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A TARE CA ems try i) y b TRU ae Giks ichoied Teoma 4 Parkeda be sliaie yee ay oymiet puting apheih behucerké 18) MAST ad aaeeys BNF a ATT HT Me aay Jal pethe bh beda bedlha SAS Ar aie hain ae “ We i Hat aaS Cy ey “4 Aras ola tye Oe he Ge ytda sy 3 ie We way aie tc 44 At kesh TU TMON OPEC tS eet 4 ‘ hovah rv ieiy nA f i Th ry ae, Vine vt ; ety) i ad | Mar oy as ny THE JOURNAL OF THE BomMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY INDEX AND TITLE PAGE VOL. XLII oe SlOnaL mused: Price ort Rs. 2-4-0 MADRAS PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS 1942 ae INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the following order when they are being bound :— Title page ee : Contents of Nos. Ll and Zof Vol7xLil: : List of Contributors as -. | To follow” “tromtts: 4 piece in this order. : Listto! Plates --- ue aoe Index to Illustrations on es Errata sas Index of Species re To go at the end of = two numbers. THE JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY EDITED BY * ey. Fr. J. FE. CAIUS, S.J. F-L.S.. H. M. MCGUSTY AND S.H. PRATER, MLL.A., J.P. VOL. XLil age Nos. 1 & 2 Containing 4 Coloured Plates, 45 Black and White Plates, 49 Text-figures, 4 Photos and 1 Map Dates of Publication Part I. (Pages 1, to 232)... December 1940. Fe lk. S(Ge 52 P2353 to,.454) ae April 1941. LONDON AGENTS DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY) 212, Shaftesbury Avenue, London, W.C. 2. PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS 1942 ye « s i mo Ss CONTENDS OL VOL OME Xi. No. 1 PAGE SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part V. By N. L. Bor, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., I.F.S., and M. B. Raizada, M.Sc. (With one coloured plate of Bauhinia Galpini N. E. Brown and three black and white plates, and seven TORU Al LOILHES) ee vaemet tats cota ese nro Sose hee Cas eee eS eed ook oe aowet 1 THE POMEGRANATE. By Father J. F. Caius, $.J., F.L.S........ 13 THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part V. By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.. A ie kt 38 A REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN eee Sa Pari Lis aby. McCann, F.L.S. (With six black and white plates)....... 45 THE EcoLoGy OF A TEMPLE TANK CONTAINING A PER- MANENT BLOOM OF Microcystis aeruginosa Cad Fen it : By S. V. Ganapathi, M.SC., A.I.c.. BF 65 THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA. Part XL “By ioe S. ie eee D.SC., F.R.S.E., F.Z.8., F.R.A.S.B., FeN.I. (With one colour- ed plate and four text-figures)... Se vcah caste 78 A CONTRIBUTION TO THE LIFE Hetee oF Zr ie ee bens Linn. By I, Banerji. ae two plates and twenty- MEU BECIEI-NEO VE )eccnteueoseast ses See'vet fc kot usa sus tev celts endecleas ce 89 SOMETHING ABOUT ee By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, mACRetd.) \GW/2th a Olack and White: Plate) ....scsscsn.sb aes 100 Notes on SomE NEW AND INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BurRMA. PartII. By Major-General Sir Harry. Pytier, K:C:B., C.M.G.,/C.1.E.; -D.S.0.; Mises 109 A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF THE PUA Prae AND THE ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS. By Dr. T.S. Sabnis, B-A= (EIons.), D.SC., -FVA.S.GC,,. 1. AS: me 124 BurMA’s DECREASING WILD Lirz. By D’ Anew WWeatneche. (With two plates) . arated eree lee a2 a LOO SomE ComMMON TOSS Ramer WITH Nerke ON THEIR ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS. Part V. By M. Sayeedud- Din. (With two plates)... - 161 THE DEATH EXPEDITION OF EUASSIE Chememrecins ae of Crocallis sp.) By G.C. Bhattacharya. (With a plate). 164 THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FLAXWORTS OF INDIA. By J. F. Caius, S.3., F.L.S.....0.-..110-s0ncaeserserseeseesogesereecesees 167 iv | CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII A STUDY OF THE COURTING HABITS OF Myrmarachne platale- otdes (Cambr.) A SPIDER MIMIC OF THE INDIAN RED- ANT, Oecophylla smaragdina. By A. P. Mathew, M.A..... REVIEWS :— 1. A Facsimile of R. H.Beddome’s Articles on Indian Reptiles 1862-1870. By Malcolm Smith........... 2. The Tetrapod Reptiles of Ceylon. Volume I, Testudinates and Crocodilians: “By PE. PB: Deraniyagala... , ene WANTED INFORMATION ABOUT Nancens edits ian ne te MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— I. How the Mongoose counteracts Snake Bite. By A. L’E. Browniow.. bed LR eee ae ii Ae Wwarce Panne ante cor SrrechiOny ‘By Yashodaar Singh of Khilchipur... b III. The Short-nosed Fruit- mae (Ghichtegu 1S Me phiaie as an Agent of seed dispersal in the Wild Date (Phoentx sylvesiris L.). / By C.aMicCani. cer es {V. Jungle and House Crows as destroyers of Game. By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji... V. Notes on the nesting of Wastes Ss eee (Acmonor-hynchus vincens [Sclater|). By Cicely Lushington, (wth a plate)... i VI. The Occurrence of the islieee bellied riggs pecker (Pachyglossa melanoxantha Uodgs.) at Almora, U.P. By S: H. Prater : VII. TheOccurrence of the Drongo Gucles (on es lugubrts oan in the Punjab. By Mrs. A. B. M. Way... VIII. A Note on ae “Alpines ae apes naib , bakeri Hartert). By C. McCann, F.L.s.. IX. Vultures ‘feeding’ atnight. By E.S. ee ee X. Injuries to the feet ofa Mallard. By W. P. Keelan. XI. Additional Notes on the Birds of Bombay and Salsette. By Humayun Abdulaliand Salim Ali. XII. Some Birds. of Lower Burma. By J. A. M. SVMS tee vie deprceabane iy Some Bird sae cite Oil fields, Borat ok A. M. XIV. Birds vere Batteriios ae S. F. Hopwood, 1.F.S. PAGE 171 181 181 182 1837 183 184 185 186 187 187 188 189 191 191 198 198 199. ogee eve VA. NOW XVIII. XIX. 2. XXII. OIL. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVII. XXVITI. XXIX. XXX. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII The many Banded Krait (Bungarus multicinctus) {ieSsuininan wey er Nae Minho yas, ne eee ee Extension of the range of the Brown Whip Snake (Dryophis pulverulentus Jan.) By C. McCann. Frog eating a Snake. By R. K. Dharmakumar- SUA dee cer geteee cx < wee meee Cas ; Notes on the cat distribution and larvicidal propensities of Hloraichthys setnai imbkarnte | Dy vives COD) MSCs. J08.5 eo baste ccs Notes on the Early stages in the development of the Deccan Killifish Aplochetlus lineatus (Cuv. ande Vials) bys. UOneSs, Masc..and Vio J. Job, MEGG,, (tO7th LON TEXT 102 UTES). 22s one. css Butterflies attracted by moist earth. Parsons, F.R.E.S.. : On the larva of the moth ise ty ripitaa) and the destruction of the cocoons by Tree Shrewss) bye. 2). Parsons, PeR.E.S) ok leeks, Lagerstroemia indica as a food plant of the Silk Moth Cee ee By. KR. i: Parsons, F.R.E.S. The ee he Witlow (Salix hai iontaye asa food plant of the Moth Loefa katinka Westw. By Rio. Parsons, FRIES. Pet The Wood-cutting Wasp (SPnee te ie Bing and its prey in Salsette. By C. McCann........ Larva of Theretra lycetus Cr. parasitized by MACIIMIC INES eb y Co. VICCAnd, dec. 2 ee. keke March Lepidoptera at Gopalpur (Dist. Ganjam). Bye DaGe SCvaStOpUlo,s | FORKS. 0300 ..re.¢esaceee oes By R. E. Some insects from a Mango trunk ( Mangitera indica Love ©. MeCann .. fcc sccsss008 doa eee Insects at a street lamp at Andheri. By C. ic Caritaoanerrce ements al CMe Ie 8 cusck eran h Rotten Some Indian Spiders: Their season of prosperity. By T. V. Subrahmanyam... Theft of a watch by a Fiddler Poa ‘By Violet Dickson., atts eed os'c proceedings of ine es feoican bMesting: POU Sites dostt oe: 201 203 206 207 208 209 209 210 211 212 213 217 7A ee 221 vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII No. 2 SoME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part VI. By N.L. Bor, M.A., D.SC., F.L.S., I1.F.S., and M.B. Raizada, m.sc. (With one coloured plate of Mussenda frondosa Linn. and three black and white plates and three text- figures)... co0d00 “t oe see SOME DORN innOrOcTeat Reon OF THE Unni Wo Canaere EXPEDITION OF 1938/39 To NORTHERN BuRMA. By Major J. K. Stanford, 0.B.E., M.C., F.R.G.S., 1.C.S. (Retd.) (With two plates)... < Monee THE WHALE SHARK (Rep ineden ie ican in Tadic Coastal Waters with notes on its wanderings in other areas. By S.H. Prater, ¢.M.z.s. aes one map and SEVEN PIOTES) ccc s. cetes sete ceo madineseeeecsetee SomE COMMON ieOTACe Hone: WITH Nonae: ON THEIR ANA- TOMICAL CHARACTERS. By M. Sayeedud-Din. Part VI. (With two plates)... a bee danineia de oe pecsemese THE EARLY STAGES OF ee Lamoc me Dane VI. By D. G. Sevastonulo, F.R.E.S.. : OL ek Sie PHOTOGRAPHING IN CEYLON’S pen Ciena nane. By W. W... AC Phillips; #-LS4 B-Z:S. sCWiethisex Plaies) eae A CONTRIBUTION TI THE STUDY OF THE BIOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY OF INDIAN MARSH AND AguaTic Prants. By J. F. R. D’ALMEIDA, B.A., M.Sc. (With to PIGles) Wr. cccice eenene sa: 2+ ceslseccert Seneeee Tue GAME FisHes OF INbDIA. Part XII. ee aehs ibe Hora, D.SC., F.R:E:S.,. £.Z.S.) 92 -R-A.S.B.)) BN ban iene Misra, M.SC. ees one coloured plate and seven text-, A NEw ceren ae OF : (Srosarsta By K. CHERIAN JACOB, L.Ag., F.L.S: (Wth a plate)... : ee MARINE SHELLS OF Nor Ac | “8 M. 0) ‘CRICHTON. Wie four plates)... : A Conmeeuntoun TO THE ons. OF THE Poke AND THE ASsocIATED Hi1LL REcGions. Part II. By Dr. T. S. Sabnis, B-A. (Hons.); D.Sc, BSA-SC., I-A:s.. THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LAaBIATES ¢ OF “Tsao = Rev. PriJ. F.4GCAnus, Si-,8:E-S.- a On THE FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN Ve a AND Does (Heterocera). By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S............ OBITUARY :— FREDERICK VICTOR EVANS (1865-1940)... ...cceeceseeee toe cee eee ene 233 242 2595 280 283 295 298 323 342 380 421 431 a CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII vii PAGE REVIEW :— The Fauna of British India including the remainder of the Oriental Region, Dijtera. Vol. VI. Family Calltphoridae. By R. Senior White, Daphne PMUDEREM ANNU OMM SIMALGs cs cceskcccisscoctele ecteess ee ee 200 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— I. Rivers as barriers to the distribution of Gibbons. By R. E. Parsons. . Saran hace ceireeises ae Oo II. A pale colour form of the Panther: By H. A. Fooks. (With a photo)... pabcbisceseeee 435 III. A Brown form of the Hialayan Black Bene (Selenarctos thibetanus). By Botha VanIngen. 436 IV. The Indian Wild Dog. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton, 1.A. (Retd.)... ‘ Sees a FOO V. Village Dogs Hunting. as w. P. Sees bathe sts 437 VI. Vitality of a Hygena ee eee By t.. J: Phillips .. ue Si 438 VII. On the occurrence of “ihe Ghatiace Ueda coelebs Linn.) in Waziristan. By T. J. Phillips. 439 VIII. Vultures and Palms. By C. McCann......°......... 439 IX. Sandgrouse coming to water at mid-day. By Major R. C. Nicholas... : 440 X. Scarcity of Sandgrouse ati fie Soi ete 1939=1940, By Lt.-Col. EB. O’Brien...4....2...0. 440 XI. Habits of the See-see Partridge (Ammofperdix griseogularis griscogularis). By T.J. Phillips. 441 XII. Curious nesting site of the Red-wattled Lapwing (Lobivanellus indicus indicus Bodd.) By C. Mc Cann. (With a photo)... Ldmedoeeene O44). XIII. Records of Swinhce’s Sained in Coe oe JC. Higgins... A 442 XIV. Occurrence of etic’ S Jeunes in Seen ne R. 1 Clouahe: See ww. 442 XV. Moulting of ceeabion Teal “abseqtient: ae migra- tion to India. By the Secretary to Heir Apparent of Bikaner. (With a photo)............ 443 XVI. Occurrence of the Stiff-tailed Duck at Nowshera, NEWAHGP byob Col, Ha bs Rields. o8.cisee ceca 445 XVII. Injury toa Crocodile. By R. K. Dharmakumar- sinhji. (With a photo)... ee 445 XVIII. Food of Lizards. By D.C. Sevastopulo. ee 446 XXII. XXIII. XXIV. XXV. XXVI. XXVIT. CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII A New Family of Fishes. By Carl L. Hubbs.... Addenda to the list of Simla Butterflies. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth, M.A.. Butterflies attracted by TOIBEY eau: ae D. G. Sevastopulo.. Supplementary Notes on a life history Ba fae Moth (Brahmea pene By R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S.. bare Ue creeh dame ean tee Larva of ‘Tiere nee os parasitized by Tachinid Flies. By D. G. Sevastopulo.......... Lagerstroemia indica as a Foodsplant of Actias sélene. & By D.'G.-Sevastopulor.s.c-.iae- soe eee The death expedition of Hibiscus caterpillars. (A correcizon):. “By DW ~ Ge sevastopulorncs. ss Abnormal seedling of Mangifera indica Linn. N. O. Anacardiaceae. By G. A. Kapadia, m.sc. (With a text-figure)... Some Wild Flowers of igactnais Aaa ici ladicee ous use. By Samsar Chand Koul... PAGE 446 448 448 448 449 449 450 450 452 —-" MEPAHABEDICALS LIST OF ‘CONT RIBOTORS VOLUME XLII ABDULALI, HUMAYAN and ALI, ’ Sauim ; Additioral Notes on the Birds of Bombay and Salsette ... ALI, SALIM ; Humayan. ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING ; Proceedings of 1939 BANERJI, I; A Contribution to the Life History of Tvridax procumbens. Linn. ( With two dlates and twenty-five text- figures) .. ; eae a00 iyenoer enneye G. C.; Lhe Death Expedition of Hibiscus Caterpillars (larvae of Crocalt- lissp.) (With a plate) BIKANER, SECRETARY 10 HEIR APPARENT OF; Moulting of Common Teal subsequent to ‘migration to India. (With a photo) : ws Bor, N.L., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., TeE.So ana Ree M.B., M.Sc. ; Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs. (With two coloured plates and six black and white plates and ten text-figures). Parts V & VI Beovucont A. L’E. ; How the Mongoose Sermforacis Snake Bite ao; es Burton, Lr.-CoLt. R. W., 1.4 (RETD.); Something about Swordfish. (With a black and white plate) se aa eS OS A See Abdulali, ._———- — The Indian Wild Dog CAIUS Je ES S.J. B.E.S) Pomegranate The Nos. 1 and 2 PAGE ahe)3 221 89 164 443 melKaao 183 100 436 13 CAIUS, J. F:; S.J.) F.1iS.; The Medicinal and Poisonous Flaxworts of India ——-—— —— - The Medicinal and Bo sonar Labiates of India CLOUGH, R. J. ; Occurrence of Swinhoe’s Gripe in Bengal ... Cricuton, M. D.; Marine Shells of Madras. (With four plates ) a a ae DAEMEIDA,| Ji. (2 0R., Bed. M.Sc., ; A Contribution to the Study of the Biology and Physiological Anatomy of Indian Marsh and Aquatic Piants. (With two plates) ... DHARMAKUMARSINGJI, K. S. ; Jungle and House Crows as Gestroyers of Game.. se DHARMAKUMARSINHUJI, Ry K. Frog eating a Snake ... ————— aie Injury to a Crocodile. a photo) .. DICKSON, Viooen Thett an a watch by a Fiddler Crab FIELD, Lt.-Col. F. F. ; Occur- rence of the Stiff-tailed Duck at Nowshera, N.-W.F.P. . Fooks, H.A.; A Pale colour form of the Panther. (With a photo) .. aie ee GANAPATI, S. Niij7 MSC.5) ATIC. The Ecology ‘of a ua Tank containing a permanent bloom of Microcystis aerugi- nosa (Kutz) Henfr. Hiccins, J. C. ; Records of Swinhoe’s . Snipe in Assam ... PAGE 380 442 323 298 185 200 445 219 445 435 65 442 x LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS - Hopwoop, S. F., 1.F.S. ; Birds eating Butterflies eae Hora, SuNDA LAL, D2.Sc., E.R.S.E., F.Z/S., -F.ReA.S-B F.N.I. ; The Game Fishes of India. Part XI. (With one coloured plate and four text- figures) .. Part XII. (With one te plate and seven text-figures) . Hupss, Cart L. ; A New Family of Fishes och JACOB, K. CHERIAN, L.Ag., F.L.S. ; A New Species of Coloeus. (Witha plate) Jos, T.J., M.sc., Notes on the Geographical Distribution and larvicidal propensities of Horaichthys setnat Kul- karni JONES, S., M.Sc. Nohen diy. im M.SC. 5 Notes on the Marly Stages in the development of the Deccan Killifish Aplochet- lus lineatus (Cuv. and Val.) ( With two text-figures) Kapapia, G. A., M.Sc. ; Abnor- mal Seedling of Mangifera indica Linn. N. O. Alnacar- diacee. (With a text-figure). KEELAN, W. P. ; Injuries to the feet of a Mallard ; Village dogs hunting .. KouL, Siar one Gasy. Some Wild Flowers of Kashmir and their indigenous use ... Lewis, E. S. ; Vultures ing’ at night LUSHINGTON, CICELY ; Nates 61 on the nesting of Legge’s Flower- ‘ feed- pecker [Acmonorhynchus vincens as (Witha plate) “ ne ioe MATHEW, A. P., M.A. ; A Study of the Syeesne Hanis of Myrmarachne plataleoides (Cambr.) a Spider mimic of the Indian Red-Ant, O¢eco- phylla smaragdina PAGE 199 78 305 201 203 450 191 437 452 189 186 171 McCann, C., F.L.S. ; A Reptile and Amphibian Miscellany. (With six black and white plates). Part II. ae — = +
... 200 siete 423
Pomatorhinus horsfieldi 193
Pongamia glabra es 302
Porphyrinia 426 |
Porthesia scintillans 212
Portulaca oleracea 136 |
Porzana bicolor... ae 254 |
Pratapa vidura vidura ... 123
Proxentus ... a 425
Precis lemonias ... ves Zaye
-— orithya 211
Primula erosa re 377
Procarduelis nipalensis 252 |
Proden‘a oe 425 |
————- litura ... ’ 212
Propyrrhula Pahiimacnald 2a
Prosopis alba 354
— juliflora 354
— specigera 354
Prospalta 425
—— ——— capensis 43
Prunella strophiata tne Os ae
Prunus communis Mar mele)
Psammogeton canescens 368
Pseudogyps bengalensis 439 |
Psidium cattleianum 363
—.-— pumilum 363
Psittacula columboides 192
— eupatria subsp. 195
Psoralea plicata 345
Pterocles alchata 440
-— exustus 440
Pterodroma aterrima ¥ eae los
Pteruthius erythropterus yunnanensis. 250
—- - melanotis melanotis 250
_ -- rufiventer rufiventer 251
--———-—- xanthochloris pallidus 250
Puffinus persicus 197
Pulicaria orispa ... 00 S/o
Punica florida is 36
- granatum Adis vere
- grandiflora ts see 37,
- nana 37
- Spinosa 37
Pupalia lappacea a 162
Pyramidella terebellum ... 326
Pyrene terpsichore 337
Pyrois 424
KIX
PAGE
Pyrotrogon wardi 253
Pyrrhia a 425
Pyrrhoplectes epaniea 202
Pyrrhula erythaca 252
Pyrus communis 358
Querquedula neeradedals 137
Rana cyanophilictis 58
-—— hexadactyla a,
——- leithii ot)
-—— malabarica 60
——.- rufescens 59
-——— tigrina | 58, 200, 215
Randia tetrasperma 369
Ranunculus aquatilis 125
~—— arvensis 126
—-muricatus ... 126
———--—— pen nsylvanicus 126
-—— sceleratus 126
Rapala schistacea ae 41
Rapana bulbosa 320
Recurvirostra avocetta 254
Reinwardtia trigyna 169
Reptonia buxifolia 347
Rhacophorus maculatus 60
Rhamnus pentapomica 147
= - persicus 147
——--——. ‘riqueter 147
—— ——- virgatus 147
Rheum webbianum 453
Rhineodon typus au2o5
Rhinoceros sondaicus ... ee 152, 223
— sumatranus 152
Rhinodon typicus 102
Rhoea Punica 37
Rhus copallina 342
-—- levigata 342
——- rhodanthum 342
——- semialata 342
Rhyacia ar wv» 422
Rhynchosia minima 285, 2905551
—- sericea 351
Rimella cancellata 332
Riparia concolor... 194
'- rupestris 194
Risoba 427
Rosa multiflora ie ae 358
Roucheria Griffithiana ... aise 169
Rousettus leschenauiti 184
Roylea elegans 414
Rubia cordifolia ... 239
Ruburs faticosus 358
SOX
Ruta graveolens ...
Sageretia Brandrethiana
Saitis barbipes
Salix babylonica
Salvia zegyptiaca
cabulica
——— glutinosa ...
lanata
macrosiphon
moorcroftiana
plebeia
spinosa
Sameodes cancellalis
Saponaria Vaccaria
Sarrothripus
Satureia hortensis
Saussurea albescens
——~—— candicans
—— --—— sacra
Saxicola torquata aiee
Scabiosa Olivieri
Schinus dependens
Schinus molle
Schoenobius bipunctifer
Schotia brachypetala
Scolopendra sf. ...
Scopula emissaria
Scotogramma
Scrobigera proxima
Scuteliaria galericulata
Selenarctos thibetanus ...
Senecio Coronopifolius
Sepia prashadi
Serissa foetida ...
Sesamia Ae
Sesbanié a hers
Sendyra transiens
Shorea robusta
Sida cordifolia
—— grewioides ..
— humilis
== TNOMItOlia-...
—— spinosa
Sideridis
-— percussa
Siegesbeckia orientalis .,.
Silene arenosa
- conoidea ...
- Falconeriana
~— terebinthifolius
—— egyptiaca vee
PAGE
143
147
177 |
209
414
415
415
-415
415
415 |
415
416
212
leisy |
427
416
374
374
452
193
370
343
343
342 |
Beh
354 |
215
294
423
421
416
436
374 —
S27
370
426
346
346
421 |
137
138 |
138 |
SY)
138 |
138)
423
212 |
373
135
135
135
INDEX OF SPECIES
Simyra
Sisymbrium Come
-———--———— Irio ... : ee
—— ——-——. var. dissectum
—_—— rupestre
——— ——- strictum
-—— Thalianum...
Sitana ponticeriana
Sitta himalayensis iiradlapenes
Smaragdia oualaniensis...
Solen annandalei...
—-— lamarckii
Soletellina diphos
Solidago Virga-aurea
Sonchus arvensis...
——-——- oleraceus
Sophora mollis... me ae
-~ secundiflora
Speleornis longicaudatus amriengen
—— souliei
Spergula arvensis
-— pentandra
— rubra
Spermacoce hispida
Sphetta
Sphex edax
Spindasis ictis
Spinus thibetanus
Spireea prunifolia
Spodoptera
——- mauritia
Stachys palustris...
— parviflora
—- Sieboldi ...
sylvatica...
Standella pellucida
Staphylea Emodi...
Stellaria media
Stephegyne parvifolia
Sterculia diversifolia ,..,
Sterna albifrons albifrons
aurantia ...
Stictoptera soe
Stigmaphyllon periplocefolium
Streptopelia orientalis meena .
Strombus sibbaldii)
—--~ succinctus
——_~-—— vittatus
Strongyluris calotis
Sturnia malabarica blythii
--——_ malabarica
PAGE
422
130
130
130
129
129
129
48
249
- 340
341
341
325
37i
376
376
351
352
251
251
136
136
136
370
426
209
212
252
358
425
212
417
417
417
417
339
149
135
369
140
196
192
427
142
196
332
332
332
52
194
194
INDEX OF SPECIES KKX!
PAGE
Sturnopastor contra contra... pace va Go)
Surendra learmondi tae - He OA
Surnicul us lugubris be: i ee eS,
Sunetta scripta ... Me ee BeBe)
Sylviparus modestus mnoresuiee ea:
Symbrenthia brabira don! ... see ILI)
Syngrapha... aes ane occ ee a70
Syntomis passalis ay sae LOS
Tachornis batasiensis ... Bob . 440
Tamarix articulata ee ie fc aloO
dioica ... ee Ape 236
————— Parkeriana ... aS ae 1
~- Troupii... er site noo | es)
Tantalus leucocephalus ... ae ieee LUO
Sorel © gay ignite ae eee ers gular mia 740
- Tarentula barpipes im ae ee eT.
Tarsiger cyanurus a oh ae Zoe
—- indicus yunnanensis... Pieri)
efarucus nara ... ate ais a eee
Taverniera nummularia... 1 Oy:
Tchitrea paradisi paradisi ue ee LUO
Telchinia vicle ... Ses a beth oa
- Telescopium telescopium ay we = AO
Tephrodornis gularis pelvica ... bic, ree ler
Tephrosia Hamiltonii ... ... 2 7346.)
——-———--- purpurea... one Hee 2340)
—_——--- tenuis... ae au fe 2 S46
Terebra eximia ... a on Te wee
--tenera ... an ies one = 7300
Teredo clava 300 a) ae Soe ee)
Terminalia Arjuna nor ae sg eR
— belerica nes ae fk 359
Teucrium scordium _.... te Breet kaj T|
————-- Stocksianum ... ies we 418
Thais bufo ae “cio are ics O00
—--rudolphi ... bs ee ae OOO
Thalasseus bergii Lae mah ee 192
Thalictrum foliolossum... ae Me dla)
Thelaudros maplestoni ... jaa me oe
‘Theretra lycetus... a on 210, 449
Thespesia populnea _... ee bo kee
Thlaspi arvense ... se ee Pte SO
Thosea loesa ote oe sae. CON,
Threskiornis Pris nceopiatis sate 198
= ——-— melano-
cephalus .. tes soe Ys
Thriponax javanensis ... oon eG
Thymus serpyllum wee te fo © 249
Tilia cordata Jan aes eaele ee nel
—-vulgaris ... 0... ae ged
Gainolius ... Aan a oO |
PAGE
Tinospora cordifolia... ele, 290, 202
Tiracola ~... ae aoe ae eet 1 e2G
Tonna dolium ... fs sae Sew es,
Trachea... Sa Ane ae ed ae
Trapa bispinosa ats ts oF clon
Trianthema crystallina ... aie ae 2o00
-—— pentandra ....... wh S00
Tribulus alatus ... 1 AFD pe RD
——-—— terrestris Pes an hae NA
Tricosanthes cucumerina ime O05
Tridax procumbens oie ec fe 89
Trigonella Foenum-grecum ... SOA EoaS
Tripheena ... ae are As swe ee
Trisidos tortuosa au, ee see OOD
Trisula variegata ves : see
Trochalopterum affine eieeaien ee ay)
——_——_-——-=— — subunicolor ... dg ee)
Trochosa ruricola Se SHEE at
Troglodytes troglodytes Ripsicasic 2s col
Tudicla spirillus ... ies uf Ose oe
Tujuria luculentus Inculentus . Baa che 38)
—-——-~-~mantra .. ee se rea eles
~ yajna ellisi Se ‘ae ee Oke
Turdus dixoni ... . eA
— mollissima Holl esi te aae
—naumanni eunomus ... i.) 20
— obscurus aes ast ae ah ot
- rubrocanus gouldi sr te ol
Turnaca acuta see wae et 28H
Turritella duplicata ae wae see O39
Tylototriton verrucosus as a 63
Umbonium vestiarium ... aah i. ae SS
Unona discolor ... tee ae Bima CAS)
Uraria neglecta ... see aie . 348
Urena lobata ee es en wel3S
Urocissa flavirostris Aevarostns Se ad)
Ursus arctos tas ee oss 830
Wtetheisagloteixe’.) |,.th2e) ss ee oss 2A
Vanessa cardui aureum an vay Ae LS
urticae chinensis a Brice lea)
Vernonia cinerea =, ve a ene
Viburnum cotinifolium ear Pena elole:
~——--——— coriaceum .... a ae OOD
Varanus monitor sae Se Pe 56
Viburnum stellulatum ... ies ea O08
Vicia bithynica ... — sie 349
——-Griffithii ... as es .. 349
——- hirsuta £7, ae aoe ee | OA
——- pallida ae oe pe eee OLS
—- sativa — aes oe 1». 349
Vicoa vestita BAe ae ee - 3/2
X xxii INDEX OF SPECIES
PAGE | PAGE ©
Viola cinereay. ©... abe ih .. 133 | Xylomania aoe sd Ae 2)
==. Patrinti 4. «4. > 8 183" |) XylosMa lonsifoltum 7). | ee
———- serpens Bo: ves sat .. - 133 , Ypthima hubneri 406 seis waa 39
-——-tricolor ... ee ea ... 133 | Yuhina bakeri ... ahs si . 250m
Vitis arborea... te 2 ieee eae diademata ee eater ate ae I
——-Jacquemontii .... es .. 148 -——-—- gularis gularis ... oN: .. 250mm
——- trifolia ce de oy ie ese ——-nigrimentum ... Se > 20m
Volutarella divaricata ... ae Sg —occipitalis obscurior ... . 2007
Volva sowerbyana ee a 3324) Zatania anulinora ae
Wendlandia exerta wee Nee we 9869" Ziphias Gladius <0) 7.20 st.) se
-——— puberula ... A .. 369 Zizeeria trochilus aes le!
Westermantia ... oo Bc «. 428 Ziziphora clinopodioides ae +20
Woodfordia floribunda ... Re ay ele a ~~ tenuior oe 03) .. 2200
Xancus pyrum ... oa ahs .. 332 Zizyphus Hysudricus rie we 147
- rapa ue aM Sep woe =«=3932 ————-- Juiuba - 146, 284, 289, 293 7
Xanthium Strumarium ... iv .. 373 ——-—— oxyphylla_... ie Lok rn
Xanthoxylum alatum ... a .. 144 | ——-—— Spina-Christi ... Ss . da 7a
Xenophora solaris ve : 332 | ——-—— vulgaris ao! Ae . 147g
Xiphiramphus superciliaris forresti... 250 | Zornia diphylla ... Se oth . 348m
PRINTED At THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS—1942, C7682
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CONTENDS OF VOLU Min -XGiik, No. 1.
Some BeEAuTIFuL INDIAN ~ CLIMBERS AND ~~ SHRUBS. Bart WV. 2 By
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A STUDY OF THE COURTING HABITS OF Niymiiictae Aapaleniaes (Cambr.)
A SprpDER »™ATC OF THE INDIAN RED-ANT Ocecophylla smaragdina.
By A. P. Mathew, M.a.
