onan Re 


en 


' i ‘| i 


eI re an 
: vay ° oy Bi 
af, } i ' ie mY } 
al 
. , 
* 
< 
7 A 
. “han 
i : 
i j 14 
1's 
nn ; 
: rm re 
4 : 
FS \ 


L és 4 ace (o, a * 
4 


JOURNAL OF THE 
_ BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 


Vol. 54, No. 3 


Editors 
SALIM ALI & H. SANTAPAU, s.J. 


AUGUS & 1957 


ES.) 


Con 


# (CS 00CSn0C onc oe 03 00e 00000 oe 00C00F00 


% 


1S] 00C 00] 06C 000 0e00C 1 06) e000 00C50 oe ac0catocaoecmoscoan 


JOURNAL OF THE 
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA 


Published bi-annually, containing original papers and 
reviews in all branches of Pure and Applied Zoology 


Annual subscription per volume of two issues : 
Foreign: Rs. 22; Inland: Rs. 20. 


A few back numbers are also available, subject to prior sale. 


A few pages are reserved for advertisements at rates available from 
the Honorary Treasurer. 


Reprints of a few papers of the Indian Helminthologist, the (late) 
Dr. G. D. Bhalerao, Indian Journal of Helminthology and Prof. 
Thapar Sixtieth Birthday Commemoration Volume, 1953, could 
also. now be had from the Office of the Honorary Treasurer, 
Dr. B. S. Chauhan, 34, Chittaranjan Avenue, Calcutta-12, India. 


All orders, remittances and communications regarding above should 
be addressed to the Honorary Treasurer. 


3 09090 03901 C0 een ose 6 0 CSIC aor Case 0ce at 


eee 0 C00 C00 C0001 br Ceca b0 00 ca 00 Ca 000000 C00cao1cao 


RECENT PUBLICATIONS OF THE BomBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY 


Some Beautiful Indian Trees by Rev. E. Blatter, s.s., and 
W. S. Millard. Second edition. Revised and brought up-to-date. 
With 31 coloured and 37 monochrome plates, and numerous text- 
figures. Price Rs. 20. 

(to members Rs. 16) 


Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs by N. L. Bor and 
M. B. Raizada. With 31 coloured and 99 half-tone plates, and 
numerous text-figures. Price Rs. 22. 


(to members Rs. 17°50) 


The Book of Indian Birds by Salim Ali. 5th (New) Edition. 
With 56 coloured plates depicting 224 species, and 22 in mono- 
chrome from photographs. Price Rs. 20. 


(to members Rs. 16) 


CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54, No. 3 


PAGER 


FURTHER NOTES ON THE BAYA WEAVER Birp, Ploceus plilippinus LINN. 
By Salim Ali and Vijaykumar C. Ambedkar. (With a plate) st 


ON THE MARINE CRABS (DECAPODA: BRACHYURA) OF BOMBAY STATE, 
Parti. By B.F. Chhapgar, m.sc. (Withone coloured and five line 
plates, and one text figure) ‘ wos ‘a 


THEIR MORPHOLOGY AND SYSTEMATICS. 
(With 48 text figures) 


INDIAN MARSILEAS : By kK. M: 
Gupta and T. N. Bhardwaja. ae 


THE LION OF THE GIR. By Lt.-Col. A. H. Mosse (Deceased) 

NOTES ON THE Sriielia GROUP OF MALLOPHAGA (FEATHER-LICE), WITH 
DESCRIPTIONS OF FOUR NEW SPECIES. By Wolifdietrich Eichler, 
D.Sc. (With four text figures) iy ane oe 


IN THE PANJAB 
F.E.S.1. (With 


BRIEF NOTES ON CROp PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 
(INDIA). By K. N. Trehan, m.sc., PH.D. (London), 
34 text figures) Ae oe See 


NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF A SELECTED AREA OF DEHRA DUN—JUNE 1946 
TO JuLty 1951. By Mrs. M.D. Wright (Deceased). (With a sketch map) 


TIMBER BORING MOLLUSCS OF THE INDIAN COAST. 1, REPORT ON A 
COLLECTION FROM TONDI AND ADIRAMPATNAM, EAST COAST. By 
N. Balakrishnan Nair and O.N. Gurumani. (W2th eight text figures) 


Grass FLORA OF COIMBATORE DISTRICT (SOUTH INDIA) WITH SPECIAL 
REFERENCE TO FODDER Grasses. By J. Sakharam Rao me 


A PRELIMINARY SURVEV. 


ON THE MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: 
(With 


By P. W. Gideon, P.K. B Menon, S. R. V. Rao and K. V. Jose. 
a map, one plate and five text figures) 


THE GENUS Cuscufa IN BOMBAY. 


By H. Santapau, 
V. Patel, B.Sc. (With a plaiz) a a 


S.J., and (Miss) 


OPERATION OF THE Dol NET OFF THE SAURASHTRA Coast. ByS.V. 
Gokhale. (With seven text figures) .. a ae 

NOTES ON SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION IN THE TAwny Pipit (Anthus campe- 
stris), BLYTH’S Pipit (4. godlewski1), AND RICHARD’S PIPIT (A. novae- 
seelandiae) IN ASta. By B. P. Hall. (With a text figure)... ‘ 


A SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF THE EkIS OF BOMBAY. By D. V. Bal and 
K,. H. Mohmed. (With fourteen text figures) ... pa Bae 
THE BIOLOGY AND BIONOmICS oF Lesfodryinus pyrillae KYEFF. (DRYINI- 
DAE: HYMENOPTERA) A NYMPHAL PARASITE OF Pyrilla perpusilla 
Walk., AND A NOTE ON ITS ROLE IN THECONTROL OF /Pyrilla. By 
B. R. Subba Rao. (Witha plate) ea at oe 


491 


503 


950 


568 


577 


581 


627 


707 


714 


741 


ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 534, NO. 3—(contd.) 


REVIEWS :— 
1. Animals of the Ruhuna National Park (H. A.) 


2. Living with Birds (D. E. R.) 60 BOL 558 Eas 

3. Audubon Western Bird Guide: Land, Water and Game _ Birds 
(ID SERS) eae jy = eer oy Sen 

4. The Amphibia of Ceylon (EK. G.S.) oh eh san 

5. British Trees : A Guide for Everyman (D. E.R.) 

6. _No Passport to Tibeta(R. 2. ie tee ep Lip 

7. Natural History of Birds: A Guide to Ornithology (S. A.) 

8. The Ornithologists’ Guide: Especially for Overseas (S. A.) 

9. On the Trail of Vanishing Birds (D. E.R.) ... 


ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY'S LIBRARY 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :— 


1. The Abominable Snowman. By D. E. Reuben (p. 762). 2. On the 
status of the Great Indian Rhinoceros (#. uwnzicornis) in Nepal (With a map). 


By P. D. Stracey (p. 763). 3. The Spiny Babbler in Kathmandu Valley. 


By R.L. Fleming (p. 766). 4. ‘A Dabchick is Born’. By Lt.-Col. R. W. 
Burton (p. 767). 5. Bird Life of Madhya Pradesh. By H. G. Alexander 
(p. 768). 6. Reflected glow from the eyes of the Gharial [Gavialus gange- 
ticus (Gmelin)]. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 769). 7. Occurrence of a rare 
Sting Ray [ Zaeniura melanospila (Bleeker)| in Bombay Waters (With one 
plate and one text figure). By H. G. Kewalramani and B. F. Chhapgar 
(p. 770). 8. The ‘ Marala ’—a sink net used in the backwaters of Ganjam, 
Orissa (With two text figures). By P. Mohapatra (p. 773). 9. Migration of 
Insects. By Editors (p. 775). 10. Notes on the Butterflies of Rangoon. By 
A, E.G. Best (p. 776). 11. An episode from the life history of the Moth 
Suana concolor Walker. By S. Szafranski (p. 784). 12. Notes on the 
biology and control of the Lily Moth Brithys crini Fabricius (With a plate). 
By Nawab H. Khan and Zille Hasan Abedi (p. 785). 13. An undescribed 
luminous Beetle Larva from South India (With one photograph). By 
J. Samuel Raj (p. 738). 14. Two new species of Priochirus (Staphylinidae : 
Coleoptera) from india (With two text figures). By Rudolf Dvorak (p. 790). 
15. The Swarming ‘Termites of Delhi. By H.S. Vishnoi (p. 792). 16. On 
the Harpacticoid Copepod Phyllognathopus viguiert (Maupas) (With one 
plate). Bv S. Krishnaswamy (p. 793). 17. A note on the Nematode 
Mernus indica v. Linstow parasitising insects. By O.S. Bindra and 8S. U. 
Kittur (p. 795). 18. A new variety of Gymnosporia falconeri Lawson from 
northern Oudh, Uttar Pradesh. By M.B. Raizada (p. 796). 19. Dolichos 
bracteatus Baker: Clarification of nomenclature. By S. I. Ali (p. 797). 
20. /pomoce tropica, new rame for a common Bombay plant. By H. San- 
tapau, SJ., and V. Patel (p. 798). 21. A mew species of Gleadovia 
Gamble et Prain from Manipur (With a plate). By D. B. Deb (p. 799). 
22. Bougainvillea buttiana Holttum et Standley, and its cultivars in Lal- 
bagh, Bangalore (With a text figure). By M.H. Mari Gowda (p. 80i). 
23. coo name changes in the Flora of India. By J. K. Maheshwari 
(p. 804). 


GLEANINGS ca oe Nas oe bee aes 


NOTES AND NEws _... ee i at Aa aes 


806 
809 


BoMBAY NAt. Hist. Soc. 


Nests in the ‘bell’ or ‘helmet’ stage ready for appropriation by hens. The 
cock on the right is reinforcing a new attachment. 


A newly arrived hen perches on the cross-bar or ‘chin-strap’, while the cock 
clings and flutters excitedly on the outside. 


Photos : Sdliim Ali 


JOURNAL 
OF THE 
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 


1957 VOL. 54 7 No. 3 


FURTHER NOTES ON THE BAYA WEAVER BIRD, 
PLOCEUS PHILIPPINUS. LINN.}# 


BY 
SAtim ALI aND VIjAYKUMAR C, ‘AMBEDKAR 


(With a plate) 


In the 1956 season our observations were carried out mainly. in 
two ee 
The Poona area chiefly by VCA, with the help of a grant-in- 
aid em the Bombay Natural History Society, under the guidance and 
with the intermittent active participation of SA, and 
2. The Bombay area by SA, mainly at a nest colony on a 
palmyra palm on the farm Walenoine to Shri J. A. Ali, situated near 
Devnar village along the main Chembur-Trombay Road. 


1. The Poona Area 


As last year, the study was carried out principally in the country 
around the base of Parbati Hill, about a mile SW. of Poona City. 
Our main Control Colony, conveniently situated for frequent inspec- 
tion by day or night, contained some 9-11 nests suspended from 
lantana bushes and peepal trees growing out from within the sides 
of a well, or on branches that hung down into the shaft. The colony 
was sufficiently off the beaten track to be relatively safe from 
molestation by village urchins. In addition, several other similar 
colonies in the surrounding countryside were kept under regular 
observation as checks. All the wells were situated in the midst of 
bajra cultivation, a typical site and environment for baya nests in 
the Poona neighbourhood. 

Through timely precautions it was possible to save the nests from 
destruction by local farmers, thus enabling our investigation to be 
continued more or less uninterruptedly throughout the nesting 
season, Bates 


To56): For the earlier contribution on this subject see JBNHS, 53: 381-389 


492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


The well which housed the Control Colony has been in seasonal 
occupation every year at least since 1951, and though we have no 
statistics for years previous to 1954, Our impression is that the size 
of this colony has remained constant. _ During the last three seasons 
the position was as follows: ._. »: 


Season So | , 22 _ , Completed occupied nests Part-built nests _, 
1954 i. 8G EAL BOS Cpe ee es ee 
1955 4 6 (?) 10 1 
1956 ms) 10 10 4 


Since nothing is known regarding the composition of such 
colonies, whether the occupants in successive years are largely (if 
at all) the same birds or the offspring produced within the colony, 
special efforts were directed towards marking the occupants in a way 
that would enable them to be identified with certainty later‘on: By 
catching the males in drop traps, using seed bait and live decoys, 
we were able to colour-band all the males of the Control Colony, as 
well as all the females and young in the nests, and it is hoped that 
some interesting data may be forthcoming during the 1957 season. 

To distinguish the birds of this colony during the current 
season, a small daub of green dye was put on their plumage in 
addition to various combinations of coloured rings. Red, the basic 
ring colour. in these combinations, will distinguish Control: Colony 
birds of the 1956 season in future. The dual marking enabled us 
to note the intra-colonial behaviour of the cocks as’ well ‘as ‘when 
members of adjacent colonies came Hoge Net eo loOr Ses be nest 
material in a jowar or bajra field. 

Although nest building commenced in early June, ine Lacie 
were tardy and spasmodic until immediately after the first ‘really wet. 
spell of the monsoon: in August, when also the first heavy influx of 
hens was noticed. The visits of females gave a marked fillip to the 
building activities. Within a week or so of the break in the almost 
continuous downpour of the previous few days (9.28 inches between 
25 July and 5 August)! the majority of the first ‘flush’ of nests was 
completed and occupied, while the presence of numerous additional 
unaccommodated females in the colony spurred the building cocks and 
kept up the tempo of their activity. The first egg in the Control 
Colony was laid on 19th August, the same date as in the previous 
year. That this is the principal egg-laying period in our Poona 
study area is suggested by the records of previous years, as follows: 


Season First Egg 
1951 oe aa 21 August 
1952 ar. She 6 August 
1953 Be Be not recorded 
1954 BA sit 18 August 
1955 aes es 19 August — 


At this stage of the monsoon there is normally a spell of several 
days of heavy and continuous rainfall during which nest-building 


1 Annual norm for Poona 26 inches. 


. FURTHER NOTES ON THE BAYA WEAVER BIRD 493 


comes to ia standstill. Immediately a break supervenes intensified 
activities are resumed, and within less than a week many nests are 
completed and appropriated by females and first eggs laid. The 
eggs, as mentioned in our earlier report, are laid at 24-hour intervals, 
in the morning. (One definite record for the third egg au ‘a clutch 
between 9 and 9.15 a.m.—26th August 1956.) 3 | 


CLUTCH SIZE 


Nests ecmincd in the Poona area during the 1956 season gave 
the following: 


No. of eggs in No. of Total 
clutch nests e885 

] 3 3 

2 5 10 

3 9 27 

4 3 2 

a) a 5) 

5 


Le 7 


Therefore average size of clutch 2.7. 3 

The clutches of one egg may be incomplete, while five (which we 
also found twice in 1954) is exceptional and may possibly be the 
product of two females. The commonest clutch recorded this season 
as well as in 1954 was of three eggs. 


Weight of Eggs: . The average of 28 eges was 2.24 2ms., 
maximum 2.7 and minimum 1.9 gm. (both from different. nests). 
VCA found, that the second egg of a clutch is normally heavier than 
the first: 


Average weight of firstegg ... .. 2.168 gms. (9 clutches) 
Average weight of second egg. ee esc Goris, ry 


Also that eggs laid in the first flush of laying average Heatiek than 
those in later clutches (e.g. in September). 


TABLE 1 


WEIGHT OF FRESH-LAID EGGS 


ie Poe No. of Clutches Average weight Average weight 
Ges examine da of first egg of second egg 
19-25 August ~~... ie 2.24 2:27 


5-24 September ... 2 2.0 Zhe 


These are interesting points on which further statistical data and 
confirmation are desirable. 


INCUBATION 


As recorded before, the female alone incubates, the male taking 
no part in this activity. During daytime the incubation is inter- 
mittent, the female flying in and out of the nest irregularly. 
Maximum period recorded in nest 13 minutes; minimum 1. minute. 


A94, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Incubation is continuous during the night, the female entering. the 
nest about sunset and emerging before sunrise. Incubation normally 
commences with the second egg, but in case of larger clutches some- 
times not till the clutch is completed. 
Incubation (previously reported by us as 14 to 15 days) lasts 
from 13 to 18 days but mostly 16, as seen from the following : 


TABLE 2 


Period to hatching No. of cases observed 
(from Ist egg) 


13 days 
14 ,, 
15 ” 
16 ,, 
V7 5, 
18 ,, 


pe bas OC Pt DO 


VCA directed special attention this season to the weights of nestlings. 
The young are born naked with a few scanty traces of down on 
head, back, and thighs. There were in all.11 nestlings in the 9 nests 
of Control Colony at the time, of which two died when 5 and 6 days 
old respectively. The weighing was done at dusk each evening, the 
individual chicks being identified by means of coloured dyes with 
which their down was daubed. 


The following table gives the details: 


TABLE 3 

No. of Age in Weight Range Average 
Young days in ems. in gms. 

11 1 2.15- 3.4 2.54 

11 iz 3.1 -— 4.7 Sal. 

11 3 4.0 - 56 5.0 

ll 4 44-78 6.9 

10 5 5.5 -10.8 8.4 

9 6 8.05--13.0 10.6 

9 7 10.5 -15.2 12.9 

g 8 12.2 —16.2 14.6 

9 9 14.1 -19.5 16.9 

9 10 17.7 -22.1 19.4 

9 11 19.2 -24.3 21.6 

9 12 17.6 —24.0 21.3 

9 13 19.2 —24.5 22.1 

9 14 21.5 -23.7 22.4 ¢ 

9 15 23.7 —-24.3 24.0 

8 16 20.1 -25.6 22.9 


It will be seen from the above that the maximum weight was attained | 
on the 15th day after hatching. 

Table 4 sets out the weights of the two young in a selected nest. 
(No. 17), and shows that the maximum was attained by the larger 
ct the two on the 18th day. It then weighed 26.0 gms. which is 
more than the average weight of adults, 24 gms. (for of and Q). 
On the 19th day the weight of both chicks was found to be less than 
on the evening before. They both left the nest on the 2oth day. In 
doing so, the larger chick accidentally fell into the water of the well 
and was instantly seized by a turtle and devoured. Accidental 


.. FURTHER NOTES ON THE BAYA WEAVER BIRD | 495- 


drowning and predation by turtles and bull frogs in this manner are 
minor secondary mortality factors in colonies situated in wells. 


TABLE 4 
“ Weight of young in gms. Increase in wt. of young in gms. 
Age in aay 5 Re Green Red Green 
1 2 i) 4 i) 
Area | eee 

1 2°3 2°6 

2 3:9 3°1 1°6 0:5 

3 4°0 ? 0:1 — 

4 ? 4°4 — “ss 

5 55 61 — 7 

6 8°0 8°6 2°5 25 

7 10°5 10°5 2°5 ly 

8 1225 12-2 | 2°0 7 

9 15") 14:1 | 2°6 1:9 
10 | 15°8 17°7 0°7 (?) 3°6 
Le 19°2 19°3 3°4 16 
12 20°1 20°8 0:9 eS 
13 21°6 21°4 1°5 0°6 
14 Zoe ? 0:6 ? 
15 ? 24.°3 — — 
16 24°9 24°5 0°2 
17 24°2 25:1 —0°7 0°6 
18 23°2 26°0 —1°0 0:9 
19 23°1 24°2 —0'1 —1°8 
20 Left the nest. 


| 


NESTLING PERIOD 


Table 5 shows the period between hatching and leaving the nest. 
In 33% of the cases investigated, this period was found to be 17 
days. Minimum 15/16 days, maximum 20 (13-14 days according to 
our previous report !): 


TABLE 5 
Days in nest Cases observed 

15 1 
16 2 
17 3 
18 1 
ly 1 
20 1 

9 


NESTING SUCCESS 


Ee ss’: 

In the Control Colony there was a total of 10 completed and 
occupied nests. Of these one was inaccessible and its contents could 
not be examined. The aggregate of eggs laid in the remaining 


496. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


nine nests was 25, i.e. 2.7 per nest. Eight eggs (in: three nests) 
got destroyed owing to rivalry among the cocks, one was eaten by a 
Calotes lizard, 2 proved infertile, and 3 were robbed by an urchin— 
total 14. The remaining 11 eggs, or 44%, hatched in due time. 


Young: 

Two young in one nest were starved to death (reason unknown) 
when five and six days old respectively. 

Thus, of the 11 that hatched out, 9 chicks (81.8%) grew up to 
leave the nest, or 36% of the eggs laid. Average success 1 chick per 
nest ! 


ABNORMAL NEsTS 


Why: abnormal! and double or panlt cotoreyed nests are found year 
after year only in certain colonies and almost never in others is open to 
speculation. However, one of the causes certainly seems to be want of 
approved attachment sites, though it is not oe) what precise factors 
determine suitability in this regard. 

In a fairly congested colony, not far from~our Control - Colony, 
which had 20 completed and occupied nests, was one nest containing 
four eggs. Three of these hatched and in dite course the full fledged 
young left the nest. Instead of building another nest in a fresh site, 
the cock sealed off the entrance tube of his first nest and used it as 
the point of suspension for his second nest. The latter was duly 
occupied: by a hen {the same ?) who laid two eggs and ices 
reared the chicks to adolescence. 

In another case it was‘ observed that due to Solent Wieniac bv 
monsoon gales, the entrance tube had swung up and got caught in 
some thorny twigs above, rendering the passage unusable. To 
evercome this obstruction, the cock built an alternative entrance tube 
fr om below. ; 


j 


Weight of -noT mal nests: 


After drying out for several days, the weight ae It PB omimleren nests 
averaged 56.8 gms.; maximum: 70.4..gms., minimum 33 gms. VCA 
notes that a few of the nests hanging down the shafts of wells lacked 
the blobs of mud ‘in ‘the interior. We have as yet found: no explanation 
for the apparently non-functional blobs of mud seen in the vast 
majority of nests. 


: SEx RATIO 

P. philippinws is polygamous, each male having 2 or 3 females 
during the breeding season. Thus the tertiary sex ratio (i.e. of adult 
birds) is 1 of: 2 (or 3) .9,9,..In..order to determine whether this 
same sex ratio holds good from the nestling stage or is brought 
about later, 35 nestlings were dissected when almost ready to leave 
he nest, .. Of, these, only in one case the sex remained uncertain. 

Owing’, to. the difficulty of accurate sexing at the time of hatching, 
eseseas was not attempted till the birds were more or less. fledged. 


FURTHER NOTES ON‘THE BAYA WEAVER BIRD 497 


Strangely enough, as will be seen from Table 6, there was actually 
a es crance of males over females, in the proportion 1.3: 0.9 
per nest; or 100: 70. 

If these figures and ratio are sustained by further investigation 
in the 1957 season, they will open up a number of intriguing problems. 


TABLE 6 
_ Season Nest No. | Total Get or 
. Pe hone 
1955 | 
24 Sept. 1 3 21— 
26%"; 2 2 11— 
10 Oct. 3 iL 1 — — + laddled (?) egg 
Ves 4 3 1 1 1 +1 addled (?) egg 
me ,, 5 3 24—_— 
15.3 6 3 21 _— 
1956 
26 Sept 1 2 1 oo 
ZO Z 1 1 — 
» ” 3 1 ae 
1 Oct 4 2 ye Fa 
Ore, 5 2 — 2 
ny ce aaa 6 3 2 23 
Doe i 3 el 
Doves, 8 3 Zero, 
Ze ss 9 3) 2] 
15 nests 5) 20 14 1 


aie INTELLIGENCE 
Nest: Repair: 

On the fifth day of incubation at 9.32 a.m. an oblong slit was 
niade in a nest (No. 17) then containing two eggs. At 9.34 a.m. 
thé female alighted on the nest and examined the hole, looked here 
and — there and .entered within. .She came out again at 9.35, but 
re- -entered at 9. 36 and spent nine minutes on the eggs. At 10.1 she 
inspected the hole again and tried to pull the fibres at tne cut edge 
across. the hole without success. At 10.10 a.m. the male, who had 
not been there up to that time, saw the: hole. He went away, but 
came back at 10.36 and started directly to repair the nest, first un- 
successfully, by means.of the existing fibres, later with the help of 
fresh material, -At.11.30,- i.e.,in just under an ‘hour, he nae repaired 
the mutilation. completely. : . aay , 

The same nest was, opened up every evening ee oth and 
28th September in order to take the weights of the’ chicks. It was 
completely repaired by the bird each day. When the nestlings were 
&-g;,days old; the male joined the female in feeding them, ‘thereafter 
both parents using. the hole freely for entrance and exit’ After the 
tenth day the'cock did not close up the hole any more, but instead 
hebwove the fibres in such a way that a hood or projection was 
formed above the‘hole. It had the twofold advantage of ‘permitting 
convenient entry and exit, while at the same timé protécting the young 


498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


from rain and exposure. This pattern of ‘utility’ repair was quite 
novel. . | 


2. The Bombay Area 


On 20 May 1956 most old nests in the palmyra colony were cut 
down in order to clear the site for fresh observations. One of these old 
completed nests contained four hard-set eggs of Lonchura malabarica. 
Another held one fresh munia egg’ along with much old droppings of 
ihe birds, suggesting that the nest had already served to bring up 
a family, or been in use as a dormitory. Three completed disused 
nests and four half built ones were left untouched as possible focus 
for the bayas. . - 

Sharing the head of this palm, amongst the mass of leaves, was 
a colony of about 12 large bats (Cynopterus or Rousettus ?), several 
small pipistrelles (sp. ?), and 3 or 4 pairs of palm swifts (Cypselus). 

Some showers of rain during the previous week had served to 
attract a few bayas to this traditional nest site. The beginnings of 
the community choruses were in evidence and even four fresh tassel- 
like attachments for nests had been laid, though the birds working on 
these were as yet in @ plumage. At this stage, activity at the nest 
colony was only noticed in the early mornings. After about 8.30 a.m. 
no bayas were to be seen on the nest-tree, except for sporadic fleeting 
visits by individual birds. 

Activities were suspended during a spell of heavy rainfall of 
several days in the first week of July. They were resumed at feverish 
tempo immediately a break in the weather occurred. There was 
tremendous noise, excitement, and wing-flapping at each female’s 
arrival, all the building males getting thoroughly worked up, and 
many launching out in pursuit of the hens round and round the tree 
and trying to ‘bump’ rivals. 

Two nests at the ‘bell’ or ‘helmet’ stage were appropriated by two 
females who, in the midst of and despite the general commotion, 
persisted in returning to them time and again. They sat complacently 
on the. cross-bar and laconically pulled at a strand here and another 
there in the interior of the nest. Two or three times the respective 
owners, who meanwhile clung on the outside and fluttered excitedly, 
entered the nest and copulated with the hens in response to a food- 
begging, shivering invitation. 

In one case, while a male was thus ‘waiting on’ outside with a 
female sitting on the cross-bar within, a second interested female 
alighted momentarily on this nest. She was immediately set upon by 
the cock, who seized her by a toe so that for one fleeting moment she 
hung thus under the nest, fluttering to free herself, and then made 
good her escape. 

Females arriving at the colony, if pursued by a party of males 
before they had an opportunity of alighting on a nest, usually sought 
refuge: in a ‘neighbouring tree, followed by the amorous band. No 
copulations were, however, observed away from the nest. 

On’ 8 July, 8 to 10 nests, completed or nearly so, including 
some of those left over from last season, were found lying beneath 
the nest-palm, snipped off at the attachment close to the dome, soggy 


FURTHER NOTES ON THE BAYA WEAVER BIRD 499 


and ruined by the almost continuous downpour of the week. Two 
of the completed ones among these derelicts held 6 and 4 fairly fresh 
baya eggs respectively. Presumably, a sufficient number of com- 
pleted nests not being available, more than one female had had 
recourse to laying in the same nest (the normal clutch in the Bombay 
area is also 2 or 3 eggs). The popularity with site-prospecting 
females of the few completed nests available may have provoked 
the jealousy of the unsuccessful or backward rivals who were, with- 
out doubt, responsible for the vandalism. 

On 17 July, nine breeding-plumaged males of this colony were 
netted on the ground immediately underneath the nest-palm_ with 
the aid of grain bait and live decoys. No females were attracted, 
those present in the colony being apparently uninterested in grain at 
this stage. All the nine males were ringed on the right leg: White, 
Red, Pink, Green, Blue, Yellow, White/Blue, White/Red, White/ 
Pink. More females were present in the colony on this date than 
were available nests, and much competition among them was_ notice- 
able. Many of the 25 completed nests already contained chicks being 
fed by females on green grasshoppers. One roving female clung to 
the rim of the entrance tube of an occupied nest, making repeated 
attempts to enter. She was resisted by the occupant female with 
vicious lunges from the egg-chamber. A second female joined the 
intruder in her attempts to enter. A scuffle ensued between the two 
intruders and one of them was driven off. Similar attempts to force 
entry into other nests in the face of vigorous resistance from the 
occupant were also observed, and competition among the prospecting 
females for eligible nests in the colony was particularly lively at this 
period. 

During the last week of July and beginning of August there was 
almost incessant rain (35 inches in about 10 days) accompanied by violent 
squalls. The colony presented a deserted and woe-begone appearance 
and many completed nests had been blown down. The females, 
however, continued to feed the chicks in such of the sodden nests as 
remained. These periodical spells of intensely wet and squally 
weather, which are a regular feature of every monsoon season, con- 
stitute an important primary factor in the mortality rate of the baya, 
though the severity of their effects varies with the stage in the 
nesting process at which they occur. 

By 7/8 August, fresh building activity had already re-started with 
great vigour. The majority of the nests were now in the early stages, 
from the initial attachment to the bell or helmet stage. The strong 
invasion of prospecting females spurred the tempo of the activities ; 
thus one nest, started at 8 a.m., had the loop and one side of the 
dome completed by 3.30 p.m. with the blobs of mud stuck within. The 
colony now contained c. 35 working males including the marked 
ones B, W, W/P, and W/R. The last had been missed from the 
colony ever since the day he was ringed and used as a decoy before 
release, presumably being thoroughly scared by the experience! 

On 1o August, brisk building activity was still in progress between 
g and 11.30 a.m., but it waxed to fever pitch after c. 1 p.m. After 
this hour, numerous females were constant visitors to the colony 
causing unprecedented commotion and noisy cheeing choryses and 


500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


wing-flapping among the working: cocks. In between, the cocks 
were making hurried sorties for green strips, sometimes being out 
and back with material within two minutes. 

On 29 August when sunset was at 6.57 1.5.T. all the females who 
were in occupation of nests had retired within for the night by 6.45. 
All the prospecting females had left the colony by 6.50. By 6.55 only 
3 (or 4) males remained. The last male left the colony a couple of 
minutes later, and complete silence reigned thereafter. 

On 2 September, a day of feverish activity during a lull in another 
week-long downpour, it was observed that the influx of prospecting 
females was heaviest for about 14 hours in the late (sunny) afternoon, 
from about 5 p.m. till sunset. 

‘Day-to-day progress in the construction of the various nests 
belonging to the colour-ringed and identifiable males was easily 
followed by a technique of superimposing each day’s sketch plan of 
the colony upon that made on the previous visit. The results pro- 
vided not only a clear indication of the time taken to complete the 
various nests, but also indubitable proof that each male is normally 
the owner of at least two nests, occasionally of three, and rarely 
even of four. ; 

On 10 August, a ringed cock of the last category was busy tearing 
down his sodden nest which had contained young prior to the last 
onslaught of bad weather. A gaping hole in the side of the nest, 
opposite the egg chamber, proclaimed that the young had probably 
come to grief at the hands oe some predator. 


ABNORMAL NESTS 


In our previous notes {JBNHS, 53: 385) we stated in regard to 
Jesse’s account of a seven-storeyed nest, whose last three chambers 
contained 3, 3, and 2 eggs respectively, that if it was intended to 
mean that the chambers were in contemporaneous occupation then 
it was open to serious doubt. ‘As happens all too often with 
ornithological observations, almost the day after that was written 
Wwe Camé across an instance which suggests that some modification. 
of that: verdiet may be necessary! .A completed nest of one of. the 
marked cocks (W/P) was in occupation by an incubating female who 
was seen constantly entering and leaving by the normal route, i.e. 
the entrance tube. On 29 August, ot W/P was noticed adding a 
lower chamber to this nest. He had blocked up the entrance tube 
at the mouth and was using this as the point of suspension for the 
second chamber. It was noticed, however, that a lateral hole had 
been bored in the tube just above the new attachment, through which 
the female now continued to enter and leave the upper chamber. On 
4 September the second (lower) chamber. was completed, though as 
yet minus a tube. It was, to all appearances, already occupied by 
a second female, but this could not be definitely ascertained. 
Unfortunately observations were cut short at this stage as SA had to 
leave the station, and further history of this second nest remains 
unrecorded. But it is a point for confirmation whether two or more 
storeys of a multinle: nest are sometimes occupied by females con- 
temporaneously in this apartment-house style. | 


FURTHER NOTES ON THE BAYA WEAVER BIRD. | 501 


COPULATION 


Prior to the 1956 season our observations had failed to provide a 
satisfactory answer to where, and under what circumstances, co- 
pulation took place. From certain vibratory movements of a 
completed nest into which a male baya had followed his female, SA 
had suggested that it possibly took place within the nest. In the 
1956 season we obtained ample corroboration of this except in that, 
normally at any rate, copulation takes place as soon as a female 
has approved of and appropriated a nest at the early bell or helmet 
stage. When she arrives at such an eligible nest the hen takes up 
her position on the loop or cross-bar (‘chin strap’) and busies herself 
with tugging at a strip here and another there within the dome. 
She is closely attended by the amorous builder who clings on the 
outside, excitedly fluttering his wings, pressing his attentions and 
making repeated efforts to enter after her. If the female is unready 
and seriously wishes to repel his advances she promptly whips round 
and snaps at him, sometimes again and again. Otherwise she 
encourages, or invites, him by tilting up her posterior with her breast 
lowered into the egg chamber and by a slight shivering of the wings, 
uplifted at the armpits, as in food-begging. The act lasts about a 
second, the cock resuming his position on the outside of the nest 
immediately thereafter, and the female either flying off or continuing 
on her perch. In one case the initial copulation took place at 
5-55 p-m. It was repeated at 6.5 and again at 6.45 with an abortive 
attempt in the interval, at 6.35. Soon after the last-copulation, the 
female left the colony for the night, to be followed a few minutes 
later by the cock at the close of the day’s work. 

It was observed that cocks will surreptitiously attempt to copulate 
with the hens visiting:'an absent neighbour's nest, in the same way as 
they will filch his nesting material. As in the latter case, they flee 
precipitately upon the owner’s return. In one instance the owrier 
arrived while'the act of ‘adultery’ was in progress. He broke off the 
pairing and spiritedly chased the intruder, who flitted across and 
settled on his own nest hard by while the owner himself took over 
the overtures: to the hen. On the other hand-a ‘married’ female, 
newly in possession of ‘nést and mate, will sometimes snatch a hasty 
opportunity’ ‘to hop across to a neighbouring eligible nest (i.e. in the 
appropriate helmet stage) in the momentary. absence: of’ its rightful 
‘mistress’, deliberately exposing herself to the amorous’ i:mpetuosity 
of the ‘married’ owner, and even inviting and permitting copulation. 

Thus, while ‘progressive polygamy’ is now definitely established 
as the normal procedure in the baya, our observations in the 1956 
season provide strong evidence also of fortuitous promiscuity in the 
sexual relations of both sexes. 


SUMMARY 


1. The numerical strength of a baya colony remains more or less 
constant from year to year. (p. 492.) 

2. ‘he significance of the blobs of mud found inside most nests, 
but not in all, remains un-understood. (p. 4096.) 


302 


nur 


Oo oN 


lO. 


IT. 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54 


Nest-building activity reaches its highest tempo when a break 
in the weather supervenes after several days of continuous 
rain-and squalls. The flush of egg-laying in a colony is more 
or less synchronous. (pp. 492 & 498.) 

These recurring spells. of bad weather during the nesting season 
are amongst the major primary natural mortality factors in 
baya colonies. Accidental drowning of chicks, and predation 
by turtles and bull frogs may be regular but minor secondary 
factors, especially in the well colonies. (Wholesale destruc- 
tion by human agency, as reported in JBNHS, 53: 389, 1s of 
local incidence.) (pp. 494 & 499.) | 
Average clutch size in the Poona area is determined. (p. 493.} 
It is suggested that the average weight of the first egg laid 
is heavier than the second. Also that eggs in the earlier 
Jayings average heavier than late in the season. (p. 493. -) 
The incubation period is corrected to 16 days, mostly. 

The nestling period is corrected to 16/17 days, mostly. 

Daily weights and weight-ranges of nestlings in a controlled 
colony are given. (p. 4094.) 

Also daily weights of two nestlings in a selected nest over the 
entire nestling period. (p. 495.) 

Percentages of hatching and nestling success in a controlled 
colony are estimated. (p. 496.) 

Sexing of nestlings when more or less ready to leave the nest 
showed an unexpected preponderance of males over females. 
(p. 496.) 

Some more abnormal nests are described. (pp. 496 & 500.} 
Weights of some normal nests are given. (p. 496.) 

An original pattern of utilitarian repair to an experimentaily 
mutilated nest, suggesting a very flexible intelligence, is 
described. (p. 497.) 

Activity and behaviour of nesting bayas in the Chembur colony 
are described, with special reference to ringed, identifiable 
males. (p. 499.) 

A presumptive instance of two females occupying a ‘tandem’ 
or double-storeyed nest contemporaneously is cited. (p. 500.} 
Details are presented of when and. where copulation takes place. 
In addition to the baya being ‘progressively polygamous’ it 
1S suggested that both males and females are fortuitously 
promiscuous in their sex relations. (p. 501.) 


JoURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE B 


I. Ocypoda ceratophthalma x %. 2. Gelasimus marionts nitidus x L. 
3. Varuna litterata x 3. 4. Metopograpsus messor x 1. 
5. Grapsus strigosus <1. 6. Sesarma (Sesarma) oceanica x 3. 


7. Gelasimus annulipes x 1. 


ON THE MARINE CRABS (DECAPODA : BRACHYURA) 
OF BOMBAY STATE*® 


BY 
| B. F. CHHAPGAR, M.SC. 
Taraporevala Marine Biological Station, Bombay 


ParRT II 
(With one coloured and five line plates, and one text-tigure) 
(Continued trom p. 439 of this volume) . 


Family PIVNOTHERIDAE 


Subfamily PINNOTHERINAE 
Genus Pinnotheres Latreille 
Pinnotheres placunae Hornell & Southwell 


(Plate 12) 


Pinnotheres placunae, Hornell & Southwell, ep. Marine Zool. Okhamandail, 
p. 99 (1909). 


Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were found iiving as commensals 
within the mantle-cavity of the bivalve Placuna placenta at Bombay. 
The majority were found near the anus. ‘The dimensions of two speci- 
mens are given below, in terms of divisions—each division = 0.125 mm. 


Male: 
length of carapace .. JO0divs. (or 6.25 mm.) 
breadth of carapace .. O8divs. (or 7.25 mm.) 
ratio of length : breadth of carapace aay 10.002 
Cheliped :—length of dactylus 13 divs. 
length of upper border of palm... 20 divs. 
greatest width of palm wee. 1S divs; 
ratio of len¢th of dactylus: length of 
upper border of palm 0.65 
ratio of length of dactylus : width of palm 1.1 
Walking legs :— 
ischitum 
& . carpus propodus dactylus Total 
merus 
Right : length of Ist leg 35 | 12 14 7 .. 68 divs. 
length of 2nd leg 40 13 20 9 pan ROZSCIVS: 
length of 3rdleg 40 12 Ze, 15 ... 89divs. 
length of 4th leg 21 7 12 i2 see. O2-GivS: 
ratio of propodus : dactylus of 4th right lee Petre lal 


* as it existed up to 31st October, 1956. 


504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Volt 54 


ischium 
& carpus propodus dactylus Total 
merus 
Left : length of Ist leg 35 9 12 8 ... 64 divs. 
length of 2nd leg 38 16 18 10 ... 82 divs. 
(/\ 73! lemgthof 3rdjileg. (.*:43_2....12- 22 17 — =... 94:divs. 
length of 4th leg . 19. ) 10 12 ... 90 divs. 
ratio of propodus : dactylus of 4th left leg oan WEIS 
Female : 
length of carapace : .«. ‘60 divs. (Or 7.5,mm.) 
breadth of carapace -- .. Q90divs. (or11.25 mm ) 
ratio of length: breadth of carapace . ..._ 0.666 
Cheliped :—length of dactylus — 16 divs. 
length of upper border of palm 25 divs. 
greatest width of palm .. 14 divs. 
ratio of length of dactylus : length of 
upper border of palm A TREN 
ratio of length of dactylus : width of Lone 
palm | nh anon da 
Walking legs :— — 
ischium 
04 carpus propodus dactylus Total 
merus 
Right : length of Istlezg 33 9 cide _ 10 .. 64 divs. 
length of 2nd leg 36 ity) 18 17 1 62 GIVS: 
length of 3rd leg 40 16 21 14 i.) Glidiivs: 
length of 4th leg 30 cal 16 18 ... 78 divs. 
ratio of propodus : dactylus of 4th right leg coe = O88 
Left : length of Ist leg 35 10 13 9 .. 67 divs. 
length of 2nd leg oF 216. : 20 2, SOO Clwst 
length of 3rd leg 39 19 23 18 sore BOO GINS: 
length of 4th leg 30 dio 3e faka 16.5% s.evAeGivs. 
ratio of propodus : dactylus of 4th left leg © Been OSH 


In the female, the body is soft and membranous. The carapace is 
broader than long, circular, smooth and flat. The antero-lateral angles, | 
though rounded, are pronounced. The external maxillipeds have the 
antero-internai angle ot the ischium-merus rounded ; the dactylus does not . 
extend to the apex of the propodus. 

The legs increase in size posteriorly, except the last pair, which are 
smalier than the first. The dactyli of the last two pairs are'14 times as 
long as those of the first two, those o fthe last pair being more hairy at 
the tips. There is a thick tuft of hair at the distal end of the propodite of 
the last pair. 

In the male, the carapace is smooth, and harder than in the female. 
The legs are slender. The first pair is about equal in length to the 
chelipeds, the second pair is longer than the first by slightly more than a 
dactylus, and the third is longer than the second by a dactylus, There is 
a thick tuft of hair at the distal end of the propodite of the last pair. The 
abdomen is narrow. Colour light pinkish. 

This species is similar to Pinnotheres similis Burger, which too lives 
in Placuna placenta, but differs from it in the following : tes 

(1) the front is not setose ; 
(2) there are no spinules on the dactylus of the last. leg’; 
(3) the proportions of the lengths of the legs are different. 

The anterior male abdominal appendages are long, cylindrica], and 
rod-like. Their tips are bent at the end in the shape of aclaw, and bear 
coarse hairs near both margins. 


ON THE MARINE-CRABS OF BOMBAY... 505 


, According to Hernell and Southwell, the dactyii of the, chelipeds are 
‘e ‘long as their paim ; in the specimens in the present collection, they are 
only three-fourths as long as their palm. Also, the anterior male abdo- 
minal appendages, according to these authors, always project from beneath 
the abdomen. In none of the present specimens can this be.seen. : 

From 10 shells of Placuna placenta opened, four contained a male as 
well as a female crab ; five contained a female, and one gave negative 
results., Almost all the females were berried. 

This Eccles has been pre euel ys Heledelse from Okha. 


Sees ee Chhapgar 
(Plate 12) 


Pinhotheres wicazit, Chhapgar, Rec. Ind. Mus. liii (in ees) ) (1955). 


Female : Body soft, carapace subquadrate, anterior angles _Jpreleetistc cs 
but with rounded corners, no pigment spots. 

Merus-ischium of external maxillipeds is a broad plate with the inner 
(posterior) margin slightly concave and the anteru-internal angle pro- 
nounced : propodus elongate, broad and spatuiate, it reaches farther than 
the inner angle of the merus. Dactylus minute, styiiform, inserted at inner 
margin of propodus, just over-reaching the inner angle of the imerus, and 
reaching to the end of the propodus..: 

Third pair of walking legs the longest, last pair longer than the first ; 
propodites with a few silky hairs distally ; dactyli of the ‘first two pairs 
subequal in length, strongly hooked, those of the third and fourth pairs 
about twice as long as the first two, subequal, hairy and slendcr, regularly 
curved. 

Abdomen of seven joints. 

Male: Carapace smooth, well calcified, coders without any trace 
of anterior angles, covered with minute, scattered pigment spots on the 
anterior half of the carapace up to a line joining the bases of the second 
pair of walking legs. 

Merus-ischium and propodus of external maxillipeds similar to those 
of the femaie, except that the propodus is abruptly narrowed in the distal 
half. The dactyius does not even reach the antero-internal angle ot the 
merus, aS it does in the female. ‘There is a brush of hairs at the tip of 
the last joint of the exognath of the external maxillipeds, but no hairs 
along the sides of this joint. 

Third pair of walking legs the longest, the last pair shortest: inner 
borders of carpus and propodus of the second and third pairs of legs, as 
also all borders of the last pair fringed with silky hairs. A fringe of hair 
runs diagonally from the inner border of the proximal end of the carpus 
to the outer border of the distal end of the propodus of the second and 
third pairs of legs. Dactyli of first three pairs of legs subequal, those of 
the last pair slightly shorter ; all hairy. 

Abdomen seven-jointed, narrow, no fringe of hair on its borders. 

Colour yellow; in the male the carapace is covered with minute black 
pigment spots. 

Four females (two of them berried), and two males represent the pre- 
sent collection. Both sexes were obtained from the bivalve Paphia 
malabarica at Bombay, each crab living separately in a shell. 


506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


T’he measurements of the type specimens in millimetres are given in 
the following table: 


Type female. Type male. 
Length of carapace es 56 4-0 
Breadth of carapace ae 6°4 4:0 
Breadth of front atte Ae3 ot 
Breadth of anterior border of carapace 4°] — 
left right left right 
Ist walking leg 
merus ne Onea 0°75 0°84 0°84 
carpus re U5) 0°47 0°34 0°36 
propodus ... 0°66 0°67 0°47 0°49 
dactylus “2, *O226 0°28 0°20 0:23 
2nd walking leg 
merus cokes 1,14 1°00 1:07 
carpus <2 "0590 0°56 0°45 0°45 
propodus rou O2ho 0°79 0°50 0°52 
dactylus ss Ores 0°29 0°20 0°24 
3rd walking leg 
merus a 1°69 1°13 1:70 1°73 
carpus ... 0°84 0°66 0:44 0°47 
propodus oes kee 0°90 0°60 0°75 
dactylus ... 0°46 0°38 0:26 0°28 
(regenerated) 
4th walking leg 
merus .. 0°84 1:03 0715) 2670 
carpus vot Oral 0°52 0:37 0°33 
propodus Jee 20:03 0°75 0:49 0°47 
dactylus w. 0°47 0°51 0-23 0-22 


This species is allied to Pzanotheres guadrvatus Rathbun in the pigmen- 
tation of the male carapace and the small size of the dactylus of the 
external maxillipeds, but differs from it mainly in the circular male 
carapace, covered only in the anterior half with minute pigment spots, and 
without any trace of anterior angles, hirsute nature of the dactyli of all 
the legs, and narrew abdomen. 


Family OCYPODIDAE 
Subfamily OCYPODINAE 
Genus Ocypoda Fabricius 


Ocypoda ceratophthalma (Pallas) 
(Platew13) 


Ocypode ceratophthalmus, Barnard, dan. S. Afr, Mus. xxxviii, p. 86 (1950). 
Ocypode ceratophthalma, Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 751 
(1900). 
Ocypoda ceratophthalma, Waswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 94 (1882). 
de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, p. 
107 (1887). 
Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p. 
110 (1890). 
Henderson, Zrans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, 
p. 387 (1893). 
Alcock and Anderson, Journ, As, Soc. Bengal 
Ixiii, p. 202 (1894). 
Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 345 (1900). 


Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 12 


Pinnotheres placunae Hornell and Southwell: a. Female, dorsal view. 6. Female, ventral 


view. c. 4th walking leg of female. d. Tip of same, enlarged. e. 3rd maxilliped of female. 
f. Male, dorsal view. g. Male, ventral view. h. 4th walking leg of male. i. Tip of same, 
enlarged. j. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. k. Tip of same, enlarged. J/. Dorsal 
view of male Pinnotheres quadratus Rathbun. m. External maxilliped of same. x. Dorsal 
view of male Pinnotheres vicajii Chhapgar, with abdomen extended. o. External maxilliped 


oF same. . Dorsal view of female Pinnotheres vicajit Chhapgar. gq. External maxilliped 
of same. 


Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 13. 


23447 
979799 
peers) 


Ocypoda ceratophthalma (Pallas): a. Dorsal view of crab. 6. Ist left abdominal 
appendage of male. c. Tip of same, enlarged. Ocypoda cordimana Desmarest: d. Dorsal 
view of crab. e. Ist left abdominal appendage of male. /f. Tip of same, enlarged. Ocypoda 
votundata Miers: g. Dorsal view of crab. 4. Ist left abdominal appendage of male. z. Tip 
oi same, enlarged. Gelasimus annulipes Latreille: 7. Dorsal view of male. &. Cheliped of 
male. ¢é, ist left abdominal appendage of male. 7. Tip of same, enlarged. #. Spooned 
hair on 2nd maxilliped, front view. o. Same, side view. Gelasimus marionis (Desmarest), 
and Gelasimus miarionis nitidus Dana: . Dorsal view of male Gelasimus marionis. 
g. Cheliped of same. 7. Cheliped of male Gelasimus marionis nitidus. s. 1st left abdominal 
appendage of same. 7#. ‘lipof same, of Gelasimus marionts enlarged. wu. Tip of same, of 
Gelasimus marionis nitidus enlarged. v. Spooned hair on 2nd mazxilliped, front view. 
w. Same, side view. 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 507 


Laurie, Ceylon Pear] Oyster Fish. Report (5) p. 426 
(1906). 

Parisi, Adtz. Soc. It. Sc. Nat. \ii, p. 96 (1918). 

Tesch Szdoga Exped. Rep. xxxix, p. 36 (1918). 

Gravely, 4ull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 148 


(1927). 

Chopra and Das, ec. Ind, Mus. xxxix, p. 418 
(1937). 

weedy. Bull, Raffles Mus. Singapore 13, p. 27 
(1937). 


Sakai, Yokendo Lid. Tokyo, p. 614 (1939). 

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, 
p. 153 (1950). 

Tweedie, Lull. Raffles Mus. Singapore 21, p. 127 
(1950). 


Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected from Bombay, 
Karwar, Koiak, and Umarsadi. They live in burrows in sand. An 
average male measures: 


length of carapace SAeeo Tain. 
breadth of carapace ss). Jo) TI. 


This species is distinguished by the eyestalks prolonged to form a 
style, the presence of a stridulating organ consisting of tubercles 
passing into striae, and the anterior surface of the propodites of the first 
two pairs of legs being furnished with a brush of hairs, 

Colour whitish, the inner border of the arm of the chelipeds cherry- 
red, 

In the specimens in the present collection, the brush of hairs on the 
propodites of the second pair of legs is much sparser than that on the 
first. 

The ‘spooned’ hairs found on the second maxillipeds in Gelastmus 
and Macrophthalmus are surprisingly absent in all Ocyjfoda, although the 
mode of teeding is similar. 

The anterior male abdominal appendages are sharply bent near the 
tip, which is rounded and consists of two somewhat flattened and distally 
rounded lobes, separated by a narrow incision between them. 

This species occurs from Tahiti to the east coast of Africa, and has 
also been recorded from the Bay of Bengal. This is the first record 
from the west coast of India. 


Ocypoda cordimana Desmarest 
(Plate 13) 


Ocypode (Ocypode) cordimana, De Haan, Fauna Japonica v p. 57 (2850). 
Ocypode cordimanus, Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 84 (1950). 
Ocypode cordimana, Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 752 (19)0), 
Ucy poda cordimana, Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 95 (1882). 
de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, p. 108 
(1887). 
Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 387 
(1893) 
Alcock i Anderson, Journ. As. Soc, Bengal \xiii, 
p. 202 (1894). 
Alcock, Journ, As. Soc, Bengal \xix, p. 349 (1900). 
Parisi, Atti. Soc. It. Sc. Nat. \vii, p. 96 (1918). 
Tesch, Srdoga Exped. Rep. xxxix, p. 35 (1918). 
Kohli, Proc. Lahore Phil. Soc. iii, p. 84 (1921-1922). 


508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.:SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Gravely, Budi. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 148 (1927). 

Chopra and Das, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxix, p. 420 (1937). 

Tweedie, Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore 13, p. 141 (1937). 

Sakai, Yokendo Lid. Tokyo, p. 613 (i939). 

Shen, Szll. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) x, p. 91 (1940). 

Tweedie, Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore 21, p. 126 (1950). 
Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p. 27 (1951). 


The present collection is represented by a male specimen from Umar- 
sadi. It lives in burrows in sand.. It measures: 


length of carapace Sige C0) DOO 
breadth of carapace .. 24mm, 


This species is distinguished by the absence of a stridulating ridge and 
by the eyestalks not being prolonged to form a style. 

Colour grey. “ 

In the anterior male abdominal appendages there is no deep incision 
separating the two lobes at the tip, though the lobes are well differen- 
tiated. 

This species has been previously recorded from the Bay of Bengal and 
Travancore. It occurs from Tahiti and Japan to the Red Sea. This is 
the first record from Bombay State. 


Ocypoda rotundata Miers 


(Plate 13) | 
Ocypoda rotundata, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 348 (1900). 


A male from Okha is in the present collection. It lives in burrows in 
sand. It measures : > 


length of carapace woe) 4a Tina 
breadth of carapace wee V4 mia, 


This species in distinguished by the antero-lateral angles being rounded 
off, and the length of the stridulating organ being much less than half 
the greatest breadth of the palm. 

Colour white. 

The anterior male abdominal appendages are curved throughout their 
length. The tip somewhat resembles a camel’s head and bears a ridge 
with hairs. ‘There are hairs also on the distal part of the outer border. 

This species has been previously recorded from Cutch, Sind, and 
Baluchistan. ‘This is the first record from Bombay State. 


Genus Gelasimus Latreille 


Gelasimus annulipes Latreille 


(Plate 13) 


Uca annulipes, Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc, London, p. 754 (1900). 
Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. x xxviii, p. 97 (1950). 
Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 153 (1950). 
Tweedie, Sarawak Mus. Journ. WV, De 300°(1950). 
Gelasimus annulipes, de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, p. 118 (1887). 
Henderson, Trans, Linn. a, London (Zool.) v, p. 388 
(1893). 


ON THE MARINE: CRABS: OF. BOMBAY: ..\- ">: 509 


Alcock and Anderson, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal ixiii, p. 
202 (1894). 

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 353 (1900). 

Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish, Report ( 5), p. 425 (1906) u 

Kemp, Wem. Ind. Mus. v, p. 221 (1915-1924). 

Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 148 (1927). 

Tweedie, Bull. Rafties Mus. Singapore 13, p. 141 (1937). 

Sakai, Yokendo Ltd. Tokyo, p. 616, (1939). 

Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p. 28 (1951). 


Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected at Bombay, 
Karwar, Okha, Kolak, and Umarsadi. They live in burrows in sandy 
mud. An average male measures: 


length of carapace «. » LOUmin, 
breadth of carapace Ho Solo yaechool 
breadth of front Sao Mm. 
length of larger hand Ree ot 


This species is distinguished by the subquadrilateral carapace with 
moderately convergent lateral borders, the front being a fifth to a sixth its 
breadth. The tip of the thumb of the chelipeds appears notched-truncate 
due to the presence of an enlarged tooth. An oblique granular ridge along 
the dentary edge of the thumb, and another along its lower edge, are 
present. 

The anterior male abdominal appendages are bilobed at the tip, the 
larger lobe being blunt, the smaller ane pointed ; both bear hairs. 

There are peculiar ‘ spooned’ hairs on the posterior half of the merus 
and the inner side of the tip of the palp of the second miaxillipeds, used 
probably for feeding. The ‘spoon’ consists of about five rounded lobes 
on each side, continuing into hairs. 

This species has been previousiy recorded from both the coasts of India. 
This is the first record from Bombay State. 


Gelasimus marionis (Desmarest) 


(Plate 13) 


Uca marionis, Tesch, Siboga Exped. Kep. xxxix, p. 38 (1918). 
Barnard, Ann. S. Afr, Mus. xxxviii. p. 90 (1950). 

Gelasimus marionis, Alcock, Journ, As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 359 (1900). 
Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 148 (1927). 
Chopra and Das, ec. Ind. Mus. xxix, p. 422 (1937). 
Tweedie, Bull. Rattles Mus. Singapore- 13, p. 143 (1937). 
Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) x, p. 90 (1940). 
Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p. a9 (1951). 


Numerous specimens were collected from Bombay. They live in 
burrows in sandy mud. An average specimen measures : 


length of carapace coed 7 tatide 
breadth of carapace vent 27, Ini. 

_ breadth of front oro bd BIT, 
length of larger hand wae) 40 MI, 


In this species, the front is less than a fitteenth the breadth of the cara- 
pace. ‘he upper surface of the wrist is granular, the fingers are compressed 
and blade-like, and the edge of the thumb has a simple S-shaped curve. 


510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Colour in spirit blackish, claws white. 

The smaller male cheliped is hairy. The larger hand is less than 
thrice the carapace length. 

The anterior male abdominal appendages are. suddenly sharp at the 
tip, which bears numerous long hairs. There is a lobe near the tip, from 
which a wide groove passes towards the base. 

The spooned hairs on the second mazxillipeds are present. The 
‘spoon’ is wider than in Gelastmus annulipes and consists of about five 
lobes, the proximal three of which are pointed. 

This species has been previously recorded from both the Bay of Bengal 
and the Arabian Sea. It ranges from Samoa and Fiji to the east coast of 
Africa and the Red Sea. ‘This is the first record from Rombay State. 


Gelasimus marionis nitidus Dana 
(Plate 13) 


Uca marionis var. nitidus, Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thatland, 
p. 154 (1950). 
‘Tweedie, Sarawak Mus. Journ. v, p. 356 (1950). 
Gelasimus marionis var. nitidus, enon) Journ. AS. Scc. Bengal \xix, p. 369 
1900). 
ene Bull. Madras Govt, Mus.i, p. 148 
(1927). 
Chopra and Das, fec. Ind. Mus, xxxix, 
p. 422 (1937). 
Tweedie, Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore 13, 
p. 143 (1937). 
Gelasimus marionis nitidus, Sakai, Yokendo Ltd. Tokyo, p. 622 (1939). 
aes: Fan Mem. Inst. Biol ( Zoot.) x, p. 91 
(1940). 


This variety is distinguished from Gelasimus martonis by the cutting 
edge of the thumb being thrown into a W-shaped curve owing to the strong 
projection of two large triangular lobes. 

Colour, locality, size, distribution, anterior male abdominal append- 
ages and spooned hairs same as in Gelasimus marionts. 

Opinions differ as to the validity of this variety. Tesch (1918) calis 
this variety as only a claw-variation of Gelasimus marionts. According to 
Tweedie it is probably a case of ‘ geographically local dimorphism confined 
to the males’, The females in the two forms are inseparable. This view 
is confirmed by the similarity of the anterior male abdominal appendages 
in the two forms. 


Gelasimus dussumieri Milne-Edwards 


(Plate 14) 


Uca dussumieri, Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 753 (1900). 
‘Tesch, Szboga Exped. Rep. xxxix, p. 39 (1918). 
Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p.153 (1950). 
Tweedie, Sarawak Mus. Journ. v, p. 356 (1950). 
Gelasimus dussumieri, Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 93 (1882). 
Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 1xix, p. 361 (1900). 
Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) x, p. 91 (1940), 


=“ 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 511 


Numerous specimens of both sexes were collected from Kolak and 
Umarsadi. ‘They live in burrows in mud. An average male measurss: 


length of carapace ser 12. mM, 
breadth of carapace adh RE pahone 
breadth of front Ba teasy499 000 cal 


In this species, the front is less than a fifteenth the greatest breadth 
of the carapace, which is at the acute, wing-like, antero-lateral angles. 
The fingers of the chelipeds end in simple hooked tips, and the meropo- 
dites of the last pair of legs are not foliaceous. 

Colour in spirit chocolate-brown, chelipeds reddish yellow. 

The anterior male abdominal appendages are split into two lobes at 
the tip. 

The ‘ spoon’ is long and narrow, consisting of about 13 large, well- 
separated, rounded lobes, followed by 13 smaller lobes. The five distal 
lobes are squarish, the others saw-like and anterioriy directed. 

According to Rathbun, Gelasimus acutus of Stimpson is synonymous 
with this species. This species is very closely allied to Gelasimus uvvillei 
Milne-Edwards, the latter being distinguished by the accessory row of 
granules on the lower orbital border. But de Man (1891) has recorded 
specimens showing traces of this accessory row, which in other respects. 
(shape of carapace, etc.) resemble typical dusswmzerz. One of the specimens 
in the present collection also shows traces of this row of granules. 

This species has been previously recorded from Mergui, the Andamans. 
and Nicobars, and Bimlipatam. This is the first record from the west 
coast of India. 


Subfamily SCOPIMERINAE 
Genus Dotilla De Haan 
Dotilla myctiroides (Milne-Edwards) 
(Plate 14) 


Scopiumera myctiroides, Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 760 (1900). 
Dotitla myctiroides, Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p. lll 
(1890). 
Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 390: 
(1893). 
Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 368 (1900). 
Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report (5), p. 426: 
(1906). 
Kemp, Mem. Ind. Mus. v, p. 227 (1915-1924). 
Tesch, Siécga Exped. Rep. sxxix, p. 43 (1918). 
Kemp, Rec. Ind. Mus. xvi, p. 32 (1919). 
Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 149 (1927). 
Tweedie, Aull. Rattles Mus. Singapore 13, p. 147 (1937). 
Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p. 29 (1951). 


Numerous specimens, of both sexes, from Bombay and Karwar 
represent the present collection. They live in muddy regions in colonies. 
An average specimen measures :— 


length of carapace ee) 
breadth of carapace thy 3 


512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


. This species is distinguished by the absence of any sculpture except 
the lateral grooves on the carapace, which is slightly longer than broad. 
The chelipeds are at least three times the length of the carapace. ‘Tympana 
are present on all segments of the sternum. 

Colour pinkish, chelipeds white. 

There is no ‘ brain-convolution ’ sculpture in this species. 

The anterior male abdominal appendages are club-shaped at the tip, 
which bears tufts of hairs. 

This species has been previously recorded from Mahe, Marmagao, 
Travancore, Rameswaram I., Tuticorin, Ennur, Chilka Lake, Tavoy and 
Mergui, the Andamans, Singapore, Java, Gaspar Straits and Billiton I., and 
Mindanao. 


Subfamily MACROPHTHALMINAE 
Genus Macrophthalmus Latreille 
Macrophthalmus pectinipes Guerin 
(Plate 14) 


Macrophthalmus pectinipes, Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v; 
p. 389 (1893). 
Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 377 (1900). 
Tesch, Zool. Meded. Leiden i, p. 156 (1915). 
Kemp, fec. Ind. Mus. xvi, p. 385 (1919): 


Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected from Kolak and 
Umarsadi. An average male measures: 


length of carapace HA 25 jochaol. 
breadth of carapace aoe wane 


This species is distinguished by the carapace, the length of which is 
six-elevenths its breadth, being studded with large pearly granules. The 
eyestalks do not project beyond the antero-lateral angles. In the first three 
pairs of legs, the meropodites, carpopodites, and propodites are scabrous 
and serrated. or 

Colour a uniform grey, the tubercies pearly white. 

This species is also known by the synonym Macrophthalmus simpli- 
ctpes Guerin. 

In the specimens in the present collection, there is a spine or two on 
the ischium of the iegs on the ventral border. 

The anterior male abdominal appendages bear two lobes at the tip— 
the inner one straight and slender, the outer bent outwards. Both bear 
hairs, each hair being striped with alternaie brown and white bands. 

There are three types of hairs on the second maxillipeds in all J/acro- 
bhthalmt, viz. very long smooth hairs, shorter barbed hairs, and very 
short spooned hairs. The ‘spoon’ is very long and narrow, and consists 
of irregular lobes. The last lobe is bent at right angles when seen in a 
side view. ef 

This species has been previously recorded from Sind, Karachi, Bambay, 
Cuttack (or Cutch ?), and Penang. 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY % 513 


Macrophthalmus sulcatus Mijne-Edwards 


(Plate 14) 


Macrophthalmus sulcatus, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 379 OE 
: Tesch, Zool. Meded. Leiden 1, p. 165, (i918). 
Kemp, kec. Ind. Mus. xvi, p. 388 (1919). 
Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. XxXViii, p. 101 (1950). 


A mutilated male specimen from Umarsadi and another from Bombay 
represent the present coliection. The specimen from Bombay measures : 


length of carapace wee). ¢ anit. 
breadth of carapace seem) Leyte 


In this species the true first antero-lateral tooth appears to belong 
to the upper border ot the orbit, so that the antero-lateral angle of the 
carapace is formed by the much larger second tooth, which also is the 
apparent outer orbital angle. The cyes reach not only beyond the orbits, 
but also beyond the antero-lateral angles. 

The tip of the anterior male abdominal appendage is rounded and 
broadened like a drum-stick, and bears coarse hairs. 

At the upper border of the inner angle of the wrist is a sharp spinule, 
and there is another exactly below it on the lower border. 

The ‘spoon’ is short and broad, and consists of about five backwardly- 
directed saw-like lobes. 

This species has been previously recorded from Cutch, Mauritius, and 
Australia. The last locality, according to Kemp (1919), seems to be 
erroneous. 


Macrophthalmus latreillei Desmarest 


(Plate 14) 


Macrophthalmus latreillet, Laurie, Ceylon Pearl Ovster Fish. Report (5), 
p. 427 (1906). 
Tesch, Zool. Meded. Leiden i (1915). 
Sakai, Yokendo Ltd. Tokyo, p. 626 (1939). 
Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, 
ps 154 (1950). 


The present collection is represented by three males and two females 
from Bombay. An average male measures : 


length of carapace .. 23 mm. 
breadth of carapace beet (OL tain. 


In this species, the shape of the carapace varies from nearly equilateral 
to transversely elongated. The whole surface is covered with large 
granules and, in the young, hairs. There are four teeth on the lateral 
borders, and the front is one-tenth the breadth of the carapace. The 
chelipeds of the male are remarkably small. The finger has a tooth near 
the base, and the thumb is curved downward in the adult, but in line with 
the palm in the young. A spine is present at the distal end of the 
meropodites of the last pair of legs. 

Colour uniformly grey. ‘The dactylt and the distal half of the pro- 
podites of the first three pairs of legs are tinged with a faint violet. 


514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


The anterior male abdominal appendages are straight and thick. ‘The 
tip is narrowed to a sting-like point and bears long: hairs. 

The ‘spoon’ is very long and narrow, and consists of lobes of 
gradually decreasing size. 

This species has been previously recorded from Madagascar, Malacca, 
Luzon, Philippines, Hong Kong, New Caledonia, Japan, Singapore, Gulf 
of Manaar, Siam, and Makassar. ‘This is the first record from the west 
coast of India. 


Macrophthalmus pacificus Dana 


(Plate is) 


Macrophthalmus paciticus, Tesch, Zool. Meded. Leiden i, p. 190 (1915). 
Kemp, kec. Ind. Mus. xvi, p« 301 (1919).. 
Sakai, Vokendo Ltd. T. okyo, p. 628 (1939). 


The present collection is represented by a male from Okha, It 
measures : 


length of carapace ore) LL am. 
breadth of carapace at external orbital angles .... 13mm. 
greatest breadth of carapace coe OME. 
breadth of front ev) 42) a. 


The carapace is smooth, and two-thirds as long as broad. The lateral 
borders are divergent posteriorly, and have three teeth. The eyes do not 
reach the orbital teeth. On each branchial region are two longitudinal, 
parallel, granular eminences, with a third near the postero-lateral angle. 

Colour uniform grey. 

The anterior male abdominal appendages are thick and slightly curved, 
denseiy covered with barked hairs along the outer margin. The tip is 
blunt and angular, and bears a brush of smooth hairs. 

There is almost no ‘ spooning’ on the hairs of the second maxillirpeds, 
which consist of numerous lobes. 

This species has been previously recorded from Portuguese India, 
Nicobars, Penang, Loo Choo Is., Australia, and Samoa. 


Macrophthalmus depressus Rtippell 
(Plate 15) 


Macrophthalnus depressus, de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, 

p. 124 (1887). 

Henderson, TZvrans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) 
v, p- 389 (1893). 

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengali \xix, p. 380 
(1900). 

Tesch, Zool. Meded. Leiden i, p. 196 (1915). 

Kemp, kec. Ind. Mus. xvi, p. 302 (1919). 

Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. 1, p.150:(1927); 

Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) %, Upsot 
(1940). 


The piesent collection is represented by a female from Bombay, and 
another from Kolak. The larger one measures: 
length of carapace so) perma mn, 


breadth of carapace .» 20mm. 
breadth of front “Fis em ey oa 


Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 14 


SMM. 


U4 


Oo5 MM. 1 MM. 

Gelasimus dussumierit Milne-Edwarés: a. Dorsal view of male, 6, Cheliped of male 
¢. ist left abdominal appendage of male. d. Tip of same, enlarged. ce. Spooned hair on 
2nd maxilliped, front view. /f. Same, side view. Dotilla myctiroides (Milne-Edwards) : 
g. Dorsal view of crab. , Carapace, enlarged. 7. Ist left abdominal appendage of male. 
7. Tip of same, enlarged. Macrophthalmus pectinifes Guerin: &. Dorsal view of male. 72, 
Ist leit abdominal appendage of male. m. Tip of same, enlarged. #2. Spooned hair on 2nd 
maxilliped, front view. 0. Same, side view. Macrophthalmus sulcatus Milne-Edwards: . 
Dorsal view of male. g. Ist left abdominal appendage of male. vr. Tip of same, enlarged. 
s. Spooned hair on 2nd maxilliped, front view. 7. Same, side view. M€acrophthalmus 
latreillei Desmarest: wu, Dorsal view of male. v. Ist left abdominal appendage of 


male. w. Tip of same, enlarged. 2x, Spooned hair on 2nd maxilliped, front view. 
y. Same, side view. . 


Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 15 


t MM. 


Macrophthalmus pacificus Dana: a. Dorsal view of male. 6. Ist left abdominal 
appendage of male. c. Tip of same, enlarged. d. Spooned hair on 2nd maxilliped, front 
view. Macrophthalmus depressus Ruppell: e. Vorsal view of crab. /f. Spooned hair on 
2nd maxilliped, front view. g. Same, side view. WVacrophthalmus crinitus Rathbun: 
f#, Dorsal view of crab. z. Spooned hair on 2nd maxilliped, front view. 7. Same, side 
view. Grapsus strigosus (Herbst): &. Dorsal view of crab. 72. Ist left abdominal 
appendage of male. m. Tip of same, enlarged. Meltopograpsus messor (Forskal) : 
a. Dorsal view of crab. o. Male abdomen. 4. Ist left abdominal appendage of male. 
g. Tip of same, enlarged. Metopograpsus maculatus Milne-Edwards: yv. Dorsal view of 
crab. s. Male abdomen. #, Ist left abdominal appendage of male. x4. Tip of same, 
enlarged. Varuna litterata (Fabricius): wv. Dorsal view. Pseudograpsus intermedius 
Chhapgar: w. Dorsal view ot male. zx. External view of chela ot male. y. External 
maxilliped. z. Ist left abdominal appendage of male. 2z,. Tip of same, enlarged. 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 515 


In this species, the carapace is studded with minute granules. The 
lateral borders are parallel, and the antero-lateral angle is a square-cut 
lobe. On the epibranchial region are two nearly parallel, obliquely longi- 
tudinal, finely granular lines. 

Colour greyish. 

The ‘spoon’ is short and broad, consisting of about six rounded 
lobes. 

This species has been previousiy recorded from the Red Sea, Persian 
Gulf, Bombay, Pondicherry, and Rameswaram I. 


Macrophthalmus crinitus Rathbun 


(Plate 15) 


Macrophthalmus crinitus, Tesch, Zool. Meded. Leiden i, p. 192 (1915). 
Kemp, ec. Ind. Mus. xvi, p. 390 (1919). 
Macro phthalmus (?) crinitus, Tweedie, Sarawak Mus. Journ. v, p. 360 (1950), 


Three females from Okha renresent the present collection. An average 
specimen measures : 


length of carapace Me el nebone 
breadth of carapace soe Lame 
breadth of front seer! OUT EDls 


In this species the carapace is 2 as long as broad, being widest behind 
the tip of the first antero-lateral tooth. The lateral borders are parallel. 
The orbital teeth are not very sharp, and their outer margins are 
parallel. 

Colour greyish. 

The hairs on the second maxillipeds are very thick, and almost with- 
out spooning. 

This species is closely related to Euplax bosst. It has heen previousiy 
recorded trom Halmaheira, Amboina, Mergui, and Singapore. This is the 
first record from India. 


| Family GRAPSIDAE 
Subfamily GRAPSINAE 

Genus Grapsus Lamarck 

Grapsus strigosus (Herbst) 


(Plate 15) 


Grapsus strigosus, Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p.97 (1882). 

de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, p. 148 
(1887). 

Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xx, p. 116 
(1890). 

Henderson, Zrans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 390 
(1893). 

Alcock & Anderson, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xiii, p. 202 
(1894). 

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Rengal \xix, p. 393 (1990). 

Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 755 (1900). 

Tesch, Sibega Haped. Rep. xxxix, p. 71 (1918). 


516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


preccsene Ann. Mus. Stor. nat. Genova He, p. 178 (1935 - 
1937) 

Tweedie, Buli. Raffles Mus. Singapore 12, p. 45 (1936). - 
Chopra & Das, Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxix, p. 425 (1 937). 

Sakai, Yokendo Lid. Tokyo, p 650 (1939). 

Tweedie, Bull. Rattles Mus. Singapore 18, p. 28 (1947). 
Barnard, Anzu. S. Afr. Mus. xx xviii, p. 105 (1950), 
Tweedie, Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore 21, p. 94 (1950). 
Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p. 34 (1951), 


Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected at Bombay and 
Okha. An average male measures : 


length of carapace eee Oe tanta 
breadth of carapace .. 34mm. 
length of upper border of palm oh ey) soolivaly 
length of upper border of dactylus eo mam 


This species is distinguished by the breadth of the front being 39-40 
per cent of the distance between the external orbital angles, its free ‘edge 
being not distinctly crenulate, The tooth at the inner angle of the orbit is 
subacute, and keeled. The tooth at the inner angle of the wrist of the 
chelipeds is nearly straight, not talon-like ; the length of the upper border 
of the palm is nearly two-thirds the length ot the dactylus. ‘The first pair 
of legs is about as long as the last pair. The greatest breadth of the 
meropodites of the last pair is half its length. The distal part of the 
posterior margin of the last legs is dentate. 

Colour dark reddish brown and white. 

The. propodites in all the legs have a terminal spine on the posterior 
border. 

The anterior male abdominal appendages are very thick and have two 
lobes at the tip. The inner lobe bears a thick brush of dark brown hairs, 
while the outer bears lighter straw-coloured hairs and .a. patch of 

spinules. 

This species is common in the faa coastal waters, both in the Bay 
of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. Its range extends from the east-coast of 
Africa to Polynesia and possibiy to the west coast of America also. 


Genus Metopograpsus Milne-Edwards 


Metopograpsus messor (Forskal) 


(Plate 15) 
Metopograpsus messor, de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. Tio (Zool.) xxii, p. 144 
(1887). 
Henderson, Zrans. Linn. Soc. London (Zear) Vv) p 
390 (1893). 
Alcock & Anderson, Journ. As. Soe. Bengal Ixiii, p. 
202 (1894). 


Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal lxix, p. 397 (1900). 

Calman, Zrans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) vii, p. 24 
1900). 

Tae Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fish. Report (5), p. 429 
(1906). 

Tesch, Sidoga Exped. Rep. xxxix, p. 79 (1918). 

Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 147 (1927). 

Maccagno, Ann. Mus. Stor. nat. Genova lix, p. 178 
(1935-1937). 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 517 


Sakai, Yokendo Ltd. Tokyo, p. 654 (1939). 

Tweedie, Bijdragen tot de De tiade 28, p. 469 (1949) 

Barmard, Ann. .S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 118 (1950). 

Suvatti. ‘Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 156 
1950). 

pilat ul. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p. 35 
(1951). 


Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected at Bombay, Okha, 
and Umarsadi. It lives among rocks and is very active. An average 
male meastires : 


length of carapace sve) ado min, 
breadth of carapace Selo imine, 
breadth of front soe 6h mim. 


In this species the carapace is four-fifths as long as broad. ‘There are 
some fine transverse markings on the post-frontal region. The front is 
about three-fifths the greatest breadth of the carapace; its free edge is 
sinuous and thin, but hardly laminar. The orbits are little ublique, the 
inner angle of their lower border being denticulate. The finger of the 
chelipeds is not much longer than the upper border of the palm. In the 
last three pairs of legs the greatest breadth of the merus is half its length. 
The terminal segment of the male atdomen is simply triangular. 

Colour dark bottle-green ; the claws in some adult males are a brilliant 
vio'et, in others bright orange, dull in the female ; the legs are striped 
with alternate light and dark bands. 

The male abdomen narrows gradually from the base to the terminal 
segment. 

The anterior male abdominal appendages are in the form of a brown 
chitinous tube with its tip slightly bilobed and straw-coloured. Both the 
borders bear hairs at the distal end, 

This species has been previously recorded from both the coasts of 
India, including ‘Bomtay. It ranges in distribution from the Red Sea to 
Australia. 


Metopograpsus maculatus Milne-Edwards 
(Plate 15) 


Metopograpsus maculatus, de Man, Journ, Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, 
' p. 145 (1887). 
Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 398 (1900). 
Tesch, St6oga Exped. Rep. xx xix, p. 80 (1918). 
Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p. 35 
(1951). 


A few specimens, of both sexes, from Kolak and Umarsadi, are in the 
present collection. Habits and habitat same as Wetopograpsus messor. An 
average male measures : 


length of carapace se Cop Ms 
breadth of carapace ie. 20) MIM: 
breadth of front Ye AWE Sesh ey, 


This species is distinguished by ithe carapace being seven-eighths as 
long as broad, with markedly convergent sides and the absence of traris- 
verse markings on the post-frontal region. The tront is nearly three 
fourths the greatest breadth of the carapace ; its free edge is nearly straight 


518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


and laminar. The orbits are oblique, and the inner angle of their lower 
border is not dentate. The fingers of the chelipeds are much longer than 
the upper border of the palm. Except in the last pair of legs, the greatest 
breadth of the meropodites is decidedly less than half their Jength. The 
terminal male abdominal segment has a three-lobed appearance. 

The segments of the male abdomen from the first to the penultimate 
are of the same width, their sides being parallel ; the last segment suddenly 
narrows to a point. 

The anterior male abdominal appendages are coarse and thick ; the tip 
is a separate hammerhead-shaped lobe with serrated margins. 

This species has been previously recorded from both the coasts of 
India, Ceylon, Mergui, and East Indies. This is the first record from 
Bombay State. 


Subfamily VARUNINAE 
Genus Varuna Miine-Edwards 
Varuna litterata (Fabricius) 
(Plate 15) 


Trichopus litteratus, De Haan, Fauna Japonica v, p. 32 (1850). 
Varuna litterata, Miers, Catalogue New Zealand Crust., p . 40 (1876). 

Haswell, Catalogue Austr. Crust., p. 103 (1882). 

Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p» 391 
(1893). 

Alcock is Anderson, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xiii, p. 202 
(1894 

Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 401 (1900). 

Calman, Zrans. Linn. Soc. London ( Zool.) viii, p. 24 (1900). 

Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p.756 (1900). 

Kemp, Mem. Ind. Mus. v, p. 232 (1915). 

Parisi; 277.90e. 10> 5c. Nat. \\i il, p. 105) 1918); 

Tesch, Siboga Exped. Rep. xxxix, p. 85 (1918). 

Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 147 (1927). 

Hora, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 881 (1933). 

Tweedie, Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore 12, p. 49 (1936). 

Sakai, Yokendo ltd. Tokyo, p. 665 (1939). 

Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) x, p. 99 (1940). 

Barnard, Ann. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, p. 122 (1950), 

Suv ae Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, p. 156 
1950). 

Se Lull. Central Inst. Travancore ii, p. 36 (1951), 


The present collection is represented by numerous females from 
Bombay and Kolak. The largest measures: 


length of carpace 60) oO Imi, 
breadth of carpace -» 41 mm. 


In this species the carapace is depressed and is very little broader than 
long. ‘The legs have the three terminal joints compressed, dilated, and 
plumed. Coiour mottled black and brown. 

This species is commercially important in Bengal where it is eaten by 
the poor peopie, and where its numbers compensate for its small size 
(Hora, 1933). 

It has been previously recorded from the east coast of Africa to New 
Zealand, Australia, and Japan. It is frequently found clinging to logs. of 
driftwood in the open sea, which accounts for its wide distribution. 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 519 


Genus Pseudograpsus Milne-Edwards 


Pseudograpsus intermedius Chhapgar 


(Plate 15) 


Pseudograpsus intermedius, Chhapgar, Aec. Ind. Mus., liii (in press) (1955). 


Carapace squarish, flat, depressed, very little broader than long. 
Anterior half of carapace up to the cervical groove covered with minute, 
scattered, fine, brownish hairs, which are more profuse on the front, 
orbits, epigastric lobes, and lateral borders. Regions of carapace not well 
indicated except in the middle of the carapace where the grooves are 
disposed in the shape of the letter H. Cervical groove distinct but not 
very deep, semicircular, The antero-lateral borders are lined with 
profuse hair and cut into three distinct, flat teeth (including the external 
orbital angle) which decrease in size frem before backward and are not 
serrate. 

Buccal cavern square. External maxillipeds gaping, but not very 
widely : their exognath is narrower than the ischium : their merus shorter, 
but anteriorly much broader, than the ischium: it is auriculate (expanded) 
at the outer angle, so that the palp articulates near the middle of the 
merus. 

The space between the fingers is covered with a thick matt of long en- 
tangled, silky hairs, under which, at the base of the fingers, is hidden a white 
fleshy lobe. The borders of the joints of all the legs, particularly the 
posterior border of the merus and both borders of the carpus and propodus, 
thickly fringed with long, dusky hairs. ‘The anterior male abdominal 
appendages are stout and straight, but bent suddenly at the tip, which 
bears brushes ot hairs. 

Colour chestnut. 

Ten males and four females (two of them berried) from Bombay city 
represent the present collection. ‘They were caught in mud under stones. 

The measurements of the type specimens are given below : 


male female 
length of carapace -» 10.0 mm. 6.75 mm. 
breadth of carapace --+ 11.0 mm. 7.209 Mmm: 
breadth of front > 4,0 mm. 2°60 mm, 


Tesch!, in the discussion of the Grapsidae, divides the species of 
Pseudograpsus into two different groups, viz. 

(1) large species (up to 4 cm.), chestnut coloured. Cervical groove 
very deep, semicircular. Three last joints of the legs with a fur of black 
hairs ; 

(2) small species (up to 1.5 cm.), white. Cervical groove indistinct, 
nearly straight. Legs naked. 

It will be seen that this species offers a combination of the characters 
of the above two groups. Although it is a small species (measuring only 
up to 1cm.), the specimens are chestnut coloured. Again, the cervical 
groove, though semicircular, is not very deep. ‘The legs, too, are 
covered with dusky hair. 


* Tesch, J. J., Siboga Exped. Rep. xxxixc, pp. 97, 98 (1918). 


520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Subfamily SESARMINAE 
Genus Sesarma Say 
Subgenus Sesarma 


/ Sesarma (Sesarma) quadrata (Fabricius) 
(Plate 16) 


Grapsus (Pachysoma) quadratus, De Haan, Fauna Japonica v,p. 62 (1850). 
Sesarma (Parasesarma) plicata, Tesch, ’ Zool. Meded. Leiden iii, p. 187 
(1917). 
Sesarma (Sesarma) quadratum, Pillai, Bull. Central Inst. Travancore all, 
p. 36 (1951). 
Sesarma guadratum, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal Ixix, p. 413 (1900) .. 
Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. i, p. 147 (1927). 
Sesarma quadrata, de Man, Notes Leyden Mus. xii, p. 99 (1890). 
Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 392 
(1893). 
Alcock and Anderson, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xiii, p. 202 
(1894). 
Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 756 (1900). 
See MEE (Sesarma) guadrata, Shen, Bull. Fan Mem, Tae Biol. (Zool.) ’x, 
p. 96 (1940). 


Numerous specimens, of both sexes, were collected at Karwar, Kolak, 
and Umarsadi. It is a rock-dweller. An average male measures :— 


length of carapace wae Yee votaay 
breadth of carapace ... 20mm. 


This species is distinguished by the deep carapace which is broader 
than long, and without any tooth on the lateral borders behind the orbital 
angle. The front is more than half the greatest breadth of the carapace. 
The inner border of the arm bears a large tooth at its distal end. On 
the upper surface of the palm are two oblique pectinated ridges, and 
the dorsal surface of the male finger is milled with 11 to 19 blunt, 
transverse lamellae. 

Colour mottled grey, the fingers cherry-red. 

The anterior male abdominal appendages are bent outwards at the 
extreme tip, which bears hairs along both borders. 

This species has been previously recorded from the coasts of India, 
Ceylon, the Andamans and Nicobars. This is the first record from 
Bombay State. 


Sesarma (Sesarma) oceanica de Man 


(Plate 16) 


Sesarma oceanicum, Alcock, Journ, As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 423 (1900). 
Sesarma (Sesarma) rotundata, Tesch, Zool. Meded. Leiden iii, p. 193: (1917). 


Numerous specimens, of both sexes, from Kolak are in the present 
collection. An average male measures: 


length of carapace aso) 90 Ii: 
breadth of carapace Si elk sonyooy, 
breadth of front Boon ew soohaele 
length of merus of leg Soo 4a ysoakooy, 


breadth of merus of leg sen) DE scel ont 


| ON THE MARINE: CRABS ..OF. BOMBAY: ..0U' 521 


This species is distinguished by the shallow, depressed carapace, 
which is longer than broad, and has two teeth on the Jateral borders 
behind the outer orbital angle. The post-frontal lobes of the gastric 
region are smooth. The fingers of the chelipeds have no milling. The 
meri of the legs are more than three times as jong as broad, and the 
dactyli are short. 

Colour of the carapace and legs varying from light violet to almost 
black. ‘The palm and fingers of the chelipeds orange to cherry-red, 
finger tips white, extreme tips horny. 

The carapace in its anterior half is covered with little dense tufts of 
hair resembling tubercles, amid a. finer fur resembling granules. 

The palm of the chelipeds is almost smooth, except for two granular 
ridges, one extending along the lower border up to the base of the 
immobile finger, the other along the inner edge of the same finger. The 
angular lobe near the far end of the inner border of the arm is hardly 
prominent, being a blunt projection. The inner angle of the wrist is 
pronounced but not dentiform ; close to and parallel to it runs a ridge; 
a smooth ridge runs outside the granular ridge at the upper border of the 
palm. On the upper border of the dactylus are two horny teeth ; the tips 
of the fingers are cut off diagonally, resembling tongs. The meropodites 
of the legs are only 21 times as long as broad. ‘The maie abdomen is long 
and narrow. 

_ The anterior male abdominal appendages are straight up to the tip, 
which bears numerous long hairs. . 

This species has been previously recorded from the Nicobars. This 

is the first record from the west coast of India. 


Sesarma (Sesarma) taeniolata White 
(Plate 16) 


Sesarma taeniolatum, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 419 ( 1900). 
Sesarma taentolata, Lanchester, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 756 (1900), 
Sesarma (Sesarma) taeniolatum, Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Inst. Biol. (Zool.) x 
p. 96 (1940). ; 
Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thai- 
land, p. 157 (1950). 
Sesarma (Sesarma) taentolata, Tesch, Zool. Meded. Leiden, iii, p, 201 (1917), 
Tweedie, Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore 12, 
p: 53 (1936). 


The present collection is represented by a mutilated male from Ratna- 
giri. It measures: 


length of carapace ses 24 mM < 
breadth of carapace ee ere Oa tiainn: 


This. species is distinguished by the deep, square carapace, covered 
with tufts of hair, and with a tooth on the lateral borders behind the 
orbital angie. ‘There is a finely pectinated ridge on the upper surface of 
the palm, and another transverse granular ridge on its inner surface. The 
uprer border of the finger in the male has a milled crest of 40-60 fine 
lamellae. The dactyli of the legs are two-thirds, or more, the iength of 
the propodites. ) 

Colour brown. 


522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


The anterior male abdominal appendages are slightly curved, with a 
bulge covered with hair near the tip. 

This species has been previously recorded from Mergui, the Andamans, 
Malaya, Singapore, Thailand, and China, ‘This is the first record from 
the west coast of India. 


Sesarma (Sesarma) minuta de Man 


(Plate 16) 
Sesarma (Sesarma) minuta, ‘Tesch, Zool. Meded, Leiden iii, p. 127 (1917). 


A berried female was obtained from Bombay, clinging to the bivalve 
Paphia malabarica, It measures : 


length of carapace “ii? 2x0 mam, 
breadth of carapace soa) oem « 


This species can be distinguished by its minute size, the carapace 
being broader than long. ‘The upper border of the palm of the chelipeds 
has no jongitudinal pectinated crest. The posterior borders of the mero- 
podites of the legs are serrated near the carpus. 

Colour lemon yellowish. 

This species has been previously recorded from Batavia. This is the 
first record from India. 


Genus Metaplax Milne-Edwards 
Metaplax indica Milne-Edwards 


(Plate 16) 


Metaplax indica, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 432 (1900). 
Shen, Bull. Fan Mem. Lnst. Biol. (Zool,) x, p. 95 (1940). 


The present collection is represented by a male from Kolak. It 
measures :— 


length of carapace eee lie thin. 
breadth of carapace isan, 2S DMA, 


This species is distinguished by the equal sized male chelipeds, which 
are less than three times the length of the carapace. The finger has no 
prominent lobe on its dentary edge. ‘The anterior borders of the carpo- 
podites and propodites of the legs are smooth. The third, fourth, and 
fifth male abdominal segments are fused. There are seven to nine teeth 
on the male infra-orbital ridge beginning with four or five small teeth, 
followed by two iarger rounded lobuies, that are separated by a large 
inter-space from three very small tubercles in the lateral part of the ridge. 

Colour grey, legs and chelipeds pink, the fingers a darker pink. 

In the specimen in the present collection, the inner border of the arm, 
lower border of the hand, and teeth of the antero-lateral borders are 
serrated. The front is bilobed. The meropodites of all the legs, and 
the propodites and carpopcdites of the middle two are densely hairy only 
on the anterior border. ‘The third, fourth, and fifth male abdominal seg- 
ments are only partly fused. 


| ££ 


Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 16 


Sesarma (Sesarma) guadrata (Fabricius): a. Dorsal view of crab. 4. Ist left abdominal ap- 
pendage of male. c¢. Tip of same, enlarged. Sesarma (Sesarma) oceanica de Man: d. Dorsal 
view of crab. e. Cheliped, external view. /f. 1st left abdominal appendage of male. g. Tip of 
same, enlarged. Sesarma (Sesarma) taeniolata White: 4. Dorsal view of crab. 7. 1st left abdomi- 
nal appendage of male. 7. Tip of same, enlarged. Sesarma (Sesarma) minuta de Man: 
k. Dorsal view of female, with abdomen extended. JZ. Cheliped of female. om. 3rd walking leg. 
Metaplax indica (Milne-Edwards): 2. Dorsal view of male. o. Ist left abdominal appendage of 
ale. ~. Tip of same, enlarged. Metaplax distincta Milne-Edwards: g. Dorsal view of 
female. Plagusia depre:sa tuberculata (Lamarck): yr. Dorsal view of crab. s. Ist left abdominal 
appendage of male. 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 523 


In the anterior male abdominal appendages, there is a minute tooth at 
the extreme end of the broad tip. There are hairs along both the borders. 

This species has been previously recorded from Karachi. This is the 
first record from Bombay State. 


Metaplax distincta Milne-Edwards 


(Plate 16) 
Metaplax distinctus, de Man, Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, p. 158 
(1887). 
Metaplaux distincta, Henderson, Trans. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) v, p. 391 
(1893). 


Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xix, p. 432 (1900). 


The present collection is represented by a female from Karwar. 
It measures : 


leneth of carapace Pike ole nayael 
breadth of carapace wages Coin. 


In this species the carapace is slightly less than three-fourths as long as 
broad. ‘The lower border of the orbit in the male is prolonged to the 
level of the second notch in the lateral border. The lobules of the infra- 
orbital ridge are from 25 to 30 ; the lobules of the orbital portion (10-12) 
are small, and gradually decrease in size from within outward. The 
anterior border of the meropodites of the legs is armed, in the first and 
last pairs with a subterminal spine, in the middle two with several spines. 
The male abdomen consists of seven separate segments. 

Colour a uniform grey. 

In the specimen in the present collection, a small vestige of a fifth 
tooth is indicated, on careful examination, by a nick in the lateral borders. 
The posterior borders of the legs are microscopically beaded. The front 
is bow-shaped and obliquely deflexed. ‘There is no tomentum on the legs. 
The carapace, on the front half and the sides, is granular. 

This species has been previously recorded from Madras, Coconada, 
Mergui, and the Nicobars. This is the first record from the west coast 
of India. 


Subfamily PLAGUSIINAE 


Genus Plagusia Latreille 
Plagusia depressa tuberculata (Lamarck) 


(Plate 16) 


Plagusia squamosa, ee Anderson, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xiii, p. 202 
1894). 
Plagusia depressa var. squamosa, Alcock, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal xix, 
p. 438 (190v). 
Borradaile, Fauna Geog. Maldive Lacca- 
dive Archipel, (5) i, p. 432 (1903), 
Pillai, Bull. Central Lust. Travancore ii, 
De Gor G95 1): 
Plagusia depressa var. tuberculata, Rup Mem, Ind. Mus, v, p, 241 (1915- 
1924). 
Montgomery, Journ. Linn. Scc, Londox 
(Zool.) xxxvii, p. 457 (1931). 


GO, 


524 JOURNALS BOMBAY NAPGU RAE TOISTS SOCIETY Viole a4 


Rathbun, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 97. 
p. 334 (1917). 

Tesch, Siboga Exped. Rep. xxxix, Pp. 129 
(1918). 

Tweedie, Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore, 
12, p. 69 (1936). 

Suvatti, Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, 
Thailand, p.158 (1950). 


The present collection is represented by a male from Kodinar, It 
measures : 


length of carapace Nay) cys saa\eay 
breadth of carapace “sido, Tain 


This crab is distinguished by the absence of a true front, so that the 
antennular fossae are visible in a dorsal view as deep clefts in the anterior 
border of the carapace. The regions of the carapace are distinct, and 
covered with flat peariy or squamiform tubercles. The antero-lateral 
borders are cut into four teeth. The chelipeds are massive, and have 
tubercles on the upper surface of the palm ‘and finger arranged in longitu- 
dinal rows. 

Colour reddish brown. 

The specimen in the present collection is sparsely covered with weeds. 

The anterior male abdominal appendages are stout, with a blunt tip 
covered with a thick brush of hairs. 

The use of Herbst’s name sguwamosa by Alcock, Stebbing, and others 
has been criticized by Laurie. 

Distribution: Indo-Pacific, extending to the west coast of America. 


KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE MARINE CRABS OF 
BoMBAY STATE 


1, Mouth frame (buccal cavity) triangular 
(Oxystomata) i 45 war 
Mouth frame (buccal canny) more or less 
quadrate 10. 

2. Carapace short, leaving the first two or three 
abdominal segments exposed. Last two pairs of 
legs dorsal in position, ending in hook-like ce 


(Dorippidae) Dorippe astuta p. 409 
Abdomen not visible dorsally. Legs normal in 
position 3. 


3. Inhalant branchial openings in front of chelipeds. 
Gills nine. Male genital openings coxal 
(Calappidae) 4, 
Inhalant branchial openings at bases of third 
maxillipeds. Gills less than nine. Male genital 
Openings sternal (Leucosiidae) 6. 
4, External maxillipeds not closing the buccal cavity 
completely, palp not concealed. Legs not 
adapted for swimming (Calappinae) Calappa lophos p. 404 
External maxillipeds completely covering the : 
buccal cavity, palp concealed. Legs natatory, 
distal joints flattened and expanded (Matutinae). 5. 
5, A distinct spine at the angle of the hand where it 
comes in contact with the external angle of the 
arm. Carapace covered with minute red dots .... Matuta lunaris p. 405 
Only a tubercle at the angle of the hand- where ee 
it touches the external angle of the arm. Cara- 
pace covered with red ea rings and vermicular 
lines Ae ae ... MWatuta planipes pp. 406 


10. 


Og 


12, 


13. 


14, 


15. 


16. 


lies 


ON THE MARINE CRABS. OF BOMBAY 


. Carapace convex and subglobular, its surface 


smooth and polished AAG ss a 
Carapace rhomboidal, its margins with large 
spines and tubercles ate 


. Front narrow. Exopodites of external maxilli- 


peds narrow, with the outer margins straight 
(Leucosia) 

Front broad. Exopodites of external maxilli- 
peds broad, their outer borders forming a 
semicircle (Philyra) se 


. Carapace longer than broad 


Carapace broader than long 


. Carapace smooth, its regions hardly ‘defined 


Regions of carapace forming independent swel- 

lings, covered with large granules 

Last pair of legs modified, situated dorsally. 

Female genital openings coxal. First pleopod 

present in female. Gills usually numerous 
(Dromiacea) 

Last pair of legs normal, rarely reduced, and 
only exceptionally dorsal in position. Female 
genital openings sternal. First pleopod absent 
in female. Gills few (Brachygnatha) 

Last pair of legs shorter than the first two pairs. 

Last pair of legs longer than the first two pairs.. 


Carapace triangular, narrowed in front, usually 
with a distinct rostrum. Orbits eee in- 
complete (Oxyrhyncha) 

Carapace broad in front, rostrum reduced « or 
wanting. Orbits well developed (Brachyrhyncha). 
Carapace flat, weakly calcified. Male genital 
openings on last thoracic sternite (Hymeno- 
somidae) eee ane 
Carapace not flat, strongly calcified. 
genital openings on ‘fifth coxopodites 
Basal antennal joint well developed, generally 
fused with epistome and sometimes also with the 
sides of the rostrum. Chelipeds usually not 
vastly Jarger than legs (Maiidae) ae 
Basal antennal joint very small, not fused with 
epistome or front. Chelipeds usually much longer 
and more massive than legs (Parthenopidae) 
Eyes without true orbits. Eyestalks very short 
or obsolescent, concealed beneath a supraocular 
spine or sunk in the sides of a large rostrum 
(Acanthonychinae) ase 


Male 


Orbits partly defined. Postocular process 
present, hollowed for the partial retraction of the 
short eyestalks (Pisinae) 

Orbits complete enough to entirely “conceal the 
cornea dorsally (Maiinae) 

Rostral spines long and divergent, 
from their base 

Rostral spines short, fused in their basal half . 
Carapace armed with five long spines in the 
middle line. Rostral spines long and divergent, 
simple of 


separate 


Carapace with tubercles, but without spines, in 
the middle line. Rostral spines short, each with 


- asmall accessory spine on its outer border 


525 


fle 
Arcania septemspinosa 
p. 408 

8. 
9; 
Leucosia pubescens p. 406 
Leucosia sima p. 407 
Philyra globosa p. 407 
Philyra corallicola p. 408 
lak 
Zs 
Dromia dormia  p. 401 
Pseudodromia 

inte grvifvons p. 402 
13. 
19! 
Elamena cristatipes p. 409 
14. 
IS: 
18, 


Menaethius monoceros 

p. 410 
16. 
ee 


Hlyastenus planasius p. 411 


Doclea gracilipes vp. 412 

Paramthrax 
(Chlorinoides) aculeatus 
p, 413 


Schizophrys aspera 0. 414 


im 


26 


18. 


19, 


JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL Saisie SOCTE TY; 


Carapace broadly triangular, not laterally ex- 
panded nee ale : 


Carapace pentagonal, with large lateral vaulted 
expansions which completely conceal the legs ... 


Palp of external maxillipeds inserted at or near 
the antero-internal angle of the merus. Carapace 
usually transversely oval 

Palp of external mayillipeds inserted at the 
summit of the antero-external angle of the 


merus, Carapace usually squarish ut 

20. Last pair of legs flattened for swimming 
(Portunidae) 

Last pair of legs not flattened (Goneplacidae 
and Xanthidae) 

21. Antero-lateral borders of carapace cut into nine 
teeth 
Antero- lateral ‘borders of carapace cut into six 
teeth (Charybdis) of 
Antero-lateral borders of carapace ‘cut into five 
teeth ( Zhalamita) 

22. Teeth on antero-lateral borders equal in size . 
Last tooth on antero-lateral borders enlarged in 
the form of a long spine (Veptunus) 

23. No spine on the posterior border of the arm of 
the chelipeds aie 
A spine at the far end of the posterior border of 
the arm of the chelipeds 

24, Nospine on the posterior border of the arm of 
the chelipeds (subgenus Gomiosoma) 

A spine at the end of the pcsterior border of the 
arm of the chelipeds Gis BSc 

25. Teeth on antero-lateral borders subequal in size. 
Large or medium-sized crabs 
Last tooth on antero-lateral borders ‘longer than 
the rest. Small crabs a 
Second tooth on carapace rudimentary 

26. First tooth on antero-lateral borders anteriorly 


truncated and notched. Sixth abdominal tergum 
of male with curved and gradually convergent 
sides. One or two inconspicuous denticles near 
the far end of the posterior border of the pro- 
podites of the last Pare of ae A brown cross 
on the carapace ae < 


First tcoth on the antero-lateral borders acute. 
Sixth abdominal tergum of the male with its 
sides parallel or even slightly divergent. Pos- 
terior border of the propodites of the last pair of 
legs strongly serrated throughout. Four whitish 
spots on the carapace im 


First tocth on the antero-lateral borders acute. 
Sixth abdominal tergum of male with its sides 
parallel. Posterior border of propodites of last 
pair of legs serratec in a large part of its extent. 
Legs with annular bands 


@eo eGe 


Vol. oA 


Lambrus (Platylambrus) 
prensor p. 415 


Cryptopodia angulata 
p. 415 


20. 


2 
Scylla serrata p. 416 


Zoe 


Neptunus (Neptunus) 
Sanguinolentus pp. 417 


Neptunus (Neptunus) 
pelagicus p. 418 


23. 
Charybdis (Goniohel- 


lenus) hoplites pp. 423 
26. 
Charybdis (Goniosoma) 
callianassa p. 421 
Charybdis (Goniosoma) 
orientalis p. 422 
Charyldis (Gontosoma) 
cruciata p. 419 
Charybdis (Goniosoma) 
lucifera p. 420 


Charylidis (Goniosoma) 
annulata p. 420 


axe 


7A be 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 


Teeth on antero-lateral borders subequal in 
size : 
Fourth tooth on antero- lateral borders rudimen- 
tary ts : 


28 A. (eat: family ‘Goneplacidae) : 


28 


29. 


30. 


31. 


32. 
33. 


34, 


Shp 


36. 


37. 


SIoP 


39. 


40, 


4], 


Carapace hairy, edge of front distinctly curved 
Carapace not hairy, edge of front cut straight and 
square : its eae ae 


B. (part, family Xanthidae) : 

Ridges defining the efferent branchial channels 
eitner absent, or confined to the posterior part of 
the buccal cavity (Hyperolissa) ' 

Ridges defining the efferent branchial channels 
continued up to the anterior border of the buccal 
cavity (Hyperomerista) . 

Antero-lateral borders with three teeth 


Antero-lateral borders with two teeth Sag 
The front and antero-lateral borders form a convex 
arch, postero-lateral borders strongly convergent. 
Male abdomen with five segments (segments 3-5 
fused) 

Carapace nearly quadrilateral (arch of front and 
antero-lateral borders less convex). Male abdo- 
men with seven segments 

Carapace convex both fore and aft, and from side 
to side a8 

Carapace convex fore and aft, flat ‘from side to 
side 

Antero-lateral ‘borders entire, crested 
Antero-lateral borders cut into teeth, not crested... 
Carapace smooth, hardly any indication of 
regions (Alergatis) ; 

Carapace granular, regions well indicated 

Edges of antero-lateral borders sharp, forming a 
ridge at the lateral epibranchial angles 

Edges of antero-lateral borders thick and blunt, 
without any ridge ‘ 
Carapace with a smooth, even surface 


Carapace with the surface lumpy 

Fingers of chelipeds with broad, hoof-like extre- 
mities se 

Fingers of chelipeds pointed 

Antero-lateral borders prolonged ‘beneath the 
orbit to the angle of the buccal cavity 
Antero-lateral borders not prolonged beyond 
the orbit 

Fingers of chelipeds blunt-tipped (Z te 
Fingers of chelipeds sharp 


Five teeth on antero-lateral borders 


Four teeth on antero-lateral borders 
Carapace only slightly areolated : 
Carapace completely areolated (as in Actaed) .. 


Fronto-orbital border half, or less than half, the 
greatest breadth of the carapace af 
Fronto-orbital border ee 4rd_ the greatest 
breadth of the carapace.. 


Fronto-orbital border more than 3th the greatest 


_ breadth of the carapace 


Thalamita érenata p. 423 
Thalamita prymna'p. 424 


133). 
Eucrate crenata dentata 
p. 437 
36. 
41. 
Litochetra angustifrons 
p. 438 
Litocheira setosa pp. 439 
ple 
Galene bispinosa  p. 431 
32. 
a7. 
3D. 
oe 
34, 


Platypodia cristata p. 427 
35. 


Atergatis roseus  _p. 426 

Atergatis integerrimus 
p. 425 

Atergatis floridus , 425 


Etisus levimanus p. 431 
Actaea savignyt p. 432 


Medaeus granulosus p, 430 


38. 
39, 
Xantho (Lophoxanthus) 
scabesrimus baccalipes 
p. 427 
Leptodius crasstinanus 
p. 422 
40. 
Leptodius exaratus p. 428 
Ledtodius cuglyptus 
guadrispinosus p.429 
42. 
44, 


Eriphia laevimana 
smithit p. 437 


528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


42, Basal antennal joint not reaching the front .. Myomentppe hardwickit | 
, p. 432 
Basal antennal joint broadly in contact with | 
front “AER: Oe 1 
43. Antero-lateral borders thin and sharp .. Lpixanthus frontalis 
p. 434 | 
Antero-lateral borders not thin and sharp : Ozius rugulosus p. 433 | 
44, Carapace hairy, regions well defined (Pilumnus). 45. 
Carapace not tomentose, regions ill defined ... 46. 
45. A subhepatic une a below the outer orbital | 
angle ae ... Pilumnus vespertilio | 
434 | 
No subhepatic spine oe ae ... Pilumnus longicornis 
p. 435 | 
46. Indications of areolation on the carapace | 

anteriorly, front bilobed ... Heteropanope laevis 
p. 436 | 

Carapace without any trace of regions, front 

cut straight and square a ... Hurycarcinus orientalis | 
p. 436 
47, Small crabs living as commensals, mostly in ! 
bivalve molluscs (Pinnotheridae) sos BOs | 
Free living crabs .. 49. | 
48, Dactylus of external maxillipeds in the female | 
does not extend to the apex of the propodite. | 
Dactyli of third and fourth legs in the female 14 : 
times as long as those of the first and second. | 
Colour pink oe ee ... Pinnotheres placunae 
p. 503 | 


Dactylus of external maxillipeds in the female 
reaches to the end of the propodite. Dactyli of 
third and fourth legs in the female twice as long 
as those of the first two. Colour yellow ... Pinnotheres vicajit p. 505 
49, Orbits wider, often much wider, than front. 
External maxillipeds meeting, or nearly so, in 
the middle line. Carapace squarish or transver- 
sely oblong (Ocypodidae) .. 221 FOO: 
Front at least as wide as, “usually wider than, 
orbit. A large, rhomboidal gap between the 
external maxillipeds. Carapace square (Grap- 
sidae) 62. 
50. A hairy- edged pouch between the bases of the 
second and third pairs of legs (Ocypodinae) ... 51. 
No pouch between the second and third pairs 
of legs nae aes Kak woe 
51. Chelipeds slightly unequal in both sexes. 
Cornea large, ventral, occupying the greater part 
of the surface of the eyestalks (Ocypoda) eee hoe 
Chelipeds in the female equal and small; in the 
male one is vastly larger than the other. Eyes 
small, terminal on the Jong slender eyestalks 
(Gelasimus) ae 34. 
52. A stridulating ridge on the inner surface of the 
palm. Eyestalks Pol beyond the eyes asa 


style a0: 

No stridulating ridge on the palm. _-Byestalks 

not prolonged beyond the eyes ase Ocypoda cordimana p. 507 
53. Antero-lateral angles of carapace pronounced ... Ocypoda ceratophthalma 


p. 505 
Antero-lateral angles of carapace rounded ... Ocypoda rotundata p. 508 
54. Front +th to 4th the greatest breadth of the 


carapace Gelasimus annulipes p. 508 
Front less than zisth the greatest breadth of the 
carapace nee eae Gye) 


55. Inner border of the arm of the larger male 
cheliped ends in a sharp tooth or spine ea TOR 


56. 


o/, 


58. 


39. 


60. 


61. 


63. 


64. 


65. 


66. 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 


Arm of the larger male cheliped ends in a con- 
stricted lobe, but there is no sharp tooth on 
its inner border 6 aoe ite 


Cutting edge of the thumb of the Para 
with a single, smooth curve 


Cutting edge of the thumb of the es scal- 
loped into ‘two lobes m 


Membranous spaces (tympana) on meropodites 
of legs. Fourth abdominal segment of male 
fringed with bristles -... wae sae 
No tympana on legs. Abdomen normal 
(Macrophthalminae) cS 

Eyestalks projecting beyond the antero-lateral 
angles of the carapace fs 


Eyestalks not projecting beyond the antero- 
lateral angles of the carapace ; 
Sides of carapace convergent posteriorly 


Sides of carapace divergent posteriorly 


Sides of carapace parallel 
Four teeth on the lateral 
carapace 


borders of the 
Three teeth on the lateral borders of the 
carapace . bes 
Carapace 2rd as long as ‘broad. Front +th the 
breadth of the carapace ate vs 
Carapace iths as long as broad. Front 


ith the 
breadth of the carapace ee 


. Antennules fold beneath the front in the usual 


manner 
Antennules fold longitudinally in deep notches 
in the front, visible dorsally ah ie 


No oblique hairy ridge on the external maxilli- 
peds 

An oblique hairy ridge on the. external maxilli- 
peds 

A very wide gap between. the third maxillipeds, 
exopodites of these narrow. Male abdomen 
occupying all the space between the bases of the 
last legs (Grapsinae) : 
A moderate gap between the third ‘maxillipeds, 
exopodites of these broad. Male abdomen 
does not occupy the whole space between the 
bases of the last pair of legs (Varuninae) : 
Front less than half the greatest breadth of the 
carapace 

Front more than half the. greatest breadth of the 
carapace (Metopograpsus) 
Front not laminar, sinuous. 
markings on the post-frontal region. 
segment of male abdomen triangular 


Fine transverse 
Last 
Front straight and laminar. No _ transverse 


markings on the post-frontal region. Last seg- 
ment of male abdomen three-lobed aide 


529 


Gelasimus dussumiert 


p. 510 


Gelasimus marionis 
p. 509 


Gelasimus marionis 
nitidus p. 510 


Dotilla myctiroides p. 511 
58. 
Macrophthalmus sulcatus 
Deol 
hablo) 
. Macrophthalmus pectinipes 
p.olZ 
Macrophthalmus paciticus 
p. 514 
60. 


Macrophthalmus latre- 
allet p. 913 


61. 


. Macrophthalmus deprzssus 


p. 914 


Macrophthalmus crinitus 
jones) 


63. 


Plagusia depressa 
tuberculata p. 523 


64. 
68. 


65. 


Vie 
Grapsus strigosus p. 515 
66. 


Meto pograpsus messor 
pial 


Metopograpsus maculatus 
Pols 


530 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL SHAISTS SOCIEIN, “Vole toe 


67. Last three joints of legs compressed and 
plumed for swimming. No fleshy lobe at the 


base of the fingers of the chelipeds Varuna litterata pp. 518 

Legs hairy but not compressed. A fleshy lobe at 

the base of the fingers of the chelipeds .. Pseudogrupsus inter- 
meatus p. 519 


68. Carapace nearly square. Pterygostomian regions 
with a sieve-like reticulation (Sesarma) 69. 
Carapace much broader than long. No reticula- 
tion on the pterygostomian regions (Metaplax). 70. 
69. No téeth on the lateral borders behind the 
orbital angles. ‘I'wo oblique pectinated ridges 
on the palms of the male chelipeds. Upper sur- 
face of the dactylus in the male with a milled 
ridge of 11--19 lamellae y .. Sesarma (Sesarma) 
guadrata p» 520 


One tooth on the lateral borders behind the 

orbital angles. One pectinated ridge on the 

palms of the chelipeds. A milled crest with 

40-60 teeth on the dactylus of the male we =Sesarma (Sesarma) 
taeniolata Poroal 


Two teeth on the lateral borders behind the 

orbital angles. A granular (not pectinate) ridge 

on the palms of the chelipeds. Dactylus with- 

out any milied ridge ae Les w. Sesarma (Sesarma) 
aoceanica p. 520 


One tooth on the lateral borders behind the 
orbital angles. No pectinate crests on the 
palms of the chelipeds. Posterior borders of 
the meropodites of the legs serrated near the 


carpus. Extremely smallcrabs_ ... .. Sesarma (Sesarma) 
minuta p.i922 
70. Third to fifth sezments of the male abdomen 
fused .. Metaplax indica  p. 522 
Male abdomen with seven separate ‘segments .. Metaplax distincta p.523 


GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF CRABS OCCURRING IN THE 
BOMBAY STATE, IN THE JNDO-PACIFIC REGION 


The foregoing taxonomic account records 81 species and subspecies 
of crabs from different localities in the Bombay State. Perusal of simi- 
lar account of crabs from different maritime countries of the Indo-Pacific 
region indicates that many of these species occur over an extensive 
range and are common in several areas in the region. Such wide 
geographic distribution is natural in marine crabs where inter-connecting 
oceans do not serve as barriers to dispersal except the thermal differences 
to some extent. It is, therefore, interesting to note what species and 
percentage of the total Brachyuran fauna of this State occur in other areas 
of the Indo-Pacific region. ‘These are indicated below in Tables I and II. 

The scattered localities where these species occur have been recorded 
by several authors such as Laurie (1$07-1915), Barnard (1950), Borradaile 
(1902-1903), Estampador (1937), Tweedie (1935-1950), Miers (1876), 
Haswell (1882), Sakai (1936-1939), Shen (1931-1948), etc., in the Indo- 
Pacific region. While studying the Brachyuran fauna of the Australian 
coast, Montgomery had arbitrarily divided this region into several zones, 


ee 
eS 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 531 


The same system of dividing regions has been followed here with a few 
modifications to suit the present study. ‘The zones are as under :— 


; ‘Os 
i X aSe_ 7. e 
pans Saat ie 
H o” en, IY Rioe ; 
' Ke orate 


Seal - 


Pe8222 ane 
AES 


I Sr 


Text-figure 3. Map showing the different geographical areas in the Indo-Pacific 
Region with which the Crabs of the Bombay Coast have been compared. 


I. South Africa. 
I]. East Coast of Africa, Madagascar,- Mauritius, and 
Seychelles I. 
III. Red Sea, Persian Gulf. 
IV. Laccadives and Maldives. 
V. Burma, Tavoy and Mergui, the Andaman and N icobar Is,, 
Indonesia and Singapore. 
VI. Cocos-Keeling and Christmas Is, 
VII. Thailand, South China Sea. 
VIII. Philippines. 
IX. Australia (including Torres Straits). 
x Japan; China. 


Out of the 81 species and subspecies, three are new to science, and the 
geographic distribution of the remaining species can be studied from the 
table. It will be seen that 21 species occurring on the coasts of Bombay 
State are widely distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific region, ranging 
from South Africa in the west to Australia in the east. Eight species, 
though not occurring in South Africa, are found from the east coast of 
Africa to Australia. Nine species do not occur outside India and appear 
to be strictly confined to this region. Three species, viz. Gelasemus 
annulipes Latreille, Plagusia depressa tuberculata (Lamarck), and possib- 
ly Grapsus strigosus (Herbst), extend to the west coast of America. The 
occurrence of these leads us to another problem of distribution. Sewell 
(1947) states: ‘ Ocean currents provide a means of transportation for both 
boitom-dwelling and pelagic animais. Floating weeds and logs of wood 


j4 


Vol. 


NAT URAE FISiEe SOCTEARYs 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY 


532 


= i de + + = + = 
“ = - + = + — 
Pe a = — _ + = 
- + - + _ te = 
4 + + + - + = 
+ + + + — 4 = 
+ + - + - + — 
+ + — + - + _ 
+ | + - - - + + 
| = Sie 
uy o @ 72 Coat 
= > se 30 bec AeeEaep ys 
= Seer al pee 
5 5 E wn ao \amP | 2p s 
< ra 4s] aN 5B. op: Se ap » 
a a % O an go- ap seta (or 
Q tad Sy ce $2) oO omP a < = 
Db 2 = ct, we o mBBO oO a 
5B 2 m ry eee 1 ert pen aeeine 
© Q > 9Q SB p 
5: oo F 
B re 5 
© Bo. 


I ATdvVyL 


{ 

oF - = 
_ —_ — | 
+ an — 
+ =— — 
“ ~ — 
- + - 
+ + - 
7 + - 

Ss 

a p & 
Ou Oo. % 
oO mo ° 
© Om O a 
Baie os 
ry she 
© O- 76 > 
ba a 
a o & ay 
» Gp Pp oO 
=) ite is ) 

| q) =O 

| = ar 
=P n 


“*  SHIOLIQE vpuysv agg1s0gq 


(snto 
I-lIQey) vsourgsmagas vIUDIAY 


| 
{ 
| 
“MOODY 77092770409 vsdp1Yyg 
***(SnioTiqey) »S090)8 DANY 
vee YOY vu1s visomaT 


SIOTJN SUdISAgNg YISOMNAIT 


“’SNIDIIQvyy sagiun7¢ DINID TT 
se ([BYSIO) StsvUn7, vINJoOWT 
coc (4sq19}7) soy¢goq vg¢g¢vjv7 


ih uosiopus fT 


*** (SneBUUI]) viuAsOp DIWOAG 


ioded jusseid 
94} Ul peqitosap 
a}t}\g Aequiog jo 
jS¥00 9} WIOIJ STIIOY 


— —_——$$ 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 


- (snioiqe yy) 0707 
-nuup (pmosotuo0y) sipghavy7 


ca (SnIo1IIQqey) Dsaz 
-19N] (pimosoiuoy) sipghavy7 


= (sqiopq) vgn29 
-NAI (DMOSOIUOD) sSipghavy7 


(snovauly) sz 
apireg (swunggany) snungdanr 


"** (4sqioH) Suquajouinsuvs 
(snunizgapny) Ssuunggan 


([@YSIOq) vpv4.4a8 07IAIS 


as Svon'] pues sp1leaMpa 
“SUI vzojndup vipogos¢hs7z 


ne ysqisyH 4osuasg 
(SHAQUDIAIDIT) SnAQUDT 


coe eo (spre pa 
“OUT! J) re shay Zoz1yas 


(SpleMpi-oU[I) swzvaznov 
(Saploutrszojzy) XKvAYPWUWDADY 


“"Tosduljg s39g¢2719D4As VIIIO 


(o11UM pue 
smiepy) szisvunjig snuasvapy 


ae # e119} 
-B] sosaz0u0UuL sntyjanua py 


| AJOAGIL) Sag¢1JvAStIA2 DUAMYLT 


TasLe 1 3 
w 
a | ray oa os 
73 i} oe a 
o-5 2 uch = eS 
23 o aag a a s 
g iets E| Q ss a go a 4 | n a g q 
= P 3 a ci) 3 
Forms from the coast ast <3 3 a | $ 3 Seas Sy 2 | g | $ a = 
of Bombay State a oo | oO | Som | ay ay Mga gs a | & = = 
described in the Pes 3 go | iv | $83 nee & z gs ah 8 3 g = 
— a | 7 | eA! cy 
present paper 3 ae | a | 3 st ae ue 8 3 z g a :s 
a oe a 5 ie 6 0 sg 5 3S 
a3 «| 3 ass FE = 
ag | @ 23 5 5 
a | a =I 5 
- = 
| “| 
2 a " - 
Dromia dormia (Linnaeus) ... — + + + + - = | + 2 
Pseudodromia integritrons = 
Henderson vee = ar + = + - + = + + 2 
} iS 
Calappa lophos (Herbst)... - + + — + - + - + + e 
Matuta lunaris (Forskal) «.. - + + | - + - + + + + a 
Matuta planipes Fabricius... | - = = = + = + | + aS + 2 
¥y = =- (2) 
Leucosia pubescens Miers... = = + = + = | aL + 8 
| y 
Leucosia sima Alcock see = = + - = = = = | = = e 
Philyra globosa (Fabricius)... | - - a - | + - | = = + = 
| 
Philyra corallicola Alcock... = - = = = = | = = = = = 
Arcania septemspinosa (Fabri- | 
cius) me : =n nl = Se + - | + [| = | - + 
| ) 
ak | y 
Dorippe astuta Fabricius ...| - | - = - + = + + 


Elamena cristatipes Gravely - - = = = = = | = | = 


Menaethius monoceros La- 


treille oo oo + + oF ap + + 1" + + + 
Hyastenus planasius (Adams 

and White) ae (os — - = = + = + = = = 
Doclea gracilipes Stimpson... - - - — + = <5 = = = 


Paramithrax (Chlorinoides) H 
aculeatus (Milne-Edwards) - = - - + - + = ae 


Schizophrys aspera (ailngs 
Edwards) + + + + + + - - + + 


Lambrus (Platylambrus) 
prensor Herbst oon a = = — + = os 


Cryptopodia angulata Milne- 
Edwards and Lucas ave = = = = = = 


Scylla serrata (Forskal) + + + — + = + + + $ 


Neptunus (Neptunus) 
sanguinulentus (Herbst) ... + + + = aa = + + + + 


Neptunus (Neptunus) pelces 
cus (Linnaeus) + + + = + - + + + + 


AVENOL JO SAVAYD ANINVN FHL NO 


Charybdis (Goniosoma) cru- 


ciata (Herbst) + _ = = + = + + + + 
Charybdis (Goniosoma) luci- 

fera (Fabricius) de - = = = + - + = - + 
Charybdis (Goniosoma) annu- on 

tata (Fabricius) + + = = + = ab = = + = 


TT 
a Sy = saeo_e_=!\ 


SS SS 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


534 


i 

1 + a 
+ = a 
ap a “1p 
a ian Aes 
es 
i 

it) 
3 eg = 
» | 8 
OQ = 5S 
= . © 
ms n 


- + — + + + ~ 
~ - + - +: + +: 
4 ~ +- + + +- = 
-- - + - - +: = 
+: ~ + -- | + + + 
+: + + —- | + 4. +- 
<= — — eS | — +- — 
7 — ~ - + - 2 
+ - * - - — - 

ar] Zz ne re 

= oo @ 

9 OK Os a. & 

= Q © Sue & tn net os 

> Epa) we 2.6 ie © op 

B 4, 8 spies 5 eer 9 S29 = 
s ph | yo De Pp 8 ‘ SB ss 
RDw&=s Bem S:- BE aS ~ Om t 
xe ou 37 an Bias a =o. > 
as BO (Oe Seo — a U: Gi sy 

B ey ee aabe n oO » oD 2. 

Q ° BB» 5 ee 8 

5 Ona q 

Bb Kee pg Os ee 

© Loren rh a ~ 


(‘p7u0)—I ATAV YL, 


a (Sprea py 
DIDIStAD vIpoOgtIviT 


“OUT! N) 
“+ (qjaddny) svasor s1qvB4agp7 
““(ydwny) sup2sop) syDssap 


coe coe (yorvw 


(jsqiop]) Dumdtsg vp DIDDY TL 


see Ssplemp 7 

“SUTIN VJVUIAD = DIMMU DIDYT 
(aOstW-Ppoom) sazzjgoy 

(suuaqjayowu0y)  sipgtavyz 


2 (eae) sug 
-ua10 (DULOSOWUOS)) SIpgdavy 7D 


he (sqlop]) vsspu 
-0177V9 (wiboso1Muo+y) SsIpghavy-) 


jeded yuaseid 
oY} UL peqiiosap 
3}%}9 Aequiog jo 
JSeOd 94} WOJJ SMIIOY 


ta) 


MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 


ON THE 


+ 


+ 


+ + + + 


ia: (sprempq -enTg A) 
; 1v4u 9240 SNUIDADINANT 


( Sec) siaav. agoungosjary 


ae lop 
a 


eoe een ( snypo 
TIQvy) Olfigsagsae Ssnuiunjig 


x (spleMpa 
Bae) 


UOSAdUIT}S szsojndns SN1zQ 


oe eee (Aeiy) 

tLyItmpany agdgiuauorlyy 
eve ove (SpiemMpa 
-IU[IW) 2tdusivs vavnjry 


"** -(jsqdop]) vsourdsig auazvy 
jepuey swuuvuinan) susigy 
({JoMSe F{) SusopnuvsT sraDpayT 


eh splemM pq 


cece eee (Ssplempa 
-IUTLJN) Sappavxa snipojsgot 
a | YOOOTV 
SIG2LIVIIVQ =SNUBAAIQ 


-vIS (SnyguonxoygoT) OYjUvxX 


TaBLE I—(Conid.) 


PES 


Forms from the coast 
of Bombay State 
described in the 

present paper 


Laccadives 
and 
Maldives 
Singapore 
Philippines 


South Africa 
Australia 


Seychelles |. 
Burma, Tavoy and 
Mergui, Andaman and 
Nicobar Js., Indonesia, 
Cocos-Keeling 
and 
Christmas Is. 
Japan, China 


East coast of Africa, 
| Madagascar, Mauriti 
Red Sea, Persian Gulf 
Thailand, South China 
Sea 


Avawod ‘TyNYNOL 


N 


Charybdis (Goniosoma) callia- 
nassa (Herbst) aa) - - - - + = + = = = 


Charybdis (Goniosoma) orten- | | 
talis (Dana)... see + | - | + - | - = + + = fe 


Charybdis _ (Goniohellenus) | 
hoplites (Wood-Mason) ... - + | _ - - = = = = , = 
| 


Thalamita crenata Milne- 


Edwards | + + | + | - | + + + + + + 


Thalamita prymna (Herbst) + + | + + + = + L L + 


S 
2 
= 
Ra 
ea 
a 
3 
a 
ie) 
is} 
5 
8 


Atergatis integerrimus (La-) 
marck) see Boo | 


Atergatis jloridus (Rumph)... + + 


Fg 


Alergatis roseus (Ruppell) ... + | + 


+ - | + - = = + 


| 
i} 
| 
Platypodia cristata  (Milne- | 
ee: - + + | + { - + - - - 


idwards) 


ee 


Xantho (Lophoxanthus) sca-| 
berrimus baccalipes 
Alcock os oe - = - - = - - = = - 
Leptodius exaratus (Milne- 
Edwards) Cary a5 =- + + — + = ett + ots ae 
Leplodius crassimanus Milne- | 
Edwards on os - = - =— | + = = x ae = g 
Medaeus granulosus (Haswell) + = + = + — + - + 3 2 
Etisus laevimanus Randall - 3p + es ee + + + I 
| | | = 
Galene bispinosa (Herbst) ... - = - = | + = | = = = | 46 = 
| i 
Actaea savignyi (Milne- = 
Edwards) A) ed + + + + + = + = de 4 & 
| | a 
Myomenippe hardwickii | | x 
(Gray) oo ae = + = = + = | fe = = = i= 
| | i a 
Oztus rugulosus Stimpson... - = + - + - - = - + ce 
S 
Lpixanthus trontalis (Milne- | & 
Edwards) see co - + + = + = + + + + 3 
Pilumnus vespertilio (Fabri- | S 
cius ) 200 mo - + + = + = - - | = - Si 
Pilumnus longicornis Hilgen- H . 
dorf no es = + = = = = | ae = =. a 
Hleteropanope laevis (Dana) = - = = = = = = = | = 
Eurycarcinus ovrie nt alis 
(Milne-Edwards) -| - - = = + = ae = = = a 
Lu o 


pa — = —- — * SION, DZVpUNIOL DPOGhIO 


a ap veal == ct a ais a6 at at sa ie so 
-euIseq vunimuipsz02 vpoghIO 

™“ ‘ . 
- + +f + + “ + = + 4° ++ a 3 (sey 
“s -[@q) viuajoyzy4ojn129 vpoghIO 
= 
x = a = za 2s = — - - _ see []eMINos puv [[ea 
= -lI0K]T «avunovi¢d §=Sasdyjouuty 
cS) 
oS as pes — ae i ae pate, a pas eon cee eee (spre a 
9 “PA-OUjlIN) vsojzas v119YI0j{0T 
zs As a= = =. obs | at ah Bee — , = eee eee YOOV 
na SUOAJTEZSNHIUD VAIBYIONT 
jaa ‘ 

- = = + = = = ay == = ie “+ (aosdtt}S) 
= | DI0IUIP DIDUIAI IDAING 
tS 2 
~ o x | = ne = 4 os af, ats = see ese Aeapeyy 
S | lypjims vuvuinan? viygisq 
SZ, 
= . 25 7 Sb 
ea B. = eae a, 2 & 
= = > Q Saeie: mn nee ae 1 
S a B er  &. ie D's © fe) 
= S e = a a. 8 Ss ak: es & & 228 = iaded jueseid 

: 8 a iB Dep oP are —5 8 by eee a 94} UW! peqiiosep 
) O° 2 KS} he B Ou vn Re * Qn = ao, @ a > 91815 Aequiog jo 

oe b= 995 = — eh 
= Z = a = a 2, BS BS o < me 2 ae -% JSeOd 94} UIOI} SMO 
= A e) oa 8B» e Se mae iS 
S B. op @ 28 
~ Be Dd e — a Ps | 


(‘p7uw0D)—I SIAVL 


536 


537 


ON THE 


MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 


[S9¢g27nUuUUD 


coe ( [eys 
“10 ) 40ssaut sus¢vasogozayyz 


"** (\sqloH) susoszsys susdvsQ 


oe eued 
SNILJIIY A enpNigees DIT 


aunque y 
SHILULAI = snuyoyjzygosmv Ty 
eee oe 19 ddny 
sussargap SUUMIDY IY FOAM] 


JSoIe UISEcy 
197;19440] snupoyzygosmv yy 


SpIVA PF-oUllW 


SNZDIINS snujoy,y$o4r2 DT 

cae Ullenx) 

sagimyoa¢g = smuqoyjygorrv py 
ee (Sprempqy 


Erin SIPlOsujIAut v)7 YO 


spleMpay 
“SULLY leatunssnp sniutspjaH 


eaeq 

SNpijiu stuotAvuk snuisvja9D 
eee (3 So1 

-BUISeq) S27uolspU snmetsvIayH 


ale13e7] 
SAULISD IID 


a 
Pe - 
; eae ie - | 
At — 
aa 


9e9 


Taste I—(Contd.) 


| a + Loy 3 = 

|} gz | 8 B22 E S 

| EEL. aaa i) - [S) a S 

g | Slee g 9» | b§oe| # 4 4 3 Fy Bi & 

Forms from the coast = < S 3 q s 3 SEBS | 2 3 a = a = 

of Bombay State < 37-3 3 Sug |&R-e| ate ae = 3 s 1S) 

described in the a |) caves el Sag ~G4at| yas 7) 3 a a FS 

present paper =f | 33 > ¢ as da BB 8 2 3 3 es a & 

2] 3 9 SA 
a ° & B a EES 5 ¢ a s 

gs 3 Age || © 3 = 

ag 4 32 a = 

= Za 

Eriphia laevimana  smithit = 

Macleay ose eee - + + - + = + - + + S 

Eucrate crenata dentata | | | | = 

(Stimpson)... cob - - + - - - + = = = 2 

Litocheira angustifrons | | g 

Alcock cca con - - = + + - = = = | = a 

a 

Litocheira setosa ene Ed | | 3 

wards) con — = = = + | = + = = = 2 

Pinnotheres placunae Hor- | & 
nell and Southwell am - - - — - | - = = = = 

| = 

Ocypoda cer atophihalma (Pal- H S, 

las) 708 + + + - + + + + ef = 

Ocypoda cordimana Desma- i 

Test ee sxl| + + + + + | 2 = fi 4 + 
Ocypoda rotundata Miers... = = = = - - - - | - | = 


—— ee 


Gelasimus annulipes i | | 
Latreille 20 ony + + H + - + = + + ar + 
| 
Gelasimus martonis (Desma- | | 
rest) am 60 + + | + | - + - + + + ) + 
Gelasimus marionis nitidus| 
Dana oon + + + = + = + + + + 
Gelasimus dussumieri Milne- ! | s) 
Edwards on con - - - = + = + | + | + = 
| 8 
Doti lia myctiroides Otis, | | 5 
Edwards) oo = = = = + = - = | = = 
| S 
Macrophthalmus  pectinipes| | 5 
Guerin om ae = = = = + = - - | = = c 
| = 
Macrophthalmus sulcatus 2 SI 
Milne-Edwards ob + + = = + - = - +? = 2 
ed 
Macrophthalmus latrei!lei H & 
Desmarest om = te = = + | - + + + + ic) 
| | ° 
Macrophthalmus depressus | | ] 
Ruppel “0 — - - + - - - = | - +? - & 
| iS 
Macrophthalmus crinitus | | S 
Rathbun os es - - - - te | a e= | er - = iS 
= 
TTC CLOR TEN UES, Paeiticus | 
Dana bes = = - = + =- — | = - 
Grapsus strigosus (Herbst)... + + + = + + + | + 3h + 
Metopograpsus messor (For- | 
skal) oe ony ap + ar = + = + | 3 ar + g 
Ss 


54 


Vol. 


SOCIETA 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. 


538 


ai, ae A ar + | + cf aP ae a (yoreure’T) 
| . DIDINILIGN, VSSaAGIP VISNBD)F 
eas i = ee = ats a = a = ve ih spieM 
| -PA-oUly vgrusgssp xvjgvpayy 
_— —_ _ — — | — —_ — as — eee oor SpIVM 
| -PA-OULLN vIpue XopgvIpy 
= hs Be = fe Sums = = = — Ue ep 
| DINULU (DUADSIG) DIUAsDSIS 
Be fhe ae aie Es ae — a ae, pase | eee coe SUO MA 
DIDIOLUID] (DULADSIG) DULALSIS 
= ee = = os ats — —- — — at Uv 9p 
PIUDIIO (DIUADSAS') DULADSAS 
| 
+ = “f = a = = = oP = a = (sniotiqe gd) 
pIpAponh (VUADSAG) DULADSAS 
al ab ah | - a5 =a = + + (sniotiqey) 2704197427 DUNADY 
— — + — = 3s a = = = SpreMpy~sUllA 
snyvinovu  snsd¢vadcogozayy 
| 
KF Z = 
i | o & to a sy) ty 
q ea O S09 a a © fp 
& a eB | gs | wBEE sp % oR 0 o 
= a = ee ee | a. 8 B iP = a eecnare = ljoded jueseid 
: a A] em | om | Ro By| Bee a So 5 ay} Ul paqiiosep 
0 5. = » Ba @ "S i Sw 2 a 2) = ie 2) > ayes Aequiog jo 
3. 5 2 = | Qe tae GS Ona = BS - 7 '\se00 aq} WO] SMIIOT 
© e | = 500 BBs Saistey © 
E Be 2 @ | #8 
ps) | 2 Q = | & Ss 


((p740))—J AIAV I, 


oe 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 539 


may be carried along with ocean currents and the forms that cling to them 
are also taken along with them. Thus weed-clinging littoral forms may 
be carried away and dispersed widely.’ Chilton (1910) has also called 
attention to the role of the movements of ships in the dispersal of larger 
Crustacea like crabs and Amphipoda, and remarks: ‘ Naturaliy, the 
Crustaceans that are suitable for dispersal by ships can also be dispersed 
by floating logs; in that case, however, they would follow the tracks of 
the prevailing currents.’ The accidental transport of these foreign 
species taken from harbours where foreign ships dock for several weeks 
cannot have any geographic significance of scientific value. 

The homogeneity of the Indo-Pacific Brachyuran fauna has been 
stressed by Laurie (1915), who states: ‘The homogeneity of the 
Indo-Pacific region is illustrated by the fact that in places so far apart as 
Seychelles and Hawaii the percentage of crabs common to the Red Sea 
is very similar, approximately 33% in cach case, that this percentage 
occurs at Ceylon and a fairly similar one at the Maldives and Laccadives. 
India is below, and Torres Straits distinctly above, this average figure.” 
His conclusion is that ‘the Indo-Pacific figures suggest that one may 
prophesy with a probable error of + 5 or 6 that 35 is the most likely 
percentage of species common to the Red Sea which will be found in a 
Colection Of ...... crabs from hitherto unexplored, or insufficiently 
explored, portion of the Indo-Pacific region.’ 

The Bombay State crab fauna gives a percentage of 43, which is 
somewhat high. 

It will be noted from the table that the different families of crabs 
vary considerably in the ‘percentage of homogeneity’; this may be 
noted aiso in Laurie’s table. The Xanthidae, as might be expected, 
are above the average, and the Portunidae come next. It may be remark- 
ed, too, that it is the extremely widespread species which bring the per- 
centage of homogeneity up. 

Table II deals with the percentage of homogeneity of the different 
families of Brachyura as occurring in Bombay State and in India. 


OBSERVATIONS ON ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS 


Observations on the natural habitats of crabs indicate that they are 
found in a variety of ecological conditions and manifest interesting mor- 
phological and physiological adaptations to suit their varying environ- 
ments. ‘ihe different tribes and families can be grouped according to the 
environmental conditions in which they live and to which they respond. 

The majority of crabs are marine, but many can tolerate brackish 
water ; others live in entirely fresh water, while a considerable number are 
amphibious, living partly on land and partly in water. Most of the 
marine crabs inhabit littoral and shallow water, but many others live at 
great depths. 

The shore crabs display the widest range of variation in their adapta- 
tions. Some of the extreme adaptations are almost inexplicable, but 
most of them are elucidated below in relation to their ecological 
significance, and the part they play in preServing and perpetuating 
the species. 


* In estimating the significance of these percentages, it should be remembered 
that some areas having been fairly explored are a good standard; on the other 
hand, other populaticns may have been sampled under different conditions, 


4 


9 0 T 0 0 c I 5e8 seplutosousmA RY 

Sé G 8 OT 8I elt ve : “ eyoudgIAxGQ 
x 82 82 OL Sc HA 6SP GGG a “ eyyeuskyovig 
ks ; : 0 0 z. eos Be geprTaney 
ee — - 0 0 fe) ees aoe ag IEPlOULO FT 
= : 0 0 8 as pnt as Bopl[OUlOFT 
5 = sage 0 0 Z i eS “* 9BeplusmonAq 
= OS Ul G €& 9 8ST 8 ie a SEDILMIOIG 
e a : 0 0 ¥ Ae re a¥pIIdloipoyomo yy 
= Os if v4 8¢ 9 UW 8 ae is 89 pIIMOIG 
= 0S i Cc 02 9 62 | 8 cia 255 eoo¥INIOIG 
= ee ee ' | : : a BP Seine 
a 0 0 if | 6 I ht 16 sie #45 aepriddiiog 
> 09 € S$ | Al OT c8 €? - “s geprtsoone’T 
= £9 G c | ge S SI S see “- gepidde[eg 
= gs S 6 | ST LT SHE 0€ - *  BYBUI0SAXO 
S | : 
Oe es Sa Sco sscay (2 eB M ease ery | ao ee 

0} UOUIUIOD 0} Womu0s Se sade 0} UOTIMIOD 0} douIWIOD | eae ge SES ba: _ Ape y/eqiy, 
asejuso1eg | sen | kequiog [e10y, oseyueolag JaqaInN | WeIpUy [eI0 J, 29g Pax 


OE ST = 


II] 3IavyL 


540 


MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 


ON THE 


2ee 


SP TEP ET ES NTI TEP EE 


OT 
AT 


€T 


occ 


ooo 


coe 


sa1oeds |e }0 J, 


oeptuloreooredepy 
“*  geprpodéog 
see aeprlutoreoax) 
vee sepisdeiyy 
Seplolled 
"* 9eploestdoua}g 
“* gepieyjouulg 
“* 9eplov[detory 
as oepiyyueN 
oe depiloueg 
ot SBpIyony, 
" gBpIpADaTAIV 
“*  9BDIUOMIB}JOF 
vee seplunjyiog 
oes seprishi0g 

eyoudyrAyovig 
“* gepidousyys1eg 


A oepHeN 


TABLE I 


I 


Red Sea 


‘Total Indian 


Total Bombay 


Tribe/Pamily (ES, | BEES, | commento | Common | GBS, | commento | commons 
Laurie} Aleock) | ed Sea Red Sea present paper) Red Sea Red Sea 

Oxystomata 30 113 17 15 | 9 5 55 
Calappidae 5 15 5 33 3 2 67 
Leucosiidae 23 82 10 12 | 5 3 60 
Dorippidae 1 11 1 9 Hl 1 0 0 
Raninidae 1 5 1 20 2 oo 

Dromiacea 8 29 6 20 f 2 1 50 
Dromiidea 8 21 6 28 | 2 1 50 
Homolodromiidae i 0 0 | 

Dromiidae on 8 18 6 33 2 | 1 50 
Dynomenidae ... 2 0 0 | 

Homolidea 8 0 0 

Homolidae oa 0 | 6 0 0 0 

Latreillidae 2 0 0 | 

Brachygnatha ... we 222 459 117 25 70 28 28 
Oxyrbyncha... 34 112 18 16 8 2 25 
Hymenosomidae ooo 1 5 0 0 1 0 0 
Maiidae 22 76 13 17 \ 5 2 40 
Parthenopidae ... il 31 5 16 2 0 0 
Brachyrhyncha 188 347 99 28 63 26 4) 
Corystidae 0 | 1 0 0 eee aco 
Portunidae 35 | 63 22 34 ll 6 54 
Potamonidae ... on | 4 co 

Atelecyclidae ... 4 0 0 ie 

Trichiidae ons ceo con + 

Cancridae oo om 

Xanthidae 107 147 56 38 19 11 58 
Goneplacidae ... 5 29 3 10 3 1 33 
Pinnotheridae ... 12 1 it 9 1 Q 

Ptenoplacidae ... os 1 0 0 on 

Palicidae <0 - 2 5 2 40 st eco an 
Grapsidae on 11 48 6 12 iW | 3 30 
Gecarcinidae ... Ba Fe 5 0 0 3 | - 5s 
Ocypodidae 15 33 9 27 

Hapalocarcinidae 1 og ane 

‘Total species [aa | [=~ Gate. Lt | eecre = 


———— an 


OFS 


FS 1A ‘ALAIIOS “LSIH TVYOLVN AVEWOT ‘TVNAAOL 


AVINOT TO SAVUD ANINVN FHL NO 


TRS 


542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


The spider-crabs (Oxyrbyncha) comprise a group by themselves, a 
majority of them being adapted specially for life amongst weeds, mostly 
in the inter-tidal zone. They are sluggish and inoffensive and depend for 
their survival on camouflage. They are curiously coloured and sculptured 
so as to resemble the patterns of broken shells and eroded rocks among 
which they live. Their bodies are specially adapted for gathering weeds 
and small organisms, being provided with knob-like processes, hooks, and 
spines, on which algae, sponges, worms, etc. can get a hold. Alcock (1901) 
states: ‘ Some species purposely attach pieces of seaweed and fragments of 
sheil on their bodies so as to escape notice.’ They have long, tapering 
legs by which they can walk through entangied shore algae or cling 
tightly to the rocks or algae in which they dwell. They have no other 
detence and, when removed from their surroundings, quiver their legs 
helplessly. A typical example is Pavamithrax (Chlorinoides) aculeatus. 

Most of the Oxystomata are burrowing crabs, ‘They live in sand or 
mud, some remaining buried till only their eyestalks show above the 
surface. Their carapace is coloured to blend with the sandy background. 
The Calappidae have peculiarly modified chelae. When held close to the 
body, the flattened claws together form a sort of buckler protecting the 
body (e.g. Calappa lophos). ‘The Matutinae have all their legs modified 
to form paddles by means of which they swim with ease and speed (e.g. 
Matuta lunaris), ‘The Leucosiidae are so coloured and shaped as to 
resemble pellets of mud so as to escape detection (e.g. Leucosia pubes- 
cens). Many of the Dorippidae carry about a house of their own by roofing 
themselves over with a shel], held by the last two pairs of legs (eg. 
Dorippe astuta). 

This peculiar habit is also common to the Dromiacea, or sponge-crabs, 
in which too the last two pairs of legs are usually adapted for holding a 
piece of sponge or shell over the body (e.g. Dromia dormia), 'They are 
primitive crabs, connecting the higher Brachyura with the Macrura. 

The Portunidae, or swimming crabs, are pelagic forms, living either 
in open seas or in creeks or estuaries. They have the last pair of legs 
modified to form paddles, and they are active creatures. When swimming, 
they often hold one chela extended, and the other folded in, so that one 
might mistake them for a fish. ‘They rely for defence on speed, but are 
also able to use their claws to great effect, and the larger forms are 
greatly feared by fishermen. They are also coloured slaty blue or grey, 
which is the general colour of sea-water below the surface [e.g. Meptunus 
(Neplunus) pelagicus|. 

The Xanthidae are mostly rock-dwellers, or live in mud under stones. 
Their carapace, which may be so convex as to be almost subglobular, or 
flat, is very strongly calcificd. They are sluggish forms and, when dis- 
turbed, do not scuttle away. Although having powerful chelae, it is 
surprising that they do not use them. On being handled, they told up 
their legs and chelae against the body, a position peculiar to the Xanthi- 
dae (e.g. Ozzus rugulosus). 

The Pinnotheridae are a peculiar group of crabs, living as commensals 
in the body-cavities of bivalves and Holothurians, undergoing degenera- 
tion. They are feeble crabs, with soft bodies and tiny eyes. The males 
may live freely or as commensals (e.g. Pinnotheres placunae). 

The Ocypodinae are amphibious. ‘They are gregarious and live close 
to the seashore in burrows, and can breathe air so long as their gill. 
chambers are moist, but die when forcibly submerged in water for a long 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 543 


time. They are some ot the most intelligent of all the crabs. They are 
extremely fast and active on land, their speed equalling, if not exceeding, 
a running man’s (e.g. Ocypoda ceratophthalma),. 

The Scopimerinae are soft, feeble crabs, living in colonies, burrowing 
in mud. They are also called ‘soldier-crabs’, from their habit of 
‘marching in formation ’ (e. g. Dotilla mycttroides). 

The Macrophthalminae are pelagic or mud-dwellers. 

The Grapsidae are rock-dweliers, mostly living on stone embankments. 
They are vigilant and intelligent creatures and trust to their speed and 
craft to escape their enemies, it being very difficult to pursue them (e.g. 
Grapsus strigosus) A member of their family, Ardocherr sinensis, is 
important in that its natural distribution is China, but it has colonized in 
Germany. 

The Varuninae make their home on drift timber or drift seaweed, and 
are weil adapted for swimming, this accounting for their wide distribution 
(e.g. Varuna litterata). 

The size of the body in crabs is also extremely variable, exhibiting a 
wide range. In large specimens of Scylla serrata, the carapace attains a 
breadth of 211 mm. (or 8 inches), and the span of the chelipeds measures 
810 mm., whereas the other extreme in size is met with in Sesarma 
(Sesarma) minuta, which has the tiniest carapace, the breadth of which, 
in the adult, 1s 3.2 mm. 

In some crabs there are sufficiently well-marked ‘ secondary ’ sexual 
characters, e.g. differences in the size and sculpture of the chelipeds of 
adult males and adult females or immature males (e.g. Gelasimus 
annultfes). Several genera (e.g. Matuta, Ocypoda, Metaplax male) 
possess organs of stridulation for attracting the opposite sex, 

Crabs play an important role in nature’s economy in two ways: 

(1) They are one of the principal sources of food for numerous 
fishes (especiaily sting rays), frogs, crocodiles, swimming and wading 
birds, jackals, and other carnivorous animals, and last but not least, 
man. 

(2) They are important as scavengers of the seashore, making up in 
sumbers what they lack in size. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


The author wishes to express his grateful thanks to Dr. C. V. Kul- 
karni, Director of Fisheries, Bombay State, for all suggestions, criticism, 
and guidance throughout the course of this work. He is also thankful to 
late Dr. S. L. Hora, the then Director, Zoological Survey of India, 
for giving the necessary facilities to work in the Survey’s laboratory. 
Thanks are also due to Dr. B. N. Chopra for the loan of literature 
not available in India, and to Dr. K. K. Tiwari of the Zooiogical Survey of 
India, Dr. M. W. F. Tweedie of the Raffles Museum, Singapore, and Dr. 
Isabella Gordon, of the British Museum, tor suggestions in identifica- 
tion and confirmation of species. To Dr. 8. B. Setna, former Director 
of Fisheries, Bombay State, special gratitude is due for giving the 
necessary facilities to work in the Taraporevala Marine Biological Station 
for a period of two and a half years, 


044 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


REFERENCES 


Adams, Arthur, and White, Adam (1848) : Zoology of the voyage of Samarang 
Crustacea, pp. 1-59, pls. i-xiii. He 

Alcock, A., and Anderson, A. R. (1894) : Natural history notes from H. M. Indian 
Marine Survey Steamer ‘Investigator’. Ser. Il, No. 14. An account of a 
recent cullection of deep sea Crustacea from the Bay of Bengal and Laccadive 
Sea. Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xiii, pt. Il, No. III, pp. 175-185, pl. ix. 

———— (1894a) : ibid. Ser. I!1. No. 17. List of the shore and shallow-water 
Brachyura collected during the season 1893-1894. Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 
Ixiii, pt. 11, No. 1V, pp..197—209: 

Alcock, A. (1895) : Materials for a Carcinological Fauna of India. No.1. The 
Brachytira Oxyrhyncha, Journ. Ms. Soc. Bengal Vxiv, pt.v1h, no. II pp 
157-289, pls. ili-v. j i 

—_— —— (1895a) : Description of a new species of Oxyrhynch crab of the genus 
Parthenope. Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xiv, pt. II, no. II, pp. 296-298. 

———— (1896) : Materials for a Carcinological Fauna of India. No, 2. ‘The Brach- 
yura Oxystomata. Journ. as. Soc. Bengal \xv, pi. II, no. I, pp. 134-296, pls. 
Vi-viil. 

———— (1898) : ibid. No. 3. The Brachyura Cyclometopa. Part I. 
Xanthidae. Journ, As. Soc. Bengal iad ie no. eae 67-233. maps, 

——— — (1899) : ibid. No.4. The Brachyura Cyclometopa. Part II. A revision 
of the Cyclometopa with an account of the families Portunidae, Cancridae and 
Corystidae. Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xviii, pt. II, no. 1, pp. 1-104. 

—-—.—— (1§92a) : Natural history notes from the R.I. M. Survey Ship ‘ Investi- 
gator’. Ser. ILI. No. 3. On some notable new and rare species of Crustacea 
Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \aviii, pt. I, no. IJ, pp. 111-119. 

__——-— (1899b) : Materials for a Carcinological Fauna of India, No, 5. The 
Brachyura Primigenia, or Dromiacea. Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xviii, pt. HI, 


no. III, pp. 123-169. 


———-— (1900): ibid. No.6. The Brachyura Catometopa, or Grapsoidea. Journ. 
As. Soc. Bengal \xix, pt. IJ, no. IN, pp. 279-456. 
———— (1901) : Catalogue of the Indian Decapod Crustacea in the collection of 


the Indian Museum. Pt. I. Brachyura. Fasc. I. Introduction and Dromides or 
Dromiacea, pp. 1-80, pls. A & i-vii. 

Altevogt, R. (1955) : Some studies on two species of Indian fiddler crabs Uca 
marionis nitidus (Dana) and U. annulipes (Latr.). JBNHS 52, pp. 702-716, 
pls. i-v, 12 text-figs. 

Anderson, A. R. (1894) : Natural history notes from the Royal Indian Marine 
Survey Steamer ‘ Investigator’. Ser. Il. No. 12. Note on the sound pro- 
duced by the Ocypode crab, Ocypoda ceratophthalma. Journ. As. Soc. Bengal 
Ixiii, pt. II, No. IJ, pp. 138, 139. 

SS (S00) ibid act. II, No. 21. An account of the deep-sea Crustacea 
collected during the season 1894-95. Journ. As. Soc. Bengal \xv, pt. II, no. II, 

p. 103-106. 

nee Felix J. (1910) : A preliminary study of the life-history of Scylla serrata 
(Forskal). Philipp. J. Sci. Manila 73, pp. 437-455, pls. 1-3, 1 text fig. 

Balss, H. (1921) . Diagnosen neuer Decapoden aus den Sammlungen der Deutschen 
Tiefsee—Expedition und der japanischen Ausbeute Dofleins und Haberers. 
Zool, Anz. Leipzig \ii, pp. 175-178. 

——— — (1934) : Die krabben der Reise J. W. Harms’ nach der Christmas-Insel und 

dem Malaiischen Archipel. Zool. Anz. Leipzig 106, pp. 225-237, 12 text figs. 
=e (1935); Oa three South Indian crabs (Decapoda, Brachyura) of the 
Madras Museum. ec. Jud. Mus. xxxvii, pp. 45~48, pl. ii. 

Barnard, K. H. (1916): Descriptions of new species of South African Decapod 
Crustacea, with notes on synonymy and new records. Ann. Mag. nat. hist. 
(II) xiii, pp. 361-374. 

———— (1950) : Descriptive catalogue of South African Decapod Crustacea (crabs 
and shrimps). Aza. S. Afr. Mus. xxxviii, pp. 1-400, 75 text figs. 

Boone, Lee (1931) : The littoral Crustacean fauna of the Galapagos Islands. Part I. 
Brachyura. Zoologica New York viii, pp. 127-288. 

Borradaile, L. A. (1900) : On a small collection of Decapod Crustaceans from fresh 
waters in North Borneo. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 93-95. 

———— (1900a) : On some Crustaceans from the South Pacific—part IV. The 
Crabs. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 568-596, pls. xl-xlii. 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 545 


Borradaile, L.A. (1902): The fauna and geography of the Maldive and Laccadive 
Archipelagoes, being the account of the work carried on and of the collections 
made by an expedition during the years 1899 and 1900. By J. Stanley Gardiner. 
Marine Crustaceans. I. On varieties. II. Portunidae. I, pt. ii, pp. 191-208, 
4 text figs. 

--——— (1902a): ibid. Marine Crustaceans. III. The Xanthidae and some other 
crabs. I, pt. iii, pp. 237-271, 20 text figs. 

———— (1903) : ibid. Marine Crustaceans. [V. Some remarks on the classification 
of the crabs. V. The crabs of the Catometope families. VI. Oxystomata. IJ, pt. 
iv, pp. 424-439, pl. xxii, 8 text figs. 

——— — (1903a) : ibid. Marine Crustaceans. IX. The sponge-crabs (Dromiacea). 
II, pt. i, pp. 574-578, pl. xxxiii. 

———— (1903b) : ibid. Marine Crustaceans. X. The spider-crabs (Oxyrhyncha). II. 
pt. ii, pp. 681--698, pls. xlvii, xlviii, 5 text figs. 

———-— (1916) : Crustacea in British Antarctic (‘Terra Nova’) Expedition, 1910. 
III, pp. 97-107, 8 text figs. 

