows a twelve days old larva. It is about 7.5 mm. long. The protractile premaxillae have heen protruded during fixation. Beginnings of as many as seven rays have appeared in the pectoral fin, while the number of rays in the anal has risen to eleven. Text-fig.-.2.. Post-larva, 11 mm. long (lateral view) x ca. 9. (The Le given’ are those on reduction of text- fig. 1 to half and. of text Ene: 2 to one- ce) a __ Text-fig. 2 shows a fish eleven millimetres long. The anal fin has fourteen rays and the. pectoral about . fen. The pelvics are well differentiated with the appearance of rays. The dorsal, 206 =JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII ocellus is conspicuous. The occipital spot, however, is not yet well formed. This stage represents the final post-larval stage which grows and leads on to the ‘young adult’, 14.7 mm. long, described in the earlier paper (Job, p. 60). SUMMARY. Some of the early stages in the development of Aplocheilus lineatus are described. Eyed ova were collected from a natural habitat of the fish and hatched in aquaria. The salient features in the development of the species are more or less similar to those of A. panchax, but the Kupfer’s vesicle is not distinct in A. lineatus, and the developing embryo occupies a greater space inside the egg-membrane. The characters of the hatchling with its peculiar habit of adhering to objects are described. The changes undergone by the larva in its growth up to the 11 mm. Size are described. The 11 mm. size represents the final post-larval stage of the fish, after which it assumes the adult characters. REFERENCES', Bannerman, W. B.—‘Note on Dr. Bentley’s paper ‘‘The Natural History of Malaria (sic.)’’’. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xx, pp. 525, 526, (1910). Job, T .J.—‘On the Breeding and Development of Indian ‘‘Mosquito-fish”’ of the genera Aplocheilus McClelland and Oryzias Jordan and Snyder’. Ree. Ind. Mus., xlii, pp. 51-79, (1940). Prashad, B. and Hora, S. L.—A General Review of the Probable Larvi- vorous Fishes of India’. Rec. Mal. Surv. Ind., vi, pp. 631-648, (1936). Willey, A.—‘Observations on the Nest, Eggs and larvae of Ophiocephalus striatus’. Spolia Zeylanica, vi, pp. 108-122, (1910). S. JONES, M.Sc., Travancore Central Research Institute, Trivandrum. July 1940. T. JOB, M.Sc. Lady Tata Memorial Research Scholar, Calcutta. XX.—BUTTERFLIES ATTRACTED BY MOIST EARTH. On page 646 of volume xli No. 3 of the Journal, Capt. W. C. Carrot mentions coming across thousands of the butterfly Appzas nero galba gathered on the sand near a stream. This peculiarity of collecting together in large numbers and sitting on damp spots and sucking up the moisture is a common occurrence with certain families of butterflies, though not of all species of some families. Troides, Tros, Chilasa, Papilio, Pathysa, Zetides,. Paranticopsis, Appias and Huphina amongst others very commonly have this habit. But what is interesting about this habit is the reason for it. Why do these butterflies collect and suck at the damp earth in this way? The places at which they congregate are extremely local and cover a definite area small or large as the case may be, 1 For further related literature such as Moody (1939), Stoye (1935), Mellen and Lanier (1935), Fraser (1938) and Innes (1939), see Job, 1940. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 307 beyond which few if any butterflies will be seen sampling the moisture, although the earth or sand has the same appearance as the area on which they are sitting—at least this has been my experience. Moreover day after day butterflies will be found: on the same spot but not on others adjacent to it, which have identi- cally the same appearance. Has it ever been investigated what it is in the moisture which attracts particularly butterflies and not other insects, such as flies? I am not speaking of areas where there has been carrion or other dirt but merely plain damp areas in earth or sand. Have samples of the earth where butterflies settle in such hundreds at times ever been analysed to find out if there is any component in these patches which is not found in adjacent areas? Is there some organic substance in the earth which is particularly to their liking or is it some inorganic chemical? Do butterflies visit these spots in the same way that animals visit a salt lick? Furthermore it is only the males so far as I know which behave in this way. I have frequently experi- mented on a small patch by quietly placing my net over all the butterflies on it and killing them all and then watching the behaviour of other passing butterflies. It was quite apparent that these areas gave off some sort of scent for butterflies, particularly of the genus Pathysa, invariably exhibited great excitement when passing close to such a patch although there were no butterflies on it to give any indication of its nature. ‘They would fly back- - wards and forwards over it after suddenly checking in their flight and finally they would settle—nearly always on the edge of the patch and then flutter and hop with perhaps a short flight or two towards the centre of the patch where they would start sucking in earnest occasionally ejecting drops of moisture from their anal extremities. Gradually more and more individuals would collect until there were as many as before. Another point is that I have seldom, if ever, seen these patches at heights above 3,500 feet where butterflies collect in such profusion as they do at lower elevations, particularly in the hot valleys at the foot of the hills. Perhaps somebody has taken the trouble to investigate this matter more closely and has come to some definite conclusions. If so it would be very interesting to hear of them from other readers. Kopjr VILLA, R. E. PARSONS, F.R.E.s., AUKLAND Roan, Indian Police. DARJEELING, BENGAL, July 15, 1940. XXIL—ON THE LARVA OF THE MOTH (CIRCULA TRIPERESTRATA) AND THE DESTRUCTION OF THE COCOONS BY TREE SHREWS. On looking through my notes I have come across the following occurrence, which is perhaps worth recording :— One of the most common larvae to be found in and near Gauhati, Kamrup District, Assam, is that of the moth Circula triperestrata 208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit Helfer; where it swarms at times on mango and one or two other trees and shrubs. I have noted two broods in the year; but there are possibly three. The last brood which spins up in about September passes the winter in the pupa and the moths emerge the following May or late April. The moth is seldom seen, al- though I have found the cocoons a the score and larvae by the hundred. _ One morning I was watching a small squirrel-like animal hunting industriously among the leaves of a clump. of orchids on a tree in our garden there. It seemed to be finding something very much to its relish and frequently sat up chewing and cracking something which looked like a nut. I investigated and found. that the clump of orchids and the leaves of the tree contained numerous cocoons of the moth mentioned, on which the animal had been having a fine feed; first eating a hole through the silk cocoon and then pulling out the pupa which was chewed up in exactly the same way as a squirrel eats a nut. I later shot one of these animals, which were very common, and the. Society very kindly identified it asa. Tree. shrew, Tupaia belangeri. These animals must, in my opinion, unless kept off, cause considerable damage to the larvae of the Muga Silk Moth which are reared on trees in various parts of the District. They also dispose of any cocoons of the Muga which are accidentally left on the trees and I have frequently found empty cocoons of this moth in the Muga ‘orchards’ with the usual hole in the side. Such cocoons are use- less for reeling of course. Incidentally I sent some triperestrata cocoons to an expert who informed me they were useless for reeling .purposes being too coarse. The local name of triperestrata in Kamrup is ‘Amlodie’, so I was told. an Kopyr VILta, R. E. PARSONS, F.R.E-S., AUKLAND Roapb, — Indian Police. DARJEELING, bie BENGAL, June 23, 1940. XXII.—LAGERSTROEMIA INDICA AS A FOOD PLANT OF THE SILK MOTH (ACTIAS SELENE), ; I have recently been reminded that some years ago while | was at Sardah, in the Rajshahi District of Bengal, I obtained a female specimen of that beautiful, large, pale green, tailed Saturnid Moth (Actias selene Hub.), from which I got about fifty eggs. At the time I did not know what was the most usual food plant of this species and so tried various shrubs and plants from the garden without success until I gave the newly hatched larvae a sprig of that common garden flowering shrub Lagerstroemia indica Linn. They immediately began to eat it, and I successfully reared about a dozen to the moth stage. The only thing I noticed was that the perfect insects were somewhat smaller than they should have been, ites MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 309 Perhaps this note may be of use to some of your readers who may be placed in the same position as I was of not knowing what to feed the larvae of this species on. The shrub mentioned is of course exceedingly common in gardens on the plains of Bengal -and Assam where it is cultivated for its flowers: A number of the larvae had died of starvation before I gave them the Lager- stroemia. Kopjt ViLLa, Rey iP RS ONS. FIRIE.S-; AUKLAND ROAD, Indian Police. DARJEELING, ‘ BENGAL, July 8, i940. XXIII.—THE WEEPING WILLOW (SALIX BABYLONICA) AS A FOOD PLANT OF THE MOTH (LOEPA KATINKA WESTW). % Many thanks for vour letter dated the gth July 1940 regarding my enquiry about the food plants of the Moth Loepa katinka Westw. I had found in Seitz that the food plants of this species were stated to belong to the genera Cissus and Leea and that the larvae would probably also feed on vine. Cissus and Leea are not available in Darjeeling; I obtained some vine, but they did not appreciate it and only nibbed the edges of the leaves. They began to die fairly soon and before your letter arrived mentioning the food plants of Loepa newara Moore, as Caesalpinia nuga Aitk., Salix babylonica and Acer Campbelli. The first named is not available here, so far as I was able to find out. Acer Campbelli is very common, but the larvae of Katinka would not touch it even. I then tried weeping willow which is Salix babylonica, I understand, and they, or rather the remaining 19 larvae, are feeding well on it. This may interest you as you state you have nothing on record as to the life history and food plant of Katinka. I got the eggs from a badly battered female which I found on a bush here. She laid a fair number of fertile eggs. Kopji VILLA, R. E. PARSONS, F.R.E£.s., AUKLAND Roap, Indian Police. DARJEELING, July Us. 1040, XXIV:—THE WOOD-CUTTING WASP (SPHEX EDAX BINGHAM), AND ITS PREY IN SALSETTE. _ According to Bingham [Fauna British India (Hymenoptera) vol. i (1897) p. 251] Sphex edax has been recorded from ‘Sikkim, Tenasserim, Ceylon.’ This wasp is not uncommon.in the forested areas of the Salsette Island. On 4th March (1940) I caught two 14 210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII excavating an old, fallen trunk of Zyziphus sp., and another was seen on the same trunk. On the 14th April another was caught working on an old trunk. Again on the 12th May I saw one excavating a rotting piece of the trunk of Erythrina stricta. All these records were made in the Tulsi Lake area. | S. edax is an extremely active insect and moves about with rapid jerky movements. Its presence in a log is soon noticed by the heap of newly excavated, coarse, wood-dust. On breaking up the Erythrina log I noticed that there were several tunnels, some old, some new. The tunnels generally run in the direction of the grain of the wood, and may be several inches deep by about a little more than half an inch wide. When the tunnel is complete the provender for the future young is deposited at the far end and then the cavity is plugged with wood-dust for a distance of two to three inches. The wood-dust is packed tight. At the end of one of the tunnels I found five or six black, flightless cockroaches, 'Perisphaeria sp. The cockroaches were alive, but in a_ stupefied condition. It is well known that some members of the Sphegidae collect Orthoptera for storing in their homes. In life, the general colour is shining black, except for the abdominal segments which are bright red; but in the preserved state the bright red fades to dull-red or red-brown. The wing's are an irridescent blue-black, somewhat like those of a scolid. BomBAy NATURAL HiIstToRY SOCIETY, Cy McCANINe BOMBAY, May 13, 1940. XXV.i LARVA, OF THEREDRA LVGETLUS, CR. PARAS TIZED BY TACHINID FLIES. On the 14th July (1940) while scouting round for entomological specimens in the jungles just off the road between Bapsai and Murbad, Mr. J. Alfrey spotted a large larva of Theretra lycetus Cr. feeding on a species of Leea (Vitaceae). As the larva appeared quite healthy we brought it home in the hope of getting the moth. I kept it in a case. The next day the caterpillar left the leaves and moved round as though looking for a place to pupate. On the 16th it changed colour from green to brown and lay in a corner—pupation seemed inevitable. On the 17th morning I found the caterpillar dead in the centre of the cage. It appeared rotten as it had burst and was liquefying. Inside the body was a heaving mass of several fly maggots. On the 19th no trace of the maggots was to be seen; only the skin of the caterpillar remained lying on a damp patch of earth. On the 29th three flies appeared in 1 1 am indebted to Dr. Baini Prashad for the identification. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 314 the morning and another in the afternoon. The next day a fifth fly had emerged. On the rst August as there was no addition to the flies I opened the case, after killing the flies, and examined the earth under the caterpillar. The pupal cases of the flies could be clearly seen just where the skin of the host was lying, The mud had become a compact mass—as a result of the putrefying liquids filtering into it, and in this were buried the pupal cases of the flies with the tops just showing at the surface. A single pupa which was apparently dead was also found which brought the total number of flies to six. These observations give the pupal life of the flies as approximately ten days. Bompay NaturaL History Society, C. McCANN. BOMBAY, August 1, 1940. XXVIL—MARCH LEPIDOPTERA AT GOPALPUR (DIST. GANJAM). The following is a list of species taken in the course of a month’s very superficial collecting in March 1940. The list is obviously far from complete and most of the species recorded were taken in the Casuarina jungle surrounding the Yatton Hall Hotel. The Heterocera recorded as being taken at light were caught in the Hotel itself. RHOPALOCERA. Polydorus hector L.—About the commonest butterfly. Also larvae. Polydorus aristolochiae F., avistolochiae—Common. Also larvae. Papilio paris L., paris—Common. Papilio polytes L., romulus Cr.—Uncommon. Papilio demoleus L., demoleus—Uncommon. Delius eucharis Drury—Uncommon. Cepora nerissa F., phryne F.—Common. Anapheis aurota F., aurota—Common. Catopsilia pomona F,,—Common. Also f. bidotata Fruhs. Danais plexippus L.—Common. Danais chrysippus L.—Not uncommon. Euploea core Cr., core—Very common. Melanitis leda L., ismene Cr.—One specimen. Euthalia garuda Moore, anagama Fruhs.—Common. Hypolimnas misippus L.—Common. — Hypolimnas bolina L.-—Common. Precis orithya L., swinhoei Btlr.—Uncommon. Precis lemonias L., vaisya Fruhs.—Not uncommon. Atella phalanta Drury—Not uncommon. Also larvae. Ergolis merione Cr., tapestrina Moore—Not uncommon. Telchinia violae F.—Very common. 12 jfOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIS?. SOCIETY, Vol) xan Cosmolyce boeticus L.—Very common. _ Spindasis ictis Hew., ictis—Common. HETEROCERA. Ocinara varians Wlik.—One specimen. Cephonodes hylas L., hylas—Common. Also larvae, mostly a dark form. | Macroglossum gyrans Wlk.—Larvae not uncommon. Lymantria ampla Wlk.—Dead pupae common, and one larva on Casuarina. Porthesia scintillans W1ik.—One larva.. Perina nuda F.—One female at light. f young larvae. Philagria entella Cr.—One male at light. Agrotis spinifera Hbn.—At light, not common. | - Sideridis percussa Btlr.—At light, not common. Prodenia litura F.—At light, not uncommon. Spodoptera mauritia .Bsd.—-At light, not uncommon. Schoenobius bipunctifer Wik.—At light, not uncommon. Sameodes cancellalis Zell.—At light, uncommon. CALCUTTA, D. G.. SEVASTOPULO, fF: REVS: ‘August 3, 1940. XXVIL—SOME INSECTS FROM A MANGO TRUNK (MANGIFERA INDICA 1..). Just outside my compound wall at Andheri, Salsette Island, there is a mango tree which showed signs of withering.’ On inspecting it I found that the trunk and branches were riddled with holes, evidently the work of Batocera rubus L. On one of the branches was a lively nest of the Brow Tree-Ant (Cremastogaster voxenhoferi Mayr.) not far from the original seat of attack. The ants were constantly moving about, and a Bloodsucker (Cdlotes versicolor | Daud.]|} sat on the stem daily and ‘lapped’ them up as they passed near. Closer examination of the trunk revealed that the bark had split in several places. The underside of the bark had been destroyed and the space was packed tight with excreta and wood shavings. The bark was quite lose and came away easily, leaving much of the ‘packing’ in situ. In several places under the bark the ants had established themselves. In some of the large holes I found Elaterid beetles (Agrypnus sp.) resting on their head as though they had fallen dead and had slipped down towards the entrance, but they were quite alive—waiting coh night- fall to take off. Under the bark I found five pairs of the Brenthid beetle, * The tree has since died. i ~ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 213 Orychodes sp. These beetles were always in couples. Besides the Brenthids there was a single specimen of a Cucujid beetle, Hectar- thrum heros F. (?), and “several small larvae and pupae of other Coleoptera which I cannot place. On opening the bark, the ants immediately took possession of all other insects, but I soon de- prived them of many of their spoils. In the packing of excreta there were numerous Book-Scorpions, Chelifer sp., in various stages of development, but these were more frequent where the refuse was damp. In spite of the presence of ants, life goes merrily on under the bark. In volume. xli, p. 678 of the Journal I recorded the presence of Book- Scorpions under the wings of Batocera rubus. At the time (November-December) several specimens invaded the house at night, being attracted by the lights. Later in March, the Brenthids came in, but sporadically; and yet later the Elaterids appeared from time to time in rather unusual numbers. As _ the drying mango is about forty feet from the verandah, it is evidently the home of the insect invaders. | Of these insects Batocera is known to attack mango trunks; the food of the Click-beetle appears to be uncertain; the Brenthids seem another unknown quantity as regards their diet, though it is presumed they are wood-boring: the Cucujid is a carnivorous beetle and feeds on other insects and larvae. BomBay NaAturRAL History SOcIrety, C. McCANN. BoMBAyY, May -12, 1940. XXVHI.—INSECTS AT A STREET LAMP AT ANDHERI. The desire to predict an event is common to most people, but how often do our calculations turn out as predicted? During the sweltering heat of the hot weather there are many prophets abroad anxious to forecast the break of the rains—even the Press indulges in a bit of fortune-telling! For the past weeks speculation had run high, but Nature pays little heed to mere human calculations, it generally upsets them, and so it was with the break of the rains in to4o. Heavy rain fell on the 3rd June. Some people insisted that the monsoon had burst, others held that it was just a storm. In fact, weather conditions were rather abnormal this year. Animal life is greatly dependent on weather conditions and accordingly in abnormal years animals also behave ‘abnormally’. The fact was betrayed by the arrival of certain insects out of season; for example, certain Cantharids, which are abundant in August and September in Salsette, arrived in the latter part of April—much before their usual time. Turning to the ornithological field, a pair of Dhayals _[Copsychus saularis (Linn.)| had brought up a family in a dead Date Palm, by the end of May. The young were on the wing— rather early for these birds in this area. Also, in the botanical field, an Aroid (Amorphophallus commutatus Engler) had miscalculated too. It came into full bloom before the end of May, before any rain 214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII had fallen. This species usually blooms only soon after the first showers arrive. Nature seemed upset! Heavy rain continued to fall for a couple of days and all Nature responded to the climatic change. The sky on the night of the 5th was almost cloudless, the ground was sodden and the temperature sticky. Millions of insects had waited for the rains to be released from their pupal stages, and take to wing on perhaps, life’s last mission to reproduce or die as food for others. It was an exhibition of the struggle for existence. This struggle is, perhaps, never keener at any other time of the year than at the break of the monsoon. Life at this time is just one enormous ‘tidal wave’. I took my stand under a street lamp at Andheri—a naturalist on the prowl, complete with net and sundry killing bottles. The ground around the lamp post was teaming with large, winged ants. They had just emerged from the ground and gathered round in clusters, bidding farewell to their late home and taking leave of their ‘nurses’-—it was time for the marriage flights—the last flight for them all, some to fall victims to their fate, others, but few, to start a new colony. Away from their birth place they were now to brave the dangers of a new adventure. The lamp had attracted thousands of other winged ants, and conspicuous among them were Camponotus and Cremastogaster. The presence of the new arrivals did not seem to worry the groups on the ground ; none were in a fighting mood, though at any other time the ants would never have tolerated such familiarity. The flying termites had appeared earlier in the evening, and by 9 p.m. were no longer around the lamp. The air around was alive with insect forms, so numerous that frequent collisions brought many to the ground dazed. Small moths were in plenty, and a few large Euproctidae, all vainly trying to reach the burning filament. The magnetism of the light held them. Doom awaited most of them. Now and again a cricket would kick itself into the air, take to wing for a while and then fall clumsily to earth, to kick off once more when disturbed by another insect. The whir of thousands of small wings, the constant metallic click from the lamp shade and the dull sound of a fall to the ground, were from time to time interrupted by the deep drone from the wings of some large coleopter. The zooming noise was soon followed by a crash against the light or the post, then a thud which announced that the beetle had landed on its back, and finally a shuffling sound as it made frantic efforts to right itself. Success meant a new assault on the bewildering light. All these sounds betrayed the arrival of one of the largest of the Longicorns, Acanthophous serraticornis Ol., quite a formidable name for a formidable looking beetle with large punishing jaws. A suitable hold on the back soon puts its ‘armaments’ out of action, Before I decided to retire I had secured sixteen fine specimens— five others had been crushed by passing vehicles. This was an exceptional flight, for, in all the years I have been at Andheri, I have never known this species to appear in such numbers. Sub- sequent enquiry showed that the flight was rather general,. for i} to — or MISCELLANEOUS NOTES the longicorns had been seen by many other’ people in Andheri. At times wayfarers stopped and took stock of me, perhaps wondering what on earth the ‘sahib’ was doing at that hour of the night under the light, covered with insects, and armed with a butterfly net and several bottles. They watched me, and when they saw me make a dash for this or that insect and quickly consign it to one of the bottles, they were satisfied, though curious as to what would be the fate of the insects—were they eatable or medicinal? Any way they evidently doubted my sanity and moved off commenting. They were villagers and did not understand. Motorists hooted at me as I hastened across the road to retrieve a specimen; heads popped out to have a look—the general con- sensus of opinion must have been-—a iunatic at large! It was not the first time that my identity and intentions have been mistaken. When following natural history pursuits, I have been often pitied as’a case more suitable for a mental asylum! A naturalist must be prepared for such comments from the uninitiated, but let me return to my lamp and its fauna. Insects spell food for many animals, so I soon discovered that I was not the only watcher under the light. The recent rain had deluded the Bull Frog (Rana tigrina Daud.) from its retreat. They had come up to breed, but the rain was insufficient for breeding purposes, so they hopped about the countryside in a vain search for puddles. The chorus of their sonorous voices lifted in ‘prayer’ for more rain, was in vain. Some of them were in their wedding garb of yellow, but not as bright as it should be—a dirtv greenish yellow. Though not quite intent on food at this time, they still ‘lapped’ up an insect here and there. Some of the un- fortunates had been run over by cars—an enemy Nature had not counted on-—and were now just ‘grease spots’ or mangled forms. On the lamp-post were a couple of geckoes (Hemidactylus flavi- viridis Rippel). They had soon eaten their fill and now looked longingly at the insects they could not eat. What would they have not given for a more elastic stomach! At last, tired of looking on at the feast before them, and the constant rain of falling insects on their bodies, they decided to move off. The ground was alive with spiders, large and small, preying on the insects as they fell. Among the spiders was a single Mygale. The spiders too were constantly disturbed by the rain of insects, which made them retire to suck their meal in peace. Sneaking along the edge of the drain was a shrew (Suncus sp.) with its long snout vibrating like the free end of an agitated spring, seek- ing this or that ‘dainty’, Now and again it would make short sallies into the arena, seize an insect and retreat to make a meal of it, only to return for another. A little way off a gentle crack- ling noise drew my attention, so I switched on my torch to discover a Bandicoot (Bandicota malabarica Shaw) gnawing at a_ big Longicorn (Batocera rubus L.) The bandicoots lurked in the shadows, and seldom came into the light. Several centipedes (Scolopendra sp.) moved about in the throng of insects in the drain taking toll here and there. There were numerous carabid beetles até JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XE (Pheropsophus catcirei Dej.) hurriedly seizing their prey and retir- ing immediately to deal with it. How many other insect feeders were lurking around, is difficult to imagine. Some bats occasion- ally visited the light, but there was evidently enough food in the air without hovering round lamps. Flying ants seemed to predominate. Beetles, perhaps came next in numerical order, most of which were minute. Of the less minute forms the cockchaters (Melolonthidae) were there in their hundreds. The Carabidae were well represented particularly by a black species commonly found under stones. A straggler among the Coleoptera was a Rhinoceros Beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros L.), but its life was short for a passing car reduced it to a ‘flat skin’. The moths were well represented by a large number of Muicrole- pidoptera. Among the larger forms were specimens of Euproctis sp. and a few of the peculiar family Hepialidae, moths with long heavy bodies and clumsy flight (Phassus sp.). The Orthoptera, grasshoppers and Grillids, were fairly plentiful. The mole Cricket (Gryllotalpa sp.) a member of the ‘under world’, also hung around. — The Rhynchota, or garden bugs and members of the Homoptera, mostly minute, were present in goodly numbers. A curious point about the Cotton Bug (Dysdercus cingulatus Fab.) is that though during the day thousands are about in the neighbourhood, very few were attracted by the light. Near midnight I decided to retire; so I collected my belongings and went to bed after ridding myself of as many insects as I could. Next morning I visited the scene of the previous night, but there was nothing to betray the activity that had taken place. On arrival at the office with my ‘bag’, the insect department foresaw a busy day, there were over a hundred specimens to set. Of course, I could have multiplied this figure an hundredfold, but it would have meant much duplication. It will not be out of place to compare the catch of this night with that of the next. Except for a considerable reduction in flying ants, most of the insects mentioned above were there. There was a noted increase in the number of cockchafers and. scarabs. Of Acanthophorus only one turned up. A pair of beetles closely allied to Acanthophorus was also secured. They were Macrotoma crenata Fabr. This was the first time I secured this cerambycid in Salsette. Small mantids were occasional. As the weather was drier the frogs seemed fewer in numbers. The shrew was back accompanied by friends; the Bandicoot lurked in the shadows. - The ‘Dance of Life’ around a street light at the break of the rains and for some time after is mingled with jubilation and tragedy. Jubilation because it is the setting free of millions from the pupal life, tragedy because the majority perish—they have hardly begun life when it is snatched away from them. bomBay NaTuRAL History Society, : C. McCANN. BoMRBAY, i /uwe: (7. -LQ40- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 217 XXIX.