REVIEWS :—
1. A Facsimile of R. H. Beddome’s Articles on Indian Reptiles
1862-1870. By Malcolm Smith on ane Sas
2. The Tetrapod Reptiles of Ceylon. Volume I, Testudinates and
Crocodilians. By P. E. P. Deraniyagala
WANTED INFORMATION ABOUT MAHSEER. Editors
MASCEELANEOUS NOTES :—
I. How the Mongoose counteracts Snake Bite. By A. L’E.
Brownlow bse abe oa sues
II. A Largé Panther—(A eae ne ms Yashodaar Singh
of Khilchipur ,
Ill. The Short-nosed Fruit-bat (Copopterts caine) as an Recat
of seed dispersal in the Wild Date gee sylvestris
L.). By C. McCann a ae
PAGE
109
124
181
181
182
i
1V.
XVI.
XVII.
XVITT.
XIX.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVIT.
XXVIII.
XXIX,
NO
CONTENTS OR Vole Crier orn ar
Jungle and House Crows as ee of Game, oe
K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji i
Notes on the nesting of Legge’s ribaecpeeeee at venir
hynchus vincens [Sclater]). By Cicely Lushington,
(with a plate) ae agi ane ee
The Occurrence of the Yellow-bellied Flowerpecker
(Pachyglossa melanoxantha Hodgs.) at Almora, U. P.
By= Sant.) ebakater,
Drones Gace Su yniculus
The Occurrence of the
lugubris Horsf.) in the alas By Mrs. A. B. M.
| Way i 4
A Note on the ee Swift uGiiseropes icles poner
Hartert), By C. McCann, F.L.s. §,
Vultures ‘feeding’ at night. By E. S. Rewis. oe
Injuries to the feet of a Mallard. By W. P. Keelan ..
Additional Notes on the Birds of Bombay and Salsette.
By Humayun Abdulali and Salim Ali ee
Some Birds of Lower Burma. By J. A. M. Symns ...
Some Birds of the Oil fields, Burma. J. A. M. Symns
Birds eating Butterflies. By S. F. Hopwood, L¥F-.s.
The many Banded Krait (Bungarus multicinctus) in
Burma. By J. A. M. Symns SAA
Extension of the range of the Brown Whip
(Dryophis pulverulentus Jan.) By C. McCann
Frog eating a Snake. By R. K.
Notes on the Geographical distribution and
propensities of eas setnai Kulkarni.
Job, M.sc.
Notes on the Early stages in the ‘igbargeenens of the
Deccan Killifish Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv. and Val.).
By 3S. Jones, M.Se., ands (73 J Job, iesc.; ae two
text-figures) 5 :
Butterflies attracted My moist eae
F.R.E.S.
On the larva of the sat (Gireute Winer estiaia) and hs
destruction of the cocoons ey Tree Shrews. et Rows
Parsons, F.R.E.S.
Lagerstroemia indica as a food vente ‘of the Silk Moth
(Actias selene). By R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S.
The Weeping Willow (Salix babylonica) as a food Sian
of the Moth Loepa katinka Westw. a Reals:
Parsons, F.R.E.S.
The Wood-cutting Wasp (Sphex eine Bingham) and its
prey in Salsette. By C. McCann
Larva of Theretra lycetus Cr. ie orruen by Piachinid
flies. By C. McCann.
March Lepidoptera at Gopalpur
D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.
Some insects from a Mango trunk (Mansifera Rue L.)
By C. McCann
Insects at a street lamp at Roane
Some Indian Spiders: Their season of prosperity.
T. V. Subrahmanyam : ;
Theft of a watch by a Fiddler Cae
Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting—1939
Snake
larvicidal
By AN fs
(Dist. Ganjam). By
By
ae Violet Dickson
Dharmakumarsinhji ...
By R. E. Parsons
By G. Meoann ae
PAGE
185
186
187
187
188
189
IQI
191
198
198
199
199
200
200
20I
ro ba
JouRN. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc.
BAUHINIA GALPINI N. E.
(93°4 per cent nat. size)
PLATE 5.
JOURNAL
OF THE
Bombay Natural History Society.
1940. NW OLA Wels No. 1.
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.
BY
INE ee BOR* UMUAS SCHR UeSi) Iv F Ss;
Forest Botanist,
AND
M. B. Ratzapa, M.SC.,
Assistant Botanist,
Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.
ParRT V.
(Continued from Vol, xli, No. 4 (1940), p. 690).
(With 1 coloured and 3 black and white plates, and 7 text-figures).
Bauhinia Linn.
The genus Bauhinia was created in honour of the brothers Jean
and Caspar Bauhin, French herbalists of the sixteenth century, in
consequence of most of the species having their leaves composed
of two lobes, which are either quite separate, or, more frequently,
joined by a portion of their inner margins. This arrangement of
the leaves was considered to be symbolic of the great services the
two brothers had rendered to science. |
The genus belongs to the family Caesalpineae, which was formerly
considered to be a subsection of the Leguminosae, or sweet-pea
family. The flowers are, however, not papilionaceous and the
Caesalpineae is considered to be distinct from, though closely
allied to, other sections of the Leguminosae, Papilionatae and
Mimoseae, and like them has keen given full family rank.
Blatter and Millard in Beautiful Indian Trees have treated two
tree species, B. variegata and B. purpurea, but the genus contains
a number of other species, shrubs and climbers, which are culti-
vated in gardens in this country on account of their showy flowers
or handsome foliage.
The characters of the genus are as follows :—
Trees, shrubs or climbers, the latter with tendrils. Leaves
alternate, compound, usually consisting of two leaflets which are
WAR 24 1%)
2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
joined together by the lower part of their inner margins, simulat-
ing a 2-lobed leaf. The top of the common rib or nerve between
the 2 leaflets is produced as a small spur; a vestigial structure
which represents the remains of the rhachis of the compound leaf.
The flowers are showy and are arranged in simple or panicled,
terminal or axillary racemes. Calyx tube sometimes long and
cylindrical, sometimes short and turbinate, with the disk produced
to the top; limb entire or spathaceous or cleft into 2 or 5 teeth.
Petals 5 in number, slightly unequal, usually narrowed at the base
into a claw, variously coloured, ranging from red to purple, white
or yellow. Stamens 1o or reduced to 5 or 3, if less than 10 with
sterile filaments absent or present; filaments free, filiform. Anthers
versatile, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary seated on a_ stalk
(gynophore); ovules usually many. The style is long or short
and usually curved, ending in an oblique or terminal stigma. The
fruit is a linear pod, dehiscent or indehiscent.
In many species the fowers are fragrant, and this characteristic
combined with their showy appearance points to pollination through
the agency of insects. |
It is well known that the cotyledons of dicotyledonous seedlings,
which are widely spread during the day, press their inner surfaces
together during the night in order to prevent loss of heat and to
protect the tender first leaves. This phenomenon is particularly
well seen in the seedlings of all Bauhinias. The cotyledons, more-
over, seem to function as ordinary foliage leaves to some extent,
as well as performing their role of reservoirs of food.
Bauhinia Vahliu, a climber, often reaches a length of over
100 yards and scrambles over the tallest trees. The exceedingly
tough and fibrous bark of this particular species had, and still has,
a great reputation as a suitable material for making strong ropes.
Before steel came into use, ropes made from this species were
used to carry suspension bridges. About the middle of the 19th
century the ropes for the suspension bridge over the Jumna at
Kalsi were made from the bark of B. Vahlii.
The bark of certain Indian species smoulders very slowly when
set alight. This property was made use of in bygone days to con-
struct the slow matches whereby primitive artillery were discharged.
Now-a-days such torches are often carried by cattle-boys to free
themselves from the attention of sandflies and other insects.
KEY TO THE SPECIES.
Erect of prostrate shrubs.
Stems spiny. Ae of seit ... B. candicans.
Stems not spiny.
Stamens Io.
Flowers usually in axillary pairs . B. tomentosa.
Flowers in axillary racemes. . B. acuminata.
Stamens 3 . B. Galpint.
Climbers.
Stems flattened and undulate ... . B. anguina.
Stems cylindrical.
Leaves very large, 4 in. to 18 in. long ... » B. Vahlii.
Leaves small not longer than 1.5 in. . B. corymbosa.
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 3
Bauhinia candicans Benth.
(candicans means hoary, covered with white hairs).
Fig. 1.--Bauhinia candicans Benth. x 2/3.
Description.—-A shrub or small tree with zigzag, very hoary,
tomentose branches. Leaves compound, 2-3 in. long, ovate or
somewhat oblong, shallowly cordate at the base, 2-lobed for one-
third or almost to the base, with the common midrib produced as
a short spur, 11-13-nerved from the base; glabrous on the upper
surface, very hoary below, petiolate, stipulate; lobes obtusely
rounded at the top; petioles hoary, up to 1 in. long; stipules
represented by a pair of stout thorns.
Flowers few, in axillary racemes. Pedicels short. Calyx tube
short, turbinate, hoary. Calyx-limb spathaceous; segments valvate
and connate in the bud, shortly 5-lobed at the apex, up to 2.5 in.
long, densely and shortly hairy outside. Petals 5, free, long-clawed,
with a pronounced midrib, spathulate, creamy-white in colour,
opening at night. Stamens 10; 5 on short, 5 on long filaments;
filaments bound together at the base by a short membrane which
is apparently a prolongation of the disk. Ovary seated on a long
gynophore, hairy, glabrescent, ending above in a long style and
4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLU
capitate stigma. Pod dehiscent, very leathery, polished, 3-4 in.
long.
Teloiiers = Saneayale Fruits.—Oct.-Nov.
Distribution.—A native of Brazil, now commonly cultivated
throughout the plains of India.
Gardening.—An almost evergreen shrub with large creamy white
flowers which usually open in Dehra during the night and last only
for a day. Easily raised from seed.
Bauhinia tomentosa Linn.
St.. Thomas-Tree.
(tomentosa is a Latin word meaning hairy and refers to the
hairness of the leaves and pods).
Fig. 2.—Bauhinia tomentosa Linn. xX 1/1.
Description.—A handsome shrub which sometimes grows into
a small tree. Leaves compound, on slender petioles up to 1 in.
long, stipulate; stipules long, subulate, hairy. Leaf-blade of two
M. N. Bakshi
‘ Bauhinia acuminata Linn.
AULA ACUMIMALA “111 )1
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS | 5)
connate leaflets, coriaceous, 1-2 in. long, broader than long,
7-g-nerved from the base, glabrous on the upper surface, tomen-
Pose below, 2-!obed; ene rounded at the apex; Pe culation
conspicuous.
Flowers axillary in pairs (sometimes 1 or 3) on pedicels bearing
a pair of subulate persistent bracteoles. Calyx tube short, covered
with appressed pubescence; limb spathe-like with 2 small teeth at
the apex in bud, splitting down one side when the flower opens,
about .5 in. long. Corolla of 5 distinct petals. Petals obovate
in shape, .75-2 in. long, not clawed, yellow in colour, conspicuously
veined, one with a red blotch on the inner surface. Stamens ro in
number arising from the lip of the calyx tube; anthers sagittate.
Ovary on a gynophore; style nearly .75 in. long. Pod dehiscent,
stalked, 4-5 in. long, 6-10-seeded, tomentose or glabrous.
Flowers. —August-Oct. Fruits.—Dec.-Feb.
Distribution.—Throughout India, wild or cultivated, extending to
China and tropical Africa. Now commonly cultivated in the tropics
of both the old and the new worlds.
Gardening.—A handsome shrub. New foliage and young parts
downy brown. Flowers sulphur-yellow, drooping. Easily raised
from seed sown in April. This shrub is partially deciduous in
Dehra. According to J. D. Hooker it was introduced to the Royal
Gardens, Kew, in 1860.
Medicinal and economic uses.—The wood oe this species is tough
and the heartwood black. It was formerly used in Java for the
handles and sheaths of krises (Burkill).
The bark, root and leaves are said to be efficacious as poultices
for boils. The plant is also said to be anti-dysenteric, anthelmintic
and of value in liver complaints.
Bauhinia acuminata Linn.
(acuminata is a Latin word meaning sharp pointed, and refers
to the lobes of the leaf).
Description.—An erect shrub with reddish-brown branches
covered with minute hairs. Leaves alternate, stipulate; stipules
lanceolate-subulate, covered with short hairs. Petioles 1-1.5 in.
long, swollen at the base and apex, downy. Compound leaf-blade
g-11-nerved from the base, the common midrib being produced as
a very short spur, orbicular in shape, acuminately 2-lobed, thinly
coriaceous in texture, glabrous above, pubescent on the nerves
beneath, 3-6 in. long.
Flowers a pure white, close, shortly peduncled, in axillary,
corymbose racemes. Calyx tube about .3 in. long; limb spathe-
like up to 1.5 in. long in the bud, ending above in 5 short subulate
hairy lobes. As the flower opens the calyx splits along one side,
becomes retlexed and eventually divides into five segments below.
Petals 2 in. long, .75 in. wide, oblong-obtuse, white, not clawed
but rounded at the base, seated on the margin of the calyx tube.
Stamens 10, filaments white, of various lengths; anthers yellow,
versatile, hairy. Ovary on a gynophore at the base of the calyx
tube. Style short, .5 in. long; stigma a 2-lobed disk. Pod pendent
6 JOURNAL, (BOMBAY NATURAL HIST “SOGHETY,) VolseXxL ir
from a .5 in. stalk, 4-5 in. long, .9 in. broad, firm, glabrous,
6-12-seeded, with a rib on each side of the upper suture.
Fig. 3.—Bauhinia acuminata Linn. X 2/3.
Flewers.—March-May. Fruits.—Cold season.
Distribution.—Indigenous to Central India, Ceylon, Malaya and
China. Very frequently cultivated in gardens all over the country.
Gardening.—This is one of the most satisfactory species of
Bauhinia for cultivation in the open. It is quite frost hardy and
starts flowering when the plants are only a few months old and
but a foot or so high. According to Aiton’s ‘Hortus Kewensis’
it was introduced from India into England by Dr. Francis Russell
and flowered at Kew in the month of May and June. It grows
readily from seed and bears its numerous, large, snow-white flowers
practically all the year round but chiefly during March-May.
_
‘eruryneg s,utdyes
Mq 0,04
,
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS fe
Bauhinia Galpini N. E. Brown.
Galpin’s Bauhinia.
(This plant was named in honour of E. E. Galpin, who was one
of the earliest collectors of the species).
Description.—A rambling prostrate shrub with hairy stems.
Leaves alternate, stipulate, consisting of two leaflets connate by
their inner margins, with the common midrib produced as a minute
spur, obtusely 2-lobed, 7-nerved, broader than long, up to 3 in.
broad, minutely pubescent with white hairs on the lower surface;
margins and under surface thickly or sparsely covered with yellow
glandular exudations; petiole about .5 in. long.
Flowers brick-red or crimson in colour, borne in 2-r10-flowered
axillary racemes. Peduncles very short. Calyx tube up to 1 in.
long, rather stout, somewhat striate, dark red in colour, sparsely
covered with yellowish glandular exudations. Calyx limb at first
spathe-like, reddish but appearing to be striped with yellow from
the production of a glandular yellow substance, becoming reflexed
after the flower opens and splitting down one side, subsequently
dividing into 5 segments at the base which remain connate at
the top. Petals 5, inserted at the top of the calyx tube, 1-1.5 in.
long, clawed, the claw being as long as the limb. Limb orbicular
in shape, cuspidate, rather undulate on the margins. The inner
surface of the petals is clear red, the outer surface being dotted
all over with yellow particles. Stamens 3 in number, inserted at
the top of the calyx tube, together with seven very short, subulate
staminodes. Filaments red, anthers versatile. Ovary linear, seated
on a gynophore 3 in. long, covered with short white hairs and
yellow glandular exudations. Style thick; stigma globose. Pod
3-5 in. long; seeds dark brown.
This plant will often be found to be covered with ants which
come to feed upon the yellowish product of the glands.
Flowers.—Sept.-Oct. Fruits.—Cold season.
Distribution.—Indigenous to the Transvaal and adjacent tropical
Africa; commonly cultivated in gardens in the plains throughout
India. )
Gardening.—This fine species, which in its native country is said
to be a climber is found only as a straggling or prostrate shrub
in India. It thrives better on a well-drained soil and bears its
bright scarlet flowers profusely during Sept.-Oct. Propagated by
seed which germinates rather sparingly. The seedlings are liable
to damp off during the rains if not properly looked after. This
beautiful shrub is well worth growing in spite of the initial
difficulties of propagation.
Bauhinia anguina Roxb.
Snake Climber.
(anguina means snake-like and refers to the peculiar stems of this
species).
Description.—A woody cirrhose climber with very peculiar com-
pressed flattish stems, alternately concave and convex in the central
8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
portion, with stout margins. This is an adaptation to take strain.
The majority of the sap vessels are in the corrugated part so
that if tension is applied the strain is taken by the margins and
Fig. 4.—Bauhinia anguina Roxb. X 2/3.
the ascent of sap is not impaired. Leaves alternate, densely tomen-
tose when young, glabrous when old, thin, 2-5 in. long, shortly
lobed or with 2 very long acuminate lobes. On old plants the
leaves are often quite entire and acuminate,
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 9
The flowers are very small for the genus and are arranged
racemosely in lax, pubescent, terminal panicles. Individual flowers
seated on very short pedicels. Calyx very small about .05 in.
long, broadly campanulate, with 5 deltoid teeth. Petals 5, oblong-
lanceolate in shape, about .1t in. long. Fertile stamens 3. Pod
thin flat, oblong or elliptic, glabrous, indehiscent, 1.5-2 in. long,
1-2 seeded.
Flowers und fruits. —Cold season.
Distribution.—Sikkim Tarai, ascending to 2,000 ft., Khasi hills,
Chittagong, Martban, Malabar and Travancore.
Fig. 5.—Stem of Bauhinia anguina Roxb.
A.—A surface view of the strap-shaped stem.
B.—A longitudinal section of the stem seen sideways to show the sinuous
centre portion.
Gardening.—A large evergreen climber having a curious stem
and small inconspicuous white flowers. According to Roxburgh
‘the most regularly serpentine pieces of the stems and large branches
are carried about by our numerous mendicants to keep off serpents’.
Easily propagated by seed or layers.
Bauhinia Vahlii W. & A.
Camel’s foot Climber.
(This species was called after Martin Vahl, a Danish botanist,
1749-1804).
Description.—-A gigantic climber, with densely pubescent branches
and abundant circinate tendrils, mostly leaf-opposed. Leaves com-
pound, alternate, petiolate, deeply cordate at the base, lobed at
the top, 11-15-nerved from the base, almost orbicular in shape,
10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL) HIST. SOCTE RY A Vom
up to 18 in. long, sparsely ‘hairy on the upper surface, densely
ferrugineous-tomentose on the lower surface; petiole 3 in. long.
Fig. 6.—Bauhinia Vahlii W. & A. X 2/3.
Flowers numerous, arranged in long-peduncled, terminal, dense,
subcorymbose racemes. Individual flowers seated on _ pedicels
1-2.5 in. long, with persistent bracteoles at the base. The whole
inflorescence is covered with a dense rusty tomentum. Calyx tube
short, it and the limb very hairy; limb splitting into 3-5 valvate
segments when the flowers open and becoming reflexed. Petals 5,
white fading to yellow, shortly clawed, broadly spathulate in shape,
spreading, glabrous within, covered on the outside with rusty
villae. Stamens 3, fertile; a number of staminodes may be found
on the lip of the calyx tube. Ovary on a short gynophore, very
densely hairy as is also the style. Pod woody, up to 12 in. long
finally dehiscent, velvety, 8-12-seeded.
Flowers.—April-June. Fruits.—Cold season.
Distribution.--Subhimalayan tract and outer valleys ascending
to 3,000 ft. from the Chenab eastwards, chiefly in sal forests;
Assam, Bihar, Western Peninsula.
Gardening.—TVhis gigantic woody climber needs plenty of space
for its growth. It is useful for covering unsightly embankments and
the like. Easily raised from seed. It is one of the most distinctive
climbers in the Indian forests. The trunk may reach a girth
of 4 feet and is often deeply fluted. When cut down shoots more
JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.
Photo by M.N. Bakshi
Bauhinia corymbosa Roxb.
New Forest, Dehra Dun.
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 11
than 50 feet long may be produced in one season, and for this
reason it is difficult to eradicate this plant which is considered a pest
by forest officers.
It is known as Camel’s foot Climber as the leaves are very
much the size and shape of a camel’s footprint.
Medicinal and economic uses.—The large leaves are used as
plates by the local inhabitants, who also value the seeds as a source
of food. To extract the seeds the pods are placed in the fire. The
bark yields a strong fibre which is used for making ropes. The
stem produces a valuable tanning material. The seeds are said to
possess tonic and aphrodisiac qualities.
Bauhinia corymbosa Roxb.
(corymbosa refers to the arrangement of flowers in the inflorescence
which are described as corymbose, but in Dehra they are decidedly
racemose).
Fig. 7.—Bauhinia corymbosa Roxb. xX 1/1.
Description.—A woody climber, branching from the ground, with
grooved branches and circinate tendrils. Leaves compound, 1-2 in.
long, divided almost to the base; common midrib very short, pro-
duced into a short spur; lobes rounded. The two leaflets fold to-
gether at night. Petiole up to 1 in. long, swollen at base and apex,
often covered with appressed brownish hairs.
The fragrant flowers are borne in terminal long-peduncled racemes
or corymbs. The individual flowers are seated on pedicels up to 1 in.
long and are supported by bracts and bracteoles. The calyx tube is
,75 in. long, green in colour, with ro well-marked red ribs covered
12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST. SOCIETY; Vol} XLII
with brownish hairs. Calyx-limb short, .25 in. long, red, 5-lobed;
lobes valvate, splitting into 5 segments, which turn downwards as the
flower opens. Petals white, with pink nervation, rather crumpled,
seated on the margins of the calyx tube. Fertile stamens 3, on
pink filaments, posterior; staminodes 5, pink, anterior, all seated
on the calyx tube. Ovary on a gynophore arising from the calyx
tube, red in colour, produced into a short style and globose stigma.
Pod 4-5 in. long, .7 in. broad, thin, smooth, dark brown.
Flowers.—April-June. Fruits.—Cold season.
Distrihution.— Native of China. Commonly cultivated in
gardens throughout India.
Gardening.—Bauhinia corymbosa is one of the most beautiful
of climbing Bauhinias; and even with its rather small flowers, it is
a most charming plant with exceedingly slender stems and very
small, pretty, dark green shiny foliage. The rosy-white, fragrant
flowers appear in great abundance during April-June. Easily
raised by !ayers. It has long been cultivated in Indian gardens
for its ornamental foliage alone.
THE POMEGRANATE.
BY
Jee Has CAtUs. iS 4), Fo. S.
Alphonse de Candolle sums up the results of his painstaking
investigation into the origin and distribution of the pomegranate
(Punica Granatum Linn., the sole genus with only two species
within the family Punicaceae) as follows :—-
‘To conclude, botanical, historical, and philological data agree in showing
that the modern species is a native of Persia and some adjacent countries.
Its cultivation began in prehistoric times, and its early extension, first towards
the west, and afterwards into China, has caused its naturalization in cases
which may give rise to errors as to its true origin, for they are frequent,
ancient, and enduring.’
In fact, many of these errors, if errors they be, are being
perpetuated with effusion of much good ink and not a little bad
blood. But there is no apparent reason why the question should
ever be satisfactorily settled, because the pomegranate has been
-so long under cultivation that it is impossible to say with any
degree of certainty whether the plant is really native in any
particular region.
The antiquity of the tree as a cultivated plant is evidenced by
the references to the fruit in the Old Testament—
‘Why have you made us come up out of Egypt, and have brought us into
this wretched place, which cannot be ‘sowed, nor bringeth forth figs, nor vines,
nor pomegranates... ’—.
and in the Odyssey where it is spoken of as cultivated in the
gardens of the kings of Phaeacia and Phrygia. In the villa garden
of king Amenhotpou IV, of the Eighteenth Dynasty, may be seen
painted on the wall of a tomb at Tell-el-Amarna, ten pomegranate
trees easily recognizable from the shape of the fruits and the
leaves. The fruit is, indeed, frequently represented in ancient
Assyrian and Egyptian sculptures, and it figures prominently
among the offerings made to the gods by Ramses IV, a Pharaoh
of the Twentieth Dynasty. As a design it has been used in archi-
tecture and needlework from the earliest times. It formed part
of the decoration of the pillars of King Solomon’s Temple, and
was embroidered on the hem of the High-Priest’s ephod. It had
a religious significance in connection with several Oriental cults,
especially the Phrygian cult of Cybele, and it is still used by the
Jews in some ceremonials.
The pomegranate was well known to the Greeks and Romans,
who were acquainted with its medicinal properties and its use as
a tanning material. The name given by the Romans, malus punica
or malum punicum, indicates that they received it from Carthage,
as indeed is expressly stated by Pliny—‘but the territorie of
Carthage challengeth to itself the punicke apple’ (Holland)—; and
this circumstance has given rise to the notion that the tree was
indigenous in northern Africa.
14 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XLfi
The pomegranate-tree was introduced into India from Persia
or Afghanistan, presumably in the first centuries of our era. The
tree is not mentioned in Vedic, Pali, or early Sanskrit literature;
and the word ddlima or dddima is traceable to the Iranian dulim,
as reconstructed by Berthold Laufer’ on the basis of the Chinese
transcription. According to the Agnipurana ‘dadima’ is to be planted
in the garden adjoining one’s house; and, on the authority of the
Brihat-samhita, it is to be propagated by means of cuttings
besmeared with cowdung. Varahamihira mentions the pomegranate
as one of the trees growing in the Anupa region, Susruta gives it
as one of the plants which act as cordials and increase the appetite,
and Charaka recommends it for the wholesomeness of its fruit.
CHARACTERISTICS.
The pomegranate is a large deciduous shrub or small tree. As
a tree it rises to a height of fifteen to twenty feet; it is covered
with a desquamating greyish or pale brownish bark, and is divided
into many slender, twiggy, nearly cylindrical branches, which are
armed with spines. ‘The buds and young shoots are red.
The leaves are opposite, or ternate, about three inches long,
sessile, wavy, entire, oblong or lance-shaped, pointed at both ends,
glossy green and with red veins.
The flowers are large, raised on a short stalk, of a rich scarlet
colour, solitary, or in twos or threes or fives at the extremities of
the young branches. The calyx is turbinate, thick, fleshy, of a
fine red colour, and divided into five acute segments, which are
valvate in aestivation. The corolla is composed of five, or seven,
large roundish crumpled petals, inserted on the throat of the calyx
alternate with the sepals, rather spreading, and of a bright scarlet
colour. The stamens are indefinite, many-seriate, perigyn-
ous, inserted at different levels below the petals; the filaments are
capillary and free, furnished with ovoid yellow anthers, 2-celled,
dorsifixed, and bursting in front by two chinks. The ovary is
inferior, roundish, many-celled, with a slender simple style—the
length of the stamens, and capitate papulose stigma.
The fruit is as big as a common orange, and not unfrequently
much larger. It is globular, somewhat compressed, obscurely six-
sided, and indehiscent. It contains numerous oblong or obconical,
many-sided exalbuminous seeds, each enveloped in a distinct very
juicy rose-coloured pulp enclosed in a thin skin, so that the inside’
of the pomegranate appears to be made up of a large number of
reddish berries packed tightly together. The rind, which is the
calycine tube, 1s smooth, hard, leathery and, when the fruit is
ripe, of a brownish yellow tint, often finely shaded with red. The
interior is divided into two chambers by some six spurious transverse
membranous dissepiments meeting in the axis of the fruit. The
upper chamber is 5- or 9-celled, the lower 3-celled. The placentas
? Sino-Iranica. Chicago Field Museum of Natural History, publication 201;
Anthropological Series, Vol. xv, No. 3.
THE POMEGRANATE | 15
of the upper division reach from the walls to the centre; those
of the lower proceed irregularly from the bottom of the fruit.
The embryo is oblong with a short straight radicle, and foliace-
ous, spirally convolute cotyledons.
As a botanical entity the pomegranate has been placed by various
authorities in different orders wherein, for want of close relations,
it has always occupied an anomalous position. Though nearly allied
to the myrtles it differs from them in the absence of aromatic
principles in the green parts, in the absence of dark dots and
marginal veins in the leaves, and in the typical conformation of
the fruit. It is chiefly owing to the singular structure of its fruit,
a balausta, that the genus Punica has finally been formed into a
separate order, Punicaceae.
The family consists of only one genus with two species:
PY “Granatum Winn. (=P. florida, Salisb., P. grandifiora Hort.,
P, nana Linn., P. spinosa Lam.), and P. protopunica Balf. dis-
covered by Balfour in the island of Socotra.
CULTIVATION.
The pomegranate is a favourite in the East, and is grown both
for its beautiful flowers and for its edible fruits. It is not particular
as to soil, though it enjoys a deep calcareous ground and prefers
a dry situation to. one that is surcharged with wet. Native gardeners
in India recommend that the soil be mixed with a large proportion
of bricks broken fine, together with old, decayed cowdung.
The trees may be planted eight or ten feet apart, and the ground
cultivated with irrigated crops until the trees occupy the soil. They
can also be grown as a hedge. ‘They are usually raised from seed,
but are also multiplied by hardwood and softwood cuttings, or by
layers. As the plant forms many shoots, these are often used, as
they are usually provided with rootlets. For latitudes higher than
the 35th degree North, the plant ought to be cultivated in tubs,
and given a conservatory during winter.’
Under cultivation there are several forms differing more or less
in the colour of the flowers, both single and double, and only of
ornamental value. The double-flowered varieties are specially desir-
able for the beauty and long duration of their flowers. The better
known are: double red, with a very large calyx, from which protrude
numerous large bright scarlet petals, larger than those of the
common single type, which give the flower the appearance of a
bright scarlet pompon ; double dwarf, specially desirable for growing
in pots, with bright scarlet flowers borne in clusters; double varie-
gated, with very large flowers, the petals being striped and mottled
with yellow and scarlet—as this is a sport of the Double Red it
frequently reverts to type, and’consequently double red blooms are
often to be found on the same stem with variegated blooms; double
yellow, similar to the Double Variegated in the shape of the flower ;
double white, with a pure white flower similar in shape to Double
Red.
+L. H. Bailey.—The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture ; 1916.
16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI1
Although of such ancient origin and cultivation, there are but
few varieties of fruit-bearing trees, and the various kinds of
pomegranate may be reduced to three: one very sour, the other
two moderately sweet or very sweet. The distinction between a
sweet and a sour pomegranate is already made by Theophrastus
and, though Pliny distinguishes five varieties—dulcia, acria, mixta,
acida, vinosa—, ancient authors discriminate between only two.
The emperor Jahangir mentions in his Memoirs the sweet
pomegranates of Yazd and the subacid ones of Farrah, and says
of the former that they are celebrated all over the world. Crawford
remarks in his History of the Indian Archipelago: ‘The only good
pomegranates which, indeed, I have ever met with are those brought
into upper India by the caravans from eastern Persia.’ And
Firminger’ states: ‘The Pomegranate tree is common in all parts
of India, but never produces fruit at all to be compared with that
brought down annually by the Afghan traders from Kabul.’
The seedless pomegranates so highly prized by Akbar’s house-
hold came from Kabul; and the sweet, pure, and_ full-flavoured
pomegranates with white and very transparent seeds were from
Baluchistan. In course of time the seeds of these high class fruits
found their way from Afghanistan to Bengal, where there is made
mention of several fine varieties of local growth: seedless’, very
sweet, deliciously perfumed, the size of an ordinary human head
or as large as a small shaddock.
‘A tree that bears fruit of good flavour with as few seeds as
possible should be grafted on seedlings, and none but the grafted
plants grown. Such trees need no more manure, water, or land
than common seedlings, yet the value of their fruit is very great
in comparison.’ Woodrow’s’ recommendation to graft from trees
of a superior kind is sound, but not all superior varieties will thrive
away from their natural surroundings. Thus, says Burns, the
Kabul Pomegranate, both in its own roots and when grafted on
Poona stocks, has done very badly in Poona, making little growth
and producing few fruits.
In North America, where pomegranates are grown commercially
in several of the southern states, the following varieties are culti-
vated for fruit :— )
Acid or Wild—with a sharp acid pulp; fruit often very large,
from 3 to 4 inches diameter and with a bright-coloured rind.