Buitendijk, A. M. (1950) : On a small collection of Decapoda Brachyura, chiefly 
Dromiidae and Oxyrhyncha from the neighbourhood of Singapore. Auld. 
Rattles Mus. Singapore 21. pp. 59-82. 

Calman, W. T. (1900) : On a collection of Brachyura from Torres Straits. Trans. 
Linn. Soc. London (2) Zool. viii, pp. 1-50, pis. 1-3. 

———— (1909) : On Decapoda Crustacea from Christmas Island collected by Dr. 
C. W. Andrews, F.R.S., F.Z.S. Proc. Zool. Soc. London ii, pp. 703-713, pl. 
Ixxii. 

———— (1920) : Anewcrab of the genus Sesarma from Basra. Ann. Mag. nat. 

me v7st. (9) v, pp. 62-65, I text fig. 

———— (1925) : A new crab of the genus Sesarma from New Guinea. Ann. Mag. 
nat. hist. (9) xv, pp. 454-456, 2 text figs. 

Chopra, B, (1931): Further notes on Crustacea Decapoda in the Indian Museun 
—On some Decapod Crustacea found in the cloaca of Holothurians. Rec, Jud. 
Mus. xxxiii, pp. 303-323, pl. vii, 12 text figs. 

———— (193la) : Crustacea, section of : the history and progress of the Zoological 
Survey of India, part III. /BNAS 34(2), pp. 502-506, 

———— (1933) : Further notes on Decapoda Crustacea in the Indian Museum 
on the Decapod Crustacea collected by the Bengal Pilot Service off the mouth 
of the river Hughli. Dromiacea and Oxystomata. Rec. Ind. Mus. xxxv, 
pp. 25-52, 7 text figs. 

—-——— (1933a) : ibid. On two new species of Oxystomous crabs from the Bay of 
Bengal. Rec. Ind, Mus, xxxv, pp. 77-86, pl. iii, 1 text fie. 

-— ——— (1934): ibid. On a new Dromiid and a rare Oxystomous crab from the 
Sandheads, off the mouth of the Hooghly river, Aec. Ind, Mus. xxxvi, pp. 477- 
48], pl. viii. 

———— (1935): ibid. On the Decapod Crustacea collected by the Bengal Pilot 
Service off the mouth of the river Hooghly. Brachygnatha (Oxyrhyncha and 
Brachyrhyncha), ec. nd. Mus. xxxvii, pp. 463-514, pl. ix, 18 text figs. 

— (1936): The Cape crawfish industry of South Africa with some observations 
on the prawn and crab fisheries of India. Current Sci. iv, no. 7, pp. 529-533 

———— (1940) : Some food-prawns and crabs of India and their fisheries. JBNHS 
41(2), pp. 221-234, pls. iii-v. 

Chopra, B., & Das, K. N. (1930) : Further notes on Crustacea Decapoda in the 
Indian Museum—-on two new species of hymanosomatid crabs, with notes on 
some other species. ec. Ind. Mus. xxxii, pp. 413-429, 17 text figs. 

—— —— (1937) : ibid. On three collections of crabs from Tavoy and Mergui Archi. 
pelago. rec. Ind. Mus. xxxix, pp. 377-434, pl. vi, 21 text figs. 

Crane, Jocelyn (1911) : Eastern Pacific Expeditions of the New York Zoological 
Society. XXXVI. Crabs of the genus Uca from the west coast of Central 
America. Zoologica New York xxvi, pp. 145-208, pls. i-ix, 8 text figs. 

De Haan, W. (1850): Fauna Japonica v, pp. 1-135, pls. i-xxxiii. 

de Man, J. G. (1887): Report on the Podophthalmous Crustacea of the Mergui 
Archipelago collected for the Trustees of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, by Dr. 
John Anderson, F.R.S., Superintendent of the Museum, parts i-v. Journ. Linn, 
Soc. London (Zool.) xxii, pp. 1-212, pls. i-xiv. 

(1887a) : Uebersicht der indo-pacifischen Arten der Gattung Sesarma Say 

nebst einer Kritik der von W. Hess und E. Nauck in den Jahren 1865 und 1880 

beschriebenen Decapoden. Zool, Jahr. ii, Syst. Abt, pp. 639-722, 


— 


——_— 


546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


de Man, J. G. (1890) : Carcinological studies in the Leyden Museum. Notes from 
the Leyden Museuin xii, pp. 49-107, pls. 3-6. 

———— (1898): Bericht uberdie von Herrn Schiffcapitan Storm zu Atjeh, an den 
westlichen Kusten von Malakka, Borneo und Celebes sowie in der Java-See 
gesammelten Decapoden und Stomatopoden. Zool. Jahrb. x, Syst. Abth, 
Heft vi, pp. 677-708, pls. 28-32. 

(1908-09) : Description of a new species of the genus Sesarma Say, from 
the Andaman Islands. ec./nd. J7us. ii, pp. 181-185, pl. xi. 

———— (1908-09a): The faura of brackish ponds at Port Canning, Lower Bengal— 
Decapoda Crustacea, with an account of a small collection from brackish water 
near Calcutta and in the Dacca district, Eastern Bengal. Rec. Ind. Mus. ii, 
pp. 211-231, pl. xviii. 

—— —— (1925): On two miniature Radjungans from Sumatra’s east coast. 
Treubia Batavia vi, pp. 324-328, 2 text figs. 

———— (1929): On a small collection of Decapcda one of which, a Crangon, 
caught by the Danish Pacific Expedition at the Jolo Islands, is new to science. 
Papers from Dr. Th. Mortensen’s Pacific Expedition 1914-16, pp. 105-120, 5 
text figs. 

Estampador, E. P. (1937): A check list of Philippine Crustacean Decapods. 
Philip. J. Sci. Manila 62, pp. 465-559. 

Finnegan, Susan (1930-1932): Report on the Brachyura collected in Central 
America, the Gorgona and Galapagos Islands, by Dr. Crossland on the ‘ St. 
George’ Expedition to the Pacific, 1924-25. Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) 
X¥XVil, pp. 607-673, 6 text figs. 

Flipse, H. J. (1930): Die Decapcda Brachyura der Siboga Expedition. Oxyrhyn- 
cha: Parthenopidae. Szboga Exped. Rep. xxxixc2, pt. vi, pp. 1-96, 45 text figs. 

Gordon, Isabella (1930-1932) : Brachyura from the coasts of China. Journ. Linn 
Soc. London Zool.) xxxvii, pp. 525-558, 36 text figs. 

———— (1936) : On a few Indo-Pacific species of Pinnotheres, with special reference 
to asymmetry of the walking legs. Journ. Linn. Soc. Loudon (Zool.) x1, no. 
269, pp. 163-180, 7 text figs. 

—— —— (1950): Crustacea: Dromiacea, Part I. Systematic account of the 
Dromiacea collected by the ‘ John Murray’ Expedition. Scientific reports of 
the John Murray Expedition 1933-34 ix, no. 3 (British Museum), pp. 201-230, 
pl. 4, 12° text figs. 

Gravely, F. H. (1927): Crustacea in: The littoral fauna of Krusadai Island in the 
Gulf of Manaar. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. (nm. s.) i, no. 1, pp. 141-155, pls. 
XX-X&Vi. 

Haswell, William A. (1882): Catalogue of the Australian stalk. and sessile-eyed 
Crustacea. Australian Museum, Sydney, pp. \-145, pls. i-iit. 

Hay, W. P., and Shore, C. A. (1915-1916) : The Decapod Crustaceans of Beaufort, 
WN. C., and the surrounding region. Aull. U. S. Bureau of Fisheries xxxv, 
pp. 369-476, pls. xxx-xxxix, 20 text figs. 

Henderson, J. R. (1893): A contribution to Indian carcinology. Trans. Linn, 
Soc. London (Zool.) (2) v, pp. 325-409, pls. 36-38. 

Hora, S. L. (1933): A note on the Bionomics of two estuarine crabs. Proc. Zool. 
Soc. London, pt. ii, pp. 881-884, pls. iii. 

———— (1935) : Crab fishing at Uttarbhag, Lower Bengla. Current Sci. iii, pp. 
543-546. 

Hornel!; James, and Southwell, T. (1909) : Description of a new species of Pizno- 
theres from Placuna placenta, with a note on the genus. Report on the Marine 
Zoology of Okhamandal in Kattiiawar, pt. J, pp. 99-103, 1 plate. 

Ihle, J. E. W. (1913): Die Decapoda Brachyura der ‘ Siboga’ Expedition. 
Dromiacea. Siboga Exped. Rep. xxxixb, pt. i, pp. 1-95, pls. i-iv, 38 text figs. 

---——— (1916) : ibid. Oxystomata, Dorippidae. Szboga Exped. Rep. xxxixbl, pt. 
ii, pp. 97-158, 39 text figs. 

———— (1918) : ibid. Oxystomata: Calappidae, Leucosiidae, Raninidae. Széoga 
Exped. Rep. xxxixb2 pt. III, pp. 159-322, 71 text figs. 

Indian Museum, (1895): Illustrations of the Zoology of the R.I.M.S.S. ‘ Investiga- 
tor’. Crustacea. Pt. [II, pls. xiv-xxiv, xxviii-xxx, xxxili-xl, xlvi-xlviii. 

Jones, S., and Sujansingani, K. H. (1952) : Notes on the crab fishery of the Chilka 
Lake. JBNA‘S 51(1), pp. 128-134, 5 text figs. 

Kemp, S., and Sewell, R. B. Seymour (1912) : Notes on Decapoda in the Indian 
Museum. III. The species obtained by R.I.M.S.S. ‘ Investigator’ during the 
survey season 1910-1911. ec. Ind. Mus. vii, pp. 15-32, pl. i. 


ee 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY. 547 


Kemp, S. (1915): Fauna of the Chilka Lake. Mem. Ind. Mus. v, pp. 199-325, pl. 
xii, 20 text figs. 

———— (1917): Notes on Crustacea Decapoda in the Indian Museum.—Hymeno- 
somatidae. Rec. Ind. Mus. xiii, pl. 243-279, 29 text figs. 

(1918) : Crustacea Decapoda of the Inle lake basin. ec. Ind. Mus. xiv, 
pp. 81-102, pl. xxiv, 3 text figs. 

———— (1919) : Notes on Crustacea Decapoda in the Indian Museum.—Scopi- 
merinae. ec. Ind. Mus. xvi, pp. 305-348, pls. xii-xiii, 21 text figs. 

— (1919a): ibid. The Indian species of Macrophthalmus. Rec. Znd. Mus. 
xvi, pp. 383-394, pl. xxiv. 

—— —— (1923): ibid. On two interesting crabs from the mouth of the river Hughli. 
Rec. Ind. Mus. xxv, pp. 405-409, pl. x. 

Kobli, Ganga Ram (1921-22): Brachyura of the Karachi coast. Proc. Lahore 
Phil. Soc. iii, pp. 81-85. 

Lanchester, W. F. (1900): On a collection of Crustaceans made at Singapore and 
Malacca.—Part I. Crustacea Brachyura Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 

719-770, pls. xliv-xlvii. 

Laurie, R. Douglas (1906): Report on the pearl oyster fisheries of the Gulf of 
Manaar. Part V. Report on the Brachyura collected by Prof. Herdman, at 
Ceylon, in 1902, pp. 349-432, pls. i-ii, 12 text figs. 

———— (1907-15) : Reports on the marine biology of the Sudanese Red Sea, ~X XI. 
On ue Brachyura. Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xxxi, pp. 407-475, pls. 
42-45, 

Leene, Jentina FE. (1938) ° Die Decapoda Brachyura Der Siboga Expedition. WHI. 
Brachygnatha: Portunidae. Szdoga Exped. Rep. xxxixc3, pp. 1-153, 87 text 
figs. 

Maccagno, Teresita (1935-37) : Crostacei die Assab. Decapodi Stomatopodi Amfi- 
podi. Aun. Mus. Stor. nat. Genova lix, pp. 171--178. 

Menon, M. Krishna (1952): A note on the bionomics and fishery of the swimming 
crab Neptunus sanguinolentus (Herbst) on the Malabar coast. J. Zool. Soc, 
India 4, No. 2, pp. 177-184, 3 text figs. 

Miers, Edward, J. (1876): Catalogue of the stalk-and sessile-eyed Crustacea of 
New Zealand, pp. 1-58, pl. i. 

—-——— (1878): On Actaemorpha erosa, new Genus and Species of Crustacea. 
Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.) xiii, pp. 183-185, pl. 14. 

———— (1879): On the classification of the Maioid Crustacea or Oxyrhyncha, with 
a synopsis of the families, subfamilies, and genera. Journ. Linn. Soc. London 
(Zool.) xiv, pp. 634-673, pls. 12-13. 

———— (1882) : On some Crustacea collected at the Mauritius. Proc. Zool. Soc. 
London, pp. 339-342, pl. xx. 

———— (1884): Report of the zoological collections made in the Indo-Pacific 
Ocean during the voyage of H.M.S. ‘ Alert’ 1881-2. Crustacea (Brachyura), 
pp. 178-259. 

Montgomery, Stephen K. (1931) : Report on the Crustacea Brachyura of the Percy 
Sladen Trust Expedition to the Abrolhos Islands under the leadership of Pro- 
fessor W. J. Dakin, D. Sc., F.L.S., in 1913 ; along with other crabs from Western 
en Journ, Linn. Soc. London (Zool,) xxxvii, no. 253, pp. 405-465, pls. 
24-30. 

Palmer, Richard (1926-1927): A revision of the genus ‘ Portunus’ (A. Milne- 
Edwards, Bell, etc.). J. Marine Biol. Assoc., Plymouth xiv, pp. 877-908, 
9 text figs. 

Parisi, Dott. Bruno (1918): I Decapodi Giapponesi Del Museo Di Milano. VI. 
Catometopae Paguridea. <A/ti. Soc. ft. Sc. Nat. lvii, pp. 90-112, pl. viii, 5 
text figs. 

Patil, A. M. (1951) : Study of the marine fauna of the Karwar coast and neighbour- 
ing islands. PartI. JBNAS 50(1), pp. 128-139. 

Pearson, J. (1908) : Cancer. L.M.B.C. Memoirs xvi, pp. 1-217, pls. i-xiii, 13 
text figs. 

Pillai, N. Krishna (1951): Decapoda (Brachyura) from Travancore. Bull. Central 
kesearch Institute, University of Travancore, Trivandrum ii, no. 1, ser. C, 
pp. 1-46, 5 text figs. 

Prasad, R. R., & Tampi, P. R. S. (1952) : An account of the fishery and fish- 
ing methods for Neptunus pelagicus (Linnaeus) near Mandapam. J. Zool, 
Soc. India (3) 2, pp. 335-339, 

Rai, Hardit Singh, (1933) : The shell-fisheries of the Bombay Presidency. Part Il. 
JBNHS 36(4), pp. 884-897, pls. i-ii, I text fig. 


—_—_— 


548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NARURAL TUS SOC TE TY S eV ole aod 


Rathbun, Mary J. (1909): New crabs from the Gulf of Siam. Proc. Biol. Soc. 
Washington, xxii, pp. 107-114. 

———— (1910-1912): The Percy Sladen Trust Expedition to the Indian Ocean 
in 1905, under the leadership of Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner, M/A. XJ. Marine 
Brachyura. Trans. Linn. Soc. London (2) (Zool.) xiv, pp. 191-261, pls. 
15-20, 2 text figs. 

———— (1914): Stalk-eyed Crustaceans collected at the Monto Bello Islands. 
Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 653-664, pls. i-ii. 

——-—— (1917) : The Grapsoid crabs of America. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 97, pp. 
1-461, pls. 1-161, 172 text figs, 

——-—— (1918) : Report on the spider crabs obtained by the F.1.S. ‘ Endeavour’ on 
the coasts of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia & Tas- 
mania. Department of Trade and Customs (Fisheries) of Commonwealth of 
Australia, Sydney v, pt. 1, pp. 1-29, pls. i-xv, 3 text figs. 

— ——— (1923) : Report on the crabs obtained by the F.I.S.‘ Endeavour’ on the 
coasts of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. 
Dept. of ‘Trade and Customs (Fisheries) of Commonwealth of Australia, Sydney 
v, pt. 3, pp. 95-156, pls. xvi-xlii, 3 text figs. 

Sakai, Tune (1936): Studies on the crabs of Japan. I. Dromiacea. Sci. Rep. 
Tokyo Bun. Daig. iii B, supp). 1, pp. 1-66, pls. i-ix, 13 text figs. 

—--—~—--— (1037) ; Ibid. Il. ‘Oxystomata. Sc) (ep) Jono Au. eae.) ain Be 
suppl. 2, pp. 67-192, pls. x-xix, 45 text figs,. 

———— (1938) : ibid. II]. Brachygnatha, Oxyrhyncha. Scz. Rep. Tokyo Bun, 
Daig. iii B, pp. 193-364, pls. xx—xli, 55 text figs. 

———— (1939) : ibid. 1V. Brachygnatha, Brachyrhyncha. Yokendo Ltd. Tokyo, 
pp. 365-741, pls. xlii-cxi, 129 text figs. 

Saussure, Henri de, and Stimpson, William (1867) : Crustaces de la Guadeloupe. 
Part I, pp. 1-60, pls. i-viii. 

Serene, R. (1952): Les especes du genre Scylla a Nhatrang (Vietnam). Jndo- 
Pacific Fisheries Council Proceedings (FAO), sec. 2-3, pp. 133-137, pls. i-ii. 

Shen, Chia-Jui (1931): Thecrabs of Hong Kong. Pt. I. Mong Kong Naturalist ii, 
no. 2, pp. 92-110, pls. 4-10, 11 text figs. 

———— (1935): On some new and rare crabs of the families Pinnotheridae, 
Grapsidae and Ocypodidae. Chin. Journ. Zool, i, pp. 19-40. 

———— (1936): On a collection of Brachyuran Decapoda from Hainan Islands 
with descriptions of three new species. Chin. Journ, Zool. ii, pp. 63-80, 
4 text figs. 

—-——— (1936a) : Additions to the fauna of Brachyuran Crustacea of North China. 
Inst. Zool., Nat. Acad. Peiping iii, no. 3, pp. 59-76, 4 text figs. 

———— (1937): Second addition to the fauna of Brachyuran Crustacea of North 
China, with a check list of the species recorded in this particular region. 
Inst. Zool., Nat. Acad. Peiping iii, no. 6, pp. 277-313, 11 text fizs. 

———— (1937a) : On some account of the crats of North China, Bull. Fan Mem. 
Inst. Biol. (Zool.) vii, no. 5, pp. 167-185. | 

———— (1940) : On the collections of crabs of South China, Aull. Fan Mem. Just. 
Biol, (Zool.) x, no, 2, pp. 69-104. 

———— (1948) : On a collection of crabs from the Shantung Peninsula, with notes 
on some new and rare species. Just. Zool., Nat. Acad. Peiping iv, no. 3, pp. 
105-118, 5 text figs. 

Southwel!, T, (1910): Description of a new species of Pianotheres, and of the female 
of P. margaritiferae Laurie. Ceylon Marine Biol. Rep., No. 19, pt. v, pp. 
226-227, pl. iii. 

Stebbing, Thomas R.: R. (1900): On some Crustaceans from the Falkland 
Islands collected by Mr. Rupert Vallentin. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 517-529, 
pl. xxxvi. 

———— (1917): South African Crustacea (Part 1X). Ann. S. African Mus. xvii, 
pp. 23-26, pl. xc. 

Suvatti, Chote (1950) : Fauna of Thailand. Dept. of Fisheries, Bangkok, Thailand, 
pp. 142-177. 

Tesch, J. J. (1915) : The Catometopous genus Vacrophthalmus as represented in the 
collection of the Leidea Museum. Zool, Meded, Leiden. Deeli, Afl. 3-4, pp. 
149-204, pls. v—ix. 

———— (1917): Synopsis of the genera Sesarma, Metasesarma, Sarmatium and 
Clistocoeloma, with a key to the determination of the Indo-Pacific species. 
Zool. Meded. Leiden iii, Afl. 2-3, pp. 127-260, pls. xv-xvii, 8 text figs. 


ON THE MARINE CRABS OF BOMBAY 549 


Tesch, J. J. (1918) : Die Decapoda Brachyura Der Siboga-Expedition. Hymenoso- 
midae, Retroplumidae, Ocypodidae, Grapsidae and Gecarcinidae. Széoga 
Exped. Rep. xxxixc, pt. i, pp. 1-148, pls. i-vi. 

———— (1918a) ibid. Goneplacidae and Pinnotheridae. Szdoga Exped. Rep, 
xxxixci, pt. ii pp, 149-295, pls, xii-xviii. 

Tweedie, M. W. F. (1935) : Notes on the genus //yoplax Stimpson (Brachyura, 
Ocypodidae). Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore 10, pp. 53-61, pls ii, iii. 

———— (1936): On the crabs of the family Grapsidae in the collection of the 
Raffles Museum. Bull. Raffles Mus. 12, pp. 44-70, pls. xiv-xv, 3 text 
fig’s. 

———— (1937): On the crabs of the family Ocypodidae in the collection of the 
Raffles Museum. Aull. Raffles Mus. 13, pp. 140-170, 9 text figs. 

———-— (1938): A new Scopimerine crab fron the Malay Peninsula, Aull. Raffles 
Mus. 14, pp. 198-202, 2 text figs. 

——-—— (1940): New and interesting Malaysian species of Sesarma and Utica 
(Crustacea Brachyura). ull. Raffles Mus. 16, pp. 88-113, pl. xxiv, 12 text figs. 

———— (1942): The Grapsid and Ocypodid crabs of Tasmania. Pager and Proc. 
Roy. Soc. Tasmania, pp. 13-25, 10 text figs. 

———— (1947): On the Brachyura of Christmas Island. Bull. Raffles Mus. 18, pp. 
27-42, 1 text fig. 

———— (1945): Shore crabs. Malayan Nat. Journ. iii, no. 3, pp. 102-108, 
6 text figs. 

——-—— (1949): The species of Wetopograpsus (Crustacea, Brachyura). Bijdragen 
tot de Dierkunde 28, pp. 466-471. 

— —— — (1950): Grapsoid crabs from Labuan and Sarawak. Sarawak Alus. Journ. 
v, no. 2, pp. 3338-369, 9 text figs. 

———— (1950aj : A collection of crabs from Aor Island, South China Sea. Au//. 
featfles Mus. 21, pp. 83-96, 3 text figs. 

———— (1950b): The fauna of the Cocos-Keeling Islands, Brachyura and Stomato- 
poda S#ull, Raffles Mus. 21, pp. 105-139, pl. 16, 4 text figs 

Walker, Alfred O. (1890): Notes on a collection of Crustacea from Singapore. 
Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.)-xx, pp. 107-117, pls. 6-9. 

Ward, Melbourne (1934) : Notes on a collection of crabs from Christmas Island, 
Indian Ocean. Aull. Raffles Mus. 9, pp. 5-28, pls. i-iii. 

———— (1941): New Brachyura from Gulf of Davao, Mindanao, Philippine Islands. 
Amer. Mus. Nov. 1104, pp. 1-15, 3 pls. 

White, Adam (1847): Descriptions of new Crustacea from the Eastern Seas. Proc. 
Zool. Soc. London, pp. 56-58, 84-86, 118-121. 

Withers, Thomas H, (1932): A Liassic crab, and the origin of the Brachyura, 
un. Mas. Hat. hist.; ser. 109,: pp. 313-323, pls. ix-x, 2 text figs. 


INDIAN MARSILEAS: THEIR MORPHOLOGY AND 
SYSTEMATICS 


2. ON THE EXAMINATION OF SOME COLLECTIONS OF WARSILEA 
IN INDIA 


BY 
K. M. Gupta Aanp T. N. BHARDWAJA 
Jaswant College, Jodhpur 


[Continued from Vol. 53 (3): 444] 
(With 48 figures) 


Since the discovery of Marstlea aegyftiaca in India (3) the problem of 
the morphology and systematics of the genus Marszlea with particular 
reference to the Indian species has been taken up for a detailed investiga- 
tion and some progress has already been made in that direction (6). 
Further as a result of closer studies of the material in Rajasthan, it has 
been not only possible to discover new material (4) but we find that the 
plants growing at different piaces, in somewhat different ecological 
surroundings, differ markedly in their morphological organisation ; for 
instance there exist more than one variety of M. minuta in Jodhpur or 
Udaipur division of Rajasthan. We find further that such species possess 
normal or ‘abnormai’ type of sporocarps and the range of this abnor- 
mality also varies in these plants. 

Itis not our purpose for the present to discuss the significance of these 
observations, which seem to us of very great importance in the genus 
Marsilea, but only to put on record the nature of the material so far 
available in this country and stimulate, if possible, the interest for further 
collections of this interesting water fern. One of us had suggested ‘ to 
examine in detail ali the herbarium sheets of at least the Indian species at 
the earliest opportunity ’ (3, p. 955, 1955) This has now been possible 
thanks to the kind cooperation of the authorities of the herbaria in 
Calcutta, Dehra Dun, and Bombay. 

The present position of the collections at these three places and in the 
department of Botany, Jaswant College, Jodhpur, is as follows: 


[aT NET 


Fi eT 


: No. of sheets} No. of spp. | No. of sheets 
S.N.| Name of Herbarium. Examined. present. |redetermined. Remarks, 
1, |Ind. Bot. Gardens, 19 3 7 | 
Calcutta. | 
2, |St. Xavier’s College, Be 3 10 
Bombay. 
3. | Forest Research Institute, 31 6, 2 spp. 5 6 Sheets 
Dehra Dun. foreign. foreign. 
4, |Jaswant College, Jodhpur. 45 9 ») 


EN 2 


INDIAN MARSILEAS: THEIR MORPHOLOGY & SYSTEMATICS 551 


It will be noticed that, in spite of the fact that the genus Marszlea is 
very widely distributed in India from north to south and from east to west 
and that there are nearly ten species present in the Indian flora, our 
collections are very poor. Of course, by examination of the above collec- 
tions, we have by no means exhausted the possibility of discovering 
valuable material at other places of learning, particularly the south 
Indian Universities or institutions, because it is from S. India and the 
Nilgiris that some rare species were recorded by Braun in the last 
century (2). Our coilection at J odhpur is by far the best at present. The 
table of characters given below indicates the number and nature of the 
species present in some of the important herbaria in India and it is 
hardiy necessary to add that further collections, particularly from south 
India, will be forthcoming and must be made before any adequate con- 
clusions can be drawn on the exact nature of the material in this vast 
country. 

This examination, though brief, has enlarged the boundaries of 
M. aegyptiaca in India because we now record for the first time the occur- 
rence of this species at Varavandiin Ahmednagar district and at Cuttack 
in Orissa; Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Bhilwara, and perhaps Ajmer in Rajas- 
than being already known to possess this species (6). It has also 
confirmed our observation about a series of well-defined variations, 
particularly in the anatomy of the sporocarps, thus giving us a glimpse 
as if into the possible existence of many ecotypes in the genus. Not 
only the internal structure of the sporocarps, making them normal or 
‘abnormal’, but even their external features vary greatly in the same 
species. This is particularly so in a species with wide distribution as if it 
is in a state of dynamic flux. 

One of us who recently examined a iarge collection of Marsilea from 
the University of California, thanks to the kindness and generosity of 
Prof. H. L. Mason, Divector of the Herbarium, had noticed that JZ. vestzta, 
which too has a very wide distribution in America just as JZ. muta has 
in India, also possesses both normal and ‘abnormal’ type of sporocarps 
(5). From a series of diagrams (text figs. 1-48) drawn from the her- 
barium sheets now examined you will notice the range of variation in the 
size and shape of the sporocarps including the horns of a single species 
M. minuta in India. This range of vaviations is not confined to their 
external appearance only but affects the internal organisation too. What 
process is at work it is not the intention of the authors to discuss in the 
present paper. It may not be out of place, however, to mention that 
some of the most important characters that are of value in the identitica- 
tion of the species of Marsilea are firstly the attachment of the pedicel 
to petiole together with the grouping of the sporocarps, secondiy the shape 
and size of the sporocarps including the number and nature of horns, 
thirdly the soral number inside the sporocarps, and finally the abnormal 
or normal nature of the sporocarps, depending upon the structure of the 
megasporangia and microsporangia and megaspores and microspores. 

The shape and size of the vegetative organs together with the structure 
of the hairs covering these and the sporocarps as well as the epidermal 
characters of the leaves may provide characters of subsidiary importance 
to a systematist but not until their determination and range of variability 
have been studied under ideal experimental conditions; for the genus 
Marstlea is well known for its morphological plasticity in its vegetative 
organs. 


552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


(7 & 8) ze 


| 
= | 
e | 


| 


3(18) \\16(58) 


ie 
eon lpn 
ie 15(20-22) 


18(57) 


24(71 & 72 


INDIAN MARSILEAS: THEIR MORPHOLOGY & SYSTEMATICS 553 


7. 
29(103) - 31 (96) = 


33(106) 34(123) & 4 
38 (113) isc ae 


) 


Bal Jo) 26 (89) 27(116) 


37(122) 


11 (85) 42(102) 43 (419) “ 44(95) 


ee 


5(88) 46(120) 4794) A8 (121) 


554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


SUMMARY 


Highty-two herbarium sheets cf the genus Marszlea from three 
important herbaria in India, besides our own collections at Jodipur, have 
been examined and their identification either confirmed or revised, so as 
to indicate roughly the present position of our knowledge of the Indian 
collections. A great range of variability in the size, shape, and structure 
of the sporocarps in a species like A7. minuta having wide distribution 
have been noted. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 


The authors wish to express their gratitude to Fr. H. Santapau, 
Shri M. B. Raizada, and Dr. D. Chatterji for their kindness and generosity 
in lending the material for examination by the authors from their her- 
baria at St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, F. R. I., Dehra Dun, and Indian 
Botanical Garden, Calcutta, respectively. We «are much indebted to 
Mr. A. H. G. Alston of the British Museum, London, for photographs of 
M. aegyptiaca, M. quadrifolia, M. brachypus, M. brachycarpa, M. graci- 
lenta, and 4. coromandeiica. To Dr. Meyr of the Botanischer Garten und 
Museum, Dahlem, Berlin, we are grateful for a small quantity of material 
and photographs of the type specimens from Braun’s original collections 
of the Indian species, namely A7/. brachypus, M. biachycarpa, M. gracilenta, 
and M/. coromandelica. 


REFERENCES 


1. Baker, J.G. (1887): ‘ Fern Allies’, London. 

2. Braun, A. (1870): Revision of the genus Warsilea. Monats. Kon. Akad. 
Wiss. Berl. S. 653 ff. 

3. Gupta, K. M. (1955): On the occurrence of J. aegyptiaca Willd. in 
Jodhpur, Rajasthan (India). JBNAZS 52: 954-956. 

4, Gupta, K. M. (1955) : A new species of Marsilea, M. ballardii, sp. nov. 
Gupta from Ajmer, India. JBNHS, 53: 289-292. 

5. Gupta, K. M. (1956) : Some American species of Marszlea with special 
reference to their epidermal and soral characters. (Ia press). 

6. Gupta, K. M. and Bhardwaja, T. N. (1956): Indian Marsileas: their 
Morphology and Systematics—1l. JZ. aegyptiaca Willd. with remarks on the present 
systematic position of Indian species. JAN'S, 53: 423-444. 


EXPLANATION OF TExT FIGS. 1-48. 


Figs. 1-7 : Herbarium, Indian Botanical Gardens, Calcutta. 

Figs. 8-15 : Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay. 

Figs 16-24; Herbarium F. R. I., Dehra Dun. 

Figs. 25-48: Herbarium, Botany Department, Jaswant College, Jodhpur. 


N.B. The numbers in the bracket indicate the serial number of the table, i.e 
the herbarium sheet from which the outline of the sporocarp has been drawn. All 
figures are magnified ca. x 9. 


555 


MORPHOLOGY & SYSTEMATICS 


INDIAN MARSILEAS: THEIR 


‘s1oyjne yuasaid ay} Aq paulusayepar soroeds ,, 


“POOM ‘Cf 'f Ad 
jyuasqe ‘ Q7gT Alenuer ysTz S Indsey ByouyD £ /8T "ON Jooys) °" vavij0jtApoub “HT | “IL 
ynssqe ‘yeyOM | SCS *ON Jeoys| ‘°° ‘ds vajisavyy | ‘Ol 
Juesqe ‘elezeyy Ulessnyy| °° ‘ds vajlsavyy | °6 
‘leuIouqe * sinosqo °g 
JaMO] peajyutod pue Josuo[ teddn ‘om} suloTZy "91199 “HW 'UeH + 7Egl suns -TeMeyseg) °° vinulMle “fp| ‘ZL 
yuesqe "YIVIQ. “99ST ‘ qulund : 90T ‘ON JoayS) *" DyyO{rapwnh “fT \ *9 
Jemiou { aindsqo JI9oMO] ‘jJUNI[q pue 
Jesuo] 1addn ‘om}j suioy { pelapioq sdivoorodg : ‘HPN videiGn UeulIngy) . : Dinu “fit \| "Sx 
juesqe ‘ZING S yeuMnoX S'nsog PFL7 ‘ON JoayS] °" Dyv170JlAponb “fy | ‘Fh 
“LIGT Areniqoy puzz 
jyuesqe ;S9}¥S uLYS ‘aye ern ¢ /8g “ON JOS] °" DIDLIOJtAPON "fT | °F 
juosqe ‘oowoyYy pue nqiy ! LI6T Areniqeay puzgz ‘insieder| °° DIVIZOJ2ZAPONH “P| °% 
‘Td °S °V CSIIN 
‘odA} vynuim “fy yNomUOeEHY | ‘ 1O6T UOPW WIS SA’ M'N Sepueg £72, ‘ON Joos] °” DINU DAZSAD]{T | “Lx 
| | 
sdivoozods 9y} Jo Siezowleysd | S[lejep Winireqioyy sorseds Jo oWIeN "NS 
| 
v £ G if 


ByNIVD ‘usprey o1uvrjog ueipul “Vv 


VIXVV PIAHH NVIGNI ZWOS NI WATSUVW ZO SNOTLIAZTIOD AHL AO STIPLYAT 


‘IyWIOU § 9-p ‘OT [eIOS { JuaSaId 
uioy juntq teddn ‘{ passoidap pue pesaoois 


‘indypor Cp eam 


‘ON JooNS 


‘orenbs sdivooiods Aieyjos ‘Teseq s[soIped Gliese TN woviygdasav "fT | “61 

t *‘[eusou : 
2 ‘ yuoulmIold jou ‘IvyIUNs ‘omM] SUIOY * pelep10q "10031 [0D $,SUly “Id * EG8I 
= pue peqqu sdiesoiods { [eseq pue selj S[aotpeg | Youve UIST Seung ioddq ‘alflq °06¢ ON }99qS nynuiut “f7| “Ql x 
> 
a "1OPOTJOD S,Sulyy “IC * €68T Golseyy 
im juesqe qisz {euring ssddyQ ‘sureseg ‘60p “ON }90qS| © "ds pajyisavyy | “LT 
is 
) 

Y ‘jeulJoa { sinosqc *pQgyT Arenues 
es io jyuesqe stloy ‘yeseq pue self speolped | ‘ seipeyy “jsiq weluey ‘fusljny * 989CET “ON 3990S Dinu “fpr| “OTx 
Wn 
= *justITIOId jou ‘IeTIWIS 

d jsoulye ‘OM} STIOy ‘:peqqi pue pelepioq “pol 
zs Ayounstp sdivoosods ‘yeseq pue selj sjeo!ped | -qoey{ “Y “6061 1940190 + e1oSAWW F66ETI “ON 1994S | ~~ rynutme “fy \ *Slx 
es 

~ ‘|emIouU { Josuo][ pu pojutod 
a zaddn ‘om suioy { peqgiz AljouUnsIp “petepioq | “IOOSIY OCHO! HIGT Atenuer uIZT 
= sdivooiods { jeseq puv eyeuuod Ajoinosqo spool ped | + “451 SloyeqMIIOD ‘treindurvieyq ‘089g “ON 3294S] * Vinulut “fT | “Pls 
ee *‘[eulIouqe ¢Z[ 

a ‘ou [e1O0S {jUeuIMIOId Jou Iv]IaIS Jsoule fom} *‘yeACUl ‘IW { S68 Lady 
5 suloy ‘{[eseq pue ejvouos Ajoinosgo s[solped | UIFT : YPNO “SIC Meus SeilUg + ZPEZZ “ON 39°48 DINU HT Ne Oly 
= ‘souleH “H “H 
Sj yuesqe ‘egg, Arenuer fmnyqusuUlg 'ogg ‘ON Jo024S | *** AOlpul “JOA DINUIE “YT\ °ZT 
= 
~ sdigoolods ay} Jo Ssieyovleyg | Ss[ivjop unlleqioyy | satoads jo ouIeEN NTS 
2 | 

v G I 


3 


556 


(plu0op) -PIYPAHXAH NEIGNI ZWOS NI VAUSAYVW FO SNOILIATTIOD 


AHL AO STIPLAd 


557 


THEIR MORPHOLOGY & SYSTEMATICS 


INDIAN MARSILEAS: 


‘sIoyjNe jusseld 94} Aq poutursojopor sarod , 


*‘[eUuLlOU $ Jasuo0] ApYySIts 


Joddn ‘omj} suloy ‘{]eseq pue ser} sj9oIpag | 


‘[eullou {g-F °ouU [e1os { JuasoId 
uloy junfq teddn : pesseideap pue paaoois 
‘aienbs sdieooiods ‘Arv}yIjos ‘Teseq sjeovlped 


‘[PWIOU * IBIIUIIS JsomM[e 


‘oj SUIOY { [eseq pUBv 9}eUTOD AT}YAIIS SOoIpag | 


juasqe 


*[eWIoOU : 8 ‘OU [PIOS 2 IVTIMIIS JSOUI]|e 
‘oMj SUIOY { /eSeq PU 9}ETUOD A[}YSIS S[oolpeg 
jussqe 


‘Teuliou £6-9 ‘ou Telos { poJurod pu 198uU0] 
jeddn ‘om suioy {[eseq pue 9}%UU0D sjpoIpeg 


3 


“IV[IWIS JSOW[S ‘OM SUIOFT 


‘[ew1ou ! Z[-[T ‘ou [e10S $ pajutod 


pue Jesuo, ‘ioddn ‘om} susoy { [eseq syaorpeg | 


‘[eUlIoU ! QT-8 ‘ou [eIOS { Ie] TUITS 
JSOUl]|e OMY SUIOFY *9d4} vynuzm ‘pr yUoTYyOeI VW 


“TERA 
"NO ‘6I6T ABW fvipueg ‘uolv}9 eipuvg IeaN 


| "BUEN + OC6T 


i cysiq ivseupouyy ‘Ipueaviva !ggcs ‘ON 399aqS | 


| 


‘/Tet Avenuee { ‘ysiq Jemieqq 
‘pesnjy ‘yuv} BJO seope suldiq !fosz “ON 39S 


| ‘ned 
| -elueS ‘ET $zteEL [adv siz ‘{uoeys Avemties 
| eyepueysy * £S-00F ‘9S-00h ‘SS-00P “SON Sie9qg 


‘nedelues "FS FF6T AVIN pUZ { pooUrINogysisu 
pue oyey, Bepueyy ‘OOTP B 6SiP “SON 819945 


‘nedejurs "Ff SEGT JoquisaoN yz f pooy 
| -INnoqyslau pue ove elepuryy '/TT8 “ON 3909S 


‘nedvjues “HS ScGT 19q0190 YIOE {ssueq 
‘aSnoyY SOY 1v9U EU {oGEOT PUe FEGOL “SON S}e0qS 


| "nedejyues ‘FT : FEL Aienuer UIST { pueTsy 

S}JES[ES “VUPUCD + OF-00P ‘SF-00hP “SON Sje0qg 
"nedejues ‘FT ‘ SEBT Iaqumis.eq 

Yigg sivypuving “jvly esiprivg :/S$%B8 ‘ON 1904S 


‘nedejues 
‘HS 26 Ae ize ¢ Blepueyy ‘(uoNes 


eau) [ood vjepueyy : 90/66 ‘0LF ‘69P ‘SON S}20q9 


Aequiog ‘aso]fOD S,1orAeX 349 SUINTIVgIOFYT J9NNIG “g 


DINUIM "YT 


vaIvugisav [7 


DINUuIUe * fT 


"dS DIS ADIT 


DINU *F{7 


> 


wypojtaponb ‘717 


DINU * [7 


vINUIUE “fT 


DInNUIUE *]{T 


VINUIUL *]{ 


"OE x 


*14, 


*15; 


*16. 


; ooo — - 


DETAILS OF THE COLLECTIONS OF MARSILEA JN SOME INDIAN HERRAR1A—(Contd.) 


2 


Name of species 


| MW. sinuta var. major 


M. minuta 


M. minuta 


| 0. minuta 


| 7. minuta 
| 
| Marsilea sp. 


M, minuta 


MM. aegypliaca 


| MI. minuta 


M. minuta 
M, minuta 
| M. minuta 
|W. quadrifolia 
MM. minuta 


Marsilea sp. 


M. minuta 


M. aegyptiaca 


M. minula 


3 


Herbarium details 


Sheet No. 685; Singhbhum ; January 1993; 
H, H. Haines. 


Sheet No. 22942; Bhira, Kheri Dist., Oudh ; 14th 
April 1898 ; M. Inayat. 


Sheet No. 3680; Dharampuram, Coimbatore Dist. ; 
17th January 1914; C. E. C. Fischer. 


Sheet No. 11399; Mysore ; October 1909. A. Meeb- 
lod. 


January 1884. 


Sheet No. 409; Sagaing, Upper Burma; 25th 
March 1893; Dr. King's Collector. 


Sheet No. 390; Biliv, Upper Burma; 18th March 
1893 ; Dr. King’s Collector. 


M —1DT 


N pats 
Sheet No. jaa ss 


, Jodhpur. 


Sheet No. 133686 ; Gullenj, Ganjam Dist., Madras; | Pedicels free and basal ; 


4 


Characters of the sporocarps 


absent 


| Pedicels obscurely connate and basal; horns 
| two, almost similar not prominent; soral no. 
| 12; abnormal. 

| 
| Pedicels obscurely connate and basal ; sporocarps 
bordered, distinctly ribbed ; horns two, upper 
| pointed and longer; normal. 
| 
Pedicels free and basal; sporocarps distinctly 


bordered and ribbed; horns two, almost 
similar, not prominent. 
horns absent or 
obscure; normal. 
absent 


Pedicels free and basal ; sporocarps ribbed and 
bordered ; horns two, similar, not prominent ; 
normal. 


Pedicels basal, solitary sporocarps square, 
grooved and depressed; upper blunt horn 
present ; soral no. 4-6 ; normal. 


B. Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay 


station), Khandala; 27th May 1912; 


Santapau. 


Sheet No. 8257; Paradise Flat, Purandhar; 26th 
December 1945 , H. Santapau. 


Sheets Nos. 400-45, 400-46; Condita, Salsette 
Island ; 18th January 1942 ; H. Santapau. 


Sheets Nos. 16994 and 16995; Unai,near Rest House, 
Dangs; 30th October 1953; H. Santapau. 


Sheet No. 8117; Khandala Talao and neighbour- | 


hood ; 27th November 1945 ; H. Santapau. 


Sheets Nos. 4159 & 4160; Khandala Talao and 
neighbourhood; 2nd May 1944 ; H. Santapau. 


Sheets Nos. 400-55, 400-56, 400-57; Khandala 
railway station; 21st April 1942; H. Santa- 
pau. 


Sheet No. 2364; Drying edges of a tank, Mugad, 
Dharwar Dist. ; January 1917. 


Sheet No. 7358; Varavandi, Ahmednagar Dist. ; 
1920; Nana. 


Near Bandra Station, Bandra; May 1919; B.N. 
Vakil. 


. |Sheets Nos. 469, 470, 93706 ; Khandala pool (near | Attachment 47. minuta type. Horns two almost 


similar ; soral no. 8-10 ; normal. 


| 


| Pedicels basal; horns two, upper, longer and 
| pointed ; soral no. 11-12 ; normal. 


| Horas two, almost similar. 

| * 

| Pedicels connate and basal; horns two, upper 
longer and pointed ; soral no. 6-9; normal. 


absent 


| Pedicels slightly connate and basal ; horns two, 
almost similar; soral no. 8 ; normal. 


absent 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


| Pedicels slightly connate and basal; horns two, 

almost similar ; normal. 

| 

| Pedicels basal, solitary; sporocarps square, 
grooved and depressed; upper blunt horn 
present ; soral no. 4-6; normal. 

Pedicels free and basal; horns two, 

slightly longer ; normal. 


upper 


es 
————— 


* Species redetermined by the present authors. 


a 


9 


Avawod ‘TyNyNol 


“ESIH TWYOLVN 


an 
2 
9 
iS] 
=} 


48g SOLLVWALSAS @ ADOTOHANOW YIFHL ‘SVATISUVN NVIGNI 


54 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 


558 


‘[eUlIOL $9-f ‘OU [¥los { Juasoid 
uroy jun{q seddn ‘ passeidep pue pesoois 
‘orenbs sdivooicds § Aivyiyos ‘jeseq sjes0lpod 


juasqe 
Juasqe 
juasqe 
juesqe 


luesqe 


‘aoreos sdivoolods 
juesqe 


*‘[eUIIOU ¢ IB[IUIIS 
jsomje ‘OM} SUIOY :[eseq puv 9201} S[a0IpPog 


juasqe 


sdivooiods aj jo Slojovleyg 


| 
| 
| 
| 


‘9c6T Tidy 
‘indyupor ‘adsaTjod jJuemMser ‘SuUeplex) [eolUejog 


"SBT 49q40}909 4107 + BIA 
-yseines ‘joxley ‘uol}eys puohsq £Z989T ‘ON 3994S 


‘nedeyues “FT SSSET 49qG0190 
WisT {vayseines “IndeyyW ‘6SZ91 “ON 3924S 


‘nedewes ‘FT {ZIG Isnsny 
ISTE $ SpUIS]T o}eSTVS ‘uoesS[NI ‘ FZ-O00F “ON 3004S 


‘nedeyues “Ff ZF6T API 
Wie + e[epueyy ‘uojejs efepueyy : S9p “ON 3990S 


‘nedeyues “FOS 2F61T APN UZ ¢ BlLep 
“Ueyy “UOTeIs BTepueyy *?7/p pue LOp “SON S}9qS 


‘nedvyues *H -St6T Jeqwaoeq 
Ic | e[epueyy ‘ovey eyepueyy -Eceg “ON 3998S 


‘eIpueg }@ YU} B JO JopIog 94} SUOTe SuUIMOIN 


“6IGT ABW { elepueyy * 8EsgZ ‘ON INS 


TRIGA "N ‘A ‘616 
Jequejdes ‘{epueq 3% Spleyooll pe6sdo[-1ojyeM 


DIDUGATIV “HiT 


DtjOJtApONh “fy 


pyyojraponb ‘If 


‘ds paz1savyy 


‘ds vaptsavyy 


‘ds pajisuvjy 


DINUIU * PAT 


DINUIUL *]{7 


DINU DIZISAD]T 


‘ds va7isavyfy 


s[lejop WINTIeqioFy 


sereds jo sueN 


(piw00)- PTY KV IALH NPIGNI AWOS NI VATSAVN JO SNOILGZTIOD FHL AO STIPFLAT 


aay, 
“OP 
“Sv 
‘TP 
"eD 
cA 
‘TP 


‘OP 
"6E 


"BE x 


559 


MORPHOLOGY & SYSTEMATICS 


INDIAN MARSILEAS: THEIR 


*‘Teullouqe ‘zt ‘ou 
[rJos !jusuituold jou ‘fi1vliwis jysowye ‘oM}3 
SuUlOY ‘*]BSEq puv a}yeuUOD AjoInosqO s[99Ipeg 


*yeullou £ sInasqo UIOY JOMO] 
‘yuaseid cvicy Joddn ‘]eseq puv sely s[s0Ipeg 
juesqe 
‘jem sou {jun[q ‘ieTI MIS 
jsouye ‘OM} suIOy ‘+ [eseq pue 2<21j S[SDIPeg 
Juesqz 


‘jemlouqe ‘ Z[-zZ ‘ou | ¥eJos ‘ pojyurod 
Jeddn ‘om} susoy :yeseq pue 9x13 s[oorpeg 


‘jewllou 
> ZT ‘ou J*¥I0s ‘fo9inosqo Jamo], ‘snonoids 
-W0dUl Jeddn om} susoy { |eSeq pUe 92IJ STODIPSg 


"‘yeTUIOU © OT ‘v7 ‘ou 
JWJos ‘{snonodidsuosur JeMmoy, ‘pejuiod pue 
Jesuoy] Jeddn ‘om} svioy { 991} pueleseq S]90Ipeg 


‘/eUIIOU ‘TT ‘ou [eos faINdSqoO JeMoy] ‘snond 
-idsuoosur usoy ieddn ‘jeseq pue eoJj sjoolpeg 


*‘jeuUllouge {6G ‘OU [vIOS {jJUOSqe JOMOT ‘UI0OY 
pejutod asddn Ajuo ‘jeseq pue sel} sjedIpog 


“TINLIVQIOF BNIED JO FT ‘ON SB SWS xx 
‘stoyjne Juaseid sy} Aq poatmsejapal sojoads x, 


SS‘ eS 


*yeheuy “IW ' g6gt dy 


(FT { UPNO “JoLMystp wey wILN ‘ZF6z2 “ON 100US 


‘S194jJO puw SINO|!W “A “VY : UPIINIW £877 “ON 300US 
“oTquiee) 


‘S'C PEST Sa N ‘Tesunef + FCOST “ON 3°0US 


‘ObY 


eAPUBHIS “W ‘Z88Tl JoqueAoNn WIP! £4629 ‘ON 320US 


"UOSINDIIV “LAL! SQST snsny UIFZ 


SUEUR Sy ‘UeZTeGS 0} [eUL ‘99p “ON 3904S 


*AQUOOW “AH { OFET AteNIQey EIEZ 


£esslig ‘oye]G IndBuey ‘lepnyeled * 197 ‘ON 399US 
ung eiygeg ‘WntieqisyT ‘J “WU “A “OD 


‘elemprleyg “N WL 


‘geet Aseniqey wp ‘Wed ‘peoy yresjelen 


-elempieug "N “(TL / 9c6T Areniqeg ‘ indrepg 


‘elempleqg ‘N “WL { Fo61 Joquieson yI0¢ ‘sUlYy 


“gc6T Indy 


‘andypor ‘esey]joD juemser ‘Sueprled |voluLjog 


DINU “PT 
DINU “TAT 
DINUIM *]{T 
DINU "IAT 
DINUIM “TT 


DynUIME “TT 


DINULUL *}{T 


DINU “TAT 
pynuie "jy 


24p4071P9 “WV 


a1 


“OS* 


“6Tx 


‘SP 


cr 


DETAILS OF THE COLLECTIONS OF MARSILEA IN SOME INDIAN HERBARIA—(Contd.) o 


ee 


8 


1 2 3 | 4 
| x 
S.N: Name of species Herbarium details | Characters of the sporocarps g 
—————————— - = 5 
& 
37. | Marsilea sp. ... |Water-logged ricefields at Danda; September absent 
1919; B. N. Vakil. 
#38, | Marsilea minuta ... |Sheet No. 28538 ; Khandala; May 1919, Pedicels free and basal; horns two, almost S| 
similar; normal. = 
39. | AZ. minuta ... |Growing along the border of a tank at Bandra. absent a 
40. | AZ. minuta ... | Sheet No. 3353; Khandala Talao, Khandala ; 21st | Sporocarps scarce. 
December 1913: H. Santapau. 
41. | Marsilea sp. ... |Sheets Nos. 467 and 472; Khandala station, Khan- | absent 
CV I dala; 27th May 1942; H. Santapau. 
43. | Warsilea sp. ... |Sheet No. 468 ; Khandala station, Khandala; 27th absent 5 
May 1912; H. Santapau. me 
Sc 
44, | Marsilea sp. ... |Sheet No. 400-24; Mulgaon, Salsette Islands ; 31st absent a 
August 1912; H. Santapau. 5 
45. | MW. quadrifolia -.. ;Sheet No. 16759; Mithapur, Saurashtra; 15th absent SS 
| October 1953; H. Santapau. Si 
46. |. guadrifolia ... |Sheet No. 16862; beyond station, Rajkot, Saurash- absent ae 
tra; 20th October 1953. re 
47, | M. aegypliaca ... |Botanical Gardens, Jaswant College, Jodhpur; | Pedicels basal, solitary ; sporocarps square, 
April 1956. grooved and depressed; upper blunt horn 


present ; Soral no, 4-6; normal. 


Botanical Gardens, Jaswant College, Jodhpur ; | Pedicels free and basal; only upper pointed 


48. | M1. ballardi ono \ 
April 1956. horn, lower absent ; soral no. 9; abnormal. 

*49. | AZ. minuta Ajmer; 20th November 1954; T. N. Bhardwaja. Pedicels free and basal; upper hora inconspi- = 

cuous, lower obscure; soral no. 11, normal. =) 

*50. | JZ. minuta ... | Udaipur ; February 1956; T. N. Bhardwaja. Pedicels basaland free ; horas two, upper longer = 

and pointed, lower inconspicuous; soral = 

no. ca. 10; normal. = 

51. | AZ. minuta ... |Najafgarh Road, Delhi; 4th February 19536 ; | Pedicels free and basal; horns two upper incon- gz 

T. N. Bhardwaja. spicuous, lower obscure; soral no. 12; iS 

normal. > 

a 


Cc. F. R. I. Herbarium, Dehra Dun 


Sheet No. 2613 ; Dalakudar, Gangpur State, Orissa; | Pedicels free and basal; horns two, upper 


*52. | M. minuta 
: 23rd February 1946 ; H. F, Mooney. pointed; soral no. 7-12; abnormal. 


Sheet No. 466; Thal to Shalizan, Afghanistan ; absent 
24th August 1888 ; J. E. T. Aitchison. 


Sheet No. 6797 ; 4th November 1887; M. Sikandya | Pedicels free and basal; horns two, almost 


53, | M0. minuta 


54. | AZ, minuta on dice 
Rao. similar, blunt ; normal. 
55. | M. minuta ... |Sheet No. 15054; Jaunsar, U.P.; 1894; J.S. absent 
Gamble. 
56. | MW. minuta ... |Sheet No, 228; Multan; A. V. Mours and others. Pedicels free and basal; upper hora present, 
lower horn obscure ; normal. 


**57. | MZ. minuta ... |Sheet No. 22942; Bhira Kheri district, Oudb ; 14th | Pedicels obscurely connate and basal; horns 
April 1898; M. Inayat. two, almost similar; mot prominent; soral 
no, 12; abnormal. 


SOILVNALSAS ® ADOTOHdYON NIA L 


eS 


* Species redetermined by the present authors. 
** Same as No. 13 of Calcutta Herbarium. 


6S¢ 


bd 


Vol. 


SOCIEGLY: 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL AIST: 


560 


juesqe 


‘Teuljou $g ‘v7 ‘OU [elos ‘ pejutod pue JaBu0] 
Jeddn ‘om} sujoy ‘[eseq pave sol} Seorped 


"| BULIOU 
‘6 ‘OU [BJOS | 9INDSqO JOA\OT ‘spreadn poured 
jaddn ‘om} susoy {Teseq pue 921} Spolped 


yuesqe 
Juoesqe 
Juesqe 
juesqe 
‘TemIOU $ JMESq¥ JO sINOSqO IeMOT ‘pojutod 


Aj SYS Usloy Joddn ! jeseq puB olj STPIOlpecy 


yuesqe 

*Teul lou 

‘7 ‘2 ‘ou [BIOS ‘pszutod s4yysts reddn ‘repiuaits 
jsourjye ‘OM SUIOy f[eseq Pues So1Z Sls! pod 


; ‘nostyeyly La ‘TL 


-s1gIrd “a ‘Lf ! 9BgI Jequieseq] 
pug {pueyyxjpung ‘younoy ‘9(99 “ON 10S 


“ZtEL Ane feacdjnoq 


“oryind 
AL GST Jeqoieo { eHoossny EUCKEY SITTH PHEO 


‘arqud “Af * 6Z8T We 
‘luwlyeqyy iveu und “M ‘000'C—9 “ON 3°90S 


-aiying ‘A ‘f+ S8sTt eq 
-uloooq, pugz { eNeAld pue veL: cczg “ON JeUS 


‘arming ‘Afr ‘ osst 42enuer 49 ‘ueqyseley 
‘IEMIBIA “TUNG 0} BIOyHeSSeL * (Y) FOZ “ON JO2US 


‘arming “A ‘Lf * Ss8T teqme0ed 

pugz {jolsip ysesiyy ‘uef ‘FS2¢ “ON 39S 
“OHMUMBD) “VD 

‘ QggI tequie;dss y79z ‘ IndmeIeq * F281 “ON 1029S 


"S76 Areniqoy 


‘eIpuy ‘MN ‘qunoy *°9099 “ON 7094S 


UVPT 


vInur 


DSOAI “KEN DINU 


DInuUtmM 
DUOJzApONb 
pInute 

DSOAA “LEA DINUIM 
DInutM 

nimunue 
pqD1,0j1Aponb 


DSOAP “TEN DINUIIM 


W 


WW 


W 


W 


WW 


W 


sdivo010ds ou} Jo Stojovleyd 


v 


s[lvjep WHIeqioy 


£ 


soloads jo SWIeN 


G 


a TSS 


(1009) —P7YPIYFH NVIGNI AWOS NI VAMSAVW AO SNOIIIATION FHL AO SUPLAT 


SYSTEMATICS 561 


& 


THEIR MORPHOLOGY 


INDIAN MARSILEAS: 


“AVQMIOY ‘WnleqJa}] Je}}v[q JO Gz pue Fz “so N 8B dUIes xx 
“Avqmog ‘ainlieqiay 19}}e]1g Jo °7z ‘tz ‘0g “SON svomes | 
‘s1oyjne jusseid oy} Aq paurulajapal salvads ,, 


Juasqe 
“CT ‘22 ‘OU TeIOS { JUST 
“1WOIG 1SMO] ‘oA\} SUIOY :41eP[OS ‘Feseq sTeorpeg 
‘TeWIOU ‘uN JOMOT 
‘pejulod puv Jasuoy seddn 0m} susoy ‘parzeap10q 
pue peqqii sdivoolods ‘jeseq pue selj sjao1peg 
‘Teu1ou ! 1asu0] AYsis aeddn Quam 
-old jou ‘oM} stloYy ‘]eseq pUe oeI3 sjaoIlpeg 
juasqev 


‘JeuoUu *Q[-g “OU [viOS ! Ie[TMUIIS 


JsOMl[e ‘OM} STAOY ‘eddy YynU7ZM “FT JUSTAYDLIIV | 


‘[ewWloUqE ! aiInosqo Jamo] ‘pajyulod 
puv Jesuo] usoy seddn ‘ jeseq pue 9a13 spacipeg 


‘[BUlOU ! O-F ‘ou [eI1OS $j}USSoId 
uloy junjq isddn ‘possaidep pue pesaoois 
‘oienbs sdivooiods { Areyyjos ‘jeseq S[991 peg 


‘[eW10OU !G=-F ‘ou jeIos { jusseId 
soy junjq jeddn ‘passeidep pue ‘peaoois 
‘atenbs sdivoolods ‘ Aieyjos ‘eseq sjeotpeg 


‘Tetllouqge * Z[-T] ‘OU [e1os $ sanosqo JAMO] 
pus Jesuo] utoy taddn { jeseq pus 99Ij S[OOIpeg 


“eluop 
TPQ MON lSoyemog “4 -qoy ‘xq { HFZG ‘ON }000S 


“ASHOTD “MT ASTM “S 1A ‘TEU “A 
- 1261 teqmojdes y3¢]1 {opesojoD ‘Auedwos sap 


"[ROY ‘JOp|NOg JO seg “los ysloWE { FEGE “ON JO2qS 


"eIqQMeYN "Sf S 7/QQT Alenuer 
- JOLIJSID Weavpoxy ‘eyeyouepueg ‘6@9S8I “ON jes 


‘UUNOIey “N SD ‘ S68T 
Idy 01 “3sip Indyyesoy { (v)z7_zzZ “ON 30S 


‘nedvyues “Fy Sze Arenuer 
IST = PURIST 9}}9S]EG “VWEMOD {g8T1GE ‘ON JENS 


“nedejorg “HW :2i6r Av Wizz ‘ eepuenyy 
‘doljej}s 1v0ou “ocd eepueyy ‘{so/eg ‘ONT j90uS9 


“EpeZ1eY “A “W * OCTET Aveniqey { ey4no[eD 
‘SUsPIeH “icq “ACY * /66E8 PUL CEGES “SON S}eoyS 


"BIGNY) “WM IC {FET Ue 
- Indypof : 1vstg per] pue ivjolig ! ¢gTT ‘oN yeauS 


‘DEYQEDET prg “A'S! ETET Aleniqey 
Wg + AORN “‘eomy [FISD F OOSIOT “ON 390qg 


“Tung “A “f * SSsT Jequieceq ITT ‘ “3SIq 
jAlesy ‘eunwWeUsS iveu jedyseg (wv) Soz¢o ‘ON 3994S 


DINU * [YT 


DI1SAR “PT 


DINU * JA 


DINUIUL * AJ 


DINU * AT 


DINU * IY 


DINUIUL * {7 


DIDIBGABID * {7 


DIDUGASIO “JT 


DINU * Hf | 


“OLx 


“CLs 


“Plax 


elt 


CL 
my 


“OZ 


“69x 


"89x 


DETAILS OF THE COLLECTIONS OF MARSILEA IN SOME INDIAN HER BARIA—(Conti.) 


S.N. 


2 


Name of species 


3 


Herbarium details 


4 


Characters of the sporocarps 


*68. 


*69. 


70. 


71. 

72. 

173. 
ne7Ay 


*75. 


*76. 


77. 


78. 


M, minuta var. erosa 


M, quadrifoliata 


M. minutia 


MM. minuta 


MM. minuta var. erosa 


MW, minuta 


M. quadritolia 


MM. minuta 


M. minuta var. erosa 


M. minuta 


| 40. minuta 


| MZ. aegy pitaca 


M. aegyptiaca 


MM. minuta 
M, minuta 
M. minuta 
M. minuta 


M. minuta 


M. vestita 


M. minuta 


Sheet No. 6606; Kounb, NW. India; 14th 
February 1923. 


Sheet No. 18729 ; Palampur ; 26th Sep‘e mber 1896 ; 
G. A, Gammie. 


Sheet No. 5254; Jan, Aligarh district; 22nd 


December 1835 ; J. F. Duthie. 


Sheet No, 5254 (a) ; Jessakhera to Bhim, Marwar, 
Rajasthan; 6th January 1886; J. F. Duthie. 


Sheet No. 5255 ; Jan and Pilkatra; 22nd Decem- 
ber 1885 ; J. F. Duthie. 


Sheet No. 6—2,000; W. Dun near Khakrani; 
March 1879 ; J. F. Duthie. 


Garta Hills beyond Mussoorie ; October 1879 J. F 
Duthie, 


Doulpore, July 1942. 


Sheet No. 6636; Kounch, Bundelkhand; 2nd 
December 1885; J. F. Dathie. 


Sheet No 1473; Rawalpindee ; September 1870; 
J. E. T. Aitchison. 


Sheet No, 5255 (a) Baghpat, nearJamuna, Meerut 
Dist. ; 11th Dacember 1885 ; J. F. Duthie. 


Sheet No. 101800; Ceatral Rice, Cuttack; 5th 
February 1919; S. Y. Pad nanabhan. 


Sheet No, 1183; Bijolai and Lal Sagar; Jodhpur ; 
March 1954; Dr. K. M. Gupta. 


Sheets Nos. 83995 and 83997; Roy. Bot. Gardens, 
Calcutta ; February 1910 ; M. B. Raizada. 


Sheet Wo. 93705; Khandala pool, near station, 
Khandala ; 27th May 1912; H. Santapau. 


Sheet No. 91188; Condita, Salsette Island; Ist 
January 1912; H. Santapau. 


Sheet No. 22912(a); Gorakhpur dist. 10th April 
1898 ; C. N. Karouhh. 


Sheet No. 18569; Bandanchala, Godavari district ; 
January 1887 ; J. S. Gamble. 


Sheet No. 3994; Moist soil, East of Boulder, Boul- 
der Company, Colorado; 14th September 1921 ; 
E. Bethal, F. S. Willey, I. W. Clokey. 


Sheet No. 5244 ; Ex. heb. G. Bonate; 
donia. 


New Cale 


* Species redetermined by the present authors. 
+ Same as Nos. 20, 21, 22. of Blatter Herbarium, Bombay. 
** Same as Nos. 24 and 25 of Blatter Herbarium, Bombay. 


Pedicels free and basal; horns two, almost 
similar, upper slightly pointed; soral no. ca. 7; 
normal, 

absent 


Pedicels free aud basal; upper horn slightly 
pointed, lower obscure or absent ; normal. 


absent 
absent 
absent 
absent 


Pedicels free and basal; horns two, upper 
pointed upwards, lower obscure ; soral no. 9; 
nomnal, 


Pedicels free ard basal; horns two, upper 
longer and pointed ; soral no. ca. 8; normal, 


absent 


Pedicels free and basal; upper horn longer and 
lower obscure ; soral no, 11-12; abnormal 


Pedicels basal, solitary; sporocarps square, 
grooved, and depressed; upper blunt horn 
present ; soral no. 4-6; normal. 


Pedicels basal, solitary; sporocarps square, 
grooved and depressed, upper blunt horn 
present; soral no. 4-6 ; normal. 


Pedicels free and basal; upper horn longer and 
pointed, lower obscure; abnormal. 


Attachment 47. minuta type; horus two, almost 
similar ; soral no. 8-10; normal. 


absent 
Pedicels free and basal; horns two, not pro- 
minent, upper slightly longer; normal. 
Pedicels free and basal; sporocarps ribbed and 
bordered; horns two upper longer and pointed, 
lower blunt, normal. 
Pedicels basal, solitary; horns two, lower promi- 


nent ; soral no. ca. 15. 


absent 


ogs 


‘TYNYNOL 


AVINOT 


“SLAIIOS “LSIH TWMOLVN 


104 


rg 


NVIGNI 


fATISUVIV 


= 
a 
Ee) 


SOILVNALSAS 2 ADOTOHAIYOW 


195 


b4 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURA AISI S OCEAN ania): 


562 


‘TeuULOU 
‘IT ‘ou yerlos { aInosqo Jemoy ‘snonords 
-Uooul uloy soddn ‘jeseq pue sed spoolped 


‘[ewIoU 
‘PI-OL ‘Ou [eIOS { aInosqo JaMOT ‘jUaU 
-moid staddn ‘om} susoy $ peqqis ATJOUrIsSIp 
sdivooiods ‘{[vseq pus a}8uU0d AT}YSIIS S201 pod 


‘Tetlou { g-F ‘ou [VIS $ lUaSseId 
uroy juniq seddn { passaidsp pue ‘paaool1s 
‘gienbs sdivooiods { Areyijos ‘[eseq sjs01psg 


andypof ‘essjjop juemsef uUoUNjIedoq Auvjog ‘tuntieqioyy 


‘OI-8 
‘ou yelos {sInosqo ‘oM} suIOY f]eseq s[edIpeg 


yuesqe 


*0c-9T “OU 
Jelos ‘{IeyImIs Isowje ‘oM} suIOy !{ SUE] 
119} J[@y JNoge JOJ e}eUTOS pUe ojeUpe S[90IPeg 


0d—9i OU 
[esos $ Iepiwis jsomye z suslog { Yi6UsT I19u} 
yJey jynoqe JOJ 9jeuUuoD pu Z}JVUpPe S[sdIpod 


‘efempleyg “N \L: $S61 


VS ae hV 
IOqMISAON YI0Z f1ewly ‘eisny $ ——___ 
G si Udol — WE 
“Tez ey [Oy 
‘ eS Oval 
*x) : 19q0}9 Z e100 g 
D = FSET 4999390 4106 d NOL — Wz 


‘eydny “WW “M ‘ PS6T Woseyy ‘and 
Poa Ot 
: ‘IB SES|S ue 1efoligq § —=~————__ *OnN #99 
Ypof “IBses[ey] pue leo YOI—WNI N 39°US 


“yylue7 ‘pliemesjo, ‘eolseuy 


* LORT sequiejdag-jsn-sny * ELIT ‘ON 32°US 


‘elLlesuny TeUID * POST “ON 3994S 


DINUME "TT | *C&x 


sisuauoog "TT | °F8 


DDUGISID *{T| “EQ 


DSOSLAIS ‘JJ | ‘ZB 


pijojiapynb “fT | *18 


v1jojiiponb ‘77 | “0g 


D1j0J14ponb "PT \ “6L 


sdivoolods 94} jo S1oJOvIBYD 


v 


era 


s]iejep wntieqisyy 


€ 


soloeds Jo sUeN "NS 


G [ 


(p3U0D)—-PIYVIYAH NVIGNI FWOS NI VAlISavn HO SNOILQATIOD AHL AO STIVLAA 


563 


Se SVSGREMATICS 


MORPHOLOGY 


THEIR 


INDIAN MARSILEAS: 


sioyjne juaseid ay} Aq peulUtiojeper sotoads x 


‘Teullouqe 
‘ZT ‘ou j[eios {Snonoidsuoour ‘reli MISs 
Jsoulje ‘OM} SuIOy S{eseq puUe 92T} S[odIpId 


TEULIOUS (1 e072 Ol 
[el os {snonoidsuoout 19 MO] ‘pejuiod pure Jasu0| 
joddn ‘omM} sujoy {9e1J puv [eseq s[s0Ipeg 


*‘Teullouqe { TT ‘OU [BIOS { aINDSqO JaMOT 
‘yun[q pues 1esu0] 1eddn ‘omM}j suloy * peleploq 
pue poeqqis sdivooicds ‘ [eseq puv 991} sjsolpag 


*‘[eturoU £ QZ-QT *OU |BIOS 
‘Jems ysomye ‘OoM} SUIOY !Y4}suUs, Iley} 
Jey jnoqe Joy o}euUOD pue s}JeUpe S[sdIpeq 


*euliouqe sdeyisd { aInosqo IeMo] ‘pajutod 
pue Josuo, Jeddn ‘om} suUloy ! pelepioqg 
pue peqqi sdivoolods { [eseq puv sal} sjoolpsg 


‘Teul1ouqe ‘OT ‘ou 
eros {sinosqo Jamo] ‘spremdn pajuiod pur 
Josuo| sJedda ‘omy smioy ‘[eseq pue 9e1J S[sD1Ipeg 


juesqe 


‘je uUlOUge {6G ‘OU [eIOS { }USSGe loMO] ‘TIOY 
peyiodn iedd Ajqo ‘[eseq pue sary s[ao1pog 


"edn "WM 
SSeaae ls 
: Areniqoy Siempy ‘Sieysi{ig § —=————— 
SS6T qe IV USITIS NOL — Wit 
‘eydny 
WM {sc6r Arenuer yyog ¢mdrepq ¢ 2 — 4 _ 
UOT — WOT 
‘Ayed pue eydny "WM + Soe Avenues 
6 ‘ cc — IN, 
Je {seuesieg jeujue eluedINn ‘—==———*—_ 
Pilg d leqyues N NOI— We 
“PIPA “WM : FSET 
ea | 
lJoquiajdes { immyse Teseullg § —2——+— 
qulsjdsS . IMYyse yy HS OI — WS 
Ted ‘d ‘ €S6T Areniqe,y 
UIOT { seueSieg Fz ‘Iezeg seqyoug ; —©S — ad _ 
aOT — WZ 
*sJoyjo pus ‘tindeledeyxIug “Sy IW 
Leal 
: w999e : IVBMIV <a 
PS6L Aeqmeoe(, YIPT qd NOI — 9 
“TISeJuOW "HV 
‘PCOBL snsny YIoT :3dASq JOMOT: pen ae: 
wOT — WS 


-elempleug *N ‘\L ‘S61 


JaquUIeAON WI0¢g { Jomly Seisny ° 


aoc — WP 


VS eel, 


pinumu 


DINUMM 


DINU 


D1jOfJL_Aponbh 


pynui 


DINUIU 


va vUgAsav 


21pA0 11049 


W 


W 


W 


W 


W 


16 


“06% 


“68x 


DETAILS OF THE COLLECTIONS OF MARSILEA JN SOME INDIAN HERBARIA—(‘Conta.) 


1 2 3 4 
S.N, Name of species Herbarium details Characters of the sporocarps 
79. | M. quadrifolia Sheet No. 1504 ; Central Hungaria. Pedicels adnate and connate for about half 


M. quadrifolia Sheet No. 1179 ; August-September 1867, 


81. |W. quadrifolia 


82, | AL. strigosa ... | America, Volgamerid, Zenith. 


= 1M—10R 
Sheet No. jun! 


pur; March 1954; K. M. Gupta. 


83. | MW. aegyptiaca ; Bijolai and Lalsagar, Jodh- 


84. | MW. poonensis 2M — 1OR 
~PO— St 
Kolhatkar. 


; Poona ; 20th October 1954;G G. 


*85, 3M — 1OR 


AToosa Gusta, Ajmer; 20th November 
1954 ; T. N. Bhardwaja. 


M. minuta 


4M — 20R 
Tissue Gugra, Ajmer ; 


1954; T. N. Bhardwaja. 


86.) WV, ballardii 20th November 


87. | AZ. aegyptiaca SS ; Lower Egypt; 16th August 1954 ; | 
A. H. Montasir. 
88. | AZ. minuta es Dharwar; 14th December 1954 ; 


M. K. Chikapalapurm, and others. 


7M — 10R ‘ 
—PRo 53° Shekhar Bazar, 24 Parganas ; 16th 


February 1953 ; P. Pal. 
| 
ep 8M —10R ; 
MW. quadrifolia = | asa: Srinagar, 
1954; K. M. Vaid. 


9M —10R 
Ni— 55__ 
January 1955 ; K. M, Gupta and Party. 

10M — 10R 
U—55 
Gupta. 


11M — 10R Be 
AL s5~ Silisher, Alwar; February 1955 ; 


K. M. Gupta. 


#89, | MZ. minuta 


*90. Kashmir ; September 
; Nipania, Santhal Parganas; 3rd 


91. | AZ. minuta 


M. minuta ; Udaipur; 30th January 1955; K, M. 


93, | AZ. minuta con 


their length ; horns 2 almost similar ; soral 
no, 16-20. 


Pedicels adnate and connate for about half their 
length; horns two, almost similar; soral 
no, 16-20. 

absent 


Pedicels basal; horns two, obscure; soral no. 
8-10. 


Herbarium, Botany Department, Jaswant College, Jodhpur 


Pedicels basal, solitary; sporocarps square, 
grooved, and depressed; upper blunt horn 
present; soral no. 4-6 ; normal. 


| Pedicels slightly connate and basal; sporocarps 
distinctly ribbed ; horns two, upper promi- 
nent, lower obscure ; soral no. 10-14; 
normal. 


| Pedicels free and basal; upper horn incon- 
spicuous, lower obscure; soral no. 11; 
normal. 


| Pedicels free and basal; only pper upointed 
| horn, lower absent; soral no. 9; abnornal. 


absent 


Pedicels free and basal; homs two, upperlonger 
and pointed upwards, lower obscure; soral 
no. 10; abnormal. 


Pedicels free and basal; sporocarps ribbed and 
bordered; horns two, upper longer and 
pointed, lower obscure ; perhaps abnormal. 


Pedicels adnate and connate for about half 
their length; horns two, almost similar ; 
soral no, 16-20; normal. 


Pedicels free and basal ; sporocarps ribbed and 
bordered ; horns two, upper longer and blunt, 
lower obscure ; soral no. 11 ; abnormal. 


Pedicels basal and free; horns two, upper 
longer and pointed, lower inconspicuous; soral 
no. ca. 10; normal. 


Pedicels free and basal; horns two, almost 
similar, inconspicuous; oral no. 14; 
abnormal. 


EEE 
ee, 


* Species redetermined by the present authors 


Avawod ‘TyNYNOL 


TVYALVN 


“LSIH 


‘A. LAIIOS 


184 


#S 


SNS 


NVIGNI 


‘SVATISUVIN 


SITLVNALSAS 2 SPOTOHUNOW MIAH. 


g9¢ 


54 


Vol. 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL IST. SOCIETY, 


564 


*‘[ewlOU ! Q-F “OU [eIOS : jUSSaId 


“Ajiegq puv veuvkelen 


v 


(PIWOD)—-FPINPIYAH NPIGNI AWOS NI WATISAVK 7O SNOILIFATION AHL AO STIVLAC 


uloy junjq soddn ‘ pesseidsp pues paaoois ’ : 7 5SS =e y 
‘orenbs sdiesoiods { Areytjos {yeseq sjaorpeg| S H - §S6L 1940}9O AST€E - Jomyestes “Ol = NSL| -- vovugasev yy *“OOT 
“IV[IMIIS JSOTUTe OM} SUIOY { Y7SUST ss — V3 
ITOY} Jey jnoqe 10j 9} euUOD pue syeupe sjeolpeg| “SSELIsMSHY yI9z ‘ AJUo ydersoj0y * Ss(ay ena oe pyojaponb “py | “66s 
‘juasold 6o— A 
wioy juntq Jseddn { passsidap pue poacols “CEGI JsNany UjQz ‘Ajo ydeisoj0Ng : Se ' 
‘stenbs sdiedoiods {Arejtjos ‘eseq sjao1peg : ° r(OG Se IEE eo vIvygisav “fy | “86« 
‘leurlouge : te 
‘II ‘ou yertos feimosqo JeMo], ‘pajurod bere 
pue Jasuo; szeddn ‘om} saioy ‘pateapioq ‘copy uoley puzz {useSipueyg ‘— ae 
pue poeqqi sdivoorods ‘\eseq puv sayj [eo1peg aor — WSs oinurm “Py | °L6 
*jetI0U “edn Saar 
01-8 ‘Ou Jelos ‘snonoidsuooul puv sIelIuIs : SCG, Alenigey puzz ‘ indjereyg ere ; 
ysoulje ‘OM} suJoy {yeseq pue xaIjJ sjeoIpeg OL INP a: DINU * LT 96 
‘ejdny 
‘JetTUION $G ‘OU JeI0s ‘snonoj}dsmoou! |-q ¢ccgy ArenIgQeq pug {ejoy i OF 
puev iuniq ‘om} susoy ! [eseq pue 9aIjJ s[aolpeg UOL= NEE? vinuim “fy | “Sb 
‘ney NM: SS6l 
‘peurjou { snonoidsuoout 19 Moy ‘1a8u0] ‘ Sa GET ath ee 
geddn ‘omy susoy ‘{[eseq pue self sjacipeg peered: | MCuAvE eau) MOL — WzI| *” DInuIm ‘fT | “HE 
_ sdivoo10ds 94} JO susjowiey SHiBjap uINTIeqie py so1oeds jo oureNy ‘N'S 
¢ T 


MATICS” “565 


_ 
Ly) 


GS Y S15 


MORPHOLOGY 


PAIR 


INDIAN MARSILEAS: 


‘ulpieg ‘ihaqq “Aq Aq sodA} [VUISIIO S,uNnEIg WI] polddns A[pury [voyeur pues sydv1s0}0Ud xx 


*2 OU [CIOS * JUSTILI 


-oid gzaddn ‘om} susoy { peqqi AyIoUrIsIp 


sdivoosods ‘yeseq pue a}vuN0d ATYSITS STI0!ped 


‘9 °OU [BIOS * IV{IUITS }SOM]e $ junTq OM} 


suloy feyeupe Ajainosqo pue 9}BUN0D spPeoIpe | 


Juasqe 


‘jemiouqe {TT-OT ‘OU Telos ¢1B]TUITS 


jsoulye ‘Om} suUIOY + [¥Seq PUB 901} STeolped 
*‘[eullouqe 
‘ET ou eos ‘ormosqo Jomo] “snonordsu0 


-ur Joddn ‘om} susoy + [eseq pue 9se1j Sfeolped 


"rT ‘OU [e1OS { JoSuO] pue pejutod 


joddn ‘oM} stloy {jeSseq pue self S[so;ped | 


‘Teuliou { O[-FT ‘OU [wos ‘Snono 
-Idstooul ‘omM} suloy {yeseq pue dal} S[solpeg 


‘JemlIoU ° FT ‘OU |eIOS 
‘snonoidsuooul JeMOT ‘pejutod pue Iesuo] 
goeddn ‘om sulog ‘\eseq pue sai} S[eotpeg 


*[eulIou 
‘QT ‘ou [elos ‘spremdn pajutiod seddn ‘uvjiats 
ysomye ‘OA} SUJOY f pelapiog pue paqqt sdivo 
-o1ods {a}jeupe Ajoinosqo pues 9}vuUOD S[aoIpeg 


‘uopuo’7y “sny ‘Ig ‘UOISTY °D “H “Vv “IA Aq pottddns Ajpury syderdojoug x 


t > 6 9S ad DON 
‘Ulta JAW ‘°C “ig !slsseyspien § —~=——-—-_| 
Sa eats RN * S01 — Wie | sngayav4g “TY 
‘ayieg ‘ahem "qd ‘iq { nSeg ¢ —98— ad. 
torts! LCS d MOT ~ woz! °° VGADYINYIDAQ "JT 
, ‘Ysuls 
ORE NC 6 6 ‘ cS— NV 
N‘O ‘ER. ‘{Aystearan repemeuuy : Oe Cee DT 
mesaqi {indSeyy ¢ —22— dW 
SC6T 49qQUuiel9 CT e@N Or = are | nnunu “jy 
*TeAo-T 
arte 6 s 6 ss ara WV 
Ey @ | Jequieseq {1esyiuy $ — 77— 
SS6I V MOI — wez! DINU {7 
‘TEU Id + SC6I JOEQUIDAON Yip 
‘mouyony { AyisioatuQ Mouyony | po ee IA 
ate di iat bes epee W2e2| *" cinuiue “Py 
"Ayleg pue 
edny wes! ieqoyon { wi8y ¢ —22— YY 
WOM - SS6L 48Q0}9O V NOl — wiz! * panutue “Jy 
-efempieyg “NL! SS6r 
Jeqowo yiog ‘Jeulg ‘seyegq uly! cisiarace 
; : aMOLE — We | DINUIM *]{7 
“esue4] ‘gd ‘O ‘'W 
: 19qo : ‘Apu . eS 
se RELEASE ip el pn MOL — W6T| DINUIM *]{] 


“60T xx 


"SOT+ 


“LOT 


“9OT 


“SOT 


“POL 


OL 


“GOT 


‘TOT 


a 


DETAILS OF THE COLLECTIONS OF MARSILEA JN SOME INDIAN HERBARIA—(Contd.) 


1 2 
S.N. Name of species 
94. | MW. minuta 
95 M. minula 
96. | AZ. minuta 
97. | M. minuta 
*98. | 7. aegyptiaca 
#99, | 7. quadrifolia 
100. | WZ. aegyptiaca 
101. | WZ. minuta 
102. | MW. minuta 
10 M. minuta 
104. | A, minuta 
105. | AZ. minuta 

106. | MW. minuta 

107. | Marsilea sp. 
**108. | 7. brachycharpa 

*#109. | 17. brachypus 


. |1sM—10R 


3 


Herbarium details 


12M — 10R se 5 
LK 55° Chinhat, Lucknow; 8th February 
1955 ; K. N. Kaul. 

13M —10R_. 


Ko—55 * 
Gupta. 


Kota ; 


14M—10R | 
BH—55 ’ 
K. M, Gupta. 


Bharatpur; 22nd February 1955 ; 


CHu55 Chandigath; 22nd March 1955; 
P. C. Joshi. 


ee Photograph only; 26th August 1945. 
17M—10R 


Seg o Photograph only ; 26th August 1955. 


18M—10OR_,. s 5 
=e Jaisalmer ; 3lst October 1955; H. S. 


Narayana and Party. 


ss ; Guindy, Madras; October 1955; | 
M. O. P, Iyengar. 
20M=10R ; Tin Pahar, Bihar, 26th October 
TP —55 
1955; T. N. Bhardwaja. 
21M— 10R z 
————=— § ; ;K.M. 
AG=oss Agra; October 1955 ; K Gupta 
and Party. 
ee ee, Lucknow University ; Lucknow ; 
4th November 1955 ; P. L. Mital. 
23M —10R . Pi 
Me=sago Amritsar; December 1955, D.S. 
Loyal. 
24M —10R | 2 = 
Tete 3 Nagpur ; December 1955. 
25M — 10R | BGs 8 Pon 8 
AN=S55° Annamalai University; T. C. N. 
Singh, ~ 
26M — 10R 6 
~- =p 5 . D. B 5 
pp=s6? Pega ; Dr. D. Meyr, Berlin 
27M — 10R 7 
se | __ ; Nei is; Dr. D. ,B 5 
NGxs6° Neilgherris ; Dr. Meyr, Berlin 


* Photographs kindly supplied by Mr. A. H. G. Alston, Brit. Mus., London. 


** Photographs and material kin 


22nd February 1955; D. 


4 


Characters of the sporocarps 


Pedicels free and basal; horus two, 
longer, lower inconspicuous ; normal. 


upper 


Pedicels free and basal ; horns two, blunt and 
inconspicuous ; soral no. 9; normal. 


Pedicels free and basal; horns two, almost 
similar and inconspicuous; soral no. 8-10; 
normal. 


Pedicel free and basal; sporocarps ribbed and 


bordered, horns two, upper longer and 
| pointed, lower obscure; soral no. 11; 
| abnormal. 


| Pedicels basal, solitary; sporocarps square, 
grooved and depressed; upper -lunt hom 
present. 


Pedicels adnate and connate for about half their 
length ; horns two, almost similar. 


| 
| 


Pedicels basal; solitary; sporocarps square, 
| grooved and depressed; upper blunt horn 
present : soral no. 4~6 ; normal. 


Pedicels connate and obscurely adnate; sporo- 
carps ribbed and bordered ; horns two, almost 
similar, upper pointed upwards; soral no. 10; 
normal. 


Pedicels free and basal; horns two, upper 
longer and pointed, lower inconspicuous ; 
soral no. 14 ; normal. 


Pedicels free and basal ; horns two, inconspi- 
cuous; soral no. 14-16 ; normal. 


Pedicels free and basal; horns two, upper 
pointed and longer ; soral no, 14. 


Pedicels free and basal ; herns two, upper in- 
conspicuous, lower obscure, soral no 14; 
abnormal. 


Pedicels free and basal; horns two, almost 


similar; soral no. 10-11; abnormal. 


absent 


Pedicels connate and obscurely adnate; horns 
two blunt ; almost similar ; soral no. 6. 


Pedicels slightly connate and basal, sporocarps 
distinctly ribbed; horns two, upper pro- 
minent ; soral no. 7. 


dly supplied from Braun's original types by Dr. Meyr, Berlin, 


Avawogd ‘TYNYNOL 9S 


“LSIH TV YOLVN 


10S 


Fe 


‘SVATISUVIN NVIGNI 


YAH L 


SOIILVINALSAS ® ADOTOHAYOW 


Sos 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


566 


P 


‘SUSSHES “SA 
pue ee ee praes ua a Pa MOT SPL HOG: W021 see SCs, tae ace en DINU "PT | "LTT 
“[euI0U Sa OU [eI0s ‘ gInosqo Jamo] ‘pa}m0d “SOREN eaee 
Fe cere reg | Wy ose uorenN aioe Apdo LS age] vynuaue "py | “ST 
sretea0e : G ‘ou [BIOs ce ine 
Pree cies cet aetna ae eecnes "A ‘@ $9cel Gorey Wig + pemieg - wot— wee! °” vynute ye | “STi 

*‘Tewi0u ‘efempleug “NL 
sia ony THOS, Temmoeao Tomer, penned | / 99t Aeenaged fandwepn sea pey toes | pum pe | “BU 
| ‘efempreng “NL ! 961 Ale 
[ezos $ juasqe suloy +: Teseq Bre eats : ae Pldsde- an clUpiy “Puroduicsco2tlee) a =r ad Dinuiut * [ff ‘CEE 
*[eulloU ‘elempieyg 
ree eee ao eae eee || (NL, ‘ect Somat vere age | pynuiue “Ty “eT 
jSOU[e ‘OM} SUIOY Wee atte Soa eae TEDL SES eK O OKs IE ane vee VILJEPUBUMOAOD "PT | “Th Tux 
, “aTM9Sqo Jomo] ‘UNI ‘ulpleg ‘IAeyq “q ‘Iq {ueoM0g $ oe = NO pyuajivoas yr | OTT we 
joddn ‘om} sujoy ‘[eseq pue 9sorz sjoolpog . WOlt — Wse 
sdivooiods aq} jo slojovieyg | Sllvjop WIneqisH soroeds Jo ouIvN ‘NCS 
| Zz I 


(piu0g)- PTY PIATH NVIGNI FWOS NI VAVSAVW SO SNOILIATIOD FHL 40 STiVLAC 


& SYSTEMATICS 567 


MORPHOLOGY 


THEIR 


INDIAN MARSILEAS: 


‘sloyyne jussaid 94} Aq paulutiejapel saoads 
‘ulpieg ‘ikaq aq Aq sad4j jeulsio sunvig Woy patiddns Aipury jereyem pue syde1s0joud x« 


~ Se TE ae ea OE eS mo : a aa 
SEE EO 


ee eee eR OSE TALES TCT SOR TO TO a ue 


‘TeUl1OU $ 9-f ‘ou [eIOS {yUesSeId ‘eydny) “JN aS 
uloy junjq Jeddn {psssoidep ‘paaoois |, a Meng ey lesa I | 
‘saxnbs sdavooiods {$ Aavyyos ‘Teseq speorpeg |* 4S67 Aleniqoay WIZE + BleayIng - Mo2— Wr | povygssan pT} “9@X 
‘ejdny ‘WM 
[PUOUr 01s OU : tae ee Mere eke ome 6 eae RUSESL 
jelos ‘juesqv suo { [eseq pe salj s[s01ped -ZS6L Ateniqoy UlcT - rod - MOI — WS? re nynume “ye | “ST 
‘YsUuIS Bouvs) 
‘Teuriou { Z] ‘“OUT[eIOS : ‘ eer ee fee OS ee Pd 
‘ aIndsqo OM} SUJOY {]esEq PU 9OIJ S]901IPeg -9S6E 1I9G919O U6 -: igiaats a NOGa- NCH pynuru “jy| “Fel 
*[SUIOU ‘nedejues ‘S°*H :9c6I 
‘ eT ‘OU [BIOS faIndsqo JaMO] ‘pivadn pojut0d 9¢ — CIN 
taddn ‘om} stuoy {|eseq pues 901} sTeoIpeg) JequiajdeG PpUugeZ -SpueIs, YPe - NOI — Wit ue: vynume pyr) “SEI 


‘ ‘ ‘Ajzed puv vidn+ 
‘Temiou { FI “OU eIOS { aINdSqO IaMO[ 


3 Reto stats (eee cae cl 
jueseid uloy Jeddn ‘{ jeseq pue se1j speolped | yyy S gser Jequieidesg uleT {Hed ‘ ee A Ay ree ey a 
TBUILOUes Zi, , Ser eeere 
‘om Telos { aIndsqo 1eMoOT ‘payutod pug 1esuoy Ewa Se ie ela Or See 
geddn ‘om} susoy ‘ pelepioq pue peqqi ‘ar aemivpy { iemysevyg ¢§ —22—="“"| a : 
Ay ys sdieooiods {yeseq pue se1j sjaolpeg met : us YO — WE6E pynuie “fy; “Tél 
"elem 
-pivygd “NL pue veidny "WW “MH + 996, Jequie} 
. ‘ . ‘ GS S78 
Teturou . Te[laits da ‘ur Jeareyy ‘seaseyfey > —““-——~—_| ._.. ; : 
JSOWl[e ‘OM} SUIOY {[BSeq PUB 9dTJ S[IDIPIg S Wel f oN Yor — WSs DINUIME * {7 AG 
Th: ‘ OSS 
II ‘ou [vJos { pojutod pue ‘PABISBALIC $ sunpuay (iescan! ee : : ‘ 
Jasuo] 1oddn ‘om} suloy ‘;eseq pus se1j STsoIpog BOSSES ee : UOrl — WE vypilutu "PY | “6ITx 
: "eUIeYS ley Jue 
‘jeul1ouqe { Iv[IWIIS Jsom[e fom Cac ‘ (OSS Sew 
l q TUS JSOWT } | -ser {QS6I 9uNnL IEGZ + INdiviysoH * Soro ime | vmuue pr | ‘Stl 


suloy { ojeupe Apusys pues s}BUUOD sj9DIpeg 


DETAILS OF THE COLLECTIONS OF MARSILEA /N SOME INDIAN HERBARIA—(Contd.) 


2 


Name of species 


3 


Herbarium details 


**110 | AZ. gracilenta 


**111. | AZ, coromandelica 


112. | 17. minuta 


113. M. minuta 


114. | AZ. minuta 


115, | AZ. minuta 


116. | AZ. minuta 


117. | M. minuta 


118. 


*119. 


120. 


121. 


124. 


125. 


M. minuta 


M. minuta 


M. minuta 


M. minuta 


M. minuta 


M. minuta 


M, minuta 


M. minuta 


M. aegyptiaca 


a = — ; Concan; Dr. D. Meyr, Berlin, 
29M — 10OR 


ee 8 ia ; .DM Berlin. 
Gi—se° India ; Dr. feyr, Berlin 


30M — 10R : 
; Delhi ; 1 jaLaeN: 
DL=56 ; Delhi; 2nd February 1956; T. N 
Bhardwaja. 
aS College compound, Udaipur ; Febru- 


ary 1956; T. N. Bhardwaja. 


ws Aad river, Udaipur ; February 1956, 


T. N. Bhardwaja. 


33M —10R _ : Bx 
sp—s56° Sarwad; 8th March 1956; B, V. 
Ratnam. 
M—10 4 cy 
a Trichinopoly ; 5th March 1956 ; Miss 


M. Jaya Marie. 


35M — 20R A we 
Ko=us6~ ; Dadabari, Kota; 20th June, 1956; 
V. K. Sakseaa. 


y |e —20R, Hoshiarpur ; 29th June 1956; Jas- 

want Rai Sharma. 

37M —10R 2 F 

EEO EES 5 7 6 , 7 
sG= 56? Sagar; 7th June 1956 ; Srivastava. 

38M — i 

ae, Rajkasvas, Marwar Jn.; 13th Sep- 
tember 1956; K. M. Gupta and T. N. Bhard- 
waja. 

39M — 10) 

aaa 8 Dhareshwar; Marwar Jn.; 13th 


September 1956; K, K, Sharma. 


40M —10R 
PA — 56 — 
Gupta and party. 
41M —10R . 
MD—5S6 
1956; H.S, Santapau. 
- 42M — 20R 
BH — 56 
Ganga Singh. 
43M —10R. 
BHIL —57 ’ 
K. M. Gupta. 
44M — 20R 


BHIL — 57 
K. M. Gupta. 


; Bharatpur; 


9th October 1956; 


Bhilwara; 12th February 1957 ; 


; Bhilwara; 12th February, 1957; 


4 


Characters of the sporocarps 


Pedicels free and basal; horns two. upper 
blunt, lower obscure, 


Pedicels basal and solitary; horns two, almost 
similar and prominent. 


Pedicels free and basal; horns two, upper 
inconspicuous, lower obscure ; soral no. 12 ; 
normal. 


Pedicels free and basal: horns absent ; soral 
no. 10; normal. 


Pedicels free and basal; horns two, upper 
pointed, lower obscure; soral no. 9; ab- 
normal. 


Pedicels slightly connate and obscurely adnate; 
horns two, inconspicuous, almost similar ; 
soral no. 9; normal. 


Pedicels slightly connate and basal; sporo- 
carps ribbed and bordered ; horns two, upper 
pointed, lower obscure ; soral no. 12; normal, 


Pedicels free and basal ; upper horn longer and 
pointed and lower obscure ; abnormal. 


Pedicels connate and shghtly adnate ; horns 
two, almost similar ; abnormal. 


Pedicels free and basal; horns two, upper longer 
and pointed ; soral no, 11. 


Pedicels free and basal; horns two, almost 
similar ; normal. 


Pedicels free and basal; sporocarps slightly 
ribbed and bordered; horns two, upper 
longer and pointed, lower obscure ; soral uo. 
12; normal. 


; Pali; 13th September 1956; K. M. | Pedicels free and basal ; upper horn present, 


Jower obscure ; soral no. 14 ; normal. 


; Madh Islands; 22nd September Pedicels free and basal; horns two, upper 


pointed upward, lower obscure; soral no. 12 ; 
normal. 


Pedicels free and basal; horns two obscure ; 
soral no. 12; normal. 


Pedicels free and basal ; horns abs2at, soral 
no. 10; normal. 


Pedicels basal, solitary ; sporocarps square, 
grooved, depressed; upper blunt hora 
present; soral no, 4-6 ; normal. 


col) 8 ee 


** Photographs and material kindly supplied from Bréun’s original types by Dr. Meyr, Berlin 
* Species redetermined by the present authors. 


= 
a 
2 
is) 


AVANO 


IN 


5 


‘A LOUIIOS “LSTH 


18a 


Ag 


SSVATISUVIN NVICNI 


SOILVNALSAS 2 ADOTOHAUNON ITH L 


29S 


THE LION_ OF THE “GER 


BY 
Lt.-CoLt. A. H. Mosse (Deceased) 


{During his service as a Political Officer in western India 
between 1901 and 1936 or thereabouts, Lt.-Col. A, H. Mosse was 
a keen and active member of the Society and a frequent contributor 
to the Journal. Through the kindness of his widow we are privileged 
to reproduce a selection of chapters from his unpublished MS. entitled 
‘INDIAN HOURS WITH NATURE—being ramblings of a Naturalist-Shikari’. 
This article is the first of the series. Although in some cases the 
information may be rather out of date in fact and chronology, the 
articles are nevertheless of great interest as a contemporary record by 
an observant and knowledgeable sportsman and naturalist.—Eps. | 


As there appears to be a good deal of misconception regarding 
the status of the Lion in India, it may be worth while to give a 
brief account of his real position at the present day [c. 1936]. 

It is not always realised that the lion, ordinarily looked upon 
as a native of Africa, had in historic times a habitat extending 
beyond the limits of that continent from Macedonia to Western 
Bengal—thougr the Old Testament should afford. a reminder of_ its 
former existence in Palestine. Outside India, there is no doubt that 
the lion was still to be found in the remoter parts of Mesopotamia 
and southern Persia at the beginning of the present century. When 
in the Persian Gulf during the [first] Great War, I heard of definite 
evidence of its continued existence in both countries so late as the 
year 1917; but it is there almost certainly on the verge of extinction, 
if not absolutely extinct, today. 

In India, apart from Kathiawar, the lion existed in diminishing 
numbers in Central India, in parts of Rajputana, and in north 
Gujarat up to the middle of the last century, Officers of the Central 
India Horse quartered at Goona during the first half of the century 
used to bag a number every year. The seventies, however, saw 
their final disappearance from these parts. The last indigenous lion 
in Central India—I say indigenous for a reason that will appear—is 
believed to have been one recorded as killed near Goona in 1873, while 
the last outside Kathiawar was shot by Col. Heyland of the old 
ist Bombay Cavalry at Deesa in 1878. 

The last stronghold of the lion in India was, and is, the Gir 
Forest in Kathiawar; there alone he has been able to maintain a foot- 
ing up to the present time, by reason of the enlightened policy of 
strict preservation followed by the authorities of the Junagadh State. 
The present area of the Gir, within the boundaries of Junagadh, is 
not more than 500 square miles, and naturally the animals at times 
cross the borders into adjacent territories, where they are liable to 
come to grief. In Junagadh itself preservation was not always as 
strict as is now the case, and there is no doubt that at the close 


DHE LION Ob) THE .Gik 569 


of the nineteenth century the lion in the Gir was nearer extinction 
than he is today. | 

During the late Lord Curzon’s Viceroyalty, a certain amount of 
pother arose over an announcement that he was about to visit 
Junagadh for the purpose of shooting one of the few remaining lions. 
The feelings aroused on the subject found voice in some lines published 
in the leading Bombay daily. Of these | remember but a word or 
two contained in a plea that the lions of the Gir should be allowed 
to remain in their last retreat undisturbed by ‘Viceroy or Vandal’. 

It was rather hard on Lord Curzon. For this was the Viceroy 
who had laid himself out, as none betore him, to preserve and restore 
the historic antiquities of the country in stone or marble or whatever 
lifeless medium. In the ear of such a man a tactful word, ex- 
planatory of the real urgency of the case of that still living antiquity, 
the Indian lion, would surely have received a sympathetic response, 
and have achieved as satisfactory a result as the cruel alliteration 
of that ‘Viceroy or Vandal’. Great men must of necessity expect 
to be called hard names—but George Nathaniel Curzon a Vandal! 

Whatever the method, the desired result was attained. Curzon 
went out to shoot no lion. And certainly that was just as well. 
For if not quite on the verge of extinction, the Indian lion at that 
date was very near it. It is said that in the late nineties its numbers 
had been reduced to less than a score. Indeed I have seen it stated 
that the lion had, in fact, all but disappeared, and that it was only 
saved from absolute extinction by the importation and turning loose 
in the Gir of a number of African lions. Well, my own connection 
with Kathiawar dates back over thirty years, and I have discussed 
the matter, both with Junagadh State officials and with officers of 
a previous generation of the old Bombay Political Department who 
were in a position to know, notably the late Colonel L: L. Fenton, 
a recognised authority. One and all have assured me that ihere was 
not a shadow of foundation for the story, and I have never heard of 
any sort of evidence in support of it. Its revival not long ago was 
possibly due to a misunderstanding or inaccurate recollection of an 
account of the late Maharaja Scindia’s experiment when he did turn 
loose a few African lions in his own Gwalior Jungles (Central India) 
some twenty years ago. Of which more anon. 

In any case, it is clear that the Curzon incident had the eftect 
—I believe on Lord Curzon’s own initiative—of bringing home to 
the Junagadh Durbar the necessity of more stringent measures of 
preservation. As a result of this stricter protection, for which every 
credit must be given to the State authorities, there has been during 
the last quarter of a century a not inconsiderable increase. It will 
be realised that any even approximately accurate census of the lions 
in the Gir is impracticable’ but by those in the best position to judge 
the total number at the present time (1936) is variously estimated at 
from 80 to 150; the former figure, which is that given by Sir Patrick 
Cadell, the late Diwan of Junagadh State, is probably nearest the 
mark. 


* But see ‘The Lion Census of 1955’ by M. A. Wynter-Blyth (JRNHS 53: Bam). 
This gives the total lion population in the Junagadh Gir as 290 animals.—Ebs. 


570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


The task of preservation has its difficulties, outside the State 
territories as well as within them. Its own subjects the State can 
take measures to control, though considerable sums have to be paid 
as compensation to cattle owners. But the jungle area of the Gir, 
once 1,500 square miles and now.but 500 in extent, is contiguous to 
several ‘foreign’ jurisdictions; and the lions do not always confine 
themselves within Junagadh limits. They are especially prone to 
wander during the monsoon months,: with the object it is said of 
escaping from the attentions of mosquitoes and other biting insects 
which swarm at this season in the interior of the Gir. 

The lion in India is the rarest of royal game, and invitations to 
shoot one are eagerly sought after. If the Nawab of Junagadh were 
to give full play to his hospitable instincts in this connection, it would 
speedily be wiped out. His feelings then can be imagined when he 
learns that a neighbour has invited a party of guests to shoot the 
lions which he himself might have offered but for his self-imposed 
duty of preserving the species. 

That is one side of the question. On the other hand, the 
neighbour argues that he has the right to kill any wild animal which 
he finds in his territory doing damage to his stock. When that 
animal is a lion the temptation is strong to exercise that right, either 
in his own person, or by according the privilege to some distinguished 
visitor who could,- perhaps, be attracted in no other way! It 1s 
turther contended that the killing of occasional stray beasts can have 
no practical effect on the preservation of the species, Probably this 
would be true were no lions shot but adult males. But Junagadh 
has had just cause for complaint of the manner in which family 
parties of lionesses and young animals—the easiest to bag, but the 
breeding stock of the future—have sometimes been thoughtlessly 
destroyed. 

It may be asked why such practices cannot be prevented by 
amicable agreement. The Agency authorities have always supported 
Junagadh in the matter. But it must be recognised that the tradi- 
tional attitude of the Junagadh State in this connection has hitherto 
to some extent stood in the way. A simple request for co-operation 
in the preservation of a rare animal would, in the past, have received 
a more satisfactory response than what, in fact, used to be a demand 
based upon a claim as of right. For Junagadh has always rested its 
objection to the shooting of lions by its neighbours, in their own 
territories, on an unqualified claim to the ownership of all lions in 
Kathiawar, wherever found. That is a claim which no adjacent 
State, as a matter, of sovereign prerogative, will admit. It is more 
than probable that all Kathiawar lions have, as alleged, been born 
within Junagadh limits. But they are ferae naturae, and_ their 
movements are subject to no control. 

It may be hoped that this difficulty has now ceased to exist. For, 
as a result of a challenge by one of Junagadh’s neighbours, this 
ownership question was not long ago made the subject of a formal 
decision on the part of the authorities of the Western India States’ 
Agency, which is adverse to the Junagadh claim. With this con- 
tentious claim out of the way, and bearing in mind that, but for 
Junagadh, there would be no lions in existence, one may hope that 


THE LION OF THE (GIR 571 


the State will in future meet with a greater measure of genuine 
co-operation than it has received in the past, What would seem to 
be necessary is the making—and keeping—of a strict agreement 
between all the jurisdictions concerned as to the maximum number 
of lions that may be killed annually in each State, coupled with a 
definite understanding that lionesses and immature males are to be 
spared. 

It remains to be seen whether, in the case of so large an animal 
as the lion, confinement to a small area will not eventually of itself 
result in extinction, by reason of the deterioration brought about by 
in-breeding. Records show that the average Indian lion of the past 
was in no way inferior to his African brother, but I understand that 
measurements of adult animals killed of recent years indicate a 
tendency to diminution of size. 

It is quite a mistake to suppose that there is any specific dis- 
tinction between the lions of Africa and India. An erroneous idea 
that there is such is perhaps traceable to the appellation ‘The 
maneless lion of Gujarat’ which at one time gained currency. ‘This 
description was never justified. Maneless lions occur in the Gir as 
they do in parts of Africa; Patterson’s notorious man-eaters of Tsavo, 
in East Africa, were entirely manecless. But the majority of adult 
males in Kathiawar have moderate manes, while I have seen Gir 
lions in captivity which possessed very fine manes indeed. It was 
the opinion of the late F. C. Selous that mane development depended 
mainly upon climatic considerations. 

The modern story of the lion in India is not quite complete 
without reference to the, at first sight, mysterious appearance of two 
lions at different places in Central India a few years ago, It was, 
J think, in the year 1926 that a lion was shot near Jhansi and, 
some months later, another in the Panna State. The Maharaja of 
Panna, who shot the latter, himself told me that he had reason to 
believe there were a lioness and cub in the same jungle at the time; 
but, so far as I know, nothing more was seen or heard of these. 

The explanation of these unexpected occurrences is almost certainly 
to be found in the fact that several years before, as I have already 
mentioned, the late Maharaja Scindia turned out some African lions 
in the Gwalior jungles. These beasts proceeded to make themselves 
a serious nuisance, and the Maharaja took steps to have them re- 
captured or destroyed. In this he was not entirely successful, as one 
or two animals remained unaccounted for. These, there can be littie 
doubt, must have been the progenitors of the lions of 1926 occurring 
in the same part of India. It is not impossible that others still exist, 
but of course they could not be looked upon as indigenous Indian 


lions. 

One has heard discussions as to whether the lion or the tiger is 
the more powerful beast. Such discussions lead nowhere, for no 
satisfactory conclusion can be drawn from the artificial conditions of 
captivity, while comparisons in the wild state are impracticable. It 
has, however, been put forward as an argument on behalf of the 
tiger that he has been responsible for the disappearance of the lion 
from a large part of India where the latter was formerly not un-. 
common, in fact that he drove the lion out. 

6 


572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.: SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


From a melodramatic. point of view ‘the idea doubtless has its 
attractions. _Picture the King of Beasts, ‘his ‘title to monarchy 
hitherto disputed by none. His wrathful amaze at the appearance of 
this formidable rival from the. regions of the North. The Homeric 
encounters. that followed as the battle-front extended its’ range. 
Victory in the balance, with the leonine ranks at long last giving 
way. The sullen falling back, first on the desert borders of 
Rajputana, next on the low jungile-clad hills of Gujarat. That last 
great battle on the banks of the Sabarmati, where the Tiger, victor 
once more but sore stricken, was forced to stay his advance; while 
the erstwhile Monarch, his ranks sadly depleted but his head unbowed, 
retired unmolested in the final retreat to the fastness of the Gir. 

A drama, were it true, worthy of a more eloquent pen than mine. 
But evidence in support of its actuality there is none. For centuries 
both lion and tiger existed in numbers in Central India; why should 
the supposed aggressive superiority of the tiger have suddenly mani- 
fested itself in the nineteenth century? Scientific authorty, in the 
person of that eminent zoologist, Mr. R. I. Pocock, considers the 
cause of the disappearance of the lion undoubtedly to have been 
human agency. I am convinced that he is'correct. The latter half 
ot the nineteenth century in India was a period in which the spread 
of civilizing influences. synchronised with a wider use of fire-arms. 
That the lion suffered more than the. tiger-was-only the natural conse- 
quence of a difference in habits. He is more noisy than the tiger, 
has less dislike of comparatively open ‘country, and will lie up for 
the day in lighter cover and less secluded: spots. He is also much 
more gregarious. It follows that he is much easier to locate, and 
when found may be brought to bag in. oe ‘numbers ata time than 
is ordinarily the case with the tiger, 

My. own first active encounter with - lions—in Sonvilend—wae 
with a troop, or pride, of. six or seven animals, and considerably 
larger numbers than this have often been’. séén “together. And the 
story, which I have now: to relate, of a more. recent experience 
illustrates. the manner in which the lion ar sometimes ea himself 
by day. | 
Towards the close of my _ service ‘I held, for some time, an 
appointment on the Administrative Council of the State of Bhavnagar, 
included. in the territory of which was an outlying area of partially 
jungle-clad hills bordering on the outskirts of the Gir. This area 
used, of. recent years, to be regularly“ visited: by lions during the 
monsoon season. But I had slain lions. elsewhere, and “had no 
intention of myself diminishing the small surviving lion population of 
India unless for some good purpose, even though there was no risk 
of the Junagadh policy of strict presectelnen being aifected ee the 
death ‘of. an occasional wanderer. 

In the year. 1930, however, I was peprencned by the auithorines of 
the. British Museum (Natural History) for assistance in the matter of 
obtaining for them specimens, hitherto’ jacking from the National 
collection, of the Indian lion. I was instrumental in . sending them 
three old skulls;° a gift’ from the Bhavnagar Durbar, but they 
wanted, if possible, at least one complete | specimen for mounting 
whole. When, therefore, in August of that year, information came ih 


THE LION: OF \EHE .GIR ; | 573 


one day of: a pair, lion and lioness, having crossed our border and 
killed a cow and a buffalo, I determined to seize the opportunity. 

It-was about 1 p.m, the following day when I reached my first 
objective, a tiny bungalow near the border, which served as a sort 
of shooting-box. There I learned that the lions had not returned to 
their buffalo kill the previous night, but that they had been heard 
roaring in the early hours of the morning and three parties of local 
pagis (trackers) were out trying to locate them. Little more than 
an hour later a messenger arrived with the news that the lions had 
been marked down not more than two miles from the bungalow. I 
at once hurried off, accompanied by my Superintendent of Police, a 
Rajput oificer named P. 

In due course our guide brought us to a long narrow hill, at the 
further end.of which three pagis were lying down on the watch. We 
crept up and dropped down by their sides. The time was between 
3.30 and 4 p.m., on a fine afternoon with intermittent sunshine, 

In order to make clear what followed I must try to give some 
idea of the lie of the land and the character of the ground. The hill 
upon which [ found myself was somewhat sparsely overgrown with 
coarse grass, with isolated trees and. occasional bushes dotted about. 
At the end of the hill the crest dipped to a moderately steep descent 
for thirty yards or so, then sloped away more gradually for perhaps 
another eighty, beyond which the land rose again to a rather higher 
level than my own position. The face of this opposite hill was fairly 
open grass land, but to my right front and lower down the hillside 
was a wooded area within which the head shikari informed me the 
lions were concealed. 

I had no time to question him. ‘The words were hardly out of 
bis mouth when, from the cover facing me on the right, there emerged 
a lion who proceeded to walk leisurely across my front on the open 
hillside, at a distance of between 150 and 200 yards. I at once 
crawled forward and squatted behind a tiny bush about two fect high 
and ten or twelve paces from the edge of the hill-crest. It should 
be understood that, from the crest immediately in front of the spot 
where I sat, there was a space, extending directly below the edge 
for some thirty yards or so, that was not within my sphere of vision. 
About: fifty yards below the crest there was a patch of cover, con- 
sisting of high grass interspersed with bushes, which stretched across 
the slope beneath me from left to right, part of it reaching as far 
as the blind area to which I have alluded. | 

I sat and watched the lion strolling with apparent aimlessness 
about the hillside opposite, my mind busy with alternative schemes. 
I could see no sign of a mane, but the beast was, I thought, too 
big for a lioness. Should I wait in the hope that the pace animal 
of the pair would join its mate and solve the doubt, or should I 
back my belief that this was the male and seize the opportuniiy in 
the event of its‘ offering a broadside standing shot? The range was 
not more than 150 yards and I had faith in my .318. None the less 
1 should be happier were I in a position to use my heavier weapon, 
a twelve-bore magnum Paradox. It is the first shot that counts, and 
a wounded lion is apt to mean danger for others. besides oneself. As 
a matter of principle therefore I believe in close range, as well as a 


574 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


heavy bullet, for all dangerous game, I had never yet fired a shot 
at a dangerous beast at a three-figure range in yards, and did not 
want to begin now. I had indeed been so fortunate with Somali 
lions as to have been able to make twenty-five yards—and that always 
on foot—my maximum range. To lay this down as a record to be 
maintained would be foolish, circumstances must decide; all the same 
it would be pleasant to maintain it. 

Of alternative courses, then, there appeared to be three: (a) to 
sit still and await events, (b) to attempt a stalk along the edge of 
the cover whence the lion had come, or (c) to look for a_ suitable 
point of vantage up to which the half dozen men at my disposal 
might make a bid to drive the beast. The problem was, however, 
complicated by the existence of the animal’s mate, the position of 
which was not known, though presumably somewhere close at hand. 

At what conclusion I might have arrived I cannot say, for I had 
not been watching it for more than four or five minutes when my 
proposed quarry settled the matter for itself, turning in my direction 
and walking down the hill towards me. It continued its way to the 
foot of its own hill and then proceeded to walk up mine. Now, as 
it faced me, at a distance which had been reduced to eighty yards 
or so, it was obvious from the size of the massive head that, mane 
or no mane, this was no lioness but an adult male lion. Quietly 
i laid aside the .318, picked up the Paradox, and waited. Still the 
distance lessened and now the lion, moving leisurely as ever, had 
reached the narrow patch of cover fifty yards below. ‘When he 
passes that . . .’ thought I, as he entered the cover and was lost 
to view. 

I have said that this patch of cover linked up the open ground 
with the blind area beneath the crest. The lion did not emerge on 
the visible part of the near side of the cover as I had hoped. I 
waited, One, two minutes ... ? Should I craw! forward and peep 
over the small boulder which marked the edge of the crest in front? 
Came an inarticulate sound from P. just behind me, his finger pointing 
forward over my shoulder—he’ is quicker of hearing than I, who am a 
trifle deaf—then on my ears too a peculiar noise, what was it? Next 
moment I realised, the breathing of the lion! And the next moment 
after that, rising silently above that boulder, then motionless, with 
eyes that seemed to be staring straight into mine, though I fancy 
they were looking just past me, the head and neck of the lion 
himself ! 

Face to face at a dozen paces, and I was sitting on the bare 
ground! But, though I certainly had not a second to spare, I was 
ready for him; he was not ready for me. Fortunately, too, my gun 
was already pointing straight in his direction; I had to make no 
lateral movement, only to raise it to my shoulder. Afterwards I 
fancied that, as I pulled the trigger, I had seen realisation dawning 
in his eyes. But my bullet was in his throat, and he collapsed 
out of sight behind the boulder. 

The word ‘unique’ is often misused, but I think it reaily was 
applicable to this experience, And I had maintained my record in 
unlooked for fashion. The explanation of the lion taking the line he 
did probably lay in the fact that he had not dined the previous night 


bo 


THE LION OF THE GIR 575 


and, beginning to feel hungry, had decided to move towards his kill 
of two nights before. My position just happened to lie directly in 
his path. It was a great stroke of luck that I arrived when I did, 
before he was on the move; I was only just in time. We saw 
nothing of the lioness, but heard her that night calling for her mate. 

This proved to be an adult male in his prime, though practically 
devoid of mane. I had my work cut out that evening and next day, 
without expert assistance, to prepare the whole skeleton as well as 
skin and skull, in view of his eventual destination; but it was done, 
and in the afternoon he was packed off to Bombay. Subsequently a 
pair of lions were presented by the Nawab of Junagadh to the British 
Museum, and it was decided to retain mine for the Bombay Museum. 
There, so far as I know, he may be seen today. 

In a letter from my friend P. not long ago he remarked that, 
whenever he thinks of the finale of the incident just described, he 
feels his hair stand on end. As well it might: it is all very well 
for the principal on such an occasion, with confidence in himself and 
bis weapon, to choose, so far as the enemy permits, his own moment 
for action. It is a very different matter for the looker-on within the 
danger zone, bound to hold his hand and wait upon the initiative of 
another. Rather like sitting beside the driver of a fast car when the 
going is dangerous; he is probably in complete control of his machine, 
but appears to you to be taking appalling risks. 

No novice at the game, P. has himself a tale to tell of a re- 
markable experience; a tale which he has written down for me, and 
which I shall take the liberty of relating, as nearly as may be, in 
his own words: 

‘It was in the year Ig9g11 or 1912 that I was arranging a lion 
shoot for His late Highness, the Maharaja of Bhavnagar, when I 
witnessed the following scene: 

‘I was tying up buffaloes at two different places in that part of 
the Gir Forest which is in the Amreli District belonging to the Baroda 
State. It was about the middle of March. On the third day one 
pada (young buffalo) was killed by a pair of full-grown lions. I put 
up a machan at the same place, and informed H.H. at Bhavnagar 
about the kill, requesting him to come immediately. 

‘Next evening we tied a full-grown pada, about two years old, 
and I sat up on the machan with a shikari to make sure that a 
male lion was there. Visibility was good when the pair of lions 
arrived about sunset. First to appear on the scene was a full-grown 
male lion; following him, about thirty yards behind, was his wife, 
The pada was tied up in a ndla (nullah), the banks of which were 
about four to six feet high; the machan was situated in a tree on 
one bank. The nala was dry and about twenty yards from the pada 
was a small temporary well, dug for watering cattle, with a trough 
alongside. 

‘The lion approached cautiously at first and had a drink from the 
trough, then, after circling round the machan and bait, he suddenly 
rushed at the pada but, shirking at the last moment, he turned aside 


before quite reaching it and disappeared. Within two minutes he 


made a second big rush, doing the same thing again. All this time 
his wife was sitting in the ndla about thirty yards away. When the 


76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


lion turned away twice, she rushed straight from where she was sitting, 
jumped on the pada from behind and, coming on to. its back, killed 
it after a great effort... In this famasha (display), the peg to which 
the bait. was tied came out of the ground and the buffalo was killed 
outright—presumably its neck broken—at about ten yards from the 
spot where he had been tethered.’ 

“After killing, the lioness dragged the carcase for a few feet and 
suddenly, with a terrific pull or jump, she managed to throw the dead 
pada up on the far bank of the ndla. While this was going on the 
lion was out of sight, but he soon appeared when his mate began 
to start her meal; but on his coming near to take part in the ieast 
a terrific quarrel occurred, after which the pada was dragged still 
farther away by the lioness into the jungle out of my sight. [or 
another ten minutes or so I heard the noise of their occasional 
quarrelling, but after that all became quiet, and. I could _ only 
occasionally hear the noise of the cracking of bones, or at times little 
friendly noises; the quarrel had evidently been squared up. 

‘Next morning I took up their tracks and located them about a 
mile and a half away. His Highness had arrived by then and in 
due course he shot the lion, while she fell to my gun. in a_ beautiful 
beat with only twenty-five beaters.’ 

It is a story with several interesting features. With panthers, 
the female usually makes the kill, if the quarry be not too big 
for her. I do not know that this is generally the practice with 
lions. In any case, the buffalo in this instance, though not fully 
mature, was a big animal, and it was clearly a job for the husband. 
Individual characters, however, vary among beasts as among men; 
it would seem that courage was not this particular lion’s strongest 
point, or else he was, for some reason, not feeling quite at his 
best that evening. His mate was made cf sterner stuff; there is 
an almost human quality about her impatience at his twice repeated 
failure and the determination with which she stepped in to finish a 
business. which might have been supposed to be beyond her powers. 
And the subsequent quarrel, of which she did not have the worst, 
if he funked the kill he should jolly well wait his turn to dine! 

Again, P. was unabie to see exactly how the lioness contrived 
to nee: the pada up on to the bank at least four feet above her. 
But he is quite definite as to her having done so by a _ single 
exertion of strength; it can I think only have been by a scramble 
up the bank, dragging’ her prey at her side. It was a remarkable 
feat, for the buffalo cannot have weighed much less than 600 pounds, 
while the weight of an adult Gir lioness would hardly exceed 2 
pounds at the outside. 

It is perhaps worth mentioning that the skulls of this pair of 
lions were two of the three subsequently presented to the British 
Museum by H.H. the present Maharaja of Bhavnagar, and which 
were described in detail by Mr. Pocock in his article on the Lions 
of Asia in Vol. XXXIV (p. 638) of the Journal of the Bombay 
Natural History Society. 


(To be continued) 


<= 


" NOTES ON THE BRUELIA GROUP OF MALLOPHAGA 
(FEATHER-LICE), WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF 
FOUR NEW SPECIES 


eae. BY 
WOLFDIETRICH EICHLER, D.Sc. 
’ Professor of Parasitology, Department of Parasitology 
at Kleinmachnow, Berlin, Eastern Germany 


(With four text figures) 


Significant success has already attended the study of the relation- 
ships of different mallophaga in their bearing on the phylogeny and 
systematics of their avian hosts (see Clay, JBNHS 49: 430-443, 
December 1950). | 

The main difficulty lies in the fact that a great many mallophaga 
are as yet insufficiently known, or not at all. Even so there are a 
few groups about which our knowledge is fairly satisfactory, though 
in others there is still much confusion. This confusion is partly the 
result of faulty collecting techniques, particularly in cases where 
special methods are called for. For example, from the ‘song birds’ 
(passerines) we normally obtain species of Docophorulus (Philopterini) 
which in a dead bird soon make the:r appearance on the outer surface 
of the head feathers. Even in the case of a living bird with the 
head firmly secured and the feathers of the hindcrown turned over 
one by one, I have found it easy to pick up with a pair of tweezers 
specimens of Docophorulus from near the surface. 

However, with Briielia species this is not so easy. It had puzzled 
me at first as to why this genus was so poorly represented numeri- 
cally among collections received from correspondents, and why the 
Philopterini were always so much more abundant. It was only when 
actually collecting myself that I discovered how difficult it was to 
obtain Brieliini from the plumage of living song birds. Even in the 
case of dead birds Briieliini often appear on the surface only some 
days after their host being killed. In fact sometimes even after days 
they do not show up at the surface, and they only fall out when the 
carcase is vigorously shaken. 

For studying mallophaga one may sometimes depend on shaking 
out bird skins in ornithological collections in this manner to obtain 
the dead feather lice. By this method one may expect to get Briielia 
spp. relatively easily. Quite the opposite is the case with the 
amblycerous feather lice (Colpocephalidae and Menoponidae) which try 
to abandon their host soon after its death. Thus they will not be 
found in the plumage of museum specimens so commonly. 

The above method of shaking out the mallophaga from museum 
skins is, however, fraught with scme danger of unreliabilitv. During 
the course of preparation, the skin might have got ‘tainted’ with some 
mallophaga which do not belong to itself but to another bird with 
which it may have accidentally come in contact. Especially where 
‘single specimens of mallophaga are concerned caution becomes 
‘necessary, But even in cases where greater quantities of certain 


578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


mallophagan species are found, a suspicion still lingers that a false 
diagnosis might have been facilitated in this manner. 

On account of their habits it is somewhat unusual to find the 
Brieliini on a freshly killed bird. These often leave the plumage 
only after a day or two, and therefore it is necessary to put away 
the carcase for this time. But in that case the bird’s body is likely 
to become useless either for skinning or for eating. 

I have observed that the Briteliinit normaily appear on the belly 
region of a dead bird. Therefore it seems reasonable to conclude 
that this region is the natural ‘habitat’ of the Brieliae. Unfortunately 
almost nothing is known about the bionomics of the various Briielia 
spp. Even the data concerning their occasional blood meals—based 
on Nitzsch’s observations, which we find interspersed in Giebel’s 
monograph—are not entirely free from doubt. 

Concerning the eggs it may perhaps be useful if I quote 
here Pfleger’s hitherto unpublished description of those of Briiela 
nebuiosa. This author found the Briielia eggs on the Starling (Sturnus 
vulgaris) on the underside of the side feathers of the crop, on the 
upper breast, and the lower back. The eggs are attached to the radii 
by means of a white cement. The arrangement of the eggs is similar 
to that in other Brieliini. Their shape is somewhat stretched (long 
and narrow). The egg-shell, including the egg-cap, is white to weak 
vellowish, with a surface like fine shagreen leather; the egg-cap bears 
a flagelliform appendix. The openings of the micropylae are placed 
on low pustules which stand in an irregular circle on the edge of 
the cap. 

The systematic investigation of the Briteliini leaves much to be 
desired. It is the merit of Keler to have erected the genus Briielia 


and to have contributed in some measure towards the determination. 


of its species. But the knowledge of forms within the genus had not 
been essentially widened by him. My own review (1946) cannot be 
interpreted otherwise than as purely tentative, as an attempt to put 
in order the hitherto described mallophagan species and, as far as 
possible, to ascribe them to the hitherto recognized genera. 

The Brieliini of the song birds are characterized by two 
peculiarities: first, closely related or even identical forms live on 
host species which, in some cases, are very different. For instance 
Keler 1936c reports that he was unable to distinguish Briel 
trithorax of Paroaria cucullata (a West Indies finch) from Brieha 
cyclothorax of Passer montanus (the Tree Sparrow) and Fringilla 
montifringilla (the Brambling). Secondly, it has recently been found 
that’ near relations of the genus Briielia (sensu stricto) live on some ot 
the same birds. For instance, thrushes of the genus Turdus are 
infested, besides the genus Briielia, by species of Allobrtielia and 
Turdinirmus also. 

Further investigation of the Brieliini is urgently needed for a 
proper understanding of the species. To assist such an investigation 
I give below the diagnoses of some new species of the Briielia- 
relationship. 

It will probably be necessary to erect some new generic groups 
of Briteliini when we come to know more of the forms. Even today 
this is true of the differentiation of Briielia and Allobriielia. In some 


NOTES ON THE BRUELIA GROUP OF MALLOPHAGA . 579 


cases it is difficult to decide if a certain species from other bird-hosts 
than Turdus spp. should be ascribed to the one genus or the other. 
But the allocation of mallophaga from a bird other than Turdus 
species to the genus Allobriielia may, in the present state of our 
knowledge, be considered somewhat questionable. Therefore my 
ascribing to this genus the two new species described below, namely 
vhinocichlae and museiberolinensis, from members of the families 
Sturnidae and Timaliidae respectively must be treated as provisional. 


Allobrtielia museiberolinensis SPCC. NOV. 


In the collection of the Zoologisches Museum, Berlin, from Mino 
dumontii kreffti Scl. (Fam. Sturnidae). Locality ‘Bismarck-Archi- 
pelago’ (slides WEC 2072). | 


Fic. 1. Head and male genitalia of Allobriielia museibero- 
linensis spec. nov. from Mino dumontii kreffti. 


Drawn by P. Rose from slide WEC 2072. 


The new species, which otherwise resembles the Allobrielia-type 
is characterized by the rather heavy thickened limbus zygomaticus 
(fig. 1). Holotype slide no. WEC 2072 ©, allotype no. 2072 Q ; the 
others paratypes. 


Allobruelia rhinocichlae Spec. nov. 


In Mjoberg’s Sumatra collection in the Riksmuseum, Stockholm, 
from Rhinocichla mitrata {mitrata) S. Mill, (Fam. Timaliidae) (slide 
WEC 2257). 


lic. 2. Head of Allobriielia rhinocichlae spec. nov. 
from Rhinocichla mitrata. 
Drawn by P. Rose from slide WEC 2257. 


The new species is readily distinguished from the type of 
Allobriielia amsel by the form of the head as represented in fig. 2, 
as well as by the straight-sided (almost quadrangular) signature of 


580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


the clypeus. Furthermore A. rhinocichlae nov, spec. has the edges 
of the osculum more rounded, the forehead is more slender, the 
antennae are more thickened (whilst in A. amsel they are rather slim) 
and the sides of the hind head are more trapezoidal (in the case of 


A. amsel they are pronounced convex rounded). Holotype slide 
NO. 2257. : ~: 


Bruelia fulmeki SPEC. NOV. | 


From a specimen labelled ‘Calornis payanensis’ [Aplonis panayensis 
strigatus Horsf. (Fam. Sturnidae)] Locality Medan (Sumatra), slide 
no. WEC 785. | 


Fic. 8. Head of male of Briiclia fulmeki spec. nov. 
from Aplonis panayensis strigatus. 
Drawn by P. Rose from slide WEC ‘785. 


The new species is characterized by its straight-sided forehead 
which is trapezoidal and has a narrow, rather deep osculum and a 
broad and vigorous limbus zygomaticus. The clavi are large and 
pointed. The species stands somewhat far removed from Briielia 
(sensu stricto), and shows no near relationship, e.g. to B, nebulosa. 
Perhaps it would be necessary to separate the species generically. 
Fig. 3 shows the head of the male, Holotype slide & no. 785. 


Bruelia muniae Spec, Nov. 


One female only (slide no. WEC 774, 
holotype). Host Munia maja (Linn.) 
(Family Ploceidae, Subfamily Estrildinae). 
Locality Medan (Sumatra, O. K.). 

The new species is characterized by 
the straight-sided forehead which is long- 
stretched and triangular. Osculum 
moderately deep and so narrow that the 
configuration of a food-channel is clearly 
visible. Clavi short and _ blunt, like 
trabeculae. Contrary to this, the antennae 
are strikingly strong and long. The 

ee eins species iS rather remote from Brielia 
Briielia muniae spec. nov. from (Sersu stricto). Undoubtedly it will be 

Munia maja. necessary to separate it generically. 

Drawn by P. Rose from slide Unfortunately I do not know the male. 

WEC 774. The head of the female is shown by fig. 4. 


Holotype ? 774. 


* 


BRIEF NOTES ON CROP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 
} IN THE PANJAB (INDIA) 
BY 


K. N. TREHAN, M.Sc., Ph.p. (London), F.E.s.1. 
Retired Entomologist to Government, Panjab; Zoology 
Department, Panjab University, Hoshiarpur, 


(With 34 text figures) 


CONTENTS 
PAGE 
INTRODUCTION 2 ae ae ues ee OL 
PESTS OF SUGARCANE ht re aa ae fa, OOO 
PESTS OF FIBRE CROPS: 
(i) Cotton sar ae Ps iis este) 
(ii) Sann Hemp ahs a oes sds barool 
(iii) Dhaincha a ite i fe ... 592 
(iv) Sankukra ie a ae wee OR 
PESTS OF OILSEED CROPS: 
(i) Castor ion ae od es ... 592 
(i) Groundnut ie fas ee ve ... 593 
(iii) Sarson and Toria ... se es cas ee SR 
Pests oF ToBacco ae age ie Bt w. 594 
PESTS OF CEREAL CROPS: 
(i) Rice ee a a vo enng5 
(ii) Maize a * i eae ... 597 
(ii!) Jowar ba ee LAS Be ... 598 
(iv) Bajra a ~~ se ie ... 599 
(v) Wheat ts a5 ee * .. 599 
PESTS OF PULSE CROPS: 
(i) Gram ue ee ee sa ... 600 
(ii) Mash es as a este ... 601 
(iii) Peas Aa ies Te ace weet OUR 
PESTS OF FODDER CROPS: 
(i) Lucerne Ape eae ree oes esr OOZ 
(ii) Guara ee he Aa a icc COZ 
(iii) Oats a a Bs a0 ... 603 
(iv) Turnip oe ie Bees ae ... 603 
(v) Japan Rape se ae iS. Ae ve. 603 
PESTS OF VEGETABLES : 
(i) Cucurbits eas i dea 55 »-- 604 
(ii) Brinjal ae tag ae ae ».. €06 
{iii) Bhindi Be en sire ae ... 608 
(iv) Sweet Potato ise no nee see ... 609 
(v) Palak a6 a se =i ... 609 


(vi) Potato ae ae on Eos --» 609 


582 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


(vii) Onion ate re ae ic pee OLD 
(viii) Tomato oe iG ae ... 610 
(1x) Cabbage and Cauliflower ee dee ee ee OLE 
(s) Chillies rs as fot en OLS 
(xi) Waternut is bic is ee S pORS 
9. PESTS OF FRUITS AND FRUIT TREES : 
(i) Apple FE ste ay sae «» O13 
(i) Apricot ee oe ner see sae OltS 
(iii) Peaches and Plums ... ee ae ae eG 1G 
(iv) Walnut we ae ene os a0 OLZ 
(v) Fig nt ae << ee ec Oley 
(vi) Mango ons a a oe ellis 
(vii) Grape vine or en a os fs OE, 
(viit) Ber us a Pe ae ... 620 
(ix) Pomegranate nee =o Ee. aes ».. 620 
(x) Citrus oe oF ie Aes ee Oil 
(x1) Guava dpe i =< ae hee OLE 
10. Pest CONTROL ae ek oar ie nao O2e8 


11], List OF VERNACULAR AND SCIENTIBIC NAMES OF PLANTS MENTIONED 
IN THE TEXT ae cok ee aps ... 626 


INTRODUCTION 


Stepping up food production is the most serious problem of the 
day and plant production is directly associated with it. Both our 
Government and the public in general are equally interested in meet- 
ing this problem successfully. Accordingly, it is most desirable to 
record brief information on the activities, prominent characters, and 
the nature of damage of some important pests which usually 
hinder crop production and consequently handicap progress. At the 
same time, it is desired to acquaint the cultivators. with some basic 
knowledge of the preventive and control measures recommended 
against different pests. Besides helping the farmers, it is also pre- 
sumed that this information will stimulate interest in the staff engaged 
to ‘grow more food’ in various departments to take up prophylactic 
measures against the common pests. 

Therefore, with a view to imparting some general information on 
the subject, an almost complete list of the pests met with in the 
Panjab, including some minor ones also, is arranged cropwise. 

I am extremely thankful to S. Gurcharan Singh Sohi, Assistant 
Professor of Entomology, Government Agricultural College, 
Ludhiana, for the help rendered in the compilation of the list of 
Crop pests. 

The illustrations in the article are drawn from various sources, 
particularly the following: Proceedings of the Entomological meet- 
ings, Pusa; Handbook of Economic Entomology for South India, 
by Dr. T. V. Ramakrishna Ayyar; Insect Pest Number, by Dr. Khan 
A. Rahman; Agricultural Zoology, by Dr. K. W. Dammerman; and 
Elements of Plant Protection, by Dr. Leuis L. -Pyenson. To all 
these sources my grateful acknowledgement is offered. The sketches 
were kindly prepared by S, Sant Singh Sekhon, Research Scholar, 
Panjab University, Hoshiarpur, to whom I wish to express my 
appreciation. 


CROP) PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE PANJAB 583 


1. PEstTs OF SUGARCANE, Saccharum officinarum 


Planted in March and harvested from December to April. 


(A) Pests attacking Setts and Roots 


1. White ant, Microtermes obesi Hol. and_ other species 
(Termitidae; Isoptera) (Fig. 1). A serious pest throughout the 
Panjab. The attacked setts may fail to germinate. 


Fig. lL. Termite species, (a) Winged male x3, 
(6) Queen x1. 


Control: To protect the setts (i) their ends may be dipped in 
sanitary fluid or (11) BHC be dusted near the planted setts. 


2. Mole Cricket, Gryllotalpa africana Pal. {Gryllidae; Orthoptera). 
A minor pest in some parts of the State. It damages the roots by 
burrowing into the soil. 

Control: Poison baiting with bran, sodium fluosilicate, or BHC 
and gur. 


(B) Pests feeding on Leaves 
(a) Biting: 
1. Grasshopper, Hieroglyphus banian Fb. (Acrididae; Orthoptera) 
(Fig. 2). Occasionally a major pest in sugarcane growing areas. It 
also. attacks rice, maize, ‘bajra’, and ‘jowar’. Adults have pale 


584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY’. NATURAL... AIST. SOCIELY, «Vol. :54 


greenish patches and four black transverse furrows. behind the neck. 
Nymphs are yellowish with reddish brown dots and patches. Both 


adults and nymphs damage the young crop by feeding on leaves. 
Active during May to July, only one brood a year. 


= =a = 
un hase 


Fig. 2..Grasshopper AZzeroglyphus baniait \Fb., 
(2) nymph x13, (6), adult x12. : 


Control: (i) Plough up the affected fields and bunds after harvest, 
(ii) poison baiting with bran, sodium fluosilicate, or BHC and gur, 
and (iii) dusting with 10% BHC. 


(Db) S Uc kine 


1. Leaf hopper, Pvrilla perpusilla Wik. (Fulgoridae; Homoptera) 
(Fig. 3). A major pest in Ludhiana, Hoshiarpur, Jullundur, 


Fig. 3. Leaf Hopper, Pyrilla perpusilla W\k., (2) nymph x5, (6) adult x5.” 


8 


on 
a 


CROP PESTS AND. THEIR’ CONTROL IN.THE'PANJAB 


Gurdaspur, and Karnal districts. Alternative food plants are wheat, 
barley, oats, ‘chari’ (Sorghum vulgare), maize, ‘bajra’, ‘baru’ 
(Sorghum halepenae), and other grasses. 

Adults are straw coloured, nymphs pale yellow with a pair of 
long waxy filaments at the hinder end. Both the stages suck sap 
from the leaves which dry up. They also secrete “honey dew’ on 
which black fungus develops and imparts a sooty appearance to the 
leaves and interferes in their photosynthetic activities. Active on 
sugarcane from May to December, with 4-5 generations a year. 

Control: (i) Collect adults and nymphs by nets or bagging and 
destroy them in kerosinized water, (11) dust the crop with 109% BHC 
with the help of hand or power dusters. 


2. Black bug, Micropes excavatus Dist. (Lygaeidae; Heteroptera). 
A serious pest in Kangra and Karnal districts but minor in others. 
Adults black with apex of front wings white. Both adults and 
nymphs suck the leaf sap and plant growth is checked and the quality 
of gur adversely affected. Active from March to October with about 
three broods. 

Control: Dusting with 5% BHC or spraying with Nicotine 


Sulphate 1: 800. 


ao: White-fly, Aleurolobus barodensis W. (Aleurodidae ; Homoptera) 
(Fig. 4). A major pest in factory areas. The nymphs desap the 


Fig. 4. Whitefly, Aleurolobus barodensis W., (a) a 
row of eggs and nymphs on leaf, (6) fully grown 
nymph x1], (c) x ll adult. 


686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HEST. (SOCIETY, Vol, 4 


leaves which turn pale and wither. ‘Active during summer when the 
leaves become black due to mould which develops on the ‘honey dew’, 

Control: (i) Collect and burn all infested leaves, (11) spray the crop 
with fish-oil rosin soap, or rosin compound, (iii) dust with 5% BHC 
or spray 0.05% wettable DDT against the adults. 


4. Sugarcane mealy-bug, Tvionymus sacchari Gr. (Coccidae; 
Homoptera). A minor pest in the sub-mountain regions. The adults 
and nymphs feed at the base of the leaves and suck juices. Active 
from November to March. 

Control: (i) select pest-free setts for planting, (ii) remove and 
burn infested leaf sheaths. 


(C) Borers 


1. Top borer, Scirpophaga nivella F. (Pyralidae; Lepidoptera) 
(Fig. 5). A major pest throughout the sugarcane tract, also recorded 
from ‘sarkanda’, ‘mandal’, and guinea grass. Adults white, females 
with their abdominal end set with yellowish brown hairs. The cater- 


Fig. 5. Top borer, Scirpophaga nivella F., (a) fall 
erown larva x23, (6) moth x3}. 


pillars bore through the leaf mid-rib and reach the base of the whorl 
and cause ‘dead heart’ in the young plants during early growth and 
the canes give out top branches. Active from March to October with 
about five generations. 

Control: (i) Collect and destroy the moths and egg clusters during 
March-May, (11) remove and burn or feed to cattle all infested top 
shoots. 


CROP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE PANJAB 087 


2. Stem borer, Argyria sticticraspis Hamp. (Pyralidae; Lepidop- 
tera). A major pest, widely distributed in the State. Alternative 
food plants are ‘bajra’, ‘sarkanda’, ‘baru’, ‘swank’, and guinea grass. 
The caterpillars are dirty white with five longitudinal stripes. They 
bore and feed into the stem and produce ‘dead heart’. Active from 
March to October but damage is serious during April-June. May 
have 5-6 generations during the active period. 

Control: (i) Plough up cane field soon after harvest and burn all 
up-rooted stubble, (ii) earth up the plants twice or thrice by the end 
of May. 


3. Pink stem borer, Sesamia inferens Wk. (Noctuidae; 
Lepidoptera). A minor pest, recorded on sugarcane, wheat, and barley 
in Gurdaspur and Hoshiarpur districts. Caterpillars bore into stem 
and cause ‘dead heart’. 

Only preventive measures such as removal of infested plants show- 
ing ‘dead heart’ and destruction of stubble are recommended. 


4. Gurdaspur borer, Chilo trypetes Bisset (Pyralidae; Lepidoptera). 
A very serious pest in Gurdaspur district and Mukerian Tehsil in 
Hoshiarpur. Its spread in the neighbouring districts is being noticed 
gradually. Recorded only on sugarcane as yet. The caterpillars are 
creamy white in colour with four longitudinal reddish brown stripes. 
They bore into the stem and make spiral tunnel. The attack causes 
the entire whorl of leaves to dry up which gives a blighted appearance 
to the crop. The pest is active from July to October with. two 
gencrations. 

Control: The stubble should be uprooted, collected, and burnt to 
destroy hibernating caterpillars. 


5. Root-borer, Emmalocera depresella Swin. (Pyralidae; Lepidop- 
tera). A minor pest but widely distributed throughout the State 
infesting ‘baru’ and ‘sarkanda’ grasses besides sugarcane. 

Control: Only prophylactic measures are recommended. 


2. PESTS OF FIBRE CROPS 


_ CoTton Gossypium herbaceum L. Sown in April-May; flowers 
in July-September; picking from October to January. 


(A) Pests attacking Roots 


1. White ants, termites (vide sugarcane). 
Avoid green manuring or unripe farmyard manure and apply 
optimum number of irrigations as prophylactic measures. 


(B) Pests on Seedlings 


1. Surface Grasshopper, ‘Toka’, Chrotogonus sp. (Acrididae; 
Orthoptera). A minor pest but occasionally causes considerable 
damage to germinating cottons, particularly in Ferozepore District. 
Both the adults and the young are destructive. Active throughout 
the year and infests maize, tobacco, ‘bhindi’, potatoes, lucerne, and 
‘toria’, besides cotton. 


7 


588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Control: (i) Poison baiting with sodium. fluosilicate or BHC, (ii) 
dusting with 5-10% BHC (15-25 lb. per: acre)in case of severe 
attack. stich ts tee . 


2. Grasshopper, Ailopus sp. (Acrididae; Orthoptera). A minor 
pest, both the adults and young ones feed on seedlings. Active from 
May to October. Control as above. 


3. ‘Tid’, Gryllus viator Kley. (Gryllidae; Orthoptera). A serious 
pest of germinating cotton in the south-eastern districts particularly 
Karnal and Hissar. Both the adults and young destroy the seedlings 
at night and the adults are numerous during May-June. 

Control: Baiting with poison-bran or light dusting with BHC5%. 


4. Grey Weevil, Myllocerus blandus Fst. or M. maculosus Desb. 
(Curculionidae; Coleoptera). Minor pests, the adults cut the seedlings 
near the ground level at night or early mornings. The gruos damage 
the roots, Active during summer and also teeds on maize and 
‘jowar’. 

Control:, Hand picking or shaking the infested plants over buckets 
containing kerosinized water to kill adults and ploughing after harvest 
to destroy the immature stages. 


5. Lucerne Caterpillar, Laphygma exigua Hb. (Noctuidae; Lepido- 
ptera). ‘A minor pest but occasionally it may destroy the seedlings 
during’ May when this crop is near lucerne fields. 

Control: Spray with any stomach poison as lead arsenate-2 lb. in 
100 gallons of water. 


(C) Pests feeding on Leaves 
(a) Biting: Ai 
1. Cotton'Leaf Roller, Sylepta derogata Fb. (Pyralidae; Lepidoptera) 
(Fig. 6). A sporadic pest of American Cottons in Amritsar, Jullundur, 


Ferozepore, and Karnal districts. Alternative hosts are a number of 
wild plants. Adults yellowish white, wings spotted with dark brown 


Fig. 6 Cotton Leaf Roller, Sjlepita derogata Fb., (a) larva x1, (6) motb x12. 


dots and wavy lines. Young caterpillars yellowish, feed on the under 
surface of leaves, but the grown up ones roll the leaves and feed 
inside. The attacked leaves are shed ultimately. Active from April 
to November. 


CHOP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE PANJAB 589 


Control: (i) Collect all rolled up leaves and burn, (ii) spray with 
lead arsenate or 50% wettable BHC at 0.15% strength and (iti) deep 
ploughing after harvest to destroy pupae. 


2. Cotton Semilooper, ‘Tarache notabilis Wlk. (Noctuidae ; Lepidop- 
tera). ‘A minor pest at Hansi and Gurdaspur. Moths with white 
wings decorated with dark markings. Dark green semiloopers feed 
on leaves. Active from April to September. 

Control: Hand. picking of moths and larvae. 


3. Bud Moth, Phycita infusella Meyr (Pyralidae; Lepidoptera). 
A minor pest. The greenish caterpillars which have faint brown stripes 
tie the bud leaves and feed inside. The infested leaves wither and 
are shed. Conspicuous damage may be observed during June-July. 

Control: Spray with lead arsenate or BHC 50% wettable at 
eats 94 Strenoth. 


4. Bhindi Caterpillar, Acontia sp. (Noctuidae; Lepidoptera). A 
minor pest. Moths with bright lemon-yellow wings; semiloopers 
green, feed on leaves. Active during summer. 

Control: Hand picking of moths and larvae. 


5. Lucerne Caterpillar (vide seedlings). The caterpillars feed on 
leaves and in severe cases of attack the plants may be entirely defoliated. 


6. Cotton Grey Weevil (vide seedlings). Both adults and grubs are 
harmful. Adults grey with a number of dark brown spots on the 
front wings. They cut the leaf margins and also feed on buds and 
young bolls. The immature stages live underground. 


(Sucking: 
1. Jassid, Empoasca devasitans Dist. (Jassidae; Homoptera) 
(Fig..7). A major pest of American cottons particularly in Ferozepore 


L $ fy 7 
! 1 yy} j: . 
A \\ | 
\. ., . 
‘ Wy i N 
I) : 
\\ 
WWE 4 


Fig. 7. Cotton Jassid, Empoasca devastans Dist., (@) nymph x 9, (6) adult x 9, 


and Hissar districts. Besides cotton, the pest is also destructive to 
‘bhindi’, potatoes, and brinjals. The adults are yellowish green with 


590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. ot 


a black dot on each front wing and two such dots on the head. Both 
the adults and nymphs suck the sap from the underside of the leaves 
which droop down, turn rusty, and are finally shed. The yield of the 
infested plants is affected adversely. Active from June to October on 
cotton. There may be about ten generations in a year. 

Control: Spray with DDT 50% wettable at 0.05% strength. 


2. Aphis gossypii Glov. (Aphididae; Homoptera). A minor pest 
on the underside of leaves or tips of branches. Both the adults and 
nymphs are yellowish green, they suck sap and devitalise the plants 
which show poor growth and in severe cases even wither. The pest 
secretes ‘honey dew’ on which sooty mould develops which interferes 
with photosynthesis. ‘Active from August to November. 

Control: Spray with (i) 50% wettable BHC at 0.15% strength 
(1) Nicotine Sulphate at 1: 800 or (il!) rosin soap 8 chk. in 20 seers 
of water, 


3. White-fly, Bemisia tabaci Genn. (Aleurodidae; Homoptera). A 
major pest in hot and dry parts of the State. Alternative food plants 
are cauliflower, melon, ‘bhindi’, potatoes, and tomatoes, etc. Adults 
yellow, body lightly dusted with waxy powder. Both the adults and 
nymphs feed on the underside of leaves and devitalise the plants by 
sucking the sap. They also secrete ‘honey dew’ on which sooty mould 
cevelops which interferes with the photosynthetic activities of the 
leaves. The growth of the infested plant is arrested and the yield 
is considerably reduced. The pest is active practically throughout the 
year but the greatest damage to cotton is done during July-September. 

Control: Spray with rosin compound or fish-oil soap or with 
DDT 50% wettable at 0.025% strength. 


4. Red cotton bug, Dysdercus cingulatus Fb. (Pyrrhocoreidae;. 


Heteroptera). A minor pest. Both the adults and nymphs desap 
the plants and also suck the sap from the buds and bolls. When the 
immature bolls are attacked they remain stunted, open badly, and yield 
poor cotton. Active during autumn and winter. Alternative food 
plants are ‘bhindi’ and ‘gulkhera’, etc. 

Control: Dust with 5% BHC. 


5. Dusky cotton bug, Oxycaraenus loetus Kirbey (Lygaeidae ; 
Heteroptera), A minor pest. Both the adults and nymphs feed 
gregariously inside the bolls and suck juice from the seed which 
remain immature and light. 

Control: Shake the top portion of plants in kerosinized water to 
destroy the pest. 


(D) Borers | 


1. Spotted bollworms, Earias insulana Boisd. and Earias fabia F. 
(Noctuidae; Lepidoptera) (Fig. 8). Major pests in Amritsar, 
Jullundur, and Ferozepore districts. E. insulana outnumber E. fabia 
but the case is reverse in south-eastern districts of the State. 
Caterpillars are hairy and black with irregular whitish patches and 
cause the real damage. To start with, they bore into the top, tender, 
growing shoots, and cause them to wither. Thereafter, they bore into 


CROP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL. IN THE PANJAB 591 


the floral buds and bolls and spoil the lint. They also feed on the 
flower buds and pods of ‘kangi booti’ (Abutilon indicum), ‘gulkhera’ 
(Althea rosea), ‘sunkukra’ (Hibiscus cannabinus), ‘saunchal’ (Malva 


Fig. 8. Spotted bollworm, Farias insulana Boisd., (a) caterpillar « 3, (6) moth x 2. 


parviflora), ‘kuchri’ (Malvastrum tricuspidatum), and ‘bhindi’. Active 
throughout the year but most abundant during July-September. 
Control: (i) Clean cultivation and destruction of alternative food 
plants, (11) removal of cotton sticks about 2” below the ground level 
after’ harvest to avoid ratooning of crop, (111) to pick and destroy the 
infested buds and bolls and (iv) application of parasites. 
2. Pink bollworm, Platydera gossypiella S. (Gelechidae; Lepidop- 


tera} (Fig. 9). A major pest in south-eastern part of the State. The 
pink caterpillars bore into the bolls and feed on seed. Alternative food 


Fig. ® Pink bollworm, Platydera gossypiclla S., (a) larva x 23, (5) moth x 2H, 


plants are ‘bhindi’, ‘gulkhera’, ‘kangi booti’, etc. Maximum damage 
is caused during October-November. The pest passes through 3 or 
4 generations. The larva hibernates in double seeds. 

Control: Fumigate cotton seed with Methyl Bromide. 


3. Stem borer, Sphenoptera gossypii K. (Buprestidae; Coleoptera). 
-A minor pest. The beetle is shining blue, the grubs bore into the 
stem near the ground level and cause a slight sweiling. In serious 
cases the attacked plants may wither and die. 

Control: Infested plants be removed and destroyed along with the 
grubs inside. 


Sann Hemp, Crotalaria juncea Linn. Sown in the beginning of 
rainy season; ready for harvest in about four months. 


(A) Pest feeding on Leaves 
(a) Biting: 


1. ‘Lahni moth’, Utethesia pulchella L. (Arctiidae; Lepidoptera). 
A sporadic pest in Gurdaspur district. The caterpillars feed on the 


592 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL “HIST. SOCIETY, Voir 54 


leaves and in severe cases may defoliate the plants completely. Active 
during May-July. 

Control: Spray with BHC 50% wettable at 0.15% strength or 
dust with 5-7% BHC. 


Duarncua (Border Crop), Sesbania aegyptica Pers. 


1. Tobacco caterpillar, Prodenia litura F. (Noctuidae; Lepidoptera), 
A sporadic pest. The caterpillars feed on leaves and _ practically 
defoliate the plants. Active during summer. 

Control: As above, 


SANKUKRA (Hibiscus cannabinus Linn.). Sown in June or July 
and harvested in October-November. 


1. Leaf hopper, Empoasca sp. A minor pest (vide cotton). 


3. PESTS OF OILSEED CROPS 


(i) Castor, Ricinis communis L. Sown in July-August and 
harvested in March-April. 


( A) Pests feeding on Leaves 
(a) [Bat inc: 

1. Hairy caterpillar, Euproctis lunata Wlk. and E. fraterna M. 
(Lymantriidae; Lepidoptera). Major pests. Adult with orange- 
yellow wings with light wavy markings; eggs are laid in batches 
covered over with hairs on the underside of leaves. The caterpillars 
feed gregariously on the leaves. Pupation in the soil. Active during 
summer, 

Control: (i) Hand picking of egg masses and caterpillars, {ii) 
spraying with wettable BHC or DDT at 0.1% or with lead arsenate. 


2. Castor semi-looper, Achaea janata L. (Noctuidae; Lepidoptera) 
(Fig. 10). A major pest. The caterpillar, a blackish semi-looper is 


Fig. 10. Castor semi-looper, Archaea janata L., (a) semi-looper x ¢ 
(6) moth x ij. 


the destructive stage and feeds on the leaves and, in badly infested 
localities, the plants may be completely defoliated. Pupation in the 
soil. Active during summer. 

Control: Dust with 5% BHC or spray with any stomach poison. 


i 
| 


CROP PESTS AND: THEIR’ CONTROL IN THE PANJAB 593 
(b)' Sucking: ORO) corte ES a 
1. Castor white-fly, Tvialewrodes ricini M:. (Aleurodidae; Homop- 
tera). A minor pest. The nymphs suck the sap from the underside of 
leaves, and on the ‘honey dew’ secreted a black fungus develops. 
Active during summer. ~~ 
Control : (i)* Spray «the adults with DDT 0.025%, or (ii) the 
nymphs with rosin-soap I in 40 or rosin compound 1: 6. 
(ii) GRounDNUT Arachis hypogaea L. Sown in June after the first 
rain or even a little earlier and harvested in October-November. 
1. ‘Kutra’, Amsacta moorei Butt. (Arctiadae; Lepidoptera) 
(Fig. 11). /A major pest in sandy soils which may destroy the entire 
crop when the incidence of attack is serious. Sporadic in outbreak. 