—SOME INDIAN SPIDERS: THEIR SEASON OF PROSPERITY. As a class spiders occur throughout the year. There are, however, certain periods when they are at the height of their prosperity. Ecological experience reveals that, in India (especially Western India) the best part of the year for spider collection is during the few months following the rainy season. It is now most of the families of spiders are active and industrious. The scorching summer seems to be a time of distress to them. So also the torrential rains dwindle their number to an appreciable extent by washing away their delicate webs. There are certain factors that favour the growth of spider population during the period after rainy months and before intense summer. With a few exceptions spiders are in general moisture-loving creatures. Many of them are arboreal and wholly dependent upon plants for their abode. In India the real ‘spring’ season is soon after the heavy rains. The vegetation is exuberant during August and September. The increase in vegetation and the recession of destructive rains afford ample facilities for these animals to con- struct their webs among the plants and peacefully propagate their species. Food also is in plenty during this season. Attracted by the numerous wild flowers which appear now, insects like bees, and flies come to the plants in large numbers and get easily entrapped in the spiders’ webs. The following are some of the common families of spiders which prosper during the season referred to. Among the arboreal groups of spiders the most important family that flourishes during the months of September and October is that of the Argyopideae. Attached to the boughs and branches of trees the giant wood spiders (Nephila maculata) are busily engaged in constructing their extensive snares. Along fences and thickets the -beautiful Argyope thrives. Wherever there is vegetation the garden spiders (Epeira diadema) are present in hundreds, very active building their delicate webs. Walking along an _ open country side, during evening time, a collector can see numerous members of Argyroperians, Araneus, Tetragnatha and_ other Argyopids: carrying on their web construction in full swing. These spiders remain a feature of every country part throughout the cold season. With the approah of summer, however, when the atmosphere is no longer hygroscopic but dry and the annual vegetative growths parched, the Argyopid community also dwindle little by little and confine themselves to the ‘greens’ by the margins of pools, tanks and rivers or other moist localities. Oxyopideae, which generally live among grass and_ other small plants, increase and decrease in population with the growth of such plants after the rains and their drying away in summer. During summer many Oxyopids shift themselves to the watered fields of rice and other cultivation. A great number of them is however destroyed during the summer harvest. May, June and July are months of famine for them. Only with the onset of 218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII the following monsoon and the reappearance of grass in the lawns do they revive. Closely allied to the Oxyopids in their habits are the Psechrids. They can be easily distinguished from the former by their difference in shape, the extraordinary length of the anterior two pairs of legs, and the absence of spines on the body. With the increase of grass and other plant growths during monsoon and after, these spiders also multiply and spend their days among axils of leaves or spikes of grasses. They are extremely common among the inflorescence of Cyperaceae and Amaranthaceae. Just as the Oxyopids they also decrease in number with the withering away of vegetation and resort to the scanty flora in damp localities during summer. | Of Sparassideae and Clubionideae, the former seems to have more liking for moist conditions than the latter. Sparassids like Palystes and Sparassus are very fond of broad and_ succulent leaves for the construction of their patch like webs. During the — monsoon, and prior to the advance of sultry weather and the conse- quent dwindling down of wild plants, they thrive in large numbers everywhere. In summer, however, there is marked decrease in their number, and they are only found on the leaves of watered garden plants like Cucurbita, Water-melons, Plantain suckers, etc. The Clubionids also present seasonal variation and the members found in the monsoon time are healthier and larger than the summer brood. From the fact that many Clubionids reside among green leaves there is reason to believe that they have a liking for moisture. Herseliids also seem to thrive better under moist conditions rather than in the height of summer. During the months of August and September we find plenty of them on the bark of trees—trees with fissured bark like Pithecolobium saman, mango trees, etc. During the hot season their number shows a definite reduction. There are however certain species which are found on old dry walls and which thrive equally well both in summer and in winter. Pholcids, tender, long-legged spiders found in the roofs and rafters of old houses do not seem to be affected by seasonal vari- ation. ~ Many Attids or jumping spiders also prosper unaffected bv change of season; but those species which hunt among vegetation are affected in a similar way as the Oxyopids and Psechrids. With a few exceptions the entire group of Lycosids require moisture for thriving. Shortly after the rains they are abundant - among the low-lying, water-logged parts of any compound. They always like cool places and therefore they distribute themselves in damp and moist localities, beside water, among putrefying dead leaves and rubbish on open grounds, under stones and in damp soil.. In moist fields, laid fallow, their number .is enormous. During winter mornings, thousands of their patch webs can be seen on open lawns, and the members themselves running here and there with great agility. With the advent of summer they diminish in prosperity and get confined to moist areas beside fields and pools. : Eresids seem to be common during winter and summer alike. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 219 The webs of the Indian colonial Eresids—Stegodyphus—are found to remain intact for more than two years and the members are active throughout the period. Although spiders, as a group, are described as_ ubiquitous, Nature has her own influence upon their community. Spiders withstand climatic and seasonal variations to a greater extent than many other lower animals. They persist through Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter; but it needs be mentioned that moist condi- tions are preferred by most of them. More careful and perseverant field work will surely reveal more facts about the ‘life of spiders’. The ‘breeding time’ of spiders is also an interesting subject for further exploration. Bompay, tT. V2 SUBRAHMANY AM. September 13, 1940. XXX.—THEFT OF A WATCH BY A FIDDLER CRAB. This is a story told by an Ajman Badawin to Lt.-Col. H. R. P. Dickson on 25-6-40 of the wonderful tracking powers of all mem- bers of the Murra tribe, and in the presence of one Muhammad al Murri. ‘Muhammad al Murri, before he came along to the K. O. C. guards hut at Burgan, had been staying with Sheikh Sabah al Nasir as subah at his camp at Mungaf near the sea shore. One day Sheikh Sabah’s motor driver complained that his wrist watch had been stolen from him while he was having a bathe. He explained how that the tide was going out when he went down, and he undressed and put his clothes on the sand and his wrist watch with them, and went into the sea. He had not noticed anyone come aiong the shore although he had not paid much attention. When he came out and got dressed he found his watch had completely disappeared and there was no sign of it anywhere. Muhammad al Murri was present in the tent and heard the story. The driver did not ask him to find it for him or say any- thing to him. Shortly afterwards, the Murri, being rather interested, walked down to the shore. The tide was now lower, but quite easily he found the place where the clothes had been put on the sand, and around which, and to and from it, down to the water were the driver’s foot marks. After wandering about for a_ bit he could see no trace of any other human being having been near, the only marks there were, were those of crabs which had been running about on the sand along the shore. One track which he noticed, came towards where the clothes had lain, but he did not think anything of this, and came to the conclusion that the driver was a liar, and had himself lost his watch on some previous occasion. The Murri then returned to camp. Next morning however, he again went down to the same spot. This time the tide was high, and all marks had gone. He sat 220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FRIST. SOCIET Vol xi down near the shore and waited till the tide went out a bit, and until one by one the crabs came out of their holes and began to run around on the sand. (I might add here that these are rather small crabs with one claw much larger than the other, and they each build a sand tower just on one side of their hole.) The Murri then walked down towards them, and they all dis- appeared rapidly into their holes. After looking at their tracks for a bit, he suddenly recognized from among them all, the track of the one which he had seen the previous day in the vicinity of the spot where the driver’s clothes lay. He followed it carefully for about 1oo yards to its hole. He then began to dig, and sure enough, down its hole he found the wrist watch.’ | This I know is a true story. The point of the story is, that to any ordinary individual all crab tracks would appear the same. Yet the Murri had been able to distinguish the track of a particular crab which he had seen the previous day, from among many dozens of others. Since this happened, Muhammad al Murri was sent for by the Military Governor of Kuwait, Sheikh Ali al Khalifa, to discover the thief in a robbery case. This case is still in progress, but the foot-prints in the sand round the tent were identified by him. It will be interesting to see if he is correct. : Note.—The Murra tribe is famous all over Arabia for their wonderful tracking lore. They inhabit the northern edge of the Rub’—al Khali. Kuwait, PERSIAN GULF, VIOLET, DICKSON: july ©, 1940. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held at the iter. ©. I, Lecture Hall, Electric House on Thursday the 18th April 1940 at 6-15 p.m.; Rt. Revd. R, D. Acland, M.a., presiding. AGENDA. 1. Reading of the Annual Report of the Committee. 2. Presentation of the Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts for the past year. 3. Election of the Committee. The Honorary Secretary announced the election of 33 new members since the last meeting held on 18th April 1939 :— . Mrs. Camar Tyabji, Bombay; His Highness the Marawat Sir Ram Singhji Bahadur, K.C,S.I., -Partabgarh State; Mr. M. Zinkin, I.c:s., Sholapur; H. H. the Maharaja Jagaddependra Narayan Bhup Bahadur, Cooch Bahadur; Maha- raja Pateshwari Prasad Singh of Balrampur, District Gonda, Oudh; Mr. C. G. Baron, Shillong; Mr. N. D’O. Finnis, Quetta; Mrs. C. M. Van Allen, Bombay ; Mis EH. E. Ormerod, Bombay; Mr. J.-. Lockhart; Bombay; Mr. A. G. Sandeman, Meerut; Mr. J. S. Anderson, Bombay; Major Allen Block, Allahahad; Mr. Q. F. Rahman, 1.s.e., Moradabad; Mr. B. IL. Rawat, M.sc., Ph.p., Ajmer; Mr. V. M. Vasu, Porbander; Mr. M. St. J. Kelly, Lohardagar, ip ky; Mr. 6. W2 Budd, 1.c.s.; Mirpurkhas;- Mr. .E. €C,.. Cameron, Nilgiris; Mr. B. IF. Patuck,- Bombay; Mrs. M. D. Wright, Amraoti; Mr. D. Nilsson, Bombay; Mr. T. J. Phillips, Waziristan; Major F. H. W. Ross-Lewin, Bombay; Major W. L. D. Veitch, R.£., Roorkee; Mr. John Leslie, Calcutta; Mr. F. Potter, Bombay; His Excellency Sir Maurice Hallett, K.¢.s.1., C.I.E., I.c.s., United Provinces; His Excellency the Governor of Bengal; Major J. M. Bruce-Steer, Bombay; Capt. Jafferali Khan G. Agha, Dharwar; His Excellency the Governor of Madras; Major R. C. Nicholas, Poona. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. Orrice BEARERS——1G40. The following gentlemen were elected to serve on the Managing Committce for the ensuing year :— President.—H. E. Sir Roger Lumley, G.C.1.E., D.L. Vice-Presidents.—H. H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.c.s.1., ¢.c.1.£.; Rev. Fr. feeeke Caius. + S.J., -F-L.S-,; atid. Rt., Revd. R..-D. Acland; .a. Executive Committee—Mr. Salim A. Ali, Mr. Farrokh FE. Bharucha, Mi Ay Eorrington, Mr. J.B. Greaves; M.t.a.; Mr.’ M. J: Hackney, Mr. R. E. Hawkins, Mr. D. G. Hill, Dr. M; Shariff;: ».sc.,. ph.p., F.u.s.; Lt.-Col. W. C. Spackman, 1.M.S..;. Lt.-Col..5. S.. Sokhey, 1.m.s.; Mr. F. Wadia, and Mr. H. M. McGusty (Hon. Secretary and Treasurer). Advisory Committee—Dr.~- C. F. C. Beeson, ».sc., M.A., UF.S.; Lt.-Col. ee Burton, wa,” (Retd\; Mr. CH. Donald, ¥.z.s.; Dr: F. H. Gravely, cores: ME ©. M5? ringlissi{B.E.M.B.0.U.,; -F:z.S. 5’ Nir: Ri.) ©.. Mofris, F:R:G,S;,, zs. , Major, E.G... Phythian Adams, ¥F:z:S., HA. (Retd.); Dr. Baini Prashad, Wacom Vite Cs Psimitiy 1FS.5, Lt.-Col. C. G: Voogood, °c.1.E:,. p.S.0. : Mr. J. H. Williams. Srojf.—_5.. tt..Prater, M-L.A., J.P:, C.M-.Z.S. (Curator); and C. McCann, F.t.s. (Assistant Curator). The proceedings concluded with an interesting lecture by Mr. S. H. Prater on ‘Camouflage in Nature and in War’. ay ry 222 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLU ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER 1930: ADMINISTRATION. President.—H. E. Sir Roger Lumley, G.c:r-E., p.1, Vice-Presidents.—H. H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.c.s.1., G.c.1.E.; Rev. Ir. J. &. Caius, s.3., F.L.S.;° Rt, Revd. R. D:-Acland, ea: Executive Committee.-—Mr. Farrokh E. Bharucha, Mr. A. Forrington, Mr. J. B. Greaves, M.t.a.; Mr. M. J. Hackney, Mr. R. E. Hawkins, Mr. D. G. Hill, F.R:G:S., J.P.; Lt.-Col. W..C: Spackman, “1.mM.s:; Lt:-Col. S: 0S) Solshese I.a.s.; Mr. F. Wadia, Mr. H. M. McGusty (Hon. Secretary and Treasurer), Bombay. Advisory Commiitee.—Dr. C. F. C. Beeson, D.Sc., M.a., LF.s., Dehra Dun; I.t.-Col. (R..W. Burton, 1.a., (Retd.), Bangalore; Mr. ©. Hi Donald) f.z-ce Dharamsala; Dr. F. H. Gravely, p.sc., Madras; Mr. C. M. Inglis, B.E., M.B.O.U., F.Z.S., Darjeeling; Mr. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., Coimbatore; Major E.G. Phythian Adams, ¥F.z.s., 1.4., (Retd.), Nilgiriss; Dr. Bainti Prashad) pises Calcutta; Mr. H. C. Smith, 1r:s., Maymyo; Lt.-Col. C. G. Toogood, c:1.5% D.s.o., Fort Sandeman; Mr. J. H. Williams, Coimbatore. Staff-—s. TH. Prater, M.L.A., J.P., €.M.Z.E., (Curator); C. MeCann, ¥.L.s.,.(Asae Curator). THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1930. The Society’s Journal.—The Fortieth Volume of the Journal was completed during the year and two numbers of Volume xii were published. MAMMALS. Mr. Theodore Hubback contributed an interesting article on the Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis). His note, based mainly on personal observations, summarises what is known about the habits of this rhinoceros, the terrain in which it is found, its food, and the many legendary beliefs and superstitions attaching to the species. Mr. Hubback’s paper is supplemented by additional notes by Mr. S. H. Prater on the genera, species and races of the Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros, as described by various authors. He summarises the available data regarding the external physical characters of the species and discusses the basis of the various beliefs and legends recorded by Mr. Hubback. Of general interest is the theory that traces the origin of the unicorn, from which the rhinoceros inherited its fabled attributes, not to a four- footed beast such as the oryx, or the wild ass but to Cerastes—the Horned Viper, which figures prominently in Assyrian and Hebrew Religion and Art, and which poetic fervour and imagination endowed with wings, limbs and claws. If the poisonous viper gave origin to the belief in the Unicorn—then the supposed efficacy of the horn of the Unicorn, and of its successor the Rhinoceros—against poison is associated with the ancient well-known belief that poison counteracts poison; while the fabled power of a virgin over the unicorn and the rhinoceros may be traceable to ‘the Woman’s domination over the Serpent’ proclaimed in the Bible. These wondrous attributes have passed from the Horned Viper to the unicorn and from the unicorn to the rhinoceros. PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 293 Mr. Hubback’s article ends with a plea for the more rigid protection of the rhinoceros, which is now on ‘the threshold of extinction’. Its extermination must inevitably result from absence of undisturbed conditions, which is now the case. A species, which has survived from past geological epochs to our day, is finding itself unable at last to withstand the intrusion of modern Man into its domain. The only hope that remains of saving these animals from extinction in Malaya and Burma, adds Mr. Hubback, is to constitute inviolable sanctuaries in their own habitat, where a suitable en- vironment is known to exist. An appropriate pendant to Mr. Hubback’s comment is Mr. D’Arcy Weatherbe’s memorandum on the Kahilu Sanctuary in Burma, which deals with the reports of the survival of the rarest of all Rhinoceros——-the Lesser One-horned Rhinoceros (Rk. sondaicus) within its limits. In 1929 a fragment of a skull and in 1933 a complete skull, both of which undoubtedly belong to this species, were obtained in this area and presented to the Society. Mr. Weatherbe shows that genuine evidence is lack- ing of the continued existence of this rare rhinoceros in the sanc- tuary. Further, he makes clear that terms and conditions under which this sanctuary has been established render ineffective what might otherwise have been a permanent and valuable refuge for wild life. In the present temper of the legislatures the possibility of enacting suitable legislation for the establishment of inviolable Sanc- tuaries appears remote. Nevertheless such sanctuaries are a sine qua non and the present half measures introduced by Govern- ment will do little to achieve their purpose. An offset to this sorry position is the record of the work of the Nilgiri Game Association— 1879-1939 by Major E. G. Phythian Adams. The Association is to be congratulated upon its achievements during the 60 years of its being. The result of its activities show what can be done by. private effort, when proper official backing is forthcoming. Sambhar and chital in the areas controlled by the Association have not only maintained their numbers but have very appreciably in- creased, while the Nilgiri Tahr, reduced to a bare dozen when the Association was formed, now exceed 500 head. Starting with a fauna, in the case of some species, on the verge of extermination, the Association has by careful control built up as fine a stock of game as is to be found anywhere in India. The recent action of the Madras Government asking this Association to surrender half the shooting and fishing fees, is therefore all the more to be deplored and, if insisted on, will impair considerably the Association’s efforts and reduce to impotence what is perhaps the most successful organization of its kind in the East. It is hoped that wiser counsels will prevail, and that the Association will continue to receive in full, the support which it deserves. BIRDS. Among the many notes and articles on Indian Birds is Mr. Salim Ali’s Report on the Birds of Central India which is based on surveys carried out in the Central Indian States of Bhopal, Gwalior, Indore and Dhar. The financial grants generously proffered 994° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST) SOCIDTY, Vols um by the Governments of the States concerned have made this valuable work possible. The area covered by the survey had not been systematically studied previously. While no fresh discoveries were expected, the material collected provides useful data for determining the racial status and distribution of species in correlation with parallel data obtained in surveys carried out in other provinces of India. Mr. Ali has done his work with his usual efficiency and thorough- ness. We have once again to thank Mr. Whistler for his work on the material obtained. We should like to take this opportunity to express our sorrow and our sympathy with Mr. Ali on his recent loss. The death of his wife has removed from his side a comrade who shared in his work, braving the discomforts that attended it, to give him her help, care and companionship. Central Indian bird life features again in Mr. C. E. Hewitson’s ‘Bird Year in Betul’ which presents a picture of the bird life of the district from month to month and provides a model which other students of local faunas might well follow. With the publication of Part VI, the serial by Messrs. Salim Ali and Humayun Abdulali on the Birds of Bombay and. Salsette is concluded. The work has been’ generally commended. It provides students and laymen not only with an up-to-date working list, but with a readable and interesting account of the. local bird life, deriving much of its merit from well written descriptions of the breeding and general habits of the species. As previously indicated, it is intended to publish the serial in pamphlet form in conjunction with other pamphlets on the fauna of Bombay and Salsette, issued by the Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum. Mr. C. McCann’s paper on the Blamineos based on observations made during an expedition to the Rann of Cutch is an original and interesting study of the habits of this species. One interesting fact revealed is that the existence of the breeding colony depends upon the brief outburst of a brackish water plant (Ruppia vostellata) in the Rann, which is initiated by the flooding of the area by rivers from the mainland, the seeds providing the food for the young. Another interesting discovery is the early deserting of the young by the majority of parent birds; the guardianship of the chicks being left to a few adults who act as ‘sentries’ and, finally, the march of the chicks across the desert in the wake of the receding water—a tragic retreat in which hundreds perish. Where exactly these chicks go to on leaving the Rann and their subse- quent history still remains to be discovered. It would also be interesting to study specimens of these birds at a stage exhibiting. the passage from the brown juvenile plumage to the adult white and crimson. The question, as to whether the pink plumage 1S attained by moult or canescence requires further study in the field. REPTILES AND FISHEs. Dr. Hora continued his serial on the Game Fishes of India. Parts VI, VII and VIII were published during the year. Parts VI and VII describe two Fresh Water Sharks—the Goonch PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 225 (Bangurius bungarius), which has the best title to the name, and the Mulley, Wallago—now Weallagonia attu. § In Part VIII, Dr. Hora deals with the mahseers or large-scaled barbels of India. How many different species now go under the name Barbus tor— the Mahseer, we do not know. Dr. Hora’s study is an attempt to answer this question and his present paper deals with the mahseer found in the Himalayan Streams—from Kashmir to Darjeeling. To this fish he gives Hamilton’s specific name Barbus putitora, Subsequent parts will deal with Mahseer from other areas in India and will, it is hoped, provide a clearer idea of true status of the various fishes now generally confused under the name Barbus tor. Mahseer—trom the standpoint of their breeding habits—form the subject of a paper by Dr, Hamid Khan. His study of the sex organs of specimens examined by him leads to the conclusion that Mahseer spawn three times a year and that all the eggs in the ovaries are discharged at each spawning season. The author’s interesting investigations help to emphasize the need of Dr. Hora’s work: since it is not known whether the conclusion relative to breeding habits of Mahseer were drawn from the studies of one or more species. Another sporting fish which received special attention in the Journal during the year is trout. Little attention has been given to the disease of these fish in the various areas in which they have been introduced and established in India. The subject is one of considerable importance to the development of trout fisheries in this country. Dr. Hamid Khan in his paper discusses diseases encountered at the Mahili Hatchery, Punjab, 1.e., fin-rot, goitre, inflammation of the intestines, and fungus and gives an account of the remedial measures employed. The diseases of trout were also investigated in the Harwan Hatchery at Kashmir, where a very large number of fish died in 1934. An investigation was then undertaken by the Zoological Survey of India at the instance of this Society. The results of the investigation are published in Mr. Gulam M. Malik’s paper in volume xli, No. 2. It is shown that the heavy mortality was due to lipoid or fatty degeneration of the liver, induced by the fatty foods and developed in epidemic form owing to shortage of water, insanitary conditions of the pens and overcrowding. Mr. Malik’s paper is supplemented with notes by Brigadier A. Campbell Ross, who contributes an interesting article on Trout Fishing in Kashmir. His recom- mendations, iraced on experience of nearly 20 years, merit the serious attention of the Game Preservation Department of the State. Much improvement could be effected if the efforts of the Department were now directed more to the quality of the fish than to the quantity. The author holds that overstocking of the streams and the resulting shortage of food has caused deterioration. A reduction in the numbers of trout is recommended. A second point needing attention, is the enormous stock of other species of fishes present in rivers and streams. While their fry provide food for the trout, the adults themselves reduce the food supply, inter- fere with the growth of weed and cause unhealthy overcrowding. The need for a reduction in their numbers is stressed. Lastly and 1s 226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII most important of all is the improvement in the natural food supply available to the trout. As most of the rivers are now stocked to capacity it is recommended that a large proportion of the money now spent on trout hatcheries may be devoted with greater advan- tage to breeding of food supplies. This in our opinion, is a most cogent point, covering as it does the damage done to food supplies by coarse fish, and