Dwarf—a form of the Acid variety, of very low and bushy
growth; flowers single; fruit from 14 to 2 inches diameter; pulp
very acid. This can be grown in a pot, as it fruits very abundantly.
Paper Shell—very large, juicy, very sweet, and of excellent
quality; skin thin, pale yellow with crimson cheek; sides crimson;
fine grower, good bearer, and ships well.
ee a a 6 ee een SE Sn NN AE
* W. Burns.—Firminger’s Manual of Gardening for India, 1918.
* ‘1 do not know any seedless variety is growing in Bengal.’ (N. Mitra,
Curator, Royal Botanic Garden, Shibpur; 5th December 1939).
* G. M. Woodrow.—Gardening in India, 1889.
THE POMEGRANATE 1
aT
Rhoda—fruit crimson, of large size; skin thin but tough; crisp,
sweet, and of exquisite flavour.
Spanish Ruby or Purple-seeded—is cultivated in Louisiana, seems
to be only a form of the subacid. Fruit large and bright-coloured
with deep crimson pulp. It is considered the best of its class.
Subacid—differs only from the sweet in the more acidulated pulp.
Sweet—fruit usually somewhat smaller than the Acid and with
a darker-coloured rind; pulp sweet.
Wonderful—said to be the largest of all pomegranates; fruit
sometimes 5 inches in diameter, bright crimson; pulp highly
coloured; very juicy; fine flavour; ripens early; good shipper.
All these varieties are very ornamental from their abundant yield
of bright scarlet flowers, which are produced upon the extremities
of the young branches of the same year’s growth. When the plant
is grown in a tree form, the branches should be annually cut back
after the leaves drop.
A great many shoots spring from the base of the plant; these
should from time to time be cut clean out, as it is contended that
they withdraw the nutriment which should go to the fruit-bearing
stems. To yield fine fruit the plant must be manured each year.
Writing about ‘Tropical and Subtropical Fruits in California,’
F. W. Popescoe notes!.—‘The Pomegranate is produced commerci-
ally in a small way, the demand for the fruit being limited. The
shrub succeeds best, and is most commonly grown, in the interior
valleys. The inferiority of the varieties cultivated in the State has
led to an attempt to secure superior ones; among those which have
been introduced the variety ‘Wonderful’ has proved to be choice,
and is now offered by the trade.’
Pomegranate ripening fruit on a wall at Trewarthenic, Tregony,
was reported? as one of the effects of the fine summer of 1911.
And in 1912, R. Irwin Lynch wrote*:—‘I have seen this | Punica
Granatum, North Africa, West Asia] fruiting on the side of a
house in East Cornwall; it has fruited at Henley-on-Thames, and
should fruit generally without much assistance. The double form
flowers on my house at Cambridge, and for some years a stool of
it grew in the open, quite without protection, dying down in winter
and coming up in spring like a Fuchsia.’
The longevity of the tree is said to be remarkable.
CULTIVATION IN INDIA.
In India the Pomegranate is cultivated in various places:
North Kanara, Bijapur, Sholapur, Satara, Poona, Ahmednagar,
Ahmedabad, Sind, Baluchistan, Muzaftargarh, Delhi, and Jodhpur.
BomBay.—In the Bombay Province about 2,000 acres are under
pomegranate. More than half the area is claimed by the Poona
district, where most is grown in the Haveli, Bhimthadi and
Purandhar talukas. The Dholka taluka of the Ahmedabad district
* Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society; xxxix, part II, 1913.
Gelbida we xZxxvill, part 1, 1912.
Seluid xxXxvilt, part Il, roi2:
2
ig JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLii
claims 15 per cent. of the total area in the Bombay Presidency. The
Ahmednagar district grows about 15 per cent., mostly in the
Pathardi, Rahuri, Ahmednagar, and Sangamner talukas. Except
in a few places like the Dholka taluka, and a few villages in the
Poona district, the fruit is not of a superior quality.
1. Sangamner'.—Pomegranates require a porous soil containing
much lime; and generally farmers choose such soil. Sound and
big fruits are selected for seeds. These fruits are kept longer
than usual on the tree, and are plucked only when they begin to
rot; they are then allowed to rot still further; the seeds are taken
out, well mixed with ashes, and dried in the shade.
A plot, about two or three gunthas in area, near a well is
ploughed and dug out deeply down to 1 foot. The soil is made
fine by breaking clods, and about a cartload of farmyard manure
and household ashes is mixed with it. The seeds are then thinly
broadcasted in walas about one hundred feet square. The seed
is covered, and the plot is watered on the same day. The second
watering is given on the sixth day, and then further waterings
once in ten or twelve days as required. No weeds are allowed
to grow in the plot.
Generally the seedlings are transplanted in the early part of
the monsoon, when six or twelve or even eighteen months old.
The field into which the seedlings are to be transplanted is twice
ploughed and harrowed, and the soil is mixed with about ten or
twelve cartloads of farmyard manure. This ploughing and manur-
ing is done to prepare the ground to receive onions, garlic, chillies,
or any other plant which may be grown without injury to the
young pomegranate. These sub-crops are cultivated during the
first two or three years, that is up to the time when the fruit plants
cover the ground and begin to yield. |
Pits, about eighteen inches square and two feet deep, are then
dug out. The distance between two pits cross-wise as well as
length-wise varies from twelve to fifteen feet. In one acre about
two to three hundred plants can easily be grown this way. Of
late, however, some farmers have’ reduced the distance between
the pits to ten feet.
The earth that is dug out of the pits is separated into two
portions, the upper layer being kept apart from the lower one.
The earth of the upper layer, which is well weathered and con-
tains ready plant food, is put first in the pits; it is then covered
with a basketful of farmyard manure. When the plant has been
fixed in the pit the earth from the lower layer mixed with house-
hold ashes is thrown over the manure. About a cartload of ash is
sufficient for one acre of land.
_ Ring-like bands of three to five feet in diameter are then made
round the plants and moderately filled with water. A second
watering is given on the fourth or fifth day, and afterwards once
in a week or ten days according to the season.
=
* Mirza Niazbeg—Pomegranate Cultivation at Sangamner. The Poona
Agricultural College Magazine; March 1914.
THE POMEGRANATE i9
The pomegranate plants begin to flower when they are three
years old; but this first flowering brings very little fruit, and it
is not until the fourth year that the garden is earnestly taken in
hand. During those first four years the plants are manured once
a year with farmyard manure and whenever possible, with fish
manure also. The ringed area is dug out once in three months
to give a better circulation of air. No weeds are allowed to grow.
In the fourth year the rings are widened up to eight feet in diameter.
Pomegranate plants flower thrice a year :—in February or March,
ambe-bahar; in June, mrig-bahar; and in September, /atti-bahar.
Five or six months after the flowering the fruit is ready for
marketing.
Except for the time of the first watering, which varies with every
bahar, the routine is always the same. Let us take, for example,
the mrig-bahar, since preference is generally given to it by the
farmers for reasons of economy, the cost of watering being very
much lessened on account of the rainy season. In April the ringed
portion is dug out and the roots in the upper layer are exposed
to the air for a week or two—the leaves that fall off are often
used as manure for the same plants. A basketful of farmyard
manure is given to each tree, and if fish manure is available a
handful of it per plant is given in addition to the farmyard manure.
The manure is thoroughly mixed with the soil. The first watering
is given in Akshattritiya, which is generally in May, and further
watering’s are given once in a fortnight. Flowers appear one month
after the first watering. When the ovary is developed and fruits
as big as small lemons are formed the ringed portion is lightly
dug out every month before watering. |
Each plant bears about forty fruits in the first year, and each
year the number increases even up to four hundred when the tree
is fully grown up. If good care is taken of them the trees bear
fruit up to from twelve to fifteen years. When a plant does not
bear a sufficient number of fruits it is pruned leaving the stem only
from six to twelve inches above the ground. The cut surface is
plastered with cowdung, and the plant is heavily manured and
watered. New shoots come out and grow into trees which bear
fruit for another ten years.
Generally the garden is rented to Bagwans who pay Re, 1 to
Rs. 1-4 per plant. The Bagwan takes care of the garden, but
the farmer supplies him with water for irrigation. As a rule the
Bagwan makes a net profit of Rs. 200 on one acre. His expenses
are Rs. 150, and he pays Rs. 250 to the owner. So the gross in-
come on one acre of land is Rs. 6oo.
. 2. Ganeshkhind.’—Seven varieties of pomegranate were under
trial from the year 1905. Three of these were local, two from
Sangamner, and two foreign (Kabul and Muscat). All were grown
from seeds of specially selected fruits. The foreign varieties made
eee
* S. H. Prayag—The Ganeshkhind Botanical Garden, Kirkee. Its genesis
and development. Department of Agriculture, Bombay; Bulletin No. 104 of
1920.
20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol! XLIT
poor and stunted growths, and failed to bear fruit even after eight
years’ growth. Grafts of Kabul variety on local stocks also failed
to fruit even after seven years’ growth. The following trials were
conducted for nearly four years:—(i) The comparison of different
methods of irrigation, viz., Basin, Trench, and Ring systems. The
trench system proved to be unsatisfactory as the trees began to
show signs of drought, reacting on the yield, which was conse-
quently very low. The ring method showed the advantages of
economy in the amount of water given and the avoidance of any
rot of the stem at the collar.—(ii) Comparison of grassed and
cultivated lines of fruit trees. In this experiment the weeds as they
grew were cut and kept as a mulch three to four times during the
year. The difference between the two plots was not appreciable.
3. Gokak.'—As evidenced from the growth of the plants and
the quality of the fruits in one of the gardens at Gokak a limy or
phosphatic soil seems to suit the pomegranate very well. Medium
black soil with murum as sub-soil is fairly suitable, but black soil
is no good.
Before digging the pits the land is well ploughed, harrowed and
clod-crushed, and the soil brought to a fine state of tilth. The pits
are 3 ft. deep and 3 ft. square, and the distance between them is
13 to 14 ft. each way. To economize space the hexagonal system
based on equilateral triangles 1s adopted, whereby all adjacent trees
are equally distant from each other. The pits are dug in the
summer months of April and May so that the earth, both in and
out, may be thoroughly exposed to the action of the daily hot air
for .a- space of two .or three months. When the pits are toibe
filled up bone meal, if available, is spread at the bottom; this is
then covered with the surface portion of the excavated earth; and
this in its turn is covered with the bottom soil, if not too bad.
When the bottom soil is too bad it is rejected, and good soil or
fine silt brought from outside.
Seedlings one year old are the best for planting; others take
more time to establish themselves. July-August is the-proper time
for planting, preferably late in the afternoon. The ideal conditions
are a cool weather and light drizzling rains. The pits are watered
one or two days before planting. When the young plant has been
firmly fixed a small basin is made to hold the requisite quantity of
water. At first the plant is watered lightly every day in the evening
or at least once in two days. After the appearance of fresh sprouts
the watering is given only twice a week for some time, and then
gradually the interval is increased to once in a week or ten or
even twelve days.
After the seedlings have established themselves two or three
handfuls of farmyard manure may be given. Three or four days
after each watering, the basins are kept loose by stirring and all
the weeds are removed. When the plants are one year old they
* T. S. Kulkarni—Notes on the cultivation of Pomegranates as experienced
on the Gokak Cana] Farm. The Poona Agricultural College Magazine ; January
1920.
THE POMEGRANATE 21
are manured with about half a basketful or 10 Ibs. of farmyard
manure per plant. In the second and third years, twice as much
manure is applied. No further care need be taken except pruning,
weeding, and watering at intervals, the interval varying with the
nature of the soil and the time of the year. If the soil is good
and if proper care is taken the plants will become fit for bearing
even as early as the third year.
For the first three years intercrops such as onion, garlic, ground-
nut, gram, chilly, cabbage, pea, tomato, brinjal, knolkol may be
grown; and the net income accruing from these will more than
make up for the initial and the running expenditures involved in
the cultivation of the pomegranates during the early stages.
The, flowering periods are (i) January-February, ambebahar;
(ii) June-July, mrigbahar; and (iii) August-September, hastabahar.
On this farm the period selected for treatment is either ambebahar
or mrigbahar, preferably the former when the plants are less subject
to attacks from insect and fungus pests. Watering is stopped
two months before the time of flowering; one month after, the
roots are exposed and the branches pruned; then the roots are cov-
ered again, the beds renewed, and the plants manured and watered.
It takes from four to five months for the fruits to ripen. When
the fruiting season is over all flower-buds, flowers, and stray fruits
are removed and the trees left to themselves till the next year’s
treatment.
At Gokak the pomegranate is propagated from seeds. The fruit
is allowed to ripen completely on the tree and to fall down to the
ground of itself; it is then picked up and kept for some time to
allow rotting. Then the seeds are squeezed out, mixed with earth
or ashes and kept ready for sowing.
Sinp!.—Shikarpur is famous as a centre for fruit-growing.
There are altogether some 150 orchards, with an area of 868 acres,
of which 139 are under pomegranate.
With the advent of spring, mature branches are pruned out
and cut in pieces nine to twelve inches long. These cuttings are
buried two-thirds deep in the soil of the nursery bed, and their tops
are covered with fresh cowdung. The beds are irrigated at intervals
of three to four days, till the cuttings have sprouted, which they
usually do in about a month’s time. The cuttings stand in the
nursery bed for full two years, during which period they receive
hoeings once a month regularly. They are planted in rows nine
to twelve inches apart. This is by no means too close a
planting because, while there are always some cuttings which do
not germinate, the white ants do a good deal of thinning work.
The cuttings are raised in gardens for sale and fetch Rs. 2-8-0
to Rs. 3 per hundred.
The field operations begin during the inundation season. The
plantation is irrigated, ploughed twice, levelled, and laid out in small
“ Mahomed Umarkhan F. Barokzai.—Fruit Culture as practised near
Shikarpur, Sind. Department of Agriculture, Bombay; Bulletin No. 08 of
1920.
22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
plots measuring from one quarter to one half of an acre each.
Parallel channels or furrows, twelve inches by eighteen inches, are
made twelve feet apart. Along each channel, but on one side of
it only, circular holes are dug at a distance of twelve feet. After
an exposure of a week to ten days, the excavated earth is mixed
with fifty pounds of cattle manure and returned to the pits. The
plants to be used are carefully lifted from the nursery beds and
carried to the field some time about the 1t1th March, at the Maha-
shivaratra.
Irrigation during the first few months after the transplantation
is given about twice a week, but when the plants are fairly estab-
lished watering is limited to once a week throughout the year.
In case of white ants proving a serious pest, the interval is shortened
to suppress the attack. i
For «the first three years the ‘soil round the plants is ‘stirred
and weeds removed twice a month. The channels are also cleaned
in order to grow sub-crops: brinjals, chillies, karela (Momordica
Charantia), turi (Luffa acutangula), bhindi (Hibiscus esculentus),
chuka (Rumex acetosa), methi (Trigonella Faenum-graecum), etc.
With the fourth year, when the fruit plants cover the ground and
begin to yield, the weedings cease altogether and the growth of
natural grasses is encouraged as these provide an excellent green
feed for cattle and consequently are readily sold. Cattle, camel,
and horse owners purchase standing crops of weeds for the season.
The weeds commonly found in pomegranate and other fruit planta-
tions are dubh (Eragrostis cynosurioides), gandheer (Eleusine
flagellifera), chhabar (Cynodon Dactylon), savri (Panicum Colonum),
kabah (Cyperus rotundus), lulur (Digera arvensis), and dinuhi
(Andropogon annulatus).
Pruning of dead branches on the top and fresh growth at the
roots of full-grown plants is effected in November. Manure is
applied once a year in February when the trees are leafless; one
jholi (cloth load) of manure weighing about thirty pounds is applied
to every two plants. This costs about two annas. Before apply-
ing manure, the soil round the roots is dug out and replaced by
fresh canal earth.
The pomegranate has two flowering seasons, the first commenc-
ine from early Phalgun (March to April), and the second from
Bhadra (September to October). The fruit of the former lasts
till the Dassera (October) festival, and that of the latter till Marga-
shirsh (January-February). Of these two seasons the Phalgun
flowering is always the better. In addition to these distinct flower-
ing seasons the plant is said to put on all the year round one or
two flowers locally termed the Chorgul (thief flower).
From the fifth to the fiftieth year of their age the trees produce
excellent yields. The average number of fruits per plant is 70,
the range being from 4o to roo, each weighing from half to three
quarters of a pound. This gives an average yield of 30 pounds
per tree, the maximum amounting to as much as a maund (80 lbs.)
of fresh fruit. Calculating at the average price of Rs. 4-8-0 per
maund, each plant produces Rs. 1-11-o on the average, and each
acre of about 250 plants returns roughly Rs. 420.
THE POMEGRANATE 23
_. Another product of the trees is the quantity of fallen flowers
obtained from the Phalgun flowering. These are gathered, dried,
and sold at Rs. 4 per maund of 80 lbs. Ten to twelve maunds
are collected per acre fetching from Rs. 4o to Rs. 50.
The third product consists of the rotten fruits which have been
damaged by insects or by birds. The seeds are dried and sold as
khat (sour substance used in curries), while the rind goes to the
dyer to yield a yellow dye. The quantity collected is not large but,
nevertheless from Rs. 10 to Rs. 15 per acre are usually obtained.’
There are twelve varieties of pomegranate commonly grown in
the locality : bedaho, kandhari, vanga, chiho, sona, dandan, multani
chiho, sehwani, green sehwani, sindi sehwani, jesalmeri, sindi
jesalmeri. Of these sehwani, kandhari, sindi sehwani, sindi jesal-
meri, and bedano are sweet-pulped varieties, while the rest have an
acid sour taste. But all the twelve varieties, whatever their taste,
command a ready sale in the market. Bedano (the seedless) 's
a rare variety; it is not altogether free of seeds as the name would
indicate.
BALUCHISTAN’.—Pomegranate is cultivated commercially in. Balu-
chistan. It is also imported from Kandahar in fairly large quantities
through Chaman. There are four varieties of commercial import-
ance in this Province, viz. :— |
1. Kandhari. Grown in Pishin sub-division, mostly in Killa
Abdulla and Gulistan. It is slightly acid in taste, very
juicy and large in size. Its skin is of brick red colour.
2p Vetha.g “Grown. im, Loralai district. ~75° per cent.) of -the
total area in this district is under this variety. It is
thick skinned, juicy, less acid in taste, and medium in
size.
3. Khata. Grown in Loralai district. It is sour in taste,
small in size, thick skinned, and less juicy.
4. Jhalari. Grown in Loralai district. Big size, soft skin,
a little acid in taste, and juicy.
The so-called Bedana, or seedless variety has no commercial im-
portance. It is grown in Loralai district, but only a few plants are
seen here and there in the orchards, which are kept for home con-
sumption. It is a shy-bearer, which seems te be the chief reason
for its limited cultivation. It is sweet and juicy, and a very small
residue is left after the juice is extracted.
PunjaB.—The following information was supplied by the Fruit
Specialist, Punjab, Lyallpur: ‘Pomegranate is not a very important
crop in the Punjab. It is grown in a tract known as Alipur in
Muzaffargarh district of the Punjab. No separate figures of area
are available, but the area in that tract as well as small patches of
pomegranates found here and there in the Punjab would not exceed
more than a few thousand acres. In Muzaffargarh district an
average yield of 1 maund of fruit is obtained per tree which sells
in the market at retail sale of annas 2 to annas 4 per seer depend-
ing upon the quality.’ .
* From the Agricultural Officer in Baluchistan ; 1940.
24, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL OSD. SOCIETY, “Wolk XeLit
JODHPUR.—The area under Pomegranate cultivation, and also
the estimate of the yield of Pomegranates per bigha in Jodhpur 1S
shown in a statement sent by the Superintendent, Hawala Depart-
ment! :
Village Area under Pomegranate | Be es ay
Bagan sop us : 3, bighas 10 biswas_... | 10 maunds
Gavan | 30 4. = ceed 190 sy
Suthla Eee ve — pkg ess
Umaidsagar 2 7 _ ae: 6 mn
Mandore | 12 — a 36 .
54 bighas 10 biswas__.... | 163 maunds
PESTS AND DISEASES.
The different varieties of pomegranate have been found to suffer
from attacks of birds and insects, and from fungus infections.
Birds.—Parrots are the only birds attacking pomegranates.
They visit the plantation especially in the morning and in the evening
and should be regularly watched.
Insects.—In addition to white ants which do much. damage to
cuttings in the nursery bed, various other insects are known to
injure the pomegranate tree; they are fruit-borers, stem-borers, and
sucking insects. z
‘An insect, says Firminger, which I have detected to be a certain
hairy caterpillar, penetrates the hard rind when the fruit is a little
more than a quarter grown, and by devouring part of the interior,
causes the remaining part to canker and rot. To obviate this, the
fruit, when as yet small, should have the large fleshy calyx by which
it iS Surmounted cut cleanly off, and then be tied up loosely in a
piece of linen cloth.’. Woodrow recommends ‘to gather every fruit
that is infested even to a slight degree and burn them. If the
cultivators of a district will unite to do this for several years, the
stock of that particular insect will greatly be reduced and fair crops
during some years may repay the trouble.’
Woodrow quotes the following account of the pest from the
Catalogue of Indian Lepidoptera in the British Museum.—‘The
larvae of this butterfly reside in the interior of the pomegranate,
seven or eight at least having been reared in the interior of a small
specimen of this fruit. Of the mode in which the eggs are deposited
by the female in the interior of the pomegranate no information has
been received; it is, however, probable that this is effected whilst
the fruit is in its very young state. The caterpillars feed upon the
seeds and the inner part of the fruit, which is thus weakened, and
a
$$
1
toth February 1940,
THE POMEGRANATE 25
rendered unable to support its own weight, and consequently liable
to have its stem broken, and to fall to the ground with the first
wind. This, however, would be destruction to the inclosed insects ;
since, in all probability, they would find it impossible to make their
escape were the fruit to be suffered to lie rotting on the ground.
To obviate this evil, the caterpillars, when full fed, have the instinct
to bore a hole about a quarter of an inch in diameter through the
hard shell of the fruit whilst it remains on the tree; through this
hole they then creep to the stem of the fruit, and spin a white
web, which they attach to the basal part of the fruit as well as
to the stem for about the distance of an inch along the latter.
This web is sufficiently strong to support the pomegranate from
falling after the wind has broken the stem near to the fruit.’
The fruit-boring insect is Virachola isocrates Fabr. (known as
sursa in the Deccan), the most important economically of the
butterflies, perhaps the only one that is constantly and regularly
injurious, and sometimes a serious pest of pomegranate. ‘As is
well known, writes Aitken in this Journal (Vol. I; 1886), the larva
feeds inside the fruit of the pomegranate and, some time before
becoming a pupa, eats its way through the tough rind and fastens
the fruit with silk to its stalk, thus preventing it falling off in
case it should wither before the butterfly escapes, as it generally
does. I have taken a pomegranate infested with these larvae
(several usually inhabit each fruit) and made it stand in an egg-
cup, in the morning it was so securely fastened, that in taking
up the fruit I lifted the cup.’
The treatments mentioned by Firminger and Woodrow are
effective but expensive when applied to large gardens. Bainbrigge-
Fletcher has suggested catching of butterflies by hand-nets; but
they are difficult to catch, being exceedingly swift, wary, and given
to sitting on high trees. Burns thinks that a spray of contact
’ poison when the fruits have just set is more likely to be effective ;
for it is highly probable that the eggs are laid in the calyx of the
flower of the young fruit. ‘At the time the pomegranate is in
flower,’ says Downes, ‘and at a very early period, the Hair Streak
may be seen very busily occupied about the flowers, and I have
little doubt that the eggs are deposited at the bottom of the calyx,
from the position in which I have seen the abdomen of the butter-
fly placed; as the fruit enlarges the eggs are enclosed, and in this
situation matured’.
At the Botanical Garden of Ganeshkhind, Kirkee, attempts were
made to prevent insect attack by bagging the fruits immediatelv
after fertilisation. Paper bags proved most unsatisfactory as they
tore badly. Even paper bags soaked in paraffin wax were not
found to be of much use as water entered the bags along the fruit
stalk and caused rotting of the fruits. Cloth bags were effective
and the cost came to 4 pies each. If carefully used, each bag served
for two years. Comparison was made with Gide oil emulsion
versus tobacco water. This resulted in favour of the crude oil
emulsion.
At Sangamner the bagwan puts about a pound of asafoetida in
the main water channel or in a small water reservoir which is
26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
generally built near wells and through which the water passes.
This is done twice or thrice from the second or third watering.
Thereby the attack is said to be much lessened.
Mr. M. A. Wynter-Blyth mentions the larva of Dendoryx
epyjarbas ancus Fruhs. as feeding inside the fruit of the pome-
ae on the lower slopes of the Simla Hills.!
- A hairy caterpillar (Euproctis fraterna Moore) sometimes
appears on the pomegranate plant and does some damage to the
foliage, but is not as serious a pest as the fruit borer.
3. Another serious pest is the stem borer Arbela tetraonis Moore,
which bores into the stem and causes the branches to wither. The
larva may be known by the peculiar patches of excrement and silk
found on the bark of the trees near the bore of the caterpillar,
which comes out at night, feeds on the bark, and makes the peculiar
covering on the part it eats. The caterpillars may be destroyed by
probing them with a piece of thin wire, or by syringing into the
burrows either rock oil or a mixture of 2 parts chloroform and
I part creosote. A good preventive remedy is not to grow shevari
(Sesbania aegyptiaca Pers.) anywhere in the vicinity, for this is
the plant from which the pest generally comes on to the pome-
granates.
_ 4. Occasionally small sucking insects, such as aphides, thrips,
and mealy wings may become a nuisance in the pomegranate plant-
ation. Mealy wings are of very little moment. Aphides and thrips
are easily kept under control by spraying twice or thrice with
crude oil emulsion (1 part of crude-oil stock emulsion to 66 parts
of water), or better still with incosopal emulsion (1 part of incosopal
to 80 parts ot water).
Fungi.—Fruit rot is so very common in the pomegranate
gardens of the Deccan that the gardeners, far from looking upon
it as a calamity, welcome it as a sign of the high yielding capacity
of their trees. It is more particularly severe in low situations,
in crowded gardens, and in gardens that are neglected and unclean.
The loss due to it amounts to about 15-20 per cent. Every garden
seems to be attacked and, during the monsoon, every plant in the
orchard.
This disease is recognised? by the appearance of brown or
orange black round pustules on the surface of the fruits, usually
near the stalk-end. These pustules appear in regular patches, which
may in some cases, extend to even half or more of the fruit surface.
This discolouration of the surface extends slowly to the inner tissues
and even the seeds, which, consequently, remain immature, small,
and pale in colour. Rotting now sets in, especially in the case of
young fruits, and the whole fruit becomes dried up and_ hollow.
The fruit loses in weight, and shallow depressions occur on the
discoloured portion.
Flowers may also be affected and drop down in large numbers.
The fungus may be seen even on the dried up twigs where it remains
in the shape of small round pustules ready to infect the succeeding
1 Journ. Bomb.) Nat. Hist Soc.c i vole xhwsp. 727.
*M. N. Kamat—Fruit Rot of Pomegranates. The Poona Agricultural
College Magazine; xv, 3; December 1923.
THE POMEGRANATE 27
crop of flowers and fruits. It is a weak parasite, and it has been
found to be a species of Phomopsis. It is capable of living as a
saprophyte on the dead branches and twigs of the trees. And this
accounts for its yearly reappearance; for the amount of fruits,
flowers, leaves, branches, and twigs that are allowed to decay on
the ground all around the trees is enormous. |
It is difficult and perhaps uneconomic to devise any direct method
of controlling or treating this disease. The nature of the garden
and the growth of the plants will not permit of any such operation.
The only effective way of checking the infection is to regularly
pick out all diseased fruits and flowers and burn them. No dead
part of the tree, whether it be fruit, flower or twig should be allowed
to remain in the garden, whether on or near the tree; and all those
parts ought to be buried. Nor should any diseased part be allowed
to rot in the manure pit, as is generally done by the cultivators.
Specimens of pomegranates were received from a garden in
Bombay’, in which the fruit, though of excellent external appearance,
were blackened and rotting inside. The fruit appears perfectly
healthy on the outside, but when cut open, the seeds and pulp are
found blackened either wholly or in part. In the more advanced
stages there are cavities inside, filled with a brown powdery
substance, composed of the spores of the fungus. The rot was
found to be due to a fungus known as Sterigmatocystis castanea
Patterson, first observed in the United States in rogro.
DomEstTic USEs.
In his account of the Voyages of the Ambassadors of the Great
Duke of Muscovy and the King of Persia (1633-39), Olearius writes:
‘The wild pomegranates, which you find almost everywhere, especi-
ally at Karabag, are sharp or sowrith. They take out of them
the seed, which they call Nardan, wherewith they drive a great
trade, and the Persians make use of it in their sauces, whereto it
gives a colour, and a picquant tast, having been steep’d in water,
and strain’d through a cloath. Sometimes they boyl the juyce of
these Pomegranates, and keep it to give a colour to the rice,
which they serve up at their entertainments, and it gives it withall
a tast which is not unpleasant.’
In the East the pomegranate is universally eaten and much
esteemed as dessert. The fruit is cut open, seeded, strewn with
sugar, and sometimes, as it is particularly the case in Syria,
sprinkled with rose water. The Portuguese prefer wine to rose
water. The seeds are also much used in syrups and conserves.
The fruit is greatly valued in warm countries on account of the
delicious, cooling, and refreshing pulpy seeds which, with the addi-
tion of water and sugar, make a very pleasant cooling drink known
as granadine or pomegranate-water. This is much used, not only
in the East but also in certain parts of Europe and in the southern
states of North America. In India pomegranate sherbet is highly
esteemed, and justly appreciated by all who have tasted it.
" The Agricultural Journai of- India; vol. ix, 1914; p. 205.
28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HiSE SOCIETY, Vol. Xuor
It is but one step, one very short step, from the sweet juice to
the ‘Pleasant liquor that distils from the pomgranet fine’ (Drayton),
and man was not slow in taking that step. |
Pomegranate-wine was known throughout the Near East at an
early date. In the Canticle of Canticles the bride, when urging
the groom to come to her mother’s house, says: ‘and I will give
thee a cup of spiced wine and new wine of my pomegranates’.
And in Papyrus Anastasi IV the fellah is advised to refrain from
the alcohol of the pomegranate. Ye-lu Ch’u-ts’ai, in the account
of his journey to Persia (1219-1224), speaking of the pomegranates
of Khojand, which are as large as two fists and of a sour-sweet
taste, says that the juice of three or five fruits is pressed out into
a vessel and makes an excellent beverage.
A jet-black smooth writing ink is made of the bark of the root.
This is much used by Algerian scribes, and in particular by the
‘sopherim’ when copying the text of the sacred Mosaic books.
The barks of both the root and the fruit enter into the composition
of popular preparations used by Annamites to lacquer their teeth,
or by Moroccans to dye their hair.
The bark is of real value as a tan and dye for leather; it is
largely employed in preparing the morocco leather of Tangiers.
The flowers stain the saliva; they are used in various parts of
India to impart a light-red colour, said to be fleeting, to cloth. The
inhabitants of the Chinese province of Hainan make use of them
for fermenting their wine. |
The astringent rind of the fruit is a valuable tan, and is also
employed as an auxiliary to colouring agents, generally turmeric
or indigo, in dyeing. Alone, it imparts to cloth the greenish colour
known in the North-West Provinces of India as kakrezi. When
used for this purpose the rind is boiled in water till three-fourths
of the latter has evaporated; and the cloth then dipped in the con-
centrated infusion. Samples of the rind have been found to contain
a small amount of yellow colouring matter, readily given up to
boiling water, which imparted colours varying from a dull-yellowish
green to a bright reddish-drab with tussur and corah silk, and
cotton; and which with salts of iron produced an almost black
dye on wool.
In North Africa selected branches or young plants are used
for making walking-sticks.
The wood is light-yellow, with a small dark-coloured, irregularly-
shaped heartwood, compact and close-grained; it is used for roofs
in some parts of India.
The plant makes a good fence, and for this purpose is established
by sowing seeds in position, putting in stout cuttings, or trans-
planting from the nursery.
MEDICINAL USES.