Fig. 11. Kutra, Amsacta moore Butt. (a) caterpillar x $, (6) moth xl. 


Polyphagus feeder but shows marked preference to maize and sann hemp 
but it is equally destructive to ‘chari’, ‘bajra’, ‘guara’, and cotton. 
Infestation is rather serious in ‘barani’ areas with sandy or sandy loam 
soils as in Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana, Hissar, and Gurgaon districts. 

Adult is stout, white, with black banded and dotted ‘scarlet 
abdomen; they emerge with the first heavy shower of rain during 
monsoon. Destructive only in the larval stage and the stout hairy 
caterpillars usually move gregariously in thick bands and destroy the 
germinating or half-grown crops. Active from June to August. 
Pupation in the soil, Only one brood. 

Control: (i) Heavy dusting with 10% BHC or Chlordane, (ii) 
trenching for migrating caterpillars when moving in bands, (ii) light 
traps for adults. 


(iii) Sarson and Torta (Brassica crops). Sown in September- 
October and harvested in March-April. 


1. Aphis, Myzus brassicae (Aphididae; Homoptera). A major 
pest about the flowering time. The flowers wither and the pods are 
not well developed. The seed formation is poor. Also present on 
other alternative food piants as cabbage, cauliflower, etc. Both adults 
and nymphs are gregarious (vide cotton). 


2. Painted bug, Bagrada picta F. (Pentatomidae; Heteroptera) 
(Fig. 12). A major pest also on cauliflowers, radish, and turnips. 
BetC. throughout the State. Both adults and nymphs are destructive 
by sucking sap which cause the leaves to wither and dry up. The 
inflorescence is shed and seed produced is of poor quality. Active 
from August to April on different food plants with maximum damage 


594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


to turnips, radishes, and cauliflowers during October-November and 
to Brassica crops during March-April. 


Fig. 12. Painted Bug, Bagrada dicta F.. (a) nymph x 6, (6) adult x 6. 


Control: Dust with 5% BHC or Pyredust 4.000, (ii) spray with 
wettable BHC 0.05%. 


4. Pests or Tosacco, Nicotiana tabacum B. 


Nursery sown in October-November; transplanted when _ the 
seedlings are 4-5 inches high, i.e. in about February. Ready for 
harvest by the end of May. 


1. Cut worms, Agrotis sp. (Noctuidae; Lepidoptera). A serious 
pest of young seedlings in the nursery. The caterpillars cut the 
plants near ground level at night and feed on the leaves (vide gram). 


_2. Tobacco caterpillar, Prodenia litura F. (Noctuidae; Lepidoptera) 
(Fig. 13). A sporadic pest. The caterpillars feed on the leaves and 
practically defoliate the plants. Feed gregariously in early stages. 


Fig. i3. Tobacco Caterpillar, Prodenia litura F., (a) caterpillar x 1, 
(6) moth x 1}. 


Active during summer. Full grown larva is greenish brown with dark 
markings. The adult is a dark moth with wavy white markings on 


the upper wings. 
Control: Dust with 5-7% BHC or spray with BHC wettable 50% 


imOnl se ge nscren etn 


CROP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE PANJAB 595 
5. Pests OF CEREAL CROPS 


(i) RicE Oryza sativa L. Nursery sown during May-June; trans- 
planted from July to middle of August. Harvested during October- 
November. 


(A) Pests attacking Seedlings 


1, Grasshopper, Oxva sp. (Acridiidae; Orthoptera). A major pest 
in Dasuya tehsil and in the ‘bet’ areas of Hoshiarpur district and 
near about Gurdaspur and Amritsar. It has assumed a major status 
after the Partition because the evacuee Jand remained neglected and 
the pest multiplied on wild grass. In serious cases nursery is practi- 
cally wiped out and it has to be imported from other areas at high 
cost. The adults are green or yellowish green and hoppers are 
greenish. Both the adults and nymphs damage the seedlings and even 
the crop. Most active during June and July on nursery and in 
August-September on paddy and other crops. Only one brocd. 

Control: (i) Plough up bunds to destroy eggs and (ii) dust with 
7-10% BHC to destroy all other stages. 


(B) Pests feeding on Leaves 


1. Grasshopper, Hieroglyphus banian Fb. (Acridiidae; Orthoptera) 
(Fig. 2). A major but sporadic pest in Hoshiarpur, ‘Amritsar, Karnal, 
Ferozepure, and Gurgaon districts. Also attacks maize, ‘bajra’, 
‘jowar’, and sugarcane. The adults have pale greenish patches and 
four black transverse furrows behind the neck; nymphs yellowish with 
reddish brown dots and patches. 

Both adults and nymphs damage the crop by feeding on leaves 
and finally causing the ears to droop. Only orfe brood. Active from 
July to September but most destructive in about the middle of July 
(vide Sugarcane). 


2. Spotted grasshopper, Aularches miliaris D. (Acridiidae ; Orthop- 
tera). A minor pest in the hilly tracts as Simla, Kulu, Kangra, and 
‘Hoshiarpur districts. Adults large, showy with green front wings and 
black abdomen with red transverse bands. Damage and control as 


above. 


3. Rice hispa, Hispa armigera Olive. (Chrysomelidae; Coleoptera) 
(Fig. 14). A major pest in Kangra district. The adults and the 
grubs feed on leaves and green matter and cause withering of plants. 
Active during July and August. 

Control: Dust with 5% BHC. 


4. Unidentified beetle—A major pest in Ani tract of Kulu Valley 
Where it causes heavy loss every year. The attacked plants wither 
without producing ears. Active during rainy season. 

Control: Dust with 5-7% BHC, 


5. Rice Skipper, Chapra mathias Fb. (Hesperidae; Lepidoptera). 
A minor pest. Occasionally green caterpillars are seen feeding on 
leaves. The adults are butterflies. 


596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 | 


Control; Dust with 5-7% BHC or spray with wettable BHC if the 
attack is localised. 


Fig. 14. Rice Hispa, Azspa armigera Oliv., (a) grub x 19, (6) adult x 8, 
(C) Borers 


1. Rice stem borer, Schoenobius bipunctifer Wk. (Pyralidae; 
Lepidoptera) (Fig. 15). A major pest particularly in Gurdaspur 


Fig 15. Stem Borer, Schoenobius bipunctiter 
Wlk., (a) caterpillar x 3, (6) moth x 24, 


CROP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE PANJAB 597 


district. Adults yellow-white with a black spot in the centre of 
each. front wing. Full grown caterpillars are dirty or greenish white. 
The caterpillars bore into the central shoot which is killed. The attack 
at the flowering stage results in keeping the ear-heads erect and 
empty as the grains are not developed. The pest may also attack the 
nursery plants. Active from May to October but the maximum 
damage is caused during August and September. There are 4-5 
generations. 

Control: (i) Destroy the stubble after harvest, (ii) in the nurseries 
egg masses be collected and destroyed and the seedlings showing 
‘dead heart’ be discarded, (ili) light traps may give encouraging 
results against the adults. 


2. Pink borer, Sesamia inferens Wik. ‘A minor pest (vide 
Sugarcane). 


(D) Pests feeding on ear-heads 


1. Rice bug, Leptocorisa varicornis Th. (Coreidae ; Heteroptera) 
(Fig. 16). ‘At times a major pest particularly in Karnal district. 
Alternative food plants are maize, jowar, and bajra. The adults 
are long, slender, and greenish whereas the nymphs are pale-green. 


Fig. 16. Rice Bug, Leptocorisa varicornis Th. 
(adult x 2) 


Both the adults and nymphs suck the milky juice from the inflorescence 
and cause malformation of the grain in the ear-heads. Active during 
August and September. 

Control: (i) Clipping of leaves bearing eggs and (ii) dusting with 
Ron BHC. 


(ii) MaizE Zea mays Linn. Sowing from March to July; harvested 
during September and October. 


(A) Pests attacking Roots 
1. White ants or Termites (vide Sugarcane). 


(B) Pests feeding on Leaves 
(a) Biting: 
1. Kutra, Amsacta moorei Butt. (vide Groundnut). 


2. Surface grasshopper, Chrotogonus sp. A minor pest of young 
crop (vide Cotton). 


598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL .HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


(G) Simic kei nige 
1. Jassid, Empoasca sp, Occasionally a pest on young crop sown 
for fodder (vide Cotton). 


2. Leaf hopper, Pyrilla sp. A minor pest (wide Sugarcane). 


(C) Borers 


1. Maize borer, Chilo zonellus Swin, (Pyralidae; Lepidoptera) 
(Fig. 17). ‘A major pest of maize and ‘jowar’ in Amritsar, Karnal, 


Rohtak, ‘Hissar, and Gurgaon districts. The adults are yellowish 
brown with a double row of black dots on the outer margin of each 


Fig. 17. Maize Borer, Clo zonellus Swin., (a) caterpillar x 13, (6) moth x 1}. 


front wing. The destructive stage is the larva which bores into the 
stem, feeds on leaves and cobs, and also eats the ripening grain. 
Active from March to September with 4-5 generations. 

Control: (i) Remove stubble during the winter and destroy it, 
(ii) increase seed rate, and (ili) spray with 0.1% DDT, if necessary, 
a little before hatching of eggs when observed in large numbers. 


2. Pink borer, Sesamia inferens. A minor pest particularly in 
Karnal district (vide Sugarcane). 


(iii) JowaR Sorghum vulgare Pers. Sown from May to July; har- 
vested from September to November. 


(A ) Pests feeding on Leaves 
(a) AB ata mio: 
1. Grasshopper, Hieroglyphus nigrorepletus Bol. (Acridiidae ; 
Orthoptera). A major pest in practically all the sub-mountain regions 
of the State. Both adults and nymphs are destructive particularly 


during July to September. Only one brood in a year. 
Control: Dust with 10% BHC, 


2. Kutra, Amsacta moorei Butt. A major pest (vide Groundnut). 


3. Surface grasshopper, Chrotogonus sp. A minor pest (vide 
Cotton). 


4. Grey weevil, Myllocerus sp. May be serious in sub-mountain 
regions and the adults are more destructive. Active from July to 
September (vide Cotton). 


CROP PESTS AND AHELR CONTROL IN THE. PANJAB 599 


(b) Sucking: 

1, Aphis, a minor pest (vide Cotton). 

2. Mite, Paratetranchus indicus H. (Tetranychidae; Acarina). <A 
major pest; imparts reddish or rusty appearance to leaves with profuse 


webbing. 
Control: Dust with sulphur or spray with lime-sulphur wash. 


(B) Borers 


1. Jowar borer, Chilo zonellus Swin. (vide Maize). 


(C) Pests feeding on Grain 


1. Blister beetle, Lytta tenuicollis P. (Meloidae; Coleoptera). <A 
minor pest. The adults feed on flowers and do not allow the seed 
to develop, Adults are large with conspicuous yellow stripes usually 
in large numbers. The destructive stage is the adult. 

Control: (i) Near the fields burn fire to which the adults are 
attracted and will be killed, (11) spray with DDT 0.2% wettable 50% 
powder, when present in clusters. 


(iv) Bayra Pennisetum typhoideum Stapf and Hubbard. Sowing 
from May to July; harvested from September to November. 
(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 
(a) Biting: 
1. ‘Kutra’, Amsacta moorei Butt. A major pest in Gurgaon and 
Hissar districts (vide Groundnut). 


2. Lucerne caterpillar, Laphygma exigua Hb. <A minor pest, active 
during July-August (vide Cotton), 
(B) Borers 


1. Maize borer, Chilo sonellus Swin. A minor pest (vide Maize). 


(G) Pests feeding on Grains 
1. Blister beetle. A minor pest in Gurgaon and Hissar districts 
(vide Jowar). 


(v) WueEat Triticum vulgare Host. Sown in October-November ; 
harvested in April-May. 


(A) Pests feeding on Roots 


1. White ants or Termites. Major pests of seedlings particularly 
in ‘barani’ tracts (vide Sugarcane), 


(B) Pests feeding on Leaves 
(a) Biting: 
1. Army worm, Cirphis unipuncta N., (Noctuidae; Lepidoptera). 
A sporadic pest of the category of cutworms. The caterpillars feed 
on leaves and may completely defoliate the plants. It pupates in the 
soil. 
Control: Dust with 5% BHC or baiting with poison-bran. 


600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


2. Surface grasshopper, Chrotogonus sp. A_ serious pest ‘of 
germinating crop in ‘bet’ areas (vide Cotton). 


(b) 5S we kane if 
1. Aphis. A minor pest, Active during winter (vide Cotton), © 


(C) Borers 


1. Wheat fly, Atherigona indica M. (Anthomyiidae; Diptera). 
Usually a minor pest, may become serious occasionally. The maggots 
bore into the young plants as a result of which the plants die. Active 
during January and February. 

Control: The infested plants be removed and destroyed so that the 
maggots inside are also killed. 


6. PESTS OF PULSE CROPS 


(i) GRAM Cicer arietinum L. Sown in September-October; pod 
formation in February-March; harvested during March-April. 


(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 


1. Gram Cutworm (i) Agrotis flamatra Fab. (ii) Agrotis ypsilon Rott. 
(iii) Euxoa spp. (Noctuidae; Lepidoptera) (Fig. 18). The first species 
is the major pest of gram and vegetables in the State and particularly 
in the south-eastern districts. Adults are grey-brown with bean: 


Fig. 18. Gram Cutworm, Agrotis sp., (a) caterpillar x 8, 
(6) moth x l, 


shaped spot and two black wavy lines on each front wing. The 
caterpillar stage is destructive. They cut the plants at night just 
above or slightly below the soil. Quite a number of plants are thus 
destroyed, more than actually needed for food, Active during winter 
in plains and during summer in the hilly tracts. Three generations 
during the active period in the plains. 

Control: (i) Baiting with poisoned bran bait in the evening and 
(11) dust near the base of the seedlings with 5% BHC. 


CROP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE PANJAB 601 


(B) Pod borer 


1. Gram caterpillar, Heliothis obsoleta F. (Noctuidae; Lepidop- 
tera) (Fig. 19). A major pest. The caterpillars which are green 
with longitudinal greyish lines, destroy the seedlings but, when the 
plants are grown up, they bore into the pods also and feed on the 


Fig. 19. Gram Caterpillar, Hlelcothis obsoleta F.. (a) caterpillar x 
(6) moth x 4. 


ripening seed. This pest is cosmopolitan in feeding also infesting 
other crops like tomato and tobacco etc. Pupation takes place in 
earthen cocoons in the soil. Active from March to December with 
7-8 generations in a year. 

Control: Dust with 5% BHC in the earlier stages of attack but 
as borers only hand picking is effective. 


(ii) Masu Phaseolus’ mungo var. radiatus Prain. Sown in June- 
July; harvested from September-November. 


(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 
@eBiting: 
1. Kutra, Amsacta moorei Butt. A major pest of ‘mash’ and 
‘moong’ (vide Maize), 89° | 


2. Mash hairy caterpillar. A major pest in Kangra district. 
The caterpillars are hairy and feed on leaves and completely defoliate 
the plants. Active during February-March. 

Control: Spray with 0.2% BHC wettable or dust with 7% BHC. 


(B) Feeding on Flowers 


1. Blister beetles, Mylabris sp. (Meloidae; Coleoptera). A minor 
pest in Kangra district feeding on flowers during July-August (vide 
Jowar). 


(iii) Peas Pisum sativum Linn. Sown in October-November ; 
harvested in February onwards. 
(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 


1. Leaf miner, Phytomyza atricornis Meigen (Diptera). Usually 
a minor pest but occasionally may assume serious form particularly 
in Kangra district. The maggots mine the leaves and feed on the 


—_——__——_- 


602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


chlorophyll forming irregular streaks. Also recorded from various 
plants including winter flowering plants. Active on peas during 
winter months. 

Control: Spray with wettable BHC or DDT c.05% strength. 


2. Pea Thrip, Thrips indicus (Thripidae; Thysanoptera). A minor 
pest; the adults and nymphs suck sap from the leaves and devitalise 
the plants. 

Control: (i) Spray with nicotine sulphate 1: 800 or DDT wettable 
0.05% strength. 


7. PESTS OF FODDER CROPS 


(1) LUCERNE Medicago sativa Linn. Sown in October; harvested by 
instalments and matures in May. 


(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 
(2) Set ees 
1. Lucerne caterpillar, Laphygma exigua Hb. (Noctuidae; Lepidop- 
tera) (Fig. 20). A major pest. Adult is yellowish brown. Also 
infests ‘jowar’, maize, gram, etc. The caterpillars web the leaves and 
skeletonise them. Active throughout the year. 


Fig. 20. Lucerne Caterpillar, Laphygma exigua Hb., (a) caterpillar x 12, 
(6) moth x 13. 


Control: (i) Cut the crop and feed to cattle, (ii) spray with lead 
arsenate or DDT if it is not to be fed to cattle for at least 3 weeks. 


2. Lucerne weevil, Hypera  variabilis Hbst. (Curculionidae; 
Coleoptera). A major pest. It also infests other crops as ‘senji’, 
‘metha’, ‘maina’, etc. The adult is oval, brown with a deep brown 
band on the middle of its back, and is the destructive stage. The 
leaves are eaten up and the crop gives a distorted appearance. 
Damage may be sertous during January-March. 

Control: As above. 


(b) Swe kimies 

1. Aphis, Aphis medicagenis K. (Aphididae; Homoptera). A 
major pest but localised in distribution, (vide Cotton). Biological 
control by Coccinella septumpunctata predator is also very effective. 


(ii) GuaRA Gyamopsis psoralioides DC. Sown at the commence- 
ment of rains and the crop is ready in about two months. 


a oa 


CROP PESTSIAND THEIR CONTROL INOTHE PANJAB 603 


1. Leaf hopper (Jassidae) is occasionally a pest but never serious 
(vide Cotton), 


JowarR Sorghum vulgare Pers. (vide Cereal Crops). 


(iii) Oats Avena sativa L. Sown in October; harvested in April. 
Only Pyrilla sp. is a minor pest (vide Sugarcane). 


(iv) Turnip Brassica rapa L. Sown in September-October ; fodder 
is available during December to February. 


(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 


1. Mustard saw fly, Athaha proxima &.  (Tenthredinidae ; 
Hymenoptera). A major pest of cruciferous crops. Adults are 
orange-yellow with wings, head, and legs smoky. The grubs are 
black which feed on the underside of leaves and cause the charac- 
teristic damage by cutting holes. With the slightest touch they curl 
up and fall down on the ground. . The damage is particularly serious 
to the germinating and young crops which are practically skeletonised. 
At times the seedlings are completely destroyed. Active during 
autumn and winter. . 

Control: (i) Hand picking of larvae, (ii) dusting with 5% BHC 
and (ili) spraying with lead arsenate. 


2. Painted bug, Bagrada picta F. A major pest of young crop 
(vide Sarson and Toria). 


(v) Japan Rape Brassica napus L. Sown in Septemher-October ; 
ready as fodder during December-February. 


( A) Pests feeding on Leaves 


1. Cabbage butterfly, Pieris brassica L. (Pieridae; Lepidoptera) 
(iis 21). A major pest of cabbage, cauliflower, etc., both in 
the hills and plains. Adults are conspicuously white with black 
markings on the forewings. ‘The caterpillars are greenish biue with 
yellow lines on the back and sides, and feed gregariously. It is the 


Fig. 21. Cabbage Caterpillar, Pieris brassica L. x 2, 


destructive stage which skeletonises the leaves and in severe cases 
defoliates the entire plants. The inflorescence and the tender pods 
-are also eaten up. Active from May to October in the hills, and 
during winter months in the plains. A generation in the plains may 
take 4-6 weeks. 

Control : (i) Collection of inte by hand nets, (ii) hand picking’ of 
larvae and killing them in kerosinized: water and (iii) spray with 
0.05% DDT wettable. e7¢ 

8 


604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GHIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


2. Painted bug, Bagrada picta F. A major pest (vide Sarson 
and Toria.) 


8. Pests OF VEGETABLES 


(i) Cucursits. Usually sown from March to June and again in 
November; vegetables available in the market from March to 
November. 


(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 
(a) Biting: 

1. Red pumpkin beetle, Aulacophora foveicollis Lucas (Chrysome- 
lidae; Coleoptera) (Fig. 21). A very destructive pest of gourd, 
pumpkin, ‘tinda’, cucumber, and melons, throughout the Panjab. The 
adults, with shining brown or red forewings, are most destructive as 


Fig. 22. Red Pumpkin Beetle, Aulacophora fovetcollis Lucas, (a) larva x 43, 
(6) adult x 6. 


they feed on leaves and bite holes. Active from March to September 
but inflict serious damage to seedlings during March-April. The 
grubs also damage by boring into the roots and stems and also the 
fruits on the soil. In severe cases of attack the sowings have to be 
repeated. Immature stages live in the soil. 

Control: Dust the seedlings with (i) sodium fluosilicate and ashes 
1: 8, (ii) 2.5% BHC or (iii) spray with lead arsenate 2 lb. in 60 
gallons of water. 


2. Blue beetle, Aulacophora atripennis Fab. (Chrysomelidae ; 
Coleoptera). A minor pest in the plains but may cause considerable 
damage to ‘ghia tori’ in the lower hills. Dark blue beetles feed on the 
leaves and’ in severe cases the leaves are studded with holes as a result 
of which they may dry up. Active during summer, cause severe 
damage during August-September. 

Control: As above. 


CROP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE PANJAB 605. 


3. Cucurbit ‘Hadda’, Epilachna dumerili Muls. (Coccinellidae ; 
Coleoptera) (Fig. 23). A minor pest. Beetles are of light copper 
colour with six black dots on each forewing. Both the adults and 
grubs are destructive and feed on the underside of leaves on the 
epidermal tissue. Active from ‘April to September. Serious damage 


“SB DW LKR 

Ry Bet Al 

=) hs } 

< ae Oe 2 
WINS sag 
ayy) a ; 4 CH 


Fig. 23. Brinjal Hadda, Zpilachna sp., (a) grub x5, (6) adult x 45. 


is observed on melons in the beginning of its active season or on 
gourd towards the end of the season. 

Control: (i) Dust with sodium fluosilicate and ashes at 1:8 or 
(1) spray with DDT 50% wettable at 0.05% strength or with lead 
arsenate. 


(b) Sucking: 

1. Kaddu bug, Aspongopus janus Fabr. and A. brunneus Thunb. 
(Pentatomidae; Heteroptera). Minor pests. The adults are reddish 
brown, front wings membranous and legs black. Both adults and 
nymphs suck sap from the leaves. Active from March to November. 

Control: Spray with rosin soap at 2.5% strength. 


2. Aphis, Siphocoryne indobrassica Dass (Aphididae; Homoptera). 
‘A minor pest. Occasionally serious on gourd, water melons, and 
‘tinds’, etc. in early stages. The insects suck the sap from the 
leaves. The presence of ‘honey dew’ secreted by the insects and the 
subsequent growth of black fungus imparts a ‘sooty’ appearance to 
the infested leaves. Active during summer. 

Control: Spray with rosin soap at 2.5% strength or with nicotine 
sulphate at 1: 800. 


3. Vegetable mite, Tetranychus cucurbitae R. & S. (Tetranychidae ; 
Acarina). A serious pest of ‘tinda’ in the plains, although infests 


606 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


variety of plants as pumpkin, brinjal ‘ghia tori’, tomatoes, pulses, 
peas, hollyhock, etc. It sucks the leaf sap and the attacked leaves 
lose chlorophyll. The infested foliage is covered with profuse web 
and the leaves gradually dry up and fall. Active from March: to 
June and again during September-October during which periods many 
generations may be passed. ; 
Control: Dusting with sulphur or spraying with lime-sulphur. 


(B) Pests on Flowers 


1. Blister beetle, Mylabris sp. (Meloidae; Coleoptera). A minor 
pest (vide ‘Jowar’). 


2. Unidentified caterpillar, Heliothes sp. (Noctuidae; Lepidoptera). 
A minor pest, feeds inside the flowers, met with particularly at 
Palampur (vide Gram). 7 


(C) Pests on Fruits 


1. Fruit flies, Dacus cucurbitae Cog. and Dacus gonatus S. 
(Trypaneidae; Diptera) (Fig. 24). Major pests of melons, ‘karela’, 
‘ghia tori’, and ‘chappan kadu’. The eggs are laid below the skin of 
the fruit, the maggots bore inside, feed on the pulp, and cause the 


Fig. 24. Fruit Fly, Dacus cucurbitae Cog., (a) maggot x4, (6) adult x4 


fruits to rot, and consequently render them unfit for human con- 
sumption. Active from May to September. Pupation in the soil. 


-Control:' The damaged fruits be destroyed and the adult flies be - 


trapped by baiting. The infested fields be ploughed well after 
harvest to destroy the pupae. rye | 


'. (ii) BrryyaL Solanum melongena L. Grown thrice a year in the 
plains, (i) ‘Sirhindi’ variety is transplanted before the end of April; 
(ii) large round: purple and large long purple are transplanted in 
August-September and (iii) round small purple is transplanted in 
February. Fruits are available practically throughout the year. 


(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 
(2) BB eames 
_.4.°t, ‘Hadda,’ ~Epilachna vigintictopunctata F. and Epilachnas 
dodecastigma 'M. . (Coccinellidae;. Coleoptera). Very serious pests 


CROP. PESTS AND. THEIR CONTROL IN THE PANJAB. 607) 


practically all over the State, in the plains. Alternative food plants 
are potatoes and tomatoes etc. The adults are reddish in both the 
species, and bear 7-14 black dots on the front wings in the case of 
former and 6 dots in the latter species.. The grubs are light yellow 
and hairy. Both the adults and the grubs are destructive and feed 
on the underside of leaves giving them a lace-like and ragged appear- 
ance. Active from April to October causing maximum damage que 
May and June. There may be 4 generations. 

Control: Spray with DDT wettable powder 50% at 0.05% 
strength. 


2. Leaf roller, Eublemma olivacea Wik. (Noctuidae; Lepidoptera). 
A minor pest in the plains. The larvae roll up leaves and feed inside. 
The rolled portion dries up. Active from May to September. 

Control: (i) Hand pick and destroy the rolled up leaves along with 
the caterpillars, (ii) spray with lead arsenate if fruits are not formed 
or after they are plucked. 


3. Hairy caterpillar (unidentified). Occasionally a serious pest. 
The larvae feed on leaves and may entirely defoliate ‘the plants. 
Active from May to ‘August. 


Control: Spray with DDT wettable 50% at 0.15% strength. 


Di swcking: 


1. Jassid, Empoasca devastans Dist. Usually a minor pest, but 
sometimes may be quite serious during October-December (vide 
Cotton). 


2. Tingid bug, Urentius sentis Dist. (Tingidae; Heteroptera). 
Very serious pest exclusively on brinjals. Adults with straw coloured 
body above, the lower surface black. Both the adults and nymphs. 
suck sap from the leaves which turn yellow, wither, and finally drop. 
With severe attack all the leaves may shed. Active from April to 
October, but the maximum damage is done during August and 
September. The crop planted in autumn suffers the most. There 
may be a number of generations during the year. 

Control: Dust with 5% BHC or spray with fish-oil soap 2.5% or 
nicotine sulphate 1: 800. 


(B) Borers 


1. Fruit borer, Leucinodes orbanalis Guen. (Pyralidae; Lepidop- 
tera). A major pest practically all over the State. The pink larvae 
bore into the top shoots or the flower buds which do not set fruit. 
These also bore into the fruits and render them unmarketable. Most 
serious damagé is done to fruits and a single fruit may harbour even 
half a dozen caterpillars. Active from ‘April to October. 


_ Control: Repeated spray with 0.15% DDT wettable at fortnightly 
‘ntervals. 


2. Stem borer, Euzophera perticella Rag. (Pyralidae; Lepidoptera). 
A minor pest, the caterpillars bore into the stem and may kill the 
young plants. In grown up plants the growth is retarded. 

Control: As above. 


608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


(iii) ‘Buinpi’ Hibiscus esculentus L. Planted from February to 
july; fruits available from March to October. | 


(A) Pests on seedlings 


1. Cut worm, Agrotis sp.(Noctuidae; Lepidoptera). A minor 
pest of germinating crop which the caterpillars cut quite close to the 
soil. 

Control: (i) Dusting BHC 5% on the infested area but near the 
plants, (ii) baiting with poisoned bran bait. 


(B) Pests feeding on Leaves 
(a) Biting: 

1. Black leaf beetle Podagria sp. (unidentified) (Coleoptera). 
Quite a serious pest in Kangra Valley. The adults feed on the 
epidermal tissue of leaves, branches and on flower buds. Active 
from June to September. 

Control; Spray with DDT 0.15% wettable or lead arsenate. 


2. Leaf roller, Sylepta derogata F. A minor pest (vide Cotton). 
3. Semi-looper, Acontia sp. A minor pest (vide Cotton). 


(oO) Sucking: 

1. Jassid, Empoasca devastans Dist. (Jassidae; Homoptera). A 
major pest in Amritsar, Jullundur, Ludhiana, Ferozepur, and Hissar 
districts. The attacked leaves get crumpled and finally dry up and 
fall. This affects the fruit formation adversely (vide Cotton). 


2. Red mite, Tetranychus tetericus L. (Tetranychidae; Acarina). 
A major pest of ‘bhindi’, ‘tinda’, ‘sem’, ‘ghia tori’, and sweet potatoes. 
It is often met with Tetranychus cucurbitae. Both the adults and 
nymphs are reddish and suck the sap from leaves, spin profuse 
webbing on the leaves and stems, and the attacked plants ultimately 
die. Active from April onwards, but causes severe damage during 
July and disappears completely by February. 

Control: Dusting the crop with sulphur or spraying with lime 
sulphur. 


3. Red cotton bug, Dysdercus cingulatus Fb, (Pyrrhocoridae ; 
Heteroptera). A minor pest (vide Cotton). 


(C) Pests on Flowers 
1. Blister beetle, Mylabris phalerata; Mylabris tiplensis P. (Melo- 
idae; Coleoptera). Minor pests but often become serious in Kangra 
Valley. The adults feed on flowers and flower buds, as a result of 
which the plants do not bear any fruit. Active from August to 
October (vide Jowar) 


(D) Pests on Fruits 
1. Spotted bollworms, Earias spp. Quite a serious pest (vide 
Cotton). 
2. Dusky cotton bug, Oxycaraenus loetus Khy. A minor pest of 
cracked fruits (vide Cotton). 


CROP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE PANJAB 609 


(iv) SwEET Potato Ipomoea batata Poir. Planted during March- 
April; harvested during November. 


(a) Biting: 

1. Grasshoppers (Acridiidae; Orthoptera). Various short horned 
grasshoppers feed on leaves during summer, but they never assume a 
serious form. 

Control: Dusting with 5-7% BHC. 

{v) ‘PaLak’ Beta bengalensis L. Sown from the middle of June to 
November in plains and March to May in hills. 


{a) Biting: 

1. Palak beetle, Haltica caerulescens Bar. (Coleoptera). Fairly 
serious pest in Kangra Valley. Both the adults and grubs bite holes 
in the leaves. Active from March-May and again during September- 
October. 

Control: Hand picking. 

(vi) Potaro Solanum tuberosum L. Planted in September and 
January; harvested in January and May. 


(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 
(@) Bitins: 

1. Potato caterpillar (unidentified) (Lepidoptera). A minor pest 
but occasionally it assumes a serious status in Kangra Valley before 
harvest. The caterpillars feed on leaves and the crop suffers consider- 
ably. Active from February-April. 

Control: Spray with lead arsenate. 


(b) Sucking: 

1. Green potato bug, Nezara viridula L, (Pentatomidae; Heterop- 
tera). A minor pest, sucks sap from foliage. Usually present 
throughout the crop season. 

Control: Spray with rosin soap at 2.5% strength. 

2. Potato jassid, Empoasca solanifolia Pr., Empoasca punjabensis 
Pr., and Empoasca devastans Dist. (vide Bhindi and Cotton). 


(B) Pests infesting tubers 


1. Potato tuber, moth, Gnorimoschema operculella Zell. (Gelechidae ; 
Lepidoptera) (Fig. 25). A minor pest of potato leaves during 


Fig, 25. Potato Tuber Moth, Guorimoschema oper culella Zell ., 
(a) caterpillar x5, (6) moth x5, 


610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,. Vol.: 54 


February-March, but major pest of stored potatoes in. Kangra Valley. 
The adults are greyish brown moths. splashed with dark brown. The 
dirty white caterpillars first spoil the tuber eyes and then bore into 
the tubers! thus rendering them unfit for seed as well as for consump- 
tion. Active from May to October in the stores. 

Control: (i) Spray the plants with 0.05% DDT wettable to protect 
the leaves, (ii) protect the potatoes under layer of sand and (iii) dust 
seed potatoes with BHC-Gammaxine Do24 or DDT 33 A. 


(vii) Onton Allium cepa L. Transplanted in January; harvested in 
May. 


(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 


(a) Sack tines 
1. Thrips, Thrips tabaci L. (Thripidae; Thysanoptera) (Fig. 26). 
A major pest all over the State. Adults are yellowish brown with 


long narrow wings fringed with long hairs along the margins. Both 


(ie = 


ny 


ANS yee SW if mit ERS 
eee it eae SS 
—— <== re) =e Terrance 
WY fp (20 we AUPE ANU = 
LLY Gf, AAs SS 
Ae aa *\ > 
Hae BV 
: [ vl, fas PN 
[ AG I 
‘Nica 


: Sy 
LZZ ZZ Sy 


id 


Fig. 26. Onion Thrips, Zhrips tabaci L. (Adult x 25) 


the adults and nymphs desap the leaves which become curled, wrinkled, 
and twisted, and may finally die, which affects the yield adversely. ‘The 


pest remains active throughout the year on various vegetables but does. 


the greatest damage to onions during April. One generation is 
completed in 2-3 weeks. ) ; 


Control: (i) Spray the crop with nicotine sulphate 1: 1,000 parts of 


water or tobacco decoction 1:5, (ii) with BHC wettable at 0.1% 
or (iii) dust with 5%: BHC. 


(viii) Tomato Lycopersicum esculentum Miller. There are three 


crops a year in the plains. First crop transplanted in June-July, 


second in August-October, and the third in February. The fruits are 


available throughout the year. 


CROP PESTS AND TiTEIR COND ROL. IN. TAK. PANTAB 611 


$0 (A) Pests feeding on Leaves 
(a) Biting: 

1. ‘Hadda’, Epilachna sp. A minor pest but occasionally causes 
serious damage to the young crop during September-October (vide 
Brinjal). 


fb) Sucking: 
1. Jassid, Empoasca punjabensis or E, devastans Dist. A minor 
pest (vide Cotton and Potato). 


2. White-fly, Bemisia tabaci Genn, (Aleurodidae; Homoptera). A 
major pest as a carrier of virus disease. The affected piants show 
crumpling of leaves and smalling of shoots (vide Cotton). 


(B) Borers 


1. Tomato borer, Heliothis obsoleta IF. (Noctuidae; Lepidoptera). 
A minor pest but at times may become serious in the lower hills and 
submountain regions. The caterpillars bore into the raw tomatoes 
and render the fruit unmarketable (vide Gram). 

Control; Spray with 0.05% DDT wettable. 


(ix) CABBAGE AND CAULIFLOWER. Sown or transplanted from 
August onwards and harvested from October to April. 


(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 
(an Biting; 

1. Cabbage butterfly, Pieris brassica L. (Pieridae; Lepidoptera) 
(Fig. 21). A major pest of cabbage, cauliflower, knol kohl, ‘sarson’, 
and ‘raya’, both in the hills and the plains. It proves a limiting 
factor in raising knol kohl seed in the Kangra Valley. Adults are 
conspicuously white with black markings on the forewings and _ the 
caterpillars greenish blue with yellow lines on the back and side. The 
caterpillars feed gregariously in the early stages. They skeletonize 
the leaves and may defoliate the entire plants. The flowers or tender 
pods are also eaten and destroyed, often the insects bore into the cabbage 
heads. Active from May to October in the hills and during winter 
months in the plains. One generation may be completed in 4-6 weeks 
in the plains. 

Control: (i) Hand pick the adults and the eggs and larval clusters 
and kill them in kerosinized water, (ii) spray with 0.05% DDT 
wettable or Pyrocolloid 1 in 800. 


2. Diamond back moth, Plutella maculipennis Curtis (Plutellidae ; 
Lepidoptera). A minor pest of cabbage, cauliflower, and ‘Japan 
sarson’. The adults are brownish or grey with conspicuous white 
spots on the front wing. The green caterpillars bite holes in the 
leaves on which they pupate in a thin silken cocoon. Active during 
winter. One generation may be completed in 4-5 weeks. 

Control: Spray with 0.05% or 0.1% DDT wettable. 


3. Cabbage semi-looper, Plusia orvichalcia Fb. and Plusia nigrisigna 
Wik. (Noctuidae; Lepidoptera). Minor pests of cabbage and 


612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


cauliflower etc. At times may assume serious proportions. May 
also infest other crops as turnips, radishes, and some Brassica crops. 
The adult moths are dirty brown with golden splash on the forewings 
or white and blackish markings. The caterpillars are green with 
longitudinal lines; feed on leaves and bite holes. Active during winter 
months. 

Control: Spray with 0.1% DDT wettable or lead arsenate before 
the heads are formed. 


4. Mustard saw fly, Athalia proxima K. (Tenthredinidae ; Hymenop- 
tera) (Fig. 27). A major pest of various cruciferous crops. 
Adults are orange-yellow with their wings, head, antennae, and legs 


Fig. 27. Mustard Saw-fly, Athalia proxima K., (a) larva x44, (6) adult x4}. 


smoky. The black grubs feed on the underside of leaves and bite 
holes, they curl up and fall down with the slightest touch. The 
damage is particularly serious to germinating and young radish and 
turnip plants by biting holes or skeletonising the leaves. ften the 
seedlings are entirely destroyed. Active from the end of September 
to January. 

Control: Dust with Pyrodust 4,oco or BHC 5%. 


5. Tobacco caterpillar; Prodenia litura F. <A_ sporadic pest, 
particularly serious to early cauliflowers, i.e. during September-October, 
in the plains (vide ‘Dhaincha’). 


6. Grasshoppers (Acridiidae; Orthoptera). Minor pests. Surface 
grasshoppers and other short horned grasshoppers feed on the leaves 
during September-October. 

Control: Poison baiting or dusting with BHC 5-7%. 


(ob) Suckin.e 

1. Painted bug, Bagrada picta F. (Pentatomidae; Heteroptera). 
‘A major pest of radish, turnips, cauliflower, cabbage, knol kohl, etc. 
in all the vegetable growing tracts of the State. Both the adults and 
nymphs are conspicuously coloured with black, orange and yellow 
coloration, and cause damage by sucking the sap as a result of which 
the leaves wither and dry up, the flowers wither and drop down, and 
the pods produce little seed of very inferior quality. Active from 


-_—- 


CROP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE PANJAB 613 


August to April on various vegetables, and does the greatest damage 
to radish and turnip during October and November by feeding on 
leaves, and to the inflorescence of various Brassica crops during March- 
April. 

Control: Dust with Pyrodust 4,000 or BHC 5%. 

2. Eurydema sp. and Dolichoris sp. (Pentatomidae; Heteroptera). 
Minor pests. These bugs occur along with the painted bug in the 
Kangra Valley. Therefore same control measures. 


3. Cabbage aphis, Siphocoryne indorassica Dass (Aphididae ; 
Homoptera). A major pest of various cruciferous plants. The insect 
is greenish or yellowish green in colour. It sucks the sap from the 
infested leaves, inflorescence, and pods and, because of its huge popula- 
tion it devitalizes the plant. As a result of its attack the flowers 
wither, the pods do not set properly; thus the yield of the crop is 
considerably lowered. Active from December to May, but the great- 
est damage is done during March-May. Its severity in Kulu Valley 
becomes a limiting factor in raising the seed of cabbages and knol 
kohis etc. 

Control: Spray with (i) tobacco decoction, (ii) fish-oil soap 2.5% 
or (ili) 0.1% BHC wettable. 


White-fly, Bemisia tabaci Genn. A minor pest of cauliflower, 
turnips and radishes (vide Cotton). 


(x) CHILLIES Capsicum annum Linn. In the plains it is sown in 
March-April; chillies are ready for picking during September to 
November. 


1. White ant, Termes sp. (Termitidae; Isoptera). Major pests 
in some parts of the State. It attacks the underground portion of 
the plant as a result of which the plants wither and ultimately dry 
up (vide Sugarcane). 


2. White-fly, Bemisia tabaci Genn. A major pest as a vector of 


virus disease. The affected plants have crumpling of leaves and 
smalling of shoots (vide Cotton). 


(xi) WaTERNUT Trapa bispinosa Roxb. The crop is available in 
ponds during July-October. 

1. ‘Singhara’ beetle, Galerucella singhara Lefroy. (Coleoptera). 
A major pest in Ambala, Gurgaon, and Gurdaspur districts. The adults 
feed on leaves and completely destroy them. It is destructive during 


July and August. Eggs are laid on the leaves. 
Control Dust with 5°, BHC. 


9g. PEstTs oF FRuIT AND FRUIT TREES 


(i) AppLeE Pyrus malus L. 


(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 
(a) Biting: 
1. Tent caterpillar, Malacosoma indica WIlk. (Lepidoptera). <A 


sporadic pest in the Simla Hills. Besides apples, it also attacks wild 
and cultivated pears and ‘shaigal’. The caterpillars live and feed 


614 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,. Vol. 54 


gregariously in sheltered places on the plant. Full grown caterpillar 
has a longitudinal central grey line with two crimson colour dotted 
lines on either side of it. . The nest or the tent, as it is called, 
varies in sizes according to the age of the caterpillar. As many as 
25 such tents may be found on a single tree. he caterpillars spend 
the day in these tents and feed on leaves at night and in severe cases 
of infestation, the entire tree may be defoliated. In the absence. of 
leaves, the caterpillars feed on tender bark. Active from March to 
June. Only one generation in a year. 

Control: (i) The tents should be hand picked and burnt with cater- 
pillars, (ii) spray with lead arsenate 1: 100 or with BHC wettable 
Cho Mea , | heen 


2. Apple hairy caterpillar, Lymantria obfuscata Wik. (Lymantridae, 
Lepidoptera). A sporadic pest in Simla, Kotgarh, Kot khai, and Ani 
(Kulu Valley). The caterpillars, which are brown and clothed with 
tufts of hair, are gregarious and nocturnal in habit. As such they 
hide themselves in loose soil round about the base of the tree during 
day and come out at night, climb the plants, and feed on the leaves 
til dawn. The attacked plants may be completely defoliated, and do 
not bear any fruit. Active from March to July. There is only one 
generation in a year. | 

Control: (i) Spray clusters of caterpillars with BHC emulsion 
when migrating. (ii) spray plants with lead arsenate 1: 100. 


3. Leaf beetle, Mimastra cyanea Hope (Curculionidae ; Coleoptera). 
A major pest, of apples, peaches and plums in the Simla Hills and 
Kangra Valley. The adults feed on leaves and in severe cases all the 
foliage may be eaten. The insect is active from May to August. 
Control: Spray with lead arsenate 1: 100 or DDT 0.2%. 


(Db) Sasic mics 
t. San Jose. scale, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Comstock 
(Coccidae; Homoptera) (Fig. 28). A most destructive pest in the 


ie a Ay) r £ |» 
| lee ) "| hy = NY Z 
SI i = Ws 


PGE iN 
Sae u TEINS 

lf \ 7G 

BAR SZ 8 

NES ifm 


Fig. 28. San Jose Scale, Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Com., 
(a) scales x 2-4, (6) adult Q x 13. 


Kulu valley and Simla hills. It also attacks lunes! peaches, pears, 
cherry, apricot, almond, and roses. The female scale is round and 


CROP PESTS, AND THEIR: CONTROL IN THE PANJAB 615 


flattened with a nipple in the centre which is surrounded by a de- 
pression. Male scale is elongated with its nipple on one side. The 
insect sucks sap from the twigs of growing plants and, as a result 
of quick multiplication, the plants are unable to withstand the drain 
and consequently may die. Dispersal is through nursery stocks, scion 
and graft, birds and flying foxes. Active from April to December 
and passes through 4-5 generations. Apple fruits are also infested. 

Control: Spray with Diesel-cil emulsion and the ‘crawlers’ with 
DD o.05,%,. wettable. 


2. Woolly aphis, Ernosoma lanigerum UHausm. (Aphididae, 
Homoptera) (Fig. 29). A very destructive pest in the Simla hills 


SLOTS 
QOTACE Ne" 
oy. /a\'* 2 ae 


sa nee 


os 


SPRY 
\ =e 7 7, 


Fig. 29. Woolly Aphis, Ariosoma lanigerum Hausm., (a) 
iufested appie shoot, (6) infested apple root. (Diagramm atic). 


and the Kulu Valley. The attacked plant shows whitish, cottony 
patches or masses on the stems and branches, each of which is covered 
with white waxy threads under which the insect lies. It has the 
habit of partial seasonal migration and some of the aerial forms 
migrate to the roots in December while those from roots to the aerial 
parts in May. The pest feeds on plant juice sucking from the stems, 
branches, twigs, and roots. The attacked plant with its deformed 
limbs and pale yellow leaves presents sickly appearance. Besides, big 
knots. or gall-like swellings appear on the affected parts. These 
swelling on the roots always prove serious. The plants become sickly, 
remain stunted in growth, and yield Jess fruit. Heavily infested young 
plants often die. Active throughout the year (reduced activity in 
winter). But the greatest damage is done during April-May and 
October-November. At Simla as many as twelve generations have 
been recorded in the laboratory. 

Control: (i) Biological control by introducing its parasite Aphalinus 
mali from the Entomologist, Panjab, (ii) spray with nicotine sulphate 
-and fish-oil soap and (iii) mixing of BHC with soil at the time of 
migration of the pest. 


(B) Borers 


1. Apple tree borer, Apriona cinerae Chev. (Coleoptera). Recently 
achieved prominence in the Simla ‘hills causing considerable damage to 


616 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


apple plantation. The larvae bore into the branches and trunk of 
young plants and make tunnels in the interior. The attacked plants 
often die. Active during spring and summer. 

Control: Petrol or potassium cyanide fumigation. 


2. Apple stem borer, Aeolesthes holosericea F. (Coleoptera). A 
fairly serious pest in Simla hills and Kulu Valley attacking the apple 
and cherry plants. The larvae bore into the trunk and make zig-zag 
tunnels. The attacked tree can be recognized by the presence of 
heaps of chewed up frass mixed with excreta on the ground under- 
neath the tree. Seriously infested plant gives sickly appearance and 
bears little fruit. If left neglected, the plant may die within a couple 
of years. A single generation may be completed in 2-3 years. 

Control: Petrol or potassium cyanide fumigation. 


3. Root borer (unidentified), (Coleoptera). Recently it has achieved 
prominence in Kotgarh. The grubs bore into the roots and the 
attacked plants succumb to the injury. Usually infests trees planted in 
the sandy soil. 

Control: Mixing BHC in the soil or soil fumigant, as Paradichloro- 
benzine, proves effective. 


(ii) Apricot Prunus bokhariensis Royle. 


1. Leaf cutworm, Parasa sp. (Lepidoptera). A minor pest in the 
Simla hills. The caterpillars feed on the leaves. Active from June to 
October. 


2. Fruit borer, Cocoecia sp. (Lepidoptera). A minor pest of culti- 
vated varieties but serious on wild varieties in the Simla hills. The 
caterpillars bore into the fruit and feed inside. Active during summer. 

Control: Spray young fruits with 0.05-0.1% DDT wettabie. 


(iii) PEACHES AND PLums, Prunus persica L., Prunus domestica L. 


(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 

(a) Ba ba mee 

1. Beetles, Melolontha furcicauda; Lachnosterna longipennis ; 
Microtricha cotesi; Adoretus sp. and Mimastra cyanea (Coleoptera). 
Major pests. The adults feed on the foliage of peaches, plums, 
almonds, etc. in the Kangra Valley, and bring about complete defolia- 
tion. The grubs are underground. Active from May to July. 

Control: Spray with lead arsenate 1: 100 or DDT wettable 0.1% 
strength. Hoeing' the tree basins or mixing BHC or soil fumigant in 
the soil proves effective. 


(0) Sec Kam py 

1. Peach curl aphis, Brachycaudus pruni Koch. (Aphididae; 
Homoptera). Infests peach, pear, almond trees in the hilly tracts 
of this State. The insect sucks sap from the leaves and, as a result 
of this, the leaves curl up and the attacked plants assume an unsightly 
appearance and do not bear any fruit. Active from March to May. 

Control: Spray with nicotine sulphate 1: 800, (i!) fish-oil soap 
2.5% or (ili) BHC wettable 0.15%. 


CROP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE PANJAB 617 


(B) Borers | 


1. Stem borer, Sphenoptera sp. (Buprestidae; Coleoptera). Fairly 
serious in Kangra Vailey. The grubs bore into the bark and feed 
underneath it for some time and then bore into the trunk. Active 
during summer. 

Control: Petrol or potassium cyanide fumigation. 


2. Fruit fly, Dacus zonatus S. (Trypaneidae; Diptera). A major 
pest widely distributed. It attacks such fruits as peach, pear, mango, 
‘loquat’, guava, and citrus. The maggots feed in the interior of the 
fruits which are often malformed, do not develop, and rot. Active from 
May to August. 

Control: Poison bait spray or use of alures. 


3. Wasp (unidentified) (Hymenoptera). At Palampur various 
wasps puncture the ripe fruit and feed inside. The attacked fruits rot 
and are rendered unfit for consumption. Active during May. 

Control: Dust wasp nests with BHC. 


(iv) Watnut Juglans regia L. 


(A) Pests feeding on‘Leaves 


Leaf beetles. Minor pests. Some of the beetles which damage 
peach leaves also attack the leaves of this plant (vide Peach). 


(B) Borers 


1. Walnut weevil. Alcides porrectirostris Mashl. (Curculionidae ; 
Coleoptera). A serious pest of walnuts in the hills at 3,500 to 8,000 
_ ft. altitude, most destructive particularly at 6,000 to 7,000 {t, height. 
The damage is done by the creamy white grubs which feed on the 
kernel of the fruit and reduce it to a useless blackish mass. The 
attacked fruits usually drop down. The adults which are dark brown 
with prominent snout feed on the green, soft part of twigs, petioles 
of leaves, and young fruits. Active during summer but the greatest 
damage is caused during May-August. 

Control; Spray with DDT 0.2%. 


2. Walnut tree borer, Batocera horsfieldi—(Cerambycidae ; Coleop- 
tera). A minor pest in Kulu Valley. The grubs bore into the trunk 
and make tunnels. 


Control: Petrol or potassium cyanide fumigation. 


(v) Fic Ficus carica Linn. 


(A) Borers 


1. Stem borer, Batocera rufomaculata D. (Cerambycidae; Coleop- 
tera) (Fig. 30). A major pest in Hoshiarpur district and Kulu 
Valley. The grubs cause the damage by tunnelling directly into the 
bark and then making circuitous galleries on the inner side. When 
full grown, the grub bores into the heart of the wood making a 
curved tunnel. The presence of small heaps of frass on the ground 
or on the stem is the symptom of the attack. The adults feed on 


618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


bark, leaves, and occasionally on fruit. is larvae are active through- 
out the year. One generation may take more than 12 months. 
Control: vide Walnut. 


2 


Fig. 30. Fig Borer, Batocera rufomaculata_D. (a) grub x 2 (6) adult x 3. 
(vi) Manco Mangifera indica Linn. 


(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 


1. Mango hopper, Idiocerus atkinson Leth. ; Idiocerus clypealis 
Leth. (Jassidae; Homoptera) (Fig. 31). Major pests, very destruc- 
tive in Hoshiarpur, Gurdaspur, and Ambala districts. The nymphs 


Fig. 31. Mango Hopper, Idiocerus sp. 
(Adult x 12), >: 


which are pale yellow cause the Sees damage. The appearance of 
the mango inflorescence synchronizes with the first appearance of the | 
nymphs which feed on the sap of the panicles during February-April. | 
The attacked panicles wither and dry up and the flowers fall off pre- 
maturely without setting any fruit. ‘Honey dew’ secreted by the 


CROP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE PANJAB 619 


nymphs develops sooty mould and imparts blackish appearance to thie 
plants. In case of severe infestation the entire crop may fail. Active 
from February to September, but does greatest damage during March 
and April. At Hoshiarpur it passes through two generations. 
Control: Spray inflorescence with 0.15-0.2% DDT wettable. 


2. Mango mealy bug, Monophlebus stebbingi Gr. (Coccidae; 
Homoptera) (Fig. 32). A major pest, particularly serious in 
Amritsar and Karnal districts. It has also been found damaging citrus, | 
mulberry, plums, peaches, guavas, and figs. The females, which are 


Fig. 32. Mango Mealy Bug, Monophlebus stebbingi Gr. x 4 to 3. Infested stem. 


wingless with flattened body covered with white mealy powder, descend 
to the ground in April-May and lay eggs in the soil around the base 
of the tree. The eggs hatch in January-February in the following 
year. The tiny nymphs crawl up their food plants and by the end of 
March all the females are fixed in thick clusters on the terminal tender 
shoots. The damage is done by the females by sucking plant sap. 
The attacked branches and shocts wither and the flowers do not set 
fruit at all. Only one generation in a year. 

Control: (1) Banding the tree stems with Ostico or any sticky band 
and destroying all the nymphs collected below the band, (ii) spray with 
G.2% BHC wettable when females cluster at the terminal shoots. 


(B) Borers 
1. Stem borer, Batocera rufomaculata D. A minor pest (vide Fig). 


2. Fruit fly, Dacus sonatus S. and Dacus ferrugineus F. Minor 
pests. The maggots on hatching feed on the interior of the ripe fruits 
and render them unfit for consumption (vide Peaches and Plums), 


(vil) GRAPE VINE Vitis vinifera Linn. 
9 


620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 

(a) atari 

1. Hairy caterpillars, Euprocitis lunata Wlk. and fuprocitis 
fraterna M. (Lymantriidae; Lepidoptera). Minor pests. Also attack 
a number of other crops and fruit trees. The caterpillars feed on the 
leaves. The adults of E. lunata are pale, bright with a large black 
spot on each front wing. The adults of E. fraterna have bright 
orange front wings. Active during summer. 

Control: Spray with 0.2% BHC wettable or dust with 5-7% BHC. 


2. Til hawk-moth, Heise convolvuli L. (Sphingidae; Lepidoptera). 
A minor pest. Feeds on the leaves. 
Control: Hand picking of caterpillars. 


3. Death’s Head moth, Acherontia styx W. (Sphingidae, Lepidop- 
tera). A minor pest. The caterpillars feed on the leaves. 
Control: Hand picking of caterpillars. 


(6) Sire kame: 

1. Thrips, Rhipiphoro-thrips cruentatus Hood. (Thripidae ; Thysano- 
ptera). A minor pest. It also feeds on rose, terminalis, and ‘jaman’. 
The reddish nymphs and black-brown adults feed on the underside of 
leaves by rasping jthe tissue and sucking the oozing sap. The attacked 
leaves turn pale, wither, curl up, and finally drop. The attacked plants 
yield less fruit and of inferior quality. Active from April to November 
(vide Onion). 


2. Jassids (Jassidae; Homoptera). Some unidentified jassids 
also infest leaves of this plant and suck sap and finally bring about 
dropping of leaves {vide Cotton). 


(vill) BER Zisyphus jujuba Lamk. 


1. Ber beetle, Adovetus pallens B. (Rutelidae; Coleoptera). 
Widely distributed pest feeding on a number of plants and doing 
serious damage to ‘ber’. The adults which are bright yellow in 
colour feed on the leaves at night and skeletonize them or bite holes 
in them. The insects are nocturnal in habit and are strongly 
attracted to artificial light. Active during summer causing serious 
damage during April-May. Only a single brood in a year. 

Control: Spray with 0.15% DDT or lead arsenate 1: 100. 


(B) Borers 

1. Fruit fly, Carpomyia vesuviana C. (Trypaneidae; Diptera). 
Serious pest in Hansi and Hosiarpur districts. The maggots feed 
inside the fruits which are rendered unfit for human consumption. 
Active from April to August. 

Control; (1) Bait spray, (11) soil fumigation or mixing BHC jn the 
soil under the trees and (ili) deep hoeing to expose pupae to be de- 
stroyed by exposure or birds. 


(ix) POMEGRANATE Punica granatum Linn. 


r. ‘Anar’ caterpillar, Virachola isocrates Fab. (Lycaenidae; 
i.epidoptera) (Fig. 33). A major pest of ‘anar’ fruits in the lower 


(a gil 


CROP PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL IN THE PANJAB 621 


hills of the State. The caterpilllars bore into the fruits and feed 
inside. The attacked fruits are rendered unfit for human consump- 
tion. Active during summer. 


Fig. 33. Anar Butterfly, Virachcla isocrates Fab. (Adult x12) 


Control: Two or three sprays with 0.1% DDT wettable. 


2. Blister beetle, Mylabris macilenia M. (Meloidae; Coleoptera) 
A minor pest. Adults feed on flowers (vide Jowar). 


(x) Citrus Citrus spp. 


(A) Pests feeding on Leaves 
fe) Biting: 

1. Lemon butterfly, Papilio demoleus L. (Papilionidae; Lepidop- 
tera). A serious pest of citrus nursery. The caterpillars alone are 
destructive. The greenish larvae feed on tender leaves eating them 
from the edges. right up to the mid-rib. In severe cases of infestation 
the nursery plants are completely defoliated. Adults are bluish, 
having black front wings which are ornamented with yellow spots. 
Hind wings in addition have each a brick red oval spot. Active in 
summer and autumn months. 

Control: (i) Hand picking of caterpillars and pupae, (ii) spray with 
eas 6. DDT wettable. 


2. Citrus leaf miner, Phyllocnistis citerella St. (Phyllocnistidae ; 
Lepidoptera). A minor pest, widely distributed. The adults are 
small and silvery white, forewings fringed with hairs and with a 
black spot and brown stripes, hind wings narrow, fringed. The 
caterpillars which are pale yellow mine the leaves which get curled up 


622 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


and finally wither. “Nursery plants” “suiter® the = most. == ctive 
throughout the year excepting January-February, when its activity is 
greatly reduced. 

Control: Spray with 0.1% BHC or DDT wettable and repeat the 
treatment 2 or 3 times at fortnightly intervals. 


(De Sotic lc ime. 
1. Diaphorina citri ‘Kuw. (Psyllidae; Homoptera) (Fig. 34). 
A major pest of all cultivated varieties of citrus in Pathankot, 


Fig. 34. Diaphorina citri Kuw., (@) nymph x 12, (6) adult x12. 


Amritsar, and Sirsa. The brown adults and light yellow nymphs 
are both destructive. They suck the sap from the tender growing 
shoots and leaves and produce ‘honey dew’ on _ which black 
fungus develops. In severe infestation the plants produce little or no 
fruit. Active throughout the year, but does maximum damage during 
March-April, when the floral shoots wither. The insect passes 
through about nine generations in a year. 

Control: Spray with (i) rosin compound 1: 5, (i!) nicotine sulphate 
t: 800 or (ili) BHC wettable 0.15%. 


2. White flies, Dialeurodes cilri Ashmd. and Aleurocanthus husani 
Corbit (Aleurodidae; Homoptera). Major pests. There are many 
species but only two are of importance. Dialeurodes citri is present 
in all the citrus orchards in the Panjab whereas Aleurocanthus husani 
is met with in the south-eastern districts only. They infest orange, 
‘malta’, lemon, and ‘galgal’. Both the adults and nymphs suck the 
sap from the leaves and devitalise the plants. They also produce 
‘honey dew’ on which black fungus develops and this interferes with 
photosynthesis. The attacked plants produce less fruit and of small 
size and poor quality. 

Control: Spray with (i) rosin or fish-oil soap 2.5% .or (ii) DDT 
0.05% 2-3 times. 


3. Scale insect, Aspidiotus auranti M, (Coccidae, Homoptera). A 
minor pest which sucks sap from the leaves. 


(x1) Guava Psidium guava Linn. 


1. Fruit flies, Dacus gonatus S. A major pest in Hoshiarpur 
district (vide Peaches). 


CROP PESES AND: THEIR VCONTROL:IN “THE PANJAB 623 


10. PEST CONTROL 


Due to the advance in the biological sciences entomological pro- 
blems have also increased considerably. Previously, only the 
indigenous insect pests of a particular place caused damage to crops, 
forest trees, fruit plants, household material, stored grain, and other 
products. By the introduction of new improved varieties and quick 
measures of transportation, numerous pests get introduced from 
different States and foreign countries and even natural barriers do not 
restrict their spreading. To start with only a few of the introduced 
pests get established, but their adaptation and undisturbed multiplica- 
tion in the new environments results in their assuming the pest status 
very soon. At the same time, by reducing the forest areas for 
habitation their natural enemies, like parasites or predaceous insects, 
birds and other animals, are destroyed or scared away. Accordingly, 
with the decrease in the number of enemies the pest population in- 
creases and with that their control becomes an acute problem. 

Therefore, artificial control has to be adopted to keep the pests 
under check. Various methods are developed for this purpose and 
these are classified under (i) Preventive and fii) Curative. The pre- 
ventive measures include field sanitation through (1) eradication of 
weeds, (2) removal of plant remains, (3) opening of bunds and (4) 
flooding the fields; at the same time treating the seed or setts with 
some insecticides. Of the curative measures, such as (1) mechanical, 
(2) cultural, (3) insecticidal, (4) biological, and (5) legislative, all have 
relative efficacy under different conditions and are adopted according 
to the circumstances. 

However, the insecticidal method has direct effect and, if it proves 
successful, it convinces the people of its efficacy and thus gives the 
desired encouragement. Various insecticides work differently in killing 
the pest. These are applied as stomach or contact poisons, and the 
latter may be of the nature of resulting in quick knock down or with 
residual effect keeping the toxicity for periods of varied lengths. The 
fumigants produce lethal concentration of specific gases which results 
in the mortality of insects exposed to it. 


NOTE: 


In this note, it is not considered necessary to discuss the various methods 
of control at Jength. Only the insecticides, to which reference is made under the 
various crop pests, are mentioned in order to acquaint the public with the mode of 
their preparation and the formule to be adopted. 


1. POISON BAIT. 


Sodium fluosilicate sists 2 lb. 
or 

Benzine Hexachloride 10% Bi 1 Ib: 

Bran Lee 40 lb. 

Mollasses o< I lip: 

Water 


Enough to moisten the 
material for broadcasting. 


The poison should be mixed last of all and stirred well. The mixture should 


be broadcast in the evening, the quantity per acre depending on the intensity of 
attack. 


2. BHC ano DDT 5% or 10% dusts. These are available in the market from 
various firms under different proprietary names, and in different strengths. For 


624 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vols mba 


furthur dilutions the higher strengths may be diluted proportionately with talc 
powder or cowdung ashes. Dusting is managed with different types of dusting 
machines as hand duster of the plunger type, rotary dusters, or power dusters. ‘The 
type of dusting machine to be utilised depends on the area to be covered and the 
intensity of attack. 


' 3. PyRODUST 4,000. Available from Bombay Chemicals, Bombay, in the 
required strengths. It is Pyrethrum production and, therefore, harmless for dusting 
the vegetable crops. 


4. SULPHUR DUSTING. Fine sulphur 200-300 mesh is available in the 
market. It may be dusted undiluted but the operator must use eye goggles. 


5. NICOTINE SULPHATE. 


Nicotine sulphate 40% 10Z,. 
Water 5 gals to make 1: 800 
6.25 gals - 1: 1000 


Nicotine sulphate 40% is available in the market and it is simply to be diluted 
with water for spraying. If ordinary soap is added as spreader at the rate of 12 oz. 
to the above mixture it will increase the efficacy and the quantity of water may also 
be increased a little. 


6. ROSIN COMPOUND, 


Crude rosin 2 etb, 
Washing soda 74, Noy: 
Water 10 gals. 


Boil rosin and washing soda in a little water and continue adding little warm 
water to the mixture til] the entire quantity of water is consumed and the mixture 
assumes coffee colour. Keep the mixture testing at intervals by adding a few drops 
of it in a cup of cold water. When the insecticide is fully cooked it will mix with 
the water without producing milkiness at which stage the material should be strain- 
ed through muslin cloth and the required dilution made for application. 


7. FiSH-OIL ROSIN SOAP. ‘This is available ready made from various firros 
as the Karela Soap Institute, Calcutta. Slice the soap ina little hot water and dissolve 
it by stirring. Add the remaining water gradually. ‘The insecticide is very effective 
against sucking insects and the usual dose is ] lb. in 4 gallons of water. 


8. LEAD ARSENATE. 


Lead arsenate powder cee Ec alibn 
Water ... 80 gals. 
(60 gallons for beetles). 


Mix the powder ina little water with a stick and then add slowly the remaining 


water. The mixture should be stirred vigorously during the process of spraying, 
Since lead arsenate is a deadly poison all care should be taken to safeguard 
human beings and the cattle. ‘The operator should take all preventive measures, 


avoid inhaling, and should also use goggles: 
9, SpPRAVING wiTtH DDT or BHC. 


For this purpose 50% wettable (water dispersible) powder is used, 
and for making the required dilutions the quantities given below should be 


utilised.— 


(i) 0°025% 2 oz. of powder in 24 gallons of water. 
(ii) 0°05% 2 OZ. 5 2 a 
(iii) 01% ZOZ. Oe 6 ; 
(iv) 0°15% 3 OZ. es 6 % 
(v) 0°2% 4 oz. en 6 ne 
10. TOBACCO DECOCTION. 
Topacco refuse dll; 
Ordinary washing soap 4 OZ. 
Water 1 gal. 


Soak the waste tobacco overnight in the entire quantity of water. Then boil 
the mixture for a few hours, allow it to cool, and then Strain it througha muslin 


CROP LESTES TAN Dy DAHLE CONEROE IN LHE PANJAB 625 


cloth. ‘This will separate a coffee coloured liquid. Add to this extract thin pieces 
of soap and stir vigorously to dissolve it. Dilute the final mixture 5 times with 
water before use. 
lI. PYROCOLLOIp. It is available from Bombay Chemicals, Bombay, in 
ae form. For application it should be diluted in the ratio of 1:800 or 
: 1000. 


12. DrIESEL-OIL EMULSION. 


Diesel-oil epee Te! Oye 
Potash vegetable or fish-oilsoap ... 2 Ib. 
Water Cota liseeclls. 


Boil the mixture in an empty kerosine-oil tin. Remove it from the fire and 
pump the mixture vigorously with great pressure into another tin. Repeat the pro- 
cess several times until free oil is not visible on the surface of the emulsion. ‘The 
matured insecticide should be diluted with water in the ratio of 1:33 before 
spraying. 

13. BHC or DDT emursion. Available ready made in the market from high 
class firms dealing with these products. The material is further diluted 1 : 500. 


14. LIME SULPHUR WASH. 


Flower of sulphur (200-309 mesh} ... 5 ib. 
Unslaked lime sae 253k: 
Water we. «4 gals. 


Slake lime in about one gallon of water in an earthen vessel or empty crude 
oil barrel (in no case in a copper vessel) and mix sulphur to get a uniform paste. 
Then add the remaining water with scme force. Mark the depth of the mixture on 
a piece of wood and boil the mixture till it assumes dark, reddish brown colour, and 
should not be allowed to change to greenish. The mixture should be thoroughly 
stirred during this process and the original level maintained by adding more water 
gradually. Strain the mixture and dilute the stock solution 6-10 times before 


use. 
15. POISON BAIT SPRAY. 


Lead arsenate sa LOZ: 
Molasses ven SALOZ, 
Water Fan Lc OZs 


Mix the ingredients to prepare a syrup. Only a portion of the foliage on a 
tree should be sprayed with it. 


16. SANITARY FLUID. It is available ready made in the market. About 4% 
solution is enough to use before planting the sugarcane setts or mixing in the 


soil. 
17. METHYL BROMIDE FUMIGATION. 


This fumigant is available in steel cylinders of 30 lb. and 189 lb. capacity. 
The fumigant must be used in airtight godowns or under waxy tarpaulins. 

_ The gas cylinder is placed over a weighing scale in the open. The required 
quantity of gas is introduced into the godown or inside the tarpaulin covering the 
bags, through a rubber hose. One end of the hose is connected to the release 
valve of the gas cylinder placed over the weighing scale and the other end intro- 
duced into the room or the tarpaulin covering through a hole made inthe wall or 
the soil. The free ends of the tarpaulin should be well buried in a small trench 
and nicely covered over with soilto avoid leakage. The end introduced in the 
chamber should be made perfectly airtight. 

A dose of 1 lb. per 1000 cu.ft. of space with an exposure of 12 hours only yields 
cent per cent mortality without affecting adversely the germination of seed. How- 
ever, for the fumigation of cotton seed in bags under tarpaulin, exposure of 19-20 
hours is effective in killing 90-95 % larvae of Pink Bollworm. 


18. POTASSIUM CYANIDE FUMIGATION. It is very effective in killing the stem 
borers of fruit trees. The holes caused by the borers should be cleaned and all frass 
removed. One small crystal of pot. cyanide be introduced within the hole with the 
help of a forceps and the kole plugged well and plastered with mud from outside. 
The cyanide fumes penetrate into the tunnel and kill the insect inside. 


® 


626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL WISTS OCIED YA Vols 


19, PARADICHLORBENZINE, This is used as soil fumigant to destroy insects 
which pass a part of their life-cycle in the soil below the infested trees. The 
fumigant is introduced into the soil, mixed with it and covered well. 


20. ALLURES. Clensel ‘A’ (available in the market) diluted in the ratio of 
1: 30 should be put in wide mouth bottles (about half filled) which are hung on the 
trees. Fruit flies are attracted to it and are killed. 


21. BANDING. Ostico band is available inthe market. This should be tied 
round the stem of the trees at a height of about 2 ft. from the ground level. Pre- 
ferably two bandings should be used one at 2 ft. and the other at 3 {t. height ahove 
the ground level. This will increase the efficacy because the insects which may 
escape the first band will be checked by the second one. 

If Ostico is not available a thick syrup-like mixture be prepared with rosin 
mollasses and glycerine and cotton soaked in this be tied in the form of a band. 

The crawling insects which get stuck to the band or are clustered at its border 
should be brushed daily in kerosinized water and destroyed. 

The bands should be replaced by new ones after 10-15 days if their efficacy 
appears to be declining. 


LIST OF VERNACULAR AND SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF PLANTS 
MENTIONED IN THE TEXT 


Anar, Punica granatum Linn. 

Bajra, Pennisetum typhotdes Stapf et Hubbard 
Baru, Surghum helepense Pers. 

Bhindi, Hzdzscus esculentus Linn. 

Ber, Zizyphus jujuba Lamk. 

Cucumber, Cucumis sativus L. 

Dhaincha, Sesbania aegyptiaca Pers. 

Galgal (proper), Cztrus medica var. galgala 
Ghia tori, Luffa aegyptiaca Mill. 

Guara, Cyamopsis psoralioides DC. 
Gulkhera, A/thea rosea Linn. 

Japan Sarson, Brassica napus L. 

Jaman, Fugenia jambolana Lamk. 

Jowar, or Chari Sorghum vulgare Pers. 
Kadu, Lagenarza vulgaris Ser: 

Karela, Momordica charantia L. 

Kangibooti, Adutilon indicum G. Don 
Kuchri, Walvastrum tricuspidatum A. Gray 
Loquat, -viobotrya japonica Lindl. 

Lucerne, Medicago sativa Linn. 

Maina, Wedicago denticulata Willd. 

Malta, Citrus sinensis Osbeck. 

Mash Phaseolus mungo forma roxburghii Prain. 
Methi, 7vigonella foenunigraecum Linn. 
Moong, Phaseolus mungo \.inn: var. radiatus 
Palak, SAznacia oleracea L. 

Raya, &rassica rapa L. 

Singhara, 7rapa bispinosa Roxb. 

Sann hemp, Crotalaria juncea Linn. 
Sankukra, Hibiscus cannabinus Linn. 
Sarkanda, Saccharum spontaneum Linn. 
Sarson, Brassica campestris Linn. var. sarson Prain. 
Senji, MWelzlotus alba Lamk. 

Saunchal, Walva parvifiora Linn. 

Sem, Dolichos lablab Linn. 

Swank. Skimmuia laureola Hk. f. 

Tinda Cuztrulus fistulosus Stocks 

Toria, Srassica juncea Coss. 

Water melon, Crtrullus vulgaris Schrad. 


Seley uMHIT — Cy vwanyuyneHo ie: TL 
= oS <a — ———. aatat = ree —s — \ 
eee a YUOVNWAY 
ese Awactyoy Oe ee mee ee ee 
ts a ES Od 3INII3T IWNOGILUN j 
SN3Tyuy9 


Ld ° 


M3N 
ee BANLILS NI 
a es HIYvASaY 1sayes 
vad 


SSNIAVUY CNY 
1S3d01S JIONNP Tays CY 


f @NY¥7 Ghuss mo7 
8 NOWYAILINI Cikbw 


‘Cig vaniy BF 


AN 


on SUE a 


208 ‘ISIN ‘I@NY Avquiog ‘uanop 


Hens | 


a 


NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF A SELECTED AREA OF 
DEHRA DUN--JUNE 1946 to JULY 1951 


BY 
Mrs. M. D. Wricur (Deceased) 


(With a sketch map) 


Five years in a beautiful part of Dehra Dun, below the toothills in the 
Dun Valley that lies between the Siwalik Range and the outer western 
Himalayas, provided an opportunity of keeping a watch on the general 
bird life of my immediate vicinity. 

The avifauna was of special interest, being an intermingling of hills 
and plains species. Besides the normal autumn and spring migrations, 
it was possible to gain some idea of the extent of local seasonal move- 
ments between the hills and the Dun, and the plains and the Dun. 

Asa supplement to the June 1935 number of the Indian Military 
Academy’s 1.44.4. Journal, Mr. B. B. Osmaston published the ‘ Birds of 
Dehra Dun and Adjacent Hillst’. I have aimed at enlarging on the 
status of only those species which came within the limits of my small 
study area. 


THe AREA 


At an average altitude of 2,900 ft. above sea level, roughly four miles 
long by two and a half miles wide, it comprised the adjoining grounds 
of the National Defence Academy and the Forest Research Institute, and 
the valley of the Tons River lying along their northern boundaries. 

Climatic conditions varied from a fairly cold winter (minimum SSE.) 
a summer of first dry then damp heat (maximum 108°F.), and a mean 
annual rainfall of about 50 inches, chiefly in the SW. Monsoon—July to 
September. In early spring, the coldest period, bad weather and snow 
on the hills meant the arrival of more hills species as spring visitors, and 
the reduction of many plains species. 


Types of country were: 


Wooded Parts: 1. The grounds of the Institutions, including 
their gardens and the golf course between them, planted with flowering 
and fruit trees and shrubs. 

2. The planted experimental forests of the ‘ New Forest ’, 

3. The tea gardens, sheltered by tall shade trees, mostly Toon 
(Cedrela toona). 

4. The scrub jungle-covered slopes and ravines rising up from 
the valley, and bordering on the gardens. Sal (Shorea robusta) was the 
main tree here. | 


_1+4.é, the hills in the immediate neighbourhood of Mussoorie as well as those 
of Jaunsar-Bawar up to the limit of snow. EDs, 


628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Open country of the Valley: 
1. The river beds of the Tons, Nun, Nimi, and Gaulaita, the last 
always dry. Typical boulder-strewn mountain waterways or rao’s 


usually dry between February and July. 

2. Waste lands between and along the river beds, covered with 
Ber (Zizyphus) and bans (Adhatoda vaszca) scrub. 

3. Cultivation. Main crops of rice and wheat. 

4, Dry stony cultivation on relict plateaux standing between the 
river beds. 

5. The sewage-irrigated area of the market gardens. As there 
was no permanent water within the area, the water loving species were 


very limited. 


THE NOTES 


Throughout the period notes were taken on walks arranged to cover - 
most parts of the area at least twice a month. 

All identifications were visual or aural and as correct as they could 
be, based on descriptions in Whistler’s POPULAR HANDBOOK OF INDIAN 
BIRDS, Salim Ali’s INDIAN HILL BIRDS, B. B. Osmaston’s BIRDS OF 
DEHRA DUN AND THE ADJACENT HILLS, and Stuart Baker’s FAUNA OF 
BRITISH INDIA (BIRDS). 

Only the status of a bird within the limits of the area was noted, 
regardless of what it might have been elsewhere in the Dun. 

Earliest seen: The earliest date recorded for any season, in 
any year. 

Latest seen: The latest date a bird was seen or heard in any 
year. A check list was kept towards the end of winter and summer for 
this purpose. 

Breeding: Evidence of breeding from behaviour or presence of 
a species during the nesting season was noted rather than close observa- 
tion of nidification. 

An average minimum bird count was kept for the period of one full 
year in the market garden area to help form a more accurate estimation 
of status. (See JBNAS 48 (3), August 1949.) is 


SPECIES OBSERVED 


Corvus macrorhynchos. Jungle Crow. 
Resident. The common crow of the area in all types of country. 
Breeding: February to end of July. Favouring Shisham and Sal 
trees. ‘Though in pairs, small groups collected socially before roosting. 
Flocks: September. Feeding grounds in the valley about irrigated 
fields and sewage. Large roosting flights formed by parties collecting at 
certain meeting points. Communal roosts on trees of golf course and 


New Forest. 


Corvus splendens. Common House Crow. 
Resident. Comparatively few. Mainly about the bazaar area. 


Breeding: April to July. 
Flocks: September. In small parties, often with Jungle Crows, in 


the valley. In December, large flocks about wheat irrigation, digging 
their bills into the wet earth. 


NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF DEHRA’ DUN 629 


Urocissa melanocephala. Redbilled Blue Magpie. 


Probably resident. Not common. Except for once in New Forest 
area, always seen about the same stretch of scrub jungle slopes. 

Breeding: Pairs seen in February, Aprii, and July. 

Parties: December 14th, a small party. 


Dendrocitta vagabunda. [Indian Tree-Pie. 


Resident. Common in most types of country. Their calls not as 
musical as they often are in the plains. 
Breeding: Courtship: From February. The action of parent 
feeding young as part of display noted. 
Nesting: Aprilto June. Sites high up on trees in thickly wooded 
parts. Very secretive behaviour. 
Young: Family parties in July and August. The young with short 
tails shepherded noisily about by parents.. 


Dendrocitta formosae. Himalayan Tree-Pie. 


Winter. Not common. A few small parties regular visitors to the 
Gaulaita, Nimi, and Nun valleys. From headquarters on scrub jungle 
slopes, destructive raids on ripe rice crops in open cultivation were 
carried out. 

Earliest seen: September 17th. 

Latest seen: May 10th. 


Parus major caschmeriensis. [ndian Grey Tit. 


Resident. Common in all wooded parts and trees in cuitivation. 
Breeding: Courtship: March and April. A double note cal] 
monotonously repeated. 
Nesting: May and June. Holes in trees of tea gardens and scrub 
jungle particularly. 
Young: Out of nest in July. 
Parties: From October, parties were part of every hunting asso- 
ciation of small birds. 


Parus monticola. Greenbacked Tit. 


Winter. Not common. Occasional smali parties with Grey Tits and 
others of the association in wooded parts. 

Earliest seen: November 22nd. 

Latest seen: March 13th. 


Lophophanes melanolophus. Crested Black Tit. 


Winter. Not common. On February 24th, two were working Rion 
up on trees of the tea gardens with an association of other small birds. 


Garrulax leucolophus. Whitecrested Laughing Thrush, 


Resident. Common in parties that moved about under thick cover 
of scrub jungie ravines. Their outbursts of ringing calls might be 
described as ‘part singing’ with a chorus guick woovork ! quick woovork / 
guick woooork ! 

Breeding: Comparatively quiet during summer and rains. 


* 


630 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Sitta castanea. Cinnamonbellied Nuthatch. 


Probably resident. Not common. Two were seen working together 
on trees in tea gardens in January and February. 


Turdoides somervillei. Jungle Babbler. 


Resident. Common in gardens and wooded parts. In parties of up 
to 20 members. Smailer parties in summer and rains. 
Breeding: March to August. 
Young: April 16th, earliest seen out with adults. 


Argya caudata. Common Babbler. 


Resident. Common in bushy open country. 

Breeding: Paired off in March. 
Nesting: April to June. The nests placed in hedges and thickets. 
Young: From June, out with parents. 

Parties: October, large parties formed. 


Pomatorhinus erythrogenys. Rustycheeked Scimitar Babbler. 

Resident. Common in scrub jungle. Usually in pairs, often appear- 
ing in full view at edges of gardens. Characteristic gui-puotp / calls 
early mornings and evenings. 

Breeding: Courtship. A call shwago/ frequently heard in April 
and May. 

Nesting: April to August. 
Young: Out of nest in June. 


Pomatorhinus schisticeps. Slatyheaded Scimitar Babbler. 


Resident. Fairly common in pairs and small parties in thick scrub 
jungle. Often feeding on ground with Rustycheeked Scimitar Babbiers. 
The party call note chirrrrr, chirrrr. 

Breeding: Courtship: March and April. The mating call a loud 
single note rapidly repeated. 


Chrysomma sinensis. Yelloweyed Babbler. 


Resident. Common in parties about cultivation. A trilling party call 
noie. . 
Breeding: Courtship: End of February, solitary song from an 
exposed perch. Pairs in March. | 
Nesting: April to August, among bushes in cultivation. 
Young: From June, seen out with parents. 
Parties: October, increased in size by January, coming up ravines 
into garden hedges, often in company with Franklin’s Wren-Watblers. 


Pellorneum ruficeps. Spotted Babbler. 

Resident. Common in small parties under thick cover of scrub jungle 
slopes. Skulking habits. A long melodious call chi-che-chi, chaw che, 
che cht chaw heard all the year round. 

Breeding: Courtship: End of February, another call wheech-cheer 
monotonously repeated, became louder and more insistent as breeding 
season progressed. Seidom heard after September. 

Young: From May. Family parties of tailless young progressed 
along the thick carpet of leaves with a peculiar flopping motion, like large 
rats. 

Par tile ssceptemuer: 


NODESTON THE BIRDS: OF DEHRAY DUN 631 


Stachyridopsis pyrrhops. Redbilled Babbler. 


Resident. Common in parties under cover of scrub jungle and bushes 
of tea gardens. Skulking habits. The party call a weak plaintive fee- 
ueer. 

Breeding: Courtship: A mating call in March, a resonant whistle 
of a single note quickly repeated. 

Nesting : April to end of rains. Neat cup-shaped nests placed fairiy 
low in thick shrubbery. 
Young: From May, in family parties. 

Parties: October. Large parties join the winter een associ- 

ations in among the tea bushes. 


Aegithina tiphia. Common [ora. 


Resident. Fairly common about gardens and wooded parts. 

Breeding: Courtship. Mating calls from February are varied, but 
weeeece-tiu / the most heard. 

Sometimes in small parties in winter with hunting associations. 


Chloropsis aurifrons. Goldfronted Chioropsis. 


Not common. On March 3l1st a solitary bird on a Sal tree was calling 
beautifully. 


Microscelis psaroides. Himalayan Black Bulbul. 


Spring. Travelling flocks regularly appeared in gardens and wooded 
parts, sometimes remaining in the same small locality for two or three 
days. Flowering trees of Sal, Bokain, Simul, and Eucalyptus attracted 
them. Calls usually high pitched and squeaky, sometimes a lazy cheng- 
chaung. 


Earliest seen: January 15th. Largest numbers: mid-March. Latest : 
March 25th. 


Molpastes cafer. Redvented Bulbul. 
Resident. Common, particularly in open cultivation. 
Breeding: Courtship: April, pairs broke away from patties. 
Nesting: May to August, one nest in the garden placed about 20 
ft. high on a Shisham tree. 
Young: June, the earliest out with parents. 
Parties: From September. Large and lively parties attracted by 
ripe Zizyphus fruit in the valley and joined forces with Whitecheeked 
Bulbuls to wreak havoc on pea plants in gardens. 


Molpastes leucogenys. Whitecheeked Bulbul. 


Resident. Common, particularly about gardens and scrub jungle. 
M. 1. leucotis with the short crest common in Delhi was never seen here. 
Breeding: Courtship: April, pairs broke away from parties. 

Nesting: May to August in thick sciub jungle. Inconspicuous and 
quiet in behaviour, but many nests came to grief in very exposed posi- 
tions. 

Parties: From September. Increased in size in November when 
attracted by garden plants. 


632 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HAYST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4 


Otocompsa flaviventris. Blackcrested Yellow Bulbul. 


Winter. Fairly common in wooded parts and gardens. Always seen 
in pairs. A pair would visit the same locality punctually every day fora 
time. The extra musical bulbul cali usually attracted attention first. 

Earliest seen: November 4th, usually mid-November. Latest: 
January. 

Never seen in summer. 


Certhia himalayana. Himalayan Tree-Creeper. 
Winter. Fairly common. ‘Two or three usually working up. trees 
with travelling hunting associations in wooded parts. 
Earliest seen: October 14th—increased by December. Latest : March 
20th. 


Tichodroma muraria. Wall-Creeper. 


Winter. Fairly common. A few solitary birds took up territories 
along the river banks and could usually be seen there, working up the 
perpendicular faces, or squatting on the boulders of the bed. 

Earliest seen: November 12th. Latest: March 16th. 


Saxicola caprata. Pied Bush-chat. 


Mainly summer. Common everywhere except forest in summer. 
Breeding: Courtship: March, a large increase in numbers, parti- 
cularly females. Male song and display of flight and fluffing out the 
white wing feather one of the main features of open country. 
Nesting: Aprii to August. Nests very cleverly concealed. 
Young: From May, family parties hunting, young in female 
plumage. . 
Decrease: September. From October males solitary within 
territories, femaies very scarce. 


Saxicola torquata. Collared Bushchat. 


Winter. Fairly common in open country holding solitary territories. 
Females in the minority. 

Earliest seen: September 3rd. Latest : End of April. 

Largest numbers: End of February. Many more femaies arrived. 


Rhodophila ferrea [ferrea]. Dark-grey Bushchat. 


Winter. Common, in all types of country except forest. Mostly 
males holding solitary territories. A male took up the same territory in 
a garden three years running. 

Earliest seen : October 5th. Early arrivals mostly in female plumage. 
About a week after the earliest they were common in pairs and smail 
parties for a few days before decreasing and spreading out. Latest seen: 
End of March. 


Cercomela fusca. Brown Rock Chat. 


Resident. Not common. A few pairs always about the main F.R.I. 
building ; not noted elsewhere. 


Oenanthe picata. Pied Wheatear. 


Winter. Not common. Seen solitary frisking about the boulders of 
the dry river bed, and on a disused stone hut in the valley. A continu- 


NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF DEHRA DUN 633 


ous bobbing movement when perched, then a low direct flight to the 
next perch. 
Earliest seen: December 17th. Latest : February 12th. 


Phoenicurus ochrurus. Black Redstart. 


Winter. Fairly common about hedges and ravines in dry bushy parts, 
holding solitary territories. Very much paler than the eastern race. In 
winter 1950 females were in the majority. 

Earliest seen: September 26th. On arrival in 1950, 3 or 4 females 
were together. Latest: Mid-May. 


Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus. Whitecapped Redstart. 


Winter. Fairly common. Holding territories, solitary or in pairs, 
along stretches of river banks and canals where they seemed to prefer 
those parts frequented by men and animals. One made its headquarters 
in the vicinity of the Academy buildings some distance from water for 
two years running. Another spent much time fiying in and out of the 
horses’ stables. 

Earliest seen: October 17th. Latest: March 4th. 

As the river dried up, their numbers along the canals increased. 


Rhyacornis fuliginosus. .Plumbeous Redstart. 


Winter. Fairly common on rivers and canals. Sometimes in pairs. 
The female often in company with a Whitecapped Redstart seemed to 
work much harder than the male. 

Earliest seen: October 21st. Latest: February 27th. 


Cyanosylvia svecica. Bluethroat. 


Winter. Fairly common. Usually solitary in vegetation round damp 
localities and in standing crops. 

Earliest seen: September 3rd. Latest: May 4th. 

Largest numbers: April, often in pairs and small parties. Males 
perched on exposed positions singing a full vigorous song. 


Calliope pectoralis. Himalayan Rubythroat. 


Winter. Seldom seen. Usually solitary, hunting quietly on the 
ground at the base of hedges and shrubbery in cultivation and wooded 
parts. When alarmed, the action of ‘freezing’ with neck stretched 
upwards to reveal the scarlet throat patch like a danger signai, was noted. 
Much darker than the Common Rubythroat. 

Earliest seen: October 19th. Latest: January 17th. 


Adelura caeruleocephala. Blueheaded Robin. 


Spring. More common some years than others, but regular visitors 
to parts where woods border on open country. Males always more 
numerous and conspicuous than females, the sexes never seen together. 
Habits a mixture between those of a Flycatcher and a Redsiart. A sharp 
trrr the only call note heard. Their appearance usualiy coincided with 
the coldest spell of weather over the hills. 

Earliest seen: January 6th. Males usuaily became common at once 
Latest: March 3rd. 


634 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Volt. 54 


Saxicoloides fulicata. Brownbacked Indian Robin. 


Resident. Common particularly about bushy parts of waste lands and 
broken stony ground, where pairs held territories. 
Breeding: Courtship: From end of February, song and display 
by males. 
Nesting: March to August. 


Copsychus saularis. Magpie Robin. 


Mainly resident. Common about gardens and round villages in cuiti- 
vation. Females scarce out of breeding season. 

Breeding: Courtship: End of March ‘sotto voce’ song from 
male from inconspicuous perch. 

First week of April, an increase of females greeted by beginning of 
loud full song from high conspicuous perches, aggression, and display by 
males. A repetition of this behaviour in October for a short while. 

Nesting: May to August. Dry leaves collected and filled into 
natural holes or nesting boxes, mostly by females. 

Young: June 6th, the earliest young being fed at nest. One parent 
always on guard while other foraged. The kavry warning note used 
frequently. 

Decrease: October, majority of females departed. Males then 
hunted solitary within territories very quietly. 


Turdus atrogularis. Blackthroated Thrush. 


Mainly spring. Fairly common in nearly all types of country in 
mixed parties, often feeding on the ground. The distinctive call note 
usually heard first from high up on a tree-top. 

Earliest seen: December 6th. Largest numbers: February. Latest: 
end of March. 

Several other thrushes appeared as winter visitors. ‘Tickeli’s Thrush 
almost certainly arrived about January and fed solitary and very quietly 
on lawns, stopping every few moments to take a wary look round. 


Monticola cinchlorhyncha. Blueheaded Rock Thrush. 

Spring and autumn passage. Not common. A few brief appearances 
in scrub jungle and gardens, probably on passage. 

Earliest seen : September 26th, a solitary female hunting confidently 
about the garden. Latest: April 13th, two or three males chased each 
other across a scrub jungle path, at least one female also present. 


Monticola solitaria. Blue Rock Thrush. 


Not common. On May Ist 1950 one appeared sharply bowing on 
a garden path and high ledges of the roof. 


Geokichla citrina. Orangeheaded Ground Thrush, 


Summer. Commonly heard and often seen in wooded parts feeding 
quietly on the ground. Shy of observation. No signs of them in 
winter. 

Earliest song heard: April 13th. Latest : Mid-September. 

Breeding: Courtship: Mid-April to September. Male song uttered 
at dawn and sunset from a high perch ona horizontal branch of a tall 


NOLES ON THE BIRDS OF DEHRA DUN 635 


tree. While thus engaged, no objection to observation. The beautiful 
mellow song crowded with many imitations of other birds. 
A renewed outburst of song in July. 


Myophoneus caeruleus. Himalayan Whistling Thrush. 

Winter. Fairly common in wooded parts. Usually solitary holding 
territories, but on arrival and before departure often in pairs. In winter 
it starts the dawn chorus of song, with two or three shrill whistles, 
followed by a short version of the lovely song; this was repeated in the 
late evening. 

Earliest seen: October 6th. ‘The first song usually heard about four 
days after. Latest: end March, 


Prunella atrigularis. Blackthroated Accentor. 


Winter. Not common. In January 1949 a few were scattered about 
Zizyphus and other low scrub in the Gaulaitla valley. They worked their 
way quietly in and out of the bushes. 


Muscicapa strophiata. Orangegorgetted Flycatcher. 

Winter. Fairly common in thickly wooded parts where the jiower 
branches of large trees were favourite perches to hunt from. The cail 
note, a deep throaty ¢chak / attracted attention. Another call, a very high 
pitched monotonous peep, peep, beep continuously repeated seemed to be 
usually made by the female, though the male also intersperses them with 
the first call. Headquarters were established, sometimes in the same 
spot every year. 

Earliest seen : end of October. Latest: end of March. 


Muscicapa parva. Redbreasted Flycatcher. 
Winter. Fairly common. Conspicuous in call and action about 
_ gardens and edges of wooded parts, groves, and in open country. Usually 
solitary. No vestige of red seen on any of their breasts. 
Earliest seen: October 8th. Latest: April 13th. 
Largest numbers: April, becoming suddenly much more common 
and often in pairs. : 


Alseonax Iatirostris. Brown Flycatcher. 


Winter. Not common. Occasionaliy seen solitary in gardens and 
wooded parts, hunting from high perches usually with an association of 
small birds. 

Earliest seen: October 8th. Latest: February. 


Muscicapula tricolor. Slaty Blue Flycatcher. 


Winter. Common in gardens and the undergrowth of wooded parts, 
low scrub in the valley. On arrival each appeared to take up a territory 
using the iower branches for observation perches, but too active to perch 
for long. Usual call a rapid éick / tick / tick ! sometimes feep-peep- 
kit/ In 1950 the majority seen were in female plumage: other years 
about equal. 

Earliest seen: October 16th. Latest: end of March. 


10 


636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY “NATURAL. HIS. \SOCEE IY sol a4 


Muscicapula rubeculoides. Biuethroated Flycatcher. 

Summer. Common in scrub jungle ravines and other thickly wooded 
parts. Partial to the branches of banyan and peepul trees. Inquisitive 
_rather than shy. Their song a feature of their habitat. ' 

Earliest heard: April 10th. Latest: October 3rd. 

Breeding: Courtship: Mid-April, in pairs. Loud and very lively 
song from the male and aggressive chases. Territories established 
especially in ravines where several pairs held closely adjacent ones. 

Nesting : May—September. 

Neither Tickell’s nor the Blacknaped Flycatchers were seen in the 

study area. 


Muscicapula superciliaris. Whitebrowed Blue Flycatcher. 


Winter. Not comimon. A solitary bird was in the garden, hunting 
froin perches on trees and shrubs from March 14th to 18th, 1950. 


Niltava sp. ? Niltava. 

Winter. Not common. Seen in January two years running in the 
same small plantation of Teak in New Forest area, hunting among the 
undergrowth. The male had bright rufous flanks but there was no good 
view of chin and breast. One in female plumage had a conspicuous 
crescentic patch white on the brown breast. 

This was probably the Small Niltava (4. macgrigoriae) being too 
simall for the Rufousbeliied Niltava (V. sundara).* 


Eumyias thalassina. Verditer Flycatcher. 

Autumn and spring. Not very common. Usually solitary, hunting 
quietly from trees in wooded parts and cultivation. Very seldom noted 
between spring and autumn passages. 

Earliest seen: August 13th. Latest: March 20th. 

Largest numbers: March, sometimes small scattered parties. 


Culicicapa ceylonensis. Greyheaded Flycatcher. 

Mainly autumn and spring. Common, in wooded parts. Usually with 
hunting associations, where the lively behaviour and distinctive call 
attracted attention. Comparatively few seen between autumn and spring 
passages. 

Earliest seen: October 9th. Latest: March 20th. 

Largest numbers: Early March, in pairs and sometimes small parties. 


Tchitrea paradisi. Paradise Flycatcher. 

Summer. Remarkably common wherever there are trees. Mono- 
polising attention by seif-possessed behaviour, appearance, and calls. 
Often perched on wire surrounds of garden mali ponds and hawked 
insects off the surface of the water. 

Breeding: Courtship: April, on arrival, males chased each other 
ageressively through the foliage with excited call. 

Nesting : May to July. In decreased numbers. Quieter and :more 
secretive behaviour. Pairs in definite territories. Most nests low down, 


1 The flanks of NV. macgrigoriae are grey with no rufous onthem. LEDs. . 


NOTES ON THE BIRDS’ OF DEHRA. DUN 637 


but one high up on a garden Jacaranda. Incubation equally shared by 
the sexes. 
Young: From July, in female plumage hawking confidently with 
parents. 
Earliest seen: April lst. Latest: October 20th. Majority by end of 
September. 
Largest numbers: About 10 days after arrival. 


Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum. Yeilowbellied Fantaii Flycatcher. 


Winter. Fairly common. Usually solitary in lightly wooded parts, 
behaving in its charming manner on high perches on trees. Sometimes 
with an association of birds. The high guzt/ is a distinctive call note. 

Earliest seen: November 28th. Increased by late December. 
Latest: February 27th. 


Rhipidura aureola. Whitebrowed Fantail Flycatcher. 
Resident. Fairly common. Usually in pairs about gardens, light 
forest, and groves of trees in open country. 
Breeding: Hot weather and rains. 
Young: In May, 


Rhipidura albicollis. Whitethroated Fantail Fiycatcher. 


Resident. Common. In the greater cover of scrub jungle ravines, 
but coming freely into gardens. The cail not so perfect as the White- 
browed Fantail Flycatcher’s, and a harsh note most often used. 

Breeding: May to August, One nest was ridiculously low down 
and conspicuous in a ravine, a parent danced madly on the bough while 
its eggs were being observed. 


Lanius vittatus. Baybacked Shrike. 


Mainly summer. Fairly common in summer. ‘The few resident in 
territories in dry bushy parts of the valley. Usually in pairs. 
Breeding: Courtship: End of Aprii, noisy behaviour. 


Lanius schach. Rufousbacked Shrike. 


Resident. The common shrike of the area. Solitary in winter, hold- 
ing territories in open country, especially cuitivation. 
Breeding: Courtship: End of January. Calling to each other 
and singing from perches. 
April— Full challenging song, crowded with imitations. 
Nesting: Aprilto June. Weli hidden in thick masses of foliage, 
often the end of a pollarded branch of a tree. Secretive and silent. 
Young: From June, mostly in August. Parents loudly advertised 
and fiercely guarded the brown young hidden within thick bushes. 


Hemipus picatus capitalis. Brownbacked Pied Shrike. 


Mainly winter. Common in winter, in parties about the treetops in 
well-wooded patts. Sometimes hunting with other birds among shrubs. 
Behaviour more that of a flycatcher than a shrike. Quickly repeated 
whistles announced the advent of a travelling party. 


638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Breeding: A few pairs seen through summer and rains. In May 
a pair evidently had a nest high up on a tree at the edge of a scrub jungle 
ravine. Scarce and quiet. 
Young: <A small family party in August. 
Parties: October, parties became common. 


Tephrodornis pondicerianus. Common Wood-Shrike. 

Resident. Fairly common in wooded parts. Often hunting with 
other birds. 

Breeding: May, a pair were fiercely defending a nest high up a 
tree in thick scrub jungle. : 


Pericrocotus brevirostris. Shortbilled Minivet. 
Winter. Conimon in parties that travelled through treetops, never 
remaining anywhere for long, in wooded parts. Parties usually mixed, 
sometimes separate sexes. In March an all-male party looked delightful, 
hovering over and perching on tips of ripening corn in open cultivation. 
Earliest seen: October 10th. Latest: end of March. 
The Scarlet Minivet (P. spectosus) Was never seen. 
[‘ Not uncommon in the Dun and ascending the hills to about 
5,000 ft.” B.B.O. Eps. | 


Pericrocotus roseus. Rosy Minivet. 

Summer. Notcommon. A solitary male, probably one of a pair, 
was seen on a single occasion in April in a scrub jungie ravine. 

In April two years earlier, they seemed common in mixed parties at 
Thano a forested area further along the foothills. 


Pericrocotus peregrinus. Little Minivet. 
Resident. Not very common. In small parties about treetops in 
most types of country. Never seen hunting in company with other birds. 
Breeding: Summer, seen in pairs. 


Lalage melaschista. Dark-grey Cuckoo-Shrike. 

Summer. Fairly common in lightly wooded parts. More offen heard 
than seen. The call a scale of descending notes monotonously repeated 
uttered from an exposed perch on a treetop. 

Earliest call heard: May 15th. Latest seen: September 10th. No 
signs of them in winter. 

Breeding: Courtship: Mid-July. Pairs perched together on a 
tree indulging in noisy behaviour towards each other. 


Graucalus javensis. Large Cuckoo-Shrike. 

Mainly winter. Fairly common, singly, in pairs, or parties of up to 
ten, attracting attention by harsh calls. Parties often seen feeding on the 
ground about hedges and shrubs in open country. Always attracted by 
fruit trees. 

Increase: Early October. Solitary or in twos and threes. 

Decrease: March. Extremely few seen in summer and rains. 

Largest numbers: January. Parties common. 


NOLES ON -bHE BIRDS OF DETRA. DUN 639 


Dicrurus macrocercus. Black Drongo. 


Mainly summer and rains. Common in open country and lightly 
wooded parts. 

Increase: March. 

Decrease : From November ; in reduced numbers but collecting in 
parties occasionally to hawk over irrigated fields. A party in January 
numbered over 20. 

Breeding: Courtship: March, singing and aerial display. Court- 
ing hard by April. 

Nesting: May to July. A nest ona garden Jerminxalia together 
with nesting pairs of Tree-Pie and Golden Oriole. 

Young: From June. Young with short graduated tails perching 
on telegraph wires. 


Chibia hottentotta. Haircrested Drongo. 


Resident. Fairly common about wooded parts away from habita- 
tions, particuarly the tea gardens. Distinguished by larger size and 
longer slightly curved bill. In February attracted by flowering Silk 
Cotton trees. 

Breeding: Courtship: March. Courting with soft fragments of 
song. 

Young: October. A family of four or five young with short gradua- 
ted tails formed a noisy party with parents among the shade trees of a 
tea garden. 


Orthotomus sutorius. Tajlor-bird. 


Resident. Common everywhere except dry open country and thick 
forest. Sometimes in small parties. 

Breeding: May to July ; favourite sites in garden hedges ; nests 
wonderfully concealed. 


Cisticola juncidis. Fantail Warbler. 


Not common. On March 8th a solitary bird rose out of crops and 
high up into the air in clicking jerks. 


Franklinia gracilis. Franklin’s Wren-Warbler. 

Resident. Very common in winter in large parties of 30 or more in 
lightly wooded parts, gardens, and hedges in cultivation. Continually 
active following each other from bush to bush. The flock call note a 
tee-tec-tee-tee-tee. 

Breeding: Courtship: April. Flocks decreased in size ; individ- 
uals from exposed perches uttering a monotonous two-note chirring call, 

Nesting : May to August in areas of thick cover. Secretive and 
shy. 
Young : End of September. Small family parties. 
Parties: October, gradually increasing in size. 


Sylvia curruca. Lesser Whitethroat. 


Mainly autumn and spring. Not very common. Solitary or in smal! 
scattered parties about scrub in open country, and along bush-fringed 
river banks. 


Barliest seen : October 30th. Latest : End of February. 


640 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Prinia sylvatica. Jungle Wren-Warbler. 

Summer. Fairly common in pairs about patches of Zzzyphus scrub 
in the valley. ‘The white outer tail feathers distinguished as they dived 
into cover when approached. 

Breeding: Courtship: A wheezy jingle of song from a perch on 
the tip of a bush. 

Nesting : June to July. 

Earliest heard : May 31st. 


Prinia inornata. Indian Wren-Warbler. 
Resident. Fairly common in cultivation and open bushy parts of the 
valley. 


Prinia socialis. Ashy Wren-Warbler. 
Resident. Common in garden hedges, damp herbage, and cultivation. 
The lively behaviour end snapping of wings always attracted attention. 
Breeding: Courtship : Conspicuously perched uttering loud chal- 
lenging call notes. | 
Nesting : Rains. 
Young : August, family parties about in herbage. 


Homochlamys pallidus. Pale Bush-Warbler. 

Mainly autumn and spring. Fairly common in hedges and herbage 
round cultivation and gardens. Skulking habits. Theloud surprisingly 
beautiful song heard in spring attracted attention to this rather large 
brown warbler with a pale eyestreak and lower parts. 


Seicercus xanthoschistos. Greyheaded Flycatcher-Warbler. 
Winter. Fairly common, solitary or in small scattered parties with 
associations, hunting among trees and shrubs in most types of country. 
Earliest seen: October 2nd. Latest: end of March. 
Largest numbers: Autumn and spring. 


Seicercus burkii. Blackbrowed Flycatcher-W arbler. 

Winter. Fairly common, usually in small parties with associations in 
forest, scrub jungle ravines, and tea gardens, Distinguished by the yellow 
ring round the eye. Shyer than the last species. 

Earliest seen: November Ist. Latest: April 3rd. 

Largest numbers: February. 


Phylloscopus inornatus. Yellowbrowed Warbler. 

Winter. Common, moving with associations wherever there were 
trees. Constant rapid flitting about made it most difficult to get a good 
view of it. 

Earliest seen: October 4th. Latest: April 3rd. 

Largest numbers: End of March. A marked increase. Mango 
blossoms a great attraction. | 


Phylloscopus proregulus. Pallas’s Willow-Warbler. 

Winter. Common. In small parties hunting on their own or with 
an association in wooded parts. The habit of hovering before an attrac- 
tive piece of foliage when the yellow rump patch was conspicuous 
identified it, | 


NORESMON “THE BIRDS: OF DEHRA: DUN 641 


Earliest seen: November 16th. Latest: March 25th. 
Largest numbers: February. 


Phylloscopus occipitalis. Large crowned Willow-Warbler. 


Winter. Fairly common in small parties often with associations, in 
wooded parts. Thecall of rapid whistles like a sunbird’s. 
Earliest seen: September 27th. 


Oriolus kundoo. [Indian Oriole. 


Summer. Common about wooded parts and groves of trees in open 
country. With the Paradise Flycatcher, providing the most striking bird 
feature of the summer months. 

Earliest seen: March 21st. Latest: September 28th. 

Breeding: Courtship: April. In squabbling parties, chasing each 
other. 

Nesting: End April to August. Nests often slung high on Shisham 
trees, sometimes in company with other birds. 

Young: From July, family parties in female plumage guarded with 
noisy excitement. 

Largest numbers : Mid-April. 


Oriolus xanthornus. Blackheaded Oriole. 


Winter. Fairly common. Solitary in wooded parts and groves in 
open country. Its presence usually announced by the only call heard 
here a loud tew! Neither seen nor heard in summer and rains. Its 
appearance seemed to coincide with the disappearance of O. kundoo. 

Eariiest :. October 4th. Latest seen: mid-March, 


Oriolus traillii. Maroon Oriole. 


Winter. Not common. A few appearances each winter. Both a 
male and a female, separately used a garden Eucalyptus tree as a perch. 
Both uttered the harsh farrr! call as well as some melodious Oriole calls. 

Earliest seen: November 20th. Latest: March 2nd—usually mid- 
December. 


Saroglossa spiloptera. Spottedwing Stare. 


Summer. Fairly common in flocks on irregular visits. A flock 
would spend a few hours about a patch of scrub jungie bushes or trees 
in flower, keeping up a ‘ chittering ’ before moving on to another patch. 

Earliest seen: April 12th. Flowering trees of Gyvevillea and 
Erythrina were main attractions. No more seen till June. Latest: July 
4th. The flock included several young being fed by parents. 


Acridotheres tristis. Common Myna. 


Resident. Very common as usual Not as fond of sewage and 
refuse as Jungle and Pied Mynas. 
Breeding: Courtship: Early February, break up of flocks ; pairs 
quarrelling over nest holes. 
Nesting : March to September. 
Young: Fromend of May. Families of young following parents 
about grassy spaces. 
Flocks: October. Flocks re-formed. 


642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HEIST. SOCIETY Viola 14 


Acridotheres ginginianus. Bank Myna. 

Winter. Fairly common in parties in the valley, attendant on grazing 
cattle, or forming part of the large flock of mixed mynas hunting in 
irrigated fields, especially sewage. 

In June a few miles away, in Dehra Dun Cantonment, they were 
breeding, but this area was evidently only used as winter feeding 
grounds ; never noted in summer. 

Earliest seen: August 21st. Latest: May 7th. 


Sturnopastor contra. Pied Myna. 


Resident. Common round villages and damp localities. Partial to 


sewage irrigation of market gardens. 
Breeding: Aprilto August. Pleasant song at this time. 
Flocks: September, flocks formed again. 


Sturnia malabarica. Greyheaded Myna. 

Summer. Fairly common in pairs and small parties in open country 
and lightly wooded parts. Feeding on trees in fruit, never with other 
mynas on the ground. 

Breeding: End April to July. In holes in pipal and other large 
trees where Other mynas also had nest holes. 

Parties: Small parties from end of September. 

Increase : March. 


Temenuchus pagodarum. Brahminy Myna. 

Summer. Common, in most types of country. Only occasionally 
seen in winter. Calls amusing, musical and full of character. 

Increase: February, in pairs and small parties. 

Decrease: End oi September. Though scarce in winter, on two occa 
sions in December large flocks were seen. 

Breeding: April to August. Nest holes high up on trees. A long 
time was spent before deciding on a suitable hole and many pairs of other 
birds were driven out of theirs during the search. 

Young: July 9th, the earliest family parties shepherded about lawns 
and open spaces. 

Fiocks: Mid-September. 


Aethiopsar fuscus. Jungle Myna. 
Resident. Common. Partial to irrigation in open country, especially 


sewage. 
Breeding: Courtship: April, flocks broke up into pairs and small 


parties. 
Nesting: May to July. Nests in holes in large trees, in wooded 
parts, paiticularly tea gardens; coming freely into gardens, 
Young: Mid-June, the earliest family parties out. 
Flocks: Early September, flocks reformed in old haunts in open 


country. 


Sturnus vulgaris. Starling. 

Winter. Common in flocks about open cultivation, joining other 
mynas feeding in irrigated fields. Parties sunned themselves high up on 
the bare tips of trees, The plumage very dull on arrival, was glossier by 
January. 


—— 


NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF DEHRA DUN 643 


| Earliest seen: November Sth ; in full strength a week later. Latest: 
Mid-March (majority in February). 


Ploceus philippinus. Baya Weaver-bird. 


Resident. Common in open country in flocks. 

Breeding: End May, males assume breeding plumage. In June 
they begin building in former colonies, often on Acacia catechu trees 
surrounded by Zizyphus scrub. 

Nesting: July to August, joint occupation of nests with females. In 
September, cocks renewed building activities, but these nests appeared to 
remain vacant or unfinished. | 

Flocks: End October, large compact flocks, mostiy with traces of 
yellow about the head and neck, remained in the vicinity of their colonies. 


Uroloncha malabarica. Whitethroated Munia. 


Resident. Common in open country, short scrub, and edges of light 
forest. 

Breeding: Chiefly 1n the rains. 

Parties: kn winter. 


Amandava amandava. Red Avadavat or Waxbill. 


Resident. Fairly common in small flocks in open country about 
patches of Zizyfhus near the river banks. 
Breeding: From November, the males in full breeding plumage. 


Uroloncha punctulata. Spotted Munia. 


Resident. Common in open country, about hedges; attendant on 
ripening crops. 

Breeding: Courtship: June, in pairs, males often perching on 
tips of bushes to ‘ sing’. 

Nesting : July to September, in scrub jungle and more wooded parts. 
Nests often placed in dense garden shrubs and creepers. Both sexes very 
busy and quick at building. Many nests were built and deserted. 

Young: From August, small family parties. 

Flocks: November, full sized flocks in usual haunts. 


Capodacus erythrinus. Common Rosefinch. 


Mainly autumn and spring. Common in spring about ripe crops 
and flowering trees, in cultivation, gardens, and scrub jungle. Often seen 
in flight holding a flower by the base. 

Autumn Passage: Earliest seen: September 13th, flocks almost 
entirely in female plumage feeding on ripening jowar crops. 

Scarce between December and February. 

Spring Passage: Earliest increase: March 25th, a sharp increase 
within a few days. Flocks in maie plumage arrived first, and were 
joined by those in female plumage. Ripe wheat and oat crops, flowers 
of Grevillea, Woodfordia, and. Adhatoda vasica were the main attractions. 

Latest seen: May 7th. (majority mid-April), The last flocks about 
Woodtordia in scrub jungle, consisted of birds all having red throat 
patches, with otherwise female plumage. 


644. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BEST. SS OCIHIY? Violmod 


Carduelis caniceps. Himalayan Goldfinch. 


Spring. Common some years, scarce in others. In parties about 
seeding garden plants, sometimes concentrating on a certain clump till it 
was demolished. 

Earliest seen: February 22nd. Latest : Mid-April. 

Largest numbers: End March 1950, many parties were operating in 
different gardens. 


Hypacanthis spinoides. Himalayan Greenfinch. 


Winter. Fairly common in flocks, about hedges in cultivation, feed- 
ing in fallow fields often with other finches. The flight in close-packed 
formation distinctive. At least one of the party was usually perched on 
some high vantage point singing, while the rest foraged on the ground. 

Earliest seen: November Ist. Latest: January 11th. 


Metaponia pusilla. Goldfronted Finch. 


Spring. A flock took up residence for a short time every year in the 
market gardens. It split up into parties feeding on the ground among 
the vegetable and wild flower seeds, especially dgevatum. The red gold 
patch on the forehead of the male, the close formation during the short 
wheeling flights from one patch of ground to another, the way of alight- 
ing simultaneously on the bare tips of a tree were distinctive. 

Earliest seen: February 1st. Latest : April 2nd. Seme years the flock 
only remained there about a fortnight. 


Gymnorhis xanthocoliis. Yellowthroated Sparrow. 

Summer. Common in open country and lightly wooded parts. Never 
seen in winter. 

Earliest seen: March 17th. Arrived in flocks feeding in fallow fields. 
Latest; July 18th. The departure was always sudden. 

Breeding: April to June. Flocks broke up, and pairs established 
nest holes high up on trees. One of the pair generally perched close by 
the nest chirping monotonously. 

Flocks: Early July, in large flocks, the numbers greatly increased, 


Passer domesticus. House Sparrow. 

Resident. Common and unobtrusive about habitations, and in flocks 
in cultivation. 

From April 30th to May 4th a large and entirely male flock fed in the 
market gardens. 

From July 10th to mid-August, a large flock all in female plumage 
fed on newly germinated rice in the same locality. 

Breeding: March to June chiefly; the empty nests of the Cliff 
Swallow colony were made good use of when they were not in resi- 
dence. : 


Passer rutilans. Cinnamon Sparrow. 


Winter. Fairly common in large flocks of mixed sexes. Not near 
habitations as in Mussoorie, but with headquarters in hedges in culti- 
vation. ‘The loud communal chirping could be heard at a distance. 

Harliest seen: November 5th. Latest: March 19th. Plumage of males 
much brighter. 

Largest numbers: February. 


NOTESSON THE BIRDS (OF DEHRA DUN 645 


Emberiza stewarti. Whitecapped Bunting. 


_ Winter. Common in flocks in open country and edges of light forest. 
When not feeding on the ground they rested hidden within the foliage of 
trees and shrubs. 

Earliest seen: November 14th. Crowns grey. Latest: end April. 
Crowns nearly white. 

Largest numbers: January and February. 

Another Bunting common about the same time was probably the 
Greyheaded Bunting, 2. fucata. , 


Emberiza cia. Eastern Meadow Bunting. 


Spring. Not common. Occasional small parties about the valley 
near cultivation. 
Earliest seen: February. Latest : early March. 


Emberiza melanocephala. Blackheaded Bunting. 


Spring. Notcommon. At the end of April 1947, a small flock was 
about a patch of ripe unharvested crop. ‘They were probably on passage 
and were not seen again. 


Melophus lathami. Crested Bunting. 


Mainly winter. Fairly common in open cultivation and patches of 
‘jherberi’ (Zzzyphus) near river beds. Usually in small mixed parties. 
Earliest seen : September 13th. Latest: May 18th. On one occasion 
on May 3lst, a pair, one of which was singing, were probably breeding. 
Largest numbers: February. 


Hirundo smithii. Wiretailed Swallow. 


Mainly summer. Common in pairs, hawking with other swallows, 
flapping in and out of bungalow verandahs and perching on their sheltered 
ledges. 

Earliest seen: mid-April. Latest: mid-December. Majority at end of 
rains. 

Breeding: May to July, nests very often placed on inner ledges of 
verandah pillars. 

Young: July, the earliest family parties hawked in the vicinity of 
the home buildings and rested in the nest at night. 


Riparia concolor. Dusky Crag Martin. 


Resident. Not common. Two or three pairs resident about the 
building of the Forest Research Institute. 


Riparia rupestris. Crag Martin. 

Spring. Not common. In small flocks, hawking over the remaining 
water of the Tons and Nimi rivers, swooping right down to touch the 
scarcely running waters and wheeling away at great speed to concentrate 
on another stretch. The larger size and white spots on the dark tail 
feathers were distinctive. 

Earliest seen: January 18th. Latest: March 10th. 


646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Riparia paludicola. Indian Sand Martin. 


Resident. Common, in pairs and small flocks about the river banks 
of the valley. 

Breeding: November to January ehicay. Holes in the banks were 
often in solitary positions as well as in colonies. 


Hirundo fluvicola. Cliff Swallow. 


Spring and autumn. A large flock had a permanent colony of nests 
along the underside of an overhanging ledge on the roof of the F.R.I. 
building. The flock worked collectively in everything, collecting mud 
pellets from a stream 4} mile away, hawking high above the building when 
not attending to nests. 

Breeding: Two seasons, February 22nd to rains. September 16th 
to November [ ? | 

Great excitement and chittering prevailed round nests; each bird 
appeared to attend to several of them. 


Hirundo daurica. Striated Swallow. 
Mainly summer. Common in pairs and flocks, hawking over damp 
areas. 
Increase: Early February, arriving in pairs and small parties. 
Decrease : Mid-December, very few remained. 
Breeding: Courtship; February, pairs circled overhead singing. 
Nesting: March to August. Nests placed on roofs of buildings 
under ledges. Rearing of young and completing of the neck of the 
retort-shaped nest ran concurrently in one case. 
Young: Family parties perched close together by day, and roosted 
in the nest at night. 
Flocks: September-—October. Large flocks collected on telegraph 
wires, etc. Early mornings and evenings the sky filled with their 
fluttering forms.? 


Motacilla alba. White wagtail. 
Winter. Common in parties large and small about damp parts and 
open grassy spaces, some solitary. 


Earliest seen: August 3lst. Common a month later. Latest: April 
30th ; majority in February. 


Motacilla maderaspatensis. Large Pied Wagtail. 
Rains and Winter. <A few pairs about the river and market gardens, 
sometimes with other wagtails. 


Departed as the river dried up, and reappeared at the beginning of 
the rains. 


Earliest seen: June 22nd. 


Motacilla cinerea. Grey Wagiail. 


Winter. Common. Solitary or in pairs near any miGad of water. 
Rarliest seen: August 31st. Often arriving in small parties. Common 
by September 10th. Latest: April 27th. Generally in pairs. 


1 These are winter immigrants of the race mzpalensis, EDS. 


NOTES ON THE BIRDS, OF DEHRA®’ DUN 647 


Motacilla flava. Yellow Wagtall. 

Winter. Common in flocks in the valley in attendance on grazing 
cattle, or with other wagtails in irrigated fields. Not so common between 
autumn and spring. 

Earliest seen: September 9th. Plumage dull and very varied. Largest 
numbers: end February. Latest seen: May 22nd; majority April. 
Yellow parts of the plumage bright. The last parties appeared to be the 
Blueheaded Wagtail (47. £ dvema). 


Motacilla citreola. Yellowheaded Wagtail. 


Winter. Not common. A few with the whole head yellow occasionally 
seen with other wagtails along the river beds. 
Earliest : November 12th. 


Anthus hodgsoni. Indian Tree Pipit. 


Winter. Common in parties feeding on the ground under trees in 
gardens and lightly wooded parts. 

Earliest seen: September 15th. Latest: May 7th (majority end April). 

Largest numbers: April. 


Anthus trivialis. ‘Tree Pipit. 


Spring. Common in flocks in open cultivation, especially the market 
gardens. Greyer than the last. Feeding on the ground and flying up on 
to the bare tips of trees. 

Earliest seen: February Ist. Latest : end April. 

Largest numbers: end March, a large increase. 


Anthus roseatus. Hodgson’s Pipit. 


Another pipit, common in flocks in winter, feeding in damp parts of 
open cuHivation, was dark in general colour with a heavily streaked 
breast. One caught bird had a few thin feathers under the wing 
(axillaries) bright yellow. 


Anthus rufulus. Indian Pipit. 


Resident. Fairly common. In pairs on open grassy places and 
tallow fields. 

Breeding: Judging from their agitated behaviour, a pair were 
evidently nesting, or had young in a fallow field. May 20th. 


Alauda gulguia. Little Skylark. 


Resident. Fairly common about the fallow fields and dry grassy 
parts of the valley. 
Breeding: Courtship: End April, singing and soaring. 
Nesting: June to September. 


Alauda arvensis. Skylark. 


Winter. Fairly common in small flocks, feeding on the ground 
between the young wheat plants, in open cultivation. 
Earliest seen : November. 


648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Galerida cristata. Crested Lark. 


Resident. Fairly common, small scattered parties, about patches of 
Zizybhus, and stony sandy surrounds of the rivers. A clear, pleasant 
song. 

Breeding: Courtship: March, hovering high and singing. 

Nesting: April to August. Nests built into the base of Zizyphus 
bushes. 

Young: May. A family of 3 young in a nest resembied a large 
striped toad as they ‘froze’ with bills pressed together. 


Eremopteryx grisea. Ashycrowned Finch-Lark. 


Resident. Common in open dry parts of the valley and river beds. 
Running and squatting among the boulders. 
Breeding: Courtship: March, males singing in soaring flight, 
diving with the whistling sound of air forced through wing feathers. 
Nesting: April to September. 
F locks: October. 


Zosterops palpebrosa. White-eye. 


Resident. Common about all lightly wooded parts and regular 
attendants on all flowering shrnbs and trees. 

Breeding: Courtship: April, perched solitary and singing a song 
that began softly and became louder. 

Nesting: April to August. Most nests slung very low down on 
shrubs in thick scrub jungle. Parents were shy and left the eggs exposed 
for long periods. 

Parties: September, small parties which increased in size to large 
ones. They generally formed the nucleus of the hunting associations of 
smail birds for the winter. 


Aethopyga siparaja. Yellowbacked Sunbird. 


Resident. Fairly common about gardens and light forest. The shrub 
Hamelia patens, in flower nearly throughout the year, was much favoured, 
and the corollas of Russclia juncea were regularly pierced by their bills. 
The yellow on the back never seemed to be visible. Comparatively few 
males in full plumage; many in female plumage with red throat-patches. 

Breeding: In September, a female had been very busy pulling fine 
strips off cane chairs and plant stems on the veranda. 

These were woven into a nest slung under the thick canopy of foliage 
overhanging aravine. The male appeared to take no part in construction 
but was in the vicinity. ‘The nest was never used. 


Aethopyga ignicauda. Mrs. Goulds Yellowbacked Sunbird. 


Winter. Not common. On December Sth, in scrub jungle, solitary in 
fernale plumage. The identity marks, yellow underparts, purple tail, red 
patches on scapulars. The head, upper back, throat, and upper breast 
olive-green. 


Cinnyris asiaticus. Purple Sunbird. 
Summer. Common. 
Earliest seen: January 21st. Majority end February. Males arrived 


in breeding plumage, and visited the flowers of Adhatoda vasica. — Latest 
seen: September. 


NOLES ON THE BIRDS*OF DEHKA - DUN 649 


Breeding: Courtship: Excited chases by males. 
Nesting: March to July. Seed down of the creeper Crypiolepis 
buchanant eagerly collected for nest lining. 


Piprisoma agile. Thickbilled Flowerpecker. 

Resident. Fairly common. Solitary or in pairs, high up on trees 
attendant on parasitic plants. 

Breeding: About March to June. 


Dicaeum ignipectus. Firebreasted Flowerpecker. 


Resident. Not common. Always seen on the creamy white flowers 
of the parasite Loranthus pulverulentus. Flitting actively about with 
constant chick ! chick ! chick ! The male conspicuous with the orange- 
scarlet patch on the breast, central dark line below it running down the 
abdomen, and blue-black upper parts. 

Earliest seen: Mid-November. Latest: February 22nd. 


Pitta brachyura. Indian Pitta. 


Summer. Not common. Occasionally seen in scrub jungle, hopping 
through the dead leaves under thick cover. 
Earliest seen: May 21st. Latest : September. 


Brachypternus benghalensis. Goldenbacked Woodpecker. 
Resident. Fairly common, solitary or in pairs wherever there were 
tall trees, in the tea gardens specially. 
Breeding: Courtship: March. ‘ Drumming’ heard. 
Nesting: March to July. One nest in open country had the 
entrance-hole on the underside of a low horizontal branch. 


Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus. Crimsonbacked Woodpecker. 


Probably resident. Not common. In April, in the market gardens a 
party of three were working at the large trees, moving from one to 
another in company with Jungle Babblers. In flight the red rump was 
conspicuous. 

Breeding: April 6th, a solitary bird was ‘drumming ’, 


Dryobates auriceps. Brownfronted Pied Woodpecker. 
Resident. Fairly common in the tea gardens. Sometimes with 
hunting associations of small birds in winter. 
Breeding: Courtship: ‘Drumming’ in April. 
Nesting: April and May. 


Iynx torquilla. Wryneck. 


Autumn and spring. Not common. Occasionally seen among bushes 
in open country. 
Earliest seen: September 24th. Latest: April 17th. 


Megalaima virens marshallorum. Great Himalayan Barbet. 


Spring. Not common. In 1947, a small scattered party estabiished 
headquarters in scrub jungle ravines, and visited adjacent gardens, where 


650 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Wok a4 


the berries of Duranta hedges were an attraction. Not seen at al! other 


years. 
Earliest seen: January 21st. Latest : mid-March. 


Megalaima asiatica. Bluethroated Barbet. 
Winter. Not common. Occasionally seen solitary high up on trees 


at fringes of scrub jungle ravines. 
Earliest seen: November 26th. Latest: March 15th. 


Megalaima zeylanicus. Green Barbet. 
Resident. Common, solitary or in pairs in wooded parts and large 
trees in open country, particularly trees in fruit. Subdued in winter. 
Breeding: Courtship: February. Pairs started calling to each 
other. Calling in full strength by end of the month. 
September and October, a renewed burst of calling. 
Nesting: March to June. 


Megalaima haemacephala. Coppersmith. 

Resident. Fairly common, but not as much so as M. zeylanicus, 
The metallic ¢eovz call was never such a feature of early hot weather as 
in the plains. 

Breeding: Courtship: End January; the call became more 
noticeable and gathered strength in February. 

Nesting : February to June. 
Young: June 19th, the earliest out of nest. 

Parties: January, sometimes quite large parties formed to feed on 
fruiting trees, particularly of the fig family. 


Coracias benghalensis. [Indian Roller. 
Resident. Common wherever there were trees, except thicker wooded 
parts. Mostly in defined territories. 
Breeding : Courtship: May, the chief time for displays, and noisy 
behaviour. 
Nesting : May to August. One pair used a bungalow chimney ; 
usually the holes in large pipal trees about the valley. 
Young: July, hunting independently and mewing like kittens. 


Merops orientalis. Green Bee-Eater. 

Mainly summer. Common everywhere except in thiokly wooded 
parts. Scarce in winter. 

Earliest increase: February 24th, arriving in large excited flocks. 

A slight decrease in numbers soon followed, when probably those 
bound for further parts passed on. 

Decrease : Mid-October, only an occasional small party seen after 
this, visiting gardens and wooded parts. 

Breeding: Courtship: March. ‘Though in scattered flocks, pairs 
perched close together, indulged in flirtations. 

Nesting: April to June. The holes solitary and well concealed, 

comparatively few in river banks. One or both parents hunting from low 
fixed perches in vicinity of nest. 


Young: June, the earliest grown young out hawking, their throats 


pale instead of blue. ; | 
Flocks: Mid-June, large roosting flights collected in the evenings. 


NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF DEHRA DUN 651 


Merops superciliosus. Bluetailed Bee-Eater. 


Summer. Common in flocks, with headquarters near the nesting 
colonies on river banks. 

Earliest seen : Apri] 2nd, arriving in pairs and small parties to vicinity 
of old nesting sites. Large increase within a fortnight to form flocks. 
Latest: end September. Numbers gradually reduced. 

Breeding: April to June. Much prospecting of old nests before 
fresh excavations began. The colony of nest-holes in the soft earth of 
low river banks. When not occupied at the nest, the birds squatted on 
boulder below. 

Parties: Mid-June. Family parties hawked away from breeding 
sites over gardens and edges of forest. 


Alcemerops athertoni. B!uebearded Bee-Eater. 


Resident. Fairly common. Usually in pairs about thick scrub 
jungle ravines and well wooded parts. ‘They attracted attention by 
deep-throated croaks and chortles, and general quaint behaviour towards 
each other as though continually indulging in courtship. 

Breeding: May and June. In nest-holes in the perpendicular faces 
of a bank along a path through thick scrub jungle. 

Nest-holes of several years quite close together. Both parents fed 
the young, and were not shy at this time of observation. The usual 
debris of insect chitin scattered on the floor of the entrance. 


Ceryle rudis. Indian Pied Kingfisher. 


Rains. Not very common. Pairs or small parties over the rivers 
when there was sufficient water, crouching on the boulders at the edges 
of streams. As the river dried they probably moved to more permanent 
water only a few miles away. 

Earliest seen: July 7th. 


Halcyon smyrnensis. Whitebreasted Kingfisher. 


Resident. Common, holding territories in gardens and open country. 
From garden ponds, small fish including gold fish were often captured. 
Breeding: Courtship: March, much harsh screaming £7iri, kirz 
interspersed with short chzH! chif! from high perches and on chasing 
flights. 
Nesting. April to July. Large holes (tunnels) in high perpendicular 
banks of jungle ravines. 


Alcedo atthis. Common Kingfisher. 


Rains and winter. Fairly common, solitary or in pairs along 
_ stretches of river where there was water. 
Earliest seen : August 20th. 


Tockus birostris. Grey Hornbill. 


Mainly rains and winter. Common in wooded parts and visiting trees 
in cultivation, particularly trees in fruit. Sailing after each other from 
tree to tree, with weird calls, behaving in an uncouth and amusing 
manner. 

Breeding: February to mid-May. A very few pairs seen during 
this time. 


Vi 


652 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Young: Mid-May, small parties probably family ones, occasionally 
seen. 
Parties: August, increasing in size as winter progressed. 


Upupa epops. Hoopoe. 

Mainly summer. Common, favouring the neighbourhood of dwellings. 
Rather scarce in winter. 

Increase : January. Decrease : October. 

Breeding: Courtship: End January, the ho0-h00-p00 calls subdued 
to begin with strengthened and heard coming from all directions with 
ventriloquial effect. 

Nesting: February to June. Favourite sites for nests, the ventilating 
- and other holes on the undersides of roofs of buildings and village huts. 

Young: April. In May many families of young being fed to the 
accompaniment of shrill chitterings of parents. 

Parties: End August; parties of upto 17. 


Micropus affinis. Indian Swift. 


Mainly summer. Common in pairs and flocks about dweilings, very 
few remained through winter. 

Earliest seen : February 14th, in small parties that increased in size. 
Latest : end October for the majority. 

Breeding: March to September. Besides the usual colonies under 
eaves, many single nesis were built high up on inside corners of house 
verandahs. 


Micropus melba. Alpine Swift. 


Rains. Not common. Occasionally two or three were hawking over- 
head with a party of Indian Swifts, distinguished from them by the much 
larger size, pale underparts, except for a dark band across the breast, and 
the extra speed and dexterity in flight. 

Earliest seen: July. Latest : September. 


Caprimulgus macrurus. Horsfield’s Nightjar. 


Resident. Commonly heard in summer from the scrub jungle 
ravines, from where the remarkable deep chonk / chonk ! chon’! 
resounded after dark. 

Earliest call heard: February 25th. 

Breeding: Courtship: March, the mating calls continued with 
intervals from dark to dawn. Less calling in April, then silent. 

Parties : October, about a dozen nightjars (species ?) hawked over 
a ravine at dusk. | 

There were two or three other nightjar calls; and birds were often 
flushed from the bases of shrubs or seen in rapid flight in the early 
evenings. 


Cuculus canorus. Cuckoo. 


Summer. Fairly common, usually seen in rapid flight between large 
trees in open country. Arrivals and departures were punctual. 

Earliest heard : April 13th. Latest: end July. 

Breeding: Courtship: Pairs or trios chasing each other with 
vigorous calls. 


NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF DEHRADUN 653: 


Cuculus micropterus. Indian Cuckoo. 


Summer. Common in more wooded parts. The call locally described 
as lost my rifle! was often uttered in flight and became a feature of 
the season. : 

Earliest call heard : April 7th, subdued to begin with and only at 
dawn and dusk. Latest: end July. 

Breeding: Courtship: End April, pairs calling in chasing flight, 
and displays while perched close together on a branch. Calls heard all 
night as well as day, particularly moonlight nights. 


Hierococcyx varius. Common Hawk-Cuckoo. 

Summer. Common wherever there were trees. 

Earliest heard: February 18th, early calls very soft and short. Latest : 
end September. 

Breeding: Courtship: Early April, the peak period of shrieking 
day and night. Subdued by May ; only occasionally heard in August. 


Surniculus lugubris. Drongo-Cuckoo. 


Summer. Fairly common in wooded parts. Favouring fixed perches 
usually well exposed on bare tips of large trees overlooking scrub jungle 
ravines. Thus perched ina ‘humped up’ attitude, a seemingly endless 
repetition of the usual call of five or six notes in an ascending scale is. 
indulged in. The other call, like a shrill version of the beginning of the 
‘brain fever’ call without the ‘ brain fever’ part, was also heard accom- 
panied by a lifting of both wings to touch above the back. Earliest 
heard: April 15th; the first bird calls in the early mornings. Latest: 
September 16th. ‘The second type of call mostly heard in August. 

Breeding: Courtship: Early May to June, calling at night as well 
as by day, often beginning about 9 p.m. 


Cacomantis passerinus. Plaintive Cuckoo. 
Rains. Not very common. 


Usually heard calling from large trees in open country. Besides the 
caweeer! call, there was an attractive lilting one. 
Earliest heard: June 19th. Latest: September 13th. 


Clamator jacobinus. Pied Crested Cuckoo. 


Rains. Fairly common in pairs about cultivation and wooded parts. 
Earliest heard: June €th. Latest: October 5th; majority end of 
September. 


Breeding: Courtship: Pairs noisily chased each other on arrival. 


Taccocua leschenaultii. Sjrkeer Cuckoo. 


Resident. Fairly common but inconspicuous till the orange bill was. 
spotted at the edge of scrub jungle ravines or hedges in cultivation. 

Breeding : Courtship: Mid-March, perched high, one was calling 
a series of deep throaty sounds. 


Eudynamis scolopaceus. Koel. 


Summer. Common, usually seen in pairs. Often feeding on fruiting 
trees, the berries of Cinmamomum camphora favoured. 


654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Earliest call heard : March 24th; first calls gentle, only early mornings. 
End April, calling full strength. Latest heard: end October; the last of 
the cuckoos. 


Centropus sinensis. Common Crow-Pheasant. 


Resident. Fairly common, usualiy solitary in gardens and bushy 
parts of damp cultivation. 
Breeding: Courtship: Pairs, calling the deep hood call frequently 
heard, and from a high perch the deep, descending cock, cock. 
Young: Early October. 


Psittacula eupatria. Large Indian Parakeet. 


Resident ? Not common. In August, a party fed on fruiting trees 
jn a garden. Small parties of parakeets which seemed large sometimes 
seen in the distance throughout the year. 


Psittacula krameri. Green Parakeet. 


Resident. Common in flocks which were smaller than those usual in 
in the plains. In gardens and open country wherever there were ripe 
crops or trees in flower or fruit. 

Breeding: January to May. The large shade trees of tea gardens 
favoured for nest holes. 

Young: March, patties in flight with tailless young. 

Flocks: Mid-August, the regular morning and evening flights 

between roosts and feeding grounds began. 


Psittacula cyanocephala. Biossomheaded Parakeet. 


Resident. Common in small flocks about the same feeding grounds 
as P. kramer’, but not mixing with them. Distinguished at a distance 
by the lighter and prettier calls. 

Breeding: February to May. ~ They did not seem to use the trees 
of the tea gardens, and were still seen in small parties during this time. 

Young: Early April. Quite large flocks in June consisting entirely 
of tailless young fed on the flowers of Cannabis sativa, ‘ Bhang’. 

Flocks: October. Largé flocks on jowar crops and trees in flower 
and truit. 


Psittacula himalayana. Slatyheaded Parakeet. 


Winter. Common in flocks in gardens and other lightly wooded 
parts. The flocks stayed some time in one area, before moving to 
another. Besides excited calls scree! scree! a long drawn out weeeenge/ 
was a flock call as they fed scattered about a group of trees. Special 
attractions were berries of Duranta hedges, camphor berries, the russet 
seeds ot Terminalis myriccarpa, flowers of Bauhinia purpurea, and in 
February the dry pods of Shisham (Dalbergia). 

Earliest seen: September 15th. Latest: March 16th, majority in 
February. Heard April 4th. 


Otus sunia. Scops Owl. 

Summer. Commonly heard in summer, endlessly repeating its 
kwuk-kuck-kuk after dark. 

Calls : March to June. In full strength in May. Silent by July. 


NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF DEHRA DUN 655: 


Athene brama. Spotted Owlet. 


Resident. Common and to be seen at ali times of the day. Pairs and 
family parties with permanent homes in big trees. 
Breeding: March to May. Chimneys of bungalow sometimes used 
for nest holes. | 
Young: August. Many family parties of young about. 
Parties: In February, a party of over 20 had collected to prey on 
emerging winged termites in the valiey. 


Glaucidium radiatum. Jungle Owlet. 


Resident. Fairly common; occasionally seen in daylight perched very 
still and quiet at the edge of jungle ravines. Distinguished by the 
general dark chestnut colour and very close barring. 


Glaucidium brodiei. Pigmy Collared Owlet. 


Winter. Not common, December 8th, New Forest—a solitary bird 
flushed from thick undergrowth. A bell-like four-noted whistle was made 
as it rose to perch on an exposed branch to show its diminutive size. 


Ninox scutulata. Brown Hawk-Owl. 


Summer. Not common. The call kwoo.wup/ deep noted, repeated: 
at fairly long intervals, was heard every year from the small group of 
trees in the Defence Academy grounds after dark. 

Calls : March to May. 


Sarcogyps calvus. King Vulture. 


Resident. Fairly common. Most often seen sailing high overhead 
solitary or in pairs. The large white patches on the flanks very 
prominent. 


Pseudogyps bengalensis. Whitebacked Vulture. 


Resident. The common vulture in all parts of the area. 
Breeding: Appeared to go on throughcut the year. 

Courtship : Displays in flight and ove: nest, where mating was. 
was accompanied by loud braying noises. Chiefly in February, and 
again from June to October. 

Nesting : In September a pai set up a nest high on top of a banyan 
tree in the Academy area. It was their headquarters throughout the 
year. By the next September, it had become a colony of four nests. 


? Gyps fulvus. Griffon Vulture. 


Resident. Not common. Occasionally noted at all seasons of the 
year in flight with other vultures. 


Gyps himalayensis. Himalayan Griffon Vulture. 


Winter. Not common; very occasionally seen in flight overhead in 
early winter. Distinguished by its larger size from G. fulvus. 
Earliest seen: October 24th. 


Neophron percnopterus. White Scavenger Vulture. 


Resident. Common wherever there was refuse. 
Breeding: Early summer. 


656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Young: April, many in brown and varying stages of brown and 
white immature plumage. 


Gypaetus barbatus. Lammergeier. 
Winter. Not common. Very occasional appearances in flight or 


perched on a tall tree. 
Earliest seen: October 31st; latest : January 13th. 


Astur badius. Shira. 


Resident. Fairly common in all wooded parts and groves in open 
country. Usually noticed when causing consternation among other birds. 


Accipter virgatus. Besra Sparrow Hawk. 


Winter. Not common. In September a pair chased each other from 
tree to tree with loud cries of &z-weer! Though in open country, they 
kept along the edge of jungle covered cliffs. The dark stripe down the 
centre of the throat was distinct. 


Haliastur indus. Brahminy Kite. 

Rains. Not very common. Only noticed in the area during the rains, 
in pairs perching on trees over flooded rice fields near the river, their be- 
haviour and calls as though courting. Tney were resident on the Asan 


River only a few miles away. 
Earliest seen: July 12th. Latest seen : October 12th. 


Milvus migrans. Common Pariah Kite. 


Resident. Common, but not noisy. 

Breeding: January to May. 

Flocks: Often collected in numbers over an emergence of winged 
termites. In August, large flocks collected to feed on the ground on open 
grassy spaces such as playing fields, often all facing the same way. In 
September, numbers flew off in a common direction at roosting time. 

Milvus m. lineatus, the Large Indian Kite, was probably the rather 
larger Kite with paler wing patches sometimes seen in open country in 
winter. 


Elanus caeruleus vociferus. Blackwinged Kite. 


Not common. On a few occasions in April and May, pairs were seen 
in the market gardens, probably the same pair. In September, while one 
attacked a kite, the other on a tree shrieked frewe!, tzewe! while lifting 
the wings high above the back. 


‘Circus aeruginosus. Marsh Harrier. 


Winter. Not common. Only one adult male and a few in female 
plumage in slow watchful flight low over swampy patches in the market 
gardens, or rising out of irrigated fields of standing crops. 

Earliest seen: July 28th. Latest : December. 


Falco peregrinator. Shahin Falcon. 


Winter. Not common. Occasionally seen solitary perched high on a 
bare tip of a tree in wooded parts or open country. The cheeks showed 
up as square black patches. 

Earliest seen: November 24th. 


NOFES ON TFHE-BIRDS OF DEHRA DUN 657 


Falco chicquera. Redheaded Merlin. 


Winter. Not common. Occasionally seen in flight or perched ona 
tall tree in open country. Once observed persecuting a Tawny Eagle. 
Earliest seen: December 6th. 


Spilornis cheela. Indian Crested Serpent Eagle. 


Resident. Fairly common in well-wooded parts, especially the tea 
gardens. Sometimes solitary or in flight above cultivated fields when the 
barred rounded wings were distinctive. 

Breeding: Courtship: February, much calling and display in 
flight. 


Aquila nipalensis [or rapax?] Steppe [or Tawny ?] Eagle. 
Winter. Fairly common. Only noticed in this area in winter, solitary 
or in separated pairs perched on talit rees in open country. 
Breeding: Courtship : November to February, while soaring high 
with loud noises. 
Nesting : In November, one sat on a nest high up on a tall pipal 
tree in open country. 


Aquila heliaca. Imperial Eagle. 

Winter. Not common, buta few came regulariy to the valley. A 
certain tree was the favourite perch for one of a pair for three winters. No 
two birds seemed to be in the stage of plumage. Distinguishing features 
besides being very large and dark, were the pale cream head and white 
rump patch. In general appearance and flight like a vulture. 

Earliest seen: December 7th ; Latest: end March. 

Several other eagles were winter visitors. Among them a very large 
one with two broad pale wing bars, probably the Steppe Eagle, and 
another all white below with fine dark stripes, Bonelli’s Eagle ? 


Buteo rufinus. Longlegged Buzzard. . 

Winter. Fairly common. Came regularly to the valley, particularly 
the market gardens, where perches on the same trees were used yearly. 
Varying amounts of white on head and neck, and rufous on breast. They 
allowed a close approach. 

Earliest seen: October 12th. Latest seen: March 20th. 


Butastur teesa. White-eyed Buzzard. 


Resident. Fairly common in open country. Generally solitary 
perched on tops of trees standing in cultivation. The white patch on the 
nape conspicuous. 


Crocopus phoenicopterus. Common Green Pigeon. 


Resident. Not very common, small flocks sometimes seen in flight 
or perched high on trees both in open country and wooded parts. 

Breeding: June, seen in pairs. 

Flocks: July to January. 


Chalcophaps indica. Emerald Dove. 


Resident. Fairly common in thick scrub jungle ravines, coming 
from there into gardens and surrounding open spaces to feed on the 
gtound, or crossing in low direct flight, the head held high. 


658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Breeding: Courtship: May to August, the deep dreamy hoo was 
heard coming from the thickest cover of ravines. Silent by September. 


Columba livia. Blue Rock-pigeon. 


Resident. Common, but erratic in numbers. A colony had perma- 
nent headquarters on the F. R. I. building. | 

In July and August, smail parties collected into large flocks and fed 
on fallow fields and fields being prepared for rice cultivation in the market 
gardens. Regular morning and evening flights to and from this feeding 
ground at that time. 


Streptopelia orientalis. Rufous Turtle Dove. 


Mainly spring. Fairly common in small parties of two to six, feeding 
quietly on lawns, or in open cultivation with other doves. The belly of 
this race being white, it was probably the race S. o. meena. 


Earliest seen: July 28th. Largest numbers: February. Latest seen: 
March. 


Streptopelia chinensis. Spotted Dove. 

Resident. Common in all types of country chiefly open cultivation. 
In pairs and flocks. 

Breeding: Courtship: From February, u-kroo-ku asa mating 
call heard increasingly from birds in pairs, though they still collected 
in scattered parties. 

Flocks: November, large flocks in cultivation. 


Streptopelia senegalensis. Little Brown Dove. | 
Resident. Common, usually in pairs feeding on grassy spaces near 
buildings, allowing a near approach. 


Breeding: Courtship: February, the coo-coo-coo-coo calls became 
insistent. 


Streptopelia decaocto. Indian Ring Dove. 
Mainly winter. Common in winter in iarge flocks about open cultiva- 
tion. Comparatively few in summer. . 
Breeding: Courtship: From February, in reduced numbers. 
Mating calls ¢oo-coo-coo and ‘ mewing ’ with displays in flight. 
Nesting : March to October. 
Flocks: October, large increase November to January. 


Oenopopelia tranquebarica, Red Turile Dove. ; 
Mainly summer. Common in parties and pairs in open cultivation 
and roadside trees. - 
Increase: in April. Decrease: September. Practically none seen 
between November and Febrvary. | 
Breeding: Courtship: March, the ‘ water boiling’ calls from the 
male on a high perch. 
Nesting: April to July. In June a pair were incubating high up¢ on 
‘a garden Shisham tree. 
Young: Early June, the first young about. © 


NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF DEHRA DUN 659 


Gallus gallus. Red Junglefowl. 

Resident. Fairly commonin the thick scrub jungle ravines. When 
undisturbed, parties came up to the gardens to feed. 

Breeding: Courtship: End February to mid-July, the cocks crowing 
loudly in the early mornings. 


Pavo cristatus. Peafowl. 
Not common due to persecution. In December a small party were in 
thick cover in the Gaulaita valley. 


Gennaeus leucomelanus hamiltonii. Whitecrested Kalij Pheasant. 
Probably resident. Not common. Once seen and sometimes heard 

in the same stretch of thick scrub jungle ravines. When disturbed the 

squealings were pig-like. Heard in ail seasons, but mostly in April. 


Perdicula asiatica. Jungle Bush-Quail. 
Resident. The common quail of the area. Insmall coveys and pairs, 
flushed from hedges and scrub in cultivation and scrub covered slopes. 
Breeding: In September the coveys included young ones. 


Turnix sylvatica. Little Button-Quail. 
Winter ? Notcommon. On October 27th, a covey was feeding ina 
ripe rice crop. 


Francolinus pondicerianus. Grey Partridge. 
Resident: Common in open bushy country. When flushed, usually 
flew up to perch on trees. 
Breeding ; End February, pairs separated from coveys. 
Nesting: April to June. 
Young: In August, the coveys included young. 
Coveys: From September in full strength. 


Francolinus francolinus. Black Partridge. 

Resident? Not common. In May, a male and probabiy also a 
female, accompanied by several chickens, came every evening for some 
days from the scrub jungle ravines, to feed and drink at the edge of 
a garden. 


Burhinus oedicnemus. Indian Stone Curlew. . 

Resident. Not very common. A few were usually to be found about 
the dry river bed of the Gaulaita river valley, only occasionally appearing 
in other dry open parts of the valley. Besides running and ‘ freezing ’, 
they flew fairly high. When disturbed with a cry reminiscent of a 
seagull. 

Br eeding: March, in pairs. 

Parties: Winter, pairs collected into small parties. 


Esacus recurvirostris. Large Goggle-eyed Plover. 

Not common. On December 21st, a pair were on the dry Tons river 
bed, moving warily about. In flight the resemblance to a duck was 
Striking. 


G60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL, HIST, SOCTED Ys (Viol od 


Lobivanellus indicus. Redwattled Lapwing. 


- Resident. Common, about damper parts of cultivation. 
Breeding: March to August. 

Parties: Parties of up to 20 scattered about the sewage irrigation 
of the market gardens. October to January. 


Lobipluvia malabarica. Yellow-wattled Lapwing. 
Resident. Not common. An occasional pair seen about the dry 


stony cultivated parts of the valiey. 
Breeding: June. Judging from their behaviour, a pair evidently had 


a nest or young close by on a dry stony field. 


Microsarcops cinereus. Greyheaded Plover. 

Winter.. Not common. In December, a solitary bird was with a 
party of Redwattled Lapwings about the sewage irrigation of the market 
gardens, remaining with them about a month. Conspicuous among the 
others with its grey-brown head and neck and breast. Neither did it 
always fly with them when flushed, often remaining still as though cons- 
cious of its good camouflage. 

Earliest seen: December 21st. Latest : January 19th. 


Hoplopterus duvaucelli. Spurwinged Plover. 

Winter. Not common. An occasional pair among the stones of the 
diy river bed. In January a small party was with Redwattled Lapwings 
about a sewage swamp in the market gardens. When disturbed, 
they made straight for the river bed where they seemed much more 


at home. 
Earliest seen: October 23rd, usually December. Latest: January 


15th. 


Charadrius jerdoni. Little Ring Plover. 
Mainly winter. Common in parties running about the edges of 
river, Streams, and pools. As the river dried up, the majority departed. 
Breeding: Courtship: February and again in October, pairs chasing 
each other, beating up and down the same small area in flight, uttering a 


quickly repeated clear whistle. 
July to August—a few remaining pairs, seen throughout this period. 


Parties: October. 


Leucopolius alexandrinus. Kentish Plover. 

Winter. Not common. On November llth, two were with a party 
of Littl Ring Plover feeding beside a stream of the river. The pale 
brown coloration, absence of any black face marking except for the 
black eye and bill, and no black breast band distinguished it from the 
others. It may possibly have been a form of immature plumage of the 
Little Ring Plover. 


Tringa hypoleucos. Common Sandpiper. 

Winter. Common along the edges of river-streains, occasionally at the 
sewage swamp. Usually in pairs. 

Earliest seen: August 20th. Largest numbers: September. Latest 
seen: April 29th. 


NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF DEHRA DUN 661 


Tringa ochropus. Green Sandpiper. | 
Winter. Common, especially on autumn and spring passage, about 
sewage swamps and poois of stagnant water as well as river streams. 
Earliest seen: July 10th, usually mid-August. Largest numbeis : 
early September, often in small parties. Latest seen: April 21st. In 
March, the return passage is noticeable. 


Tringa glareola. Wood Sandpiper. 


Winter. Fairly common in small parties, at the edges of sewage swamps 
and river streams. Distinguished by the visible spots on paler brown 
plumage. 

Earliest seen: September 24th. 


Erolia temminckii. Temminck’s Stint. 


Autumn. Fairly common in parties that rapidly increased, then gra- 
dually decreased in size, at edges of river streams and the sewage swamps. 
When in flight in close formation, the white outer tail feathers were 
visible. 

Earliest seen: September 4th. Latest: end of October. 


Gallinago sp. Snipe. | 
Autumn Not very common. An occasional solo, flushed fromm damp parts 
of the valley, may have been the Eastern Solitary Snipe, G. solztarza. 
Earliest seen: August 26th. Latest: November. 


Rostratula benghalensis. Painted Snipe. 


Winter. Not common. One winter a party of four to six were in 
residence for a month in a small patch of vegetation at the edge of a 
pool in open cultivation in the valley. When flushed they flew in plover 
fashion only a short distance to. ‘freeze’ on fallow fields. Other years 
occasionally flushed out of swampy patches. 

Earliest seen: November. Latest; Mid-February. 


Chlidonias hybrida. Whiskered Tern. 


Winter. Not common. On November 16th, a pair seen in flight over 
the river, one settled on the stones beside the water for a short while. 
The tails were not deeply forked. 


Dissoura episcopus. Whitenecked Stork. 


Winter. Not common. Occasional appearances solitary or in a small 
party about the damper cultivation of the valley. 
Earliest seen: September 13th. Latest: February. 


Ciconia nigra. Black Stork. 


Winter. Every winter a small party of about six established head- 
quarters about the river bed, feeding quietly near the water’s edge and 
among the boulders. They moved up river as the water receded. Occa- 
sionally seen passing overhead in flight. The bare branches of tall trees 
near the river were uSed as perches. 

Earliest seen: November 6th, usuaily December. Latest: 
February 6th. 


662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Ardeola grayii. Pond Heron. 


Mainly rains and winter. Common round any kind of water, except 
river side. Attendant on garden ponds. Scarce in summer. 

Increase: June. Decrease: From November, gradually. January to 
May very scarce. 

Breeding: End June to August. Colonies of nests in built-up 
areas, some with Night Herons. 

Young: In August, the grown young had much white in the plum- 

age, spent much time on the branches beside the nests. 

Parties: Mid-September. Small parties seen in flight to and from 
feeding grounds in the valley. Over the sewage irrigation in the market 
gardens parties of fifteen to twenty birds sometimes collected. 


Nycticorax nycticorax. Night Heron. 


Mainly summer. Common. In flocks with day-time roosts on large 
trees in built-up areas, and feeding grounds in the valley. 

Increase : April 10th. Decrease: end August. Usually none were 
seen or heard after this. But in December 1950 they could still be heard 
after dark, though the old colonies were deserted. Permanent residence 
may have been established near by. 

Breeding: May to August. Usuaily on a certain day each pair 
of the flock began a shuttle service. Large twigs were collected from a 
eroup of Sai and Eucalyptus trees and carried in the bill conveyed to the 
colony on the usual roosting trees., where the nests grew rapidly. 


Butorides javanicus. Little Green Heron. 

Not common. Occasionally seen very quietly watchful along stretches 
of the river, using the taligrasses and shelter of boulders for cover. In 
September a pair took up residence in the lee of the river bank along the 
market gardens and could be seen there at all times of the day till the 
water dried up. 


Nettion crecca. Common Teai. 
Spring and autumn. Flights regularly seen on passage. On 


February 27th, a flock of sixteen, all drakes except for two or three in | 


female plumage, rested on a sheltered pool of a swiftly running river 
stream. Occasional ione birds remained along the same stretch of river 
for short periods. 