the necessity of increasing the Trout food supply. Any one with any experience of Trout culture knows that an excess of coarse fish in the water is a serious matter. The economic aspect of Indian fisheries also forms the subject of two. papers by Dr. S. B. Setna on the Marine Fisheries of Bombay. In an article on Bombay’s Fishing Industry the author discusses the inadequacy of the supply and the generally neglected condition of the industry, which at the present time is carried out solely by certain impoverished castes and does not attract the educated elements of the population or external capital. The primitive methods employed limit the fishing field to a few miles from the coast: facilities for landing and marketing of fish are poor; while the meagre earnings of the fishermen provide little incentive to enterprise. The Government of Bombay are to be congratulated therefore on the attempt at improving at least one aspect of the Industry by a practical demonstration of the effective- ness of more rapid methods of transport. The work done in Bombay in this respect is the subject of a second article by Dr. Setna which gives the results attained by introducing fast power-propelled launches for bringing in the catches to Bombay. Seven hundred tons of fish over and above the accustomed quantities were brought to the Bombay market in prime condition, and the radius from which the city draws its supplies was increased by 2-3 hundred miles. The success attending this experiment led to a rapid development of power transport and has brought into being quite a fleet of private-owned launches to the benefit of the industry. But increased supplies in Bombay has led to a corresponding decline in the fish available at the fish curing yards and at other coastal ports and no fundamental improvement can be expected until an improvement can be made in the present primitive method of exploitation. If more fish is to be obtained then fishing cperations must extend over a wider field, and if the Industry is to develop better then more adequate facilities for the landing, storage and marketing of fishes must be provided. The author discusses measures which should be taken to secure a more general development of the local fisheries which, if followed, should materi- ally benefit an industry of first rate importance to this maritime Province. Another important section of Indian fisheries was dealt with in Dr. Chopra’s paper on Food Prawns and Crabs of India Ga which the author discusses the various species available in the markets of large towns. The value of the fisheries is not generally realized by the public. The author estimates the yield of the prawn fisheries of India at, at least 3 crores of rupees per annum. Impressive though it may seem, the figure falls into insignificance when compared with other smaller countries where shell fisheries PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 227 are conducted on scientific lines. The author discusses the various methods employed in the capture and marketing of Shell fishes. INSECTS. During the year we published Parts VI and VII of Mr. Mosely’s serial on Indian Caddis Flies which deal with the Sericostomatidae. A number of new genera and species are described, and the papers as usual are illustrated with a very large number of fine plates. Mr. D. G. Sevastopulo’s notes and observations on the Early Stages of Indian Lepidoptera were issued in three papers during the year. Butterflies of Burma form the subject of two papers. Capt. W. C. Carrot lists the species taken by him in the Shan States— an interesting area with an abundant and varied butterfly fauna; while in the December number, we published Part I of Notes on New and Interesting Butterflies from Burma by the late Major-General Sir Harry Tytler. General Tytler’s long service in many parts of the East gave him opportunity to develop his hent for Natural History. His chief interest lay in Butterflies and he brought together one of the finest collections ever made.in India. He published a number of papers on Indian butterflies in the Society’s Journal. The editing of Part II of Tytler’s Notes has been taken over by Mr. G. A. Talbot, F.R.E.s., of the British Museum. Messrs. C. Cherian and M. S. Kylasam published their studies on the Laphygma exigua and its natural enemies. The cater- pillars of this moth, which has a world-wide distribution, are well known as pests of crops. In India lucerne, onion, chillies and many other plants suffer from their depredations and the present paper deals with the species in a new role—as a pest of tobacco, and gives the result of investigations conducted to discover suitable predators and parasites which might effectively provide a control over these pests. BOTANY, During the year we commenced publication of a_ serial on Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs under the joint authorship Ger, N. Lb. Bor and his colleague Mr. M. B. Raizada of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Two parts were issued dealing with Ipomoea and Aristolochia. Mr. G. Singh’s beauti- ful coloured illustrations are a feature of the work which will be issued as a companion volume to Beautiful Indian Trees by Blatter and Millard. The first edition of the latter work published by the Societv in 1938 was sold within 8 months. Unfortunately under present war conditions the issue of a second edition would prove too expensive and must be postponed till better times prevail. Another serial commenced during the year, deals with Com- mon Indian Herbs by Prof. M. Sayeedud-Din of the Osmania University. The serial will describe and illustrate a number of the common species found in India and give supplementary notes on their anatomical characters. 228. JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL HIST. SOCTHEGY, Wolwielg Father Caius continued his interesting serial on Indian Medicinal and Poisonous Plants. Three papers were published dealing with the Crucifers, the Capparids and the Flacourtiads. In another paper Father Caius publishes the results of his survey of the local trade in Gum Arabic with a view to ascertain the source of the commodity and the uses it is commonly put to. A contribution of particular interest to botanists is Mr. C. McCann’s Additions to the Description of Irerea indica, a rare species found only once since its discovery in 1864. The author provides a detailed description of the fruit, seeds and other parts of the plant. That Nature Photography is steadily increasing in popularity in this country was evidenced by the very large number of excellent pictures shown at the special Wild Life Photographic Exhibition organized by the Society during the year. Camera hunters will find much to interest and stimulate them in the two beautifully illustrated articles written by two of the most successful camera hunters in this country, Major R.S.P. Bates who wrote on ‘Bird Photography in India’ and Mr. Theodore Hubback who contri- buted an article on Wild Life Photography in a Malayan Jungle. Both articles contain valuable hints and advice and both are accom- panied by fine examples of Camera work. Forthcoming Publications.—We have been to much trouble te ascertain whether a reprint of the Snake Chart would be welcome. This chart was issued some twenty years ago to hospitals, dis- pensaries, schools and colleges throughout the country and the reply to enquiries has ‘been so encouraging that the chart 1s already under weigh, and will appear very shortly. It is already more than paid for. As a companion volume we have decided to issue a fifth edition. of Wall’s book on the Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of India, but it will be revised in the light of recent dis- coveries. The book will, we believe, fill a very real need, and the price will be kept as low as possible. Common Indian Birds.—Some years ago we published a chart of- Common Indian Birds. What we did not publish was a commentary on each bird. We now intend to publish a popular book, showing 200 birds, in colour, with a commentary on each bird ye Mr. Salim Ali. This book will, we hope, ‘Catch ’em Young’, and help to inspire an interest in Natural History which, where it exists, has little at present on which to batten. Revenue Account.—Once again we have managed to balance cur budget, and we are able to record a-surplus revenue of Rs. 4,466-13-11 as compared with Rs. 3,341-4-9 in 1938. Total income was Rs. 37,091-9-0 and expenses were Rs. 332,624-11-1; but it must be borne in mind that we have to thank H. E.H. the Nizam, H. H: ‘the Gaekwan of Barodasand H. H. the Maharaja of Patiala for the present state of our finances, as our regular income is not sufficient to cover expenses. Membership.--67 members resigned during the year and 26 new members were elected, making a total membership of 845 as against 886 at the end of 1938. PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 229 Income from publications shows a drop, as the Tree Book was sold out fairly early in the year. We have a number of orders booked, and with a little more encouragement a second edition will be undertaken. Staff.—The Committee wish to record their appreciation of the good work done by the Curator and his staff during the past year. April 10, 1940. MMe MceGwust Y Honorary Secretary. PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS EDITORS : H. M. MCGUSTY, J. F. CAIUS AND S. H. 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SOCIET\ Voi. oom / JOURNAL, BOMBAY 32 D) ~ "AOANSDIAT AAVAOUOLT “ALSONOSIIN “WH ('PS) 08) OEE CTS 0 0 oostz COE TEER DS ESTE 0) 3102 IT SL SP £ OL 960°T “S4O]1IPNP ‘SJUDIUNOIIY Pesa}AvYD ‘OO 8 NOSNOUMAA “A *V (PS) *J091i09 punoj puke peulmexg “* 1834 94} SULINP PIA!s0a1 SUOI}EeUOg ee . yI9YN souvl[eq js¥[ Jad se soueleq papuedxsugq Ag “" 1ea4 94} SUlINp padleoal suOlIeuOg “s ja9eY4S soueleg jsel Jod se (puny {eutIno¢ [vloadg) svouel[eq popuadxaug | souvleg se] jod se Suipiimg MON UI S8S¥D MOYS IO] soUR[eg PeapuadxeugQ see acai) Qee JeoyS souvleg ysB] Jod se osouvleg pepuadxeug Ag “6S oe - eé 0 0 0082 o> Ss pO 8I0'L om | ZL Of 960'f a LT ES a ESE EY 6l ‘MHAWAIAA SIE CAIN ‘OVOI ‘YI4D iY YIST ‘XVANOg JOYS 9ouBe_ 0} polii¥d soueleq ‘ ** AVAING [VOLSO[OY}IUIO UO oINjIpusdy| ** AGVAING [eITZO[OYWUIO, J99YS 9oue] vq 0} palsivo soured ‘* a0 STeuinor uo sin\Ipusedx7y °° puny peurmnor [erseds J994S souvleg 0} poliieo aouv[eg ‘ fc ON pun, sosey MoUs JooYS souevleg 0} pdliieo souvleg ** ‘Ojo ‘AIO]V) YSIY UO oINITpuedx| oY, T ‘ON puny AVHA AHL XOX SASOdANd DIAIDAdTS YOH SNOILVNOd AO LNQODIV AXALIANAAXA INP AWODNT “I Iq ¢ i} : “THE : ie a : 3 GAME-BIRDS OF INDIA, BURMA & CEYLON. — E. C. STUART BAKER, C.LE., 0. BLE, PLS, FZ.S, M.B0.U. H, F.A.0.U. Imperial 8vo. Half bound. | VOL. Il. : -_ PHEASANTS AND BUSTARD- QUAIL. About 320 pp. With 12 Coloured Plates and numerous Black and White Plates. Price to Members who have not ee Vols. I & Il. We ye Seales se 0—Rs. 23 Members who have purchased one | of the above Volumes .. £1-10-0=Rs. 20 Members who have purchased both the above Volumes _... igigie fies ES O=Rs. 17 Price to Non-members. Two Guineas=Rs. 28 — Packing and postage extra. COMMON INDIAN BIRDS. ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR. ALBUM. Coloured illustrations of 196 Common Indian Birds neatly bound in soft rexine as a Volume of reference. Size 11 x 9% inches. Price to. Members — ,.. Rs. va Postage — ‘es Non-members ... Rs. 40 an i Packing extra. Aneb to:— ~The Bombay Natural History Society, 6, Apollo Street, BOMBAY. EDITED BY _ REV. J. F. CAIUS, S.J., F.L.S., H. M. McGUSTY, + AND S. H. PRATER, M.L.A , C.M:Z.S. en \ PUBLISHED BY THE BOMEAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 6, Apollo Street, Bombay. a LONDON ‘AGENTS : DAVID NUTT. (A. G. BERRY) | 212, SHAFTESBURY AVENUE, LONDON, W.C. 2. : “ Birds. or i . ie zeta pres ue Game Birds of India, Vol. It. "Pheasants, rst dion egies R (Price to Members Rs. 17). a Set of Game Bird Plates sy, Vol. .I1. Rs. 13-8. » (Price to Members Rs. 10). Bird-Life in India, by Capt. R. S. P. Bates, M.B.O.U. Illustrated. Rs. 6 (Price to Members Rs. 3). Indian Pigeons and Doves with coloured illustrations, by E. C. Stuart BAKER, © ) O.B.E., Ve FEZ Sh etoees i Rs. 37-8. (Price to Members Rs. 30). Snakes. _ Identification of Poisonous Snakes— aa ag Hanging Wall Chart, 30” x40”. Rs.5. Folding Pocket Chart. Rs. 1:12. . Snakes of Bombay Island and Salsette, by S. H. Prater, C.M.Z.S. Rel. _ Miscellaneous. Game Fishes of Bombay, the Deccan and the Neighbouring Districts. By Sir REGINALD SPENCE, KtT., F.Z.S., and S. H. Prater, C.M.Z.S. With — colour and black and white illustrations. Rs. 2.' > @ (Price to Members Rs. 1-8). | s edaticaten of Indian Butterflies, by Bricaprer W. H. Evans, C.S.I., C.LE., D.S.O., 2nd edition, illustrated. Rs. 15. a (Price to Members Rs. 10). Tag Wal! Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jackal, etc. Rs. 2-8. A List of Indian Butterflies, by Cot. W. H. Bane. E Rs. 2.:, a Wood Destroying White Ants of the Bombay Presidency, by Josern AssmutTH, S.J. : Re. 1, Back Numbers of the Journal. Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application. TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP. | : Life Members pay an entrance wer of Rs. 10 and a Life DEC epete a fee of Rs. 350. a Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 10 and an annua} subsrcip- © a tion of Rs. 25. E The subscription of members elected in October, November and December ~ covers the period from the date of their election up till the end of the following year. MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA. The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 26-8-o—to the Society in Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £2-0-6 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The © National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. eas CONTENTS OF VOLOME XLII, No. 2 PAGE Some BrautteuL InpIAN CuLimeeRS AND Suruss. Part VI. By NMOS Bone Mido hDISe., Hilles:, s1-8.s), cand™ M._B. Raizada, M.Sc. (With one coloured and three black and white plates and three text-figures) sles one fer ee oe Bi ee 2S SomE ORNITHOLOGICAL RESULTS OF TIE WERNAY-CuTTING EXPEDITION OF 1938/39 TO NORTHERN Burma. By Major J. K. Staniord, ©.B.E., M.C., F.R.G.S., 1.0.8, (Retd.) (With two plates) 242 Tne Wuate SHarK (Rhineodon typus Smith) in Indian Coastal Waters with notes on its wanderings in other areas. By S. H. Prater, c.M.z.S. (With one map and seven plates) 2 255 Some Common INbIAN HERBS) WITH NOTES ON THEIR ANATOMICAL cHARACTERS. By M. Sayeedud-Din. Part VI. (With iwo plates) ... 280 Tue Earty Staces or INDIAN Lepipoprera. Part VI. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. ah vas “ 283 PHOTOGRAPHING IN CEYLON’s Birp Sanctuaries. By W. W. A. Phillips, neh SHenEsZ.Sie (Vets six plates) a : : 295 A CONTRIFUTION TO THE STUDY OF THE BIOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL Anatomy or InpIAN Marsu aND Aquatic Piants. By J. F. R. D’ALMEIDA, B.a., M.Sc. (With two plates) tA - 298 Tur Game FisuHes oF Inpia. Part XII. By Sunder Lal Hora, D.sSc., BERGENS.. oF IZtS.,, oF RsA.S-B.,) F.N.1.,, and K.'S! Misra, -m:sc., (With one coloured plate and seven text-figures) i 305 A New Species or Coteus. By K. Cuerian Jacor, L.ag., F.L.S. (With a_ tlate) rei és an es 320 MaRINE SHELLS OF Mapras. By M. D. Cricuton. (With four plates) ... e2R A CONTRIBUTION TO THE I*LORA OF THE PUNJAB AND THE ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS. (Pari ll. (By Or. Ls Ss Sabnis, BA. (Hons.) D.St., F.A.SC., I.A.S. a Lo a 342 THe MEDICINAL AND Poisonous LaniatEs oF Inpia. By Rev. Fr. J. F. CAvusweoS:foueF-k.S: aun es 380 On THE Foop-PLants oF INDIAN Aguaristidae AND Noctuidae (Heterocera). iby DeGs Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. he ate a nee 421 OBITUARY :— FREDERICK VICTOR EVANS (1865-1940) 431 REVIEW :— hed The Fauna of British India including the remainder of the Oriental ¢. Region, Diptera. Vol. VI. Family Calliphoridae. By R. Senior b- White, Daphne Aubertin and John Smart as! eae bea . MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— . I. Rivers as barriers to the distribution of Gibbons. By 4 Re EH. Parsons a uae we 434 a, Ii. A pale colour form of the Panther. By H. A. Fooks. (With a a photo) a 435 III. A Brown form of the Himalayan Black Bear (Selenarctos thibetanus). By Botha Van _ Ingen ee na) 5430 il Ly: XV Xx Vii. XVIII. ».4 0. XX. DOE XNIT. > OSSIA s XXIV. XXV. RXV XXVIT. CONTENTS: OF Vol. Dali ho The Indian 1.A. (Retd.) Village Dogs Hunting. Wild” Dog. “By Hee=Coln RoW. -Bugton, Keelan An See By | ae Philip siere On the occurrence of the Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs Linn.) in Waziristan. -By TI. J. Phillips By C. McCann Sandgrouse coming to water at mid-day. Nicholas By Vee: Vitality of a Hyaena (Hyaena striata). Vultures and Palms. ah re By Maion kG. Searcity of Sandgrouse during the cold weather 1939-1940. By vEt.-Col. Ey O Brien Habits of the Seesee Partridge (Ammoperdix griseoguiaris griseogularis). By T. J. Phillips Curious nesting site of the Red-wattlec Lapwing (Lobivanel- lus indicus indicus .Bodd.) By C. McCann. (With «a photo) ae ie oan ae ane By J.-C: Higegms 23 By KR. J. Clough Records of Swinhoe’s Snipe in Assam. Occurrence of Swinhoe’s Snipe in Bengal. Moulting of Common Teal subsequent to migration to India. By the Secretary to Heir Apparent of Bikaner. (With a photo) os ks Occurrence of the Stiff-tailed Duck at Nowshera, N.-W.F.P. By Lt.-Col. i. B Field Injury, toa. Crocodile. By: (With a photo) R. K. Dharmakumarsinhji. By D. C. Sevastopulo By Carl L. Huhbbs By M. A. Wynter- Food of Lizards. A New Family of Fishes. Addenda to the list of Simla Butterflies. Blyth, .a. Butterflies attracted by moist earth. By D. G. Sevastopulo Supplementary Notes on the life history of the Moth (Brahmea wallichii). By R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S. Larva of Theretra lycetus Cr. parasitized by Tachinid Flies. By D. G. Sevastopulo Lagerstroemia indica as a Food-plant of Actias selene. By D. G. Sevastopulo 3a The death expedition of Hibiscus caterpillars. By D. G. Sevastopulo (A correction) Abnormal seedling of Mangifera indica Linn. N. O. Ana- cardiaceae. By G. A. Kapadia, . m:se-3(With) ai vtext- figure) Fe ae ae Some Wild Flowers of Kashmir and their indigenous use. By Samsar Chand Koul 449 449 450 450 452 Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. ong es i of “ 2 Nd 4 sopecavee SS MUSSAANDA FRONDOSA Linn. Paperchase Tree or Dhoby’s Tree (Nat. Size) 93°4 per cent. JOURNAL OF THE Bombay Natural History Society. —- 1941. VoL. XLII. No. 2. SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. BY Nee DOR} MEAL Io1SC, F.liS2, IkF.S Ge) Forest Botanist, AND M. B. Ralzapa, M.SC., Assistant Botanist, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. ParT VI. (Continued from Vol, xlii, No. 1 (1940)5 pa 12): (With 1 coloured and 3 black and white plates, and 3 text-figures). Rubiaceae A very large family of over 4,500 species, comprising herbs, shrubs, climbers, and large trees. A small number are epiphytes. Many beautiful shrubs belonging to this family are cultivated in our Indian gardens for their handsome, occasionally fragrant, flowers. The leaves are opposite or whorled, stipulate, usualiy entire, with pinnate nervation. The stipules are interpetiolar, that is, the two adjacent stipules are joined together across the node, forming a half sheath, simple or divided into lobes or fringed. The flowers are variously arranged, sometimes in globular heads, sometimes in corymbose cymes or panicles, axillary or terminal. Calyx often campanulate, adnate to the ovary, truncate or with 5 lobes. Corolla gamopetalous, seated on the top of the ovary, more or less tubular with spreading lobes; lobes 4-10, imbricate or valvate. Stamens as many as the lobes seated on the corolla and alternate with the lobes. Disk present, annular or lobed; lobes as many as the ovary cells. Ovary inferior, 2- or more-celled with axile, basal or apical placentation. Ovules one to many. Fruit a capsule, berry or drupe. 234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII The family takes its name from Rubia cordifolia, a well-known Himalayan plant, which used to be the source of madder before the days of synthetic dyes. It is still largely used by the hill tribes to dye thread. Apart from plants of ornamental value there are many species of Rubiaceae which are of economic importance. Quinine, so widely used in malarial cases, is a product of Cinchona ledgeriana and other species of Cinchona, which are indigenous in South America, The drug, quinine, is of such importance in all tropical malarial countries that it will be of interest to retail briefly in narrative the history of this plant and its introduction into India. 'Watt.:. Dict, (Econsp, Pred: imds Vicia ete eee 243.. Vinea parviflora Retz.; Roxb. Kl. Ind» [lar }Cathavantiius pusiilus 1G. Don, (Gen, Syste Nee oS, A much-branched annual herb, branches spreading from the base, stem and branches quadrangular. Leaves 14-3 in. long, opposite, lanceolate, acute, glabrous, membranous, margins rough; axillary glands long, subulate. Flowers small, white, mostly solitary, axillary, on short stalks. Calyx-segments 5, lanceolate- subulate. Corolla salver-shaped; tube slender, inflated above the stamens; mouth constricted, hairy; lobes 5, obiong-obovate. Stamens 5, on the corolla-tube; anthers elliptic or ovate-lanceolate, acute. Pollen grains furrowed, rectangular when dry, and spherical when moistened. Disk replaced by two linear glands. Carpels 2, free; ovules numerous, 2-seriate; style filiform; stigma capitate, with a reflexed hyaline frill at base, and a minute 2-lobed apiculus. Fruit of two slender divergent, striate follicles 1}-2 in. long. Seeds numerous, small, oblong, with many muriculate ribs (Pilate I). Flowers Aug.—Nov. Mayuranathan (7) mentions the flowering season as Nov.-March, which is rather unusual for other parts of India. Medicinal (Kirtikar, 6). INDIAN NAMES. Sanghaphuli, Sankaphi, Sangkhi (Sans.); Kapavila (Malayalam), HABITAT. Common in Deccan (Dalz, & Gibson, 3). Poona, Gujarat (Cooke, 1). Plains Districts of the Circars, Deccan and Carnatic, up to 2,000 ft., a common weed, more scarce on W. Coast (Gamble, 5). Puate | Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Zh | Z, A_ p— Sayeedud-Din—Lochnera pusilla K. Schum. For explanation see end of article. Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Sayeedud-Din—Lochnera pusilla K. Schum. For explanation see end of article. SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS 2811 A weed of cultivated ground (Mayuranathan, 7). A common weed in the beginning of the rainy season (Sayeedud-Din, 8). Distribution: India (W. Himalaya, Upper Gangetic Plain; W. Peninsula) ; Ceylon. ANATOMICAL NOTES. Structure of the leaf. (Plate II, Figs,.1 & 2). The leaf-structure is bifacial. Stomata occur on both the sides, but are much more numerous on the lower side. They are surrounded by two or more ordinary epidermal cells, and lie in a level with the epidermis. The epidermal cells on the upper side are larger than on the lower. These observations conform to those recorded by Solereder (g) 1n other species. No special features have been observed in the. meso- phyll, viz., gelatinization of the cell-walls of the spongy tissue or sclerosed palisade cells. Oxalate of lime occurs in the form of ordinary solitary crystals. The hairy covering (Plate II, Figs. 2 & 3) consists of simple unicellular and uniseriate hairs. Some are very small, resembling papillae. Glandular hairs are absent. In the stem non-articulated thick-walled laticiferous tubes are found in abundance mostly in the cortical region (Plate II, Fig. 7), but in the leaf they occur in the veins, and run freely in the meso- phyll, as in Vinca major (Solereder, 9). The thick-walled tubes by taking up a faint colour of safranin are apt to create some confusion, but chemical reactions show that the walls are composed of cellulose. The contents do not show any reaction for starch. Structure of the petiole and stem (Plate II, Figs. 4-6). The petiole contains a single arc-shaped bicollateral bundle. Stomata which occur in the furrows are accompanied by two or more subsi- diary cells parallel to the pore, that is they are of the Rubiaceous aype. Ihe epidermis of the ridges 1s composed of thick-walled cells. The cortex is composed of chlorenchyma and collenchyma, and as will be naturally expected the latter is more confined to the ridges. Intraxylary phloem is present in the form of isolated bundles at the margin of the pith. CONCLUSIONS. The chief features revealed by the study of this plant are characteristic of the family Apocynaceae to which it belongs. As it is closely allied to Asclepiadaceae many features are in common, The following is a brief summary of the characteristic features of Lochnera pusilla: : 1. In the leaf the stomata are surrounded by ordinary epidermal cells, but in the stem they are surrounded by two or more subsidiary cells parallel to the pore, thus revealing the Rubiaceous type of stomatal apparatus. 2. Oxalate of lime occurs in the stem as well as in the leaves in the form of solitary crystals. 3. The hairy covering consists of simple unicellular and uniseriate hairs. 4. Occurrence of non-articulated thick-walled laticiferous tubes. 4 282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIit 5. Ihe petiole contains a single, bicollateral arc-shaped bundle. In the stem intraxylary phloem is present in the form of isolated bundles at the margin of the pith. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Tam thankful to Mr. Sri Ramloo for the drawings which were made under my supervision, and to Mr. Moinuddin for the trouble | which he took in preparing several microscopic slides, LITERATURE CONSULTED. 1: Cooke, T.—The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, vol. ii, Pt. 1, Pp. 129 (1904). 2. Hooker, J. D.—The Flora of British India, vol. iii, p. 640 (1882). 3. Dalzell, N. A. and Gibson, A.—The Bombay Flora, p. 144 (1861). 4. Engler, A. and Prantl, K.—Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien, vol. iv, Ps 2 (TSOs). 5. Gamble, J. S.—Flora of the Presidency of Madras, Pt. 5, p. 809 (1623). 6. Kirtikar, K. R. and Basu, B. D.—IJndian Medicinal Plants, 2nd edition, vol. ii, p. 1560. 7, Mayuranathan, P. V.—The Flowering Plants of the Madras City and its Immediate Neighbourhood, p. 171 (1929). 8. Sayeedud-Din, M.—‘A Further Contribution to Some of the Common Flowering Plants of the Hyderabad State; their distribution and economic importance. Dicotyledons’. J.B.N.H.S., vol. xl, No. 2, p. 203 (1938). g. Solereder, H.—Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Engl. Kd., vol. i, pp. 528-533; vol. ii, pp. 983-987. 10. Trimen, H.—Flora of Ceylon, vol. iti, p. 130. 11. Watt, G.—Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, vol. iv, Pt. 4, p. 243. EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Lochnera pusilla K. Schum. PATE 1. Fig. 1.—Black and white drawing of Lochnera pusilla K. Schum, (Nat. size). Fig. 2.—Corolla opened out. (X10). Fig. 3.—Pistil with calyx attached. (X10). lig. 4.--Pollen grain in dry condition. (X40). lig. 5.—Pollen grain, moistened. (xX 40), PLATE Fig. 1.---Leaf-epidermis, showing stomata surrounded by ordinary epidermal cells, + -)( 255) Fig. 2.—T. S. Leaf, showing two unicellular hairs on the upper epidermis, a stoma on the lower epidermis, palisade and spongy tissue. (215). Fig. 3.—A latex-tube from the leaf. (215). Fig. 4.—An uniseriate hair from leaf-epidermis. (X 215). Fig. 5.—Stem-epidermis, showing stomata surrounded by subsidiary cells. (X 215). Fig. 6.—T. S. Petiole, showing an arc-shaped vascular bundle, diagrammatic. ( X 50). , Fig. 7.—T. S. Stem. L. laticiferous tubes in cortex; P. intraxylary phloem in groups. (%X 215). (To be continued). THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. BY D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.&.E.S. Part VI. (Continued from page 44 of this volume). RHOPALOCERA, SATYRIDAE. Mycalesis visala Moore, visala Moore, Lep. Ind., i, 189, pl. 64, figs. 1, 1a-11. 