According to the Castel of Helth ‘pomegranates be of good
iuyce and profytable to the stomacke, specially they which are
sweete.” Their nourishing and digestant properties have been pro-
verbially nutshelled by the Arabs: ‘If hungry, eat pomegranate ;
THE POMEGRANATE. 59
if sated, eat pomegranate’. And they had to be eaten at the
conclusion of royal banquets in order to facilitate the digestion of
fatty viands. |
Tobaiah Rofé distinguishes between the properties of the two
varieties, sweet and acid. The sweet pomegranate rejoices the
heart; and its bark, boiled with water or with wine, promotes the
cicatrization of wounds. The acid fruit stops sanguinolent diarr-
hoeas, allays thirst, and reduces the congestion of the liver and
the stomach.
The ancients valued the pomegranate fruit as a stomachic.
Whether in the form of a sherbet or of a syrup, it has been used
with advantage in typhus, gastric and asthenic fevers, inflammations
of the urinary tract, haemorrhages, and colliquative sweats.
Hippocrates prescribed it for heartburn, and van Swieten for
dysentery and diarrhoea.
Hindu physicians prescribe the juice of the ripe fruit combined
with saffron as a cooling drink in dyspepsia and in fevers. The
seeds are considered to be stomachic, the pulp cardiac and stomachic ;
by some it is said to be diuretic and antibilious.
Locally the acid juice is used as drops for the eyes in ophthalmia.
In the Konkan the juice of the green fruit, rubbed with galls,
cloves and ginger, is given in honey as a remedy for piles.
In Cambodia the unripe fruit is used in the treatment of
diarrhoea and dysentery. For diarrhoeas a small ball of kino is
introduced into the fruit, green and about the size of a walnut,
and the whole heated over a slow fire until it becomes burning hot;
it is then cut and infused in 200-300 grammes of boiling water; the
infusion is to be administered in two doses in one day. For
dysentery a small pill of opium is used instead of kino, and the
burning hot fragments are boiled in a tumblerful of water until
two-thirds of it has evaporated; the decoction is to be adminis-
tered in one single dose.
According to the rabbi Maimonides the pomegranate taken
internally with wine is an excellent remedy for the stings of wasps
and hornets.
The rind of the fruit, and the flowers were recognized as
medicinal by the ancients. They are both powerfully artringent,
and were employed in diarrhoea and similar diseases. They were
also given for relaxation of the gums and throat, mucous dis-
charges, prolapsus of the rectum or uterus. They are still used
aS an injection in leucorrhoea, as a gargle in sore throat in its
early stages, and in powder form in intermittent fevers. ‘A decoc-
tion of them, says Culpeper, stops bleedings and purgings of all
kinds, and is good for the whites . . . A strong infusion cures ulcers
in tite mouth and throat, and fen teeth.’
In India the rind and the flowers in decoction with opium and
an aromatic, such as cloves, cinnamon, coriander, or pepper, are
used as an astringent in bowel affections unaccompanied with in-
effectual and painful straining at stool.
In Madeira an infusion of the flower buds and the rind of the
fruit is given for inflammation of the throat, and also for dysentery.
In Guia the decoction combined with lime juice is used as a
gargle. When taken internally the decoction is sweetened with
30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. xiii
honey and administered with the juice of the sorrel and of the water
cress.
The rinds of three wild pomegranates are said to be used in
Java: the red-flowered merah, the white-flowered poetih, and the
black-flowered hitam.
The rind of the pomegranate is official in Holland under the
name of cortex fructus granati. ;
The juice of the flowers mixed with the root juice of Bermuda
grass (Cynodon Dactylon Pers.) is used to stop bleeding from the
nose. The flower-buds powdered, in doses of 4 to 5 grains, are
useful in bronchitis; they are also much used in dysentery and
diarrhoea.
The Hausas use a tea-like infusion of the young flowers as a
vermifuge. The Arabs rank the flowers of the male plant among
their styptics, and the blossoms amongst their cicatrizants.
In Shikarpur, Sind, unripe flowers are dried and pounded, to
make a snuff, which is ‘considered to be the best astringent in nasal
haemorrhage while internally it is very effective: during infantile
diarrhoea and dysentery. Green leaves are made into a “paste and
applied on the eyes during conjunctivitis.
In some parts of India the expressed juice of the leaves and
the young fruit is used in dysentery. In other parts the juice
expressed from the leaves and flowers is sniffed to stop bleeding
from. the nose.
In Ceylon the leaves are boiled and used as: an eye- -wash. In
the Philippine Islands the decoction is used as a ‘gargle in all
affections of the buccal cavity. In Jamaica the leaves are beaten
with oil of roses, and applied to an aching” head.
The efficacy of the bark of the root of the pomegranate tree,
as a remedy for the tape-worm, has long been established in India.?
It is given in decoction prepared with two ounces of the. fresh
bark, boiled in a pint and a half of water, till but three quarters,
of a pint remain; of this, when cold, a wineglassful may be
drunk every half-hour till the whole is taken. This quantity
occasionally sickens the stomach a Hhttle, but seldom fails to destroy
the worm, which is soon after passed. .
Pomegranate root is known to have been long used by the
Chinese for the expulsion of the tape-worm. And a decoction of
it was recommended for a similar purpose by Celsus, Dioscorides,
and’ Pliny. That the Egyptians knew the taeniacide properties of
the root bark is evident from their mention in the Ebers and Berlin
Papyri: the bark was bruised with beer, mixed with water, and
allowed to stand overnight—a mode of preparation which is still
followed in Egypt.
While the efticacy of the root-bark as a taeniacide is admitted
by every one, opinions differ as to the relative values of the root-
bark and the stem-bark, the fresh bark and the dried bark, the
bark of the wild pomegranate and the bark of the cultivated plant.
* Udoy Chand Dutt, who made a thorough study of the Materia Medica
of the Hindus compiled from Sanskrit medical books, remarks that he has
not been able to find any notice of pomegranate root-bark in Sanskrit works.
THE POMEGRANATE 31
According to Sheikh Abd .Erzeraq the flowers, the fruits, and
the bark of the pomegranate have anthelmintic properties. The
decoction of the root-bark 1s a common remedy for roundworm in
Bengal; while in Bombay the flowers and the pericarp are prepared
as ascaricides. In Europe the flowers, either in decoction or in
the powder form, are used for roundworms and worms of the
genus Sirongylus. Caius and Mhaskar have shown experimentally
that the bark is ineffective against hookworms.
In Cambodia a handful of toasted roots is given in infusion for
colic accompanied with diarrhoea.
The Arabs credit the seeds with stomachic properties. In India
the seeds are considered cooling and useful in fevers; ground to
a paste with milk they are a Tamil cure for renal lithiasis during
pregnancy.
The bark and fruit combined with other drugs are prescribed in
India for the treatment of snake-bite (Sushruta, Vagbhata, Rasa-
ratnakara); the bark is also prescribed for scorpion sting (Sush-
ruta). Caius and Mhaskar have demonstrated that neither bark nor
fruit are an antidote to either snake or scorpion venom.
PHARMACOGNOSY.
Pomegranate bark has a place in many pharmacopoeias. The
bark of the root is official in Italy, Mexico, Portugal, and Yugo-
Slavia; the bark of the root and stem in Belgium, Brazil, Denmark,
France, Germany, Russia, Spain, and Turkey; the bark of the
root, stem, and branches in Austria, Hungary, Japan, and Switzer-
land; the bark of the root and stem, and the rind of the fruit in
Holland. |
The rind is in irregular, more or less concave fragments, some
of which have the toothed, tubular calyx still enclosing the stamens
and style. It breaks easily with a short corky fracture. Externaliy
it is rather rough of a yellowish brown or reddish brown colour ;
internally it is more or less brown or yellow, and honeycombed with
depressions left by the seeds. It has hardly any odour, but has a
strong astringent taste.
The middle layer of the rind consists of large thin-walled and
elongated, sometimes even branched, cells, among which occur
thick-walled cells and fibro-vascular bundles. Both the outer and
the inner surface are made up of smaller, nearly cubic and densely-
packed cells. Small starch granules occur spraringly throughout
the tissue, as well as crystals of calcium oxalate.
The root bark occurs in transversely-curved pieces; externally
brownish-yellow with. conchoidal depressions and dark brown
irregular patches in the cork; internally dark yellow, the medullary
rays extending to the outer surface. The odour is light, the taste
astringent, somewhat bitter and nauseous.
The stem bark occurs in pieces of variable length and thickness.
The outer surface is yellowish or greyish-brown, with patches of
greyish lichens, broadly elliptical lenticels and yellow-brown furrows
or abraded patches of cork; longitudinally wrinkled. The inner
surface is light yellow or yellowish-brown, finely striate. It breaks
short, with dark green phelloderm and yellowish-green inner bark.
32. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit
The stem bark differs from the root bark by the presence of a
broader cortex whose outer cells contain chloroplastids, and by
possessing shorter medullary rays. A transverse section of the bark
exhibits the following structure: cork thin, of alternating rows of
thin-walled suberized cells and lignified cells with greatly thickened
inner walls; cortex of parenchyma with a few large stem cells
isolated or in small groups; medullary rays mostly one-cell wide;
rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate ‘very numerous in _ the
parenchyma.
The powder is from yellowish-brown to dark brown. It con-
tains calcium oxalate crystals in rosette aggregates or monoclinic
prisms; numerous starch grains, spherical, ellipsoidal, biconvex or
irregular, and single or compound; fragments of whitish cork with
prominent, thickened, lignified walls; stone cells with very thick
and strongly lamellated walls; occasional long wood fibers associated
with tracheae possessing simple and bordered pores.
In the Dutch East Indies the local product, which mostly consists
of small pieces and scrapings, is used instead of the European
article. But, as the alkaloidal contents of the Indian bark, more
especially that of the white-flowered variety, are relatively much
higher than those of the European bark, the Dutch Pharmacopoeia
rules that when Indian pomegranate bark is to be prescribed 1n
Holland it shall be as Cortex Granati indicus.
ADULTERATION.
The commercial drug frequently consists partly or entirely of
the bark of the stems or branches, characterized by its (less abundant
cork-formation, with longitudinal bands or ridges of light brownish
cork, but not conchoidal exfoliations. Such bark is considered
adulterated in countries which recognize only the root bark as
official. .
The pomegranate bark is sometimes substituted oy the bark
of other plants. Among these are Berberis vulgaris Linn., which
is bitter and not astringent; Buxus sempervirens Linn., which 1s
also bitter and free from tannin; and Strychnos Nux-vomica Linn.,
or false Angostura bark which has a dark inner surface and a very
bitter taste. None of these barks have the characteristic checkered
appearance of the transverse surface of genuine pomegranate bark.
CHEMISTRY.
The inner surface of the bark, steeped in water and then rubbed
on paper, produces a yellow stain, which by the contact of ferrous
sulphate is rendered blue, and by that of nitric acid acquires a
slight rose tint, which soon vanishes. These properties serve to
distinguish this bark from those of the box root and barberry.
The root bark yields over 22 per cent. of tannin, and a con-
siderable amount of mannitol. It contains five alkaloids, which
bear a close relationship to the hemlock alkaloids. The active
constituent is believed to be ‘pelletierine’, which is highly toxic to
tapeworms, and explains the use of the bark, and the mixed alkaloids
in the form of the so-called, ‘pelletierine tannate’ and. ‘pelletierine
THE POMEGRANATE 33
sulphate’ as anthelmintics. The ‘tannate’ is official in the Pharma-
copoeias of Brazil, Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, and United States
of America, and the ‘sulphate’ in the French Codex.
The bark of the stem usually contains slightly less alkaloid
than the bark of the root. The amount in the stem bark has
been determined by various investigators to range from
maeeto ©.0 per cent., and in the root from 0.6 to 1.0 per
cent. Stoeder, in 1890, found out that of the root bark of three
varieties of the wild pomegranate recognized and used by the natives
of Java, the red-flowered merah yielded 2.43 per cent., the white-
flowered poetih yielded 3.75 per cent., and the black-flowered hitam
yielded 1.71 per cent.
POPULAR BELIEFS.
In various parts of India the flower and the fruit of the pome-
granate are given to women to eat, so that they may conceive sons.
Among the Arabs, the bride, when dismounting before the tent
of the bridegroom, receives a pomegranate, which she smashes on
the threshold, and then flings the seeds into the interior of the
tent. The Arabs would have a man like the pomegranate: ‘bitter-
sweet, mild and affectionate with his friends in_ security, but
tempered with a just anger if the time calls him to be a defender
in his own or in his neighbour’s cause.’
In China the pomegranate is regarded as a symbol of fertility.
We read in the ‘Pei si’ that two pomegranates were presented to
king Nan-te of Ts’1 on the occasion of his marriage to the daughter
of Li Tsu-sou, who explained that the fruit encloses many seeds,
and implies the wish for many sons and grandsons. Thus the
pomegranate is still a favourite marriage gift and plays a part
in the marriage festival. The same obtains in modern Greece.
In ancient Greece the pomegranate was one of the plant remedies
for sterility. In cases of difficult labour the Romans gave the
parturient woman pomegranates and a decoction of fenugreek.
MyTHOLOGY.,
The pomegranate was one of the attributes of Aphrodite of
Venus, the goddess of love and beauty; of Demeter or Ceres, the
goddess of agriculture and vegetation; and of Dionysus or Bacchus,
the youthful, beautiful, but effeminate god of wine.
The attribute of Persephone or Proserpina as the wife of Hades
or Pluto was the pomegranate, and her votaries had to abstain
from this fruit. When carried off to the under-world Persephone
resisted, begged, and implored gods and men to help her, but
Zeus approving the transaction let it pass. Although she had been
thus carried off by force she loved her husband, and when her
mother, Demeter, implored her to come back to earth, her answer
was that she had accepted from him the half of a pomegranate, or
apple of love, and had eaten it. Persephone, who has eaten of the
pomegranate, is the fructified flower that returns in spring, dwells
in the region of light during a portion of the year, and nourishes
men and animals with the fruits.
3
34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
RELIGION.
The pomegranate is one of the fruits offered to the deity by
a Hindu woman taking the ‘Saubhagya Vrat’, that cruel death may
not snatch away from her the husband she loves.
It is also one of the nine plants that make up the ‘Navapatrika’
worshipped on the occasion of the Durgapuja, as carried in some
districts of Bengal.
There is abundant proof that the ancient Egyptians offered
pomegranates to the gods and to the dead, and that the tree was
sacred both to the Semites and to the Greeks.
The pomegranate figures in the New Year ceremonies of the
Jews, and the blessing is as follows: ‘May your approbation be
granted, O Lord, our and our forefathers’ God, to be full with
good deeds as a pomegranate’.’
According to the Koran there are fruits in paradise: the date
and the pomegranate. ;
There is current among the Arabs a ‘hadi’ or traditional saying
that: ‘whosoever eats pomegranates when he is hungry, his heart
will be illumined for forty days and he ,will be immune from the
temptations of the devil—and, therefore, will not sin, and, there-
fore, will enter heaven.’
Another saying is that: ‘whenever the Imam Ali wanted to eat
pomegranates he would spread a cloth. He was asked the reason
for it; and he answered that every pomegranate contains a grain
of the heavenly pomegranate and that whenever infidels want to
eat that grain, by God’s command angels. take it to prevent them
from eating it.’?
ART.
The pomegranate tree and its fruit occupy a prominent place in
Egyptian and Assyrian decorations and works of art: ivory, metal,
pottery. They may also be seen on preserved specimens of pottery
from Jerusalem and on some Jewish coins.
Among other details relating to the making of the ephod of
the High Priest, the Exodus prescribes the following: ‘And
beneath at the feet of the same tunick round about, thou shalt -
make as it were pomegranates, of violet, and purple, and scarlet
twice dyed, with little bells set between: so that there shall be
a golden bell and a pomegranate, and again another golden bell
and a pomegranate.’
In 1408, Quercia executed in Ferrara various sculptures, notably
the ‘Madonna of the Pomegranate.’
~ HERALDRY.
The pomegranate appears in the escutcheons of the South
American Republic of Colombia, and of Bogota, its capital. It
is also found in the arms of the Spanish city of Granada, and in
the seal of its University; in those of the towns of Granadella and
————————
1 Dr. David Judah, M.p.
* Prof. K. Dehdashti, B.A. (Hons.)
THE POMEGRANATE 33
Santafé, in the Spanish province of Granada; and of Tregoney, in
Cornwall.
The arms of the Sassoon family are: ‘or, a palm tree eradicated
proper between on the dexter a pomegranate, also proper, and on
the sinister a branch of laurel fructed, vert, both proper, on a chief
azure a lion passant of the first, in the dexter paw a rod erect,
gold.’
LITERATURE.
One of the most familiar of the Rabbinical interpretations
designed to expound the symbolism of the priestly decoration
prescribed in Exodus is that it indicates ‘something like an alterna-
tion or mixture of music with discoursing, sound with sense, poetry
with thought.’ And this is what Robert Browning meant to convey
to the minds of his readers when he chose as a title for his poems
Bells and Pomegranates’.
Mrs. Browning refers to her husband’s successive pamphlets in
her poem Lady Geraldine’s Courtship :—
Or from Browning some ‘Pomegranate’, which
If cut deep down in the middle,
Shows a heart within blood-tinctured, of a veined humanity.
Sanskrit poets often compared the redness of the cheeks or
lips to the colour of the red seeds of the pomegranate. A simile
not altogether unknown in the West:— _
Her cheeks like . . . faire pomegranade kernels washt in milke
(Greene). :
- Her. temples, peices of Pomegranates seeme (Robinson), —
That small pomegranate-like mouth (Ouida).
As a pomegranate, cut in twain,
White-seeded is her crimson mouth (Oscar Wilde).
The young pomegranate’s blossoms strew
Their blooms in blushes ever new (Byron).
As rosy as a half-opened pomegranate (Flaubert).
In the Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society (vol. xvii, part III, January 1940) Mr. R. O. Winstedt
gives the following as an example of a Malay quatrain (pantun).
Satu tangan bilangan lima,
Dua tangan bilangan sa-puloh.
Sahaya bértanam biji délima,
Apa sébab péria tumboh?
I find one hand has fingers five,
I count up ten upon the two:
What is the matter, man alive,
Pomegranate planted and gourd grew! |
Apparently the conundrum is about a gardener who counts his
plants and finds their tale complete, but is astonished to discover
a gourd growing where he had planted a pomegranate. However,
to the Malay mind the pantun conveys much more than meets the
ar; for in the Maiay language of fruits a pomegranate stands as
rs i a a a
JAE ron eee ete into, MAG: TeL.B.
36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIii
a simile for the purple lips of the Eastern beauty and the bitter
gourd as a symbol of disappointment.
And here is a delightful little Marathi tale:—-‘In the house of
learned men, who were profusely rewarded by king Bhoja, women,
while playing in the yard got their pearl-necklaces broken and
the pearls were scattered on the ground. These pearls were tinged
by the lac-dye that was stamped on the floor, while the women
were playing on the ground. The pearls thus coloured red by the
lac-dye of the soles of the women’s feet attracted parrots who
mistook them for pomegranate grains and began to pick them
up.”
PROVERBS.
‘Omni malo punico inest granum putre’, says the Latin: Every
pomegranate has its rotten pip.
Ek andar, sau bimdr’: one pomegranate to a hundred sick. A
Hindustani proverb used when there are many candidates for the
same post: ‘one post to a hundred applicants.’
‘Kauvé kt dum mén anar ki kali’: pomegranate blossoms on a
crow’s tail. A Hindustani proverb used to describe a black ugly
person finely dressed.
INDIAN MARKET.
Bombay :—Regarding the Bombay Market the following infor-
mation was supplied by Mr. D. S. Laud, Superintendent of Markets
and Slaughter-Houses, Bombay :—
‘Pomegranates sold in our local markets are obtained from
Bhawnagar, Dholka, Kabul, Maskat, Poona, and |Harnai. Most
of the good quality ‘of fruits comes from Kabul.
‘The chief local fruit on sale is that from Poona, of which about
500 baskets are sold daily during the months of August, September
and October.
‘The approximate quantities of pomegranates imported into
Bombay from Kabul and other areas and the seasons are shown
below :—
_ from Bhawnagar and Dholka, 100 to 150 baskets per day during
the months of March, April and May;
from Poona about 500 baskets per day during the months of
August, September and October ;
from Maskat, 200 to 250 baskets per week during the months
of October, November, December and January ;
from Kabul, 75 to 100 kulus (long baskets) on every alternate
day during the months of October, November, December and
January.’
SYNONYMY.
Granutum punicum St. Lag. in Ann. Soc. Bot. Lyon, vii (1880)
132.
Punica florida Salisb, Prod. 354.
1 Prof. N. K. Bhagwat, M.a.
THE POMEGRANATE 37
Punica Granatum Linn. Sp. Pl. 472.
Punica grandiflora Hort. ex Steud. Nom. ed. I. 660.
Parca nana Linn. Sp. Pls ed. II; 676. :
Punica spinosa Lam, FI. Fr. iit. 485.
Rhoea Punica St, Lag. in Ann. Soc. Bot. Lyon, vii (1880) 133.
VERNACULAR NAMES.
Afrikaans: Iralnate—; Amharic: Ruman—; Annam: Cay luu, Thach luu—;
Arabic: Rana, Rana rumman, Rumman, Shajratur-rumman—; Aramaic:
Rummana—; Assam: Dalim—; Baluchi: Anar, Nargosah—; Bengal: Dalim,
Dalimgachh, Darim-—; Berber : Armoun—; Bombay : Anara, Dalimba, Darima— ;
Brazil: Roma—; Burma: Salebin, Talibin, Thale—; Calcutta: Baidana—; Cam-
bodia: Totim—; Canarese: Dadima, Dadimbe, Dalimbare, Dalimbe, Dalimbu,
Hulidalimbe, Husidalimbe— ; Catalan: Magraner—; Cham: Dalim—; Chinese :
An Shih Liu, Che Lieou, Liou Pi, Ngan Shih Liu, Shih Liu—; Cochin-China :
Cay-thach-luu— ; Coptic: Erman, Herman—; Danish: Granattraee—; Deccani :
Anar, Dhalim, Dharimb—; Dutch: Granatboom—; Egypt: Anhmani, Arhmani,
Rumman—; English: Pomegranate Tree—; Ewe: Aboda—; French: Balaustier,
Grenadier, Migraine, Miouganier—; German: Granaat baum, Granate—; Greek:
Roa, Rodia, Roia, Roidia, Roidion—; Gujerat: Dadam, Dadum—; Hausa:
Rumman, Rummani—; Hebrew: Rimaus, Rimmon, Rimnon—; Hindi: Anar,
Dalim, Darim, Daru, Darum, Dhalim, Dharimb, Gulnar—; Hova: Aponga-
beandanitra— ; Indo-China: An thach luu, Luu, Luu chua trap, Phila, Thap
luu—; Iraq: Rumman—; Italian: Melogranato, Melograno—; Japanese :
Sakaro, Sakuro, Zakuro—; Jaunsar: Danoi—; Javanese: Gangsalan— ;
Jhalawan: Anar, Sor—; Jolo: Dalima—; Kharan: Hanor—; Khmer: Tatim—;
Konkani: Dalimb, Dallimbini—; Kotra: Anar—; Kumaon: Darim—; Kurdish:
Hannar—; Languedoc: Gronodié, Miouganié, Miougranié—; Malaya: Delima,
Shak liu—; Malayalam: Dadimam, Matalam, Pumatalam, Raktabijam, Tali-
matalam, Uruyampalam—; Malta: Pomegranate, Melogranato, Rimmien,
Rummien—; Marathi: Dalimb, Dalimba—; Mexico: Granado, Granado de
China—; Michi: Madala—-; Mendari: Anardaru—; Naples: Granato, Granato
servaggio— ; North-Western Provinces: Anar, Darim—; Persian: Anar, Darakh-
tenar, Dhalim, Dharimb—; Philippines: Dalima, Granada—; Polish: Drzewo
granatowe—; Portuguese: Romanzeira, Romeira—; Potenza: Gronuto— ;
Punjab: Anar, Daan, Danu, Daran, Dariun, Daru, Daruna, Daruni, Dhalim,
Dharimb, Dharu, Jaman—; Pushtu: Anar, Anor, Gharnangoi, Nargosh— ;
Quetta: Anarbedama—; Romagna: Melagrano, Melgarne, Melingarne— ;
Roumanian: Pitligean, Pitlingean, Rodiu—; Russian: Granat, Granatnik— ;
Sanskrit: Bijapura, Dadima, Dadimasara, Dadimba, Dalika, Dantabija, Danta-
bijaka, Darimba, Karaka, Kuchaphala, Kuttima, Lohitapushpaka, Madhubija,
Milapatra, Milapatraka, Mukhavallabha, Nagarata, Parvaruta, Phalashadava,
Pindapushpa, Pindira, Raktabija, Raktapushpa, Shukadana, Shukavallabha,
Sunila, Suphala, Svadvamla, Valkaphala, Vrittaphala—; Shahrig: Nargosa
Sibi: Anar, Dahrun—; Sicily: Granatu—; Sind: Anar, Dhalim, Dharimb— ;
Sinhalese: Delun, Delungaha, Delunghedi—; Sinjawi: Anangi—; Spanish:
°
y
Granada—; Swedish: Granatrad—; Syriac: Rumono—; Tamil: Kalumal,
Madalai, Madulam, Madulungam, Magilan, Pumadalai, Pulimadalai, Tadimadalai,
Tadimam, Tusagam—; Telugu: Dadimamu, Dadimba, Dalimma, Danimma,
Karakamu, Pulladanimma, Puvvudanimma, Tiyyadanimma— ; Timne :
Labo—; Treviso: Melogranato, Pomi ingranai—; Tuareg: Tarrumant— $;
Tulu: Dalimbe—; Turkish: Nar—; Tuscany: Granata, Melagranata—; Urdu:
Anarmitha—; Uriya: Dalimbo, Dalimo—; Verona: Magragnar—; Waziri:
Narghesa— ; Yemen: Ruman—; Yugoslavia: Magranj, Nar, Sipak—.
THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.
BY
D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.
PART /V.
(Continued from Vol. xli, page 320).
RHOPALOCERA.
PAPILIONIDAE.
pany doris hector “1,
Moore, Cat. Lep. Mus. E.I.C., i, 93, pl. 2, figs. 4, 4a, rib 1857.
Moore, Lep. Ceyl., i, 152. 1880-81.
Moore, Dep. Ind53v, 173, plw435,, gcse 1, tay be weol-os:
Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, ii, 19. 1907. ,
Bell, ‘Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. S0C., XxX). 1190-32 atom.
Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies (2nd. Edits) 1)" 84. 1930:
Head black, the clypeus outlined in crimson. Body blackish
purple. 1st somite with a short sublateral and a long lateral orange
red tubercle, a black dorsal plate with four orange red spots anteri-
orly and two posteriorly. 2nd somite with a short lateral and
sublateral and two longer subdorsal orange red tubercles. 3rd
somite similar. 4th and 5th also similar but the outer subdorsal
tubercle obsolescent on the 4th and absent on the 5th somite.
6th to 11th somites with a very low set sublateral short tubercle
and a longer lateral and subdorsal. 12th and 13th somites with
subdorsal tubercles only. 5th somite with a pale orange red spot
above and posterior to the lateral -tubercle and another anterior to
the subdorsal, an orange red transverse dorsal band. 6th to 8th
somites each with a pale orange red spot anterior to the subdorsal
tubercle, a pair of oval dorsal spots on the anterior margin and
with traces of a transverse dorsal band. There is some variation
in the amount of marking. Legs and Speaelcs black. . Prolegs
blackish purple. Osmeterium orange.
Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of black silk. Head
flattened frontally and expanding into a slight lobe on each side.
Thorax with a double keel and a slight lateral lobe. Wing cases
expanded laterally and developing into a lateral lobe. 4th to 7th
abdominal somites each with a pair of subdorsal rounded lobes.
Colour pinkish russet, the wing cases slightly darker and mottled.
The prothorax with two white subdorsal streaks, the abdomen
marked with white above the wing cases. The pupa is very
similar to that of P. aristolochiae F. (mihi, Journ. Bomb. Nat.
Hist. Soc., xl, 392), but the cephalic lobes are slightly smaller and
those on the abdomen are smaller and more erect. The colour is
more pinkish, that of aristolochiae being slightly tinged with olive,
THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOFTERA 39
Food-plant—Aristolochia spp.
Described from a full fed larva found at Gopalpur (Dist. Ganjam)
8-iii-40, pupated 14-ili-go, and a male emerged 1-iv-4o.
SATYRIDAE.
Ypthima hubnert Kirby, hubnert.
dewNiceville, (/- ACS, Bi. 237, pl. 125, firs, 1;.4, b. 1886.
Moore, Lep. Ind., 11, 77, pl: 111, fig. 1. 1893-06.
Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, 1, 143. 1905.
-. Ovum spherical, the base slightly flattened. Pale bluish green.
Minutely punctate. Laid singly on the blades of grass. Deposited
30-vi-40. Hatched 6-vii-4o.
Newly hatched larva pale buff marked laterally with purplish
and clothed with short hairs. The body colour changes to green
as soon as it has fed but the head remains buff. Resting attitude
with the head and fore-part of the body curved downwards.
Moulted 10-vii-4o.
2nd: instar—Head and body pale green. ‘A darker green dorsal
line, a slightly waved white subdorsal and lateral line with a third
line between them. Ventral surface paler. Anal plate divided into
two points. Body clothed with short hairs. Moulted 14-vii-4o.
ard i imi but with a pale subspiracular stripe.
Moulted 18-vii-4o.
Final instar--Head green. Body green, pubescent. A dark
green dorsal stripe, becoming whitish on the 1st and 2nd somites.
A slightly waved whitish subdorsal line with two more below it.
A pale subspiracular stripe. Legs and prolegs green. Anal plate
ending in two short pinkish processes. Length about seven-eighths
of an inch. Two larvae in a batch of fifty bred from ova were
pale purplish instead of green, with a dark purplish dorsal stripe
and with the white lines more distinct. Pupated 24-vii-4o.
Pupa suspended by the cremaster. Yellowish green in colour,
the thorax and wing cases less tinged with yellow. A brownish
black stripe along the dorsal edge of the wing case and a series of
black specks along the outer margin. Thorax humped and slightly
keeled, in some specimens the keel outlined in brownish black. A
very few examples have the wing cases shaded with black. A
female emerged 31-Vvii-4o.
Food-plant—Grasses.
The larvae usually hang up for pupation during the night and
change late the following evening. The imagines usually emerge
between eight and ten in the morning.
Described from material bred from a female caught at Calcutta.
de Niceville, quoted by Bingham, writes :—‘About one inch in
length, with two divergent processes from the anal segment point-
ing backwards. Colour entirely green with a dorsal line somewhat
darker green, which becomes white at the fourth segment, and
extends right through the crown of the head; there is also a paler
green lateral line below the spiracles. Pupa green or brown, with
the head rounded, the edges of the wing-cases raised and angled
anteriorly; the thorax humped and marked like the abdominal seg-
ments, with some dark brown waved lines and spots.’
40 -- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
NYMPHALIDAE.
Atella phalanta Drury.
Moore, Lep. Ceyl.; 1,962, pl. 31,7) fic. aa, 1880-51,
de Niceville, Butt. Ind., ii, 30. 1886.
Davidson & Aitken, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., v, 269. 1890.
Moore, Lep. Ind., iv, 197, pl. 360, figs. 1, 1a-1f. 1899-1900.
Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i, 412. 1905.
Head black with a small white pear-shaped central spot. Body
grey, minutely speckled with white, the dorsum paler with a black
dorsal line. A zig-zag sublateral cream coloured stripe. 1st and
2nd somites each with a lateral and subdorsal longish black branched
spine, 3rd somite with the subdorsal spine only. 4th to r1th somites
with a subdorsal, lateral and sublateral spine, 12th and 13th with
subdorsal spines only. Legs black. Prolegs greyish. Spiracles
black ringed with white. Venter tinged with yellow. One speci-
men had the upper half of the head pale reddish brown. Before
pupation the dorsum becomes tinged with yellow, the whole body
finally turning green with the bases of the spines ieee ae
white.