Earliest seen: August, a solitary bird. September 14th, flight head- 
ing SE. Latest seen: March 6th, flight heading NW. 


Anser sp. Goose. 

Spring. Regularly keard after dark, often at three or four o’clock in 
the morning passing loudly overhead to the NW., sometimes seen in 
daylight as well. ‘The flights passed over on a few consecutive day or at 
intervals of a few days. 

Earliest heard: February 27th. Latest: March 8th, 


TIMBER BORING MOLLUSCS OF THE INDIAN COAST 


I. REPORT ON A COLLECTION FROM TONDI AND ADIRAMPATNAM, 
East Coast 


BY 
N. BALAKRISHNAN NAIR, M.A., Ph.D., F.A.Z. 
AND 
O. N. GURUMANI, M.A. 


Depariment of Zoology, Alagappa College, Karaikudi 
(With eight text figures) 
ABSTRACT 


Occurrence and distribution, along with the salient features, of eight 
species of shipworms found in two important fishing centres on the 
East Coast of India, are recorded. It was observed that turbidity of 
the water is not a deterrent factor for borers. The preference of ship- 
worms for particular timber depends on the availability of such in the 
locality. 


INTRODUCTION 


Earlier studies by Nair (1956, 1956a, 1956b) have revealed the 
extent and nature of infestation by shipworms in the coastal waters 
of Madras on the east coast and in the Kayamkulam backwaters 
on the west coast. The present report extends this knowledge to 
two more important fishing centres on the east coast. Tondi (Lat. 
9° 44’ N., Long. 79° 2’ E.) is a port on the east coast where fishing 
is mainly done with the help of wooden canoes made of teak, and 
there exist a large number of temporary cages for keeping turtles. 
These cages built of palmyra stems (Borassus flabellifer) afford ex- 
cellent substrata for the molluscan larvae to settle and bore through, 
resulting not only in the destruction of the cages but also producing 
a perennial source of larvae for fresh infestation after they reach 
sexual maturity in a surprisingly short time. The water in this 
locality is very shallow and turbid, and during low tide the piles of 
the cages are completely exposed. Adirampatnam is also an impor? 
tant fishing centre where, like Tondi, fishing is done from canoes. 
Along the coast a large number of shipworms were collected from 


664 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY. Volos 


discarded country canoes as well as from the piles of the sluice gates 
controlling the flow of water into the salt pans. 

In India the study of the timber boring molluscs has received very 
little attention in spite of the economic interest attached to such 
studies, probably because shipworms are the most ‘inconspicuous 
molluscs that: the sea harbours. Pilings and driftwood infested by 
them rarely ever proclaim their presence until they begin to disinte- 
grate, for the tiny punctures on their outer surface are too small to 
reveal the enemy gnawing at their heart.’ The obscure and uncertain 
conditions which surround the damage caused by these animals demand 
careful investigation of the various aspects of their biology. To 
formulate measures for the conservation of timber structures against 
the attack of marine borers certain essential facts must be gathered 
and properly understood. Such careful observation needs expert 
technical knowledge for detecting the arrival of new forms through 
driftwood etc., and to keep under surveillance the forms that are 
already present. This is possible only after a detailed enquiry into the 
systematics of these molluscs, and the range of distribution of the 
various species and their relative abundance. This is attempted here. 


SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT 


Genus Bankia Gray 1840. 


Bankia Gray, 1840, Synop. British Mus., p. 76. 
Bankia, Bartsch, Bud/. 122, U.S. Nat. Mus., p. 7 (1922). 


The pallets consist of a series of cone-in-cone structures. 


Subgenus BANKIELLA Bartsch 


Bankiella Bartsch, 1921, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 34: 25. 
Bankiella, Bartsch, Bull, U. S. Nat. Mus., 10), 2 (5): $37 (1927). 


Pallets consisting of a series of cone-in-cone elements covered by 
a thin membrane which is neither fimbriated nor denticulated at the 
free margin, but entire. 


1. Bankia (Bankiella) edmondsoni Nair 


Bankia (Bankiella) edmondsoni Nair, 1954, Rec. Ind. Mus., 52 (2 to 4) p. 306 


Occurrence: Two specimens were collected from an aerial 
root of Pandanus, cast ashore on Tondi beach on July 16, 1956. 


Distribution: This form was_ previously recorded from 
Madras from a drift log (Bambusa), a teak plank, and a floating palm 
stem. 


TIMBER BORING MOLLUSCS OF THE INDIAN COAST 665 
Salient features: Thin shell higher than broad, having 
broad anterior and anterior median lobes which form nearly 86% of 


Fig. 1. Bankia (Bankiella) edmondsoni Nair 


A. Outer view of shell. B. Inner view of shell, C. Outer view of pallet. D. Distal 
portion of the pallet (enlarged) to show the nature of the cones. E. Posterior part of the 
body showing siphons. 

Co. Collar. #x.S. Exhalent siphon, /z.,S. Inhalent siphon. 


the total length, with an auricle which is very small like an equilateral 
| triangle; and pallet with a stalk longer than the blade, the latter 
| having up to 11 joints when the length is 1.7 mm. 


| ?, Bankia (Bankiella) indica Nair. 


Bankia (Bankiella) indica Nair, 1954, Rec. Ind. Mus., 52 (2 to 4), 
Pecos. 


Occurrence: Several specimens were recovered from the 
| piles of the sluice gates (Borassus flabellifer) controlling the flow of 
water into the salt pans in Adirampatnam. 


| Distribution: This form was previously recorded trom 
Madras as occurring on wooden buoys employed in pomfret fishing off 
San Thome. | 


salient features: Shell breadth less than height; with a 
posterior median lobe greater than anterior median and middle median 
lobes put together, with well developed auricle; pallet with a stalk 
slightly shorter than the blade, the latter with up to 1g well spaced 


666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 5&4 


funnel-like joints when the blade length is about 8.5 mm. with yellowish 
brown periostracum forming a smooth entire margin drawn out into 
pointed processes laterally. 


Fig. 2. Bankia (Bankiella) indica Nair 


A. Outer view of shell. B. Outer view of pallet. C. Posterior part of the body 
showing siphons. 
Co. Collar. Hx.S.Exhalent siphon. J/z.S, Inhalent siphon. 


Siphons. Inhalent siphon wider and longer than the exhalent, 
with brownish spots. 


Genus Teredo Linnaeus 


Teredo Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 651. 
Teredo, Bartsch, Bull. U.S. Nat. ATus,, 100 2 (5): 538 (1927). | 


In this genus the pallets are either paddle- or spoon-shaped. They | 
may be distally cupped or not, or they may even bear a calcareous | 
knob at the terminal portion. | 


Subgenus TEREDO Linnaeus. 


Teredo Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 651. 
Teredo, Bartsch, Bull. U.S.Nat. Mus., 122: 17 (1922). 


Teredo has the pallets paddle-shaped, with a decidely cup-shaped 
depresson at the distal end. The distal portion is covered with a dark 
periostracum which terminates in the shape of two lateral horns. 


TIMBER BORING MOLLUSCS OF THE INDIAN COAST 667 


3. Teredo (Teredo) navalis Linnaeus. 


Teredo navalis Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, p. 651. 


Occurrence: Several specimens of different sizes and ages 
have been collected from discarded country canoes made of Tectona 
grandis and the piles of sluice gates at Adirampatnam and also from 
the turtle cages made of Borassus flabellifer in Tondi, 


E co 
Fig, 3. Zeredo (Zeredo) navalis Linnaeus 


A. Outer view of shell. B. Inner view of shell. C. Outer view of pallet. 
D. Inner view of pallet. E Posterior part of the body showing siphous. 
Co.Collar. &2..S. Exhalent Siphon. Jz. .S, Inhalent Siphon. 


Distribution: This species has a very wide distribution on 
the Indian coast. It has been recorded from Vizagapatnam by 


Ganapathi and Nagabushanam and from Madras, Pulicat lake, and 
Vembanad backwaters by Nair. 


Salient features: Pallets are spatulate with a straight 
cylindrical stalk which is almost of the same length as the blade. 
Distal part of the blade forms a dark brown periostracum which is 


2 


668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST 3S OCMET VanVols tos 


hollowed out at the free margin and terminates in. two lateral horns 
The basal calcareous portion of the blade is slightly convex outside 
and flat in the mner dace: : 


Siphons: The inhalent is wider and longer than the exhalent. 
A collar is present encircling both the pallets and siphons. 


4. Teredo (Teredo) madrasensis Nair 


Teredo (Teredo) madrasensis Nair, 1954, Rec. Ind. Mus., 52 (2 to 4) p. 401. 


Occurrence: Nine specimens were collected on July 29, 1956 
from piles (Borassus flabellifer) at Tondi and several other specimens 
from a discarded country canoe made of Tectona grandis which was 
submerged in water for more than five years at Adirampatnam. 


Fig. 4. Zeredo (Teredo) madrasensis Nair 


A. Outer view of shell. B. Outer view of pallet. C. Inner view of pallet. 
D. Posterior part of the body showing siphons. 
Co. Collar. #x.S. Exhalent Siphon. Jz.S. Inhalent Siphon. 


Distribution: This form has been recorded by Nair from 
Madras from a fish float (Red cedar) and also from a plank of 
Mangifera used in a jetty construction at Kayamkulam backwaters on 
the west coast. 


Salient features: Sheil with the anterior lobe broader than 
high, with a well developed auricle with the anterior median and middle 
median bearing each up to 30 dental ridges when the shell is 4 mm. 
high and 4 mm. broad; pallet with a straight stalk longer than the 
blade, the distal two-thirds of the latter being covered either by a stalk 
or brown periostracum which is cupped distally and produced into 
two lateral projections. 


TIMBER BORING MOLLUSCS OF THE INDIAN COAST 669 


Siphons: Inhalent considerably longer than the exhalent with 
a collar which covers only the base of the siphons and having a separate 
collar-like projection covering: the base of the pallets as shown in the 
figure. 


5. Teredo (Teredo) indica Nair 
Teredo (Teredo) indica Nair, 1956, Rec. Ind. Mus., 53 (1 and 2) in press. 


Occurrence: Two specimens were obtained from a _ log 
(timber undetermined) cast ashore on Tondi beach on July 16, 1956. 


Distribution: This form has been recorded from test 
planks of Myristica sp. fixed in the boat basin of Madras Harbour by 
Nair. 


Salient features: Shell height more than shell breadth, 
with the anterior lobe and anterior median lobe with equal number of 
dental ridges, anterior median lobe forms about 47% of the median 
part and with a very small auricle; pallets with short cylindrical stalks, 
with a blade whose distal two-thirds is covered by a dark brown 
periostracum. 


Fig. 5. Zeredo (Teredo) indica Nair 


A. Otter view of shell. B. Outer view of pallet. C. Inner view of pallet. 
D. Posterior part of the body showing siphons. 
Co. Collar. Ax.S. Exhalent Siphon, J/z.,S. [nhalent Siphon. 


Siphons: The inhalent is wider than and about twice as long 
as the exhalent, with a fringed rim. Collar only slightly developed. 


670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL. WISE. SOCIETY ss Viaiy a4 


6. Teredo (Teredo) parksi Bartsch. 


Levedo(TLeredo) parksi Bartsch, 1921, Proc, Biol. Soc. Washing ton, 34: 28. 
Leredo (Teredo) parksi, Edmondson, Occ. papers, B. P. Bishop Mus., 17 \10): 
106 (1942). 7 


Occurrence: Several shells and pallets were recovered from 
empty burrows in a log of wood (Acacia planifrons) washed ashore on 
Tondi beach on July 16, 1956. 


Distribution: This species seems to have a fairly wide dis- 
tribution. Bartsch (1921) described it from piling in Pearl Harbour. 
It has subsequently been reported by Miller (1924) as occurring in test 
blocks, Samoa; Sivickis {1928) declared it to be common in Philippine 
Islands. Edmondson (1942) recovered it from several stations about 
Hawaii, and Moll (1936) listed it from Penang Island. Nair (1956) 
described it as occurring in test planks of Myristica fixed in the boat 
basin of the Madras Harbour. 


: J 
e 
we Ste 


Fig. 6. Teredo (Teredo) parksi Bartsch 
A. Outer view of shell. B. Outer view of pallet. C. Inner view of pallet. 
Salient features: Shell with a broad anterior lobe and a 


small auricle, pallets with a long slightly curved stalk which is about 
twice the length of the expanded part of the blade, the distal end 


of the latter excavated more deeply on the convex outer surface than 


on the flattened inner face. The periostracum covering the distal part 
of the blade brownish or colourless. 


MIMBER “BORING MOLLUSCS OF THE INDIAN’ COAST 671 


Subgenus ZOPOTEREDO Bartsch 


Zopoteredo Bartsch, 1923, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 36: 96. 


The posterior part (auricle) overlaps the median part-on the inside 
and is completely united with it, having no cavity between it and the 
median part at the anterior margin of the auricle. The pallet differs 
from those of all other known species of YTeredo in having the 
calcareous portion semi-disc-shaped, i.e. very short and broad and the 
corneous portion partly slit and unfolded in the median line on the out- 
side, so as to practically divide that part into a double cup, but this 
is not a true double cup, for it does not involve the portion. 


7. Teredo (Zopoteredo) bengalensis Nair 


Teredo (Zopoteredo) bengalensis Nair, 1955, Rec. Ind. Mus., 52 (2 to 4), p. 411 


Occurrence: Two shells and pallets were obtained from 
aerial root of Pandanus tectorius which was cast ashore on the Tondi 
beach on July 16, 1956. 


Distribution: This species was previously recorded for the 
first time from a drift log on Madras beach by Nair. 


Salient features: Shell with a well developed auricle with 
posterior median part 1.5 times the width of the anterior and middle 
median put together and with a pallet having a cylindrical translucent 
stalk, which uninterruptedly continues to the distal end like the shaft 
of a quill feather; and a translucent horn-coloured periostracum, with 
a sinus traversing the middle median line on the outside. 


Fig. 7. Zeredo (Zopoteredo) bengalensis Nair 
A. Outer view of shell. B. Outer view of pallet. C. Inner view of pallet. 


Subgenus PSILOTEREDO Bartsch. 


Psiloteredo Bartsch, 1922, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., 122: 36. 
Psiloteredo, Bartsch (1927). Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 100, 2 (5): 549. 


In this subgenus the auricle fuses with the posterior median portion 
on the inside in such a manner that no shelf projects. In fact, in 


672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


some of the species it is diificult to note even a suture. The pallets 
are spoon-shaped with an outer distal portion slightly excavated. 


8. Teredo (Psiloteredo) tondiensis SP. NOV. 


Occurrence: Four entire specimens and several shells and 
pallets were collected from the piles (Borassus flabellifer) used for 
turtle cages in the port of Tondi. 


Distribution: This is the first record of the subgenus from 
the Indian waters. 


7 Pi ons if r ' 
Pr a i ~~ 


. Clete 
oltre 
Yehy > 
os . Ae 


BSE 


Fig. 8. Zeredo (Psiloteredo) tondiensis Nair and Gurumani 


A. Outer view of shell.. B. Inner view of shell. C. Outer view of pallet. 
D. Inner view of pallet. E. Posterior part of the body showing siphons. 
Co. Collar. #x..S. Exhalent Siphon. J/z. S, Inhalent Siphon, 


Salient features: Pallets distinctly spoon-shaped with a 
roughly ovate blade covered by a translucent periostracum and marked 
by few concentric lines on the distal aspect of the outer surface, with 
a flexible stalk which is only slightly more than a fourth of the entire 
pallet length; and with a shell whose length is less than its height, 
with a moderately large auricle, and an anterior lobe bearing about 
32 denticulated ridges when the Stell on is 5.1 mm. and the shell 
height is 5.7 mm. 


Siphons: Inhalent and exhalent of almost equal length with 
a slightly developed collar embracing both the siphons and the pallets. 


TIMBER BORING MOLLUSCS OF THE INDIAN COAST 673 


DISCUSSION 


From the foregoing survey it is clear that shipworms are remark- 
ably active along the east coast of India. Several forms which have 
been recorded from Madras are recovered again from two more places 
suggesting wider distribution of these forms. Many authors have 
claimed that water pollution and turbidity are factors of some impor- 
tance in the prevention of damage by marine borers (Erlanson, 1936; 
Ganapathi and Nagabushanam, 1955). However, it was noticed that 
the timber structures exposed to the turbid waters at Tondi and 
Adirampatnam showed considerable damage and several shipworms 
were collected, indicating thereby that muddy water is not a definite 
factor in the prevention of attack by borers. In the present study it 
was observed that the preference of shipworms for particular timber 
depends on the availability of such timbers in the locality. In the 
absence of such, the shipworm larvae do not die; on the other 
hand they would attack in unison any type of timber available, thereby 
bringing speedy destruction to it. This is evident from the fact that 
Borassus flabellifer, which is extensively exposed in the localities under 
investigation, harbours at least four species of shipworms which have 
been recorded previously from other types of timbers. To determine 
exactly whether there is any notable specificity for shipworms for a 
particular type of timber, more extensive field work as well as 
laboratory experiments are necessary. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


Thanks are due to Dr. Charles Howard Edmondson, zoologist at 
the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii for various sugges- 
tions and for the specimens of Hawaiian shipworms which he kindly 
sent for comparative study. Thanks are due to Dr. H. A. Rehder of 
the United States National Museum for a gift of publications on 
shipworms. The authors wish to express their gratitude to the 
Alagappa College Trust Board for facilities and encouragement. 
Grateful acknowledgements are due to Sri T. Sri Ganesan of the 
Botany Department for the identification of various timbers. 


REFERENCES 


Edmondson, C.H. (1942): Occas. Pap. Bernice. P. Bishop Mus., 17 (10) : 97. 

Exlanson, E. W.-(@936): Curr. Scz. 4: 726. 

Ganapathy, P. N. & Nagabushanam, R. (1985) : Jour. Timber Dryers 
Preservers’ Assn. India, 1 (1) 19-26. 

Miller, R. C. 1922: Oniv. Calif. Pub. Zool., 22: 293. 

Moll, F. (1936) : Jour. Conchyliol., 80: 296. 

Nair, N. Balakrishnan (1956): ec. Ind. Mus. 52, (2 to 4) : 387-414. 

(1956a): Rec. Ind. Mus. 53, (1 and 2) in press. 

(1956b): Jour. Sct. Indust. Res. 15¢ (3): 81. 

& Gurumani, O. N. (1956) Curr. Sct., 25: 36-1362. 

Sivickis, P. B. (1928): Philippine J. Sci., Maniia, 37: 285. 


—_—— 


GRASS FLORA OF COIMBATORE DISTRICT (SOUTH INDIA) 
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO FODDER GRASSES 


BY 


J. SAKHARAM RAO, M.Sc. 
Agricultural Research Institute, Coimbatore 


The grass floras of the districts of Chittoor (4), North and South 
Arcot (5), Chingleput (1), and Travancore State (6) of south India have 
been surveyed, and contributions made. The grass flora of Coimbatore 
District in south India is presented here. This is a compilation from the 
herbarium collections made from time to time in the Botany Section at 
Coimbatore, as well as collections made by the author. 

The rainfall of the entire district is scanty. Coimbatore excluding the 
Anamalais has the lowest annuai rainfall of 27 inches. At Dharapuram, 
Palladam, and Sulur the amount is even less and averages only 22”. Kol- 
legal has the heaviest rainfall of 33.2”, while Mettupalayam and Pollachi 
come next with 33” of precipitation. Excepting the portions of the district 
bordering the Palghat Gap, most parts of the districts are surrounded by 
the Western Ghats. Consequently very little benefit is derived from the 
south-west monsoon rains. About half the rainfall of the year is received 
during the north-east monsoon months; and even this is less than in the 
neighbouring districts of Salem and Tiruchirapalli. The Palghat Gap ex- 
ercises considerable influence on the rainfall of the district. Portions of 
Pollachi and Coimbatore taluks adjoining the Gap are directly benefited by 
the south-west monsoon. Kollegal taluk and the Northern portions of 
Gobichettipalayam and Bhavani taluks above the hills form part of the 
Mysore plateau. 

The growth and distribution of grasses depend upon the rainfall. The 
annuals germinate and come up after the rains; the perennials which 
survive the Summer regenerate and put on fresh growth. Pastures of 
Cenchrus ciltavis L. and Cenchrus setigerus Vahl are maintained in the 
Kangayam tract of the district. The local breed of cattle known as 
Kangayam mainly feed on the above two grasses, and it is saidthat this 
fodder has something to do with the physical characteristics of the breed. 
Extensive areas in Kangayam are under C. czliaris L. and C. setigerus 
Vahl. ‘These grasses are raised in the paddocks of the famous cattle 
breeder of this tract, Pattagar of Palayakottai. In Kollegal, Alambadi, and 
Mysore cattle are bred and reared. 

Coimnbatore district is peculiar in having a distribution of several soil 
types. The elevation ranges from 800 to 7,000 feet above sea-level. 
Conditions vary from part to part, and hence the species of grasses avai- 
lable in the district are also many. 

The grasses of the district can be classified into three groups, as 
follows :— 


PASTURE GRASSES 


1. The important pasture grasses are Amphilophis ~ertusa Stapf, 
Brachiaria ramosa Stapf, Echinochloa colona Link, Setaria pallidifusca 


GRASS RLOKA OF COIMBATORE DISTRICT 675 


Stapf & Hubb., Zrvagus bitlorus Schult., Sporobolus diander Beauv., 
Cenchrus ciliaris L., Cenchrus setigerus Vahl, Cynodon dactylon Vers., 
Chloris barbata Sw., Dactyloctenium aegyptium Beauv. : 

All the above are good fodder grasses, some of them possessing high 
fodder values. 


ForEST oR HILL GRASSES 


2. The following are a few of the most important forest and hill 
grasses occurring at 2,000 feet to 5,000 feet in parts of Kollegai*, 
Satyamangalam, Anamalais, and other hill ranges : 


Schima nervosum Stapf, Amphilophis pertusa Stapf, Chrysopogon 
montanus Trin., Heteropogon contortus Beauv., Themeda triandra Forsk., 
A pluda aristata L., Eremopogon foveolatus Stapf, Cymbopogon flexuosus 
Wats., Cymbopogon coloraius Stapf, Digitaria marginata Link, Allote- 
ropsts cimicina Stapf, Setaria intermedia R. & 8., Brachiaria distachya 
Stapf, Panzcum trypheron Schult., Cyrtococcum trigonum A. Cam., Selaria 
pallidifusca Stapf. & Hubb., Setavza verticillata Beauv., Aristida setacea 
Retz.; Perotis indica O. Ktz., Eragrostis bitaria W., Cynodon dactylon 
Pers. 


GRASS WEEDS IN CULTIVATED FIELDS 


- 3. Amphilophis pertusa Stapf., Brachiaria ramosa Stapf, Panicum 
repens L., Paspalidium flavidum A. Cam., Uvochloa reptans Stapf, Echt- 
nochloa colona L., Setaria pallidifusca Stapf, Eragrostis pilosa Beauv., 
Cynodon dactylon Pers., Chloris barbata Sw., Dactyloctenium aegybtium 
Beauv. 

A fuil list of grasses of Coimbatore district with short notes on their 
fodder value, distribution and economic importance, is given below: 


1, Zea mays L, 


Distribution : Throughout the district. 
The common maize grown for its grain and for its dry fodder. 


2, Coix lachryma-jobi LL, 


Distribution : Anamaiais, Kollegal, and Siruvani. 
The grains of this are rarely used as famine food and for orna- 
mental purposes in the form of necklace. 


3. C. gigantea Roxb. 
Distribution: Top Slip, Sirttvani. 


4. Chionachne semiteres C, Fisch. 


Distribution : Marudamalai, Siruvani, and Kollegal. 
This grass comes up in dry localities but the leaves are too stiff and 
not very much relished by cattle. 


5, C. koenigii Thw. 
Distribution : Dimbam, Gaddersal. 


* Kollegal is now in Mysore State. 


676 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


6. Imperata cylindrica Beauv., var. koenigii Dur. 


Distribution : Kollegal 

A perennial grass which becomes a weed in cultivated fields because of 
its hardy underground stolons. Grazed by cattle when only young and 
tender 


7. Saccharum spontaneum L,. 


Distribution: Kollegal, Coimbatore, Dharapuram, Kaveripuram, and 
Siruvani. 

A perennial tall grass thriving in almost all districts in moist situations. 
A good soil binder. Buffaloes relish the grass. 


8, Pogonatherum paniceum Hack. 
Distribution: Hasanur and Kollegal. 


9, Eulalia phaeothrix O. Ktz. 

Distribution: Anamalais, Kollegal, Marudamalai, Palamalai, and 
Rangaswamy Koil, 
10. Pollinidium binatum C, BE. Hubbard 

Distribution : Kollegal. 


11. Ischaemum aristatum Linn. 


Distribution: Kollegal, Anamalais, Vellingiri, Anabetta, Bellagi, Poon- 
achi, Gobichettipalayam. 


12. I. timorense Kunth 
Distribution: Hassanur. 


13, I. commutatum Hack, 
Distribution : Girimalai, Anamalai. 


14, I. rugosum Salisb. 
Distribution : Gobi, Coimbatore. 


15. Sehima nervosum Stapf 


Distribution: Hassanur, Madeswara malai, Anamalais Poonachi 
ghat, Girka gundy, and Coimbatore. 

It is the best of all the hill grasses. It grows to two or three feet and 
possesses soft foliage which is relished by cattle. It is found in the forest 
areas of this district. 


16. Capillipedium huegelii Stapf 
Distribution : Coimbatore, Gaddersal Kottadi, Poonachi. 
17. C. filiculmis Stapf 
Distribution:  ollegal, Bellagi, Anabett . 
18. Amphilophis pertusa Stapf 
Distribution: Poonachi, Hassanur, Coimbatore. 
Very common throughout the State and one of the good pasture 


grasses. It covers extensive areas by the creaping stems, and possesses 
good fodder value. 


GRASS ALORA OF “COIMBATORE DISTRICT 677 


18A. A. pseudoischaemum C., Fisch. 
Distribution : Hohanapal. 


19, A. insculpta Stapf 
Distribution : Marudamalai, Dharapuram. 


90, Vetiveria zizanioides Nash. 

Distribution : Sivasamudram, Coimbatore. ; 

An economically important grass, the roots of the grass yielding an 
aromatic oil. The cattle graze it when young. 


21, V.lawsoni Blatt. 
Distribution : Coimbatore, Hassanur. 


22, Sorghum nitidum Pers. 


Distribution: Rangaswami Koil, Gaddersal, Palamalai, Mudtigu bole, 
Anaikatty, Seggani mudi. 


23. S.halepense Pers. 

Distribution: Rangaswami Koil, Gaddersal, Doddasambagi, Vellian- 
giri, Siruvani, Coimbatore. 
24, Chrysopogon verticillatus Trin. 

Distribution : Valparai, Cinchona, Siruvani. 


25. C. orientalis A, Camus 
Distribution : Anaikatti, Palamalai, Vellingiri, Siruvani. 


26, C. zeylanicus Thw. 
Distribution: Anabetta, Bellagi, Kollegal, Marudamalai, Vellingiri. 


27, C. montanus Trin. 


Distribution: Martahalli, Kollegal, Karamadai, Palayakottai, Poonachi 
ghat, Gobi. 


28. C. hackelii C, Fisch. 
Distribution: Poonachi and Anamalais. 


29, Dichanthium annulatum Stapf 

Distribution : Coimbatore, Singanallur, Madeswaramalai, Kollegal, 
Siruvani. 
30. D. caricosum A, Cam 

Distribution: Sivasamudram, Hassanur, ‘T'alavadi, Periar, and 
Siruvani. 
31, D. nodosum Willem. 

Distribution : Talavadi. 


32, Heteropogon contortus Beauv. (Spear grass). 

Distribution : Throughout the district. 

Perhaps the commonest grass in the forest areas of the State. 
Relished by cattle before flowering. The grass makes excellent hay. 


678 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 4 


53, H. oliganthus Blatt. 
Distribution: Iyerpadi, Vellingiri. 
34. Themeda triandra Forsk. 
Distribution : Most part of the lower elevations of the districts, 


35, T. quadrivalvis O. Ktz. 
Distribution: Madeswaranmalai, Dhimbam, Kollegal. 


36. T, tremula Hack. 
Distribution : Poonachi, Anamalais. 


37, T. cymbaria Hack. 
Distribution: Hassarur, Gunkuya shola, Gaddersal, Girga gundy. 


38. Iseilema prostratum Anderss. 


Distribution : Coimbatore. 
It is a rare grass but is relished well as a fodder. 


39, I. laxum Hack. 


Distribution : Sisganailur, Coimbatore. 
One of the ranking fodder grasses greatly relished by cattle. It 1s 
the main feed for the Ongole breed of cat tle in Andhra State. 


40, Apluda aristata L, 
Distribution: Coimbatore, Marudamalai, Anamalais, | Poonachi 
Talavadi, Anaikatti, Madeswaranmalai, Lokkanahalli, Kollegal, Gobi. 


41, Eremopogon foveolatus Stapf 


Distribution : Arepalayam, Kollegai, Coimbatore. 

A good fodder grass coming up well in low elevations. It grows 
to a height of 14 to 2 feet. Though the yield is poor it is one of the 
best fodder grasses. 


42, Andropogon pumilus Roxb. 
Distribution : Coimbatore and Gobi, 


43, Cymbopogon flexuosus Wats. Malabar Lemon grass. 
Distribution : Hassanur, Anaikatti, Kallar, Seggai mudi, Tekkan Kadu. 
A cultivated grass, commonly found in Travancore and Cochin. 
It yields the ‘ Malabar Lemon Grass oil.’ 


44, C. confertiflorus Stapf 
Distribution : Gaddersal. 


45. C. coloratus Stapf 
Distribution : Poonachi, Doddasambagi, Dimbham to Hassanur. 
Yields an essential oil and is also used for thatching. Cattle do not 
relish it. 


46, C. martini Wats. 
Distribution: Kollegal and Chikkally. 
The ‘ Geranium oi)’ or ‘ Rusa oil’ is derived from this grass. 


GhASS \HLORAS OF COIMBATORE, DISTRICT 679 


47, C. caesius Stapf 


Distribution : Chikkally, Madeswaranmalai, Kilrupadhi, ‘Tadagam, 
Satyamangalam, Sanaganur, Sayakara madai, Siruvani. 
A perennial grass which possesses an aromatic oil. It is used for 
thatching. 


48, C. gidarba Haines 

Distribution: Cowdailly, Kollegal. 

This is the only species of Cymbopogon without any odour. A 
good fodder grass. 

49, Hackelochloa granularis O, Ktz. 
Distribution : Hassanur, Coimbatore. 
A short grass, not very common. Cattle seem to like it. 
50. Rottboellia exaltata L, f. 

Distribution: Kottadi, Dhimbam, Anamalais, Satyamangalam, 
Coimbatore, Rangaswami Temple, Palamalai, Marudamalai, Muduku 
noele, Anaikatti. 

51. Manisuris myurus L, 

Distribution: Pollachi. 

A good fodder grass with spreading haltit and rooting at the nodes. 
52, Digitaria marginata Link 


Distribution : Common in the lower elevations of the district. 
One of the common fodder grasses occurring throughout the 
district. Provides soft good fodder relished by cattle. 


53. D. marginata Link var. fimbriata Stapf 

Distribution: Coimbatore, Kollegal, Marudamalai, Anamalais, Hassa- 
nur, Methuganai, Shanar coupe, Palamalai, Lokkanahalli. 
54. D. griffithii Stapf 

Distribution : Poonachi, Coimbatore. 


55, D. longiflora Pers, 


Distribution: Hassanur, Anabetta, Bellagi, Kollegai, Dharapuram, 
Pollachi. 


A short grass found mainly in forest areas. 


56. D. royleana Pr, 
Distribution ; Poonachi, Anamalais. 


57. Alioteropsis cimicina Stapf 


Distribution: Hassanur, Udumalpet , Poonachi, Pollachi, Gobi, Kunjur, 
Coimbatore. 


Found commonly in low elevations. Cattle relish it well but the 
yield is very iow. 


58, Axonopus compressus Beauv. 
Distribution : Valparai, Chinchona. 


680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY.” Vor 54 


59. Eriochloa procera C. E. Hubb. 
Distribution: Madeswaranmalai, Gobi, Coimbatore. 


60. Brachiaria distachya Stapf 


Distribution: Madeswaranmalai, Hassanur, Marudamalai, Pollachi, 
Palayakottai, Dharapuram, Anaipadi, Anamalais, Coimbatore, and 


Satyamangalam, 
A common spreading fodder grass which thrives well in moist 


situations. Cattle graze it readily. 


6], B. mutica Stapf 


Distribution : Coimbatore. 
A very good fodder grass suited for heavy areas. Produces profuse 


foliage and yields well. 


62. B. eruciformis Griseb. 


Distribution: Cowdally, Sanganur. | 
Thrives well in black cotton soils. Cattle graze it readily, but the 
quantity of fodder produced is not much. 


63, B. semiundulata Stapf 
Distribution : Poonachi. 


64, B. ramosa Stapf 
Distribution : Arepalayam, Kollegal, Satyamangalam, Coimbatore, 
Poonachi, Pollachi, Mettur, Shanar coupe, Punganjeri, Siruvani, north 


Palamalai. 
A grass weed the grains of which are used as an article of food. 


65. B. semiverticillata Alst. 
Distribution: Ichipalli, Marudamalai, Palamaiai, Ponachi, Methu- 
ganai. 


65. Paspalum scrobiculatum L, 
Distribution ; Cowdally, Kollegal, Coimbatore, Gundal river, Valparai, 


Bolampatti Valley, Hassanur. 
The grass is cultivated for the sake of its grain which is a daily 
article of food in certain districts of the State such as Ramnad and 


Madras. 


67. P. orbiculare Forst. 
Distribution ; Cowdally, Kollegal. 


68. P. conjugatum Berg. 
Distribution: Kallar, Way to Anaipadi, Anamaiais. 


69. Paspalidium flavidum A. Cam. 
Distribution : Coimbatore, Anamalats, Gundal, Bellagi, Gobi, 


Hassanur. 
One of the best pasture grasses ae is an aserec Cattle relish 


it well. 


GRASS GELORA OF (COIMBATORE DISTRICT 681 


70. P. geminatum Stapf 


Distribution: Coimbatore, River Aliyar, Pollachi, Udumalpet, 
Wetlands-Central Farm, Coimbatore, Sayakara madai. 


71, Urochloa panicoides Beauv. 


Distribution : Hassanur, Coimbatore, Talamalai, Kollegal. 
A spreading annual thriving in moist situations. A good pasture 
grass relished by cattle. 


72, U, setigera Stapf 
Distribution : Coimbatore. 


73. U. reptans Stapf 
Distribution : Coimbatore, Dharapuram, Satyamangalam. 


74, Echinochloa colona Link 


Distribution : Throughout the district. 
An annual coming up well in moist situations and paddy lands. 
Relished by cattle. The grain is eaten by the poor. 


75. E. crus-galli Beauv. 


Distribution : Coimbatore. 
A common grass thriving in moist places and rice fields. The 
grain is eaten by the poor. 


76, E, stagnina Beauv. 
Distribution : Palayakottai, Central Farm, Coimbatore Wetlands. 


77, Oplismenus compositus Beauv. 


Distribution : Hassanur, Karian shola, Anamalais, Rangaswami Koil, 
Palamalai. 


78. Panicum psilopodium Trin. 


Distribution : Coimbatore, Palayakottai, Gobi, and Pollachi. 
It is an annual growing to a height of 1 to 2 feet. 


79, P. trypheron Schuit. 

Distribution : Pollachi, Poonachi, Central Farm, Coimbatore, Mettur, 
Thotta betta, Kollegal. 

A forest grass growing to a height of 2 feet. It is relished by 
cattle. 


80, P. paludosum Roxb. 
Distribution : Kavaripuram. 


81, P. antidotale Retz. 
Distribution : Cowdally, Coimbatore. 


82, P. maximum Jacq. 

Distribution : Throughout the district. 

The common guinea grass cultivated under irrigation. Gives 
enormous yields and is well relished by cattle. 


682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


83. P. repens L, 


Distribution: Common throughout the district. 
Found as a weed on the bunds of paddy fields. It is much relished 
by cattle and is said to improve the milk yield. 


84, P. montanum Roxb. 
Distribution : Hassanur, Anaipadi. 


85, P. subeglume Trin. 
Distribution : Coimbatore, Shanar coupe, Bhavani, Palayakottai. 


86, Cyrtococcum trigonum A, Camus 


Distribution: Parapatti, Siruvani, Talavadi, Anaikatti, Hassanur, 
Madeswaranmalai. 
A shade grass occurring in forests. A poor yielder. 


87, C. oxyphyllum Stapt 


Distribution : Karian shola, Anamalais, Cinchona, Valvaval Gadder- 
sal, Rangaswami Koil, Palamalai. 


88, C. patens A. Cam. 
Distribution : Bellagi, Koliegal. 


89, C. radicans Stapf 
Distribution : Poonachi, Talavadi, Karadimalai. 


90. C. longipes A, Cain. 
Distribution: Kallar, R. F. 


91. Saccolepis interrupia Stapf 


Distribution : Kollegal. 
Found in swampy places and grazed by cattle, 


92, S. indica Chase. 
Distribution : Poonachi. 


93, Setaria palmifolia Stapf 


Distribution : Vellingiri hiils, Gaddersal, Punganjeri, Gundal River, 
Kollegal, Karadimalai, Rangaswami Koil, Palamalai. 
Found in iower elevations, 


94, S. italica Beauv. 


The Italian millet is wideiy cuitivated and occasionally found as an 
escape. 


95. S. pallidifusca Stapf 


Distribution: Hassandr, Way to Poonachi, Dharapuram, Pollachi, 
Girmalam, Punganjeri, Coimbatore, Dha! apbetta, North Palamalai. 

A fair fodder relished by cattle. The grain is said to be eaten by 
the poor class of people. 


GRASS FLORA OF COIMBATORE DISTRICT 683 


96. S. intermedia R, and S. 


Distribution: Coimbatore, Kollegal, iower Anamalais. 
An annual. which comes up in moist situations. Relished by 
cattle. 


97, S. verticillata Beauv. 


Distribution : Anaikatti, Singanallur, Punganjeri, Poonachi, Coimba- 
tore. 

An annual found rambling on bushes. Cattle graze it before 
flowering. 


98, Pseudoraphis aspera Pilg. 
Distribution : Coimbatore. 


99, Pennisetum typhoides Stapf et Hubb. 
Cultivated for the grains. 


100. P. hohenackeri Hochst. 
Distribution : Cowdally, Coimbatore, ‘T'alavadi, Kollegal. 


191. Cenchrus ciliaris L,. 


Distribution : Throughout the districts in plains. 

A common grass of the district, which is the main feed for the 
Kangayam breed of cattle. Highly relished by cattle. It thrives in dry 
areas and stands cutting well. 


102. C. setigerus Vahl 


Distribution : Throughout the district in plains. 
As good as the above grass and grown along with it in the pastures 
at Kangayam. It thrives in dry localities and stands cutting well. 


103, Isachne kunthiana W. et A., var. latifolia Hk.f, 
Distribution : Anamalais. 


104, I. dispar Trin. 
Distribution : Gobi, Coimbatore. 


Readily eaten by cattle and horses. A troublesome weed in rice 
fields. ie 


105, I. angladei C, Fisch. 
Distribution : Anamalais. 


106, Arundinella avenacea Munro 
Distribution : Iyerpadi and Anamalais. 


107, A. mesophylla Nees 
Distribution : Poonachi. 


108, A. setosa Trin, 
Distribution: Seggani mudi, Anaipatti. 
A forest grass growing to a height of 2} to 3 feet 
13 


684 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


109, A. holcoides Trin. 
Distribution: Poonachi. 


110, A. pumila Steud. 
Distribution : Throughout the. district. 


111. A. fuscata Nees 


Distribution : Poonachi, Anamalais, Vellingiri. 
An excellent fodder thriving from 3000’-—7000’. 


112. Zenkeria elegans ‘Trin. 
Distribution : Anamalais, Marudamalai, and Seggani mudi. 


113. Arundo donax L, 


Distribution : Dharapuram, Kollegal, Singanallur, and Coimbatore. 
Not good fodder though cattle sometimes eat it. 


114. Phragmites karka Trin. 
Distribution : Thonkadavur, River Alliar, and Walayar. 


115. Aristida depressa Retz. 
Distribution : Throughout the district. 


116. A. setacea Retz. 


Distribution : Throughout the district. , 
Rejected by cattle. It is used for making brooms. 


117. A. hystrix L,. 


Distribution : Palay akottai, Pollachi, Coimbatore, Cowdally, “Mettur 
(lake-bed), Shanar coupe. 

A perennial grass not touched by cattle, because of the presence of 
long awns. 


118. A. mutabilis Trin. Partie 
Distribution: Pappanaickenpalayam, Railway line, Coimbatore. 


119, A.funiculata Trin. 
~ ‘Distribution : Kollegal, Satyamangalam. 


120, Garnotia scoparia Stapf 
Distribution : Poonachi. 


12]. Trachys muricata Steud. 


Distribution : Palayakottai, Satyamangalam, Coimbatore, : 
It is often tound near the seashore. Cattle graze it. 


122, Tragus biflorus Schult. 


Distribution : Shanar coupe, Hassanur, Mettur, Singanallur, Coimba- 
tore, and Pollachi. 

A prostrate ere winch thrives’ in Sandy, and dry localities. Cattle do 
not relish it. - Nae ene . 


«GRASS FLORA, QF COJMBATORE DISTRICT  ——_ 685, 


123, Perotis indica O, Ktz. 


Distribution : In many parts of the district. | : 
A slender grass growing to a height of 1 to 2 feet. Not considered 
good fodder. 


124. Sporobolus diander Beauv. 


Distribution : Madeswaranmalai and Coimbatore. 
It comes up in shady places but it is not considered good fodder. 


125. S. wallichii Manne 
Distribution : Hassanur, Botanical Gardens, Coimbatore. 
A short grass which thrives in shady situations. 


126, S.tremulus Kunth 


Distribution: Dharapuram. 
_ A short perennial pasture grass. It thrives well in alkaline soils and 


makes excellent lawns. It is relished by cattle. 


127, S. spicatus Kunth | 
‘Distribution : Coimbatore and Sivasamudram. 


128. S. piliferus Kunth 
Distribution : Poonachi. 


129, S. coromandelianus Kunth ! 

Distribution : Coimbatore, Agricultural College and Research Institute, 
Coimbatore, Palayakottai, Central Farm of Coimbatore. 

Poor: fodder. 


130. S. scabrifolius Bhide 


Distribution : Coimbatore. 
An annual, common in black cotton soils. It is readily grazed by 


cattie. 


131. Leptochloa uniflora Hochst. 
Distribution : Poonachi. 


132, L. obtusiflora Hochst. 
Distribution : Singanallur. 


133; L. chinensis Nees 


Distribution : Gobi, Coimbatore, at eoileeral: 
Moderately good fodder growing in moist situations. 


134, Eragrostis ciliaris Link: 


Distribution : Arepalayam, Kollegal, aeainedi and Panganijeri. 
-A rare grass growing to a height of 1 ft. Cattle relish it. 


135, E. aspera Nees 
Distribution : Coimbatore, Punganjeri, Madeswaranmaiai, ‘Lokkana- 
halli, Kollegal; and Anaikatti. 


686" JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


136, E. viscosa Trin, 
Distribution : Talavadi. - 
Said to be dislixed by cattle. 


136A. E. plumosa Link 
Distribution : Madeswaranmalai, Kunjur, Pollachi. 


137, E. tenella R. et S. var. plumosa Stapf 
Distribution: Madeswaranmalai, Kunjur, Pollachi. 


138. E. diarrhena Steud. var. koenigii C. Fisch. 


Distribution : Coimbatore. 
Readily eaten by cattie. 


139, E. unioloides Nees 
Distribution: Poonachi. Gaddersal, Cinchona Plantations, Valparai. 


140, E. gangetica Steud. i 


Distribution: Between Aliar and Thorakadavoor, Doddahalla, Kolle- 
gal, Hassanur, Kallar, R.F. 
Readily eaten by cattle. 


141. E. nutans Nees 
Distribution : Sivasamudram. 


14?, E. cilianensis Link 


Distribution: Poonachi, Kollegal, Ramapuram, Central Farm, Coim- 
batore, Cowdally, Periyar, Kunjur, Anakaraimalai, Lokkanahalli. 
An annual often found as weed in cultivated lands. . 


143. E. poaeoides Beauv. 
Distribution : Satyamangalam, Marudamalai. 


144, E. willdenoviana Nees 
Distribution : Coimbatore, Pollachi. 


145, E. tenuifolia Hochst. 
Distribution : On the way to Poonachi, East of Madeswaranmalai, 
Hassanur, Rangaswami Koil, Kottadi. 


Though not a good yielder is grazed by cattle. A forest grass grow- 
ing undershade. 


146. E. pilosa Beauv. 


Distribution : Palayakottai, Poonachi, Hassanur, Coimbatore, and 
Kunjur. 

Often noticed as a weed in standing crops. The grass is not con- 
sidered as good fodder. 


147, E. nigra Nees 
Distribution : Kottadi, Kallar R.F. 


GRASS FLORA OF COIMBATORE DISTRICT ‘ 687 


148, E. bifaria W. 


Distribution : Satyamangalam, Udumalpet, Paiayakottai, Coimbatore, 
Hassanur, Thornakal thadagam, Kollegal, Perukupathi and Maruda- 
malai. 

Reported to yield fodder. It occurs in dry and poor soils in the 
forests. 


149, E. brachyphylla Stapf 4 
Distribution : Pollachi. 
This grass is more or less similar to the above. 


150, Oropetium thomaeum ‘Trin. 


Distribution : Shanar coupe, Coimbatore. 
A very short grass occurring in dry localities. 


15]. Tripogon jacquemontii Stapf 
Distribution : Poonachi. 


152. T. bromoides Roth. 
Distribution : Poonachi, Vellingiri, Hassanur, Arepalayam. 


153, T. pungens C, Fisch. 
Distribution : Poonachi. 


154, Enteropogon monostachyos K, Schum. 


Distribution : Madeswaranmalai, Shanar coupe, Pollachi, Satyaman- 
galam, Rangaswami Koil, Marudamalai, Botanic Gardens, Coimbatore, 
Kollegal. 

It thrives in dry forest regions. Comes up in plains aiso. A good 
yielder with high fodder value. Stands cutting well. 


155. Cynodon dactylon Pers. Doob grass. 

Distribution : Throughout the district. 

A highly nutritious fodder especially for horses. Makes excellent 
lawns, but becomes a weed in atable lands where its eradication is a 
problem. 


156. C. dactylon Pers. var. intermedius C, Fisch. 
Distribution : Throughout the district. 


157, C. barberi Rang. et Tad. 


Distribution: Shanar coupe, Hassanur, Marudamalai, Chellam- 
palayam. 

A good pasture grass resembling /arzalz, differing mainly in the 
absence of underground stems. 


158. Chloris incompleta Roth. 


Distribution : Hassanur, Madeswaranmatai, Anaikatti. 
Eaten by cattle before flowering. A forest grass growing under 
shade. ; 


688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


159. C. barbata Sw. 


: Distribution : Throughout the district. 
_ It grows to 14 ft. and is one of the om grasses thriving in alkaline 
soils, It is a good fodder grass. 


160, C. bournei Rang. et Tad. 
Distribution : Thalamalai. R.F., and Coimbatore. 


161. C. montana Roxb, 
Distribution : Coimbatore. 


162. C. polystachya Roxb. 
Distribution: Rangaswami Koil, Satyamangalam, Coimbatore. 


163. Eleusine indica Gaertn. 
Distribution: Dhimbam, River Aliyar, SOLER Anaikatti, Coimba- 


tore, Anamalais. 
Fair as fodder. 


164. E. verticillata. Roxb. 


Distribution : Poonachi. 
A good fodder grass. 


165. E. lagopoides Merr. 
Distribution : Gobi. 
166. Dactyloctenium aegyptium Beauv. . 
Distribution : Pollachi, Sanganur, Poonachi, north Palamalai, Ana- 


katti, Madeswaranmalai, Punganjeri. 
A creeping annual. Common in pastures and cultivated fields. 


Cattle seem to like it. 


167. Dinebra retroflexa Panz. 
Distribution : Coimbatore. 


168. Enneapogon elegans Stapf 
Distribution : Palayakottai, Satyamangalam, Ennamangalam, Bhavani 


range, Marudamalai, Kunjur. 


169, Oryza sativa L, Rice or Paddy. 
Cultivated throughout the district. 


170. O. meyeriana Baill. 
Distribution: Gundal valley, Kollegal. 


171, Leersia hexandra Sw. 
Distribution : Anamalais and Hassanur. 


172. Centotheca lappacea Desv. 
Distribution: Anamalais and Hassanur. 


4 GRASS FLORA OF COIMBATORE DISTRICT 689 


173, Triticum dicoccum Schr. 
Distribution: Coimbatore (Cultivated). 


174, T. vulgare Vill, 
Distribution : Coimbatore (Cultivated). 


175. Dendrocalamus strictus Nees 
- Distribution : Poonachi, Ichipalli, Gundal river, Kollegal. 


176. ‘aambusa prondiniacea Willd. 


Distribution : 'Thornakailupthadam, Oosimalai, Top Slip, Hassanur, 
Marugalli, Karimberathadam. 


177. Oxytenanthera monadelpha Alst. 
Distribution : Anamalais. 


178. Ochlandra travancorica Camb. 
Distribution : Karian shola, Top Slip. 


REFERENCES 


; de Chandrasekharan, S. N., Parthasarathy, S. V. (1944) : Note on some fodder 
grasses of es Dt. Madras. ALU LIZZ (0,10; Fe) 
: 2. Fischer, C. E.C. (1934): Flora of the Presidency of Madras. Part x 
(Gamble’s Flora), | 
¥ 3. Jacob, K. C, (1938): Grass Flora of the Kollegal Forest Division, with 
short notes and vernacular names wherever available. Ind. Forester. 64: 419-429, 

4, —— — (1939): Grass Flora of Chitoor Dt. with special reference to fodder 
grasses. Madras. Agri. J. 27 (1) : 9-18. 
j 5. ——— (1940) : Grass Flora of North and South Arcot Dts., with special 
reference to fodder grasses. Madras Agri. J. 28 (2). 
; 6. ——— (1942) : Grass Floraof Trvancore State, with special reference 
to pocae grasses. Madras Agri. J. 30 (6). 

— — — (1944): Breeds of oereite and their staple grasses. Madras, Agri. 


1567). 


ON THE MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH: 
A PRELIMINARY SURVEY}? 


BY 


P. W. Giweon, P. K. B. MENon, 5S. R. V. Rao, anp K. V. Jose 
Department of Zoology, Birla College, Pilani (Rajasthan) 


(With a map, one plate and five text figures) 
INTRODUCTION 


The available knowledge of the fauna of Kathiawar coast is 
primarily on fishes which is mainly provided by the Fisheries Depart- 
ments of Saurashtra and Bombay (1948). Hornell’s paper (1916), 
however, gives us only a general survey of the fauna of Okhamandal. 
The present report is confined to Port Okha and Pirotan island (map) 
and was undertaken from an academic standpoint. The Kathiawar 
coast bordering the bay of Kutch is the nearest suitable seashore for 
the Rajputana students, though up to now students used to go further 
south to Madras and Krusadai and neighbouring islands for their 
marine zoological studies. It was thought worthwhile to survey and 
_map out these regions so that in future Okha may serve as the 
marine zoological station for northern universities. From our survey 
it is found that this coastal area and the surrounding islands afford 
excellent facilities for zoological research. 

This paper is a record of the results of the preliminary survey and 
is written with a view to provide an adequate idea of the ecology and 
systematics of the fauna of Saurashtra. With a view to obtain a more 
comprehensive idea of the fauna of the place several trips are planned 
and we hope to publish more detailed accounts of the fauna. 

The present survey covers the lighthouse area and Dwarka creek 
of Okha, Balarpur Bay, and Hanuman Dandi of Beyt Dwarka Island 
(near Okha) and the north-east and west coasts of Pirotan Island 
(near Jamnagar). The survey was conducted from 6 to 14 June, 
1956, which being a pre-monsoon month was, according to the 
fisheries experts, not a very suitable period for collection. In spite 
of this we were fortunate to find a rich fauna, both in variety and 
abundance. The actual period of collection was only for six days and 
the results from such a rapid survey will no doubt be far from com- 
plete. Our plankton collection is very meagre since only one catch 
was made between Jamnagar and Pirotan on the way to Pirotan 
Island. ‘A report of the same will be published later. 

Dr. J. P. Joshua, Professor of Zoology, Madras Christian 
College, with his colleagues and senior students accompanied us in 
this tour. We are very grateful to him for his expert guidance in 
the field work. Our thanks are also due to the Directors of the 


1 Contribution No. 2 from the Zoology Department (Marine Zoology Section), 
Birla College, Pilani (Rajasthan). 


MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH 691 


Fisheries Departments of Bombay and Saurashtra for their co-opera- 
tion and willing help in this survey, and to Dr. S. M. Mitra, Principal, 
Birla College, Pilani, for partly financing the project. We thank the 
British Museum for the identification of Ikedella and Lingula. 


Meat oDp Ss) OLr COLLECTION 


The collections were made at low tide both morning and _ after- 
noon. The chisel and hammer were much in demand for breaking the 
Stone to collect the animals which dwell inside the rocks. In some 
cases the spade was very useful. For the collections of animals like 
Chiton and Cellana (Patella) a simple stick was enough. In the 
muddy shore, most of these specimens were procured by hand, and 
in the sandy shore also no special collection device was necessary. 


The programme of work each day was determined by the time of 
the low tide. The low tide allows 2 to 4 hours of collecting during 
the mornings, and during the evenings 2 hours. The period of the 
work during’ the mornings was the most profitable, since the low tide 
allowed us at least 4 hours (maximum) of continuous work. The 
afternoon period was much shorter as the low tide was as late as 
5 p.m. which hardly left us more than 2 hours of daylight for work. 


GONDIEGTONS OF THE AREA SURVEYED 


Port Okha is situated at the tip of the Kathiawar peninsula about 
630 miles north of Bombay. The bay of Kutch is bordered by a 
shore, which is remarkable for its variety of ecological conditions. 


Lighthouse Area: A strip of the shore which extends from 
the Port area is typically rocky. During low tide the sea recedes 
about half a mile and the area exposed between tides is characterised 
by broken rocks aggregated into small heaps scattered all over. 
Towards the interior these rocks are covered with a layer of mud. 


Dwarka Creek is in fact a continuation of the Lighthouse 
Area, but it presents an altogether diflerent faunistic environment. 
The area is characterized by the presence of loose laterite rocks. The 
rocks are covered with a thick layer of mud, the thickness varying 
‘from 3” to 10”, and in certain places it exceeds 1 foot. In these 
areas of soft mud are seen profuse growth of algae and diatoms. 
Rock pools are many, and cracks in the rocks afford good shelter for 
many animals. During low tide about a mile of the sea-bed is ex- 
posed. 


Beyt Dwarka is an island about 4 miles east of Port Okha on 
the western side of the Bay. The Island is populated and its vast 
stretch of shore exposed between tides is an excellent field for animal 
collection. Collections were made at two places, viz. Balarpur Bay 
and Hanuman Dandi. 


(az) Balarpur Bay: The shore exposed at low tide was 
muddy and the mud very deep at certain places. During low tide an 
extensive area about 3 to 4 miles is exposed and this was found to 


692 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


be very good for collection. The area is rich in. fauna and many rare 
specimens like Lingula and Echiurids were collected. . 


(b) Hanuman Dandi: This coast is a mile and a half from 
Balarpur Bay. The exposed area is rocky and it presents certain strik- 
ing peculiarities. The rocks are broken into pieces and fairly big'rock- 
pools are found throughout the shore. ‘At certain places the shore 
is. sandy but as one approaches the low tide level it tends to become 
rocky. The area exposed during low tide extends to about 5 miles. 
This area is strikingly different from the Balarpur Bay in its faunistic 
variety. 


Ca. 57 miles = 1 inch. 


69° 70° 71° 72° 


Gulf of Kutch and the Kathiawar Peninsula : The areas surveyed are Okha, 
Beyt Dwarka and Pirotan 


Pirotan Island: This is a small island 10 miles off 
Jamnagar. The island is situated in the bay of Kutch. It is rich in 
mangrove vegetation. During low tide a very extensive shore is 
exposed around the island extending to about 6 miles. The eastern 
side of this island is mainly rocky and covered with soft mud. Towards 
the inner side of this extensive area at low tide mark, an extensive 
coral reef is exposed. The south-west part of this isiand is sandy and 
becomes muddy as we advance to the low tide mark. At certain 
places the mud is very deep. 

The areas surveyed present a variety of ecological conditions and 
accordingly the fauna was found to be most varied and representative 
of a number of types rarely found together. Thus the shore of the 


MARINE: FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH 693 


Gulf of Kutch presents sandy beaches, rocky shores, mud flats, marshy 
ground, creeks, rock pools, and islands. There is no doubt that this 
is a very fascinating field for zoologists. 


PROTOZOA 


Only one collection of plankton was obtained which is awaiting 
study and, hence, no record of the Protozoa of these areas is possible. 


PORIFERA 


The area surveyed is very rich in sponges, especially the genus 
Adocia, which exhibits a variety of colours, blue, green, orange, 
yellow, and red. This is the most common form of sponge found in 
Pirotan Island and Dwarka Creek. They are generally found en- 
crusting the rocks. Collections were also made of many sponges 
washed ashore. 


COELENTERATA 


The coelenterates are well represented in Hanuman Dandi and 
Pirotan Island which possess extensive areas of growing corals. 

Hydrozoans and Anthozoans were found, but no Scyphomedusae? 
were collected. 


HYDROZOA: Sertularia is found in abundance beneath the rocks and 
they are invariably found drifting along with seaweed. 
Plumularia was collected in large quantities from Pirotan 
Island. Hydrozoan medusae washed ashore were collect- 
ed in large numbers. 
Hydroctena, a narcomedusan resembling the ctenophore 
in having a pair of long tentacles, was observed in the 
plankton. 
Diphyes, a siphonophore, was also found in the plankton. 


ANTHOZOA: The area surveyed is very rich in anthozoan fauna, and a 
variety of corals and sea anemones were collected. 


Fam: Actinidae: Three genera belonging to this family were 

found. Specimens closely resembling Tealiaf, the Dahlia 

_ anemone, were found in large numbers in Hanuman Dandi. 
They are very beautifully coloured, the tentacles being red, 
with grey, green, and white lines. 

Anemonea, generally known as ‘snake locks’, were also collected 
from Hanuman Dandi. Their tentacles are longer than those 
resembling the Dahlia anemone and are brown in colour. 
Bunodactys is a small sea anemone which is brownish green in 
colour. - 


Fam: Stoicactidae: The members of this family are most specta- 
cular. These giant sea anemones with green suckers on a 


1Jn our later survey during October 1956, a few scyphomedusae were also 
collected. ; 


694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


large frilled disc were found along the sandy shore of Hanuman 
Dandi: 

Stoicactis (Plate, fig. 1) is the common genus and is a big sea 

anemone, which was scooped out of the sand. The body colour 

is pale yellow and the disc is studded with greenish blue 

tubercles. | 


Fam: Zoanthidae: The members of the family are found in great 
abundance in Hanuman Dandi and Pirotan Island. 
Gemmaria (Plate, fig. 2) is the most common form, very much 
resembling Zoanthus, but differing only in its small size. They 
grow from all sides of rocks. They are mostly green in colour 
and when they are expanded they present a mosaic of 


hexagonal figures. Red, green, and blue varieties were also 
collected. 


Fam: Cerianthidae: Cerianthus was collected from Balarpur 
Bay. These animals live in mud in tubes secreted by them. 
During low tide, it is just possible to see these animals spread- 
ing out their tentacles. The collection of this is really a 
difficult task. It has to be quickly scooped out of the mud 
before the animal retracts further into the mud. The two 
specimens of Cerianthus collected were fairly large, measuring 


about 9” in length. Its tube is made of a slimy secretion of 
the body. 


Fam: Favidae: Among the living corals observed, Favia and 
Meandria were the most common. 


Fam: Poritidae: Porites also occur in large numbers in Hanuman 
Dandi. They, are grayish white in colour occurring on the rocks 
in the low tide belt. No living specimens were seen. 


Fam: Asteridae: Asteria and Sidastrea were the two genera 


collected. They occur in fairly large numbers in Hanuman 
Dandi. 


CTENOPHORA 


None were found nor did the single plankton haul show any.’ 


ANNELIDA 


The free living polychetes are represented by a variety of nereid 
worms. Polynoe, found in large numbers, was collected from the 
under surface of rocks. Large specimens of Eurythoe were found, 
living in holes and crevices of the rocks. A very interesting free 
living polycheata, about 2” long, with dorsal, flat, long projections, 
were found. Among the tubiculous forms Terebella, Amphilrite, and 
Iphione were the most common forms. 


* In our recent survey during October 1956, a few ctenophores were collected. 


MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH 695: 


SIPUNCULOIDEA 


Dendrostoma and Asphidosiphon were the common. sipunculids 
which occur in large numbers within the rocks and in the encrusted 
sponges. 


ECHIUROIDEA 


The most outstanding feature of this survey was the discovery of 
the echiurid worm, a bonellid, Ikedella muisakiensis (Ikeda) (Plate, 
fig. 3) which so far, we believe, has not been reported from Indian 
waters [Gideon, Menon, Rao, and Jose, JBNHS, 54 (1): 201-202]. 
These animals were collected from Pirotan Island and are found to live 
inside the rocks, with only their proboscis projecting outside. This 
worm differs from all the known species, and work on its ecology, 
anatomy, and taxonomy is in progress. 


BRACHIOPODA 


Lingula anatima (Lamarck) (text fig. 1) species were collected in 
large numbers from Balarpur Bay. ‘They are attached deep in the 
clayey soil by their peduncles. The peduncle is about 6” in length in 
a full grown specimen and the shell is green in colour. The pedicel 
is attached to the lower end of the vertical burrow and the shell is 
normally just exposed above the top end of the burrow. When 
alarmed the pedicel is contracted and the shell jerked back into the 
burrow. The setae attached to the anterior end of the mantle lining 
both valves of the shell form three tubes, two lateral for ingoing 


ciliary currents and one central for the outgoing current removing 
waste matter. 


Fig. 1. Lingula ana- 
tama from Balarpur 
Bay (Beyt Dwarka). x 3 


E96. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


ARTHROPODA 


Among the marine arthropods, the CRUSTACEA are the most impor- 
tant.and abundant. The Okha coast and island shores were very rich 


in the crustacean fauna. Hanuman Dandi seemed to prove .a good: 


abode for Uca (calling crabs, Gelasimus). At the Lighthouse beach 
(we call it Chiton shore or beach) crabs of different types were found. 
Pirotan Island also was very rich in crabs and other crustaceans. 


COPEPODA: The copepoda found in large numbers await taxonomic 
study. 


CIRRIPEDIA: The most common species of this group was Balanus 


me ae (Darwin), found in large numbers on logs of wood. (Plate, 
fig. 


B. tintinabulum (Darwin), a larger species, was also collected from 


Pirotan Island. Among the parasitic cirripedes Sacculina was not 
found in the crabs collected. 


ISOPODA: Ligia sp. was the most common example observed in 


very large numbers along the high tide level especially during evenings: 


when they come out for feeding. During the daytime they hide 
among the logs of wood or seaweed washed ashore. 


STOMATOPODA: Sqguilla was collected from  Pirotan Island. 
Gonodactylus was also fairly common. Another . interesting form 
Periclimnus sp. (probably P. brevecarpalis) was found in association 
(commensal) with the giant sea-anemone, Stoicactis. 


DECAPODA: Macrura: Penaeus, though not collected by us, were 
found in fishermen’s collections. Lucifer was found in large numbers 
in the plankton collection. é 

Alphaeus which produces a characteristic sound by means of its 
appendages and Hippolysmata another macruran were common forms 
occurring in large numbers in rock pools. 


Panulirus: Skeletons of this animal were found washed ashore 
along the Lighthouse area. 


ANOMURA: Hermit crabs of the family Paguridae were collected 
from a variety of shells. The most common shells inhabited were 
Thais and Telescopium. Diogenes was the common genus found in 
the shells of Thais. 


BraAcHyuRA: Calapidae: .;Matuta is the common crab which 
frequents the sea during low tide. They live buried in the sand. 
The carapace is rounded with a single stout triangular spine on each 
side. 


Ocypodidae: The members of this family are found in large 
numbers especially at Balarpur Bay. The most common genus is Uca 
(Gelasimus) which is generally known as the ‘Dhobi crab’ or calling 
crab. The males are characterised by the possession of a very large 
brilliantly orange or red coloured chela. . They have got the peculiar 
habit of waving this chela. 


eee 


'. MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH 697. 


Portunidae: Neptunus is the most common genus. It Is re-. 
cognised by the antero-lateral margins of the carapace bearing g teeth 
and a long characteristic spine projecting sideways. They are found 
in large numbers in the south-west part of the Pirotan Island. 


Inachidae: Hyas is the common spider crab found under the 
rocks. . They have a triangular carapace and slender legs which give 
them the appearance of a spider. 


Xanthidae: Pilumnus popularly known as furry crabs, in which 
the entire body is covered by dense profuse fur-like outgrowths in the 
dorsal side which helps to camouflage the crab among seaweeds and 
sponges, are common. These crabs were collected mainly from the 
eastern shore of Pirotan Island. 


MOLLUSCA 


The Kathiawar coast is very rich in molluscan fauna. All the 
important classes of the phylum are represented. 


SCAPHOPODA: Dentalium is the common genus and its shells are 
found in large numbers in Balarpur Bay. The shell is tubular re- 
sembling very much in shape the tusk of an elephant. The shell is 
ribbed and tapering from aperture to apex. Dentalium octangulatum 
(Donovan) is the common species. It is typically 8 ribbed but certain 
shells collected from the same spot possess g ribs [Crichton (Gravely’s 
account—Bull. Madras Govt. Mus, Nat. Hist. Sect. Vol. V. No. 1, 
pp. 25, 1941) has collected from Krusadai Island having 6 ribs which 
may also belong to the same species)|. If this is so then the ribs 
of D. octangulatum may vary from 6 to 9. 


Fig. 2. Chiton—from Lighthouse Area. x 3 


AMPHINEURA; Chitons (text fig. 2) are found in abundance in the 
Lighthouse. Area of Okha. It would not be an exaggeration if we 
name it Chiton Bay or Chiton Shore. Chitons are attached to rocks 
which remain partly submerged during high tide. The specimens 
collected’ do not conform to the descriptions of Acanthochiton or 
Plaxipora) (Gravely, Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. Nat. Hist. Sect. Vol. V, 
No. 1, 1941). The largest specimen collected in Okha is 3” in length. 


GASTROPODA: Fam: Fissurellidae: Both empty shells and 
living animals. were collected from Pirotan Island, and from Dwarka 
Creek (Okha) and Balarpur Bay (Beyt Dwarka) only’ empty 


698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54: 


shells were collected. The shells are conical with a perforation at the 
apex. Well pronounced radial ridges separated by concentric ridges 
are a characteristic feature of the shell. Diadord is the most common 
genus of the family. The shells are generally known as ‘key-hole’ 
limptes. | 


Fam: Patellidae: These are the true limpets. The shell is 
conical and resembles the Fissurellidae, but it can be easily dis- 
tinguished by the absence of the conspicuous apical aperture. These 
limpets are common on the rocks of the Lighthouse Area (‘Chiton 


Shore’) of Okha. The specimens collected are variable in shape and ~ 


coloration and 2 distinct types are recognised, one closely resembl- 
ing Patella radiata (Born-Gravely); and the other where the shell is 
smooth, the profile flatter and the colour greenish brown. 


Fam: Trochidae: These are the common ‘top-shells’. The 
trochidae are well represented in Hanuman Dandi, Balarpur Bay, and 
Pirotan Island. The shell is conical. All the specimens were empty 
shells collected from the low tide level. The most common genera 
are Euchelus, Clanculus, and Umbonium. 


Euchelus: he common species of Euchelus are E. asper (Gmelin) 
E. indicus (A. Ad.). .Whe shell of the former is’ moderately large: 
gibbose and spirally ridged. The colour is brown or grey. The latter 
resembles the former but the spiral grooves are deeper. 


Clanculus: The shell resembles Trochus and the species we record 
here is C. depictus (A. Ad.). It has got tuberculate spiral ridges. 
These specimens are scarce and only one was collected. 


Umbonium: These are generally known as ‘Button shells’ and are 
found in abundance. U. vestiarum (Linn.) is the common species in 
Balarpur Bay. The shells are small and delicate, they are highly 
polished and exhibit different colour patterns. The colour range is 
red, violet, grey, white, black, with varying shades. 


Fam: Turbinidae: The shells belonging to this family are 
known as ‘turban shells’. The shell is solid with rounded whorls. The 
aperture is circular and has a stony operculum commonly referred to 
as ‘Ravana’s eye’ or ‘Ambliamma’. Turbo bruneus {Roding) 1s the 
most common species. They live attached to rocks and boulders 
between the tide levels. Astrea stellata (Gmelin) is another member 
of this family with ,a conical shell as in Clanculus, but possesses stud- 
like projections near the sutures. A large number of empty shells 
were collected from Balarpur Bay and Pirotan Island. 


Fam: Neritidae: This family is well represented in Pirotan 
Island and Hanuman Dandi. The shells are thick and are characterized 
by a large whorl, a depressed spire, and a semicircular aperture. 
Two species of Nerita, N. oryzarum (Recluz) and N. albicilla (Linn.) 
were found. Neritina ? crepidularia (Lam.), a purplish black shell 


with transpiral white patches, was collected which closely resembles 
Neritina. 


——__ 


———ooOoo 


MARINE FAUNA .OF GULF OF KUTCH. 699 


Fam; Furritillidae: The shells are very long and _ slender 
with numerous whorls and horny operculum. They are otherwise 
known as ‘screw shells’. Twritella cerea (Reeve) is the most common 
species collected from Balarpur Bay. 


Fam: Littorinidae: Littorina species were common in Pirotan 
Tsland. 


Fam: Architectonidae: The shells are popularly known as 
‘staircase shells’. Architectonica laevigata (Lam.) (Solariun) was 
collected from the eastern shore of Pirotan Island and Hanuman 
Dandi. 


Fam: Vermetidae: These are tubiculous sedentary gastropods 
and were found in large numbers in Dwarka Creek (Okha) and 
Hanuman Dandi (Beyt Dwarka). The shell is irregularly coiled. 
Vermetus is the common genus. The species of the genus have not 
so far been identified in India. 


Fam: Potamididae: These are popularly known as ‘telescope 
shells’. Potamides is the common genus having a small elongated 
shell and found in large numbers in Balarpur Bay. Telescopium 
telescopium (Linn.) is a very big shell, with smooth transpiral ribs 
{text fig. 3). The shell is seen always to be inhabited by hermit crabs. 
Many shells with the hermit crabs and empty shells were collected. 


Big. 3. Telescopium teles- 
copium entertaining a 
hermit crab—from Pirotan 
Island. x 2 


Fam: Cerithiidae: Small empty shells probably belonging 
to the genus Cevthium were found in quite large numbers. 


14 


700 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST:. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Fam: Cypraeidae: The shells of this family are known as 
‘Cowries’. Cypraea is the common genus. The shells are highly 
polished and possess the most elegant and beautiful patterns. An 
operculum is absent and the spire is concealed in the adult forms. 
Collections were made mainly from Pirotan Island and Balarpur Bay 
in mud-covered rocky areas. Cypraea arabica (Linn.) are medium sized, 
grey coloured shells with brown markings. C. ocellata (Linn.) is 
readily recognised by the characteristic white and black dots. This 
species is very common in Kathiawar though it is reported very rare 
on the Bombay coast. A detailed taxonomic study may reveal a 
large number of species. , 


Fam: Burcidae: The shells are characterised by the presence 
of continuous varices. 4 spiral lines are found between the whorls. 
The aperture is oval. Bursa tuberculata (Brod.) is the common species 
collected from Pirotan Island. 


Fam: Pyrulidae: Empty shells were collected with two white 
oblique lines running from the outer lip to the groove of the columella. 
They are fragile shells generally found around the low tide belt. 
Pyrula fiscus (Linn.) (=Ficula laevigata, Ficidae—Gravely), is the 
common species. 


Fam: Muricidae: This family is represented by a variety of 
shells. Some are very thick and vary greatly in coloration, shape, 
and structure. They were collected from mud-covered low tide belt 
areas of Pirotan Island. Of the many genera collected only two are 
identified, Murex and Thais. 

Murex tribulus (Linn.) possesses an ash coloured (living) shell with 
a very long narrow anterior canal. Rows of long sharp spines arise 
from the varices. They are popularly called ‘venus comb’ shells. 
Other species collected are awaiting identification. 

Thais rugosa | Born=Sacellun Gmelin (Gravely)| syn. T. sacellum 
(Lam.), T. rudolphi (Lam.), and T. carinifera (Lam.) are some of the 
species which occur in abundance. 

Thais rugosa—a larger shell, which possesses well developed pro- 
cesses in the first spiral ridge, less in the second, and gradually 
diminishing in the remaining spiral ridges. 

Thais rudolphi possesses a fairly large shell, with a conical apex, 
and blackish brown in colour with white thickenings spirally arranged. 
Every fourth spiral ridge is very prominent and is slightly carinated. 

I’. \carinifera is) aj very common form with a thick, strongly carinated 
white shell and a small columella. 


Ramo yrenidac: hese aren fusiform shells with narrow 
aperture. They were collected from the sandy shores during low tides. 
Pyrene is the only genus identified so far. 


Fam: Nassaridae: Oniy one genus Nassarius was found. 
This is a beautiful shell with rounded ‘whorls and transpiral ridges. 
The specimen resembles N, olivacea (Burg.). 


Fam: Xancidae: Xancus pyrum (Linn.), sacred chank, is the 
only species in our collection and they were not very uncommon. 


MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF. KUTCH . 701 


Fam: Olividae: They are beautiful, polished sheils, found 
generally in sand. They have a short spire and in some species the 
spire is depressed, fusiform in shape with aperture narrow and long. 
Two species were found, O. nebulosa (Lam.) and O. lepida (Duclos). 
The former is larger and has a pointed spire. Colour white with 
brownish markings. The latter is small in size with different colour 
patterns. 


Fam: Bullidae: The shells show an inflated body whorl and 
a depressed spire. Only one empty shell was found and this was 
about 24 inches in length with brown patches, and a wide aperture. 
The specimen was identified as Bulla ampula (Linn.). 


Fam: Doridae: Only one genus Chromodoris was found during 
this rapid survey at Pirotan Island at the low tide belt. The descrip- 
tion of the species almost tallies with that of wniversitata described 
by Prat (The Manual of Common Invertebrate Animals, pp. 581, 
1935). The body is light blue in colour with blue and golden yellow 
spots (when alive). They are generally found within the crevices of 
the rocks, gliding slowly on the substratum. They are very small 
in size. 


Fam; Atyidae: The shell resembles Bulla but is very small. A 
large number of specimens were found in Pirotan Island. 

Haminoea galba (Pease) is a very common species. It possesses 
a small shell from which the animal projects. The interesting feature 
about its shell is that it is very transparent and fragile. They were 
washed ashore in large numbers. (‘About a 100 live specimens were 
collected. They are generally found creeping on the mud-covered 
rocks at the low tide belt. 


Fam: Oncididae: Oncidium is the common genus represented 
in our collection. The specimens from Balarpur Bay were excep- 
tionally large, while the ones from Pirotan Island were uniformly 
small. It is quite probable that more than one species of this family 
is present in our collection; the specimens are being’ identified. 


PELECYPODA: Fam: Arcidae: Arca was the only genus seen. 
They are burrowing forms; generally found in muddy shore of 
Balarpur Bay and Pirotan island. Two species were collected. The 
shells of the live animals were always covered with dark hairy perio- 
stracum. The species in our collections differs from the ones des- 
Be by Gravely (Madras Buil.) and by Karandikar (Bom. Uni. Jour., 
1949). 


Fam: Mytilidae: This family is represented by the genus 
Lithodomus. They are commonly known as ‘date shells’. They are 
tapered behind, and are found to lie inside coral rocks. The common 
form is Lithodomus lithophaga (L.). 


Fam: Pinnidae: Pinna was found in large numbers in 
Pirotan Island. They are generally distinguished by the large thin 
shell resembling the pinna (external ear) of a mammal. They are 


702 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


attached to the substratum by a byssus. Pinna nigra (Dil.) is the 
common species. It is reported as a rare genus on the Bombay coast. 


Fig. 4. Pinna nigra from Pirotan Island. x 3 


Fam: Pectinidae: Only one valve of a specimen of this 
family was collected. It has a strong radial ridge with unequal ears 
of the umbo. The specimen was identified as Chlamis singaporina Sow. 
(Pecten singaporina Mel. & An.). 


Fam: Anomidae: This family includes the common window 
pane oysters, e.g. Placenta placenta (Linn.). The shell is very thin 
and circular, pearly white in colour (text fig. 5) collected from Balarpur 
Bay, Hanuman Dandi. The washed off shells are transparent. 


oN Cees erat 


(ath fy 


Fig. 5. Placenta placenta—from Balarpur 
-Bay (Beyt Dwarka). x 3 


Fam: Pteridae: Pteria vulgaris (Schumacher), the pearl oyster 
is the most common species of Pirotan Island. A_ considerable 
amount of work has been done on it by the Fisheries Department of 
Saurashtra Government. According to them (personal communication) 
it takes 4 years for these oysters to become adults, and the actual 
age is determined by measuring the length of the hinge. 


Fam: Cardiidae: The typical species is Cardium asiaticum 
(Brug.). The shell is radially ridged. The ribs are strong, regular, 
and crested near the ventral margin. The crested variety is generally 


MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH 703 


regarded as a different species from C. aszaticum and is known as 
C. coronatum (Spengler). No living specimen was collected. 


Fam: Veneridae: This family is well represented. They are 
all littoral in habit and collected from Pirotan and Balarpur Bay during 
low tides. The following genera were observed: Gafrarium, 
Sunneta, Dosinia, and Paphia. The species of Gafrarium were not 
_ identified. 

Among the Sunneta, S. donacina (Gml.) could be identified. This 
is a small shell with concentric striations, and decorated with orange 
purple lines. The genus Paphia is represented by three species. 
P. malabarica (Dil.) is a large shell with well developed concentric 
striations and slightly greyish in colour. P. undulata (Born) is highly 
polished shell with concentric growth lines. Jt has brownish markings 
which give a characteristic colour pattern to the shell. The other 
species is P. textile (Gmelin). 


Fam: Mactridae. Genus Mactra is a triangular oval shell 
slightly longer than high. Only one species, M. cornea Desh., with 
concentricaliy grooved shell was recorded from Pirotan. 


Fam: Donacidae: One species of Donax, D. scrotum Linn., is 
recorded from Pirotan Island. It can be easily identified by a well 
defined keel! which starts from the umbo and tapers towards the hind 
end on the inside of the shell. The region round the umbo is violet 
coloured. Externally concentric striations and radial ridges are 
present. 


Fam: Tellinidae: These are popularly known as ‘paper shells’. 
‘Two genera are represented in our collection. They are Tellina and 
Angulus. In Tellina the umbo is anterior, and the specimen collected 
resembles 7. timorensis Lam. The shell is twice as long as high and 
white in colour. 

Angulus sinuata Speng. is the common species of the genus. The 


shell is fairly thick with concentric striations and the interior of the 
shell is pink in colour, 


Fam: Solenidae: The valves gape at both ends and are 
truncated. The umbo is elongated and anterior in position. The 
genus was Solen and the two species were S. truncatus Wood and S. 
lamarckit Desh. The former species was dug out from the muddy 
region of Balarpur Bay. It is about 6 inches long while S. lamarckii 


is 1 inch long. Another shell of lJamarckii measured 24 inches in 
length. 


Fam: Laternulidae: The shells of Laternula are small, thin, 
and very fragile. They are ivory white in colour, with ridges at the 
umbo. Cardinal marginal teeth are absent. Only shells of this genus 
were found on Pirotan Island. The shells gape widely and are irides- 
cent inside. The species is evidently L. labiata Reeve. 


CEPHALOPODA: Of the cephalopods only Octopus were collected. 
Hanuman Dandi and Pirotan Island were exceptionally rich in 
Octopus. They live on the underside of the small rocks and could 


704 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


not be recognised when still as their colour pattern completely har- 
monised with the environment. Among the decapods only the shells 
of Sepia were found washed ashore. ae 


ECHINODERMATA 


CRINOIDEA: Commonly known as. ‘sea lilies’. Two or three 
different varieties were noticed. One is purplish brown with ten 
plume-like arms resembling Troiometra. These specimens were found 
in rock pools at Hanuman Dandi. Some of the arms are branched 
giving a deceptive appearance of many arms, 


ASTEROIDEA: The following genera were observed: Palmipis, 
Astropecten, and Asteria. They were all collected from Pirotan Island 
from the rocky region during low tide. 

Palmipis species are not yet identified. All the specimens collected 
were from rock pools and underside of rocks during low tide. 

_ Asteria. These were collected from shallow waters and found to 
possess stout rays and to some extent they are flattened. On the 
aboral side of each arm are prominent median longitudinal spines. 
Colour is of the shade of orange. Astropecten can easily be recognised 
by their five slender arms bordered by a row of large marginal 
plates. The tube feet are pointed. There is no anus. They were 
collected in considerable numbers from the low tide region of Pirotan. 

All the specimens are not! yet identified and a more detailed study 

may reveal quite a number of species. 


ECHINOIDEA: We have collected only one specimen belonging to 
the family Temnopleuridae. Temnopleura is the genus. It is 
a small form with slender spines. The spines are brown-banded. It 
was collected from the crevices of the rock at Pirotan. ° 


Fam: Clypeasteridae: Clypeaster was another genus 
collected. They are easily recognised by their depressed test. The 
madreporite plate is in the centre of the aboral surface. The five 
petaloid ambulacral area radiates from this. No living specimen was 


collected. The corona was picked up from the low tide area of 
Pirotan. 


HOLOTHUROIDEA: Holothuroidea is well represented at Pirotan. A 
variety of specimens belonging to different genera were collected from 
the crevices of the rocks. All of them were small in size. The only 
one identified is Holothuria pardalis (?) which seemed to be very 
common. ‘The rest are under study. 


CHAETOGNATHA 


This is one of the minor groups including transparent pelagic 
worm-like animals popularly known as ‘arrow worms’. They were 
found in large numbers in the plankton. Sagitta is the common 
genus. 


Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 


Biasircstors Nenetesnitoseses i $ “a 


1, Stoicactis sp. (giant sea-anemone) from Hanuman Dandi. 2, G <i) 

; as one) ; » Gemmaria sp. from 

Pirotan Island. 3. tLkedella misakiensis, a bonellid, from Pirotan Island. ii Bilan 
amphitrite on a log of wood, from Pirotan Island. nl 


+ i j 7 
= ay 4 ; i 
. i 7 
_s ; 
: " ; : 
: eal ; : 
7 ‘ 
- t 
# - 
o : . 
a . 
7 


MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH |. 705 


_ POLYZOA 


Our collection of Polyzoa is represented only by Membranipora. 
This- is an encrusting form with small tooth-like projections on the 
sides. . They were found on the rocks exposed during low tide. 


PRIMITIVE CHORDATES 


_ UROCHORDA: These animals are mostly sessile growing per- 
manently attached to rocks. They are easily recognised by the jet of 
water coming out of their atrial and oral aperture. Among. the 
compound ascidians. Botryllus was the most common. Some colonial 
forms probably Clavellina was _ collected in large numbers. 
Ectenascidia thurstoni (Herdman), another colonial form, was found 
in large numbers at Dwarka Creek and Pirotan. They are 
found in clusters. attached to rocks. These animals are transparent 
and the oral and atrial region is brightly shaded with an orange tint. 
Among the simple ascidians Ciona and Herdmania were also fairly 
common. 

Besides these, many other tunicates were also found which are not 
yet identified. These were all encrusting forms. Evidently the place 
is very rich in the tunicate fauna. 


HIGHER CHORDATES 


No special attempt has been made in studying the higher chordates. 
The specimens which were easily available at the shore were collected. 
The most common among these were the fishes. The muddy bed of 
Pirotan Island were seen to be rich in Periopthalmus. During low 
tide large numbers of them were found skipping along the mud. 
LTetrodon and Calyodon were other genera found in fairly good 
numbers in Pirotan Island and Hanuman Dandi. Other groups of 
animals were not collected. 


CONCLUSION 


From the foregoing account, it is clear that the Kathiawar coast 
and coastal islands offer a very good field for zoologists. Almost all 
the major groups of marine animals are represented. Outstanding 
amongst the collections was the finding of Ikedella misakiensis (Ikeda) 
tor the first time from Indian waters (Gulf of Kutch). Special mention 
must also be made about the occurrence of Lingula anatima and a 
large number of other worms. 

This is only a preliminary survey and the Department of Zoology 
of Birla College, Pilani, proposes to make a detailed survey of the 
area shortly. 


(Note: All the specimens collected are deposited in the museum 
of Birla College). 


706 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 
REFERENCES 


Gideon, P.W., Menon, P.K.B., Rao, S.R.V. and Jose, K.V. (1956) : On the occur- 
tence of /kedella misakiensis (a bonellid) from Indian Waters (Gulf of Kutch). 
JBNHS 54 (1) 201-202. ' ) 

Gravely, F.H. (1941) : Bulletin of the Madras Govt. Museum. Nat. Hist. Sect. 

l 


— ee 14912) ibid: 5 (2). 
Hornell, J. (1916) : Keport to the Govt. of Baroda on the Marine Zoology of Okha- 
mandel in Kathiawar, Vol. 2. (London). 
Pillay, ‘i.V.R. (1948): Marine Fisheries of Koditar in Kathiawar JANAS 48 
1) : 47-57. 

Beate H.S. (1935): Manual of the common invertebrate animals. Rev. Ed. 
Blakiston Co. 

Subrahmanyam, T.V., Karandiker, H.R., and Murthi, N.N. (1949): The Marine 
Pelecypoda. Jour. Uni. Bom. 17: 50-81. 

— — — (1951) The Marine Gastropoda of Bombay. Part 1. ibid. 20 : 21-34. 

— — — (1952) Part. 2. ibid. 21: 26-75. 


Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 


THE GENUS CUSCUTA IN BOMBAY 


BY 

lie SANTAPAU, S.J., F-N-: 
AND 

‘(Miss) V. PATEL, B.Sc. 


(With a plate) 


In the course of studies on the Convolvulaceae of Bombay State, 
undertaken by the junior author under the guidance of the senior, 
we have noticed that little or no attention has been paid of late 
years to that particular group of plants belonging to the genus 
Cuscuta Linn. 

The Dodders or Cuscutas are total parasites, and present a con- 
stant danger to some of our garden plants; the stems of these plants 
are yellowish in colour and, if left unhindered, they cover up whole 
hedges or garden borders with a dense network, which though 
interesting at first may spell the ruin of the finest garden or hedge 
plants. Popularly the genus Cuscuta is often confused with a similar 
parasite, Cassytha, which it much resembles in appearance and effects ; 
but the latter’s stems are of a deep green colour, by which alone it 
is possible to distinguish these two genera at sight. 

The genus Cuscuta is usually placed in our Indian floras under the 
family Convolvulaceae; however, some authors, like Martius in his 
Flora Brasiliensis (7: 371-390), have made it into a separate family 
probably because of its reduced vegetative characters and parasitic 
habit, both of which are rare in the Convolvulaceae. But the climb- 
ing habit, the structure of the flowers, and the type of fruit certainly 
justify its retention among the Convolvulaceae. 

The genus Cuscuta has been monographed by Choisy (in Mem. 
moc. Liys. Hist. Nat, Geneve 9:. 261-288, tt. 1-5) in 1841; this was 
followed by .a fuller treatment in DC, Prodr. vol. 9 in 1845; this 
has formed the basis of most of the subsequent monographs on the 
subject. Engelmann in 1859 published his ‘Systematic Arrangement 
of the Species of the Genus Cuscuta’ in the Trans. Acad. Sci. St. 
Louis (1: 453-523). The latest monograph on the subject is that of 
Yuncker, ‘The Genus Cuscuta’ in the Mem. Torrey Bot. Club (18: 
. 109-331, 1932). 

T. Cooke in his Flora of the Presidency of Bombay mentions three 
species for Bombay: C. chinensis Lamk., C. hyalina Roth and C. 
reflexa Roxb. From ‘our observations in the field and in the herbarium, 
we add the following species: C. australis R. Br. and C. chinensis 
var. ciliaris Engelm., which seem to have passed unnoticed in our local 
floras up to the’ present. 

The genus Cuscuta is widely distributed in Bombay State; C. 
chinensis proper’ and C. hyalina are found only in some parts of 
Saurashtra; C. reflexa is about the commonest species in the State, 
being particularly abundant in Salsette Island and on the Western 


708 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Ghats of India, where whole hedges may be infected by this trouble- 
some parasite. C. australis, hitherto often confused with C. chinensis, 
has been noted from Salsette Island and from the neighbourhood of 
Poona; C. chinensis var. ciliaris has been recorded from Saurashtra 
and Poona, though again in Blatter Herbarium many specimens are 
classed under C. chinensis. a 

For the identification of our material we have made constant use 
of Yuncker’s monograph, where detailed diagrams of most of the 
species are given; the work of van Ooststroom in Flora Malesiana I, 
4 (4): 391-394, 1953, has also been of help to us in our work. 
Interested readers are referred to these two works as being the more 
reliable ones on the subject. 


Cuscuta (Tourn.) Linn. Sp. Pl. 124, 1753 & Gen. Pl. 60, 1754; Choisy 

. in Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Genéve 9: 261, 1841 & in DC. 
Prodr. 9: 452, 1845; Benth. in Benth. & Hook. Gen. Plant. 2; 
881, 1873; Peter in Engler & Prantl, -Naturl: ” Pilazentame 
4 (3a): 37, 1897; Yuncker in Mem. Torrey Bot. Club 18: 113, 
1932; van Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 63, 1938 & in Fl. Males. I, 
4 (4): 391, 1953. 

Herbaceous parasites with small amounts of chlorophyll; stems 
fairly thick and coarse or thin and filiform, twining round the hosts 
and obtaining nourishment through haustoria. Leaves reduced to 
scales or completely absent. Flowers small, somewhat cymosely 
clustered, hypogynous, pentamerous; sepals more or less_ united, 
petals united. Stamens inserted on the corolla throat and alternating 
with its lobes; in most species there are fringed or fimbriate scale- 
like structures at the base of the corolla below the insertion of the 
filaments. Ovary 2-celled, ovules two in each cell; styles separate 
or united; stigmas capitate or elongate-triangular, fleshy. Fruit a 
capsule which may open by an interstylar opening or through an 
irregular line of circumscission near the base. Seeds 2 or 4. 

‘A cosmopolitan genus, with many species in the warm and 
temperate parts of America; a few species have spread to India and 
Malaysia. Cuscuta europaea Linn.is the type species of the genus. 


KEY TO THE SPECIES OF CUSCUTA 1nN BOMBAY 


Style one; stigmas conical un) Wweflenas 
Styles two; stigmas globose-peltate : 
Infra-staminal scales absent .. whyalina: 


Infra-staminal scales present: 

Calyx lobes not overlapping nor carin+ 
ate; corolla funnel-shaped; scales 
1.25 mm, long, not reaching up to 
the filaments, deeply bifid with 1-3 
long and narrow lateral projections; 
capsules not enclosed by corolla nor 
circumscissile ... australis. 

Calyx lobes overlapping, distinctly 
carinate; corolla globular (urceo- 
late); scales 1.5-1.8 mm. long, 


THE GENUS CUSCUTA IN BOMBAY 709 


reaching up to the filaments, 
oblong, truncate or somewhat bifid 
with numerous’ short  fimbriae; 
capsules enclosed by corolla, cir- 
cumscissile : 
Scales 1.8 mm. long, oblong, 
fimbriate only on the upper 
half 3) chinensis: 
Scales 1.5 mm. long, spathulate, 
truncate or rarely emarginate, 
fimbriate from near the base ... chinensis var. 
ciliaris. 


THE SUBDIVISIONS OF THE GENUS CUSCUTA LINN. 


Flowers pedicellate; corolla about twice as 
long as the calyx; styles two, free; 
stigmas globose or flattened; capsules 


irregular circumscissile or indehiscent .... Subgen. Grammica. 

Capsules indehiscent .. sect. Cleistogram- 
mica. 

Capsules circumscissile Sect. Eugrammica. 


Flowers shortly pedicellate or sessile in 
close paniculate cymes; styles united, 
stigmas subglobose or. conical; capsules 


regularly circumscissile Subgen. Monogyna. 
Styles as long as or generally longer 
than the stigmas Sect. Monogynella. 
Styles mostly shorter than the elongat- 
ed stigmas ... sect. Callianche. 


Styles mostly about equal, stigmas elong- 
ated, cylindrical (rarely clavate or short 
conic) o« Subgen: Cuscuta. 


SUBGEN. GRAMMICA, SECT. CLEISTOGRAMMICA ENGELM. 
Emend. Yuncker loc. cit. 122; v. Ooststroom in Fl. Males. 392. 


Cuscuta australis'R. Br. Prodr. 1: 491, 1810; Yuncker 124, ff. 1, A-F; 
v. Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 66 & Fl. Males. 392, f. 13; non 
Hook. f. (Fig. B). 


Stems slender, filiform, terete, glabrous, pale brownish yellow. 
Flowers 2-3 mm..long, in more or less compact clusters bracts minute ; 
peduncles and pedicels very short or 0. Calyx greenish, membranous, 
funnel-shaped, glabrous, as long as the corolla tube or shorter, 1.5- 
1.75 mm. long; lobes as long as the tube or shorter, oblong-orbicular 
or broadly triangular-ovate, subequal (generally two distinctly smaller 
than the rest), valvate or somewhat overlapping; the whole calyx 
compactly surrounding the corolla. Corolla 2-3 mm. long, broadly 
funnel-shaped, greenish white; lobes as long as the tube or shorter, 
broadly triangular ovate or ovate orbicular, erect, not spreading. 
Stamens shorter than the corolla lobes, and inserted between them: 
filaments short, subulate, about as long as the ovate yellow anthers, 


710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


inserted just below the sinuses of the corolla and of the same colour 
as the latter. Infrastaminal scales not reaching up to the base of the 
filaments, shorter than the corolla tube, deeply bifid, with 2-3 long 
narrow fimbriae. Ovary depressed-globose, obpyriform, green; styles 
two, thick, somewhat subulate, as long as or shorter than the ovary, 
slightly unequal; stigmas capitate, peltate, fleshy. Capsule depressed- 
globose or obpyriform, brown, with a wide interstylar opening, sur- 
rounded by the persistent corolla, 3-4 mm. diameter not circumscissile, 
i.e. indehiscent. Seeds 2-4, oval, brown, minutely foveolate, 1.5 mm. 
in diameter or 2 mm. when turgid; hilum a short diagonal line. 

Flowers and Fruits: August-September. 

Hosts: We have recorded this parasite on the following hosts in 
Bombay: Setaria spec., Digitaria spec., Aeschynomene indica Linn., 
Solanum melongena Linn., and on some herbaceous Compositae culti- 
vated along edges of rice fields. Yuncker and Ooststroom have 
further noted it as parasite on: Polygonum, Dianthera, Artemisia, 
Piper, Xanthium, Baccaurea, Croton, Hygrophila quadrivalvis Nees, 
Ocimum basilicum Linn., and Tecoma stans, Juss. 

Herbarium specimens examined: Talegaon nr. Poona, V. Patel 
1459; Tungar Hill nr. Bassein, Patel 1796-1805; Santapau 209614 
20963. 

Distribution: First described from Australia, but found . from 
Turkestan and India to eastern China and Japan, and southwards to 
Malaya, Australia, and New Guinea. The species is not recorded from 
India in any of our Indian floras. 

Notes: The plant is rather variable in the shape and size of the 
floral parts; our Bombay specimens may be about half a millimetre 
longer than is stated by Yuncker. The seeds are said to be used in 
indigenous medicine for their softening properties. 


SECT. EUGRAMMICA ENGELM. 
Yuncker. loc. cit. 182; Ooststroom in Fl. Males. 392 


Cuscuta chinensis Lamk. Encycl. Meth. 2: 229, 1786; Choisy in DC. 

Prodr. 9: 457, 1845; Wight, Ic. t. 1373, 1848; Clarke imghloolk: 
f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 226, 1883; Woodrow in Journ. Bombay Nat. 
Hist. Soc. 12%, 172, 1898; Cooke, FI. Pres: Bombay” 222255 
1905; Yuncker 209, f. 80 A-G. (Fig. C). 

C. sulcata Roxb. Hort. Beng. 12, 1814, nom. nud. & Fl. Ind. 1: 
447,.1832;3 Graham, Cat..134 01530, 

C..hyalina Wight, Ic: t. 1372, 1848, &. Illustre t. 1686p, tees 
1850 (non Roth). 


Stems slender, filiform. Flowers 2.5 mm. long or slightly longer, 
shortly pedicellate or sessile, bracteate, in compact few-flowered 
clusters. Calyx loosely fitting round the corolla, as long as the 
corolla-tube, fleshy; lobes equal or slightly unequal, broad-triangular, 
obtuse, overlapping, strongly carinate on the outside, thickened at 
the base of the sinuses between the lobes. Corolla 2.5-3 mm. long, 
u:ceolate or globular, becoming somewhat distended in fruit; lobes 
narrowly triangular, acute, as long as or slightly longer than the corolla 
tube, spreading. Stamens shorter than the corolla lobes; filaments 


THE GENUS CUSCUTA IN BOMBAY ell 


as long as or longer than the ovate anthers. Infrastamial scales 
reaching up to the staminal filaments, oblong, shortly fimbriate on the 
upper half, 1.8 mm. long. Ovary depressed globose; styles two, un- 
equal in length, about as long or slightly longer than the ovary, and 
of uniform thickness; stigmas globose-peltate. Capsule 2.5-3 mm. 
in diameter, depressed-globose, somewhat 4-lobed, completely en- 
closed by the persistent corolla, distinctly circumscissile. Seeds 1-1.5 
mm. long, brown, glabrous, minutely foveolate. 

Flowers and Fruits: August-October. 

Hosts: We have noted the plant on Lawsonia alba Lamk. 

Herbarium specimens examined: Rajkot, Saurashtra, Dave 11 
October 1953. 

Distribution: ‘From Abyssinia, Sokotra, and Afghanistan eastward 
to Ceylon, Australia, and China, where it is most abundant.’ 
(Yuncker, 210). 

Notes: This plant is said to be common in various parts of India 
and of Bombay State in particular; but most of the specimens we have 
checked, have turned out to be var. ciliaris. This species needs careful 
examination on an all-India basis. 


Cuscuta chinensis var. ciliaris Engelm. in Trans. Acad, Sci. St, Louis 
i 450,)8o595. Vunekers 220, 1932: ..(Pie, C,. 4b.) 
€. ciliaris Hohenack. in Boissier, Diagn..Pl. Or. Nov. 11, 3 (3): 
129, 1856 (non Kotschy). 


This variety is quite distinct from the typical species; its flowers 
are slightly larger than in the species; the staminal filaments shorter 
than the anthers; the infrastaminal scales are broadened upwards, 
truncate, rarely emarginate, 1.5 mm. long; styles somewhat thicker. 
The rest as in the species. 

Flowers and Fruits: May-October. 

Hosts: We have noted this plant on the following hosts: 
Ipomoea biloba Forsk., Lepidagathis spec., Tephrosia spec., Indigo- 
fera cordifolia Heyne, Cassia tora Linn., Kirganelia reticulata Baill., 
Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk., etc. 

Herbarium specimens examined: Mangrol, in  Saurashtra, 
Santapau 14254; Dwarka in Saurashtra, Santapau 16627 & 16796; 
Poona, Blatter 22715; Bombay, D. K.. Patel (no number), October 
1884; Kathiawar, DH. 33, June 1946. 

‘Distribution: ‘Kurdistan, Afghanistan, and Siberia’ (Yuncker). 
The plant has been recorded from India, Wight Herb. Propr. 2408, 
but no locality is given by Yuncker. 

Notes: We have noted this plant as common and abundant in 


Dwarka, just outside the railway station on numerous hosts, usually 
on herbs. 


Cuscuta hyalina Roth, Nov. Pl. Spec. 100, 1821; Choisy 286, 1841; 
Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 226, 1883; Woodrow in 
Journ. Bombay Nat, Hist. Soc. 12: 172, 1898; Cooke 2: 225, 
1905, "Yuncker 235, f. 107 A-D “(non Wight, nec: Boissier). 
(lelieesa eB) 

© avabica Wight, Ic: t.-1371, 1848: (non Fresen:). 
C. boissiert Stocks in Hook. Journ. Bot. & Kew Gard. Misc. 4: 
173, 152: 


712 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Stems filiform, slender. Flowers 2.5-3.5 mm. long, pedicellate, 
bracteate, in distinct cymes; pedicels as long as the flowers and some- 
what clavate; bracts distinct, triangular. Calyx funnel-shaped, 2.5- 
3 mm. Jong, longer than the corolla tube; lobes longer than the calyx 
tube, narrowly triangular, tapering. Corolla 3-3.5 mm. _ long, 
campanulate; lobes as long as or longer than the tube, lanceolate, 
tapering, slightly spreading, reflexed in fruit. Stamens shorter than 
the corolla lobes, filaments inserted at the base of the sinuses, 
slightly longer than the oval anthers. Infrastaminal scales absent. 
Ovary globose with a ring-like structure at the base of the styles; 
styles unequal, of uniform thickness, as long as or longer than the 
ovary; stigmas capitate. Capsule 3-4 mm. in diameter, globose or 
subglobose, brown, 2-celled, with a narrow interstylar aperture, sur- 
rounded by the persistent withered corolla, circumscissile. Seeds 
1.5 mm. long, broadly oval, brown-black, minutely foveolate; hilum 
horizontal, oblong. 

Flowers and Fruits: August-November. 

Hosts: We have noted this plant on the following hosts: 
Leucas urticifolia R. Br., Trianthema spec., Amarantus gracilis Dest., 
Convolvulus glomeratus var. volubilis Clarke, etc. 

Herbarium specimens examined: Jaisalmer, Blatter & Hallberg 
2982; Dwarka, Santapau 14717, 14745-14746, 14756. 

Distribution: Throughout India, Baluchistan, Kordofan to 
southerm tropical Africa. 


SUBGEN. Monocyna, SECT. CALLIANCHE ENGELM. 
Yuncker loc. cit. 259. 


Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Pl. Coast Corom. 2: 3, t. 104, 1799, & Fl. Ind. 
1: 446, 1832; Graham, Cat. 134, 1839; Choisy 273, 1841 & in DC. 
Prodr.°9: 454; 1845; Clarke in Hook, £..Fl, Brit. Ind..4= 225; 
1883 ;. Nairne, Fl, Pl. W..Ind. 206," 1894; Woodrow; loc. “cite 
12: 172, 1898; Cooke, 2: 224, 1905; Yuncker 25o."h 130.AcI 
1932; Ooststroom in Blumea 3: 70, 1938 & Fl. Males. 393, 
f.22,°1953. 9(Non Wecatsne) ya Bio. As) 

C. -grandifiora Wall. Cat..1318, 1829, non G1:B.K. 


Stems greenish yellow, glabrous, coarsely terete, verrucose with 
red marks. Flowers 6-8 mm. long, shortly pedicellate, bracteate, 
in cymose or paniculate clusters; pedicels 3 mm. long, fleshy, verru- 
cose; bracts 1 mm. long, broadly triangular. Calyx cupulate, fleshy ; 
lobes subequal, the outer two slightly shorter, 2-3 mm. long, broadly 
ovate, obtuse, fleshy, verrucose outside, with narrow membranous 
margins. Corolla white, tubular, fleshy, 6-8 mm. long; tube wide, 
3-4 times as long’.as the lobes; lobes triangular ovate, obtuse, margins 
wavy. Stamens somewhat shorter than the corolla lobes; filaments 
very short, inserted at the base of the ‘sinuses; anthers oblong; 
dorsifixed. Infrastaminal scales about one-third as long as the corolla, 
oblong or ovate, incurved, margins fimbriate with fine, multicellular 
fimbriae. Ovary ovate-conical, glabrous, 2 mm. in diameter; stigmas 
two, stout, velvety, longer than the thick style. Capsule globose 
conical, apiculate, glabrous, shrivelled when dry, 6 mm. in diameter, 


THE GENUS CUSCUTA IN BOMBAY 713 


5-8 mm. long, 2-celled, circumscissile. Seeds 1-2, each 3.5 mm. in 
diameter, suborbicular, rostrate, brown, glabrous, minutely foveolate ; 
hilum a transverse scar. 

Flowers: November-February; Fruits: April-May. _ 

Hosts: The following have been noted by the authors:  Stro- 
bilanthes spec., Rosa, Streblus asper Lour., Flacourtia indica Merr., 
Clerodendrum inerme Gaertn., Duranta repens Linn., Cadaba farinosa 
Forsk., Leptadenia spec., Cissampelos pareira Linn., etc. Yuncker 
and Ooststroom mentioned the following: Neriuwm, Adhatoda, Calo- 
tropis, Parkinsonia, Zizyphus, Peristrophe, Achyranthes, Carissa, 
Cestrum, Boehmeria, Stachytarpheta, Polygonum chinense Linn., etc. 

Herbarium specimens examined: Baroda: V. Patel 1220-1228; 
Wemelivany "532, 1. Shah 1652; Ahmednagar: A..C. K. 1427; 
Victoria Gardens, Bombay: Blatter 14611, 14943; Versova: Santapau 
138/35, 56-57, 59; Borivli: V. Patel 1304-1305; Vehar Lake, V. Patel 
1320; Ghodbunder: Bole (no number); Khandala: Blatter 22177; 
Santapau 14057, 14058, 15490-15493; Dharwar: Sedgwick 3688; 
Ghulam: J. Fernandes 82. 

Distribution: Throughout northern India, extending north to 
Afghanistan and East to Yunnan, China, and Java; rare in the south 
of India and Ceylon. 


Notes: The type of this species is not definitely known, but seems 
to be of Indian origin, probably from Andhra State. It is now spread 
all over India, but more particularly in the northern parts. The plant 
is striking in that branches often turn parasitic on other branches of 
the same plant. It is found almost completely covering the host plant 
with a dense network of a light yellow colour. 


REFERENCES 


Choisy, J. D. (1833) : Convolvulaceae Orientales ... In Mem. Soc. Phys. 
Hist. Nat. Genéve 6 : 283-502, tt. 1-6. 
— — — _ (1841): De Convolvulaceis Dissertatio Tertia, complectens Cus- 
cutarum hucusque cognitarum methodicam enumerationem 
et descriptionem. ibid. 9 : 261-288, tt. 1-5. 
— — — (1845): Cuscuta. In DC. Prodr. 9 : 452-461. 
Clarke, C. B. (1883) : Cuscuta. In Hook. f. Flora of British India 4: 225-228. 
Cooke, T. (1905) :Cuscuta. In the Flora of the Presidency of Bombay 2 ; 224-225, 
Engelmann, G. (1859) : Systematic arrangement of the species of the genus 
Cuscuta with critical remarks on old species and descriptions 
_ of new ones. In Zrans. Acad. Sct. St. Louis 1 : 453-523. 
Ooststroom, S. J. van. (1938) : Cuscuta. In Blumea 3 : 68-72, map. 
— — — (1953) : Cuscuta. In Flora Malesiana I, 4 (4) : 391-394 f. 1-2. 
Yuncker, T. G. (1932) : The genus Cuscuta. In Mem. Torrey Bot. Club. 18: 
109-331); f. 158; 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE 


1. Whole flower x 4* 2 External view of calyx x 4 3. Inner sile of 
corolla =x 4 4. Infrastaminal scales x 10 5. Ovary x 4 6. Capsule x 4 
4. Seed x 8 


A. Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. 

B. Cuscuta australis R. Br. 

C. Cuscuta chinensis Lamk. (4a. C. chinensis ; 4b, var. ciliaris.) 
D. Cuscuta hyalina Roth. 


*The magnification refers to linear magnification, not the times the diagram may 
exceed the original. 


OPERATION OF THE DOL NET OFF THE 
SAURASHTRA COAST! 


BY 
S. V. GOKHALE 


Suptd. of Fisheries, Halay Division, Jamnagar 


(With seven text figures) 


CONTENTS 

Page 
1. INTRODUCTION — oe a 19: ves ge 
2, FisHInc GROUNDS ee nn ee if woo AU 
3. Tue NET we sete ae Ath ae peesne A) 
4. THE BOAT a cae a6 oh * ont #19 
5. FISHING SEASON AND OPERATION OF THE NET Sas Bers) 
6, CONCLUSION ... 3 we se = a, 72a 
7, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ses eat ae nae 2) 
8. KREFEKENCES ... Br Le ee ze Ae: ale h) 


lL. .LNERODUCELOW 


The ‘Dol’ net is a very important gear used on the Bombay and 
Saurashtra coasts mainly for ‘Bombay-ducks’, Harpodon nehereus, 
which are caught in millions by this means. Very few workers have 
described this net and its operation. Pillay {1948) gives a somewhat 
simplified diagram of the net and describes a few details. Hornell 
(1950) gives some information on the ‘Dol’ net as it is operated on the 
Saurashtra Coast. Setna (1954) in a popular article describes all the 
three methods employed in operating this net and also explains in 
detail the ingenious method employed by the fishermen of Versova 
and Satpati in driving the wooden spikes (pyale) in the muddy bottom. 
I am not aware of any paper in, which details of the net itself 
and its accessories are given, or the method of operation, especially 
off the Saurashtra Coast, is described. It is attempted here to give 
a full description of the net and the ropes attached to it, and describe 
the precise method of shooting and hauling the net as practised in 
Saurashtra waters, exclusive of Kodinar. 


2. -FisHInNG GROUNDS 


The recognised grounds for the Bombay-ducks off Saurashtra are 
situated about 6 to 12 miles south and south-east off the southern coast 
of Saurashtra between Nawabunder and Jafrabad, in latitudes 20° 35’ 


* Published with the permission of the Government of Bombay. 


THE DOL NET OFF THE SAURASHTRA COAST 715 


N. to 20° 40’ N. (see map, fig. 1). Off Jafrabad, the grounds are 
somewhat farther than off Nawabunder. The depth of water ranges 
between 10 and 15 fathoms and the bottom is soft mud. There is a 
strong’ tidal current all along the coast which is very essential for the 
proper operation of this net. 


Gg 


= J 
2 oars Jafrabad 
Simar : 


21° 0@' 


Veraval 


50° 


* Nawa- 
Bunder 


Fig. 1. Map of the southern coast of Saurashtra, 
Bombay-duck ports are marked by asterisks. 


Harpodon neherus is usually found along with Coilia dussumierii, 
Peneus, and Metapeneus species, immature Stromateus cinereus, 
Trichiurus savala, and a few other less important species. This appears 
to be a set ecological community because the same species are also 
found together in the trawl catches of M.F.V. ‘Sagar Pravasi’. 
This shrimp trawler operating under the exploratory fishing scheme of 
this Directorate has been trawling for prawns with a shrimp trawl in 
depths varying between 3 to 15 fathoms in the Gulf of Kutch where 
there is no regular Bombay-duck fishery. 


3. THE NET 


The ‘Dol’ net is made up either from cotton yarn No. 20 made 
into plies varying between 4 to 1o, or from Hemp _ twisted by 
the fishermen themselves. It is a wide-mouthed bag net, more 
or less like a trawl without the latter’s wings. The mouth is 
rectangular measuring 70 to 80 ft. on the head-rope and siightly 
smaller on the sole. The height is between 50 and 60 ft. The cotton 
net is mounted on a cotton rope of 25 plies, but the hemp is mounted 


t te) 


en ee 


716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


on five or six thin hemp ropes running parallel (but not twisted) and 
secured at regular intervals. The length of the net from the centre 
of the sole to the ccod-end is about 150 ft. though I have seen nets 


ee yeup ty barrel a 


14 
oo 


Fig. 2. ‘Dol’ net with all its accessory ropes in posilion. Except 
the woocen float all parts remain under water. 


of 120 to 130 ft.-length. The entire net is made up of five sections. 
Mesh size differs in each section and so also does the number of ples 
in the case of nets made up of cotton yarn. ‘Table 1 gives the details 
of each section for the cotton net. 

When the net is made of hemp, sections Mhor and Chirate are 
made of thicker twine while the rest is thinner. The cod-end of such | 
nets is often double-meshed to give additional strength. The net | 
used at Karanja (near Uran, Bombay State) is much larger than the 
one used on the Saurashtra Coast. This measures about 215 ft. long | 
and about 120 ft. at the mouth. At present-day prices the smaller 
net costs about Rs. goo while the larger one can be had for Rs. 1,200 
(excluding labour charges). The nets have a service life of six to 
eight years during which they need only small repairs at negligible 
cost. They are regularly tanned in the bark of Terminalia species. 
The bark is boiled for four to five hours and the net, which has been | 
thoroughly washed in fresh water, is kept immersed in the decoction ; 
for 10 to 12 hours. The nets are then dried in the sun. Tanning is } 
done once in three months. | 

To keep the mouth of the net open, two wooden barrels are tied | 
to the two upper corners while the two lower corners are either tied | 
to two wooden poles or to two heaps of heavy stones. For the method | 
employing wooden poles a reference may be made to Setna (1954). | 
On the Saurashtra coast only stones are used. These stones are i 
excavated from nearby quarries and supplied to fishermen through 


i A 


~ 
‘ 


a 


THE DOL NET OFF THE SAURASHTRA. COAST. 


e11j09 9y} 1}VelNy Ur 4nq ( 


*pUa-pos 0} Yyynour 
Wolf Saseeldsp Ysa 


“UOI]ELIVA 
S[QeIapisuod st o13ay} Inq 
‘Jou 900 WOly Ueye}] oIOM 
SJUSTUSINSeSUI ~=— aso] J, 


4vsunyr) wyeley Ol omeu ayeiedas & Aq uMOuy st parjun sureaiaz pUe pUe=pod ay} s 


*SYIBWAY 


‘D]OZ S€@ UMOUY St dard 
MO[[OJ YOIYM Seq oT, x 


‘sortd F | ‘saltd F 0} ¢- ‘sattd 9 0} F ‘saitd 7 0} 9 ‘sold QT 0} Z | °S ¥0z ‘ou ured aC}}07 
| . 
aSe | a ¢. 0} asl aS 0} aS ag 0} 7716) a8 0} aol x 9ZIS YSsoyl 
“I 02 4 OE ‘WOE ‘I OE BGC leas yyoue'T 
4AVBUDY [-v70Y4 4 Diolv jy DAJD SY IoAly 7D A0Y [7 ouleU IYjelew 
(0707) vyoz Hos mYYON ny gv ADY POY emreu telelury 


(2218 [[@MS) Jam Jo ey} Jo suoOTjOes snorzeA jO slzjeq ‘| ulavy 


a en a ee 


718 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


co-operative societies of stone-cutters. One net requires two heaps, 
each heap containing 30 to 4o stones, the weight of each stone vary- 
ing’ between 80 ta 100 Ib. As one boat operates three nets at a time, 
it requires in all 180 to 200 stones. Formerly the fishermen had to 
pay anything between Rs. 60 to Rs. 80 per hundred of these stones 
but now, thanks to the co-operatives, they can get the same at Rs. 45 
to Rs. 50 per hundred. The fishermen purchase the stones at the 
beginning of the season, use them for fixing their nets and leave 
them in the sea at the close of the season. Thus each boat loses 
about Rs. 100 to Rs. 125 per year on stones alone. 

Operation of the net with these stones is an extremely complicated 
process. Each net is kept in position by a set of ropes of varying 
lengths, each rope having its own name and specific purpose. To the 
four corners of the mouth are tied four ropes called Sarko, each 


Slip knot of the 
upper Sarko 


Head rope _ 


\)\ Upper Heyer 


\ P 


, Heyer 


Fig. 3. A close-up of the mouth of the net 
showing the loops of the H/eyers and 
slip-knots of the Saros of one side 


» ° 

40 yards long. These are permanently tied to the net and are used 
for shooting or hauling the net. Each Sarko is connected with the 
net in such a fashion that after making a fast knot with the net 
nearly a yard’s length remains free (fig. 3). Other ropes form the 
bridle and remain in the sea once the bridle is set. These are as 
follows : 


Heyer of about 40 fathoms length. 
Utabh, two, each 13 fathoms long. 
Hindoro about 20 fathoms lIcng. 
Boyu about 30 fathoms long. 
Patgi about 4o fathoms long. 


ma B&O hb & 


Fig. 4 shows the positions of these ropes. The lengths given 
are those for the nets operating in Nawabunder waters. They vary 
with the depths of water and the dimensions of the net. Only the 


PAE MOL INE POM PHE SAURASHT RA COAST 719 
heyers are made of coir while the rest are made by fishermen them- 
selves out of twisted Palmyra leaves. The cost will very much depend 
upon the lengths used, Palmyra ropes costing much less than the coir, 


Wooden float 


Pa tes 


cm Empty barrel 
2 


ee meer re 


3 eer 


Fig. 4, General lay-out of three nets shot by one boat. The distance between 
the heaps of stones often exceeds 60 yards 


but on an average each boat working off Nawabunder requires about 
Rs. 300 for the complete outfit. 


4. THe Boat 


Fishermen of Gujarat who come from Bulsar, Bilimora, Kolak, 
Umarasadi, and other ports have much bigger boats than those of 
Saurashtra fishermen. 35 boats from different Gujarat ports were 
measured and gave the following mean values: 


Overall length oe ie er ter tt. 
Length between perpendiculars ... De, SBR. 2 EL; 
Beam. a me ney BOs: tty 
Depth (with the additional gunwale) eee esau 
Additional gunwale oe ae 1-Or Lt: 
Att Deck. ee ae i. 16:6.6t. lone 
For’ard Deck. =e ps ue Ses LON: 


The main mast stepped-up almost in the centre is about 25 to 30 ft. 
long and carries only one fore-and-aft sail. A mizzen is sometimes 
carried much aft and is used mainly for steering. The vessels are 
carvel built with a square stern and with a stem of fairly wide angle. 
At Versova some of the boats are fitted with an outrigger consisting 
of two wooden bars 15 to 17 ft. long and one longitudinal piece about 
12 ft. long, all made of pariza wood. No such outriggers have been 
noticed on any of the boats coming to the Saurashtra coast for 
Bombay-duck fishery. These boats without the outriggers cost in 


720 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


the neighbourhood of Rs. 4,000 and last more than forty years without 
major repairs. They are regularly painted on the outside with coal- 
tar and crude shark liver oil. Many boats at Versova and Satpati 
are mechanised. Inboard diesel engines of 25 to 30 B.H.P. are 
installed which give a service speed of about six to eight knots to 
the vessels when they are running free. They consume slightly over 
a gallon per hour and save considerable time in going to and from the 
fishing grounds which, on that coast, are between 30 and 45 miles 
away from the coast. Apart from propulsion the engines are not 
used for any other purpose, the shooting and hauling being done by 
manual labour as in ordinary craft. 7 


5. FISHING SEASON AND OPERATION OF THE NET 


Fishing for Bombay-ducks on the Saurashtra coast starts towards 
the end of October and lasts till the following May. Off Jafrabad 
the season is of only four months’ duration, but at Nawabunder and 
Rajpara fishing continues for six months. Gujarat fishermen est- 
ablish temporary camps at these ports where they also cure the fish. 
Curing consists of only sun-drying the fish for two days. Two fish 
are interlocked by their jaws and hung on either side of a tightly 
stretched rope and left for two days. The fishermen employ local 
labour for this purpose. 

‘After reaching the fishing ground. the fishermen select their 
position by taking approximate bearings of some shore features. 
Each boat requires a space about 1oo fathoms ~x 25 fathoms. Fig. 4 
shows a general lay-out of the nets shot by one boat. When the place 


{Two limbs of deyer 


WD 
41g 
SN 


ON. 
‘ ARS 


v, ‘ os . _ 


Fig. 5. The foundation stone and two 
subsidiary stones along with the two 
limbs of the Heyer 


has been selected the boat is anchored. .The heyer is doubled on 
itself and one big stone weighing at least 3 to 4 mds. is tied in its 
loop (fig. 5). The stone is now lowered in the water and the rope 
is paid out till it reaches bottom. The remaining stones are then 


THE DOL NET OFF THE SAURASHTRA COAST 721 


passed on to this stone. Each stone is tied to a small length of 
coir rope with a loop and this loop is threaded on to the two limbs 
of heyer (fig. 5). In this way all the thirty or forty stones are slid 
along on the first stone and the heyer is firmly anchored. It shouid 
be noted that the heyer does not directly come in contact with the 
stones and consequently there is no:danger of it being cut by constantly 
rubbing against their edges. The two free ends of the heyer are now 
made into loops, and about a yard away from the loops both the limbs 
are connected by utabh. To the upper limb is also connected one end 
of hindoro which is lying in the boat. The boat now hangs on to 
the hindoro alone. The anchor is lifted and the boat proceeds about 
60 yards (or less depending upon the width of the net’s mouth) and 
drops another set of heyer, stones, and utabh. The other end of 
hindoro is made fast to the upper heyer limb of the second set. To 
the middle of the hindoro is now tied one end of boyu and the boat 
now proceeds to fix up the bridle for another net paying out the boyu 
as she goes. To the other end of boyu is tied a wooden float which 
is finally cast away. The bridle now settles down to the bottom, its 
position being indicated by the wooden float. As one boat operates 
three nets at a time, three such bridles are made ready and three floats 
are tied together by two pieces of ropes called patgi each of 80 yards 
length (fig. 4). The boat now returns to port and waits for a favour 
able tide. 

The boat usually leaves the port on the flood tide and reaches the 
grounds before it starts ebbing. It locates its own set of floats and 
starts pulling the bovu of the extreme set towards the bridle. As the 
rope is pulled in at the bow it is again paid out at the stern so that 
it does not accumulate in the boat (fig. 6). As soon as the hindoro 


Tow 
wv 
vv so , 
_——— 
peer 

. ares ' 
—_- <— . 
Ci Ae 


Boe aw oe 
7 PN! 
me z ma od "Be SOIL 7 OF h hee 


Fig. 6. Fishermen pulling the d0vw. Hinduro is seen on the extreme right. 


comes up the crew divide themselves, four of them pulling one linib 
of the hindoro in the bow and the rest pull the other limb in the 
stern. Soon the two upper heyers come up and by pulling the utabh 
the two lower heyers are also taken in, one set in the bow and the 
other set in the stern. The mouth of the net is now stretched sa 


722 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. d4 


that one upper and one lower corner lie in the bow, the other pair in 
the stern. The end of the sarko which is tied to the net is now 
passed through the respective heyer loop and tied to the main rope 
by a ship knot (fig. 3). This slip knot is made in such a way that 
if heyer is pulled it would not give way, but if the sarko is pulled it 
will untie. The other ends of sarkos are tied to boyu. Sometimes 
two sarkos on one side are joined together before they are joined to 
the boyu. When all the four corners are ready the cod-end of the net 
is lowered in water. If the tide has turned the end will drift away 
fast, but if the waters are slack it will tend to sink instead of drifting 
away. The fishermen will shoot the net only when they are certain 
that there is a strong tidal current. The opening of the cod-end ts 
closed by tying a string much in the same fashion as that of the 
trawl’s cod-end, but about a yard from the end. Also attached 10 
the cod-end is a rope known as puthi, the other end of which is 
attached to the middle of the sole of the mouth. This rope is about 
60 yards long and serves the same purpose as that of the ‘lazy 
line’ of a trawl. Before paying: away the net two barrels are attached 
to the two upper corners of its mouth. The net is finally cast away 
along with the bridle and soon sinks to the bottom due to its own 
weight. The boat now again pulls the boyu in the opposite direction 
till it reaches the patgi from which it finds out the next boyu. The 
operation is repeated and the second and the third net are shot. The 
boat is then made fast to the last boyu rope and rides virtually over 
that net. The fishermen now wait for the tide to flood again when 
they will haul in the net. 

It appears from Dr. Setna’s article that the ‘Dol’ net off the 
Bombay coast fishes a few fathoms away from the bottom, almost 
in mid-water region. So far as the Saurashtra coast is concerned 
it appears that the net fishes along the bottom. The foot-rope and 
the belly of the net is often smeared with mud and species of crabs, 
prawns, and other bottom fauna are always found in the catch. 
Similar species are also found in our trawl net which almost certainly 
fishes on the bottom. This difference in the levels at which the nets 
operate perhaps explains why the Bombay nets often get species like 
. Pomfrets. ‘At Madhwad (Kodinar) when the ‘Dol’ net fishermen see 
that the Drift netters are getting better catches of pomfrets, they 
shorten the ropes between the net and the barrels and also attach one 
barrel in the centre. This makes the net more buoyant and it fishes 
at a higher level thereby catching larger numbers of pomfrets. Con- 
firmation of this important point is, however, necessary. A Kelvin’s 
tube slid along a line tied to the lower heyer (or the lower Rhera in 
the case of the Bombay net) can indicate the depth « at which the net 
is fishing. 

With the turn of the tide hauling is started. The boyu is again 
pulled in the direction of the bridle. As soon as the sarko joints come 
up they are freed from the boyuw and from now onwards only the 
sarkos are pulled, two of one side in the bow and the other two in 
the stern. The strain on the sarkos makes the slip knots give way, 
the heyer loops become free and the whole bridle sinks to the bottom 
while the net alone is pulled up by the sarkos. Once the mouth of 
the net is taken in, the remaining part of the net is hauled in like 


THE DOL Ni ORE Tit SAURASHT RA COAST (23 


ordinary trawl and the cod-end released to get the catch out. I have 
never seen only the cod-end being pulled up as stated by Dr. Setna, 
nor is there any device in our nets to prevent spilling of the catch of 
the inverted net. After the catch is emptied the net is re-shot and 
the boat goes on to haul in the second net. 

Usually the fishermen collect catches of two tides before returning 
to port, but sometimes, when the going is good, they wait also for 
the third tide; but this, more often than not, results in bringing highly 
deteriorated fish and the ultimate gain is almost nil. Each boat carries 
a crew of nine fishermen, each of whom has one net. There is a 
system of rotation by which one net is taken on board once in three 
days. The value of the catch is, however, equally divided amongst 
all the members after deducting the share of the boat-owner. 

At the end of the season the heyers are cut as near the stones as 
possible and taken away. This is achieved with the help of a sickle- 
shaped instrument called datardu (fig. 7). Both the heyers are held 


Nenan ERE 


Fig. 7. The Datardu slipped around 
both the Heyers, The inner edge 
of the Datardu is sharpened 
like an ordinary sickle. 


together and pulled up taut. The datardu is put around both the 
ropes. On its convex! side are attached two or three stones and a long 
string. The two ends of the crescent are tied by one string. Both 
these strings should be at least 30-40 yards long to ensure lowering 
of the datardu to the bottom. The datardu is now slipped along the 
heyers and it soon reaches the heap of stones on the sea-bottom. The 
string tied to the ends of the crescent is now held tight by the fisher- 
men in the boat. The advantage of the wave action is taken in much 
the same way as described by Setna. When the boat goes in the 
trough the fishermen gather up as much of the string as possible and 
make it fast on the boat. When she rides a crest the datardu is 


724 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST... SOCIETY «Wal. a4 


automatically brought down to bear upon the heyers and cuts them 
clean without any effort. The heyers and the datardu are then 
hauled in. Since the heyers are made of coir it would not be 
economical for the fishermen to lose: them along with the stones; 
neither can they be left on the grounds as the wave action is bound to 
destroy them within a short time. 


6. CONCLUSION 


It will thus be seen that the method of operating the ‘Dol’ net in 
the Saurashtra waters is different than the methods employed off the 
Bombay coast. It is also noteworthy that though such a variety of 
ropes is used not one of them is superfluous. A pertinent question is 
whether mechanisation will help in this method. On the Bombay 
coast the fishing grounds are far away and naturally the machine has 
a distinct advantage over the sail; but off the Saurashtra coast the 
grounds are within twelve miles and as such a machine will not save 
much time. Moreover, the machine will occupy nearly one-third of 
the space available in the boat which will seriously hamper the opera- 
tions. It may be argued that with the help of a machine the boat 
can return to port after every tide and thereby unload a better quality 
of fish. Unfortunately the ports from which this fieet operates are 
tidal ports and the boats will not be able to go right inside at the lower 
tides. Even supposing they manage to unload the catch by paying 
extra wages to the labourers, it will not make much difference because 
the catch has got to be sun-dried anyway and unloading six hours 
earlier or later will not appreciably alter the quality of the finished 
-product. The engine will not be able to save any manpower either, 
because a mechanical winch or gurdie will certainly pull the ropes but 
the net will have to be hauled in by men, and a net of this size will 
require the full complement as carried by the boat at present. A 
mechanised boat will, however, have its own advantages. For one 
thing the fishermen will save considerable time in coming to the 
Saurashtra coast and going back home. This may give them a few 
days of additional fishing and more money. . Secondly with a mechanis- 
ed boat the fishermen will be able to try other types of fishing, such 
as drifting, after shooting the ‘Dol’ nets. A winch’ will haul the ropes 
quicker which ultimately will give extra fishing time. The Gujarat 
fishermen should, therefore, fallow the example of their Satpati and 
Versova friends and get their crafts mechanised. Economic con- 
siderations should not come in the way as the Directorate of Fisheries 
of Bombay State are prepared to supply such engines at subsidised 
costs. 

Another question worth considering is the charting of new grounds. 
‘As has been stated earlier, this Directorate’s shrimp trawler has found 
thick shoals of Bombay-ducks in the Gulf of Kutch. Preliminary 
studies have shown that the fish caught in the Gulf have a higher 
mean-length than those of Nawabunder and a majority of them have 
gonads in ripe stages. Detailed investigations are now in progiress 
on this species. Once the exact extent of the spawning season is 
ascertained the fishermen can be advised when to start operations. 
Already the Gujarat fishermen who come in the Gulf for Ghol-Dara 


THE DOE NET (OFF SGHESAURASHT RA COAST 725 


(Sciaena—-Polynemus) fishery have started thinking on these lines and 
they will have no objection in undertaking this project which will 
increase Bombay-duck landings. Similar surveys will also be under- 
taken off Bhavangar and the Gulf of Cambay. 


7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


I am indebted to Shri G. S. Sartandel of the Daryawardi Magazine 
for furnishing me with details of the ‘Dol’ net used on the Versova and 
Karanja coast. -Thanks are also due to Shri Budhia Naran, a 
fisherman of Kolak who took me on his boat and explained the process 
of shooting and hauling the net. I am obliged to Shri S. S. Shirsat 
of the Seth M. P. Shah Medical College and Shri T. R. Menon of 
this Directorate for drawing some of the sketches for me. 


8. REFERENCES 


_— 


. Hornell, James (1950): Fishing in many waters. Cambridge University 
Press, pp. 94-98. 

. Pillay, ‘I. V.R. (1948) : Marine Fisheries of Kodinar in Kathiawar. JBNAS, 
48 (1):1-15. 

. Setna S. B. (1954) : ‘In Q: est of Bombay Duck’ /é/ustrated Weekly of India, 
Vol. Ixxv, 35. Aug. 29th 1954, pp. 24-25. 


Le) 


Ww 


NOTES ON SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION IN THE 
TAWNY PIPIT (ANTRUS ‘CAMPESD RIS). BBY Its ora 
(A. GODLEWSKID), AND RICHARD’S PIPIT 
(A. NOVAESEELANDIAE) IN ASIA 


BY 


Bee. Euan 
Associate, Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History) 


(With a text figure) 


In India in winter three species of pipit are found which are 
particularly difficult to tell apart in the hand. They are the Tawny 
Pipit, Anthus campestris (Linnaeus), which in Asia breeds from Turkey 
and Palestine north and eastwards to the region of MKrasnoyarsk, 
migrating to Arabia and India; Blyth’s Pipit, 4. godlewskii (Taczano- 
wski) (formerly A. striolatus or A. thermophilus), which breeds in 
Mongolia, Shensi, and Assam, migrating to India, Ceylon, Burma, 
western Yunnan, and the Andaman Islands; Richard’s Pipit, A. 
novaeseelandiae (Gmelin), which breeds throughout most of central, 
eastern, and southern Asia, the northern races migrating into the 
territory of the non-migratory races in India, Burma, Ceylon, the 
Andaman Islands, Thailand, and Indo-China. In identifying birds 
taken in their winter quarters the necessity of distinguishing between 
the migratory and non-migratory races of Richard’s Pipit is added to 
the difficulty of specific identification. 

In the course of re-sorting specimens of these species in the British 
Museum it has seemed to me that the difficulties of identification have 
been enhanced by a tendency in standard works to place too much 
emphasis on the diagnostic value of single characters rather than on 
a combination of characters, and by lack of detailed measurements: of 
all forms. The necessity of measuring about a thousand Asian speci- 
mens has enabled me to prepare a comprehensive table of measure- 
ments for all the forms except some races of Richard’s Pipit from 
central Asia which are poorly represented in London. It is hoped 
that this table and some notes on the diagnostic value of various 
characters may aid others in the identification of specimens. 

Before discussing specific identification it is necessary to under- 
stand the geographical variation in Richard’s and the Tawny Pipit. 
(None is known in Blyth’s Pipit.} 


Variation in Richard’s Pipit in Asia. 


Richard’s Pipit in Asia varies more significantly in size than in 
colour, most of the populations falling into two size-groups: the first 
consists of the large migratory races, A. n. richardi Vieillot, A. n. 
centralasiae Kistjakowaskij, A. n. dauricus Johansen, and 4. n. ussuri- 
ensis Johansen: the second consists of the small non-migratory races, 
A. n. waitei Whistler, A. n. rufulus Vieillot, and A. n. malayensis 
Eyton. There is little overlap in measurements between these groups 
but birds with' wings of 86 or 87 mm. could be either male non-migrants 


RPECIEIC [DEN TIFICATION WN YTHE TAWNY PIPIT, ETC. Oh 


or female migrants: this is stressed since some works give go mm. as 
the shortest wing of migrants of either sex. 

These two groups are linked by the seml- migratory A, n, sinensis 
(Bonaparte) breeding in southern China and wintering in Indo-China 
and Thailand. It will be seen from the table that this form is not 
wholly separable from either group but correct sexing and comparison 
of all measurements serve to distinguish most specimens. In central 
Annam there is another breeding population which is intermediate 
between the two groups in size. No purpose would be served in 
giving this intermediate population a name but it has been listed 
separately in the table since some specimens are distinct in dimensions 
from those of any other race. 

The extent of geographical variation in colour or size in the 
migratory races cannot be assessed without long series of breeding 
birds; and few workers agree on the ranges and characters of the 
described races. With only twenty-four specimens available from the 
breeding areas I have therefore made no attempt to distinguish between 
these races: even when the variations are fully understood it is doubt- 
ful if it will be possible to refer confidently more than a small per- 
centage of winter migrants to one or another. 

The non-migratory races vary little in size; in colour they show a 
certain amount of variation between local populations in the general 
colour of the backs, but over large areas the races are separable only 
on broad lines, as C.M.N. White has found in the African races (Bull. 
Brit. Orn. Cl. 19057: 31). A. n. waite: of north-western. India is 
generally the greyest and least heavily streaked above and below; 4A. 
n. malayensis of Ceylon and continental Asia south of lat. 14° S. is 
the most rufous and most heavily streaked; A. n. rufulus is intermedi- 
ate between them and merges into them gradually. 


Variation in the Tawny Pipit. 

Some workers consider the Tawny Pipit monotypic, some recognise 
two races on size, some two on colour. Adults vary in having the 
mantle grey to light brown with light or very light streaking, and in 
having the breast unstreaked or lightly streaked. Wings of males 
vary from 85 to 1o1 mm. From the evidence of British Museum 
specimens the variation in colour seems individual, or possibly associ- 
ated with local breeding populations, rather than broadly geographical, 
but with streaky-breasted and greyer birds more common in the east 
than in the west. 

Size variation is not yet fully understood. Wings of males in the 
British Museum are as follows: 


Summer Winter 


Europe,? N. Africa, Middle East ... 88-93 88-101 
Western India ae 85-96 
Eastern India (United Provinces, Bihar) see 85-90 
Tian Shan (2 specimens) sis) OE-U0 
Krasnoyarsk (2 specimens) tO 


From these measurements it is apparent that western birds are 
variable, averaging large, but there is a consistently smaller population 


1Vaurie gives 86-98 for European J's. (Amer. Mus. Nov. 1672, 1954 : 9) 


728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


in the east which winters throughout India. Only these smaller birds 
are found in United Provinces and Bihar but they mix with larger 
birds in the western provinces. They have generally been distinguished 
in the past as A. c. griseus Nicoll, described from Tian Shan. How- 
ever, Six specimens from Tian Shan are no smaller and not consistently 
greyer than European birds and I agree with those who consider A 
c. griseus a synonym of A. c. campestris. It seems probable that the 
smaller birds come from further north and may be wintering birds of 
A. c. kastschenkoi Johansen, which was described as a small pale race 
(wings of males 85-92 mm.) breeding from Novosibirsk to Krasnoyarsk. 
Whether it is useful or not to attempt to differentiate between 
kastschenkoi and the nominate race may be resolved when a large 
series of “breeding birds from all parts can be assembled together. As 
Vaurie (op. cit.) points out kastschenkoi probably represents merely 
the end of a cline in size and perhaps colour, and a high proportion 
of migrants must always be indeterminate. The name has been re- 
tained here, the: measurements given for it being based on the specimens 
from eastern India and Krasnoyarsk, since it seems important that the 
existence of this consistently small population should be realised. 
Furthermore it is only these small birds among the Tawny Pipits that 
can present some diiiculties in identification. 


Specific identification. 

In the three species there is no single character by which all 
specimens of one species may be distinguished from the other two, but 
there are four important characters which, combined, serve for identi- 
fication. These are: 


1. Pattern of . body. plumage. The lack of streaking on the 
breast in most adult Tawny Pipits enables them to be distinguished 
at a glance from the streaky-breasted Richard’s and Blyth’s Pipit. 
The remainder, and young birds, which have light streaking, are 
sufficiently distinct to be distinguished by eye alone from Blyth’s Pipit 
and most races of Richard’s Pipit, but many individuals of the smaller 
A. c. kastschenkoi cannot be so distinguished from the most lightly 
streaked race of Richard’s Pipit, A. n. waitei, in north-western India. 

In Blyth’s Pipit the colour and pattern of body plumage are so like 
many specimens of Richard's Pipit that individuals cannot be dis- 
tinguished by eye, though, in series, Blyth’s Pipit will be found to have 
the streaks on the back and breast more clearly defined, though not 
necessarily heavier. 


2. Hind Claw. The importance of the hind ciaw in’ “specific 
identification has long been recognised. In particular the long and 
straighter hind claw of Richard’s Pipit has been selected as a diagnostic 
character in contrast to the short, curved claw of the Tawny Pipit, 
and, in lesser degree, of Blyth’s Pipit: but it should be understood 
that in all species individuals are found with abnormally long, or 
abnormally short hind claws. The latter are possibly due to excessive 
wear or breakage: the former are represented by specimens of 
Richard’s Pipit with claws over 18 mm., of Blyth’s Pip:t with claws 
over 14 mm., and of the Tawny Pipit with claws over 11 mm. Sole 
reliance on the hind claw for identification can, therefore, on occasion 
lead to error. 


SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION IN THE TAWNY PIPIT, EYC., 92 


BS 
eo | 


3. Relative length of wing and tarsus. The long tarsus of 
Richard’s Pipit has also been stressed as a diagnostic character dis- 
tinguishing this species from the other two, but it varies between races 
and should, therefore, always be considered in conjunction with the 
wing length. Thus the migratory races of Richard’s Pipit have a 
longer tarsus than the Tawny Pipit and Blyth’s Pipit but a similar 
length wing, while the non-migratory races have a similar length tarsus 
to the other two species but usually a shorter wing. Particular care 
should be taken in'‘identification of specimens with a tarsus of 28 mm. 
The variation in the wing / tarsus ratio of each form has been included 
in the table since this ratio is prcgneauy of greater importance than 
the single measurements. 


4. Tail Pattern. In all three species the outermost pair of rectrices 
are largely white and the next pair have a pattern of white that varies 
individually and sometimes asymmetrically. Because of this individual 
variation a small but significant difference in pattern between Blyth’s 
Pipit and the other two species has not been fully appreciated. 
Usually in Blyth’s Pipit the outer web of this second pair of feathers 
is white, and the white on the inner web is triangular, broad at the 
tip of the feather and tapering sharply into the shaft (figs. 5 & 6). 
By contrast in Richard’s Pipit and the Tawny Pipit the white on the 
inner web usually takes the form of a stripe alongside the shaft, not 
broadening significantly at the tip of the feather (fig. 2). Sometimes 
in Richard’s Pipit, particularly in the migratory races, the edges of 
the pattern are not well-defined, the white merging into the brown 
(fig. 1). In all these species exceptional birds have much less white 
on the feathers but the basic shape of the pattern is usually still 
recognisable (Figs. 3, 4, & 7). However, until some familiarity with 
these patterns and variations has been gained they are not easy to 
recognise in single skins and it is wise to use the tail pattern only 
as confirmatory to other characters in identification. 


Summary of diagnostic characters. 


Most adults of the Tawny Pipit can be distinguished from the 
other two species by lack of spotting on the breast. The remainder, 
and young birds, can be confused visually with A. n. waitei but are 
generally larger, with a shorter, more curved hind claw, a_ higher 
wing/tarsus ratio while in series, the bills and legs are paler in the 
dried skin. 

Blyth’s Pipit can be distinguished from Richard’s Pipit by the 
wing/tarsus ratio by the tail pattern, and by having usually a shorter 
hind claw, always under 18,mm.: and from all specimens of the Tawny 
Pipit by the heavier streaking. In addition it has a different. tail 
pattern and usually longer hind claw. 


Status of Blyth’s Pipit. 


Currently ‘Blyth’s Pipit is frequently considered to be conspecific with 
the Tawny Pipit. Although it replaces the Tawny Pipit in eastern 
Asia I consider that its distinctive appearance, different tail-pattern, 
longer hind claw, and lack of any intergradation with the Tawny make 
it advisable to treat the two birds as separate species. 


b4 


Vol. 


SOCIETY, 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HisT. 


730 


CISEL CLE ay950S), 02-29 


| gc PL I3A0 Ajaiets 
} soinsy | Aavoy | Aavoy | 9.¢-%.¢| Z2-HZ! 9z-Sz 
USI | Ist | Z.¢-H.¢ 9Z-¥2| OT-8 | §1-8 
5-Z Io 10 3481] IT 1840 Ajarer 
soinsy | ouou AiaA | 9.€-¢.¢ 9¢-Cd| PI-G | €1-OL 
Aavay | Aavay 
es AIOA AIOA F-E-L-Z R2-S2| ST-2l| 8I-Zi 
Aaeoy | Aavoy 
as SSO] S89] €-E-98:Z SG5SC=S lacie ZAiEht 
a | - €-€-6:°2 3¢-S¢c| SI-TT| 8I-OL 
“ | Ba GE-6°¢ 6¢-9¢) 9T-ZT| ST-OT 
es a 2 T-€-6:-2 O€-8¢) LI-FT] 61-ZT 
t-T 
soinsy | Aavay | AAvoy | ¢.¢-6.2z CS-8cl GL=Pll Ze7Sl 
Mojaq aaoge | 5a P & 2 
| us91jed O1] ey 
ley, SnsIe J, 
SULYBAIIS / BULAN | MID puly 


| 


¢-ZT-9L | 8I-S-9T ee tly simajpos * 
(3X91 99s) 

L£1-9T |-8T-Z1 "* 20YUaYISISDY °F EF 
sre (3X9) 998) 

OZ-ZLI |02-S-8T as SUAJSAGULDI “I 


| 

| 

| 
8I-9L ae 
AIST | eZi=9L 
fo ASFA GN ay 5) Eso) 
S-Z1-9T | 215-91 
SE-S-9L | 8E-ZE 
6bSZi Ié-8T | 
3b 2 

td 


oe SUSUIMD] DU *U* 
(S01 POT 
if ae LIILVAL “UF 
a SNIN]NA ‘UB 
(4¢ PQ) aoietndod 
a meuuy [eyed 
(setrains Sg sg) 
oe SISUIUIS “Uf 
SISUALANS SU 
SNILANDP 
IDISDIVAJUII 
IPADY ILA 
“* QnIpUn IIS IVQOU * By 


(paq¥js esTmsoyjO SSatUN uNIOy Yove jo FT pure Psy jo UMUIOIO & YIM ‘Winesny YSIW_q oy} ul sueutoeds uo peseq) 


wispy UL q1Gig spavyny puv ‘Zidrd syd ‘11¢1q Aumv[ ay} JO ssajvsoy ulvpy puv szuauansvapy jo 219n7 


TW3l 


TAWNY PEPTT. ELC. 


ENG RHE 


SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION 


Blyth’s Pipit 


Richarad’s and Tawny 


kichard’s 


Pipits 


Pipit 


rare 


common 


common Tare 


common in 
migratory 


races 


Second outermost tail feathers of Blyth’s Pipit, the Tawny 


Asia, showing common patterns and 


In 


variation. 


Pipit, and Richard’s Pipi 


extremes of 


I IGURE 


16 


A SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF THE EELS OF BOMBAY 


BY 


D. V. Bat anp K. H. MOHMED 
Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Bombay 


(With fourteen text figures) 
LNT RODU CTrilroN 


Eels form an important fishery in different parts of the world and 
they have attracted the attention of naturalists since the beg Inaine of 
this century, when the Danish scientist Johannes Schmidt (1906) made 
the sensational discovery of the breeding migration of the European 
eel. They are a fairly large group of fishes, represented by a number 
of genera and species. Day (1889) recorded 42 species of eels belong- 
ing to 13 genera and 2 families from Indian waters, and subsequent 
workers have added a few more to this list. On the Bombay coast 
Hefford (1922) recorded two species of eels in the catches of the steam 
trawler ‘William Carrick’, and Sorley (1922) eight species during his 
general survey of the fisheries of the Bombay State. Fowler (1932) 
placed on record two species of eels from Bombay. However, a full 
account of the taxonomy of the anguilliform fauna of Bombay water is 
not available, and hence an attempt has been made here to describe the 
various species of marine eels occurring along the Bombay coast. 
For this purpose, collections of eels were made regularly from 
Sassoon Dock and Versova, two fish landing centres which contribute 
greatly to the fish supply of Bombay City. 

The observations made during the course of this investigation show 
the occurrence of fourteen species belonging to seven genera and five 
families. Four of these, namely Muraenichthys gymnopterus (Blk.), 
Pisoodonophis cancrivorus (Rich.), Ophichthys cephalozona (Blk.), and 
O. apicalis (Benn.) are being reported for the first time from the 


Bombay Coast. Of the Sent species recorded by Sorley (op. cit.), 
only five are found in this collection. 


KEY TO THE SPECIES RECORDED? 


1. Caudal present sh Z 
Caudal absent 12 
2. Posterior nostril below eye in the form of 
a valve in the upper lip .. Muraenichthys gymnopterus 
Posterior nostrils superior or above the level 
of eye bes 3 
3. Pectorals present are 4 
Pectorals absent 7 
4. Teeth multiseria], pharyngeal openings wide 
slits nA 5 
5. No canines in the jaws ... Ovroconger lepturus 
Canine teeth in the jaws “ee 6 


1 The generic and specific names given here are according to Weber and de 
Beaufort (1916). 


6, 


10. 


Ibe 


12. 
I 
14, 


. Head and trunk 14 times or more than tail 


. Mesial teeth on intermaxillary teeth, 


A SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF THE EELS OF BOMBAY 733 


Outer row of teeth in mandibles directed 
outwards 

Outer row of teeth in mandibles not directed 
outwards are 

Head and trunk more or less equal to tail ... 


not 


longer than the peripheral series 


Mesial teeth on intermaxillary place, ee 
and fang-like 


. Maxillary teeth in two or three series 


Maxillary teeth in single series 

Head and body with large jet-black spots 
separated from one another with narrow 
yellowish reticulations aoe 


Head and tail with dull yellowish reticulations 
on brown background 

Well defined reticulations all over body, tail 
considerably shorter than head and body.. 


Lines on body and tail not well defined. ‘Tail 
longer than the head and trunk 


Teeth granular and in bands 

‘Teeth conical and acute 

Origin of dorsal behind end of pectorals 
Origin of dorsal above middle of pectorals ... 
Head and trunk more or less equal to tail ... 
Head and trunk 14 or more in tail 


Muraenesox talabonoide s 


Muraenesox cinereus 
Thyrsoidea macrurus 
8 


Muraena (Gymnothorax) 
picta 


Muraena (Gymnothorax) 
meleagris 
10 


Muracna (Gymnothorax) 
favaginea var. favaginea 


11 


Muraena (Gymnothorax) 
pseudothyrsoidea 


Muraena (Gyninothorax) 
undulata var. undulata, 
13 
14 
Pisoodonophis boro 
Pisoodunophis cancrivorus 
Ophichthys cephatozona 
Ophichthys apicalis 


NOTES ON THE SPECIES 


Muraenichthys gymnopterus (Bleeker). 


This eel is rarely found in this locality and only one specimen, 
433 mm. long was obtained from among the shrimp catches landed at 


Versova by bag nets from a depth of about 11 fathoms. 
was yellowish brown in fresh condition. 


Its colour 


The species is characterised 


by the anus being situated in the front half of the total length, and 
by the valve-like posterior nostrils in the upper lip beneath the eyes. 


Bio. 15 


Muraenichthys gymnopterus (Bleeker) 


Day (1889) recorded two species belonging to this genus, viz. M. 


schultzi and M 
pterus is reported here for the first time from India. 
size of this species recorded so far is only 266 mm. 


vermicularis {from Indian waters, while M. 


gymno- 
The maximum 
It has a fairly 


wide distribution and has been reported from South Africa, Ceylon, 


Java, Celebes, Philippines, and China (Weber & Beaufort, 


Uroconger lepturus (Richardson). 


This eel, 


known as ‘tolaka’ 


: in Marathi, 
bag net catches both at Sassoon Dock and Versova. 
fish growing to a maximum length of about 4oo mm., it 


1916). 


is commonly found in 
Being a small 
is never 


734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


obtained from the long line catches. Although the species is edible it 
has no commercial value and is generally used as bait for long line 
fishing. It is easily recognised by its dark brownish colour and whip- 
like tapering tail. The lateral line has a row of whitish spots. The 
largest size recorded during the course of this investigation is 284 
Inm. 


lig. 2. Uvroconger lepturus (Richardson) 


Fowler (1927) appears to be the first to record this species from 
Bombay, though Day (1889) has recorded it from Indian waters. 
Nair (1946) collected its adults and larvae from the Madras coast. It 
has a widespread distribution and is reported from Oman, the seas of 
India, Ceylon, Java, Celebes, Sumatra, Philippines, and the China Sea. 


Muraenesox talabonoides ( Bleeker). 


This species, which is the commonest of all the eels of Bombay, 
constitutes a very important fishery and it commands a good market, 
being an important food fish. It is generally landed by the hook and 
line fishermen and also by the trawlers. This fish is golden yellow 


in colour and is characterised by having externally directed teeth in 
the mandibles. 


Fig. 3. A/uraenesox talabonoides (Blecker) 


M. talabonoides 1s a tropical fish, not so widely distributed as the 
other two species of the genus. Day (1889) commented on its rarity 
in the Indian waters. The present investigation, however, shows 
that it is very common in Bombay waters, as noted by Sorley (1932) 
and Hefford (1922). The maximum size recorded is 2,080 mm. 


Muraenesox cinereus (Forskal). 


This fish ranging up to about 1,428 mm. in length is found in 
small numbers in the commercial catches landed at Sassoon Dock and 
Versova. It is generally caught with the hook and lines and occasion- 
ally in the bag nets as well as in the trawl nets. It has a dull white 
colour becoming fairly dark dorsally. The mouth is long with a 
drawn out snout. The species is characterised by the presence of 
strong canine teeth with basal lobes on the vomerines. It is con- 


AVSYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF THE EELS OF BOMBAY Te 


co 
Ot 


sidered to be a good food fish and is locally known as ‘wam’, a name 
which it shares with M. talabonoides. The larval forms and the elvers 
of M. cinereus are also obtained in fair numbers from Sassoon Dock 
and Versova in April and May. They are found mixed up with shrimp 
catches landed by the bag’ nets from approximately to to 11 fathoms. 


Fig, 4, Muraenesox cinereus (Forskal) 


Day (1889) observed that this is the most common of the 
Muraenesox species in Indian waters. Hegord (1922), Fowler (1927), 
and Sorley (1932) have noted its occurrence in Bombay waters in 
small numbers. Nair (1947) obtained the larvae and the adults of this 
fish from Madras waters. In addition, the numerous hauls taken by 
the trawlers along the Kathiawar coast tend to show occasional 
occurrence of this species, although the major portion of the eel catch 
comprises M. talabonoides. 

The species has a very wide distribution and is recorded from 
most of the places of the Indo-Australian Archipelago, east coast of 
Africa, Red Sea, coasts of India, Ceylon, Philippines, China, and 
Japan. 


Thyrsoidea macrurus (Bleeker). 


This species is occasionally found among the long line catches of 
Sassoon Dock and Versova. It has a very elongated body, deep 
brown in colour, and the largest specimen taken during this study was 
1,686 mm. long. This species is consumed exclusively by the poorer 
people and does not constitute a fishery along this coast. 


Fig. 5. Zhyrsoidea macrurus (Bleeker) 


Day (1889) reported this species as Muraena macrura from Indian 
waters but it was not recorded before from Bombay waters. It is 
known to occur in South Africa, Ceylon, Madras coast, the Andamans, 
New Guinea, and Formosa. Nair (1947) recorded its larval forms 
from the Madras plankton. 


736 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GHIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Muraena (Gymnothorax) picta Ah]. 


This is a fairly common eel in the inshore waters of Bombay and 
is generally obtained both in the long line and bag net catches. It is 
not eaten and the fishermen consider its bite to be poisonous. 
Its characteristic colour is mottled brown on yellowish background. 
There is considerable amount of irregularity in the arrangement of the 
spots and consequently different patterns of colour can often be noticed 
within the species. The maximum size recorded here is 623 mm. 


Fig. 6. Muraena (Gymnothorax) picta Ah). 


Day (1889) noted the occurrence of this species (Muraena picta) in 
Indian waters and Sorley (1932) from the Bombay State. It has a 
very wide distribution, being reported from South Africa, East Africa, 
Madagascar, ‘south Arabia, seas of India, Ceylon, Malaya, Philippines, 
Australia, and West Pacific Islands. 


Muraena (Gymnothorax) meleagris Shaw. 


This species known as ‘killis’ in Marathi is frequently obtained in 
the long line and bag net catches. Small sized specimens occur quite 
often among the shrimp catches both at Sassoon Dock and Versova. 
It is brown in colour, with deeper brown spots all over the body. 
This fish has no commercial importance except that it is consumed 
by the poor class of people. Normally it is used as bait in the long 
line fishing. The fishermen consider the bite of this species also 
poisonous. The sizes recorded during these observations range from 
312 mm. to 897 mm. in length. 


Fig. 7. Muraena (Gymnothorax) meleagris Shaw 


Though it has been recorded as Muraena meleagris by Day (1889) 
from the seas of India, till now there seems to be no definite record 
of its occurrence in Bombay waters. The distribution of meleagris is 
very wide as it occurs in South Africa, East Africa, Seychelles, 
Mauritius, India, Malay Archipelago, and the Pacific. 