18g0-g2. Ovum spherical, the base slightly flattened, pearly white, minutely punctate. Deposited 6-viiil-go. Hatched g-viil-4o. Newly hatched larva white, the head black. Head with a short tooth projecting subdorsally. Anal somite ending in two. short processes. A tew hairs. After feeding the body becomes green and later a dark crimson dorsal stripe appears on the posterior third of the body, this stripe broadens considerably on the anal somite and extends along the anal processes. Moulted 12-vili-qo. 2nd instar—Similar. The cephalic and anal processes propor- tionately rather larger. Under a lens there is a faint yellowish white subdorsal line and the dorsum is sprinkled with minute yellow dots. Moulted 14-vili-qo. 3rd instar—Similar. Moulted 16-viti-qo. qth instar—Head blackish brown, the backs of the processes dull greenish. Body dull green, shagreened with minute yellowish white dots. 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I, UlBULB yy MEASUREMENTS IN MILLIMETRES AND SCALE-COUNTS OF SPECIMENS OF BARBUS (LISSOCHILUS) HEXAGONOLEPIS McCLELLAND FROM MALAY PENINSULA AND SIAM Siam Nakon Srita- marat Penang Island W. of Ginting Sempak, Selangor |R. Mertang, Negri Sambilan Malay Peninsula Kuala Terla, Pahang R Sepia, Pahang R. Ketil, Kelantan THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 317 MeOMOSSNNMS NSSSHNH WH OL, SANDHU HNDHM NMRHHOSH HD ]TN cH CIM HINO N toon NN rH Ve) [ om} NI SSSSSOMNSOMSD MSonooeon ML, — y NMR DOHHORMOHSOmM DONO Wo) NI ee HA 4 eS ip Ge) ash te i 4 SSSAMMOONSDS moMnonn o die) IODOMOONOSUA Honma Koa” Owornrir rANrno ase coer N —SSSSOMSSSSS oMnsswns HHO IW HOMOMOAAHMNM DBDBOoonmwnNnn Pies DAN oN ra srs rd = INLANMINASSSOD SOSSSSS H a" aomome rua ARON IN oInN SS rai r N DOMNOMSTONNS SGSONSNM FS ee ASQ MooMnManM 0 On eA Nth CODON Oornrner: endear NOOMNNSGOMNINH oninoon ° o S4+HMAK ORFS AarKinwda Down See rs mAs aod ~SSsoonnsonon sonoon of4., APRNOUNOOGHHA HOH Doya DOr rmoaoNrnd N aA est eo AQ Al SONsSeoMononn MNSMNNHS Oo ce, a DEM DDDF CONS AOHHAHO HOMA AOA AGAMA ANNAN ON inCoooOoOhMHSOne Moones Go ae HBOOMNKRDDOR HR AMNHRDOHO TOnN HANH SHeaNAR ANA — are SRNOMMNNNNNS MOSONS oS eto om4tod SHOOOH Donan S25ere Nr MINN Ar N ra SOSOOMNSSHNSS SNOENSSD WH a Shon cH OINA HAM NMOOCARH ANWMON caN IniniNnNeSESSoOSoNN MooMNMNo WwW ee N we MeMOmnKRAAN Hind ODO WAren Saeco v ano ae Sno Minna aN aN SCOomsoonneso soonnn ne ROHR AMOMRHR CHOHRAAN HORN ZEQSRANRRRER AIO) CAIN es rc C Na SOMMASSSNSOS SSOSMNN w “8 MOeNOKRARORHAN HADNMNOAHK DORN Sma phitemPl@| (8) fe (on on OP | MmNNANA N SS : : ; eee rinnc eke vats ties SO : : rhs : : : SS ea aS O28 ya | 3 8 e Q Sy Se 0 moO 42 Boy Me =D o = q tw oO on O S a. Saat ~F se ast a ov s SOS BSoVZFR=e BOD oO) Go} Go: ee le fer en | >No Sse HK i nBO: "OS HBT HOG ASry ONS HS OH . aegvea Ssvseveaeds Seuvnog onn SOSA VBHRISO GM, TAaAa Te ONT a ches Oe ee thet hs het et ay 223 AVC SOuwBOReHoge®0000o0d a3? Oo SE0t 5.0 0, Oe a nan> Ca DS G BY hey Sp tes) Heol es} cle a4 aa ne} te) tc YOCGGYP LS VPrPeryPpyPy CoO0T ao Wee FwMa HS HAT do O00 d0 dN OG e ae cee Oe te eet a el ee Oe of 6 oa CHORE AS ees es 00000 UW OOo 9 Boose eaaseeadg BaaAde Aaa 818 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XETT ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The entire cost of illustrating this article has been borne by the Bombay Natural History Society and for this we are greatly indebted to the authorities of that institution. The colour draw- ings have been made from specimens, sketches and notes supplied by Mr. D. E. B. Manning, Divisional Forest Officer, Burma. We are very grateful to Mr. Manning for his kindness in this matter. The illustrations were prepared by Babu B. Bagchi with his usual skill and care under our supervision. List OF REFERENCES. 1. Annandale, N.—‘Fish and Fisheries of the Inlé Lake.’ Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xiv, p. 35 (1918). 2.. Beaufort, L. F. de—‘On some New or Rare Species of Ostariophysi from the Malay Peninsula and a New Species of Betta from Borneo.’ Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore, No. 8, p. 34 (1933). 3. Boulenger, G. A.—‘List of Fishes collected by Mr. E. W. Oates in the Southern Shan States, and presented by him to the British Museum.’ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,. (6), vol. xii; ps 2or (1808)! 4. Duncker, G.—Die Fische der Malayischen Halbinsel.’ Mitt. Naturhist. Mus. Hamburs, vol. xxi, p. 178, pli aoe. 710907). 5. Fowler, H. W.—‘Zoological Results of the Third De Schauensee Siamese Expedition, Part 1.—Fishes.’ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 1xxxvi, p. 120 (1934). 6. Herre, A. W. C, T.—‘New species of fishes from the Malay Peninsula and Borneo.’ Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore, No. 16, p. 10 (1940). 7. Herre, A. W. and Myers, G. S.—‘Fishes from Southeastern China and Hainan.’ Lingnan Sci. Journ. Canton, vol. x, pp. 242-247 (1931). 8. Herre, A. W. C. T. and Myers, G. S. ‘A Contribution to the Ichthyology of the Malay Peninsula. Part II. Fresh-water Fishes.’ Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore, No. 13, p. 61 (1937). 9. Hora, S. L.—‘Fish and Fisheries of Manipur with some _ observations on those of the Naga Hills.’ Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxii, p. 185, pl. ix, fig. 1 (1921). 10. Hora, S. L.—On a Collection of Fish from Siam.’ Journ. Nat. Hist. Soe, Siant, vol. viz. sp. 155-(1923). 11. Hora, S. L.— ‘Systematic Position, Geographical Distribution and Evolu- tion of the Cyprinoid genera with a procumbent predorsal spine.’ Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxxix, pp. 311-319 (1937). 12. Hora, S. L.—The Game Fishes of India. XI. The Mahseers or the Large-scaled Barbels of India. 4. The Bokar of the Assamese and Katli of the Nepalese, Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland.’ Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xlii, pp. 78-88 (1940). 13. Hora, S. L., Misra, K. S. and Malik, G. M.—‘A Study of variations in Barbus (Puntius) ticto (Hamilton)’. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xli, pp. 263-279 (1939). 14. Hora, S. L. and Misra, K. S.—‘Notes on Fishes in the Indian Museum. XL, On Fishes of the genus Rohtee Sykes.’ Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xlii, pp. 166-171 (1940). : 15. Lin, S. Y.—Contribution to a study of Cyprinidae of Kwangtung and adjacent provinces.’ Lingnan Sci. Journ. Canton, vol. xii, pp. 209-215 (1933). 16. Lin, S. Y.—‘Notes on a new genus, three new and two little known species of fishes from Kwangtung and Kwangsi Provinces.’ Lingnan Sci. Journ. Canton, vol: xiv; 7p, 307 (1935): 17. Mukerji, D. D.—‘Report on Burmese Fishes Collected by Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton from the tributary streams of the Mali Hka river of the Myitkyina District (Upper Burma).’ Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. XEXVI, p04) pl. a, ne. a F(193), v8. Myers, G. S.—‘On the fishes described by Koller from Hainan in 1926 and 1927.’ Lingnan Sci. Journ, Canton, vol. x, pp. 257, 258 (1931). THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 319 1g. Nichols, J. T.—‘Some Chinese Fresh-water Fishes.’ Amer. Mus. Novitates, No. 185, p. 2 (1925). 20. Nichols, J. T.—‘Chinese Fresh-water Fishes in the American Museum of Natural History’s Collections.” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. viii, Atte Isr 2, tis. 3 (1928). 21. Smith, H. M.—‘Description of new genera and_ species of Siamese Imishes.. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.; vol. Ixxix, art. 7, p. 14 (1931). 22. Suvatti, C.—Index to Fishes of Siam, p. 55 (Bangkok, 1936). 23. Weber, M. and Beaufort, L. F. de—The Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelage, vol. iii, pp. 167-169 (Leiden, 1916). EXPLANATION OF PLATES. Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland. The two colour drawings reproduced on this plate were made from sketches, notes and specimens supplied by Mr. D. E. B. Manning, Divisional [Forest Officer, Burma, and portray variation in colouration exhibited by the species in different waters. The upper illustration is from a specimen of the ‘Olive Mahseer’ of the Pegu District, while the lower one represents the ‘Gold’ or ‘Red Mahseer’ of the Tavoy District. However, both the colour varieties represent the same species and show that much reliance cannot be placed on colouration alone in distinguishing species of the large-scaled Barbels of India. For details of colouration see pp. 314, 315 above, Ao NEW “SPECIESCOFR* CORES BY K. “@SERIAN “JACOB, (EAS. | RALAS) | (With a plate), Coleus vettiveroides K. C. Jacob, sp. nov. Labiatae—Ocimoideae. Ab alits speciebus differt radicibus, ‘quae sunt aromaticae dum sint integrae.’ Herba succulenta, 45 em.-53 cm. altitudine, fruticosa, ramis aliquantulum decumbentibus. Truncus 1.25 cm. diametro, leniter sub-purpureus, pubescens, cum albis, brevibus capillis, axis primaria plus minus quadrilateralis, ramis fere teretibus. Folia opposita; petioli 4-6 cm. longi, pubescentes, subpurpurei, ventro sulcato dorsoque tereti; lamina crassa, fere rotunda, 8-10 cm. longa, y-12 cm. lata, superiori superficie sparse pubescens, inferiori superficie dense pubescens ; nervi palmati; nervi praecipui 12, insuper demersi, desuper valde elati et prominentes ; superficies rugosa; margines dentati. Radices fibrosae ; 35 ¢m.-50 cm, longae si arenoso solo crescant, stramineo colore, post unum alterumve diem nigri evadentes, aromaticae dum sint recentes. Plantae flores nemo unquam_ vidit. Coleus osmirrhizon Elliot nomen tantum in Herbarium Madras (Coimbatore) No. 40, 797; Herb succulent, 45 cm.-53 cm. in height, bushy with slightly decumbent branches; stem 1.25 cm. in diameter, slightly purplish, pubescent with white short hairs, main stem more or less four-sided and branches nearly terete ; leaves opposite ; petioles 4 cm.-6 cm. long, pubescent, purplish, ventrally furrowed, dorsally rounded (terete); lamina thick, nearly rounded, 8 cm.-1o cm. long, g cm.-12 cm. broad, sparsely pubescent on the upper surface and densely pubescent below; nerves palmate, main nerves 12, sunk above and very much raised and prominent below; surface puckered; margins dentate. Roots fibrous, 35 cm.-50 cm. jong when grown in sandy areas, straw-coloured, turning dark after a day or two, aromatic when fresh. The plant has so far been seen only under cultivation at Shiyali, Tanjore District; Palni in Madura District; Conjeeveram in Chingleput District, etc., in the Madras Presidency and it has not been seen in flower anywhere at any time. The plants were specially grown at Shiyali in Tanjore District, South India, a natural habitat and at Coimbatore. All attempts at inducing flowering have failed at both places. There is a specimen. of this plant in the Madras Herbarium at Coimbatore labelled Coleus osmirrhizon Elliot. Tamil: Kuru Veru, collected at Mahabalipuram, Chingleput District, by T. Abboy Naidu on the 25th May, 1879. This name (Coleus osmirrhizon Elliot) could not be traced in any of the literature available here. The Curator of the Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Sibpur, Calcutta, considers it as only a manuscript name. This specimen also is without flowers. There is a good deal of confusion in the local names of the scented roots of Vetiveria sizanioides Nash. (a grass) and those of this species of Coleus, the specific name of which has not been determined. With a view to clarify this confusion, a questionnaire was sent to some of the most important places where these two reots are very well known focally, and information obtained through the Agricultural Departmental Officers. Four local names, viz., Vetti ver, Kuru ver, Velamichai ver and Ramacham were reported to be in common use for these two scented roots. The consensus of opinion is that Vetti ver and Kuru ver are synonyms and are used for the roots of the Coleus species and Velamichai ver and Ramacham are two linguistic names for the grass, Vetiveria sizanioides Nash., the former in Tamil Districts, and the later in Malayalam speaking Districts and States. “fe peoids ‘Fr aysiay ‘plo syuow AINOF ynoqe jurjg 7 "Aou “ds ‘qooef “9 “yy saplosaatjaa snajoj ~~ 9 recon cangysanenanneucnnangurrenonmesinana L "00G "3SIHT ‘JBN Avquog ‘uimor A NEW SPECIES OF COLEUS 321 The roots of this Coleus species are known as Vettiver in Tanjore, North Arcot, Coimbatore, Madura, Tinnevelly and Ramnad Districts. The same root is Known as Kuru ver in Chingleput, Yanjore, North Arcot and parts of Madura Districts. Vetti ver and Kuru ver are synonymously used in Tanjore, North Arcot and parts of Madura Districts. In Shiyal Taluq of the Tanjore District where this Coleus species is extensively cultivated on the sandy banks of the Coleroon river, the names Vetti ver and Kuru ver are synonymously used. At Paini in Madura District where it is under cultivation in sandy garden lands it goes by the name Vetti- ver and at Conjeeveram in Chingleput District where it is cultivated on the banks of the Vegavathi river it is known as Kuruver. The. fresh fragrant roots of Vettiver (Kuruver) are used trom time im- memorial in the decoration of the idols in the South Indian temples of the Tamil Districts and also in the ladies’ toilet for dressing hair. The well-known Khus-khus or Cuscus of Commerce is known as Velamichai Ors, Velamichaver in all the Tamil Districts, viz., .Vanyore; North Arcot, Madura, Tinnevelly, Coimbatore, etc. In parts of Tinnevelly District it is also known as Lamacham or Ramacham ver. Ramacham is the well-known name for this root unmistakably used throughout the Malayalam speaking area. It is called Vetti ver at Vellaikulam in Chingleput District adjoining the Telugu area. The fragrant dried roots of the Khus-khus are used for making mats, chick-thatties, fancy fans and ‘Kavadies’. It is also employed in the adulteration of Vettiver at Srivilliputtur, Ramnad District. These roots are scented only at certain seasons of the year (Madras Agricultural Department Year Book 1918, pp. 67-69). It is extensively cultivated on the coastal regions of the Ponnani Taluq of the Malabar District. It is also grown to a limited extent at Srivilliputtur in Ramnad District mainly for adulterating with the roots of Vettiver (Coleus sp.). This grass is found commonly in swampy or moist situations in Mysore, South Kanara, Malabar, Coimbatore, Chingleput, South Arcot, Nellore, Kistna, Godaveri, Vizagapatam and other Districts. But the extraction of Khus-khus at the proper season and the manufacture of chick-thatties, fans, ete., are carried on as a cottage industry by the moplah community (Malayalam speaking Muhammadans) of the Ponnani taluq in the Malabar District. The dried roots of this grass retain the pleasant and strong aroma for a very long time even for some years, while only fresh roots of Vettiver (Coleus sp.) are scented and made use of since they become odourless as they dry up in the course of 3 or 4 days. The fresh Vettiver roots are straw- coloured but soon become dark as they dry up, while those of Khus-khus retain the straw colour even after drying. In the Telugu Districts of this Presidency starting from the Chingleput District right up to Ganiam, Khus-khus roots are known as Vetti ver. The idols in the Telugu temples are not generally decorated with any scented roots. Since Khus-khus is known as Vetti ver, the products of Khus-khus, viz., chick-thatties, fans, ete., are also known as Vettiver thatties, fans, etc., in these parts. It has already been shown that Khus-khus and Vettiver (also known = as JXuruver) are the roots of two different kinds of plants but are recognised by different conflicting names in different localities of this Province. This misnomer in the local name has been carried so far that the local name of the Coleus species was given to a species of grass, Vetiveria odorata Virey., as early as 1827. Hooker, in the Flora ef British India, puts Vetiveria as a subgenus of Andropogon and cailed this plant Andropogon squarrosus V.inn. f., but Gamble, in the Flora of the Presidency of Madras, names this grass as Vetiveria cisamtotdes Nash. The local name of this Coleus has become the generic name oi a group of grasses, one of which has scented roots. The origin of ithe name Vettiver for Khus-khus in Telugu parts is not known. The following explanation is suggested :— T. Abboy Naidu’s specimen of this Coleus was collected in the year 187qa, near Madras and is known as Kuruver, Telugu area begins with Madras. This Coleus, therefore, might have been known to Telugus as Kuruaver. ite Telugus who visit the famous South Indian temples might have become familiar with Vettiver roots which are used to decorate the 322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII idols in those temples. It is likely that they might have been ignorant of the two different names Kuruver and Vettiver for the same plant. They might have hence thought that Vettiver might be the roots of the Khus-khus plant which are also scented. During the time of the East India Company, Samalkota, in Telugu country, was a centre of botanical study and the name Vettiver might have been first introduced into botanical works somewhere here. Vettiver or Kuruver (Coleus sp.) is largely cultivated on the river banks in sandy loams. It is propagated by planting young shoots and plants are ready for ‘lifting in about 4 months when the roots would have attained the maximum length and possessed with best aroma. Jt needs heavy manuring and constant watering. This species of Coleus which has not so far been correctly named is designated as Coleus vettiveroides K. C. Jacob. The specific name vettiveroides is after the most popular Tamil name of the plant in places where it is largely cultivated. Type in Madras Herbarium, Coimbatore: Madras Herbarium No. 85,676. My thanks are due to Father A. Rapinat, 5. J., Professor of Botany, St. Joseph’s College, Trichinopoly, for kindly rendering the English description into Latin, to Rao Bahadur G. N. Rangaswami Ayyangar, F.N.I., 1.A.S., Geneticist and Principal, Agricultural College, Coimbatore, and Dr. N. L. Bor, Forest Botanist, Dehra Dun, for their valuable suggestions. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Gamble, J..5., Flora of the Presidency of Madras, p. 1732. Hooker,,J. D.,. Flora of ‘British India,” Voli? Vil, p= 186; Thiselton-Dyer, W. T., Flora of Tropical. Africa, Vol. V, pp. 422-444: MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS. BY Mi 1D CRICHTON: (With 4 plates), Melvill and Standen! computed the total of Madras marine mollusca at slightly over 7oo of which, approximately, 470 were univalves and 230 bivalves. It should be noted, however, that the collections examined by them when compiling their catalogue included specimens from the neighbourhood of Pamban, a distance of 235 miles by sea from Madras, where coral formation predo- minates in marked contrast to the unrelieved sand of the southern portion of the East Coast of India. As there are many mollusca peculiar to coral-reef conditions which are not found elsewhere there would appear to be reason—if only as a matter of local interest—for keeping separate a record of species which are known to make their homes, in some cases it may be only as temporary visitors, within sound of the surf of the Coromandel Coast. I have had opportunities of collecting at many places along the shores of this coast besides dredging down to 6 or 8 fathoms off Pondicherry, Cuddalore, Porto Novo, and Negapatam, and to a greater depth at Madras, and am satisfied that the forms found at “Madras may be regarded as typical of the entire coast, say from Point Calimere (Lat to" 18’ N:)) to Cocanada (Lat. 17° 'N.). The territory covered by these notes, however, will be confined to the strip of sea-board in the immediate vicinity of Madras, extending about thirty miles from Ennur towards Covelong in the south. Apart from the harbour area the coast presents an unbroken vista of yellow sand except where intersected by the channels of the backwater at Ennur and of the Cooum and Adyar, two small rivers whose egress is barred periodically by great banks of sand piled up during the dry months following each north-east monsoon. Consequently the mollusca comprise chiefly the dwellers in sand and mud, the only rock habitations being those provided by a hand of man, such as the blocks of concrete and stone placed a breakwaters for the protection of the harbour walls and the revet- ment immediately north of Royapuram Bay. The total number of species known to Madras exceeds 700, approximately 500 univalves and 230 bivalves. This total is constantly being added to. The mollusca here enumerated should be taken merely as a general indication of some of the species to be found. THE LITTORAL ZONE. The number of living mollusca within reach of the seeker along the shore is limited, not only by the absence of such Pv ouriie molluscan haunts as reefs and rock- fringed pools but also by the * The marine mollusca of Madras and the jmmediate neighbourhood. f. Conchol., vol, 9, pp. 30-85 (1898). 324°, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiSd SOGIE DY aavioln vom restricted collecting area available between high and low water mark, the average rise and fall of ithe tide being under 3 feet with a maximum of 4.5 feet. Even so, a diligent search within wading depth will bring to light a fair range of species varying more or less regularly in seasonal! rotation throughout the year.. The most noticeable of these visitors is the lively tapering Bullia vittata (L.) with large water-charged foot and narrow and inadequate operculum which, with the rarer B. livida Reeve, may he seen in considerable numbers on the firm wet sand at low tide, particularly at Parry’s Beach to the south of the harbour. This, on occasion, feeds on the little’ round-backed crab (Philvra) whose arrival synchronizes with that of Bullia; after an initial “hand off’, the crab submits ie being seized without any further effort at resistance and is soon drawn within the muscular folds of the mantle. So determined is the hold on its victim that the Bulla can be pulled almost completely out of the shell without losing its grip. This mollusc dwells with us for several months each year, during which time its family increases and grows up rapidly. The shell of B. lvida, although resembling that of B. vittata both in shape and design, except that the spiral band of tubercles below the sutures of the latter consists of two or three rows whereas in B, livida it is usually single, will be easily recognized by a richer colouring and thickened outer lip, in addition to which the operculum is squarely oval and more or less fills the aperture. B. tranquebarica (Réding) is a third local representative of this genus of the family Nassaridae, and its triangulate operculum with serrated edge completes the three types of operculum associated with this family. Farther south, at St. Thomé and heyond, olive-shells are to be found at all seasons, both Oliva oliva (L.) and O. ispidula (L.), the latter in an infinite variety of colours and markings. Early in February each year large colonies of Oliva gibbosa (Born), 10 mature form, are to be found for a brief season near the shore at Ellot’s Beach, the raised ridges of their mole-like burrows in the sand indicating their position. This handsome shell attains a length of some 3 inches and hears a .close resemblance to O. nebulosa Lam., both in pattern and colouring. The latter, how- ever, 1S narrower with a more tapering spire. Unlike O, gibbosa it is very rarely taken near the shore although commonly dredged in from 6 to 10 fathoms in all stages of erowth: The Olives are also carnivorous and show a partiality for the shy little mole-crab (Hippa asiatica Edwards). I have more than once witnessed the unequal contest with the victim struggling valiantly but helpless in the pincers-like grip of O. hispidula, whilst the swift incoming waves have swept the pair several times up and along and onan the gently sloping beach and finally into deeper water without being able to break them apart. Qne cannot help feeling a sympathy for this strange, gentle creature, known locally as ‘eel-lee’, which spends the entire day digging ‘icelt inte the wet sand with feverish haste as each receding wave leaves the ill-protected Jittle body exposed to the pounce of Brahminy Kites and crows ever on the look-out for: the tasty morsel. Provid- ence’s only compensation would appear to be the allotment of a Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS. 1. Cardium assinile Reeve. 2. Tellina foliacea Lin. 3. Lellina angulata Gmelin. Tellina timorensis Lam. 5. Psammobia aniethystus Wood. 6. Siliqua radiata (Lin.). Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 1} | MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS. 1. Argonauta hians (Solander). 2. Spirula spirula (Lin.). 3. NXenophora solaris (Lin.). 4. Natica lineata (Rod.). 5. N. didyma (Rod.). 6. N. didyma (Rod.). (normal shell). var. with scalariform whorls. 8. B. crumena (Lam.). 9. Gyrineum natator (Bolten). Oy: MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS 32 Very biicl Span ‘andyits troubles, thereloré, are soon over. Let us hope that under cover of darkness there may exist compensa- tions of a more materaal kind! Rapana bulbosa (Lillwyn) (Plate TH, fig, 6} ts sometimes swept shorewards during stormy weather and may be found clinging to an old shell or root of sea-weed, the young ones adhering to each other in clusters. Nussarius and Natica (Plate Il, figs. 4, 5, 6) may also be taken. Amongst the bivalves which feed near the shore are found four or five kinds of wedge-shell, the finest being the magnificent Donax scortum L., strongly fashioned with deep corrugations and rich purple iiterior. The tiny D, dussumieri Bertin may be found during brief periods about February and August each year. Large quan- tities of this brilliantly variegated little shell congregate an inch or so under the surface at ebb of tide; when exposed they quickly dive out of sight, sharp end first, into the wet sand. The com- monest is D. cuneatus L. in a range of colouring, radiating from the umboes, which includes pale blue, yellow, brown, and a harsh liver-green. The young are in evidence in October in the shelter of Ennur backwater, while in February and March the half-grown and adult shells may be found together in large numbers between tide marks at St, Thomé and Ennur. In calm water the circular orifice of the upper or lower siphon may be observed just above the surface of the sand, indicating the presence of the shell buried an inch or so below. Fully grown shells measure from 4o to 43 mm. in length. Other all-the-year-round frequenters of the intertidal region include Sunetta scripta (L.), beautifully and variously patterned in purples, browns, mauves, gold, and ivory. These make their début about December and their growth may be followed month after month until the foliowing autumn when they attain a full stature of some 33 mm. Several other brightly patterned species of the Venus family are also found, Mactra cygnus Gm., whose thin but strongly formed shells, in a good range of colours, are usually to be found scattered on the beach, visits the shallows for a brief period only during the south- west monsoon, the young shells beginning to appear about April. Mactra mera Rv:,. M. striatula L., and young M. turgida Gm. are not uncommon towards the end of the north-east monsoon. The shells are seldom found complete, i.e. with both valves joined together or ‘mudi’(q@-.) as our’ young helpers concisely describe this desirable condition, unless taken alive. Of the Garidae, Soletellina diphos (L.) should be looked for iunmediately south of the Adyar during the first violent storms of the north-east monsoon when it is dislodged from its sandy bed and flung ashore. Unless freshly collected the valves soon become separated, the thick greenish yellow periostracum cracks and peels away and the hot sun quickly bleaches the rich purple colouring of the shell. The young may be found earlier in the year in the extensive backwaters at Ennur and Covelong which are periodically open to the inflow of the sea. The fan-oyster (Pinna) is another dweller in or near the channel of the Adyar river to seaward; live specimens are sometimes $26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HiST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII uprooted from their burrows during the north-east gales. Pinna grows to a large size, P. pectinata L. (=hanleyi Ry.) and P. attenuata Ry. having both been found at Madras up to over one foot in length. A specimen of the latter, taken at Tuticorin, measures 194 inches. 