Pupa with the head square in front with a pair of very Seal
horns. Thorax slightly humped with a pair of short subdorsal
spines on the pro- and meta-thorax. 4th, 6th, 8th and oth abdo-
minal somites each with a pair of subdorsal spines, 1st and 3rd
each with a pair of raised subdorsal spots, 5th and 7th each with
a pair of very small subdorsal spines. Suspended by the cremaster
from a pad of white silk and hanging at an angle of about thirtv
degrees from the horizontal. Ground colour mother-of-pearl tinged
with pink and with the following black and metallic silver markings.
Black—-three small spots on the front of the head, a circle round
the eye, the cephalic horns, the base of the prothoracic spines,
the anterior portion of the metathoracic spines and an irregular
blotch in front of them, the thorax along the junction with the
wing cases, an irregular triangular costal mark a third of the way
from their base, a series of lanceolate spots on the outer margin
of the wing cases, the antenna and proboscis cases, the anterior
part of the spines and raised spots on the rst, 3rd, 4th, 6th and
8th abdominal somites and the whole of the spines on the 5th, 7th
and oth, a minute speck next to the spine on the 7th somite, a
~ series of short transverse dashes on the venter, a lateral blotch on
the 3rd, ath and 5th abdominal somites and the cremaster. These
black markings vary considerably in size. Metallic silver—the
centre of the eye, the back of the prothoracic and metathoracic
spines and also of the spines and raised spots on the rst, ard,
4th, 6th and 8th abdominal somites, the inner margin of the wing
cases and a streak along the outer edge.
Described from a number of full fed larvae found at Gopalpur
(Dist. Ganjam) 16-iii-go, one of which pupated 19-ili-go, and a
female emerged 24- -lii-40.
Moore gives a very bad figure of both larva and pupa in The
Lepidoptera of Ceylon and the following description :—‘Larva pur-
ple-brown; head armed with two delicate branched spines, each
THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 4]
segment with two dorsal rows of similar spines and two lateral
rows of shorter spines. Feeds on Flacourtia, Salix, etc. Pupa
pale green, tubercular along the back.’ Bingham quotes Davidson
and Aitken as follows.—‘Larva cylindrical, moderately thick, very
smooth... . bears six longitudinal rows of branched spines. The
head is unarmed. The colour varies from dark brown to pale
yellowish-green, with a white or yellowish spot at the base of each
spine. It feeds on one or more species of Flacourtia. Pupa colour
very variable, some specimens being almost white and some bright
green, the markings are usually silver soled, or tipped with red.’
He also quotes de Niceville’s description of the pupa ‘A beauti- _
ful green with a subdorsal series of five acutely pointed tubercles,
marked with red between each pair of very small blunt ones, the
upper edge of the wing-covers and a spot on each side of the
head also marked with red.’
LYCAENIDAE.
Rapala schistacea Moore.
Head brown, very small and retractile. Body flattened, pale
yellowish green. Somites deeply cut and with a subdorsal and
sublateral series of slight humps. Skin pubescent, the subdorsal
humps bearing short black bristly hairs, the sublateral humps white
ones. Gland fairly large. The larva is well concealed by its
appearance when resting among a bunch of the flower buds of its
food-plant.
Pupa formed in captivity on the bottom of the box under a
leaf, resting on a very thin mat of silk and held in place by a
slight girdle and the cremaster. Head and anal end obtuse, the
abdomen rather swollen laterally, thorax and abdomen domed
dorsally with a slight depression between the two, ventral surface
flat, but this may be due to the situation in which the pupa was
formed. Colour pinkish speckled with black, the wing cases tinged
slightly with olive green, and with a blackish subdorsal stripe edg-
ing the thoracic dome and then running along the abdominal somites.
Under a lens the body is seen to be covered, with the exception of
the wing cases, with short whitish hairs. Wing cases minutely
punctate.
Food-plant—Quisqualis indica Linn.
Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 19-x-309,
pupated 23-x-39, and a female emerged 31-x-39.
HETEROCERA.
LYMANTRIIDAE.
Euproctis subfasciata Wk.
Head very dark brown, the bases of the antennae white. rst
somite black with two subdorsal white streaks, a smaller lateral
white streak and a black subdorsal wart tufted with greyish hair.
The rest of the body blackish grey, a double white dorsal line
from the 6th to roth somite and a very faint whitish lateral line.
2nd and 3rd somites each with four brownish warts across the
42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
dorsum and a reddish lateral wart, all tufted with brownish hair.
4th and 5th somites each with a dorsal black hump, a subdorsal
black wart and a reddish lateral wart, all tufted with brownish hair.
6th to 11th somites each with four black warts across the dorsum
and a reddish lateral wart, all tufted with brownish hair. 1ath
somite with four small greyish warts tufted with brownish hair.
The dorsal glands on the 9th and 1oth somites pinkish red. Legs
black. Venter and prolegs grey. . |
Pupa olive brown,- the thorax more chestnut, the wing cases
greener. Enclosed in a cocoon of thin whitish brown silk mixed
with Jarval hairs.
Food-plant—Quisqualis indica Linn.
Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 26-v-40, spun
I-vi-go, and a male emerged 16-vi-4o. -
ARCTUDAE, -
Creatonotus transiens Wk. ;
Moore, Lep. E.I.C., 260, pli 13) tie. a5. 18577- 59.
Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, ‘29. 1894.
Ovum very pale yellow, spherical, flattened at the base, without
sculpturing. Laid in large batches, each individual ovum touching
the ones next to it. Hatched on the fourth day.
Young larva greyish with transverse black bands on the 3rd,
4th and roth somites. Hair grey. Head black. Later with a
white dorsal stripe edged with black between the transverse bands,
the anal somite orange and a series of orange sublateral warts.
Full-grown larva—Head black, marked with white ‘above the
jaws and with a pale inverted V-shaped mark. outlining the clypeus.
Body greyish black minutely speckled with white on the lateral
areas. A broad white dorsal line interrupted on the 3rd, 4th, foth
and 311th somites by wide black transverse bands. A pale’ cream
lateral streak on the 2nd and 3rd somites. 5th to goth somites
with double oblique pale ochreous lateral streaks, and with traées
of similar streaks on the 1r1th and r2th somites. Hairs blackish
brown. Spiracles white. Legs black. Prolegs deep purplish pink.
Pupa in a thin cocoon of whitish silk mixed with larval hair.
Pale chestnut brown, the intersegmental areas and a dorsal stripe
on the abdomen darker. Not quite as dumpy as the usual Arctiine
pupa. é
Food-plant—Various Composites, and probably. many other
species of low plants.
Described from a number of larvae bred from ova in Calcutta,
one of which pupated 29-vili-39, and a male emerged 5-ix-39.
Hampson’s description, which is apparently based on that of
Moore, is ‘black, blotched with red-brown and with tufts of -red-
brown hair, the lateral tufts arising from ferruginous tubercles ;
a dorsal broad white line; head black, marked with white.’
Asota caricae Bsd. (nie Cr);
Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., x1, 402. 1938.
The colouring of the head in this species is variable. Out of
eh...
THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA AS
a batch of larvae found in Calcutta in August 1939, the majority
had the head red, as recorded by Hampson and Moore. A
smaller number had the head black with the vertex marked with
red, as previously recorded by me, and there were a very few
intermediates. ;
SPHINGIDAE.
Cephonodes hylas L., hylas.
Sevastopulo, journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xli, 315. 1939.
Head grey. 1st somite swollen, black with minute whitish
tubercles. Ground colour very pale grey, the secondary segmental
lines darker. A pale lavender subdorsal line edged below with
white and with a small black spot immediately below it in the
middle of each somite from the 2nd to the 1oth. Legs purple.
Prolegs purplish. Anal flap and claspers purple with minute
whitish tubercles. Horn black and tuberculate. Spiracles white
with a transverse orange bar and with an ill-defined grey blotch
immediately behind each. Another specimen had the subdorsal line
and black spots obsolete and a third a black streak centred with
white in place of the spots. In some cases the ground colour was
considerably darker than in others.
Described from a full-fed larva found at Gopalpur (Dist. Ganjam)
I2-1li-40, pupated 16-ili-go, and a male emerged 30-ilI-40.
The dark forms were considerably commoner than usual and
outnumbered the green by about two to one. Three larvae found —
when in the first instar were green but became almost jet black
after ecdysis, and finally developed into the form with the broad
black dorsal stripe. :
NOCTUIDAE.
Prospalta capensis Guen.
Moore, Lep. Ceyl., iii, 29, pl. 147, fig. 2a. 1884-87.
Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, 211. 1894.
Warren Seitz, Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, xi, 346.
Head brownish green with a broad black stripe on either side
running from the outer edge of the mandibles to the vertex, where
it is slightly broader. Ground colour pale brownish green, an inter-
rupted white dorsal line edged with dark crimson and ending on
the 11th somite in a white spot. A very fine white subdorsal line,
between which and the dorsal line there are three minute crimson-
ringed white spots on each somite from the 4th backwards, of
these the central one is nearest the dorsal line and the anterior
one is the smallest. 2nd and 3rd somites with a transverse series
of four similar dots on each side of the dorsal line. A spiracular
stripe, white and fairly broad and tinged with crimson, immediately
above which there is a white dot broadly ringed with crimson over
each spiracle from the 4th to 11th somite. 6th to 8th somites
each with a pair of sublateral white crimson-ringed dots. Legs
black. Prolegs and the whole area below the spiracular stripe
very pale greenish. 11th somite slightly humped dorsally. Spira-
cles white ringed with black,
44. JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL’ HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol, (XLTI
Pupa in an earthen cell. Red brown, the thorax and wing
cases tinged with olive green, a dark dorsal stripe and the inter-
segmental areas of the abdomen darker. Cremaster ending in two
sharp spines.
Food-plant—Found on Marigold, but fed up on Cosmos, pre-
ferring the flowers.
Described from a_ full-fed larva found in Calcutta 12-i-40,
pupated 17-1-40, and a male emerged 1-11-40.
All the published descriptions that I have seen are based on
that of Moore. This is: ‘Larva smooth, pale green, anal somite
conical; with a dorsal and lateral series of purple-brown blotches
dotted with white, and a sublateral row of white dots. Pupa
greenish, with reddish segmental bands. Feeds on Acanthads.’
Moore’s plate shews a pupa with the head, thorax, wing cases and
intersegmental abdominal areas bright green, the rest almost
scarlet.
(To be continued).
A REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY.
BY
CHARLES MCCANN, F.L.S.
Part Il
(Continued- from. Vol. lr, po 76a).
(With 6 plates).
SUBORDER: SAURIA (contd.)
Famity: Agamidae.
Draco dussumieri Dum. & Bibr. Flying Dragonet.
On the roth June, 1938, Mr. A. R. Hughes and I saw a specimen
of this species in the forests of Gersoppa Falls, N. Kanara. The
animal parachuted from one tree to another, a distance of some
60 feet. As soon as it alighted, it ran up the trunk for a foot or
so, much after the fashion of a Tree-creeper (Certhia). Though
I stoned it in an attempt to secure it, it made no attempt to para-
chute again, but just moved round the trunk climbing a little
higher each time, just as a Bloodsucker (Calotes versicolor) would
do under similar circumstances. It eventually dropped after being
hit, but was lost in the undergrowth. The upper surface was
entirely black, like the bark of the tree, with no indication of
marking’s.
Habits.—Apparently nothing is known of the habits of Draco
dussumieri, but under the heading of the genus the Fauna
(vol. ii, p. 137, 2nd Ed.), referring to the gular appendage, states,
‘The gular pouch is usually much larger in the males than in the
females’. In dussumieri the males always possess the larger ap-
pendage. Continuing the Fauna adds, ‘Both it (appendage) and
the wattles are distensible, or erectile, and are utilized by the males
during courtship.” Though the gular appendage may be used
during courtship, this does not appear to be its only use. As
parachuting is under control, the triangular lateral expansions on
the sides of the neck assist in flight, and the gular appendage acts
as a possible ‘rudder’. Further, | am of opinion that the appendage
plays a part in attracting insects. The appendage is flicked up
‘and down and, at the same time, the lateral neck expansions are
spread out: the three appendages forming a badly shaped T. The
dorsal surface of the neck expansions is coloured like the back,
but the lower is a metallic bluish green with some scattered dark
spots. The appendage is intermittently brought into play when
the animal is travelling up a trunk or immediately after alighting.
The appendage, when fully exerted, describes almost a semicircle,
from the resting to the exerted position, and when at its fullest
exceeds the length of the snout, in males. During the performance
the animal stands high on its forelegs. Agitation, caused by
46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XLU
disturbances, also make the animal perform. All three appendages
are brought into play when the animal assumes a_ threatening
attitude. The lateral expansions are spread, the gular appendage
is detlexed (not to its fullest) and the mouth is opened. Actually,
the whole eitect produced is that of a queer-looking orchid flower.
In flight the animal appears like a highly coloured grasshopper.
Breeding.—Keterring to the breeding in Draco, the Fauna
states, “Ihe young are produced from eggs, from two to five
being laid at a time. These are buried in the ground’. Thanks
to the kindness of Dr. M. Suter, whose guest I was during a
fortnight’s trip to Kanara, I was able to observe and collect some
of these interesting lizards, ‘The period of the trip extended
from the 3rd _ to 15th September 1940. The breeding season of
this lizard is undoubtedly during the monsoon months. While
at Karwar, 1 saw many young and secured four gravid females,
one of which contained large eggs in the oviducts almost ready for
laying. These eggs measured 15Xg mm. The other females con-
tained smaller eggs still in the body cavity. The normal number
of eggs in a clutch appears to be four. The condition of the male
genitals in mature males indicated that the animals were passing
out of the breeding season.
Sexual differences.—The females are larger than the males.
The gular appendage is not as long as in the males, but Pee
the same colouring.
Hood... he 1o0d!tor HSIN EE is apparently composed largely
of ants, particularly the Red Tree-Ant (Oecophylla smaragdina
Fabr.). ‘Lhe stomachs of some were Dooce exclusively with this
species.
Colouring.—In May 1939, iis D’Souza of our office brought in
a living example which he had caught at Yellapore, N. Kanara.
Apparently the colouration of this species from lite has never been
recorded (vide Fauna). Now I attempt to describe the difficult
colour pattern, but this is by no means constant as it keeps chang-
ing within certain limits. The colouration, as I saw it, was as
follows:—Head and dorsal portion of body (excluding parachute
membrane), limbs and tail mottled with dark and light browns,
buff and grey. On the nape there is a transverse ellipsoid, buffish
patch. Along the vertebral column, from between the forelimbs to
the region of the pelvis, there are four longitudinal narrow ellipsoid
patches, the mid-dorsal patch being the largest. Each patch con-
sists of a buffish ellipse with dark brown lineal ellipses within—-
these patches under certain conditions turn almost white, and the
rest of the body black. The tail is irregularly banded at intervals,
with the same tones as the body.
The dorsal surface of the parachute; the peripheral margin is
radially streaked with thin lines of brown and buff; within this
margin which has a depth of about 5 mm. it is very strongly
blotched with black and gold or dull yellow, the blotches often
confluent. The yellow gradually passes into the body. colours.
The reverse has fewer black blotches, no margin as above and
the entire area suffused with pale blue. The chin and throat are
metallic yellow-green with a few brown markings near the mouth,
47
REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY
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48 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLU
this passes imperceptibly into the bright chrome yellow of the
gular appendage. The chest, abdomen, under-surfaces of the
limbs and a part of the ventral of the tail are metallic blue-green.
The eyes are almost black, surrounded by bluish eyelids. The inner |
margin of the upper jaw is strongly demarked in pearly white.
Sitana ponticeriana Cuv. Fan-throated Lizard.
A female measuring from snout to vent 45 mm. and from vent
to tip of tail (broken) 55 mm. was captured at Sutgutti, 16 miles
north of Belgaum, on the 5th June, 1938. Two days later she laid
eleven eggs. The Fauna records that this species lays six to eight
eggs. The average measurements of the eleven eggs is
7.90x 5.76 mm. The largest measured 8x6 mm.; the smallest
7.5x6. The shape is ellipsoid, tapering somewhat towards both
poles.
Calotes versicolor (Daud.) Jerdon. The Bloodsucker.
In volume xxxix of the Journal I described some of the habits
of this lizard. With regard to the egg-laying period, the latest
date on which eggs were discovered was the 22nd August (1937).
A fresh clutch was unearthed in a flower pot on the 17th September,
1938. Late clutches may explain the appearance of a few immature
animals after the aestivating period.
Copulatory organs.—An anatomical detail which has puzzled me
much is the ‘dual’ copulatory organs of certain reptilian groups,
namely, the lizards and snakes. One can hardly resist asking, Why
are these reptiles provided with a bifid, others with a single
ee ae organ? Dr. Smith | Fauna British India (Reptilia),
vol. il, p. 4, 2nd Ed.] referring to these organs in lizards writes :—.
‘Each organ consists of a tube of erectile tissue, which can be everted like
the finger of a glove. *Only one organ 1s inserted, but which one is immaterial,
and depends upon which side the male happens to be at the time of copulation.’
Referring to Gadow (Camb. Nat. Hist., Amphibia and Reptiles,
Pp. 499) we find the same statement: ‘*Only one organ is inserted
at one time.’ .
On the other hand we have the view proposed by Jones [The
Animal Kingdom, p. 758, para (2025)| discussing the copulatory
organs of reptiles :—
‘The earliest appearance ot copulatory organs is .seen in Serpents and
Lizards tribes: and in such reptiles it will be observed that *the penis is
vather a provision for securing the juxtuposition of the sexual apertures of
the male and female than an instrument of intromission. The two lateral halves
of the penis (or corpora cavernosa as we shall have to call them hereafter,
when they become conjointed in the mesial line) are as yet quite separate,
and placed on either side of the cloacal fissure, from which they protrude
when in a state of erection, so that there appears to be two distinct organs
of excitement, or, more properly speaking, of prehension; for each division,
being of course imperforate, is covered with sharp spinest, *and is obviously
adapted to take a firm hold of the cloaca of the female than to form a channel
for the introduction of the seminal fluid.’
* The italics are mine.
t+ There are no spines in Calotes nor in Hemidactylus.
A REPTILE AND AMPHiBIAN MISCELLANY 49
If the copulatory organs of snakes and lizards are organs of
prehension, as suggested by Jones, then such prehension, to be
effective, implies the use of both organs. In such lizards, as |
have observed, i.e. Hemidactylus, Calotes and Mabuya, the male at
first holds the female in its jaws, but the grip is released as soon as
the copulatory organs are inserted. In these lizards the limbs are
employed in securing a stance on vertical walls or the surface of a
branch, and cannot be used for holding the female, and, once the
grip of the jaws is relaxed, hold is maintained solely by the
copulatory organs. In these conditions it 1s difficult to accept the
contention that only one organ is employed; and one is inclined to
the conclusion that security and effectiveness of hold depend upon
the use of both organs.
Fat bodies.—Before the gonads become active there are two
large, ovate-oblong, yellow fat bodies present in both sexes, one
on either side of the vertebral column. With the increase in
the size ef the gonads there is a relative decrease in the size of
these bodies and eventually become totally absorbed. In some
specimens taken on the 16th June (1940) at the Tulsi Lake, the
fat bodies had been absorbed though the ova were not mature, but
still in the body cavity (see table). The main function of these
bodies appears to be to ensure the proper development of the
gonads at a time when the food supply is precarious, 1.e., during
the dry months when few insects are about.
Food.—In my previous paper on this lizard, I dealt with the
question of food in somewhat general terms, but further observ-
ations have enabled me to give more details, The following is
a list of the stomach contents of several lizards :—
Dysdercus cingulatus Fb. These bugs though very common at
certain times of the year are only eaten in small numbers.
Both species are eaten in
large numbers, and in the dry
months appear to form the main
source of food, particularly,
Cremastogaster sp.
Plagiolepis sp. (Hymenoptera). This ant is very common in
Salsette Island and at first looks very much like Oecophylla
smaragdina Fabr, but the former is slightly smaller and does not
bite, while the latter bites viciously.
Scolopendra sp. occasional.
Pavasa lepida Gam. (Limacodidae). ‘Three larvae of this moth
were taken from a single Calotes. ‘This find is interesting in that
these larvae are armed with strongly irritant spines which are
sufficient to deter most enemies. The spines are believed to
contain formic acid.
Small Coleoptera are taken in plenty, and various caterpillars
frequently. Numerous other insects were found but too far decom-
posed to identify with certainty.
Apart from the above list I have found the seeds of a grass,
Coix Lachryma-Jobi Linn. These seeds were evidently taken in
error for insects on account of the peculiar shape. Mr. H. Ali
informs me that he found the fruit of ‘Lantana in the stomach.
Other curious finds were a piece of clear glass about 6 mm. square:
4
Cremastogaster Sp.
Camponotus compressus Fb,
XLII
Vol.
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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 199
XIV.—BIRDS EATING BUTTERFLIES.
I have been up in Nepal (Katmandu) for the last month and
while there an incident occurred which might be worth recording in
the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. I visited a
Mr. and Mrs. Kilburne who have a house with a garden in the town
of Katmandu and Mrs. K. said that a pair of Paradise Flycatchers
lived in the garden having made a nest in the same tree for some
years. They arrived each year about 30th March, and a friend of
hers who had been observing these birds in Calcutta had told her
that they arrived in Calcutta on the same date. I said I should
like to see them, and after about one minute the birds appeared;
the hen with some material in her mouth flew to the nesting tree.
This was about 24th April. There were several ‘cabbage white’
butterflies flying about the garden and one of the birds seized one
on the wing and carried it to a perch and there ate it—the wings,
which I enclose, fell to the ground. The birds then made several
attempts to catch another butterfly. I know birds do eat butterflies—
I wrote a letter in 1930 or thereabouts to the Journal relating that
I had seen the red-legged Falconet catch and eat a butterfly, but
the extraordinary part about this incident is that the Paradise
Flycatcher carried the butterfly to its perch, not into beak but in its
feet like a kite. I was not the only one who saw this; there were
several of us in the garden and they all saw it, but it was all done
so quickly no one could say whether the butterfly was caught by the
bird’s beak and transferred to the feet or whether it was caught by
the feet of the bird—the white wings showed up vividly under the
body of the bird as it flew to the perch.
S. F. HOPWOOD, 1.F.s.
C/o Messrs. THos. Cook & Son, Lrp.,
PHAYRE STREET, RANGOON,
April, 30 1940.
[In the December 1939 issue of the Journal (vol. xli, No. 2,
P- 445) we published a note by Mr. Hubback on the Paradise
Flycatcher eating butterflies: a discussion on birds eating butterflies
will be found in the editorial comment to a note on the Red-legged
Falconet (Microhierax eutolmus) hawking butterflies contributed to
the Journal by Mr. S. F. Hopwood (vol. xxxi, p. 826). Eps. |
XV.—THE MANY BANDED KRAIT (BUNGARUS
MULTICINCTUS) IN BURMA.
In his ‘Poisonous Snakes of India’ Wall remarks that this
snake is rare in Burma and that only one specimen has_ been
recorded, somewhat dubiously, from Rangoon.
I was therefore very interested when Mr. L. C. Glass showed
me a specimen killed in his garden in Rangoon on May artst,
He says two were seen, but the larger one got away.
200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL.:HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
The specimen killed had 31 white stripes on the body and
IO stripes on the tail, and was about 2! 4” in length.
ay RANGOON 0 gh gk OE MIN ie
_ May 28, 1940. : _,
Ae —EXTENSION OF THE RANGE OF THE BROWN |
- WHIP SNAKE. (DRYOPHIS PULVERULENTUS JAN.)
F ppaopie pulverulentus has so far been recorded from Ceylon
aa the Anamallai Hills, South India [vide Fauna British India
(Reptilia). p. 371, 1st Ed. 1: While on a visit to Karwar, N. Kanara,
I, secured a male on the 14th September 1g40. It measured
53. inches. This, however, is not the first record of this
species from Karwar. There is a specimen in the Society’s
collection labelled ‘Karwar’ and another, ‘Kanara’. Both are
without the names of the donors and were collected in 1907.
There are other specimens from, Castle Rock (P. Gerhardt, 1907) ;
Nelliampatty Hills, S. India (A. M. Kinlock, Nov. 1911); Ceylon
(BE. £.. Green): and, Matigama, Ceylon (f. JVall). Thus it. is
clear that D. pulverulentus is a lot more widespread than originally
recorded.
My specimen is of interest as there are some slight differences
exhibited by it when compared with the details given in the Fauna.
In the first place there is a small ovate oblong scale bounded by
the internasal, praefrontal and 2nd upper labial. Secondly, the
number of ventrals is 195 as against 194 (maximum) mentioned in
the Fauna—a very minor difference, indeed. Lastly there are
199 subcaudals as against 173 (maximum). These are all points
of minor importance, but, nevertheless, I think, worth recording.
BomBay NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, C. McCANN.
BOMBAY,
September 21, 1940.
asf
XVIL—FROG EATING A SNAKE,
I was glad to read Mr. Charrington’s note on ‘Snake attacked
by Frogs’ in the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal
Vol. “if No. 3, because I witnessed a similar incident a few years
ago. It was during the monsoon when I was returning from a
dinner party and had just entered my gate, when in the headlights
of my car I caught sight of a large frog (Rana tigrina) and a
snake close to each other on the lawn. I stopped the car keeping
the headlights on the frog. and the snake, and got down to see
what would happen. In a few minutes the frog hopped closer
and leaped onto the snake taking hold of it by the neck. The
snake which was only 10 to 12 inches long made frantic efforts
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 201
to escape but could not release itself from its adversary’s. grip.
When the snake’s struggles weakened the frog slowly began to
swallow it. I watched this performance for over 15 minutes until
nothing but a few inches of the snake still remained. I think the
snake was a wolf-snake, a harmless species.
_ >. BHAVNAGAR, | 3 eG DHARMAKUMARSINHII.
July 8, 1940. 7
[A number .of notes have appeared in the Journal on ‘Frogs
eating Snakes’. \In volume xxxvi, p. 161 of the Journal McCann
records that the Bull-Frog (Rana tigrina Daud.) readily devours
such small..snakes as it can overpower. Eps. | :
1a
XVIII. NOTES ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
AND: LARVICIDAL PROPENSITIES OF ROUSSE ENS
SETNAI KULKARNI. |
Observations made on fish fry collected by me from the terri-
torial waters of Cochin and Travancore at Manjummel and
Cheranellore in the months of May and June, 1938, have revealed
the presence, among them, of larvae of Horaichthys setnai, the
sole known representative of a new family of fish recently described
by Kulkarni (1940, pp. 379-423). Regarding the distribution of
the species, Kulkarni records it as occurring in the coastal areas
about ‘100 miles north and south of the city of Bombay’. After
the larvae were found, adults were looked for and collected on
various occasions from Manjummel and Cheranellore from shallow
inlets within tidal influence of the backwaters. It is thus evident
that the fish thrives and breeds in the coastal backwaters of
Cochin and Travancore. In all probability, the fish extends
throughout the western coast of Peninsular India.
Regarding the feeding habits of the fish, Kulkarni lists
‘copepods, diatoms, minute crustacean larvae, etc.” as the main
items, while he mentions, amidst .the stomach-contents of the fish,
‘fine particles of sand, pieces of grass, leaves and other debris’,
which evidently do not form part ‘of its dict. Observations made
by me on the larvicidal tendencies of the fish, however, show. that
it is destructive to mosquito larvae of the first and second instars
whenever available. As the fish is small and provided with delicate
mouth parts it is more successful in tackling the earlier instars
than the later ones. In this respect the fish is likely to prove a
valuable adjunct to other major larvivores like Aplocheilus lineatus
(Job, 1940; John, 1940) and A. panchax (Job, 1940a) especially
in the brackish waters of coastal districts. 7
The bionomics of H. setnai, as revealed from the interesting.
observations of Kulkarni, are quite favourable for utilising the
Species in anti-malarial work. ~While a typical backwater species
common in puddles and pools of stagnant brackish-water, and
breeding in sheltered places along the edges of the creeks, it extends
‘to waters under tidal influence’, Even after the monsoon it is
202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
noted to remain in large perennial pools within tidal limits to
propagate the species. Covell’s (1935, p. 40) requirements for
larvicidal fish are to a great extent satisfied by this tiny toothed
carp. Thus (1) the fish is ‘small, so that it can get about in
shallow water among weeds, etc.’ (2) It is hardy, being recorded
to be able to withstand a wide range of salinity varying from 4.363
to 1.348 per cent, and can even tolerate fresh-water within limits.
(3) It breeds easily throughout the year (with a peak period during
July and August). (4) It stands transport very well. A stock
stood the train journey from Bombay to Calcutta! and _ thrived
quite well thereafter. (5) It-is an agile active fish with large eyes
which are helpful in locating its prey and in detecting the approach
of enemies. (6) It is absolutely insignificant and worthless as
food. (7) It is carnivorous as is proved by a study of its stomach-
contents as also by its short intestine. The fish is remarkably
adapted for surface life. The head, which is flat dorsally and the
upturned mouth are suitable adaptations.. As Kulkarni has men-
tioned, the species, like Aplocheilus, occurs invariably near the
surface of the water and mostly in the midst of aquatic plants,
and ‘is often found in swarms which move about in_ close
formations’.
Thus it will be seen that Horaichthys setnai is a suitable species
for use in malarious areas of coastal waters, and its efficiency
lies in its capacity to destroy mosquito larvae in their early instars.’
Teo). (OB Messe
- Lady Tata Memorial
Research Scholar.
LABORATORIES OF THE ZOOLOGICAL
SURVEY OF INDIA, CALCUTTA.
REFERENCES.
Covell, G., 1935.—Anti-Mosquito Measures with special reference to India.
Malaria Bureau, No. 3, Health Bulletin, No. 11, Calcutta, 4th edition, pp. 1-62.
Job, T. J., 1940.—On the Breeding and Development of Indian ‘Mosquito-
fish’ of the genera Aplocheilus McClelland and Oryzias Jordan and Snyder.
Rec. Ind. iMus.,! XLAI,. pp. 51-79:
Job, T. J., 1940 a.—Practical Utility of Miillifish Aplochetlus panchax |
(Hamilton) in the Biological Control of Mosquitoes. I. Efficiency. (In course
of publication).
I. Efficiency. (In the course of publication).
John, C. C., 1940.—Observations on the Utility of Aplocheilus lineatus
(Cuv. & Val.) for Mosquito Control. Journ. Malar. Inst. India, III, 1,
pp. 67-80.
Kulkarni, C. V., 1940.—On the Systematic Position, Structural Modifica-
tions, Bionomics and Development of a remarkable new family of Cyprinodont
Fishes from the Province of Bombay. Rec. Ind. Mus., XLII, pp. 379-423.
1 Mr. Kulkarni kindly gave me some fish to experiment with from this
stock which was brought by him to Calcutta, and my thanks are due to
him for the same,
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — . 203
XIX._NOTES ON THE EARLY STAGES IN THE
DEVELOPMENT OF THE DECCAN KILLIFISH
[APLOCHEILUS LINEATUS (CUV. AND
VAL.)].
(With 2 text-figures)
INTRODUCTION.
The sexual dimorphism and breeding habits of the Deccan
Kullifish, Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv. and Val.) have already
been discussed by one of us (Job, 1940). Its egg and a
juvenile stage of 14.7 mm, have also been described. Observa-
tions on the early devlopment of the fish made from eggs collected
from natural habitat are detailed in the present paper. It may
be pointed out that from the beginning of this century, when
Aitken (1902, cited by Bannerman, 1910, p. 525) observed the
larvivorous propensities of A. lineatus, the fish has attracted the
attention of various workers, and several observations (vide Job,
p. 52) point to its being of special value in anti-malarial cam-
paigns, especially in the Deccan. Prashad and Hora (1936, p. 643)
have emphasized that it is essential, for control measures to be
successful, that the biology of the natural agent proposed for
control work should be known in all possible details. It is hoped,
therefore, that a thorough knowledge of the breeding and develop-
ment of A. lineatus will prove helpful in the culture and use of
this efficient larvivore, which is known to be of proved utility in
mosquito-control.