Muraena (Gymnothorax) favaginea Bloch and Schneider. 


This is the tesselated eel very frequently observed in Bombay and 
its neighbourhood. It has a jet black colour with well defined reti- 
culations of yellowish white lines making a completely tesselated 
appearance. Specimens of this fish are quite often obtained in the 
shore seines, operating in shallow waters with rocky bottom. It is 
considered to be non-edible and poisonous. This species is also an 
attractive aquarium fish and a number of them are displayed in the 


A SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF THE EELS OF BOMBAY 737 


Taraporevala Aquarium at Bombay. There is no fishery for this species 
in the locality. The maximum size observed is 863 mm. 


Fig. 8. MZuraena (Gymnothorax) favaginea Bloch and Schneider 


Day (1889) has recorded it from Indian waters in the name of 
Muraena tesselata and Sorley (1932) from Bombay waters. Besides, 
it has been reported from the east coast of Africa, Mauritius, south 
Arabia, Malay Archipelago, Sumatra, Singapore, New Guinea, and 
China. 


Muraena (Gymnothorax) pseudothyrsoidea (Bleeker). 

This is a very common eel in Sassoon Dock and _ Versova, 
generally obtained in long line as well as in bag net catches. The 
species has light brownish spots on the head and body with duil 
yellowish lines or reticulations in between. It is also known as 
‘hessal’ in Marathi. It is not edible and as such has no economic 
significance. However, this fish is often used as bait in the long line 
fishing. The largest size noted during the present investigation is 
605 mm. 


Fig. 9. Muraena (Gymnothorax) pseudothyrsoidea (Bleeker ) 


This species has been recorded by Day (1889) from Indian waters 
and Sorley in Bombay waters. Its distribution extends from the 
Sind coast and India to the Seychelles, Malay Archipelago, Philippines, 
and China. 


Muraena (Gymnothorax) undulata undulata (Lacépéde). 


This species is very common in the rocky inshore areas of Bombay 
and many specimens are kept in the Taraporevala Aquarium. The fish 


RALLIES Sitges 


Fig. 10 Muraena (Gymnothorax) undulata undulata (Lacépéde) 


has a mottled appearance with reddish brown blotches on dull white 
background. One specimen collected from deeper waters by a long 
line fisherman at Sassoon Dock measured 682 mm. In Marathi it is 


738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54 


known as ‘hessal’. Apart from the fact that it is a good and hardy 
aquarium fish, it has no commercial value. 

It has a very wide distribution, being reported from South Africa, 
east coast of Africa, Madagascar, Mauritius, Red Sea, seas of India, 
Ceylon, Andaman Islands, Malay Archipelago, Philippines, Pacific 
Islands, and China. — 


Pisoodonophis boro (Hamilton-Buchanan). 


Two specimens, one from a rock pool near Cuffe Parade and 
another from Dadar beach, were obtained during this study. The 
species is a burrowing form which is not normally met with in the 
‘commercial fish catches of this locality. It is easily distinguished by 
the absence of caudal fin and by the presence of bands of granular 
teeth on the jaws. The origin of dorsal is far behind the end of the 
pectorals. The body of the fish is dark grey while the median fins are 
whitish. 


Fig. 11. Pisoodonophis boro (Hamilton-Buchanan) 


Being a very common eel in the fresh and brackish waters of India, 
it has been recorded by Day (1889), Ayyar (1932), Hora (1933), Aiyar 
et al. (1944), George and Desai (1944), and Chacko and Srinivasan 
(1954) from various parts of India. It is a widely distributed species 
and is known to occur in South Africa, east coast of Africa, India, 
Ceylon, Sumatra, Singapore, Java, Celebes, New Guinea, - and 
Formosa. . 


Pisoodonophis cancrivorus (Richardson). 


This is a rare eel in this locality and is represented by only two 
specimens in the present collection. When fresh, it has a dark brown 
hue dorsally, and is light brown on the ventral aspect. The dorsal 
fin originates above the middle of the pectorals. The teeth are found 
in bands of several rows, the intermaxillary being arranged in a 
separate group from the rest. The tail is about 14 times longer than 
the rest of the body. 


Fig. 12. Pisoodonophis cancrivorus (Richardson) - 


There is so far no record of this species from Indian waters, 
although its known distribution is very extensive. It is recorded 
from South Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, Ceylon, Penang, Singapore, 
Celebes, Samoa, Australia, Philippines, China, and Japan. 


Ophichthys cephalozona (Bleeker). 


This is a fairly common eel in the bag net catches landed at 
Versova. It seldom occurs in the long line catches and has no regular 


‘ts eee 


A SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF THE EELS OF BOMBAY 739 


fishery in Bombay. The body is purplish brown and the deep cross 
band on the nape described by various authors appears to be less 
conspicuous due to the deep brown colour of the body. The maximum 
size recorded is 830 mm., while the largest specimen in the present 
collection measured only 442 mm. in length. 


Fig. 12. Ophichthys cephalozona (Bleeker) 


There is no previous record of this species from Indian waters. It 
has a widespread distribution in the Indo-Pacific region having been 
recorded from Singapore, Ambon, Ceram, New Guinea, Philippines, 
Australia, China, Formosa, and Japan. 


Ophichthys apicalis (Bennett). 

This species, locally known as ‘devar’ is fairly abundant in Sassoon 
Dock and Versova, being caught always in the long line catches. It 
is available throughout the year at both these places and generally 
occurs along with the small shrimp catches. It is a small vermiform 
fish with greenish tint in fresh condition. Ventrally the colour is more 
whitish. The tail is more than 14 times the length of the rest of the 
body. Dorsal commences from above the origin of pectoral. The 
teeth are uniserial but vomerines are irregularly distributed. The 
maximum size recorded is 430 mm., the largest specimen observed 
at Bombay-measuring 308 mm. in length. 


Fig. 14. Ophichthys apicalis (Bennett) 


This species is also not recorded from Indian waters so far, 
although it has been reported from South Africa, Madagascar, Ceylon, 
Singapore, Java, Celebes, Philippines, and China. 


REFERENCES 


Aiyar, R. G., Unny, M. M., and Varky, P. M. (1944) : The studies on the Lepto- 
cephali of the Madras coast (Abstract). 31st 2nd. Scz, Congress, pp. 106-107. 

Ayyar, T. V. Ramakrishna (1932): A fish pest of the fields along the Coro- 
mandel coast (Ophichthys boro) JBNHS., 36: 276. 

Berg, Leo S. (1940) : Classification otf fishes, both recent and fossil. TZvrav, 
Inst. Zool. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R.5 (2). 

Chacko, P.I., and Srinivasan, R. (1954) : Hydrobiology and fisheries of the 
Vamsadara Estuary. Govt. Press, Madras. 

Day, F. (1889) : Fauna of British India, Fisheries-1. London, p. 67. 

Fowler, H. W. (1927): Notes on some shore fishes from Bombay. JANAHS., 
3 : 253-263. 

George, C. J., and Desai, N. S. (1944): The biology of the fishes of the 
Mahim Creek. Jour. Univ. Bombay, 12: 46. 


740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Hefford, A. E. (1910): Notes on a conger with abnormal gonads. Jour. Mar, 
Liol. Assoc. 8, p. 318. 

— —— — (1922) : Report on the work of the steam trawler ‘ William Carrick ’. 
Govt. Central Press, Bombay. 

Nair, R. V. (1946) : On the Leptocephalus of Uvoconger lepturus (Rich.) from 
the Madras plankton. Curr. Sci. 15 : 318. 

— — -— (1947) : On the metamorphosis of two Leptocephali from the Madras 
plankton. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 25, pp. 1-14. 

— — — (1918) : Leptocephali ot tne gulf of Manaar. ibid 27: 87. 

Schmidt, Johannes (1906) : Contribution to the life history of eel (duguztla 
vulgaris Flem.) Rapp. cons. Expl. Mar., 55 App. 4: 137. 

— — — (1914): First report on eel investigation 1913. app. Conscil. Expl. 
Mar... 19 32; 

— — — (1916) : Second report on eel investigation 1915, ibid. 22 : 1-25. 

Sorley, H. T. (1932): Marine fisheries of the Bombay Presidency, Govt. Press, 
Bombay. 

Weber, M., and de Beaufort, L. F, (1916): The fishes of Iado-Australian 
Archipelago. 3: 240. 


Te ery 


ji 


Une Ne i ator? oe Oi Ay i 
HW? ie odes j ’ i ‘ ; 
one nies area 7 F ih SAVeap ek PRM RR SI YT Ls te 


A 


Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 


EXPLANATION TO PLATE 


Fig. 1. Egg of Lestodryinus py rillae Kiefter. 

Fig. 2. Fully developed Lestodryinus grub after emergence from the thylacium preparing to © 
spin the cocoon. | 

Fig. 3. Cocoonof Lesodryinust pyrillae on sugarcane leaf. | 

Fig. 4. Adult female of Lestodryinus pyrillae Kieffer. 

Fig. 5. Adult male of Lestodryinus pyrillae Kieffer. 

Fig. 6. ‘The modified foreleg of the female Dryinid. 

Fig. 7. Hyperparasite: Cvristatithorax quadricolor Gir. 

Fig. 8. Parasitised Pyvi/la nymph showing the development of the thylacium between the 
wirg pads. 


THE BIOLOGY AND BIONOMICS OF LESTODRYINUS 
PYRILLAE KIEFF. (DRYINIDAE: HYMENOPTERA) 
A NYMPHAL PARASITE OF PYRILLA PERPUSILLA 

WALK., AND A NOTE ON ITS ROLE IN THE 
CONTROL OF PYRILLA} 


BY 


Be ke. SUBBA, RAO, 


Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research 
Institute, New Delhi 


(With a plate) 


At the present day, sugarcane is grown in an area of weil over 
three million acres. But this increase has brought the problem of insect 
pests to the forefront. While modern insecticides have their usefulness 
in pest control, their indiscriminate use also results in the extermina- 
tion of the natural enemies which keep in check the pests in nature. 
With the mass destruction of these natural enemies attributable to 
the extensive use of modern insecticides, the pests which used to 
appear periodically in an epidemic state have now become a regular 
feature in the sugarcane tracts of the Indian Union. This is what has 
happened in the case of the Sugarcane Leaf-hopper Pyrilla perpusilla 
Walk. This pest was seen in an epidemic state only once in a few years 
formerly, but of late its outbreaks have become an annual feature. 
The present paper deals with the bionomics of Lestodryinus pyrillae 
Kieff. an important nymphal parasite of Pyrilla perpusilla. Except for 
Misra’s (1917) account of the biology of Chlorodryinus pallidus Perkins, 
no work has been done on the biology of any Indian Dryinid. 


MATERIAL AND METHODS 


(a) BREEDING .OF THE Host: 


As Lestodryinus pyrillae Kieff. is a parasite of the nymphal stages 
only, it was necessary to maintain a culture of Pyrilla so that any 
number of nymphs might be available at all times for these investiga- 
tions. For this purpose a field cage made of teak-wood frames and 
wire-gauze doors and panels on the sides and back were used. The 
cage had a base of box-like structure in which soil was packed. Both 
in February and in October the sugarcane setts were planted. Eight 
such cages ‘were prepared and in each cage a pair of mated Pyrilla were 
released for egg-laying. The eggs hatched out into nymphs and the 
nymphs were used for breeding the parasites. 


1 Part of a thesis approved for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 
of the University of Mysore. 


742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


(6) BREEDING OF THE) Pana sie. 

A culture of L. pyrillae was built from a single pair of male and 
female pupae collected from the sugarcane fields in the farm of the 
Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi. As the parasite 
is able to complete its development and emerge as adult when the host 
nymphs parasitised are of the second, third, or fourth stage, only such 
nymphs were collected from the field cages and exposed for parasitisa- 
tion in tubes. One, or sometimes two, nymphs were introduced into 
the tube at a time and, as soon as they were parasitised, the 
nymphs were removed to another tube and fresh sugarcane leaves 
were supplied for the growth and development of the parasitised 
nymphs. The food was changed twice a day. The adult parasites 
were kept alive by giving them fresh cut raisins and freshly collected 
‘honey dew’. The entire rearing of the parasite was carried out in 
a constant temperatured room running a temperature of 27°C. 21°C. 
and a relative humidity of 70%=r5. 


1. BEHAVIOUR AND GENERAL HABITS OF THE PARASITE 


Of the two species of Dryinids that we see in the field as a parasite 
on the nymphs of Pyrilla sp., the more important of the two 
Lestodryinus pyrillae Kieff. is seen in the sugarcane fields from August 
onwards till the end of December in large numbers. Even a 
casual examination of the undersurface of the sugarcane leaves wiil 
reveal many pupae of the parasite, especially near the mid-rib, some- 
times with the shrivelled skin of the host from which the full-fed 
parasite grub emerged before pupation. It is from these pupae, that 
the adult Dryinids emerge. 

The forelegs of the female adult parasite are abnormally lengthen- 
ed. The females when resting, place their legs in a characteristic 
position. The knee joints on either side rise high above the pronotum 
and are often brought together so as to form a complete angular arch 
over the thorax. While walking the abnormally developed chelate 
claw is always folded backwards on the fifth modified joint of the 
tarsus. The chelate claw is not used except for raptorial purposes. 
Lestodryinus pyrillae is a specific parasite on the nymphs of Pyrilla sp. 
and no alternate host has been recorded so far. 

The most remarkable structure in the parasite is the raptorial 
front tarsi of the female. The tarsus consists of the usual five joints 
of which the last is abnormally long and modified and together with 


one of the claws which is also extraordinarily developed forms a. 


seizing and holding apparatus, somewhat similar to that of a scorpion’s 
‘chelate claw’. The great chelate claw is always folded backwards on 
the modified last tarsal segment and is only extended when it is in 
the act of seizing its host.: Marked sexual dimorphism is seen in the 
parasite, the males being much smaller and in addition devoid of the 
chelate claw of the forelegs. 


2. Host SELECTION ~ 


The mated females were given different instars of the Pyrilla 
nymphs for oviposition. After a number of experiments and careful 
observations for hours, it was found that the females exhibited a 


BIOLOGY & BIONOMICS OF LESTODRYINUS PYRILLAE KIEFF. 743 


definite preference for the second, third, and fourth instar nymph for 
oviposition. It was also observed during the course of these in- 
vestigations that the first instar nymph was too small and delicate to 
be handled by the parasite and the final instar nymph was far too 
strong for the parasite to hold it in its grip and oviposit. It* was 
invariably seen that whenever a first instar nymph was attacked it 
never recovered from the effect of parasitisation and died after some 
time. It was also very common to see that the final instar nymph 
invariably kicked off the parasite every time it approached. As a rule 
the parasite does not oviposit on nymphs which are already parasitised. 


3. MopE orf OVIPOSITION 


The female parasite, when. it is conscious of the presence of a 
suitable stage of host nymph, approaches it in a crouching manner 
and comes to a standstill at about a little distance from the host. The 
whole act resembles that of a carnivorous animal waiting for an 
opportunity to pounce on its prey. The parasite then waits for an 
opportune moment to catch the host nymph. The female always 
tries to get at the host nymph from one side, but whenever the host 
is aware of its parasite it usually lures its two anal processes vertically 
and turns back. Evidently this is its only way of protection from the 
parasite. It will not be out off place here to mention a few observations 
about the two anal processes of the Pyrilla nymph. The writer 
always found that whenever the soft skin of the body came in contact 
with the anal tuft of the insect he felt a burning sensation. It was 
observed that the parasite when attacked by the nymph in its struggle 
to escape from the clutches of the parasite, usually receives the anal 
tuft on its eyes. It is possible that the eyes of the parasite are very 
much irritated by the contact of the anal tuft and hence the parasite 
runs away from the host. The parasite catches the nymph by a very 
rapid movement of the front tarsi. The host nymph is then lifted up 
bodily by means of the two strong modified forelegs and the 
parasite often bending its body round the vertical side of the host 
introduces its ovipositor at the base, in between the first and the 
second wing pads, and oviposits its eggs. 


4. DEVELOPMENT OF THE PARASITE 


Immediately after the oviposition is over the nymph is released by the 
parasite. However, the nymph lies paralyzed for a, few minutes from the 
effects of parasitisation, but recovers and resumes its normal behaviour. 
After 5 to 20 days of oviposition the parasitized nymph develops a 
bag-like structure which protrudes out on its back in between the 
wing-pads. This bag-like structure is called the ‘thylacium’. The 
thylacium is pale yellow in colour in its early stages of development 
and it becomes dark yellow in colour after about 15 days. The 
parasitic grub which is feeding and developing is housed in this bag- 
like structure. The thylacium is probably a proliferation of the 
integument of the host and it shields the parasitic larva that feeds on 
the vital body juice and tissues of the host. 

The grub moults in the thylacium and the sections of the thylacium 
show the moulted skins of the grub arranged in circular rings. 12 to 


744 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY “NATURAL TWiST. -=SOCIEDY. Won 04 


30 days after oviposition the highly enlarged thylacium bursts open 
and the fully developed parasitic grub crawls out. The thylacium 
slits in antero-posterior direction and the middle part of the parasitic 
grub bulges out slowly. In due course the head and the anal segments 
are extricated from the thylacium and the freed grub falls out of the 
host on to the same leaf. The whole process of slitting the thylacium 
and crawling out from the host takes about 30 minutes. Immediately 
after the emergence of the parasite grub the host nymph dies. 


5. THE. EARVvA 


The grub when it comes out of the host has a brownish yellow 


head and pinkish coloured thoracic and abdominal segments. The 


grubs crawl out from the host remains and immediately start spinning 
a cocoon. 


6.) “nr Pupa 


After crawling away from the host remains the grub takes a few 
minutes’ rest and starts spinning a cocoon. Usually the grub completes 
spinning the cocoon within 24 hours. It then again takes rest for a 
day or two depending on the temperature and humidity conditions and 
starts spinning the inner cocoon. The grubs that were kept under 
controlled conditions always pupated earlier than the grubs that were 
kept under room temperature during December-January 1952. 
Normally the female cocoons are double the size of the male cocoon. 
The female cocoons (outer cocoon) measured 10 mm, long and 3 mm. 
broad as compared to the male cocoons 5.1 mm. length and 1.9 mm. 
breadth. The adults emerged from the cocoons 20 to 30 days after 
pupation under controlled conditions in December-January 1952. 


7. SEX-RATIO AND LONGEVITY 


Under laboratory conditions the sex-ratio results in excess of males. 
But under field conditions sample collection of pupae several times 
showed that the sex-ratio is almost 1:1. Under laboratory conditions 
when the females were fed with sugar solution and ‘honey dew’ 
they lived up to 20-30 days. However, under field conditions in the 
presence of host it is quite probable that they live up to 40-50 days. 


8. FECUNDITY 


Fecundity studies on this parasite are rather difficult, because the 
parasites refuse to oviposit as freely as they do in the field in spite of 
providing suitable stages of the host nymphs. However, the greatest 
number of ovipositions under laboratory conditions made by a single 
female in a day was eight. The same female which lived up to 38 
days laid 40 eggs. It was also observed that if the female parasite 
after mating is not provided with suitable hosts for the first few days, 
it loses much of its interest in oviposition. Perhaps the desire and 
the ability to reproduce decline if circumstances force the parasite to 
retain its eggs at’ a time when its reproductive activity is at its height. 
However, taking into consideration the development of the ovary at 


BIOLOGY & BIONOMICS OF LESTODRYINUS PYRILLAE KIEFF. 745 


the time of dissection of different ages of parasite, and considering 
the long life of this parasite under field conditions, it can be fairly 
estimated that the females are capable of laying from anything between 
80-100 eggs during their life-cycle. 


go. FEEDING Hairs OF THE ADULT FEMALES 


The adult parasites were fed with 10% sugar solution, freshly 
cut raisins, and ‘honey dew’ collected from the field. The females 
showed a definite preference for ‘honey dew’ secreted by Pyrilla nymph. 
The females when kept under starvation, or when not fed with ‘honey 
dew’, showed predatory habits. As soon as the nymphs were intro- 
duced into the tubes in which the starved females were kept, the 
females immediately seized the nymph and started sucking the body 
juice from the thoracic or from the abdominal region of the nymph. 
The females that were fed with ‘honey dew’ regularly did not show 
any inclination towards predatism. Perkins (1905) is of the opinion 
that when a Dryinid female is kept under unnatural conditions and 
under the pressure of hunger, the hopper nymphs are killed outright 
and to a certain extent devoured. These studies suggest a more 
definite cause of predatism. Females raised on raisin and sugar 
solution fed on the body juices of the nymphs, while those fed on 
‘honey dew’ showed no inclination towards predatism. The nitro- 
genous material which is so essential for the development of the eggs 
in the ovaries is easily available in the ‘honey dew’ secreted by the 
Pyrilla nymphs. This suggests that the real cause of predatism is the 
lack of nitrogenous food material, 


10. PARTHENOGENESIS 


It is very common to find females, after the pre-oviposition period 
is over, trying’ to parasitize nymphs even though they are not mated. 
Under such circumstances the progeny will consist of males only. 


11. HIBERNATION 


Normally, pupae collected in the field during the cold months of 
December and January are under hibernation, and even when they are 
kept in the temperature controlled room they fail to emerge within a 
short time. During March and April, the parasitic grubs hardly 
take 3 to 4 days to pupate, after spinning the double cocoon, though 
during winter they may take as many as 100 days to pupate after 
spinning the cocoons. There is no doubt that this is the only way te 
overcome the winter months and become active once again during 
warmer months. As yet, no alternative host is recorded for this 
parasite. It seems imperative that the parasite should hibernate and 
wait for the activities of its host Pyrilla to begin. 


WZ EFFECT OF PARASITISATION ON THE Host 


The young Pyrilla nymphs after their release from the chelate 
claws of the female Dryinid remain paralyzed for about 3-5 minutes, 
but soon recover their normal activities of hopping from place to place 


746 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol, o2- 


and sucking the sap from the leaf. The parasitized nymphs continue 
to be active except that they do not moult, indicating that an arrest 
of growth is taking place. The healthy nymphs of the same instar 
when kept for observation as controls, moulted regularly, completed 
their nymphal stage, and became adults. | 


13. MULTIPARASITISM 


Multiparasitism was often seen on this pest when field collected 
nymphs that did not show any external symptoms of parasitization by 
the Strepsipteran, Pyrilloxenus compactus Pierce, were accepted by 
the Dryinid parasites in the laboratory for oviposition. After a 
few days development of both the parasites was found on the same 
host. But the growth of the Strepsipteran was completely arrested 
by the Dryinid grub and when the fully developed grub emerged out 
of the thylacium, it killed the host as well as the incompleteiy 
developed Strepsipteran. 


14.  HyYPERPARASITE 


During the long hibernation of the Dryinid in the cold months of 
December and January, it is subjected to parasitization by a chalcid 
wasp Cristatithorax quadricolor Gir. ' belonging to the family 
Encyrtidae. The Dryinids are attacked in their prepupal stage. 
However, the percentage of hyperparasitism was so negligible during 
the 1951-52 seasons that one need not lay much emphasis on this 
hyperparasite. Out of the 300 pupae that were collected from the 
field only four were hyperparasitized. But it is an important aspect 
of the study of insect parasitism to an economic entomologist, because 
it is very difficult to tell when these seemingly unimportant insects 
would assume such proportions as to completely neutralize the bene- 
ficial work of the primary parasite. 

The hyperparasites that emerged from the field-collected Dryinid 
pupae were given prepupal stages of Lestodryinus for parasitization. 
It was observed that the parasites always oviposited from the sides of 
the cocoon ‘butinever from the top of the cocoon. This is probably due 
to a large intervening space between the cocoon and the prepupa or 
to the toughness of the cocoon at the top. The dissected hyper- 
parasitized pupa showed that the hyperparasite grubs had eaten up 
all the host body except the chitinous head portion. After the grubs 
are fully fed and developed, and just before they pupate, they excrete 
a large amount of faecal matter. The faecal matter is passed out in 
pellets and is excreted in one direction. All the larvae that develop 
in One cocoon arrange their heads in one direction so that the faecal 
matter is deposited in the opposite direction. They pupate naked. 
Only one exit hole is cut through and all the hyperparasites come out 
of this common hole. The entire life-cycle of the hyperparasite 
occupies from 13-15 days under controlled conditions. From a femaie 
Dryinid pupa normally 6-7 hyperparasites and about 3 parasites from 
the male pupa emerge. The sex-ratio is cent per cent female. 
During the course of these investigations the writer has not recorded 
any male hyperparasite. It is evident that the hyperparasite is capable 
of reproducing by ‘dueterotokous’ type of parthenogenesis. 


BIOLOGY & BIONOMICS OF LESTODRYINUS PYRILLAE KIEFF. 747 


1,5. THE RoLE oF DRYINID PARASITE IN KEEPING DOWN THE 
POPULATION OF PYRILLA IN THE SUGARCANE FIELDS 


The vital role played by the Dryinid parasite Lestodryinus pyrillae 
and Chlorodryinus pallidus, especially the former, in keeping down 
Pyrilla pest in the sugarcane fields is not sufficiently realised by 
economic entomologists. The population of Lestodryinus is far 
greater, and observations for about 5 years have shown that in Delhi 
Chlorodryinus is almost absent, though this species is found in small 
numbers in the Indian Agricultural Research Institute’s Sub-Station at 
Karnal and the Sugarcane Research Station at Pusa, Bihar. So the 
importance of Lestodryinus pyrillae need hardly be emphasised. 

For a proper appreciation of the role played by L. pyrillae we 
have to make a passing survey of the interaction of the other parasites 
with the host, in this case Pyrilla, from the time it makes its 
appearance in the field. Though sugarcane is planted in February 
and the cane begins to germinate in 2 or 3 weeks later and would 
have grown to 6” to 9” high by the 3rd or last week of March, 
Pyrilla are not seen in large numbers till the first monsoon showers 
fall on the parched earth. Sometimes one or two heavy summer 
showers may make the climatic conditions conducive to the growth 
and multiplication of these pests. But when these showers are followed 
by dry hot weather accompanied by hot northern winds of the deserts, 
the population of Pyrilla again dwindles. If, however, there is a 
ratoon crop growing near the planted crop there may be a_ small 
Pyrilla population. But even then they tend to disappear in the 
scorching .heat, which is a distinct climatic factor of the northern plains 
where the major portion of India’s sugarcane growing area lies. So 
then, when the monsoon showers fall, with the simultaneous fall in 
in the temperature Pyrilla begins to multiply. At this stage the 
egg parasites appear in the field and the first to appear is Tetrastichus 
fyrillae Craw. Soon others follow. They are Ageniaspis pyriliae and 
Cheiloneurus pyrillae. The fourth egg parasite Ooencertus paplionus 
is not seen in Delhi, though it is recorded at Karnal and at Pusa, 
Bihar. But the climatic condition is so favourable for an increase in 
host population that Pyvrilla begins to multiply faster than the egy 
parasites. It is at this stage that Lestodryinus plays its great role. 
At this time of the year when the sugarcane field isi carefully examined 
we will find thousands of nymphs sucking the sap of the sugarcane 
leaves on the dorsal side of the leaves. Mostly near the mid-rib or 
sometimes but rarely dispersed away from the mid-rib are seen a very 
large number of pupae of Lestodryinus pyrillae. Thousands of nymphs 
of Pyvilla have been parasitised by this Dryinid parasite and the full 
fed larvae have come out of the body to pupate on the sugarcane 
leaves. Dryinid parasite appears in the field to parasitise the nymphal 
stages while the egg stage is parasitised by the Chalcid wasps referred 
to above. There can be no doubt that the Pyrilla problem could have 
been far more different than what it is today, but for the great role 
played by these parasites that appear in sequence when the host has 
passed from the egg stage to the nymphal stage. When the nymphs 
have further developed into adults the later are stylopised by 
Pyrilloxenes compactus (Strepsiptera). In biological control, in the 


17 


748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


case of hosts that have a high degree of prolificacy, a sequence or 4 
chain of parasites parasitising each stage in the growth and develop- 
ment of the pest to keep down the host population iS necessary. 
Pyrilla offers a good example where the sequence theory of the 
biological control of insect pests is exemplified to the fullest extent. 
We can easily imagine what would have been the state of Pyrilla 
infestation if, with its overlapping broods, it got freedom to multiply 
im geometrical progression. 

The application of sequence theory in the biological control of insect 
pests was first enunciated by Fiske and its practical importance has 
been stressed by Howard (1924). Though this theory may mainly 
apply to the control of Lepidopterous pests whose component stages 
in the life-cycle differ in activity, habit, seasonal appearance, and other 
factors, it is certainly of advantage in other serious pests that have 
a terrific rate of reproduction. Under such conditions species of pests 
are almost invariably attacked by a succession of different parasites 
affecting the eggs, larvae, and pupae respectively. The sequence 
theory maintains that sometimes more than one parasite or predator 
is necessary to subjugate a major pest. This. theory also suggests 
that it is only when a certain percentage of the eggs have been de- 
stroyed that the parasites of the larvae will be able to reduce a given 
pest to a degree sufficient for the final pupal parasites to bring the 
species measurably under control. Fiske, the originator of the 
sequence theory, has calculated that a total parasitism of 88.33 per 
cent is necessary in order to attain effective control in the case of the 
gypsy moth. 

Here, for instance, is an example of a hemipterous insect pest that 
has an enormous rate of reproduction and where a sequence of parasites 
attack the various stages in its life-cycle, gradually increasing the per- 
centage of parasitism from 60% to 85% by the time the host completes 
two or three generations. In Delhi, sometimes 15% to 20% of the 
Pyrilla nymphs. are parasitised by the Dryinid in the field. This is 
certainly a high degree of parasitisation closely following sometimes 
60% to 70% parasitisation of the host eggs by the Chalcid parasites. 
In any biological control venture the best results are always obtained 
by a sequence of parasites attacking different stages of host, and 
Pyrilla offers one of the outstanding examples in the Indian sub- 
Continent where a number of parasites attack the pest in its different 
stages of growth and development and keep down the population to 
a manageable extent in the field. 

One word of warning should be uttered at this stage. Throughout 
India within recent years it has become a fashion to use indiscrimin- 
ately the recently discovered organic insecticides to keep down the 
population of the pest. These insecticides not only kill the pest but 
also its parasites. Thus the balance in nature of the parasitic popula- 
tion is destroyed with the result that Pyrilla epidemic that used to be 
seen in the fields now and then has now become a regular feature in 
the sugarcane growing tracts of our country. This is a most un- 
fortunate development and the need for judicious use of these insecti- 
cides in capable and well trained hands need hardly be emphasised. 


BIOLOGY & BIONOMICS OF LESTODRYINUS PYRILLAE KIEFF. 749 


SUMMARY 


The biology and bionomics of Lestodryinus pyrillae MWieffer a 
nymphal parasite of Pyrilla perpusilla Walk. has been studied. 

The mated female selects only 2nd, 3rd, or 4th instar nymphs for 
Oviposition. The parasite grubs develop in a bag-like structure known 
as thylacium which appears in between the wing pads. The develop- 
ment of the parasite from egg stage to the emergence of the adult 
occupies 25 to 40 days under controlled conditions. During the period 
of growth and development the parasitic grubs feed on the host’s body 
fluid and finally attack the vital organs. Under field conditions the 
sex ratio is almost equal. However, males predominate under labora- 
tory rearing. The females live up to 30 days. The females when de- 
prived of ‘honey dew’ and given accession to nymphs predate upon them. 
The parasite hybernates in prepupal stage during winter months. No 
alternative host is recorded for the parasite. Multiparasitism exists 
between Lestodryinus pyrillae and Pyrilloxenus compactus Pierce. 
However, Pyrilloxenus succumbs to the effect of multiparasitism and 
Lestodryinus successfully completes its life-cycle. 

A hyperparasite namely Cvristatithorax quadricolor Gir. has been 
reared from the pupae of Lestodryinus and its biology has been 
studied. The role of dryinid parasite in keeping down the population 
of Pyrilla in the sugarcane fields has been discussed. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


I'am grateful to Dr. E. 5. Narayanan, M.a., Ph.p.. (Lond.), D.1.c., 
Head of the Division of Entomology for suggesting the problem and 
for guidance and encouragement throughout. My grateful thanks to 
Dr. B. P. Pal, Director, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, for 
his keen interest in this piece of research. 


REFERENCES 


1. Howard, L. O. (1924): Address of the retiring president on Entomological 
Societies. Proc. Ent. Soc. Was. Vol. 26. No. 2. pp. 25-46. 

2. Misra, C.S. (1917): The Indian sugarcane leaf hopper Pyrilla aberans Kirby. 

Ind. Dept. Agric. Mem. Ent. Ser. 5. pp. 73-133. 

3. Perkins, R. C. L. (1905): Leaf hoppers and their natural enemies.(Dryinidae). 
Hawai Sugar Planters Assoc. Expt, Bull. Vol. 1 pp. 1-69. 


REVIEWS 


1. ANIMALS OF THE RUHUNA NATIONAL PARK. By 
C. E. Norris, F.z.s. Pp. viit45 (82” x 53”). 20 full page drawings. 
Colombo 1959 The Associated Newspapers of Sek i Price, Popular 
Ed. Rs. 2025, Library Ed. Rs. 3.50: 


This is an excellent little handbook covering 20 species of animals 
and reptiles found in the Ruhuna National Park in Ceylon. 

The publishers rightly state: ‘The author describes in clear and 
precise language twenty kinds of animals likely to be seen in the 
Ruhuna National Park, giving their scientific and popular names, 
the habits of each kind, and the parts of the Park in which each is 
found.’ The illustrations, with a few exceptions, are well done. 

The price which is not marked on the book unfortunately appears 
to be on the high side and, while the cost of production is doubtless 
high, it is necessary that such publications be offered at prices which 
the average visitor to the national park would not mind paying. If 
necessary, this should be done by Government subsidy. 

In the introduction the author offers some hints to visitors to 
national parks, and it is interesting to note that gramophones are 
prohibited therein! In the peoples’ parks on the outskirts of Bombay 
city it is a common experience that many visitors are far more interested 
in picnicking and in their gramophones and other Joud-noise-making 
apparatus than in the natural history of their surroundings. Although 
this form of jollity has fortunately not yet spread to our national 
parks which contain any wild life worth the name, good guide books 
of the type reviewed, with statutory ‘dos’ and ‘don’ts’ of a general 
nature as well as relating to the special circumstances of each indivi- 
dual park, would be of great help to visitors. 

Hone 


2. LIVING WITH BIRDS. By Len Howard. 256 pages 
(72”x 51”). 24 plates and 6 line drawings. Collins, London, 1956. 
Picea sss: 


The authoress has been living for fourteen years in Sussex with 
wild birds freely flying in and out of her little cottage. As human 
visitors disturb the birds, they are discouraged and, on the rare 
occasions when they are adlmnitted: come on strict terms—they must 
approach and depart by a particular route, they must not make 
sudden noises or sudden movements, and their stay must be 
confined to certain hours. 

Miss Howard’s—I apologise if I have made a mistake as to 
her status, but the existence of a husband does not seem reconcilable 
with the time and devotion which she gives to her birds—principal 
tenants are Great Tits, whose genealogies she sets out to the third 
and fourth generation. Her relations with them are intimate and 
strange birds approach her readily, usually when she is in the company 
of birds that know her but also, at times, when she is alone and 
away from her cottage. 


REVIEWS Vol 


Miss Howard must have a reputation among birds as a doctor 
and a nurse, for injured birds, some of them apparently strangers, 
come to her frequently for treatment and care. But it is as a child’s 
nurse that she excels. Some of the Great Tit parents make it a 
practice to hand over their fledglings to her, as to a finishing school, 
before the little ones become entirely independent. Many of these are 
babies which have been reared outside her garden. At such times. 
Miss Howard is kept busy from early morning to late evening finding 
suitable food for her charges, who are fussy about their food and 
have their individual preferences. 

Having lived so long with her birds, Miss Howard has much to 
tell that is interesting. What I found most engrossing, however, 
was her account of the mathematical genius Star. ‘One morning, 
the 6th January, the idea struck me of trying her with a counting 
experiment. When, as usual, she flew to my hand for her nut, instead 
of giving it to her I held it up in my other hand and said, ‘‘You 
must tap for it’’. Looking at her intently I called in sharp accents, 
“Tap, Tap’’. While I spoke her eyes were fixed keenly on mine, then 
she immediately flew to the top of a wooden screen-frame-—a 
favourite bird perch—and deliberately rapped out two taps on the 
wood with her beak, copying my speed, she then flew to my hand 
for the nut. An hour later I tried her again with the same number. 
She responded correctly in exactly the same manner, flying to my 
hand directly afterwards for her nut. She had never been given food 
for hammering at things, on the contrary, as already related, I had 
tried to stop her indiscriminate hammerings in the autumn.’ Lessons 
continued with breaks for nest-building and the rearing of families, 
till Star learnt to respond up to eight raps, and later to comply 
correctly with verbal directions asking for any number up to eight 
raps. This was not al!; she even showed a knowledge of addition, 
by breaking up the bigger numbers into different groups of smaller 
numbers. 

This is a fascinating book which I confidently recommend to all 


lovers of Nature. 
D.E.R. 


3. AUDUBON WESTERN BIRD GUIDE: Lanp, Water 
AND GAME Birps. By Richard H. Pough. Pp. xxxvi+316 
(7¢” x 44”). 340 full-colour illustrations by Don Eckelberry and 138. 
black and white drawings by Terry M. Shortt. Doubleday and 
Company, Inc. New York, 1957. Price e 


This book, the third in the author’s series of Audubon bird books, 
relates to a region measuring about two and a half million square 
miles and comprising western North America from the Arctic Ocean to 
the Mexican border, and the oceans to the west and the north. Local 
conditions vary widely in this area, and 614 different species of birds 
are covered. 

~The book is a model of economy of words and space. 411 
species were previously described in the earlier books. New informa- 
tion about them is generally confined to their range and certain body 
dimensions. Detailed information is given about the other 203 species 


752 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL” AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


in brief, precise, and pointed terms, emphasising clearly the main 
distinguishing features, which are indicated with equal clarity in the 
illustrations. Considerable saving of space is effected by the judicious 
use of abbreviations, and the lay-out artists are to be congratulated 
on the skill with which they have compressed the coloured illustrations 
of 219 species into 32 plates without sacrificing clarity; there are 
besides this 138 black and white drawings contained in 282 pages of 
text. 

It is interesting, among the species described, to come across some 
familiar names. The White Wagtail (Motacilla alba) and the Yellow 
Wagtail (Motacilla flava) occur naturally in this region. The Chukor 
{Alectoris graeca) introduced from 1893 onwards has established itseif 
in the Great Basin from Colorado to California and Oregon to New 
Mexico. Other introductions are the Spotted Dove (Streptopelia 
chinensis), which is to be found in cities and towns through most of 
South California, and the Ring Dove (Streptopelia risoria), which is 
not as successful a settler in its new home. 

The book is tastefully got up and of a handy size. Ready reference 
has been provided for by cross-references between the illustrations 
and the text in the book itself and between the book and the earlier 


books in the series. 
DrheRe 


4. THE AMPHIBIA OF CEYLON. By P. Kirtisinghe. Pp. 
xlitii2 (84” x 5%”), 1 plate (coloured frontispiece) and 74 text-figures. 
Published by the author, 2 Charles Circus, Colombo 3, Ceylon, and 
printed at William Clowes and Sons, Limited, London and Beccles, 
1957. ‘Price. Rs. 14.50. 


The study of the fauna of an insular area is always a fascinating 
subject, especially so when it pertains to a small but interesting group 
of animals such as amphibia. Until the present publication, no 
comprehensive treatise on the amphibia of the Indian region more 
recent than the work of Boulenger (Fauna of British India, 1890) was 
published, and hence, although regional, this book partly helps in 
filling a gap. Mr. Kirtisinghe has been studying the amphibia of 
Ceylon for several years and has now brought together in book form 
a considerable amount of information scattered through literature with 
many personal observations to make it a very useful reference work 
and field guide. 

The amphibian fauna of the Island is closely related to that of the 
Indian sub-continent. It has species that are widely distributed, such 
as Bufo melanostictus Schneider, Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider, etc., 
and at the same time an endemic genus Nanophrys Giinther. The 
limbless and blind or nearly blind Caeciliidae have their representatives 
on the Island. Far more interesting is the occurrence of a highly 
specialised species, Rhacophorus microtympanum (Ginther), with a 
direct development on land as was first described by the author in 1946. 

The whole subject is rather attractively introduced with a résumé 
of the earlier work on the amphibia of the Island, and on this basis 
the author has attempted a codification of the nomenclature—a very 
logical approach. This has no doubt enabled him to give a correct 


REVIEWS 753 


rendering of the names as far as possible. The nomenclatorial dis- 
cussions on pages 8-13 will undoubtedly interest specialists working 
on the amphibia of south-east Asia. The descriptions and drawings 
of tadpoles of Rana corrugata, R. limnocharis greem, R. (Hyalorana) 
iemporalis, Rhacophorus ‘c. cruciger, Rh, cruciger eques, and Microhyla 
zelyanica, given for the first time, add to the value of the book as a 
reference work. 

The synopsis for the identification of the families, genera, and 
species, and those given for the tadpoles, are concise and easy to 
follow, although on pages 14 and 15 they are given in three different 
styles. The taxonomic descriptions of the species are exhaustive and 
each species is well illustrated. As the author has pointed out, the 
synonyms cited under each species primarily refer to records from 
Ceylon. 

A few minor criticisms are called for. The inclusion of a topo- 
graphical map of Ceylon marking the localities of collection would 
have given the reader a better idea of the distribution of these animals, 
both in the upcountry and the lowcountry and in the different water- 
sheds of the Island. Another drawback is the almost complete 
absence of ecological data for the species, which otherwise would have 
been a helpful guide to the amateur naturalists as well as to the 
specialist. The reviewer cannot agree with the author that the 
endemism seen among the Ceylonese amphibia is mostly the result of 
independent evolution within the group on the Island during the last 
ten to fifteen thousand years. Although both geographical and 
biological isolations are involved, the fact that about 42.4 per cent of 
the amphibian fauna should evolve within such a short time on the 
Island is an incredibly fast irate of speciation! Until such time as the 
amphibian fauna of India, especially of peninsular India and Ceylon, 
are studied in greater detail, it seems premature to attempt any 
speculation on the dates. 


These few points should not, however, detract from the value of a 
book which is bound to remain a standard work of reference on 
Ceylonese amphibia for many years. The author is to be congratu- 
lated for bringing out such a scholarly work, and credit also goes to 
the printers for the high standard of production. This book will un- 
doubtedly stimulate more interest both in the amateur naturalists and 
the ‘specialists’ interested in these slimy creatures, the study of which 
has hitherto not received its due share of recognition in this country. 


E.G.S. 


5. BRITISH TREES: A GuipE ror Everyman. By Miles 
Hadfield. Pp. xxv+468 (84”x54”), including 150 pages of line 
drawings. J. M. Dent and Sons Ltd., London, 1957. Price 3os. 
net. 


_ This book is intended to help ‘Everyman’, that is to say the man 
with no special scientific knowledge, to recognise the trees, both native 
and introduced, that he is likely to encounter in Britain. The author 
has two ‘negative’ but real qualifications for the task, he is neither a 
trained botanist nor a forester. Having taught himself and acquired 


~7 
Cr 
us 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAT. ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


his knowledge the hard way, he appreciates the difficuities of the layman 
and does not overwhelm his reader with scientific terms. It is im- 
possible to avoid technical terms altogether, but they are reduced to a 
minimum and, where they occur, are explained in simple language 
where they are used or in an appendix at the end of the book. 

Identification is made easy by the numerous drawings illustrating 
the roots, shoots, buds, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, and other parts. 
These are the work of the author himself, and show an attention to 
detail which is rare in this age of hurry and progress. Only an artist 
in love with his task could turn out work of this quality. We wish 
that he had completed his task by giving his readers an idea of the 
tree as a whole. To most of us who love trees it is the tree itself 
that matters, and the details illustrated are important only for the 
purpose of identification or as contributing to the appearance of the 
tree as a whole. The author has given us a tantalising glimpse cf 
his capacity in this respect in his illustration at page 57 of the typical 
forms of the Atlas cedar and the Lebanon cedar. 

An excellent book, which makes us wish that someone will be 
inspired to do something similar for us in India. 


DLETRe 


6.. NO PASSPORT TO. TIBET. By Lti-Cols Peeve Bailey. 
Pp. 294 (82”x 53”) Rupert Hart-Davis, London, 1957. 25s. 


This book, reconstructed from the author’s diaries, is a clear aud 
breezy account of a journey through unsurveyed and largely unknown 
country. In 1913, when it was made, the upper course of the Tsangpo 
through eastern Tibet was unknown, and the author was keen to verify 
Kintup’s report of 150-foot ‘Rainbow’ falls. He made one attempt 
to approach from the Chinese side, and follow the river down inio 
Assam, but had to abandon it because the Chinese and Tibetans were 
fighting in the crucial area (called Po me). This journey has already 
been described in) another book, China-Tibet-Assam. He had acquired 
a good knowledge of Tibetan from his three and a half years as trade 
agent in Gyantse and Chumbi, he knew and had photographs of the 
Dalai and Tashi Lamas, and he managed to get himself attached as 
Intelligence Officer to a mission sent in 1913 to the Chulikatta Mishmi 
country in northern ‘Assam. Then, with Captain Morshead of the 
Royal Engineers to act as surveyor, Captain Bailey set off with two 
objectives. First to follow the course of the Tsangpo between the 
point where it was known to disappear into the tangled mountains of 
eastern Tibet’ at an elevation of about 10,000 ft. to where it debouched 
into the plains of Assam at about 500 ft.; second to map the 
geographical frontier between Tibet and Assam. The semi-indepen- 
dent rulers of the villages of southern Tibet were in a state of sporadic 
war with the Abors and Mishmis of Assam, and trading was often 
combined with raiding. Though Captain Bailey had no authority 
from the Government of India he was able to convince the officials of 
the areas through which he passed that he was doing useful work in 
demarcating the territories of each authority, and therefore to get 
transport and supplies for his party. Both main objectives were 
attained. 


REVIEWS 750 


Apart from the political difficulties which had to be overcome, the 
journey could only have been performed by men of remarkable stamina. 
During the months of August, September, and October they covered 
over a thousand miles, usually at an elevation of over 10,000 ft. and 
crossing at least four passes over 17,000 ft. They started out with 
ten coolies (seven Tibetans, two Gurkhas and a Lepcha cook), and 
must have had a fair amount of surveying equipment and collecting 
boxes. For shelter they had a forty-pound tent, and they relied on 
local supplies for food. Their money was stolen about half-way, but 
a Kashmiri merchant came to their rescue and advanced them Rs. 250 
with which they !were able to manage till they reached the rail-head at 
Rangiya, 30 miles north of Gauhati. The highest recorded collecting 
was done at the end of August at over 16,000 ft., where Red Apollos 
(Parnassius epaphus sikkimensis) were plentiful. 

During the expedition Colonel Bailey made a collection of about 
two thousand specimens of butterflies belonging to two hundred differ- 
ent species, of which a detailed account has been given in the Journal 
by Colonel W. H. Evans (Vol. XXIII, pp. 532-46). 

How they managed to transport their specimens over 1,500 miles of 

Tibetan tracks is not explained—this, like the daily miracle of securing 
coolies and ponies, often from reluctant headmen, is passed over with 
what Bailey in another connexion calls ‘characteristic British under- 
statement’. They brought back several new mammals, however, 
including a goral, a rat (Epimys brahma), and a shrew (Soriculus 
baileyi). They found the so-called Sikkim stag (Cervus affims). They 
identified the habitat of the Eared Pheasant (Crossoptilon armani), 
and collected a chick in the Tsangpo Gorges, and were told that its 
plumage was blue because it fed on aconite! The chick and adult 
specimens collected later are figured on p. 332 of Stuart-Baker’s Game 
Birds. Among the flowers seen in bloom at about 11,000 ft. on 10 
July was the blue poppy of which Kingdon Ward coilected the seeds 
in 1924, and which is now well-known as Meconopsis baileyi. But (to 
quote the author) ‘quite as important as the discovery of new speci- 
mens was the observation of the fauna and flora characteristic of the 
different places through which we passed’. 
' The maps, which are so important in a book of this kind, are 
excellent. They are drawn by K. C, Jordan and are presumably based 
on Morshead’s surveys. The whole route is covered in a series of 
hachured maps, with the author’s route marked, and the rivers, 
villages, and main physical features named, together with heights, 
usually obtained by measuring the temperature at which water boiled. 
The scale at which these are reproduced is usually about 16 miles to 
the inch, though the Tsangpo Gorge area is mapped at 10 miles and the 
Bhutan-Assam section at 30 miles. The spellings in text and maps 
are nearly always in agreement. 

The photographs are disappointing, but this is not surprising as 
they were taken in 1913 and (presumably) developed many months 
after exposure. They all relate to the early part of the route, as 
Bailey lost his camera soon after leaving the Rainbow Falls. 

After reading this account of men who made their way from one 
dangerous area to another, very lightly armed and carrying a con- 
siderable sum of money, it is no surprise to find the author confessing 


756 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


that he is an ‘optimist of human nature’. Men in his experience are 
fools not knaves. ‘The people of Gyala warned us against the people 
of Po me, who were unscrupulous and unreliable, bad people, unlike 
the people of Kangbo. In Po me we had received the same warnings 
against the people of Kangbo. It seems to be universal, the inability 
of human beings to feel virtuous except when surrounded on all sides 
by rogues and villains.’ So, although the frontier agreement with 
China, which Morshead’s survey made possible, was repudiated by 
Peking, one feels the author has good ground for his belief that “the 
next hundred years may make the Chinese Communist way of life as 
humane as that of Tibet’. 


RoEene 


7. NATURAL HISTORY OF BIRDS: A Guide to Ornithology. 
By Leonard W. Wing. Pp. vi+539 (9” x6”). 222 illustrations 
(text figures, diagrams, maps, graphs). The Ronald Press Co., New 
York, 1956. Price $6.75. 

An up-to-date and authoritative guide to ornithology for university 
students, and for bird-lovers whose interest does not end at mere 
loving, was urgently needed. For a time Elliot Coue’s FIELD AND 
GENERAL ORNITHOLOGY and then Thomson’s BIOLOGY OF BIRDS had filled 
the bill admirably, and indeed their usefulness in their respective ways 
remains largely undiminished even today. But scientific ornithology 
has in the meantime advanced by leaps and bounds, and struck out in 
such divers and undreamt of directions—with incursions into physics, 
chemistry, statistics, mathematics, astronomy, and practically every 


other branch of science—that something more comprehensive was 
called for. 


For the serious ‘amateur’ who has not the time or the facilities for 
keeping himself in touch with ornithological progress through the 
rising spate of periodical literature, and who is yet desirous of remain- 
ing well informed, such a book, and just such a book, was badly 
wanted; and it will doubtless be enthusiastically welcomed. It covers 
every aspect of bird life, with refreshing emphasis on the living bird 
and its ecology. Though understandably somewhat American in bias as 
regards the examples cited—it is obviously intended for American 
students primarily—the book is so well and readably written that users 
in other parts of the world will find it equally instructive and interesting. 


The last 5 of its 24 chapters are of wider and very special interest. 
They cover ‘Heredity in the Bird’ (inherited characters, mutations, 
geographical and ecological variations, importance of birds in genetic 
studies, etc.); ‘Health in Wild Birds’ (parasites, viruses, birds as 
disease reservoirs, etc.); ‘Rise of Bird Protection’ (historical develop- 
ment, plumage trade, international treaties, protection of bird colonies, 
extinction, rare and threatened (American) species, attracting birds, 
feeding trays, nest boxes, etc.); ‘Economic Relations of Birds’ (food 
habits, ecological-economic relations, domestic use, etc.). The final 
chapter entitled ‘Bird Study Afield’ furnishes practical suggestions 


about the kinds of studies that may be profitably carried out, methods, 
field techniques, equipment, etc. 


REVIEWS 757 


At the end of every chapter is given a list of ‘Suggested Reading’ 
for the benefit of those who would delve deeper into the subjects 
treated. 

A very full list of bibliographical references is contained in 
Appendix I, while Appendix II, ‘Bird Orders and Families of the 
World’, will serve as a sheet anchor (howsoever ephemeral) to the 
bewildered ornithologist floundering in the turbulent sea of ornitho- 
logical taxonomy and praying fervently that, for better or for worse, 
the classification of Wetmore (here followed) may be spared at least 
during his own mortal span! 

A complete glossary of relevant scientific terms concludes this very 
timely and useful book which I consider quite indispensable not only 
for the intelligent bird-lover as a guide to ornithology but also for the 
intelligent ornithologist as a guide to bird loving ! 


Sis 


8. THE ORNITHOLOGISTS’ GUIDE: Especially for Overseas. 
Edited by Major-General H. P. W. Hutson, C.B., D.S.0., O.B.E., M.C. 
Pp. xix+287 (84”x54”). Text figures and diagrams. British 
Ornithologists’ Union, London, 1956. Price 21s. 


It was a happy thought on the part of the Committee of the British 
Ornithologists’ Union to produce this compendium chiefly for the 
benefit of their members and others interested in bird study who, by 
accident or design, live in ‘exile’ in distant corners of the earth, cut 
off from the ‘stimulating influence of ornithological libraries and fellow- 
ornithologists, and from current ornithological thought and trends. 

Its main object is to encourage such ‘exiles’ and show them the 
possibilities of any ornithological work that may lie at their doorstep 
unbeknown, and to harness their opportunities for useful contributions 
to the ornithology of the remote and little known areas where their 
lot may be cast. It is a collection of short informative articles specially 
written, by a number of leading British ornithologists on a great many 
topics of modern bird study, surveying the general state of our 
knowledge and indicating how it may be furthered, suggesting pro- 
fitable avenues for field work within the competence of an averagely 
keen ‘amateur’, describing the methods and techniques in vogue, and 
giving useful hints. 

The book is divided into the following sections: General; 
Geographical Aspects; General Behaviour; Breeding; Protection; 
Study Techniques; Some Suggestions for Special Study; Regional 
Information; General Information. Most of these sections are made 
up of a number of succinct articles, which between them give a good 
overall picture of the achievements and trends of modern ornithology 
and indicate the important role of the field ornithologist in advancing 
scientific knowledge. The Regional Information contained in Section 
VII mostly concerns areas of the Old World where any ornithological 
work is being done. It includes the West Indies and Latin ‘America 
but omits North America, presumably because relevant information 
concerning it is readily available. It gives the names and addresses 
of individual ornithologists and societies in the different areas who may 


758 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 
be contacted for local information, and also the titles of some standard 
reference books on the birds there. 

Altogether a very praiseworthy compilation which should prove of 
great usefulness not only to the ‘exiles’ but also to all others interested 
in the trends of modern bird study. The B.O.U., the Editor, and all 
the individual contributors deserve congratulation. 

; SaAL 


. ON THE TRAIL OF VANISHING | BIRIDS9) By) -Robect 
Porter Allen. Pp. ?. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1957. 
Pricei?: 


_ Since its foundation in 1901 the National Audubon Society has 
worked for the preservation of American bird life. By the early 
thirties it was realised that for certain vanishing species bird sanctuaries 
and protection by law with wardens to enforce it were not sufficient. 
Rapid development and expanding building and other projects were 
encroaching upon or disturbing the winter resorts, the feeding grounds, 
and the nesting areas of the birds, and precise information as to the 
habits and requirements of the birds was wanted as a basis for measures 
for their preservation. Mr. Allen, now Research Director of the 
Society and then a newly recruited member of the Society staif, took 
part in the research that followed. In this book he tells us something 
of the manner in which the information was collected, and about the 
difficulties, hardships, and even danger, which the investigators had 
to encounter. He deals particularly with the Roseate Spoonbill, the 
Whooping Crane, and the American Flamingo. 

Thanks to the efforts of the Society the number of nesting pairs cf 
the Roseate Spoonbill in the Florida breeding colony has risen from 
15 to more than 150, but the author wisely observes that the birds 
‘are by no means out of the wood’. 

The position of the Whooping Crane was, and still is, desperate. 
The only surviving migratory flock, wintering in Aransas (Texas), 
numpbered 15 individuals in April 1939, and it was an urgent problem 
to ascertain their migration route and their nesting area, somewhere 
in Canada, so as to ensure protection for them all the way. A frantic 
search followed, in which the co-operation of everybody was enlisted, 
and reports received daily from  truck-drivers, air-pilots, garage- 
mechanics, school-boys, farmers, businessmen, etc. were investigated, 
more often than not with negative results. The importance of getting 
such heip is shown by the ultimate discovery (in 1954) of the nesting 
area, which was the result of an observation made by two members 
of the Canadian Wildlife Service and Forestry personnel engaged in 
dealing with a forest fire. 

An attempt made to breed Whooping’ Cranes in captivity is the basis 
of an interesting description of their nesting behaviour. It is to be 
hoped that, now that their natural nesting area is known, we shall 
have an account of the nesting behaviour in the wild. In the section 
dealing with the American Flamingo Mr. Allen telis us about the 
prenuptial dance of the Flamingo---a riotous communal affair in which 
the females take an active part. These glimpses of what Mr. Allen 
can do in this line make us wish that he had told us a little more 


REVIEWS 759 


about what he observed, but perhaps that would have been a digression 
from the object with which he set out to write the book. 

An idea of the extent of the interest and sympathy roused by the 
efforts of the Society is given by the following incident. ‘A proposal 
by the United States Air Force to establish a flash-bombing range on 
Matagonda Island threatened the continuance of the Whooping Crane 
Refuge at Aransas. The matter was taken up by the Canadian 
Government and as a result the proposal was abandoned. 

In the course of his searches Mr. Allen took part in a hunt for 
contraband gun-runners, which might have formed the subject of a 
Gilbert and Sullivan opera. He had other adventures also, which 
those who are interested may profitably read for themselves. 


D: ER. 


ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 


The following books have been added to the Society’s Library since 
January 1956: 


Review copies: 


1. BOTANICAL COLLECTOR’s ManuaL. By:H. Santapau, S.J., F.N.I. 
(Ministry of Natural Resources and Scientific Research, New Delhi, 
US 3) 

PowWAI THE FISHERMAN’S PaRADISE: A Practical Handbook for 
bottom fishing in India. By D, L. Amore (Hind Kitabs Ltd., Bombay, 
1956). 

. ‘A CoLOURED ATLAS OF SOME VERTEBRATES FROM CEYLON, 
VoL. HI. Serpentoid Reptilia. By P. E. P. Deraniyagala (Ceylon 
National Museums Publication, December 1955). 

4. Birps oF CrEyLon 3. By W. W. A. Phillips (The Associated 
Newspapers of Ceylon Ltd., Lake House, Colombo, 1955). 

5- THE SHERPA AND THE SNOwMAN. By Charles Stonor (Hollis & 
Carter, London, 1955). 

‘6. AUDUBON WESTERN Birp GuIDE: Land, Water and Game 
Birds. By Richard H. Pough (Doubleday Co. Inc., Garden City, 
NAY 1957)" 

7. British TREES: A Guide for Everyman. By Miles Hadfield 
(J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd., London, 1957). 

8. TaxONOMIST’s GLOSSARY OF GENITALIA IN INSECTS. Edited by 
S. L. Tuxen (Ejnar Munksgaard Ltd., Copenhagen, 1956). 

g. ZooLocicaL PHoTOGRAPHY IN PrRacTicE. By Hugh B. Cott 
(Fountain Press, London, 1956). 

to. THE Mottusca or Krusapai ISLanp (in the Gulf of Manaar). 
Il. Scaphopoda, Pelecypoda and Cephalopoda. By S. Thomas 
Satyamurti (Bull. of the Madras Govt. Museum, New Series—Natural 
History Section—Vol. I, No. 2, part 7, 1956). 

11. THE /AMPHIBIA OF CEYLON. By P. Kirtisinghe (Published by 
the Author, 2 Charles Circus, Colombo 3, Ceylon, and printed by 
William Clowes & Sons Ltd., London, 1957). 


760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


12. ANIMALS OF THE RUHUNA NATIONAL Park. By C. E. Norris 
(The Associated Newspapers of Ceylon Ltd., Lake House, Colombo, 
Ceylon). 

13. No Passport To Trpet. By Lt.-Col. F. M. Bailey (Rupert 
Hart-Davis, Soho Square, London, 1957). 


Purchased: 


1. Mr. Gourp’s TropicaL Birps. Edited by Eva Mannering 
(The Ariel Press, London, 1955). 

2. THE NaTuRAL REGULATION OF ANIMAL NuMBERS. By David 
Lack (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1954). 

3. THe Fauna oF BritisH INpb1a, INCLUDING CEYLON anp BURMA— 
BuTTERFLIES. Vol. II (Fauna of India, including Pakistan, Ceylon 
and Burma). By G. Talbot (Taylor & Francis Ltd., Red Lion Court, 
Fleet Street, London, E-C. 4, December 1947). 

4. THE Fauna or BritTisH InDiA, INCLUDING CEYLON AND BURMAa— 
Birps. Vol. I to Vol. VIII. By E. C. Stuart Baker (Taylor & 
Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street, London, 1922 to 1930). 

5. No Room For Witp Animats. By Dr. Bernhard Grzimek. 
Translated from the German by R. H. Stevens (Thames and Hudson, 
London, 1956). 

6. Witp America. By Roger Tory Peterson and James Fisher 
(Collins, St. James’s Place, London, 1956). 

7. Nature’s TEacuincs : Human Invention anticipated by Nature. 
By the late Rev. J. G. Wood (New and Revised Edition) (William 
Glaisher, 265 High Holborn, London, 1907). 

8. FIsHES: Journeys and Migrations. By Louis Roule. Trans- 
lated from the French by Conrad Elphinstone. (George Routledge & 
Sons Ltd., Broadway House, 68-74 Carter Lane, London, 1933). 

g. Noan’s Carco: Some Curious Chapters of Natural History. 
By George Jennison (A. & C. Black Ltd., 4, 5 & 6 Soho Square, 
London, W. 1, 1928). 

10. METHODS AND PRINCIPLES OF SYSTEMATIC ZooLocy. By 
Ernst Mayr, E. Gorton Linsley, Robert L. Usinger (McGraw-Hill 
Book Company Inc., New York, Toronto, London, 1953). 

11. THe Ducks or Inpia: Their Habits, Breeding Grounds and 
Migrations, together with other useful information for the Sportsman 
and Observer. By R. G. Wright and Douglas Dewar (H. F. & G. 
Witherby, 326 High Holborn, London, W. C. 1, 1925.) 


Presented: 


1. NOTES ON THE FIELD OCCURRENCE AND PETROGRAPHY OF THE 
Rocks oF THE BomsBay Istanp, BompBay. By R. N. Sukheswala 
(Excerpt from the Trans. of the Mining, Geological and Metallurgical 
Institute of India, Vol. 50, No. 3, October 1953). 

2. Prea For Mercy To Animats. By James Macaulay (The 
Religious Tract Society, London). 

3. A NARRATIVE OF TRAVELS ON THE AMAZON AND Rio NEGRO 
WITH AN ACCOUNT OF THE NATIVE TRIBES AND OBSERVATIONS ON THE 
CimmaTE, GEOLOGY AND NaTuRAL HisToRY OF THE AMAZON VALLEY. 
By Alfred Russel Wallace (Ward, Lock & Co., London, 1889). 


ADDITIONS 1 Oe Tithe SOCIETY'S LIBRARY 761 


5. KiLiinc For Sport. Edited by Henry S. Salt (G. Bell & Sons 
Ltd., London, 1915). 

6. Huntinc Camps IN Woop AND WILDERNESS. By H. Hesketh 
Prichard (Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd., London, 1910). 

THROUGH THE HeEarT OF Pataconta. By H. Hesketh Prichard 
(Thomas Nelson & Sons, London, 1911). 

8. FRom FijI TO THE CANNIBAL ISLANDS. By Beatrice Grimshaw 
(Thomas Nelson & Sons Ltd., London). : 

9. THE TIGERS OF TRENGGANU. By Lt.-Col. ‘A. Locke (Charles 
Scribner’s Sons, N.Y., 1954). . 

to. STRAY FEATHERS FROM A BiRD Man’s Desk. By Austin L. 
Rand (Doubleday & Company, Inc., Garden City, N.Y., 1955). 

11. THE BittTMorRE Story: Recollections of the Beginning of 
Forestry in the United States. By Carl Alwin Schenck (Minnesota 
Historical Society, St. Paul, 1955). 

12. STRANGE CREATURES OF THE SEA. By A. Hyatt Verril (L. C. 
Page & Company, Boston, 1955). 

13. BUTTERFLIES OF THE INDIAN REGION. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth 
(The Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, 1957). 


MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 


1 THE ABOMINABLE SNOWMAN 


‘The Abominable Snowman’ by Swami Pranavananda in the April 
issue of the Journal is an interesting paper, but I think that the 
author rather lightly dismisses the ‘sensational news, stories, and 
legends regarding the Abominable Snowman’. He may be right in 
his conclusion that the so-called Snowman is only a Red Bear, but the 
evidence that he sets out does not justify so downright a conclusion, 
and before coming to this finding he should have dealt with the 
material and arguments by which the exponents of the opposite view 
have sought to support their opinion. 

He comments on the fact that so few people have seen the 
Abominable Snowman, but he himself quotes the shepherds on the 
Kyang Chhu who saw the animal which attacked their sheep. Accord- 
ing to them it was light red or reddish brown in colour and about the 
height of a man. It ran away on all fours, but when it had got 
some distance from them it stood up and walked away on two legs. 
He mentions also the animal seen at Tomomopo in Tag Valley, a 
little taller than a man, colour deep brown, thick coat of reddish 
brown hair, hairs on face ‘pretty long’. He himself in his book 
EXPLORATION IN TIBET Classifies the fauna of Kailas-Manas region into: 
(1) tom black bear, (2) te brown bear, (3) mi-te man-bear, and in the 
present paper he accepts as a distinguishing character of the mi-te 
that it ‘sometimes walks on hind legs only’. So it is possible, as 
believed by the opposite school, that the mi-te is not just an ordinary 
bear. 1S 

Charles Stonor, who led the Daily Mail expedition, made careful 
enquiries about the Abominable Snowman and his enquiries included 
persons whose knowledge extended to Tibet as well as Nepal. He 
took care to avoid asking leading questions and he found a fairly 
definite picture of the creature existing in people’s minds. ‘The 
people questioned by him were acquainted with the appearance of a 
bear and they were generally agreed that the mi-te was not a bear. 
The expedition found tracks on more than one occasion, generally of 
a creature walking on two feet; it appeared to them that the animal 
went on all fours only when it was in difficulties or in a hurry. They 
also found evidence which suggested that, before eating, the animal 
removes the entrails of its prey, an action which one would not 
ordinarily associate with a bear. | 

An eye-witness account of the animal is given by Slavomir Rawicz 
in THE LONG WALK. The author says that he and his companions 
observed two of these animals for two hours. They walked on their 
hind legs and did not drop on all fours throughout the time that they 
watched. The description tallies generally with the descriptions 
given to Charles Stonor in hig enquiry, except that Rawicz makes 
the animal taller than it would be according to Charles Stonor. 

In his Miscellaneous Note of 6 November 1956 at page 448 of the 
same issue of the Journal Swami Pranavananda speaks of footprints 
which he himself saw. Occasionally ‘there were three or rather 2} 


Lote =e 


od 


_ i 
Pa ae 


088 ‘90S: 40 sattW g 02 YUL] aTRIS 


AEGUEYTYS 


iA BOqIEUy yg 


oy, 


my 
be wy fh 


¢ 


Y 
ny ,, 
_ ry 
- nif*. 
z iy 


‘ 
0 tet 
Ra 

we 


“00g, 
AAs dande® 


z 
a 


Say getlay 
at) rico e 


= 
“e, 


uy NO E 


eimepy e $4) 


At 
= 
= 


%, 
ly 
> %, 
A 


% 


) - 


my 


stidnseg " sn) ea(eM |? 
§ vA 3 
ae Iv WWE 4A 1 twa eH cuneseyge 
eta pray! } \ wsied Ne een ie oat foe 
ot, IS sandureyd ee. Oo : 
Yselesy ypu é. i up ts . ae Fatt pe, 
. an me : F ; fin ! “-eqouq- =.) aslast 43 2 
SS qo wity) = bina or eM ve yHUe gy 


4 Bo WIVAV Ie? 


i reyaapeye } t 
luzdeig™ i; 83 


%™ Ss Fg 
% aaa as * fe oy é iequerepy 
“6 Ve, s N =v, 
nya gS F zis (aad 6 yavyeled 
Fy Wate, : 
% ndisin 77 é 2 
Sing"S disin .L wg oy a 
Se e 
stae F uefieypseyq 
B= ie es 


“A oD Rees 
Da 


n~, 


as : ey indjesury 
Salty . So) 
Taw as : ; ---"\ 


2 pss 


XS. 


eae f 

\ Say wt IndpueyeyAy 
3 =e "Ny 
2% 


e eee 


a4 


epuepidi > ; 
Puepiday Sueny;¢ Ce tsane, ete ekjeiog, 2 
v3 


yie 


Zz 


2 sue . hewney 


FH ttiegasta ay 


we 
=" 
= “a 


itty, 


Nt, 
isha yy 
ya Ze 

ees, 2 ve 
Wat wires, ai? Z VY 208) 
aa 


i=] 
° 


SS 


AH 
vont s i 
3 
am, Tn 
“etty, " pit Zighs 


Letite 


Lenin, Ns i 


We 
= 
2 
4, 


curd 


5S 
Passer Se 2 4 
2, 5, ‘a 
es Saath 3 4 


009 ‘SIH ‘JUN Aequog 


¥! 
8 
j\s 
a 7D TpuEpPrMOYL]Al 
; a pefinee, 


"ran 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 763 


footprints’. So, apparently, the creature walked mostly on two feet. 
This tallies with the accounts given to Charles Stonor. The area is 
one where Lord Curzon went to shoot Brown Bear, and Swami 
Pranavananda says that Black Bears are common in the neighbouring 
jungles. Hence the local people must be familiar with the footprints 
of bears, and at least some weight ought to be attached to their 
opinion that these footprints are of something which is not a bear. 

. A fantastic article about the animal appeared recently in a local 
paper and mentioned among other things the view of Sir Hugh 
Rankin, ‘a noted Mahayana Buddhist and an experienced British 
mountaineer’. ‘According to Sir Hugh, four . . . Bodhisattvas rule 
over the destinies of the world. One of them, the Abominable 
Snowman, has his habitat among the high Himalayan peaks. Another, 
known as Ferlas Mor, the local terror of the Scottish Highlands, lives 
in Ben Macdhui (in the Cairngorms) . . .’ 

We may not go as far as Sir Hugh, and we cannot accept 
without further proof the assertions of the believers in the Abominable 
Snowman, but we should keep an open mind. 


49, Parr Hint, 
BANDRA, 
BOMBAY 20, 


june 30, 1957. 


Db. EL] REUBEN; 
16. S. (etd: ) 


2 TONER E STATUS OF THE GREAT INDIAN 
RHINOCEROS (R. UNICORNIS) IN NEPAL 


(With a map) 


In April 1957 I had the good fortune to be sent by the Government 
of India to Nepal to assess the raw-material position for the proposed 
paper and pulp industry in that country, and I took the opportunity 
of investigating as closely as I could during my stay there the 
position and present status of Rhinoceros unicornis. 

In view of the lack of information hitherto from Nepal as regards 
this rare animal, the guardianship of which that country shares with 
Assam and Bengal, the chance of making an on-the-spot enquiry was 
welcomed by me. I paid a short visit to the famous Chitawan area 
in the Rapti Valley which has for many years been the shooting pre- 
serve of the kings and the prime ministers of Nepal. I was 
accompanied by the local Circle Officer (Conservator), the local 
Divisional Forest Officer, and the Officer-in-charge of the Rhino 
Protection Staff, and so I was in a position to obtain first-hand 
information. 

On my return to Kathmandu I re-checked the facts with the Chief 
Forest Officer and with Capt. Sher Jung Thapa, one of the forest 
officers who has had considerable experience of the locality and who 
is a keen shikari. I also discussed the question with Mr. Boris 
Lisonovitch who is running the Royal Hotel in Kathmandu and who 
is keenly interested in the question of the rhino and its preservation. | 

Smythies’s book BIG GAME SHOOTING IN NEPAL has referred to 


18 


764 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 54 


this famous game reserve of Nepal as ‘glorious Chitawan’. It con- 
sists of the valley of the Rapti River west of Hetaura after that river 
has turned westwards, and it is bounded on the north by the 
Mahabarata Mountains, on the south by the Churia or Siwalik Ranges, 
on the’ west by the Naraini River and on the east by the Ramuli River. 
The whole area is a big din or valley between the outer Siwaliks or 
Churia range and the inner Mahabarata or Himalayas. The Siwaliks 
or Churia range on the south consists of a double line of hills with 
the Reu River, the chief tributary of the Rapti, between them. 
Smythies describes the famous shooting preserve as being roughly 
pear-shaped, 4 or 5 miles broad at the eastern end at Hetaura, widen- 
ing to 25 miles or more at the western end, and covering in all nearly 
1,000 ‘square miles. He was writing in 1942. The effective rhino area 
today is shown within the broken line on the map. It is approxi- 
mately 200 square miles north of the Churia ranges, with another 
200 square miles to the south of these hills—a strip 4 miles wide and 
50 miles long—from Bhiknathori on the east to Tribeni, the junction- 
point of the Rapti and Naraini rivers, on the west. The habitat 
consists partly of tree-forest both sal and miscellaneous deciduous, 
and partly of grassland both low-lying and swampy, interspersed with 
cultivation, the best area being’ to the north of the Churia ranges from 
Jhowani to Bharatpur. West of the Naraini, in what its known as 
the Nawalpur area, there is another 100 square miles which contains. 
thino. Thus there are some 500 square miles gross, 400 to the east 
of the Naraini and too to the west of that river, which together form 
the main home of the Nepal rhine. There are saidyto >be ayiew 
rhinos scattered in the Kosi area to the east, but to all intents and 
purposes the Chitawan area is the only one worth considering when 
the question of preservation of the Nepal rhino on a long-term basis 
is considered. 

The estimated population of rhinoceroses according to the Forest 
Department of Nepal is some 400-600 in the Chitawan area and some 
100 in the Nawalpur area, or say 500 to 600 on the whole. In 1953 
their estimate was 1,000 rhinos. 

The Rapti Multi-Purpose Scheme is to take in the bulk of the 
high-land grass area now being cultivated by the Tharus with their 
primitive ploughs. Tractors are already breaking up the lands and 
it is planned to settle here a number of people from the hills whose 
agriculture 1s in a precarious state. The soil is light and sandy, and 
unless irrigation and fertilisers are brought to the lands in question, 
the cultivation will be purely temporary for a few years, in my opinion. 
Whatever may eventuate, however, the fact is that 80 to 100 of the 
400 square miles in the Chitawan area, the main home of the Nepal 
rhino, is going to be denied to them in a couple of years, and we 
will have only 300 square miles in the region east of the Naraini to 
accommodate the 400 to 600 rhinos which are said to be there now. 
This will work out to almost 14 rhinos per square mile on an even 
distribution, which in my opinion is too high. 

Mr. Boris Lisonovitch also considers the estimate of 400 to 600 
rhinos in the Chitawan area as being an over-estimate and thinks 
that there are not more than 300 rhinos in that area. I am inclined 
to agree with him for the following reasons. 3 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 765- 


The Nepal rhino lives in comparatively drier habitat than the 
Assam animal to judge from the conditions seen by me. Moreover 
they are living in closer proximity to habitation and cultivation and 
wander freely about the country which is sparsely populated by 
Tharus who cultivate both high-lands and low-lands. The high-land 
grassy plains are, as it were, shared by the Tharus and the rhinoceros 
during the rains when the grass is vigorous, while the low-land areas 
bordering the Rapti are almost exclusively inhabited by the rhinoceros, 
and are their refuge when the high-land grass is burnt. When I saw 
the area the grassy lands had been largely burnt and all the animals 
appeared to be concentrated in the lower swampy and wooded regions. 
near the river, to the south of the main dtin. The concentration of 
rhinos seemed heavy and near Jhowani we put up, within half a 
mile of the village, 4 rhinos within an area of a square mile, 3 of 
which were in tree-forest and only one was wallowing near the river. 
They were very shy and dashed about snorting and obviously terrified, 
and no wonder since they are shot to the tune of 6 to 8 in the royal 
shoots and 20 to 4o by poachers annually. 

The high-land grassy areas are the corridors for movement from 
the Rapti River on the south to the Mahabarata Hills on the north 
and the Naraini on the west. Apart from the swampy areas near the 
Rapti and the forests, the only refuge (and that of a temporary nature), 
which will be left to them will be the large patches of sal forests 
fringing the plain. Turning to the possible repercussions on the rhino 
population, it is easy to predict that if one-third of the gross area is. 
denied to them the pressure on the lower lands near the Rapti and 
the Churia ranges is going to be considerable, particularly in the 
mating season in March-April. This will have its inevitable effect on 
the population of rhinos which, in my opinion, will fall drastically, 
so that at a conservative estimate the numbers to the east of the 
Naraini River is not likely to be more than 300 at the most in a 
few years. Whether the population in the Nawalpur area west of 
the Naraini will remain at the present estimate of 100 is also doubtful 
since this area is less easy to protect than the Chitawan area. The 
present plan of the forest department is to demarcate the area shown 
within the broken line on the map as a permanent sanctuary, leaving 
the lands of Tharu cultivation within the area, but also demarcated 
and restricted to existing cultivation of a permanent nature only. 

In any case, assuming the figure of rhino population assessed at 
present as correct, Nepal can claim to have as many rhinoceroses as 
Assam and Bengal put together, if not more. In other words 50% 
at least of the estimated population of the Great Indian Rhinoceros in 
the Indian sub-continent is in Nepal. This is a very great advance 
on the reports which we have received up to now. 

Turning to the question of protection of this valuable and vanishing 
animal in Nepal, it is encouraging to note that there is a_ special 
Rhino Protection Officer with the rank of Captain, and under him a 
staff of 152 consisting of the following: 

1 Asstt. (Lieutenant) 
4 Subehdars 

24 Havildars 

122 Forest Guards 


766 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


There are 60 chowkis, 45 in the Chitawan area and 15 in the 
Nawalpur area, each manned by 2 Forest Guards and it was encourag- 
ing to note that on the only road or track in the area lorries are not 
permitted to travel at night. But the provision of only one elephant 
to the Rhino Protection Officer for movement in very dittcult country 
seems totally inadequate. In spite of this comparatively large pro- 
tection force, poaching is said to be rampant and every year 20 to 30 
rhino carcasses are found with their horns missing. (While I was in 
Nepal a skirmish had taken place between a gang of poachers who had 
been isolated on a hill and surrounded, but not before 4 rhinos had 
been killed, one with 12 bullets, though no horns could be removed.) 
There appears to be a regular trade in rhino horns and the hill-men 
who are supposed to be the poachers in question come down regularly 
to slaughter the precious animal under the very noses of the protection 
staff. The market for rhino horns is China and it is stated that some 
V.I.Ps. from that country purchased a large quantity of horns at a 
very high price on their recent visit to Nepal. The fact that per- 
mission was sought to export 10g rhino skins from Nepal, as reported 
by the Secretary-General of the Indian Board for Wild Life recently, 
is an indication of the rate of destruction. 

In the old days under the Rana regime the rhino was so closely 
guarded that a man could lose his life for having killed one. It was 
considered the royal prerogative and the only persons who could kill 
it were the king and the prime minister and the members of their 
families, and distinguished guests. Today this still holds good, but 
with the collapse of the Rana rule and the introduction of democratic 
self-government poaching appears to be on the increase. The only 
hopeful signs are the interest of the Government of Nepal in the pro- 
tection of: the rhinoceros and the keenness of the forest officers whom 
I met. 


14 NEw Forest, 


DeHRA Dun, U.P. Poo DYSTRACENe terse 
May 22, 1957. 


3. THE SPINY BABBLER IN KATHMANDU VALLEY 


On March 27th, 1957, I got a Spiny Babbler | Turdoides nipalensis 
(Hodgson)| from Nagarjung at 4,700 ft. It is a male bird and one of 
a party of three. During the past nine years sixteen other specimens 
have been collected, all from west Nepal and all found between 3,000 
and 4,800 ft. This Kathmandu Valley bird is the first from central 
Nepal and comes from the upper known altitudinal range. 

This babbler—testes slightly enlarged and apparently preparing to 
breed—called loudly from a bush on the northern slopes of Nagarjung 
not far above cultivated fields. The steep hillside is thickly covered 
with scrub and fern (Gleichenia linearis) about waist high with here 
and there a tree or good-sized shrub. The notes sounded like ‘gay 
téeter, téeter, téeter, karéek,’ each ‘teeter’ a note lower than the last, 
ending with an up-swing on ‘kareek’ and an emphasis on the last 
syllable. Following the report of the gun I heard a bird call from 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 767 


under the vegetation ‘gay du-du-du-du-du-du-du,’ the notes following 
one another in rapid succession with an overall drop of about three 
notes. I also disturbed a pair of Rustycheeked Scimitar Babblers 
(Pomatorhinus erythrogenys ferrugilatus Hodgson) hidden on_ the 
ground about fifteen yards away. 

Ten minutes later a Scimitar Babbler climbed out of the vegetation 
on to the top of a shrub and flew diagonally uphill followed by a 
second one. ‘A moment later a Spiny Babbler appeared and flew to 
the low trunk of a leaning tree on the level with the scrub jungle 
around it. A second followed it; they flew from the base of the first 
tree to the base of a second tree in succession then dropped on to the 
ground. I surprised both birds ten yards on in the middle of the path 
ahead of me. They flew together within a foot of each other, with 
even, rapid wing beats and settled in the middle of bushes about ten 
or twelve feet high. Just then a woman with a load of green leaves. 
came noisily up the path and both birds dropped out of sight. 

Of the several males I have collected, this easternmost specimen is- 
much darker on the head and upper breast than the others. The pure 
white colour is restricted to the chin and one side of the neck only 
with none on the head. The feathers over the eye are pale brown while 
the ear-coverts are mixed with silver and brown. Characteristically, 
the quills of most feathers except wings and tail are prominent, often 
extending beyond the rest of the Fentiee which is worn and irregular 
along the margins. 

Mrs. Desiré Proud reported a sight record of T. nipalensis from 
her garden several years ago and until now there was no other evidence 
that this is a species of our Valley. 


AREA SUPERINTENDENT, 

UniTED Mission To NEPAL, R. L. FLEMING 
SHANTA BHAWAN, PATAN 

KATHMANDU, NEPAL, 

March 29, 1957. 


4. VAUDABCHICK IS BORN: 


The description by Mr. Loke Wan-Tho (Vol. 53, p. 469) of the 
hatching out of a dabchick takes my memory back more than seventy 
years. 

On an evening in 1886, standing on the bank of a pond in the 
grounds of Heathfield House in Sussex, I quite by chance witnessed 
the hatching out of several moorhen chicks. The shells of the eggs 
appeared to be disrupted in quick succession and the chicks almost 
at once left the reedy platform which was the nest and swam away. 
The parents were not just then seen. 

The incident made a great impression on my mind, and is even now 
vivid after all these years. 


c/o Liroyps Bank Ltp., ROW: BURTON, 
39, Piccapitiy, W. I., ie-Coltor.«.” (Retd.} 
February 4, 1957. 


768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


5. BIRD LIFE OF MADHYA PRADESH 


I was particularly interested in Mr. Hewetson’s articie on the 
birds of Madhya Pradesh [JBNHAS, 53 (4): 595-645], since I visited 
Madhya Pradesh at various times between the years 1927 and 1954, 
mostly for quite short periods, but I took every opportunity of watch- 
ing birds. My most frequent visits were paid to the Hoshangabad 
District and to Wardha, but in the course of the years I visited some 
other parts too. 

The following brief notes may perhaps be useful as a_ slight 
addition to Mr. Hewetson’s article, especially with reference to the 
warblers, a group that has always attracted me. One of my favourite 
eccupations has always been to stand for many minutes watching 
some small Warbler till it would really show itself—as often as not 
it would refuse to reward my patience. 

Mr. Hewetson says that Acrocephalus dumetorum, Blyth’s Reed 
Warbler, occurs, but he has no certain records. I have watched them 
frequently, at close quarters, both in various parts of the Hoshangabad 
District and near Wardha. I have only rather doubtful records of 
A. agricola at Wardha, but Hippolais scita, the Booted Warbler, of 
which Mr. Hewetson has no record, seems to me to be quite the 
commonest of the small brown warblers in the winter, except for 
the Siberian Chiffchaff. I have seen the Booted Warbler in scrub at 
the edge of jungle as well as in more open country in the Narbada 
Valley, also at Wardha. 

Of the Phylloscopus group, other than P. collybitus, the Chiffchaff, 
the two other common species, which I have found round every 
compound where I[ have stayed, are P. trochiloides, the. Greenish 
Warbler, and P. inornatus humei. P. trochiloides is specially com- 
mon also on the edge of jungle. P. gviseolus, which Osmaston 
(JBNHS, 28: 455) has recorded from Pachmarhi, I have several times 
found in the jungle near Itarsi and Makoriya, Hoshangabad District ; 
and I once caught one fluttering against a window on the outskirts of 
the Sanchi Temple—then, of course, part of the State of Bhopal. I 
also recall that Mr. Salim Ali procured a specimen of P. affinis when 
i was birding with him at Melghat, Madhya Pradesh, on February 7, 
1951. Mr. Hewetson possibly overlooked a note of mine in the 
Journal for August 1948, which gave some evidence for the occurrence 
of P. fuscatus in the Hoshangabad District, and also referred to several! 
of the other members of the genus seen there. 

On the other hand, I have quite failed to find Acanthopneuste (now 
usually treated as a Phylloscopus) occipitalis in any part of the 
Madhya Pradesh jungle that I have visited in winter. It is a rather 
easy species to identify, and it is certainly plentiful in the hills of 
south India. It is quite likely to occur in the hills of Madhya 
Pradesh, as for instance near Pachmarhi, which I have only visited in 
the summer. As I gather that Mr. Hewetson does not claim to be 
very well acquainted with this difficult group, I hope he will not mind 
my questioning his view that this species is seen all over the forest 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 769 


as well as more open country. Did he perhaps confuse it with P. 
trochiloides ?4 

Whilst I am writing, I may add one further note about the White- 
rumped Spinetail (Indicapus  sylvaticus). Mr. MHewetson records 
it from the Seoni District on the authority of D’Abreu, from whom, I 
suppose, Stuart Baker obtained his information to the same effect. 
But Mr. Hewetson has not himself found it. It may be of interest, 
therefore, to record that, as we were passing through the Seont 
District, on November 4, 1953, travelling from a meeting of the 
Indian Board for Wild Life to Nagapur, R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji 
and I saw numbers over a jungle pool of water where we stopped for 
our lunch. We had ample opportunity for watching them, and on 
return to our reference books, we both independently tracked them 
down as this species, though I believe neither of us had any idea 
that this bird of curiously erratic distribution was found within 
hundreds of miles of Nagpur.” 


114 OAK TREE LANE, 

BIRMINGHAM 20, H. G. ALEXANDER 
ENGLAND, 

March 5, 1957. 


6) REFHECTED GLOW FROM: THE EYES OF THE 
GHARIAL [GAVIALUS GANGETICUS (GMELIN)]| 


~I recently had occasion to handle a few live gharials (Gavialus 
gangeticus) in transit to the New York Zoological Park. Their 
despatch was delayed for some time as the Customs held that they 
were ‘crocodile skins’ and, under the ‘current regulations, could not be 
exported without a permit from the Secretary-General of the Indian 
Board for Wild Life! 

During this time they were left in a fish pond (without fish) in a 
friend’s garden. As they were prone to climb out and wander away, 
I looked them up at night on several occasions, and it was noticeable 
that their eyes did not reflect torch-light as is customary with the 
Marsh Crocodile C. palustris, which can be thus spotted at considerable 
distances. 

Later, Dr. James Oliver of the New York Zoological Society 
carried out similar experiments and wrote: ‘We, too, were not success- 
ful in getting the eyes to reflect light until we learned that there was 
only a small area in which the light could be reflected. The colour 
is a much fainter glow than in other crocodiles’. 


—— 


1 Specimens of Phydlloscopus o. occipitalis have been obtained by Salim Ali 
in winter at Pakhal Lake, Warangal Dist., Andhra, in the Bastar Dist. of Madhya 
Pradesh, and also in what were formerly the Indore and Dhar States—in the latter 
as early as between 24 August and 7 September.—EDs. kee 

2 Also observed by Sélim Ali at Makri (near Amraoti) in the Bastar District of 
Madhya Pradesh, December 27, 1948.—EDs. 


770 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Relatively little has been recorded of the habits of this species,. and 
one wonders if the above difference may not be an indication of its 
being possibly less nocturnal than the others? 


Messrs. Faiz & Co., 

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI 
BOMBAY-3, 

April 18, 1957: 


7. OCCURRENCE OF A RARE STING RAY [TAENIURA 
MELANOSPILA (BLEEKER)] IN BOMBAY WATERS 


(With one plate and one text figure) 


During one of the trips for collecting live fishes for the Tarapore- 
vala Aquarium in September 1955, a female ray fish was caught on 
the foreshore at Mahaluxmi (part of Bombay city) and was brought 
alive for exhibition at the Aquarium. The specimen appeared to be 
not one of the common rays caught in local waters, as recorded by 
Setna and Sarangdhar (1943, 1946)'. Its identification was deferred 
till it died nearly eight months later, when it was found to be Taeniura 
melanospila (Bleeker). 

Smith (1952) reports that this fish is rare in Batavia, Java, Celebes, 
Ceylon, Muscat, the Red Sea, and South Africa. The only record of 
its occurrence in India is by Day (1878-1888), who based his account 
on the notes of Elliot and Jerdon who obtained two specimens from 
the Coromandel coast in 1853. The description given by Day is, con- 
sequently, inadequate and does not help materially in the identification 
of the species. Nor are there any entire specimens of the fish in the 
laboratories of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Thus the 
present record has not only confirmed its rarity in India, as indicated by 
‘Smith, but has also provided an opportunity for a detailed examina- 
tion of an entire specimen which was not available so far in India. 
The systematic description of the species is as follows :— 


Taeniura melanospila (Bleeker) : 


Taeniura melanospilos, Bleeker, Nat. Tyd. Ned. Ind. p. 513 (1853). 
LTaeniura melanospila, Giinther, Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus. 8, p. 484 (1870). 
Day, Fishes of India, p. 740 (1878-1888). 
— —, Fauna of British India, Fishes 1, p. 56 (1889). 
Southwell, Rep. Ceylon Marine Lab. 1, p. 185 (1910). 
————.Ceylon Administr. Rep., pp. E 43, E 49 
(1912-1913). 
Deraniyagala, Ceylon Journ. Sci. (c) 5, p. 81 (1933). 
1083 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (12) 5, pp. 1020-1025 
(19053; The Sea Fishes of Southern Africa, pp. 513, 514 
1953). 
Laentura lymma (in part) Fowler, Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. (100) 13, p. 398 (1941). 
Misra, Rec. Ind. Mus. 45, p. 32 (1947). 
——, ec. Ind. Mus. 49, pp. 121, 122 (1952). 


*Setna, S. B. (1943): Curr. Sci. (12), p- 302. 


Setna, S.B., & Sarangdhar, P. N. (1946): Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 12, 
pp. 243-259. 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | eek 


The disc is subcircular, slightly wider than long, without any 
pectoral angles. The anterior contour is rounded, the position of the 
tip of the snout being marked by a small terminal projection. The 
axis of greatest breddth is at seven-sixteenth of the distance behind 
the tip of the snout. The eyes are small, with a horny projection of 
the iris extending out laterally and shielding the pupil from above. 
The spiracles are larger than the eyes, and are closely approximated 
to their posterior borders. 


Text figure 1. Yaeniura melanospila (Bleeker). Dorsal view showing median 
tubercles. 


The tail is slightly longer than the disc. Its proximal part has a 
broad ridge which is the continuation of a ridge on the dorsal surface 
of the disc. The single dorsal spine on the tail bears about 4s 
anteriorly directed serrations on each side. On the ventral surface of 
the tail is a well-developed cutaneous fold which starts from below 
the origin of the spine and extends right up to the tip. 


72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


The skin is soft and bears numerous stellate, sandpaper-like 
denticles scattered all over the disc except for a very narrow marginal 
area. The denticles are more pronounced on the tail. Along the 
midline of the back, a spiracle-length behind the spiracles, is a row 
of eight close-set tubercles. Behind this, there is another row 
of eight smaller, irregularly spaced tubercles. On the humeral region, 
less than an eye diameter from the median line of tubercles, starts, on 
each side, a row of three tubercles. 

Inside the mouth are three buccal processes—one in the middle, 
and two rather widely spaced lateral ones. 

Colour of the dorsal surface of the disc is light brown mottled with 
numerous, irregularly-shaped, chocolate-brown spots and _ patches. 
The ventral surface is white with a greyish brown border posterior to 
the level of the mouth. The tail is dark throughout. 


MEASUREMENTS 


Characters Measurement 
in mm. 
Total length ase ie he es ets 837 
Length of disc se oe = Ae eae 400 
Breadth of disc oO eee eee Ae sn 452 
Length of tail a see ee ae re 437 
Tip of snout to anterior border of eye 560 400 ae 84 
Tip of snout to anterior border of spiracle see AGC So 102 
Longitudinal diameter of eye ee we ae he 25 
Maximum diameter of spiracle Kae a aes ete 31 
Preorbital length ala aa ae 656 aps 80 
interorbital length er Sem 507 ore eos 42 
Preoral length aoe Ae 554 ee 400 56 
Gape of mouth ae one sine ee as 42 
Internarial length eee seo sae ce ae 54 
Length of caudal spine = is oes anh 70 
Width of tail at base ra sie vee Oss ae 25 
Depth of tail at base Shi Ae = ae Br 23 
Tip of snout to vent nae a Atic see Sate 322 


The main characteristics of the present specimen conform to the 
description of the species given by Smith (1952). There are, however, 
a few minor differences: 


South African specimen Local specimen 
1. Maximum width of disc im- Maximum width of disc far 
mediately behind level of behind spiracles. 
hind margin of spiracles. 
2. Many tubercles on disc. Few tubercles on disc. _ 
3. Tail thick at base, with two Tail slender at base, with one 
serrated spines. serrated spine (no vestige of a 


second spine on tail, nor any 
scar’ indicating a ‘broken 


spine). 
4. Lateral and hind edges of disc Disc uniformly coloured through- 
darker in colour than rest out. 
of body. | 
5. Ventral surface of disc uni- Ventral surface of disc white, 
formly light. with a greyish brown border 


posterior to the level of 
mouth. 


Bom 


Journ. 


bay Nat. Hist. Soc. 


Qa. 


e 


Ls a) 


BP 


=” 
> 
-_ 


Qe a =e = @ = =a 


= 


™ we 


~ 


os 
(cB) 
G 
o 
= 
as 
bs) 
o- 
2, 
7) 
° 
= 
= 
: 
i) 
=) 
om 
€ 
Oo 
SS) 
e 


ro 
3 
= 
o 
= 


° 
y 


45—Ventral view 


e 
bf 


view 
c—Mouth region showing buccal papillae (B.P.) 


a— Dorsal 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 773 


Giinther (1870) (op. cit. Smith) mentions that the fish has two 
papillae on the bottom of the mouth. As compared with this, three 
buccal papillae were observed in the local specimen and in the one 
examined by Smith. 

Fowler (1941) and Misra (1947, 1952) consider Taeniura melano- 
spila to be synonymous with T. lymma. But Smith (1952, 1953) re- 
gards both these as two distinct species, on the following basis. In 
T. melanospila the disc is slightly wider than long, while in T. lymma 
it is much longer than broad. Also, the colour of the disc in T. 
melanospila is light brown mottled with irregular chocolate-brown 
spots, and in T. lymma it is pale red with large blue spots. The tail 
in T. lymma has two broad blue stripes on the sides. The eyes are 
large, almost equal in size to the spiracles, in T. lymma than in T. 
melanospila. 

The local specimen constitutes the first record of this fish from 
Bombay waters, and the second from India. As there is no complete 
specimen of this fish in ‘the reference collection of the Zoological 
Survey of India, the specimen will be deposited in that laboratory. 

We are grateful to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, 
Bombay, for pointing out to us the rarity of the specimen from its 
external appearance while it was alive in the exhibition tank. We are 
also thankful to Dr. K. N. Misra, of the Zoological Survey of India, 
for his valuable suggestions. 


TARAPOREVALA MARINE, 


BIOLOGICAL STATION, H. G. KEWIALRAMANI 
BomMBAyY, B. F. CHHAPGAR 


May 19, 1957 


8. THE ‘MARALA’—A SINK NET USED IN THE 
BACKWATERS OF GANJAM, ORISSA 


(With two text figures) 


Sink nets, also known as blanket nets, are effective forms of fishing 
gear widely used in different parts of the world. In India, they are 
represented by the ‘mada valai’, a net used extensively on the 
Coromandel coast, and by a few other similar nets. 

A sink net is square-shaped and made up of different pieces of 
netting, the mesh-sizes decreasing from the periphery towards the 
centre (fig. 1). The principle of operation is quite simple. The net 
is normally used from four fishing boats, one in each corner, as a 
lift entrapping structure. At first, it is sunk and kept suspended by 


-means of four ropes attached to the corners. When the fishermen 


operating the net, feel that some fish have assembled on the upper 
side of the net, the net is quickly hauled to the surface. 

In Orissa, the ‘marala’ is a large-sized sink net operated in shallow 
backwaters, about five to fifteen feet deep, in the district of Ganjam. 
The net is used chiefly by some fishermen around Damodarpur, 


~~] 


+ JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST “SOCIETY, Vol, 54 


ww] 


Gopalpur, and Sonapur. It does not appear to have been described in 
earlier publications. 


Fig. 1. The ‘marala’—a sink net used in the backwaters of Ganjam, Orissa. 


The dimensions of a typical ‘marala’ from Gopalpur, the different’ 
parts of which are shown in the diagram (fig. 2), will serve as an 
example. Each side of the square measures 96 ft., and to each corner 
is attached a thick hemp rope at the time of operation. The net 
itself is made of cotton twine. The outermost margin is_ usually 
strengthened by a hemp rope on all the four sides of the net. The 
peripheral strip is 44 ft. in breath on each side, and the mesh 
(stretched) is 2 inches. The next inner strip is also 44 ft. deep, with 
a mesh size of 1 inch. The length of each side of this strip measures 
87 ft. and 78 ft. on the outer and inner margins respectively. The 
third portion, i.e. the netting in between the second outer strip and 
the central square or bunt is the largest in area, each side measuring 
78 ft. on the outer margin. The twine is slightly thicker than that 
used for the outer strips and the size of the mesh is 4 in. The 
central square, 18 ft. by 18 ft. is made of much thicker twine and 
has a mesh size of + inch, so as to retain and capture small fishes 
like sardines and anchovies. 

During’ operation, the net is sunk to the bottom, and about a dozen 
fishermen. in four dug-outs, each about 15 to 20 ft. in length, diverge 
in Opposite directions, at the same time releasing the ropes connected 
to the corners of the net. On reaching the ends of the ropes, they 
start beating and splashing the water to scare the fish towards the 
centre of the net, while the dug-outs, converge gradually towards the 
net. As soon as the fishermen approach the net, the ropes are pulled 
and the net lifted to the surface, and all the fish within are then 
collected in the bunt. This central portion has a natural tendency to 
become a shallow pouch during fishing, and it is, therefore, felt not 
necessary to modify the existing’ gear as it is only used for fishing in 
shallow waters. 

This gear is quite effective in such shallow waters, as it is able to 
capture all the medium and large-sized fish entrapped between the 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 775 


upper surface of the net and the water surface. Other advantages of 
the net are its simple construction and easy operation. 


36" 


Fig. 2. Diagrammatic sketch of typical ‘ marala’. 


Modification of the ‘marala’ on the principle of some deep water 
sink nets could be made by providing a pouch-like cod-end with 
small purse rings in the middle of the bunt, if it is utilised for sea 
fishing. 


DEPARTMENT OF FISHERIES, 

ORISSA, P. MOHAPATRA 
CUTTACK, 

December 1, 1956. 


9. MIGRATION OF INSECTS 
In 1938 (JBNHS, 40: 439-457) we published a note by Dr. C. B. 


Williams on the migration of butterflies in India, which summarized 
the information then available. There has been very little additional 


776 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


information in India, but Dr. Williams and others have recently 
contributed a paper entitled ‘Observations on the Migration of Insects 
in the Pyrenees in the Autumn of 1953” in Transactions of the Royal 
Entomological Society of London, 108 (9): 385-407, from which it 
appears that in addition to the migration of butterflies there are such 
regular movements in various forms of Diptera (flies) as also other 
insects. Most mass movements of insects other than locusts have been 
looked upon as having been brought about by changes in the wind, but 
Dr. Williams and his associates have experimentally established that 
this is not so, and that insects of several species carry out regular 
migrations independent of the direction of the wind. It would be 
interesting to examine associated matters in India and ascertain what 
insects, if any, undertake migration here. . 


114 APOLLO STREET, EDITORS 
Marek. 12; “1057. 


10. NOTES ON THE BUTTERFLIES OF RANGOON 


As far as I can trace there appears to be no list of the butterflies of 
Rangoon though, of course, there are plenty of lists covering other 
localities in Burina. 

My stay in Rangoon has been a short one, from the 14th July iast 
year to the end of March 1957, so my list does not cover what may well 
be the most proiific period from April to July, and there are undoubtedly 
many more species to be added. ; 

There is little or no forest near Rangoon now, though 30 or 40 years 
ago there must have been fairly thick rain forests, as some of the trees 
stillremain here and there. There are patches of secondary and scrub 
jungle round Hlawga Lake, about 15 miles to the north of Rangoon, just 
beyond the Mingaladon Cantonment, and it was here most ot my collect- 
ing was done. Even here it is unsafe to go far from the road owing to 
the activities of the insurgents and dacoits, so ail the collecting in this area 
was round a small backwater of the lake, not more than half a mile 
square. Further north, for the next 50 miies or so, are the Pegu Yomas 
which look good collecting ground, but it is unsafe to enter this territory. 

From July to the middle of October there was almost continuous heavy 
rain, but thereafter there has been no rain whatever, and from January 
to March there have been tew butterflies on the wing. 

For simplicity’s sake I have used Evans’s ‘Identification of Indian 
Butterflies ’, 1932 edition, for ail species except the Hesperiidae, where 
Evans’s ‘ Catalogue of the Hesperiidae of Europe, Asia; and Australia’ 
has been used for nomenclature. ‘The latter of course is up-to-date, but 
there are many changes in the former. 

I am grateful to Dr. T. Norman of Seleng Tea Estate, Assam, 
who has kindly identified some of the more difficult genera of Hes- 
periidae and Lycaenidae for me, where necessary by dissection of the 
genitalia. 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 717 


The following is a list of butterflies positively identified in the area: 


4 


joy 


We 


HZ: 


iS: 


PAPILIONIDAE 


. Troides helena cerberus (Fd.)—Two males at Hlawga Lake on 


30th September. Another in the city about mid-October. 


. Tros varuna astorion (Wd.)—A single male at Hlawga Lake on 


30th September. 


. Tros coon doubledayi (Wall.)—A worn specimen at Hlawga Lake 


on 30th September, another in October, and a newly hatched 
female on 16th February. 


. Tros aristclochiae goniopeltis (Roth. )—This is not at ajl a common 


butterfly here and only three were seen—two in my garden and 
one at Hlawga Lake—all in August, and one niore in my garden 
in November. 


. Chilasa clytia onpape (M.)—One only at Hlawga Lake on 16th 


February. 


. Chilasa clytia var, dissimilis Lini.—This seems to be much the 


commonest form here and they were not uncommon in my 
garden from Juiy to September and again in February. In fact, 
there are more of this butterfly than of Danazis limnitace mutina. 
There were also a few at Hlawga Lake in January and February. 


. Papilio memnon agenor L,.—Not common, but widespread over the 


area. I have not seen it at the Lake. The female form appears 
to be the tailed var. alcanor Cr., but is much scarcer than the 
male. 


Papilio polytes romulus Cr.—Very common up to the end of 
December, after which it seems to have disappeared. The 
female form sizchius Wub., is feirly common and possibly form 
cyrus may also occur, but | have not seen any. 


Papilio demoleus demoleus |,,—Very common. 


. Zetides sarpedon sarpedon (L. )—Very scarce, one tattered specimen 


in my garden in July and one at the Kokine Swimming Club 
in August. 


Zetides doson axion (Fd.)—One tattered specimen in September in 
my garden. 


Zetides eurypylus cheronus (Fruh. )—Fairly common from Septem- 
ber to November. 


Zetides agamemnon agamemnon [L,—Common and_ widespread 
from July to January, after which they seem to disappear. 


778 


14. 


aL 


gale 


Ze: 


23) 


28. 


29. 
30. 


ol 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


PIERIDAE 


Leptosia nina nina (F.)—Very common everywhere. 


. Delias eucharis (Drury)—Two only in August. This is rare here 


though I may have overlooked some owing to their resem- 
blance in flight to D. hyparete. 


. Delias hyparete hierte (Hub.)—This is very common everywhere. 


. Delias thysbe pyramus (Wall. )—Two at Inya Lake (Rangoon) in 


December and others in January and February. 


. Huphina nerissa dapha (M.)—Very common. The females are 


very variable and some of the darker ones look like a Neptis 
at first sight when hovering over flowers. 


. Appias lyncida hippoides M.—Fairly common at Hlawga Lake 


but not elsewhere. Females are very scarce and I took none. 


Appias albina darada (F'd.)—Males are scarce and | only took two 
in my garden and one at the Lake, allinSeptember. I have 
two temales both taken in October which I think are of this 
species. 


Catopsilia crocale (Cr,)—The commonest of this genus. 


Catopsilia pomona (F.)— Not nearly so common as in other parts 
of the East. I took one female, var. catzl/a Cr., in my garden 
early October but saw no other of this variety. 


Catopsilia pyranthe minna (Herbst)—Rather scarce. I have not 
seen more than a dozen all told. 


. Catopsilia florella gnoma (F.)—Scarcer even than C. Ayranthe. 
. Terias libythea (F.)—Two only, both in my garden in September. 
. Terias laeta sikkima (M.)—Two at Hlawga Lake in September. 


. Terias blanda silhetana Wall.—One in my garden, one at Hlawga ~ 


Lake in October. 

Terias hecabe hecabe L.—This is the only Zerzas which is reaily 
common, and all except the above two that 1 have examined 
have been hecabe 


Ixias pyrene latifasciata But.—Fairly common. 


Hebomoia glaucippe glaucippe (LL.)—Fairly common from July to 
end December, after which they are very scarce. 


Pareronia valeria hippia (F.)—Very scarce—no femaies seen. 


MISCELLANHOUS NOTES 779 


DANAIDAE 


32, Danais aglea melanoides (M.)—Very scarce except during the 
month ot October when several were seen daily, but by 
November they had disappeared. 


‘33, Danais agleoides (Fd.)—A single specimen in my garden at the 
end of August and another in October. Two at Inya Lake in 
November. 


34, Danais similis vulgaris (But.)—A single one at Hlawga Lake in 
September. 


35, Danais limniace mutina Fruh.—Not at all common. I have not 
seen more than a dozen in the time I have becn here. 


36, Danais mellissa septentrionis But.—A single specimen at Hlawga 
Lake in October. 


37, Danais plexippus (L. )—Not common. I have seen not more than 
six or eight. 


38, Danais melanippus indicus (Fruh.)—Commoner than D, plexippus. 
I have found this very difficult to catch, and only have one. 


39, Danais chrysippus (L.)—Much the commonest Danazd, but this 
genus as a whole is very scarce here compared to India. 


4), Euploea mulciber mulciber (Cr.)—Very scarce. I have only seen 
one male and two females. 


41, Euploea godartii Lucasi—The only common L£uzfloea. I have 
Lred this here. 


SATYRIDAE 
42. Mycalesis perseus blasius (I’.)—Very common. 
43, Mycalesis mineus mineus (L.)— Very common. 


44, Lethe europa niladana Fruh.—Four in my garden, others at 
Hlawea August to February. 


45, Lethe rohria rohria (F.)—One at Hlawga Lake in October. 
46, Ypthima hubneri hubneri Kirby—Very common. 


47. Ypthima baldus baldus (F.)—Only two, both at Hlawga Lake in 
December. 


48, Orsotrioena medus medus (F.)--Rather scarce. Two in my 
garden in Ociober and two more in December. 


49, Melanitis leda ismene (Cr.)—Fairly common. 


50. Elymnias hypermnestra undularis (Drury)—This is very scarce 
here and the males are difficult to distinguish from the sub- 


19 


780 


Se 


52. 


So. 


54. 


60. 


61. 


62. 
63. 


64. 


65. 


66. 


67. 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


species ¢izctorta. I am fairly sure both occur here, as the 
female var. paraleuca Fruh. most certainly does. 


Elymnias hypermnestra tinctoria M.—Female var. pavaleuca is a 
wonderful mimic of Danais melanippus indicus Fruh., and I 
am quite unabie to tell them apart when in flight. 


NyYMPHALIDAE 


Charaxes polyxena hierax Fd.—One seen at close quarters but 
missed, early October. 


Euthalia lepidea sthavara Fruh.—A single one at Hlawga Lake 
in December. 


Euthalia garuda garuda (M.)—Fairly common in my garden and 
at Hlawga Lake. 


. Euthalia lubentina indica Fruh.—Two males and a female on a 


mango tree in my garden. 


. Parthenos sylvia gambrisius (Fabricius)— I was surprised to see 


one at Hlawga Lake in September. 


. Liminitis procris procris (Cr.)-— Fairly common. 
. Pantoporia perius (L.)—Common. 


. Neptis columella ophiana M.—Two at Hlawga Lake in Decem- 


ber. 


Neptis jumbah jumbah M.—One at Hlawga Lake in October and 
another in December. 


Neptis hylas adara M.—Much the commonest Vep/7s, but they 
did not emerge until late September. Prior to that I saw no 
Neptis of any species. 


Neptis hordonia hordonia Stoli—Fairly common. 


Hypolimnas misippus (L.)—Very scarce. Only one male anda 
tattered female in my garden in July and another male in 
September. 


Hypolimnas bolina (L.)—Females very common from August to 
October. They were very large and in fine condition. After 
October they disappeared. I oniy took two males all the time 
I was here and saw one other, which was missed. 


Precis hierta magna Evans—Rather scarce. I cannot distinguish 
between this and Azerta hierta. 


Precis orithiya ocyale Hub.—Very scarce. Only three seen, all 
in my garden. 


Precis lemonias lemonias (L.)—Very common. 


68. 
69. 


(Ale 


72. 


USE 


74. 


(BS 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 781 
Precis almana almana (L.)— Very common. 


Precis atlites (Johansson)— Very common. 
Note: I have seen no Precis thhita iphila Cr. 


, Cupha erymantus lotis Salz.—Very scarce. Two at Hlawga Lake 


in December and one in February. Another in Rangoon in 
December. 


Atella phalanta (Drury)—Very rare here. One in Rangoon in 
September, another in February. 


Cethosia cyane (Drury)—Common. 


ERYCINIDAE 


Abisara echerius angulata M.— Not uncommon at Hlawga Lake 
from December to February. 


LYCAENIDAE 


Gerydus boisduvali assamensis Doh.—Several at Hlawga Lake in 
October and November. 


Spalgis epius epius (Wd.)—A few in my garden on gardenias, 
others at Hlawga Lake in December and January. 


. Castalius rosimon rosimon (F,)—Very common. I have seen none 


others of this genus. 


. Syntarucus plinius (F,)—One at Hlawga Lake in August, one in 


my garden in September. 


. Neopithecops zalmora (But.)—A few at Hlawga Lake in October. 
. Chilades laius laius Cr,— Common. 

, Zizeeria trochilus putli (Koll.)—A few in my garden. 

. Zizeeria otis otis (F.)—Very common, 

. Euchrysops cnejus (F.)—A few in my garden. 


. Lycaenesthes emolus emolus (God.)--Very common at Hlawga 


Lake from October to December. 


. Lycaenesthes lycaenina lycambes Hew.—A few in my garden 


from August to November ; rather scarce. 


, Catachrysops strabo (F.)—- Very common, 
. Lampides boeticus (L.)—Rather scarce but a few in the garden. 


, Jamides bochus bochus (Cr.)—A few round Hlawga Lake from 


August to October and a few in the garden. 


. Jamides celeno celeno (Cr,)—A few in my garden. 


“TI 
bo 


89: 


96. 


7. 


98. 


Sh 


100 


101. 


102. 


1@3: 


104. 


105. 


LOZ, 


108. 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Jamides kankena pseudelphis (But.)—Two in my garden in July 
and August. 


. Jamides alecto eurysaces Fruh.—Fairly common at Hlawga Lake 


from October to January. 


. Nacaduba nora nora Fd.— Common at Hlawga Lake. 
. Nacaduba dubiosa sivoka Evans—Common at Hlawga Lake. 


. Amblypodia centaurus centaurus F.—A few at Hlawga Lake from 


August to November, 


. Surendra quercetorum' quercetorum M.—One at Hlawga Lake in 


September ; one in February. 


. Loxura atymnus continentalis Fruh.—Rather scarce at Hlawga 


Lake. 


Spindasis vulcanus tavoyana Evans—I have one specimen which 
may be this. It is very close to the Indian valcanus. 


Spindasis syama peguanus M.—Several in my garden from July 
to November. 


Spindasis lohita himalayanus M.— A few at Hlawga Lake towards 
August end and in September. 


Spindasis gabriel Swin.—This is a specimen which Dr. Norman 
doubtfully identifies as gadriel. It is fairly close to S. vulcanus. 


. Tajuria cippus cippus (F,)—One tattered specimen in my garden 


in August, and a perfect one in December ; both males. 


Cheritra freja freja (F.)—Common in the garden, but I have not 
seen it at the Lake. 


Hypolycaena erylus himaventus Fruh.—Common at Hlawga Lake 
from August to December. 


Deudoryx epijarbus amatius Fruh—One only at Hlawga Lake 
in December. 


Rapala schistacea M.— Four males in my garden from September 
to December ; one female at Hlawga Lake in January. 


Rapala pheritimus petosiris Hew .—Two in my _ garden in 
September. 


. Rapala jarbas F.— One at Hlawga Lake in February. 


Hesperiidae 


Hasora badra badra) (Moore)—One female in my garden in 
October. 


Badamia exclamationis (Fab,)—Fairly common. 


109. 


110. 
Lu: 


112. 


IDS 


114. 


ACES: 


116. 


117. 


118. 


119. 
120. 
p21, 


122. 


W23; 


124. 
125. 
326, 
127. 


128. 
129. 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 783 


Calaenorrhinus asmara concertus de Nicéville—One in my 
garden in January. 


Sarangesa dasahara dasahra (Moore)—Commonjin my garden. 


Daimio bhagava bhagava Moore—A few at Hlawga Lake 
January and February. 


Tagiades japetus ravi Moore—Common in my garden and al 
Hlawga Lake from September to November. 


Odontoptilum angulata angulata (Feld.)—Two at Hlawga Lake 
in February. 


Caprona agama agama Moore—Two at Hlawga Lake in January. 


Astictopterus jama olivascens Moore—Four at Hlawga Lake in 
September and October. 


Ampittia dioscorides dioscorides (Fab.)—Common in my garden 
from July to December. 


Aeromachus sp.—There are six specimens which I have not 
been able to identify, probably comprising at least two species. 
Dr. Norman is working on them at the moment. 

Halpe zema zema Hew.—Very scarce. I have two males and 
four females but the latter may be females of the next 
species. 

Halpe zola zola i\ans—Only the females mentioned above. 

Iambrix salsala salsala (Moore)—Very common. 


Udaspes folus (Cramer)—Common at Hlawga Lake from July 
to October. 


Gangara thyrsis thyrsis (Fab.)—A few at Hlawga Lake where 
I found the larva on a palm tree. 


Erionota thrax thrax (Hub. )—Five, all of which flew into the house 
at night—August to December. 


Matapa aria (Moore)—Very common in my garden. 
Potanthus trachala tytleri -Evans—Fairly common in my garden. 
Telicota colon stinga ?—A few in my garden. 


Telicota ancilla bambusae Moore—Common at Hlawga Lake 
and a few in the garden. 


Parnara guttatus (Bremer & Grey)—Very common. 


Borbo cinnara Wallace—A single one at Hlawga Lake in 
December. 


184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vole s54 


130, Pelopidas agna agna Moore—Common in my garden. 
131. Caltoris cahira austini Moore—Scarce. All from my garden. 
132. Halpe porus. One in my garden in February. 


89, MARSHALL AVENUE, A. E. G. BEST. 
BOGNOR REGIS, 

SUSSEX, ENGLAND, 

March 26, 1957. 


11. AN EPISODE FROM THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE 
MOTH SUANA CONCOLOR WALKER | 


A female moth, Suana concolor Walk., was captured by me in the 
evening (about 7 p.m.) on November 21, 1956 while walking from 
Lodwick Point to Mahableshwar. The road in that place leads 
through a fairly thick shrub forest typical of the Mahableshwar 
plateau. 

The moth was very easy to pick up as she was sitting on the 
ground whirling her wings rapidly but without much success. She was 
obviously experiencing considerable difficulty to take off in the air. I 
noticed that she was rather handicapped by a very big abdomen, pro- 
bably full of eggs. 

On arrival at my rooms I placed the moth in a cardboard box 
with the intention of getting next day some ether or chloroform to put 
her to sleep, and add this fine specimen to my collection of insects. 
The necessary anaesthetic was duly procured the next day, but on 
inspection of the box I found that the moth laid a cluster of eggs. I 
decided therefore to allow her to go on with this business undisturbed. 
The check on the quantity of eggs laid every day was being made 
regularly and the moth continued laying them for 5 days till my 
arrival back to Bombay on November 26. I found the insect dead the 
following day and decided to take some measurements. The results arc 
shown below: 


Wing span of the moth .. OF inch 
Length of the body sesee cee 
Weight of eggs <. 4:935 e1. 
Number of eggs vee SLO OZ 
Weight of single egg tet ee anillion: 
Weight of the body pre Chitets) (eae 
Ratio of weights eggs/ body ies eS 


The last figure is of particular interest because it demonstrates 
the fact that the moth is a very efficient ‘flying machine’ from the 
load-carrying capacity point of view. For comparison I have gathered 
below some figures in respect of more popular aircraft operating in 
India: 


ane , Usual max. load 
Description Weight empty ind Ratio of emiptyimachine 
Skymaster ... 40,000 Ib. 28,500 Ib. 0°415 
Viking 1223500 ee 10,500 ,, 0:45 
Dakota = (417:000 9,200 ,, 0°545 
Constellation 60000; 47,000 ,, 0.68 
Super-Constellation e, 2420005 63,000 ,, 0°88 


Journ. Bomsay Nat. Hist. Soc. 


Larvae of the Lily Moth Brithys crini Fabricius feeding on the leaves of Crinum 
latifolium. 


Photo: Nawab H, Khan 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 785 


Thus .the moth, proportionately to her own weight, is able to carry 
almost a double load as compared with the Super-Constellation. 

The eggs were brown in colour with a yellow patch and of a shape 
resembling; a duck’s egg, but somewhat broader at the end, size 0.083” x 
0.050”. After counting and taking the measurements | left them in 
a box placed in a drawer. On December 7, i.e. approximately 14-16 
days from the date of laying, the caterpillars began to hatch. First 
the head would appear and then the caterpillar would start eating 
larger hole in the shell to provide sufficient opening. Then slowly the 
whole body would wriggle out. The whole operation from the instant 
of first crack in the shell lasted on the average 4o seconds. 

The caterpillars were about + in. long (body only) with tufts of long 
hair on the head, tail, and sides, and a black head. The hair was at 
first greyish but within one hour or so would darken to black. 

The first action of caterpillars after emerging from the egg was 
to eat the egg shell. The internaij texture of the shell was bluish and 
shining like mother-of-pearl. 

I tried, unsuccessfully, all sorts of leaves from the trees, shrubs, 
and other plants, but the caterpillars would not eat anything but 
their own egg shells. If disturbed, they descended to the ground 
using a_ spider-like thread secreted from the body and_ fastened 
to the leaf at one end. I have not seen them returning by means of 
the thread. 

As all attempts to feed the caterpillars eventually failed I let them 
loose in the garden. 


NATIONAL ELEcTRICAL INDUSTRIES LTD., 


INDUSTRIAL ESTATE, 5, SZAPRANSKI 
BOMBAY 12, 


March 4, 1957. 


12. NOTES ON THE BIOLOGY AND CONTROL OF 
DHE LILY MOTH BRITHYS CRINI FABRICIUS 


(With a plate) 
INTRODUCTION 


Of all the pests attacking lily plants in India, the moth Brithys 
crint Fabricius (Phalaenidae, Lepidoptera) is probably the most serious 
one. The larvae are commonly found feeding on the leaves and bulbs 
of Crinum latifolium and C. asiaticum from August to November. 
Often the attack is so severe that an entire plant is eaten up within 
two or three days of the initial attack. But in spite of all its im- 
portance as a pest of ornamental plants, practically no effort has been 
made to study its biology and methods of control. In fact, the pest 
has not even been mentioned in the volumes on moths in the FAUNA 
OF BRITISH INDIA series. It seems that at present, when the pest is 
causing great damage to lilies, a detailed study of its bionomics and 
control is absolutely essential, The present work is a preliminary 
attempt in this direction. 


786 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Eggs: 

The eggs are deposited on the leaves of the lily plants and can 
be easily recognized by their colour. When freshly laid they are 
bright yellow in colour, but within the next 24 hours turn brown. By 
the fifth day the colour changes to grey and on the sixth day the eggs 
become whitish with black tips revealing the presence of the enclosed 
embryos. 

The number of eggs varies greatly with different batches. Of the 
various batches examined it varied from 4 to 67 eggs with an average 
of 33.9 eggs per batch. Nearly all the eggs of a batch hatch at the 
same time and the incubation period occupies 7 to 8 days under 
laboratory conditions. 


Larvae; 

The larvae of Brithys crint have well developed prolegs and can 
be easily recognized by their strongly transverse spinneret and 
mandibles having three sharp distal teeth and two small angulations 
(Gardner, 1941 & 1947). During the present studies, 150 newly 
hatched larvae were reared individually in glass vials. Each larva 
was placed on a piece of lily leaf by means of a camel-hair brush. 
The vials were covered by cheese-cloth to prevent the larvae from 
escaping. The larvae were examined at 24-hour intervals for remov- 
ing excrements, observing moults, and providing fresh food. 

Mortality was exceedingly high in the first instar; 137 larvae died 
in this stage. Of the remaining 13 larvae, 2 escaped by cutting holes 
through the cheese-cloth covers while in the fifth instar. This 
necessitated the replacement of cloth covers by wire gauze coverings. 
4 of the remaining larvae died during the course of development and 
only 7 pupated. 

There are 7 larval instars in the case of Brithys crini and the total 
larval period occupies 31.28 days. There is, however, a great varia- 
tion in the duration of the seventh instar. While no definite explana- 
tion can be given for this discrepancy, it is possible that some moult 
has been missed between the sixth and the seventh instars, though 
the authors are very doubtful about this, as all the larvae were care- 
fully examined each day during the course of their development. 


Pupae; 

Freshly formed pupae were placed separately on cotton pads in 
glass dishes. The duration of the pupal period varied from 6 to 8 
days with an average of 6.68 days. This means that the entire life- 
cycle from egg to adult stage is completed in 45.26 days under 
laboratory conditions with a mean temperature of 85.9°F. and 78.8% 
relative humidity. : 


Adults: 

18 newly emerged females were placed individually with males on 
leaves of lily plants. Each pair was confined to a leaf by tying a 
cellophane paper bag around the leaf. 

No mating could be observed. The pre-oviposition period varied 
between 1 to 3:days and the females readily oviposited under laboratory 
conditions, It seems that the females haye no specific choice for 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 787 


oviposition sites for they very often deposited their eggs on the walls 
of the glass tubes and cloth coverings. A single female may lay 
several batches of eggs. During the present studies a maximum of 
3 batches was laid per female and the maximum number of eggs laid | 
' by a female was 138, the minimum 5. 

In common with many insects the males are short lived as com- 
pared to females, the longevity being 2.16 days in the case of males 
and 3.31 days in females. There was also an indication that males are 
much rarer than the females in the case of Brithys crint. 


CONTROL 


A study of the life-cycle of Brithys' crini indicates that it is in the 
larval stage that the pest can be successfully controlled. As the 
larvae feed for a considerable time by boring in the leaf tissues, they 
can be easily killed by some effective chemical having the power of 
penetrating the leaf tissues. During the present studies, three con- 
centrations of DDT, DDD, and Lindane (99% Gamma _ Benzene 
hexachloride) emulsions were tried against the larvae. The various 
dilutions in water were prepared from 25% stock emulsions of DDT 
end DDD and a 20% Lindane emulsion. 

ro-inch portions of leaves were thoroughly sprayed with the desired 
insecticidal solutions and a randomized Ict of 50 larvae was confined to 
each treated leaf by tying a cellophane bag around it. 3 tests were 
performed with each concentration and two kinds of checks were used. 
In the first check the larvae were placed on leaves previously sprayed 
with water alone, while in the second case a randomized lot of larvae 
was bagged on an untreated leaf. The results obtained are presented 
in table 1. 


TABLE 1. EFFICIENCY oF DDT, DDD, AnD LINDANE AGAINST 


Brithys crini 


% Control with: 


Concentration used 


DDT DDD | LINDANE 
28 Bs 50°0 30°0 71:4 
1 16 ee 18'1 14°3 53°8 
1: 24 os iI 20°3 38°4 
Check (H,0) 0-0 0:0 0-0 
Check (untreated leaves) 0:0 0°0 0:0 


PEELE IT II TE LET ET Oe TRIES 


Of all the insecticides tested, Lindane gave the best results and 
as this material did not produce any injury on the leaves it can be 
recommended for the control of Brithys cvin. Still better results 
would probably be obtained by using Lindane dust for, in a preli- 
minary experiment in which leaves of several lily plants were dusted 
with 0.65% Lindane, 75% of the attacking larvae died. 


788 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL “HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 
He Beye aet| Ti 4 ¥ be ; 1 ae 
SUMMARY 


The present paper is a preliminary attempt to study the biology 
and find out some effective chemicals for the control of Brithys crini, 
a serious pest of lilies in India. The results obtained show: (i) The 
life-cycle from eggs to adult stage is completed in 45.26 days under 
laboratory conditions with a mean temperature of 85.9°F. and 78.8% 
relative humidity. (11) Males are short-lived and much rarer in nature 
than the females. (iii) Satisfactory control of the pest can be obtained 
by spraying the lily plants with 1:8 water dilution of 20% Lindane 
emulsion. Still better results can be obtained with 0.65% Lindane 
dusted on lily plants. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 


The authors wish to express their sincerest gratitude to Professor 
M. B. Mirza,, Head of the Zoology Department, for his valuable advice 
during the progress of this work. 


DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, 
Mus.LimM UNIVERSITY, NAWAB H. KHAN, Ph.p. 
ALIGARH, ZALIER HASAN ABEDIiese: 
September 15, 1956. 

REFERENCES 


Gardner, J.C.M. (1941): Immature stages of Indian Lepidoptera (2) Noctuidae, 
Hypsidae. Judian For. Rec. 6, (8). 

Gardner, J.C. M. (1947): On the larvae of the Noctuidae III. Zvans. R. Ent. 
Soc., Lond. 98 (4): 59-90. 


13. AN UNDESCRIBED LUMINOUS BEET, VAR Yes 
FROM SOUTH INDIA 


(With one photograph) 


Various stages of the present larva were collected by the author 
during the last several'years mostly from dry areas in South India. As 
all attempts to rear them to the adult condition failed, their identi- 
fication proved difficult. Recently the discovery of the exactly similar 
caustic odour so characteristic of the larva in some winged adults 
collected from the same locality helped considerably in identifying them 
as KRhagophthalmus sp. (Rhagophthalmidae, Coleoptera). Lefroy 
(1909) has recorded two species of the adult beetles, but the larval 
forms have not so far been described. 

The present larva differs from ‘all the Indian luminous beetle larvae 
described so far (Raj, J. S., 1943, 1944, 1947, 1952, and Gardner, 
1946) in the complete absence of epicranial suture, in the much less 
extensive antacorial membrane of the antenna, in the imaginal type 
of mandible without a retinaculum and a basal brush, in having an 
additional abdominal segment and in having a different type of dis- 
tribution of the photogenic organs. 

The distribution of the photogenic organs in the larva is. extremely 
interesting and differs from the types figured by Buck (1948). While 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 789 
the winged adults appear to be non-luminous, the larva combines the 
winged imaginal type of photogenic organ as well as the larval type 
of the Indian Lampyrid larvae. The number and disposition of these 
light organs, while having considerable taxonomic significance, bring 
up many questions pertaining to the relationships and phylogeny of 


the Lampyridae and the Rhagophthalmidae. Again, as in the 


Larvae of Rhagophthalmus sp. 


Phengodid larva, there are eleven pairs of minute segmentally arranged 
luminous spots on the thorax and the abdomen. Detailed work on 
the anatomy and physiology of these larvae is in progress. 

My thanks are due to Dr. F. I. Van Emden for identifying the 


larva and to Dr. Alagappa Chettiar Educational Trust for the facilities 
given. 


DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY, 
ALAGAPPA COLLEGE, 
KARAIKUDI, 


May 10, 1957. 


J. SAMUEL RA] 


REFERENCES 


Lefroy (1909) : ‘Indian Insect life’ : 327. 

Ray Jeo. (1943) 3 Curvy. 3Sct., 3: 83-84, 

— — — (1943) ; Curr. Sct., 6: 186-87, 

— — — (1943) : Curr. Sci., 10: 270-73, 

— -— — (1944) : Curr. Sci., 4: 106-107. 

— — — (1947) : Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., a5: 188-194. 
— — — (1952) : Curr. Sct., 8: 222. 

Gardner, J.C. M. (1946): /ud. Journ, Ent, 8: 121-129. 
Buck, J. B. (1948): Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 49: 472, 


790 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.” SOCIETY Vol. 52 


14: TWO NEW {SPECIES OF PRIOCHTRUS 
(STAPHYLINIDAE: COLEOPTERA) FROM INDIA 


(With two text figures) 


The Bombay Natural History Society was so kind as to entrust 
me with the determination of their collection of Indian Staphylinidae. 
I ascertained in this material two new species of Priochirus (sub-genus 
Plastus) which are described below. 


Priochirus (Plastus) astoliensis sp. nov. 


Black, shining, the edge of the 4th visible abdominal segment red. 
Femora dark, tibiae reddish brown, tarsi red. Antennae black, the 
last joint reddish. Length 8.5 mm. | 

Holotype and 11 Cotypes: India, Astoli, North Kanara. Collected 
on April.2a; 191m by Mm a Rabel. 

For the shape of the head and thorax see fig. 1. 


le 


Text-fig. 1. The head and 
thorax of Priochirus (Plastus) 
astoliensis sp. nov. 


Frontal impression very broad, very indistinctly grooved in the 
middle, its front border very feebly emarginate in the middle. The 
lateral horns long, outwards rounded, and very advanced. There is 
on each side of the vertex an impression making the frontal horns 
apparently still more advanced. Vertex sulcate. Antennae with the 
6th to roth joints transverse. Thorax distinctly transverse, medially 
sulcate, the reflexed sides with several moderately large punctures 
and at the base with a few more. Elytra a little longer than the 
thorax, longer than broad heavily longitudinally impressed on the 
disc near the sutura. Abdomen finely, superficially punctured at the 
bases of the segments. The 4th visible tergit with several greater 
punctures on its whole surface. 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 791 


Holotype and 7 Cotypes in the collection of the Bombay Natural 
History Society, 4 Cotypes in my own collection. 


Priochirus (Plastus) maitrta sp. nov. 


Subconvex, black, shining, the apex of the abdomen red. Femora 
and tibiae reddish, tarsi reddish—testaceous. Antennae brown. 
Length 5 mm. 

Holotype and 5 Cotypes: India, Basti Karwar. Collected on 
June 28, 1907 by Mr. T. R. Bell. 

For the shape of the head and thorax see fig. 2. 


26 
Text-fig.2. Head and thorax 


of Priochirus (Plastus) maitrta 
sp. nov. 


Frontal impression longer than broad, its side margins forming an 
apparent chalice together with the inner margins of the frontal horns 
and with the sulcation of the vertex. The frontal horns short, ex- 
tremely blunt and stout, parallel, on each inner side a small denticle 
near the middle, vertex sulcate and provided with a few punctures. 
Antennae with the 5th to 1oth joints transverse. Thorax strongly trans- 
verse, a little narrowed in front, the sides and the base with several 
rather large points, deeply sulcate. The sulcation longitudinal, form- 
ing a ball near the base. Elytra a little longer than broad, as broad 
as the thorax and longitudinally impressed. Abdomen rather coarsely 
punctured at the sides of the segments. 

I give to this new remarkable species the Hindi name of friendship 
to symbolize the friendly collaboration of Indian and Czechoslovakian 
entomologists. 

Holotype and 3 Cotypes in the collection of the Bombay Natural 
History Society, 2 Cotypes in my own collection. 


PRAHA, 
CZECHOSLOVAKIA, RUDOLF DVORAK 
March 28, 1957. 


792 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


“15. THE SWARMING TERMITES OF DELHI 


Pruthi (1939) reported from Delhi the emergence of three species 
of winged termites, Odontotermes sp., Microtermes sp., and a third 
unidentified. These termites according to him appeared respectively 
about the second, third, and fourth week of the month of July 1938. 
The present author has noticed during the past few years that there 
are some other species of termites also which swarm at Delhi. Yearly 
collections of the winged termites were started in the Department 
of Zoology, University of Delhi, since 1956. A light-trap was used 
for this purpose, and. the collection was initially restricted to the Delhi 
University area which is fairly heavily infested by termites. The 
collection work is planned also to be extended to the other localities of 
the city and suburbs of Delhi in the subequent years. 

The swarming period of the termites locally lasts for nearly one 
and a half months, usually commencing from the third week of June 
up to the first or second week of August marked by the onset of 
rainy season. Almost all the termites so far observed appear after sun- 
set, and are strongly attracted towards light. Only one _ species 
Eremotermes paradoxalis Holmgren was found to fly during day- 
time on certain occasions in the years 1954 and 1955, but this invari- 
ably happened when the sky was thickly clouded and there was a 
breeze. 

The light-trap used for collection consists essentially of a large 
smooth tubeless ‘funnel’ (1 ft. wide at the top with 14 in. wide 
aperture at the bottom) made of galvanized tin, but art-paper 
also served well for temporary use. The funnel was firmly fixed 
on a stand, and below that was arranged a cylindrical jar half- 
filled by rectified spirit. A strong electric light of 200 watts was 
suspended from the shade so as to be on the top of the funnel. This 
apparatus used to be kept in the open ground and worked satisfactorily 
even during the rain. The light was kept on from sunset to the 
next morning. Such a light-trap attracted a large variety of insects, 
which falling on the smooth surface of the funnel slip down into the 
collecting jar. Often along with other insects there would be hundreds 
of winged termites (one or more species at the same time) in a single 
collection. The insects were removed from the jar on the next day 
and sorted out. The termites obtained in this manner were complete 
specimens, all with wing's intact. The specimens were kindly identified 
by Mr. W. V. Harris of the British Museum (Natural History). 


Observations: 
In the last swarming season (1956) the following seven species of 
alate termites were obtained from the Delhi University campus. 


KAaArpoTERMITIDAE: 
Kalotermes beesoni Gardner 


RHINOTERMITIDAE: 
Coptotermes heimi (Wasmann) 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 793 


Ppt trp AE: 


Eremotermes paradoxalis Holmgren 
Odontotermes dehraduni (Snyder) 
Odontotermes sp. 

Microtermes mycophagus (Desneux) 
Microtermes sp. 


The swarming period of termites in Delhi lasted for a little more 
than a month. Of the seven species collected, Microtermes mycop- 
hagus, Eremotermes paradoxalis, and Coptotermes heimi had the most 
frequent and thickest appearance in swarms; Odontotermes dehradunti, 
and other two unidentified species of Odontotermes and Microtermes 
appeared sporadically in very small numbers; Kalotermes beesoni 
was represented in an extremely small number and that too only at 
the commencement of the swarming season. These observations seem 
to be in correlation with the incidence of infestation by these species of 
termites in the collection locality. The termites of the first group 
have maximum infestation in the University campus, those of the 
second group also occur but less abundantly, while no infestation of 
K. beesoni has been noticed so far, probably as the winged specimens 
of this species are brought in from farther places by wind. 


DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, 
UNIVERSITY OF DELHI, Hoss VISHNOE 
DELHI-8, 


May 14, 1957. 


RiE FE E ReEN' CE 


Pruthi, H. S. (1939): Emergence of winged termites of Delhi. Jnudian 


Ura. de (1-2) 3, 108; 
Es 


16. ON THE HARPACTICOID COPEPOD PHYLLOGNATHOPUS 
VIGUIERI (MAUPAS) 


(With one plate) 


Our knowledge of the freshwater harpacticoid copepods of India 
is limited to the work of Chappuis (1928, 1941, 1950, and 1954) who has 
described the forms collected in various parts of India. A _ single 
female of Phyllognathopus viguieri (Maupas) was recorded by him 
from the foot of a waterfall at Courtalam in south India. Recently 
a small collection of freshwater copepods was sent to the author for 
determination by the water analyst to the Corporation of Madras. This 
collection made in the underground water mains was composed of 
Phyllognathopus viguieri (Manpas), adults and in various stages of 
development. Since this is a very variable species with a wide dis- 
tribution, it was felt that a brief description of the forms collected at 
Madras, which show some distinct features, will be of interest. 


Phyllognathopus viguieri (Maupas) Fig. 1-13. 


Gurney, R. Brit. Freshwater Copepoda, 2, pp. 8-15, Figs, 345-372 (1932) . 
Lang, K. Monographie der Harpacticiden, pp. 268-270, Fig. 137, (1948). 


794, JOURNAL,” BOMBAY NATURAL, AIST SSOCIET YAW ol. W524 


I’ E MALE: 

Measures 0.51 mm. long. Body is small and slender. The 
cephalasome is free and is nearly twice as long as the succeeding seg- 
ments. The caudal ramus is nearly twice as long as broad and bears 
a stout inner, a short plumose outer, and two outer and two apical 
slender setae. There is a small row of fine spinules on the upper side. 
The anal operculm is fringed with fine spinules (fig. 2). The 
antennule (fig. 3) is composed of eight segments, the first one carry- 
ing an outer plumose seta and agreeing with the description given by 
Gurney (1932, fig. 353). The antenna (fig. 4) is composed of four 
segments, the second segment carrying an unsegmented exopod, which 
carries five setae. The terminal joint of the endopod bears seven setae. 
The mandible and other mouth parts agree closely with the description 
given by Gurney (loc. cit.) The outer branch of the mandible palp 
(fig. 5) 1s, however, devoid of the two lateral setae shown by him. 
Lhe rami of the first three pairs of legs are three-jointed and all 
of them are clothed with very fine setae. The basai, of the first leg 
(fig. 6) has an inner spine as well as an outer seta. The first and 
the second joints of the exopod carry an outer spine each, while the 
terminal segment has an outer spine and three apical setae. The 
endopod is as long as the exopod and its second joint carries an inner. 
seta and the terminal joint three apical setae. In the second leg 
(fg. 7), the exopod is slightly longer than the endopod and the inner- 
most seta on the exopod is very long. The structure of the third 
leg (fig. 8) resembles that of the second one. The fourth leg (fig. 9) 
is very small and both the rami are two-segmented. In all the des- 
criptions of this species so far given, the exopod of fourth leg is 
stated to be three-jointed except in a male described by Chappuis (vide 
Lang, 1948, fig. 137 6b) where both the rami are shown as two- 
jointed. This. two-jointed nature of the fourth leg is therefore of 
interest. In the fifth leg (fig 10) the inner expansion and the distal 
segments are fused. The basal segment has an outer and two inner 
plumose setae while the distal joint carries four setae. 


MAT ER: 


Resembles the female in general shape (fig. 11) but is slightly 
smaller in size measuring 0.50 mm. only. The antennule (fig. 12) is 
geniculate, the hinge lying between the sixth and the seventh joints. 
The antenna, mouth parts, as well as the first four pairs of appendages 
as in the female. Gurney (1932) as well as Chappuis (1916) found 
some differences in the second, third, and fourth legs of the male, 
but this is absent in the Madras form. In the fifth leg (fig. 13) 
the basal expansion and the distal joints are indistinctly divided. The 
basal expansion has an outer seta and a stout plumose spine on the 
inner side. The distal joint is small and has four plumose and two 
ordinary setae. 

The presence of the vibratile organ in the lateral corner of the 
cephalasome is a; peculiar feature, the function of which is not known. 
Chappuis (1914) has given a detailed account of the structure of this. 


Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 


Phyllognathopus viguizeri (Maupas) 
Explanation of figures in text. 


a ft 
a 
, i 
i 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 795 


REMARKS 


Since this genus shows a number of unique features, such as the 
separation of the somite of the first leg, the large biramus mandible 
palp, and the primitive structure of the maxilla, Gurney (1928, 32) 
proposed a new family Phyllognathopodidae for the inclusion of this 
genus. Lang (1948) in his monograph places this family in the 
super family Neobradyidimorpha in which are included Neobradyidae, 
D’arcythompsoniidae, and Chappuisiidae. This along with the super 
families like Cerviniidimorpha, Ectinosomidiimorpha, and Neobradyi- 
dimorpha form the sub-section Maxillipedasphalea under the section 
Oligarthra. 

The different species and varieties of Phyllognathopus so far des- 
cribed have been considered as a single but widely variable species 
by Lang (loc. cit.) The Madras form differs from all the others in 
the possession of two-jointed rami in the fourth leg and in certain 
minor differences in the setation of the mandible palp and legs. But 
these differences: do not seem to justify the creation of a new species. 


DISTRIBUTION z 


Maupas described this species from the decayed banana tree in 
Algiers in 1892. Since then it has been recorded from: the British Is. 
(Scourfield, Gurney, Lowndes), Germany (Hartwig, Klie, Kieffer, 
Kessler, Zigelmayer, Noodt), Czechoslovakia (Mrazek), Austria 
(Spandl), Poland (Jakubisiak), Russia (Borutzky), Switzerland 
{Chappuis, Schmitter), Italy (Kessler, Chappuis), Algiers (Maupas), 
Tanganyika Lake (Gurney), Sumatra (Chappuis), Java (Chappuis, 
Menzel), Aru Archipelago (Menzel), U.S.A. (Chappuis), South America 
(Chappuis), Courtalam, south India (Chappuis), Madras (present 
record). 

EcoLocicaL Notes 


This copepod has been found usually in the water collected in the 
leaf axils of Bromeliaceous plants. Lowndes (1932) found them in 
pineapples brought into London. It has also been found in a coal 
mine in Germany, in a gutter in Vienna, in underground water, in 
‘reshwater springs and lakes, and in filter beds. Hence the present 
record from the water mains at Madras is of interest. 

The water in which the specimens were kept in a glass vessel 
contained much organic detritus and the pH was 5.5. The copepods 
were quite active. They were able to swim about. even when there 
was only very little water, just sufficient to cover the body. They 
usually move about even on the surface film of the water. 

The life-history of this copepod has been worked out by Maupas 
(1892) and Chappuis (1916). 

The author wishes to express his grateful thanks to Mr. M. G. 
Devadoss, B.sc., Water Analyst, Water Works Department of the 
Corporation of Madras for the gift of the material. 


ZOOLOGY RESEARCH LABORATORY, 
UNIVERSITY OF Mapras, S. KRISHNASWAMY 
MADRAS-5, 
Hebruary .15, 1957. 
20 


796 JOURNAZ, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


REFERENCES 


Chappuis, P. A. (1914): tiber das excretionsorgan von Phyllognathopus 
viguiert. Zool. Anz. 44: 568-572. 
Se ee (1916): Hloge (ne coeca Maupas. kev. suiss, Zool. 24: 
sh Te 
Sl (1928) : zur kenntis der mikro fauna von British Indian 
IIf Copepoda Harpacticoida Rec. Jud. Mus., 30 : 
375-335. 
— — — — — (1941): Notes sur les copépodes; 13 par pacticoldes de I’ Inde. 
Arch, Zool. Exp. N. et. R. 81: 4. 
—- — — — — (1950) : Copepodes Harpacticoides de l’Inde récolte’s par 
M. K. Linderg. Arch. Zool. Exp. N. et R. 87 
(2): 49-60. 
—-—-——- — — (1954) : Copepodes Harpacticoides des Indes et de l’Iran. Bull. 
Soc. Hist. Nat. Toulouse, 8g : 213-22. 
Gurney, R. (1928) : Some copepoda from ‘langanyika. Proc. Zool. Soc.; 
London. 
—— — — (1932): pc freshwater Copepoda II Ray Society, London. 
32 pp. 
Lang, K. (1948) : Monographie der Harpacticiden. vol. I Laud. 
Lowndes, A. G, (1931): Some freshwater entomostraca of the Birmingham 
District. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser.10, 8 : 561. 
Noodt, W. (1952): Subterrane copepoden aus Nord deutschland. Zool, Anz. 
148: 331-343. 


i7, A NOTE ON THE NEMATODE MERMIS INDICA ve 
LINSTOW, PARASITISING INSECTS 


Amsacta moorei Butler of form sara and Cirphis sp. are serious 
pests of maize and other Kharif crops in Jhabua district of Madhya 
Pradesh. In the course of investigations on them we came across a 
Nematode, Mermis indica v. Linstow (Ascaroidea: Mermithidae), 
parasitising’ the caterpillars of the two. This Mermithid was found to 
have emerged from an adult male A. moore: of the form sara. The 
parasite larva grows inside the body-cavity of the caterpillar at the ex- 
pense of its body-fluids. When full-fed, it comes out of the host’s body 
through almost any point. Generally only one or two of these 
nematodes are found in each parasitised caterpillar, aithough 23 were 
counted in one caterpillar. The percentage of parasitised caterpillars 
in one village was as high as 66. The nematodes recovered from 
dead or dying caterpillars measure from 3.6 to 20.4 cm. in length. 
It is interesting to see'such long nematodes in host caterpillars attain- 
ing only 4-5 cm. in length when full-grown. Details about this parasite 
will be published elsewhere. 


AGRI. REs. INST., 
GWALIOR, (O. S. BINDRA 
' March 11, 1957. rg Ca SI od OAR 


18. A NEW VARIETY OF GYMNOSPORIA FALCONERI 
LAWSON FROM NORTHERN OUDH, UTTAR PRADESH 


In connection with the revision of his FOREST FLORA FOR PILIBHIT, 
OUDH, GORAKHPUR, AND BUNDELKHAND Mr. P. C. Kanjilal, 1.F.s. (Retd.), 
while recently working in the Dehra Dun Herbarium drew my attention 
to certain specimens collected from Tulsipur, Gonda, by Sri Ram (P.C. 
Kanjilal’s collector) on 6th April 1918, which did not match with the 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES _ . . 797 


specimens of typical Gymnosporia falconert Lawson. A scrutiny and 
close examination of these specimens and comparison with. other 
specimens of G. falconeri in the herbarium revealed that they differ 
from typical G. falconeri in several respects and in fact exactly match 
a sheet collected by Inayat (No. 23587) as early as 1900 from Bahu 
Sahi, Sota, Nepal, a locality just a few miles to the north, on the 
other side of Gonda district. The.specimens have, therefore, been 
named as Gymnosporia falconeri Laws. var. kanjilalii Raizada var. 
nov. This variety differs from typical G. falconeri Laws. in having 
glabrous leaves, smooth on both surfaces, and longer and larger fruit 
(9 mm.-14 mm. long). 

Gymnosporia falconeri Laws. var. kanjplalu Raizada var. nov.— 
Folia glabra in utraque pagina ad maturitatem; fructus maiores atque 
longiores (9 mm.-14 mm, longi). Typus lectus ab Inayat in loco Bahu 
Sahi, in Sota, Nepal, et positus in herbario Forest Res. Inst. ad 
Dehra Dun sub numero Inayat 23,587. | : 

I am grateful to Rev. Father H. Santapau of St. Xavier’s 
College, Bombay, for the Latin diagnosis of the new variety. 


ForEST RESEARCH INSTITUTE, 


DEHRA Dun, M. B. RAIZADA 
February 26,- 1957. : 


19, DOLICHOS BRACTEATUS BAKER: 
CLARIFICATION OF NOMENCLATURE 


Santapau and Panthaki (1956) have published a note about the 
correct nomenclature of Dolichos bracteatus Baker. They have con- 
cluded that Dolichos bracteatus Baker is an illegitimate name, because 
of the existence of an earlier homonym, i.e. Dolichos bracteatus Wall. 
Hence they have given the taxon a new name, i.e. Dolichos ghaticus 
Santapau and Panthaki. | 

However the above deduction is not correct, because Dolichos 
bracteatus Wall. has never been validly published. The new names 
published in Wallich Catalogue are not validly published, because they 
are not accompanied by the descriptions of the taxa, which is 
necessary for valid publication according to Art. 32 which runs as 
follows: ‘In order to be validly published, a name of a taxon of 
recent plants must be both (1) effectively published (see Art. 29) and 
(2) accompanied by a description of the taxon or by a reference (direct 
or indirect) to a previously and effectively published description of it.’ 
Hence the new names. listed in Wallich Catalogue are only nomina 
nuda which have no nomenclatural standing. For further discussion 
on nomina nuda one is referred to Ross (1956). 

Baker (1876, p. 225) has mentioned Dolichos bracteatus Wall. as 
a synonym of Rhynchosia bracteata Bentham ex Baker. This also 
does not validate the publication of Dolichos bracteatus Wall. (vide 
Gt 37) - 

Thus it is clear that Dolichos bracteatus Wall. has no nomenclatural 
status. It is not correct to regard it the basionym of Rhynchosia 
bracteata Benth. ex Baker, as stated by Santapau and Panthaki (1956) 


798 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Baker has attributed this name to Bentham, hence Rhynchosia bracteata 
Benth. ex Baker is to be treated as a species quite independent of 
Dolichos bracteatus Wall. The type of Rhynchosia bracteata Benth. ex 
Baker is not necessarily Wall. 5,554. As Baker has not specified the 
type specimen, an author may choose a lectotype out of the specimens 
cited by Baker (1876). 

Hence the correct name of the taxon under digester is Dolichos 
bracteatus Baker in Hooker f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2: 210 (1876) Synonym : 
Dolichos ghaticus Santapau and Panthaki, J. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. 53 
(3) 2 9502)2 956) 


c/o THE HERBARIUM, 


RoyaLt BOTANICAL GARDENS, Sls Aud 
KEw, RICHMOND, (SURREY), 
ENGLAND, 


March 28, 1957. 


LITERATURE CIrreD 


Baker, J. G. (1876) : Leguminosae in Hooker f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2: 210, 225. 
International Code of Botanical N omenclature, 1956 (edit. Lanioae et al. ) 


Ross, R. (1956) : Homonynis, nomina nuda and the Douglas Fir, Javon, 5 (3): 
41-43. 


Santapau, H. & Panthaki, D, (1956): Dolichos bracteatus Baker, J/BNH: s 53 
(3): 501-502. 


20. LPOMOEA TROPICA, NEW NAME FOR 
A COMMON BOMBAY PLANT 


GC; B: Clarke, in Pl Brit. Ind. ‘4: 201; 1883, describes™a plant 
Ipomoea calycina, which he attributes to Bentham (Gen. Plant. 2: 
872); Cooke in Fl. Pres. Bombay 2: 242, 1905 and Santapau in this 
Journal (47: 346, 1948) merely mention Ipomea calycina Clarke. The 
question of the attribution of the specific name has been settled by the 
third paragraph of Art. 42 of the International Code of Botanical 
Nomenclature. 

This species is native of tropical Africa, according to Index 
Kewensis ; but it is well established in various parts of India; it has 
been recorded from the western Himalayas (Royle), Banda 
(Edgeworth), south India (Gamble), and various parts of Bombay State 
such as Gujerat, Saurashtra, Poona, Baroda, Dang’s Forest, and in the 
neighbourhood of Bombay City. It is a hedge plant, flowering and 
fruiting in fairly great profusion in October-November. ‘The plant 
is easily distinguished from all other species of the genus by the shape 
of its sepals and corolla. 

The name of the plant, however, requires correction. Meissner 
in Martius’ Fl. Bras. 7: 260, t. 97, 1869, described another plant under 
the same name, and in accordance with the provisions of the Intern. 
Code of Bot. Nom. (Articles 73, and 74) our Indian plant cannot bear 


1 hehige 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 73 


the name I. calycina, it being a later homonym of that of Meissner’s. 
We propose the name: 


Ipomoea tropica Sant. & Patel, nom. nov. 

Convolvulus calycinus Roxb. Hort. Beng. 13, 1814, nom. nud., 
easel Indika 3347 1632: : | 

Aniseia calycina Choisy, Conv. Or. in Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. 
Nat. Genéve 6: 482, 1833; Wight, III. t. 168b, f. 5, & Icon. 
t. 833; Dalz. & Gibs. Bombay FI. 163. 

Ipomoea calycina Clarke in Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 4: 201, 1883; 
Cooke, FI. Pres. Bombay 2: 242, 1905; Gamble, FI. Pres. 
Madras 911, 1923; Santapau in JBNHS, 47: 346, 1948 (non 
Meissn. 1869). 


ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, 


BomBay 1 H. SANTAPAU, S.j., F.N.I. 
February 11, 1957. V. PATEL, B.sc. (Miss) 


21. A NEW SPECIES OF GZLEADOVIA GAMBLE ET 
; PRAIN FROM MANIPUR 


(With a plate) 


While exploring the flora of Manipur, the author collected some 
specimens of Gleadovia Gamble et Prain, which on subsequent and 
thorough examination turned out to be a new species. 


Gleadovia banerjjana_ sp. nov. 


Relationship: This species comes very near to Gleadovia 
kRwangtungense Hu (Sunyatsennia 4: 7, 1939) from which it differs in 
(i) bracteoles not being tomentose, (ii) form of the calyx, and (iii) 
hairyness of the corolla. 