408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII Albahaca—; Suto: Mmavwatwane—; Tamil: Ganjamkorai, Kanjankxorai, Naitulasi—; Telugu: WKukkatulasi—; Timne: An-soro, E-soro, Koe suru—; Tivi: Kangulaku— ; Togbo : Biroulou—; Twi: Emeng—; Woloff : Ngumgume— ; Yoruba: Aruntantan, Lfinrin aja, Efinrin ata, Efinrin marugboshanyan, Efinrin wewe—. ) 3. Ocimum gratissimum Linn. is’ found throughout India and Ceylon, often cultivated. It is distributed to Java, tropical Africa and America. Aromatic baths or fumigations prepared witi the plant are advised in the treatment of rheumatism and paralysis. In the aphthae of children a strong decoction has been found effectual. A decoction of the leaves is of value in cases of seminal weak- ness, and is an esteemed remedy in gonorrhoea. The seeds are given in headaches and neuralgia. In China the leaves and flowers are used as a sudor ific in dis- eases of ithe lungs. Considered digestive and pectoral in La Reunion. On the Gold Coast the leaves are mashed and used as an enema by newly deli- vered women. It is also used for young infants. A very popular remedy in Madagascar. It is considered aro- matic, digestive, tonic, pectoral, antiemetic, antispasmodic, anti- neuralgic, The Betsileo chew the leaves for toothache, and_ sniff the juice of the leaves or the powdered seeds in headache. Arabic: Furanjmishk—; Bengal: Ramtulshi, Ramtulsi—; Betsileo Romba—; Bombay: Ramatulasa, Rantulsi, Tulsi—; .Chinese: Tzeu Sou—; Deccan: Ramtulsi—; English: Large Basil, Lemon Basil, Shrubby Basil—; Ewe: Waiblorsi—; French: Basilic crépu—: Gujerati: Avachibavachi, Ram- tulasi— ; Hindi: Bantulsi, Malatulsi, Ramtulsi—; La Reunion: Baumier, Gros braume—; Malay : Ruku-ruku hitam, Selaseh besar—; Malayalam: Kattutrittavu, RKamatulasi— ; Marathi: Ramatulasi, Ranatulasu—; Mauritius: Basilic, Toulashi, Toulsi—; Mundari: Dimbubaha—; Persian: Palangmishk—; Porebunder : Ramtulasi— ; Punjab: Banjere—; Sadani: Dimbu—; Sanskrit: Ajaka, Dosha- kleshi, Nidralu, Ramatulasi, Shophahari, Sugandhi, Sukslimapatraka, Sumulxha, Suprassanaka, Suvakra, Vanabarbarika, Vishaghna, Vriddhatulasi—, Sinhalese : Gastala, Kiritala, Otala—; Tanul: Elumichantulasi, Peruntulasi, Ramtulasi— ; Lankay: Romba—; Telugu: Nimmatulasi, Ramatulasi—; Urdu: Ramtulasi— ; Uriya: Ramotulosi, Sondabhogohulono—; Visayan: Coloncogon—; Yemen: Hobokbok, Shajaret eszir, Vusab—. 4. Ocimum sanctum Linn. is found throughout India, Burma, and Ceylon, and distributed to the Malay Archipelago, Australia, the islands of the Pacific, Western Asia, and Arabia. The root is given in decoction as a diaphoretic in malarial fevers. The leaves have expectorant properties, and their juice is used in eatarrh and bronchitis. This preparation also is applied to the skin in ring-worm and other cutaneous diseases. An infusion of the leaves is used as a stomachic in the gastric disorders of children, and in hepatic affections. The dried leaves are powdered and employed as a snuff in ozaena. They are also an effectual means of dislodging maggots. The juice dropped into the ear is said to be a good remedy for earache. The leaves are a South Indian substitute for tea. In the Tamii country the flower-tops are ground with sesamum oil and given internally to help the expulsion of the foetus. THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA — 409 In Arabia the leaves are given together with pepper in tertian and quartan fevers. The seeds are mucilaginous and demulcent, and are given in disorders of the genito-urinary system. In Ceylon the herb is used in decoctions for cough and catarrh, sometimes chewed as a substitute for betel. The fresh roots are ground with water and applied to the sting's of wasps and bees and the bites of worms and leeches. The bruised fresh roots, stems, and leaves are applied to the bites of mosquitoes (Roberts). Every part of the plant finds its application in the treatment of snake-bite and scorpion sting; but Caius and Mhaskar have shown experimentaily that every part of it is equally useless in the antidotal and symptomatic treatment of snake-bite and scorpion sting. The juice of the leaves or decoction of the same is considered to possess diaphoretic, antiperiodic and stimulating expectorant properties. A compound decoction of O. sanctum, Tinospora cord!- folia, and Evolvulus alsinoides was given in cases of malarial fever with no benefit (Koman). Arabic: Dohsch, Schadjant eszirr, Vusab—; Badaga: MKapputulasi—; Bengal: Kalatulsi, Kural, Tulshi, Tulsi—; Bombay: Tulas, Tulasa—; Burma: Lun—; Canarese: Kalatulasi, Karitulasi, Sritulasi, Tulasi-—; Deccan: Tulsi— ; English: Holy Basil, Monk’s Basil, Rough Basil, Sacred Basil—; Gujeratt: Talasi— ; Hindi: Baranda, Kalatulsi, Krishnatulsi, Tulsi, Varanda—; Ilocano: Biday—; Konkani: Tulsi—; Malay: Oku, Ruku-ruku merah, Selaseh hitam— ; Malayalam: Krishnatulasi, Kunnakam, Nallatrittavu, Punya, Sivatulasi, Surasam, Trittavu, Tulasi—; Marathi: Tulasa, Tulasichajadha—; Pampangan : Locoloco—; Philippines: Albahaca—; Portuguese: Mangericao—; Punjab: Bantulsi, Tulsi—; Queensland: Bulla-bulla, Mooda—; Sanskrit: Ajaka, Arjaka, Amrita, Apetarakshasi, Bahupatri, Bharati, Bhutaghni, Bhutaka, Bhutapatri, Brinda, Devadundubhi, Divya, Gandhaharini, Gauri, Gramya, Haripriya, Kathinjara, Kayastha, Krishnamula, Krishnatulasi, Kutheraka, Laxmi, Madhavi, Maiashreshtha, Manjari, Papaghni, Parnasa, Patrapushpa, Pavani, Pavitra, Pretarakshasi, Punya, Sarasa, Shrikrishnavallabha, Shyama, Subhaga, Sugandha, Sulabha, Surabhi, Suradundubhi, Surasa, Suravallari, Suravalli, Surejya, Suvaha, Tivra, Tridashamanjari, Tulasi, Vaishnavi, Vishnupatni, Vishnuvallabha, Vrinda— ; Sinhalese: Madurutala, Mudurutulla— ; Spanish : Albahaca morada— ; Tagalog: Balanoi, Locoloco—; Tamil: Alangai, Karuttulasi, Kulimittan, Kullai, Kumuli, Malgodai, Malmurugu, Mudi, Nediyon, Pirundam, — Sirttulay, Surasa, Surasam, Suriyagarandai, Savadugundi, Suvi, Tulasi, Tulavam, Tulay— ; Telugu: Brynda, Gaggera, Krishnatulasi, MKukkatulasi, Nallagaggera, Nalla- tulasi, Tellatulasi, Tulasi—. ORIGANUM. The genus consists of 7 species, natives of the Mediterranean region. O, dictamnus Linn., O. hirtum Link., O. Majcrana Linn., O. virens Hoff. and Link, O. vulgare Linn. are used medicinally in Europe; O. vulgare Linn. is also used in China and Malaya. 1.The 2 longest stamens and sometimes all 4 projecting beyond the corolla 3 ae af . O. Majorana. 2. Stamens 4 in unequal pairs slightly protruding .. O. vulgare. 1. Origanum Majorana Linn., a native of Europe, North Africa and Asia Minor, is extensively cultivated in India. The herb is carminative and stomachic; useful in measles. 12 ATO “JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL AIST. SOCLEDY MV o), exalt The leaves and seeds are considered astringent and a remedy for colic. The essential oil from the leaves is used for hot fomenta- tions in acute diarrhoea. In Europe an infusion made from the fresh plant is given to relieve nervous headaches; and externally the herb is applied in bags as a hot fomentation to painful swellings and rheumatism, as likewise for colic. The volatile oil 1s considered an excellent external application for sprains, bruises, etc. Arabic: Mardakusch, Merdkouche, Mizunjush—; Bogotaéd: Mejorana— ; Bengal: Murru—; Catalan: Moraduix, Moradux—; Deccan: Murwa—; Dutch: Marjolein—; Egypt: Bardaquesh, Mardaqush—; English: Sweet-knotted Marjoram, .Sweet Marjoram—; French: Marjolaine a coquille, Marjolaine des jardins, Marjolaine d’Orient, Origan marjolaine—; German: Badkraut, Blau- doste, Blauer Tarant, Blaudunst, Costenzkraut, Doschte, Dost, Felddoste, Frauendosten, Kostenskraut, Kunerle, Kuttelkraut, Majoran, Maraun, Margrankraut, Marieleine, Masaran, Maseran, Masoran, Meiran, Meyran, Muellerkraut, Ohrkraut, Schusterkraut, Sommermajoram, Thorant, Walddosten, Wohigemut, Wurstkraut— ; Greek : Amarakon, Masuran— ; Hindi: Murwa—; TItalian: Maggiorana, Marjorana, Persa—-; Kumaon: Bantulsi— ; Languedoc: Majourana, Majourena, Majurena, Mayran—; Malta: Sweet Marjoram, Maggiorana, Persia, Mertkux—; North America: Knotted Marjoram, Marjoram, Sweet Marjoram—; Roumanian: Maghiran—j; Russian: Mayoran—; Sanskrit: Ajanmasurabhipatra, Bahuvirya, Gandhapatra, Jambira, Kharapatra, Kulasaurabha, Maricha, Maru, Marubaka, Maruta, Marutaka, Phani, Phanijjaka, Prasthakusuma, Prasthapushpa, Samirana, Shitalaka, Suravha—; Sind: Murwo—; Spanish: Almoradux, Mejorana— , Tamil: Marru—; Urdu: Marvakhusha—; Yemen: Mardakush—. 2, Origanum vulgare Linn. occurs pientifully in the Himalaya, from Kashmir to Sikkim, between altitudes of 7,000 and 12,000 feet. It is distributed to Europe, North Africa, western and northern Asia. The herb is carminative, anodyne, stomachic, and emmenagogue. In China it is considered an excellent refrigerant. Externally, the dried leaves and flower-tops may be applied in bags as a hot fomentation to painful swellings and rheumatism, as well as for colic. An infusion made from the fresh plant will relieve nervous headache. The whole herb is medicinal and contains a volatile oil, which is separated by distillation. Perspiration may be produced by a warm infusion, and this is useful in the commencement of measles to bring out the eruption; it is also taken to promote the menstrual flow, when suppressed by cold; it ts also valuable in spasms, colic, and to give relief from pain in dyspeptic complaints. The oil is stimulant and rubefacient, and often used as a. lini- ment; it is given as a stimulant and tonic in colic, diarrhoea, and hysteria. It is also applied in chronic rheumatism, tooth-ache, and ear-ache. oot Arabic: Buklutulgezal, Mirzanjosha, Sutur—; Bohemian: Dobramyssl— =; Catalan: Orenga—; Chinese: Ching Chieh, Yin Ch’en—; Danish: Tost, Vild merian—; Dutch: Orego—; English: Common Marjoram, Organ, Organy, Origany, Wild Marjoram—; French: Grande marjolaine, Grande marjolaine batarde, Grande marjolaine sauvage, Grand origan, Marjolaine d’Angleterre, Marjolaine bdtarde, Marjolaine sauvage, Pied de lit, Origan, Origan commun, Origan vulgaire—; German: Blauer Orant, Brauner Dosten, Dosten, Wilder Majoran— ; Greek: Origanos— ; Hindi: Mirzanjosh, Sathra—j; Italian: Origano, LHE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 4l1 Regano—; Malaya: Yan chan—; Malta: Common Marjoram, Pot Marjoram, Regamo, Acciughero, Riegnu—; Marathi: Marva, Mayarona—; North America: Common Marjoram, Origanum, Pot Marjoram, Wild Marioram, Winter Marjoram, Winter-sweet—; Norwegian: Vild merican—; Persian: Mizangosch, Mirzanjosha, Oushneh—; Polish: Lebiotka—; Portuguese : Ouregao, Ouregos— ; Punjab: Mirzanjosh—; Russian: Dushitsa—; Spanish: Oregano—; Swedish: Dosta— ; Telugu: Mridumaruvamu—; Urdu: Mirzanjosha—. ORTHOSIPHON. The genus includes 50 species, natives of Indo-Malaya and tropical Africa. Orthosiphon stamineus Benth. occurs in Assam, Burma, the Nicobar Islands, and South India. It is distributed to the Malay Archipelago, the Philippine Islands, and Australia. In Java the leaves are made into a tea, and used in the treat- ment of diseases of the kidneys and bladder. They are official in Holland. English: Cat’s Whiskers, Java Tea—; French: Barbiflore, Thé de Java—; Matay Archipelago: Koemis Koetjing, Remock djoeng—. OTOSTEGIA. The genus consists of 10 species, inhabitants of Western Asia and Abyssinia. 1. Leaves spine-tipped; calyx naked within wet On Attojert, 2. Leaves not spine-tipped; calyx bearded within ... O. limbata. 1. Otostegia Aucheri Boiss. occurs in Baluchistan, whence it spreads to southern Persia. At Kohlu in Baluchistan the drug is administered in suppressed small-pox if the pox do not appear, after which the pox appear (Hughes-Buller). Baluchi: Samar, Shinisg—; Brahui: Sadikh, Samar ; Kohlu: Suraghzai 2. Otostegia limbata Hook. fil. is found on the lower hills of the Punjab, west of the Jhelum to the Salt Range. The juice of the leaves is applied to children’s gums, and to ophthalmia in man and beast (Stewart). Hazara: Chitiboi—; Punjab: Agzhan, Awanibuti, Bui, Jandi, Kandiari, Lana, Phutkanda—. PERILLA. The genus consists of 3 species, spreading from India to Japan. Perilla ocimoides Linn. is found from Kashmir to Bhotan at altitudes of 1,000 to 10,000 feet; also in the Khasia Mountains from 3,000 to 6,000 feet; it is cultivated in Chittagong; from Champaran it extends to Burma, and is distributed to Indo-China, China, and Japan. In China and Indo-China the leaves, the stems and the seeds are considered resolvent, diaphoretic, and cephalic. They are 412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII prescribed in cephalalgia, hypochondriasis and mania. The leaves are eaten raw or cooked, or administered as an infusion; the seeds are either toasted or dispensed in the form of a decoction. The plant is a popular remedy in Annam, where it is used as «a sedative, an antispasmodic, and an antidote. At Vinh the herb, without the roots, 1s made into a decoction and taken on an empty stomach for sunstroke. At Nghe-an the decoction is used as a uterine stimulant. At Nam-o it 1s combined with an equal amount of Ocimum sp., and used as a fumigant. Annam: Bach to, Rau hung, Thai am mau, Tu to, Xich to—; Chinese: Sou Yeh—; Hindi: Bhanjira—; Kumaon: Bhangara, Jhutela—; Naga: Kenia— ; Vinh: Tia to, Tu to—. PEROWSKIA. The genus consists of 4 species, natives of Central Asia._ 1. Leaves linear-oblong, incised or pinnatisect. Calyx closed with long cottony wool see ...P. abrotanoides. 2. Leaves oblong-ovate or lanceolate, crenate-serrate or incised. Calyx hispid ae oes ... P. atriplicifolia. 1. Perowskia abrotanoides Karel. is met with in the Western Himalaya at altitudes of 8,000 to 13,000 feet, and in Baluchistan; lt is distributed to Afghanistan, Persia, and Turkestan. At Ziarat the plant is used as a cooling medicine. The flowers are soaked in water; and this is very cooling when applied to the body of a patient suffering from fever, Brahui: Gwari drani—; Pushtu: Shanshohai—; Seistan: Maur—. 2. Perowskia atriplicifolia Benth. occurs in Kashmir at 7,500-10,000 feet, and in Baluchistan, whence it spreads to Afghan- istan. In Baluchistan the plant is used as a cooling medicine. Baluchistan: Gwaree dumoo, Gwaridrane, Tirk—; Waziristan: Sansobe—. PLATYSTOMA. The genus consists of 4 species, natives of tropical Asia and Africa. Platystoma africanum Beauv. occurs in Bombay, Dharwar, North Kanara, and Mysore. It inhabits tropical Africa. In. Northern Nigeria it 1s’ used for fever, feverish chills or rheumatic symptoms. In Gold Coast the leaves and seeds are a remedy for children’s coughs, and are also chewed with salt to cure sore throat. The juice is squeezed into the eyes to cure headache and fever. The leaves are used in Southern Nigeria as a local haemostatic. Ashanti: Asiresidie, Saman meng—; Benin: Eborukhu—; Ewe: Sesebli— ; Hausa: Kimbar-rafi—; Nzima: Siresireke—; Twi: Asirisiri—. THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 433 POGOSTEMON. The genus consists of 36 Indomalayan species. A. Bracts ovate, imbricating, more or less concealing the calyx. 1. Stems and leaves nearly glabrous. lowers purple ... P. parviflorus. 2. Stems and leaves below hoary-puberalous. Flowers pink or white ae a a sia we £. plectrantheides. B. Bracts narrow, lanceolate, not imbricating, not con- cealing the calyx. 1. Spikes more or less continuous, about 1 cm. broad ... P. purpurascens, 2. Spikes much interrupted, 5-6 mm. broad ... .. P. Heyneanus. 1. Pogostemon Heyneanus Benth. (=P. Patchouli Hook, fil.) occurs in Kanara, the Western Ghats, and the Nilgiris. It extends to Ceylon, and is distributed to Java and the Philippine Islands. The plant is diuretic, carminative, and insecticide. It yields an essential oil largely employed in perfumery. Bengal: Pachapat—; Bombay: Patchpan—; Dutch: Patchoeli—; English : Patchouli— ; French: Patchouli Gujerati: Patchpanadi—; Hindi: Pacholi, Peholi— ; Malaya: Bur kalif, Poko nilam—; Marathi: Mali, Patcha, Patchpan— ; Sind: Panel—; Sinhalese: Gang-kolang-kola—; Spanish: Pachuli—; Straits Settlements: Tilam wangi—,; Visayan: Cablan—. 2. Pogostemon parviflorus Benth. occurs more or less through- out India. The fresh leaves, bruised, are applied as a cataplasm in order to clean wounds and promote healthy granulation. In Satara the juice is given in colic and fever. The root is a reputed remedy for haemorrhage, and has been given successfully in uterine haemorrhage. The roots are used in the Ratnagiri District as an antidote for the poison of Echis carinata, a common snake in that district. The plant, in combination with other drugs, is prescribed as an antidote to snake and scorpion venoms; but Caius and Mhaskar have shown experimentally that no part of the plant is an antidote to either snake or scorpion venom. Bombay: Pangla, Phang, Phangla-—; MWonkani: Pangla—; Marathi: Pangli—; Matheran: Pangli—. 3. Pogostemon plectranthoides Desf, is found in the Western Himalaya, Lower Bengal and Upper Burma, Bihar, Gujerat, Konkan, and South India. The properties are said to be the same as those of P. parvi- florus. Bengal: Jin—; Deccan: Pangla—; Garhwal: Lujra—; Khond: Ishwarjata— ; Konkani: Pangla—; Haldwani: Kalabasinga—; Ramnagar: Rudera—; Telugu: Kusurijang—; Uriya: Dumobadotoko, Gondripulu, Poksunga—. - 4. Pogostemon purpurascens Dalz. is found in South India, Manipur, and Burma. It is used as a substitute for P. parviflorus. 414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII ROYLEA. Roylea elegans Wall., the only species, is found in the sub- tropical Western Himalaya from Kashmir to Kumaon, at altitudes between 2,000 and 5,000 feet. An infusion of the leaves is drunk for contusions produced by blows, and about Kumaon the same preparation is used as a bitter tonic and febrifuge. Garhwal: Karui, Titpati—; Hindi: Patkarru—; Jaunsar: WKaranoi— ; Kumaon: Kauri, Titpatti—; Punjab: Kaur, Kauri—. SALVIA. The genus numbers 550 species, inhabiting the tropical and temperate regions of the world. The following species are used medicinally in Europe— S. aethiopis Linn., S. canariensis Linn., S. gluttnosa Linn., S. Grahami Benth., S...hispanica Linn.,. S. _Horminum Linn., S. officinalis Linn., S. pratensis Linn., S. Sclarea Linn., S. triloba Linn, “fil;, S. Verbenaca: Linn... S. verticillata, Winns. wiriats Linn.—; in China—S. japonica Thunb., S. miltiorhiza Bunge., S. plebeja R. Br.—; in Malaya—S. miltiorhiza Bunge—; in North America—S, lanceolata Bruce, S. officinalis Linn., S. Verbenaca Linn.—; Mexico—S. polystachya Ort., S. hispanica Linn.—; in Colombo—S. palaefolia H. B. K.—; in Madagascar—sS. leucodermis Bak.—; in La Reunion—S. gerardiana Benth.—; in Mauritius—S. coccinea Juss.—; in South Africa—S. africana Linn., S. aurea Linn., S. coccinea Juss., S. paniculata Linn., S. repens Burch., S. rugosa Thunb., S. runcinata Linn, fil., S. scabra Thunb., S. sisymbrifolia Skan., S. stenophylla Burch., S. triangularis, Thunb.—. I. Small shrubs or —undershrubs; — leaf-blade usually .5-2 cm. long 1. Corolla 15-25 mm. long ee ae a1) De NGADUII Ca: 2, Corolla 5 mm. long a =: ae .. S. aegyptiaca. II. Herbs; leaf-blades usually much exceeding 2 cm. A. Leaves more or less thick, rugose or rugulose; calyx teeth more or less spinous. 1. All leaves more or less sessile, oblanceolate ... S. lanata. 2. All or lower leaves petiolate, ovate to oblong. a. Calyx 20-25 mm. long, in fruit. i. Leaves subentire or serrate; bracts usually whitish we Ras: Bes ... S. macrosiphon. ii. Leaves coarsely dentate or lobed; bracts usually green Be a . S. spinosa. b. Calyx 10-15 mm. in fruit. Perennial . S. Moorcroftiana. B. Leaves membranous, neither rugose nor rugulose ; calyx teeth not spinous. 1. Corolla 5 mm. long, white or lilac. Annual ... S. plebefa. 2. Corolla 25-30 mm. long, yellow tes ... S. glutinosa. 1. Salvia aegyptiaca Linn. occurs in the Punjab plains, Sind, and Baluchistan, whence it spreads westwards to Afghanistan. It is distributed to Persia and North Africa. THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 415 At Pab, in Jhalawan, the plant is used as a cure for eye diseases. in Sind the seeds are used as demulcent in diarrhoea, gonorrhoea, and haemorrhoids. Arabic: Ra ’al, Raale, Sadjaret el ghasal, Shajaret-el-ghazal—; Baluchi: J g J g ; Kohi maur—; Bolan: Chamimar, Chammamaor—; Egypt: Ra ’al, Shegeret- el-ghazal—; Pab: Maur—; Punjab: Tukhmmalanga—; Tank: Paska, Rangboti—. 2. Salvia cabulica Benth. extends from the Punjab frontier to Baluchistan and Afghanistan. In Baluchistan the plant is considered a cure for fever, also for colds and lung diseases. Baluchistan : Mateto—. 3. Salvia glutinosa Linn. occurs in the North-West Frontier Province, Kashmir. the Punjab, Kumaon, Gharwal, Sikkim, and Bhootan. It is distributed to Tibet, Western Asia, and Europe. In some parts of Europe an infusion of the leaves and flower tops is used as a diaphoretic, stimulant, and stomachic. It is an excellent lotion for ulcers, and to heal raw abrasions of the skin. Spanish: Cetro de Jupiter—. . Salvia lanata Roxh. is found in the Western Himalaya, from 4 : ; ) Murree to Kumaon, at altitudes of 5,000 to 8,ooo feet. ‘It 1s a good substitute for S, Moorcroftiana. 5. Salvia macrosiphon Boiss. extends from the Punjab frontier to Baluchistan, Afghanistan and Persia. At Pre Ghal, in Waziristan, the plant is used as a poultice for evangrene. 6. Salvia Moorcroftiana Wall. is found in the Western Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon, at altitudes of 6,000 to g,000 feet. The root is given in cough, and the seeds are used as an emetic. The leaves are a medicine for guinea-worm and itch, and in the form of poultice applied to wounds. At Lahore, the seeds are given in colic and dysentery, and are applied to boils. The seeds are given for haemorrhoids. Punjab: Gurgumma, Halu, Kallijarri, Laphra, Papra, Shobri, Thut—. 7. Salvia plebeia R. Br. is found throughout India. It is distributed to China, the Malay Islands and Australia. The seeds are used as demulcent in gonorrhoea, menorrhagia, diarrhoea, and haemorrhoids. The herb is used as a diuretic, astringent, and anthelmintic in China. Bengal: Bhutulsi, Khokaburadi—; Bombay: Kammarkas—; Chinese: Ching Chieh, Ho Shih—;- Punjab: Samundarsok, Sathi—; Sind: Kiuro, Summundursok—. 416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII 8. Salvia spinosa Linn. occurs in Baluchistan, and is distributed to Mesopotamia, Syria, and Arabia. At Burj, in Toba Achakzai, the seed is powdered and applied to the teeth to cure tooth-ache. Egypt: Na’eyme, Shadjeret-el-gemal, Ta’elbe, Tha’alaba—; Mosul: Hamham— ; Pushtw: Ganacha—; Quetta-Pishin: Ganacha—. SATUREIA. The genus numbers 130 species dispersed through the warm regions of the world. S. hortensis Linn., S. montana Linn., and S. Thymbra Linn. are used medicinally in Europe. | Satureia hortensis Linn. occurs in Kashmir. It is distributed to Afghanistan, Western Asia, Europe, America, and South Africa. The herb is aromatic and carminative. The leaves and flower- tops are used as a stimulant. } Catalan: Sajulida, Sajurida—; Dutch: Boonenkruid—; English: Summer Savory—; French: Herbe de Saint Julien, Sadrée, Sarriéte, Sarriette, Sarriette des jardins, Sauriette, Savorée, Savourée—; German: Bohnenkraut—,; Italian: Santoreggia, Satureja—; Portuguese: Segurelha—; Roumanian: Galbinare— ; Russian: Chaber—; Spanish: Ajedrea, Tomillo real—. SCUTELLARIA. The genus includes 200 cosmopolitan species. S. canescens Nutt., S. cordifolia Muehl., S. galericulata Linn., S. integrifolia Linn., S. laterifiora have, at some time or other, been used medicinally and also as a source of ‘scutelarin’—; S. haicalensis Georg. 1s used in China. Scutellaria galericulata Linn. is found in Kashmir. It inhabits Central and Northern Asia, Europe, North Africa, and North America. If a decoction of the plant is made with 2 ounces of the herb to 8 ounces of water, and is taken for some weeks continuously in recent epilepsy, or when the disease has only functional causes, it will often prove very beneficial. Likewise, this decoction, in common with an extract of the herb, has been given curatively for intermittent fever and ague, as well as for some depressed and disordered states of the nervous system. A homoeopathic tincture has been successfully given in cases of the epileptiform ‘petit mal’. The crushed plant is applied fresh to old ulcers. The Flambeau Ojibwe, of North America, use the plant for medicine having something to do with heart trouble. Dutch: Glidkruid—; English: Blue Scullcap, Greater Scullcap, Helmet Flower, Hooded Willow Herb, Hoodwort—; flambeau Ojibwe: Tcatcabont ‘ksik—; French: Grande toque, Scutellaire en toque, Toque—; German: Helmkraut, Stumpfhelmkraut—; North America: Hooded Scullcap, Marsh Skulleap-—; Spanish: Escutelaria—. THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 417 STACHYS. The genus consists of 200 cosmopolitan species, absent from Australia. The following species are used medicinally in Europe—S. annua Einn., 5. servensis Winn., S» Betonica Linn., S. germanica Linn., S. hirta Linn., S. maritima Linn., S. palustris Linn., S. recta Linn., S. sylvatica Linn.—; in China—S. aspera Michx., S. Sieboldi Mig.—; in Colombia—-S. bogotensis H. B. K.---. I. Stems and leaves beneath densely white wooliy .. S. parviflora. II. Stems and leaves densely or sparingly hairy, but not woolly. 1. Leaves petioled; corolla-tube exserted. a. Petiole 2 cm. or shorter, margin crenate ep Sstevold:, b. Petiole 4 cm. or longer, margin serrate hos sylvarica: 2. Leaves sessile; corolla-tube included _e .. 9. palustris. 1. Stachys palustris Linn. grows in Kashmir. It is found in Northern and Western Asia, Europe, and North America. The plant has always had in Europe a great reputation as a vulnerary. In modern herbal medicine the herb, collected when just coming into flower and dried, is employed for its antiseptic and antispas- modic properties. It relieves gout, cramp and pains in the joints, and vertigo. The bruised leaves when applied to a wound will stop bleeding and heal the wound. The fresh juice is made into a syrup and taken internally to stop haemorrhages, diarrhoea, and > dysentery. In North America the plant is used as a vulnerary, antispasmodic, emetic, and emmenagogue. English: All-Heal, Clown’s Woundwort, Downy Woundwort, Husbandman’s Woundwort, March Woundwort, Marsh Woundwort, Opopanewort, P'anaij— ; French: Crapaudine, Epiaire des marais, Ortie morte, Ortie rouge, Stachys des marais—; North America: Clown’s All-heal, Clown’s Woundwort, Dead-nettle, Hedge-nettle, Marsh Woundwort, Rough-weed—-. 2. Stachys parviflora Benth. is found in the Punjab plains and hills; it extends to Afghanistan. In the Salt Range the bruised stems are applied to the guinea- worm. Punjab: Baggibuti, Kirimar—; Pushtu: Speraghunai—. 3. Stachys Sieboldi Mig. occurs in Upper Burma; it extends to China. The plant is used medicinally in China as a febrifuge, astringent, and vulnerary. Chinese: Ts’ao Shih Ts’an—. 4. Stachys sylvatica Linn. is found in Kashmir; it extends to Northern Asia and Europe. An old authority has it that this herb ‘stamped with vinegar and applied in manner of a pultis, taketh away wens and hard 418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII swellings, and inflammation of the kernels under the eares and jawes’, and also that the distilled water of the flowers ‘is used to make the heart merry, to make a good colour in the face, and to make the vital spirits more fresh and lively’. The plant is credited in France with tonic, emmenagogue, and diuretic properties. English: Hedge Woundwort—; French: Epiaire des bois, Ortie A crapaud, Ortie morte des bois, Ortie puante, Stachys des bois—. TEUCRIUM. The genus includes 100 cosmopolitan species. The following species are used medicinally in Europe—T. Botrys Linn., Tf. .Chamaedrys Tann.,- 1. fruticans Uinn,, 7-2 eamajoreng Pers., J. ‘marum: Linn., 7. montanum -Linns,, T; “Pohum Linn, T. pyrenaicum Linn., T. scordium Linn., T. scorodonmia Linn.—; in South Africa—T. capense Thunb., T. riparium Hochst.—. 1. Leaves small, subsessile, ovate or obovate, cuneate- attenuated, obtuse ase veh ae ... lL. Stocksianum. 2. Leaves small, sessile, oblong, obtuse ee nae hs, SSCOVAIUM. 