In r910 Willey (p. 122) wrote that A. lineatus lays eggs which
become attached by glutinous threads to water plants, but added
that he had ‘not found them so attached’, though he had seen
them freshly extruded in the month of July. Again, Job’s des-
cription of the eggs of the species was based on those laid in the
month of May, 1938, under artificial conditions of the aquarium
in which a few large-sized adult fish were kept.
Search for the eggs laid under natural conditions was since
then continued. On_ several occasions empty egg-cases were
found attached to water weeds and roots of other aquatic vegeta-
tion. Young fry were found in the tanks and ponds in and around
Trivandrum throughout the year. Eggs with healthy embryos
were collected by one of us (S.J.) from the large tank in the
Public Gardens, Trivandrum, in the month of September, 1939 and
these were found attached singly to submerged bamboo sheaths
near the margin of the tank by the tuft of anchoring filaments,
which have already been described in detail by Willey (p. 122)
and Job (p.. 69). The eggs were carefully transferred to troughs
of clean water and their development followed.
DEVELOPMENT.
The course of development of Aplocheilus lineatus is so similar
to that of its North Indian congener, A. panchax, which was
204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
recently described by. one of us, that only some of the salient
features in the development of A. lineatus need be described.
Embryonic stages.—The fairly large eggs are transparent
during the early stages, but turn brownish as the development pro-
ceeds, owing to pigmentation within and accumulation of dirt
outside the egg. The period of embryonic development is variable
as was observed in the case of A. panchax, but usually lasts for
about ten days. In the course of development the central mass of
oil globules gets broken up, but the Kupfer’s vesicle is not distinct
as in A. panchax.
Ban rm
Text-fig. 1.—Developing egg and early larvae of Aplocheilus lineatus
(Cuv. and Val.). ,
a. Six days old egg x ca. 22;
—b. Newly hatched larva (dorsal view) x ca. 18;
“c. Larva of twelve days’ growth (lateral view). xX ca 145
p. f. pectoral fin, thr. .c. cut ends of adhesive threads ;
y: ' yolk.
The six days embryo (text-fig. 1 a) is well developed with
large pectoral fins which are kept in constant motion. The mouth
and gill openings are present, the eyes are dark, the vitelline
circulation is complete, the caudal fin bears rays and the embryo
wriggles actively inside the egg-membrane. The embryo is seen
to occupy a greater space within the egg-membrane than that in
A. panchax. The nature of the hatchling depends on the period
of incubation, the quantity of yolk being less in late hatchers.
Metamorphosis: —In general appearance the newly hatched
larva (text-fig. 1-b) of A. .Jineatus resembles. very much that of
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 205
A. panchax, but exceeds the latter in length by about one milli-
metre. Some yolk-remnant with oil globules is present; the eyes
are bright and shining, and the air-bladder is clear. The larva
very seldom comes to the surface of the water. The pectorals,
though without fin-rays, are large and functional. The caudal,
which is lanceolate in shape possesses seven fin-rays, of which the
third from above is the longest. All the median fins are continu-
ous, and the dorsal and the anal are devoid of rays. The lower jaw
extends slightly beyond the upper. The distribution of pigmenta-
tion is very much as in A. panchax.
A remarkable feature that has been noticed in the early larva
of A. lineatus is its capacity to adhere to the smooth vertical sides
of the aquarium by the antero-dorsal region of its head for fairly
long periods. The usual position is oblique with the tail directed
either obliquely upwards or obliquely downwards. Even a_ very
careful examination has failed to reveal any special adhesive organ.
Probably the adhesion is effected through adpression. The ad-
hesive habit, however, lasts only for a couple of days after hatch-
ing. A more or less similar, though less apparent adhesive habit
has also been observed in the case of A. panchax (Job, p. 64).
By the second day the larva makes more frequent visits to the
surface. The yolk is reduced, the air-bladder becomes larger, and
two more fin-rays are developed in the caudal fin.
In another day practically all the yolk is absorbed, and the
larva moves about actively, feeding on minute organisms in the
water at the bottom and on the sides of the aquarium. The air-
bladder grows larger and extends further backwards. The chro-
matophores on the head turn brownish, while some of those between
the eyes acquire a silvery lustre.
The main change that takes place within the next few days 1s
in regard to the fins. The anal fin becomes gradually marked
off from the caudal, and rays are formed in its posterior portion,
which becomes broader. A week after hatching, the larva has
fourteen rays in the caudal and. ten in the anal fin. Text-fig. 1 c
shows a twelve days old larva. It is about 7.5 mm. long. The
protractile premaxillae have heen protruded during fixation.
Beginnings of as many as seven rays have appeared in the pectoral
fin, while the number of rays in the anal has risen to eleven.
Text-fig.-.2.. Post-larva, 11 mm. long (lateral view) x ca. 9.
(The Le given’ are those on reduction of text- fig. 1 to half and.
of text Ene: 2 to one- ce) a
__ Text-fig. 2 shows a fish eleven millimetres long. The anal fin
has fourteen rays and the. pectoral about . fen. The pelvics
are well differentiated with the appearance of rays. The dorsal,
206 =JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
ocellus is conspicuous. The occipital spot, however, is not yet
well formed. This stage represents the final post-larval stage
which grows and leads on to the ‘young adult’, 14.7 mm. long,
described in the earlier paper (Job, p. 60).
SUMMARY.
Some of the early stages in the development of Aplocheilus
lineatus are described. Eyed ova were collected from a natural
habitat of the fish and hatched in aquaria. The salient features in
the development of the species are more or less similar to those
of A. panchax, but the Kupfer’s vesicle is not distinct in A.
lineatus, and the developing embryo occupies a greater space
inside the egg-membrane. The characters of the hatchling with
its peculiar habit of adhering to objects are described. The changes
undergone by the larva in its growth up to the 11 mm. Size are
described. The 11 mm. size represents the final post-larval stage
of the fish, after which it assumes the adult characters.
REFERENCES',
Bannerman, W. B.—‘Note on Dr. Bentley’s paper ‘‘The Natural History
of Malaria (sic.)’’’. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xx, pp. 525, 526, (1910).
Job, T .J.—‘On the Breeding and Development of Indian ‘‘Mosquito-fish”’
of the genera Aplocheilus McClelland and Oryzias Jordan and Snyder’. Ree.
Ind. Mus., xlii, pp. 51-79, (1940).
Prashad, B. and Hora, S. L.—A General Review of the Probable Larvi-
vorous Fishes of India’. Rec. Mal. Surv. Ind., vi, pp. 631-648, (1936).
Willey, A.—‘Observations on the Nest, Eggs and larvae of Ophiocephalus
striatus’. Spolia Zeylanica, vi, pp. 108-122, (1910).
S. JONES, M.Sc.,
Travancore Central Research Institute, Trivandrum.
July 1940. T. JOB, M.Sc.
Lady Tata Memorial Research Scholar, Calcutta.
XX.—BUTTERFLIES ATTRACTED BY MOIST EARTH.
On page 646 of volume xli No. 3 of the Journal, Capt. W. C.
Carrot mentions coming across thousands of the butterfly Appzas
nero galba gathered on the sand near a stream. This peculiarity
of collecting together in large numbers and sitting on damp spots
and sucking up the moisture is a common occurrence with certain
families of butterflies, though not of all species of some families.
Troides, Tros, Chilasa, Papilio, Pathysa, Zetides,. Paranticopsis,
Appias and Huphina amongst others very commonly have this
habit. But what is interesting about this habit is the reason for
it. Why do these butterflies collect and suck at the damp earth
in this way? The places at which they congregate are extremely
local and cover a definite area small or large as the case may be,
1 For further related literature such as Moody (1939), Stoye (1935), Mellen
and Lanier (1935), Fraser (1938) and Innes (1939), see Job, 1940.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 307
beyond which few if any butterflies will be seen sampling the
moisture, although the earth or sand has the same appearance as
the area on which they are sitting—at least this has been my
experience. Moreover day after day butterflies will be found: on
the same spot but not on others adjacent to it, which have identi-
cally the same appearance. Has it ever been investigated what
it is in the moisture which attracts particularly butterflies and not
other insects, such as flies? I am not speaking of areas where
there has been carrion or other dirt but merely plain damp areas
in earth or sand. Have samples of the earth where butterflies
settle in such hundreds at times ever been analysed to find out if
there is any component in these patches which is not found in
adjacent areas? Is there some organic substance in the earth
which is particularly to their liking or is it some inorganic
chemical? Do butterflies visit these spots in the same way that
animals visit a salt lick? Furthermore it is only the males so far
as I know which behave in this way. I have frequently experi-
mented on a small patch by quietly placing my net over all the
butterflies on it and killing them all and then watching the behaviour
of other passing butterflies. It was quite apparent that these
areas gave off some sort of scent for butterflies, particularly
of the genus Pathysa, invariably exhibited great excitement when
passing close to such a patch although there were no butterflies
on it to give any indication of its nature. ‘They would fly back- -
wards and forwards over it after suddenly checking in their flight
and finally they would settle—nearly always on the edge of the
patch and then flutter and hop with perhaps a short flight or two
towards the centre of the patch where they would start sucking
in earnest occasionally ejecting drops of moisture from their anal
extremities. Gradually more and more individuals would collect
until there were as many as before. Another point is that I have
seldom, if ever, seen these patches at heights above 3,500 feet
where butterflies collect in such profusion as they do at lower
elevations, particularly in the hot valleys at the foot of the hills.
Perhaps somebody has taken the trouble to investigate this
matter more closely and has come to some definite conclusions.
If so it would be very interesting to hear of them from other
readers.
Kopjr VILLA, R. E. PARSONS, F.R.E.s.,
AUKLAND Roan, Indian Police.
DARJEELING,
BENGAL,
July 15, 1940.
XXIL—ON THE LARVA OF THE MOTH (CIRCULA
TRIPERESTRATA) AND THE DESTRUCTION OF THE
COCOONS BY TREE SHREWS.
On looking through my notes I have come across the following
occurrence, which is perhaps worth recording :—
One of the most common larvae to be found in and near Gauhati,
Kamrup District, Assam, is that of the moth Circula triperestrata
208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit
Helfer; where it swarms at times on mango and one or two other
trees and shrubs. I have noted two broods in the year; but there
are possibly three. The last brood which spins up in about
September passes the winter in the pupa and the moths emerge
the following May or late April. The moth is seldom seen, al-
though I have found the cocoons a the score and larvae by the
hundred.
_ One morning I was watching a small squirrel-like animal
hunting industriously among the leaves of a clump. of orchids on
a tree in our garden there. It seemed to be finding something
very much to its relish and frequently sat up chewing and cracking
something which looked like a nut. I investigated and found. that
the clump of orchids and the leaves of the tree contained numerous
cocoons of the moth mentioned, on which the animal had been
having a fine feed; first eating a hole through the silk cocoon
and then pulling out the pupa which was chewed up in exactly
the same way as a squirrel eats a nut. I later shot one of these
animals, which were very common, and the. Society very kindly
identified it asa. Tree. shrew, Tupaia belangeri. These animals
must, in my opinion, unless kept off, cause considerable damage
to the larvae of the Muga Silk Moth which are reared on trees
in various parts of the District. They also dispose of any cocoons
of the Muga which are accidentally left on the trees and I have
frequently found empty cocoons of this moth in the Muga
‘orchards’ with the usual hole in the side. Such cocoons are use-
less for reeling of course.
Incidentally I sent some triperestrata cocoons to an expert who
informed me they were useless for reeling .purposes being too
coarse. The local name of triperestrata in Kamrup is ‘Amlodie’,
so I was told. an
Kopyr VILta, R. E. PARSONS, F.R.E-S.,
AUKLAND Roapb, — Indian Police.
DARJEELING, bie
BENGAL,
June 23, 1940.
XXII.—LAGERSTROEMIA INDICA AS A FOOD PLANT
OF THE SILK MOTH (ACTIAS SELENE), ;
I have recently been reminded that some years ago while |
was at Sardah, in the Rajshahi District of Bengal, I obtained a
female specimen of that beautiful, large, pale green, tailed Saturnid
Moth (Actias selene Hub.), from which I got about fifty eggs. At
the time I did not know what was the most usual food plant of
this species and so tried various shrubs and plants from the garden
without success until I gave the newly hatched larvae a sprig of
that common garden flowering shrub Lagerstroemia indica Linn.
They immediately began to eat it, and I successfully reared about
a dozen to the moth stage. The only thing I noticed was that the
perfect insects were somewhat smaller than they should have been,
ites
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 309
Perhaps this note may be of use to some of your readers who may
be placed in the same position as I was of not knowing what to
feed the larvae of this species on. The shrub mentioned is of
course exceedingly common in gardens on the plains of Bengal
-and Assam where it is cultivated for its flowers: A number of
the larvae had died of starvation before I gave them the Lager-
stroemia.
Kopjt ViLLa, Rey iP RS ONS. FIRIE.S-;
AUKLAND ROAD, Indian Police.
DARJEELING, ‘
BENGAL,
July 8, i940.
XXIII.—THE WEEPING WILLOW (SALIX BABYLONICA)
AS A FOOD PLANT OF THE MOTH (LOEPA KATINKA
WESTW). %
Many thanks for vour letter dated the gth July 1940 regarding
my enquiry about the food plants of the Moth Loepa katinka
Westw. I had found in Seitz that the food plants of this species
were stated to belong to the genera Cissus and Leea and that the
larvae would probably also feed on vine. Cissus and Leea are
not available in Darjeeling; I obtained some vine, but they did
not appreciate it and only nibbed the edges of the leaves. They
began to die fairly soon and before your letter arrived mentioning
the food plants of Loepa newara Moore, as Caesalpinia nuga
Aitk., Salix babylonica and Acer Campbelli. The first named is
not available here, so far as I was able to find out. Acer Campbelli
is very common, but the larvae of Katinka would not touch it
even. I then tried weeping willow which is Salix babylonica, I
understand, and they, or rather the remaining 19 larvae, are feeding
well on it. This may interest you as you state you have nothing
on record as to the life history and food plant of Katinka. I got
the eggs from a badly battered female which I found on a bush
here. She laid a fair number of fertile eggs.
Kopji VILLA, R. E. PARSONS, F.R.E£.s.,
AUKLAND Roap, Indian Police.
DARJEELING,
July Us. 1040,
XXIV:—THE WOOD-CUTTING WASP (SPHEX
EDAX BINGHAM), AND ITS PREY IN SALSETTE.
_ According to Bingham [Fauna British India (Hymenoptera)
vol. i (1897) p. 251] Sphex edax has been recorded from ‘Sikkim,
Tenasserim, Ceylon.’ This wasp is not uncommon.in the forested
areas of the Salsette Island. On 4th March (1940) I caught two
14
210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
excavating an old, fallen trunk of Zyziphus sp., and another was
seen on the same trunk. On the 14th April another was caught
working on an old trunk. Again on the 12th May I saw one
excavating a rotting piece of the trunk of Erythrina stricta. All
these records were made in the Tulsi Lake area. |
S. edax is an extremely active insect and moves about with
rapid jerky movements. Its presence in a log is soon noticed by
the heap of newly excavated, coarse, wood-dust. On breaking up
the Erythrina log I noticed that there were several tunnels, some
old, some new. The tunnels generally run in the direction of the
grain of the wood, and may be several inches deep by about a
little more than half an inch wide. When the tunnel is complete the
provender for the future young is deposited at the far end and then
the cavity is plugged with wood-dust for a distance of two to three
inches. The wood-dust is packed tight. At the end of one of
the tunnels I found five or six black, flightless cockroaches,
'Perisphaeria sp. The cockroaches were alive, but in a_ stupefied
condition. It is well known that some members of the Sphegidae
collect Orthoptera for storing in their homes.
In life, the general colour is shining black, except for the
abdominal segments which are bright red; but in the preserved
state the bright red fades to dull-red or red-brown. The wing's
are an irridescent blue-black, somewhat like those of a scolid.
BomBAy NATURAL HiIstToRY SOCIETY, Cy McCANINe
BOMBAY,
May 13, 1940.
XXV.i LARVA, OF THEREDRA LVGETLUS, CR. PARAS
TIZED BY TACHINID FLIES.
On the 14th July (1940) while scouting round for entomological
specimens in the jungles just off the road between Bapsai and
Murbad, Mr. J. Alfrey spotted a large larva of Theretra lycetus
Cr. feeding on a species of Leea (Vitaceae). As the larva appeared
quite healthy we brought it home in the hope of getting the moth.
I kept it in a case. The next day the caterpillar left the leaves
and moved round as though looking for a place to pupate. On
the 16th it changed colour from green to brown and lay in a
corner—pupation seemed inevitable. On the 17th morning I found
the caterpillar dead in the centre of the cage. It appeared rotten
as it had burst and was liquefying. Inside the body was a heaving
mass of several fly maggots. On the 19th no trace of the maggots
was to be seen; only the skin of the caterpillar remained lying
on a damp patch of earth. On the 29th three flies appeared in
1 1 am indebted to Dr. Baini Prashad for the identification.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 314
the morning and another in the afternoon. The next day a fifth
fly had emerged. On the rst August as there was no addition
to the flies I opened the case, after killing the flies, and examined
the earth under the caterpillar. The pupal cases of the flies could
be clearly seen just where the skin of the host was lying, The
mud had become a compact mass—as a result of the putrefying
liquids filtering into it, and in this were buried the pupal cases of
the flies with the tops just showing at the surface. A single pupa
which was apparently dead was also found which brought the
total number of flies to six. These observations give the pupal
life of the flies as approximately ten days.
Bompay NaturaL History Society, C. McCANN.
BOMBAY,
August 1, 1940.
XXVIL—MARCH LEPIDOPTERA AT GOPALPUR
(DIST. GANJAM).
The following is a list of species taken in the course of a month’s
very superficial collecting in March 1940. The list is obviously
far from complete and most of the species recorded were taken in
the Casuarina jungle surrounding the Yatton Hall Hotel. The
Heterocera recorded as being taken at light were caught in the
Hotel itself.
RHOPALOCERA.
Polydorus hector L.—About the commonest butterfly. Also
larvae.
Polydorus aristolochiae F., avistolochiae—Common. Also
larvae.
Papilio paris L., paris—Common.
Papilio polytes L., romulus Cr.—Uncommon.
Papilio demoleus L., demoleus—Uncommon.
Delius eucharis Drury—Uncommon.
Cepora nerissa F., phryne F.—Common.
Anapheis aurota F., aurota—Common.
Catopsilia pomona F,,—Common. Also f. bidotata Fruhs.
Danais plexippus L.—Common.
Danais chrysippus L.—Not uncommon.
Euploea core Cr., core—Very common.
Melanitis leda L., ismene Cr.—One specimen.
Euthalia garuda Moore, anagama Fruhs.—Common.
Hypolimnas misippus L.—Common. —
Hypolimnas bolina L.-—Common.
Precis orithya L., swinhoei Btlr.—Uncommon.
Precis lemonias L., vaisya Fruhs.—Not uncommon.
Atella phalanta Drury—Not uncommon. Also larvae.
Ergolis merione Cr., tapestrina Moore—Not uncommon.
Telchinia violae F.—Very common.
12 jfOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIS?. SOCIETY, Vol) xan
Cosmolyce boeticus L.—Very common.
_ Spindasis ictis Hew., ictis—Common.
HETEROCERA.
Ocinara varians Wlik.—One specimen.
Cephonodes hylas L., hylas—Common. Also larvae, mostly
a dark form. |
Macroglossum gyrans Wlk.—Larvae not uncommon.
Lymantria ampla Wlk.—Dead pupae common, and one larva
on Casuarina.
Porthesia scintillans W1ik.—One larva..
Perina nuda F.—One female at light.
f young larvae.
Philagria entella Cr.—One male at light.
Agrotis spinifera Hbn.—At light, not common. | -
Sideridis percussa Btlr.—At light, not common.
Prodenia litura F.—At light, not uncommon.
Spodoptera mauritia .Bsd.—-At light, not uncommon.
Schoenobius bipunctifer Wik.—At light, not uncommon.
Sameodes cancellalis Zell.—At light, uncommon.
CALCUTTA, D. G.. SEVASTOPULO, fF: REVS:
‘August 3, 1940.
XXVIL—SOME INSECTS FROM A MANGO TRUNK
(MANGIFERA INDICA 1..).
Just outside my compound wall at Andheri, Salsette Island,
there is a mango tree which showed signs of withering.’ On
inspecting it I found that the trunk and branches were riddled with
holes, evidently the work of Batocera rubus L. On one of the
branches was a lively nest of the Brow Tree-Ant (Cremastogaster
voxenhoferi Mayr.) not far from the original seat of attack. The
ants were constantly moving about, and a Bloodsucker (Cdlotes
versicolor | Daud.]|} sat on the stem daily and ‘lapped’ them up as
they passed near. Closer examination of the trunk revealed that
the bark had split in several places. The underside of the bark
had been destroyed and the space was packed tight with excreta
and wood shavings. The bark was quite lose and came away
easily, leaving much of the ‘packing’ in situ. In several places
under the bark the ants had established themselves. In some of
the large holes I found Elaterid beetles (Agrypnus sp.) resting on
their head as though they had fallen dead and had slipped down
towards the entrance, but they were quite alive—waiting coh night-
fall to take off.
Under the bark I found five pairs of the Brenthid beetle,
* The tree has since died.
i
~ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 213
Orychodes sp. These beetles were always in couples. Besides the
Brenthids there was a single specimen of a Cucujid beetle, Hectar-
thrum heros F. (?), and “several small larvae and pupae of other
Coleoptera which I cannot place. On opening the bark, the ants
immediately took possession of all other insects, but I soon de-
prived them of many of their spoils. In the packing of excreta
there were numerous Book-Scorpions, Chelifer sp., in various
stages of development, but these were more frequent where the
refuse was damp. In spite of the presence of ants, life goes
merrily on under the bark.
In volume. xli, p. 678 of the Journal I recorded the presence
of Book- Scorpions under the wings of Batocera rubus. At the
time (November-December) several specimens invaded the house
at night, being attracted by the lights. Later in March, the
Brenthids came in, but sporadically; and yet later the Elaterids
appeared from time to time in rather unusual numbers. As _ the
drying mango is about forty feet from the verandah, it is evidently
the home of the insect invaders. |
Of these insects Batocera is known to attack mango trunks; the
food of the Click-beetle appears to be uncertain; the Brenthids
seem another unknown quantity as regards their diet, though it
is presumed they are wood-boring: the Cucujid is a carnivorous
beetle and feeds on other insects and larvae.
BomBay NaAturRAL History SOcIrety, C. McCANN.
BoMBAyY,
May -12, 1940.
XXVHI.—INSECTS AT A STREET LAMP AT ANDHERI.
The desire to predict an event is common to most people, but
how often do our calculations turn out as predicted? During the
sweltering heat of the hot weather there are many prophets abroad
anxious to forecast the break of the rains—even the Press indulges
in a bit of fortune-telling! For the past weeks speculation had
run high, but Nature pays little heed to mere human calculations,
it generally upsets them, and so it was with the break of the rains
in to4o. Heavy rain fell on the 3rd June. Some people insisted
that the monsoon had burst, others held that it was just a storm.
In fact, weather conditions were rather abnormal this year. Animal
life is greatly dependent on weather conditions and accordingly in
abnormal years animals also behave ‘abnormally’. The fact was
betrayed by the arrival of certain insects out of season; for example,
certain Cantharids, which are abundant in August and September
in Salsette, arrived in the latter part of April—much before their
usual time. Turning to the ornithological field, a pair of Dhayals
_[Copsychus saularis (Linn.)| had brought up a family in a dead
Date Palm, by the end of May. The young were on the wing—
rather early for these birds in this area. Also, in the botanical field,
an Aroid (Amorphophallus commutatus Engler) had miscalculated
too. It came into full bloom before the end of May, before any rain
214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
had fallen. This species usually blooms only soon after the first
showers arrive. Nature seemed upset! Heavy rain continued
to fall for a couple of days and all Nature responded to the climatic
change.
The sky on the night of the 5th was almost cloudless, the ground
was sodden and the temperature sticky. Millions of insects had
waited for the rains to be released from their pupal stages, and
take to wing on perhaps, life’s last mission to reproduce or die as
food for others. It was an exhibition of the struggle for existence.
This struggle is, perhaps, never keener at any other time of the
year than at the break of the monsoon. Life at this time is just
one enormous ‘tidal wave’. I took my stand under a street lamp
at Andheri—a naturalist on the prowl, complete with net and sundry
killing bottles.
The ground around the lamp post was teaming with large,
winged ants. They had just emerged from the ground and gathered
round in clusters, bidding farewell to their late home and taking
leave of their ‘nurses’-—it was time for the marriage flights—the
last flight for them all, some to fall victims to their fate, others,
but few, to start a new colony. Away from their birth place they
were now to brave the dangers of a new adventure. The lamp
had attracted thousands of other winged ants, and conspicuous
among them were Camponotus and Cremastogaster. The presence
of the new arrivals did not seem to worry the groups on the ground ;
none were in a fighting mood, though at any other time the ants
would never have tolerated such familiarity. The flying termites
had appeared earlier in the evening, and by 9 p.m. were no longer
around the lamp.
The air around was alive with insect forms, so numerous that
frequent collisions brought many to the ground dazed. Small
moths were in plenty, and a few large Euproctidae, all vainly
trying to reach the burning filament. The magnetism of the light
held them. Doom awaited most of them. Now and again a
cricket would kick itself into the air, take to wing for a while
and then fall clumsily to earth, to kick off once more when disturbed
by another insect. The whir of thousands of small wings, the
constant metallic click from the lamp shade and the dull sound of
a fall to the ground, were from time to time interrupted by the
deep drone from the wings of some large coleopter. The zooming
noise was soon followed by a crash against the light or the post,
then a thud which announced that the beetle had landed on its
back, and finally a shuffling sound as it made frantic efforts to
right itself. Success meant a new assault on the bewildering light.
All these sounds betrayed the arrival of one of the largest of the
Longicorns, Acanthophous serraticornis Ol., quite a formidable
name for a formidable looking beetle with large punishing jaws.
A suitable hold on the back soon puts its ‘armaments’ out of action,
Before I decided to retire I had secured sixteen fine specimens—
five others had been crushed by passing vehicles. This was an
exceptional flight, for, in all the years I have been at Andheri,
I have never known this species to appear in such numbers. Sub-
sequent enquiry showed that the flight was rather general,. for
i}
to
—
or
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES
the longicorns had been seen by many other’ people in
Andheri.
At times wayfarers stopped and took stock of me, perhaps
wondering what on earth the ‘sahib’ was doing at that hour of
the night under the light, covered with insects, and armed with a
butterfly net and several bottles. They watched me, and when
they saw me make a dash for this or that insect and quickly consign
it to one of the bottles, they were satisfied, though curious as
to what would be the fate of the insects—were they eatable or
medicinal? Any way they evidently doubted my sanity and moved
off commenting. They were villagers and did not understand.
Motorists hooted at me as I hastened across the road to retrieve
a specimen; heads popped out to have a look—the general con-
sensus of opinion must have been-—a iunatic at large! It was
not the first time that my identity and intentions have been mistaken.
When following natural history pursuits, I have been often pitied
as’a case more suitable for a mental asylum! A naturalist must
be prepared for such comments from the uninitiated, but let me
return to my lamp and its fauna.
Insects spell food for many animals, so I soon discovered that
I was not the only watcher under the light. The recent rain had
deluded the Bull Frog (Rana tigrina Daud.) from its retreat.
They had come up to breed, but the rain was insufficient for
breeding purposes, so they hopped about the countryside in a vain
search for puddles. The chorus of their sonorous voices lifted in
‘prayer’ for more rain, was in vain. Some of them were in their
wedding garb of yellow, but not as bright as it should be—a dirtv
greenish yellow. Though not quite intent on food at this time,
they still ‘lapped’ up an insect here and there. Some of the un-
fortunates had been run over by cars—an enemy Nature had not
counted on-—and were now just ‘grease spots’ or mangled forms.
On the lamp-post were a couple of geckoes (Hemidactylus flavi-
viridis Rippel). They had soon eaten their fill and now looked
longingly at the insects they could not eat. What would they
have not given for a more elastic stomach! At last, tired of
looking on at the feast before them, and the constant rain of
falling insects on their bodies, they decided to move off. The
ground was alive with spiders, large and small, preying on the
insects as they fell. Among the spiders was a single Mygale.
The spiders too were constantly disturbed by the rain of insects,
which made them retire to suck their meal in peace. Sneaking
along the edge of the drain was a shrew (Suncus sp.) with its
long snout vibrating like the free end of an agitated spring, seek-
ing this or that ‘dainty’, Now and again it would make short
sallies into the arena, seize an insect and retreat to make a meal
of it, only to return for another. A little way off a gentle crack-
ling noise drew my attention, so I switched on my torch to discover
a Bandicoot (Bandicota malabarica Shaw) gnawing at a_ big
Longicorn (Batocera rubus L.) The bandicoots lurked in the
shadows, and seldom came into the light. Several centipedes
(Scolopendra sp.) moved about in the throng of insects in the drain
taking toll here and there. There were numerous carabid beetles
até JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XE
(Pheropsophus catcirei Dej.) hurriedly seizing their prey and retir-
ing immediately to deal with it. How many other insect feeders
were lurking around, is difficult to imagine. Some bats occasion-
ally visited the light, but there was evidently enough food in the
air without hovering round lamps.
Flying ants seemed to predominate. Beetles, perhaps came
next in numerical order, most of which were minute. Of the less
minute forms the cockchaters (Melolonthidae) were there in their
hundreds. The Carabidae were well represented particularly by a
black species commonly found under stones. A straggler among
the Coleoptera was a Rhinoceros Beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros L.),
but its life was short for a passing car reduced it to a ‘flat skin’.
The moths were well represented by a large number of Muicrole-
pidoptera. Among the larger forms were specimens of Euproctis
sp. and a few of the peculiar family Hepialidae, moths with long
heavy bodies and clumsy flight (Phassus sp.). The Orthoptera,
grasshoppers and Grillids, were fairly plentiful. The mole Cricket
(Gryllotalpa sp.) a member of the ‘under world’, also hung around. —
The Rhynchota, or garden bugs and members of the Homoptera,
mostly minute, were present in goodly numbers. A curious point
about the Cotton Bug (Dysdercus cingulatus Fab.) is that though
during the day thousands are about in the neighbourhood, very
few were attracted by the light.
Near midnight I decided to retire; so I collected my belongings
and went to bed after ridding myself of as many insects as I could.
Next morning I visited the scene of the previous night, but there
was nothing to betray the activity that had taken place. On
arrival at the office with my ‘bag’, the insect department foresaw
a busy day, there were over a hundred specimens to set. Of
course, I could have multiplied this figure an hundredfold, but it
would have meant much duplication.
It will not be out of place to compare the catch of this night
with that of the next. Except for a considerable reduction in
flying ants, most of the insects mentioned above were there.
There was a noted increase in the number of cockchafers and.
scarabs. Of Acanthophorus only one turned up. A pair of beetles
closely allied to Acanthophorus was also secured. They were
Macrotoma crenata Fabr. This was the first time I secured this
cerambycid in Salsette. Small mantids were occasional. As the
weather was drier the frogs seemed fewer in numbers. The shrew
was back accompanied by friends; the Bandicoot lurked in the
shadows.
- The ‘Dance of Life’ around a street light at the break of the
rains and for some time after is mingled with jubilation and
tragedy. Jubilation because it is the setting free of millions from
the pupal life, tragedy because the majority perish—they have
hardly begun life when it is snatched away from them.
bomBay NaTuRAL History Society, : C. McCANN.
BoMRBAY,
i /uwe: (7. -LQ40-
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 217
XXIX.—SOME INDIAN SPIDERS: THEIR SEASON OF
PROSPERITY.
As a class spiders occur throughout the year. There are,
however, certain periods when they are at the height of their
prosperity. Ecological experience reveals that, in India (especially
Western India) the best part of the year for spider collection is
during the few months following the rainy season. It is now
most of the families of spiders are active and industrious. The
scorching summer seems to be a time of distress to them. So
also the torrential rains dwindle their number to an appreciable
extent by washing away their delicate webs.
There are certain factors that favour the growth of spider
population during the period after rainy months and before intense
summer.