Small leafless herb; parasitic on subterranean roots of Strobilanthes 
discolor T. Anders; Stem fleshy, up to 1 cm. long, 3 mm. diameter. 
Inflorescence 1-3-flowered, cymose, lateral flowers do not develop. 
Flowers large, subsessile, 5-7.5 cm. long, about 1.5 cm. in diameter, 
fleshy, hermaphrodite, hypogynous, gamopetalous, shortly pedicellate, 
bracteolate, protandrous. Bracteoles 12 in number, spirally arranged, 
lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate, spathulate, adnate at the base, smooth, 
broad, obtuse or emarginate at the apex, varying in size, 4 from the 
base, 3-6-veined, 0.4-0.7x0.3-0.5 cm.; 5th and 6th 15-18-veined, 
1.8x1cm.; 7th and 8th, 22-25-veined, 2.0-2.5 x 1.2-1.5 cm.; 9th and 
1oth 27-30-veined, 2.5-3.0x 2.0-2.2 cm.; 11th and 12th 30-32-veined, 
3.0-3.2 X 2.2-2.5 cm. Calyx gamosepalous, spathaceous, irregularly 
s-lobed at the tip, split in nearly 4 of its length, 3.5-5 x 3.0-4.5 cm.; 
veins 52, parallel. Corolla gamopetalous, white, rose tinged or light 
yellow, fleshy, 3.5-5-5 x 3-4.5 cm., veins 33-35; corolla tube broad, 
slightly incurved, dilated at the throat, limb obscurely 2-lipped, lobes 
5, erect, spreading, subequal, obtuse, imbricate with downy moniliform 


800 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


trichomes, which are 2-2.5 mm., 10~15-celled. Stamens 4, epipetalous, 
adherent up to. 0.8.cm. in length, inserted, didynamous ; filaments stout, 
longer ones o.4 cm. long, shorter ones 0.25 cm. long. Anthers 
attenuated, adnate, 2-lobed, both the cells perfect, longitudinal, base 
of the anther cells not mucronate, slightly divaricate, connectives pro- 
duced. Pollen grains round smooth with thin exine. Disc annular, 
dull white, 1.5 mm. high. Gynoecium syncarpous; stigma 2 mm. 
incurved capitate, 2-lobed, tumid, style stout, 8 mm. glabrous; ovary 
ovoid glabrous, superior 8x8 mm., one-celled with 4 dichotomously 
branched parietal placentas, ovuliferous all over. 

Manipur, Koupru Hill, 6,o00 ft., total parasite on the roots of 
Strobilanthes discoloy T. Anders.; flowers white tinged with rose or 
light yellow, D.B. Deb no. 2247 A (Flora of Manipur) r1th April, 
1954- 

The type specimen has been presented to the Herbarium, Indian 
Botanic Garden, Calcutta. Cotypes have been presented to the 
Departments of Botany, Dhanamanjari College, Imphal, Manipur, and 
Maharaja Bir Bikram College, Agartala, Tripura. 


Gleadovia banerjiana spec. nov. 


Accedit ad Gleadoviam kwangtungensem Hu, a qua tamen differt 
bracteolis haud tomentosis, forma calycis, atque corolla hirsuta. 

Planta parasitica minuta. Culmis ad 1 cm. altus, 3 mm. diam. 
Inflorescentia 1-3-flora, cymosa, floribus lateralibus haud_ evolutis. 
Flores ampli, subsessiles, 5-7.5 cm. longi, ca. 1.5 cm. diam., 
carnosi, hermaphroditi, hypogyni, gamopetali, breviter pedicellati, 
bracteolati, protandri; bracteolae numero 12, spiraliter dispositae, 
lanceolatae vel ovato-lanceolatae, spathulatae, adnatae ad_basim, 
leves, latae, obtusae vel emarginatae ad apicem, magnitudinis variabilis, 
inferiores quidem minutae atque paucinervae, superiores vero multo 
majores atque plurinervae (0.4-3.2 x 0.3-2.5 cm.), nervis 3-32. Calyx 
gamosepalus, spathaceus, irregulariter 5-lobus ad apicem, fisus 4 
longit., 3.5~5 x 3-.0-4.5 cm., nervis 52 parallelis. Corolla gamopetala, 
albida, rosacea vel pallide lutea, carnosa, 3.5-5.5 x 3-4.5 cm., nervis 
33-35; corollae tubus latus, paulo incurvatus, dilatatus ad faucem, 
limbo obscure 2-labiato, lobis 5, erectis, patentibus, subaequalibus, 
obtusis, imbricatis, pilosis; pili moniliformes, 2-2.5 mm. longi, 10-15- 
cellulati. Stamina 4, epipetala, per 8 mm. corollae adhaerentia, 
inclusa, didynama; filamenta robusta, longiora quidem 4 mm. longa, 
caetera vero 2.5 mm. longa. Antherae attenuatae, adnatae, 2-lobae, 
utraque cellula perfecta, longitudinales, basi haud mucronata, tenuiter 
divaricata, connectivo producto. Pollinis grana sphaerica, levia, exino 
tenui. Discus annularis, fusce albidus, 1.5 mm. altus. Gynoecium 
-syncarpum; stigma 2 mm. longum incurvum capitatum 2-lobum, 
tumidum; stylus robustus, 8 mm. longus glaber. Ovarium ovoideum, 
glabrum, superius, 8x8 mm. loculo unico, placentis 4 parietalibus 
dichotome bifurcantibus ubique ovuliferis. 

Typus lectus ad Koupru collem, in regione Manipur ad partes 
orientales Indiae, altit. 6,000 ped. parasitus totalis ad radices 
Strobilanthis discoloris T. Anders. a D.B. Deb die 11 aprilis anni 1954, 
et positus in Herbario Hortus Indici Botanici ad Calcuttam sub numero 
Deb 2247; paratypi positi etiam in sectione botanica Collegii Dhana- 


Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 


EXPLANATION OF FIGURES 


A, Gleadovia banerjiana Deb, whole plant. x 1. 
B. Calyx. x 1, 

C. Corolla and stamens. x }. 

Di Piste, 2: 


E. Trichome or hair of corolla. x 10. 
F, ‘Transverse section of ovary showing placentation, x 10, 


MISCELLANEOUS -NOTES 801 


manjari in loco Imphal, in regione Manipur, atque in Collegio Maharaja 
Bir Bikram, in loco Agartala, in regione Tripura. 

This new species is named in honour of the author’s revered teacher 
Dr. I. Banerji of Calcutta University. 

The author expresses his thanks to Dr. D. Chatterjee, See ead 
ent, Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta, for going through the manu- 
script, and to Rev. Dr. Fr. H. Santapau of St. Xavier’s College, 
Bombay, for the Latin translation of the diagnosis of the new species. 


DEPARTMENT OF Botany, 
M.B.B. CoLuEcE, D. B. DEB 
AGARTALA, TRIPURA, 


April 17, 1957. 


22. BOUGAINVILLEA BUTTIANA HOLTTUM ET 
STANDLEY, AND ITS CULTIVARS IN LALBAGH, 
BANGALORE 


(With a text figure) 


Bor and Raizada! while compiling the species and cultivars 
of Bougainvillea cautioned that though chaos had not yet come upon 
us in the naming of Bougainvillea cultivars it could not long’ be delayed. 
But though not chaos, enough confusion has already crept in, in the 
naming of certain Bougainvillea cultivars. The greatest confusion 
I notice is in Bougainvillea buttiana. 

The Bougainvillea ‘Mrs. Butt’ entered India under two names as 
B. ‘Mrs. Butt’ as well as B. ‘Crimson Lake’. Percy Lancaster gave 
the name B. ‘Scarlet Queen’ to the same plant though according to 
him ‘the coloured bracts are slightly darker than in B. ‘‘Mrs. Butt’? 
but actual flower is malformed.’ — 

Further the bud-sport from so-called B. ‘Scarlet Queen’ was named 
in Madras in 1932, as B. ‘Mrs. Louis Wathen’. In 1931,-B. ‘Mrs: 
Butt’ produced in Trinidad a bud-sport with apricot-orange bracts and 
it was named as,B. ‘Mrs. McLean’. The Madras plant B. ‘Mrs. Louis 
Wathen’ according to Nirody is from B, ‘Mrs. Butt’ and aba 
to Percy Lancaster from B. ‘Scarlet Queen’. 

Now there are three names given to the same cultivar with crimson 
bracts, i.e. B. ‘Mrs. Butt’, B. ‘Scarlet Queen’, and B. ‘Crimson Lake’. 
Wile wice the bud-sport of the same plant watt apricot-orange bracts 
bears! two names, i.e. B. ‘Mrs. McLean’ and B. ‘Mrs. Louis Wathen’. 
The malformation of flowers both in crimson bracts and apricot-orange 
bracts is the main difference. 

For the last four years I have been watching with interest in 
Lalbagh the flower types on the cultivars bearing these names. On 
the same plant I have noticed all the different flower types, the 
flower types of B. ‘Mrs. Butt’ (on only one or two twigs) and B. 
‘Mrs. Louis Wathen’ half the year (mostly in summer months) and 
the flower types of B. ‘Scarlet Queen’ (on the twigs which bear B. ‘Mrs. 


1 Bor, N. L. and Raizada, M. B, JBNAS, 47 (3): 403 ; 1948. 


£02 . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Butt’ type of flowers) and B. ‘Mrs. McLean’ in other half of the year 
(mostly in winter months) on the same plant. These bushes originally 
planted as B. ‘Mrs. Louis Wathen’ are giving regularly flowers of 
these types according to the seasons. Likewise the bush planted as 
B. ‘Mrs. Butt’ bears half the year (mostly winter months) the flower 
types (malformation) of B. ‘Scarlet Queen’ and the rest of the year 
(mostly summer months) the flower types (perfect flowers) of B. ‘Mrs. 
Butt’. 


On Mrs. Louis Wathen 


Winter season— 


| 
. 


(a) Mrs. McLean & (b) Scarlet Queen 
(Imperfect flowers and (Imperfect flowers and 
apricot-orange bracts.) crimson bracts on one or 


two twigs.) 
2. Summer season— 


(c) Mrs. Louis Wathen & (d) Mrs. Butt 
(Perfect flowers and (Perfect flowers and crim- 
apricot-orange.) son bracts on the twigs 
that bore B. Scarlet 
Queen.) 
One Mrs. Batt 
1. Winter season— 2. Summer season- - 
(a) Scarlet Queen (b) Mrs. Butt 
(Imperfect flowers and (Perfect flowers and crim- 
crimson bracts.) son bracts.) 


All these flower types are found on Mrs. Louis Wathen at different 
seasons. I have noticed also the flower types of B. ‘Scarlet Queen’ 
(malformation) on B. ‘Mrs. Butt’ and B. ‘Mrs. Butt’ on Scarlet Queen. 
The only difference is the season. The Bougainvillea Mrs. Butt is 
one of the oldest Bougainvillea planted in Lalbagh. It came from 
Kew to Lalbagh in 1923. B. ‘Scarlet Queen’ came into Lalbagh 
in 1925. In 1926, both B. ‘Mrs. Butt’ and B. ‘Scarlet Queen’ were 
described as ‘two new and very fine crimson red varieties’!. The 
malformation of flowers or perfect flowers appear only according to 
the seasonal variations. The malformation of flowers mostly in winter 
months is common to this species and its cultivars only. Lack of 
constant touch with these plants and, by chance, happening to see 
them at different seasons might have been the reason to describe the 
same plant under difierent names. 

It is time therefore to remove the confusion. It is better that we 
recognise only the following, i.e. B. ‘Mrs. Butt’ (which is Bougain- 
villea buttiana proper) and B. ‘Mrs. McLean’, the bud-sport of B. 
‘Mrs. Butt’; and the rest treated as synonymous. Bb. ‘Scarlet Queen’ 
and B. ‘Crimson Lake’ may be treated as nothing but B. ‘Mrs. 
Butt’; B. ‘Mrs. Louis Wathen’ as nothing but B. ‘Mrs. McLean’. 


1 Administration Report of the Government Gardens Department for the 
year 1923-27, 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 803 


B. ‘Mrs. Butt’ (the species proper) in Lalbagh in addition to 
giving often bud-sport B. ‘Mrs. McLean’ has given also another bud- 
sport which has not been described or compiled by either Bor and 
Raizada or by Parsons, T. H.' This bud-sport which originated 
in Lalbagh is very popular and widely cultivated in gardens and also 


Text-figure. Bougainvillea buttiana Holttum and Standley. (1) tte bract 
with perfect flower (in summer months) ; (2) the bract with imperfect flower (in 
winter months); (3) Perfect flower (in summer months); (4) Imperfect or 
malformed flower (in winter months) ; (5) Leaf. 


trained as standard Bougainvilleas in pots. The purple bracts are 
very distinct and showy. This has been named Bougainvillea ‘Purple 
King’. This new cultivar also behaves like the parent plant in pro- 
ducing imperfect flowers in winter months. Another bud-sport of 
Bougainvillea ‘Mrs. Butt’ has developed variegated leaves, first noticed 


1 Parsons, T.H. The Tropica! Agriculturist DCC 1935. Bougaineillea at 
Peradeniya, pages 337-347. 


804 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


in the Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore, and 
named as B. ‘Rao’ after its selector. Mrs. McLean has given a 
bud-sport which bears yellow tinged bracts and it has been called B. 
‘Yellow Queen’. As its parent this also exhibits the malformation of 
flowers according to season. The species B. buttiana and its cultivars 
may be summarised as follows: 


Species Proper: 


tr. Bougainvillea buttiana H. & S.~ (B. ‘Mrs. Butt’). 
Syn: Bougainvillea ‘Mrs. Butt’, B. ‘Scarlet Queen’ and B. 
‘Crimson Lake’. Supposed to be of Brazilian origin with 


crimson bracts. 


Bud-sport of B. buttiana (B. ‘Mrs. Bult’). 

1. Bougainvillea ‘Mrs. McLean’. Syn.: B. Mrs. Louis Wathen. 
Originated as bud-sport on Bougainvillea Mrs. Butt in 
Trinidad and elsewhere with ‘apricot-orange bracts. 

2. B..¥ Purple Kine’: : 

Originated as bud-sport of B. ‘Mrs. Butt’ in Lalbagh. The 
purple bracts are quite distinct from the crimson bracts. 

3. 5. Yellow @ueen- : 

Originated as bud-sport of B. Mrs. McLean—the yellowish 
tinge is dominating in the bracts as compared with the 
apricot-orange colour of the bracts in the parent plant. 

4. B. “Rao”. | 
Originated as bud-sport from B. ‘Mrs. Butt’.. Its leaves are 
variegated. In all the other respects it is like B. Mrs. Butt. 
It was noticed, selected and grown by Sri S. Narasinga Rao 
(Asst. Superintendent, Parks and Gardens, Mysore) at the 
Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore. 

_ The plant is now in the Lalbagh collection of bougainvilleas. 


It is worth noting that it is in this species and its bud-sports alone 
the malformation of flowers. in seasons is observed and this malforma- 
tion occurs regularly every year (see figs.). So far no other species 
of Bougainvillea have ever sown such malformation of perianth 
lobes in Lalbagh. 


SUPERINTENDENT, 
GOVERNMENT GARDENS IN Mysorgk, M. H. MARI GOWDA 


LALBAGH, BANGALORE-2, . 
April 4, 1957. 


23.. SOME NAME CHANGES IN THE FLORA OF INDIA 


Cochlearia cochlearioides (Roth) Santapau et J. K. Maheshwari. 
comb. nov. 
Alyssum cochlearioides Roth, Nov. Pl. Sp. 322, 182r. 
Cochlearia alyssoides DC. Prodr. 1: 172, 1824. 
C. flava Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb. Hort. Beng. 48, 1814, nom. nud.; 
Hooker f. & Anders. in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1145, 1872. 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 805 


This plant is listed in our floras under the name of Cochlearia 
flava Buch.-Ham.; this name, however, is clearly invalid, it being a 
nomen nudum in the sense of the Rules; when Roxburgh published 
it, he did neither give a description nor a reference to any previously 
published description. The oldest valid name is that of Roth, 
Alyssum cochlearioides, of 1821. According to the Rule of Priority, 
Roth’s specific name must be replaced for the present species in 
accordance with the provisions of Art. 55 of the 1956 edition of the 
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. 


Tephrosia strigosa (Dalz.) Sant. & Mahesh. comb, nov. 
Macronyx strigosus Dalz. in Hook. Journ. Bot. 2. 35, 1850. 


Tephrosia tenuis Wall. Cat. 5970, 1831-32, nomen nudum; Dalz. 
& Gibs. Bombay FI. 61, 1861. 


The name Tephrosia tenuis like most of the names published in 
Wallich’s Catalogue is a nomen nudum in the sense of the Rules, 
and therefore an invalid one. The oldest validly published name is 
Macronyx strigosus Dalz., and in accordance with the same Art. 55 
mentioned above, the specific name strigosus must be reinstated for 
this plant. 


Blumea obliqua Druce var. pubiflora (DC.) Mahesh., comb. nov. 
B. pubiflora DC. Prodr.,5: 434, 1834. 


B. amplectens var. pubiflora (DC.) C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. FI. 
‘Brit. Ind. 3: 260, 1881. 


The new combination for the variety is necessitated by the fact 
that the specific name has been changed to Blumea obliqua by Druce 
in Bot. Exch. Club. Brit. Isl. Rep. 4: 609, 1917, based on Erigeron 
obliquum Linn. Mant. 2: 573, 1771. This variety is common on 
sandy soil in the neighbourhood of Okhla near Delhi. 

In addition to the present variety, C. B. Clarke mentions three 
other varieties in the Fl. Brit. Ind. The following new combinations 
are proposed for these varieties : 


Blumea obliqua yar. arenaria (DDC.) Mahesh. comb. nov. 


B. arenaria DC. Prodr. 5: 433, 1834. 
B. amplectens var. arenaria Clarke, loc.. cit. 


Blumea obliqua yar, maritima (Clarke) Mahesh. comb. nov. 
B. amplectens var. maritima Clarke, loc. cit. 


Blumea obliqua var. tenella (Clarke) Mahesh. comb. nov. 
B, amplectens var. tenella Clarke, loc. cit. 


Botany DEpTt., . 
UNIVERSITY OF DELHt, |. K. MAHESHWARI 
DELHI 8, 


April 17, 1957. 


GLEANINGS 


Extracts FROM I.U.C.N. BuLLETIN VoL. VI, No. I (Marcu 1957) 
SELECTED AND ANNOTATED BY R. W. BURTON 


Nature is- Protected 


In the Editorial, Mr. Jean-Paul Harroy observes that under the 
impetus of those who made an aesthetic approach to the subject and 
were anxious to campaign against the disfigurement of beautiful 
places, biologists added their backing to the cause by emphasizing the 
danger of destroying natural habitats, such as hedges, spinneys, ditches, 
etc., without considering the consequences for the small mammals, 
birds, and insects that live and breed there normally, and whose loss 
would impoverish the biotope. z 


Problems » of Po pula tion 


‘Medical science has led to death control but not birth control.’ 

‘It seems pertinent to quote some striking examples that have 
been used in articles and in Press interviews given by the eminent 
biologist, Dr. Julian Huxley. 

‘The human race is increasing by about go0,ooo people, the 
equivalent of a good-sized town, every day of the year. 

‘When projected health measures come into force in India, and 
if the death rate is cut to the extent that the Ministry of Health 
expects, and if the birth rate remains at the present level, within 
a few years India’s annual increase of population will be some eight 
million—equivalent to adding a new London every year !’ 


Qur Lite .Blood— ihe Son 


In the Yugoslavian magazine, Zastite Provada (December 1956) 
effective measures of fighting erosion are described as based on a 
study of the factors by which the water run-off from slopes can give 
rise to erosion. In the United States the principle is adopted that 
installation of drains follows the contours—even up to 200 miles—and 
seems to give satisfactory results. Certain problems still remain, but 
it has already been made possible to provide a better percolation of 
water in areas of heavy rainfall. This certainly benefits the vegeta- 
tion, helps to purify the rivers and increases the possibilities of the 
yield from the soil. 


Precarious Balance 


Referring to Bulletin, Vol. I, No. 1, January 1952, it is stated that 
thousands of rats are delaying the construction of Africa’s largest 
aerodrome by gnawing at the foundations of the 1,500-yard-long 
runway. Large teams specialised in control of rats have had to be 
called in to tackle the problem. 


GLEANINGS 807 


The rats apparently have been breeding to excess ever since snakes 
had to be exterminated to ensure the workers’ safety. 

Here is yet another of the many instances of adverse results con- 
sequent on man’s interference with Nature. There is no doubt in 
Africa a species of non-poisonous snake similar to the common Rat 
Snake of India (Ptyas mucosus) which could be released at the site 
to deal with this plague of rats. 


This would be a sure, natural and inexpensive way of solving the 
trouble. | 


A novel method of Fishing. 

‘And so, in the half-light of the day’s beginning we silently crossed 
the Lena . 

Inconsequentially someone started to taik about fish. ... I told 
the others that in winter in Poland it was possible to catch fish by 
hammering: a hole through the ice. ... I explained, the fish stunned 
by the hammering will be forced out through the change of air 
pressure when the ice is broken through. ... Kolemenos went off 
and returned with a solid baulk of timber . .. We started thumping 
away with pile-driver blows. Eventually we broke through. The 
water gushed up like a geyser, swirling icily round our feet. And 
yes! There were fish—four of them, about the size of herring's.’ 


(THE LONG WALK by Slavomir Rawicz, page 100). 
An experimenting Siberian bear. 


‘Zaro burst back into the tent. ‘‘Somebody’s playing the violin 
out there’’, he shouted. ... The description of someone trying to 
play a violin was setting it a little high musically. It was like the 
plucking of a string on a double-bass. The note was loud and 


sustained, dying gradually away. ... We looked at one another in 
wonderment and started a stealthy general move in the direction of 
the sound. ... We were on the edge of a clearing, on the other 


side of which was a tree blasted by lightning. The main trunk had 
fallen outwards from the clearing without having torn itself completely 
free of its lower part. At the break, about five or six feet above the 
ground, a long splinter stuck straight up. And as we watched, the 
splinter was drawn back until it was bent like a bow. Then it was 
released and the ‘‘music’’ vibrated on our ears. And the performer ? 
A great, black Siberian bear, reared up on his hind legs to his full 
and impressive height. 

Peering round trees we saw him pull at the splinter again and 
again, standing each time with head on the side listening in comical 
puzzlement to the sound he was producing. The performance lasted 


several minutes before he got tired of it and shambied off—away from 
US.” 


(THE LONG WALK by Slavomir Rawicz, page 107.) 


Search for Golden-fleeced Merinos in Australia. 


The golden fleece of Greek legend has become a reality in Australia. 
At least four golden sheep have been found in New South Wales, 
reports Radio Australia News. 


£08 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 84 


The first was discovered a month ago in a normal flock. Although 
its fleece was shining yellow, the animal was obviously of the merino 
type. : 

The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisa- 
tion promptly asked graziers to search their flocks for golden fleeces, 
and began to investigate the possibility of using the wool commercially. 
The scientists believe the sheep are mutations or pure genetic accidents. 
So far they have collected four golden sheep, and samples of the golden 
wool from nine different districts of New South Wales. 


[From International Wool ‘Secretariat News Service, No. 54, dated 
New Delhi, 20th April 1957. | 


Alarm Calls of Peacock. 


‘The peacock is a most valuable guide to the hunter, from the 
peculiar note of alarm it invariably utters if there is a tiger or panther 
moving in the cover. Perhaps the noise of the beaters first com- 
mencing, a single warning sort of call ‘‘h-a-u-k!’’ (like a note from 
a trumpet).is heard at intervals from one or more peacocks answering 
each other from different parts of the cover. At this sound the heart 
beats high, for he has good cause to shortly expect a sight of his 
game. If it is followed by the rapid rising of peacocks in succession, 
each uttering its loud cry of ‘‘tok-tok, tok-tok!’’ as it flies off, 
evidently in the greatest fright, his hopes amount to a certainty; but 
sometimes only to be dashed by the appearance at last of some miserable 
sneaking wild cat, whose approach has been heralded by quite as much 
calling from the peacocks as if a tiger itself was present. Rarely, and 
then seemingly only by mistake (for the call is not repeated by the 
other birds), does a peacock sound the alarm, if merely a bear or 
any number of hog and deer should be rushing through the bushes 
crashing down all before them. This is accounted for by the fact 
that they are chiefly preyed upon by the cat tribe . . ‘ 


[From TIGER-SHOOTING IN INDIA, by Lt. William Rice, 1857. ] 


Political Officer and Panther. 


‘Certain individuals, otherwise undistinguished, achieved wide ata 
lasting fame by virtue of some spectacular episode of the jungle. One 
officer attacked by a wounded panther, had saved his life by seizing 
the animal by one of its hind legs and Sie mies it round and round 
until it was too dazed for further aggression.’ 


| From TWILIGHT OF THE MAHARAJAS, by Sir Kenneth Fitze, K.C.1.E., 
1956, p. 17.] 


NOTES AND NEWS 


Dr. M. L. Roonwal, Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, 
has been elected President of the Zoological Society of India for the 
period 1957-1959. He has also been appointed a member of the 
International Advisory Committee on Humid Tropics Research 
(UNESCO, Paris) and is now Honorary Secretary-General of the 
Indian Board for Wild Life. 


DARWIN CENTENNIAL EXPEDITION 


‘The Darwin Anniversary Committee, Inc., has announced that 
Charles Darwin’s historic round-the-world trip, which helped him 
formulate his theory of evolution, will be retraced in 1958. The year 
7958 was chosen because it will be the centennial of Darwin’s presenta- 
tion of his paper to the Linnaean Society in London outlining his theory 
of evolution. Julian S. Huxley, the biologist, is Honorary Co- 
Chairman of the Planning Committee. Lady Nora Barlow, a des- 
cendant of Darwin, is the other co-Chairman. 

‘Darwin sailed in the British ship Beagle as official naturalist on a 
surveying trip. The expedition, which took place between 1831 and 
1836 visited islands in the Atlantic, the coast of South America and 
adjacent islands, and islands of the western Pacific. The Darwin Com- 
mittee plans to cover the same areas in a year’s time, using a 100- to 
150-foot sailing ship with auxiliary engines. 

‘On his trip Darwin studied native people and the flora and fauna 
of the areas. The modern voyage will compare ecologic conditions 
today with those of 125 years ago. The 1958 trip also will seek to 
determine if any species of flora and fauna are in danger of becoming 
extinct. In the next few months about 20 scientists, both men and 
women, will be selected as Darwin fellows to sail on the expedition. 
Others probably will be flown to the research areas.’ 


[Current Science, Vol. 26, No. 3: 71, March 1957. | 


THE INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE ON LABORATORY ANIMALS 


It is good news to hear that something is now being done to care 
for the animals that are used as raw material for biological and medical 
sciences. An International Committee has been set up under the 
auspices of the International Union of Biological Sciences and the 
Council for International Oraganisation of Medical Science, with the 
assistance of the UNESCO, to help solve problems arising from the 
increasing use of laboratory animals. 

Some of the problems that the Committee will have to face are: 
(x) definition of common terms used in relation to laboratory animals 
with regard to genetics, disease and parasitism, nutrition, care and 
performance; (2) the compilation of a world list of strains of laboratory 
animals; (3) the selection of suitable centres for the production of 


$10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


animals achieving a high and refined quality, or for the maintenance 
of master stocks of such animals; (4) problems which relate to the 
supply of suitable animals; (5) the investigation of customs, quarantine, 
and other regulations governing the international shipment of labora- 
tory animals; (6) the need for establishing an information centre on 
laboratory animals; (7) for laying down standards of education and 
training for animal technicians; (8) for creating internationally re- 
cognised standards for laboratory animals and for testing animals 
claimed to attain such standards; and (g) for furthering the dissemina- 
tion of knowledge on this subject possibly through symposia or con- 
gresses. 

With the information thus gathered ‘the experimental biologist 
can look forward to being able to state precisely what animals he has 
used or wishes to use, in terms that are universally accepted, so that 
his colleague in another continent will know immediately the nutritional 
requirements, the state of freedom from specific infection, the pedigree 
and the possible sources of the same strain’. 


[Nature, Vol. 179 (4553): 240-241, February 2, 1957.| 
% % Ee Re 


The Rajasthan Government have established the Keoladeo Ghana 
of Bharatpur as a sanctuary for breeding water birds. They have 
published an attractive illustrated brochure describing the place and 
its birds in order to publicize the sanctuary. This booklet can be 
had from the Bombay Natural History Society at Rs. 2-8-0 per copy, 
and all further information required by intending visitors from the 
Divisional Forest Officer, Bharatpur. | 


* * * * 


We regret to announce the death of Sir Norman Kinnear who 
retired in 1950 as Director of the British Museum, and who was the 


Curator of the Bombay Natural History Society from 1907 to 1919. 
An obituary notice will appear in the December number of the Journal. 


* % * 


Illustrations of the following animals suitable for publication in 
the projected second edition of Mr. S. H. Prater’s THE BOOK OF INDIAN 
ANIMALS are required : : 

Slender Loris, Tiger, Fox, Wolf, Smaller Onehorned Rhino- 
ceros, Gaur, Wild Buffalo, Nilgiri Tahr, Blackbuck, Swamp Deer, 
Common Mongoose, Lion, Goral. 

The Society would be grateful to members and others who may 


be able to assist. Copies of pictures or photographs available may 


kindly be sent to the Society’s office at an early date. 


PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS 
18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPFRY, MANRAS—14-10-1957. C8092 
EDITORS: SALIM ALI, AND H. SANTAPAU 
114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY 


eS 22s See eee) 


oc a ee i ee ee 


NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS 


Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the 
editors by observing the following instructions: 

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for 
publication to other journals or periodicals, or have already been 
published elsewhere, should not be submitted. 


2. The MS should preferably be typed (double spacing) on 
one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered. 

3. All scientific names, to be printed in italics, should be under- 
lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial 
letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and sub-specific 
names always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a 
person or a place, e.g., Anthus hodgsom hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis 
suratensis or Dimeria blatteri. 

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used 
where identification has been authentically established by comparison 
of specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identi- 
fication is based merely on sight, binomials should be used. 


5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good 
| contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 34x24 inches 
| _ (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper. 

6. Text figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian 
ink, preferably on Bristol board. 
! 7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the 
‘y paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name with the abridged 
titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics), and titles of books 
not underlined (roman type), thus: 


Roepke, W. (1949): The Genus Nyctemera Hiibner. Trans. ent. 
Soc. Lond., 100 (2): 47-70. 


Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay. 


Titles of papers should not be underlined. 

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting 
the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Roepke, 1949). 

9. Synopsis: As recommended by the Royal Society Scientific 
Information Conference (July 1948), the editors consider it desirable 
that each scientific paper be accompanied by a synopsis appearing at 
the beginning, immediately after the title. The synopsis should be 
factual. It should convey briefly the content of the paper; draw 
attention to all new information and to the author’s main conclusions. 
It should also indicate newly observed facts, the method and conclusions 
of an experiment, and if possible the essential points of any new 
finding, theory or technique. It should be concise and normally not 
exceed 200 words. 

When the synopsis is completed it should be carefully revised by 
the author to clarify obscurities, and further compressed wherever 
possible without detracting from its usefulness. 


a 
oS gs 
iS i ag Rin ae 


Seal Eee Sy 


_ 


114 Apollo Street, Fort, | | Epitors, 


Bombay 1 JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY 
NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 


THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS 


Mammals 
The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. With many coloured and black 
and white plates. 2nd (revised) edition. (Jn preparation) 
Birds 


Game Birds of India, by E. C. Stuart Baker. Vol. III. Pheasants, 1st Edition. 


qt Rs. 20 
(Price to Members Rs. 15) 


The Book of Indian Birds, by Sdlim Ali. With 56 coloured and 22 black and 

white plates, 5th (new) edition, revised and enlarged. Rs, 20 
(Price to Members Rs. 16) 

Fish 

Circumventing the Mahseer and Other Sporting Fish in India and 

Burma, by A. St. J. Macdonald. With coloured and black and white plates. 


. Rs. 15 
(Price to Members Rs. 12) 
Miscellaneous 
Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many coloured 
and monochrome plates. 2nd (revised) edition. Rs. 20 


(Price to Members Rs. 16) 
Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With 
many coloured and monochrome plates. Rs. 22 
(Price to Members Rs. 17.50) 


Butterflies of the Indian Region, by M. A. Wynter-Blyth. With 27 clone 
and 45 monochrome plates. Rs. 28 
(Price to Members Rs. 22.50) 
Indian Molluscs, by James Hornell. With 2 coloured and many monochrome 
pias, and text figures. Rs. 6 
(Price to Members Rs. 4.50) 
Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets : 
Our Birps, 1 (with 8 coloured plates) 1 in eee Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada 


and Marathi. 62 nP 
Our Birps, 2 (with 8 coloured plates) in-English, Gujarati, Hindi and 
Marathi. 62 nP 
Our BEAUTIFUL ‘TREES, 3 (with 8 coloured plates) English. 62 nP 


(Editions in provincial languages in preparation) 
Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jpckat 
etc. Rs. 2.50 
Identification of Poisonous Saakes—Wall charts in English, Gujarat and 
Marathi. (In preparation) 
Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application. 


Obtainable from: 
The Honorary Secretary, 
Bombay Natural History Society, 
114 Apolio Street, Bombay |. 
Agents in England: 
Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley Ltd., 
Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Nr. Hitchin, 
. Herts, England. 


TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP 


Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and a life membership fee of 
Rs. 500. 
Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and an annual subscription 
of Rs. 30. 
The subscription of members elected in October, November and December 
covers the period from the date of their election up till the end of the following 
year. a ee 


MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA — 


The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members 
should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the 
amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs..32.50—to the Society in 
Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum 
of £2-9-8 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The 
National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. 


=. JOURNAL OF THE 
(BAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 
Cie Woh, St No. 4 
Edttors 
SALIM ALI & H. SANTAPAU, s,). 
DECEMBER 1957 
, Ree io | 


* 


(C3005 00Ca 00 C000 0h 060) teh 000 Coe 0c occasecn & 


JOURNAL OF THE 
ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF INDIA 


Published bi-annually, containing original papers and 
reviews in all branches of Pure and Applied Zoology 


Annual subscription per volume of two issues: 
Foreign: Rs. 22; Inland: Rs. 20. 


A few back numbers are also available, subject to prior sale. 


A few pages are reserved for advertisements at rates available from 
the Honorary Treasurer. 


Reprints of a few papers of the Indian Helminthologist, the (late) 
Dr. G. D. Bhalerao, Indian Journal of Helminthology and Prof. 
Thapar Sixtieth Birthday Commemoration Volume, 1953, could 
also now be had from the Office of the Honorary Treasurer, 
Dr. B. S. Chauhan, 34, Chittaranjan Avenue, Calcutta-12, India. 


All orders, remittances and communications regarding above should 
be addressed to the Honorary Treasurer. 


09 00C3500C 00 ooo et0co0 conc se 00 00c0 
%* 1000 0010000 1e boc o0e60c0 e000 sco0re8 


se 0 C00 C3 00C 0009 0 0s Caste ab tee Strate a00ca01ta01cS0 


THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S 
RECENT PUBLICATIONS 


Some Beautiful Indian Trees by Rev. E. Blatter, s.3., and 
W. S. Millard. Second edition. Revised and brought up-to-date. 
With 31 coloured and 37 monochrome plates, and numerous text- 
figures. Price Rs. 20. 

(to members Rs. 16) 


Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs by N. L. Bor and 
M. B. Raizada. With 31 coloured and 99 half-tone plates, and 
numerous text-figures. Price Rs. 22. 

(to members Rs. 17°50) 


The Book of Indian Birds by Salim Ali. Sth (New) Edition. 
With 56 coloured plates depicting 224 species, and 22 in mono- 
chrome from photographs. Price Rs. 20. 

(to members Rs. 16) 


CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54, NO. 4 


THE BLACKFACED WEAVER Birp oR DiocH IN WEstT ArFrica: An Ecological 
Study. By Gérard Morel, Marie-Yvonne Morel and Francois Bourliére. 
(With four plates, one text figure and three graphs) 


BIiONOMICS OF FORAGE FISHES: OBSERVATIONS ON THE FECUNDITY OF 
THREE COMMON SPECIES OF: Minor Barsecs. By K. H. Ibrahim. 
(With one figure) 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLoRA OF KoparKkANnAL. By J. Pallithanam, s.j. .. 


A CONTRIBUTION TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE Dratom Genus Pinnularia. 
By H. P. Gandhi. (With twenty-one figures) 


MATING IN Scorpions. By A. P. Mathew. (With three text figures) 


THE Genus Eremopogon STapFr AND ITs AFFINITIES witH Schizachyrium 
NeEs. By M. B. Raizada and S. K. Jain. (With a plate) 


INFLUENCE OF STAGE OF TIDE ON THE ATTACHMENT OF BARNACLE CyprIDS. 
By A. Daniel. (With three graphs) 


RepTitiana. By Lieut.-Col. A. H. E,. Mosse 


BovANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE BHILLANGNA VALLEY OF THE ERSTWHILE 
TeEHRI GARHWAL STATE—II. By Raj Kumar Gupta 


STUDIES ON NON-INSECT ENEMJES OF LAC, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO 
SQUIRRELS AND BirDS AS SERIOUS SEASONAL PREDATORS. By S. Krishna- 
swami, N. S. Chauhan and P. S. Negi. (With a text figure) 


Tne ALGAL FLORA OF THE PONDS AND PUDDLES INSIDE THE BANARAS HINDU 
University Grounps, Inpra. By G. S. Venkataraman. (With seven- 
teen text figures) 


TERNS OF THE SEYCHELLES JIsLANDsS. By M. W. Ridley. (With two 
plates) 


New Prianr Recorps For SourH Inp1A—II. By D. Daniel Sundararaj and 
V. Ramakrishnan. (With two plates) 
OBITUARY : — 
1. Norman Boyd Kinnear, 1882-1957. (With a photo) 
2. Philip McDonell Sanderson, 1884-1957. (With a photo) 
REVIEWS : — 
1. The Evolution of Man (K.K.T.) 
2. Pharmacognosy of Ayurvedic Drugs (Kerala) Series No. 3 (B.C.M.) 
3. Zoological Photography in Practice (W.-T.L.) 


ADDITIONS TO THE SocrIeETy’s LIBRARY 


PAGE 


811 


887 


CONTENTS OF VOLUME 54, NO. 4—(contd.) 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES : — 

1. The Indian Mongoose in Jamaica. By D. E. Reuben (p. 941). 2. 
Habits of the Serow [Capricornis sumatraensis (Bechstein)]. By Major R. J. 
Solomon (p. 941). 3. Ceylon’s Wilpattu National Park (With a plate). By 
J. H. Burnett (p. 942). 4. A Sunbird’s unusual nesting site (With a photo). 
By Joseph George (p. 943). 5. Edible-nest Swiftlets in Burma. By Salim 
Ali (p. 944). 6. The Grey Junglefowl in Salsette. By Humayun Abdulali 
(p. 946). 7. Rednecked Phalarope Lobipes lobatus (Linnaeus) in Southeast 
Asia. By Tom Harrisson (p. 947). 8. A double-headed Krait, Bungarus 
caeruleus (Schneider) (With a photo). By V. R. Jha and P. D. Gupta 
(p. 947). 9. A jumping Snake. By J. H. H. Peppe (p. 948). 10. Additions 
to the Fish Fauna of the Chilka Lake (With a text map). By J. C. Roy and 
N. Sahoo (p. 949). 11. An indigenous fishing Rod and Tackle (With a text 
figure). By F. R. Goldschmidt (p. 953). 12. On a new caterpillar Pest of 
Screwpine: Lycaugesia longipalpis Swinh. (Lepidoptera: Agrotidae) (With 
a text figure). By M. R. G. K. Nair (p. 954). 13. Egg-laying of the Dra- 
gonfly Indophaea cardinalis (Fraser) [Odonata: Insecta]. By (Miss) Evelyn 
Bowden (p. 957). 14. Note on a Hunting Wasp, Notogonia jaculatrix 


PAGE 


(Smith). By F. L. Wain (p. 957). 15, Notes on three common Tree-hoppers | 


(Membracidae: Hemiptera) in Orissa. By Upendra Chandra Panda and 
Basanta Kumar Behura (p. 958). 16. Homeric battles on the dinner table. 
By Lt-Col. R. W. Burton (p. 961). 17. Occurrence of Apus (Crustacea: 
Notostraca) in Pilani, Rajasthan. By S. N. Mathur and Narsingh Sidhu 
(p. 961). 18. Destruction of timber by Marine Organisms in the Karwar 
port (With a graph). By V.C. Palekar and D. V. Bal (p. 962). 19. Solanum 
esuriale Lindl. A new record for Bombay State. By V. D. Vartak (p. 965). 
20. Further notes on ihe Indian species of Curcuma (Zingiberaceae). By 
H. Santapau (p. 966). 21. The species of Lagenandra of Bombay and 
Madras. By H. Santapau (p. 967). 22. Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus 
Dalz.—Further comments. By G. L. Shah and H. Santapau (p. 969). 23. 
On the occurrence of Fritschiella tuberosa lyeng. in Pilani (Rajasthan) (With 
a text figure). By M. C. Joshi (p. 970). 24. A caterpillar-parasitising 
Fungus. By Editors (p. 973). 


GLEANINGS 


Nores Aanyp News 


ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BomBay Naturat History SocreETY FOR THE YEAR 
ENDING 31st DECEMBER, 1956 


THe Honorary SECRETARY S Report FOR THE YEAR 1956 


APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARY S REPORT COVERING THE PERiop 
January ro Avucust, 1957 


STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE Bompay Natural History SOCIETY 


MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEFTING 


JOURNAL 
OF THE 
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 


1957 VOL. 54 | No. 4 


THE BLACKFACED WEAVER BIRD OR DIOCH IN 
WEST AFRICA: 


AN ECOLOGICAL STUDY 


BY 


GERARD Moret, MariE-YvONNE MorEL, AND FRANGOIS BOURLIERE 
Mission d’Aménagement du Sénégal, Richard-Toll, and 
Laboratoive de Biologie, Faculté de Médecine, Paris 


(With four plates, one text figure, and three graphs) 


During the last few years there has been growing concern at the 
damage done by the various subspecies of Quelea quelea to the grain 
crops in African territories. In some parts of the big thorn-scrub 
and savannah belt which extends from Sénégal to the Sudan and thence 
to Kenya, Tanganyika, the Rhodesias, and South Africa this bird has 
become a large-scale pest. Losses of wheat amounting to over two- 
thirds of the total crop have been reported in parts of East Africa, and 
similar damage has been caused to rice in Sénégal and sorghum in 
South Africa. No wonder this dioch is now compared by modern 
agriculturists to locusts in the losses which it causes! 

The problem has even become so urgent that the governments of 
French West Africa, the Union of South Africa, and Tanganyika have 
appointed full-time zoologists to study the biology of the species in 
all its aspects, while other officers have been concerned with research 
into methods of control. To strengthen international co-operation 
in that field the Scientific Council of the Committee for Technical 
Co-operation South of the Sahara (C.S.A.) organised a first specialist 
conference on Quelea which was held in Dakar and Richard-Toll from 
31 October to 5 November 1955. The proceedings of this important 
meeting have not yet been published in full, but a summary of the 
discussions has appeared in The Ibis, volume 98, 1956, pp. 538-541. 
A second specialist meeting on the same subject will be held this year 
in Livingstone, from 29 to 31 July, after the first Pan-African 
Ornithological Congress. 


The French research programme on the ecology of the Blackfaced 


Dioch has been made possible through the generosity of the Mission 


812 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


d’Aménagement du Sénégal {Sénégal Planning Council), a_ state 
organism mainly concerned with the agricultural development of the 
lower Sénégal Valley. A research station has been organised by the 
two junior authors (G.M. and M-Y.M.) at Richard-Toll, in the heart 
of the big irrigation zone which is progressively turning that formerly 
barren part of the country into rice-fields. Laboratory work and 
breeding experiments have been conducted there since 1953, when most 
field observations were made in the area shown in the accompanying 
map (figure 1). The senior author (F.B.) has been responsible for 


RICHARD -TOLL 


Figure 1. — Our study area, the iower Sénégal Valley. 


the planning of the research prograrmme and was fortunate enough to 
take part in two field trips, in April 1954 and August 1955. 


THE BIRD 


Three different subspecies of the Blackfaced Dioch are usually 
recognized. Quelea quelea quelea ranges from Sénégal to Bornu across 
the thorn-bush and grass savannah north of the Congo forest. Quelea 
quelea aethiopica lives in the Sudan and East Africa, intergrading in 
South Tanganyika and Northern Rhodesia with the South African 
subspecies Quelea quelea lathami. 

The plumage of the typical race, to which our birds belong, show 
interesting variations. Normal males during the breeding season are 
usually easily recognized by their black face, their strong bright red 
bill, and the yellow edges to their primaries. The legs are salmon 
-coloured and the eyes lined by a red eye-ring. But some specimens are 
quite different. The black forehead may be greatly reduced and even 
disappear completely. Moreover, the crown, the nape, the breast, and 
even the whole underside may be more or less suffused with pink. 
Such birds have been formerly given a special name (Quelea russzt) 
but they merely constitute a phase-—whose genetic mechanism still 
remains to be worked out—which can be met with in various pro- 
portions in the different populations. In our area it forms from 20 to 
25 per cent of the male breeding population. The behaviour of such 


THE BLACKFACED WEAVER BIRD IN WEST AFRICA 81d 


birds does not appear to differ from that of the normal ones. The 
prenuptial moult starts at the very end of April and is completed in 
the middle of July. 

In the middle of November, the males resume very quickly a 
sparrowy plumage; their beak becomes somewhat paler and they are 
no longer distinguishable in the field from the females. Such 
postnuptial moult appears to be rather strictly timed and sometimes 
abruptly interrupts a late breeding season. 

Females keep a-sparrow-like plumage all the year round, but show 
marked seasonal variations in the colour of the bill. During the 
breeding season it becomes Jemon-yellow, turning red again as soon 
as the reproductive period is over. 

Immature birds have the same sparrowy plumage as the females 
and the non-breeding males. When they leave the nest the bill is 
flesh-coloured and it does not turn red before the next breeding season. 
The postjuvenal moult does not begin before the end of January. 


THE ENVIRONMENT 


The Blackfaced Dioch is a typical bird of the semi-arid (Sahelo- 
Sudanese) zone of West Africa. | 

In that part of the continent, the year is rather sharply divided 
into two periods of unequal duration: a long dry season from 
November to June, and a short rainy season from July to October. 
At Richard-Toll the average annual rainfall is of 350 mm., but im- 


portant variations may occur from year to year, as shown in the 
following table: 


TABLE 1] 


Monthly variations of the rainfall at Richard-Toll, from 1953 to 1956 (in mm.). 


1953 1954 | 1955 1956 


: 
May a 0 | 0°6 2-8 0 
June ae 29:5" 18 52°5 0 
July 58 | 25 90 29 
August ee 121 eek S225 143°8 42-2 
September van 130°2Zee) 22°95 87°8 212 
October eres 56°2 | Ril p| 15:4 36°7 
Total WES! 394-9 254°3 392°3 319°9 


The rains bring on a spectacular change in the plant and animal 
life of this part of Africa. In a few weeks the parched thorn-bush 
turns into a pleasant park-like savannah. Insects become very 
numerous, flowers may be seen everywhere and many birds assume 
their breeding plumage. 

The flora of our study area is not very rich, as compared with 
the southern parts of Sénégal and Gambia. The more numerous 
trees are two species of Mimosoideae, Acacia senegal and Acacia 
tortilis, and one Simaroubaceae, Balanites aegyptiaca. -These are: the 


S14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


species regularly chosen by the Blackfaced Dioch to build its nests, 
and it seems worth noticing that all these trees are very thorny. Such 
is also the case with a bush of the genus Zizyphus which can also be 
used as support for the nests. On the contrary three other species of 
trees living in the same plant community, but without thorns, Bauhinia 
veticulata, Bauhinia rufescens (Caesalpinioideae) and Lepiadenia spar- 
tium (Asclepiadaceae) are never used by Quelea. On_ seasonally 
flooded areas, along the Sénégal River, dense stands of Acacia 
scorpioides are found. They are seldom used by Quelea. 

The grassy stratum is made up principally of a number of species 
of Gramineae whose seeds constitute the staple food of the adult Black- 
faced Diochs all the year around. Millet (Sorghum and Pennisetum) 
grown near the human settlements, and rice now introduced in the 
irrigation zone around Richard-Toll, are to be added, of course, to 
the list of the seeds regularly eaten by these birds. The amount of 
grain actually consumed. by the diochs is nevertheless but a small part 
of their depredations, far more rice being crushed and spoilt by the 
weight of the birds alighting on the crop than eaten by them! 


Lirzk Hisrory 


The Blackfaced Dioch is an extremely gregarious bird, living in 
flocks all the year round. During the rainy season adults usually 
gather in large colonies harbouring millions of birds. Once the 
breeding is over these huge swarms break up into much smaller flocks 
which scatter over the whole semi-arid belt. Such flocks nevertheless 
usually congregate for the night in densely packed roosts, very often 
located in the same places from year to year. Both nesting colonies 
and nocturnal roosts of the non-breeding season thus offer excellent 
targets for control of the birds, and have so far proved most 
vulnerable. 

Our description of the life-history of Quelea quelea, as summarized 
in the present paper, is based on studies made both in the field and 
in captivity. From 1953 to 1956 we were able to study closely 
numerous nesting colonies located in various parts of the. lower 
Sénégal Valley. Such field-work enabled us to describe the various 
stages of nest construction, and to make extensive observations on 
clutch-size, growth, food-consumption, and mortality of the nestlings. 
Moreover, we were lucky enough, in 1955 and 1956, to breed for the 
first time Blackfaced Diochs in captivity, in our aviaries at Richard- 
Toll. Thus we were able to analyse more closely the various 
behaviour patterns of this gregarious weaver and to make preliminary 
experiments on the influence of some ecological factors which probably 
play a role in the timing of their reproductive cycle. 


Nesting Sites. In our area nesting always takes place in 
thorny trees, mainly Acacia senegal, Acacia tortilis and Balanites 
aegyptiaca, and is always colonial. A certain density of trees is 
therefore necessary for the estabiishment of the big colonies and we 
have so far found an average of 50 trees per hectare? to be the rule 


1] hectare=2°471 acres 


THE BLACKFACED WEAVER BIRD IN WEST AFRICA 315 


in most cases. But in some nesting sites the density of trees can be 
much higher, up to 300 per hectare. 

The number of nests per tree is even more variable, from a few 
scores to more than a thousand. On the average a five metre high 
acacia tree harbours about 200 nests, but the Balanites, probably on 
account of their countless long spines, may be covered by thousands 
of nests and look like hay-stacks. 

The size ot the nesting colonies is likewise variable. Fifty 
hectares can be taken as an average, ,but colonies as large as 400 
hectares have been found. The total population of such aggregations 
is therefore tremendous. If we take, for instance, an average colony 
of 50 hectares where the number of trees is 50 per hectare and the 
number of nests 200 per tree, we reach a rough total of 500,000 
nests! This is an average figure and the largest colonies can certainly 
contain up to ro million nests. 

Some very small nesting colonies are nevertheless met with from 
time to time. In 1953 we found near Dara (100 km. north-east of 
Rosso) ir. Mauretania very small colonies established in scanty gum 
trees between sand dunes. Again in 1954 we found colonies of less 
than to trees, and H. J. de S. Disney and J. W. Haylock (1956) tell 
us of similar small nesting sites in the Rift Valley. On the other hand, 
our breeding experiments of 1955-1956 conclusively establish that a 
colony of as few as five pairs of Blackfaced Dioch can reproduce 
successfully. 

Besides a sufficient density of trees, the establishment of a nesting 
colony of Quelea quelea seems to require at least two other environ- 
mental conditions : the vicinity of water and sufficient herbaceous cover. 
As a matter of fact the nesting colonies are never located very 
far from rivers, lakes or at least temporary water holes, and _ that 
explains probably why the nesting sites are so numerous around R’Kiz 
Lake and along the banks of the Sénégal River. Moreover, the 
quantity of grass necessary to build so many nests and the amount of 
seeds needed to support millions of birds during the whole breeding 
season make the presence of a dense cover of Gramineae an absolute 
necessity. 

The combination of these various requirements—a sufficient density 
of trees, the proximity of water and the presence of a dense grass 
cover—probably explains why Blackfaced Diochs show some tendency 
to use again their old nesting sites, despite their regular destruction. 
This is quite obvious around R’Kiz Lake in 1954, 1955, and 1956, 
and similar instances have been reported in Tanganyika. 

In some places Quelea quelea breed in rushes over water, despite 
the presence of apparently suitable trees in the neighbourhood. Such 
is the case in some parts of the French Sudan (Dekeyser, 1955) and 
also in East Africa. As yet, we have not found any evidence of the 
presence of this ‘juncicole type’ in our study area. 


Nest-building and Pair+formation. Quelea’s nests 
are rather loose but strong round structures, firmly attached to the 
surrounding twigs and thorns. They do not hang nor do they have 


a funnel-like entrance like so many weavers’ nests, and are made 
entirely of grass. 


816 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


They are built by the males which start by twisting and knotting, 
mainly with the bill, long green stems of Gramineae around surround- 
ing twigs or thorns; such a ‘bridge’ is then rapidly enlarged into a 
crescent-like structure which gradually becomes an upright ring. 
Work proceeds by the construction of the roof and the sides of the 
nest (double opening stage) before completing the cup (pocket stage). 

These first stages of the nest building do not take a long time— 
about four days according to our field observations at El Khatt colony 
in August 1955. At that time the males are often seen displaying in 
a very peculiar manner. They raise and flutter their wings, elevate 
their tail, fluff slightly their contour and head feathers and sing a short 
sentence. Such a posture has been called ‘butterfly display’ by 
J. H. Crook (in preparation) and ‘territorial display’ by Morel and Morel 
(1957). The function of such a display is obviously to attract the 
females which are starting to visit the constructing males at that time. 
During our 1956 breeding experiments one of our males regularly 
indulged in butterfly display when a female was nearby. But this 
posture may likewise be assumed to threaten a male intruder, as 
shown by our observations at the Palm Grove colony on August 24, 
1955, and in our aviaries on October 21, 1956, when two marked males 
were trying to build together the same nest. The aggressiveness of 
the males during these first stages of the nest building is very strong 
indeed, and their territorial behaviour well developed. Actual fights 
are frequent and death of one of the antagonists may ensue. Under 
a single small tree, on August 25, 1955, at the Hassi Leben colony, 
we found the dead bodies of two males, one with the right eye torn 
out. That is why we misinterpreted at first this posture and called 
it ‘intimidation display’ (Morel and Bourliere, 1956). The butterfly 
(territorial) display is seen during the first four stages of the nest- 
building, until the pocket stage. When a male has abandoned a first 
nest and started building a new one, it resumes that posture. 

At about the fifth day of nest-building, when the whole structure 
is almost completed but the entrance still too large and lacking the 
“pent house’, the male stops building and pair-formation takes place. 
As early as the ‘pocket stage’ males get more and more interested in 
the visiting females and butterfly (‘territorial’) display gives way to 
the ‘connubial display’. Both sexes quiver more or less quickly their 
half spread and dropped wings,. fanning their tail and fluffing their 
contour feathers. Initiative is usually taken by the male, but some- 
times by the female. In 1955 we thought that the yellow bill of the 
mature female could act as the specific releaser of pair formation in 
Quelea, and we accordingly undertook a few field experiments with 
dummies (stuffed females with bills painted yellow or red). Our 
observations failed to disclose any obvious difference between the 
response td the yellow-billed and the red-billed dummies; both were 
attacked by the male ‘owners’ when placed on their nests. On the 
other hand, a small proportion of females retain a pink bill at the 
time of pair formation; on August 24, 1955, at the Hassi Leben 
colony, we found that 60 aut of 270 females (i.e. 22%) still had a 
more or less reddish bill. Both kinds nevertheless behaved in quite 
the same way. 


Journ. BomsBay Nat. HIstT. Soc. VATE 


The various stages of nest construction in Quelea q. quelea. a. The “‘crescent”’ stage, 
b. the “ring’’, c. the “double opening”’ stage, d. the “ pocket”’ stage. 


Photos: F. Bourliéve 


JOURN. BomBaAy Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE II 


The connubial display near the still unfinished nest. 


Photos: G. Morel 


THE BLACKFACED WEAVER BIRD IN WEST AFRICA 817 


The duration of the pair-formation stage is quite short. At 
El! Khatt, in August 1955, the first copulation was noted on the 24th 
at 10.40 a.m., but the same day at 6.15 p.m. we watched a “frenzy 
of copulations’ everywhere in the colony. The next day no more co- 
pulations were noticed and the first eggs were laid. ‘As soon as the 
pair is formed it remains stable and the males pay no attention to 
the unattached females displaying near their nests. Both sexes take 
part in the defence of the nest, but we never observed the female 
adding material to it. The nest itself is quickly completed by the 
male, but no lining is added and the structure remains quite permeable. 
Neither eggs nor nestlings seem to suffer from such a situation, even 
after a prolonged night storm (Hassi Leben, 1954). 

On the whole, the building of these colonies harbouring millions 
of birds does not take more than a week. ‘Tons of green grass must 
therefore be readily available to afford the necessary material. 

The bigger colonies of Blackfaced Diochs appear to exert a strong 
attraction on the smaller ones which happen to be present in the neigh- 
bourhood and which may be deserted at a more or less early stage. 
At the beginning of the breeding season of 1955, swarms of Quelea 
were watched from an observation plane by M. Bessac leaving their 
nesting places south of R‘Kiz Lake and heading towards the Hass! 
Leben colony where they settled to breed. Such unsustained attempts 
at nesting have also been observed in 1954 and 1956; this behaviour 
deserves closer study. 

In all breeding colonies so far studied the sex-ratio of the adult 


birds was found to approximate 50:50. No evidence of polygyny 
has ever been found. 


Eggtlaying, Incubation, and Development of 
the Young. The first eggs are laid 24 hours after pairing and 
before the nest is completed. As a matter of fact laying often takes 
place when the structure is still so thin that the eggs can be seen 
from outside. In some cases the urgency to lay causes females to 
drop their eggs on the ground. On August 25, in the morning, under 
a small tree of the El Khatt colony, we found no less than 20 such 
eggs ! 

Clutch size, as discussed later in this paper, ranges from 1 to 6 
eggs, clutches of three being the more numerous. Larger clutches (35 
eggs in one case) are certainly due to the laying of several females 
in the same nest (Lemoileh colony, 1954). Such abnormal clutches 
were spontaneously abandoned by the birds. Quelea eggs are 
18.3 x 14.2 mm. in size and are a pale greenish blue in colour with no 
markings. 

Brooding is carried out by both the male and the female by day, 
but at night only the female broods (Boul colony, 1953). In the day- 
time, incubating parents never stay for a long time on their eggs. 
On September 4, 1955, for instance, a female was seen to leave and 
enter her nest 21 times during 41 minutes of continuous observation. 
Such brief periods of actual sitting has been noted in every colony 
we have studied as well as in our aviaries. Such a peculiar brooding 
behaviour is probably made possible both by the very high environ- 
mental temperatures (which can reach 4o° C. in the shade at noon) 


818 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist VS OCIA Y= Voiwo4 


and. by the loose structure of the nest (which prevents overheating). 
That Quelea eggs do not need close attendance to be able to hatch 
is proved by an experiment we made in 1956 at the Hassi Leben 
colony. On October 6, eggs were collected at random from various 
nests and kept for two days under our tent before being subsequently 
replaced in occupied nests. On October 15, these 26 eggs which had 
not been brooded for almost 50 hours had given birth to nine 
apparently normal young. 

During incubation the connubial display gives way to a slightly 
modified posture which we called ‘greeting display’ (Morel and Morel, 
1947). Whenever a bird arrives on the nest, both male and female 
start quivering their half-spread wings which are held at-an horizontal 
level (and not dropped as in the connubial display). Moreover, the 
contour feathers are held sleek and not at all fluffed out. Such be- 
haviour has quite probably a social significance, helping to maintain 
the pair-bond. 

Territorial behaviour and aggressiveness continue to be noted during 
the incubation period. As before, the territory continues to be 
restricted to the nest itself and its immediate surroundings, like thé 
favourite perches close to its entrance. Both sexes take part in its 
defence as shown by our 1955 experiments with stuffed birds placed 
on the nests at various stages of the incubation period. Threat 
displays used in territorial defence can consist simply of facing the 
intruder and pointing the bill in its direction, until it flies away. 
Meanwhile the ‘owner’ fluffs its head and contour feathers, often raises 
and spreads its tail, utters a harsh sound, and often makes a few 
intention flight movements. When the intruder gives up, it lowers 
its head while the winner keeps its own raised. When such a threat 
does not suffice, the ‘owner’ may chase the intruder and actual fights 
take place. Robbing straws from the nest frequently releases such 
aggressive behaviour. 

Both in the nesting colonies we studied in Mauritania in 1955-1956 
and in our aviaries in 1956, the incubation period lasted 12 days. 

The nestlings are fed by regurgitation from the parents’ crop on 
a mixture of little grass seeds and insects, mainly grasshoppers and 
caterpillars. Hemiptera and Diptera can also be taken. The 
amount of insects eaten by the young Blackfaced Diochs for some days 
after hatching ranged from 35 to 50 per cent of the total volume of 
food found in the 433 crops collected in 1953 and 1954. 

Both parents share the feeding of the young, as shown by the 
continuous observation of a nest at Boul’s colony on October 16, 
1953: 

Adults do not forage alone to collect the food needed to raise their 
brood. As soon as they have delivered their crop content to their 
young, parents usually fly to the top of the nesting tree and wait till 
a foraging flock flies by. They join it immediately and thus go away 
from the colony. It is likely that such birds usually collect their food 
at short distances from their nesting place; but that is not always the 
case. At the Tambass colony, for instance, we found in 1954 rice 
seeds from the ricefields of Richard-Toll (25 km. away, as the crow 
flies) in the crops of some young. 


S0j0Yq 


(a40JT “5 


"9sP1S 


‘SjSoU IToy} UO 


SITP] 


piens surpur}s ,, 


oe 


uorl}eqnouy 


‘sunoA oY} SUIpsey oT] 


‘90S “LSIH “IVN Avawog ‘Nunof[ 


Ill a1v1d 


JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV 


The traps used for catching immature Queleas. 


The aviaries for breeding experiments, Richard- Toll Ornithological 
Station. 


Photos: G. Morel 


THE BLACKFACED WEAVER -BIRD IN WEST AFRICA 819 


Territorial behaviour seems to become less conspicuous soon after 
hatching, as shown by our 1955 dummy experiments. Aggressiveness 
still persists against intruders, but both parents are so busy gathering 
food that they have little occasion to spend much time near their 
nests. Nest-sanitation has been noted only during the week following 
hatching. Later on droppings are no longer removed and accumulate 
in the bottom of the nest. 

The young were first observed to leave the nest on their 14th. day, 
both in the nesting colonies and in our aviaries. By that time their 
food consists almost entirely of grass seeds, which they still beg from 
their parents for at least five days. In the meantime they start forag- 
ing on their own, dropping down to the ground underneath the trees and 
picking up seeds, and even eggshell according to Disney and Haylock’s 
observations made in Tanganyika. In November 1956, fledgelings 
had not yet left the Hassi Leben colony 19 days after hatching 
(J. H. Crook, personal communication). When they have abandoned 
their nest, the juveniles continue to roost for a few days beside it. 
Later they concentrate together at night, and finally leave the nesting 
site to roost elsewhere some five days after climbing out of the nests. 

Females are ready to breed at the age of one year. Two of our 
marked birds (white and violet) hatched in our aviaries on September 
5, 1955, successfully paired and laid their first eggs in October 1956. 

The sex-ratio of the young Quelea quelea appears to be almosi 
equal, ‘as shown by the following figures: 


TABEE 2 


Sex-ratio of the young 


| Age Total of i 
—~ | (days) young Males. | Females 
Tambass colony, 1954 bee | 1-2 325 279 246 
Lemoileh colony, 1954 | 1-3 313 159 154 
Tambass colony, 1954 aM 8 182 | 86 96 
Dara colony, 1953 14 136°) || 1 e 65 


| The average number of young raised is a little over two per nest— 
Tambass colony, 1954: 2.08 (266 nests); Hassi Leben colony, 1955: 
2.7 (614 nests); Hassi Leben colony, 1956: 2.2 (436 nests). 


Cimcherceplacement “and «Second Brood: On 
October 8, 1953, at Boul’s colony, we removed the whole clutch in 8 
nests which were at half their incubation period. No clutch replace- 
ment took place. However, it has been assumed that the late (and 
mostly unsuccessful) colonies, which are met with from time to time, 
could have been built by birds whose nests had been destroyed by the 
Office de Lutte Antiaviaire (Bird Control Service) earlier in the season. 
Such could have been the case, for instance, with the small colony 
established round the 2oth of October 1956 near Ross-Bethio, half way 
between Richard-Toll and Saint-Louis; the season was so much 


= ~ 


820 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


advanced that about two-thirds of the nests were abandoned shortly 
after laying or even after hatching. Until a large number of breeding 
birds are banded it will be impossible to be sure of that point. 

The possibility of a second brood does nevertheless exist. During 
our 1956 aviary experiments, a marked pair (green male x white 
female) raised a first brood (4 eggs, 2 young) in nest 1 in October, 
and the one-year old female laid a second but unsuccessful clutch of 
2 eggs in nest 3 (which had been taken up by her mate) on 
November 11. 


The Adults outside of the Breeding Season. As 
soon as the nesting period is over, Blackfaced Diochs scatter all over 
the sunburnt savannahs in parties of at most several hundred birds. 
These small flocks spend most of their time on the ground, scratching 
it with their feet and bills, searching for the ripe grass seeds which 
have then fallen down. When frightened by some unusual noise or 
movement, they take off abruptly—producing a noise which can be 
heard at long range—and fly some distance before resuming their 
foraging. 

At noon and during the hottest part of the day, the birds like 
to rest in thick cover to preen and chatter. The duration of such a 
midday rest appears to depend on the abundance of food. When it 
is scarce the diochs are busy feeding most of the day, but when it 
is plentiful and readily available they spend a lot of time resting in 
some shaded place. That is what happens, for instance, on the large 
ricefields near Richard-Toll when the crop is ripe. During December 
1954, a huge diurnal roost was thus observed at harvest time in a 
small wood, at about one mile from the fields as the crow flies. Here 
the birds used to spend hours every day preening, chattering, bathing 
nearby, or weaving grass around twigs, or even building mock-nests 
not exceeding the ring stage. 

Feeding activities come to an end late in the afternoon and the 
small flocks can then be observed everywhere, making for their com- 
munal night roost, gathering together in certain places before flying 
to the roost, where they usually arrive in the last half-hour of day- 
light. 

The location of these huge roosts is about the same every year. 
They are usually located in acacia trees not very far from water, 
Blackfaced Diochs liking to drink betore going to sleep. During the 
colder months (December to February) when the night temperature 
may fall to 15° C., they seem to prefer dense reed-beds which probably 
provide them better shelter. The birds usually leave the nocturnal 
roosts as the sun rises, the swarm breaking up into a few dense flocks 
which fly away in different directions before scattering in smaller 
parties. 

Both male and female appear to spend the night in the same roosts, 
but an intriguing disproportion of the sex-ratio has been disclosed by 
our 1954 observations. During that year we examined 3,695 adults 
killed by blasting in 10 roosts along the Sénégal River. Out of these 
birds we found only 946 females, i.e. about three males to one female. 
H. J. de S. Disney and Haylock (1956) have also noted that, 
especially after nesting, flocks may consist almost entirely of males. 


THE BLACKFACED WEAVER BIRD IN WEST AFRICA 821 


Anyway that is a very perplexing problem, as one considers that the 
sex-ratio among nestlings has always been found to be equal. 

The huge bird-clouds on migration reported from East Africa have 
not been reliably observed in Sénégal or Mauretania up to the 
present time. Our ringing experiments seem to prove that the birds 
born in our area stay there and do not wander very far. Out of 970 
immature birds banded in Richard-Toll between April and August 1954, 
80 were recaptured later at the same place. One young banded early 
in April was nevertheless found near Dakar (at 250 km. SW. as the 
crow flies) early in July. 

Flocks of juveniles do not seem to merge with adi parties 
immediately after the breeding season, and for some months the young 
of the year keep together. Such gatherings are very common around 
Richard-Toll during the last months of the year. Out of 5,520 birds 
banded at our station between November 13 and December 26, 1956, 
no more than 15 were adults. 

About a fortnight before breeding the birds start gathering around 
their usual nesting place. That is the time where unsustained 
attempts at nesting are reported every year in Lake R’Kiz area. 


QUELEA AND 1TS ENVIRONMENT 


The Blackfaced Dioch seems to be influenced in many ways by the 
fluctuations of some environmental conditions. Early in the course 
of this study, we were impressed by the fact that not only were the 
time and duration of the breeding season obviously related to the 
timing of the rains, but also that the productivity of the colonies was 
in some way adjusted to the carrying capacity of the environment. 
The quantitative study of these interrelations therefore became the 
main long-term objective of our field observations and of our experi- 
mental work. It will probably take us many more years to reach the 
stage where definite conclusions can be drawn, but some of our pre- 
liminary results seem nevertheless worth recording at the present 
time. 


The Timing of the Breeding Season. The various 
ecological factors which control the breeding cycle of tropical pas- 
serines are still very poorly known. As the seasonal variations of 
the photoperiod are quite small close to the Equator, their influence on 
the reproductive cycle has been questioned by many ornithologists. 
On the other hand the effect of the rains cannot be underestimated. 
We have therefore tried to disentangle the respective influences of 
these various factors, both by experimentation and by field observa- 
tions. 

That the avian gonads are still able to respond to an artificial 
increase of daily illumination, at the latitude of Richard-Toll (16° 25’ 
N.), is shown by our 1955 experiments. From February 2, to 
June 12, 23 Blackfaced Diochs (11 males and 12 females) were given 
a daily supplement of light of five hours (from 7 to 12 p.m.). 17 other 
birds were kept as controls in another aviary and fed, like the experi- 
mental animals, on rice and millet. Such an artificial increase of the 
photoperiod was quickly followed by an increase of the gonads of botk 


822 JOURNAL, BOMBAY “NATURAL? HIST SOCIET Va Volwa4 


Sexes, an early appearance of the breeding plumage, and a premature 
moult of the remiges. 

When 12 out of 13 controls had, on June 15, testes which did not 
exceed 3 mm. in length, 4 ‘treated’ males had testes ranging between 
10.5 and 5 mm. and 5 others ranged between 5 and 3 mm. 

The black face of the males and yellow bill of the females 
appeared much earlier in birds which enjoyed a daily supplement of 
light than among controls. On April 27, for instance, three males 
had already a perfect black ‘mask’, when all the controls still kept 
their sparrowy plumage. On June 12, nine males had their full nuptial 
dress, as compared with a single control bird. 

J. J. Marshall and H. J. de S. Disney have reported very similar 
results during their work on Quelea quelea aethiopica. 

An artificial increase of the daily illumination seems, moreover, able 
to hasten the sexual maturity of young Blackfaced Diochs. On 
December 8, 1955, one of the young Quelea born in our aviaries on 
September 4, and provided since that time with a daily supplement of 
five hours of light, already had an half-grown black face! 

All these preliminary experiments seem to indicate that the increase 
in the day-length which takes place from January to June plays a 
major role in regulating the seasonal enlargement of the gonads of 
Sénégal’s Quelea, as it does in passerines nesting much farther north. 
Once the nuptial plumage is completed and the gonads have attained 
their full size, the birds are physiologically ready to breed. But actual 
nest-building does not start at once, nor does it take place at the 
same time every year. Some more ‘proximate’ factor must therefore 
regulate the beginning of the actual nesting season. The rains, in 
all probability, piay this role, more or less directly. Blackfaced 
Diochs cannot start building their huge nesting colonies before the 
cover of grass is dense enough to provide them with the tons of material 
they need to build their millions of nests. Nor can they raise their 
broods before the insects are abundant enough to compose some 50 
per cent of the diet of the young birds. Both the growth of the 
grass cover and the build-up of a sufficient insect population depend 
finally on the.rains. Until the first showers fall the soil remains 
barren or covered with straw useless for weaving, and insects are 
scarce. 

No wonder that the Quelea nesting season coincides so closely with 
the rains. Such a correlation becomes obvious when one compares 
the breeding seasons of the Blackfaced Dioch in West African areas 
whose rainfall pattern is different. In the upper valley of the Sénégal 
River (around Matam), for instance, where rains start generally one 
month earlier than in the Lake R’Kiz area and in the lower valley, 
nesting likewise begins earlier. In our area the time when actual 
nest-building takes place varies also from year to year and these 
variations follow those of the rains. During an average year, like 
1953 or 1954, nest-building starts early in September. When the 
rainy season begins earlier, as in 1955, the birds likewise breed ahead 
of schedule (nest-building during the second half of August). On the 
contrary, when the rains are late, as in 1956, the breeding season 1s 
postponed and the birds do not start building their colonies till the 
very end of September. 


THE BLACKFACED WEAVER BIRD IN WEST AFRICA 823 


We still do not know how that rain-stimulus works. We are 
nevertheless inclined to believe that it acts through its effect on vegeta- 
tion. Indeed the Blackfaced Diochs never breed immediately after 
the first rains. On the contrary they seem to wait till new grass is 
sufficiently grown to enable them: to build their nests and to provide 
them in due time with fresh seeds (and insects) to feed the young. 


The Limiting Factors. The factors which control popula- 
tion size in tropical Passerines are still poorly elucidated, and Quelea 
quelea obviously offers an excellent opportunity for such a study. 

Food. In years when the rains start very late in the season and 
are less abundant than usual, thus reducing the amount of food 
available, both clutch-size and nesting success are smaller than in 
years when the rainy season is longer and heavier. That was the 
case in 1956 as compared with 1955 {see-tables 1, 3, and 4). The 
scarcity of broods of more than three fledgelings in such ‘bad’ years is 


TABLE 3 


Yearly variations in the clutch-size of Quelea quelea, Lower Sénégal Valley, 1953-56 


Clutch size 1°53 | 1954 


| 1955 | 1956 
1 ege 4 (31%) | 12L( 58 %)) 59( 41 %) | 58 ( 5:9 %) 
2 eggs .. | 39(30°7 %) | 467 (22:5 %)| 194 (135 %) | 240 (24-6 %) 
3 eggs | 72 (55:9 %) | 1228 (59:7 %)| 819(57°3 %) 475 (48:7 %) 
4 eggs Bt tee G25 aoa) 230 (11-1 %) | 319 (22°3 %) | 188 (19.2 %) 
5 eges i 18(08%)| 37( 25%) | 14( 14%) 
Nests studied ee 127 2064 1428 | 975 
Average clutch: size... 2°72 | IT 3°06 | 25 


BAe Se PO 


remarkable, and is quite probably explained by the increased nestling 
mortality in broods of larger size when the food is not abundant enough. 
In October 1956 we weighed nestlings at the Palm Grove colony, in 
nests containing respectively 2, 3 and 4 young. The result is shown 
in Figures 2 to 4. Not only were the young of larger broods found 
to weigh rather less when leaving the nest than those from smailer 
ones, but also the mortality rate in broods of 3 and 4 young was 
definitely greater than in broods of two. . The death of the youngest 
and weakest nestlings was frequently observed. Furthermore, the 
fledgelings differed considerably in weight. In nest no. 65, for 
instance, the larger one weighed 15.9 g. when the smaller reached 
only 10.5 g. “Now, the chances of survival of the fledgelings after 
leaving the nest are probably very much affected by their weight. 
Early in December 1956, we were visited in Richard-Toll by large 
flocks of young birds which had left their nests a few weeks before 
—some patches of down being still visible on their heads. Those 
juveniles -were obviously starved. Not only was their weight lower 
than the average, but some were observed gathering around our 
aviaries and begging for food from our captive adults through the 


824 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. S@CEETY, 4 V ol. 54 


wire-netting. Some were found dead around the station and many 
more (around 10%) died after being trapped for banding, although 
they were handled carefully and given food and water. 

During the next breeding seasons we hope to be able to get 
quantitative data on the amount of vegetable and insect food available, 
together with the quantity actually consumed by parents and nestlings. 
The biomass of available insects will be estimated through the amount 
collected per night in traps using uitra-violet light. 


‘TABLE 4 


Yearly variations in nesting success 


R’Kiz area colonies, 1955 and 1956 


STE CARY OT 


| 1955 1956 
ee ( ee ee gee ae eee f 
Nests with 1 young ae 40 (6.5%) 60 (13.7%) 
Nests with 2 young al 200 (32.5% ) 227 (52:0%) 
Nests with 3 young seat 277 (45.1%) 146 (33°4%) 
Nests with 4 young ee 82 (13.3%) 3 ( 06%) 
Nests with 5 young re 15 ( 2.4%) —— 
Nests examined ater 614 436 
Average number of young. | 2.7 Ze 


Predation. Quelea’s predators are rather numerous, but their 
pressure at the population level does not seem to be very great. 
During the breeding season we frequently observed Tawny Eagles 
(Aquila rapax) alighting on the nesting trees, tearing open the nests 
and eating the young. Marabou Storks (Leptoptilos cruminiferus) 
behave much in the same way. The Redbilled Hornbill (Tockus 
erythrorhynchus) is also fond of young Blackfaced Diochs; it easily 
picks up the nestlings through the nest entrance with its large curved 
bill. Pythons likewise prey upon the young Quelea, as does the 
Beaked Snake (Rhamphiopis rostratus) in East Africa. 

Man has undoubtedly now become Quelea quelea’s main predator. 
With the development of modern methods of control (explosives, 
flame-throwers) millions of adults and nests are destroyed every year. 
If there is no large exchange of population between the Sénégal 
Valley and adjacent regions, the species should quickly decrease in 
numbers in our area. 


Longevity in the Wild. Data on the maximum duration 
of life of the Blackfaced Dioch in captivity are unfortunately still 
lacking. On the other hand, we have started ringing our birds since 
too short a time to have any precise idea of their expectation of life 
in the wild. A few recoveries of birds banded when juveniles never- 
theless give a first indication on their maximum longevity. 

These preliminary results show that 1.3 per cent at least of the 970 
juveniles born during the 1953 season and banded during 1954, still 
stayed in our study area four years later. Similarly, out of the 228 
juveniles of the 1954 season banded in 1955, 2.6 per cent at least were 


‘Q9SGT 19q0}90 ‘Sun0Ad OM} JO SPOOIq UI SSUI[}Seu JO SOAIND YJMOIN—' FZ INS 


SAVO 


Ol 


8! 


008 “SIH “FN Ae 


—— 


‘QS6I 19q0790 ‘SunoA a01Yj Jo Spoorq ul sSurpjsou JO SOAIND GIMOIN—'¢ sNsIy 


eer ee a eae aera | Ege = enn ane eee ag a ere Gen ae een lp ee ee ee 3 
GAVCO 0 


0} 


st 


D 
S 
OH 


008 “ISTH ‘9eN Avquiog ‘uanor 


‘9CGT 19G010Q ‘3uNOA INO} Jo SpOOlq UI SSUIPISEM JO SOAIND YJMOIN—'p INS 


Ql 
‘209 “ISIHT “3eN Aequiog ‘uanor 


THE BLACKFACED WEAVER BIRD IN WEST AFRICA 825 


TABLE 5 


Longevity of some banded birds.* 


Lene ar mer en amma 


No. Banded on Recaptured on 
ss 2 AR : : 
IBLE Gisonlo ane 28. VI. 1954 26. IV. 1957 
HP 7264 ... 28. VI.1954 28. IV. 1957 
BPA 7A 30% esac 7. VIL 1954 102 V..1957 
ENP 7483e 0. 11. VUII. 1954 | Td V1 957 
BE? TAGYA ae 12. VIL. 1954 28. IV. 1957 
EVER) tesa 12. VinI. 1954 8. VI. 1957 
HIP 14s s., 20. V. 1954 4, V1. 1957 
HE 7804.5 ..: 19, VIII. 1954 | 13. VI. 1957 
EP 8028-3. 2. VI. 1954 | 14. Vi. 1957 
FIP S057. «0 15. VI.1954 14, VI. 1957 
HiP*S073' 25... 16. VI. 1954 25... LV. 1957 and 11. V. 1957 
EVP? 8120 = 9.8 18. VI. 1954 26 IV. 1957 
HR 9328 *..: 23. VIII. 1954 252. 1Vis 19575 29. TVO195 7 
62 Ve1057, 9% Vand 13% V1. 
HR 949k wz alse IL 1955 TD Vil 957 
HR 9530... 3. IIT. 1955 13. VI. 1957 
HR 9596. 1 TES 1955 25. IV. 1957 
HR 9638 _ =. 12. IV. 1955 13. VI. 1957 
IBUES Wlatetes bone | es 132° Ve 4955 4, VI. 1957 


still present around the station in 1957. We hope to continue these 
banding experiments for a sufficient number of years to be able to 
calculate the rate of disappearance (through mortality and emigration) 
of the Quelea quelea breeding in Lake R’Kiz area. 


REFERENCES 


Busnel, R. J. and Gramet, Ph. (1956): Recherches préliminaires sur le comporte- 
ment acoustique de Quelea quelea quelea Latham en captivité. Bull. Inst. 
Fr. Afrique Noire 18, A, 280-326. 

Dekeyser, P.L. (1955): Recherches sur la biologie du T ravailleur 4 becrouge( Quelea 
eteree Latham) en A.O.F. (1951-1954). Bull. Inst. Fr. Afrique Noire 17, 
A, 592-615. 

Disney, H.J.deS. and Haylock, J. W. (1956): The distribution and breeding 
behaviour of the Sudan Dioch (Quelea quelea aethiopica) in ‘Tanganyika. 
East Afric. Agric. J. 21, 141-147. 

Friedmann, H. (1922): ‘The weaving of the Red-billed weaver in captivity. 
Zoologica 2, 355-372. 

Marshall, A. and Disney, H. J. de S. (1956): Photostimulation of an equatorial bird 
(Quelea quelea). Nature 177, 143-144. 

Morel. G. and Bourliére, F. (1955) : Recherches écologiques sur Quelea quelea 
guelea L. de la basse vallée du Sénégal. I. Données quantitatives sur le cycle 
annuel Bull. Inst. Fr. Afrique Notre 17, A, 617-663. 

— — — (1956): Recherches écologiques sur Quelea yuelea gquelea L. de 1a basse 
vallée du Senégal, IJ. La reproduction, Alauda 24, 97-122. 

Morel, M.Y, and Morel, G. (1957): Notes complémentaires sur l’écologie et 1’étho- 
logie du Quelea quelea quelea L. Alauda 25, 81: 93. 


* All these birds were Landed and recaptured at Richard-Toll. 


BIONOMICS OF FORAGE FISHES: OBSERVATIONS ON 
THE FECUNDITY OF THREE COMMON SPECIES OF 
MINOR BARBELS 


BY 


K. H. IpRAHIM, M.A. 
Research Assistant, Central Inland Fisheries, Cuttack (Orissa) 


. (With one figure) 
IN-TRODU/CPION 


Carp culture is prevalent in most countries of south-east Asia and 
several cultural practices calculated to augment fish production have 
been developed. Culture of predatory fishes, however, appears to have 
been comparatively neglected. In India, the murrels (Ophzcebhalus spp.) 
form a group of highly prized, predatory food fishes which are popular in 
several areas, particularly in the Deccan; but, unlike carps, cultural 
practices for murrels have yet to be developed on proper lines. A few 
early attempts made in this direction have not been encouraging (Hora, 
1945.) A critical study of these early attempts reveals that hardly any 
attention was paid to provide adequate natural food for the murrels which 
are markedly piscivorous in feeding habit. Providing adequate natural 
forage is essential to ensure satisfactory growth of the predator, and in all 
field attempts in this line the forage fish will have to be reared in ponds. 
Detailed information on the bionomics of the various indigenous species 
of forage fishes is essential if murrels are to be reared in ponds on a large 
scale and if a forage fish-predator relationship on the lines of the sunfish— 
Bass combination (Swingle and Smith, 1943) is to be worked out for the 
murrels. According to Hora (op. cit.) ‘unless a similar association of 
murrel and of another rapidly multiplying fish is established for Indian 
waters, it will be, in my opinion, a waste of time to culture murrels in 
ordinary tanks’. 

Of the various genera of indigenous carps, the genus Punfius, com- 
prising several smail size species, deserves consideration as suitable 
forage fishes. While some preliminary information on the food of nine 
species of Petivs from Madras has been given by Chacko (1948) and 
certain sttay observations on the breeding season of and number of eggs 
produced by a few species have been recorded by Jones (1946), Innes 
(1935), Mellen and Lanier (1935), and Stoye (1935), hardly any systematic 
study of the fecundity of any of these species has yet been made. Since 
reliable information on the fecundity of a species is essential for regulating 
its population'under cultural conditions and thereby maintaining the desired 
forage-predator ratio, an attempt has been made in this communication to 
furnish details of the fecundity of three of the common and widely 
distributed species of the genus Puntius, viz.: P. stigma, P. ticto and 
P, vitlatus. 


MATERIAL AND METHODS 


Specimens of P. stigma and P. ticfo were obtained from fishery waters 
at Cuttack, Orissa, while P. vwit/atus was collected from Azhikode, 
Travancore-Cochin. Fifteen specimens of each species were studied in 
detail for fecundity counts, while a much larger number was examined 


BIONOMICS OF FORAGE FISHES 827 


for observations on distinguishing characters of sexes, etc. For fecundity 
counts, after the specimens were measured and weighed, the ovaries were 
carefully dissected out, weighed, volume obtained by the displacement 
method, and then samples of known volume were taken for actual 
counts. In the case of P. stigma ova counts were made by the gravi- 
metric method also—counting the number of ova in a sample of known 
weight—and in five selected specimens the results of the two counts were 
checked by actual total counts with a view to ascertain the extent of 
error in the estimations. In P. vittatus the ovaries were very small and 
hence total counts of ova were made in all the specimens. 


1, Puntius stigma (Valenciennes) 


The material for the present study comprised 92 specimens, consist- 
ing of 40 males and 52 females. The range of size and weight of specimens 
of the two sexes are given in Table I. 


TABLE I 


Length and weight of ripe male and female specimens of the three 
species of Puntius 


SD = 


i “Total length (an ) Average 

Species Sex : weight 

: -| Bxamined Range Average (gms.) 
ie Male Ree 40 45°0- 62:0 56°0 2°68 
P. stigma | Female ee 52 62°0-134-0 81-7 10°24 
ia aan Male ch 15 49°0- 62:0 53°0 2°38 
; Female = 17 57°0- 66-0 61:0 4°33 
Male aed 24 21°0- 31:0 26:0 0°22 
PL. vittaus «. | (emt Se 22-0- 46:0 |  30°5 0°37 


TS 


Males : are . thus decidedly smaller than the females. The smallest 
mature male specimen encountered during this study measured only 
45:0 mm. in total length, while the corresponding female specimen 
measured 62:0 mm. 

Besides the disparity in the maturity sizes of the two sexes there are 
other characters which distinguish the ripe male from the ripe female. 
Such distinguishing features may be tabulated as follows: 


TABLE II 
Distinguishing features of ripe male and female specimens of Puntius stigma 


Distinguishing features Male Female 
=< | annie 
Fins { Dorsal Pi »-| Pale yellow ... | Tinged pale yellow. 
Others see .| Yellow ... | Bright red or pink. 
Lateral scales along the shoulder 
Tesion—. <.. S60 ...| Golden yellow’... | Silvery. 


In immature specimens of both sexes 40-0 to 50°5 mm. long, the 
fins are dull or pale white in colour, and the golden red opercle spot and 
the scarlet pink lateral band are wanting. 

Fecundity Enumeration: While volumetric as well as gravi- 
metric methods were adopted in the case of 15 specimens of Pumntzus 

D 


a 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


828 


(29-0) 
Giuskee 6E PES &0E‘79 0€8 LP 0-6 S6-6 CL EP 0-FET T 
9-0 
69-0-29-9 % PST OL L96'8 1-2 61-2 16-61 0-60T l 
(99-0) (o1s‘9) | (8266) (G.1) (69-1 (2S-8T) 
&/-0- 65-0 es TLZ‘OL-OSE'€) TFE‘ST-9Th'S) €-2-8-0 TS-2-28-0 | €9-61-TS-ZI |  0-90T 4 
(49-0) (ZT1'9) (F06'S) (S9-T) (26-T) (82-81) 
Bp oee0 us 266 °9-2F2'S | LET‘9-T 29'S F-1-6-1 9$-T-62-2 | @6-81-S9-ZT | 0-SOT rd 
S9-0 
02 -0-Z9-0 9OL‘ST S16 ‘FL TO9‘€T 6-2 | ELS 08-8T 0-F0T T 
(99-0) (9zs‘a) (212‘9) | (6-1) (60-2) (09-21) 
04-0-29-0 a SLU‘OL-1F6‘9| F8I'8-0S2'S | H-2-S-T #S-2-S9-T | Sz-81-$6-9T | 0-BOT Z a DUBS SH1JUN J 
($9-0) (92201) (92021) | (s#-2) (S9.2) (F-2T) 
ere = PIL §T-08'9| OFS*Z'-ZI9‘9] —-0-§-6-T ZU-€-8T-2 | [Z-8I-ZT-91| 0-01 z 
29-0 
A i 610°9 698°9 LT 61-1 10-21 0-06 T 
99-0 
0 609‘Z LI8‘L 8b9 ZL 9-L 8¢-T 66-2 0-08 I 
29-0 
$p-0-63:0 St6'S 928'S 0¢2°S TT QT-T 0-8 0-6! T 
¢9-0 
69-0-29-0 1242'S 9SL‘F 090'S L.-T SLT OF-L 0-84 if 
poyjeur porjout | - = 
®A0 gO ae 1OsE DIJOUMIABIN | DIjotunfoA | (°99) sotreAo Seeds (‘sur3) Usy See psurarexs satoads 
jo JOJIMIVIG jo 9sTINjOA jo 39M JO}USIOM [BIOL Jequin Ny ona: 


Aq BAo jo JOqUINN 


sniyunT SANUS AHL 40 SHIOHdS HHAHL AHL NI VAO 4O WZIS ANV INNO) ALIGNQNOAY 


I WIlav 


829 


BIONOMICS OF FORAGE FISHES 


(99-0) 
Z/-0-£9-0 
(1z-0) 
G/-0-99-0 
(29-0) 
€2-0-8S-0 
(9.0) 
9/-0-8S-0 
(02-0) 
62-0-F9-0 
(89.0) 
TZ-0-19-0 


(02-0) 
9/-0-F9-0 
(82-0) 
£8-0-29-0 
(79-0) 
6Z-0-19-0 
(99.0) 
0/-0-0S-0 
($9.0) 


cL:0-LS-0 


(22-0) 
S8-0-62-0 
(69-0) 
G/-0-49-0 

(89-0) 
§/-0-8S-0 


‘TOAIS O18 OSLIOAL PUL 98UI II9Y} PIUIMIEXS Oe Y}SUI] [BJO] SUT’S ay} JO MAMIOAds 9UO TY} AOU SIO MW 


0F6 ‘2 


SIP Ph 
(197‘9) 
06S‘8-E26'F 
(10P‘t) 
Spl 's—sSso's 
(gots) 
0Ss‘8-89g ‘Zz 
(202‘S) 
068’ F-289‘Z 


FIPS 
$6G'€ 


2 
4 © 


fo 8) 
—-omow~ 


— 
oo 
ens 
j=) 


—i—) 
1 & 
nS 


rd of 
| 1 
OS 


COR is 
Q&S 


Se) 
} 
os 


80-0 
40-0 


Z0-0 
(10-0) 
Z0-0-10-0 
(20-0) 
€0-0-20-0 
(26-0) 
€0-0-10-0 


¢Z-0 


LET 
(40-1) 
61 I-S6-0 
(¢Z-0) 
16-0-8S-0 
(06-0) 


06° 
09-0 


85.0 
(T¢-0) 
€S-0-6F-0 
(SP-0) 
6P-0-ZE-0 
(S¢-0 
2F-0-9E -0 


£0°S 


LPS 
(G2-F) 
L0-S--6S-4 
(S0-F) 
€2Z-F-L8-€ 
(¢2-P) 
Ly-b-1L-F 
(68-¢) 
SP-P-GF-E 


Wey Sah 7 ae) 


eto ose om. oo MN oO 


SNIDZIIA SNLZUNT 


0791) sniyjung 


828 


TABLE Ill = 

FECUNDITY COUNT AND SIZE OF OVA IN THE THREE SPECIES OF THE GENUS Puntius 5 
= 

= | Number of ova by : 
Species Number ay Welghtct Weight cf Volume of a salle = Diameter of 

i h . S . t y t "i 

examined (mm.) ish (gms.) (gms.) ovaries (cc.) | omnes zavimettic Total count ova £ 
= — ———————————— — — = = = i & 
| « 

1 78:0 7-46 115 11 5,060 | 4,756 5,271 | 0°62-0°69 = 

| _ (0°65) Ss 

1 79:0 8:07 1:16 11 5,720 5,826 5,945 | 0°59-0°66 < 

| _ (062) 2 

1 80:0 7:93 1:58 16 7 648 7,817 7,609 | 0°62-0:73 = 

(0°66) 

1 90-0 12-01 | 1:19 11 6,869 6,019 co 0°56-0°66 = 
| | rem) 
| 2 103-0 16°17-18°71 | 2:18-3:12 1-9-3:0 — |6,612-17,540 |6,830-i3,714 po 0:60-0:70 = 

(17°44) (2:65) (2°45) (12,076) (10,276) (0°65) G 

Puntius stigma 2 104°0 16°95-18°25 | 165-254 1:5-2°4 5,250-8,184 |6,941-10,115 con 0:62-0:70 ° 
(17°60) (2:09) (19) (6,217) (8,528 ay) ) 

1 104-0 18:80 2:73 2-9 13,601 14,91 15,106 ores) 5 

| (0°6; 3 

2 105°0 17-65-18-92 | 2:29-1:56 1:9-1-4 5,671-6,137 | 5,242-6,992 on 0.58-0°68 sr 

(18:28) (1-92) (1°65) (5,904) (6,117) | (0°64) = 

2 106°0 17:51-19'63 | 0°87-2°51 0°8-2°3  |3,416-15 341 |3,350-10,271 cor | 0:59-0+72 2 

(18°57) (1°69) (1°5) (9,378) | (G10) (0:66) 5 

1 109-0 19°97 219 21 8,967 10,1 oon | Cera) 2 
| | | (0°65) 

1 1340 44:72 9:95 90 47 830 62,323 53,439 | Sibi 

(0'6 


1 57:0 3:33 0°68 06 3,294 v3 = 0:58-0:73 
: (0°68) 
1 59-0 3:53 0-69 0-7 3464 | bs: = 0°64-0°75 
0:69 
3 60-0 3:46-4:45 | 0:66-1:00 | .0°5-1:0 | 2,688-4,890 of = 0 Sae 85 
(3°89) (0°82) (0°73) (3,707) (0:77) 
3 61-0 411-447 | 0-89-0:93 | 0:8-0°9 | 2,368-8,550 = ss 0°57-0'72 
' (4°24) (0-90) (0°86) (5103) (0°65) 
Puntius ticta a 2 62-0 3'87-4°23 | 0:59-0:91 0°5-0°9 | 3,655-5,148 Be: i 0°50-0'70 
(4:05) (0°75) (0:70) (4,401) (0°66) 
3 64-0 4:59-5:07 | 0°95-119 | O-8-1-:0 | 4,923-8,590 ES = 0-61-0°79 te 
(4°85) (1:07) (0:93) (6,461) (0°67) = 
1 650 5-41 1:27 1-0 4,413 ne = 0:67-0:37 = S 
0:78 
1 66-0 5:03 0:75 06 2,940 ae x ogto76 £ 
0:70 5 
(0:70) 9 
5 330 0°36-0-42 | 0-01-0:03 a “ ee 26-134 0'61-0:71 s 
0:38) (0:92) (91) (0°68) Ss 
4 340 0:37-0:49 | 0°02-0-03 mi i ie 66-112 0:64-0:79 S 
(0°45) (0-02) (96) (0°70) ee 
3 35:0 | 0:49-0:53 | 0:01-0:02 we “3 a 51-126 0-58-0°76 = 
eid (0'51) (0-01) (98) (0°68) S 
Puntius vittatus bo) 1 36:0 0:58 0:02 coc as ais 75 0'58-0:73 yy 
(0°67) > 
1 37-0 0°60 0-04 x a es 204 0:66-0:75 x 
(ort) & 
1 460 1:20 0-08 a eG = 302 0°63-0-72 fo 
(u'68) 


—_— Nn ee — 


Where more than one specimen of the same total length are examined their range and average are given. 


6c8 


830 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 


stigma, five of these were studied in detail by the total count method with 
a view to finding out the extent of error in the estimations. The results 
are given in Table III. 

The total number of eggs produced could generally be stated to 
increase with the size of the fish. The range of variation in the counts 
and estimates of ova are as follows: 

Percentage of error by 


Specimen Number Gravimetric method Volumetric method 
eres — 97 = 450 
2 — 2:0 oy: 
3 + 2:7 +0°5 
g — 12 —99 
15 + 16°6 = 6:7. 


It can be seen from the above that the percentage of error by the 
eravimetric method averages +1:28 and by the volumetric method 
—4°'76 in the specimens studied. The amplitude of variation in the 
percentage of error by the gravimetric method is rather high from an 
underestimate of 9°7% to an overestimate of 16°6%. By the volumetric 
method the amplitude of error is much less, being almost invariably an 
underestimate of 3°7 to 9°9%. 

The number of ova produced in terms of the weight of the fish and 
the weight and volume of ovaries are given in Table LV. 

While no regular trend is indicated in the production of ova in respect 
of the length or weight of fish it is seen that in the biggest specimen there 
is no indication of any decrease in fecundity and that in the smaller 
specimens measuring 78 to 80 mm. long, the fecundity in terms of the 
number of ova per unit weight of the body is also relatively higher. The 
total number of ova produced by each fish is rather small when compared 
with larger fishes, but in terms of the weight of the fish or weight of 
ovaries, the number of ova produced is indeed large. The egg is a little 
over 0°5 mm. in diameter and rarely bigger than 0°75 mm. 


2, Puntius ticto Hamilton 


32 specimens of P. ¢ic¢o were available for study (Table I). In this 
species also the males appear to be smaller than the females, but the 
disparity between the two sexes is not as marked as in P. stigma. As 
an adequate number of specimens has not been examined. further gene- 
ralisations do not appear warranted. 

The fecundity of 15 ripe female specimens was studied by the 
displacement method and the data are given in Table III. 

The number of eggs produced per fish is much less than in P. stigma, 
the maximum number found being 8,590 in a 64°0 mm. long specimen 
and the minimum of 2,368 ova ina specimen 61:0 mm. long. The average 
tor the 15 specimens of the three species works out as in Table V. 

From these figures it would appear that in this species the fecundity 
is high in specimens 61 to 64 mm. long and tends to decrease in smaller 
as well as larger specimens. Unless more specimens are studied this 
observation cannot be confirmed. 

The fecundity expressed i in terms of the weight of the fish and weight 
and volume of the ovaries is given in Table 1V. 

Fluctuations in the number of ova produced per unit body weight and 
unit weight of ovaries are represented in Fig. I. In both these the 
maximum is attained in specimens 64 mm. long and the decrease is 


831 


FISHES 


ay 


BIONOMICS OF FORAG 


\ 
GLL'E | Se | 
001‘S OFE | 
0SZ'¢ 621 | 
F28'S T6r | 
PLUG IZ | 
LS6'€ OFZ 
006‘F i 626° | 
€Fl'P CLP ‘S | 
$06‘9 oye. c | 
6829 gel‘¢ | 
898'S 809°¢ | 
080°S CSF | 
£98 ‘7 66°F 
06P°S | $18'h | 
Ses's 800°S | 
02 °F S60‘P 
VARS 610‘S 
g89'¢ 06's 
L98°€ S6L‘E 
599'h Szs‘P 
729 eLL's 
08L'F 0P8'F 
002'S 166‘? 
009‘F 00F'F 


(0°39) satrvAo | (*suuS) SelIeAo 
jO OWINIOA IUNn Jog 


jO JYS1eM Jun Jog 


LS SS SS RE TSS SS SC ES ES TS ci 


peonpoid Bao jo Ioquinny 


THOM AdGOG GNV SHLYVAD AO LHOIFM AO SNUAL NI $#1ZUNYJ AO SUYIDAUS HHAHL AHL AO ALIGNNOAY 


c0E 0-ST | 0-9P 

p0Z 0-ST 0-2E 

a have | aoe SNjDIJI2 SHUT 
96 C61 0% 

[6 ¢-9L 0-€€ 

S8s 02-9 0-99 

918. 0€ -P 0-S9 

ages 0S -D 0-49 

£80'T OF-S | 0-29 

POST 09-7 0-19 OFIUY Sil JUNT 
€S6 O4-S 0-09 

b96 OT-S 0-65 

686 06-7 et 0-2S 

PIL'T | 0S-F | 0-FET 

6FP | OT-6 | 0-60T 

687 06-€T | 0-901 

Eve | 06-6 | 0-SOT 

FOP £0-8 0-70. 

€Z9 TZ:9 0: €0T DUBS SMIUNT 
LES 60-01 | 0-06 

$96 c0-S 0-08 

80/ c6-9 0-62 

$Z9 8P-9 | 0-82 

(suis) Ysy ysy 30 
jo }YSIOM }IUN Jog ea (‘trar} ysy 


JUSIOM [Cj0} UT 
SOTIVAO JO FUSION 


AT ATaAVE 


10 4}SU9ZT [¥}O], 


832 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


marked beyond that size. ‘There is thus a clear indication that fecundity 
declines after a particular size. This has a vital bearing on the selection 
of breeders for production purposes, but it is necessary to examine a much 


1500 : 6000 
1400 . | 5750 
z = 
-_ 
‘am 300 ‘9 5500 
wu © 
= s 
1200 5250 
2. fae 
~~ 
1100 g 5000 
»1000 4750 
q 2 
~ 900 4500 
= 5 
,. 800 4250 
oO fe 
Qu u 

700 Pm 4000 
ti] 
As 

600 & 3750 

Length of Fish in om. 3500 Length of Fish in ma. 
57 58 5960 61 62 63 64 65 66 57 58 59 60 en 62 63 64 65 66 
A 


Fic. 1. Fecundity of P. ¢icto in terms of (A) Body weight (B) Ovary weight 


larger number of specimens before the present observations are 
confirmed. 


3. Puntius vittatus Day 


This is the smallest of the three species and the largest specimen in 
the present collection measures only 46 mm. in total length. 69 mature 
specimens were examined (Table I). 

15 bigger female specimens, 33 to 46 mm. long were selected for 
fecundity counts. As the ovaries were small total count of ova was made 
in all the 15 specimens and the data are given in Table ILI. 

‘lhe total number of eggs produced per fish is very small compared to 
the two foregoing species. ‘lhe ova are also fairly large for the size of 
the fish. The average fecundity figures for the 15 specimens are given in 
Table V, and the average fecundity figures per gramme body weight of 
fish and ovaries are given in Table lV. 

Smaller mature female specimens were not examined. Unlike the 
condition in P. ¢zcfo, within the range of size studied there does not seem 
to be any indication of a definite fall in the fecundity at any particular 
size. Probably a clearer picture might emerge when a larger series of 
specimens are studied. 


DISCUSSION 


The fecundity data of the three species are summarised in Table V 
for comparison: 


TABLE V 
Range of Rea Total ae; ae Average No.| Average 
Species length | weight Bees of ova per | diameter 
(mm.) (gms.) Range |Average|®™- body wt.| of ovum 
P. stigma ...| 78°0-134°0| 17°50 |3,416-53,139 | 11,424 646 0°65 mm. 
P. ticto «| 57°0— 660} 4:29 |2,368- 8,540 | 4,570 990 0°70 mm. 
P. vittatus ... | 33°0- 46:0} 0°51 26- 302 116 228 0°69 mm. 


BB Sa ER RS ee a 


BIONOMICS OF FORAGE FISHES 833 


It is seen that the total number of eggs produced in P. stigma is quite 
large, while in P. vittatus it is very small. However, when the ova 
produced are evaluated in terms of the weight of the fish, the fecundity 
of P. ticto is seen to be 1°5 times that of 7. stzgma. On the same basis 
P. vittatus produces only about one-third of the number produced by 
P. stigma. } 

Puntius conchonius is reported to lay 150 to 600 eggs (Mellen and 
Lanier 1935; Stoye 1935). It is of almost the same size as P. ficto, 
which is reported to lay 150 to 300 eggs only (Mellen and Lanier 1935; 
Stoye 1935). 50 to 250 eggs are laid by P. vittatws (Jones 1946). 
These numbers, excepting that of P. vzttatus, are far too small when 
compared with the fecundity of F. stigma and P. t7clo. One possible 
explanation may be that all the eggs in the ovary are not laid at a time, 
but the number reported to be laid by P. vittatus is almost as high as its 
fecundity figures. This would indicate that at least in this species the 
eggs are probably laid in one batch. 

The average diameter of the egg in P. stigma is smaller than that of 
both P. ¢icfo and P. vzttatus. The latter two are smaller species than 
P. stigma. FP. vittatus is very much smaller than either P. st7gma or 
P. ticto, but its. eggs are almost as large as those of P. ¢zcto. For this 
relatively small-sized fish the diameter of the egg (0°69 mm.) is fairly 
large. 

The number of ova produced per unit weight of the body in some 
other freshwater fishes is given below, including the data on the present 
three species, for comparison. 


TABLE VI 
| Range of | Average | No. of ova | 
Species length wt. of fish) per gm. body References 
(mm.) (gms.) weight 
|° 
Ophicephalus striatus ...| 234°0-448°0 | 342-0 2d Alikunhi, 1953. 
Catla catla a is 5207 25) = 78 Hamid Khan, 1934. 
| Alikunhi, 1965. 
Labeo vohita Mie = he 4,653°5 409 Do. 
Labeo calbasu a 1,816°0 409 Do, 
Cirrhina mrigala = i 3475:5 147 Do. 
Labeo bata ...| 209°0-425°4 | 187-0 331 Alikunhi, 1956, 
Chela phulo ea G1L:0— 75:0: 2°36 853 Alikunhi and 
Chaudhuri, 1954. 
Puntius stigma “* .... 780-1340 17e5 646 
Puntius ticto | 57°0~ 66°0 | 4-29 900 
Puntius vittatus | 330- 46-0 | 0°51 228 | 
\ 


cA in i cS i EIR Rc SAP AE A EEE LEE I I LT ETE OE ET A I IT LE NI OO LO a LS TET EIS IE EEE BI POLSEs} 


It is seen from the above table that while the fecundity of the predator 
(murrel) is much lower than that of either the major carps or the carp 


834 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


minnows, the latter group excepting FP. vzttatus, far exceeds the major 
carps in fecundity. Among the major carps, Rohu and Calbasu appear 
to have higher fecundity than Catla or Mrigal, but the fecundity of Rohu 
and Calbasu is not even half that of either Chela phulo or Punttus ticto. 
Punttus ticto has the highest fecundity and on this basis it is to be 
preferred to P. stigma or P. vittatus as a forage fish. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 


I am indebted to Sri K. H. Alikunhi, Research Officer, Central Inland 
Fisheries Research Sub-Station, Cuttack, for kindly suggesting this 
problem, helping to collect the material on P. s/¢gma and P. ticto, supplying 
most of the reference papers, and for critically going through the 
manuscript. My thanks are also due to Moulvi Mohamed Sahib, 
Principal ; Sri M. M. Narayana Swami Iyer, Professor of Zoology ; and 
Sri A. S. Nagarajan, Lecturer in Physics, Osmania College, Kurnool, for 
providing working facilities and for their encouragement in the course of 
the work. 


REFERENCES 


Alikunhi, K. H. (1953) : Notes on the bionomics, breeding and growth of the 
murrel, Ophicephalus striatus Bloch. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci.38: 10-20. 

— — (1956): Observations on the fecundity, larval development and early 
growth of Labeo bata (Hamilton). Lud. Jour. Fish. 3: 216-29, 

— — and Chaudhuri, H. (1954): On the life history and the bionomics of the 
Carp Minnow, Chela phulo (Hamilton). Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 39 : 76-90. 

Chacko, P. I. (1948): On the food of nine species of Barbus of Madras. Sci. 
and Cult. 13: 347. 

Hamid Khan, M. (1934): Habits and habitats of food fishes of the Punjab, 
JBNHS 37 (3) : 655-68. 

Hora, 8. L. (1945): Hints on the culture of murrel. Jud. Farm. 6 (8): 357-59. 

Innes, W. T. (1935): Exotic Aquarium Fishes. Philadelphia. 

Jones, S. (1946): Breeding and development of Indian freshwater and brackish- 
water fishes. Part I. JBNHS 46 (2): 317-35. 

Mellen, I. M. and Lanier, R. J. (1935): 1,001 questions answered about your 
aquarium. New York. 

Stoye, F. H. (1935): Tropical fishes forthe home, their care and propagation. 
New York. 

Swingle, H. S. and Smith, E. V. (1943): Factors affecting the reproduction of 
the bluegill bream and largemouth black bass in ponds. Ala. Agri. Exp. Sta. 
Circ. 87: 8 pp. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 


BY 
J. PALLITHANAM, S.J. 


Loyola College, Madras 


Kodaikanal in the Palni Hills is so well known as a holiday and 
health resort that there is no need of giving in this paper its detailed 
geographical and climatic conditions. The area covered in this paper lies 
between 10° 12’ and 10° 15’ North latitude and 77° 26’ and 77° 33’ 
East longitude. Kodaikanal proper has an elevation of about 6900 fect 
and the hills surrounding it rise from 7000 ft. to 8000 ft. From the 
introduction to Fyson’s FLORA OF THE NILGIRI AND PALNI HILL TOPS we 
gather the following regarding the study of the vegetation of Kodaikanal. 
The earliest account of the plants of the Palni Hills, published by 
Robert Wight in 1837 in the Journal of the Madras Literary and Scien- 
tific Society, probably does not include the plants of Kodaikanal proper 
because he does not refer to heights above Shembaganur. Twenty-one 
years later Colonel Beddome published, in the same journal, a list of 700 
plants collected from the Palnis. After that the best collections are those of 
Sir Alfred and Lady Bourne, and of Fyson. ‘The latter gathered all these 
data and published his FLORA OF THE NILGIRI AND PALNI HILL TOPS in 
three volumes. The first two volumes appeared in 1915 and include plants 
from elevations above 6,5U0 ft. The third volume appeared in 1920 as a 
supplement and includes also plants from Coonoor (Nilgiris) and areas 
down to 5,009 ft. Meanwhile, Gamble’s FLORA OF THE MADRAS PRESI- 
DENCY began to appear. This necessitated some changes in the nomen- 
clature in Fyson’s Flora. This was done in a revised edition under a new 
title, THE FLORA OF THE SOUTH INDIAN HILL STATIONS, published in 
two volumes in 1932 which include also plants from the Yercaud region 
of the Sheveroy Hills. The first volume describes, with suitable keys, 
877 species represented by 429 genera belonging to 116 families. The 
second volume gives 611 illustrations of the plants described in volume 1. 
These two volumes are now out of print. 

Fyson’s Flora is now the only guide for the study of the plants of 
Kodaikanal. The present writer has been making collections from here 
off and on, and by constant reference to Fyson’s books has found that 
during the interval between 1932, when it was published, and the present 
day several changes have taken place in the occurrence and distribution 
of various plants in these hill-tops. Also, several plants of Kodaikanal 
are not referred to by Fyson as occurring there. In addition, one or two 
errors have also been observed in Fyson’s descriptions. It is the object 
of this paper to note down these observations as a help to students of 
botany visiting Kodaikanal. Kodaikanal also abounds in introduced 
plants which have now become well established. A separate paper on 
this topic is under preparation. 

The nomenclature followed is the one given by Fyson. After the 
name of each plant, whenever possible, reference is given to Fyson’s 


836 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HEST.” SOCIEDY> Wolo 54 


Flora. Thus, for example, Stephania japonica Miers. (Fyson 1:13; 
2 : 9) means that this piant is described in Fyson’s rLORA OF THE SOUTH 
INDIAN HILL STATIONS Vol. 1, page 13 and the plant is illustrated in 
Vol. 2, page 9. The plants collected by me are kept in the herbarium 
of Loyola College, Madras, and are numbered as JP... .. 

I take this occasion to thank all those who helped me in my work. 
In particular I thank the authorities of Loyola College for allowing me to 
go out for plant collection and for setting me apart for special work in 
taxonomy. I thank Fr. H. Santapau, s3., for initiating me into this 
work, for going through this paper and making valuable corrections and 
suggestions. Thanks are due in a special way to Prof. B. G. L. Swamy 
for allowing me to refer to Fyson’s collections kept in the Madras Presi- 
dency College Herbarium, and for his continuous help and encourage- 
ment. I thank the Rector of Sacred Heart College at Shembaganur for 
allowing me to take the list of the Aucalyptus spp. from the paintings 
kept in the above college museum. 


RANUNCULACEAE 


Clematis munroana Wt. (Fyson 1: 3). 


For the Palnis it has been recorded for the Shembaganur level 
about 6,000 ft. I have collected it from the sholas of Kodaikanal proper, 
about 7.000 ft. (JP 1385). 


MENISPERMACEAE 


Stephania japonica Miers (Fyson 1:3; 2: 9). 


In Kodaikanal it occurs in the Tiger Shola below Shembaganur, 
especially after the Parapar bridge. (JP 1754). 


CARYOPHYLLACEAE 


Polycarpon tetraphyllum Linn. (Fyson 1: 44; 2: 28). 


Its occurrence is not recorded for Kodaikanal. It now grows well as 
a weed in private gardens and along shaded paths. (JP 1397). 


HYPERICACEAHL 


Hypericum mysorense Heyne (Fyson 1: 46; 2: 29). 
It grows abundantly all over Kodaikanal and forms the dominant 
shrub in all hill-sides. It flowers well in March-April giving a bright 


yellow hue to the landscape. Its occurrence for Kodaikanal is not men- 
tioned by Fyson. (JP 1346). 


Hypericum hookerianum Wt. & Arn. (Fyson 1: 47; 2: 3), 


It is a rare plant in Kodaikanal. Fyson remarks that he has seen it 
only in the garden of the Observatory. At present this is also found in 
the compound of Mt. St. Mary and along the stream in the Pambar Shola. 
Only a few plants are found in each place. (JP 1431). 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 837 
MALVACBRAE 


Hibiscus angulosus Masters (Fyson 1: 60; 2: 40). 


Fyson remarks that this piant is quite common on the downs of 
Palnis. As far as the Kodaikanal region of the Palnis is concerned, this 
has now become arare plant. Ihave been able to locate it only in two 
places. One is in the Pambar Shola near its edge facing the Levenge 
path and the second is in the Tiger Shola at the foot of the Silver Cascade 
and below it along the stream. Only a few plants are found in both 
places. Rey. Vincent, $.J., a naturalist in Kodaikanal, is growing some of 
them in his garden in order to preserve them, as he says, from total 
extinction. «(JP 1392). 


ELAEOCARPACEAE 


Elaeocarpus oblongus Gaertner (Fyson 1: 65; 2: 41). 


Fyson records its occurrence only for the lower limits of the hill station, 
about 6,000 ft. It is, however, very common in the sholas of Kodaikanal 
proper, about 7,000 ft. (JP 1425). 


Eleocarpus tuberculatus Roxb, 


This plant is not mentioned in Fyson. Gamble in his FLORA oF 
MADRAS PRESIDENCY notes its occurrence in the Western Ghats up to 
4,500 ft. This is common in the Tiger Shola below Shembaganur up to 
5,500 ft. (JP 1774). 


OxALIDACEAE 


Oxalis pubescens H. B. & K. (Fyson1: 74; 2: 48). 


Though very abundant and common in Kodaikanal, its occurrence 
here is not recorded in Fyson. It grows well in all sholas, especially in 
well shaded and somewhat moist places. It can also be collected easily 
from shaded road-sides. (JP 1406). 


RHAMNACEAE 


Pomaderris lanigera Sims (Fyson 1: 121; 2: 94). 


Fyson records it as ‘only where planted’. In Kodaikanal it now 
grows abundantly as a wild plant in the Pambar Shola, above the path 
leading to the bridge. (JP 1554). 


VITACEAE 


Tetrastigma muricatum Gamble (Fyson 1: 123; 2:95). 


As regards its occurrence, Fyson says: ‘ Nilgiri and Pulney Hills, 
below 6,000 ft. common’. The plant, however, has now become 
common and abundant in the sholas of Kodaikanal, about 7,000 ft. One 
cannot miss it along the margin of the Bombay Shola, where it forms a 
green carpet hanging down’ from the shola trees. It is also common in 
other sholas and jungles. (JP 1374), 


838 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


SAPINDACEAE 


Allophylus serrulatus Radlk. 


This species is not mentioned in Fyson. In Kodaikanal it occurs 
towards the lower limits of the Tiger Shola, about 5,300 ft. (JP 2365). 


Dodonaea viscosa Linn. (Fyson 1: 128; 2: 100). 


For the Palni Hills it is recorded by Fyson as occurring below 
Kodaikanal. JI have collected it from Kodaikanal proper, along the path 
leading to the Bear Shola (about 6,800 ft.) and along the hill slopes 
behind the Reservoir (about 7,600 ft.). It is very common in these 
regions. (JP 1588). 


HAMMAMELIDACRAE 


Bucklandia populnea R. Br. 


An introduced tree, it is now grown as an avenue tree round the 
Kodaikanal Lake and also in the Sacred Heart College at Shembaganur. 
GP aAsoly: 


MYRTACEAE 


Eucalyptus : : 

Species of Eucalybtus are now abundant in Kodaikanal -both in private 
compounds and as large areas of cultivated forests. Hence the following 
information may be of use to those interested in their variety, timber and 
oil. Large scale introduction of Aucalyptus in Kodaikanal was started 
in 1887 by the Jesuit fathers in their college at Shembaganur in order to 
clear the marshy malarial tracts around the college. This now forms the 
Eucalyptus forest of Shembaganur. Later similar forests were planted 
in Kodaikanal proper, the biggest being the one behind the Observatory. 
The following 35 species of Hucalyptus are found in Kodaikanal. I have 
not personally collected all these; but the list is prepared from the water 
colour paintings done by the late Fr. Anglade, s.J., and kept in the Sacred 
Heart College museum along with his other paintings of the plants of the 
Palni Hills. The fruits of 33 species {and the timber of 31 species 
(marked F and T, respectively after their names) are also kept in the 
above museum. The nomenclature followed is the one given in Von 
Mueller’s EUCALYPTOGRAPHIA. 


1. Eucalyptus acmenoides Schauer (F, T.) 
2. E. amygdalina Labill. (F, T.) 

3. £. calophylla Brown (F, T.) 

4, E. corynocalyx F. v. M. (F, T.) 
5,25. creoKa BE, ay. Mi, a) 

6. 2 -dzversicoloy Bae Whe (sD) 

7. E. eugeniotdes Sieber (F, T.) 

8. 24. fidtizae.v. MESS) 

9. Z. globulus Labill: (F, T.) 
10, E. gonocalyx F. v. M. (F, T.) 
11.2: gunnit’ 3.. Flooker (i; 1) 
12. £. haemastoma Smith (F, T.) 
13. £. hemiphioia F. v. M. (F, T.) 
14. &. longitolia Link & Otto (F, T.) 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 839 


15. &. maculata Hooker (F, T.) 
16. £. macrorrhynchia F. v. M. (F, T.) 
io Pee icroconys Hove Wie (Eye) 
18. &. obligua I’ Heritier (F, T.) 
19. £. paniculata Smith (Ff, T.) 
20. &. paucifolia Sieber (F, T.) 
21. &. pilularis Smith (F, T.) 

22. &. piperita Smith (F, T.) 

23. £. punctata Candolle (F, T.) 
24. E. vesinifera Smith (F, T.) 
25. E. robusta Smith (F, T.) 

26. &, rostrata Schiech (Ff, T:) 
27. &. rudis Endlicher (F.) 

28. £. saligna Smith (FP, T.) 

29. E. salmoniphloia F. v. M. (F.) 
30. &. santalifolia F. v. M. 
SIDE sieberiana Fav. M.(E, T.) 
32. E. stricta Sieber 

339 fe stuarizand Bove Mo (E, 0.) 


34. £. tereticornis Smith (F, T.) 
35. E. viminalis Labill., (F, T.) 


Syzygium arnottianum Walp. (Fyson 1: 219; 2: 167). 

This is undoubtedly the commonest and biggest tree in all sholas 
both for its height and girth. Anextraordinarily big specimen is found in 
the Bombay Shola about a furlong below La Providence. At its base its 
circumference is 56 ft. and is highly fluted. The interior isa large hollow 
leaving only about one or two feet of wood and bark on the periphery. 
The main stem is about 30 ft. high and then it branches into two. The 
hollow cavity extends from the base to the top of the main stem. I have 
not succeeded in gathering its flowers and fruit, but its leaves, young and 
old, clearly indicate its identity. 


Syzygium montanum Gamble (Fyson 1: 220; 2: 168). 


Fyson does not record its occurrence in Kodaikanal. It can be easily 
collected from the Bombay Shola, especially below La Providence. 
(JP 1488). 


ONAGR AGC HAE 


Oenothera odorata Jacq. and Oenothera rosea Ait, (Fyson 1: 236; 
2: 182). 
These two plants now occur in Kodaikanal, though not abundantly, in 
neglected and unweeded gardens. ‘They can be easily collected from the 
Mt. St. Mary’s compound. (JP 1644, 1643). 


Fuchsia corymbiflora Ruiz & Pav. (Fyson 1: 237: 2: 183). | 


Its occurrence in Kodaikanal is not mentioned by Fyson. It grows 
wild, not abundant, in the Pambar and Bombay Sholas. (JP 1357). 


840 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


PASSIFLORACEAE 


Passiflora calcarata Mast. (Fyson 1: 240; 2: 1886). 


This now grows wild and abundant along the margin ot the sholas, 
and in jungles and hedges. Its occurrence in Kodaikanal is not recorded 
by Fyson. (JP 1510). 


Passiflora edulis Sims (Fyson 1: 241; 2: 187). 


Fyson remarks that this ‘has grown wild below Kodaikanal’. In 
fact, it grows abundantly at and below Shembaganur level. But at pre- 
sent it has also become common in Kodaikanal proper. It can be easily 
collected from Pambar Shola, (JP 1422), 


Passiflora leschenaultii DC, (Fyson 1: 240; 2: 185). 


This is a prominent shola climber. Fyson describes its leaf as 
glabrous. I have examined the leaves of several specimens collected from 
different localities in Kodaikanal and in all cases the leaves are found to 
be prominently hairy. On the lower surface the hairs occur very closely 
on the veins and veinlets and they lie spreading on the surface giving an 
ashy-white matted appearance. On the upper surface the hairs are fewer, 
shorter and distant. De Candolle in his description noted the hairiness 
of the leaf :— ‘ subtus in nervis pubescentibus eglandulosis ’ (PRODROMUS 
SYSTEMATIS NATURALIS Vol. III pp. 326). Fyson’s and Bourne’s plants 
kept in the Madras Presidency College Herbarium clearly show the hairi- 
ness of the leaf. (JP 1384). 


Tacsonia mollissima H.B. & K. (Fyson 1: 241; 2: 188). 


Fyson observes that this ‘is grown in gardens’. At present, in Kodai- 
kanal, it has established itself as a wild plant and forms, in some places, 
a large shola climber. My attention was first drawn to it by the scattered 
flowers lying on the floor of the Pambar Shola. Looking up through the 
binocular I found that it had well established itself on the top layer of the 
shola trees. It is easily seen in the Bombay Shola, along the Observatory 
roadwetes (JE); 


UMBELLIFERAE 


Hydrocotyle conferta Wt. (Fyson 1: 247; 2: 193). 


For the Palnis it is recorded as occurring below Kodaikanal. It is, 
however, well represented in Kodaikanal proper. It. grows abundantly 1n 
all the sholas. (JP 1408). 


Rig BIiAcEr Ar 


Chomelia asiatica O, Kze. (Fyson 1: 279 ; 2: 227). 


For the Palnis it is recorded as occurring in Shembaganur, 
(6,009 ft.). Ihave gathered it from Kodaikanal proper where it is com- 
mon in the Pambar and Bombay Sholas. (JP 1370). 


Plectronia ficiformis Gamble 


This species is not described in Fyson’s Flora. In Kodaikanal it grows 
as a large.tree in the Tiger Shola, about 5,500 ft. (JP 1793). 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 841 


COMPOSITAE 


Eupatorium glandulosum H.B, & K. (Fyson1: 316) : 


Its occurrence in Kodaikanal is not recorded by Fyson. Though not 
common, it grows well in the compound of La Providence and by the side 
of the road near the Government Hospital. (JP 1497). 


Helicrisum bracteatum Anders. 


This species is not described in Fyson- In Kodaikanal it grows wild 
in private compounds as well as along some roadsides and is very attrac- 
tive with its large crown of golden yellow flowers. It can be easily 
collected from the compound of La Providence. (JP 1565). 


Hypochaeris glabra Linn. (Fyson 1: 340; 2: 301). 


It grows abundantly as a weed in the garden of Mount St. Mary. 
Fyson does not mention its occurrence in Kodaikanal. (JP 1650), 


Galinsoga parviflora Cay. (Fyson 1: 340; 2: 284), 

Its occurrence in Kodaikanal is not recorded. It grows abundantly in 
Kodaikanal by the edges of sholas, along paths in sholas and by moist 
shaded roadsides. It is also abundant in the Tiger Shola about 5,300 ft. 
QE WISE). 


Spilanthes acmella Linn, (Fyson 1: 338; 2: 281). 
It is common by the roadside below Shembaganur to Tiger Shola. 
(JP 1691). 
MyRSINACEAB 


Maesa perrottetiana DC. (Fyson 1: 373; 2: 315). 


Its occurrence in Kodaikanal is not recorded by Fyson. It is com- 
mon in the Tiger Shola. (JP 1702), 


ASCLEPIADACEAE 
Tylophora mollissima Wt. and T. tenuis Bl. (Fyson 1: 398; 2: 336, 
337). 


The diagrams given in Fyson Vol. 2, pp. 336 and 337 are wrongly 
labelled. What is labelled as 7. mollisstma Wt. on p. 336 should be 
I. ¢tenuts Bl., and vice versa on p. 337. (JP 1383, 1387). 


LOGANIACEAE 


Gardneria ovata Wall. (Fyson 1: 405; 2: 344). 


Fyson does not record it for Kodaikanal. I have gathered it from the 
-Pambar and Bombay Shoias where it is pretty common. Fyson describes 
its flower as pentamerous. Actually it is either penta- or tetra-merous. 
My specimens from Pambar Shola are all tetramerous. (JP 1429). 


GENTIANACEAE 


Gentiana pedicellata Wall. var. wightii Kurz. (Fyson 1: 409; 2: 349), 


Fyson does not mention its occurrence in Kodaikanal. It is found in 
abundance in all the open grasslands of Kodaikanal. (JP 1451). 


842 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. $4 


SCROPHULARIACEAE 
Digitatlis purpurea Linn. (Fyson 1: 429), 

Formerly it was very common about Kodaikanal brightening the 
roadsides with its spikes of pink-red flowers. But the demand for digi- 
talin and the attractive remuneration offered for gathering the plant 
induced people to dig out entire plants, and so it had become almost 
extinct except in gardens. Now it is slowly re-establishing itself in its 
old places. (JP 1992). 


LABIATAE 


Leucas vestita Benth. (Fyson1: 482; 2: 420). 


Fyson records it only for the lower heights of Kodaikanal, such as 
Silver Cascade, about 5,500-6,000 ft., and says that it ‘is not seen on the 
higher downs’. I have gathered it from the downs next to Pambar Shola, 
about 7,000 ft., where it is fairly common. (JP 1446). 


AMARANTACEAE 


Achyranthes bidentata B]. (Fyson 1: 487; 2: 426). 

For the Palnis, Fyson records it only for Tiger Shola, 5,400 ft. But 
it occurs Commonly in the sholas of Kodaikanal proper, about 7,000 ft. 
(JP 1418). 

i LAURACEAE 
Cinnamomum wightii Meissn. (Fyson1: 503; 2: 437), E 

Fyson observes that in the Palnis this tree is not seen near Kodai- 
kanal but only at lower levels. It is, however, available in the sholas of 
Kodaikanal, though not in abundance. It occurs in the Pambar and 
Bombay Sholas, and stray trees can be found in the small shola above the 
Park. My plant from Kodaikanal matches well with Fyson’s plant (Fyson 
2017, 2634) trom the Nilgiris, kept in the Madras Presidency College 
Herbarium. (JP 1589). 


Neolitsea zeylanica Merril (Fyson 1: 508; 2: 440). 

The genus /Veolitsea is described as having typically six stamens in 
the male flower of which the outer four have eglandular filaments and 
the inner two biglandular filaments. In the female flower there are 
six staminodes, the outer four eglandular and the inner two biglandular. 
During my collections in Kodaikanal I observed one tree to show much 
variation in its stamens and staminodes. This tree occurs in the Bombay 
Shola along the Violet Lane, about half a furlong below La Providence. 
About fifty flowers from different branches were analysed and the follow- 
ing variations noted : 

(a) Some of the female flowers had ezgh¢ staminodes. The outer 
four were eglandular and filiform, while the inner four were biglandular. 
Similarly, some male flowers too had ezgf¢ stamens, the outer four with 
eglandular and the inner four with biglandular filaments. 

(6) Other flowers, male and female, were seen with sevex stamens 
or staminodes respectively. Inthese there were two types of arr angement. 
Some had four outer eglandular stamens or staminodes with three inner 
biglandular onés ; others had three outer eglandular ones, the four inner 
being biglandular. 


OBSERVATIONS ON THE FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 843 


(c) About 20% of the flowers were of the normal type. 

(2) As far as I could observe the normal and abnormal flowers did 
not occur together on the same branch, but only on separate branches. 

(e) The fruit also showed some variation in size and shape. The 
normal fruit of JV. zeylanica is more or less globose and varies from 4-4 
inch in diameter. Fyson remarks that ‘a form on the Pulneys has oblong 
fruits ’ and refers to Bourne 399. I have not seen Bourne’s plant, but the 
fruits from the tree mentioned here are cylindrical or somewhat oblong, 
3 inch long and 4 inch thick, situated in a perianth cup of 4 inch width. 
GP15i5): ; 


LORANTHACEAE 


Loranthus neelgherrensis Wt. & Arn. (Fyson 1: 516; 2: 448), 
Fyson does not record it for Kodaikanal. However, it is found in 
abundance all over Kodaikanal, as an epiphyte, in the margin of sholas, 
along roadsides and in pear gardens. It is conspicuous by its young 
scarlet leaves and crimson-coloured axillary umbels. 1 have observed it 
growing on the following host plants : 
(1) Viburnum coriaceum Bl, var. capitellata Wt. 
(2) Pear trees 
(3) Schefflera racemosa Harms 
(4) Acacia melanoxylon R. Br.. 
(5) Acacia decurrens Willd. 
(6) Meltosma wighiz Planch. 


EUPHORBIACEAE 


Bischofia javanica Bl, 

This plant is not described in Fyson’s Flora. Gamble, in the FLORA OF 
MADRAS PRESIDENCY, records it for the Western Ghats in the evergreen 
forests. In Kodaikanal it can be collected from the lower limits of the - 
Tiger Shola about 5,300 ft. Itis not common. (JP 1794). 


Euphorbia rothiana Spr. (Fyson 1: 527; 2: 457). 
For the Palnis, Fyson records it only for the lower levels of Kodai- 


kanal. I have seen it growing profusely in the Pambar and Bombay 
Sholas, about 7,000 ft. (JP 1492). 


Glochidion neilgherense Wt. (Fyson 1 : 531; 2: 463). 

Fyson records it for levels below Kodaikanal. I have gathered it in 
Kodaikanal itself from the Bombay Shola along the La Providence Lane. 
(JP 1494). 


ULMACEA®B 


Celtis wightsi Planch. (Fyson 1 : 538; 2 : 471). | 
Fyson does not record it for the Palnis. I have collected it from th 
Bombay Shola along the La Providence Lane. (JP 1493). 


Celtis tetrandra Roxb. (Fyson 1 : 538). 


This too is not recorded for the Palnis. It is seen growing well at 
levels just below Kodaikanal and can easily be collected in the Tiger 
Shola, about 5,400 ft. It is a large shola tree. (JP 1753). 


3 


844. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


MORACEAE 
Ficus hispida Linn. 


This plant is not described in Fyson’s Flora. It occurs in the Tiger 
Shola. (JP 1707). 


Morus indica Linn. 


Fyson merely remarks that ‘ JZ. alba L. and M. nigra L. is frequently 
planted for its fruit, e.g., at Shembaganur’. (Fyson 1: 540). My plant 
is definitely JZ. znudica Linn., because the female flower has styles 
connate below and obovoid sepals. This plant grows wild in the Pambar 
Shola above the path leading to the bridge and in the Bombay Shola along 
the lower shola road. (JP 1414). 


URTICACEAE 


Debregeasia velutina Gaud. 


This plant is not described in Fyson’s Flora. It grows well below 
Kodaikanal and can be collected along the Levenge Path in the Shem- 
baganur forest, from the Tiger Shola and near Vilpatti. (JP 1672). 


SUMMARY 


This paper records the occurrence of, and some notes on, the morpho- 
logy of some of my plants collected about Kodaikanal. Some of the 
plants are new records for the area, as they are not recorded by Fyson 
in his books. Extensive collections are still being made with a view to 
the preparation of a revised flora of these hiils. 


A CONTRIBUTION TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE DIATOM 
GENUS PINNULA RIA 


BY, 


H. P. GANDHI 
Gujarat College, Ahmedabad 


(With twenty-one figures) 
INTRODUCTION 


The material for the present paper was collected during the rainy 
season of 1949; from many millet and paddy fields and road-side pools 
at Mugad, a place some 9-10 miles away from Dharwar (Mysore State). 
It was then preserved in 5-6% of commercial formalin. On the author’s 
transfer to the Ismail Yusuf College, Jogeswari, Bombay, the said material: 
was examined in part and the remaining at the Rajaram College, 
Kolhapur, during 1951-56. 

On examination, the collection was found to be very rich in diatoms 
as can be seen from the number of forms (over sixty) found, in propor- 
tion to the area explored. Among. these forms, the genera Pznnularia 
and Hantzschia appeared to be significant in species. Here the author 
restricts his paper to describing Pinnularias only, as they occurred in a 
good number. 

For the classification and identification of these forms, Cleve-Euler’s 
(1951-55) monograph is chiefly followed in consultation with Hustedt’s 
(1930) monograph. Here, the preference is given to the former since it 
has many sections remodelled and a few newly added, besides having a 
large number of forms described and rearranged. However, the epithets 
like, ‘v. genuina;v. typica; f. typica etc. etc.’, which refer to the species 
or variety proper are dropped, being out of vogue. 

In all seventeen forms are described in this paper of which two 
species and four varieties are considered to be new to science and nine, 
new records for this country. 

The dimensions given under each form are those actually recorded. 


Genus Pinnularia Ehrenberg 1843 
Section NODOSAE A. Cl. 


1, Pinnularia acrosphaeria (Bréb.) W. Sm, f. undulata Cleve ; Hustedt, 
Bacil., p. 330. (Fig. 1). 

P. acrosphaer7a (Bréb) W. Sm. v. genuina Cl. f. undulata Cl. 

Cleve-Euler A., Diat. Schwed. Finn.—IV, p. 25, fig. 1022 c. 


Valves 72-80 u long and 10-12 « broad, linear with prominent infla- 
tion in the middle and at the broadly rounded ends. Axial area with 
_ irregular punctae. Striae 11-12 in 10 yw, thick, very feebly radial in the 
middle and convergent at the ends. 

Distribution in India: Dharwar (Gandhi, 1956): paddy fields 
and road-side pools. 


846 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, (fol. $4 


2 Pinnularia acrosphaeria (Bréb.) W. Sm. v. minor CJ. ; Cleve-Euler, 
A., Diat. Schwed. Finn.—IV, p. 25, fig. 1022 d (Hig 22): 


Valves 41-54 & long and 8-9 w broad, linear, small, very slightly 
swollen in the midd le and at the broadly rounded ends. Striae 12-13 in 
ee feebly radial in the middie and parallel or slightly convergent at the 
ends. 

Distribution in India: Dharwar (Gandhi, 1956); Bombay ; 
Jog-Falls: Kothapur ; road-side pools and puddles at Mugad. 


Section LUNULAE A. Cl. 
3. Pinnularia stomatophoroides Mayer vy. ornata A. Cl. f. erlangensis 


| Mayer : Cleve-Euler, A., Diat, Schwed. Finn.—1V, p. 41, fig. 1053 
a, c. (Figs. 3, 13). 

Valves 53-77 « long and 10-12 uw broad, linear or sub-linear with feebly 
triundulate sides and broadly rounded produced or feebly capitate ends. 
Raphe thick, subcomplex with unilaterally bent central pores and bayonet- 
shaped terminal fissures. Axial area 1/4-1/3 the breadth of the valve, 
sublinear ; central area large, reaching the sides with arcuate row of coarse 
punctae on either side of the central nodule. Striae 11-13 in 10 uw, thick. 
strongly radial in the middie and convergent at the ends. 

Distribution in India: paddy and millet fields at Mugad. 


4, Pinnularia karnatica sp. nov. (Fig. 4). 


[Valvae 62-68 « longae atque 16-16.5 w latae, subellipticae, apicibus 
late-rotundatis. Raphe crassa atque subcompiexa, ornata poris centralibus 
paulum unilateraliter inclinatis ac fissuris terminalibus crassis et magnis ac 
falciformibus. Area axialis angusta, linearis ; area centralis ampla usque 
ad margines perveniens, punctisque crassis ac circa nodulum centralem 
ordine curvatis, ad aream axialem versus porrecta. Striae 8-9 in 10 yu, 
crassae, paulum radiales in medio ac convergentes ad apices. ] 

Valves 62-68 « long and 16-16.5 « broad, subelliptical with broadly 
rounded ends. Raphe thick and subcomplex with central pores slightly 
uniiaterally bent and terminal fissures, thick, large homma-shaped. Axial 
area narrowly linear: central area large reaching the sides with a curved row 
of coarse puncta on either side of the central nodule extending towards 
the axial area. Striae 8-9 in 10 1, thick, slightly radial in the middle and 
convergent at the ends. | 

Distribution in India: paddy fields at Mugad. 

This form appears like P. d7vergens W. Sm., as illustrated by McCall 
(McCall, D., Diat. Tay Dist. p. 259, fig. 21 a), in the outline and group 
of puncta in the centrai area. However, it differs from it in having 
puncta in the central area rather well arranged in a curved row and 
extending towards the axial area. Moreover, the raphe here is thick and 
subcomplex with broadly curved terminal fissures. It is, therefore, unlike 
that of Pinnularia divergens. Further, with regard to arrangement of 
puncta in the central and axial areas it resembles P. stomatophoroides Mayer 
and its varieties (Cleve-Euler, op. cit., p. 41, fig. 1053 a-d) and P. stomato- 
phora (Grun.) Cl. v. dergiz A. Cl, (Cleve-Euler, op. cit., p. 42, fig. 1054 
e.g), but the present form differs from the said types in the outline, termi- 
nal fissures of the raphe and the number of striae. It therefore does 
not agree with any other known types, hence it is considered to be a 
new species. 


THE DIATOM GENUS PINNULARIA 84:7 


Section DIVERGENTES Cleve 


5, Pinnularia legumen Ehr. v. florenting (Grun.) Cl. ; Cleve-Euler, A., 
Diat. Schwed. Finn.—lV, p. 51, fig. 1070 c-d (Figs, 5-6, 14). 

Valves 55-85 « long and 12-16 uw broad, linear-lanceolate with tri- 
undulate sides and constricted, slightly produced capitate ends. Raphe 
thin, somewhat undulated with distinct unilaterally bent central pores and 
broadly curved terminal fissures. Axial area fairly wide, linear; central 
area large, reaching the sides. Striae 8-11 in 10 w-. thick, strongly radial 
in the middle and convergent at the ends. 

Distribution in India: paddy and millet fields at Mugad. 


6, Pinnularia brebissonii (Ktitz.) Cl. v. producta A. C].; Cleve-Euler. 
A., Diat, Schwed. Finn.lV, p. 54, fig. 1072 k. (Fig. 15) 
Valves 43-54 uw long and 9.8-11 « broad, narrowly ianceolate with 
constricted, produced, broadly cuneate or subtruncate ends. Raphe thin 
with slight undulations, terminal fissures curved. Axial area moderately 
wide, linear-lanceolate ; central area large, reaching the sides. Striae 10-12 
in 10 uw. thick, closely set, radial in the middle and convergent at the ends. 
Distribution in India: paddy and millet fields and road-side 
pools at Mugad 


7, Pinnularia brébissonii (Kiitz.) Cl. v. producta A, Cl. f. biundulata 
(O. Mull.) A. Cl.; Cleve-Euler, A., Diat. Schwed. Finn.—IV, 
Des, f12.°110721;, mo, (Fig: 7): 

Pinnularia microstauron (Ehr.) Cl. £. dzundulata O. Mull. ; Hustedt, 
Bactl.5 pr O20; 1. S83: 


Valves 40-45 long and 9-9.5 « broad, linear-lanceolate, slightly 
concave in the middle with constricted, broadly produced rounded ends. 
Raphe thin and slightly undulated with central pores unilaterally bent and 
terminal fissures curved. Axial area and central area as in the above 
type. Striae 9-i1 in 10 »«, thick, closely set, strongly radial in the middle 
and convergent at the ends. 

Dicstrilbucionesin india + bombay = paddy and millet fields 
and road-side pools at Mugad. 


8, Pinnularia microstauron (Ehr.) Cl. v. ambigua Meister; Hustedt. 
Bacil., p. 320; Cleve-Euler, A., Dat. Schwed. Finn.—lIV, 
Ds 59; 12. 1073.e-%, (ig. 8’). 

Valves 46-50 « long and 7.7-8 w broad, linear or sublinear with 
triundulate sides and constricted, broadly produced rounded ends.. Raphe 
thin, slightly mundulated with unilaterally bent central pores and only 
slightly curved terminal fissures. Axial area narrow, linear; central area 
vety wide, ieaching the sides. Striae coarse, 12-13 in 10 /, strongly 
radial in the middle and convergent at the ends. 

Distribution in India: paddy and millet fields at Mugad. 


9, Pinnularia conica sp. nov. (Figs. 9-10). 


[ Valvae 40-63 « longae atque 7-11 » latae, lineari-lanceolatae ; apicibus 
constrictis, productis, aliquantum capitatis-cuneatis. Raphe tenuis et recta, 
ornata poris centralibus distincte atque fissuris terminalibus curvatis. 
Area axialis angusta 1/5-1/4 latitudinis valvae, linearis; area centralis 


848 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY aVol woe 


ampla usque ad margines perveniens. Striae 9-12 in 10 mu, crassae, valde 
radiales in medio atque in utroque apice convergentes. | , 

Valves 40-63 ww long and 7-11 « broad, linear-lanceolate with con- 
stricted, produced, slightly capitate-cuneate ends. Raphe thin and straight 
with distinct central pores and curved terminal fissures. Axial area 
narrow 1/5-1/4 the breadth of the valve, linear; central area very large 
reaching the sides. Striae 9-12 in 10“, coarse, strongly radial in the 
middle and convergent at the ends. 

Distribution in India: paddy and millet fields and road-side 
pools at Mugad. Also collected from Bombay ; Kolhapur ; Dharwar; Jog- 
Falls ; Sagar; Hirebhasgar-dam side and other places. 


This form in the first place, resembles P. $bzaunzi (Grun.) Cl. v. 
amphicephala (A. Mayer) Hust. f. contca Venkat., as illustrated by Ven- 
kataraman (Venkataraman, S. /. Diat., p. 337, fig. 113), in the outline 
and produced, slightly capitate-wedge-shaped ends. However, it differs 
from the said form in the number of striae, greater breadth and dimen- 
sions. But the dimensions given for P. braunii v. amphicephala by 
Hustedt (Hustedt, Bacz/., p. 319, fig. 578), agree well here. Venkata- 
raman, in his remarks on the form states, ‘the form resembles in all 
respects the figure P. interrupta f. braunzi Fritsch (Fritsch, Ann. S. Afr. 
Museum, IX, pt. VII, 1918, p. 592, fig. 40 a-b),’ but makes no statement 
as to in what respect his form differs from Fritsch’s that led him to create 
itas a new form of P. braunii v. amphicebhala. He, in his subsequent 
paper ‘... Diat. S. India (Government Press Madras) 1956, p. 9, fig. 25’, 
gives a figure of the same form which to my mind is very much like 
P. braunii in the outline and agreeing more or less in the dimensions also 
(Hustedt, op. cit., p. 319, fig. 577 ; Cleve-Euler, A., op. cit., p. 24, fig. 
1020 a-c, inclusive of the variety marginata A. Cl.). However, the striae 
indicated in his latter form are rather more robust and the area in the 
centre unilaterally extended. He, in his remarks to this latter 
form states, ‘this form agrees with the type (Pixnularia braunii v. 
amphicephala {. subconitca Venkat.), except for the striae being present on 
one side in the middle region. ‘This is also broader and shorter than the 
type. In some specimens striae are continuous while in some others they 
are iztervupted in one valve and not so on one side in the other valve. These 
variations also exist in the form described already’. ‘This account given 
by the author is radically different from what he gave for his original 
form; neither does he state that he has completely established the identity 
of the latter specimens with that of his original one by comparison. If this 
is true that both of his forms are one and the same with indicated range 
of variations, then my specimens are different. ‘The specimens collected 
by me from several different localities and areas in Bombay State, do not 
lend to such variations except for the dimensions, which are within the 
limits given above. 


Further, the present form resembles P. zodosa Ehr. v. pseudogracillima 
(Mayer) A. Cl. as illustrated by Cleve-Euler (Cleve-Euler, A., op. cit. 
p. 26, fig. 1024 k,1) and particularly with ‘1’, in all respects except for 
the axial area which in the present specimens is narrow. But the descrip- 
tion does not fully accord with the illustration given by the author; nor is 
it clear if P. zodosa v. pseudogracillima has or has not scattered punctae in 
the axial fieid, characteristic of the main type, but I presume them to be 
present. In the line following the description of the form, the author 


Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 


MW Wa 


\\ 


wa 
\ 
MS 


\\\ 


A 


i 


rare 


Ne 


netecuee 


—, 


° 
. 
° 
« 
. 
« 
. 
° 
e 
e 
ry 
. 
. 
e 
» 
e 
s 
ry 


—— 
———> : 


\\ 


| 
“si 


see is teiiéa 


Uy 


%e 


I\\\ 


\ 


AW 


eT 


! 


ll 


atti \\ \ Wisse — lis 
NNN Ligenel : v2 AS WU i 
3 he ee ze : R Tra TE Se cap 
NAN 0 ee 


Mucap D1atoms 
cite H. P. Gandhi 


Fig. 1. Pinnularia acrosphaeria (Bréb.) W Sm. f. undulata Cl. 2. Pinnularia acrosphaeria 
(Bréb.) W. Sm. v. minor Cl. 3. Pinnularia stomatophoroides Mayer v. ornata A. Cl. f. 
evlangensis Mayer. 4. Pinnularia karnatica sp. nov. 5-6. Pinnularialegumen Ehr. v. floren- 
tina (Grun.) Cl. 7. Pinnularia brébissoniz (Kiitz.) Cl. v. producta A. Cl. f. biundulata 
(O. Mall.) A. Cl. 8. Pinnularia microstauron (Ehr.) Cl. v. ambigua Meister. 9-10. Pinnularia 
comica sp. nov. Il. Pinnularia angustefasciata A. Cl. 12 Pinnularia aestuarii Cl. v 
interrupia. (Hust.) A. Cl. 


Journ. Bombay Nat. 


Hist. Soc. 


3 

S ——\ S, 

c= SS M, 

, ‘BZ ; 

LEB ——— | WS 

ZB? | SS ZZ SS 

t— =< 13% SS 

| ee iss 
ZB | © Za 

f po it 
A (‘SS 2A 
= = = Sai 

<a ’ == A 
=. ESS Zs) 
== =~ ca 
: Ho SES 
= ES | Z 
— Ss Ze 
— | ins Or 
st 
t cc. is So 
a ZZ 'Z SS 
L ? ro Ss 
‘ wSS CE SS 
H Be. | =f 
H eS Es Seo 
a SS 

No = 
mS z= ' 
aro 2S 

ioe os 

= |S 

i ‘ ~ o! 

ee 
EZ SS 


ANS 
CUO, SS 


A 
QS 


= 


f= NX 
S34 ae 
= m= f= = 
eZ, —s £2 \S\ 
Vo = <= —— 
to SS) a SS 
—= Zz BAIS 
= BE = cs : 
AW as 
‘nm —— ho } SS 
A sy “ ——— 
= er = ——— SS 
io as Zz —=S 
SS eam h FS] SS 
— = 1 Fe] SS 
~ — aaa —_ — 
—S= — =| f ——4 
= =} f= = 
SS RS Hy — | SSF 
~S <A RS | 2433 
SS SS ARS | & 
14> SS | Za SS | & 
SSN oA RSS ZB 
RSS ZB ISS ZZ 
S|AS|4 
a RSS DLS LE 
a RSS DA SS Gy 
pS a RS GAS. | @Z 
pats) ARS! | XZ 
ie =| o * | 
— =, cris: se AD 
ae i set ° ad 
= ==: i Sy] 5 ° : S 
S14 al SB: S 
oa =H TZ SS & SY 
(4 ZIiSaedin 
—- es aa SB ZAZA ENN 
— — am) ‘ZA = 4 ZA wy 
= = ie SS eA S 
=|2 Zl 2iN 
= = CZ Sn: : 
= ‘AAS 2Zis 
= = 2S 422/18 
ex at oA = i Sas WS 
_— =i Za ~~ a —¥ 
= — —— —! — SSA 
= — ic SS! —— A 
= = i = nS Ee 
fe fat tO SS |e 
— SS =F LAA 
— Saal RS oa! LZ 
— 3 — es ' N 
= i RSs A SS ZA 
jo C it SS t} e 
m= | = S| ZB 
=e S| BZ 
20 ie of ZH 
é WNS JF 13% 
Mucap Diatoms Sy 


H. P. Gandhi 


Fig. 13. Pinnularia stomatophoroides Mayer v. ornata A. Cl. f. ervlangensis Mayer. 
14. Pinnularia legumen Ebr. v. florentina (Grun.) Cl, 15. Pinnularia brébissonii 
(Kuitz.) Cl. v. producta A. Cl. 16. Pinnularia esox Enr. v. fasctata v. nov. 17. Pinnula- 
via esox Ehr. v. capitatav. nov. 18. Pinnularia neglecta (Mayer) A. Berg v. interrupta 
v. nov. 19. Pinnularia aestuarit Cl. v. lata v. nov. 20. Pinnularia isostauron (Ehr. ? 
Grun.) Cl. 21. Pinnularia isostauron (Ehr.? Grun.) Cl. v. contfera Brun. and Héribaud 


THE DIATOM GENUS PINNULARIA 849 


mentions that the walls are not undulate and fig. 1024, 1, is like v. vecta 
AS CI. 


Taking all these points into consideration, it seems clear that my 
specimens which do not have any puncta in the axial area, are distinc- 
tive. I therefore consider them to be a new species. 


Section MAJORES Cleve 


10, Pinnularia esox Ehr. v. fasciata y. nov. (Fig. 16). 


[Valvae 55-71 longae atque 10.5-11. latae, iineari-lanceolatae, 
marginibus triundulatae; apicibus constrictis, productis-cuneatis vel 
subcapitatis. Raphe semi-complexa, poris centralibus distinctis et 
fissuris terminalibus late curvatis. Area axialis ampla 1/4-1/3 latitudinis 
valvae, Jineari-lanceolatae; area centralis amplissima usque ad margines 
perveniens. Striae 9-11 in 10, crassae, valde radiales in medio ac in 
utroque apice convergentes, vittis longitudinalibus indistinctis. ] 

Valves 55-71 w iong and 10.5-11 « broad, linear-lanceolate with 
triundulate margins and constricted, produced-cuneate to subcapitate 
ends. Raphe semi-complex with central pores distinct and terminal fis- 
sures broadly curved. Axial area wide 1/4-1/3 the breadth of the valve, 
linear-lanceolate ; central area very large reaching the sides. Striae 9-11 
in 10 », thick, strongly radial in the middle and convergent at the ends, 
longitudinal bands indistinct. 

Distribution in India: paddy fields at Mugad. 


This form closely resembles P. esox Ehr., and its varieties as illustrated 
by Cleve-Euler, (Cleve-Euler, A., op. cit., p. 76, fig. 1107 a-g) and Hustedt 
(Hustedt, Baczl., p. 334, fig, 616), in the triundulate sides, semi-complex 
raphe, narrow longitudinal bands etc. However, it differs from it in 
having broad central area reaching the sides, longitudinal bands somewhat 
indistinct, besides it is smaller in size. This form also differs from 
P. stomatophoroides Mayer v. nuda A. Cl. (Cleve-Euler, op. cit., p. 41, 
fig. 1053 e, f) and P. stauroptera (Rabh.) Cl. v. domga A. Cl. (Cleve- 
Euler, op. cit., p. 67, fig. 1091 g-1)in many respects except for the general 
outline. Since this form shows a greater affinity to P. esox than any other 
form, it is, therefore, regarded as a new Variety of P. esox. 


J], Pinnularia esox Ehr. v. capitata v. nov. (Fig. 17). 


[Valvae 78-80 ~ longae atque 12-13 « latae, lineari-lanceolatae, mar- 
ginibus triundulatae, aliquantum dilatatae in medio ; apicibus constrictis 
et capitato-cuneatis. Raphe crassa, semi-complexa, ornata poris cen- 
tralibus unilateraliter inclinatis, fissuris terminalibus late curvatis. Area 
axialis 1/4 latitudinis valvae, linearis ; area centralis amplissima usque ad 
margines perveniens. Striae 8-10 in lUw, crassae, valde radiales in 
medio et convergentes ad apices, vittis longitudinaiibus indistinctis et 
angustissimis. | 

Valves 78-80 « long and 12-13 w broad, linear-lanceolate with triundu- 
late margins, somewhat dilated in the middle with constricted capitate- 
wedge-shaped ends. Raphe thick and semi-complex with unilaterally 
bent central pores and broadly curved terminal fissures. Axial area + the 
breadth of the valve, linear; central area very large, reaching the sides, 
Striae thick, 8-10 in 10 », strongly radial in the middle and convergent at 
the ends, longitudinal bands indistinct and very narrow. 


850 JOURNAL, (BOMBAY “NATURAL HIST, “SO ChEDT YY. Wool. A 


Distribution in India: paddy fields at Mugad. 

This form resembles P. esox Ehr., as described and illustrated by 
Hustedt, (Hustedt, Baczl., p. 334, fig. 616) and Cleve-Euler, A. (op. cit. 
p. 76, fig. 1107 a—b, =P. esox v. clevei A. Cl.), in the outline, undulated 
margins, semi-complex raphe and other details. However, it differs from 
the said type in having distinctly capitate-wedge-shaped ends and very large 
central area extending to the sides. It also differs from P. folyonca 
(Bréb.) O. Mill., described by Hustedt (Hustedt, op. cit, p. 319, fig. 
576), and others, in many details except for the general outline and capitate 
ends. The present form further differs from P. divergens W. Sm. v. 
capitata A. Cl. (Cleve-Euler, op. cit., p. 53, fig. 1071 k), in not having the 
constriction in the middle as also the thickenings on the walls in the 
central region, but for the outline. Moreover, the raphe here is sub- 
complex. It, therefore, appears to be a distinctive form coming closer 
only to P. esox, hence it is considered to be its new variety. 


Section COMPLEXAEK Cleve 


12, Pinnularia angustefasciata A. Cl.; Cleve-Euler, A., Diat. Schwed. 
Finn.—IV, p. 78, fig. 1109 a-c. (Fig. 11). 

Valves 52-87 « long and 10-15 uw broad, linear with a median inflation 
and inconspicuously swollen broadly subcuneate ends. Raphe thick and 
complex with central pores unilaterally bent and terminal fissures some- 
what bayonet-shaped. Axial area 4 the breadth of the valve, linear ; 
central area moderately wide, reaching the sides. Striae 8-10 in 10yu 
thick, slightly radialin the middle and convergent at the ends, longitudinal 
bands present but indistinct. 