1. Teucrium scordium Linn. is found in Kashmir; it extends to Afghanistan, Northern and Western Asia, Europe, and North Africa. The herb is considered in Europe antiseptic, diaphoretic, and stimulant. An infusion gives excellent results in all inflammatory diseases. In Spain the flower tops and the leaves are considered aromatic, bitter, astringent, and are mostly used as diaphoretics and vermi- fuges. Arabic: Skordeon—; Bohemian: Wodnj czessner—; Catalan: Escordi—; Danish: Skordium—; Dutch: Waterlook—; English: Water Germander— ; French: Germandrée aquatique, Germandrée d’eau, Scordium—; German: Batengel, Knoblauch gamander, Lachenknoblauch, Lachinsknopfloch, Laeuse- kraut, Moosknoblauch, Peterskraut, Rosslauch, Schlagkraut, Schorseken, Scordienkraut, Sonnenschiit, Wasserbathengel, Wasserknol Greek : Seordion, Scordochorto—; Hungarian: Vizi foghadyma—; Italian: Scordio—; Lithuanian: Embutti—; Polish: Czosnkowc ziele—; Portuguese: Escordio— ; Russian: Dikiy tchesnok, Scordiya, Zayatchiy tchesnok—; Spanish: Escordio, Escordio oficinal—. 2. Teucrium Stocksianum Boiss. occurs in the Western Punjab, the North-Western Frontier Province, Baluchistan, and Afghanistan. In the Harboi Hills the herb is given in cases of pain at the heart. At Kirani, near Quetta, it is used as a cure for fever. In Persian Baluchistan the plant is boiled and allowed to stand all night; the water is then drunk as a remedy for colds. Baluchistan: Kalpora, Kalporag—; Waziristan: Kastorai—.- THYMUS. _ The genus consists of 33 species, inhabiting the temperate sles tus of the world. T. mastichina Linn., T. serpyllum Linn., and T. vulgaris are used medicinally in Europe. 7 THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA _ 419 Thymus serpyllum Linn. is found in the Western temperate Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon, at altitudes between 5,000 and 13,000 feet. It is distributed to Northern and Western Asia, Europe, and North Africa. In the Punjab the herb is given in weak vision, complaints of the stomach and the liver, suppression of urine and menstruation (Honigberger). On the Chenab the seeds are given as a vermifuge (Stewart). The oil is sometimes applied as a remedy in toothache. In Europe the herb is considered antispasmodic, carminative, and tonic. An infusion is given in convulsive coughs, whooping coughs, catarrh, and sore throat; it is good for nervous or hysterical headaches, for flatulence, and the headache which follows inebriation, The infusion is also profitably applied for healing skin eruptions of various characters. In Persia the leaves are considered carminative. In Teheran they are given for ‘too much water in the stomach’. Arabic: Saatar-—; Catalan: Farigola de montanya, Serpoll—; Danish: Vildtimian-—— ; Dutch: Quendel, Wilde Thym—; English: Bank Thyme, Brother- wort, Creeping Thyme, Hill-wort, Horse Thyme, Mother of Thyme, Pella Mountain, Penny Mountain, Piliol, Puliali Mountain, Running Thyme, Serpell, Shepherd’s Wild Thyme, Wild English Thyme, Wild Thyme—; TI rench: Mignotise des Génevoix, Pillolet, Piolet, Poleur, Pote, Pouilleux, Pouliet, Pouliot batard, Serpolet, Serpoule, Thym batard, Thym rouge, Thym sauvage, Thym serpolet—; German: Ameisenkraut, Bienenkraut, Choelm, Citronen- quendel, Demutkraut, Fallboll, Feldkoehm, Feldkuemme!, Feldquendel, Feld- thymian, Gundelkraut, Gundling, Gunnerle, Heidequendel, Heublume, Huehner- klee, Huehnerkull, Immenkraut, Jungfernzucht, Kandelkraut, Karwendel, Kin- delkraut, Kingle, Koschmes, Kostenskraut, Kudelkraut, Kuechenpolei, Kueken- kuemmel, Kuenlein, Kulkraut, Kundelkraut, Kunerle, Kutelkraut Magaro, Marienbettstroh, Mattenkolen, Neugelenk, Quandel, OQuangelchen, Quendel, Quengel, Raenderpolei, Rainkuemmel, Rainpolei, Schmergel, Simio, Steinquendel, Thymchen, Thyrmann, Tuemchen, Unsererlieben-frauenbettstroh, Zymis— ; Greek : Erpylos—; Hindi: Banajwain—; Italian: Pepolino, Sermollino, Serpillo, Serpolino, Serpollo—; Languedoc: Faligouleto, Ferigouleto—; North-Western Provinces: Banajwain—; Persia: Djusha, Seetere, Zatar—; Polish: Mauer- zanka— ; Portuguese: Serpao, Serpi!, Serpilhi, Serpol— ; Punjab: Kalandarzatar, Marizha, Masho, Rangsbur, Shakei—; Roumanian : Cimbru de camp, Cimbrusor, Serpun, Serpunel—; Russian: Bogorodskaya trava, Chaber, Chabietz— ; Spantsh : Serpol— ; Swedish: Backtimjan, Bracktimian—; Teheran: JosShan shirazi— ; Turkish: Sateriberri—; Urdu: Hasha—; Yemen: Saatar—. ZATARIA. Zataria multiflora Boiss. is found in Baluchistan, whence it spreads to Afghanistan and Persia. In Jhalawan the plant is used as a cure for stomach-ache. Baluchistan: Isghand, Izgun—; Hamadan: Zatar—; Jhalawan: Izghand—. Urdu: Saatar—. ZIZIPHORA. The genus includes 12 species, natives of the Mediterranean region and Central Asia. 1. Much-branched, at the base more or less suffruticose .... Z. clinopodioides. 2. An annual herb we: ve oo ... @. tenuior. 420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII 1. Ziziphora clinopodioides M. Bieb. is found in Baluchistan. It is distributed to Afghanistan, Persia, the Caucasus, Armenia, and Syria. : At Jelga in Baluchistan the whole of the piant is dried and kept, and a decoction is used to cure typhus fever; also leaves are soaked in water at night and the infusion is drunk in the morning in cases of heat. In the Harboi Hills the juice is used as a tonic after recovery from fever. Baluchi: Purchink— ; Harboi Hills : Purchink— ; Persian: Pudina—; Pushtu: Maurai—; Ziarat Hills: Maurai—. 2. Ziziphora tenuior Linn. occurs in the North-West Frontier Province, and Baluchistan. It is distributed to Afghanistan, Persia, Asia Minor, Turkestan, Soongaria, and Siberia. The herb is used in Baluchistan to allay fever. In Teheran it is employed as a cordial and stomachic. The seeds powdered and mixed with butter milk are used to cure dysentery in Kila Abdulla. They are used as a cure for fevers in Kharan. Arabic : Mishkatar-el-mashih— ; Hindubagh: Maurai—; Iraq: Za ’tar—; Kalat : Mashnapurchink— ; Kharan : Kohipurchink— ; Khawas : Tukhammelanga, Kila Abdulla: Kahkuti, Tukhammalangai—; Kurdish: Tukhumimalayan— ; Rang—; Tank: Paparboti— ; Jata, Pung—; Quetta-Pishin: Kahkuti— ; Shiriz : Teheran: Kakuti—. ON THE FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN AGARISTIDAE AND NOCTUIDAE (HETEROCERA). BY D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S. The present is a companion to my paper On the Food-plants of Indian Bombyces (Heterocera), (1940, Journ, Bomb, Nat. Hist. Soc., xli, 817-827). The authorities consulted and abbreviations used are the same as in the previous paper, except that all refer- ences to the Illustrations of Typical Specimens of Lepidoptera Hetevocera in the Collection of the British Museum apply to vol. ix, vol. vii containing no reference to any Agaristid or Noctuid larva. Hampson’s Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalaenae does not include the sub-families Noctuinae, Hypeninae and Hyblaeinae, whilst Seitz’ Indo-Australian Noctuidae comes to an end half way through the Catocalinae. 1 have followed Seitz in regard to nomenclature and the arrangement of sub-families. AGARISTIDAE. Eusemia Dalm. E. vetula Geyer—Dioscorea, Smilax (Lep. Phal., Seitz). E. bisma Moore—Dioscorea oppositifolia (Lep. Phal.), Dioscorea and Batatas (Seitz). (Possibly Bananas is meant). (non-Indian). Scrobigera Jord. S. proxima Wlk.—Cissus (Lep. Phal., Seitz). Mimeusemia Btlr. M. basalis Wlik.—Dillenia (Lep. Phal., Seitz). Ophthalmis Hbn. O. milete Cr.—Cissus (Lep. Phal., Seitz). (non-Indian). Seudyra Stretch. S. transiens Wlik.—Vitis. A number of the Australian and American species of the family feed on Vitis, others on Loranthus, Casuarina, Clarkea, Epilobium and Aenothera. NOCTUIDAE. ACRONICTINAE. Diphtherocome Warr. D. orion Esp.—Oak, Birch, Beech, etc. (Lep. Phal.). (non-Indian). Trisula Moore. T. variegata Moore—Ficus religiosa (Fauna, Seitz). 422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII Acronicta Treit. Nothing appears to be known of the Indian species; but European species feed on Ash, Privet, Alder, Hawthorn, Polygonum, Salix, Plum, Veronica, Rose, Birch, Oak, Pear, Horse-chestnut, Sycamore, Beech, Cornus, Rubus, Poplar, Elm, Myrica, etc. Simyra Treit. S. nervosa Schiff.—Spurge, Sorrel (Lep. Phal.). (non-Indian). S. albovenosa Goeze—Phragmites, Carex, Typha (Lep. Phal.). (non-Indian). MoMINAE. Moma Hbn. M. ludifica L.—Sorbus aucuparia, Crataegus oxyacantha (Lep. Phal.). (non- Indian). BRYOPHILINAE. Bryophila Treit. B. nilgiria Moore—Lichens (Lep. Phal., Seitz). Other non-Indian species also on Lichens. EUXOINAE. Euxoa Hbn. E. segetum Schiff.—Roots of Brassica, Rumex, Chrysanthemum (Lep. Phal.), on roots of low plants (Seitz). E. corticea Schiff.—Chenopodium, Rumex, Trifolium, etc. (Lep. Phal.), various low plants (Seitz). E. spinifera Hbn.—Grasses (Lep. Phal., mihi). Rhyacia Hbn. R. ypsilon Rott.—General feeder (Lep. Phal.), polyphagous on low plants (Seitz). - ate R. subsequa Schiff.—Various low plants (Seitz). R. pronuba L.—Brassica, Taraxacum, Rumex, etc. (Lep. Phal.), all low plants (Seitz). | R. orbona Hufn.—Grasses, Ranunculus, Primula, etc. (Lep. Phal.). (non- Indian). R. c-nigrum L.—General feeder (I.ep. Phal.), low plants generally (Seitz). R. deraiota Hamps.—Menispermum, Viola, etc. (Ill. Het., Lep. Phal.), various low plants (Seitz). R. dahii Hbn.—Rumex, Primula, Plantago, etc. (Lep. Phal.). R. ravida Schiff.—Taraxacum, Stellaria, etc. (Lep. Phal.), various low plants (Seitz). R. flammatra Schiff.—Taraxacum, Fragaria (Lep. Phal.), various low plants (Seitz). R. saucia Hbn.—Numerous low plants (Seitz). Other non-Indian members of the genus feed on Salix, Rubus, Betula and Calluna. Eurois Hbn. E. prasina Schiff_—Rumex, Birch, Rubus, ete. (Lep. Phal.). (non-Indian). Triphaena Hbn. Non-Indian members of the genus feed on Birch, Hawthorn, Salix, Rumex, Primula, Stellaria, Rubus and grasses. HADENINAE. Barathra Hbn. B. brassicae L.—Brassica, Rumex, Chenopodium, ete. (Lep. Phal.), all low plants (Seitz). | THE FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN AGARISTIDAE & NOCTUIDAE 423 Scotogramma Smith. S. trifolii Rott.—Atriplex, Chenopodium (Lep. Phal., Seitz). S. nana Hfn.—Hippocrepis comosa, Coronilla minima (Lep. Phal.). (non- Indian). Polia Treit. Non-Indian members of the genus of the section to which the Indian species belong feed on Chenopodium, Salsola, Mesembryanthemum, Oak, Birch, Solidago, Genista, Polygonum, Stellaria, Lonicera, Rumex, Plantago, Tritolium, Cytisus, Anthyllis, Pteris, Chrysanthemum, Sonchus, Achiliea, Vaccinium, Grasses, Willow, Elm, Urtica, Brassica, Scabiosa, Taraxacum, ‘Tussilago, Delphinium and Lactuca. The section Harmodia, none of which are Indian, feeds on Caryophyl- laceae, mostly in the seed-pods. Hadena Schrank. H. reticulata Vill.—Silene, Rumex, Primula, etc. (Lep. Phal.). (non-Indian). Tiracola Moore. T. plagiata Wik.—Emilia (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna; Lep. Phal:, Seitz). Xylomania Hamps. Non-Indian species feed on Lotus, Polygonum and Wild Gooseberry. Monima Hbn. M. incerta Hfn.—Oak, Poplar, Hawthorn (ep. Phal.), various trees and shrubs (Seitz). Non-Indian species on Salix, Birch, Aspen, Rose, Elm, Carduus and Lysi- machia. Brithys Hbn.—Liliaceae (Seitz). B. crini F.—Amaryllis (Lep. Ceyl.), Liliaceae (Lep. Phal.), Amaryllideae (mihi). Polytela Guen. P. cliens F!dr.—Pancratium tortuosum (Lep. Phal., Seitz). P. gloriosae F.—Amaryllis (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal., Seitz, mihi), Gloriosa superba (Lep. Phal., mihi), Gloriosa (Seitz). Cerapteryx Curt. C. graminis L.—Grasses (Lep. Phal.). (non-Indian). Hyphilare Hbn.—Grasses (Seitz). H. l-album L.—Grasses (Lep. Phal., Seitz). Sideridis Hbn. vitellina Hbn.—Grasses (Lep. Phal., Seitz). comma L.—Grasses (Lep. Phal.), various fen grasses (Seitz). unipuncta Haw.—Grasses, Cereals (Lep. Phal.). insularis Btlr.—Grasses (mihi). nnn CUCULLIANAE. Cucullia Schrank. Non-Indian species on Artemisia, Chamomile, Scnchus, Lactuca, Aster, Linosyris, Pyrethrum, Anthemis, Tanacetum, Campanula, Hesperis, Solidago, Scrophularia and Verbascum. Euscotia Btlr. EK. inextricata Moore—Berberis (Lep. Phal., Seitz). 424 JOL'RNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII Dichoniopsis Warr. D. obliquisigna Hamps.—Oak (Lep. Phal., Seitz). Crino Hbn.—Low plants (Seitz). Non-Indian species on Humulus, Lonicera, Cherry, Galium, Origanum, Achillea, Cyclamen, WValeriana, Hieraceum, Leontodon. Amathes Hbn. Non-Indian species on Rubus, Salix, Rumex, Primula, Birch and Poplar. Cosmia Treit.—When young on the catkins or flowers of trees, afterwards on various low plants. (Seitz). C. giluago Esp.—Seeds of elm, particularly Wych-elm, not Poplar (Seitz), seeds of Elm (Lep. Phal.). Non-Indian species on Beech, Poplar, Maple, Salix, Tilia. AMPHIPYRINAE, Pyrois Hbn. Non-Indian species on Elm, Euonymus, Cytisus, Cistus and Lavatera. Amphipyra Treit. A. tragopoginis I..—Plantago, Hawthorn, Aquilegia, etc. (Lep. Phal.), a variety of low growing plants (Seitz). Non-Indian species on Oak, Birch, Elm, Sallow, Dandelion, Hieracium and other low-growing plants. Mania Treit.-—Various shrubs and plants (Seitz). Non-Indian species on Salix, Rubus, Primula, Ivy. Dipterygia Steph.—Low plants (Seitz). Non-Indian species on Rumex and Polygonum. Parastichtis Hbn.—Grasses (Seitz). .P. funerea Hein.—Grasses (Lep. Phal.). Non-Indian species on Grasses, Primula and Rumex. Oligia Hbn.—Stems and roots of grasses (Seitz). Trachea Treit—Low plants (Seitz). Non-Indian species on Atriplex, Rumex, Polygonum, ‘Taraxacum, Grasses. Euplexia Steph.—Various low plants (Seitz). E. lucipara L.—Ranunculus, Ligustrum, Ash, etc. (Lep. Phal.}. (non- Indian). Conservula Grote. C. v-brunneum Guen.—Bracken (Lep. Phal., Seitz). Eriopus Treit—Known species on Ferns (Seitz). E. juventina Cr.—Pteris aquilina (Lep. PhalJ., Seitz). E. latreillet Treit.—Ceterach officinarum and Notochloena marante (Lep. Phal.), Ceterach officinarum and other ferns (Seitz). Calogramma Guen.—Liliaceae (Seitz). C. festiva Don.—Liliaceae (Lep. Phal., Seitz, mihi). tHE FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN. AGARISTIDAE G NOCTUIDAE ~ 425 Prodenia Guen., | P, litura F.—Lantana, etc. (Lep. Ceyl.), Lantana (Lep. Phai., Fauna, Seitz), Antirrhinum, Zinnia, Spinach, Lettuce, Castor and Caladium (mihi). Spodoptera Guen. S. pecten Guen.— Bukoot’ (Lep.. Phal., Seitz}, Grasses (mihi). S. cuitunm: Guen.—Grasses (mihi). S. maturttia Bsd.—Rice (Lep. Phal.), cereals, rice (Seitz), grasses (mihi), Laphygma Guen. L. apertura Wik.—Drosera (Lep. Phal., Seitz). “L. exigua Hbn.-—Plantago, low growing herbs, Lucerne, Cotton (Lep. Phal.), various low-growing plants, Lucerne, Cotton (Seitz), Lucerne, Indigo, Onions, Chillies, Gingelly, Cowpea, Brinjal, Radish, Amaranthus, Turmeric, Maize, Castor, Sesbania aculeata, S. grandiflora. Eleusine coracana, Coriander, Sorghum, Cotton, Tobacco, Gisekia pharnaceoides (1939, Cherian and Kylasam, Journ. Bomb.’ Nat. Hist. Soc.,° xli, 253). Athetis Hbn.—Low-growing herbage and grasses (Seitz). Non-Indian species on Stellaria, Rumex, Viola, Grasses, Plantago, Taraxacum, Pulmonaria, Corn, Peas, Sedum, Salix, Rubus. Acosmetia Steph.—Low-growing plants (Seitz). A. caliginosa Hbn.—Serratula tinctoria, Sanguisorba, Rumex (Lep. Phal.). (non-I[ndian). Proxenus Herr.—Schatf. P, hospes Frr.—Plantago and low-growing herbs (Lep. Phal.). (non-Indian). Prospalta Wk. P. dolorosa Wlk.—Conyza balsamitera (Lep. Phal., Seitz). P. capensis Guen.—Acanthads (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal.), Acanthus (Seitz), Marigold, Cosmos (mihi). P. pallidipennis Warr.—Coreopsis (mihi). Gortyna Treit.--In the roots and stems of marsh plants (Seitz), G. leucostigma Hbn.—In stems of Cladium mariscus and Iris pseudacorus, etc. (Lep. Phal.), in roots and stems of large water-plants such as Iris pseudacorus and Cladium mariscus (Seitz). Hydroecia Guen.—In the stems of various low plants (Seitz). Non-Indian species in the stems of Petasites, Equisetum, Rumex, Valeriana, Peucedanum, Cynara, Cardunculus. Pyrrhia Hbn. P. umbra Hfn.—Ononis or Geranium pratense, in Assam Siegesbeckia orien- talis (Lep. Phal.), on flowers and seeds of Ononis spinosa (Seitz). Non-Indian species on Melissa, Salvia, Dictamnus, Centaurea, and Succisa. Calymnia Hbn. Non-Indian species on Elm, Pear, Plum, Oak, Salix., Mudaria Moore. M. cornifrons Moore.—Sillk-cotton (Bombax malabaricum) (Fauna, Lep. Phal., Seitz). Phragmatiphila Hamps. Non-Indian species in the stems of Carex and Typha. 13 426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLU Sphetta WIk. S. apicalis Wik.-—Diospyros, Nephelium erectum (Lep. Ceyl.). Sesamia Guen.—In the stems of Gramineae (Seitz), S. mferens Wik.—In the stems of Sugar-cane (Lep. Phal., Seitz). S. crelica Led.—In stems of Maize (Lep. Phal., Seitz). S. uniformis Dudg.—In stems of Sugar-cane (Lep. Phal., Seitz). ERASTRIANAE. Usually on low plants and grasses; a few on lichens or on coccidae (Seitz) Penisa Warr.—Lichen (Seitz). P. erythroglauca Hamps.—A minute lichen (Lep, Phal., Seitz). P, -oblataria Wik.—Lichens (Lep. Ceyl., Lep. Phal., Seitz). Eublemmoides Beth.—Baker. Ek. subangulata Hamps.—The Coccid Maskellia zonata Green (Lep. Phal., Seitz). Coccidiphaga Spul.—Coccidae on various trees (Seitz). C, scitula Rmbr.—On the eggs of Coccidae on Fig-trees, Oleanders and Yuccas (Lep. Phal., Seitz), at the Cape on Lecanium hesperidum (Lep. Phal.). Porphyrinia Hbn. P. ostrina Hbn.—Carduus and Helichrysum (Lep. Phal.), Carlina and Helichrysum (Seitz). P. parva Hbn.—In the flower shoots of Inula montana and. I. viscosa, Centaurea calcitrapa, and in India in the flowers of Kukraunda (Lep. Phal., Seitzjck 2s aie P. amabilts Moore—On the Lac-insect Tachardia lacca (Lep. Phal., Seitz). Autoba Wik.—On various low plants, some few on Coccidae (Seitz). A. vinotincta Hamps.—Coccidiphagous, on a_ species of Lecanium (Lep. Phal.,: Seitz): A. pulvinaniae Oliff.—On the eggs, adult females and ovisacs of the salt- bush scale Pulvinaria maskelli (Lep. Phal., Seitz). (non-Indian). A. coccidiphaga Hamps.—On various Coccids, such as Lecanium and Pul- vinaria (Lep. Phal., Seitz). A. abrupia Wik.—Ficus parasiticus (Lep. Ceyl., Lep. Phal., Seitz), Ficus (Fauna). A. dubia Btlr.—On the Coccids Lecanium oleae, L. hesperidum and L. testudo, and Eriococcus eucalypti (Lep. Phal., Seitz). (non-Indian). Phyllophila Guen. Non-Indian species on Santolina and Artemisia. Amyna Guen. A. punctum F.—Croton ftiglium and C. aromaticum (Lep. Phal., Seitz). Lithacodia Hbn.—Known species on Grasses (Seitz). -Eustrotia Hbn.—Carex and grasses (Seitz). Tarache Hbn.—Low plants (Seitz). T. urania Friy.—Althaea cannabina (Lep. Pha!l.). | (nen-Indian). T, lucida Hfn.—Malva, Convolvulus (Lep. Phal., Seitz). THE FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN AGARISTIDAE @ NOCTUIDAE 437 MELICLEPTRIINAE. Chloridea Westw. C. dipsacea 1L.—Linaria, Centauréa,; Ononis, etc: (Lep. Phal.), flowers of oo plants, especially Ononis and Linaria (Seitz). . peltigera Schiff.—Ononis, Pyrethrum, Arenaria, etc. (Lep. Phal.), Howers of various low plants (Seitz). C. assulta Guen.—Physalis peruviana (I. Elet;, Lep: Pliat.; Seitz); C. obsoleta F.—Rosebuds (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna), Corn, Cotton, Tomatoes, Rosa, Reseda, Calamintha, etc. (Lep. Phal.), flowers of many plants (Seitz), flowers of Carnation, Antirrhinum, Cosmos, Chrystnthemum (mihi). Melicleptria Hbn. M. scutosa Schiff.—Artemisia (Lep. Phal., Seitz). EUTELIANAE. They keep rather exclusively—as far as it is known-—to the different Anacardiineae (Seitz). Bombotelia Hamps. B. jocosatrix Guen.—Terminalia belerica (Lep. Ceyl., Lep. Phal.; Seitz). B. dorsipuncta’ Hamps.—Semecarpus (Lep. Phal., Seitz). (non-Indian). Eutelia Hbn. E. tripartita Semp.—Spondias (Lep. Phal., Seitz). _. E. adulatrix Hbn.—-Rhus cotinus, Pistacia (Lep. Phal.). Anuga Guen. A. constricta Guen.—Semecarpus (Lep. Phal., Seitz), Paectes Hbn. P, subapicalis Wilk.—Shorea robusta (radian ae Reacaice Institute Report for October 1940). STICTOPTERINAE. Stictoptera Guen. S. subobliqua Wik.—Garcinia (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal., Seitz). Lophoptera Guen. L. illucida Wlk.—Shorea robusta (Indian Lac fedseatels Institute Report for October 1940). SARROTHRIPINAE. Sarrothripus Curt. S. revayana Scop.—Oak, Willow (Lep. Phal.)e Plotheia Wk. P. decrescens Wik.—Coftee (Lep. Ceyl., Lep. Phal., Seitz). Risoba Moore. R. obstructa Moore—Quisqualis (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna), Quisqualis and Ster- culia (Lep. Phal.). ACONTIANAE. Earias Hbn. E. fabia Stoll.—In bolls of the Cotton plant (Seitz). E. insulana Bsd.—Ceratonia siliqua, ERS OVE herbaceum (Lep. Phal.), bolls of the Cotton plant (Seitz). Non-Indian species on Populus and Salix, 498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS?t. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit Carea Wk. C. varipes Wik.—Eugenia xanthocarpa (Lep. Ceyl.). Beara Wilk. Bb. dichromella Wik.—Celtis orientalis (Lep. Ceyl.), Zizyphus jujuba (mihi). Westermannia Hbn. W; superba Hbn. Terminalia (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, 'Lep. Phal., Seitz). Acontia O. A. malvae Esp.—Malva moschata, Lavatera olbia (Lep. Phal.). A. graellst Feisth.—Lavatera olbia (Lep. Phal.). CATOCALINAE, Catocala Schrank. C. nupta L.—Salix, Poplar, Ash (Lep. Phal.). Non-Indian species on Oak, Birch, Sloe in addition. Ephesia Hbn. Kk. dotata Wik.—Quercus alba (Lep. Phal., Seitz). Non-Indian species also on Wild Cherry, Plum, Dog-wood, Crataegus Scrub Oak, Apple, Sloe. Cocytodes Guen. ; C. coerulea Guen.—Bochmeria (Ill Het.), Great Himalayan Nettle Boehmeria (Lep. Phal.). Lagoptera Guen. ‘L.. honesta Hbn.—‘Baucal’ (Lep. Phal., Seitz). Anua WIk. A, coronata F.—Quisqualis indica (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal., mihi). A. indiscriminata. Hamps.—Eucalyptus Carea and other Myrtaceae (IIL. Het., Lep. Phal., Seitz), A, tirhaca Cr.—Pistacia lentiscus, Cistus, Rhus _ coriaria (Lep. Phal.). Ercheia WIk. E, diversipennis Wlk.—Grass (Lep. Phal., Seitz). Achaea Hbn. A. mezentia Cr.—Canthium (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal., Seitz). A, mercatoria F.—Ricinus communis (Lep. Ceyl., Lep. Phal., Seitz). . A. -melicerta Drury.—Ricinus communis (Lep. Ceyl., Lep. Phal., Seitz, mihi). Parallelia Hbn. P. onelia Guen.—Phyllanthus (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phat., Seitz). P, joviana Stoll.—Phyllanthus (Lep. Cey!., Fauna, Lep. Phal., ’ Seitz). P. algira L.—Bramble, Sloe, ete. (Lep. Phal.), Ricinus communis (mihi). P. palumba Guen.—Citrus decumanus (Lep. Ceyl.). Attatha Moore. A. regalis Moore—Streblus (Lep. Phal.). A. ino Druty.—Pipul (Lep. Phal.). THE FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN AGARISTIDAE & NOCTUIDAE 429 Grammodes Guen. G. geometrica F. Polygonum persicaria, Cistus salvifolia (Lep. Phal.). G. stolida F.—Paliurus aculeatus, Rubus fruticosus, Coriaria miyrtifolia, Quercus (Lep. Phal.). Chalciope Hbn. C. hyppasta Cr.—Rhynchosia minima (mihi). Hypaetra Guen. H, discolor F.—Callicarpa maesa (Lep. Phal.). Mocis Hhbn. M. frugalis F.—Zingiberaceae (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal.). M. undata F.—Desmodium (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal.). Clytie Hbn. C. illunaris Whn.—Tamarix gallica (Lep. Phat.) (non-Indian). Pericyma Herr.—Schaff. P. umbrina Guen.—A small thorny shrub (Lep. Phal.). P. glaucinans Guen.—A leguminous tree (Lep. Phal.). P. albidentaria Frr.—Alhagi camelorum (Lep. Phal.) (non-Indian). PHYTOMETRINAE. Syngrapha Hbn. S. circumflexa L.—Potato, etc. (Lep. Phal.). Non-Indian species on Larch, Salix, Betula, Erica, Calluna and Urtica. Phytometra Haw. P, ni Hbn.—Nettle, Solanum, etc. (Lep. Phal.). P. daubet Bsd.—Sonchus maritimus (Lep. Phal.). P. chalcytes Esp.—Urtica, Salvia, Echium, Marrubium, in India on Ficus (Lep. Phal.), Ficus (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna). P. confusa Steph. Achillea millefolium, Matricaria chamomilla (Lep.. Phal.). P. mgriluna Wik.—Acalypha (Lep. Ceyl., Lep. Phal.). P. jessica Btlr.—Antirrhinum flowers (mihi). P. peponis F.—Cucurbitaceae (Lep. Ceyl.,. Fauna, Lep. Phal.). P. orichalcea F.—Coreopsis (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal.). Non-Indian species on Brassica, Tomato, Reseda,. Taraxacum, Rumex, Crepis, Chenopodium, Trifolium, Senecio, Mentha, Grasses, Carex, Typha, Sparganium, Iris, Alisma, Hollyhock, Isopyrum, Thalictrum, Lamium, Urtica, Lonicera, Sonchus, Geranium, Malva, Eupatorium, Aconitum, Pulmonaria, Lycopsis, Spiraea, Humulus, Arctium. Abrostola Ochs. Non-Indian species on Vaccinium, Urtica, Epilobium, Humulus, Lamium. NOcTUINAE. Cosmophila Bsd. C. fulvida Guen.—Waltheria indica (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna). C. erosa Hbn.—Hibiscus (Lep. Ceyl., Fatna),- Hollyhock (mihi). Othreis Hbn. O. ancilla Cr.—Menispermum (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna). 430 ‘JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII Ophideres Bsd. 0. fullonica’ L.—Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae) (mihi). Argadesa Moore. A. materna L.—Tinospora cordifolia (mihi). Maenas Hbn. M. salaminia ¥.—Ménispermaceae (Lep. Ceyl.), Menispermum (Fauna). Khadira Moore. K. aurantia Moore.—Menispermaceae (Lep. Ceyl.). Hylodes Guen. H. caranea Cr.—Acanthads (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna). Pandesma Guen. P. mundata Wik.—Alhizzia (IN. Het., Fauna). Lacera Guen. L. alope Cr.—Pisonia, Canthium (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna). Ischyja Hbn. I, manha Cr.—Terminalia, Cinnamonia, etc, (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna). Azazia WIk. A. rubricans Bsd.—Phaseolus (Lep. Ceyl.). Hypocala Guen. H. moorei Btlr.—Diospyros (Lep. Ceyl.). Culasta Moore. C. minuticornis Guen.—Cocculus macrocarpus (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna). Plusiodonta Guen. P. coelonota Koll.—Cocculus macrocarpus (Lep. Ceyl.). Tinolius Wik. | T. eburneiguita Wik.—Thunbergia alata (Lep. Ceyl.). Pasipeda Wik. P. satellitia Moore—-Thunbergia alata (Lep. Cevl.). HyYPENINAE. Hypena Schrank. H. proboscidalis L.—Nettle (mihi). HYBLAEINAE. Hyblaea F. H. puera Cr.—Bignoniaceae (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna). Obie UA Ry. FREDERICK VICTOR EVANS 1865-1940 Frederick Victor Evans was born on May 16, 1865, and died on the 3rd April, 1940, of acute myocarditis. He was buried in St. Ludnos Cemetery, situated on the top of the Great Orme Head, Llandudno. Of family history there is little to record. His father, Samuel Evans, came from an old Shropshire farming family, dating back to 1604, ‘and died a widower in 1872, leaving a young family of five children of which Frederick was the second son; a younger brother and sister predeceased him. Owing to the death of both parents, education was limited and of a private character. He went to India with his eldest brother in the year 1886 and after gaining some Indian commercial experience branched out for himself and, with his partner, founded the firm of Evans Fraser & Co. about the year 1892. Retiring from active work in India about the year 1908, he returned to England. _ I understand that he was one of the original founders and trustees of the Commercial Gymkhana, Wodehouse Road, Bombay. In latter years, whiist in Bombay, he found recreation in shikar about the Thana Creek and nearby districts and was fond of camp life. Fishing too took up a lot of his time, and led to his practical support to local fishing clubs and their interest in developing the Lonavla Lakes belonging to the Tata Hydro-electric Scheme into possible fishing areas. Yachting was also one of his joys and with his partner and their sailing boat the ‘Piwit’ won several prizes in the Bombay Yacht Club open events. His interest in the Bombay Natural History Society began some vears later. It was about this period that he began stamp collecting, specializing in the stamps of British India and the Indian Native States and nearby countries, he left a very interesting and valuable collection. He married a widow very late in life and had no children. He lived a very retired life in England and if there is any meaning in the term ‘a Spiritual Home’ his certainly was in India, which he loved very much. Mr. Evans showed his love for India and the city ‘of Bombay in a very practical manner. He was elected a Vice Patron of the Bombay Natural History Society in the year 1928 in recognition of the very generous assistance and support which he gave to the Society. He made several substantial contributions amounting to well over Rs. 15,000 to the Society, which were expended on the Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum, and maintained at his own expense, for over a period of 10 years, the services of a modeller for the preparation of a series of casts of local marine and fresh water fishes. As a result of this generosity 432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII the Society was able to prepare the beautiful series of models in wax and papier mache of local fishes now exhibited in the Fish Gallery of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. Mr. Evans also presented to the Museum the series of beautiful and expensive models illustrating insects in relation to disease. His interest in Bombay is further revealed in the fine collection of pictures and paintings of old Bombay, now exhibited in the Art Section of the Prince of Wales Museum. The Society’s Journal also benefited by Mr. Evans’ generous offer to meet the cost of many of the coloured and black and white plates produced with the serial on Wiid Animals of the Indian Empire. His generosity also made it possible for us to publish the very large number of fine illustrations issued with Mr. Mosley’s serial on Caddis Flies. Mr. Evans presented the Society with a fine collection of books on Bombay and Western India—many of them rare and valuable editions. His name lives in the good he has done for the city he loved so well. At the request of Mr. C. McCann, in appreciation of the generous help and encouragement extended to him in pursuit of his natural history studies by Mr. Evans, the late Fr. E. Blatter named a new species of plant as Kaunpfera Evansii in his honour. Likewise Mr. H. N. Dixon named a new moss obtained by Mr. McCann from the Naga Hills, Assam, as Isopterygium Evansui. REVIEW THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA INCLUDING THE REMAINDER OF THE ORIENTAL REGION. Diptera. Vol. VI—Family Calliphoridae. By Rk. Senior White, Daphne Aubertin and John Smart. (london, March 28, 1940.) Price 18 shillings. As is detailed in the preface, the history of this volume has been one of delays due to the changes in official posts of the original authors. The major part of the work was carried out by Mr. R. Senior White, partly in collaboration with Major W. S. Patton, I.m.s., who, it was hoped, would have been able to collaborate in completing a volume on the Muscidae. Unfortunately Major Patton’s other engagements made it impossible for him to undertake the work, and the senior author of the present volume with the collaboration of the second author and later with the help of the third author has managed to complete only the account of the family Calliphoridae. The work deals with the subfamilies Calliphorinae, Chrysomyiinae, Rhiniinae and Sarcophaginae of the family Calliphoridae of Calyptrate Flies. 