With a few exceptions spiders are in general moisture-loving
creatures. Many of them are arboreal and wholly dependent upon
plants for their abode. In India the real ‘spring’ season is soon
after the heavy rains. The vegetation is exuberant during August
and September. The increase in vegetation and the recession of
destructive rains afford ample facilities for these animals to con-
struct their webs among the plants and peacefully propagate their
species. Food also is in plenty during this season. Attracted by
the numerous wild flowers which appear now, insects like bees,
and flies come to the plants in large numbers and get easily
entrapped in the spiders’ webs.
The following are some of the common families of spiders which
prosper during the season referred to.
Among the arboreal groups of spiders the most important family
that flourishes during the months of September and October is that
of the Argyopideae. Attached to the boughs and branches of trees
the giant wood spiders (Nephila maculata) are busily engaged in
constructing their extensive snares. Along fences and thickets the
-beautiful Argyope thrives. Wherever there is vegetation the
garden spiders (Epeira diadema) are present in hundreds, very
active building their delicate webs. Walking along an _ open
country side, during evening time, a collector can see numerous
members of Argyroperians, Araneus, Tetragnatha and_ other
Argyopids: carrying on their web construction in full swing.
These spiders remain a feature of every country part throughout
the cold season. With the approah of summer, however, when
the atmosphere is no longer hygroscopic but dry and the annual
vegetative growths parched, the Argyopid community also dwindle
little by little and confine themselves to the ‘greens’ by the margins
of pools, tanks and rivers or other moist localities.
Oxyopideae, which generally live among grass and_ other
small plants, increase and decrease in population with the
growth of such plants after the rains and their drying away in
summer. During summer many Oxyopids shift themselves to the
watered fields of rice and other cultivation. A great number of
them is however destroyed during the summer harvest. May, June
and July are months of famine for them. Only with the onset of
218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
the following monsoon and the reappearance of grass in the lawns
do they revive.
Closely allied to the Oxyopids in their habits are the
Psechrids. They can be easily distinguished from the former by
their difference in shape, the extraordinary length of the anterior
two pairs of legs, and the absence of spines on the body. With
the increase of grass and other plant growths during monsoon
and after, these spiders also multiply and spend their days among
axils of leaves or spikes of grasses. They are extremely common
among the inflorescence of Cyperaceae and Amaranthaceae. Just
as the Oxyopids they also decrease in number with the withering
away of vegetation and resort to the scanty flora in damp localities
during summer. |
Of Sparassideae and Clubionideae, the former seems to have
more liking for moist conditions than the latter. Sparassids like
Palystes and Sparassus are very fond of broad and_ succulent
leaves for the construction of their patch like webs. During the —
monsoon, and prior to the advance of sultry weather and the conse-
quent dwindling down of wild plants, they thrive in large numbers
everywhere. In summer, however, there is marked decrease in
their number, and they are only found on the leaves of watered
garden plants like Cucurbita, Water-melons, Plantain suckers, etc.
The Clubionids also present seasonal variation and the members
found in the monsoon time are healthier and larger than the summer
brood. From the fact that many Clubionids reside among green
leaves there is reason to believe that they have a liking for moisture.
Herseliids also seem to thrive better under moist conditions rather
than in the height of summer. During the months of August and
September we find plenty of them on the bark of trees—trees with
fissured bark like Pithecolobium saman, mango trees, etc. During
the hot season their number shows a definite reduction. There
are however certain species which are found on old dry walls and
which thrive equally well both in summer and in winter.
Pholcids, tender, long-legged spiders found in the roofs and
rafters of old houses do not seem to be affected by seasonal vari-
ation.
~ Many Attids or jumping spiders also prosper unaffected bv
change of season; but those species which hunt among vegetation
are affected in a similar way as the Oxyopids and Psechrids.
With a few exceptions the entire group of Lycosids require
moisture for thriving. Shortly after the rains they are abundant -
among the low-lying, water-logged parts of any compound. They
always like cool places and therefore they distribute themselves
in damp and moist localities, beside water, among putrefying dead
leaves and rubbish on open grounds, under stones and in damp
soil.. In moist fields, laid fallow, their number .is enormous.
During winter mornings, thousands of their patch webs can be seen
on open lawns, and the members themselves running here and
there with great agility. With the advent of summer they diminish in
prosperity and get confined to moist areas beside fields and
pools. :
Eresids seem to be common during winter and summer alike.
MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 219
The webs of the Indian colonial Eresids—Stegodyphus—are found
to remain intact for more than two years and the members are
active throughout the period.
Although spiders, as a group, are described as_ ubiquitous,
Nature has her own influence upon their community. Spiders
withstand climatic and seasonal variations to a greater extent than
many other lower animals. They persist through Spring, Summer,
Autumn and Winter; but it needs be mentioned that moist condi-
tions are preferred by most of them.
More careful and perseverant field work will surely reveal more
facts about the ‘life of spiders’. The ‘breeding time’ of spiders is
also an interesting subject for further exploration.
Bompay, tT. V2 SUBRAHMANY AM.
September 13, 1940.
XXX.—THEFT OF A WATCH BY A FIDDLER CRAB.
This is a story told by an Ajman Badawin to Lt.-Col. H. R. P.
Dickson on 25-6-40 of the wonderful tracking powers of all mem-
bers of the Murra tribe, and in the presence of one Muhammad
al Murri.
‘Muhammad al Murri, before he came along to the K. O. C.
guards hut at Burgan, had been staying with Sheikh Sabah al
Nasir as subah at his camp at Mungaf near the sea shore. One
day Sheikh Sabah’s motor driver complained that his wrist watch
had been stolen from him while he was having a bathe. He
explained how that the tide was going out when he went down,
and he undressed and put his clothes on the sand and his wrist
watch with them, and went into the sea. He had not noticed
anyone come aiong the shore although he had not paid much
attention. When he came out and got dressed he found his watch
had completely disappeared and there was no sign of it anywhere.
Muhammad al Murri was present in the tent and heard the
story. The driver did not ask him to find it for him or say any-
thing to him.
Shortly afterwards, the Murri, being rather interested, walked
down to the shore. The tide was now lower, but quite easily
he found the place where the clothes had been put on the sand,
and around which, and to and from it, down to the water were
the driver’s foot marks. After wandering about for a_ bit he
could see no trace of any other human being having been near,
the only marks there were, were those of crabs which had been
running about on the sand along the shore. One track which
he noticed, came towards where the clothes had lain, but he did
not think anything of this, and came to the conclusion that the
driver was a liar, and had himself lost his watch on some previous
occasion. The Murri then returned to camp.
Next morning however, he again went down to the same spot.
This time the tide was high, and all marks had gone. He sat
220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FRIST. SOCIET Vol xi
down near the shore and waited till the tide went out a bit, and
until one by one the crabs came out of their holes and began to
run around on the sand. (I might add here that these are rather
small crabs with one claw much larger than the other, and they
each build a sand tower just on one side of their hole.)
The Murri then walked down towards them, and they all dis-
appeared rapidly into their holes. After looking at their tracks
for a bit, he suddenly recognized from among them all, the track
of the one which he had seen the previous day in the vicinity of
the spot where the driver’s clothes lay. He followed it carefully
for about 1oo yards to its hole. He then began to dig, and sure
enough, down its hole he found the wrist watch.’ |
This I know is a true story. The point of the story is, that to
any ordinary individual all crab tracks would appear the same.
Yet the Murri had been able to distinguish the track of a particular
crab which he had seen the previous day, from among many
dozens of others.
Since this happened, Muhammad al Murri was sent for by
the Military Governor of Kuwait, Sheikh Ali al Khalifa, to discover
the thief in a robbery case. This case is still in progress, but the
foot-prints in the sand round the tent were identified by him. It
will be interesting to see if he is correct. :
Note.—The Murra tribe is famous all over Arabia for their
wonderful tracking lore. They inhabit the northern edge of the
Rub’—al Khali.
Kuwait, PERSIAN GULF, VIOLET, DICKSON:
july ©, 1940.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING
OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,
The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held at the
iter. ©. I, Lecture Hall, Electric House on Thursday the 18th
April 1940 at 6-15 p.m.; Rt. Revd. R, D. Acland, M.a., presiding.
AGENDA.
1. Reading of the Annual Report of the Committee.
2. Presentation of the Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts for the
past year.
3. Election of the Committee.
The Honorary Secretary announced the election of 33 new members since
the last meeting held on 18th April 1939 :— .
Mrs. Camar Tyabji, Bombay; His Highness the Marawat Sir Ram Singhji
Bahadur, K.C,S.I., -Partabgarh State; Mr. M. Zinkin, I.c:s., Sholapur; H. H.
the Maharaja Jagaddependra Narayan Bhup Bahadur, Cooch Bahadur; Maha-
raja Pateshwari Prasad Singh of Balrampur, District Gonda, Oudh; Mr. C. G.
Baron, Shillong; Mr. N. D’O. Finnis, Quetta; Mrs. C. M. Van Allen, Bombay ;
Mis EH. E. Ormerod, Bombay; Mr. J.-. Lockhart; Bombay; Mr. A. G.
Sandeman, Meerut; Mr. J. S. Anderson, Bombay; Major Allen Block,
Allahahad; Mr. Q. F. Rahman, 1.s.e., Moradabad; Mr. B. IL. Rawat, M.sc.,
Ph.p., Ajmer; Mr. V. M. Vasu, Porbander; Mr. M. St. J. Kelly, Lohardagar,
ip ky; Mr. 6. W2 Budd, 1.c.s.; Mirpurkhas;- Mr. .E. €C,.. Cameron,
Nilgiris; Mr. B. IF. Patuck,- Bombay; Mrs. M. D. Wright, Amraoti;
Mr. D. Nilsson, Bombay; Mr. T. J. Phillips, Waziristan; Major F. H. W.
Ross-Lewin, Bombay; Major W. L. D. Veitch, R.£., Roorkee; Mr. John
Leslie, Calcutta; Mr. F. Potter, Bombay; His Excellency Sir Maurice
Hallett, K.¢.s.1., C.I.E., I.c.s., United Provinces; His Excellency the Governor
of Bengal; Major J. M. Bruce-Steer, Bombay; Capt. Jafferali Khan G. Agha,
Dharwar; His Excellency the Governor of Madras; Major R. C. Nicholas,
Poona.
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
Orrice BEARERS——1G40.
The following gentlemen were elected to serve on the Managing Committce
for the ensuing year :—
President.—H. E. Sir Roger Lumley, G.C.1.E., D.L.
Vice-Presidents.—H. H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.c.s.1., ¢.c.1.£.; Rev. Fr.
feeeke Caius. + S.J., -F-L.S-,; atid. Rt., Revd. R..-D. Acland; .a.
Executive Committee—Mr. Salim A. Ali, Mr. Farrokh FE. Bharucha,
Mi Ay Eorrington, Mr. J.B. Greaves; M.t.a.; Mr.’ M. J: Hackney, Mr. R. E.
Hawkins, Mr. D. G. Hill, Dr. M; Shariff;: ».sc.,. ph.p., F.u.s.; Lt.-Col. W. C.
Spackman, 1.M.S..;. Lt.-Col..5. S.. Sokhey, 1.m.s.; Mr. F. Wadia, and Mr. H. M.
McGusty (Hon. Secretary and Treasurer).
Advisory Committee—Dr.~- C. F. C. Beeson, ».sc., M.A., UF.S.; Lt.-Col.
ee Burton, wa,” (Retd\; Mr. CH. Donald, ¥.z.s.; Dr: F. H. Gravely,
cores: ME ©. M5? ringlissi{B.E.M.B.0.U.,; -F:z.S. 5’ Nir: Ri.) ©.. Mofris, F:R:G,S;,,
zs. , Major, E.G... Phythian Adams, ¥F:z:S., HA. (Retd.); Dr. Baini Prashad,
Wacom Vite Cs Psimitiy 1FS.5, Lt.-Col. C. G: Voogood, °c.1.E:,. p.S.0. :
Mr. J. H. Williams.
Srojf.—_5.. tt..Prater, M-L.A., J.P:, C.M-.Z.S. (Curator); and C. McCann, F.t.s.
(Assistant Curator).
The proceedings concluded with an interesting lecture by Mr. S. H. Prater
on ‘Camouflage in Nature and in War’. ay ry
222 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLU
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER 1930:
ADMINISTRATION.
President.—H. E. Sir Roger Lumley, G.c:r-E., p.1,
Vice-Presidents.—H. H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.c.s.1., G.c.1.E.; Rev.
Ir. J. &. Caius, s.3., F.L.S.;° Rt, Revd. R. D:-Acland, ea:
Executive Committee.-—Mr. Farrokh E. Bharucha, Mr. A. Forrington,
Mr. J. B. Greaves, M.t.a.; Mr. M. J. Hackney, Mr. R. E. Hawkins, Mr. D. G.
Hill, F.R:G:S., J.P.; Lt.-Col. W..C: Spackman, “1.mM.s:; Lt:-Col. S: 0S) Solshese
I.a.s.; Mr. F. Wadia, Mr. H. M. McGusty (Hon. Secretary and Treasurer),
Bombay.
Advisory Commiitee.—Dr. C. F. C. Beeson, D.Sc., M.a., LF.s., Dehra Dun;
I.t.-Col. (R..W. Burton, 1.a., (Retd.), Bangalore; Mr. ©. Hi Donald) f.z-ce
Dharamsala; Dr. F. H. Gravely, p.sc., Madras; Mr. C. M. Inglis, B.E., M.B.O.U.,
F.Z.S., Darjeeling; Mr. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., Coimbatore; Major E.G.
Phythian Adams, ¥F.z.s., 1.4., (Retd.), Nilgiriss; Dr. Bainti Prashad) pises
Calcutta; Mr. H. C. Smith, 1r:s., Maymyo; Lt.-Col. C. G. Toogood, c:1.5%
D.s.o., Fort Sandeman; Mr. J. H. Williams, Coimbatore.
Staff-—s. TH. Prater, M.L.A., J.P., €.M.Z.E., (Curator); C. MeCann, ¥.L.s.,.(Asae
Curator).
THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT
FOR THE YEAR 1930.
The Society’s Journal.—The Fortieth Volume of the Journal
was completed during the year and two numbers of Volume xii
were published.
MAMMALS.
Mr. Theodore Hubback contributed an interesting article on
the Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis).
His note, based mainly on personal observations, summarises what
is known about the habits of this rhinoceros, the terrain in which
it is found, its food, and the many legendary beliefs and superstitions
attaching to the species. Mr. Hubback’s paper is supplemented by
additional notes by Mr. S. H. Prater on the genera, species and races
of the Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros, as described by various
authors. He summarises the available data regarding the external
physical characters of the species and discusses the basis of the
various beliefs and legends recorded by Mr. Hubback. Of general
interest is the theory that traces the origin of the unicorn, from
which the rhinoceros inherited its fabled attributes, not to a four-
footed beast such as the oryx, or the wild ass but to Cerastes—the
Horned Viper, which figures prominently in Assyrian and Hebrew
Religion and Art, and which poetic fervour and imagination endowed
with wings, limbs and claws. If the poisonous viper gave origin to
the belief in the Unicorn—then the supposed efficacy of the horn
of the Unicorn, and of its successor the Rhinoceros—against poison
is associated with the ancient well-known belief that poison
counteracts poison; while the fabled power of a virgin over the
unicorn and the rhinoceros may be traceable to ‘the Woman’s
domination over the Serpent’ proclaimed in the Bible. These
wondrous attributes have passed from the Horned Viper to the
unicorn and from the unicorn to the rhinoceros.
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 293
Mr. Hubback’s article ends with a plea for the more rigid
protection of the rhinoceros, which is now on ‘the threshold of
extinction’. Its extermination must inevitably result from absence
of undisturbed conditions, which is now the case. A species, which
has survived from past geological epochs to our day, is finding itself
unable at last to withstand the intrusion of modern Man into its
domain. The only hope that remains of saving these animals from
extinction in Malaya and Burma, adds Mr. Hubback, is to constitute
inviolable sanctuaries in their own habitat, where a suitable en-
vironment is known to exist. An appropriate pendant to Mr.
Hubback’s comment is Mr. D’Arcy Weatherbe’s memorandum on
the Kahilu Sanctuary in Burma, which deals with the reports of
the survival of the rarest of all Rhinoceros——-the Lesser One-horned
Rhinoceros (Rk. sondaicus) within its limits. In 1929 a fragment of
a skull and in 1933 a complete skull, both of which undoubtedly
belong to this species, were obtained in this area and presented to
the Society. Mr. Weatherbe shows that genuine evidence is lack-
ing of the continued existence of this rare rhinoceros in the sanc-
tuary. Further, he makes clear that terms and conditions under
which this sanctuary has been established render ineffective what
might otherwise have been a permanent and valuable refuge for
wild life. In the present temper of the legislatures the possibility of
enacting suitable legislation for the establishment of inviolable Sanc-
tuaries appears remote. Nevertheless such sanctuaries are a
sine qua non and the present half measures introduced by Govern-
ment will do little to achieve their purpose. An offset to this sorry
position is the record of the work of the Nilgiri Game Association—
1879-1939 by Major E. G. Phythian Adams. The Association is
to be congratulated upon its achievements during the 60 years of
its being. The result of its activities show what can be done by.
private effort, when proper official backing is forthcoming.
Sambhar and chital in the areas controlled by the Association have
not only maintained their numbers but have very appreciably in-
creased, while the Nilgiri Tahr, reduced to a bare dozen when the
Association was formed, now exceed 500 head. Starting with a
fauna, in the case of some species, on the verge of extermination,
the Association has by careful control built up as fine a stock of
game as is to be found anywhere in India. The recent action of the
Madras Government asking this Association to surrender half the
shooting and fishing fees, is therefore all the more to be deplored
and, if insisted on, will impair considerably the Association’s efforts
and reduce to impotence what is perhaps the most successful
organization of its kind in the East. It is hoped that wiser
counsels will prevail, and that the Association will continue to
receive in full, the support which it deserves.
BIRDS.
Among the many notes and articles on Indian Birds is Mr.
Salim Ali’s Report on the Birds of Central India which is based
on surveys carried out in the Central Indian States of Bhopal,
Gwalior, Indore and Dhar. The financial grants generously proffered
994° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST) SOCIDTY, Vols um
by the Governments of the States concerned have made this valuable
work possible. The area covered by the survey had not been
systematically studied previously. While no fresh discoveries were
expected, the material collected provides useful data for determining
the racial status and distribution of species in correlation with parallel
data obtained in surveys carried out in other provinces of India.
Mr. Ali has done his work with his usual efficiency and thorough-
ness. We have once again to thank Mr. Whistler for his work on
the material obtained. We should like to take this opportunity to
express our sorrow and our sympathy with Mr. Ali on his recent
loss. The death of his wife has removed from his side a comrade
who shared in his work, braving the discomforts that attended
it, to give him her help, care and companionship.
Central Indian bird life features again in Mr. C. E. Hewitson’s
‘Bird Year in Betul’ which presents a picture of the bird life of the
district from month to month and provides a model which other
students of local faunas might well follow.
With the publication of Part VI, the serial by Messrs. Salim
Ali and Humayun Abdulali on the Birds of Bombay and. Salsette
is concluded. The work has been’ generally commended. It
provides students and laymen not only with an up-to-date working
list, but with a readable and interesting account of the. local bird
life, deriving much of its merit from well written descriptions of
the breeding and general habits of the species. As previously
indicated, it is intended to publish the serial in pamphlet form in
conjunction with other pamphlets on the fauna of Bombay and
Salsette, issued by the Natural History Section of the Prince of
Wales Museum.
Mr. C. McCann’s paper on the Blamineos based on observations
made during an expedition to the Rann of Cutch is an original and
interesting study of the habits of this species. One interesting
fact revealed is that the existence of the breeding colony depends
upon the brief outburst of a brackish water plant (Ruppia
vostellata) in the Rann, which is initiated by the flooding of the
area by rivers from the mainland, the seeds providing the food
for the young. Another interesting discovery is the early deserting
of the young by the majority of parent birds; the guardianship
of the chicks being left to a few adults who act as ‘sentries’ and,
finally, the march of the chicks across the desert in the wake of the
receding water—a tragic retreat in which hundreds perish. Where
exactly these chicks go to on leaving the Rann and their subse-
quent history still remains to be discovered. It would also be
interesting to study specimens of these birds at a stage exhibiting.
the passage from the brown juvenile plumage to the adult white
and crimson. The question, as to whether the pink plumage 1S
attained by moult or canescence requires further study in the field.
REPTILES AND FISHEs.
Dr. Hora continued his serial on the Game Fishes of India.
Parts VI, VII and VIII were published during the year. Parts
VI and VII describe two Fresh Water Sharks—the Goonch
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 225
(Bangurius bungarius), which has the best title to the name, and
the Mulley, Wallago—now Weallagonia attu. § In Part VIII, Dr.
Hora deals with the mahseers or large-scaled barbels of India.
How many different species now go under the name Barbus tor—
the Mahseer, we do not know. Dr. Hora’s study is an attempt to
answer this question and his present paper deals with the mahseer
found in the Himalayan Streams—from Kashmir to Darjeeling.
To this fish he gives Hamilton’s specific name Barbus putitora,
Subsequent parts will deal with Mahseer from other areas in India
and will, it is hoped, provide a clearer idea of true status of the
various fishes now generally confused under the name Barbus tor.
Mahseer—trom the standpoint of their breeding habits—form
the subject of a paper by Dr, Hamid Khan. His study of the sex
organs of specimens examined by him leads to the conclusion that
Mahseer spawn three times a year and that all the eggs in the
ovaries are discharged at each spawning season. The author’s
interesting investigations help to emphasize the need of Dr. Hora’s
work: since it is not known whether the conclusion relative to
breeding habits of Mahseer were drawn from the studies of one or
more species.
Another sporting fish which received special attention in the
Journal during the year is trout. Little attention has been given
to the disease of these fish in the various areas in which they
have been introduced and established in India. The subject is
one of considerable importance to the development of trout
fisheries in this country. Dr. Hamid Khan in his paper discusses
diseases encountered at the Mahili Hatchery, Punjab, 1.e., fin-rot,
goitre, inflammation of the intestines, and fungus and gives an
account of the remedial measures employed. The diseases of
trout were also investigated in the Harwan Hatchery at Kashmir,
where a very large number of fish died in 1934. An investigation
was then undertaken by the Zoological Survey of India at the
instance of this Society. The results of the investigation are
published in Mr. Gulam M. Malik’s paper in volume xli, No. 2.
It is shown that the heavy mortality was due to lipoid or fatty
degeneration of the liver, induced by the fatty foods and developed
in epidemic form owing to shortage of water, insanitary conditions
of the pens and overcrowding. Mr. Malik’s paper is supplemented
with notes by Brigadier A. Campbell Ross, who contributes
an interesting article on Trout Fishing in Kashmir. His recom-
mendations, iraced on experience of nearly 20 years, merit the
serious attention of the Game Preservation Department of the
State. Much improvement could be effected if the efforts of the
Department were now directed more to the quality of the fish than
to the quantity. The author holds that overstocking of the streams
and the resulting shortage of food has caused deterioration. A
reduction in the numbers of trout is recommended. A second
point needing attention, is the enormous stock of other species of
fishes present in rivers and streams. While their fry provide food
for the trout, the adults themselves reduce the food supply, inter-
fere with the growth of weed and cause unhealthy overcrowding.
The need for a reduction in their numbers is stressed. Lastly and
1s
226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
most important of all is the improvement in the natural food supply
available to the trout. As most of the rivers are now stocked to
capacity it is recommended that a large proportion of the money
now spent on trout hatcheries may be devoted with greater advan-
tage to breeding of food supplies. This in our opinion, is a most
cogent point, covering as it does the damage done to food supplies
by coarse fish, and the necessity of increasing the Trout food
supply. Any one with any experience of Trout culture knows that
an excess of coarse fish in the water is a serious matter.
The economic aspect of Indian fisheries also forms the subject
of two. papers by Dr. S. B. Setna on the Marine Fisheries of
Bombay. In an article on Bombay’s Fishing Industry the author
discusses the inadequacy of the supply and the generally neglected
condition of the industry, which at the present time is carried out
solely by certain impoverished castes and does not attract the
educated elements of the population or external capital. The
primitive methods employed limit the fishing field to a few miles
from the coast: facilities for landing and marketing of fish are
poor; while the meagre earnings of the fishermen provide little
incentive to enterprise. The Government of Bombay are to be
congratulated therefore on the attempt at improving at least one
aspect of the Industry by a practical demonstration of the effective-
ness of more rapid methods of transport. The work done in
Bombay in this respect is the subject of a second article by
Dr. Setna which gives the results attained by introducing fast
power-propelled launches for bringing in the catches to Bombay.
Seven hundred tons of fish over and above the accustomed quantities
were brought to the Bombay market in prime condition, and the
radius from which the city draws its supplies was increased by
2-3 hundred miles. The success attending this experiment led to
a rapid development of power transport and has brought into being
quite a fleet of private-owned launches to the benefit of the industry.
But increased supplies in Bombay has led to a corresponding
decline in the fish available at the fish curing yards and at other
coastal ports and no fundamental improvement can be expected
until an improvement can be made in the present primitive method
of exploitation. If more fish is to be obtained then fishing
cperations must extend over a wider field, and if the Industry is
to develop better then more adequate facilities for the landing,
storage and marketing of fishes must be provided. The author
discusses measures which should be taken to secure a more general
development of the local fisheries which, if followed, should materi-
ally benefit an industry of first rate importance to this maritime
Province.
Another important section of Indian fisheries was dealt with
in Dr. Chopra’s paper on Food Prawns and Crabs of India Ga
which the author discusses the various species available in the
markets of large towns. The value of the fisheries is not generally
realized by the public. The author estimates the yield of the
prawn fisheries of India at, at least 3 crores of rupees per annum.
Impressive though it may seem, the figure falls into insignificance
when compared with other smaller countries where shell fisheries
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 227
are conducted on scientific lines. The author discusses the various
methods employed in the capture and marketing of Shell fishes.
INSECTS.
During the year we published Parts VI and VII of Mr. Mosely’s
serial on Indian Caddis Flies which deal with the Sericostomatidae.
A number of new genera and species are described, and the papers
as usual are illustrated with a very large number of fine plates.
Mr. D. G. Sevastopulo’s notes and observations on the Early
Stages of Indian Lepidoptera were issued in three papers during the
year.
Butterflies of Burma form the subject of two papers. Capt.
W. C. Carrot lists the species taken by him in the Shan States—
an interesting area with an abundant and varied butterfly fauna;
while in the December number, we published Part I of Notes on New
and Interesting Butterflies from Burma by the late Major-General
Sir Harry Tytler. General Tytler’s long service in many parts of
the East gave him opportunity to develop his hent for Natural
History. His chief interest lay in Butterflies and he brought
together one of the finest collections ever made.in India. He
published a number of papers on Indian butterflies in the Society’s
Journal. The editing of Part II of Tytler’s Notes has been taken
over by Mr. G. A. Talbot, F.R.E.s., of the British Museum.
Messrs. C. Cherian and M. S. Kylasam published their studies
on the Laphygma exigua and its natural enemies. The cater-
pillars of this moth, which has a world-wide distribution, are well
known as pests of crops. In India lucerne, onion, chillies and
many other plants suffer from their depredations and the present
paper deals with the species in a new role—as a pest of tobacco,
and gives the result of investigations conducted to discover suitable
predators and parasites which might effectively provide a control
over these pests.
BOTANY,
During the year we commenced publication of a_ serial on
Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs under the joint authorship
Ger, N. Lb. Bor and his colleague Mr. M. B. Raizada of the
Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Two parts were issued
dealing with Ipomoea and Aristolochia. Mr. G. Singh’s beauti-
ful coloured illustrations are a feature of the work which will be
issued as a companion volume to Beautiful Indian Trees by Blatter
and Millard. The first edition of the latter work published by
the Societv in 1938 was sold within 8 months. Unfortunately
under present war conditions the issue of a second edition would
prove too expensive and must be postponed till better times prevail.
Another serial commenced during the year, deals with Com-
mon Indian Herbs by Prof. M. Sayeedud-Din of the Osmania
University. The serial will describe and illustrate a number of
the common species found in India and give supplementary notes on
their anatomical characters.
228. JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL HIST. SOCTHEGY, Wolwielg
Father Caius continued his interesting serial on Indian Medicinal
and Poisonous Plants. Three papers were published dealing with
the Crucifers, the Capparids and the Flacourtiads.
In another paper Father Caius publishes the results of his survey
of the local trade in Gum Arabic with a view to ascertain the
source of the commodity and the uses it is commonly put to.
A contribution of particular interest to botanists is Mr. C.
McCann’s Additions to the Description of Irerea indica, a rare
species found only once since its discovery in 1864. The author
provides a detailed description of the fruit, seeds and other parts
of the plant.
That Nature Photography is steadily increasing in popularity
in this country was evidenced by the very large number of excellent
pictures shown at the special Wild Life Photographic Exhibition
organized by the Society during the year. Camera hunters will
find much to interest and stimulate them in the two beautifully
illustrated articles written by two of the most successful camera
hunters in this country, Major R.S.P. Bates who wrote on ‘Bird
Photography in India’ and Mr. Theodore Hubback who contri-
buted an article on Wild Life Photography in a Malayan Jungle.
Both articles contain valuable hints and advice and both are accom-
panied by fine examples of Camera work.
Forthcoming Publications.—We have been to much trouble te
ascertain whether a reprint of the Snake Chart would be welcome.
This chart was issued some twenty years ago to hospitals, dis-
pensaries, schools and colleges throughout the country and the
reply to enquiries has ‘been so encouraging that the chart 1s
already under weigh, and will appear very shortly. It is already
more than paid for. As a companion volume we have decided
to issue a fifth edition. of Wall’s book on the Poisonous Terrestrial
Snakes of India, but it will be revised in the light of recent dis-
coveries. The book will, we believe, fill a very real need, and
the price will be kept as low as possible.
Common Indian Birds.—Some years ago we published a chart of-
Common Indian Birds. What we did not publish was a commentary
on each bird.
We now intend to publish a popular book, showing 200 birds,
in colour, with a commentary on each bird ye Mr. Salim Ali.
This book will, we hope, ‘Catch ’em Young’, and help to
inspire an interest in Natural History which, where it exists, has
little at present on which to batten.
Revenue Account.—Once again we have managed to balance
cur budget, and we are able to record a-surplus revenue of
Rs. 4,466-13-11 as compared with Rs. 3,341-4-9 in 1938.
Total income was Rs. 37,091-9-0 and expenses were
Rs. 332,624-11-1; but it must be borne in mind that we have to
thank H. E.H. the Nizam, H. H: ‘the Gaekwan of Barodasand
H. H. the Maharaja of Patiala for the present state of our finances,
as our regular income is not sufficient to cover expenses.
Membership.--67 members resigned during the year and 26 new
members were elected, making a total membership of 845 as against
886 at the end of 1938.
PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 229
Income from publications shows a drop, as the Tree Book was
sold out fairly early in the year. We have a number of orders
booked, and with a little more encouragement a second edition will
be undertaken.
Staff.—The Committee wish to record their appreciation of the
good work done by the Curator and his staff during the past year.
April 10, 1940. MMe MceGwust Y
Honorary Secretary.
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD,
VEPERY, MADRAS
EDITORS : H. M. MCGUSTY, J. F. CAIUS AND S. H. PRATER, 6 APOLLO STREET,
FORT, BOMBAY
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GAME-BIRDS OF INDIA, BURMA & CEYLON. —
E. C. STUART BAKER, C.LE., 0. BLE, PLS, FZ.S, M.B0.U. H, F.A.0.U.
Imperial 8vo. Half bound. |
VOL. Il. : -_
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Price to Members who have not ee
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Coloured illustrations of 196 Common Indian Birds
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~The Bombay Natural History Society,
6, Apollo Street, BOMBAY.
EDITED BY
_ REV. J. F. CAIUS, S.J., F.L.S., H. M. McGUSTY,
+ AND S. H. PRATER, M.L.A , C.M:Z.S.
en
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National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. eas
CONTENTS OF VOLOME XLII, No. 2
PAGE
Some BrautteuL InpIAN CuLimeeRS AND Suruss. Part VI. By
NMOS Bone Mido hDISe., Hilles:, s1-8.s), cand™ M._B. Raizada, M.Sc.