Distribution in India: paddy and millet fields at Mugad. 


This form agrees well with the type described by Cleve-Euler except 
that some smaller forms were also recorded from the area. The epithet 
‘vy. schmidti? A. Cl. (=P. angustefasciala v schmidtit A. C1.), indicates 
the main type, hence avoided. This form resembles P. vegiza Mills 
(Mills, Diat. from Warri, p. 394, pl. III, fig. 33), in the outline, raphe, 
central and axial areas. However, the present form has no punctae either 
in the central area or in the polar nodules, hence it differs. It further 
differs from it in dimensions and number of striae. 


13. Pinnularia neglecta (Mayer) A. Berg v. interrupta v. nov. 
(Fig. 18). 

[Valvae 99-116 w longae atque 17-19°3 « latae. robustae, lineares, 
marginibus indistincte triundulatae; apicibus late-productis, sub- 
cuneatis et rotundatis. Raphe crassa, valde complexa; ornata poris 
centralibus crassis ac unilateraliter inclinatis; fissuris terminalibus crassis 
et curvatis. Area axialis 4-4 latitudinis valvae, linearis ; area centralis ampla 
usque ad margines perveniens. Striae 7-8 in 10 “, crassae, radiales in 
medio ac in utroque apice convergentes, vittis longitudinalibus distinctis 
et angusta. | 

Valves 99-116 uw long 17-19-3 « broad, robust linear with indistinctly 
triunduiate sides and broadly produced, subcuneate-rounded ends. Raphe 
thick, strongly complex with central pores thick and unilaterally bent and 
terminal fissures thick and curved. Axial area 4-4 the breadth of 
the valve, linear; central area large, reaching the sides. Striae 


THE DIATOM GENUS PINNULARIA 851 


7-8 in 10 p», thick, radial in the middle and convergent at the ends, longi- 
tudinal bands distinct but narrow. 

Distribution in India: paddy and millet fields and a road-side 
pool at Mugad. 


This form agrees well with the type described by Cleve-Euler (Cleve- 
Euler, A., op. cit., p. 80, fig. 1112 a-b), except that the central area reaches 
the sides due to interruption of the median striae. Itis therefore regarded 
as a new variety. 


Section VITREATAE. A. Berg 


14, Pinnularia aestuarii Cl. v, interrupta (Hust.) A Cl.; Cleve-Euler, 
A., Diat. Schwed. Finn.—IV, p. 82, fig. 1115 b-c (Fig. 12) 
Valves 67-87 « long and 14-15 « broad, iinear with broadly sub-cuneate 
ands. Raphe thick, complex with large central pores unilaterally bent 
and semi-circular terminal fissures. Axial area 4 the breadth of the 
valve, linear; central area fairly large, reaching the sides. Striae 8-9 
in 10 uw, radial in the middle and convergent at the ends, fairly wide 
longitudinal shiny bands present. 
Distribution in India: paddy and millet fields at Mugad. 


This form agrees we 1 with the type described by Cleve-Euler, except 
that it is slightly broader. It also resembles P. westz? McCall (McCall. 
D., Diat. Tay Dist., p. 261, fig. 24), in the outline, dimensions and a few 
other details. However, the present form has complex raphe and the 
central pores not at all strongly unilaterally bent, hence it differs fromm 
P. westii McCall. 


15. Pinnularia aestuarii C], vy, lata v. nov. (Fig. 19). 


[Frustula robusta atque in aspectu zonali late rectangularia. Valvae 
87-106 « longae atque 17-25 w latae, late-lineares, apicibus subcuneatae 
rotundatae. Raphe crassa paullum complexa, ornata poris centralibus 
magnis atque unilateraliter inclinatis et fissuris terminalibus late 
curvatis. Area axialis angusta, linearis; area centralis angusta usque ad 
margines perveniens. Striae 7-8 in 10 w, crassae, aliquantum parallelae, 
radiales in medio ac convergentes ad apices cum vittis longitudinalibus 
modico amplis et claris. | 

Frustules robust and broadly rectangular in girdle view. Valves 
87-106 w long and 17-25 « broad, broadly linear with subcuneate 
rounded ends. Raphe thick and slightly complex with central pores 
large and unilaterally bent and terminal fissures broadly curved. Axial 
area narrow, linear ; central area narrow, reaching the sides. Striae 7-8 
in 10 yu, thick, slightly parallei, radial in the middle and convergent at 
the ends with fairly broad and clear longitudinal bands. 

Distribution in India: paddy and millet fields at Mugadi 


This form agrees well with the type P. aes/wariz Cl. and its variety 
interrupta (Hust.) A. Cl., as described by Cleve-Euler (Cleve-Euler, op, 
cit., p. 82, fig. 1115 a-c), in all respecis, except that it is proportionately 
very broad and the striae somewhat parallel, less radial and convergent 
than in the type. It does not agree with any other form so closely, hence 
it is regarded as a new variety of P. aestuarzz, ae 


852 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST: VSGCIETY? Wil 54 


16. Pinnularia isostauron (Ehr.? Grun.) Cl.; Skvortzow, B. W 
Diat. from Kaolingtze—Manchoukuo, p. 354, pl. 1, fig. 19 ah 

2, fig. 15. (Fig. 20.). er 

P. isostauron v. genuina A. Cl1,; Cleve-Euler, A., Dzéat 
Schwed. Finn.—IV, p. 84, fig. 1116 a-b. 


Valves 41-46 « long and 88-10 uw broad, linear with 
sides and broadly subctneate ends. Raphe thick, complex see ee 
and somewhat closely set central pores and broadly curved terminal 
fissures. Axial area 4 the breadth of the valve, linear; central area 
reaching the sides and unilaterally wide. Striae 9-10 in 10y, slightl 
radial in the middle and convergent at the ends with well marked ena 
tudinal bands. 

Distribution in India: paddy and millet fields at Mugad, 


17, Pinnularia isostauron (Ehr. ? Grun.) Cl. v. conifera Brun & Hér 
Cleve-Euler, A., Dia, Schwed, Finn. IV, p, 84, fig. 16 c 
(Fig. 121). 

Valves 52-56 » long and 8-9 uw broad, linear with broadly cuneate 
rounded ends. Raphe thick, complex with unilaterally bent central pores 
and semi-circular terminal fissures. Axial area 4-4 the breadth of the 
valve, linear; central area reaching the sides but unilaterally wide 
Striae 9-10 in 10 w, thick, slightly radial in the middle and convergent at 
the ends, longitudinal bands present. 

Distribution in India: paddy and millet fields at Mugad. 


SUMMARY 


In this paper the species of Pixnularia from Mugad (Dharwar) are 
described and illustrated. Many of these forms are interesting and 
beautiful, and make new records for India and a few for science. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 


The author wishes to express his grateful thanks to Principal Menezes 
of the Rajaram College, Kolhapur, for correcting the Latin diagnoses, 
and to Prof. (Mrs.) E. A. Gonzalves for furnishing the literature. 


REFERENCES 


Cleve-Euler, A. (1955): Die Diatomeen von Schweden und Finnland— 
K. So. V_A. Handl., Fyarde Ser., 5 21-232. eee IN: 
Gandhi, H. P. (1956) : A contribution to the knowledge of Fresh-water Diato- 
maceae of S.-Western India I. Fresh-water Diatoms of Dharwar, J. /udian bot 
Soc., 35 Sone yet : 
Hustedt, F. (1930) : Bacillariophyta (Diatomeae) in A. Pascher’s Szissw A 
flora Mitteleufropas, Heut 10. HSSTO GS SET: 
McCall, D. (1933) : Diatoms (recent and fossi!) of the Tay District, J. Lz 
Soc. Lond. (Bot.) 49 : 219-308. y inn. 
Mills, F. W. (1932): Some Diatoms from Warri, South Nigeria, J. FRoy- 
Microsc. Soc., Ser. Il, 52 (4) : 383-394. 
Skvortzow, B. W. (1938) : Diatoms from a mountain bog, Kaolingtze, Pin. 
Chiang-Sheng Province, Manchoukuo, Phil. Journ. Sci. 66 : 343-62. 
Venkataraman, G. (1939) : A systematic account of some South Indian Diatoms 
Proc. Indian Acad. S¢i., ae : 293-368. : 
—_—_-—_—_ —_--—— (1956) : Contribution to our knowledge of fresh- 
Diatoms of South India, (Govt. Press, Madras). S STEARNS 


MATING IN SCORPIONS 


BY 


A. P. MaTHEw 
Department of Zoology, University College, Trivandrum 


(With 3 text figures) 


A very interesting observation by Miss Annie Alexander on the 
mating behaviour of a South African scorpion, Opisthophthalmus 
latimanus typicus C. Koch appeared in Nature, Vol. 178, October 
1956. A similar observation regarding mating in Euscorpius is 
recorded by Dr. A. Kaestner in LEHRBUCH DER SPEZIELLEN ZOOLOGIE, 
Teil 1, Jena (1956), as described by Angermann (1955), Naturwiss. 
42 U and (1956) Zool, Anz. Suppl. 19. These observations should 
lead us to re-examine the classical views: on the male reproductive 
system of scorpion; yet, in an article on the male reproductive system 
of a scorpion appearing in the March issue of the Quart. Jour. of 
Micr. Sc. (Vol. 98, March, 1957) the author gives an elaborate morpho- 
logical account of the ‘shaft of the ejaculatory organ’ often referred 
to as the ‘penis’, in full accordance with the old views. Though the 
classical description of the ‘dance’ and copulation has been accepted 
by most writers up to recent times, there was an inherent weakness 
in those accounts since no one had stated definitely that the actual 
process of copulation had been observed; and the frequent statement 
that the anterior part of the ‘penis’ or ‘copulatory organ’ is protruded 
through the genital orifice, was only a guess. Miss Alexander has 
shown that during the movements usually called the ‘dance’ the. male 
deposits a spermatophore in front of the female and that the latter 
in the subséquent movements, sucks up the sperm bundles contained 
in the spermatophore, into her genital opening, thus concluding that 
the process of mating in scorpions is similar to what is well known 
in pseudoscorpions. | 


MaTING BEHAVIOUR IN Heterometrus scaber THORELL 


In the South Indian scorpion Heterometrus scaber, I found that 
fundamentally the same process takes place with slight variations. A 
mature male and a female were placed together in a cage. Soon they 
began paying attention to each other. The dance was a brief one, 
more or less as described by Miss Alexander, and its ‘finale’ was the 
to and fro movements, ‘hand in hand’ during which the female was 
brought over the spermatophore, now fixed on the ground, and the 
sperm mass was sucked up into her genital opening. In these move- 
ments the pectines were very active and undoubtedly helped the female 
to adjust her position bringing the genital orifice just over the opened 
valyes of the spermatophore, 


854 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Wol: $4 
THE SPERMATOPHORE 


The spermatophore of Heterometrus differs in certain respects 
from that described by Miss Alexander for Opisthophthalmus. 
Fig. 1 represents a spermatophore of H. scaber deposited in front 
of the female. It consists of two limbs, a vertical limb which is in 
the form of a broad stem (Fig. 1, A) and a posterior narrow cylindrical 
limb (Fig. 1, D). . At the junction of these limbs is a pair of triangular 


flaps ita which the sperm mass is passed into the vagina of the 
female (Fig. 1, es 


D 
i 
I 


1 mm 


Fig. 1. The spermatophore of Heterometrus scaber. 
A. Verticallimo. B. Triangular flaps. C. Spines. D. Posterior limb. 


The vertical limb is formed of two lateral halves which are semi- 
cylindrical and united along its mid-ventral line. It is tipped with a 
spongy cap apparently of the same substance that is seen as a narrow 
band along the ventral suture, binding the two halves. This sub- 
stance extends as a pair of thin expanded ‘wings’ by which the 
spermatophore is attached to the ground. The posterior limb is 
cylindrical but is also formed of two lateral halves fused along the 
dorsal and ventral lines. Its anterior part is broad, and as it narrows 
there is a pair of spines directed backwards (Fig. 1, C). 


FORMATION OF THE SPERMATOPHORE 


To ascertain the origin and morphology of these structures a 
number of male scorpions were examined. The terminal part of the 
vas deferens, as is usually described, has the following arrangement 
(Fig. 2). 

1. The vas deferens opens at the middle of the inner border of 
the sheath of the copulatory organ (Fig. 2, E), 


MATING IN SCORPIONS 855 


2. An accessory sac variously named but undoubtedly the seminal 
vesicle, opens into the terminal part of the vas deferens. This sac 
when filled with sperm bundles appears as a swollen oval structure 
with a long stalk (Fig. 2, C). 


Fig. 2. The terminal part of the male reproductive system of AZ. scaber. 


A. Common terminal duct. B. Sheath of the copulatory organ (paraxial 
organ) ; really the spermatophoral sac. C. Seminal vesicle. D. Narrow 
hind part of the ‘paraxial organ’. E, Proximal end of the vas deferens. 


3. The sheath of the copulatory organ, sometimes called ‘paraxial 
organ’ is a long wide tube (Fig. 2,B). Its wall is glandular and 
internally it contains a grooved chitinous structure, the ‘penis’ or 
‘copulatory organ’. The ‘sheaths’ of the two sides unite anteriorly 
and open through a short common duct into the median genital orifice, 
guarded by the cleft genital operculum. On the ventral wall of this 
short common duct there is a thick gland—the ventral accessory gland. 
On cutting open the ‘sheath’ it is seen that the ‘penis’ is not connected 
with the wall of the ‘sheath’ by any musculature but that it is only a 
secreted product lying inside it. The wall of the ‘sheath’ is highly 
glandular and inside the groove of the ‘penis’ there is a bundle 
of twisted sperms in a thin gelatinous envelope. If it were a real 
‘penis’ jit should be capable of retraction after pairing. But the 
presence of certain backwardly directed spines clearly shows _ that 
such a retraction is not possible. | 

This so-called ‘penis’ can easily be pressed out of the sheath and then 
it is seen to be identical with one of the lateral halves of the 
spermatophore (Figs. 1 & 3). About the middle of this structure is a 
hinge-like joint connecting the anterior and posterior regions and just at 
this joint is a flap-like fold which corresponds to one of the triangular 
flaps of the spermatophore (Figs. 3,b & 1, B). Behind this is a 
backwardly directed spine (Fig. 3, c) corresponding to one of the 
spines at the beginning of the posterior limb of the spermatophore 


356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


(Fig. 1, C). During courtship the so-called ‘penis’ of the two sides 
are pushed out through the single median pore and as they come out, 
the edges of the semi-cylindrical grooved structures are glued to form 
a single ‘spermatophore’. The gluing appears to be effected by the 
secretion of the ventral and dorsal accessory glands. 


Fig. 3. The « penis’ of one side taken out of its ‘sheath’ ; in reality one of the 
valves of the spermatophore. 


a, anterior limb (becomes vertical limb in the spermatophore). 4. triangular 
flap. c. backwardly directed spine. - d. posterior limb. 


The articulation of the anterior and posterior regions of the sper- 
matophore is such that the posterior part can be flexed at right angles to 
the stem (anterior part). This movement releases the triangular flaps 
which are thrust outwards. It is between these everted flaps that the 
sperm masses are sucked into the female’s vagina. This is part of 
the opening mechanism of the spermatophore. When the female is 
actually brought astride the spermatophore her body movements 
pressing on the horizontal or posterior limb bring about the eversion 
of the triangular flaps and at the same time, this limb working like 
a lever serves to squeeze the sperm masses between the flaps into the 
vagina of the female. Once a spermatophore has been discharged 
by a male, he is incapable of producing another immediately. On 
dissecting a male which had mated the previous day it was found 
that the sheaths had shrunk a little and that the chitinous grooved 
‘penes’ were absent. But the twisted bundles of sperms which had 
formerly filled the seminal vesicle, had passed into the sheath and 
the vesicles were empty. Another male which had mated four days 
earlier was placed in a cage with a female. They noticed each other 


MATING IN SCORPIONS 857 


and the male approached the female as in the early stages of courtship. 
But the female soon became non-responsive and avoided the atten 
tions of the male. The next morning I was surprised to see that 
the male was killed and eaten by the female. There was no empty 
spermatophore in the cage. Could it be that this tragedy was because 
the male had no spermatophore to offer to the female? Repetitions of 
this experiment, however, did not always confirm the above observation. 
In many cases it was seen that the male and the female crouched 
in a corner of the cage without any special reactions for a few days. 
The sexual condition of the female must be a decisive factor in deter- 
mining her behaviour under these circumstances. 

The above observation would incidentally explain the anomalies 
noticed in the male reproductive system of scorpions which confused 
previous workers and render unnecessary the futile attempts to explain 
these anomalies as due to changes in the different stages of growth, 
(Pavlovsky, E. Trav, de la Soc. Imp. Natur, Petrograd, 1915). The 
‘shaft’ figured in Quart. Journ. Micr. Sc. in the article cited above, 
is evidently an incomplete one in the course of secretion, after a sper- 
matophore has been ejected. 

In view of these findings, it will be necessary to name the so-called 
‘sheath of the copulatory organ’ (Fig. 2, B) as the Spermatophoral sac 
and the ‘penis’ of the sides (Fig. 3) as the right and left valves of the 
spermatophore. 


THE GENUS EREMOPOGON STAPF AND ITS AFFINITIES 
WITH SCHIZACHYRIUM NEES 


BY 
M. B. RAIzaDAa 
AND 


See. PAINS 
Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun 


(With a plate) 


The name Eremopogon was first given by Hackel (1) to a section of - 
his subgenus Hypogynium of the genus Andropogon. Under this 
section Hackel described three species, namely, Andropogon foveolatus 
Delile (varieties genuimus and _ strictus), A. tuberculatus Hack. and 
A. delavayi Hack. 

The subgenus Hypogynium is characterized by female and unawned 
sessile spikelets. We are unable to understand the inclusion of section 
Eremopogon in Hypogynium, because all the three species kept by 
Hackel under section Evremopogon have hermaphrodite and awned 
sessile spikelets. 

Stapf (2) raised Evremopogon to a generic rank, basing his type 
species E. foveolatus (Delile) Stapf on Andropogon foveolatus Delile. 


EREMOPOGON STAPE 


Eremopogon (Hack.) Stapf in Fl. Trop. Afr. IX (ig17) 182; A. 
Camus in Ann. Soc. Linn, Lyon, LXVIII (1921) 207; Pilger in Die 
Nat. Pflanzenfam. Band 14 e (1940) 158; Andropogon spec. auct. 

Perennial, rarely annual grasses with slender culms simple below, 
more or less branched above, the branches often gathered in fastigiate 
bundles, each supported by a bladeless sheath and terminated by a 
solitary raceme. Spikelets small, binate, one sessile, the other pedi- 
celled, similar in shape, different in sex, on the fragile rachis of many 
jointed solitary spatheate racemes which are frequently gathered in 
fastigiate bundles, rarely the lowermost 1-3 pairs homogamous, joints 
and pedicels filiform, compressed, solid or slightly grooved, disarti- 
culating horizontally; spikelets deciduous, the sessile with the adjacent 
joint and pedicel. Florets 2 in the fertile spikelets, the lower reduced 
to an empty glume, the upper hermaphrodite, I (the lower) in the 
pedicelled spikelets male or neuter, the other suppressed, or both 
suppressed. Sessile spikelet dorsally compressed, awned; callus small, 
shortly bearded; gl. I thinly chartaceous to membranous 2-keeled, 
with narrow inflexed margins; gl. IJ similar in texture, boat-shaped 
3-nerved, acutely keeled; gl. III hyaline, nerveless; gl. IV reduced . 
to a hyaline upwards firmer linear stipe passing into a slender awn. 


* Now Systematic Botanist, Botanical Survey of India (W. C.), Poona. 


THE GENUS EREMOPOGON STAPF AND ITS AFFINITIES 859 


Stamens 3. Stigmas exserted laterally near the middle of the spikelet, 
longer than the styles. Pedicelled spikelets awnless; gl. III if present, 
hyaline, nerveless. 

Type species: E. foveolatus (Del.) Stapf (Andropogon foveolatus 
Delile). 

ie members of this genus are distributed in the tropical and warm 
temperate regions of the old world and are good fodder. 

The number of species attributed to this genus is disputed. We 
believe, however, that so far only three species can be included 
in this genus as it is understood today. 

Andropogon foveolatus was described by Delile (4) in’ 1812. 
Roxburgh (5) described A. strictus in 1820. In 1889 Hackel reduced 
Roxburgh’s species to a variety of A. foveolatus. In 1896 Hooker 
did not distinguish Roxburgh’s species from A. foveolatus. An 
examination of the material and the descriptions reveal that these two 
species, viz. A. foveolatus Delile and A. strictus Roxb. differ as 
follows : 

A. foveolatus Del. Slender, tufted, almost unbranched, culms 
upto 50 cm. tall. Sessile spikelet about 4 mm. long, pitted. Pedi- 
celled spikelet usually not pitted. Glume II of pedicelled spikelet 
cblanceolate, flat on back, margins broadly and sharply inflexed. 


A. strictus Roxb. Culms much branched, taller, sessile spikelet 
about 3 mm. long, pitted. Pedicelled spikelet also pitted. Glume II 
of pedicelled spikelet narrowly lanceolate, more or less rounded on 
back, margins narrowly incurved. 

Roxburgh’s species has been differently treated by various authors. 
The following discussion is an attempt to define its status. 

As pointed out above, Hackel regarded A. strictus Roxb. to be a 
variety of A. foveolatus Del., and Hooker merged Roxburgh’s species 
in Delile’s. . 

Stapf, while describing E. foveolatus (Andropogon foveolatus 
Del.), mentions a pit in the sessile spikelet, but there is no mention 
of such a character in case of pedicelled spikelet. If Stapf had the 
same conception of this species as Hooker, he should have described 
the pedicelled spikelet as ‘pitted or not’, as Hooker did. Further 
there is no mention of A. strictus Roxb. in the synonymy, and this 
indicates that Stapf confined his E. foveolatus only to A. foveolatus 
Del. He, however, refers to Hooker in citations, suggesting that he 
paralleled his description with that of Hooker. Stapf also cites 
Hackel who regarded A. strictus Roxb. as a variety of A. foveolatus 
Del. Stapf does not clarify whether he included or not Hackel’s var. 
strictus. 

Camus (7) regarded A. strictus Roxb. as a separate species and 
named it Evemopogon strictus (Roxb.) Camus. Pilger also recognized 
it as a distinct species. 

Hackel has referred to Stock’s collection from Sind as the only 
record of A. foveolatus Del. from India. We have in the Dehra Dun 
Herbarium a sheet of Stock’s from Sind. On requisition from the 
Blatter Herbarium, Bombay, we were supplied with three sheets under 
the name A. foveolatus Del. one of these specimens (Sabnis No. B. 
615) is from Sehwanklaki, Sind. It resembles Stock’s specimen from 

4 


860 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Sind. Further, a specimen from Mauritius also resembles the speci- 
mens of Stock and Sabnis from Sind. These are true Andropogon 
foveolatus Delile. Other material collected from various parts of India 
agrees with the description of A. strictus Roxb., but since Hooker’s 
time Roxburgh’s species was not regarded as distinct from A. 
foveolatus Del. This whole material has been kept under A. foveolatus 
Del. It is, however, interesting to note that some of the older collec- 
tions do bear the name A. strictus Roxb. These annotations were 
later on changed, apparently in the light of Hooker’s view, to A. 
foveolatus Del. 

The distribution of A. foveolatus Del. as mentioned by Hackel, 
Stapf and Pilger, suggests that this is a grass of arid and warm 
regions, viz. Africa, Mauritius, Egypt and Arabia and coming from 
south-west this species could establish itself in India only upte Sind. 
We may, however, expect to find this grass in Rajasthan (Raipur. 
an area so far incompletely explored botanically. 

We are inclined to regard A. strictus Roxb. as distinct from 4A. 
foveolatus Delile. The former species is now called Evemopogon 
strictus (Roxb.) Camus, and is the commonest species of this genus 
in India. | 

Andropogon foveolatus Del. is now E. foveolatus (Del.) Stapf. 
tn 1924 Haines (8) transferred Delile’s species to the genus Hypogynium 
Nees, and named it H. foveolatus (Delile) Haines. The genera 
Hypog ‘ynium and Eremopegon differ markedly in the sex character of 
the sessile spikelet (as pointed out above), and the combination madé 
by Haines is incorrect. i 

Hackel described the species A. tuberculatus Hack. from peninsular 
India—‘Asirgarh’. This grass has been collected only from Madhya 
Pradesh and now bears the name Eremopogon tuberculatus (Hack.) 
Camus (9). 

Another species that Hackel described under his section Eremo- 
pogon was A. delavyi Hack. from China and Yunan. Camus (9) 
transferred it to Evemopogon and gave the name E. delavayi (Hack.) 
Camus. Hackel described glume IV of sessile spikelet as ‘IV ad 
aristae insertionem denticulis 2 hyalinis acuta’ (the awn inserted in 
the sinus of two hyaline teeth of glume IV). As is evident from the 
description of Eremopogon, this genus is characterized by the glume 
IV of sessile spikelet being stipitate, passing into an awn, and not 
at all bifid or bilobed, the latter being the characters of the genus 
Schizachyrium Nees. Andropogon delavayi Hack. was first collected 
by Bor from Assam in 1935. He transferred the species to Schiza- 
chyrium and named it S. delavayi (Hack.) Bor (10). 

In 1911, Bhide (11) described a species, Andropogon paranjpyeanum 
Bhide, from Western Ghats (Bombay). Blatter and McCann (12) 
transferred this species to Eremopogon and gave -the name 
E. paranjpyeanum (Bhide) Blatter et McCann. Bhide describes 
glume IV of sessile spikelet as ‘gl. IV the narrow base of the awn, 
just a little more than half as long as I, obscurely margined and 
tnerved, with two obscure narrow lobes at the apex and an interposed 
slender twisted scabrid awn’. The figure of gl. IV as illustrated by 


a 


THE GENUS EREMOPOGON STAPF AND ITS AFFINITIES 861 


Bhide also clearly shows two lobes at the apex of gl. IV. An ex- 
amination of the type specimen of this grass further revealed that: 

(i) The pedicelled spikelet is 5 mm. long, while the sessile is only 
about 3.5 mm. or less. 

(ii) The gl. I of sessile spikelet is keeled upwards. 

(iii) The joints and pedicels are slightly thickened and obliquely 
truncate above. 


All these characters lead us to believe that Bhide’s plant cannot 
be fitted into the genus Eremopogon. It very closely approaches the 
genus Schizachyrium Nees. We have proposed for Bhide’s plant the 


name Schizachyrium paranjpyeanum (Bhide) Raizada et Jain (13). 


Thus only three species can be. attributed to the genus 
Eremopogon, all of which are found in India. E. foveolatus Stapt 
extends from Africa through South-west Asia to India, while E. 
strictus (Roxb.) Camus and E. tuberculatus (Hack.) Camus are 
apparently endemic in India. 


KEY TO THE SPECIES oF FRE MOPOGON 


A. Gl. I of the sessile spikelet glabrous, smooth, 
pitted. 
x—Culms unbranched, slender. Sessile 
spikelet about 4 mm. long. Pedicelled 
spikelet usually not pitted, gl. II: of 
pedicelled spikelet oblanceolate, with 
margins sharply inflexed and overlapping 
each other waa VE. foveolatus 
y—Culms branched, taller. Sessile spikelet 
about 3 mm. long.  Pedicelled spikelet 
pitted; gl. II of pedicelled  spikelet 
narrowly lanceolate, margins narrowly 


incurved Pee SERICTILS 
B. Glume I of sessile spikelet tuberculate at 
keels and nerves, not pitted ... E. tuberculatus 


Eremopogon foveolatus (Del.) Stapf in Dyer’s Fl. Trop. Africa IX 
(1917) 183; Pilger in Die Nat. Pflanzenfam. Band 14 e (1940) 
158. 
Andropogon foveolatus Delile, Fl. Egypte (1812) 160, t. 8, fig. 2; 
Hk. f, Fl. Br. Ind. VII (1896) 168 partim. 


Perennial, densely tufted from short, branched rhizomes. Culms 
very slender 15-50 cm. tall, geniculate at base, rarely quite erect, about 
3-noded and usually simple below the flowering branches, terete, 
glabrous below the bearded nodes, sometimes scaberulous or puberulous. 
Basal leafsheaths short, broad, whitish, thin, more or less silky, those 
cf the culms terete, glabrous except at the nodes, pale green, slightly 
scaberulous; ligules hyaline, rounded, ciliolate, 1 mm. long, continued 
into the sheath margins; blades linear, acute, 2.5-7.5 cm. long and 
t2 mm. wide, tightly folded or at length more or less flat, glaucous, 
pruinose to minutely puberulous on both sides, margins cartilaginous, 


‘smooth or nearly so, generally with a few cilia near the base, mid-rib 


862 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


keeled below, primary lateral nerves 2 on each side. Flowering 
branches solitary or fascicled, slender, simple, sometimes flexuous, 
or geniculately ascending, more or less fastigiate; spathes very narrow, 
acute, 4-5 cm. long, scaberulous; peduncles filiform, at length exsertec 
from the spathe, puberulous above, tips hardly thickened. Racemes 
slender, dense, 2.5-4 cm. long, erect or nodding, somewhat silky ; 
joints and pedicels filiform, disarticulating obliquely with a short ovate 
transparent appendage about 1 mm. long, densely ciliate along the 
margins, the uppermost cilia upto 2 cm. long. Sessile spikelet lanceo- 
late, including the short callus, the beard of which reaches more or 
less upto the middle of the spikelet, 4 mm. long, pale and shining 
with reddish tips. Glume I and II equal, subchartaceous to almost 
membranous, glabrous; gl. I minutely 2-toothed or subentire and 
minutely truncate, slightly concave on the back, inflexed margins 
narrow, forming scaberulous keels upwards, intracarinal nerves 2, 
with a circular pit between them’ above the middle; gl. II oblong, 
obtuse, semimucronulate, broadly rounded on the back, 3-nerved 
ciliolate; lower floret reduced to a linear-oblong hyaline very sparingly 
ciliolate nerveless glume, not more than 2 mm. long. Upper floret 
bisexual, gl. ,IV reduced to an awn, 12-20 mm. long, with a short 
white stipe, the remainder divided about equally into a slender brown 
column and a paler bristle, both scaberulous. Anthers less than 1 mm. 
long. Pedicelled spikelet as long as or slightly longer than the sessile, 
oblong, barren. Gl. I greenish tinged with red or more or less 
suffused with purple, 2-keeled all along, intracarinal nerves 3, the 
lateral close to the keels; gl. II oblanceolate, acute, sub-hyaline, 3- 
nerved, ciliolate, margins broadly and sharply inflexed, rather over- 
lapping each other above; gl. III if present, hyaline, nerveless, 2 mm. - 
long. 
Distribution ... Sind, Africa, Egypt, Arabia. 
Ecology -,.. A grass of arid warm regions. 


Eremopogon strictus (Roxb.) Camus in Ann, Scc. Linn. Lyon. 68 
(1921) 207; Pilger in Die Nat. Pflanzenfam. Band e (1940) 158. 
Andropogon strictus Roxb. Fl. Ind. 1 (1832) 261; Duthie Grasses 
NW. India (1883) 20, fodder Grasses N. India (1888) 34, t. 21; 
Lisboa Bom. Grasses (1896) 64. Andropogon foveolatus Hook. 
f. Fl. Br. Ind. VII (1896) 168 partim; Prain Beng. Pl. (1903) 
1203; Cooke Fl. Bom. 2 (1908) 977; under Eremopogon foveo- 
latus (Del.) Stapf in all Indian floras; Hypogynium foveolatus 
(Del.) Haines in Bot. Bihar and Orissa (124) 1041. 


Perennial, culms 30-60 cm. or more long, much branched, densely 
tufted, usually decumbent at the base, then geniculately ascending, 
very slender, glabrous; nodes bearded. Leaves 7.5-15 cm. by 1.2-2.5 
cm., linear, scaberulous beneath; sheaths shorter than the internodes, 
scabrous or glabrous, generally with few cilia near the base; midrib 
prominent, with 2 or more lateral nerves; the basal sheaths silky 
villous; ligul short, truncate, hyaline, ciliate. 

Racemes 2.5-3.8 cm. long, solitary; peduncles capillary, erect, 
usually far exserted beyond the slender spathe; joints and pedicels 


Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 


an a en ee ne a ee 


Camus, 


pogon strictus 


f plant x 1. 
V of sessile 


zi 


Gl. I 


Ta 


b. Upper part o 
e.-h, 


x 
2 
x Do 

nf 
=ioy 
—™ o” 
5 

ej 

o) 
ae 
°8 
Os) 
ae 
oy = 

cana 
gO 

bol 
= 

Oo 

S 

Ve) 

x 

2 
2 

oO 

ms 

Qa, 

Nn 
=e 
Te 
Sou 
Q's 
ier, 
et 
< 

o 


spikelet x 7, 


e. GI, 


b. A pair of spikelets x 5. 


a. Upper part of culm x 1. 


2. £. foveolatus Stapf. 
II of pedicelled spikelet x 7 


as 
3? 
WwW 
2 
eee 
K ot 
2, 
aa 
oe 
oes 
AN 
ee 
0° 
uw 
EP 
Pas 
oe) 
a0 
= 
x & 
qs 
ot 
o 
® x 
Che @ 
5 & 
Ww 
ot 
a2 
aD 
tO 
O we 
Py 
Dw 
_) 
oe 
rk 
WY 
Se 
gu 
{>} 
On 
x 
S x 
% oO 
ee 
OS Oy 
za” 
22 2 
Q% 
n 
, 
on 
et 
©) 
Ce | 


2 
oO. 


awn x 


we 


I of 
fi 


b. Gl. 
e. Gl. IV of sessilespikelet with awn x 


a. A pair of spikelets. 


d. Pedicel x 7. 


/. 


\ 


4. Schizachyrium paranjpyeanum Raizada et Jain. 
c. Joint x 


sessile spikelet x 7. 


a) 


D th } 


THE GENUS EREMOPOGON STAPF AND ITS AFFINITIES 863: 


slender, ciliate on two opposite sides, with long silky hairs, shorter 
than the sessile spikelets. Spkts. 3 mm. long (the sess. and ped. 
equal), oblong-lanceolate, glabrous, purplish, callus small, shortly 
hairy at the base; gl. 1 3 mm. long, flat, lanceolate-oblong, subobtuse, 
with narrowly involute margins. 4-nerved, usually marked with a 
deep pit above the middle; gl. II equal, lanceolate, acute, obscurely 
3-nerved ; gl: III much shorter, oblong-lanceolate, glabrous, nerveless ; 
gl. IV reduced to base of an awn, awn 13-16 mm, long, the column 
nearly equal to the subulate portion. Anthers 2.5 mm. long. Pedi- 
cellate spikelets :—Pedicels 2.5 mm. long. Gl. I more or less 3 mm. 
long, lanceolate, acute, with incurved margins, the keels above acutely 
scabrid. 5-nerved, pitted gl. II equal, linear-lanceolate, acute, 3- 
nerved, with narrowly incurved margins. 
Distribution .,.. Widely distributed in India. 
Ecology .... This grass occurs in varied localities, dry 
open places, ravines and low hills. It is 
a good fodder. 


Eremopogon tuberculatus (Hack.) Camus in Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon. 
68 (1921) 207; Pilger in Die Nat. Pflanzenfam. Band 14 e (1940) 
158. Andropogon tuberculatus Hack. Monog. Androp. VI 
(1889) 404; Hk. f. Fl. Br. Ind. VII (1896) 168. 


Perennial; culms 1.5 m. tall, robust, many noded, round, 
glabrous, striated, paniculately branched. Sheaths glabrous smooth ; 
nodes glabrous. Ligule ovate-oblong, acute, 4-6 mm. long, hyaline, 
laterally decurrent into sheath. Leafblade 4o cm. long, 0.4-0.6 cm. 
broad, linear, rigid, glaucous, glabrous, tightly infolded, at length flat, 
setaceously acuminate, base narrow, margins scrabrous; midrib thick- 
ened at base, here occupying almost entire breadth of the lamina, lateral 
nerves very closely set. Panicle leafy, spatheate, 20-35 cm. long, 
branches 345, filiform, erect, subfastigiate, primary often branched, 
the rest simple. Spathe very narrow, scabrid, with tubercle based 
hairs. Peduncles 5-10 cm. long, strict, scabrid. Racemes 2.5-3.5 
cm. long, erect, pale green or suffused with purple. Joints and pedicels 
linear, stouter than in other species shorter than the sessile spikelet, 
ciliate with white hairs, which are longer at apex. Sessile spike- 
let 5 mm. long, linear-lanceolate. Callus small, sparsely and shortly 
hairy. Glume I chartaceous-membranous, more or less acute or 
narrowly truncate, entire, margins narrowly inflexed, dorsally flat or 
ridged, rough, glabrous, 3-7-nerved, nerves tuberculate, faint near the 
apex. Gl. II equal to I, membranous, lanceolate, acute, 1-nerved, keel 
tuberculate, margins narrowly inflexed, ciliolate. Gl. III same size, 
linear, lanceolate, acute, nerveless, margins incurved, glabrous. Gi. 
IV slender base of an awn 16-18 mm. long, column erect shorter 
than subula. Lodicules cuneate, cuspidate. Stamens 2, anthers 2 mm. 
long. Pedicelled spikelets male, blunt. Gl. I prominently nerved. 
Gl. III ciliate. Gl. IV absent; anthers large, 3.5 mm. long, rest 
similar to sessile spikelet. 

Distribution ... Madhya Pradesh. 
Ecology ... A handsome, mildly scented (Duthie) grass, 
occurring’ near water. 


864 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


AFFINITIES OF THE GENUS EREMOPOGON 
STAPF WITH SCHIZACHYRIUM NEEs 


Owing to lack of material at our disposal we have been unable to 
make a comprehensive study of the genus Schizachyrium vis-a-vis 
Eremopogon, but from what we have examined and discussed below, 
it would appear that the genera Schizachyrium and Eremopogon are 
very close. | 

Stapf has kept his genus Evemopogon in the subtribe Amphilo 
phiastrae and he distinguishes the latter from the subtribe Schizachyria- 
strae as follows: 


AMPHILOPHIASTRAE SCHIZACHYRIASTRAE 

(i) Awn forming a continuation Awn from the sinus of the 2-fid 
of the stipiform fertile or 2 dentate fertile valve. 
valve. 

(ii) Joints and pedicels slender, Joints and pedicels often some- 
filiform with a_ translucent what stout, thickened upwards, 
middle line, tips unappen- with more or less appendaged 
daged. tips. 


Other authors such as Bews, Blatter, Fischer, Mooney and Pilger 
also separate Eremopogon from Schizachyrium on the basis of glume 
IV and the joints and pedicels. These two characters have been 
ciscussed below one by one. 


(i) Glume-IV of sessile spikelet (referred as glume below): 

A number of specimens of Evremopogon strictus (Roxb.) Camus 
from various parts of India were examined. Many of them showed 
bidentate or shortly bifid apex of the glume. It was these instances 
which first drew our attention to this subject. At one time we even 
considered separating these specimens with bidentate glume and 
transferring them to Schizachyrium, but their slender joints and pedicels 
necessitated further study of the material. Soon we came across speci- 
mens having wholly entire and shortly bidentate glumes in one and 
the same inflorescence. ‘This further prompted us to scrutinize the 
material and descriptions of Evemopogon and Schizachyrium. 

It was interesting to note that in the description of the genus 
Schizachyrium Nees, Stapf has mentioned ‘Fertile valve (gi. IV) 
usually 2-fid, sometimes very deeply, or 2-dentate, rarely entive, awned 
from the sinus or continuing the entire valve.’ 

A scrutiny of Stapf’s descriptions of the various species of 
Schizachyrium revealed that actually there are all stages of division of 
the glume; on the one hand there are species with entire glume and 
on the other the glume is divided deep, almost to the base, and there 
exist all intermediate stages. 


(11) Joints and pedicels :— . 

An examination of the joints and the pedicels from the specimens 
and the descriptions of Eremopogon and Schizachyrium also reveated 
a gradual variation in their thickness. 


THE GENUS EREMOPOGON STAPF AND ITS AFFINITIES 865 


In this respect the most significant anomaly is to be noted in the 
descriptions of the genus Eremopogon and its type species E. 
foveolatus Stapf. Stapf, while describing the genus Evremopogon, 
writes—‘Joints and pedicels filiform compressed, solid or slightly 
grooved, disarticulating horizontally! In the description of the type 
species E. foveolatus Stapf writes—‘Joints and pedicels filiform, 
disarticulating obliquely, with a short ovate transparent appendage 
about 1 mm, long. The oblique articulation and presence of an 
appendage in the joints and pedicels, are the characters of Schiza- 
chyrium’. | 

On the other hand some species of the genus Schizachyrium have 
very slender, rather filiform, less or un-thickened joints and pedicels; 
sometimes even their appendage is absent. 

It would appear from the above discussion that the characters by 
which the genus Eremopogon has been separated from Schizachyrium 
are of very little practical value. A study of the generic descriptions 
and the material also does not suggest any other characters which 
might be regarded as constant and distinct enough to be of taxonomic 
value. The absence of clear demarcation between these two genera 
is also indicated by the two instances discussed earlier in this paper, 
viz. of Andropogon delavayi Hack. (Eremopogon delavayi Camus, 
Schizachyrium delavayi Bor) and A. paranjpyeanum Bhide (E. paranj- 
pyenum Blatter et McCann, S. paranjpyeanum Raizada et Jain). 

We are inclined to believe that further study will confirm the view 
that by slightly emending the characters of the genus Schizachyrium 
Nees, Evemopogon Stapf can be merged into the former. 


REFERENCES 


. Hackel, E, (1889): DC. Monograph, Phanerog. VI : 402. 
. Stapf, O. (1917) : Flora Tropical Africa, IX : 182. 
. Pilger, R. (1940): E. P. Pllanzenfam, le. 158. 
. Delile (1812) : Flora Egypte, 160, t. 8. f. 2. 
. Roxburgh, W. (1832) : Fl. Ind. (Car. ed.) I: 261. 
. Hooker, J. D. (1896) : Fl. Br. Ind., VII: 168. 
. Camus, A. (1922): Ann. Soc. Linn. Lyon. N.S. 68 : 208. 
. Haines, H, H. (1924): Bot. Bihar & Orissa, If: 1041. 
. Camus, A. (1922): Aun. Soc. Linn. Lyon. N.S. 68: 208. 
10. Bor, N. L. (1938): Judian For. Rec N.S. Bot. I (3) 95. 
11. Bhide, R. K. (1911) : Jour. & Proc. Asiat. Soc. Beng. VU : 514. 
12. Blatter, E, & McCann, C. (1928) : JBNAS. 32 : 427. 
13, Raizada, M. B. & JainS. K (1953): Proc. Ind. Sc. Cong., absts. III, 130. 
14, Duthie, J. F. (1883) : List of grasses of N. W. India 20. 
(1888) : Fodder grasses of Northern India, 34 t. 21. 
Lisboa, J. C. (1896) : List of Bombay Grasses and their uses : 64. 
16. Prain, D. (1903): Bengal Plants, IT: 1203. 
17. Cooke, T. (1908) : Fl. Bomb. Presidency, II : 977. 
18, Fischer, C. BE. C. (1934) : Fl. Madras: 1751. 
19. Blatter, E. & McCann, C. (1935); The Bombay Grasses—Scientific 
Monog. No. 5, I.C.A.R. : 96. ; 
20. Rhind, D. (1945) : Grasses of Burma: 73. 
21. Mooney, H, F. (1950): Suppl. Bot. Bihar and Orissa : 190. 


OO WD UP DH 


aot 
on 


INFLUENCE OF STAGE OF TIDE ON THE ATTACHMENT 
OF BARNACLE CYPRIDS! 


BY 


A. DANIEL, M.SC., Ph.D., F.A.Z. 
Zoology Research Laboratory, University of Madras 


(With three graphs) 
INTRODUCTION 


Conflicting views have been held regarding the effect of the stage 
of tide on the settlement of barnacle cyprids. While Weiss (1947) 
found that the highest rate of attachment of cyprids of B. improvisus 
occurred during the low tide period, Vischer and Luce (1928) found 
that an increasing tide favoured settlement of cyprids of B. improvisus 
and B. amphitrite. The latter view was accepted by McDougall (1943) 
in explaining the different distributions of the barnacle B. eburneus. 
Cyprids of B. crenatus were found by Pyefinch (1948) to become more 
abundant later in the tide, i.e. as the ebb falls away to slack water. 
Nevertheless, Barnes (1950) is of the opinion that the dominance of 
the cyprid larvae later in the tide, at Millport, is doubtful. 

Since it would appear that different species react differently, the 
rate of attachment in relation to stage of tide was studied with 
reference to cyprids of three species Balanus amplhitrite vanegatus, B. 
tintinnabulum tintinnabulum, and Chthamalus stellatus stellatus which 
are the common barnacles occurring abundantly in Madras. 


METHODS 


The attachment of larvae was studied by exposing test panels, 
which measured 16” x 20” and had become previously coated with the 
primary algal film shown to be essential for the attachment of the 
barnacles (Daniel, 1955 b) from high tide level to low tide level for two- 
hour periods. The panels were suspended vertically by a pair of 
stout galvanized copper wires. An iron weight attached at the lower 
end of the plank ensured the vertical position. At the top the wires — 
were attached to a projecting tron rod. At the end of the two-hour 
period the numbers of cyprids settled were counted. 

Experiments for Balanus amphitrite were conducted in the new 
north quay of the Madras harbour, where only this species of barnacle 
settled in appreciable numbers. 

Experiments for Balanus tintinnabulum were conducted on the 
seaward side of the concrete break-water to the north of the harbour, 
on the Rayapuram shore, where only B. tintinnabulum settled 
abundantly. 


+ Part of a thesis approved for the Ph.D. degree of Madras University 


‘mdOOT OY} JO Saseqd puv spt} 0} Suynsatsva ‘vg JO splidAD Jo JUITIYSE}}8 04} WO9M}Oq UOT)¥IaI oy} SuIMoyg 


T FUNOIVT 
O NOOW 11n4 @ NOOW M3N 
ES6IPW 43 21 ZS6LAPW ail SS6L YL G3 BZ S61 YL Gh LZ 
ve_w ov 8) 9 b/ wo 3 9 VS Ve ero a 97 ty a) os 8 9 b 2 Ve ee or gi ww zs oo) 8g 9 YY & Ve eer gg 3) YY of 8B 9 
z oi ES ES ORS i 7 rT RS SE 


‘208 “3SIH “38N Avquiog 


M) 


- 


“Laa3 Nj atl 40 “LH "SYOLIITIO*) NLOS 02° NI S 


vo 


iy 


sy 


fo] 
Le) 
a 


fe) 
° 
HOWL LY SaIddAD JO SUBBWNKY 


ai 


flak SSS 


ah 


"dOOU OY] Jo seseyd puv epi} 0} Mnjuquuuyutys 7 ‘g_ JO SplidAd Jo JUOTUIYDE}}e OY} UaEM}0q TOTJEIer oy} SuTMOoYS 


6 HaNDIY 
@ NOCW M3iN O Noow 11n3 @® NOOW M3N 
0S61°995 43 92 ZSEI° 193 Gs SZ 7561°993 uj 2h 2561424 gill ZS61 YL i 82 TS6V UPL Gs 0Z 
ob 2 V2 tv oF 2 5) bt) OP 8 9 YY be te ot 7 8) wy to) 8 9 Yt ot te oy 9 We Of 8B 9 & 2 XE OF 8) 9 Yt Of 9B 9 vt tro sy 7 wu 3 
Pi SRE CMS = Pim == em ey 9S ms cee Oe a a aE ce ee a peepee] rr = 


Dynes ak 
—_— 12 


ooy 


"SYOLIZIIOTY NI OS 07zo N! ONIH DVL Ly SOA) JO UAGINAY 


= SO SR EI YS SEES ME ar 


aia vate 1 nti g ve a SR re noe RT ET 


al 


Pa 


stitial tates Diebabeeate eee at 
e 


i) 


>! 
aa 
i 
> 
fav a | 
"L334 NI 3011 30°1} 


nse 


te 
a i med 


FIA SR YS a EC 


AAS RE ERAN YPN a 


ae 


‘908 “ISIHT ‘IUNT Avquieog ‘uanor 


TOOT 943 JO seseyd pus opr) 0} smgvgzags *s ‘2 Jo splidAd jo JUaTIYOI}e ON} 499M}9q UOlVvlas oy} SuIMoyg 


§ FInd 
; O NROOW 11NJ @® NOOW MIN 
2561°994 4 21 2560994 G3 tl 2S61° 923 92 ZS61° 994 Gi SZ 
te oy _g_9 us eo! 8 9 ¥ % We wot a 5) wy te cr 8 9 ¥ t ve te oz 9) ge Ws ti or 8 9 bY te oe 819) Ww te Rn 

i Wei ee ee ee j ae 5 ] Sif eclaactim betty oe lis tie pees a Te aliany ase ae me a. 
(es 
A | 2 
{| : 
f AS 
i | 9 
\ + o6! Cy 
| | ~ 
i “a 
ee 
Go 
| : 

Go? 

eee 


ee 


é BOLIFTVIOM NOS Q02¢ NI DNIHOV LAN 


g 


Oe i | 
“L335 NI AGL 4O°LH 


meee 


¥ 
‘20S ‘SIH ‘JUN Avquiog ‘uanor 


is 


INFLUENCE OF TIDE ON BARNACLE CYPRIDS 867 


Experiments for C. stellatus were conducted on the shore between 
Rayapuram and Tondiarpet, where only C. stellatus occurred abund- 
antly. Details of the distribution and settlement of these barnacles 
and of the distinguishing characters of the cyprids have been given 
elsewhere (Daniel, 1954, 1955 a@ and 1957 b). This study covered the 
new moon and full moon days. 


RESULTS 


The data for these three different species, Balanus amphitrite, B. 
tintinnabulum and C, stellatus during January, February and March 
1952 are presented in figures 1, 2 and 3 respectively. 

A perusal of Figure 1 will show that, in general, maximum attach- 
ment of B. amphitrite occurred during low tide. It is obvious from 
Figure 2 (the attachment of B. tintinnabulum) that this species, unlike B. 
amphitrite and C. stellatus, is not influenced so much by the tides as by 
illumination. It is probable that what little effect the stage of the tide 
may have on settlement, is masked by the influence of illumination due 
to sunlight during the periods of low or high tide. From Figure 3 
it can be seen that C. stellatus preferred to settle at high tide than 
at low tide. 


REMARKS 


Evidently these species of barnacles respond differently to the 
different stages of tide. These differences in behaviour must now be 
considered in relation to the three distinct habitats to which the species 
are confined. Chthamalus stellatus being a form inhabiting the supra- 
littoral fringe of rocky coasts, the cyprids can reach the rocks on the 
shore only at high tide while the ebb tide can carry the larvae of 
B. amphitrite (occurring abundantly about one foot below the surface 
of low tide) to the deeper waters which they inhabit. Such of the 
cyprids of B. amphitrite as are carried shorewards during the high 
tide and have managed to settle, probably perish by the violence of 
the waves or during the explosure in the succeeding ebb period. In 
the same way cyprids of C. stellatus carried away to deeper waters 
by ebb tide would never find suitable substrata at levels where maximum 
illumination and oxygen could be obtained. They could, however, 
survive and be carried shoreward during the next high tide. The 
response of cyprids of B. tintinnabulum which abounds in the sub- 
littoral fringe of rocky coasts ten feet below mean sea level, is so 
closely bound with the reaction to illumination (Daniel 1957 a) that it 
is probable that during high tide the cyprids brought close to the 
shore are prevented from attachment not only by the violence of the 
waves but also by the intensity of the sunlight, and those drawn back 
into the deeper waters by the ebb and flow do not get substrata at 
depths which secure the required illumination. It is therefore prob- 
able that the cyprids of this species go shorewards and seawards 
during the two different tides till they settle on substratum at inter- 
mediate depths between those preferred by C. stellatus and B. 
amphitrite. Therefore, the reaction of the three different species must 
be related to the nature of the habitat rather than to any inherent 
response to tidal rhythm. 


868 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


SUMMARY 


Cyprids of B. amphitrite settle in large numbers during low tide, 
whereas cyprids of C. stellatus prefer to settle at high tide, and cyprids 
of B. tintinnabulum appear indifferent to the stage of tide. 

It is suggested that the reaction of the cyprids of the three 
different species must be related to the nature of their habitat rather © 
than to any inherent response to tidal rhythm. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


I am grateful to Professor C. P. Gnanamuthu, Director, Zoological] 
Research Laboratory, University of Madras, for suggesting this 
problem and for his guidance. My thanks are also due to the harbour 
authorities for giving me many facilities during the investigation. The 
work was carried out with funds provided by the Forest Research 
Institute, Dehra Dun, specially obtained from various sources for the 
execution of the scheme for the protection of Indian timbers against 
attack by marine organisms. 


REFERENCES 


Barnes, H. (1950) : A noteon the barnacle larvae population of the Clyde sea 
area as sampled by the Hardy continuous Plankton Recorder. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. 
OK. 29 : 73-80. 

Daniel, A. (1954) : The seasonal variations and the succession of the fouling 
communities in the Madras Harbour waters. J. Madras Univ. B. 24 : 189-212. 

— — — — (1955a) : Gregarious attractions as a factor influencing the settle- 
ment of barnacle cyprids. ibid. 25 : 97-107. 

— — — — (19556): The primary film asa factor in settlement of marine 
foulers. ibid. 25 : 189-200. 

— — — — (1957a): Jllumination and the settlement of Barnacle cyprids. 
Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. (in press). 

— — — — (19576): The development and metamorphosis of three species of 
sessile barnacles. J. Madras Univ. (in press). 

McDougall, K. D. (1943): Sessile marine invertebrates at Beaufort, North 
Carolina. col. Monogr. 13 : 321-374. 

Pyefinch, K. A. (1948): Notes on the biology of Cirripedes. J. Mar. Biol. 
Assoc, U.K, 27: 464-503. 

Vischer, J. P. and Luce, R. H. (1928) : Reactions of the cyprid larvae of bar- 
nacles to light, with special reference to spectral colours. Biol, Bull. Wood’s Hole 
54 : 336-50. 

Weiss, C. M. (1947) : The effect of illumination and stage of tide on the attach- 
ment of barnacle cyprids. Biol. Bull. Wood’s Hole 93 : 240-349. 


REPTILIANA 


BY 
LieuT.-CoL. A. H. E. Mosse! 


Reptiles! The mere intonation with which, quite instinctively, 
one gives utterance to the word, makes cause for wonder whether 
there is any good to be said of them. Yet, when dealing just now 
with the little Gecko indoors as a member of one’s liousehold, one had 
almost forgotten that he is one of the tribe. The most conspicuous of 
the harmless garden lizards that scurry across one’s path is the so- 
called ‘bloodsucker’ (Calotes), who putts out his throat at you in the 
endeavour to look important, but only succeeds in being ridiculous. 
In the effort his whole throat becomes suffused with crimson, a change 
of colour which is presumably responsible for his being sometimes 
called a chameleon, which he certainly is not. 

The true Chameleon is a lizard of more pre-historic mould, which 
I have personally come across in India only in the Nilgiri Hills, 
but have also met in southern Arabia. ‘An amazing creature I found 
him. His colour transformation schemes were, it seemed, dependent 
in part upon the hues of his environment and'background, and in part 
upon the nature of the light falling on him. They varied from 
brilliant green with black spots and blotches, to orange-brown or a 
dirty cream marked with brown. But, apart from changes in his 
uniform, it was his eyes and the character of his movements which 
gave one the impression that here was an entirely unique personality. 

A squint-eyed regard can make one feel uncomfortable, you never 
know whether the eye concerned is looking at you or not. But the effect 
is still more disconcerting when a creature, in the act of contemplating 
a blue-bottle fly; deliberately swivels round one of the ball-and-socket 
arrangements—the epithet 1s EHA’s—which serve it for eyes, in order 
to study you, while the other continues without interruption the 
more important business of estimating the range of that insect. The 
thing purports to be a lizard, but you cannot believe it to be real, 
and feel sure there must be an invisible someone pulling a string to 
work the machine. 

Having decided that you are not a person of any account, the 
right eye returns to the assistance of its colleague; and the owner of 
both, after some further consideration, concludes—unless the blue- 
bottle has in the meantime become bored and moved on—that the range 
is excessive and must be reduced. To that end he uncoils his tail, 
which has been wound round a supporting twig or other perch, leisurely 
unclasps the grip of the fingers of one fore-paw, and as leisurely 
moves it forward to take up a fresh grip. Then, at the pulling of 
that invisible string again, the other hand does likewise; after which 
a short rest is necessary before the right hind foot begins to take its 
share in the advance. And so on. 


1 This is a further chapter from the late Col. Mosse’s MS. The first appeared in 
Vol. 54(3). 


870 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


It is slow motion in excelsis. When the Whiting was impelled to 
invite the Snail to walk a little faster, I expect the latter was doing 
his little best. The snail is slow, not a doubt of it; yet he does not 
move with the studied deliberation of the chameleon. The panther 
stalking a wary prey can, by virtue of sheer concentration, move his 
paw at a rate of fractions of an inch per second; but you know that 
same paw can strike like the lightning itself. The chameleon, how- 
ever, Cannot be imagined progressing any faster than he does. Not 
because you think he cannot do so, but just because he does not 
choose; while any attempt to hustle him would, you feel, be an un- 
warrantable interference with one of the fixed laws of dynamics. 

When at length he has arrived within range—perhaps six 
inches—of his quarry, the chameleon tightens his grip with hands and 
tail, parts his lips, and the next moment the blue-bottle has disappeared 
within those cavernous jaws with a leap that the eye is unable to 
foilow. It is just as fast as that; after the portentous slowness of 
every previous movement it leaves one gasping. One cannot help 
wondering .whether the real explanation of the reptile’s ‘superlative 
leisureliness of limb is not to be found in the necessity of concentrating 
all the speed of which his being is capable into the manipulation of 
the lasso which is his tongue. For, in effect, it is like a dasso that 
he wields his weapon, with the difference that instead of a noose hé 
employs a blob of liquid glue on the tip of his tongue. I have taken 
longer than I had intended over a description of the chameleon’s 
methods; but what is one to do when dealing with a creature to whom 
time is of no account? | 

In Gujarat I never met a chameleon!. A reptile, however, that is 
frequently in evidence there, especially if you keep fowls, is that big 
lizard of antediluvian appearance usually miscalled the Iguana, in 
reality a Monitor. I once had a neighbour who was a poultry fancier 
and found his prize White Leghorn chickens disappearing in mysteri- 
ous fashion. He set traps for the mongoose which he believed to be 
the culprit, but without success. One afternoon he and I were in the 
compound when we saw something scuttle away from the vicinity of 
a wired-in fowl run, then sit up on its haunches and look round to 
inspect us—exactly as a mongoose will do when he cannot quite make 
out what you are. ‘I knew it was a mongoose’, said my friend. 
But it was not. The next moment it was down on all fours and its 
gait as it waddled off gave it away—a monitor or ghorpad, what the 
Gujarati calls a gho. This particular specimen escaped for that time, 
but was shot a day or two later, a big fellow nearly four feet in 
length. In its interior were found the remains of a couple of chickens 
and of a young partridge, as well as eggs of some small bird. 

The gho is a voracious poacher; but the evil reputation in another 
respect which he bears among the natives is undeserved. I once 
picked up a young’ one by the tail in the presence of a patawala—the 
office menial whom they call a chuprassi further north—and it turned 
and seized my finger in its teeth. I have never seen a brown skin 
turn such an extraordinary colour; the man was livid with genuine 
horror, fully expecting to see me drop dead For the ghorpad, when 


1 Although it does occur and is even lecally common there. EDs. 


REPTILIANA 871 


young and spotted—it loses its spots as it grows up—is credited with 
a bite more deadly than the cobra’s; a complete delusion, for India 
possesses no poisonous lizard known to science. 

What the creature does own is a set of powerful claws with which 
it can maintain a most tenacious grip. It is said that in olden days 
burglars used to employ the ghorpad to help them to climb up walls 
and into houses, sending the creature on ahead with a light rope 
fastened around its waist. And tradition has it that the Marathas 
once utilised the services of a large ghorpad, in just this fashion, to 
provide them with the means of scaling the impregnable and there- 
fore unwatched side of the ancient fort of Singarh, and thus to capture 
it from the Moghals. Life is not too easy for the ghorpad. Poisonous 
or not, the Waghris and other unfastidious folk have always eaten 
him with gusto, while in these days his skin makes ladies’ hand-bags. 

In the case of that still bigger lizard, the Mugger (Crocodile), 
it is suit-cases and so forth. Which is just as well, for, unpreposses- 
sing anachronism that he is, I do not know what else he is good 
for in the modern world. Like every lizard, large or small, his one 
interest in life is food. Other animals wiJl regard you with frank 
curiosity, or as frank suspicion. But the eyes in that horny head, 
the top of which, as it floats slowly past you standing on the bank, 
is all that is visible above the surface of the water, are solely con- 
cerned to appraise your possibilities as meat. So at least I always 
fancy. The particular mugger we are observing is probably not big 
enough—few are in these parts—to tackle an adult human being if 
it had the chance. None the less I do not believe it constitutionally 
capable of considering a living creature from any other point of view. 

Look into the chill expressionlessness of the crocodile’s lidless grey- 
green orbs. I have spoken elsewhere of the cruelty in the eyes of a 
jungle-cat, of the sinister character of the wolf; but these are warm- 
blooded animals, and their eyes capable of varying expressions in tune 
with varying moods. In the eye of the crocodile is a quality of 
changelessness that chillsione with an impression, such as no mammal’s 
eye ever gives forth, of unmixed evil. Catch a wolf young enough 
and you may tame him. One cannot conceive of any response from 
a mugger. 

One of the tribe once gave me a shock, though that is not why 
I abuse them. This particular individual was the sole inhabitant of 
a tank, the greater part of which had dried up in a year when the 
rains had failed. In the alluvial soil of the tank bed, adjacent to the 
water that remained, an enterprising ryot had sown a winter crop of 
wheat. One afternoon it was reported to me that the mugger was on 
Jand having a siesta. I was at the time in want of material for the 
making of a crocodile-skin attaché case, and here it was to hand. I 
sallied forth with my rifle. 

As a rule a basking mugger lies within a very few feet of the 
water’s edge, sometimes half in the water. I was therefore surprised 
to find, in this instance, that my prospective quarry was lying in the 
voung wheat, then some eight or nine inches high, at a distance of 
fully twenty yards from the water. The less chance of his escaping, 
thought I, as I took aim from behind the bund at perhaps seventv 
yards’ range. 


SA JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


I fired. There was not a move. I have found that a bullet 
accurately placed in the back of the neck will kill a mugger stone 
dead, though some spasmodic movements will normally follow. In 
this case there was not even a quiver, which was surprising. But it 
has been my experience that, at the sound of a shot, every mugger 
on shore within half a mile will plunge straightway into the water. 
There seemed no reason to doubt that the beast was dead. Leisurely 
I reloaded and made my way across the bed of the tank towards him. 

I was within six feet of the dead croc, when it suddenly came to 
life and swung round upon me, with jaws in a flash flung open wide, 
and a loud intimidating hiss, to the horror of my wife and small 
daughter watching the affair from the opposite bund! To my own 
horror no less. 1 had indeed, as may be imagined, one of the shocks 
of my life, only comparable to that given me years before by a 
wounded panther when [ all but trod upon him. However, recovering 
myself, I made sure this time with two rapid shots. 

Then came the final surprise, when examination of the now really 
defunct beast could find no trace whatever of the original bullet. My 
first shot must have been just too high and missed him clean! It 
was an extraordinary affair, of which there seem two possible ex- 
planations. One that the crocodile was deaf, had not heard the first 
report or the whizz of the bullet over him, and was unconscious of 
my approach in‘silent rubber soles until I was almost upon him. The 
other, that it had the intelligence to realise that, while in a measure 
concealed by the wheat in which it lay, a move to cover the unusual 
distance between itself and the water might be only exposing itself to 
danger. This possibility seemed strengthened by the fact that there 
was a malformation of one of the animal’s hind feet which doubtless 
would have slowed down ‘an attempt to escape. Which fact again, 
as also the fact of deafness if it existed, made all the more surpris- 
ing the exceptional distance from the water. Whether he was really 
lying ‘doggo’, or merely deaf, must remain undecided. Between 
seven and eight feet long, this was not a large mugger, but quite 
large enough to have given me ample cause to regret our encounter, 
had I been a pace nearer when he moved! 

My surprise at this crocodile choosing to bask in the open in day- 
light so far as twenty yards from his native element is not affected 
by the well-known fact that these animals will travel long distances 
by night from one river or piece of water to another. I once found 
a pair of small ones, each between two and three feet only in length, 
in a village well. The villagers stated that they had been discovered 
in the well one morning a week before, having obviously arrived the 
previous night and, attracted by the water in the well, had fallen in. 
In this case the nearest water where muggers were known to exist 
was about five miles away. 

But enough of these foul relics of a vanished age. 

And so to the snakes. Nobody loves snakes. The same, it is 
true, may be said of the mugger; but comparatively few folk ever 
meet the latter, while snakes, though to a less degree than sometimes 
supposed, are liable to enter into the life of any one. And many 
of them are not only entirely harmless but often do good work in 
the destruction of rats and such-like vermin. Moreover, prejudice 


REPTILIANA 873 


apart, some of them have their attractive points. Squirmy things, 
no doubt, but does one ever see a snake that is not sleek and clean, 
with a well-groomed look about him, in fact? Except, of course, at 
the uncomfortable, dishevelled time of sloughing his skin. 

That does not alter the fact that the snake is anathema to man- 
kind in general; this for a combination of reasons. Its writhing mode 
of progression, for one thing, tends to have a discomfiting effect upon 
the human observer. And man can never quite forget, either the 
traditional association of the serpent form with the Evil One, or the 
possession by some of the race of an instrument of death, the dead- 
liness of which seems out of all proportion to the importarice of its 
possessor. Well do I remember the horror of my first intimate contact 
with—but the tale will not take long in the telling. 

It was my first year in India. A young subaltern dressing tor 
dinner, I pulled on a mess wellington boot to feel something alive 
under my heel—Heaven! a snake! With a presence of mind on 
which that sudden deathly cold feeling up my spine did not prevent 
my priding myself, I rammed my heel down and stood upon it hard! 
After a couple of minutes, when surely it must be safe, I got my 
bearer to pull off the boot, to find in the heel the loathly remains of 
what had been—a miserable toad! Can you: wonder that, between 
the sight of the beastly mess and sudden revulsion of feeling, I was 
immediately deadly sick? But that did not do the unfortunate toad 
any good. 

Since that memorable night I have neither seen nor experienced 
any hairbreadth escapes; when one considers it, indeed, it is rather 
remarkable how comparatively few of these reptiles one sees. Snakes 
one has encountered of course, and naturally calls to mind first the 
most notorious kinds: Cobra, Daboia or Russell’s Viper and Krait, 
the’ Echis Viper or Phoorsa a trifle less deadly. It was a daboia, coiled 
up in the middle of the track, whose unexpected appearance as we 
turned a corner made my pony shy; then turned out to be dead, 
without mark of injury. I shall have more to say of the daboia 
presently. | 

It was a cobra, of the black variety with neither spectacles nor 
monocle upon his hood, which demonstrated the promptness with which 
he could seize an opportunity, in the form of a painted partridge fallen 
to my gun within a yard of where he lay basking in the sunshine; 
you would have supposed it too big a mouthful for him to put away, 
but he obviously did not think so. He was not allowed to try. 

It was another large black cobra which once afforded a Muslim 
Mounted Police orderly of mine a chance of displaying his prowess 
with the sword. We were riding along a sort of lane with a bank 
on one side, when a cobra that had been coiled up on the bank, 
roused by the sound of the passing hoofs, reared itself up with hood 
expanded after the fashion of its kind, its head about saddle high as 
we rode below. Maula Baksh was an ex-sowar of a famous cavalry 
regiment, and an expert performer at ‘heads and posts’. At the sight 
of this heaven-sent opportunity his eyes gleamed, as he begged eagerly 
to be allowed to practise his favourite exercise on the person of a 
living foe. Back he cantered some sixty paces, then, as all unwitting 
of its imminent danger the cobra held its ground, down upon his 


874 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


enemy swept the old soldier in whirlwind charge. Above the horse’s 
ears, and perfectly timed, came the swishing back-hand stroke of a 
blade in whose keenness its owner had always taken pride, and that 
swaying menacing head was removed as cleanly as had been each 
coconut at the last competition which Maula Baksh had won. 

It was the phoorsa, of which I read, and did not question the 
statement, that while a superficial resemblance may cause the Brown 
Tree-snake to be mistaken for it, this viper is no climber and is never 
seen off the ground. Authorities are not always infallible, so it may 
not have been merely ophidian cussedness which led to my finding the 
phoorsa, on the next half dozen occasions of our meeting, invariably 
neatly coiled up in its characteristic figure-of-eight pose, two or three 
feet or even more above the ground, in a cactus or dwarf acacia or 
even the lower branches of a babul tree. I sent one of these speci- 
mens to the Bombay Natural History Society for formal confirmation 
of my identification and record, though no one who has learned to 
recognise snakes by their scale characteristics should make a mistake. 

Here it may be as well to emphasize the necessity, for any observer 
who desires to know his snakes, of studying—with the aid of authority 
on the subject—the character and arrangement of their scales. Re- 
liance on size and colouring will be found a broken reed. The trouble 
is that no live snake at liberty is going to allow you to count his 
scales, and the wise man will use the stick first and look up the book 
afterwards. 

Once you know the phoorsa, however, you should, provided you can 
obtain a good look at him, always know him alive or dead; and a 
very live little reptile he is when alive! The hiss of the average snake 
is a noise produced by the mouth. The phoorsa has thought of 
another way. The scales on his back are roughened by means of a 
patent saw-like keel in the middle of each; hence one of his names, 
‘the Saw-scaled Viper.” When disturbed he works his coils in a 
rotating movement which, by the scraping together of these keels as 
the sides of the body rub against each other, produces a peculiar, half 
crackling, half hissing sound that is surprisingly loud and is as dis- 
tinctively characteristic of this viper as is its figure-of-eight attitude. 

While the phoorsa, as already mentioned, is not infrequently to 
be seen—at any rate in North Gujarat—coiled up in the branches of 
a bush or low tree, it is of course normally a ground snake, most 
abundant in sandy or rocky country. When Kipling writes of ‘Karait, 
the dusty brown snakeling that lies for choice on the dusty earth’, 
his description fits the phoorsa even better than it does the krait. It 
was a phoorsa in the dust that once gave me an opportunity of 
putting to a practical test one of the most advertised cures for snake- 
poisoning—permanganate of potash. 

It was at a shoot in Kathiawar. Our cars were getting ready to 
move away and the preparations of one driver had taken him under- 
neath his ‘bus’. Suddenly he wriggled out, looking very frightened 
—hbitten by a snake! The little brute was speedily driven out and 
slain, proving to be a phoorsa. The next move was a dive into my 
car for the cartridge-bag in which I always carried a little tin of 
permanganate of potash in readiness for just such an emergency, 
though occasion for its use there had never been before. I do not 


REPTILIANA 875 


suppose more than two minutes had elapsed before I had made, with 
a sharp knife, a fairly deep cross incision at the site of the wound— 
the two fang punctures were clearly visible close to the base of the 
victim’s thumb. This done I rubbed in the permanganate crystals 
thoroughly. In the event practically no symptoms of poisoning de- 
veloped, and I have no doubt that the prompt action was the means of 
saving the man from a bad time, possibly from death; statistics show 
that the bite of this snake has fatal results in about twenty-five per 
cent of cases. 

This instance was a particularly favourable one for the operation 
of the cure. The point to be made clear is that it was the prompti- 
tude which counted. Permanganate acts by neutralizing the dangerous 
constituents of the actual venom. To be of any use, therefore, it has 
to be brought into direct contact with the venom itself before thé 
latter has been dissipated in the blood stream. If in this particular 
case action had, been delayed by haif an hour, or even twenty minutes, 
it would almost certainly have been quite useless. 

It cannot be too strongly emphasized that there is no known cure 
for snake-poison, once it has entered the blood stream, except anti- 
venine prepared from a serum of the venom of the particular species 
of snake responsible for the bite. There are no doubt measures which 
a medical man can take that may be helpful in border-line cases. 
But it may safely be maintained that the great majority of recoveries 
from snake-bite poisoning are due to the simple fact that the amount of 
venom injected was not enough to constitute a fatal dose. The old- 
fashioned belief dies hard that the best thing to do is to fill the 
victim up with alcohol. In the modern view this is a dangerous error, 
and the practice much more likely to do harm than good. 

From time to time, usually during the monsoon season, a com- 
motion in one’s compound or back premises is accompanied by the 
cry of ‘Samp hai! Bara Samp! (Big Snake!)’, and presently the 
bearer appears, either to beg the Sahib to come forth and deal 
with the intruder, or to invite attention to the sweeper who, at the 
foot of the verandah steps—which his ‘untouchable’ form must not 
pollute by ascending—holds out in deprecating triumph a stick, from 
which dangles the limp corpse of the enemy; occasionally krait or 
cobra, though more often an entirely harmless species. But to one’s 
retainers all snakes are deadly. Or, if at times prepared to admit that 
there may be exceptions, they deem it wiser to act on the eminently 
sound principle, which we have already advocated, of making sure 
first and inquiring afterwards. 

This does not, of course, apply to the Brahmin, who looks upon 
the cobra with veneration; or to the Jain, to whom the taking of any 
life whatever is a crime. Should venomous snakes become too 
abundant round about a gentieman’s domicile to be entirely com- 
fortable, there is usually no difficulty about having recourse to the 
snake-charmer. This individual will always be prepared, for a con- 
sideration, to beguile with sweet music that inconvenient cobra from 
its hole, and convey it, without ostentation, to the sufficiently distant 
compound of a neighbour. Whether the cobra so beguiled had or 
had not been previously put into that hole by the snake-charmer him- 
self, is a matter upon which I should not venture to hazard an opinion. 


5) 


876 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


A few people in India learn to identify the principal venomous 
snakes; none but the professed naturalists know anything about the 
harmless ones. Yet of these there are many more species, from the 
magnificent Python to the slender Green Whip-snake, or the barred 
Wolf-snake who is liable to suffer for a superficial resemblance to the 
deadly krait. Then there is the big Dhaman, or Rat-snake, the 
virulent glance of whose eye at milking-time, I have been solemnly 
assured, will dry up the udders of a cow—to say nothing of the 
‘Amphisboena, who bears a head at each end of his body! It will 
be gathered that there is quite a lot to be learned about the non- 
venomous snakes. But for most people it will always remain the 
venomous minority alone that matters. 

Of this venomous minority in India there are—apart from the Sea 
Snakes—but four species at all generally common whose bite is liable 
to prove fatal to a human being, the four I have already mentioned: 
cobra, krait, daboia and Echis. One cannot but wonder why this 
should be so. The existence, indeed, of snakes furnished with an 
elaborate apparatus for the injection of deadly poison, has always 
been one of nature’s mysteries. The majority of the race, living a 
similar life to the specialised minority, feeding upon similar prey and 
subject to similar dangers, seems to get on perfectly well without 
any such equipment. The Grass Snake of the home country, for 
example, appears to make just as much a success of life as does the 
Adder. Why then should the few be provided with a death-dealing 
weapon of appalling efficiency, which the many neither need nor possess 
but by reason of which they must share universal obloquy? 

The question is one to which science has as yet no answer. But 
perhaps the world need no longer look upon as wholly vile a creature 
that—by means of the very venom whose possession has hitherto 
damned it—now comes forth in unexpected colours as a benefactor of 
mankind! For, while the property of coagulating blood, possessed 
by certain snake venoms—notably that of the daboia—has long been 
known, it is but recently that medical science has learned to make 
practical use of this property. This has been done in perfecting a 
new treatment for haemorrhage and, what is particularly interesting, 
in the successful application of the treatment to cases of that uncom- 
mon and peculiar complaint, haemophylia—sufferers from which ar« 
vulgarly known as ‘bleeders’—in which the patient has to be handled 
like delicate china lest he bleed, perhaps to death. — 

Not, of course, that the newly discovered treatment for serious 
haemorrhage constitutes the first beneficial use to which snake venom 
has been successfully applied. The manufacture of an_ effective 
antidote to snake-bite poisoning, in the form of an anti-toxic serum 
prepared from the venom itself, is now a good many years old. But 
the use of such a serum as a cure for the effects of snake-bite is, 
after all, but a practical modern application of the ancient nostrum of 
a hair of the dog that bit you! Were there no bite, there were no 
need for a cure. For the viper today to come to the aid of humanity, 
and assist in the treatment of a malady for which he is in no way 
responsible, is surely a very different matter. True, that his assistance © 
is vicarious; yet does. it not warrant our looking with more kindly 
eyes upon a creature who, loathed and hated of mankind and madé 


REPTILIANA 877 


the symbol of all that is vile, has through the ages awaited the 
dawning of the day which should see him acclaimed a benefactor ot 
the human race? Our vision cleared as to his merits, may we not 
now permit ourselves to recognise in. the snake a beauty of form and 
colouring that has in the past been obscured by a veil, the creation 
of our own mental attitude towards him? 

Observe a grass snake in the woodland, as it glides away before 
our approach; can we fail to admit the grace in its movements? And 
the formidable daboia in the Zoo—'What a flat evil-looking head !’— 
the. exclamation will out; is it merely the old prejudice not yet wholly 
dissipated? Whether or no, his old coat recently sloughed, one cannot 
deny the brilliancy of colouring and pattern of the new one, with its 
triple chain of large orange-brown diamonds outlined in greenish black 
or deep purple and contrasting white. Whether tenacious of his 
rights or merely sluggish—he is a somewhat corpulent person—the 
daboia, when he lies in your path, does not put himself out greatly to 
make way for you. If you tread upon him he will retaliate to some 
purpose, and I remember a particular individual in captivity who 
would strike viciously at anyone approaching his cage. But in a state 
of freedom he is, unlike some of his kind, the King Cobra for example, 
not usually aggressive of disposition, and will give you fair warning 
of his presence with a resounding hiss that is meant to be heard. 
Not his the blame if you ignore it. 

Once, before one had learned to recognise a benefactor in ‘that 
fell speckled snake’, an altercation with a large daboia that I met out 
shooting ended in the demise of the latter, a specimen, as it turned 
out, of the female sex. The funeral rites disclosed no less than 53 
unhatched eggs from which, but for my untimely interference, there 
would presently have emerged 53 infant vipers, each with curved fang 
and poison gland and forked tongue all complete. 

My pen has been running amiably on, some spirit of conciliation 
in the air. But the mental vision of that multiple reptile progeny gives 
one pause. It may be that the daboia wears a beautiful coat, and 
will not bite unless provoked. It may be that human science can use 
the poison from under his lips to bestow life rather than death. Yet— 
flat scaly head and flickering forked tongue! I fear me that a serpent 
remains a serpent, cursed above every beast of the field. 


BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN THE BHILLANGNA 
VALLEY OF THE ERSTWHILE TEHRI GARHWAL 
STATE-II 


BY 


Ras KUMAR GUPTA, M.Sc. 
Botany Department, D. A. V. College, Muzattarnagar, U.P. 


[Condenued from Vel. 53(4): 594] 


INTRODUCTION 


In continuation of Masar Tal Lake (10,746 ft.) ridge in the Bhillangna 
Valley there is a region of lakes known as Sahsru Tal situated on the 
water parting ridge of the rivers Balganga and Bhillangna. ‘There are a 
number of lakes here, one big one situated at 16,897 ft. having a perime- 
ter of about one mile. All these lakes are snow-fed. The plants from 
this region were collected in the month of September and my specimens 
were identified at the Central National Herbarium at Calcutta. 


List OF SPECIMENS COLLECTED 


The plants in the following list have been collected from Sahsru Tal 
which is in continuation to the list previously given. The reference 
numbers given after each specimen refer te herbarium sheets possessed by 
the author. Every effort has been made to adjust the nomenclature of 
the plants according to the latest findings on the subject; plants marked 
with an asterisk have not been described by Collett in FLORA SIMLENSIS. 


RANUNCULACEAE 


Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. 
Erect herb, with spurred green flowers having purple veins, at Helsi 
11,000 ft. (Gupta 314, 374) 
Delphinium vestitum W all. 
Hairy herb, with blue spurred fiowers, at Masar Tal lake at 9,000 ft, 
(Gupta 301) 
FUMARIACEAE 


Corydalis meifolia Wall. 
Herb, about 1 ft. at Bayani 14,500 ft. (Gupia 341) 


HYPERICACEAR 


Hypericum elodeoides Choisy. 


‘ Herb, 1-2 ft. flowers yellow with black dotted petals, common at 
Kyarki 15,000 ft. (Gupta 282) 


BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHRI GARHWAL 879 


GERANIACEAE 


Impatiens roylei Wall. 

Erect herb, with spurred pale pink flowers at Bayani 14,500 ft. 
(Gupta 321) 

RUTACEAE 

Boenninghausenia albiflora Reichenb. 

Herb with white flowers, very common upto 9,0CO ft. at Masar Tal. 
(Gupta 302) 
Skimmia laureola Sieb. & Zucc. 


Shrub, with yellow flowers, leaves having strong orange-like smell 
when crushed, common at Masar Tal on the sides of the lake. (Gupta 
306) 


. RHAMNACEAR 
Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. 
Shrub, with branches spreading and drooping at the ends at 6,000 ft. 
(Gupla 245, 142) 
ROSACEAE 
Potentilla argyrophylla Wall. 


Herb, about 2 it. with yellow flowers at 16,000 ft. Kyarki. (Gupta 
209) 


Potentilla microphylla Don 


: Herb, about 3 ft. with minute flowers at Helsi 14,500 ft. (Gupla 
42) 


Potentilla fulgens Wall. 

Hairy herb with yellow flowers, common upto 10,000 ft. Masar Tak 
(Gupia 361, 386) 

SAXIFRAGACEAE 

Saxifraga diversifolia Wall. 

Herb. 1 ft. with yellow flowers at 11,000 ft. (Gupta 371, 378) 
Parnassia nubicola Wall. 

Herb, with white solitary terminal flowers, common upto 15,000 ft. 
(Gupta 328) 

ONAGRACEAE 

*Epilobium roseum Schreb. 

Herb, about 1 ft. at 9,000 ft. near Masar Tal lake. (Gupta 303) 


BEGONIACEAE 
*Begonia laciniata Roxb. 


Herb, about 2-3 ft. at Bayani 14.5000 ft. (Gupta 337) 


880 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


UMBELLIFERAR 


Sanicula europea Linn. 


Herb, with minute white flowers at 9,000 ft. near Masar Tal lake 
(Gupta 287) 


Pimpinella diversifolia DC. 

Hairy herb, 2-3 ft. with white flowers at 9,000 ft. near Masar Tal lake. 
(Gufia 300) | 
Selinium tenuifolium Wall. 


Herb, 2-8 ft. with white flowers at 11,000 ft. (Gupta 310) 


Angelica glauca Edgew. | 
Herb, with white purple flowers at 11,000 ft. (Gupta 351) 


*Pleurospermum candollii Benth. 


Herb, about one ft. at Sahsru Tal 16,000 ft. (Gupta 319, 340) 


Pleurospermum angelicoides Benth. 


Herb, 3-4 ft. at 14,000 ft. (Gupta 327) 


RUBIACEAE 


Gallium asperifolium Wall. 


Weak herb with trailing stem, flowers red upto 10,000 ft. (Gupta 
100) 


Gallium rotundifolium Linn. 


Herb, with trailing stem. flowers white tinged with green upto 9,006 
ft. (Gupta 101) ) 


Rubia cordifolia Linn. 
Climbing heib, with small red flowers at 8,000 ft. (Gupta 103) 


VALERIANACEAE 


Valeriana wallichii DC. 


Herb, with white flowers tinged with pink, roots having a characteristic 
smeil, at 15,000 ft. (Gupta 280) 


Nardostachys jatamansi DC. 
Herb, about 6-7 in., roots having characteristic smeli, at 11,000 ft. 


(Gupla 335, 373) | 
DIPSACACEAE 


Dipsacus inermis Wall. 


Shrub, with numerous white flowers ciowded in terminal heads at 
Masar Tai 10,900 ft. (Gupia) 


Morina longifolia Wall. s 
Herb, 2-3 ft with deep pink flowers at 14,500 ft. (Gupta 326) 


BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN. TEHRI GARHWAL S81 


COMPOSITAE 


Erigeron multiradiatus Benth. 


Hairy herb, with flowers having dark purple ray florets at 14,500 ft. 
(Gupta 320) 


Gnaphalium luteo-album Linn. 


Woolly herb, with bright yellow flowers at 16,000 it. near Sahsru Tal. 
(Gupta 266) 


Anaphalis nubigena DC. var, polycephala 
Cottony herb, with white flowers at Sahsru Tal 16,600 ft. about 1-3 


it. high. (Gupta 231) - 
Anaphalis triplinervis Clarke 
Cottony herb, 1-2 ft. with white lowers. (Gupta 277) 


Artemisia parviflora Roxb. 


Erect shrub, like herb, 1-3 ft. with flowers tinged with green at Masar. 
Tal. (Gupta 292) 


Artemisia vulgaris Linn. 


Hairy herb, 3-6 ft. common upto 14,000 ft. (Gupta 294, 336). 


Senecio amplexicaulis Wall. 
Herb, about 3 ft. high, with yellow flowers near Masar Tal lake at 
9,000 ft. (Gupta 345, 355) 
Senecio chrysanthemoides DC, ‘ 
Herb, 2-3 ft. flowers with conspicuous yellow ray-florets, (Gupta 350) 


Senecio arnicoides Wall. 


Herb, 2-3 ft. with yellow flowers at 9,000 ft. (Gupta 395) 


Saussurea taraxicifolia Wall. | 
Herb, with cottony stem, 1-6 in. with dark purple flowers at 11,000 ft. 
(Gupta 360) Piet 


Saussurea hypoleuca Spreng. | 
Herb, 2-5 ft. with dark purple flowers at 14,000 ft. (Gupfa 333) 


Saussurea gossypiphora Don 
Herb, about 8 in. cottony. (Gupta 322) 


Saussurea kunthiana Clarke 
Herb, about 1 ft. at 14,000 ft. (Gupta 339) 


Saussurea lappa C. B. Clarke 
Herb, with yellow flowers 11,000 ft. (Gupta 289) 


Saussurea obvallata Wall. 
Herb, 1-2 ft. at Sahsru Tal 16,000 ft. (Gupta 338) 


882 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 
Cremanthodium oblongatum C. B. Clarke 
Herb, 1-2 in, flowers yellow at 14,500 ft. (Gupta 324) 


Tanacetum Jongifolium Wall. 


Strongly scented herb, with bright yellow flowers at Kyarki 15,000 ft. 
(Gupta 264) 


CAMPANULACEAE 
Cynanthus lobatus Wall. 
Herb, about 6 in. at Bayani 11,000 ft. (Gupta 336, 382) 
PRIMULACEAE 


Primula involucrata Wail. 


Herb, about 1 ft. at Sahsru Tal 16,00U ft. (Gupta 318) 


Primula macrophylla D, Don var. macrocarpa 


Herb, about 8 in. at Kyarki 14,000 ft. (Gupta 325) 


Primula sp. 
Herb 1-2 ft. at Bayani 11,000 ft. (Gupta 346) 


Lysimachia alternifolia Wall. 
Hairy herb, 6-12 in. with yellow flowers at 6,000 ft. (Gupta) 
GENTIANACEAE 


Swertia purpurescens Wall. 


Herb, 1-3 ft., flowers with pale red purple corolla having ring at the 
base, at 16,000 ft. (Gupta 283, 372) 


Swertia alternifolia Royle 
Herb, 2—4 ft. with lurid grey flowers at Bayani 11,000 ft. (Guta 357) 


Halenia elliptica D. Don 
Herb, with pale biue flowers at Sahsru Tal 16,000 ft. (Gupta 268) 
SOLANACEAE 


Solanum nigrum Linn. 


Herb, 12-18 in. with small white flowers upto 8,000 ft. (Gupla 134) 


Datura stramonium Linn. 


Erect herh, Ola (ith ene comers eT aes 4,000 ft. (Gupta 
199, 246) 


SCROPHULARIACEAE 


Pedicularis gracilis Wall. 
Herb, with pink flowers at Bayani 11,000 ft. (Gupta 278) 


BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHRI GARHWAL 883 


Pedicularis pectinata Wall. 
Herb, 6-18 in., with pink spicate flowers at 11,000 ft. (Gupta 389) 


Pedicularis pectinata Wall. var. palans Prain. 
Herb, about 20 in. with pink spicate flowers (Gupta 307) 


Picorrhiza kurooa Benth. 


Herb, about 7 in., at Sahsru Tal 16,000 ft. (Gupta 330) 


LABIATAE 


Colebrookea oppositifolia Benth. 
Herb, flowers with small purplish corolla at Tehri. (Gupta 104) 


Phlomis bracteosa Royle 
Hairy erect herb, 1-5 ft. with blue-purple flowers at Masar Tal 
9,000 ft. (Gupta 263) 


Brunella vulgaris Linn. 
Hairy herb, 4—12 in. with violet-purple flowers at Sahsru Tal 16,000 ft. 
(Gupta 279) 


Origanum vulgare Linn. 
Herb, 1-3 ft. with small pink flowers at Masar Tal 9,000 ft. (Gupla 
297) 


Stachys sericea Wall. 
Silky herb, with pink flowers at Bayani 11,000 ft. (Guta 353) 


Leucas lanata Benth. 


White woolly herb, with small axillary flowers in whorls, common 
upto 8,000 ft. (Gupta 232) 


Leucas cephalotes Spreng. 


Hairy herb, 1-3 ft. with white flowers in terminal whorls at 4,000 ft. 
(Gupta 261) 


AMARANTACEAE 


Cyathula tomentosa Mog. 
Woolly herb, with white flowers in long spikes (Guia) 


Achyranthes aspera Linn. 


Hairy undershrub, with dull green flowers in terminal spikes (Gupla 
231) 


Achyranthes bidentata Blume 


Undershrub, with slender spike 4-5 in. long, having dull green pur- 
plish flowers. (Gupta 203) 


884 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


POLYGONACEAE 


. Polygonum amplexicaule Don 


Herb, 2-3 ft. with deep red flowers at Sahsru Tal 16,000 ft. (Gupta 
305) 
Polygonum alatum Buch.-Ham. 

Herb, 3-6 ft. with white purplish flowers at Bayani 11,000 ft. (Gupta 
376) . 
Polygonum polystachyum Wall. 

Shrub, with white pinkish flowe1s at Sahsru Tal at 16,000 ft. (Gupta 
213) 
Polygonum affine Don 

Herb, about 6 in. with pink flowers at Sahsru Tal 16, 000 ft. (Gupta 
317) 
Polygonum vaccinifolium Royle 

Herb, about 6 in. with pink flowers at Sahsru Tal 16.000 ft. (Gupta 
308) 

THYMELAEACEAE 


Daphne papyracea Decne. 
Shrub, 5-8 ft. with white liliac flowers upto 8,000 ft. near Masar Tal. 
(Gupta) 
EuPHORBIACEAE 


Euphorbia pilosa Linn. 
Milky herb, with small flowers in a cup-shaped involucre with yellow 
glands. (Gupta 375) 
ORCHIDACEAE 


Satyrium nepalense Don 
Herb, 6-24 in. with pink fragrant fowers ; root tuberous; at 11,000 ft. 
(Gupta 380) | 


SCITAMINEAE 


Roscoe purpurea Smith 
Herb, with purple flowers at 16,000 ft. (Gupta 265) 


Cautleya spicata Baker 


Herb, leaves 10-15 in. long, with yellow flowers in terminal spikes 
at Masar Tal 9,009 ft. (Gupta 290) 


RItiACrRA Tr 


Allium wallichii Kunth 


Bulbous herb, flowers with purple rotate perianth at Bayani 1 000 it. 
(Gupla 315, 347) 


BOTANICAL EXPLORATIONS IN TEHRI. GARHWAL 885 


Asparagus curillus Ham. 
Herb, with small white flowers. (Gupta 334) 


JUNCACEAR 


Juncus sphacelatus Decne. 
Perennial herb, with brown flowers. (Gupta 296) 


CYPERACEAE 


Carex nubigena D, Don 


Herb, with pale spike, glume with female flowers midrib having pro- 
minent white margins at Sahsru Tal 16,000 ft. (Gupta 281) 


Carex filicina Nees 
Herb, common at Sahsru Tal 16,000 ft. (Gupta 284) 


Hemicarex hookeri Boeck. 


Herb, with slender stem, 4-12 in., spike linear and narrower at the 
base, at Sahsru Tal 16,000 ft. (Gupta 329) 


Cyperus nubigena Don 
Herb at 16,000 ft. (Gupta 281) 


GRAMINEAE 


Sporobolus indicus R. Br. 


Perennial herb, 1-3 ft. with brown spikelet at Sahsru Tal 16,000 ft. 
(Gupta 285) : 


Avena barbata Brot. 
Herb, common at Bayani 11,009 ft. (Gupta 387) 


Phleum alpinum Linn. 
Herb, common at Kyarki 14,500 ft. (Gupta 274, 223) 


Andropogon gryllus Linn. 
Perennial herb, 1-5 ft. forming hard spikelet in threes. (Gupta 304) 
Andropogon sp. 


Perennial herb at Kyarki 14,500 ft. ( Ee Sol, 352) 
CE) 
Koeleria cristata Pers. 


Perennial herb with tufted stem, spikelets tinged with purpie at Sahsru 
Tal 16,000 ft. (Gupta 312) 


Agrostis canina Linn. 
Herb at Bayani 11,000 ft. (Gupta 263) 


Agrostis micrantha Steud. 
Herb at Sahsru Tal 16,000 ft. (Gupta 270) 


886 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Glyceria tonglensis Clarke 
Perennial herb, creeping on wet ground, spikelets few, awnless, green 
tinged with purple at 14,500 ft. (Gupta 343) 


Danthonia kashmiriana Jy. S 


Herb, at Bayani 11,000 ft. (Gupta 352) 


Paspalum sanguinale Lamk. var. cruciatum. ( Nees) | ook. 
Herb, 6 in. to 3 ft. at Sahsru Tal 16,000 ft. (Gupta 267) 


Deyeuxia sylvatica Kunth 
Herb, at Sahsru Tal 16,000 ft. (Gupta 309) 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


The author is deeply indebted to Dr. J. C. Sen Gupta, Chief Botanist, 
Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for his kind help in identification of 
the plant specimens, to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, Director, Biology Depart- 
ment, St. Xaviez’s College Bombay, for critically examining the manuscript 
and suggesting many improvements in it. 


STUDIES ON NON-INSECT ENEMIES OF LAC, WITH SPECIAL 
REFERENCE TO SQUIRRELS AND BIRDS AS SERIOUS 
SEASONAL PREDATORS 


BY 


S. KRISHNASWAMI, Ph.D., F.A.Z., F.E.S.1, N. S. CHAUHAN, M.Sc. 
(Agri.) and P. 8. NEGI, M.Sc., F.E.S.1. 
Indian Lac Research Institute, Namkum, Ranchi 


(With a text figure) 
INTRODUCTION 


One of the factors limiting production of lac is the prevalence of 
its enemies estimated to account for a destruction of over 40% of living 
lac cells in an average crop (Negi 1942). Most of these enemies are 
themselves insects and they fall under either of the two categories, namely 
parasites and predators. The former belong to the superfamily Chalci- 
doidea and number eight in all. The damage done by all these parasites 
put together does not normally exceed ten per cent of the lac cells. The 
predators, on the other hand, do considerable damage to lac crops, and the 
larvae of the two important lepidopterous predators, Eub/emma amabilis 
Moore and Afolcocera pulverea Meyr, together have been known to 
damage thirty to thirty-five per cent of lac cells. The loss caused by the 
predatory larvae of lacewing flies (Chrysopa madestes Banks and C. /acci- 
perda Kimmins, etc.) is comparatively low, but instances are not lacking 
of outbreaks on an epidemic scale resulting in severe damage to young 
developing crops. Apart from the commonly prevalent insect enemies 
enumerated above, and the damage caused by them, serious attention to a 
new type of damage was drawn from 1940 onwards when partial artificial 
defoliation of falas (Butea monosperma) in Batsakhi crop (Negi/1942) 
succeeded 1n considerable measure in preserving broodlac against summer 
heat and drought, and it was found that many of the lac cells so saved 
were damaged by some enemies. As a result of investigation, a tew 
enemies other than insects have been recently noted which cause serious 
damage at the most critical time of the crop. This paper incorporates 
investigations carried out on these new non-insect predatory enemies. 


LocaLity, TIME OF OCCURRENCE, AND TYPE OF DAMAGE 


This new type of damage to lac cells is being observed on palas 
(Butea monosperma) every year in the Bihar Government Forest at 
Kundri (Palamau District) and it is characterised by both the time of 
occurrence and its nature. Kundri experiences a very severe summer with 
the day temperature sometimes shooting up to 120°F. in May-June; 
hence, at Kundri the Baisakhi crop suffers to a great extent every year, 
particularly from the point of view of brood preservation. ‘Towards the 
end of May, and in June, a very heavy mortality of lac insects occurs due 
to the intense summer heat and only a very low percentage of the 


888 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST SOCIETY, Vol 54 


insects survives the effect of heat. It is about this time that the new type 
of damage to the small percentage of surviving female lac insects is 
observed. Thus the damage occurs at a very-critical time of the crop and 
a considerable part of the small quantity of surviving broodlac is lost. 

As regards the nature of damage, it is quite typical in that the mature 
cells are broken open and the living female insects inside pulled out and 
devoured. More often the insects are completely removed from the tests, 
but occasionally portions of their bodies are left behind. The resinous 
test-covering is normally found opened with a horizontal or vertical 
circular cleavage with the result that the lac-encrusted twig looks as if 
partially scraped... On twigs where all the lac cells have been damaged, 
only nearly semi-spherical cups of the lower portion of the lac tests are 
found attached to the twig as shown in the figure. In a few cases, the 
cleavage is rather irreguiar also. 


Fig.— Lac encrustation on twigs 


A. Free from damage B. Damaged 


In addition to such damage observed on the SAazsakhi crop, a 
similar type of damage is also noticed in the maturing Ka/ki crop to a 
limited extent at Kundri, and it is mostly confined to spots showing 
predator damage. At the Institute field area in Hesal near Ranchi, 
Kusum crops also show similar damage, particularly the maturing Jethw7 
crop in June-July. On Ausune and in Xatkz crop where the encrusta- 
tion is comparatively more continuous, the damaged portion of lac sticks 
looks as if partially scooped out with a sharp instrument. In the case of 
Kusum, damage is not merely confined to mature lac while still on the 
trees, but was observed somewhat even more pronounced in broodiac 
sticks that were tied on to the trees for infection. In several cases the 


STUDIES ON NON-INSECT ENEMIES OF LAC 889 


damage was also caused to broodlac enclosed within 60 to 80 mesh brass 
wire net baskets which had been cut open at places. 


METHOD OF STUDY 


The fact that the broodlac and the brass wire net baskets used to 
enclose them were both damaged was an indication that rodents like 
squirrels that could climb the trees, could possibly be chiefly responsible 
for such type of damage. Similarly, birds that possess strong beaks, like 
woodpeckers, could also possibly inflict such damage to the exposed lac. 
In the past, both these animals were suspected to cause some accidental 
and practically negligible damage (Glover 1937). Moreover, as these 
animals are seen freely visiting the lac-bearing trees at the time when the 
damage is also noticed, detailed investigations on their connection with it 
were initiated during the summer of 1954 and continued during 1955 and 
1956 at Kundri Forest where the damage is of a very serious nature. 
To determine the culprits responsible, three methods of study were 
employed, namely, examination of gut contents, field observations on 
their behaviour, and artificial feeding of captives. The last method was 
employed only in the case of squirrels and woodpeckers. 


EXAMINATION OF ALIMENTARY CANAL 


During the period of study 50 squirrels and 58 birds were collected by 
shooting, in either June or October, at the time of maturity of the 
Batsakhi and Katki crops respectively. The specimens were preserved 
in four per cent formalin so that their stomach contents could be carefully 
examined in the laboratory for the presence of lac insects, lac resin pieces 
and other insects associated with iac cultivation. ‘The examinations were 
carried out very thoroughly part by part of the entire alimentary canal of 
these specimens. In all 36 squirrels and 58 birds belonging to 16 species 
were examined. The summary of the results is furnished in Tables I and 
II, separately for squirrels and birds respectively. 

Examination of the stomach contents showed that the squirrels and 
birds had consumed a variety of food from both animal and vegetable 
sources. ‘The food inside the stomach was in different stages of digestion. 
Most of the vegetable matter was in an advanced state and could 
not be correctly identified. Whenever iac insects were found, they 
were observed to be either entire or almost entire, or in fragments if they 
had undergone digestion. Nevertheless, the strongly chitinised portions 
of anal tubercle and the brachial tubes attached to such fragments could 


be clearly made out and they served to count the number of insects 
consumed correctly. 


Squirrels, Ail the 50 specimens shot during the two seasons were 
the common Fivestriped Palm Squirrel (Funambulus pennantz 
Wroughton). The results of examination of their stomach contents 
(Table I) reveal that squirrels of the June seasons had consumed lac 
insects in fairly large numbers. Adult female lac insects, ranging between 
1 and 134 in. number, were traced in the stomachs of 20 out of 26 
(76°9%) squirrels of the June season, the majority being found either 
entire or practically entire. Lac larvae ranging between 1 and 14 in 
number were found in 10 specimens. Small broken pieces of lac resin in 


890 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


considerable quantity were found in as many as 19 specimens. Further, 
whenever adult female lac insects had been consumed in sufficient 
numbers, eggs from them were found freely floating in good numbers in 
the wash liquid of the stomach contents. Thus, evidence was available in 
23 cases out of 26 (88°5%) that squirrels had tampered with the lac crop 
in the June season. 

The fact that adult female lac insects are found in large numbers and 
also almost entire in form, along with small pieces of lac cells in the 
stomach contents of the squirrels of the June season, is a clear indication 
that during this season these animals have gnawed open the mature lac 
cells and pulled out and devoured the lac insects whole. ‘This is also 
in corroboration of the typical nature of the damage to lac sticks described 
above and found about this time of the Bazsakhi crop. 

Among other insects associated with lac, which were traced in June 
specimens of squirrels, were two heads of lepidopterous larvae in a muti- 
lated condition, in two specimens. Oneof them resembled A. pulverea 
and the other 4. amadzlzs. In a third specimen two trunks of a caterpillar 
resembling 4. amabilis were found. The vegetable matter consumed 
was comparatively less in quantity and, among other things, included 
some seeds and also probably the pulp of Jamun fruit (Augenia 
jambolana). 

The stomach content analysis of squirrels of the October season 
revealed that adult female lac insects had been consumed in fewer 
numbers, varying from 2 to 7, and again by a fewer number of individuals. 
Only 3 out of 10 specimens of the October season had consumed adult 
female lac insects, whereas lac predators had been consumed by as many 
as 5 specimens and in fairly large numbers, ranging between 1 and 57. 
This clearly indicates that during the October season squirrels visit the 
maturing lac crop mainly tor the lac predators. ‘This again is in corro- 
boration of the fact that damage to broodlac then is comparatively less 
and limited to areas of predator infestation. Thus, in the October 
season the damage to lac appears to be more of an incidental nature. 


Birds. In all 58 birds representing 16 species were coilected for the 
purpose of stomach content analysis, as follows : 


No. of 
Species Specimens 
examined 
Mahratia Woodpecker [Dryobates mahrattensis (Latham)] jo) JE 


Goldenbacked Woodpecker [ Brachy pternus benghalensis (Linn.) j Hsteinh (0) 
Redvented Buibul [Wolpastes cafer (Linn.) } me 
Rufousbacked Shrike [Lamius schach (Linn. ) 
Coppersmith [Wegalaima haemacephala (Millier)] 
Wood Shrike [ Zephrodornis pondicerianus (Gmelin) } 
Jungle Babbler [7urdoides somervillet (Sykes) ] 
House Sparrow [Passer domesticus (Linn.)] 

Indian Pitta [Pitta brachyura (Linn j] 

King Crow (Decrurus macrocerous Vieillot) 
Common Iora [degithina tiphia (Linn.) | 

Common Weaver Bird | Ploceus philippinus (Linn.)j 
Crow-Pheasant [Centropus sinensis (Stephens) | 
Golden Oriole [Oriolus oriolus (Linn.)]} 

Common Myna [Acridotheres tristis (Linn.)] 

Small Minivet [Pericrocotus peregrinus (Linn.)] 


Total 


wi 
| z | ONRFRH NUH RH HOM 


STUDIES ON NON-INSECT ENEMIES OF LAC 891 


The results of the examination (Table II) revealed adult female lac 
insects to be present in the stomachs of 4 out of 10 specimens of the 
Goldenbacked Woodpecker, one out of 11 specimens of the Mahratta 
Woodpecker, and 1 out of 5 specimens of the Redvented Buibul. The 
number of adult lac insects taken ranged from 1 to 11 in the case of 
Goldenbacked Woodpecker, and 22 and 5 respectively in the case of 
Mahratta Woodpecker and the Redvented Bulbul. Lac larvae in small 
numbers were recovered from the two species of woodpecker, the 
Redvented Bulbul, Rutousbacked and Woodshrikes, Coppersmith, House 
Sparrow, King Crow and Small Minivet, suggesting that they had been 
picked up accidentally while pecking at the bark in search of food. 
Broken resinous pieces of the lac test were observed only in the case of 
the woodpeckers, the Rufousbacked Shrike and the Redvented Bulbul, 
and it is suggestive of the fact that these birds had deliberately opened 
the lac test in search of their insect food which may be either the adult 
lac female or the predatory enemies of the lac insects. 

Of the other insects associated with lac, two heads of lepidopterous 
larvae resembling 4. amadilis were recovered from one specimen of 
Mahratta Woodpecker, and one head resembling that of A. pulverea 
from one specimen of the Rufousbacked Shrike. Two &. amabilis larvae 
were traced in a second specimen of the Mahratta Woodpecker. A third 
specimen had consumed as many as 32 larvae, 12 pupae and one adult of 
FE. amabilis and 3 pupae of Alasmus claripenntis. 

It is of interest to note here that the birds were generaily found only 
in small numbers in the forest, and the individuals under each of the 
species were still fewer. This, as well as the fact that they do not devour 
the lac insect in large numbers, clearly indicates that the damage to 
broodlac by birds is only minor, and the major part of the observed 
damage, particularly in the summer season, is inflicted by the squirrels. 


FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON SQUIRRELS AND BIRDS AT KUNDRI 


General observations on the habits and behaviour of the above, and 
the way they damage the lac crop, were started in June 1954 and detailed 
observations were made during the day-time from 5 a.m. to 7 p.m. in 
June 1955, in the summer season when maximum damage is done. 


Squirrels, These animals come out of their hiding places at day- 
break and are found actively feeding in the cool early hours of the 
morning. They run about freely on the ground nibbling at some thing 
or other here and there, and also quite often climbing up the Aalas 
(Butea) trees. They are seen to nibble at the earthen termite tunnels 
found on the ground or the tree-trunks. When alarmed they im- 
mediately run up the nearest tree and hide themselves in the bushy 
branches. Being very active, shy and alert, it was difficult to observe 
their normal behaviour in the field. As the day becomes hotter, their 
activity also slows down, and they are rarely seen on the ground between 
10am. and 4 pm. They were, however, sometimes seen during 
midday on the tree-tops resting on the branches, with limbs outspread 
and completely relaxed. While thus resting it is hardly possible to detect 
their presence on the tree. They become active again towards the evening 
and are either found on the ground or going from tree to tree in search 
of food. They seem to be less active during cloudy and rainy days 


6 


892 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


In Kundri forest it is generally noticed that on the trees adjoining 
the cultivated fields the lac insects thrive in larger numbers and there is 
also a comparatively greater concentration of squirrels near such trees 
along the edge of the fields. After about 10 days hunting and shooting 
of the squirrels in the area, it was noticed that their population had 
considerably decreased and that they were rarely seen in the locality. 

This species litters at least once? during June—July as young ones were ~ 
noticed in June and four just-born blind ones were recovered from a nest 
on a palas tree in July. 


Mode of feeding on. lac crop: On about half a dozen 
occasions, observations were made from a distance [without binoculars], 
when the squirrels were feeding on lac encrustations. They move about 
the twig bearing lac, and now and then stop to feed. They bite on a 
fairly large number of cells on a twig before proceeding to the next. 
They visit almost every twig on a branch and do considerable damage to 
the lac cells, sometimes almost completely eating away all the cells found 
on the twig. Usually they feed on the top branches rather than on the 
lower ones, and again they prefer twigs with thick foliage as these 
provide sufficient cover for them to feed unobserved. Lac on shoots - 
having lac cells neither too closely situated nor too sparse, were damaged 
more often than the rest. 

In addition to direct observations made from a distance, the shoots 
on which the squirrels were feeding were collected and examined 
immediately after shooting the animals. The damage was observed tc 
be quite fresh and wet smears of the ‘blood’ of the lac insects on the 
damaged encrustations was also clearly visible. Besides, the animals 
shot also showed the red lac dye stain on the mouth, the tongue, the 
paws and sometimes on the belly as well, thus confirming that the 
squirrels feed on live mature lac insects. 


Birds. The birds frequenting the Kundri area are the common species. 
found in scrub-and-bush country, light deciduous forests and orchards, 
etc.; they include both those strictly arboreal and those essentiaily 
ground-loving in habit. At Kundri these birds were found to be very 
active from 5 to 8 a.m. and again later in the day from 5 to 7 p.m. 
During the interval they were found resting in bushes or on tree branches, 
and showed little activity and hardly moved from place to place. They 
were also less active during cloudy and rainy weather. Unlike in the 
case of squirrels, the birds were found more concentrated in the interior 
of the forest than along the border. ‘They became rarer even in the 
interior after a few days of disturbance by shooting. They seemed to 
have shifted to an undisturbed corner of the forest. 


Damage to lac: As far as could be observed, no bird except 
the woodpeckers was seen pecking at the lac encrustation. Twigs on 
which they were found sitting did not show any damage to the lac cells. 
Even woodpeckers were normally seen to peck on the trunk or thick 
branches of the tree where there was no lac encrustation at all. In one 
instance, however, a specimen of the Goldenbacked Woodpecker was 


1 For breeding: habits of the Fivestriped Squirrel, see Bannerji (JBNAS 53 
(2) : 261);'547(2)% 3835; Ypss) 


STUDIES ON NON-INSECT ENEMIES OF LAC 893 


seen pecking at a twig bearing lac. The bird was immediately shot and 
the twig examined for damage. ‘Three to four cells on the twig were 
freshly damaged and lac dye stain was quite wet on the cells. The 
damage to the cell was not of the type as noticed in the case of the 
squirreis but the cleavage was somewhat irregular and more vertical than 
horizontal. The shot specimen was also immediately examined. The 
beak and tongue showed the stain of the lac dye, and the stomach con- 
tents freshly devoured lac (aduit female) insects numbering 8 in ail. 


ARTIFICIAL FEEDING OF CAPTIVES 


This procedure was adopted for the squirrels and woodpeckers 
caught alive. Captives confined in cages were offered fresh lac sticks 
now and then along with some of their normal food, like the fruits of 
Ficus glomerata. In the case of squirrels, almost all the cells on the 
sticks had been completely damaged and the lac insects inside eaten. 
The typical damage as found under natural conditions on the trees was 
exactly reproduced, thus establishing beyond doubt that the squirrel is 
the chief agent responsible for such damage to mature living lac insects. 

The woodpeckers also did damage the lac cells and pecked out the 
adult female insects, but the damage was characteristically different from 
that of the squirrels in being more vertical and irregular. 


ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGE 


As there was a distinct difference in the extent of damage done to the 
lac crops between trees with better survival and those with poorer 
survival of lac cells, the assessment was carried out separately on these 
two groups of trees. The damage was assessed in 1955 and 1956 in the 
summer season when serious losses occur. 


Damage onthe basis of lac-bearing twigs: Twenty- 
five trees at random were selected from each of these two groups (with 
better survival and poor survival) and ali the lac-bearing twigs were cut 
entire and were classified into one of the following categories according 
to the damage noticed : 

(i) Twigs with all cells dead. 

(ii) Twigs with dead and living ceils but showing no damage 
at all. 

(iti) Twigs with dead and living cells but showing damage of 
living cells less than 10%. 

(iv) Twigs with dead and living cells but showing damage of 
living cells between 10 to 25%. 

(v) Twigs with dead and living cells but showing damage of 
living cells between 25 to 50%. 

(vi) Twigs with dead and living cells but showing damage of 
living cells above 50%. 


The number of twigs under each category are recorded in Table III (a) 
and (6) separately for the two groups of trees. Table III (c) gives the 
figures when all the fifty trees were treated together as one sample 
representing the whole area. 

It is seen from figures under III (c) that the twigs showing complete 
mortality were more (28°1%) in the 1955 summer, as a result of the more 


894 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


severe summer heat then experienced. Directly correlated with this is also 
the fact that the percentage of twigs damaged is more in the severe summer 
of 1955 (i.e. 47°8%). Between the two groups of trees with better and. 
poorer survival of lac on them, the damage is heavier on the former than 
on the latter in both the years. ‘This observation is again in corrobora- 
tion of the field observations that there was a greater concentration of 
squirrels near trees having more living lac insects on them. 


Damage on the basis of count of cells: For this 
purpose, three twigs at random from each of the 25 trees under the two 
groups were selected for stick examination, and the grown-up dead, 
damaged and living cells were counted. The results are given in Table 
IV (a, 6and c) for the two groups separately and also together when 
treated as one. 

From figures under IV (c), it is seen that percentage of mortality of cells 
was 761 in the 1955 summer as against 57°9% in 1956 summer since the 
latter was comparatively milder. Correspondingly, the percentage of 
cells damaged out of those living, was 58:4 in 1955 as against 32:8 in 
1956. thus establishing that the damage is also more severe if the 
summer is severe, and that this results in very acute shortage of broodlac. 

A comparison of the percentages of darnaged cells under a and é in 
Table IV shows again similar trends, namely, that the damage was more 
on trees with better survival of lac resulting {rom a greater concentration 
of the squirrels. 


SUMMARY 


It has been observed for the past several years that female lac insects 
in Baisakhi, and to a small extent Jethw7z, crops are damaged by certain 
agencies in Summer towards crop maturity. ‘This damage is typical in 
its nature and time of occurrence. Some damage of this type is noticed 
also in the case of brood used for infection. ‘The investigations were 
undertaken in Kundri forest in Palamau District of Bihar where this 
damage occurs in a very serious form. 

The Common Fivestriped Palm Squirrel (/unambulus pennanti Wr.) 
and some species ot birds were the only animals found in the locality 
at the time the damage to the Jac occurred, and were suspected of being 
responsible. In order to ascertain whether they were directly involved 
the investigations were approached from three angles. Firstly, squirrels 
and birds visiting the lac bearing trees at the time of damage were shot 
for examination of their stomach contents. They were collected in June 
and October when #aisakhi and Katki crops mature. Secondly, careful 
observations were made on their behaviour in the field in June, when the 
maximum damage occurs, to determine whether they feed on lac. Thirdly, 
captive squirrels and woodpeckers were artificially fed with fresh mature 
lac sticks to see whether similar type of damage was reproduced. 

Both examination of stomach contents of 36 specimens and actual 
field observations revealed that the squirrels feed voraciously on the lac 
insects in the June season. Of the specimens examined 76:9% (of June 
season) had consumed adult female lac insects, as many as 134 insects 
being found in one specimen. Finally, artificial feeding of the captives 
clearly demonstrated the typical nature of damage done, and established 


STUDIES ON NON-INSECT. ENEMIES OF LAC. 895 


the. link between the damage noticed on the trees and the mature lac 
insects, lac larvae and eggs found in the stomachs of these animals. 

The stomach analysis of 58 birds belonging to 16 species revealed 
that woodpeckers and bulbuls also Gaeee the maturing lac crop to a 
small extent. 

‘Having established that tHe? squirreis, and to some extent also birds, 
do the damage to the maturing lac cells, the extent of damage was asses- 
sed in the 1955 and 1956 summer seasons on the basis of: both the number 
of twigs and actual count of cells damaged in representative samples. It 
was found that the damage to twigs and the cells was more on trees 
with better survival than on those with heavier mortality of cells (poor 
survival). In the crop as a whole, lac cells on as many as 28:1% 
of the twigs were completely dead. Of the rest of the twigs bearing 
both dead and living celis, up to 47°3% showed damage by squirrels and 
birds in the 1955 summer. in June-July 1955, when the summer was 
comparatively milder than in the previous year, the corresponding 
figures were 22°7% and 29°3% respectively. : 

Estimation on the basis of lac cells for the entire area revealed that 
there was a mortality of the mature ceils up to 76:1% in 1955 and 57:9% 
in 1956 due to heat, and of the surviving females as many as 584% in 
1955 and 32°8% in 1956 had been damaged by these agencies. Thus it 
may be seen that the damage is all the more acute in view of the heavy 
mortality of lac cells due to heat. 

It is difficult to suggest control measures for eae this damage. 
Poison baiting wiil be uneconomical in large forest areas and also 
unsafe since domestic animals enter such areas for grazing purposes. It’ 
has, however, been found that if the squirrels and birds are regularly’ 
shot for about a week, they leave the area. In the case of damage to: 
brood and wire-net baskets, it has been possible to avert this by enclosing 
them within fairly cheap bamboo baskets that may last for two or three 
seasons. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


The authors thank Dr. S. V. Puntambekar, Director, Indian: Lac 
Research Institute, Namkum, for his keen interest in the work and for 
affording all facilities. Routine help rendered in the field by Shri C. P. 
Malhotra, Shri R. Prasad and Shri C. Tirkey of the Entomological 
Section of this Institute is gratefully acknowledged. The authors are 
also indebted to Dr. B. Biswas of the Zoological Survey of India for 
kindly identifying the specimens of squirrels and birds. 


REFERENCES 


Ali, Salim (19416): The Book of Indian Birds (Bombay Natural History 
Society). 

Blanford, W. T. (1891) : Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma, 
Mammalia. 3 

Glover, P. M. (1937): Lac Cultivation in India, Indian Lac Research Institute, 
Namkum. 

Krishnaswami, S., Chauhan, N. S. and Negi, pc S. (1956): Proc. Ind. Sct. 
Cong. 43. 
Negi, P. S. (1942) : Proc. Ind. Sci. Cong. 29 

Prater, o. al. (1948) : The Book of Tacianl Animals EcBembay Natural 
History Society). 

Whistler, H. (1928): The popular suena: of Indian Birds (Gurney and 
Jackson, London). 


‘jeued AlBjUSTI|e 3Y} JNO 
-ysnoiyj} Ayuatd Ul Jesu OB] jo ssoq 


*qoeulo0}s 
ut Ajuad ul jOasul oe, Jo sssq 


54 


‘dInUseponp pue YyoeUo}s 
ur Ayuojd wt yosul oT jo ssoq 


‘YOVWOS Ul JOeSUI OVI Jo S830 Moy 


ae ea 2s 61 ee 6. Be ele 9 

e cL eto eae eee (p93 

: -™nod jot) 
‘ou oB1v7] S 
ees ae E tee L | ¢ % 
eve . P i 7 | or ooo . ¢ ¢ 

‘sutgpMp “WY BUlquiesel | 

eAle[, shoJojdopide, jo prey T[ Z tee | t I ate 2 
se = 02 Ce eat fe es G9 I 


SNAWIOAdS POE ANAL 


| 


SHIVUUOY 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 


e1tjus 
ySOU |e 
JO 9ITUY lovaley oe] 


$]USU 
TIO. -8v1J Ul 


UISOI OB] 
Jo sao9Ig 


OB] UIA : . "ON 
pejeisosse saiseds yosUI 19jO _- SJOOSUI BVMUNJ WNpY uattoeds 


de] 0} Sururejzed s}Aa}009 YoRUIo}G 


ea NT 


sjezaimbs dO SINHINOD IVNVD AUVINAWNITY AO NOILVNIAVXA AO SLTOSHY 


896 


I aTaVvi 


ENEMIES OF .LAC 897 


“STUDIES ON NOMINSECT 


ey @ 


*‘jeuvo Aleyuoul|e ay} Jno 
-ysnoiy} 4UETd Us jossu ORI JO sd8q 


‘YOVUIO}S Ul JOOSUI ov] JO S330 MOq 


*TUn}d91-0[09 pue 
Mngt ul Ajuetd Ul yosUT OB[ Jo sd3q 


"yoeuro}s 
UI jOesuI OB] Jo Sdso9 Moy AIOA 


*Yoeuo}s 
ul Ajyuatd ul yoasul oR, jo ssoq 


-*tnj}09J-UO[Od pue YORUO}S 
ut Ajuojd Ul joosur ovy jo” ssaq 


*YOVUIO}S UL 
‘OU poos Ul PUNO} jesu! OB] Jo Sdédq 


‘oq 


‘og 


‘pasanjng ‘FF sullquiesel 
BAIv] snolejdopida, jo pesoy | 


*saqlgQvumDp ‘a SUI|QUIeSel ‘spray 
jHoyYM eeAle] snolejdopids, Zz 


02 


$8 


6S 


62 


FZ 


bE 
LE 


ST 


19 


v 


SNHWIOUdS CC6l ANAL 


8s 


82 


GZ 
L6 


Se) 


ail 


(pe 
-JUN0d 3011) 
‘OU O818] 


15@2 


68 


(pe}UNnod © 
jou) MoW 


£22 
Le 


TABLE I 


968 


RESULTS OF EXAMINATION OF ALIMENTARY CANAL CONTENTS OF Squirrels 


| ae 
Stomach contents pertaining to lac | Ss 
= 
: = 
Specimen Adult female insects Other inseet species associated Remarka ist 
No. | Pieces of : =: with lac | S 
ierreain Lac larvae] Entire or Tatfrage hae iS) 
almost | mints Total = 
entire | | 5 2 3 
| | | | s 
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 


Jung 1954 SPECIMENS 


1 6 14 17 3 20 | co Eggs of lac insect in plenty in 
| stomach and duodenum, 


‘ALUIIOS “LSIH TV¥YALUN 


2 1 | 7 7 1 head of lepidopterous larva 

resembling &. amabilts. 
3 3 CoO 3 1 4 tee Few eggs of lac insect in stomach, 
4 3 7 | | oo 


108A 


5 Large no. 
(not coun-! 


ted) Wl 0 72 | Eggs of lac insect in plenty in & 
stomach, 
6 29 3 33 | 19 52 ase Eggs of lac insect in plenty through- 


out the alimentary canal. 


ee . 


7 37 ana 97 37 134 wee | Do. 
8 223 1 | 75 34 109 2 lepidopterous larvae without 
| heads, resembling 4. amabilis. Do. 
9 Few (not | 
counted) 1 28 1 29 oe Eggs of lac insect found in good no, 
| in stomach, rs 
10 38 5 58 1 59 1 head of lepidopterous larva Eggs of lac insect in plenty in 5 
resembling A, pulverea, stomach and colon-rectum. SI 
an 
11 oo oo 1 eee 1 ae oo ° 
= 
12 68 6 61 wee 61 ae Eggs of lac insect in plenty in 
stomach, = 
S 
13 ay oo ood co uy a x EB Cees Sh 
| 2 
14 a0 on eo oo 00 toe Very. few eggs of lac insect in 3 
stomach, : 2) 
Q 
15 4 are a om on a0 oD & 
= 
16 89 8 2 16 18 oo Eggs of lac insect in plenty in ileum © 
| and colon-rectum. = 
JuNe 1955 spEcIMENS a 
u eae lineout 4 1 5 + Few eggs of lac insect in stomach. g 
2 Large no. IS! 
(not count- 5 
ed) rn 61 24 85 aan Eggs of Jac insect in plenty through- 
out the alimentary canal. 
3 | 15 on 16 4 20 ccO Do. 
& 


54 


Vol. 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, 


898 


@co 


; 
SNHWIONdS SSG AALOLIO 
coe eo ee eee see eee eee ot 
3 "Yoeuojs | | 
ur Ayaosjd Ur joosul SBT jo sesq oe | 6 I | 8 Bae ! 6 
. me 1 Bey T ae T ie 
*YOBUI0}S } 
ut Ajyuajd ur jossur as¥l Jo s3aq pe 0S ¢ SP xs El 9 - 
‘YOBUIO}S | | | ; 
Ul punoj JOOSUI OBL Jo sé8a otIOS ae | ¢ Z | if a S 
Q- L 9 c | P | c | C I 
EIS Pn us SESS SS aso = A Ss Ss S = 
| 9dI}ue 
sju0u : 
THIOL $01} Bl) eee UIsel o 
| 10 SIU Jovarey ov] F897 OPL 
hoe JO Sa0oIg : 
syIvus Ser TES j ON 
a pa} Bloosse sojoeds joes 1010 $JOISUL sTVMIIy WNpY temtideds 
OB 0} Sulurejied sjueju0. yovRUIOyS 


l 


} 


SL ET RE A TE IE ISS Aaa AREY LEE IEE LO AT TEN tA SET IE i A I POE SO Es sh RED 


(‘p7u07)—T ATAVL 


899 _ 


ENEMIES OF LAC 


STUDIES ON NON-INSECT 


“Yowuloj}s 
Ul SjosSUI OoB[ 94} Jo s88a omIOS 


*‘qOeuIo}s 
Ul JOVSUI DET JO SSse Jo Joquinu pooy 


OH 


On 


NON 


BAIL] VAIIOIj|OH 
VAIL] DIUMATIGNA 


SVAIE] DLIIOIOFY 
SBAIE] VULMMAIGNT 


QVAIE] DIUMIIgNA 


BAIR] DIMUMsIONT 


IVAIE] V4L9I90210F] 
aednd vmmaqn7 
OVALE DIULMAIQNT 


(payunos— 


| jou) Mog” 


| 
| 
| 


Ot 


ST 


868 


TABLE I—(contd.) 


——— 
| | 


x 
Stomach contents pertaining to lac ° 
| = 
Specimen | Adult female insects Other insect species associated = 
NSN eee, : with lac REBELS 5 
« |Lac larvae] Enti 
lac resin LA Ge 5 
| almost | In|frag: Total S 
| | entire Hee S 
| 
—— a = = —— ~ = — ——— & 
] = 
tI] 8 3 4 5 6 7 8 iS 
i | | = 
2 Mise = as 2 a = = 
5 pa | cos 1 2 3 i nee Some eggs of lac insect found in 
stomach. r=] 
| = 
i | 
-6 13 da3 45 | 5 50 coo | Eggs of lac insect in plenty in in 
stomach, = 
a 
7 1 | 1 1 A 
| u 
A || | re tn 
§ 
() | 7 oo 8 1 9 an Eggs of lac insect in plenty in 5 
| stomach. 3 
0 : | ; 2 
| = 
i] | | : 
OcTOBER 1955 SPECIMENS | | = 
1 ee | el : 
2 es | . | | 


3 15 1 1 2 1. Eublemma \arvae Poe: 
2, Eublemma pupae ap 3 
| 3. Holcocera larvae ceo 114 
| 
4 10 | Few (not 3 4 7 1. Eublemma larva - 1 | Good number of eggs of Jac insect in 
counted) stomach. 
5 cop ec of 00 cos) 1. Eublemma larvae oo 2 4 
| (S} 
6 10 6 1 7 Some eggs of the lac insects in © 
stomach. & 
nH 
7 “09 on mon or Bar 1. ZAxublemma larvae 8 ° 
2, Holcocera \arvae 2 = 
8 | 1. Eublemma larvae 3 a 
| 2, Holcocera \arva 1 = 
| 5 
9 re fit eden ia nn Q ; a 
w 
10 : 5 ! to 8 
= 
= 
iS] 
= 
= 
= 
a 
ic} 
= 
is] 
=> 
a 


668 


Vol. 54 


IETY, 


~ 
7 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOC 


900 


eee Abe } coe * se eee ; : 6 see | se6 i ‘0d ] ¢ 


eee eee | ! eve i i — ese ome eee ‘Od fA 
sch p—S8889 VAIIOII0H{, | a8 se % 9 (sesuagpysuag snusaghyWAsg) 
: : os JeyoedpooM paexoequeplor) T 
ceo evo coe i coe eve S vee eee : 0d S 
eee Ee eee p : eee @ee eee ¢ eos eee ‘0d Pp 
.@e eee : _o~ coe aiels | eee ¢ eee eoe "0d ¢ 
ee e ene eee eee eee ‘0d Z 
gs $2 71QDULD 

‘7 SuUllquiesal BAIL] ; | 

snoisejdopida] jo spray z ee ag | ots ¢ ie ts (SUSUAIWAYDUL SAIVQOAAC ) 

: . Jeyqosdpoom = 83814 eI I 
SNAWIOGdS FO6T ANAL 


! | 
re, | : 
6 8 lL Oho gansta alee Beers baat z I 
Ise  aliyae | 
[e10], acy somye | ie 
| / 10 UY jovalel ov] eee | 
OB] UII peyeloosse : 2 ac datas ‘ON 
SYIVUSY | soreds yoasul 1910 s}O@SUT [eUIay INpY Pita J N uatitoads 
| de] 0} Suiutezzed syueju09 yorut0}S 


OR. 5. BSS tA a ee ea cee an OL ee gD cee eee cree a ce eee 
ee emer cette BEE ER ey 
Sspaig JO SINHINOD IVNVD) AUYVINHWITY 4O NOILVNINVXG AO SLINSAY 


Il ATavV, 


901 


NON-INSECT ENEMIES OF LAC 


STUDIES ON 


I 


Vasanjng 
‘H{ = suljquesel vAIv] 
snoleaydopids] jo pesy [| 


eee 


| 


LE 


one (S2SUuazJVAY DIU $3409 
-OlAG) 1ayoedpoom wejyVeIy ey 


SNHWIOAdS SSB ANAL 


; (S274990A 


see (v 
-fYDAQ V#lq) eWd Velpuy 


eee (smaysautop 
Aassvgq) MoisedG 9»9snofy 
eee (29771249UL0S 


saplopany) sajqqeg esuanr 


ee (snuptsaaipuog 
smasoposygay) 2A4qS POOM 


oy ‘og 

Re (vypydaonvuLavYy 
pumpsayy) Yyyusieddoy 

coe | ‘0d 

ae | ‘od 

ae | (yavy rs 

SNIUYT) BAYS . peyouqsnoyny 

aes ‘od 

eae od 

as (an 


saasvdjoyy) nqIng peyseapey 


‘TABLE IIL rey 
J 
—) 
RESULTS OF EXAMINATION OF ALIMENTARY CANAL CONTENTS OF Birds 
«—s 
, io} 
Stomach contents pertaining to lac SI 
= 
i - | Adult female insects Other insect species | 4 = 
Sea | Name of Bird Piecestot — — associated with lac |\Remarke 
} : | E | 
| | lac resin |48¢ larvae] Entire or | In 5 
| | almost lees anante Total = 
| | entire 8 | = 
= | 5 | = 5 = . - | ‘ " 7 a < 
1 2 8 4 5 G  @ 8 9 = 
Nl [Ri af |e = <a 
JuNE 1954 SPECIMENS | | a 
= 
} | | k 
1 Mabratta Woodpecker | | | | nS 
(Dryobates mahrattensis) ... | 1 3 | oo 2 heads of lepidopterous = 
| larvae resembling &. | a 
| anabilis | cco 3 
2 Do. = | | | S 
3 Do. | 3 | n 5 
| | = 
4 Do. 3 | | es i 
| 
5 Do. hoe 5 arena , 5 
1 Goldenbacked Woodpecker | D | | | | 2 
(Brachypternus benghalensis) | 6 | ! Holcocera eggs—4 | cp 
2 Do. : | | 
3 Do, . ) | fro Ci co 


1 Redvented Bulbul (JA/olpastes 
cafer) o 7 oO 
2 Do. see eae 
3 Do, cy ceo | tee ” oe 
1 Rufousbacked Shrike (Lens | | 1 head of lepidopterous th 
schach) 1 | | ams orn oe larva resembling A, Ss 
| pulverea S 
| x 
2 Do. Is | 4 | =) 
| | 2 
3 Do, an no || 0 3) 
A i} | < 
1 Coppersmith (MJegalaima | > 
haemacephala) co) DOD 2 | obo on ao aoe iS) 
| 2 
2 Do. on woo! BN Nace ae op S 
| | 7) 
1 Wood Shrike (Tephrodornis | j | & 
pondicerianus) con te | Ce We” tons 6 coe nee y 
1 Jungle Babbler (Turdoides | | 5 
somervillet) oo ae | i) on = 
| = 
1 House Sparrow (Passer | 3 
domesticus) on) ae 1 or0 “ro | er ihe aa za 
| | | ° 
1 Indian Pitta (Pilla brachy- =| 
ura) - C00 tox | cap oo ter toe * SI 
1 Kiog Crow (Dicrurus mac- a 
vocercus) a 2 « 
_JuNnE 1955 spECIMENS H 
1 Mahratta Woodpecker ye: | 
bates mahrattensis) | 5 re i = 
i 2 


54 


Vol. 


BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,~ 


JOURNAL, 


902: 


2e@o | 


SYIVUIDY 


| | 
br g | ¢ S SI NEosane2 
| you) Meg) °° ‘0d S 
eee eee eco | eee eee eee eco eee ‘og | P 
ee oe oe | eo eee 9 eee eee ‘od c 
a ws a s oe a oa ons ‘od zZ 
; a ; ¢ I Z oe (sesuagysuag snusmghyWwsg) 
| Iayoodpoom = paxoequepfoyy I 
Hs erent ie: es 3 od ho 
" : tas o iG i ve ie od ¢ 
| ee | eee coe eee ee eee (stsuazjvAYyDUe $4J0q 
| -ohAq,) Alay.edpoomM wejVe1yY ey] Zz 
| | (*p7u07)—SNAWIDAdS SSE6T anor 
S ied | : 
6 8 L Oe Maa aS Vo leant j I 
3 eljua 
Cet a = ae | UISAI ov 
IO 910 ovareyl oe] 4 ene: 
de] YIM po}eo0sse ; ; a, : J omiaeanre ‘ON 
Salsads JOasuI I9NI10 S]OISUI 9[BUley INDY | pa J N uemtloeds 


de] 0} Surarejied s}ue}U0D Yorulo}S 


((p7u02) TIT ATAVL 


903 


ENEMIES OF LAC 


NON-INSECT 


STUDIES’ ON 


«ee 


I Apt 


cee coe 


aoe od 


ae (s2952.4 
sasayjopiArpy) euAy wormmut0s 


foc ($7702.40 
$7014Q))  B0lIG ss Ua pjoy 


ee (s7suauts 
sngosqu7)) yaesvayd . M019 


a (snusg gz 71y¢ 

SNIIO]Y) Pllg JeAeeM VOUTUIOD 

is (w2y¢1y 
Dury pIGIPV) eIOT UOMO) 

GOK ‘0d 

see (SWILIIOAIDUL 


SNANAIIG) MOIQ BUY 


‘oq 
is ‘od 
aes (smg1gsaut 


-0P Aassvq) Moliedg esnopy 


1% ‘od 
see ‘0d 
es (ymoy 2s 


SnWUvT) eIlIYG peyoeqsnojny 


2 (4ajvo 
sapsogjoyy) waq{ng peueapey 


i 


| 
{ 


Sn] 


Le 


TABLE Il—(contd.) 


] 
Stomach contents pertaining to lac 
Specimen Name of Bird Adult Romi insects 
0. | 9 ——= ae 
> P £ | | 
| Pit sclarvee Batre or] yy | 
| almost | Total 
entire |Reements) | 
1 2 3 4 5 6 | 7 
JUNE 1955 SPECIMENS—(contd.) | | | 
| | 
2 Mahratta Woodpecker (Dryo- | 
bates mahrattensis) een | | | 
| 
3 Do. aoe se | : ee 
4 Do. 7 | 
1 Goldenbacked Woodpecker | | 
(Brachypternus benghalensis) | ex 2 | 1 3 4 
2 Do. ‘Se | Nee | 
| | 
3 Do. oA 0 6 | sas | 
4 | Do, oD | an | cog | 
5 Do, ... |Few (not | 
See 18 5 | 3 8 
| 
1 Redvented Bulbul Cre eeES 
cafer) 
1 Rufousbacked Shrike (Zarius * 
schach) 3 
2 Do. aes 1 
3 Do. 5 
1 House Sparrow (Passer do- 
mesticus) oD on 
Z| Do. * 
3 | Do. : ” ct 
1 | King Crow (Dicrurus 
macrocercus) an 1 
ea| Do. 1 
| 
1 | Common lora (Aegithina 
tiphia) om iis | & 
| | | 
1 Common Weaver Bird (Ploceus | 
phil ippinus) op 
1 | Crow ~ Pheasant (Centropus | 
Sinensts) rin dee 
1 Golden Oriole (Oviolus 
| oriolus) aco 30 
1 Common Myna (dcridotheres 
tristis) on oe os 
2 Do. one S . | F 
1 


Other insect species 
associated with lac 


Remarks 


206 


“LSIH TWYALVN AvAWO “IVNUNAOL 


‘ALGIIOS 


‘19A 


So 


OVT AO SHINANDT LIASNI-NON NO SHICALS 


£06 


54 


Vol. 


904 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, 


¢ « sednd snusnjiy | | | | 
| ree ee DUM IIQNA | | | 
ZL oedud vuMajgQny | et | | 
aa: ZEN OVAIE] VMMAIQNT ee | ae | A ae p 
| | ‘ | 
| | i 
| } | 
_ 8 OBAIe] DIU1U970N 6I ¢ ¢ 1s eegae (s7suazIDAynUe $a4vg 
é at ea a | ota) JoyedpooM =_- BI} BAY VY 1 
| | SNHWIOHdS SGGl UHAOLIO 
! 
mi ae e ee eae | see eee eoe ‘od ¢ 
sae ee eee (e ea0 eee ‘0d by 
eee see see vee ees | Z ees cee ‘od ¢ 
or see eee | ¢ ces eee ‘od C 
“s te: aa ne ote (suutesasag 
| | SNIOIOANAIT) JOATUT T[eUsS I 
| (*p7U02)—SNAWKIONdS SSG ANAL 
ee? ee | 
iu 8 Se te Ses (es g | z Ina 
| 
sjuamsery| SHES | 
| [8j0OL : a +) ysouuye | | : | 
| 1O 9INUG aeaiyy eT Seats | 
dB] UM poje1oosse | | | at "ON 
Seed |  sajoads yoesur IeyIQ SpISUI seule} I[NpPY | | es esac wamoeds 
| dB] 0} Surlureyied sjuajuo0o YovUo0}G 


TER CA A PC 
(‘piu07)—-T] ATAVL 


905 


NON-INSECT ENEMIES OF LAC 


STUDIES ON 


iat 


eee 


€T 
LST 


Té 


a (v2y¢144 
Duiypsapy)  BlOT  UWOUIUIOD | 
a (nny gar0ULavny 
vuimwseayy)  Yursreddoy 


si (4aJvo sagsng 
1047) + nqing pajyueapey 


vee od 


(sesuapy3uag snusag¢tywag) 
JayoadpooM =: po yowquapjoy 


TABLE 11l—(covtd.) 


Stomach contents pertaining to lac 


Other insect species 
associated with lac 


Remarks 


Specimen Name of Bird i Adult female insects 
No; \pbieceslofi | aero ne| (ea ene ana T 
| lac resin | Tvae| Entire or iat = 
almost eements Total 
| . entire | sm 
= 2 SOS = i al 
1 2 3 | 4 5 6 7 
= a std — —— ts 
June 1955 spECIMENS—(contd.) | | | 
1 Small Minivet (Pericrocotus | | | 
peregrinus) mo || ro 
2 Do. tee 3 | | 
| 
3 Do. 2 o | 
4 Do. cD 3 | | | 
| | | 
5 Do. | | 
| } 
6 Do. | eee | | 
| 
OctoBER 1955 SPECIMENS | | 
1 Mahratta Woodpecker (Dryo- | 
bates mahirattensis) ni 31 3 s- | © 22 
2 Do. | (Few; not 
| | counted) nae 
| | | 
| 
| 


— ees 


1 | Goldenbacked Woodpecker 
| (Brachypternus benghalensis) 
2 | Do. aes | 
1 | Redvented Bulbul (J/ol- | 
| pustes cafer) call 
1 Coppersmith  (Megalaima 
haemacephala) ar 
1 | Common 


lora (Aegithina 
| tiphia) a 


18 


157 2 9 11 
13 1 at 
3 2 5 


Eublemma larvae ... 2 


Eublemma larvae... 32 
Eublemma pupae ... 12 
Eublemma adult ... 1 
Zlasmus pupae .. 3 


| 
| 
| 


= 


P06 


“ISIH T¥YNLYN AVEWod ‘TyNUYNOL 


‘A LAIIOS 


198A 


FS 


SHIdALS 


IVT JO SHINANDA LOASNI-NON NO 


S06 


54 


Vol. 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, 


906 


9S 0-2 €-% €-éL LES | LCG | 9ST°€ “IITUTINS 9C6T 


€-6¢ | 

8-LP | 9-TT cE 0-¢ v-bL ¢+ Le | 1-82 | SIE‘S ““ZeTUMaAS sser 
! DIAD PAUYJUA IY] BUIUISAAGIA SY ABYJIBO] UIYDJ S9AAZ YS 770 UC (2) 

6-81 | 8-2 e-1 0-T £-8 | €.9S SOG rOtut “IOMUTUNS 9ggl 

9.12 nce Ft at ee ee cc FO geet “omg ¢g6T 
| $779P ID] JO JORIZANS AOOG Yt $AA44 SZ UQ (q) 

0-FE 2 ae $.2 9-6 aa 96S set | zg0'2 | “+ JOTUUUNS Qg6I 

&-LS 9-9T €-P TeZ P 02 T-9€ PST — 6L0°2 | “TOMAS So6r 
| $7792 WW] JO JORIQANS A24J9Q YJUR SIAAT GZ UO (*) 


| ale Babee oe | : | | 


} 
| 


S][90 SUTAIT 


peseuep | peseumep nts poseurep %cz paseaep %Ol | peseulvp jou | | 
| 


| PESP IV | 

Suraey sta} jo | %0S 10AC | 0} 6% TABMJAgq | 0} OT T98MOg | ue} sso] puv sulAary | Eee | 
19QUIN 1210} 403008 - = ee ace an | woseag 

| 


pesvmep ss¥e]N0010g | 


S][90 JIM SSIM} JO 968}]N9019q 


SOIM], ONIMVAE-IV] AO SISVA HHL NO GHSSASsv saul anv sTaH#uainos Ad HOVNVG HO INHLXY 


WI WldVvib 


907 


STUDIES ON NON-INSECT. ENEMIES OF LAC 


0-€ 
ol 


0-€ 
L-0 


¢-T 


asvulep pue 
yea SUIAIAINS YOUlL 
Jed s][99 Jo "ON 


8°o& 
0-8S 


b-61 
8-bP 


9.05 


| 
| 6-19 
| 


U-0P | 6-L¢ Ofh62 aV~ «866 a 
6°€¢ | [-9Z 26162 | a9 1606 a 


D2AV IAYUA BY SULBUASIAGIA SV 49YJ980] UAYD] SAIL] OG IY] MOAT SUZ (IGT 770 UC (2) 


LG 0-€2 626°91 al—,00T se 
P-01 9:68 098‘ET a8- 166 ia 


$7122 90] JO WORIMANS APLOOG YJUR $3IAJ SZ MOL S8URY SL UO (Q) 


6-29 ¢-ZE T0S ‘eI Agen latt a 
6.SE L-F9 Z66‘ST | ,01-,9IL tee 
$7799 20] JO JRIANS 439499 YJUR SALI GZ MOLL SHUI GL UO (¥) 


| | | | 


JOWUNS OST 


JITMIUINS  Sc6t 


JOMIMING gc6] 


JOTUMING CCGL 


JOUNING OSI 
JatUUINg SgET 


/—_ syjso Buray 
SuUOMIe peseUep | SUIPNIOU! s][90 Sut 
OSB{UsIIOg 


souo peseuep s]je0 peep poulure xs SSIA\} JO 


-AT] Jo e8vyue.I0g JO 90¥}UD0INg S][99 JO "OU [ej}OT, Y}SuU9g[ [FOL 


WOSsKES 


em ES oT ID EB SI ST BSS TS SS I ET I LE, EEE EEE A I TI A EOE 


STTUD IVT AO SISVH AHL NO GHSSASSV SdaIq UNV STHUNINGS Ad AOVNVG AO INHIXY 


AI AIGVL 


n 


THE ALGAL FLORA OF THE PONDS AND PUDDLES 
INSIDE THE BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY 
GROUNDS, INDIA? | 


BY 
G. S. VENKATARAMAN, M.sc.? 
(Dept. of Botany, Banaras Hindu University) 


(With 17 text-figures) 


The present communication deals with a systematic enumeration of 
various algae collected from the ponds and puddles inside the University 
grounds, during the investigation of the algal periodicity with reference to 
tae climatic and chemicai factors, 

In all, 61 forms representing 38 genera have been described of which 
five varieties and seven forms are new. 


1. Carteria cordiformis (Carter) Dill. Pascher, Stisswasserfl. Deutsch. 


Oster. Schweiz 4: 149, £. 37, 1927. 
Breadth of the cell, 7.2-14.4 uw. 
Length of the cell, 10.8-16*2 uw. 


Habit: Free-floating. 


2. Pandorina morum (Muller) Bory. Prescott. Algae West. Great 
Lakes Area, p. 75; t. 1, f. 23, 1951. 


Breadth of the colony, 36-50 mu. 
Breadth of the celi, 12-15 mu. 
Length of the cell, 8-12.8 &. 


Habit: Free-floating. 


3, Volvox aureus Ehr. Prescott. Algae West. Great Lakes Area, p. 
18,%t. 2; 4.4, mol 3 
Colony free-swimming, spherical or ovate, composed of from 500 to 
many small cells arranged in the peripheri of the mucilage. 
Diameter of the cells, 4.5-5.4 uw. 


Habit: Planktonic. 


4, Characium ambiguum Hermann. Pascher, Siisswasserfl. Deutsch. 
oe hoe Pel ig we lee | 
Cells solitary, lens shaped, fusiform, narrowed to sharp point anterior- 
ly, tapering posteriorly to a fine hair-like stipe, without any attaching 
disc. 
Breadth of the cell, 3.6-4.5 w. 
Length of the cell, 184. 


Habit: Epiphytic on Oedogonium sp. 


1 Part of the work submitted in’ part fulfilment for the M.Sc. Degree | 


Examination in Botany, Banaras Hindu University. 
? Present address: Division of Botany, I.A.R.I., New Delhi-12. 


ALGAL FLORA OF THE UNIVERSITY GROUNDS, BANARAS 909 


5. Chlorella vulgaris Beyerinck. Pascher, 5: 111, f. 71, 1915. 
Cells spherical. It forms freshwater sponge either free-floating or 
attached to submerged aquatic angiosperms. 
Diameter of the cells, 3.6-8.1 u. 


Habit : In the freshwater sponge 


6. Kirchneriella obesa (W, West) Schmidle. Pascher 5: 181, f. 267, 
1915; Prescott, Algae West. Great Lakes Area, p. 259, t. 58, f. 5, 
LIS ; 

Breadth of the cell, 4.5-7.2 w, 
Length of the cell, 9.9-16.2 wu. 


‘Habit: Mucilaginous patches floating in water. 


7, Pediastrum tetras (EHhr.) Ralfs. Brunnthaler & Pascher, Sisswasserfl. 
Deutsch. 5 7 103) £, 64a, 1915. 

A colony consists commonly of 4-8 cells ; inner cell with six straight 
sides but with one margin Geeply incised ; peripheral cells crenate with a 
deep incision in the free outer margin. 

Breadth of the ce'l, 10.8-12.6 uw. ~ 
Length of the cell, 12 /. 


Habit: Pianktonic. 


8, Hydrodictyon reticulatum (L.) Lagerheim. Brunnthaler & Pas- 
cher, Siisswasserfl. 5: 107, f. 68, 1915. 
Breadth of the cell, 80-176 /. 
Length of the cell, 640-1,120 u. 


Habit : Free-floating. 


9, Scenedesmus bijugatus (Turpin) Kutz. Brunnthaler & Pascher, 
Stsswasserfl. 5: 167, 1915. 
Colony four-celled in a single series ; obtusely rounded at both ends; 
cell wall smooth. 
Breadth of the cell, 2.7-3.6 uw. 
Length of the cell, 7.2-11.7 uw. 


Habit: Planktonic. 


10. Uronema confervicolum Lagerheim. Heering, Pascher, Stisswas- 
serf. 6: 36, f. 37, 1914. 
Breadth of the cell, 5.4- 7.2 uw. 
Length of the cell, 7.2-10.8 /. 


- Habit: Epiphytic on Oedogonium sp. along with Aphanochaete repens. 


11, Cladophora glomerata (L.) Kutz. Heering, Pascher, Stisswasserfl. 
7: 35. ff. 14, 15 and 39, 1921; Prescott, Algae West. Great Lakes Area, 
p. Lo8, t: 20, ff. 8 and 9, 1951 


Breadth of the cell (main axis), 28.8 /. 
Length of the cell (main axis), 234-360 uw. 
Breadth of the cell (branches), 14.4-28.8 &. 
Length of the cell (branches), 115.2-234.0 /. 


Habit : Epiphytic on the shells of snails. 


910 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


12, Chaetophora pisiformis (Roth) Ag. Heering, Pascher, Stisswas- 
serfl. 6: 96, 1914. 


Breadth of the cell, 6.3-7.2 /. 
Length of the cell, 14.4-32.4 LU. 


Habit : Green balls attached to the submerged leaves. 


13. Stigeoclonium nanum Kutz, Heering, Pascher, Stsswasserfl. 6: 74, 
f. 97, 1914. 


Breadth of the cell (prostrate system), 10.8 mu. 
Length of the cell (prostrate system), 10.8 «. 
Breadth of the cell (erect system), 3.6-5.4 wu. 

Length of the cell (erect system), 3.6-10.8 /. 


Habit : Epiphytic on aquatic angiosperms. 


14, Stigeoclonium attenuatum Hazen in Mem. Torr. Bot. Club. 11: 
170, 1902. 


Dark green; branches attenuating, tapering into a fine point ; branches 
alternate. 


Branches of the cel], 5.4-7.2 w. 
Length of the cell, 6.3.8.1 u. 


Habit : Epiphytic on aquatic angiosperms. 


15, Stigeoclonium flagelliferum Kitz. Heering, Pascher, Stsswasser‘fl. 
6 815 fe 16 19 and aliza, 7914: 
Breadth of the main filament, 12.6-18.0 wu. 
Length of the cell, 21.6-32.4 wu. 
Breadth of the branches, 7-10.8 «4. 
Length of the cell, 7.2-19.2 wu. 


Habit: Epiphytic on aquatic plants. 


16. Aphanochaete repens A. Braun. Heering, Pascher, Stisswasserfl. 
6: 128, 1914 ; Prescott, Algae West. Great Lakes Area, p. 125, 1951. 


Breadth of the cell, 7.2-10.8 . 
Breadth of the seta at the base, 3 w. 


Habit : Epiphytic on Oedogonium sp., and Zygnema sphaerica forma 
microspora form. nov. 


17, Coleochaete scutata Breb. Heering, Pascher, Stisswasserfl. 6: 135, 
f, 194, 1914. 


Breadth of the cell, 15-30 wu. 
Length of the cell, 6-42 mu. 
Breadth of the oospore, 95 /&, 


Habit : Epiphytic on /bomoea sp. 


18. Oedogonium lautumnarium Wittrock. Tiffany, The Oedogonia- 
ceae, p. 72, t. XIV, ff. 132,133, 1930: 
Forma. (text-fig, 12). 
Breadth of the cell, 9-14.4 uw. 
Length of the ceil, 43.2-61.2 w. 
Breadth of the oogonium, 32.4 mu. 
Length of the oogonium, 39.6-41i4 “, 
Breadth of the oospore, 30.6 “&, 
Length of the oospore, 32.4 “. 
Breadth of the antheridia, 9-14.4 wu. 
Length of the antheridia, 9.7-10.8 uu. 


ALGAL FLORA OF THE UNIVERSITY GROUNDS, BANARAS Spill 


The present form differs froin the type in narrower nlaments, smaller 
oogonia and oospores, and slightly bigger antheridia. It differs from 
forma fenuzs Singh, in narrower vegatative filaments and in having larger 
oogonia and bigger antheridia. 

Habit : Free-floating. 

[Forma praesens a forma typica differt filamentis angustioribus, 
oogoniis et oosporis, minoribus antheridiis paulo maioribus. Differt 
quoque a forma ¢enuz Singh filamentis vegetativis angustioribus, oogoniis 
maioribus antheridiis amplioribus. Habitus : Natans, libera. | 


19, Oedogonium rufescens Wittrock. Hirn, Monog. Oedogon. p. 76, 
1900 ; Tiffany, The Oedogoniaceae, p. 66, 1930. 

Forma tenuis form. nov. (text-fig. 13). 

Dioecious, macrandrous, oogonia intercalary in pairs, obovoid or de- 
pressed-obovoid-globose ; pore median ; oosepore globose nearly filling the 
oogonium ; spore wall smooth. 


Breadth of the cell, 6.3-7.2 uw, 
Length of the cell, 28.8-32.4 uw. 
Breadth of the oogonium, 18-21.8 wu. 
Length of the oogonium, 18-2.18 uw. 
Breadth of the oospore, 16.2-t /, 
Length of the oospore, 14.4-18 uw. 


[Dicica, macrandra, oogoniis intercalaribus binatis, obovoidea vel 
depresso-obovoideo-globosa ; porus medius; oospora globosa oogonium 
fere implens ; sporae parietes leves.] 

This form differs from the type in smaller and narrower filaments and 
smaller oogonia and oospores. It differs from f. elonga/um Hirn. in 
narrower filaments and smaller oogonia. It differs from f. extguum 
(Elfv.) Hirn. also in smaller oogonia. 

Habit: Epiphytic on /pomea sp. along with Coleochaete scutata. 

[Forma haec a typica differt filamentis angustioribus, oogoniis et 
oosporis minoribus; differt a forma elongatum Hirn. filamentis ang ustiori- 
bus, oogoniis minoribus; differt quoque a f. exiguum Hirn. oogoniis 
minoribus. 

Typus lectus epiphyticus /omoeae sp. simu! cum Colcechaete 


scutata. | 


20, Qedogonium hians Nordstedt & Hirn. Hirn, Monog. Oedog. 
ent SOs tec oS 1900s 


Breadth of the cell, 25.2-36 yw. 
Length of the cell, 86.4-90 . 
Breadth of the oogonium, 61.2-63 w. 
Length of the oogonium, 72-79.2 ju. 
Breadth of the antheridia, 9 uw. 
Length of the antherdia, 7:2 wu. 
Breadth of the nannandria, 18 “. 
Length of the nannandria, 18-25.2 w. 


Habit: Free-floating. 


21. Bulbochaete sp. 
Dioecious ; oogonia placed just below a seta. 


Breadth of the cell, 18-21.6 w. 
Length of the cell, 16.2-19.8 uw. 
Breadth of the oogonium, 28.8 fu. 
Length of the ’oogonium, 36-37.8 pw. 


912 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Since no mature oospores and pores were observed, the identification 
of the species was rendered impossible, 
Habit: Epiphytic on Aulosira tritschiz and Oedogonitum sp. 