214 species of 37 genera are dealt with in the work, and a departure is made from the other volumes of the series, in that species described from the entire Oriental Region are dealt with in the work. This is due to two reasons, firstly because species of this family are very widely distributed, and secondly ‘compared with the more attractive groups of insects, so little collecting has been done, that the Editor agreed to the above extension of plan’. The authors hope that when Assam and Burma are adequately worked out, many of the species now known from farther Eastern areas alone and included in this volume will prove to be Indian in the ‘Fauna’ sense. The descriptions of the various species are very detailed, and keys to the subfamilies, genera and species should enable most workers to identify Indian insects of the family without much difficulty. The large number of figures of the various species will also greatly facilitate the task of identification. As an introduction to the systematic part, the external anatomy of these flies is dealt with in fair detail (pp. 1-16), while a short account of the internal anatomy, particularly the alimentary and reproductive systems, is also given (pp. 16-18). Pages 18-25 of the introductory chapter are devoted to the early stages, bionomics, and connection of these flies with diseases. Collecting and mounting are also dealt with at the end of the same chapter. The volume contains detailed accounts of the species described up to 1936 and included inthe Zoological Record for the year, but six species described during 1937, 1938 and 1939 are also listed in an appendix on p. 282. The publication of this volume will be welcomed by Dipterists in the country, and the senior author of the volume deserves the thanks of all workers for having completed a difficult task under rather trying conditions. Bas MISCELEANE ONS NOTES -IL—RIVERS AS BARRIERS TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF GIBBONS. There is a curious fact about the Gibbon (Hylobates hoolock) which IT do not think has been placed on record. It is their apparent aversion to water in any large quantities. My observation shows that they seem to dislike having to swim in order to cross a river of any size, or, of course, it may be that it is a dislike of coming to.earth fromthe trees? In four years experience in an area of the Sadiya Frontier Tract in Assam, bounded on the south by the Lohit River and by the Brahmaputra after the latter’s confluence with the Lohit, on the west by the. Subansini River, and on the east by the Dibang River, I never came across a single one of these animals. This. area is quite suitable for Gibbons to inhabit, as it consists mostly of thick rain forest and, if they had been present, I feel certain I would either have seen or heard them, for I toured there very extensively every year. Immediately south of this area, i.e. on the south bank of the Lohit-Brahmaputra it is possible to see and_ hear them almost every day in the jungle at Rangdoi and Kenua and particularly on the Rongdoi-Laikoaghat road. Hence this Gibbon is present on the south bank of the Lohit-Brahmaputra System; but not on the north bank! It is apparent that these rivers form a complete barrier to the spread of this animal into the area mentioned. | It is possible that it is also absent east of the Dibang; but I am not sure of this and cannot say anything about the area west of the Subansiri. The tract of country where I found them absent is very large. It extends for over a hundred miles along the Himalayan (Abor) foothills and has an average width of about twelve miles or more. These foothills to the north of this tract are also quite suitable; but here again the animal is absent. The ordinary common reddish-brown monkey is common both inside this area and also on the south of the Lohit-Brahmaputra outside it. DIBRUGARH, R. E. PARSONS, LAKHIMPUR [DjySTRICT, Indian Police, Assam, January 9, 1941. F.R.E.S. [Rivers when they are wide enough definitely form natural barriers to certain groups of monkeys. Macaques readily take to water, but gibbons and leaf monkeys (Semnopithecus) appear to have an aversion to water and are usually baulked by a river. Nevertheless both gibbons and leaf monkeys can swim. Mr. McCann tells us that when on the Chindwin Expedition, he put a baby gibbon on a raft to prevent it becoming a nuisance, but it deliber- ately jumped into the river and swam ashore.—-Eps.] MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 435 i ==ASPALE COLOUR FORM OF THE PANTHER. With a photo). BS ie » A normally coloured panther is shown on the right for comparison. I enclose a snap of a leopard shot in Dumraon State at the beginning of last year by a Mr, Lessanovitch of Calcutta. The animal is a female, and measured 6/ 2” between -pegs. The eyes were a bright sky blue with no signs of pink, and the only black hairs were at the very tip of the tail. These latter are not to be found now; so I presume that thev must have fallen out during the process of curing. The ground colour of the skin is a pale rich buff, and the spots a dull orange. There appears to be only one other instance of a leopard of this colour from the Hazaribagh district which is not very far from the State in which the present animal was shot. CALCUTTA, H. A. FOOKS. January 16, 1941. {The most usual form of colour variation in panthers is a tendency to melanism; black panthers are fairly common. Mare 436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST (SOCIETY, Vol. ie rarely the opposite phenomenon—albinism, partial or complete, is seen. The instance recorded above is such a case of semi-albinism. It is interesting to note that this is the second record of its kind from Behar. A specimen from Hazaribagh, presented to the British Museum by Mr. (R. FE. S. Thomas; ‘is desczibed by Pococka Goud: Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxiv, p. 69) as having the ground colour paler than usual with tan spots.—Ebs. | . Ill.—A BROWN FORM OF THE HIMALAYAN BLACK BEAR (SELENARCTOS VHIBETANU'S): A brown example of the Himalayan Black Bear (Selenarctos thibetanus), the property of General Sri Rudra Shum Shere Jung Bahadur Rana of Nepal, was secured in the jungles of a Himalayan valley in Nepal territory. The general coloration of this bear was a rich brown resembling the Russian Brown Bear (Ursus arctos), muzzle a light brown, and a pale chest mark. From the characters of the dentition there is no mistaking this bear skin for the Himalayan Red or Isabelline Bear (U. arctos isabellinus). We have had several specimens of the cinamon-coloured variety of the Sloth Bear, which are not uncommon. H. H. The Maha- raja of Dewas Senior has a large male of this colour alive in his ZOO, VAN INGEN AND VAN INGEN, BOTHA VAN INGEN. Mysore, S. Inpia, January 23, 1941. | Pocock in his monograph on the Black and Brown Bears ol Europe and Asia (Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist, Soc., vol. xxxvi, p. 110) gives two records of brown specimens of the Black Bear: one of these was an example of the Baluchistan race (S. t. gedrosi- anus), which came from Mekran, and which Blanford, on account of its colouring, originally mistook for a Brown Bear. The second was a specimen shot by Major Stockley in the Kashmir Valley, which again was mistaken for a ‘red’ bear. Messrs. Van Ingen sent the skull of the Black Bear referred to in his note to’ the Society and we have verified the correctness of the identification.— Eps. | IV.—THE INDIAN WILD DOG. Under the head ‘Fluctuating Population’ in the article on the Indian Wild Dog, at page 713 of Volume xli, the possibility of rabies being a contributing cause is mentioned; and it is remarked that record of only one case of rabies could be found, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4.37 I have now come across an instance in a book Mauled by a Tiger by Arthur W. Strachan (1933). The Author writes :— ‘I know of no instance of these beasts having made a concerted attack upon human beings, or even cattle, but on rare occasions single individuals affected with rabies have en- deavoured to bite natives, and I once shot one in the last stages of this dread disease. It had ‘treed’ a coolie, but it could not possibly have bitten him as its lower jaw was completely paralysed and hung open.’ 5, Benson Cross Roap, R. W. BURTON, BANGALORE, Hb -Ook: Apnl 5, 1641. Vo NUIEEAGE DOGS HUNTING, In the fascinating article by Burton—‘The Indian Wild Dog’— in your latest Journal, I was interested to read the portion dealing with ‘red colour pariah dogs’ mentioned by Forsyth in his High- lands of Central India. 1 have never been so fortunate as to shoot in the C. P., so cannot add anything to the subject of wild dogs of those parts, and even the Cuon of these parts, the Terai, and Siwalik hills have never obligingly revealed themselves to me. The mention, however of the ‘red colour pariah dogs’—which presumably means ‘domesticated’ or ‘semi-domesticated’ village dogs, calls to mind a most interesting sight which I witnessed in the Timli (East) Reserved Forest (Dehra Dun Divn:), one evening last November. I had done a prowl through a bit of the Timli village zemindari forest, on the off chance for shot at jungle fowl, but had had no luck, and I had emerged on to the too’ fire line separating the reserved forest from the village land when I saw four village ‘pie’ dogs walking up a stony ‘rao’ or dry nullah from the village. They stopped when they reached the edge of the reserve forest. Here they stood with their heads close together, it seemed, and appeared to confer for some time. At this moment, a slight movement on my part made them aware of me, and the sudden change in the attitude of these four dogs (two were biack with an odd white ‘sock’ or so, each, one was black-and-white pied, while the last was raffa-coloured—all smooth-coated), was remarkable— each pretending to be unaware of the others, one cocking his leg against a handy root, while another had a sudden urge to do a spot of ‘fleaing’ but all had their eyes on me, a hostile and unwinking stare!!. I now emerged into the open, and as my way to the waiting car lay past where the dogs were, I calmly approached, slipping Ill confess, the cartridges back into my gun, as I did so. ‘Noné made any eifort to efface him/herself and as I came opposite them, one, the largest ‘black’ growled in no friendly manner, but made no advance and I passed them (the dog's), by noting that all had their ‘hackles’ raised and all still eyed me narrowly. As soon as I was out of sight of the dogs, I quietly slipped behind the tall grass and sal scrub and _ silently observed 4388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII the dogs. They remained as I’d just seen them, for a minute or so and then without hurry they separated, the ‘ratha’ and one ‘black’ together carrying on up the nullah, while the ‘piebald’ and the other ‘black’ turned off the nullah at right angles and dis- appeared into the forest. The former two went off at a steady lollop up the ravine, but the latter remained unhurried, and moved very silently. I’ve heard since that these village dogs hunt in similar—and larger-—parties and like Cuon—but possibly to a smaller extent— do damage to the herds of chital, and also pull down an occa- sional sambhar hind. The young of peafowl, jungle fowl and partridge must also suffer from these village dogs. I wonder whether any of the other members have seen anything similar. There are, of course the dogs which hunt with the Kamjars or gipsies, but those are trained (?) and hunt with their owners. It couldn’t have been a case of a bitch ‘in season’ with three beaux—this spirit of easy harmony and understanding and con- ferring together would not have been apparent—to say the least! and the family Canis is not so bashful as to retire into forest fast- ness for his courtship. Any way, I will appreciate your own views and those of any member who may have seen a similar event. ARGADIAS, [oie Wi Po KEEVAN. DEHRA Dun, U.P., October 15, 1940. VI.—VITALITY OF A HYAENA (HYAENA STRIATA) ~ While out on a Gasht today a striped hyaena got up in front of the forward platoon who shot it. I don’t know how rare these are up here, but I have never heard of one before, though some of the men say they are very common. But on the other hand some of them thought it was a panther, and others said it was in the habit of killing camels. It seemed in good condition except that one of its hind feet was missing from some previous injury; but I cannot think what they live on here as the hills are bare and barren. All flocks are driven in at night, and though a dead camel would do it well, dead camels are not as common as all that... The vitality of this animal was amazing. It was hit by a °303 bullet at close range and apparently the bullet broke up, because there was a huge hole in the belly out of which the liver and stomach (?) were protruding when found. In addition a piece of intestine ten feet long had come out where the hyaena was first hit and this it had apparently bitten off for it was found on the ground. After biting it off the hyaena had gone down a very steep nullah about two hundred feet, and a hundred feet up the other side where it was finished off. There was a very broad blood trail all the way, and it is astonishing that an animal could lose so much blood and still continue to run. We took the head and neck and the tail, but had to leave the rest owing to lack of time. While skinning the head we found a leech about 134” long in one of the nostrils. MIRANSHAH, Tia). Pine eeSr N. Waziristan, N.W.F.P., Tochi Scouts. December, 1940. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 439 VIL—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF. THE CHAFFINCH (FRINGILLA COELEBS [LINN.]) IN WAZIRISTAN, These are far commoner visitors to India than is generally supposed. On the 16th February this year (1940), there were two or three cock birds here, and early in March there were about half a dozen of each sex; but I had not then a copy of the Fauna and consequently took little notice of them, except that they seemed duller than the English bird. For the same reason I cannot be sure, but I think they were then singing, rather a weak little song. I have been unable to get.dust shot so 1 am afraid this specimen also is a bit battered. He was sitting on a branch calling, which was what drew my attention to him though I had seen him a few days before. _ MIRANSHAH, es EES. NeW AZIRISTAN, - NV UE. PY, Tocht Scouts. December, 1940. |The specimen of the Chatfinch was sent to us by Mr. Phillips. We. have been able to verify the identification. It was obtained by him at Datta Khel 4,o00 ft. in the Muranshah District, North Waziristan. In the New Fauna one previous record is given. This is a specimen obtained by Capt, C. H. T. Whitehead at Hangu, 25 miles north of Kohat.—Eps. ] ViIIlL.—VULTURES AND PALMS. Going to and fro by train to work and home again, I often wonder “how many people have given a thought to, or observed the gradual, but sure disappearance of palm trees, particularly ot the Brab Palms (Borassus flabellifer L.) on either side of the railway track, and beyond. This gradual disappearance of the palms is most noticeable after leaving Bandra station (going north), and is not entirely due to the development of the suburbs, but also to the presence of targe numbers of white-backed vultures (Pseudo- gybs bengalensis) in attendance on the Bandra slaughter house. The crowns of the palms afford most convenient roost for the vultures, which naturally use them. Though vultures ‘shoot’ out their excrements to a considerable distance, they do not always fall clear of the palms. In course of time the crowns of the palms are smeared white with the acrid excreta. The leaves gradually get ‘burnt’ and dry up, and it is not long before the crown dies, leaving a bare ‘pole’ standing. Rot soon lays the stem low. The vultures are now forced to find a fresh roost. Thus, one by one the palms are gradually disappearing. It is only the tallest palms that are thus affected. As vultures generally do not roost for the night below a certain height, the young palms escape till they become tall enough. | It is surprising to find in what a short time the vultures kiil the palms. A few random observations showed that certain palms succumbed after two and three years of use, while others dragged on for a couple of years or so more. Palms with slanting stems 440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiS?. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIl seemed to survive a little longer than those with vertical stems. Palms, which had been abandoned as roosts, sometimes recovered after a while. Coconut palms (Cocos nucifera LL.) are also used as_ roosts, but on the whole are less affected, as they do not usually reach the same height as ‘brabs’, and the fronds are less adaptable to carrying a number of these large birds. This is not a plea to destroy the vultures, they are by far too useful as scavengers, in spite of their ugly appearance and habits, but is merely intended as a record to show how trees may be destroyed by the excreta of some birds. Incidentally the life and distribution of two insectivorous birds, the Palm Swift [Tachornis bat. batasiensis (Gray)| and the Swallow Shrike (Artamus fuscus Vieillot.) are bound together with the distribution of the Brab Palm, which both these birds use as roosts andanesting sites, “lire disappearance of the palms from Salsette may result in the disappearance of these birds, but I do not think there is any immediate danger of this taking place—Nature will, I think, take care of that. BomsBay NatruraL History SOcIgETY, C. McCANN. BomBay, December 2, 1940. IX.—SANDGROUSE COMING TO WATER AT MIDDAY. It may be of interest to your readers to know that whilst in British Somaliland recently I noticed the Pin-tailed Sandgrouse (Pterocles alchata) flighting in and watering at 1-30 p.m. This struck me as very unusual for a species which normally waters in the early morning and occasionally in the evening. I would mention that the place where these birds were bathing was the only water hole for several miles. ADEN, R, C, (NICHOLAS, September 30, 104ce: Major. X.—SCARCITY OF SANDGROUSE DURING THE COLD WEATHER 1939-1940, Have any of your members remarked on the scarcity of the Common Sandgrouse (Pterocles exusius) this year? During the cold weather of 1939-40 I was at Ramdurg, S. M. Country, and shot about 100 sandgrouse. I spent last Christmas there and had previously warned my old shikari to look out for good places for sandgrouse, but on my arrival he reported that he could not find any. I went to an old haunt of these birds, but there was not one to be seen. [The uplands round Mudhol are typical places for sandgrouse, but I have seen very few. It is not a matter of scarcity of water as there are rivers here and at Ramdurg where the birds drink. MuDHUL, E, .O BRIEN; S. M. Country, Lt.-Colonel. January 16, 1941. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4d XH ABERS OF THE SHEESHEE PARTRIDGE (AMMOPERDIX GRISEOGULARIS GRISEOGULARIS). With reference to’ the habits of the Seesee Partridge, as noted in the Fauna, J think that Stuart Baker is mistaken about the double whistle call. « They are the commonest game birds here by a long way, and I have never heard it, nor have any of our men whom I have asked. The only noise I have heard them utter is a soft chuck chuck from one to another in the covey, and the noise from which they get their names is the see see noise they make with their wings as they take off-—a high pitched squeak like a badly oiled bearing. Another habit of theirs is not mentioned. In the heat of the day they seem to leave the plains and go: to rocky outcrops where they hide in deep cracks and crevices, alwavs preferring these cracks to even the shadiest stones. Also when wounded they aiways run to the nearest hole or crack in a rock, if there is one anywhere ‘near by. They do not hide up in the middle of the day to the same extent in the cold weather, but even unwounded birds, when frightened, will fly into a hole in a cliff, and under these circumstances I have put out seven or eight birds in the cold weather out of one rock. Protective colouration is very highly developed in these birds, and I have had ten men searching an area of bare stony sand for three or four minutes before finding a dead bird lying there back upwards. So without a dog a wounded bird out of sight is as good as lost. Big coveys of twenty birds or so are difficult to approach, because when they disappear over a ridge they almost invariably leave a sentry; but two or three birds together practically never do this, and if one runs forward they can usually be found just ‘below the crest of the ridge or in the nullah below. — MirANSHAH, 1. J... PHILLIPS, N. WaAzIRISTAN, Tocht Scouts. N.-W.F.P., December 1940. | Sif-—-CURIOUS NESMNG SITE OF THE RED=WATTLED LAPWING (LOBIVANELLUS INDICUS INDICUS BODD.) (With a photo) Mr. K. Bocker sent me a couple of photographs of a Red- wattled Lapwing’s nest which had been placed ‘on a heap of ballast between two railway tracks in Ghosrana Station yard (Alwar State)’. The nest contained three eggs. Mr. Bocker commenting on the behaviour of the bird wrote, ‘Every time a train came in the bird flew up, only to return to its domestic duties immediately the train left... The photographs were taken early in September. The position of the nest between two frequently used railway tracks, and in a station yard, is certainly rather unusual for a bird which is generally very careful to hide its nesting position. ‘Another point of interest is that this lapwing generally has its nest 14 442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII near water, on the banks of lakes or in the beds of rivers. | Accord- ing to the Fauna this species usually lays in April and May, but eggs have been found in June and July. In this instance the bird laid in Septemiber, several weeks later than usual. BomBAy NATURAL HIstToRy SOCIETY, Bomsay, C. McCANN. November 13, 1940. XII.—RECORDS OF SWINHOE’S SNIPE IN ASSAM. Swinhoe’s snipe (Capella megala) are not the rarity that they were some years ago, but they are still comparatively uncommon. It may be of interest to record that three have been shot in the neighbour- hood of Shillong recently. I killed the first in a valley some three miles west of the station on September 15. Major W. L. Neal, I.M.S., shot the second, 13 miles west of Shillong on September 28. I shot the third on the high plateau south of Shillong on October 30. The first and last were solitary birds. The second was lying close to another snipe which we failed to bag. BRIGHTWELL, |-7C. HIGGINS: SHILLONG, ASSAM, 7 November 8, 1940. XIV.—OCCURRENCE OF SWINHOE’S SNIPE IN BENGAL. In view of the paucity of published records of the occurrence of Swinhoe’s Snipe (Capella megala) in North India, it may be of interest to record that a specimen, sent to you herewith, turned up in a bag of 33 couple, consisting of 56 pintail snipe, 9g fantail snipe MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4.43 and the Swinhoe, made by me on September 29 last, a few miles from Naihati, which is some 24 miles north of Calcutta. The ground consisted of young paddy with swampy grassy patches here and there, which had not been cultivated, and the birds -were also found sheltering from the sun in the shade of bushes and patches of jungle dotted about in and around the paddy. The Swinhoe which, in the preliminary separation of the bag by looking at the undersides of the wings, had been placed amongst the pintails, attracted attention on account of its large size; a closer examination and a look at the tail disclosed its identity. Besides the quite distinctive tail, this particular specimen seemed to me to differ from most pintail snipe in the following respects :— 1. It was definitely large, even for a pintail; so much so that it attracted special attention. 2. the legs seemed to be rather longer. The bill appears to me to be longer and more slender than is the case with most pintails, while the knob at the extremity of the upper mandible, although present, does not seem to be quite so pronounced. These are personal impressions only, however, and the differences mentioned are certainly not sufficiently pronounced to enable identi- fication without an examination of the tail, except for which, the bird is extraordinarily like a pintail snipe. This is the first Swinhoe’s snipe to turn up in a total of over 16,600 snipe representing an aggregate of bags made since season 1926-27, practically all within a radius of about 4o miles from Calcutta, in which I have been personally interested and all of which have definitely ben carefully examined for unusual species and varieties. ISS) CALCUTTA, Ry J. CLOUGH. November 23, 1940. XV.