(With one coloured and three black and white plates and three
text-figures) sles one fer ee oe Bi ee 2S
SomE ORNITHOLOGICAL RESULTS OF TIE WERNAY-CuTTING EXPEDITION OF
1938/39 TO NORTHERN Burma. By Major J. K. Staniord, ©.B.E.,
M.C., F.R.G.S., 1.0.8, (Retd.) (With two plates) 242
Tne Wuate SHarK (Rhineodon typus Smith) in Indian Coastal Waters
with notes on its wanderings in other areas. By S. H. Prater,
c.M.z.S. (With one map and seven plates) 2 255
Some Common INbIAN HERBS) WITH NOTES ON THEIR ANATOMICAL
cHARACTERS. By M. Sayeedud-Din. Part VI. (With iwo plates) ... 280
Tue Earty Staces or INDIAN Lepipoprera. Part VI. By D. G.
Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. ah vas “ 283
PHOTOGRAPHING IN CEYLON’s Birp Sanctuaries. By W. W. A. Phillips,
neh SHenEsZ.Sie (Vets six plates) a : : 295
A CONTRIFUTION TO THE STUDY OF THE BIOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL
Anatomy or InpIAN Marsu aND Aquatic Piants. By J. F. R.
D’ALMEIDA, B.a., M.Sc. (With two plates) tA - 298
Tur Game FisuHes oF Inpia. Part XII. By Sunder Lal Hora, D.sSc.,
BERGENS.. oF IZtS.,, oF RsA.S-B.,) F.N.1.,, and K.'S! Misra, -m:sc., (With
one coloured plate and seven text-figures) i 305
A New Species or Coteus. By K. Cuerian Jacor, L.ag., F.L.S. (With
a_ tlate) rei és an es 320
MaRINE SHELLS OF Mapras. By M. D. Cricuton. (With four plates) ... e2R
A CONTRIBUTION TO THE I*LORA OF THE PUNJAB AND THE ASSOCIATED HILL
REGIONS. (Pari ll. (By Or. Ls Ss Sabnis, BA. (Hons.) D.St., F.A.SC.,
I.A.S. a Lo a 342
THe MEDICINAL AND Poisonous LaniatEs oF Inpia. By Rev. Fr. J. F.
CAvusweoS:foueF-k.S: aun es 380
On THE Foop-PLants oF INDIAN Aguaristidae AND Noctuidae (Heterocera).
iby DeGs Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. he ate a nee 421
OBITUARY :—
FREDERICK VICTOR EVANS (1865-1940) 431
REVIEW :—
hed The Fauna of British India including the remainder of the Oriental
¢. Region, Diptera. Vol. VI. Family Calliphoridae. By R. Senior
b- White, Daphne Aubertin and John Smart as! eae bea
. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—
. I. Rivers as barriers to the distribution of Gibbons. By
4 Re EH. Parsons a uae we 434
a, Ii. A pale colour form of the Panther. By H. A. Fooks. (With
a a photo) a 435
III. A Brown form of the Himalayan Black Bear (Selenarctos
thibetanus). By Botha Van _ Ingen ee na) 5430
il
Ly:
XV
Xx Vii.
XVIII.
».4 0.
XX.
DOE
XNIT.
> OSSIA s
XXIV.
XXV.
RXV
XXVIT.
CONTENTS: OF Vol. Dali ho
The Indian
1.A. (Retd.)
Village Dogs Hunting.
Wild” Dog. “By Hee=Coln RoW. -Bugton,
Keelan An See
By | ae Philip siere
On the occurrence of the Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs Linn.)
in Waziristan. -By TI. J. Phillips
By C. McCann
Sandgrouse coming to water at mid-day.
Nicholas
By Vee:
Vitality of a Hyaena (Hyaena striata).
Vultures and Palms. ah re
By Maion kG.
Searcity of Sandgrouse during the cold weather 1939-1940.
By vEt.-Col. Ey O Brien
Habits of the Seesee Partridge (Ammoperdix griseoguiaris
griseogularis). By T. J. Phillips
Curious nesting site of the Red-wattlec Lapwing (Lobivanel-
lus indicus indicus .Bodd.) By C. McCann. (With «a
photo) ae ie oan ae ane
By J.-C: Higegms 23
By KR. J. Clough
Records of Swinhoe’s Snipe in Assam.
Occurrence of Swinhoe’s Snipe in Bengal.
Moulting of Common Teal subsequent to migration to India.
By the Secretary to Heir Apparent of Bikaner. (With a
photo) os ks
Occurrence of the Stiff-tailed Duck at Nowshera, N.-W.F.P.
By Lt.-Col. i. B Field
Injury, toa. Crocodile. By:
(With a photo)
R. K. Dharmakumarsinhji.
By D. C. Sevastopulo
By Carl L. Huhbbs
By M. A. Wynter-
Food of Lizards.
A New Family of Fishes.
Addenda to the list of Simla Butterflies.
Blyth, .a.
Butterflies attracted by moist earth. By D. G. Sevastopulo
Supplementary Notes on the life history of the Moth
(Brahmea wallichii). By R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S.
Larva of Theretra lycetus Cr. parasitized by Tachinid Flies.
By D. G. Sevastopulo
Lagerstroemia indica as a Food-plant of Actias selene. By
D. G. Sevastopulo 3a
The death expedition of Hibiscus caterpillars.
By D. G. Sevastopulo
(A correction)
Abnormal seedling of Mangifera indica Linn. N. O. Ana-
cardiaceae. By G. A. Kapadia, . m:se-3(With) ai vtext-
figure) Fe ae ae
Some Wild Flowers of Kashmir and their indigenous use.
By Samsar Chand Koul
449
449
450
450
452
Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.
ong
es
i
of
“
2
Nd
4
sopecavee
SS
MUSSAANDA FRONDOSA Linn.
Paperchase Tree or Dhoby’s Tree (Nat. Size)
93°4 per cent.
JOURNAL
OF THE
Bombay Natural History Society.
—-
1941. VoL. XLII. No. 2.
SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.
BY
Nee DOR} MEAL Io1SC, F.liS2, IkF.S
Ge)
Forest Botanist,
AND
M. B. Ralzapa, M.SC.,
Assistant Botanist,
Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.
ParT VI.
(Continued from Vol, xlii, No. 1 (1940)5 pa 12):
(With 1 coloured and 3 black and white plates, and 3 text-figures).
Rubiaceae
A very large family of over 4,500 species, comprising herbs,
shrubs, climbers, and large trees. A small number are epiphytes.
Many beautiful shrubs belonging to this family are cultivated in
our Indian gardens for their handsome, occasionally fragrant,
flowers.
The leaves are opposite or whorled, stipulate, usualiy entire,
with pinnate nervation. The stipules are interpetiolar, that is, the
two adjacent stipules are joined together across the node, forming
a half sheath, simple or divided into lobes or fringed. The flowers
are variously arranged, sometimes in globular heads, sometimes
in corymbose cymes or panicles, axillary or terminal. Calyx often
campanulate, adnate to the ovary, truncate or with 5 lobes. Corolla
gamopetalous, seated on the top of the ovary, more or less
tubular with spreading lobes; lobes 4-10, imbricate or valvate.
Stamens as many as the lobes seated on the corolla and alternate
with the lobes. Disk present, annular or lobed; lobes as many
as the ovary cells. Ovary inferior, 2- or more-celled with axile,
basal or apical placentation. Ovules one to many. Fruit a
capsule, berry or drupe.
234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII
The family takes its name from Rubia cordifolia, a well-known
Himalayan plant, which used to be the source of madder before
the days of synthetic dyes. It is still largely used by the hill
tribes to dye thread.
Apart from plants of ornamental value there are many species
of Rubiaceae which are of economic importance. Quinine, so
widely used in malarial cases, is a product of Cinchona ledgeriana
and other species of Cinchona, which are indigenous in South
America,
The drug, quinine, is of such importance in all tropical malarial
countries that it will be of interest to retail briefly in narrative
the history of this plant and its introduction into India. 'Watt.:. Dict, (Econsp, Pred: imds Vicia ete eee
243.. Vinea parviflora Retz.; Roxb. Kl. Ind» [lar }Cathavantiius
pusiilus 1G. Don, (Gen, Syste Nee oS,
A much-branched annual herb, branches spreading from the
base, stem and branches quadrangular. Leaves 14-3 in. long,
opposite, lanceolate, acute, glabrous, membranous, margins rough;
axillary glands long, subulate. Flowers small, white, mostly
solitary, axillary, on short stalks. Calyx-segments 5, lanceolate-
subulate. Corolla salver-shaped; tube slender, inflated above the
stamens; mouth constricted, hairy; lobes 5, obiong-obovate.
Stamens 5, on the corolla-tube; anthers elliptic or ovate-lanceolate,
acute. Pollen grains furrowed, rectangular when dry, and spherical
when moistened. Disk replaced by two linear glands. Carpels 2,
free; ovules numerous, 2-seriate; style filiform; stigma capitate,
with a reflexed hyaline frill at base, and a minute 2-lobed apiculus.
Fruit of two slender divergent, striate follicles 1}-2 in. long. Seeds
numerous, small, oblong, with many muriculate ribs (Pilate I).
Flowers Aug.—Nov. Mayuranathan (7) mentions the flowering
season as Nov.-March, which is rather unusual for other parts of
India. Medicinal (Kirtikar, 6).
INDIAN NAMES.
Sanghaphuli, Sankaphi, Sangkhi (Sans.); Kapavila (Malayalam),
HABITAT.
Common in Deccan (Dalz, & Gibson, 3). Poona, Gujarat
(Cooke, 1). Plains Districts of the Circars, Deccan and Carnatic, up
to 2,000 ft., a common weed, more scarce on W. Coast (Gamble, 5).
Puate |
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
Zh
| Z,
A_
p—
Sayeedud-Din—Lochnera pusilla K. Schum.
For explanation see end of article.
Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.
Sayeedud-Din—Lochnera pusilla K. Schum.
For explanation see end of article.
SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS 2811
A weed of cultivated ground (Mayuranathan, 7). A common weed
in the beginning of the rainy season (Sayeedud-Din, 8).
Distribution: India (W. Himalaya, Upper Gangetic Plain; W.
Peninsula) ; Ceylon.
ANATOMICAL NOTES.
Structure of the leaf. (Plate II, Figs,.1 & 2). The leaf-structure
is bifacial. Stomata occur on both the sides, but are much more
numerous on the lower side. They are surrounded by two or more
ordinary epidermal cells, and lie in a level with the epidermis. The
epidermal cells on the upper side are larger than on the lower.
These observations conform to those recorded by Solereder (g) 1n
other species. No special features have been observed in the. meso-
phyll, viz., gelatinization of the cell-walls of the spongy tissue or
sclerosed palisade cells.
Oxalate of lime occurs in the form of ordinary solitary crystals.
The hairy covering (Plate II, Figs. 2 & 3) consists of simple
unicellular and uniseriate hairs. Some are very small, resembling
papillae. Glandular hairs are absent.
In the stem non-articulated thick-walled laticiferous tubes are
found in abundance mostly in the cortical region (Plate II, Fig. 7),
but in the leaf they occur in the veins, and run freely in the meso-
phyll, as in Vinca major (Solereder, 9). The thick-walled tubes
by taking up a faint colour of safranin are apt to create some
confusion, but chemical reactions show that the walls are composed
of cellulose. The contents do not show any reaction for starch.
Structure of the petiole and stem (Plate II, Figs. 4-6). The
petiole contains a single arc-shaped bicollateral bundle. Stomata
which occur in the furrows are accompanied by two or more subsi-
diary cells parallel to the pore, that is they are of the Rubiaceous
aype. Ihe epidermis of the ridges 1s composed of thick-walled
cells. The cortex is composed of chlorenchyma and collenchyma,
and as will be naturally expected the latter is more confined to
the ridges. Intraxylary phloem is present in the form of isolated
bundles at the margin of the pith.
CONCLUSIONS.
The chief features revealed by the study of this plant are
characteristic of the family Apocynaceae to which it belongs. As
it is closely allied to Asclepiadaceae many features are in common,
The following is a brief summary of the characteristic features of
Lochnera pusilla:
: 1. In the leaf the stomata are surrounded by ordinary
epidermal cells, but in the stem they are surrounded by two or
more subsidiary cells parallel to the pore, thus revealing the
Rubiaceous type of stomatal apparatus.
2. Oxalate of lime occurs in the stem as well as in the leaves
in the form of solitary crystals.
3. The hairy covering consists of simple unicellular and
uniseriate hairs.
4. Occurrence of non-articulated thick-walled laticiferous tubes.
4
282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIit
5. Ihe petiole contains a single, bicollateral arc-shaped bundle.
In the stem intraxylary phloem is present in the form of isolated
bundles at the margin of the pith.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
Tam thankful to Mr. Sri Ramloo for the drawings which were
made under my supervision, and to Mr. Moinuddin for the trouble |
which he took in preparing several microscopic slides,
LITERATURE CONSULTED.
1: Cooke, T.—The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, vol. ii, Pt. 1,
Pp. 129 (1904).
2. Hooker, J. D.—The Flora of British India, vol. iii, p. 640 (1882).
3. Dalzell, N. A. and Gibson, A.—The Bombay Flora, p. 144 (1861).
4. Engler, A. and Prantl, K.—Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien, vol. iv,
Ps 2 (TSOs).
5. Gamble, J. S.—Flora of the Presidency of Madras, Pt. 5, p. 809
(1623).
6. Kirtikar, K. R. and Basu, B. D.—IJndian Medicinal Plants, 2nd edition,
vol. ii, p. 1560.
7, Mayuranathan, P. V.—The Flowering Plants of the Madras City and
its Immediate Neighbourhood, p. 171 (1929).
8. Sayeedud-Din, M.—‘A Further Contribution to Some of the Common
Flowering Plants of the Hyderabad State; their distribution and economic
importance. Dicotyledons’. J.B.N.H.S., vol. xl, No. 2, p. 203 (1938).
g. Solereder, H.—Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Engl. Kd.,
vol. i, pp. 528-533; vol. ii, pp. 983-987.
10. Trimen, H.—Flora of Ceylon, vol. iti, p. 130.
11. Watt, G.—Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, vol. iv,
Pt. 4, p. 243.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Lochnera pusilla K. Schum.
PATE 1.
Fig. 1.—Black and white drawing of Lochnera pusilla K. Schum, (Nat. size).
Fig. 2.—Corolla opened out. (X10).
Fig. 3.—Pistil with calyx attached. (X10).
lig. 4.--Pollen grain in dry condition. (X40).
lig. 5.—Pollen grain, moistened. (xX 40),
PLATE
Fig. 1.---Leaf-epidermis, showing stomata surrounded by ordinary epidermal
cells, + -)( 255)
Fig. 2.—T. S. Leaf, showing two unicellular hairs on the upper epidermis,
a stoma on the lower epidermis, palisade and spongy tissue. (215).
Fig. 3.—A latex-tube from the leaf. (215).
Fig. 4.—An uniseriate hair from leaf-epidermis. (X 215).
Fig. 5.—Stem-epidermis, showing stomata surrounded by subsidiary cells.
(X 215).
Fig. 6.—T. S. Petiole, showing an arc-shaped vascular bundle, diagrammatic.
( X 50). ,
Fig. 7.—T. S. Stem. L. laticiferous tubes in cortex; P. intraxylary phloem
in groups. (%X 215).
(To be continued).
THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.
BY
D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.&.E.S.
Part VI.
(Continued from page 44 of this volume).
RHOPALOCERA,
SATYRIDAE.
Mycalesis visala Moore, visala
Moore, Lep. Ind., i, 189, pl. 64, figs. 1, 1a-11. 18g0-g2.
Ovum spherical, the base slightly flattened, pearly white,
minutely punctate. Deposited 6-viiil-go. Hatched g-viil-4o.
Newly hatched larva white, the head black. Head with a short
tooth projecting subdorsally. Anal somite ending in two. short
processes. A tew hairs. After feeding the body becomes green
and later a dark crimson dorsal stripe appears on the posterior
third of the body, this stripe broadens considerably on the anal
somite and extends along the anal processes. Moulted 12-vili-qo.
2nd instar—Similar. The cephalic and anal processes propor-
tionately rather larger. Under a lens there is a faint yellowish
white subdorsal line and the dorsum is sprinkled with minute
yellow dots. Moulted 14-vili-qo.
3rd instar—Similar. Moulted 16-viti-qo.
qth instar—Head blackish brown, the backs of the processes
dull greenish. Body dull green, shagreened with minute yellowish
white dots. A dark dorsal stripe, becoming dull crimson on the
roth somite and continuing up the anal processes.
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BIOLOGY & ANATOMY OF INDIAN MARSH & AQUATIC PLANTS 304
these was immersed to a depth of 15 cm. in a tub of water, while the other
was left to grow as a land plant. Two months later the differences between
the two plants were recorded and the plants photographed (Plate I, fig. 1), While
no change had taken place in the control plant, the plant growing in water
showed a number of adaptations which are more clearly represented in diagram-
maatic form (Plate I, fig.:2).
The stem was swollen up to a little above water level, and the submerged
portion was covered with-a large number of white lenticels (1) which
extended to a little above the surface of the water. These lenticels
were very strongly developed on the stem just below and above water level,
where they showed protruding masses of soft white tissue. In addition to
this, long white roots (hk) spread out horizontally from the submerged portion
of the stem into the surrounding water. It was observed in the course of
the experiment that the lenticels first made their appearance, and a little later
the lateral roots were seen to be given out through the lenticels. A similar
sequence of lenticels and roots has been observed in other plants (19). In all
such cases it seems obvious that the extraordinary development of lenticels is
the first expression of the immersion in water, and the growth of lateral roots
a subsequent manifestation thereof. These lateral water roots bore, among
others, delicate branches (b) which bent upwards towards the surface of the
water. The lateral underground roots also sent up erect branches (c) which
likewise grew up to the water surface. As a matter of fact, in nature,
wherever the plant grows in water-logged areas, large numbers of similar
roots may be seen peeping out of the soil, and they strongly suggest comparison
with the pneumatophores of certain mangroves, like Avicennia. This phenomenon
of roots being directed upwards is not a case of negative geotropism. — It is
due rather to their sensitiveness to gases (aerotropism) induced by the air above
the soil or, in the case of soil which is completely covered by water, by the
more aerated surface layers of the water towards which the roots bend and
grow and from which they probably also draw their supplies of oxygen. These
roots are therefore, like pneumatophores, respiratory in function. Aeration,
no doubt, first takes place through the lenticels, but when the lateral roots
are given out these also help in the process. But respiration must not be taken
to be the exclusive function of these water roots. Their profuse branching which
subsequently takes place in all directions as the result of prolonged submergence
and the extremely fine divisions of the rootlets thus produced makes them
well adapted also for absorbing nutrient solutions from the surrounding medium ;
lastly the presence of chlorophyll in some of the older roots points to the
photosynthetic role of such roots.
A comparative anatomy of plants growing under ordinary terrestrial and
marsh conditions shows differences in their histological structures.
The transverse section of the young stem of a plant growing out of water
(Plate II, fig. 3) shows an epidermis (Ep.) of more or less tabular cells. The
cortex is distinguishable into two parts :—(a) an outer zone of small collenchyma-
tous cells (Hyp) and (b) an inner zone of much larger parenchymatous elements
(Cort) with triangular spaces between them. Two or three layers (Chl)
immediately abutting on the epidermis are not collenchymatous and contain
chloroplasts. The innermost layer or two of the cortex also contains chloroplasts.
Isolated cells (m) in the parenchymatous cortex have their cell-walls transformed
into mucilage. As regards the vascular ring it need only be mentioned that,
as the stem grows older, the portions cf the medullary rays lying in the phloem
broaden outwards as in the case of other Malvaceae. The pith also consists
of parenchyma with triangular intercellular spaces. Isclated miucilage cells
also occur in the pith. Serial sections of older stems reveal that, while the
vascular cylinder is increasing in diameter, the cells of the inner zone of the
cortex collapse (becoming at first flattened in a tangential direction) and finally
disappear; later on the greater part of the collenchyma also disintegrates in
a similar manner; but the two or three sub-epidermal layers which contain
chlorophyll grains always persist. Owing to the growth in diameter. of the
vascular cylinder the latter comes almost into contact with the superficial
layers which are expanding less rapidly. As a result the spaces occupied by
the intervening cortical cells which have been destroyed beccme obliterated or
reduced tc mere crevices which are seen to extend in a tangential direction.
In Plate II, fig. 4 the destroyed cells of the cortex are seen as a narrow shaded
302° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Aisi. SOCIELY i Vole kien
band (4) between the chlorophyllous sub-epidermal layers (Chl) and the stele
(St). The phellogen (Phel) which arises much later in the development of the
plant has its origin in the epidermis. In its formation an epidermal cell
divides into two cells; the inner of these remains merismatic whilst the outer
becomes suberized. In this way a thin band of cork is developed which
replaces the epidermis. Apparently no phelloderm is formed.
The transverse section of the submerged portion of the stem of a plant.
growing in water (Plate II, fig. 5) shows lysegenously formed lacunae (a.s.) in the
region of the inner parenchymatous cortex, the outer collenchymatous band of
cells remaining connected with the central portion of the stem by radial bridges
of tissue (br) which correspond to portions of the cortex which have escaped
disintegration. In the stem of Malachra growing as a land plant we have seen
that owing to the more rapid growth of the vascular cylinder the latter comes
almost into contact with the superficial layers. The occurrence then of large
lacunae in the case of the stem of a plant growing: in water can only be
understood on the assumption that the growth of the superficial layers (includ-
ing the collenchyma), which seems to receive an ‘extra stimulus by immersion
in water, keeps pace with the growth in diameter of the vascular cylinder.
We have already noted the extraordinary development of lenticels on the
submerged parts of the stem. Like the normal lenticels occurring on the
aerial parts these (Fig. 5, /) are seen to be developed from a phellogen which
is continuous with the ordinary cork-forming airtel loaen (Phel) derived from the
epidermis, but’ ihe complementary tissue differs from that of normal lenticels
(1) in being more pronouncedly formed, (2) in the cells being more loosely
applied to one another, (3) in their having living contents, and (4) in the cell
walls not being brown and suberized, although they may be somewhat altered
(since they stain yellow with chlor-zinc-iode). This hypertrophy of the lenticels
in adaptation to water which has also been observed in some other plants (16)
is a phenomenon similar to that which takes place on a larger scale when the
ordinary cork-tissue is replaced by massive air-containing tissue called aerenchyma
which is so marked a feature of certain marsh plants on which Lewakoffski
(20), Schenck (27), Rosanoff (23), Scott and Wager (29), Schrenk (28), Witte (32),
Batten (3) and others have worked. R
It has been suggested (18) that the stimulus that causes the phellogen to
develop aerenchyma in lieu of cork is the lack of oxygen in the inner tissues,
or ‘as Arber (1) puts it. ‘the. presence’ of. Some minimum) oxygens
possibly a necessary condition for the process of suberisation, which is inhibited
when the oxygen-content of the cell-sap falls below a certain point’. This
explanation does not seem to meet the case of lenticels, at any rate. It is
well known that the surface waters contain more dissolved air, and conse-
quently more oxygen, than the layers deeper down, and that dissolved air is
richer. in oxygen; than. atmospheric air. Phe fact that.in, this;;as \inj other
plants growing under marshy conditions, normal lenticels are concentrated at
the water level, and lenticels are rarely, if ever, present lower down the stem,
seems to suggest that for the production of lenticels a minimal amount of
oxygen is necessary and that the further growth of lenticels is in proportion
to the amount of this gas in the surrounding medium. On the other hand,
as the aerial lenticels have suberized complementary cells and suberisation is
absent in the submerged lenticels it would appear that suberisation of the
lenticel tissue is correlated to the exterior condition of humidity, the drier
the condition the more suberised the walls, and vice-versa.
Both the aerial and the submerged lenticels serve their purpose efficiently.
The aerial lenticel permits of a direct access of atmospheric air to the inner
tissues which, at the same time are kept “from drying up by the loose plug
of powdery suberised complementary tissue, while the living cells of the
submerged lenticels are adapted for taking in dissolved air from the water
which bathes them.
The transverse section of a young adventitious floating root which is
given off from a submerged stem (Plate II, fig. 6) has a solid stele of xylem (X)
surrounded by phloem (Ph), and a lacunar cortex. The young soil root has also
a similar structure, the sizes of the lacunae depending upon the extent of
humidity of the soil. An old soil root growing in water-logged soil (Plate II,
fig. 7) or in ground covered with water shows large lysegenously formed air
spaces situated between the outermost cortical region which develops cork and the
BIOLOGY & ANATOMY OF INDIAN MARSH & AQUATIC PLANTS 303
vascular cylinder. In soil roots growing under land conditions, however, these
cortical air-spaces are obliterated, as in the case of the aerial stem, and the
cork layers and the vascular cylinder are so juxtaposed as to make it appear
that the cork-forming phellogen—which is actually superficial in origin—is
derived from a deeper layer of cells situated immediately outside the pericyclic
group of bast fibres. Another feature which distinguishes old soil roots grow-
ing in water-logged soil from those which live under dry land conditions is
that in the former the peripheral region of wood shows large radially arranged
gaps due to what appears to be a mucilaginous disorganization of cell groups
in this part of the wood. Such gaps are not seen in the wood of roots growing
under drier conditions.
REFERENCES.
1. Arber, A., 1920.—Water Plants. Cambridge 1920.
2. Askenasy, E., 1870.—Ueber den Einfluss des Wachstumsmediums auf die
Gestalt der Pflanzen. Zeity. Jahvg. 28, 1870, pp. 193-201, 209-19. 225-31, 2 pls.
3. Batten, I., 1918.—Observations on the Ecology of _Epilobium hirsutum.
Votm. “Ecoiogy, | Viol. NI, 1918; pp: “161-77:
4. Biswas, -K. and Calder C. C., 1937.—Hand-Book of Common Water and
Marsh Plants of India and Burma, 1936. Health Bulletin, No. 24, Malaria
Bureau, No. 11, Delhi, 1937.
5. Costantin, J., 1884.—Recherches sur la structure de la tige des. plantes
aguatiques... Amn. Sc: Nat. VI: Sér. Bot. xix, 1884, pp: 287-331, 4 pls.
6. Costantin, J., 1885.—Observations critiques sur l’épiderme des feuilles
des végétaux aquatiques. Bull. Soc. Bot. France., XXXII (Ser. II. T. VIT), 1885,
pp. 83-8.
7--Costantin, J.,, 188s5.—-Recherchés. ‘sur la,.Sagittaire. Bull. Soc. Bot.
nance, XMM (Ser. Ii °E.. Vil); 1885; pp. 218-23:
8. Costantin, J., 1885.—Influence du milieu aquatique sur les stomates.
Ele SOC. Bot. de France, Vs XXXII (Sér, If.) LT. VIT),* 1885, pp. 259-64.
g. Costantin, J., 18%6.—Etudes sur les feuilles des plantes aquatiques. Ann.
NomNateSéy Vit (Bot. V.se."1S86, pp. O4-162, 42 pls.
to. d’Almeida, J. F. R., 1926.—The influence of an aquatic medium on
plants not necessarily aquatic. Abstract in Proceedings Ind. Sc. Congr., 1926,
Obes. SCCLION, ap: 214.
11, d’Almeida, J. F. R., 1934.—A note on the pneumatophores of Coix
lachryma—-Jobi L. Abstract in Proceedings ind. Sc. Congy., 1934. Bot. Sec.,
(Don yee }
12. d’Almeida, J. F. R., 1934.—A note on the aerenchyma of Sesbania
aculeata Poir. Absiract in Proceedings Ind. Sc. Congr., 1934, Bot. Seciion,
BP 3i 351 4~
13. d’Almeida, J. F. R., 1934.—On the behaviour of the tubers of Eleocharis
plantaginea R. Br. Abstract in Proceedings Ind. Sc. Congr., 1934, Bot. Section,
po 314:
14. d’Almeida, J. F. R., 1934.—A note on the structure and functions of
the diaphragms occurring in the assimilating shoots of Eleocharis plantaginea
R. Br. Abstract in Proceedings Ind. Sc. Congr., 1934, Bot. Section, p. aa.
15. d’Almeida, J. F. R., 1934. On the development of secondary aerating
tissues in the stem of Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn. ‘Abstract in Proceelings Ind.
Se. Congr., 1934, Bot. Section, pp. 314-15.
16. Devaux, M. H., 1890.—Hypertrophie des Lenticelles chez la Pomme
de Terre et chez quelques autres Plantes. Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr., Sér. 2; tom
Xili, p. 48, 1890.
_ 17. Gluck, H., 1911.—Biologische und morphologische Untersuchungen _tiber
Wasser-und Sumpfgewachse III. Die Uferflora. XXxiV-+644 pp., 8 pls., ros
text-figs. Jena, IgI1. ;
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19. Klebahn, H., 1891.—Ueber Wurzelanlagen. unter’ Lenticellen — bei
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1891, pp. 125-39, 1 pl. Ry ies oe ce are
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auf da:
Wachsthum der Stengel und Wurzeln einger Pflanzen. (Gelehrte oan
Schriften
304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol-- XL
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EXPLANATION OF PLATES,
PLaTE I
Fig. 1.—-Photograph of two plants of Malachra capitata L. grown: one-
(left) in water, the other (right) as a land plant. In the first the stem has
swollen up and adventitious roots have developed on the submerged portion.
The control plant to the right is quite normal. The scale is in inches.
PLaTE II
Fig. 2.—A habit drawing of Malachra capitata L. growing in water.
1, lenticels; b, aerotropic roots borne on the horizontal roots h arising from the
submerged portion of the stem; c, aerotropic roots sent up by the lateral under-
ground roots. For clearness sake only a few roots are shown.
Fig. 3.—Portion of the transverse section of a young stem of Malachra
capitata L. Ep, epidermis; Hyp, collenchyma; Chl, sub-epidermal chlorophyllous
layers; Cort. inner parenchymatous cortex; m, mucilage cell. (x 45).
Fig. 4.—Portion of the transverse section of an older stem of Malachra
capitata L. growing as a land plant, A, destroyed cells of the cortex; Chl,
chlorophyllous sub-epidermal layers; St, portion of the stele represented in the
fig. by the medullary rays (m.v.) and a portion of the hard bast (B); Phel,
epidermal cells dividing to form the phellogen, (x 45).
Fig. 5.—Portion of the transverse section of the submerged part of a
stem of Malachra capitata L. growing in water. I, lenticel; Phel, cork-forming
phellogen derived from the epidermis; Chl, sub-epidermal chlorophyllous layers ;
Hyp, collenchyma; a.s. air-space; br, remains of the parenchymatous cortex
forming bridges of tissue separating the air-spaces; m.r., medullary ray; B,
hardasbast:--n(X" 20).
Fig. 6.—Portion of the transverse section of an adventitious root of
Malachra capitata L. given off from the submerged portion of the stem. J,
lacunae im: (the cortex’; Xs xylem; (22, phloem (>< 45):
Fig. 7.—Portion of the transverse section of a ground root of Malachra
capitata L. growing in water-logged soil. C, cork; a.s., air-space formed in
the cortex; m.v. medullary rays; B, hard bast. (x 62).
- (To be continued).
‘PUETIPIOOW SIdAIONODVX4H (SN TIHOOSSIT) SNaUva |
‘asajedany ay] JO Ipeyy pue ssowessy ay) Jo IeyOg aYT
: "20S ‘ISIE] ‘WeN Aequiog -‘usnof
THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA
BY
SUNDER) War EORA,: :SC17 FR. SeE.,) F:Z.S.. DyR.A.S. Bi, PON. L.,
Assistant Superintendent,
AND
K..S. MISRA,° M-SC.,
Laboratory Assistant,
Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.
(With one colour plate and seven text-figures).
(Continued from page 88 of Vol. xlii, No. 1).
XII.—TuHE MAHSEERS OR THE LARGE-SCALED BARBELS OF INDIA.
5. Phe Extra-Indian Distribution of the Bokar of the Assamese
and J