—MOULTING OF COMMON TEAL SUBSEQUENT TO MIGRATION TO INDIA. (With a photo). I am sending you by this evening’s train a teal shot yesterday in Bikaner, i.e., on October 4, this year. 2. It is not certain, but in all probability, it was not shot flying on account of its wing condition, but must have been shot on the water when picking up wounded birds. oy 1 send; some photographs which have been taken, in case the bird does not arrive in good enough condition. How- ever, I think, you will be able to see the condition of its wings at anv rate. There is no doubt that the bird could not have migrated with its wings in their present condition. Such a long flight would have been impossible, in this condition, it was really quite unable to fly. Last year the lake was completely dry, so it could not have been a wounded bird left behind from the previous year. 4. The only feasible explanation is that it migrated and arrived at.the end of August or early in September in the lake, and for 444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII some unnatural and extraordinary reason, moulted after arriving here. A lot of feathers on both wings are in a growing state and still bluish in colour and soft. 5. I should be much obliged by your kindly letting me know what you think is really the case. Particularly, whether the teal, which appears to be a young bird, could have migrated in its present wing condition, or whether it could fly, even slowly, in this condition. BIKANIR, SECRETARY LO October 3, 1040. HEIR APPARENT OF BIKANIR. [We have examined the teal (Nettion creca) which was in complete moult. The Anatidae (Ducks and Geese), unlike most birds—-moult all their wing quills simultaneously and not pair by pair. They thus become completely flightless for a period. Mr. Salim Ali who was concerned with the carrying out of scientific bird surveys on behalf of the Society writes as follows :—— ‘Till I caught several such flightless teals and shovellers for ringing on the Ghana Jheel in Bharatpur last October (1939), I did not know that some of our migrant ducks underwent the complete post-nuptial or autumn moult after flying thousands of miles to their winter quarters on their old remiges (wing quills). This condition is not recorded anywhere in Indian bird books, as far as I know. ‘Most of our winter visitors have already finished moulting their wing and tail quills before they arrive in our midst. This is, as one would expect, considering the long and hazardous journey over the Himalayan barrier that must be accomplished, to reach their winter quarters in India, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 445 ‘Some individuals among the ducks, however, seem to be in such a hurry to get back to their winter quarters—(they often arrive as early as August or September) that they forsake their breeding grounds before the autumn moult has begun and go through this process at this end. Such birds, presumably, are yearlings that will not breed till the second season. They cannot be, at least the ones 1 examined were not—juveniles of the same season.’—EDs. | XVI.—OCCURRENCE OF THE STIFF-TAILED DUCK AT NOWSHERA, N.-W.F.P. As an old member of your Society, I thought you would like to know that we shot a Stitf-tailed Duck (Erismatura leucocephala) on the Kabul River on November 31, 1940. We were going down- stream in a boat when we suddenly came on the bird below a rapid. It refused to fly off the water although we passed it quite close, but as the boat was going very fast, and we thought we should not get a further chance we shot it on the water. It appeared to be on examination either a female or young male. The tail was very scraggy but very distinctive, also was the beak. .I compared it with Stuart Baker’s book, and it undoubtedly was a Stiff-tailed Duck. | I thought it might be of interest to you. It was a lone bird. THE MALL, F. F. FIELD, NOWSHERA, Lt.-Colonel. December 2, 1940. Vit INJURY TO 2 CROCODILE. (With a photo). The accompanying photo of a Marsh crocodile (C. palustris) is of interest. Having shot the crocodile, I found the mouth parts completely disfigured by a former bullet wound. The injuries involved both the upper and lower jaw which, as will be seen from the photo, were partly shot away. How the animal fed under these 14a 446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII circumstances is a mystery. The wounds had healed perfectly and the reptile was in good condition. NILAMBAG PALACE, R. K. DHARMAKUMARSINHYJI. BHAVNAGAR, September 27, 1940. XVIUI.—FOOD OF LIZARDS. I was very interested to see the record (Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xl; p. 49) of three larvae of Pardsa lepidagers «not ‘Gam.’} being taken from a Calotes. I recorded the eating -of this ks by Hemidactylus sp. in 1936 (Proc. R. Ent. Soc. Lond. (A) 11: g1-2). Lizards seem to pay little attention to the colouring of aie larv ae they eat and I have fed Hemidactylus sp. on the larvae of Polytela glorivsae F. and Chilasa clytia L., both typically apose- matic in appearance, the one being purple-black in colour blotched and spotted with orange and white, the other black and cream with large rose pink spots. MHairiness seems to afford protection as neither the larva of Pericalli ricint F. nor of Trabala vishnu Lef. were eaten. (1939, mili Proc Kk inl. Soe. honda ie ae 33-4): CALCUTTA, DY Ga SEVASTOPRUL@; December 30, 1940. XIX.—A NEW FAMILY OF FISHES! The discovery of a new vertebrate, so distinct from all previously known species as to warrant the erection of a new family for its reception, remains a zoological event of outstanding importance. Double significance 1 is attached to the find, when, as in the discovery under review, the new species may rightly be claimed to be one of the most highly specialized and bizarrely modified members of its class. Early in 1937, while studying fish life in brackish waters of the Bombay Province, C. V. Kulkarni encountered small, surface- swimming specimens which he first took to be the young of some goby or cyprinid fish, but which later turned out to be mature adults of an unknown species. When submitted to ichthyologists in India and America, the novelty was pronounced a new type, referable to the Order of small fishes known as Cyprinodontes. ‘it was interpreted as a distant relative of the common Indian species, Oryzias melastigma, and was presumed to have been evolved from some such fish. It has gone so far on its own special line of evolution, however, that it “seemed unwise to SASS the new type 1 in the same family (Cyprinodontidae). Dr, “George (5S. Myers and .the: reviewer were both struck by the extreme likeness of the Indian novelty to the tropical: American genus Tomeurus. Even in the features of extreme specialization, the resemblance appeared so close that. at first examination the two fish seemed to be close relatives. It seemed impossible that Nature 1 On the Systematic Position, Structural Modifications, .Bionomics > and Development of a Remarkable New Family of Cyprinodont Fishes ffom the Bombay Province, India. By C.-V.. Kulkarni. fFec, Ind. Mus., vol. xlii, PP. 379-423, figs. 1-20, 1940. ee mes rs ve Oram MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 447 could have twice molded a fish into such an extreme form. On more penetrating scrutiny, however, some fundamental, hidden differences came to view, so that both of us concluded that T’omeurus and the then-unnamed Indian genus arose independently from the cyprinodont groups that are respectively characteristic of the two regions. In designating the new fish Horaichthys setnai, Mr. Kulkarni has jointly commemorated the names of Dr. Sunder Lal Hora, India’s distinguished ichthyologist, and Dr. S. B, Setna, Fisheries Officer of Bombay. Though not unduly long as scientific cognomens go, this name is slightly longer than the fish. One wonders how this thin, translucent wisp-like inch of fish can be so packed with specializations. Horaichthys is peculiar in many ways. The small dorsal fin is set far back, almost against the caudal fin. The anal fin is much elongated. The anterior anal rays make a lobe on the females, and in the male are set apart to fabricate a marvellously complex structure, with special hooks and appendages and skeletal supports,—all of which are described in admirable detail. This structure is termed a gonopodium, from its resemblance to the similar though less extreme structure which serves as an intromittent organ in the Poeciludae, a family of viviparous American cyprinod- onts. The organs in the two groups are said to be homologous, as they are comprised essentially of rays 3, 4 and 5 of the anal fin, but this view can hardly be accepted by those who interpret unity of descent as a criterion of homology. In Horaichthys the gono- podium is utilized to transfer spermatophores (sperm-filled bundles) from male to female. These, the first true spermatophores to be recorded in fishes, are provided with a complex head of spines by which the sperm bundle is attached to the skin of the female, in the region of the genital opening. After attachment the wall of the bundle swells at a point near the spines and discharges its contents of male germ cells. The spermatozoa swim into the oviduct and there fertilize the eggs for some days. Dermal folds and ridges on the female (‘genital pads’) seem to aid in the attach- ment of the spermatophores. The usual lack of a right pelvic fin (a wholly unique feature) might be thought to serve the samc function, though the author, in a Lamarckian view that seems rather strange today, states that ‘it may be presumed that by such constant striking [of the gonopodium], the right fin has in the course of time been reduced and ultimately lost.’ Following wise suggestions from Dr. Hora, the author withheld the description of this marvellous little fish until it was possible to study its structural modifications, habitat, feeding and mating habits, deposition of eggs, and the structure and development of the egg and ‘larva’ (postlarva). All these observations were made in detail, with an eye that sees below the surface. For the com- pletion of this outstanding contribution to their science, the ichthyologists of the world owe thanks to Mr. Kulkarni and his Indian associates. ANN ARBOR, MicuHican, U-S.A., CARMEL. HUBBS: October 4, 1940, University of Michigan. 448° JOURNAL, BOMBAY-NATURAE HIST. SOCIETY, Voll XEM XX.—ADDENDA TO THE LIST OF SIMLA BUTTERFLIES. (Journal, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xli, p. 716) Parnassius simo simo, Gray. Bight ¢ from the Shipki La, 14,000’, in July 1o4o. Baitia butleri butleri, Moore. Qo 6 trom the Shipki La, i jcoo'. ae fully, soe: Euploea mulciber mulciber, Cramer. 6 caught in Chota Simla -ape7,0co0o*, tom vustiseS roo: Hesperia alpina alpina, Ersch. Several specimens from the Shipki La, 1,400/, in July, 1940. BisHOP COTTON M. A. WYNTER-BLYTH, .a. PREPARATORY SCHOOL, Sma, E. November 8, 1940. XX1=BUTTERFLIES ATTRACT ED BY \MOISi ev RawHe (Misceilaneous Note No. xx, Journal, vol. xlii, p. 206). Collenette, in a paper which I have not yot with me, suggested that perspiration was a potent source of attraction in South America. He also remarked that most patches of damp earth or sand would attract butterflies if one or two dead ones were placed on it as decoys. In Shillong I found Terias spp. very common on patches of damp earth. CALCUITA, DG. SEVASTORULO. December 30, 1940. XXIT.—SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE MOTH (BRAHMEA WALLICHII I have a few notes to add to the admirable life histories of the large moth Brahmea wallichi, Gray which have been published during the last few years; viz., Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Society, vol. xxvill, page 593 by Graham, and Journ. Darjeeling Nat. Hist. Soc. No. 1 June: 1938: by Scott; | I-obtained a female of this species, a rather battered and deformed: specimen, on the trunk of a fir tree at Laitlyngkot ‘in the Khasia and Jaintia Hills on May 25, 1940. It had laid seven eggs on the bark of the tree singly, and it looked as if an attemp. had been made to insert the eggs into cracks in the bark. It laid a further five eggs in the box in which it was put. The colour of these particular eggs were quite a deep yellow and had no «ther markings that I could see. I was on my way to Darjeeling at the lime so the eggs were not observed very closely until some ten days later when it was noticed that they had turned a deep mauve colour. Shortly after the larvae emerged. It is noted by Lt.-Col. Scott that in Shillong the food plant is Ligustrum robustum Blume and by Major Graham as Fraxinus macracantha. I could find neither of these in Darjeeling. I did however find Ligustrum con- fusum Dene and made vain attempts to make the larvae eat it; MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 449 but they resolutely refused and most of them died. Fraxinus floribunda Wall is a fairly common tree in Darjeeling and_ this was tried with success. They fed well after this. The point of interest is that although the larvae will eat two species of the genus I*raxinus they will not eat a second species of Ligustrum. I also observed that sometimes the empty ege shells were entirely eaten, but were only partially eaten in other instances. | did not however note that the cast skins were eaten. I found that they were left untouched in all cases. I was unfortunate with the surviving larvae however. I managed to rear them to the penultimate instar when they all died as a result of being unable to cast the last skin. From my observations it iS apparent that where the humidity 1s very high, as it is in Darjeeling during the monsoon, the larvae are very delicate, especially if they are not kept well ventilated—in the open air if possible. I was unable to do this not being in my own home. The high humidity seemed to prevent the old skin from drying sufficiently for it to be shed. It appeared to stick to the spiracles. I had a good deal of difficulty with each instar except the first, when the skins were in the process of being changed, as a matter of fact; but the last was the worst. The larvae were inclined to be lethargic and did not eat well when it was cold. The height of Laitlyngkot is 6,000 feet. It 1s apparent that to rear the larvae of this species successfully it is necessary to keep them as dry as possible when in captivity and very well ventilated. ASSAM, R. E, PARSONS, November 3, 1940. Indian Police, F.R.E.S. XXIIL.—LARVA OF THERETRA LYCETUS CR. PARASITIZED BY TACHINID FLIES. With reference to Mr. McCann’s note on the same subject in the last issue of the Journal, I have several times had a similar experience with larvae of Rhyncholaba acteus Cr. The very noticeable caking of the underlying soil is, presumably due to the amount of fluid contained in the body of these large larvae. CALCuUrIaA D, GASEVASTOPULO, December 30, 1940. XNIV.—LAGERSTROEMIA INDICA AS A FOOD-PLANT OF ACTIAS SELENE, (Miscellaneous Note No. xxii, Journal, vol. xlit, p. 208) I have found this shrub most useful in rearing many species of larvae whose proper food-plant I did not know. The Saturniid Philosamia cynthia Drury eats it readily, and in Shillong I found cocoons of Dictyoploca simla Westw. on it in numbers. Probably most Saturniids would eat it. Of the other families, almost all Lymantriids will eat it, as will many Limacodids. CALCUGDA, DD. GaSe VASTOPULO, December 30, 1940. 450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII XXV.—THE DEATH EXPEDITION OF pees CATERPILLARS. (A Correction). There seems to be a mistake in the identification of the species referred to in this article (Journ. Bomb. Nai. Hist, Soc., vol. xlii, p. 164}. Crocallis (presumably Treit.) is the name of a genus of. Geometrine moths with smooth, looper caterpillars very different from the hairy larvae shewn in the plate. It is difficult to make an identification from the information given in the note, but I feel fairly confident that the larva in question is Eupterote geminata Wik. This is a common species in Calcuita and the larvae are often to be found abundantly on various trees and shrubs, the branches of which they cover with a coating of silk. CALCUTTA, Di G. SEVASTORULO: December 30, 1940. XXNVIL—ABNORMAL SEEDLING OF MANGIFERA INDICA, LINN. NiO. MNACARDIAGE ME, (With a text figure), Mange scedlings were raised for the class work. Among these an abnormal seedling was noticed. A normal seedling consists of a main tap-root with its branches, two cotyledons, and a shoot (epicotyl) bearing young immature leaves. In the abnormal seedling (Fig, 1) abnormalities were present in the root and the shoot region, while the cotyledons only remained normai. Instead of a single tap-root with its branches, it was noticed that several roots were given out. In all there were eighteen roots of various lengths. The shoot system consisted of a main primary normal shoot and five axillary secondary shoots. The main primary shoot was stout and it remained enclosed inside the endocarp. At the base of this shoot, in the axils of the cotyle- dons, five secondary shoots were present—one in one axil and four in the other. OF these four axillary secondary shoots, one showed fasciation of three.axes. The union of the axes was unequal. At the base, all the three axes were united. Higher up the outer axis got separated while the inner one was composed of two united axes. The latter also was separated again at the apex. Of these four secondary axillary shoots, two were longer than the rest. On-the longer “shoots, young tender leaves) were «present, while on the two short shoots, only rudimentary leaves resembling scales were present. When this seedling was uprooted the only part that was above eround consisted of the two longer shoots, one with normal axis and the other with the fasciated axis. The remaining shoots and cotyledons remained inside the endocarp. Abnormalities in the seedlings of Mango have been recorded by Masters (3), Khanna (r) and Sen and Mallik (5). The abnormal seedling described in this note differs from the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4514 ohe cited by Masters (3) in the following respects: (i) Adventitious roots are not manifested on the cotyledons. (11) There is absence of an increased number of embryos. According to Khanna (1) embryonic shoots were given off from the part just near the endocarp as well as from the. extreme part of the cotyledons. Such is not the case with this seedling. It also differs from one described by Sen and Mallik (5) in that there is absence of a single tap-root. These axillary secondary shoots were the result of the occur- rence of buds in the axils of the cotyledons. The presence of the buds in the axils of cotyledons and the development of shoots from them 1s of rare occurrence. Similar type of instances are recorded A -ccrr” Ape a Fig. 1. Abnormal Seedling of Mangifera indica Linn. showing :— (a) endocarp: (b) cotyledons: (c) roots: (d) main primary normal shoot : (e) single axillary secondary shoot: (f) four axillary secondary shoot No. 1-4: (g) fasciation of three axes of shoot No. 2. in Cassia Tora, Impatiens Balsamina, Vicia faba, Tropaeolum majus, Ricinus communis, and some others by Tiwary (7) and inmCicey, aneunum by Singh *(6); The present case differs from that of Tiwary (7) in that there is absence of fasciated shoot. According to Singh (6) if the plant is decapitated close to the cotyledons, either in the seedling stage or a little later, axillary shoots are invariably developed in due course, There is nothing like decapitation in this case. 452. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit Sachs (4) and Lopriore (2) produced at will fasciated shoots in the axils of the cotyledons of the Scarlet Runner (Phaseolus multifiorus) by excising the main axis of the plumule at an early stage; if this mutilation is performed at a later stage, no fasciation results. Worsdell (8) repeated these experiments with marked success. He produced fasciated shoots in the axils of the cotyledons of majority of seedlings. In every case the shoot was only affected at the base. The rest of the shoot showed the normal growth. The present case agrees with those of Sachs in having fasciated shoots; but this is a natural phenomenon and not the result of mutilation. BuAUDDIN COLLEGE, G. A. KAPADIA, -m.sc. AHMEDABAD, December 1940. LATERATURE CITED: 1, Khanna, L. P. (1932) ‘Cotyledonary vegetative veproduction in Margo’. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. Jour’, vole xxxvae puso, 2. Lopriore (1904) ‘Kunstlich erzeugte Verbanderung bei Phaseolus multi- florus’. Berichte deutsch. Bot. Ges., Bd. xxii, pp. 394-6 (as quoted by Worsdell). Worsdell). 3. Masters, M. T. (1869) ‘Vegetable Teratology’, Ray Society Publication, p» 159 and 365. 4. Sachs (1859) ‘“Physiologische Versuche tiber die Keimung des Schmink- bohnes’. Sitzungsher. Kais. Akad. Wiss. Wein., Bd. lvii, p. 57 (as quoted by Worsdeil). 5- Sen, P. K. and Mallik, P. C. (1940) ‘Embryo of the Indian Mangoes’. Proce dnd.w St: (Cons -B0t. Abie gNO.mAS,, emi: 6. Singh, T. C. N. (1930) (foottnote) Jour. Bom. Nat. His. Soc., vol. xxxin, D, 7a2s ie Tiwary, N. K. (1930) ‘A Note on the occurrence of buds in the axils of the cotyledons’. four. Bom. Nat. His. Soc., vol. xxxili, p. 731. 8. Worsdell, W. C. (1915) ‘The Principles of Plant-Teratology’.. Ray Society Publication, “vol. 1, p. 2954 XXVII.—SOME WILD FLOWERS OF KASHMIR AND THEIR INDIGENOUS USE. One of the beauties of the charming valleys of Kashmir is their wild flowers. I mean those vallevs which are above the tree-belt where shepherds make their homes during the summer months. Where there is less grazing, the flowers thrive and we see beds of floral vegetation in diverse colours. Sometimes we see islets right in the middle of a torrent, covered with pink, yellow or orange flowers. Almost all the flowers of these high altitudes have medicinal qualities. There is a great scope for a scientist or a medical man to analyse these herbs. There are some men who know the uses of certain herbs, but they are loath to impart this knowledge to others. When they die this knowledge also dies with them. The most esteemed of all these herbs is Saussurea sacra. This is commonly known as Jog-Padshah. It grows above 14,000 ft. in crevices between rocks and slabs with very little earth in them. The herb is like a fleecy ball, exactly like a cat’s head without ears. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 453 The flowers are tiny, of purple colour in pappus. The leaves are lower down and are in large numbers. It appears shining like a star. It grows on the Harmukh, in the Sonasar pass, and from Romesh Thong (the Sunset Peak) to Tatakoti. It grows in large quantities. We saw a large bed of these flowers round Makor Nag, when, in 1937, the C. M. S. School masters climbed fhe. last- mentioned peak. There are many who have never seen this flower. I met a Sadhu fast year in the Nishat Bagh and he told me that he had spent months round about Khrew and Tar-Sar trying to find the herb. He said that he wanted to collect plants enough to give him juice weighing two seers! (almost an impossibility). It is believed that the head of the herb when powdered and drunk with boiled milk, abates fever and cures internal disorders. It is also used for snake-bites, and as a poultice for boils. Two other plants found at almost the same height are Allardia glabra and Pleurospermum. The former grows on sandy soil among rocks, and creeps along the ground. The flower ts like a daisy. The flowers of the disk are yellow, while those of the ray are purple or pink. The latter flower resembles hemlock (Mohora Kach) more or less. The plant is about 7” high. Both those specimens were found near the Kila peak (Harmoukh) and the Sonasar Nag peak. The drug which the physicians esteem most is Macrotomia Benthami, known as Kahzaban. There is no decoction prescribed by native physicians in which this drug is not used. An infusion of the leaves is believed to be good for heart trouble. A jam is prepared from the flowers of this plant. The flowers are pounded and mixed with double the weight of sugar and exposed for forty days in a jar in the sun. It is said that the root burnt and mixed with ghee cures burns. Mertensia tibitica is a small plant with dark blue flowers hav- ing a long corolla tube. It grows at a height of about 13,000 ft. It has been found ‘on Aphorwat, Yechini Pass (Kunsar Nag) Mahadive, and Hamsadwar. Sedum wersti grows among rocks. The flowers. are pink. dies leaves “are sessile. opposite, * broad and ‘thick. Jt 4s called ‘Dandas’ and the chewing of the stem is believed to cure toothache. It grows on Aphorwat, Mahadive, Gangabal and Harmoukh. Rheum webbianum is commonly known as Pamba hak. The leaves are boiled and cooked with fish or without. The root is pounded and mixed with oil to cure wounds. It is then called Pamba tsalan. The petiole of the leaf and young shoots are generally red and the former is boiled in sugar for eating purposes. It grows on Mahadive and high margs. Polygonum amblexicaule bears red flowers on the top of the plant. The leaves lower down are long and narrow. The root is called montsaran and is used to stop bleeding. Jurinea macrocephala. This plant is found at a height of about 12,000 ft. The leaves are radical, ashy-coloured, long and deeply lobed. The flower is like that of a thistle surrounded by leaves. The root is used as incense when mixed with other scented drugs, such as camphor etc. It is called Dhup. Saussurea Lappa. This is the famous plant known as Koth. 454. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII The leaves are long and broad resembling those of pumpkin leaves. The petioles have small wings attached to them. A group of 3 or more thistle-like flowers grow at the top of the stem. They are of a dark colour. Here and there we found the plant at Erin Nallah, Kanital, and Kishen Ganga valley. There are many places where the forest department is cultivating this useful plant. In 1927 we saw a large tract at Gossai in Grurais valley where this drug was being cultivated. The root of the plant is supposed to be very useful. Its mention in Yagupavit ceremony shows that its use was known from the earliest times. When a new well is dug a piece of the root is put into the water to clean it. One part Koth and two parts cane sugar is supposed to cure ulcer of the stomach. The dose is as large as half a pea. “t is also powdered and in.sesamum oil rubbed on a rheumatic limb. Its uses in China are manifold. It also serves the purpose of naphthalin. Aconitum heterophyllum (Monkshood) is a flower of high margs. The leaf is more or less Cordate with toothed edges.’ The ‘plant is°l)| =" by pattis. mathe) rootwecontainsaiae tubers one big and the other small. Hence the other name for it is nar mada (male and female). The tuber is ground and used as medicine for fever: It if as good as Quinine. It grows in Gurais, Gosai and Purmandal. Aconitum Chasmanthum is called ‘Mohand’. The flowers are collected and made into a kind of ‘Khamir’ jam. Double the weight of sugar is pounded with the flowers and kept in a jar in the sun for 4o days. It is a tonic and good for rheumatism. A large dose is poisonous. It is generally taken in winter months. It grows in Tosa Maidan, Purmandal and Danzeb. The root is ground, mixed with oil and rubbed on a rheumatic limb. Fritillaria Roylei is known by the name of Shithkdr (cures 80 diseases). The root is bulbous. ] saw a shepherd boy roasting the bulb in ashes and eating it. It cures stomach trouble. The bulb when dry is mixed with curds and applied to burns. It grows in Gulmarg and Mahadive. NaTURAL HisTORY DEPARTMENT, SAMSAR CHAND KOUL. C. M.S: Hicu ScHoor, SRINAGAR, KASHMIR, December 30, 1940. PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS EDITORS: H. M. MCGUSTY, J. F. CAIUS AND S. H. PRATER, 6 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY © f * és i GAME-BIRDS OF INDIA, BURMA & CEYLON. | ae STUART BAKER, cue, Bee F.L.S., F.Z.S., M.B.0.U., H.F.A.0.U. | me Imperial 8vo. Half bound. | ral Re b ee VOL. Il. eee [Im C, ; aA PHEASANTS AND Bus -ARD- Qu AIL. i : iy} ' ims {| , 4 a ~ 2 q = wanes if a About. 320 Pp. With 12 Coloured Plates and i : numerous Black and White rlates. — i - Price to Members who have not purchased ! | i Vols E-& Tho 3 ... £ 1-18-0==Rs. 23 Members who have gttehased one of the above Volumes .. £ 1-10-O=Rs. 20 : Members who have purchased both : the above Volumes _... ... £ 1- 5-0=Rs. 17 ; | " ; _ ° , Price to Non-members. Two Guineas=Rs, 28 Packing and postage extra. | Apply to:— The Bombay Natural History Society, 6, Apollo Street, BOMBAY. THE BOOK OF INDIAN BIRDS | By SALIM ALI , FP ii, A” inexpensive, handy volume for every | one interested in the bird life of our country. it” contains 171 full page plates in colour, numerous excellent photographs, ~ and simple, readable accounts of the habits, food and nesting of 181 species of birds commonly seen about. towns, villages and jheels in the plains of India, and about our Sea coasts. Bound in soft Rexine. Price Rs. 14 (Io Members of the Society. — Rs. 10-8) To be published in September 1941 Orders are now being. registered Apply to | : THE HONORARY SECRETARY, : BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 6, Apollo Street, Fort, Bombay. Ne 70s re i ai N 7 hee yy iy rg k ae } ‘mass Le WAN