22. Spirogyra anomala Rao. Raoin /. /udian Bot. Soc. 16: 284, ff. 
Dig B51937. 
Breadth of the cell, 97.2-129.8 w. 
Length of the cell, 90-130 uw. 
Breadth of the zygospore, 75.6 wu. 
Length of the zygospore, 118.0-126 8 wu. 
Breadth of the fructifying cell, 108 wm. 


Habit: Free-floating along with Spzrogyra nitida var. microspora 
var. Nov. 


23, Spirogyra nitida (Dillwyn) Link. var, microspora var. nov. 


Vegetative cells 2-3 times as long as broad; end walls plane; 
branched and unbranched lateral rhizoids; conjugation scalariform ; 
conjugation canal formed by both gametangia; fructifying cells not 
swollen ; zygospores ellipsoid, pointed at the ends; formed in one of the 
gametangia; exospore smooth, mesospore thick, yellowish brown 
(text-fig. 14, 15). 

Breadth of the cell, 57 .6-72 mw. 
Length of the ce?], 133.2-162 u. 
Breadth of the zygospore, 56.6 “. 
Length of the zygospore, 90 m“. 
Breadth of the fructifying cells, 72 mu. 


This form differs from the type in smaller zygospores and in having 
branched and unbranched lateral rhizoids. 
Habit: Free-floating. 
[Varietas haec a typo recedit zygosporis minoribus atque praesen- 
tia rhizoidum lateralium ramosorum vel simplicium. ] 


24. Spirogyra margaritata Woliny. Pascher, Stisswasserfl.9: 29, f. 
39; 1913: 
Forma kurze form. nov. 
Vegetative cells cylindrical; end walls plane; chloroplasts 4-6; 
conjugation scalariform ; fructifying cells unswollen ; zygospores spherical. 
Breadth of the cell, 108-116 /. . 


- Length of thecell, 100.8-194.4 mw. 
Breadth of the zygospores, 61.2-75.6 pw. 


This form differs from the type in having fewer chloroplasts and 
broader cells. It differs from var. szcrospora Singh in the number of 
chloroplasts in the broader and shorter cells and bigger zygospores. 

Habit: Free-floating. 

(Differt a typo chloroplastis paucioribus, cellulis latioribus ; a var. 
microspora Singh numero chloroplastorum, cellulis latioribus et bievioribus 
atque zygosporis maioribus. | 


25, Spirogyra spreeiana Ratenhorst vai. kashiensis var. nov. 


Vegetative cells 4-8 times as long as broad; end walls replicate ; 
chloroplast one; conjugation lateral and scalariform conjugation very 


/ 


Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 


Figs. 1-4. Spirogyra spreeiana var. kashiensis var. nov. 1 & 2. Lateral conjugation 
and the zygospores. 3 & 4. Scalariform conjugation. 5 & 6. Spirogyra singularis 
forma. 7&8. Zygnema sphaerica var. microspora var.nov, 8. Early stage of conjuga- 
tion with the conjugation canal as small bulgings. 7. Ripe zyyospores. 

(All diagrams x 540 ) 


Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 


Figs. 9-11. Szvogonium stictum var. microsporum var. nov. 9. Conjugating fila- 
ments with Sterile cells cut off. 10. Vegetative cells about to conjugate wiih 4 chloro- 
plasts. 11. Ripe zygospore. 12. Oedogunium!' lawtumnarium forma. Oogonium 
with the pore. I3. Oedogoniumrufescens forma with a pair of oogonia, and single 
oogonium with the pore. i4 & 15. Spivogyra nitida var. microspora var. nov. 
showing the zygospore and the branched rhizoid. 16. Cylindrospermum miuscicola 
var. macrospora var. nov. 17. Pleurotaenium ehrenbergii var. crassa var. NOv. 

(Alldiagrams x 540) 


ABCA BRORA OM THEVUNIVERSIT YiGROUNDS ) BANARAS 913 


rare; fructifying cells swollen; zygospores ellipsoidal; exospore thin, 
smooth and hyaline; mesospore thick, smooth and yellowish brown; 
endospore indistinct (text-figs. 1-4). 

Breacth of the cells, 18-21.6 wu 

Length of the cells, 61.2-136.8 (-231.8) wu. 

Breadth of the zygospore, 25,2-32.4 uw. 

Length of the zygospore, 50.4-54 mw. 

Breadth of the fructifying cell, 18-39°6 uw. 


The present form differs from the type in the conjugation being 
lateral and scalariform very rare. It differs from var. crassa Rao in 
smaller meaurements of the cells and spores, and from var. kashmirensis 
Misra in bigger cells. After the lateral conjugation, the conjugation canal 
completely disappears simulating the appearance of aplanospores in the 
cells. That these are formed by conjugation is evidenced by the fact that 
the alternating celis are empty. 

Habit : Free-floating. 

[A typo differt conjugatione laterali et scalariformi rarissima a 
var. crassa Rao magnitudine minori cellularum et sporarum et a var. 
kashmirensts Misra cellulis maioribus. Post conjugationem lateralem, con- 
jugationis canalis penitus offuscatur, simulatis aplanosporis in eellulis. 
Cellulae alternae vacuae monstrant aplanosporas formatas esse con- 
jugatione. Habitus : libera natans. ] 


26. Spirogyra singularis Nordstedt. Jao in Szuensza, 6: 592, t. 5, 
He Ole Loo 

Fo1ma ventricosa form nov. 

Vegetative celis 4-6 times as long as broad; end wails plane; single 
chloroplast making 5 turns; scalariform conjugation; fertile cells. 
ventricose; zygospores ellipsoid (text-figs. 5 and 6). 

Breadth of the cell, 36 uw. 
Length of the cell, 72 uw. 


Breadth of the zygospore, 28°8-39,6 “ , 
Length of the zygospore, 50°4-72 pw. 


This form differs from the type in having ventricose fructifying cells. 
Habit: Free-floating. 


27, Zygnema sphaerica Misra in Proc. Ind. Acad. Sc7.5: 111 f. 1c, 
1937. 
Forma microspora form nov. 
Conjugation scariform ; zygospore in the gametangia ; fructifying cells 
unswollen ; zygospores spherical ; mesospore smooth (text-figs. 7 and 8). 
Breadth of the cell, 27°0-32°4 wu. 


Length of the cell, 43°2-62 mu. 
Breadth of the zygospore, 27-23°8 ju. 


It differs from the type in much broader and longer cells and slightly 
smaller zygospores. It differs from f. megaspora Rao in smaller 
zy gospores, 

_ Habit: Free-floating. 
[Differt a typo cellulis multo latioribus et longioribus atque zygos- 
poris paulo minoribus. A f, megaspora Rao differt zygosporis minoribus. ] 


914 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BISTY SOCIETY, Vole 54 


28, Sirogonium stictum Kutz. var. microsporum var, nov. 

End walls plane; chloroplasts 4; straight; fructifying cells swollen ; 
zygospore ellipsoid, ends rounded ; mesospore smooth, endospore indis- 
tinct (text-figs. 9-11). 

Breadth of the cell, 45-55°8 ju. 
Length of the cell, 126-270 yu. 
Breadth of the zygospore, 64°8 bu. 
Length of the zygospore, 93°6-108 

This form differs from the type in broader cells and broader zygo- 
spores, and in the fertile cells being inflated from 72-82.8 uw. In S. stictum 
var. megasporum Jao the zygospore is not less than 70 »« broad while in 
the present form it is not more than 64.8 w broad. It also differs from 
S. floridanum in smaller cells and zygospores. 

Habit : Free-floating. 

[A typo differt cellulis zygosporis latioribus atque cellulis fertilibus 
tumescentibus 72-82.8 uw. In S. stricto var. megasporo Jao zygospora plus 
70 u lata eat, in praesenti vero forma tantum usque ad 64.8 wu lata. 
Differt quoque a SS. flor7dana cellulis minoribus et zygosporis. | 

Habitus : natans libera. 


29, Penium libulata (Forke) Nordst. West & West, A Monograph 
of the British Desmidiaceae, 1: 73, t. 7, ff. 6 & 7, 1904. 


Breadth of the cell, 50.4 u. 
Length of the cell, 302°4 wu. 


Habit: Planktonic. 


30. Closterium acerosum (Schrank) Ehr. West & West, A Mono- 
graph of the British Desmidiaceae, 1: 146, t. 18, ff. 2-5, 1904. 


Breadth of the cell, 37°8 mw. 
Length of the cell, 417°6 wu. 


Habit : Planktonic. 


31, Closterium cornu Ehr. West & West, A Monograph of the 
British Desmidiaceae, 1: 157, t. 20 ff. 1-5, 1904. 


Breadth of the cells, 10°8 &. 
Length of the cells, 133°2 fu. 


Habit : Planktonic. 


32. Closterium decorum Breb. West & West, A Monograph of the 
British Desmidiaceae, 1 : 167, t. 17, ff. 7 & 8, t. 28, ff. 1-3, 1904. 


Breadth of the cell, 28°8 /&. 
Length of the cell, 447°2 uw. 
Breadth at the apices, 9 /&. 


Habit : Planktonic. 


33, Closterium lineatum Ehr. West & West, Alg. S. England, 169, 
t. 24, ff. 1-5, 1897. 


Breadth of the cell, 23°38 mu. 
Length of the cell, 216 uw. 
Breadth at the apices, 8:1 /. 


34, Closterium ehrenbergii Mengh. West & West, A Monograph 
of the British Desmidiaceae, 1: 143, t. 17, ff. 1-4. 1904. 
Forma tenuis form. nov, 


ALGAL FLORA OF THE UNIVERSITY GROUNDS, BANARAS 915 


Cells eight times longer than broad; curved as a well-defined arc; inner 
margin concave but slightly inflated in the median portion; pyrenoids 
scattered ; chloroplasts with 4-6 ridges. 

Breadth of the cell, 16°2 mw. 
Length of the cell, 129°6 uw. 
Breadth at the apices, 5°4 “. 

This form differs from the type in smaller cells and in having fewer 
ridges (4-6), while in the type 8-10. 

Habit : Planktonic. 


35, Closterium pusillum Hantz. West & West, A Monograph of 
the British Desmidiaceae, 1: 162, 1904. 

Forma. 

Cells very small; nearly six times longer than broad; slightly curved ; 
ventral margin almost straight and slightly tumid; cell wall smooth 
colourless ; chloroplasts ridged with 2-3 pyrenoids. 

Breadth of the cell, 19°8 uw. 
Length of the cell, 104°4 mw. 

It differs from the type in bigger cells with slightly tumid ventral 
margin. It also differs from var. monoltthum and var. major in bigger 
cells. 

Habit : Planktonic. 


36. Pleurotaenium ehrenbergii (Breb.) De Bary var. crassa var. nov. 

Cells nearly twelve times longer than broad ; semiceil with a distinct 
basal inflation and undulation above it. Apices bordered by a ring of 
rounded tubular, 7-9 tubules are visible ; cell wall punctate. 

Breadth of the cell, 50°4-54 wu. 
Length of the cell, 640°8 uw. 

It differs from the type in bigger cells and in a prominent basal 
bulging and undulation throughout. It also differs from var. undulatum 
in broader cells. 

Habit: Planktonic. 

[A typo differt cellulis maioribus atque undulatione basali tumes- 
centi. Cellulis latioribus a var. undulata differt. | 
Habitus : Planktonicus. 


37, Cosmarium nitidulum De Not. West & West, A Monograph 
of the British Desmidiaceae, 2: 197, 1905. 
Breadth of the cell, 18--18°9 ju. 
Length of the cell, 25:2 mw. 
Breadth at the isthinus, 9 #. 
This form differs from the type in smaller cells. 
Habit: Planktonic. 


38. Cosmarium depressum (Nag.) Lund. West & West, A Mono- 
graph of the British Desmidiaceae, 2: 176, t. 62, ff. 2-5, 1905. 


Breadth of the cell, 28°8 /. 
Length of the cell, 27 «. 
Breadth at the isthmus, 81 /. 


Habit : Planktonic, 


916 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


39, Micrasterias americana (Ehr.) Ralfs. West & West, A Mono- 
graph of the British Desmidiaceae, 2: 117, t. 53, ff. 4, 5, 1905. 


Breadth of the cell, 108-144 pw, 
Length of the cell, 144-180 yw 
Breadth at the isthinus, 18-216 uw. 


Habit : Planktonic. 


40, Staurastrum clepsydra Nordst. var. sibericum (Borge). West 
& West, Further contrib. Freshw. Plankton Scott. Lochs, 502, t. 7, 
f,. 20; 1905: 
Breadth of the cell, 18 “. 
Length of the cell, 21.6, u&. 


Habit : Planktonic. 


4], Staurastrum dubium West. West & Carter, A Monograph of 
the British Desmidiaceae, 112, t. 146, f, 4, 1923. 


Breadth of the cell, 60.4 wu 
Length of the cell, 32.4 mw. 
Breadth at the apices, 9.9 mu. 


Habit : Planktonic. 


42, Staurastrum dickie Ralfs. West & West, A Monograph of 
the British Desmidiaceae, 5: 3, t 129 ff. 14 & 15, 1923. 


Breadth of the cell, 28.8 “. 
Length of the cell, 23.4 w. 
Breadth at the isthmus, 7.2 /. 


Habit: Pianktonic. 


43, Vaucheria geminata (Vauch) De Candolle. Heering, Paschers, 
Stsswasserfl. 7: 89, f, 79, 1921. . 


Breadth of the cell, 36-43:2 wu 
Length of the cell, 19.6-21.6 uw. 
Breadth of the oogonia, 43.8-57.6 (— 64.8) pm, 


Habit: Terrestrial in the dried pond mud. 


45. Botrydium tuberosum Jyeng. Iyengar in /. /udian Bort. Soc. 195, 
t. 1th 151925: 


Breadth of the vesicle, 200-310 pu. 
Habit : On moist soil. 


46. Botrydium granulatum (L.) Grev. Smith, Freshwater Algae of 
the United States, 491, f. 314 A, 1950. 
Breadth of the vesicle, 150-200 wu. 


Habit: On moist soil. 


47, Euglena viridis Ehr. Fritsch, Structure and Reproduction of 
Algae. 1: 726, 4. 239/G, 1935 
Length of the cell, 57.6-144 «. 


Habit: Free-floating, 


ALGAL FLORA OF THE UNIVERSITY GROUNDS, BANARAS 917 


48, Merismopedia punctata Meyen. Geitler, Rabenhorst, Krypto- 
gammenflora, 14: 263, 1930-32. . 


Breadth of the colony, 56-72 “, 
Length of the colony, 80-95 /. 
Breadth of the cell, 2.6-3.6 wu. 


Habit: Planktonic as well as in the bottom mud. 


49, Spirulina gomontjj Grev. Geitler, Rabenhorst, Kryptogammen- 
flora, 14: 930, 1930-32. 
Breadth of the trichome, 3.6 #. 
Distance between the spirals, 3.3.6 uw. 


Habit : On the bottom mud. 


50. Oscillatoria granulata Gardner, Geitler, Rabenhorst, Krypto- 
gammenflora, 14: 963, 1930-32. 
Breadth of the cell, 2.7-4.5 pw. 


Habit: On the bottom mud. 


51, Oscillatoria lacustris (Kleb) Geitler, in Rabenhorst, Krypto- 
gammenflora, 14: 955, 1930-32. 
Breadth of the trichome, 5.4-6.3 pu, 
Length of the cell, 2.7-4.5 &. 


Habit: Planktonic. 


52, Oscillatoria brevis (Kitz) Gom. Geitler, Rabenhorst, Krypto- 
gammenflora, 14: 977, 1930-32. 
Breadth of the trichome, 4.57.2 mw. 
Length of the cell, 2.7-3.6 &. 


Habit: Planktonic. 


53, Oscillatoria tereberiformis Ag, Geitler, Rabenhorst, Kry pto- 
gammenflora, 14: 954, 1930-32. 
Breadth of the trichome, 4.5-5.4 «. 
Length of the cell, 3.6 wu. 


Habit : Planktonic. 


54, Oscillatoria quadripunctulata Brithl et Biswas in J. Dept. Scz. 
Cglcuita-Univ:; 4.(S.5) > tol, £. 6; 1922. 


Breadth of the trichome, 1.8 “. 
Length of the cell, 2.7-3.6 uw. 


Habit : Planktonic. 


55, Calothrix fusca Born et Flah. Geitler, Rabenhorst, Kryptc- 
gammenfiora, 14: 610, 1930-32. © 
Breadth of the filament, 3.6-12.6%u. 
Breadth of the trichome, 0.9-10.8 «. 
Breadth of the heterocysts, 5.4-7.2 &. 
Length of the heterocyst, 5.4-7.2 wu. 


Habit : Epiphytic on aquatic angiosperms, 


918 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


56. Gleotrichia pisum Thrret in daz. Sc. Nat. Bot. (ser. 6) 1, S, 382, 
1875. 
Breadth of the trichome, 2.7-7.2 &. 
Length of the cell, 5.4-8.8 “. 
Breadth of the heterocyst, 7.2-9.0 “. 
Length of the akinetes, 43.2-56.6 “. 
Breadth of akinetes, 9-14.4 mu. 


Habit: Epiphytic as mucilage balls. 


57. Aulosira fritschii Bharad, in Ann. Bot. 47: 117-43, 1933. 


Breadth of the cell, 10.8-14.4 
Length of the cell, 5.4-14.4 wu. 

Breadth of the heterocyst, 10.8-14.4 wu. 
Length of the heterocyst, 19.8-36.6 . 
Breadth of the akinete, 14.4 w., 
Length of the akinete, 5.4-14.4 mu. 


Habit : Free-floating. 


58. Anabaena affinis Lemm. Geitler, Rabenhorst, Kryptogammen- 
flora, 14: 894, 1930-32. 
Breadth of the trichome, 5.4-6.3 /. 
Length of the cell, 5.4 “. 
Breadth of the heterocyst, 7.2 w. 
Breadth of the akinete, 5.4 wu. 
Length of the akinete, 9-12.6 wu. 


Habit: Free floating. 


59, Anabaena torulosa (Carm.) Lagerh. Geitler, Rabenhorst, Krypto- 
gammenflora, 14: 887, 1930-32. 
Breadth of the trichome, 4.8-5.4. & 
Length of the cell, 3.6-4.5 uw. 
Breadth of the heterocyst, 7.2 /&. 
Length of the heterocyst, 7.2-9.9 “. 
Breadth of the akinete, 5.4 &. 
Length of the akinete, 11.7-12.6 “. 


Habit: Free-floating. 


60. Cylindrospermum muscicola Kitz. var. macrospora var. noy. 


Breadth of the trichome, 3.6-5.4 uw. 
Length of the cell, 5.4-7.2 wu. 

Breadth of the heterocyst, 5.4-9.0 «. 
Length of heterocyst, 7.2-10.8 uw. 
Breadth of the akinete, 12.6 (-19.8) «. 
Length of the akinete, 27-45 w. 


This form differs from the type in the broader cells, bigger hetero- 
cysts and akinetes. It differs from var. longispora Dixit in bigger spores. 
Spores are even as broad as 19.8 w and as long as 45 u. The cells in 
the present form possess pseudovacuoles. 

[A typo differt cellulis latioribus, heterocystis et akinetis largiori- 
bus; a var. longispora Dixit sporis maioribus. Sporae usque ad 19.8 jh 
latae, 45 « Jongae. Pseudovacuola adsunt in praesenti forma.] 


ALGAL FLORA OF THE UNIVERSITY GROUNDS, BANARAS  9i9 


61. Wollea bharadwajae Singh. Singh in Ann. Bot. 6: 593-606, 
1942. 


Breadth of the trichome, 3.6-4.5 mu. 
Length of the cell, 3.6 mw. 

Breadth of the heterocyst, 5.4-6.3 “. 
Length of the heterocyst, 6.3 wu. 
Breadth of the akinete, 14.4-16.2 uw. 
Length of the akinete, 16.2-21.6 uw. 


Habit: Finger-like mucilaginous projections attached to the mud. 


In conclusion, I am greatly indebted to Prof. Y. Bharadwaja for his 
kind guidance and help throughout the course of this investigation. I 
am also grateful to Dr. R. N. Singh for his valuable suggestions 
and criticism. 


REFERENCES 


Bharadwaja, Y. (1933): Contribution to our knowledge of the Myxophyceae 
of India. Ann. Bot. 47: 117-43. 
Brunnthaler & Pascher, A. (1915): Pascher’s Die Stisswasserflora Deutsch- 
lands, Osterreichs und der Schweiz, 5, Jena. 
Fritsch, F. E. (1935) : Structure and Reproduction of Algae, Vol. 1, Cam. Univ. 
Press. 
Geitler, L. (1930-32): Cyanophyceae, in Rabenhorst, Kryptogammenflora von 
Europa, Bd. XIV, Leipzig. 
Hazen, T. E. (1902): The Ulotrichaceae and Chaetophoraceae of the United 
States. Mem. Torr. Bot. Club 11(2): 135-250. i 
Heering, W. (1914): Pascher’s Die Siisswasserflora Deutschlands, Osterreichs 
und der Schweiz, 6, Jena. " 
— — — — (1921): Pascher’s Die Sitisswasserflora Deutschlands, Osterreichs 
und der Schweiz, 7, Jena. 
Iyengar, M. O. P. (1925) : Note on two new species of Botrydium from India. 
J. Indian Bot. Soc. 4: 195. 
Jao, C. C. (1933): Studies on the Freshwater algae of China. I Zygnemata- 
ceae from Szechwan. Sinensia 6: 592. 
Misra, J. N. (1937): Zygnemaceae from Kashmir. Pyoc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 5B: 
110-117. 
Prescott, G. W. (1951): Algae of the Western Great Lakes Area, Cranbrook 
Press. 
Pascher, A. (1913): Die Stisswasserflora Deutschlands, Osterreichs und der 
Schweiz, 9, Jena. y 
— — — — (1927): Die Sitisswasserflora Deutschlands, Osterreichs und der 
Schweiz, 4, Jena. 
Rao, C. B. (1937); Zygnemaceae of U.P. (India). J. Indian Bot. Soc. 
16: 284. 
Singh, R. N. (1938): The Zygnemoideae of U.P. (India). J. /ndian Bot. Soe. 
17: 369-384. 
M Singh, R. N. (1942) : Wollea Bharadwajae sp. nov. Ann. Bot. 6: 593-606. 
Smith, G. M> (1950): Freshwater Algae of the United States. McGraw Hill. 
Tiffany, L. H. (1930): ‘The Oedogoniaceae. Spehr & Glenn Co., Columbus, 
Ohio. 

West, W., & West, G.S. (1904-12): A Monograph of the British Desmidiaceae, 
1~4, Ray Society, London. 

— — — — & Carter, Nellie. (1923) : A Monograph of the British Desmidiaceae, 

5) Ray Society, London. 


TERNS OF THE SEYCHELLES ISLANDS 
BY fea : , 
 M. W. RIDLEy 
(With two plates) 


Several species of terns breed in the Seychelles Islands which lie 
about 1,700 miles south of Bombay. ‘As many of these species also 
occur on the coast of India, this paper describing the various terns 
may be of help to ornithologists of that country in identifying them. 

The author spent four months in 1955 studying the tern colonies 
of Seychelles at the request of the government of that colony, and 
most of the descriptions are taken from notés made in the field. 
Subspecific names have been used when specimens were obtained and 
identified by the British Museum (Natural History). [he summer 
and winter plumages are identical unless otherwise stated. 

In Seychelles the main breeding season for terns is from May to 
August, during the period of the south-east monsoon. Some species 
migrate to the islands only to breed, and are not seen at other times 
of year. Some are sedentary while other species are only seen on 
passage. 

The terns mostly breed on small uninhabited islands, particularly 
those where access is difficult in the rough seas normally associated 
with the south-east monsoon, but some islands still have colonies on 
them despite the presence of permanent settlements. In the past the 
Sooty Tern in particular was much more abundant than it is now. 
The eggs of many species are cropped for human consumption in the 
season, and the business is one of some importance from the com- 
mercial aspect as well as from the point of view of the Peoples food 
supplies when fish is short, 

The: Seychelles number 92 islands in all, spread over an area about 
600 miles long. The main sea-bird colonies are in the central group 
of islands known collectively as the Amirantes, but there are important 
colonies in the granite group, of which Mahe the capital is one, ane 
in the Aldabra-Cosmoledo group to the south. 


Sooty Tern : Sterna fuscata nubilosa Sparrman* 


This is by far the most numerous species, providing the bulk of 
the egg crop. It is. found in all the tropical oceans of the world 
and has been well studied (Watson and Lashley 1915, Chapin 1954). 
It breeds in the Laccadive Islands (Hume 1876) and occurs on the 
coast of India. 

It is a migratory bird in Seychelles, appearing during April and 
departing when the young can fly, about October. No one knows 


* Terns marked with an asterisk evidently also breed on Vengurla Rocks on the 
Bombay coast opposite Malvan, but the subspecies here have nct been determined 
(see JONAS, 41; 661-665 ; 43: 446-451). Eps. 


TERNS OF THE SEYCHELLES ISLANDS 921 


where these huge numbers spend the rest of the year but they are 
seldom seen near land and it 1s possible that they are widely dispersed 
over the oceans. Where they go remains a problem which may yet 
be solved. 7 

Very large numbers breed on the Seychelles. In 1955 we 
estimated there were about 1,190,000 pairs on one island (Desnoeuts) 
alone. Vesey-Fitzgerald (1940), whose knowledge ol Seychelles 
sea-birds is second to none, has said that there were 5 million pairs 
on this island in 1931. The other islands support populations trom 
as low as 100 pairs to about 60,000 pairs. 

A Sooty Tern colony is a very noisy place as the birds are always 
active by day and by night, and the clamour of their cries has earned 
them the name of ‘Wideawake’. ‘he nests, each containing one egg 
(two is accidental), are often placed very close together and a density 
of 34 pairs to the square yard appears quite normal. An island 
covered with Sooty Terns is one of the most remarkable sights that 
an ornithologist can see. 

The Sooty Tern is a large tern about 15 inches long. The crown, 
nape, back, wings, and tail are black, as also is a stripe between the 
eye and the bill. There is a white patch on the forehead which does 
not extend so far back as the eye. The bill and feet are black. ‘The 
rest of the plumage is pure white. The wings and tail are very long 
and the feet short. The two outer tail feathers are elongated and 
white. Despite their pelagic habit, Sooty Terns apparently cannot 
swim, and drown if forced on to the water; they do not land at all 
except during the breeding season. It is thought that they sleep, 
feed, and even copulate in the air. Their food is chietly small fish, 
flying fish, and squids; it is picked off the surface or caught in 
mid-air. The young are fed on regurgitated food by their parents. 

The juvenile plumage is unlike any other tern, being dark grey all 
over with buff spots on the back and wings and white under tail- 
coverts. ‘The first year birds, in my opinion, can be distinguished by a 
few grey feathers which are retained on the breast, though the 
plumage otherwise is the same as the adult. It is probable that, -as 
with other terns, only a small proportion of birds breed in their first 
year. 

The egg of the Sooty Tern is very variable in colour, normally 
white, speckled or blotched with violet or brown. Scarcely any nest 
is made. 


Brownwinged Tern: Sterna anaethetus antarctica Lesson* 


This species is very like a small edition of the Sooty Tern and 
like it is pelagic in habit. It is not nearly so numerous as the Sooty 
Tern and prefers small rocky islands for breeding purposes. It may 
be distinguished from the Sooty Tern by its smaller size, brownish 
back and wings, and by the fact that the white patch on the forehead 
is prolonged into a streak above the eye. Although it is only 12 
inches long, it is at times easy to confuse with the Sooty Tern at 
a short distance, but in good light the brown back is generally visible. 

The Brownwinged Tern nests underneath rocks or tufts of grass 
and not in the open. It also lays a single egg, buff in colour and 
spotted. with various shades. of brown. 


922 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


The Brownwinged Tern occurs in all the tropical oceans of the 
world. Unlike the Sooty Tern it commonly perches and roosts in 
trees in Seychelles. 


Common Noddy: Anous stolidus pileatus (Scopoli) 

The Noddy Terns are well distributed throughout the tropical 
oceans of the world, and often occur on the same islands as the 
Sooty Terns both in the Old and the New Worlds. ‘They breed also 
in the Laccadive Islands. 

The name Noddy may be derived from its habit of sleeping on the 
masts of ships, or from its courtship in which the male and femaie 
face each other nodding their heads and displaying their bright orange 
gapes. It is generally a resident bird to be seen daily in Seychelles 
and some individuals undoubtedly breed throughout the year, although 
the majority nest in the months of the south-east monsoon (May- 
September). The breeding season is in any case much more pro- 
longed than that of the Sooty Tern. 

In size the Noddy Tern is very slightly larger than the Sooty Tern 
but the wings are shorter and the tail is rounded, not forked. It is 
cf a uniform dark brown colour with a pale grey cap. The bill 
and feet are black. 

The Noddy is a very versatile nester. It generally builds a nest 
of sticks, straw, shells, bones, or grass, and sometimes: this nest is 
quite a substantial structure. It may be placed in the tops of coconut 
and other trees, in bushes, on rocks, or on the ground. The rockier 
sites are always chosen in preference to flat ground and the birds nest 
in compact colonies. The colonies on Desnoeufs Island, where there 
were some 36,000 pairs nesting in 1955, averaged about 87 pairs per 
colony. The Noddies were much shyer than the Sooties and it was 
hardly ever possible to pick up a bird from its egg by hand, which 
could be done with the majority of Sooties. 

The single egg is white or cream in colour, sparingly spotted with 
brown towards the larger end. It is almost exactly the same size 
as the Sooty Tern’s egg but can be distinguished from it by its more 
chalky texture and the colour of the yolk, which is yellow in a Noddy’s 
egg and orange in a Sooty’s. 

The young bird’s first plumage is exactly the same as the adult’s 
but the down with which it is covered on hatching is either dark 
brown or occasionally pale grey. 


Lesser Noddy : Anous tenuirostris tenuirostris (Temminck) 


The Lesser Noddy is a comparatively rare bird and is only found 
in the Indian Ocean where it breeds in Seychelles, near Mauritius, and 
the Houtmann Abrolhos Islands off Western Australia. 

It is considerably smaller than the Common Noddy, but can be 
confused with that species. It is generally rather darker brown 
in colour and the white cap is whiter and extends further down the 
back of the neck. Its bill is much longer and thinner, which difference, 
together with proportionately longer wings and tail, helps to dis- 
tinguish it in the field. 

In the Seychelles at any rate, Lesser Noddies always seem to breed 
in trees, generally coconut palms, and the nests are always a good 


Journ. BomBay Nat. HIsv. Soc. PrAnE al 


2 
. 4 
5 

8 
6 
7 
| 10 
19 


1. White Tern, 2. Lesser Noddy, 3. Sooty Tern (adult), 4. Sooty Tern (young), 
5. Crested Tern, 6. Little Tern, 7. Common Noddy, 8. Blacknaped Tern, 9. Roseate 
Tern, 10. Brownwinged Tern. 


JOURN. BomBay NAtT. HIst. Soc. PLATE II 


“An island covered with Sooty Terns is one of the most remarkable 
sights that an ornithologist can see’’ (Desnoeufs Island). 


Photos : M. W. Ridley 


(By courtesy Country Life) 


TERNS OF THE SEYCHELLES ISLANDS 923 


height from the ground. The nest is much smaller and neater than 
the Common Noddy’s and the egg is considerably smaller. We 
failed to distinguish any difference between the notes of the two 
species. Both are generally fairly silent birds except when they utter 
a loud, rather corvine-like call'’at intruders. The Lesser Noddy is one 
of the most graceful of all terns and flies more like a swallow than 
its heavier relative. We only found it breeding, in any numbers, on 
the islands of Cousin and 'Aride near Mahe, but a very few pairs also 
nest in the Amirantes. 


Crested Tern ; Sterna bergii thalassina Stresemann* 


This larger and well-known Indian Ocean species breeds in the 
Amirantes group of Seychelles. It is much the largest species and 
could only be confused with the Caspian Tern from which its yellow 
‘bill would distinguish it. 

It seems seldom to cross high tide mark and flocks roost on the 
sand keeping together in silent flocks. It utters a faint mewing call, 
difficult to hear amid the screams of Sooty Terns, and appears to be 
a docile bird compared to the more numerous species. The nests are 
merely small depressions in the sand just above high water mark and 
placed very close together. The young have black and grey mottling 
on the wings but the adults are typical terns with white plumage, 
black caps, and grey mantles. The bill is lemon-yellow and the feet 
black. The eggs are handsomely marked and much larger than any 
other species of tern breeding in Seychelles. 


Roseate Tern: Sterna dougallii arideensis Mathews* 


This species is one of the most cosmopolitan of all terns. In 
Seychelles it breeds in fair numbers on several islands, notably Aride, 
Mamelles, and African Banks. 

The subspecies arideensis which is the form occurring here, appears 
in the field to have more red on its bill than the British race, the basal 
half of the bill being scarlet and thus resembling the Common Tern. 
The Common Tern does not occur in Seychelles, but the pink breast 
of the Roseate would distinguish the two species. In winter the 
black cap is lost. 

The Roseate Tern breeds in large colonies. From our limited 
experience only one egg is laid in the clutch, which is variable in 
colour with the usual dark markings of terns’ eggs. The nests may 
be among rocks or on the bare sand. The birds often associate with 
Crested Terns. 3 


Blacknaped Tern: Sterna sumatrana mathewsi Stresemann 


This small_ and beautiful species was not seen in the Seychelles 
group of islands, but breeds on African Banks in the Amirantes. It 
is a very small graceful bird, almost out of place in oceanic surround- 
ings, and yet is found on many islands in the Indian Ocean and the 
Pacific Ocean and has occurred on the Indian coast. 

It can be distinguished by the black nape which does not extend 
on to the crown, and by its black legs and bill. At least in the 
breeding plumage, the breast is suffused with a very pale pink like 
the Roseate Tern. It seems to be a quiet bird nesting in scattered 


8 


924 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


colonies on a few low-lying windswept islands such as African Banks, 
but is not common in Seychelles. The nest is a slight depression in 
the sand, and the single egg is pale green or buff, covered with smal] 
black spots. 


White Tern: Gygis alba monte Mathews 

The White Tern is one of the most charming birds of the Seychelles. 
It is common on nearly all the islands and also occurs on many tropical 
islands in all three oceans. | 

The White Tern is easy to distinguish. It is pure white all over 
with a large dark eye, small dark feet with white webs, and a long 
bill which is black with a blue patch at the base. 

The peculiar breeding habits of this bird are its chief claim to 
fame. The single handsome egg is generally laid on a branch of 
a tree, no nest being made, and the egg is precariously balanced in 
some slight depression in the upper surface of the branch. Most birds 
nest at considerable heights on the more closely populated islands for 
obvious reasons, but on the smaller islands White Terns nest in 
bushes or on rocks or even inside buildings. When the chick hatches 
it is equipped with sharp claws with which it clutches the branch or 
rock, and it seems that it is seldom blown off its perch even in gales. 

‘White Terns are very common on Mahe itself and in Port Victoria, 
the capital of Seychelles. They are to be seen fluttering in the trees 
everywhere, even high up the mountain-sides, and their raucous notes, 
almost a parody of a human being’s laughter, are one of the charac- 
teristic sounds of the islands by day and by night. The adults feed 
their young with small fish which are brought home in neatly arranged 
rows in the bill. 

The White Tern is a resident species. 


Little Tern: Sterna albifrons Pallas 

The Little Tern is primarily a Palaearctic species which nests in 
the northern hemisphere, including parts of India and the Near East, 
and migrates south for the winter. It visits Seychelles in the non- 
breeding season and is not known to breed there. It could only be 
confused with the Blacknaped Tern which has less black on the head. 
The Little Tern’s black-tipped yellow bill and yellow feet would also 
distinguish it, and the white forehead prevents confusion with the 
Roseate Tern. 


Caspian Tern: Hydroprogne tschegrava (Lepechin). 
This species has also been recorded from Seychelles by Fitzgerald, 
but we did not see either this or the Little Tern during our visit there. 


NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR SOUTH INDIA—II 


BY 
D. DANIEL SUNDARARAJ 
AND 
V. RAMAKRISHNAN 


Madras State Herbarium, Coimbatore 
(With two plates) 
(Continued from Vol. 53, Pp. 526) 


In the present paper the occurrence of two new species, namely, 
Lippia unica spec. nov. Ramakrishnan and Cenchrus glaucus spec. 
nov. Mudaliar, C. R. and Sundararaj, D. in South India are reported 
with their descriptions. 


1. Lippia unica spec. nov. Ramakrishnan 


Suffrutex perennis, ramosus, gregarius, fortiter aromaticus, 9o- 
120 cm. altus; culmis supra tetragonus, ad -basim vero teres, im- 
maturus pubescens, maturus vero glaber; spatia internodalia 5-7.5 cm. 
longa. Folia opposita, ternata, petiolata, elliptica vel  elliptico- 
lanceolata, apice acuto, basi attenuata, 2.5-7.5 cm. longa, 12-33 mm. 
lata, serrata, serrationibus acutis; pagina superior pallide viridis 
atque villosa, inferior vero grisea atque pubescens; nervi primarii 
ascendentes, 7-9, supra impressi, infra eminentes, villosi. In- 
florescentia axillaris, solitaria, spicata, subglobosa, 6-12 mm. 
longa, 7.5-10 mm. in diam. Pedunculi teretes ad basim, tetragoni 
atque canaliculati supra, villosi, 5-12 mm. longi. Bracteae sub- 
cordatae, acuminatae, pagina exteriore obscure jugata, villosa, 
interiore vero glabra, marginibus ciliatis, nervis prominentibus 4-5 ad 
utrumque latus nervi medii eminentis. Calyx distincte 2-lobatus, 
carinatus, ad basim connatus annulum efformans, dense pubescens 
extra, glaber intra, 1.25-1.75 mm. Corolla bilabiata, labello superiore 
constante duobus, inferiore vero tribus laciniis, lilacina, gutture luteo, 
6.5 mm. longa; inferior pars dimidia alba et curvata, pubescens extra 
atque ex luteo gutture deorsum. Stamina 4, didynamia, inserta in 
prope medium corollae tubum; filamenta brevia, antherae ovatae, cellulis 
parallelis. Ovarium superius, sessile, subglobosum, constans duobus 
carpellis, syncarpum, bicellulatum ; stylus terminalis, brevis et robustus, 
tenuiter curvatus; stigma terminale, obliquum, recurvatum, crassum. 
Fructus parvus, pyriformis, inclusus calyce paulum accrescente atque 
adpresso; endocarpium durum et oseum, faciliter separabile in duas 
uniseminatas pyrenas. 

Typus lectus in Wetlands, in Agric. Coll. Estate, Coimbatore in 
Statu Madras, die 14 mensis aprilis anni 1952 a V. Ramakrishnan et 
positus in herbario Madraspatano sub numero 94281. 

Praesens species differt a simili specie L. geminata H. B. & K. 
spicis solitariis, axillaribus, condensis, subglobosis, foliis ellipticis vel 
elliptico-lanceolatis, acutis, attenuatis ad basim, quarum pagina 


926 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


superior villosa est, atque bracteis subcordatis, acuminatis, ciliatis. 
In L. geminata H. B, & K. spicae sunt in unum vel duo paria dis- 
positae, cylindricae vel elongatae; folia ovata, sub-obtusa, ad 
superiorem paginam scabro-hispidula pilis e basi papillosa surgentibus, 
nonnihil decurrentia; bracteae ovatae, apiculatae. 


[Lippia unica spec. nov. Ramakrishnan 


Perennial, gregarious, branching undershrub, strongly aromatic, 
go-120 cm. high. Stem tetragonal above, terete at the base, young 
stems pubescent, older glabrous, internodes 5-7.5 cm. long. Leaves 
opposite, ternate, petiolate, elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate, apex acute, 
base attenuated, 2.5~7.5 cm. long, 12-33 mm. broad, serrate, serratures 
pointed; upper surface pale green and villous, lower greyish and 
pubescent; 7-9 ascending primary nerves impressed above, prominent 
villous beneath. Inflorescence in axillary solitary spikes, subglobose 
6-12 mm. long, 7.5-10 mm. diameter. Peduncle terete towards the 
base and tetragonal and grooved above, villous, 5-12 mm. long. 
Bracts subcordate, acuminate, upper surface obscurely ridged, villous 
without, glabrous within and ciliate on the margin; nerves prominent 
4-5 on either side of the prominent mid-rib. Calyx distinctly two lobed, 
keel shaped, connate at the base to form a ring, densely pubescent 
without, glabrous within 1.25-1.75 mm. Corolla bilabiate, upper two 
lobed and lower three, lilac with yellow throat, 6.5 mm. long, lower 
half white and curved, pubescent without and from the yellow throat 
downwards. Stamens four, didynamous, inserted near the middle of 
the corolla tube; filament short, anthers ovate with parallel cells. 
Ovary superior, sessile, subglobose, formed of two carpels, syncar- | 
pous, 2 celled; style terminal, short and stout, slightly curved; stigma 
terminal, oblique and recurved, thickened. Fruit small, pyriform, 
enclosed in slightly accrescent and adpressed calyx; endocarp hard and 
bony, easily separated into two one-seeded pyrenes. | 

Coimbatore: Wetlands, !Agricultural College Estate, Coimbatore 
14-4-1952 V. Ramakrishnan, Madras Herb. No. 94281 (Type in Madras 
Herbarium). 

This striking species differs from its allied species L. geminata 
H.B. & K. in its solitary, axillary, condensed, subglobose spikes, elliptic 
to elliptic-lanceolate, acute, attenuate based leaves with upper surface 
villous and in its subcordate, acuminate, ciliate bracts. In L. geminata 
H.B. & K. the spikes are in one or two pairs, cylindric and elongate, 
the leaves ovate, subobtuse with upper surface scabrous-hispidulous 
hairs’ with papilose base and somewhat decurrent and the bracts ovate, 
apiculate. 

A shrubby species with virgate branches, strongly aromatic parti- 
cularly the leaves and tender angular shoots smelling like citrol. The 
flowers are lilac with yellow throat. The plant thrives very well in 
moist loamy soils particularly along the bunds of irrigation channels. 
It easily roots at nodes. 


2. Cenchrus glaucus spec. nov. Mudaliar, C. R. & Sundararaj, D. 
Affinis C. ciliari Linn. 

Folia glauca; paniculus compactus et spiciformis; spicularum acervi 
confertim ordinati; inflorescentiae rhachis recta, haud flexuosa. 


‘Aou “ds swonvzs snayouaz) ‘aou ‘ds noun vidgi7y 


PON daeg ger paca | oN reson | ° 
i 
whoo WAG { 48 wer Pee} we teed 
x 2 5 ee ee ; 
\ Pan Syrup © é 
i j Wats 
‘ 4S IBRD e is 1h } ey , j RD 
iene } i | . i ; (eae 
Pa Paha. eel £. Pooks al i alii bhai x 
Ss iow ae 
ye eine POERE hs ‘ yA oy Ratton ci as A eh vie ee 
FIO 2G ht reg ta bey ¥ PEER yy TE Kay 
PYWIF WE TES * 45-8 N 


‘Asuapisesq SHIDRW AY) fo BuoLy 
WOTHYGHSH SVEGYW 


AOU Sig SHIPBW BY) (0 RIOlY4 


WAIVE aSH SVUOYA 


: a a 


TAR ae 2¢ 7 


{| divig '20§ “3SIH, “3eN Aequog ‘uanor 


Aten Vt, i ae HS Ss aU] szerz7z9 snsyoua) — LS hE ‘SBLA | 
t iy “~~ -aog ‘dads HEHE SHAYIUIT — BRO 'Z‘T ‘SBA a rae 
3 


I] F1Vv1g 005 “YSIH, “3PN Avquog ‘uanor 


NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR SOUTH INDIA 927 


Planta perennis, rhizomifera. Basis foliaris et lamina glaucae ; 
lamina pilosa usque ad 3 centimetra a puncto originis ligulae, sed 
tantum super facie adaxiali. Inflorescentia spiciformis, longitudine 
usque ad 1o centimetra longa, compacta; rhachis recta, haud flexuosa, 
imporcata. Spicularwm acervi confertim super rhachi ordinati; setae 
involucrales filiformes, basi unitae in formam pocelli. Spiculae 1-3, 
raro 4, in sigulis invoiucris, angustae, lanceolatae; lemma _ inferius 
vel staminatum vel inane, saepe epaleatum; lemma superius paleatum, 
hermaphroditum. Granum oblongum, colore subfuscum. 


[Cenchrus glaucus spec. nov. Mudaliar, C. R. & Sundararaj, D. 

Perennial, rhizomiferous; leaves linear, 22-30 cm. long and 0.5-0.7 
cm. broad; leaf sheath and lamina glaucous, veins prominent with 
distinct furrows in between; ligule scarious, fringed with hairs; lamina 
pilose up to about 2 cm. from the ligule on the upper surface. 
Inflorescence speci-form up to 10 cm. long, compact; rachis straight 
ridged not flexuose; clusters of spikelets set very!closely on the rachis 
giving a compact appearance. Involucral bristles filiform, united at 
base forming a small disc, with 1-3, rarely 4, spikelets in each 
involucre. Spikelets about 5 mm. long and about 2 mm. broad, lanceo- 
late; lower two glumes equal, 2 mm. long, ovate-obtuse, membranous 
with a single nerve, first lemma staminate or empty, invariably epaleate, 
4 mm. long, lanceolate, 5 nerved; second lemma hermaphrodite, paleate, 
5 mm. long, lanceolate, 5 nerved. Grain oblong, brownish, free within 
the lemma and palea. | 

Coimbatore: Agricultural College, C. R. Mudaliar Madr. Herb. 
Nos. 93840 a, b & c (Type sheet in Madras Herbarium 93840 a) 
D. Daniel Sundararaj. Madr. Herb. No. 97150; C. R. Nachiappan, 
Madr. Herb. No. 97149. 

The specific name of the plant is given from the most striking 
diagnostic character, the glaucous nature of the plant. The species 
differs from the closely allied species C. ciliaris Linn. in many distinct 
morphological characters as given below: (i) the rough glaucous leaves ; 
(ii) stiffer culms; (iii) compactly set spiciform panicle; (iv) rachis 
of panicle more or less straight with ridges, but not flexuose; (v) the 
involucre of bristles connate below into a much smaller cup than in 
C. ciliaris; {vi) spikelets smaller and slender. (Compare figures in 
Plates I & II.) Besides the above morphological characters, in its 
growth form also the new species is distinct. The anatomical 
studies of the leaf, stem and root also bring out its differences from 
CS cians Acinn. | 

The plants of this species were noted in the National Dairy 
Research Institute, Bangalore. From a few slips obtained from 
there, it has been multiplied and distributed to the ryots of the Madras 
State as it is a hardy, drought-resistant grass, having very vigorous 
growth and forming big clumps. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 


The authors are greatly indebted to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.}., 
St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, for the rendering of the English des- 
cription of Lippia unica into Latin, and to Rev. Fr. L. M. Balam, s.J., 
St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapalli, for that of Cenchrus glaucus. 


OBITUARY 


NORMAN BOYD KINNEAR 
1882-1957 


(With a photo) 


Norman Boyd Kinnear entered the Society’s service on November 1, 
1907. Attracted from boyhood to Natural History, he had com- 
menced his career as a voluntary worker in the Royal Scottish 
Museum, Edinburgh, where he came under the expert guidance and 
training of Dr. Eagle Clarke, the Director. Dr. Clarke was obviously 
a good judge of the character and abilities of the men training under 
him. It was his recommendation which led the Society to offer 
Kinnear the post of Curator of its Museum. 

The need for a trained curator had been apparent for many years. 
During practically a quarter of a century of progress and development, 
the Society’s collections had grown apace. This material, collected 
by enthusiastic amateurs, resident all over India, Burma and Ceylon 
now formed, particularly as regards Vertebrates, one of the most 
important collections representative of the fauna of this area. This 
mass of material was lodged in the Society’s rooms at 6, Apollo 
Street, Bombay. It was looked after and maintained by several keen 
and devoted amateurs who gave up their evenings after office hours 
to this work—and one callow youth, fresh from school, who served 
as a general factotum. 

This was the position when Kinnear took over as Curator. During 
his term of ofhce Kinnear gave invaluable service to the Society by 
placing the whole of its museum on a sound scientific basis through 
the rearrangement, labelling and cataloguing of the collections. He 
brought to this work his gift of organization and a_ meticulous 
attention to detail which not only benefited the museum as a whole 
but also contributed substantially to the training of the small staff 
working under him. He was also able to provide more effective 
assistance to members of the Society who sought his help, and 
generally to guide the work of the Society in directions which pro- 
duced greater scientific gains. 

In 1911 the committee of the Society decided to undertake a 
systematic Survey of the Mammals of India, Burma and Ceylon. 
Professional collectors were engaged to secure a systematic series of 
skins and skulls of mammals, in order to provide material for a 
comprehensive study of the status, variation and distribution of 
mammals of the ‘Indian Region’. Kinnear threw himself whole- 
heartedly into the direction and control of this enormous task. To 
Kinnear’s lot fell the work of selecting the areas in which the collec- 
tors should work. In doing this he made a special effort to cover 
districts in which the earlier mammalogists collected with a view to 
replace missing ‘Types’—and there were many—by ‘Topotypes’ 
obtained from localities from which the ‘types’ originated. To him 


JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. 


Norman Boyd Kinnear, C.B. 


OBITUARY 929 


fell the task of assembling the enormous collections obtained; of 
provisionally identifying and cataloguing them and arranging for 
their dispatch to the British Museum in London. The great advances 
made in systematic mammalogy through the medium of the Survey 
were largely due to Kinnear’s organization and the painstaking care 
with which this preliminary work was carried out. 

During the Great War between 1915-1918, large collections of 
mammals, birds, reptiles and insects were sent to the Society by its 
members serving with the Expeditionary Force in Mesopotamia. 
Kinnear was then attached to Brigade Headquarters, Bombay, as 
Intelligence Officer, but he found time to prepare a pamphlet on the 
‘Animals of Mesopotamia’. It was circulated among officers and men 
serving with the Expeditionary Force and became a frequent book of 
reference and proved invaluable to all those who were collecting. 

The scientific results of all this work, which appeared in 
a series of papers in the journal of the Society between the years 
1918-1923 were in no small measure due to Kinnear’s guidance and 
control, and to the help and advice he gave. To his building the 
Society owes the progress and development of its museum on sound 
lines, and the staff the training which stood them in such good stead | 
in after years. 

Kinnear resigned his post as Curator of the Society’s museum in 

November 1919. During his term of office he also served as one of 
the Editors of the Journal. 
By a special appointment he entered the service of the British 
Museum (Natural History) in 1920 as an assistant in the Bird Depart- 
ment. During his years of service in India he had acquired an ex- 
tensive knowledge of the bird life of the Region and he soon made his 
mark as an ornithologist. Eight years after joining the service he 
was appointed Assistant Keeper, and by 1936 had risen to the post of 
Deputy Keeper in charge of the Bird Department. Since his resigna- 
tion the Society had undertaken the Vernay Scientific Survey of the 
Eastern Ghats. The desirability of an ornithological survey of this 
area of India had long been in the minds of workers. The important 
bird collections obtained by this Survey were worked out by Kinnear 
in collaboration with Mr. Hugh Whistler, another distinguished 
ornithologist. The results of this survey were published in the 
Society’s journal under their joint authorship. 

Kinnear continued as Deputy Keeper of Birds till 1945 when he 
was appointed Keeper of Zoology. The day after he had attained the 
age of 65—the normal age of retirement—the Trustees took the ex- 
ceptional step of appointing him Director. The practice of offering 
this appointment to men outside the Museum Service had caused much 
discontent among the regular staff. Kinnear first regarded his 
appointment as purely temporary, but events proved that the Trustees’ 
selection was fully justified. The staff were well content with the 
appointment and equanimity was restored due in a large measure to 
Kinnear’s personal qualities-—an unfailing kindliness and courtesy tc 
all who approached him. Though brief, his tenure of office was re4 
markably successful. 

A good administrator and organiser, he gave to the British 
Museum, as he had given to the Society, exceptionally valuable 


936 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


service. He was also prominently associated with other scientific 
societies, among them the British Ornithologists’ Union of which he 
was President from 1943 to 1948. He was at various times a member 
of the Council of the Zoological Society of London, of the Home 
Office Advisory Committee for the Protection of Birds, and of the — 
Council of the National Trust. 

Kinnear was born on August 11, 1882, the son of C. H. G. Kinnear 
an Edinburgh architect. He was educated at the Edinburgh Academy, 
Glenalmond. In 1948 he was made a C.B. and knighted. two 
years later. In him the Society loses one of its links with the past 
who contributed outstandingly to its progress and who will be re- 
membered by all who knew him as a kindly and generous helper and 
friend. | 


S. H. PRATER 


PHILIP McDONELL SANDERSON 


1884-1957 
(With a photo) 


This number of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 
is rather a sad one, as it records the death of two men who have done 
great work—in perhaps different ways—for the Society. S. H. Prater 
records what Sir Norman Kinnear did for Natural History, and I wish 
to record, in lighter vein perhaps, what N. B. K.’s friend and fellow 
worker did for the Society. 

P. M. D. Sanderson was born at Elstree School in 1884, which his 
father, Launcelot Sanderson—a former Harrow School Master—had 
founded as a preparatory school mainly for boys wishing to gain 
admission to Harrow. Phil Sanderson himself did not go to Harrow 
like his elder brothers, but went to Malvern, a great racquet school. 
He won the racquets tournament in Bombay twice in three years. 

From Malvern, Phil went to Selwyn College, Cambridge, and 
kept up his cricket and racquets as well as his Greek. It was amusing 
to hear him and W. A. Haig Brown {a Wykehamist and son of the 
man who moved Charterhouse School from London to Godalming) 
cracking jokes in Greek at the Bombay Gymkhana bar. Alas, it was 
‘all Greek’ to the writer of this tribute, who had to leave all correc- 
tions dealing with Greek in the Bombay Natural History Society’s 
journal to Phil. 

In 1905, P. M. D. Sanderson came out to join the firm of Phipson 
and Co., the partners in which,.H. M. Phipson and W. S. Millard, 
were responsible for the nurture of the Society’s museum and journal. 
Sanderson travelled out with Mr. and Mrs. Millard and their elder 
niece Ethel Millard. There was an interesting family sequel. Stay- 
ing with the Millards was Mr. Kemball, at that time Secretary to the 
Government of Bombay in the P.W.D., and his sister. The sister 
took Ethel Millard under her wing for a tour through India, and 
wherever they went they kept on meeting a friend of the Millards, 


JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 


Phillip McDonnell Sanderson 


OBITUARY . 931 


Alan Hay! The natural result—Ethel Millard became Ethel Hay, 
and shortly afterwards a younger sister, Gwen, came out to stay in 
Bombay with her uncle and aunt; and she married Norman Kinnear. 
Alan Hay was a great chess player, so was Phil Sanderson. Phil 
had married in 1917 Ejilleen Rendall, a niece of the Headmaster of 
Winchester. The families saw a great deal of each other, with the 
result that Phil Sanderson’s elder daughter married the elder son of 
Ethel Hay. Thus W. S. Millard became the uncle by marriage of 
Norman Kinnear, and the great-uncle of Phil Sanderson’s daughter. 

With Phipson and Millard to work with, it was natural that 
Sanderson took an interest in the Natural History Society’s affairs 
and this was increased when Norman Kinnear came out to work in 
the Society’s Museum in 1907. 

The partnership was broken for a short time from 1914 to 1919. 
Phil was at home yachting off the coast of Scotland when the first 
Great War started. He immediately left his yacht in Scottish waters 
and came south to join up. He was then 30 years of age— 
‘much too old to be a Second Lieutenant’. He got over that hurdle 
by telling his friend Colonel Fitzgerald, Lord Kitchener’s Private 
Secretary, of his military experience prior to the War. ‘Served in 
the Artillery —Maivern Cadet Corps. ‘Joined the Cavalry’—the 
Bombay Light Horse—‘Thought he would be more appreciated in the 
Infantry so joined the Gymkhana Company of the Bombay Volunteer 
Rifles’! Reward, ‘You are too old for a Second Lieutenant, here is 
a commission as First Lieutenant in Kitchener’s Army !’ 

Sanderson joined the 9th Battalion of the Worcestershire Regiment, 
commanded by Colonel Faviell, a great Worcestershire cricketer, and 
went to Gallipoli with the 13th Division under General Maude’s com- 
mand. From Gallipoli he went out to Mesopotamia. The immediate 
job there was the relief of Kut, and I am reminded by Sir Patrick 
Cadell, of a story confirmed to me in the Yacht ‘Club Bombay 
by the padre of the battalion. When Sanderson was going through 
the Canal with his Regiment he bought a bottle of Lager Beer and bet 
a fellow-subaltern that he would carry that bottle in his haversack and 
not open it until Kut was relieved. Alas, he was dangerously 
wounded in 1916 in one cf our battles for Kut, and as he was being 
carried out of the trenches he was met by the padre going back into 
the danger zone after looking after some of the other badly wounded 
men. ‘I hope there is nothing for you to worry about,’ said the padre. 
‘There is,’ said Sanderson, ‘I have Jeft my haversack with the bottle 
of beer in the trench.’ ‘I will go and fetch it for you,’ said the padre. 
Alas, he was too late. Beer was Beer and the lucky ones left in the 
trench were drinking the health of their very popular officer, known 
to them because he was so thin, as the ‘Pull-through’, and to us from 
the resemblance of his nose to the Great Hornbill in Phipson’s office, 
as Phe- Bird): 

Sanderson was seriously wounded, and we were very worried about 
him when the hospital ship reached Bombay, but he_ recovered 
sufficiently to be sent home in another hospital ship. He was awarded 
a life wound pension when the War came to an end. 

Sanderson returned to Bombay with his wife and elder daughter 
in 1919, and in March 1920 when W. S. Millard left India, joined the 


932 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


writer as Joint Honorary Secretary of the Society and, with Norman 
Kinnear, the three edited the Journal. In 1934 Sanderson became 
the sole Hon. Secretary and edited the journal with the help of 
S. H. Prater and later, Salim Ali. 

Sanderson was very keen on Prater’s work to make a real Museum 
of Natural History in the Prince of Wales Museum, and he had the 
privilege of running the arrangements for the Golden Jubilee of the 
Society, and the formal opening of the Museum of Natural History. 

He left India in 1939, and on the outbreak of the Second War 
joined the Home Guard Commandoes—a very ‘hush-hush’ branch to 
the rest of the Home Guards, and one which put a big strain on those 
active in it. 

When, owing to advancing age, W. S. Millard had to give up his 
work in London, Phil Sanderson took on his post as the Society’s 
representative in England. Two years ago he had a very bad attack 
of shingles which played havoc with his health, though his friend did 
not realise it. At the memorial service to his old friend, Sir Norman 
Kinnear, on the 23rd of August this year, ee, with! Si) blaserate;, 
represented the Society. I had a bad shock when J heard from Prater 
how ill Phil was looking, but I did not think that I should hear from 
his son-in-law, Alec Hay, on the night of Sunday the 8th of September 
that our friend had died that morning from a heart attack. I wrote 
earlier on that Phil Sanderson was a great chess player. When he 
had his first heart attack the morning of September 8th, he was taken 
to the Cottage Hospital close to his home, ‘Tassels’, at Tenterden, 
Kent. He seemed at first to be all right and told the surgeon, an 
old chess crony of his, that he wanted a game with him. The doctor 
agreed, and I understand it seemed to do Phil good, but alas, he had 
another heart attack later on and passed over that afternoon. 

The Church at Tenterden is a fine and big one, but it was nearly 
filled for the Memorial Service on the 18th September. The lesson 
was read by Phil’s eldest nephew, the present Headmaster of Elstree. 
It was very applicable. It was the Prayer Book version of the 
15th Psalm which, I believe, is still read at Prayers before work 
starts in the House of Commons, and is known as the ‘Gentleman’s 
Psalm’, because it gives the best definition of a gentleman, of what- 
ever race or creed one may be. It ends ‘Whoso doeth these things: 
shall never fall’. Read it, and you will agree with me. No better 
tribute could have been paid to ‘The Bird’, Philp Sanderson. 


REGINALD SPENCE 


REVIEWS 


1. THE EVOLUTION OF MAN. By Fr. M. Hermanns, s.v.p. 
Pp. viiit139 (84” x 6%”). 1 photograph and 14 text-figures. 
Allahabad: Society: of St. Paul.” 1955. Price Rs. 3.50. 

Very few scientific hypotheses have evoked so much controversy 
as Darwinism. It is now a hundred years since Darwin gave to the 
world the concept of organic evolution through Natural Selection, and 
his postulate about the descent of man from simian ancestors. The 
storm that raged over England and the European continent after the 
publication of Darwin’s views, has now happily passed over, and 
Darwinism has come to stay though not in exactly the same form. 
Yet, there are occasional outbursts of emotion challenging what seem 
to be the most logical deductions on the basis of overwhelming 
scientific evidence. Father Hermanns’s book EVOLUTION OF MAN is one 
such outburst—a challenge to Darwinism through human biogenetics, 
physical and cultural anthropology, prehistory and_ palaeontology. 
The challenge, however, does not appear to be so much directed 
against Darwin, as against M. R. Sahni or J. Manchip White who 
‘believes himself competent to make ‘“‘scientific’’ statements concerning 
every aspect of man’! That the above gentlemen have provoked 
the author into writing this interesting thesis about evolution of man 
is very clear from the Introduction of the book. 

The book has six chapters beginning with a four-page introduc- 
tion which gives the idea that these ‘real facts and results of sincere 
research’ are meant to correct erring anthropologists, journalists and 
writers of popular science literature who believe in Darwinism as 
Gospel truth. The remaining 135 pages contain the subject matter 
divided into five unequal chapters on (i) The Genotype of Man, (1i) The 
Phenotype of Man, (iii) Prehistory and Cultural Anthropology, (iv) 
Palaeontology and Evolution of Man and (v) Conclusion. 

The largest space is, of course, devoted to prehistory and ‘cultural 
anthropology, where the author feels completely at home. The other 
topics are dealt with in less detail and do not at places conform to 
the facts as observed by biologists. It becomes clear as one makes 
one’s way through the maze of disconnected ideas and arguments 
that the author has mercilessly exploited the weakest links in the chain 
of facts and deductions that form the basis of the concept of evolu- 
tion. He has profusely quoted a few authors who have expressed 
their doubts about the validity of the evolution theory, but has avoided 
to use the overwhelming’ scientific material which has accumulated 
during the last hundred years reinforcing the basic premises of 
Darwinism and evolution. Nobody denies that the concept of evolu- 
tion is not infallible, yet an objective assessment of the evidence that 
we have so far available, undoubtedly indicates that this concept is 
a logical consequence of the rationality of man, and he should not 
feel shy about his kinship with animals which are as much a part and 
parcel of nature, as he is. It is quite likely that in course of time the 
unexplained and ununderstandable aspects of the evolution theory may 


934 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAT@RAL HIST PSOCGHET Ve Wolo 


shrink beyond recognition when the vastly improved techniques of 
research give us greater insight into the complicated processes of 
life. 

The chapter on Genotype of Man contains very little about genetics. 
It begins with a query—‘What is Man?’ and supplies the answer 
from the creation myths, from folklore of the Lepchas of Sikkim, and 
trom various religious sources. Haeckel’s views about evolution are 
brushed aside as ‘clever subterfuge’. The author does not seem to 
be clear about the definition of evolution—he thinks for instance that 
‘a chicken evolves from an egg’! He further groups evolutionary 
ideas into four categories—atheistic evolution, deistic evolution, 
theistic evolution and special creation. The author is an advocate of 
special creation, though he concedes that evolution does occur ‘within 
the limits of natural races, species and genus’. The rest of 
this chapter discusses atom and cell, what is life, and under 
the heading human genetics topics styled as ‘the source of life’, ‘the 
organs of human life’, ‘ontogenesis and phylogenesis’, and ‘the 
immature human baby’; the chapter concludes with ‘Mendelism and 
Mutation’. His conclusions are: ‘inorganic matter cannot evolve 
into an organic cell’; the principle of life is ‘entelechy’ though not in 
an Aristotelian sense—there are three types of entelechies these days, 
the vegetative entelechy looking after the interests of the plant 
kingdom; the sensitive or psychical entelechy guiding the vital 
processes of animals other than man; and the rational or spiritual 
entelechy of man or the human soul. The entelechies are not trans- 
ferable, that is, vegetative entelechy cannot change into human 
entelechy etc. ‘We have the following hierarchy: the physico- 
chemical rules are transferred by vegetative and sensitive entelechy 
into the higher order of vegetative and sensitive life, and the 
biological laws of plant and animal kingdom are transformed by 
the human spirit into the higher order of spiritual life. There is no 
blind evolution from matter into plant, from plant into animal, and 
from animal to man! Having firmly established the entelechies, it is 
not difficult to explain other things, as whatever cannot be explained 
otherwise can be attributed to the miraculous powers of the entelechies ! 

The chapter on ‘Phenotype’ of man discusses the pre-human 
and human fossils dating from Pleistocene onwards, and here the 
author concedes that evolutionary forces were responsible for racial 
differentiation in man and his human predecessor, somewhat along 
Darwinian lines, but with a rider that these forces were active within 
the limits of the family Hominidae only, which is of course formed by 
an essential entelechy. 

The chapter on Prehistory and Cultural ‘Anthropology is interesting 
because here the author treads on familiar ground. Apart from its 
dubious value in the understanding of human evolution, this chapter 
contains interesting information about cultural life of many primitive 
races, specially those of the Indian region. The chapter, like the 
earlier ones, ends with the oft-repeated assertion about the non- 
animal origin of man through the so-called spiritual entelechy ! 

The chapter on Palaeontology and Evolution of Man hinges on 
the following points: (1) The discontinuity of types of life between 
various geological strata; (2) and the great insufficiency of fossil 


REVIEWS 935 


records. The discrepancy in the fossil record is interpreted to brush 
aside the importance of the time element in evolution, while the dis- - 
continuity of types in different strata is utilised for the assumption 
of sudden appearance of different families and orders etc. The still 
little understood problem of rates of formation of species and the 
radical structural differences between different groups, according to 
the author, rule out the possibilities of gradual evolution of different 
types which would have taken a much longer time than the age of 
the earth itself. The author poses the question that if mammals 
gradually evolved from reptiles, how did the structural transforma- 
tions occur? 

Our present knowledge about the mechanism of. speciation and 
rate of species formation is not sufficient to give a satisfactory answer 
to this question. Modern genetical researches prove that the rate of 
variations in species may either be determined by generation-time in 
which case the changes will be quicker and induced by genotypic 
factors, or by environmental factors depending upon absolute time. 
This should partially help to explain the above questions since the 
changes that were determined by generation-time must have occurred 
very quickly leading to sudden multiplication of species. It is also 
apparent from present-day taxonomic studies that, barring a few 
exceptions, groups with shorter span of generation-life show much 
greater diversity in the number of species and genera than those where 
the span of generation-life is longer. 

The essence of the author’s thesis about evolution of man can be 
summarized as follows: 

Phyla, Classes, Orders and Families sprang up suddenly and 
simultaneously through a creative act without any transitory stages 
—through creative evolution or macromutation. The essential 
entelechies of these categories were virtually and latently existent and 
remained recessive till suitable conditions of life were present when 
they could become creative, active and dominant. The author even 
suggests that all the different categories of the various life-kingdoms 
were virtually and potentially created when the first life was created 
and that they came into activity when conditions were fit for their 
active existence ! 

The Genus, however, is constituted through adaptation, and hence 
requires evolution. Everything below a genus has evolved. 

In the case of man, his spiritual entelechy or soul was first created 
out of nothing { !), and this entelechy developed an animal’s body into 
a human body! Since each family requires a creative evolution, and 
luckily for the author, the family Hominidae to which man belongs 
contains a single genus—Homo—so man as the sole representative of 
his family demanded creative evolution. Because of man’s ‘peculiar 
somatic family-type’ and because of his intellectual type, a special 
family was needed through special creation. 

Father Hermanns’s theory about evolution and special creation of 
man is an extreme manifestation of the anthropocentric point of view. 
Darwinism has its stoutest opposition from religion, because it for 
the first time exploded many religious dogmas that sapped the vitality 
of human society. But the firm roots that the concept of evolution 
has now got in the thought process and activity of man, make it 


936 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 54 


ridiculous to indulge in thoughtless criticism of this concept. The 
' tailor-made evolution theory suggested by the author, therefore; con- 
forms to a pattern that can satisty religious dogmas, compromise 
modern scientific thought by conceding partial evolution and accepting 
the existing systematic categories like Phylum, Class etc., and also 
boost up the human ego by saving man from the humiliation of 
believing that his ancestors were simian. It is undeniable that 
much of the criticism and anger against Darwin is due to the 
fact that he dragged in man along with other animals. If he had 
left man alone, probably his theory would have got a very smooth 
sailing. 

Father Hermanns has stumbled into the same error which he 
wanted to correct in others. His thesis would have been all right if 
his concept about Phylum, Class, Order etc. had been the same as 
accepted by biologists. From the scientific viewpoint species are the 
only objective realities in the living kingdom—species consisting of 
populations of individuals sharing certain characters in common. 
Each species has its own chromosome-gene system irrespective of 
whether it is a plant, animal or man! All other systematic categories 
are only convenient taxonomic units devised for the purpose of an 
orderly classification of the animal and plant kingdoms, and there is a 
frequent reshuffling in their positions and make-up with increasing 
researches. Without Species, the Genus has no reality. Families 
are assemblages of one or several genera and each Order contains 
several families, and so on. It appears, therefore, ridiculous to think 
that creation began from the Phyla downwards. It sounds rather 
like beginning with the construction of the top-storey of the Empire 
State Building and then proceeding downwards to accommodate the 
upper storeys till the foundation is dug last! 

K.K.T. 


2. PHARMACOGNOSY OF ‘AYURVEDIC DRUGS (KERALA) 
Series No. 3. By K. Narayana Aiyar, m.a., A. N. Namboodiri, M.sc., 
and M. Kolammal, m.sc. Pp. ii+109 (93” x74”). 8 coloured and 
29 black and white plates. Published by the Central Research 
Institute, University of Travancore, Trivandrum. 1957. 


This volume, designed to provide important features of pharma- 
cognostic studies on some useful medicinal plants growing in the 
State of Kerala, is the third publication of the Institute’s first 
series. The monographs provide data for identifying several 
medicinal plants particularly belonging to the same genus, for 
instance Albizzia, etc. The present book is divided into eleven 
chapters. At the beginning of each chapter Ayurvedic notes, the 
properties and uses of the plants, and Sanskrit synonyms are given. 
Distribution and habitat, followed by external morphology, histology, 
and diagnostic features, form the general pattern in describing each 
plant. 

In the first chapter, Albizzia marginata, A. lebbeck and A. 
odoratissima are fully described with morphology of the plants and 
illustrations of transverse sections of the barks. It would appear 
that the barks look similar histologically, but no attempt has been 


REVIEWS 937 


made to differentiate them. A. odoratissima does not have prismatic 
crystals of calcium oxalate like the other two barks. The second 
chapter deals with Nimb or Neem—Azadirachta indica A. Juss. The 
morphology of its bark is illustrated beautifully by a coloured plate. 
It is important to note that the transverse section of the young bark 
shows stone cells while the older bark is stated to contain groups of 
schlerides. A longitudinal section of the bark might have indicated 
whether the schlerides consist of fibres only or fibres associated with 
stone cells. ‘“Saptaparnah’ is a useful plant from the medicinal stand- 
point. It is interesting to note that schlerides (fibres) are present in 
the young bark in the phloem region, while they are absent from the 
old bark which is full of stone cells in the secondary cortex. The 
transverse sections of the bark and petiole of Murraya koenigii are 
described with illustrations. The leaf is stated to have medicinal 
properties. Histology of the leaf would have been useful. The 
monograph on Acorus calamus is very informative. The coloured 
plate and the histological details will be found useful as this plant is 
already described in Indian Pharmaceutical Codex. ‘Lodh’—Symplocos 
racemosa Roxb.—has been described in several books on indigenous 
drugs. The chapter on Symplocos spicata Roxb. which grows in 
Travancore/Cochin, will help to compare it with S. racemosa Roxb. 
growing elsewhere. One surprising feature of the book is that it 
does not contain any references. Similar work carried out on 
certain plants growing elsewhere has not been taken into considera- 
tion. Nevertheless this detailed botanical information on the medicinal 
plants of Kerala will certainly prove to be of great use to pharma- 
cognosists. 
B.G.M. 


3) ZOOLOGICAL 7 PHOTOGRAPHY: IN PRACTICE. By 
HveH Bey Cort, :Se.0.; D-Sc., F.R-P-S. Pp. 370 (847.x617).. With 
68 plates and 38 text-figures. Fountain Press, London, 1956: 
52/6 sh. 


Dr. Cott has written a text-book on zoological photography which 
both the beginner and the specialist will find of the utmost use; it 
combines an intimate and clearly-expressed knowledge of theory with 
great practical know-how. The author is an eminent scientist whose 
book ADAPTIVE COLORAIION IN ANIMALS first published in 1940, has 
become a classic. When he was assembling data for this earlier book, 
Dr. Cott collected evidence in the field both in his own country and 
abroad, and the remarkable photographs which were such an important 
complement to its text—a number of these same pictures are repro- 
duced in the present volume—showed how effectively the author had 
used his camera. Among the most interesting and original chapters 
in the new book are those which deal with the scientific approach to 
photography, and with work in the field; they show the combination 
of the scientist and practical photographer to best advantage, and they 
are enlivened with amusing experiences, and practical hints which 
are the result of personal knowledge. 

ZOOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN PRACTICE is divided into eleven 
chapters: the first six deal with the choice and use of equipment and 


938 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


materials; the seventh deals with the ‘artistic approach to zoological 
photography’; the eighth with the scientific approach; the next two 
describe the opportunities and difficulties that await the photographer 
in rain-forest, and desert and savannah; and the last is concerned 
with the classification of animals. ‘There are 68 plates on art paper 
at the end of the book: they are a testimony to the skill of the 
author as a photographer, and the explanatory texts which accompany 
them an equal testimony to his knowledge as a scientist ; each caption 
is well-worth reading. The book is made complete by a full 
bibliography and an index. 

Dr. Cott belongs to the school of zoological photographers who 
believe that it is the large negative, and hence the large camera, 
which gives the best pictures; most successful animal photographers 
would agree with him. He is careful to point out, however, that 
although this can be regarded as a general rule, it would be unwise 
to claim that there exists any camera which can be equally suitable 
for all types of zoological work; the miniature (35 mm.) camera, 
for instance, is, as Dr. Cott rightly says, the ideal instrument ‘for 
fast work in very bad light or in artificial light, and in its adaptation 
to exceptional subjects requiring speed and depth of field, such as 
birds on the wing, or flash photography of fast-moving animals’. No 
large camera using a quarter-plate negative could possibly compete 
in this field. 

The advantages and disadvantages of various types and sizes of 
cameras are thoroughly discussed in the first chapter, and the conclusion 
reached that the naturalist-photographer who sets himself a high 
standard in the rendering of texture and critical detail will generally 
choose the larger instrument. For him, indeed, the limiting factor 
may well be the weight he is prepared to carry’. Dr. Cott’s own 
camera is a ‘Sanderson quatter-plate model in teak and brass’. 
It seems a pity that in his affection for the camera which has served 
him so well, Dr. Cott makes scant mention of more modern makes 
which have the same flexibility and range, but with greater refinements, 
such as the Linhof or the Speed Graphic, although it must be admitted 
that the latter camera is more limited in its movements. 

The book contains a wealth of practical advice which every photo- 
grapher of animals would do wel! to study. Valuable chapters deal 
with the choice and use of apparatus and accessories, the theory and 
practice of exposure, negatives and development, and the print and 
the lantern slide. Dr. Cott expresses the views of a man who has 
travelled widely and used his camera under many different conditions, 
and it is with gratitude that we receive a book set down in readable 
English, written with economy and style. 

Few people, I think, would disagree with Dr. Cott’s general 
conclusions. My only criticisms are that the author is so faithful 
to the somewhat old-fashioned types of equipment and materials which 
have served him well that he sometimes overlooks new developments ; 
there are, in my opinion, modern tripods with pan-tilt heads which are 
strong, steady and light; plastic bags have taken the place of 
blankets to prevent dust from reaching delicate equipment; cameras 
and films can now be kept dry in airtight containers in which a 
compound like silica-gel has been placed; and I would dispute the 


REVIEWS 939 


conclusion that the advantages of using plates so far outweigh their 
disadvantages that they are to be preferred to the filmpack. 

These are, however, small objections when we consider the mani- 
fold qualities of a book which is written so well by that rare combi- 
nation, a scientist-photographer who is also an artist—one who believes 
that ‘if the photographer lacks vision, or any feeling of reverence for 
his subject or any rightness in composition, his work must tend to 
be a mere recording of events and recounting of anecdotes’. Dr. Cott’s 
own pictures show that he is no mere recorder of events, and if he 
recounts anecdotes, he does so with wit and grace. No _ serious 
photographer of animals can afford to neglect this book. 


W.-T LD. 


ADDITIONS TO THE SOCIETY’S LIBRARY 


The following books have been added to the Society’s library 
since August 1957: 


Review copies: 


I. VOICES OF THE WILD. By Eric Simms (Putnam & Co. Ltd., 
42 Great Russel Street, London W.C. 1, 1957). 

2. PROFESSOR HIMADRI KUMAR MOOKERJEE MEMORIAL VOLUME: 
Proceedings of the Zoological Society.. Edited by J. L. Bhaduri, B. 
Biswas, S. P. Ray-Chaudhuri (The Zoological Society, 35 Ballygunge 
Circular Road, Calcutta 19, 1957). 

3. ON THE TRAIL OF VANISHING Birps. By Robert Porter Allen 
(McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1957). 

4. CENTENARY SOUVENIR OF LALBAGH BOTANICAL GARDENS 1856- 
1956 (August 1957). 

5. A GENERAL TEXT-BOOK oF ENTOMOLOGY. By A. D. Imms. 
Extensively revised by Prof. O. W. Richards and R. G. Davies 
(Methuen & Co. Ltd., 36 Essex Street, Strand, London W.C. 2, 
1957) 


Purchased: 


1. THE SNAKES OF AUSTRALIA. By J. R. Kinghorn (2nd edition) 
(Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1956). 

2. THE Brrp WaATCHER’S REFERENCE Book. By Michael Lister 
(Phoenix House Ltd., Charing, London, 1956). 

3. AUSTRALIAN Birps. By The Shell Company Ltd. (Angus and 
Robertson Ltd., Sydney and Melbourne). 


Presented: 


1. MenpDELISM. By Reginald Crundall Punnett (5th edition) 
(Macmillan & Co. Ltd., St. Martin’s Street, London, 19109). 

2. Soviet GENETICS AND WorLp SCIENCE: Lysenko and _ the 
Meaning of Heredity. By Julian Huxley (Chatto and Windus, 
London, 1949). 

9 


940 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


3. THE Science oF LiFe. By H. G. Wells, Julian Huxley, 
G. P. Wells (Cassell & Co. Ltd., London, 1931). 

4. Witp Lire ILLUsTRATED. (Odhams Press Ltd., Long Acre, 
London, W.C. 2). 

5. THE SysTEmM oF ANIMATE Nature. By J. Arthur Thomson 
(Williams & Norgate, London, 1920). 

6. Banpoota. By J. H. Williams (Rupert Hart-Davis, Soho 
Square, London, 1953). 

7. ELepHant Bitit. By Lt.-Col. J. H. Williams (Rupert Hart- 
Davis, London, 1952). 

8. BroLtocy FoR Everyman, Vol. I & Vol. II. By J. Arthur 
Thomson. ~ Edited ‘by’ E. J. Holmyard (]> My Dent & Sons ide; 
London, 1934). 

g. THE Story or AnimaL Lire, Vol. I & Vol. Il. By Maurice 
Burton (Elsevier Publishing Co. Ltd., London, 1949). 


MISCE REANEOUS NOTES 


1. THE INDIAN MONGOOSE IN JAMAICA 


According to G. S. Cansdale (ANIMALS AND MAN. Hutchinson, 1952, 
p. 73) the Indian Mongoose was introduced into Jamaica to deal with 
the rat nuisance. ‘At first rats suffered. ‘Within ten years it was 
obvious that a fatal mistake had been made, for the mongoose was 
an omnivorous predator and attacked the ground-nesting birds and 
water fowl as well as the snakes and lizards that were themselves 
good ratcatchers’. 

What I had read previously was that the fer de lance, a deadly 
poisonous S. American Viper, introduced in order to frighten slaves 
from running away from the plantations under cover of night, became 
a nuisance. To deal with this trouble the mongoose was introduced. 
It reduced the number of snakes, but then it attacked the sugar-cane 
and caused immense loss. 

Whichever version is correct, we cannot say with Mr. Prater 
(THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS, p. 72) that the mongoose ‘is now well 
established in the West Indies to human benefit’. 7 


Patt Hitt, BANpDRaA, 
BOMBAY 20, D. E. REUBEN 
March 20, 1957. 


.2. HABITS OF THE SEROW [CAPRICORNIS 
SUMATRAENSIS (BECHSTEIN) | 


In THE BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS published by your Society, I came 
across the statement that ‘the Serow live in the recesses of thickly 
wooded gorges whose boulder-strewn slopes and shallow caves give 
shelter from the weather’. This is very much so the case during 
the monsoons. In winter, and more so in summer, I have noticed 
that they can be found in opener forests and on gentler slopes. It 
is their habit to scratch a small area of ground with their hoofs 
as resting place on a hill-slope, under shelter of overhanging trees 
or fallen trunks. A number of these resting places are in evidence 
along a contour of a hill, possibly along the route they take for their 
feeding. I have also noticed that on hot airless afternoons they climb 
gently sloping trees and find a crotch to rest in, where gentle breezes 
can reach them. 

One other interesting habit with which the locals credit the serow 
is that at times, in thick undergrowth when it suspects human 
approach but cannot see through the foliage, it stands up on its hind 
legs to get a better view of the intruder. This latter statement I have 
not been able to prove. 

Lastly, like the nilgai and chinkara, it normally visits the same 
place to leave a pile of droppings. 


©/On56)A2P-O%, Ro A SOLOMON, 
fuly 19, 1957. Major, 17 Rajputs 


942 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 
3. CEYLON’S WILPATTU NATIONAL PARK 
(With a plate) 


Few countries have received so much of nature’s bounty as Ceylon. 
This is reflected not only in her scenery, climate and vegetation, but 
also in her share of the animal kingdom. ‘The prowess of the poacher 
and the skill of the shikari have left their mark, however, and in 
common with most countries Ceylon’s wild life is now found mainly 
within her parks and sanctuaries. 

The Wilpattu National Park, which I was fortunate enough to 
visit in April 1956, is a counterpart to the well-known Ruhana. ‘The 
Wilpattu lies on the north-west coast of the island and covers some 
250 square miles of forest, villus (lakes both salt and fresh water) 
and sand-dunes. It is remote and unspoilt. 

By virtue of ‘being off the beaten track’ and having poor roads 
(for Ceylon), comparatively few visitors frequent this park; an 
additional factor might be the somewhat primitive accommodation which 
cannot attract those people who are addicted to the 2oth century’s 
plumbing. But for those who enjoy the peace and quiet of the virgin 
forest, the Wilpattu can have few equals—anywhere. 

From the verandah of the rest house one can see cheetal and 
buffalo browsing and wallowing at the edges of a large tank in the 
early morning. This tank, its surface now covered with water lilies 
and lotus flowers, dates back many hundreds of years to when this 
area was once the scene of a flourishing civilization. To-day the 
forest is undisturbed save for the occasional visitor or forest guard. 

In addition to the cheetal and buffalo found within the Park, wild 
elephant, sambar, barking deer, wild pig and leopard appear to be 
fairly numerous. Yet it 1s invariably the herds of spotted deer that 
catch one’s eye; not only through their natural beauty and elegance, 
but also because of their large population. Leopards at present 
maintain a curb on their prolificacy, but an excessive deer population 
might easily become a reality here unless a vigilant watch is kept on 
their numbers. One has the example of the Andaman Islands as a 
fresh reminder. 

The buffalo in the Wilpattu are an unfortunate contrast to the 
rest of the wild life for, strictly speaking, these animais are not wild 
at all. From time to time, buffalo straying outside the Park are 
caught, broken in, and put to the plough; later, when they have 
served their usefulness they are released and many rejoin their former 
herds. This practice has naturally had an appalling affect on the 
stature and debility of these so-called ‘wild’ animals. 

Apart from the constant danger of introducing such diseases as 
rinderpest or foot-and-mouth into the Park, it is a, sad disillusion- 
ment for a visitor to see semi-domesticated animals mingling with the 
cheetal and the other fine inhabitants. ‘As the already inadequate 
staff are not equipped to deal with this ‘infiltration’, there seems 
little chance of answering this problem in the near future. However, 
the scenery, especially near the lakes, does much to make up for this 
deficiency. : 

The number and variety of water birds found in the proximity of 
the villus is considerable: painted storks, duck (of many kinds), 


Journ. Bombay Nat. HIstT. Soc. 


‘Wild’ Buffalo in the Wilpattu Park—a typical scene in the late afternoon 
with a sparring match in progress. 


Cheetal : one of the most abundant inhabitants of the Park. 


Photos: J. H. Burnett 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 943 


ibis, coots (the blue seemed particularly brilliant here) to name but a 
few. Inside and at the edges of the forest peafowl and junglefowl 
are abundant, and just as elusive to the photographer as in other 
sanctuaries. 

The Ranger in charge of the Wilpattu, besides being obviously 
absorbed in his work, is also a very competent photographer. His 
sequence of pictures of the courtship of two sloth bears are surely 
unique and would make many a professional envious—if only for 
their quality. It was indeed refreshing to see these and other photo- 
graphs taken by the Wilpattu staff on the walls of the rest house—a 
testimony to their enthusiasm and patience. If only some sanctuaries 
in India could follow this example! 

April is not, perhaps, the best month in which to visit this park 
for the monsoon is still fairly active. As riding elephants are virtually 
unknown in Ceylon, one is forced to rely on a car or preferably a Jeep 
for viewing and photographing the wild life. A singularly hazardous 
venture on occasions for the roads soon become quagmires after a 
monsoon shower. The introduction of a riding elephant here might 
well produce some startling photographs, the wild life being only 
accustomed to seeing man on his own feet or on four wheels! 

India has undoubtably much to learn on the management of her 
National Parks and Sanctuaries, but it is probably equally true to 
apply this to Ceylon. With their similar flora and fauna, the two 
countries would derive mutual benefits from an exchange of views 
and problems, ‘not only through official visits, but also in the pages 
of the Loris and Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal. 


Tiok Tea ESTArtE, 
Sonarr P.O., J. H. BURNETT 
ASSAM, 


July 18, 1957. 


4. A SUNBIRD’S,/UNUSUAL NESTING SITE 
(With a photo) 


The enclosed photograph is that of a Purple Sunbird (Nectarinia 
asiatica) that nested in my bathroom this season (April-June). It was 
taken by Mr. K. M. Vaid of this Institute on the morning of 2oth 
April. 

The bathroom in which the birds nested was in daily use, but the 
door was kept open most of the time. The door opens out to an 
uncovered verandah, and the inside of the bathroom is reached from 
the garden only by going round the door. 

On the morning of April 18, 1957, at 8 a.m., while I was having 
a wash at the washbasin, I heard the birds behind me. I turned 
round and saw the pair flying away from the chain. Promptly I 
surrendered the room to the birds and the female began nest con- 
struction immediately. I have kept fairly detailed observations on the 
construction of this nest. 


944 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


The first egg was laid on April 26 and the second egg on 27th. 
Egg (s) hatched on May 10, and one young bird was fledged on 


May 25. For 17 days afterwards the female bird visited the nest 
occasionally and kept it in order. An egg was again laid on June 12 
and incubated for two days. I have not seen the birds since. 


42, TREVOR Roap, 
FOREST RESEARCH INSTITUTE, JOSEPH GEORGE 
NEw Forest, DEHRA Dun, 


July 19, 1957. 


5s. EDIBILE-NEST SWIFTLERS AN BURMA 


When preparing a note on Edible Birds’-Nests for the Government 
of India’s publication THE WEALTH OF INDIA in 1944, I had received 
the following reply to my enquiry from the late Mr. S. F. Hopwood, 
1.F.S., Burma, who was then in the Inter Service Topographical 
Department, Rear H. Q.,.S.A.C.,:'S.E.A., New Delhi. It contaims 
information of great value which it seems desirable to put on per- 
manent record for purposes of comparison with present and future 
conditions. The relevant part of the letter reads as follows : 

‘In the old days the ‘‘economic aspect’’ of collecting these nests 
was of some importance—over a series of years, the Government of 
Burma in the Forest Department obtained a total of over five lakh 
rupees from the sale of the right to collect the nests (the same well- 
known Chinaman was always the buyer). In those days the value 
of the best quality ‘‘white’’ nests: reached about eight times their 
weight in silver, but of late years the value of the nests, owing to 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 945 


the trouble in China, has been very low. The value of ‘‘black’’ nests 
was only about quarter their weight in silver in those days. 

‘In the Mergui Archipelago there are two species of swift which 
make edible nests: Collocalia francica which makes the ‘‘white’’ 
nests, and Collocalia innominata which makes the ‘‘black’’ nests of 
commerce. These species have a very wide range; from the Anda- 
mans and the islands on the W. Coast of Bassein through the Dutch 
East Indies to Queensland (?). 

‘In Mergui, the birds are believed to be absent from the islands 
all day, flying over the mainland and returning to the islands at 
night. 

‘There is evidence that this birds’-nest collecting is of great anti- 
quity—Marco Polo refers to it. 

‘The birds are said to lay 2 eggs—they ought only to lay one {?). 

‘In spite of the heavy collections that have been made, there 
does not appear to have been any falling off in the number of the 
birds. In very recent years the Government of Burma _ instituted 
certain protective measures—the right to collect on certain islands 
not sold, etc. These protective measures are probably of little value. 
The purchaser of the right to collect the nests always suffered from 
the depredations of the Salons or Sea-gypsies (Mawken) who were in 
the habit of raiding the caves just when a new crop of nests became 
ripe for collecting. The real protective measures consist in the fact 
that some of the caves used by the birds are so difficult of access 
that even the Salons cannot climb into them. Also many of the 
entrances to the caves are mere fissures into which even a Salon 
cannot squeeze. No protective measures would appear to be neces-! 
sary though if we had more knowledge regarding the habits of the 
numerous hawks which inhabit the islands, perhaps it would prove 
advisable to shoot the hawks. Taking into consideration the fact 
that they are swifts, their rate of flight is comparatively slow and 
they should prove an easy prey to the hawks. In addition to the 
swifts there 'are numerous limicole birds on the islands which may 
constitute the food of the hawks. 

‘The nests are ready for collecting in February, March and April. 
There are very numerous unfounded beliefs in connection with this 
nest-collecting. The nests are believed to have aphrodisiacal pro- 
perties. Formerly they were thought to be made of seaweed but the 
‘white’? nests are formed of the inspissated saliva of the bird—the 
‘‘black’’ nests are the same but they are mixed with large quantities 
of dirt and feathers. 

‘Sometimes a nestling is said to become stuck in the material of 
which the nest'‘is made. It is supposed to be very lucky to find one 
of these, and the nest and nestling glued together have a high value. 
I think that the collectors manufacture these examples of nestling- 
cum-nest ! 

‘The oil of the kanyin tree (Dipterocarpus alatus) is said to be 
poured down the throat of a dead nestling in which case the dried 
body of the nestling serves as the wick of a torch. 

‘Opium plays a large part in the lives of the Salons and they 
are said to cram opium down the gullet of a nestling and eat or 
smoke the body of the bird thus prepared. 


946 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


‘The ‘‘black’’ nests are situated near the entrances of the caves 
sometimes in very great numbers and the local inhabitants are said 
to believe that unless the ‘‘black’’ nests are all removed the crop of 
‘“white’’ nests will be a poor one. 

‘The ‘‘white’’ nests are situated at the extreme end of very long 
caves, as a rule high up in utter darkness, generally where there. 
is a slight roughness of the rock—e.g. the beginning of a small 
stalactite. Most of the nests are found in caves in the carboniferous 
limestone, but some of the islands on which nests are found are 
granite. 

‘Nests are found on very few of the 600 odd islands that con- 
stitute the Mergui Archipelgo. One or two islands of the 5S. 
Moscos Group are the most northerly islands producing nests—these 
islands are granite, not limestone. Perhaps the best nests are found 
on Mali Don (Birds’-Nest Islands) and Mali Kaing both just W. of 
Tavoy Island. There is no water on these islands and the caves are 
very difficult of access. There have been many fatalities to the 
climbers when collecting birds’ nests. 

‘There is a cave on Marble Isles, which lie between Kisseraing’ 
Island and Domel Island. This cave yields large quantities of 
nests’. 


23 PALI JHIEh, 

BANDRA, ) 

BomBay 20, SALIM ALI 
November to, 1957. 


6. THE GREY JUNGLEFOWL IN SALSETTE 


In 1938 in ‘The Birds of Bombay Island and Salsette’ (JBNHS, 
40: 379) we referred to the rarity of the Grey Junglefowl (Gallus 
sonnerali Temminck) in Salsette, and could then cite only two definite 
records of its occurrence. 

In May -1950, in collaboration with the Director of Parks and 
Gardens, Government of Bombay, three cocks and 15 hens were 
purchased from a dealer in Bombay and, after banding with aluminium 
poultry rings, released in the Kanheri (now Krishnagiri) National 
Park near Borivli. | 

It is interesting and gratifying to note that on the many subse- 
quent trips to that area, I have almost invariably heard or seen this 
bird which appears to have established itself in the neighbouring hills. 
Though there is no direct evidence, their presence in fair numbers 
after seven years indicates that they have no doubt bred here. 

Initial attempts at the introduction of peafowl and cheetal have not 
been so successful, but with the assistance of the Milk Commissioner, 
by whom the Park is now administered, we hope to continue the 
efforts. 


Messrs. Faiz & Co., 


75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI 
Bomsay-3, 


August 23, 1957. 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 947 


Zak Hb DNE CRE DS PONE ROPE, LOBIPES, LOBATUS 
(LINNAEUS), IN- SOUTHEAST ASIA 


The note-in your issue of April 1957 is an important addition to 
our scanty knowledge of the migrations and winterings of this species. 
In recent years we have been able, by extended native collecting and 
observation, (see B. E. Smythies’ new ‘Checklist of Borneo Birds’, 
Sarawak Museum Journal VII: 9, 1957) to prove that phalaropes pass 
through Borneo on southern passage in large numbers. Indeed in 
the Kelabit uplands of the far interior, above 3,000 ft., the boys best 
learn to use their blowpipes on these remarkably tame birds in transit 
(see Nature, 166, 4210, 1950). In recent years I have also had naval 
vessels in the South China Sea, Celebes and Java seas reporting on 
birds seen, including many phalaropes between October and December. 

But very little is known about the actual wintering grounds or 
the return passage. The bird is uniquely distinctive among waders 
in that it freely and frequently rests and swims upon the surface of 
the waters (salt and fresh). I have seen it do so even in the rapids of 
Borneo rivers. It is thus easily identified and reported by the 
bumblest would-be ornithologist and is therefore particularly suitable 
for an attempt at some sort of more extended and _ international 
observation in the whole area. Efforts in this direction in South-East 
Asia are long overdue, and work on such lines has proved very fruit- 
ful in Europe, Africa and America. 


SARAWAK MUSEUM, 


KUCHING, SARAWAK, TOM HARRISSON 
October 28, 1957. ; 


[A second specimen of the Rednecked Phalarope, a_ solitary 
individual, was obtained by R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji, on 20th Sep- 
tember 1957 near Maliya, off the Little Rann of Kutch.—Ebs. | 


8. A DOUBLE-HEADED KRAIT, BUNGARUS CAERULEUS 
(SCHNEIDER) 


(With a photo) 


So far about 140 double-headed snakes have been recorded from 
all over the world including four from India. Dobson {1) was the first 
to record, from India, two double-headed snakes, Lycodon aulicus 
(Linn.) and Naja tripudians Merr. Later Wall (2) gave a good account 
of such abnormality in the case of a juvenile Lycodon aulicus. 
Recently Acharji{3) has described a double-headed Vipera russellit. 

The specimen of Bungarus caeruleus is a new addition to the list 
and represents the fourth species from India. 

This snake was found in Lakhaoti, District Bulandshahar of Uttar 
Pradesh. Due to fear of snakes among the folk, it was beaten to 
death with sticks, thereby breaking the body into two pieces and badly 
mutilating it. However, the head region escaped injury and its 


948 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


peculiar nature caught the attention of the senior author who obtained 
and presented the specimen to the College Museum. 


The specimen is a juvenile measuring only 260 mm. in length, as 
compared to adults the maximum size of which is stated to be 44 ft. 
by Boulenger (4). The two heads are joined with each other at the 
neck region and consequently the trunk is not bifurcated. 

Our specimen resembles very much the one described by Acharji 
as regards the degree of bifurcation. Barbour (5) has given a photo4 
graph (Fig. 51, opposite page 50) of the common Eastern King Snake, 
Ophibolus getuleus, with two heads and separate necks joined to a 
common trunk. In our specimen both the heads have a common neck. 

Due to the fragile condition of the snake, anatomical investiga- 
tions could not be undertaken; nor could X-ray photographs be made 
owing to lack of facilities. 

We are grateful to Mr. M. N. Acharji of Zoological Survey of 
India, Calcutta, for his valuable suggestions and help in this note. 


Ewinc CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, Wie Ree | ela 
ALLAHABAD, Pi2D.GUPRA 
September 11, 1957. 


REFERENCES 


1. Dobson, G. E. (1873) : Proc. Asiatic Soc. Bengal ; 23-24. 

2. Wall, F, (1905): JBNAS, 16: 388 & 752-753. 

3. Acharji, M. N. (1945): JBH NS, 46: 611-613. 
4, Boulenger, G. A. (1890): Reptilia and Batrachia in Fauna of British India 


series. 
5. Barbour, T. (? 1926): Reptiles & Amphibians, George G. Harrap & Co. 


Ltd., London. 


9. A JUMPING SNAKE 


Reading the notes by Mr. D. E. Reuben on ‘Jumping Snakes’ 
in the JBNHS of April 1956, and Mr. H. A. N. Medd in the December 
issue, brought to my mind the only experience I had of a snake jump- 
ing, which I think must have happened about 1927. 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 949 


It was reported to me that a large Dhaman or Rat-snake, Ptyus 
mucosus (Linnaeus), had entered one of the bathrooms. This large 
and spacious bathroom contained among other things an old fashioned 
wash-hand-stand (4’ x 2’ 6”), on which were jug and basin, tooth glass 
and glass carafe, soap dish and many other articles. 

I found a large Dhaman about 6 ft. in length, curled in amongst 
the articles on the stand. Having armed myself with a steel-centred, 
rhinoceros hide walking stick, (useless as a walking stick but an 
excellent weapon for snakes) I approached the stand. The snake 
reached out its head to one side, about a foot from the edge. I stepped 
forward and made a swipe at it; it was too quick for me and withdrew 
its head. The whole of the body was on the top of the stand. After 
a pause the snake again put its head out as before. This time I was 
determined not to make a mistake. 

Lunging forward I again struck. This time not only did it with- 
draw its head, but it jumped completely off the stand in one motion 
and landed at my feet as I sprang back. Of course, on the ground 
one stroke with my rhinoceros hide weapon nearly cut the snake into 
two bits. It must ‘have landed about 3 or 4 ft. from the stand, clearing 
the jug and basin, at least 11 to 12 inches in height. 


BiIRDPUR ESTATE, . 
Disr, Basi, U.P:, : Sout aed Ble) dele a) 
October 16, 1957. 


[V. K. Chari (JBNHS, Vol. 49, No. 3, p. 561) reports a Dhaman 
‘jumping’ from the branch of a tree 18 ft. above ground when dis- 
turbed.— Eps. | 


to) ADDITIONS, 1O THE FISH BRAUNA OF 
Pipe CEMA MAKE? 


(With a text map) 


A systematic survey of the fish fauna of the Chilka Lake was 
undertaken by the Zoological Survey of India during the year 1914 
to 1918. The complete list of them numbering 118 has been given 
by Hora (1) (1923). Later on Koumans {1941) (2) described one 
species of Gobiid fish from the lake. Mitra {3) (1946) recorded seven 
species of commercial importance from the lake and suggested plans 
for their fishery development. Devasundaram (4) (1954) lsted 68 
forms of which 40 were common ones. Subsequently Jones and 
Sujansinghani (1954) (5) presented 25 unrecorded species. 

The present authors while studying the fisheries position of the 
lake during 1953 to 1956 came across the following 14 species which 


1 Published with the kind permission of the Director of Fisheries, Orissa. 


950 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Wol, 54 


have not yet been recorded from the lake. To assess the importance 
of each of these new records, information on their frequency, season 


eo? 


* sale 
EMe ye as wo 
<0.¥° 5 


: a ons aa : 
© 2 4 6 9 a ASS re 
Poceee eee Oa en nl 5 ae: : 


Scale of Miles - 


The Chilka Lake 


of occurrence and mode of catch was noted and this is given under 
each species. 


CLUPEITD AE 


1. Hilsa kanagurta (Bleeker) 
Local name: Keli Pila or Panda Pila 


This fish was found in the catches of Satpara area in the months 
of July and August from Khadi jal (drag net) and gill net operations. 
Strictly speaking these nets are operated to catch mullets and Hilsa. 
However, stray occurrences of H. kanagurta 10 cm. in average size 
were found in the catches of these nets. 


CY PRINIDAE 


2. Esomus danricus (Hamilton) 

Locai name: Mohurali 

This fish was observed in the catches of shore areas near about 

the mouths of rivulets on the western side of the lake. But on one 
occasion it was found in the catches off Berhampur coast in the month 
of September when the salinity of the area was 6.5 per thousand. 

The average size range of the specimens in the catch was 34 to 
40 mm. and its fishery is negligible. 


3, Cirrhina mrigala (Hamilton) 


Local name: Mirkali. 


This fish was caught along Balugan shore during October to 
January by Patua jal (seine net) when it was operated to catch 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 951 


Engraulids. But its catch was poor and the average size of the 
specimens was 20 cm. 

This is a freshwater fish migrating to the lake through freshets 
during rainy season. 


COBITIDAE 


4, Lepidocephalus guntea (Hamilton) 
Local name: Jhimkardi or Jhilari 
It was caught during winter months by Patua jal along Balugan 


coast. The average size in which it was caught was 7.5 cm. The 
catch was insignificant and rare. 


SCHED BE DTD AE 


5. Silonia silondia (Hamilton) 
Local name: Ardi. 
This fish was found among the catches of Patua jal along 


Balugan and Kaluparaghat shore during the months of September to 
December. The average size was about 14 to 15 cm. 


PERCIDAE 


6. Pristipoma argenteum (Forskal) 
Local name: Kokarba. 


Though caught along with other perches in jans (enclosure 
fishery) and by Khadi jal during winter months, it was not very com- 
mon. Stray catch of this fish was also observed near about Khalli- 
kote. The average size varied from 20 to 25 cm.. Due to its poor 
catch, it is included with Khuranti with which it has external resem- 
blance. 


CARANGIDAE 


7. Megalaspis cordyla (Linnaeus) 
Local name; Thumburda. 

This fish was observed in the catches of Khadi jal and Patua jal 
operations in Parikud and Satpara areas in the months of June 
to September along with other varieties such as Gerres, Perches etc. 
The average size of the fish caught was 4o cm. It forms a minor 
fishery of the lake and has low market value. 


8, Chorinemus sancti-petri Cuv. & Val. 


Local name: Khadisa or Parei. 

This fish was observed in the catches of Khadi jal in the Outer 
channel and near about Satpara. From the jans around Alanda its 
catch was also reported. The size of the fish ranged from 25 to 
30 cm. and it forms a minor fishery. 


952 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Lu RIiANTI DAE 


9, Lutjanus russelli (Bleeker) 

Local name: Samudra Gahan. 

This species was caught from Alupatna-Satpara area by Khadi 
jal during the period May to August. The catch was rare and the 
average size of the fish in catch was 15 cm. 


SPARIDAE 


10. Crenidens indicus Day 
Local name: Dhala Khuranti. 


It was caught mostly by Khadi jal and in jans from November 
to February. The average size in the catch was 18 cm. This fish 
is common in Parikud and Satpara areas. 


1]. Chrysophrys datnia (Hamilton) 
Local name: Kala Khurantt. 


This fish was caught mostly in jans and in Khadi jal operation 
during’ November to February at an average size of 20 to 30 cm. 
C. datnia is taken in fair numbers from the lake and has high 
market value. In the local market it is sold both in fresh and salted 
_ condition. 


SC AT OP HAG wD LAGE 


12. Scatophagus argus (Bloch) 
Local name. Kara Chandi or Pita Chand.. 


This fish was found among the small-sized miscellaneous fishes 
caught in Khadi jal and Patua jal. Observations on the Balugan 
coast showed this fish to be available throughout the year. The 
average Size was Io cm. but the quantity of catch was poor. 


SCOMBRIDAE 


13. Echeneis naucratus (Linnaeus) 
Local name: Magar Joka. 

It was almost always seen attached to the body of sharks and 
was generally caught in the outer channel. During summer, 1955 
stray catches of it were made in the Balugan coast. The average 
size range was from 40 to 50 cm. 

This fish is consumed by the poor people and its market value 
is very low. 


ANABANTIDAE 


14, Colisa lalius (Hamilton) 
Local name: Chandi Kou or Raja Kou. 


It was seen in the catches of Kaluparaghat area by Patua jal 
operation in the rainy season. During that period it was caught 
along Balugan coast also. The average size was 5 cm. only. 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 953 


It forms a very poor fishery in the lake and is sold in the local 
market along with Thrissocles sp. and Anchovies. 


CHILKA BIOLOGICAL STATION, 
BALUGAN, ; jC. ROY 
ORISSA, N. SAHOO 


May 20, 1957. 
REFERENCES 


1. Hora, S. L. (1923): Fauna of the Chilka Lake. Fish, Pt. v. Wem. Ind. 


Mus. § (11) : 737-770. 
2. Koumans, F. P. (1941) * : Gobiid Fishes of India. Mem. Ind. Mus. 13: (3) 


205-313. 
i 3. Mitra, G. N. (1946) : Development of the Chilka Lake. Govt. Press, Cuttack : 
-26. 

4, Devasundaram, M. P. (1954) : An Account of the Fisheries of the Chilka Lake 
for the years 1948 to 1952. Orissa. Govt. Publ. : 1-34. 

5. Jones, S. & Sujansinghani, K. H. (1954): Fish and Fisheries of the Chilka 
Lake with the Statistics of Fish catches for the years 1948 to 1950. Jud. J. Fish- 
ertes, X (1 and 2) ; 256-343. . 


ir. ‘AN INDIGENOUS FISHING ROD AND TACKLE 
(With a text figure) 


By courtesy of Nawab F. Ali Akbar of Secunderabad, I obtained 
some fishing rods of indigenous and unusual construction. These 
very short rods (about 30” long) are made from ordinary bamboo, 
which has a naturally grown ‘pistol grip’ butt, (rootstock). To this 
a tip of about 16” length is fixed by (?) means of a blacksheet sleeve. 
The particularity is that this tip is made from buffalo horn, tapered 
down from about 5/16th to 1/32nd of an inch at the tip. To this 
tip is tied a small loop of red silk (or cotton?) thread to serve as the 
‘end ring’. Such horn tips are entirely hand-made with a knife, and 
} am told that it takes several days for a skilled hand to produce one. 
The horn tip tapered down to such a small diameter is exceptionally 
pliant and sensitive (antenna-like) and indicates the slightest nibble 
of a fish. It makes the use of a float superfluous. 


———— 30° sage aba Jer We aie 
Bamboo Horn Tip 

This outfit, I am informed, is the standard tackle of anglers in 
Hyderabad. Fish of 50 lb. and over are being taken on it from the 
local tanks. The method of fishing is shortly described as follows: 

The line, kept on a wooden reel (similar to those used for flying 
kites) runs through a small hole, drilled through the butt end of the 
rod and then through the silk loop at the tip. The baited line is 
kept rather tight. The horntip indicates the most cautious and 
gentle bite distinctly. After the strike the rod is_ released 


* Not consulted in original. 


954 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


immediately and is taken out by the out-running fish, which is then 
played from the reel only; the rod is ultimately recovered atter. landing 
the fish. Though I have not tried out this rod, I am pretty sure 
that for cautious fish such as catla and mrigal, this method of fishing 
is superior to the Bengali type with a peacock quill float as generally 
adopted for tank fishing in India. 


BOMBAY PRESIDENCY ANGLING ASSOCIATION, 
September 19, 1957. F. R. GOLDSCHMIDT 


12. ON A NEW CATERPILLAR PEST OF SCREWPINES: 
LYCAUGESIA LONGIPALPIS SWINH. (LEPIDOPTERA: 
AGROTIDAE) 


(With a text figure) 


Besides the hispid Agonia fuscipes Baly already recorded (Nair 
1956), a new caterpillar pest, Lycaugesia longipalpis Swinh., has been 
observed attacking screwpine (Pandanus tectorius Sol.) in Kerala. 
The pest has been collected on screwpine at Vellayani, Kottayam and 
Alleppey. At Vellayani this caterpillar attacks the host plant through- 
out the year. : 

Following are the observations made on the life-history and habits 
of the pest. 


The Egg: Eggs are laid singly on leaves. When laid the egg 
is pale green in colour and turns reddish brown in two days due to the 
developing larva inside. The egg is hemispherical, about 0.6 mm, in 
diameter and 0.4 mm. in height. It is radially ribbed some of the 
ribs being bifurcated. The ribs start from the periphery of a small 
circular plane space on the ‘top pole of the egg. Ventral surface 1s 
flat and smooth. Chorion is punctate, irregularly on the dorsal pole 
and in regular transverse rows of pits on the sides. Egg hatches 
eut in five days in January. 


The Larva: (Fig) “1,°B).” ‘Newly hatehed scaterpilian jisma 
semilooper, 2.5 to 3.5 mm. long with a slender reddish brown body 
and light brown massive head. The body bears long white shiny 
hairs carried on black tubercles. Hairs borne on the two posterior 
body segments are as long as 4 to 3 the length of the body. 

Laboratory rearings show that in January-February the larva 
passes through nine instars undergoing eight ecdyses. The first six 
instars are of three days duration each, the 7th, 8th and gth instars 
being of 4, 8 and 7 days respectively. The total larval duration 1s 
thus 37 days. Excepting in size the different larval instars do not 
differ much in external morphological characters. Description of a 
full grown larva is given below. 

Measuring 253.5 mm., the full-grown caterpillar has a semi 
looper gait. Body reddish brown, the colour being deeper towards the 
two ends; head light yellowish brown with a sharp violet longitudinal 
streak laterally, arising from the base of the antenna; a short white 


MISCELLANEOUS “NOTES 95d 


narrow streak present just above the thoracic legs, those above the 
first and second legs being continuous; similar white streaks each 
about 1 mm. long present a pair each dorsolaterally in the posterior 
half of the abdominal somites 1 to 4; thoracic legs black. Head, legs, 
pseudolegs and somites sparsely clothed with white hairs; hairs on 
somites borne on black tubercles; tubercles of 8th, 9th and roth 


sith 


NAIR, B 
Text fig. A. Lycaugesia longipalpis Swinh., adult x ¢. 2 
B. Do. caterpillar x 4 
C. Do. pupa. x ¢.3 
D. Cremaster of pupa x 44 


IX, Thoracic leg of caterpillar x 28 


abdominal segments surmounted on drawnout fleshy papillae; hairs 
arising from these papillae considerably longer than the rest. 
Thoracic legs with three transparent scaly structures shaped like pings 
pong rackets and one or two lanceolate hairs (Fig. 1, E). Pseudolegs 
present on 5th, 6th and roth abdominal segments; on 4th segment 
pseudoleg represented by a pair of conical fleshy outgrowths sur- 
mounted by. tubercles and hairs; chrochets arranged in_ uniordinal 
mesoseries. 


Feeding habits of the larvaand damage caused: 
‘The caterpillar during its first five instars scrapes the green matter 
from screwpine leaves, the later instars eating large holes in them. 
Usually tender leaves are preferred for feeding which takes place 


10 


956 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


mostly at night. During daytime the caterpillar hides in the leaf 
axils or between unopened leaves. Attacked plants are easily re- 
cognised by the large holes and the greenish excrementitious matter 
present on the central leaves. 

The Pupa: (Fig. 1, C). The full-grown caterpillar constructs 
ia translucent web in the hollow of the leaf, rests under it for two 
days and then transforms into pupa. The pupa, 13x 3 mm., is deep 
brown, approximately rounded anteriorly and tapering to a point 
posteriorly. There is a slight constriction near the posterior margin 
of the 3rd abdominal segment. Posteriorly are borne two pin-shaped 
cremasters each 0.26 mm. long (Fig. 1, D). Pupal period is 17 days 
in February. 


The Adult: (Pig. 1, A). The adult is a medium sized moth. 
25 to 30 mm. in wing expanse. It is of uniform cork colour, spotted 
with black. Forewing with five small black spots along costal, seven 
along outer and two along inner margins; a conspicuous black mark 
present at apex of cell, a smaller one at the base and three arranged 
triangularly in betweeti; an indistinct line of black markings present 
post-medially the inner end of which is curved based; two black mark- 
ings present near the apex; underside smoky black. Hindwing with 
seven black spots marginally and four medially; suffused with minute 
black spots; underside fuscous in the costal and apical regions and 
with a black spot at the apical end of the cell. The moth when at rest 
remains with both wing's stretched. It is never seen during the day- 
time and is probably nocturnal in habit. 


Economic Status: In the Vellayani region almost all the 
screwpine plants are attacked by the pest. Leaves damaged by the 
caterpillar are totally unfit for making mats, baskets, hats and fancy 
articles for which purpose screwpine leaves are used widely. In view 
of the damage caused to the leaves, L. longipalpis may be counted as 
a major pest of screwpines. 

Grateful thanks are due to Dr. A. P. Kapoor of the Zoological 
Survey of India, Calcutta, for the identification of the moth and to 
Messrs. M. C. Cherian, Principal, and K. V. Joseph, Entomologist, 
‘Agricultural College, Vellayani, for helpful suggestions and facilities 
provided. 


ENTOMOLOGY DEPT., 
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, M. R. G. K. NAIR 
VELLAYANI, KERALA, 


June 16, 1957. 


REFERENCES 


Nair, M.R.G. K. (1956); ‘‘A new pest of Screwpines in Kerala- Agonia 
fuscipes Baly. (Hispinae; Chrysomelidae).” JBNAS, 54 (2), 470-474. 


MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 957 


13. EGG-LAYING OF THE DRAGONFLY INDOPHAEA 
CARDINALIS (FRASER) [ODONATA : INSECTA} 


While sitting beside a small mountain stream in the Ashambu 
Hills (the extreme south of the Western Ghats) I noticed two dragon- 
flies (Indophaea cardinalis) which had paired. This species is com- 
mon in these parts, the male having the apical half of the hindwing 
tipped bright red underneath, and bluish black on top, while the 
female has clear wings. The length of the wings is about 14 inches. 
Both dragonflies alighted on a stick, part of which was submerged. 
The male was well above water level and the female had its abdomen 
in the water. Suddenly the female went right into the water. (Later 
I observed it went in abdomen first, and then, when only the wing 
tips were above water, it turned round and went further down the 
stick, head first.) 

The water was running very strongly round the stick and rocks 
and I could not see the dragonfly until I changed my observation 
post. It remained under water for 1 hour 7 minutes, during which 
time the tips of the wings may have come above the water once, 
but bubbles and the strongly running water made observation difh- 
cult. While the female was under water the male remained on a 
rock nearby and chased away two other males of the same species 
which were the only ones to come near. 

When the female came out on to the upper part of the stick the male 
at once came and rested on a rock very close to it, and after 5 minutes 
came over to the female, which immediately went into the water at 
the same place, and this time stayed under for 1+ hour 50 minutes, 
though after the first 40 minutes the tips of its wings often came 
above the surface. Ten minutes before completely emerging, the 
dragonfly rested with its head above water, eyes awash. 

As soon as the female finally came out the male flew over at once 
and both fluttered down the river. Though remaining for such a 
long time under water, the female only laid eggs on a length of the 
stick of about two inches, all round a diameter of about half an inch. 


DoHNAVUR FELLOWSHIP, | 
DOHNAVUR, (Miss) EVELYN BOWDEN 
TIRUNELVELI DISTRICT, 

SoutH INpra, 

October 17, 1957. 


14. NOTE ON A HUNTING WASP, NOTOGONIA 
JACULATRIX (SMITH) 


N. jaculatrix is an entirely black wasp about 12 mm. long. It 
can be seen darting rapidly about on the ground, searching for the 
crickets on which it preys. The antennae seems to give it an indica- 
tion of the presence of a cricket, for it then betrays much excitement, 
pulling away small stones and digging loose earth in order to uncover 
the victim. It is difficult to distinguish the exact method of capture, 
as there is a violent scuffle. The cricket is stung more than once; 
the wasp then ‘retires a few inches away in order to clean itself up, 


958 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


especially the antennae, after the struggle. I have seen the prey 
carried flying, and also dragged along the ground, in both cases 
head first. A captured cricket measured 15 mm. 

The three nests I have seen were on a bare hill-side near a bush 
on Sinhagad; in a small clearing in forest at Lonavla; and a third 
between Shahabad stones of a verandah floor. They are tunnels in the 
ground, about 5 inches deep in the only one I dug up. Stones and 
bits of earth are pulled up backwards with the mandibles, dust kicked 
out by the front legs. 

The wasp takes down its prey at once without leaving it at the 
top while it examines the nest, as many wasps are said to do. After 
pulling down the cricket, it took down some small stones, sticks and 
bits of grass, before filling up the tunnel with earth. Perhaps 
this was to make a small chamber for the grub, as the earth here 
was loose and dusty. In the forest nest where the ground consisted 
of coarse bits of earth, about 50 bits were taken down one by one. 
Then the wasp kicked dust into the hole and finally coarse lumps were 
used to fill it up to ground level. It spent much time putting every-+ 
thing to look undisturbed over the top. In the one nest I dug up, 
the white sausage-shaped egg, about 2.5 mm. long, was iaid cross- 
ways on the thorax of the cricket, just under the coxae of the anterior 
legs. 


PancH Howp, 
POONA 2, BL. WAIN, s:S23e 
September 20, 1957. 


15. NOTES ON THREE COMMON TREE-HOPPERS 
(MEMBRACIDAE: HEMIPTERA) IN ORISSA 


Otinotus oneratus Walk. ‘This is one of the most widely distributed 
membracids in India infesting as many as 35 different species of plants 
belonging to 21 families in Bihar, Bengal and Orissa (Behura, 1951; 
Behura and Sinha, 1951; Panda and Behura, 1956). Four additional 
host-plants of O. oneratws are now recorded from Orissa (Table). 


Leptocentrus taurus Fabr. ‘This is a widely distributed méembracid 
of India occurring also in Sikkim, Burma, Singapore, and Timor as well 
(Distant, 1907, 1916). The authors observed this species as being com- 
mon in the districts of Balasore and Cuttack in Orissa. JZ. taurus is 
more common during the summer and the monsoon months than in 
winter. Generally, L. fawrus is solitary, but is sometimes seen in groups 
of 2 to 5. Its body is more pigmented and punctate than that of 
O. onervatus. Probably because of this deeply pigmented nature of the 
body and consequently its greater capacity for absorbing solar energy, 
L. tauvus is more active than O. oneratus. ‘The former flies away at the 
slightest provocation to the higher twigs of the host-plants, whereas, the 
latter keeps on moving round the stem, thus trying to evade the 
approaching enemy, and flies away only when badly disturbed. The 
adults of ZL. taurus sit on the twigs with their heads pointed upward or 
cownward. They are generally found sucking sap near the axils of the 
leaves or small twigs. 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 959 


The body of the nymphs is compressed and elongated. They are 
green in colour and remarkably resemble the tender parts of the host- 
plants. One often misses them unless one follows the path of ani attending 
ant. The newly hatched imago is greenish like the nymph but gradually 
changes to black after some time. There is some variation in the colora- 
tion of the eyes of the adults. In some the eye colour is dull ochraceous 
and in others reddish. They are usually found attended by the common 
ant Camponotus (Tanaemyrmex) compressus Latr. A list of the additional 
host-plants of 4. /auruzs not hitherto recorded (Lefroy, 1909; Sengupta 
and Behura, 1957) is given in the table. 

Another species of membracid ZL. swbstztutus Walk. occasionally 
occurs along with L- ¢aurus on the host-plants. 


Oxyrhachis tarandus Fabr. ‘This species is wideiy distributed in India 
and also occurs in Egypt and South Africa (Distant, 1907). The brown 
coiour of the adult with the posterior pronotai process curved up from the 
apex of the wings is remarkable in simulating thorns and dried up twigs 
of the host-plants. They live in droves sometimes in large numbers and 
are usually attended by the ant C. com pressus. 

A list of the additional host-plants of O. tavandus not hitherto Felon 
ed (Distant, 1907 ; Lefroy, 1909 ; Fletcher, 1920 ; Sengupta and Behura, 
1957) is given in the table. 

The present work is based on observations made by the authors 
intermittently during 1952-1957. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


Thanks are due to Shri H. Patnaik of the Department of Botany, 
Ravenshaw College, Cuttack for the identification of a few host-plants 
recorded here, and to the Director, Zoological Survey of India for the 
loan of identified membracid material for comparison with the specimens 
collected. The authors are also indebted to the Board of Scientific and 
Industrial Research, Orissa and the Utkal University for generous 
research grants enabling this study. 


DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, UPENDRA CHANDRA PANDA 
RAVENSHAW COLLEGE, BASANTA KUMAR BEHURA 
CuTTACK 

May 23, 1957. 


REFERENCES 


Behura, B. K. (1951): Habits of the common membracid (‘ Tree-hopper ’) Ofio- 
tus oneratus Walk. (Homoptera: Rhynchota), JBNAS, 
0 (2) : 294-304, 

— — — and Sinha, V. (1951) : A record of the common membracid, Ofinotus 
cneratus Walk. (Homoptera : Rhynchota) from the city 
of Patna (Bihar)-~ibid, 50 (1) . 183-184. 

Distant, W. L. (1907) : The Fauna of British India. Rhynchota. 4. 

ee ee (IG ibid 6. 

Fletcher, I’. B. (1920) : Annotated list of Indian crop-pests, Rep, Proc. 3rd 
Entom. meeting, Pusaz: 271. 

Lefroy, H. M. (1909): Indian Insect Life, Calcutta: 731-732. 

Panda, U. C. and Behura, B. K. (1956) : Further observations on the biology of 
the common ‘ Tree-hopper’ Otinotus oneratus Walk. 
(Homoptera, Membracidae) in Orissa, JBNHS, 54 (1): 
160-163. 

Sengupta, G. C. and Behure, B. K. (1957): Annotated list of crop-pests in the 
State of Orissa, Vem. Ent. Soc. India, 5 ; 1-44. 


54 


BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. 


JOURNAL, 


960 


SYJUOU! IOJUTM 
jsnsny 
SUJUOUL 19JUT MA 
Aienue 


jsnony 

(jsnsny 

ojdn) uosess Auley 
jsnsny 

uosvas Audley 

A®IN 

JIoqwesaq 

Jaquisjdes 


jsnsny 0} Ae 
Jaquisseq 
sqjuow Jommng 
uoseasAUley 
syjuow semuns 


ole 
Yo1eyy 
raquie}deg—jsnSny | 
Yoleyyl | 
sioyjne 


34} Aq poAdasqo sv 
UOLJSISOJUL JO pOTIa 


yoerlng ueAley 1WVlog avaoUsoul ITY “se "qJUagq a79Np 119070994 NT 
a10sBleg 1Ivuog avaouluidyesses |" |] DNIStJ DISSD 
(‘4sIq 4oe}ND) eIperen BUSTIIS avoovsoml | "Yue ¥Igga] DIZZIgQ],7 
(‘ISI [eueyUSYC) lyepuvare lop BIN[Ny ‘eliyosy sea0esoullyyy | °° ‘PILLM 290714 G0INa] DIIDIEF 
‘Iqey snpueie), styoeysAxo 

a10Sse]eg elunsegq evooeuoqiaA | °° "rl opunsau xajuy 
aloseleg uenses avoovueqloA | -" "r] SIpunAs 00192 T 
d10seleq epequy seooVlpleoeuy | ‘* ‘PIN Vtajzdunm Ssvipuogs 

(4SIG YoenND) eiperen 
(-}SIq ling) vremeser ny yoy svooviqny Js ‘QXOY V240J9U1 VpUutsojy 
young “$8 seo0epideposy | ° "VY pue A DyojnIIJaA DIUapvIGIT 
he wWynueAins 2e}1soduros "YT snuuvn snyquviazy 

‘ysIq 
Wndg) eypinyy pure jonjsiq 
seeks josoovyd atttos ‘oluseleg eleg AVIIVIOWW | °° "T] SISUAIDIUIQ SNIL 
Young) eyyBly ‘exly avaovpideaosy | °° ‘Ig vajuvs1e s1go410j0) 
ol1oseleg epeley avaovuolidedg | ** ‘Sualdg snoipur snuvin7 
a10sBleq v1V avooeuouy | aS ‘T] VsoumDnbs Duoup 
(‘JSIG YO"R}ND) eIprIeN eleq | avooryny | °** VI1IOD Sojzautavut a. dap 
‘qe snine} sn4azjus00;d9'J 
(3s1q youqIND) Aqyuexeypns | Ipnsvieg svoovuorideg |°" ‘[puq duvlqw9 vus1, 
(3SIq yYor}InNDg) AyJUeHeypns Iyse[ny, evjyeiqey | °° ‘T] MNjIUDS UNUM1IO 
o10sejeg eInoseley avaoeulules[ed | °° Yl DurmoszvEe suayoguy 
(‘3sIq yen) Indpeq Bly IVIOVSOUII | °° "Yue suapuvrs ppvquq 
‘II2@M\ SHjv19UO SN}IOUTIO 
Ajtyeso'T Be OB Uae ATIWey yueid jo sweu dyt}UaID9 


ouleu Iejndod [e077 


esslQ Ul Splowiqtied jo sofads 9914} 94} jo sjue[d-jsoy poeproseiun o}10 4 
ATaAVL 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 961 


16. HOMERIC BATTLES ON THE DINNER TABLE 


In the years 1892-1894 we subalterns used sometimes to have the 
table cleared after dinner. Beneath an inverted glass finger-bowl 
would be introduced a scorpion and a ‘jerrimundlum’—a _ spider-like 
animal (Galeodes spider ?). Then we would watch the contestants as 
they moved around the edges of the bowl, select our favourite and 
each stake a bottle of beer on the result of the encounter. Effort was 
made to stage the battles on apparently equal terms. If the 
~Serrimundlum’ was thin it might be the victor, but if it had a fat body 
due to a recent meal, the scorpion would be the choice. Both creatures 
used to fence and feel with their thin sensory hairs. The object of 
the scorpion was to obtain a hold with its two small pincer-like 
forward pointing appendages (chelicerae). Then it would very quickly 
curl over its armed tail and jab the sting into the spider’s body which 
would instantly collapse like a pricked balloon. Death was immediate, 
and the enemy devoured at leisure. 

Through an extraordinary instinct the jerrimundlum knew the 
weak point in the scorpion’s anatomy to be the thin neck by which 
the poison gland and sting is joined to the end segment of the tail. 
Its aim was to seize this ‘neck’ with its horny mandibles, which 
worked in four separately moving segments, and chew it off. Thus 
it gained the victory and resultant repast. 

Many of those after-dinner entertainments were most exciting, 
and some fights lasted a considerable time. It did not occur to us 
that they were cruel, as we were but witnessing what was taking place 
all the time along the walls of every building. Some kept a tame 
mongoose which was a most efficient exterminator of spiders etc. and 
of rodents in all the rooms of a building, and always a most 
engaging pet about the house. 


c/o Lioyps Bank LTp., 
2G; PICCADILY, R. W. BURTON, 


Lonpon, W. 1, Lt.iCol., 1.4. (Retd.) 
August 19, 1957. 


17. OCCURRENCE OF APUS (CRUSTACEA: NOTOSTRACA) 
IN PILANI, RAJASTHAN 


We were out for collecting water beetles (Cybister tripunctatus 
asiaticus) from tanks in the Agricultural Farm on the morning of 
August Io and stopped at a ‘kucha’ rain water pond about 20 ft. 
in diameter outside the farm area. To our surprise we found here 
Apus and other freshwater Branchiopods in abundance. Evidence of 
the occurrence of Apus in Rajasthan is rather obscure and this is the 
first record of it from the vicinity of Pilani, the surroundings of which 
were barren and desolate till as late as 1946. Ever since then, thanks 
to the sinking of a number of tube wells and the continuous efforts of 
the local authorities, Pilani is becoming greener every year. The 
average rainfall is about 18 inches, but this year (1957) the rains are 
quite heavy. Rain water is either quickly drained off due to the 
topography or is absorbed by the sandy soil so that after a shower 


962 . JOURNAL, BOMBAY’ NATURAL FIST "SOCIETY. Vols 54 


the soil surface is just wet’and not muddy. May and June are the 

hottest months with an average maximum temperature of about 

42.22° C. This diminishes to about 26.6° C. in the winter months, 
especially in January. 

The pond in question was shallow with a maximum depth of 
three feet in the centre. The sparse vegetation surrounding it was 
composed mainly of Prosopis spicigera, Acacia arabica, Zizyphus 
rugosa, Calotropis procera and Phyllanthus sp. Apus and the other 
specimens collected were brought to the laboratory and kept alive 
in large glass jars. The manner in which Apus swims with its 
ventral side up is very interesting and the rhythmic movements of the 
appendages is very nice to watch. Many students had not seen a 
living Apus and hence this became an exhibit of interest for even the 
senior students. As it was difficult to keep the specimens alive for 
long in the glass jars they were preserved in 70% alcohol. 

A brief account of the crustaceans obtained from the pond is as 
follows : 

1. Apus (Notostraca) ... Collected in large numbers; float with 
ventral side up; colour red; sizes 
varying from 30 to 50 mm. in 
length. 

2. Branchipus (Anostraca) ... Abundant; two forms. One giant, red 
in colour and 4o mm. in length; 
the other smaller, 15 mm. long, 
silvery white with caudal furci red 
in colour. 

3. Estheria (Conchostraca) ... Small, swift swimming forms, red in 
colour; carpace bivalved. 


Besides these Branchiopods, there were many other animals in 
the pond, namely, mosquito larvae, larvae of water beetles, rotifers, 
tadpoles, etc. One noteworthy feature was the absence of Apus in 
the nearby ponds. 

Big shoais of Branchipus were noticed in clear rain water pools 
in the adjacent mountainous region (Khetri). The specimens of 
Branchiopoda obtained from the vicinity of Pilani have been sent for 
identification and the morphological work on the different species is 
in progress. 


DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, 

BirLta COLLEGE, S. N. MATHUR 
PILANI (RAJASTHAN), NARSINGH SIDHU 
September 5, 1957. , 


18. DESTRUCTION OF TIMBER BY MARINE ORGANISMS IN 
THE KARWAR PORT 
(With a graph) 


The observations given herein relate to the destruction caused by 
marine wood borers to large timber beams, exposed to the action of 
sea water near the mouth of the River Kali at Karwar, a minor port 


j 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 963 


about 250 miles south of Bombay. The mixing of the waters of the 
river in the harbour area considerably affects the salinity during high 
and low tides and also during the different seasons of the year. It 
is a common practice in India to store large timber beams under 
such conditions for natural seasoning, but a number of them are often 
destroyed by shipworms or other borers, when left unattended for a 
long time. The North Kanara forest is one of the important timber 
producing areas in India and the following are some of the commercial 


timbers commonly stored for seasoning at Karwar. 


Scientific name Vernacular name 

1. TZectona grandis Sagwan 

2. Zerminalia paniculata Kindal 

3. Zerminalic tomentosa Madat 

4. Bombax malabaricum Sawar 

5. Lagerstroemia lanceolata Nana 

6. Caluphyllum spp. Undi 

7. Dalbergia latifolia Shisam 

8. Mangifera indica Amba 

9. Artocarpus gomeziana Phanas 
10. Xylia xylocarpa Jamba 
11. Casuarina spp. Suru 


A careful observation of the scores of timber beams spread out on 
the mud bank of the Kali River, enabled our making certain interesting 
observations on the habits of some marine organisms, actively 
engaged in burrowing into timber. One of the important borers, is 
a small isopod crustacean, Sphaevoma tevebrans (Bates) commonly 
known as the Pill-Bug Borer. This creature produces an incessant 
noise as it bores into timber with its mandibles making innumerable 
pits in which it lives. The pits measure from 4” to about 2” in 
depth. ‘As the animal is taken out of the burrow, it rolls into a bail. 
A number of these were collected for study in the laboratory. An 
important feature of this borer is that the female carries the young 
ones in a brood pouch on the abdomen and this, unlike the molluscan 
borers, restricts their field of movement and general distribution. On 
an average, each female produces about 40-50 young ones which 
on crawling out of the brood pouch start making new burrows in 
timbers, on which they may be carried with the current. These small 
creatures cause primary destruction to timber within a short time, thus 
lowering the market value of the logs due to surface spoilage. 
Fortunately the burrows are shallow and rarely cross each other to 
form long tunnels. 

In many of the older timber logs, destruction by shipworms was 
clearly visible at their end portions where some remnants of the 
calcareous tubes or burrows were observed. When cut open carefully 
the logs were found to be severely infested by Teredo (Kuphus) manni, 
the most common species occurring in this locality as well as in 
Bombay, especially in the Sewri Timber Pond (Palekar and Bal, 1955). 


964 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


It may be mentioned here that a shipworm measuring over 2} ft. 
in length and ? inch in diameter was taken from one of the timber 
beams. 

In order to study the fluctuations in salinity at this locality, water 
samples were collected at high and low tides on every full-moon and 
new-moon days for the year June 1951 to May 1952.. These two 
days were selected so as to obtain the maximum fluctuations in salinity 
during each month, and the salinity was determined by titration with 
silver nitrate as usual. 

The erratic fluctuations in salinity during the course of the year 
1951-1952 is shown in the graph. The period from June to October 
marks the rainy season, when the flow of fresh water from the Kali 
River into the inshore waters of Karwar is the greatest. This results 
in lowering the salinity at the river mouth to a minimum, with sudden 
rise on certain occasions depending on the admixture of fresh water 
from the river. It may be noted that during August, the influx of 
river water was so great that at one time during the year, the salinity 
was as low as o.1 per thousand even at high tide. In June and 
October, the salinity was as high as 34.1 per “thousand and 35.0 per 
prone ne respectively. ‘At the close of the rainy season, i.e. during 
November and December the salinity takes an upward trend varying 
within a range of 20.2 per thousand to 35.2 per thousand in this 
locality. From January to May, the salinity remains relatively steady 
showing small variations ranging between 30.8 per thousand and 
38.4 per thousand during high and low waters. 

Evidently Sphaeroma and Teredo occurring here tolerate wide 
fluctuations in salinity, both gradual (as low as 0.1 per thousand and 
as high as 38.4 per thousand, during the course of the year) as well 
as sudden as seen from the graph. 

It may be stated here that Karwar is an ideal natural harbour 
with plenty of promise for its further expansion into a large port. 
A number of boats and country craft ply every day in the harbour 
area, particularly in the locality reported on above, and it is quite 
natural that these may help in the dispersal of borers to far off places. 
Hence, the need for necessary precautions to preserve timber by 
modern methods is very great in this fast developing port. 

The above work has been carried out with funds provided by the 
Forest Research Institute, specially obtained from various sources for 
the execution of the scheme on the protection of Indian timbers 
against the attack of marine organisms. 


Woop PRESERVATION CENTRE (F.R.I. 

DeEHRA Dun), | 
INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, VoC, PAL EKAR 
BomBay, D:. V. BAL 
March 8, 1957. 


REFERENCE 


Palekar, V. C. & Bal, D. V. (1955) : Marine Organisms injurious to submerged 
timber in the Bombay Harbour, JBNHS, 53 (2): 202-204, 


Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 


HICHTIDE MAX, 
a ae oe oe oe Low TIDE MAX. 
oO Hicw TIDE MIN 
A----- 4S&LOwW TIDE MIN. 


y SO N D Ja F M Ap My 


Graph showing monthly variations in salinity 
near the mouth of Kali River at Karwar during the year 
1951-52 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 965 


19, SOLANUM ESURIALE LINDL. A NEW RECORD 
FOR BOMBAY STATE 


A sub-erect prickly perennial undershrub branching from the base ; 
stem cylindrical, covered with yellowish tomentum of stellate hairs; 
prickles straight, 3-4 mm. long, pale brown, more conspicuous after the 
monsoon. Leaves 4-12 cm. long, petiolate, oblong, linear, subacute 
to obtuse at the apex, rounded or somewhat tapered at the base, 
stellately hairy on both sides (densely so beneath), slightly unequal at 
the base, midnerve covered with a few prickles, secondary nerves 
6-7 pairs, petiole 8-15 mm. long clothed with dense stellate tomentum. 
Flowers in leaf opposed, 2-6-flowered corymbs; peduncles short, 
pedicels 10-20 mm. long, densely stellate fulvous hairy, usually with 
a few prickles. Calyx campanulate, 8-12 mm. long, divided about 
1 way down, lobes linear, unequal in length, clothed with densely 
stellate fulvous hairs. Corolla 15-18 mm. long, violet-mauve, 5-lobed, 
divided ? way down, tomentose outside with purple stellate hairs, 
glabrous inside, tube 1 mm. long, yellowish. Filaments 3 mm. long; 
anthers 5-6 mm. long, basifixed, slightly cordate at the base, opening 
by small apical pores. Ovary is globose ovoid, densely clothed with 
stellate hairs at the apex; style glabrous, 12 mm. long, dull white; 
stigma green, slightly bilobed. Berry 5-10 mm. diam, globose, 
yellowish to pale brown when ripe. 

Seeds 2-3 mm. diam. discoid, brown, smoth. 

From the key given for the genus Solanum in Cooke’s flora the 
above mentioned species shows some affinity towards S. indicum L. 
but it differs in the following points: (i) shape and size of the leaf; 
(1) proportion and structure of the prickles; (iii) length of the filaments ; 
(iv) seeds not pitted. 1 have seen this plant in July 1955 near Nene 
Ghat along the Mutha River side, now it is spreading and getting 
naturalized. It grows well in waste places and on rubbish heaps 
about Poona. The author is very grateful to Miss Viloo M. Patel 
of St. Xavier’s College for identifying the specimen. The author is 
also indebted to Rev. Father H. Santapau for going through the note 
and for his valuable suggestions. The plant is said to be a native 
of Australia. 

Fls :—July-December. Frs:—September-February. 

Reference Specimens: 

Poona: Nene Ghat, Mutha Riverside, Vartak 2735, 10-12-55. 

Vartak : 4873-75, 22-6-1956; and 8533-64, 13-5-1957. 


MAHARASHTRA ASSOCIATION 

FOR THE CULTIVATION OF SCIENCE, V. D. VARTAK 
POONA 4, 
July 11, 1957. 


966 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


20. FURTHER NOTES ON: THE INDIAN SPE CHES Tor 
CURCUMA (ZINGIBERACEAE) 


On several previous occasions, in this journal (45: 1618-624, 1945 
and 51: 135~139, '1952) and elsewhere, I have discussed the double 
position of thle spike, central and lateral, in relation to the leaves of 
some species ‘of Curcuma, and have shown that the position of the 
spike 1s not a matter of specific differences but of seasonal development 
of one and the same plant. This is directly contrary to the state- 
ments published in most of our national or provincial floras, and to the 
division of the genus Curcuma into subgenera and_ species by 
Schumann in his monograph in Engler’s Pflanzenreich Vol. 20. 

On August 3rd, 1957, with a party of students of this college, 
I went to the National Park, Borivli, and collected some specimens 
of Curcuma inodora Blatt., the only common species of the genus in 
the area. One specimen showed the lateral spike in a decaying 
condition but still attached to the parent plant; in addition there was 
e central spike with buds or flowers present. This definitely con+ 
firmed the suggestion I had made in the Journal (51: 138, 1952) that 
in Curcuma inodora Blatt. one and the same individual plant has two 
types. of inflorescence according to the season of the year or to the 
age of the plant. Up to the time of this collection, I had only seen 
the double spike actually present on Curcuma pseudomontana Grah. 

However, in the course of an extensive examination of herbarium 
specimens from various parts of India, I came to the conclusion that 
this double type of spike, central and lateral, is shown by several 
other species of the same genus. This conclusion, however, could 
not be supported by any actual herbarium sheet showing the double 
nature of the spike; Blatter Herbarium is the only one possessing 
sheets showing this clearly. The explanation for this absence may be 
that most often when the central spike has developed sufficiently to 
attract the attention of collectors, the lateral one may be in a decaying 
condition and naturally may be removed in the trimming of the speci- 
men for mounting. It is quite possible that where the spike is lateral, 
the central one may also be present in the herbarium sheets examined ; 
but as the proper dissection would often mean the destruction or at 
least severe damaging of the herbarium sheet, I have not dared to 
perform it without the express permission of the authorities con- 
cerned. 

At the end of August of this year, I again collected Curcuma 
pseudomontana Grah. in Khandala; where the lateral spikes were 
present, dissection showed the presence of the central one on the same 
plants. Further, in one instance I noted that the central spike was 
still completely encased by the leaf-sheaths, but the bracts of the 
coma were already brightly coloured deep purple, even though they 
were not yet exposed to light. od 

Our Indian species of Curcuma are in sore need of revision ; but 
this cannot be done on the materials stored up in our herbaria. May 
i through the pages of this Journal appeal to Indian botanists to help 
in the collection of complete specimens? The following points should 
be attended to in making collections of this difficult genus : 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 967 


(a) Specimens should be collected at the beginning, middle and 
end of the monsoon from about the same spot or locality. Or if 
the plant is not a monsoon one then collections should be made at 
the beginning, middle and end of the flowering season. 

(b) Attention should be paid to the position of the spike in relation 
to the leaves. Even if the lateral spike is decaying, it should be 
preserved carefully without detaching it from the parent plant and 
mounted on the herbarium sheets. 

(c) The nature of the underground system is to be carefully 
studied; it is of specific importance in this genus. Some species have 
long fibrous roots spreading more or less horizontally up to 30 cm. 
from the rhizome; at the ends of the fibrous roots there may be a set 
of fusiform tubers, which should also be preserved. The whole under 
ground ‘system should be mounted on herbarium sheets, preferably 
keeping it attached to the rest of the plant. 

(d) The leaves at times may be too large for pressing and 
mounting; at least some of the leaves should be mounted. At the 
same time the number of leaves should be noted, and their sizes 
measured for record. 

(e) Often it becomes very difficult to preserve specimens properly 
on account of the succulent nature of the plant. Good herbarium 
specimens may be obtained by poisoning them with conc. mercuric 
chloride in alcohol before pressing; or should this become impossible, 
at least sufficiently good specimens may be prepared for the 
herbarium provided the drying sheets be changed several times each 
day for at least one week after collection. Quick drying will prevent 
fungal or bacterial decomposition or decoloration. 

(f) The colour of the flowers and bracts disappears in the process 
of drying; it should, therefore, be necessary to note such colours in 
detail at the time of collection when the plants are still fresh. 

In due iime we shall have to revise the genus Curcuma for the 
general flora of India and for other floras; but the problem will be far 
from an enviable one, unless our herbarium materials are abundant and 
complete. It is hoped that these notes may help to prepare satis- 
factory herbarium specimens of one of the most difficult of our Indian 
plant genera. 


ST. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, 
BomBay 1, H.. SANTFAPAU, s:Jj:,; F-N-1. 
September 6, 1957. 


21. THE SPECIES OF LAGENANDRA OF BOMBAY 
AND MADRAS 


Cooke in his FLORA OF THE PRESIDENCY OF BOMBAY (2: 819, 1908) 
lists one species of Lagenandra, under the name of L. toxicaria Dalz. 
C. E. C. Fischer in Gamble’s FLORA OF MADRAS p. 1576 lists two 
species, and on p. 1889 adds a third, L. ovata Thw., L. toxicaria . 
Dalz. and L. meeboldii Fischer. 

Fischer has split L. toxicaria Dalz. of the Flora of British India 
into two species, ovata and toxicaria proper. The grounds for this 


968 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


splitting seem to be mostly a question of size of the different vegeta- 
tive parts. The following table shows in a simplified manner the 
details of the two species as conceived by Fischer: 


ovata toxicaria 

Cataphyll 6—13°2 in. long 2,3—5,4 in. long. 
Leaves Oblong-acuminate Elliptic — to ovate-lanceolate. 

6—22,.5 in. long 4.48.4 in. long. 

1.8—7.5 in. wide 1.6—3.6 in. wide. 
Petiole 5.2—4.2 in. long 2,4—12 in. long. 
Peduncle 5—8.4 in. long 1.2—2,3 in. long. 
Spathe narrowly turbinate cylindric oblong. 

2—10 in. long 1.6—2.3 in. long. 

tail subulate tail S-curved. 

tail 1.4—1.8 in. long tail 3.4—5.4 in. long. 


Cooke gives for his plant the following sizes: Leaves 6-15 x 245 in. 
petiole as fone as the blade, peduncle shorter than the petiole, spathe 
3-9 in. long including the tail. 

Dalzell lists these details for his plant: ‘Marshy plant or aquatic, 
3 ft. long. .. . Leaves long-petioled, oblong, obtuse, entire, un4 
dulate, the midnerve strong and giving out slender side nerves; 
stipular sheaths opposite, free, acuminate, keeled with a double keel 
on the back, the petioles terete, very long (non-sheathing). Scapes 
axillary, solitary, compressed, 2-6 inches long. Spathe a little longer 
than the scape, flesh to olive green in colour outside, dark purple on 
the tube inside.” 

Except for the S-curved tail of the spathe there does not seem to 
be any valid character on which L. ovata can be separated from 
L. toxicaria. But then there is considerable variation in the size of 
the sterile ‘tail’ of portion of the spathe in many plants of the family 
Araceae, the variation being present at times with the individuals 
of the same species. 

For this reason I feel I am justified in following Hooker, Engier, 
etc. in fusing the Bombay plant, L. toxicaria, with the Ceylon one, 
L. ovata. Fischer himself writes of L. toxicaria ‘Resembling L. 
ovata Thw. in the vegetative parts and L. meeboldi C. E. C. Fischer 
in the spathes’. 

The position of L. meeboldit Fischer needs clarification. Engler 
described Cryptocorine meeboldi from a _ specimen collected by 
Meebold at Agalhatti, Mysore, in November 1908 (Meebold 9235). In 
the original description Engler states that the plant’s ‘female inflore- 
scence 1S 4- 5-gynous, dark purple and is separated from the male 
inflorescence (which is dark purple and about 4 mm. long) by a bare 
space 1.2 cm. long’. This means that the ovaries are but 4-5 in 
number, and naturally such small number will be placed forming a 
ring’ round the base of the spathe; this is the typical character of 
Cryptocorine as against the typical note of Lagenandra, in which the 
ovaries are arranged spirally round the base of the spathe (see 
Engler in Pfreich. 73: 227). 

Unfortunately the illustration of Crypt. meeboldii Engler on page 
242, fig. 61 A-B, represents the species with at least 25-30 ovaries 
arranged spirally. Obviously either the description of the species or 
its representation is wrong; if the diagram be taken as correct, then 
the plant clearly belongs to the genus Lagenandra, and Fischer 1s 


ae 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 969 


correct in effecting. the transfer. In my. opinion, however, the 
diagram by J. Pohl is wrong, and we must take Engler’s own des- 
cription as more correct, in which case the plant definitely belongs 
to the genus Cryptocorine; in this case Fischer is not justified in 
shifting the plant to Lagenandra. 

The nomenclature of these two plants is, therefore, as follows: 


i. Lagenandra ovata {Linn.) Thw. Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 334, 1864; 

Engler in Pfreich. 73: 228, 1920; Blatter in Journ. Bombay 
Nat. “Hist. Soc. 35:18, rogi; Fischer in-Gamble, Fl, Pres. 
Madr. 1576, 1936. 

Arum ovatum Linn. Sp. Pl. 967, 1753: 

Lagenandra toxicaria Dalz. in Hook. Journ. Bot. 4: 289, 1852; 
Dalz. et Gibs. Bombay Fle 157, ve6r; Hook. f.°in Fl, Brit. 
Ind. 6: 495, 1893; Cooke, Fl. Pres. Bombay 2: 819, 1908; 
Fischer in Gamble, Fl. Pres. Madras 1889, 1936. 


2. Cryptocorine meeboldii Engler in Pfreich. 73: 234, f. 61rA (excl. 
fig, 62 -B), 1920: 
Lagenandra meeboldii (Engl.) Fischer in Gamble, FI. Pres. 
Madras 1889, 1936. 


In connection with Dalzell’s name toxicaria (meaning poisonous), 
it may be of interest to read the foot-note in Hook, Journ. Bot. 
2: 290: ‘Mr. Law’s attention, in Bombay, had been called to the 
same plant, for he says, in writing to Mr. Dalzell, ‘‘I had heard there 
was a plant which grew in abundance on the banks of a stream flow- 
ing from a sacred spring about forty miles from hence (Darwhar), 
and not found anywhere else in the neighbourhood, the root (rhizome) 
of which is a most deadly poison, and often used by the natives for 
that purpose, so that it has been found necessary to forbid them to 
gather it. The native name is Vutsunab, which in Wilson’s Sanscrit 
Dictionary is said to be Aconitum ferox, roots of which, I had thought 
it possible, might have been brought from the Himalayas and planted 
by pilgrims; I accordingly sent for some plants, and what should it 
prove to be, but your new genus Lagenandra.”’ ’ 


St. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, 
BomBay, He, SAN PAP AU, San 


July 24, 1957. 


oor eN HURACAN TITUS? SPAHABROSTACHYUS. DALZ,— 
FURTHER COMMENTS 


In a previous note published in this journal (50: 419, 1951) the 
senior author together with Prof. P. V. Bole of this College des- 
cribed Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus Dalz. in full and explained ihe 
apparent absence of fruits or seeds, which had been noted by previous 
writers. 

This year we have examined a number of plants collected in 
various parts of Bombay and Salsette Islands; one of these specimens 
has been placed in Blatter Herbarium under the number G. L. Shah 


970 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAPFURAL: HIST) SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


9043. That particular specimen was a small one, about 30 cm, high, 
which had just finished flowering; on examining the inflorescence we 
noted about g fully formed fruits in a single ‘spike’; the fruits were 
still green and the seeds rather imperfect and far from fully formed. 

The finding of this specimen with fruits and seeds prompted us 
to examine large numbers of piants in the field ‘in search of fruits. 
Many of the specimens collected in the area of Vehar Lake and 
Mahakali Caves in Salsette and on the lower hill slopes at Mumbra 
on the mainland along the Central Railway line, showed a variable 
number of fruits in each spike; most of the plants examined had 
fruits in various stages of maturity. 

It seems to be clear, then, that this plant does certainly set seed 
in the usual course of development shortly after flowering. Why it 
was that Clarke, Cooke and others have failed to notice the fruits of 
this plant, is not easy to say. It is quite possible that some of the 
fruits do become damaged and rot away before the season is over; 
this point will be kept in view and further observations made in the 
course of the year until the coming of the next monsoon. ‘The senior 
author found plenty of fruits and seeds from December to the arrival 
of the monsoon some years ago. 

Theoretically it is difficult to explain how the plant is so success- 
ful on many of our hills, if seeds are seldom formed. On Behran’s 
Plateau in Khandala on the Western Ghats this plant is very 
abundant all over the flat portion of the plateau, and this would indi 
cate that seed production must be effected in fairly large numbers. In 
addition many of these plants are damaged by the firing of our hills 
which is such a constant feature of the Western Ghats. It 1s 
strange that in spite of the so-called reduced production of seeds and 
damage by fire this plant is so successful all over western India. 

Our conclusion, based on actual examination of specimens in the 
field, is that seeds are produced in good numbers, and that further 
they are protected from damage by fire by the dense masses of bracts 
surrounding them on the parent plant. Dehiscence only takes place 
when the rains of the monsoon following that in which seeds have 
been produced, come on our hills. 


St. XAVIER’S COLLEGE, 
BOMBAY 1, ~~“Go Le SHAH. wese: 
September 23, 1957. H SANEAPAU Sa ence 


23. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF FRITSCHIEELA TUBEROSA 
IYENG. IN PILANI (RAJASTHAN) 


(With a text figure) 


Ratnam and Joshi (1952) while pursuing the work on ‘An 
ecological study of the vegetation nearabouts a temporary pond Jin 
Pilani’, reported Fritschiella tubeyosa Iyeng. for the first time from 
Pilani (Rajasthan). During all these years the alga has been observed 
growing on the wet exposed soil of the banks of the pond after the 
receding of water. It grows mixed with Protosiphon botryoides 
(Kutz.) Klebs. and Botrydium sp. and is sometimes difficult to separate. 


MISCEELANEOUS NOTES OO jAL7 0) \ 971 


Iyengar (1932) reported [*ritschiella from the beds of drying rain 
water pools on moist silt at Madras and Talguppa (Mysore Province). 
Randhawa (1939) recorded the alga from the fields lying fallow in the 
Fyzabad district. Singh (1941) reported it while engaged in the 
investigation of the soil complex on the ‘Usar’ land soils of Northern 
India. 

Fritschiella tuberosa Iyeng. belonging to family Chaetophoraceae 
is a heterotrichous form and is markedly differentiated into various 
systems like: 

(a) Prostrate system—consists of a rounded cluster of cells buried 
in the damp mud of the temporary pond. The rhizoidal system con- 
sists of septate long hairs and constitutes the lower portion of the 
‘prostrate system. 

(b) Erect or the Projecting system 
contains cells with — collar-shaped 
chloroplasts and 2-5 pyrenoids. The 
same can also be called as the photo- 
synthetic tissue. Randhawa _ (1939) 
described the projecting system having 
the Primary main projecting system, 
i.e. the photosynthetic tissue and the 
Secondary projecting system  consist- 
ing of hairs. 

The figure shows the_ general 
structure of the plant as such. The 
soil analysis carried on at different 
spots around the temporary pond is as 
shown in the table. The soil samples 
were analyzed during the month of 
January 1957. 

The present investigation shows 
some marked differences from _ the 
result of the edaphic complex deter- 
mining the growth of alga as reported 
by Singh (1941). The soil samples are 


blackish in colour and show the clayey 
texture. The moisture content varies 
TOM mOn22 ne tO 1 247005.  Carbonates: 9 ye flee = 


are more or less negligible except for 
a few soil samples where it is 1. 

The results of reductivity, esti- 
mated by adding H,OQ, show the 
richness of exchangeable bases in 
soil. Nitrate is fairly well represented Se Fig. 
at all spots. The pH value in the 
present investigation ranges from 7.0 
to 8.5 showing that the soils are 
alkaline in nature. 


Erect system. 
Prostrate system. 
Rhizoidal system. 


e= 
Pp = 
i 

Singh’s (1941) results of the analysis of soils showing low water 
content, less organic content, little reductivity, variation in pH may 
be attributed to the nature of the two different types of habitats in which 
the alga grows. From the results of the table, it can be concluded 


11 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


972 


ee 0:8 ++ at = ae 08-P 066 s g | ae ¢ Wynog 
" ¢.8 qP ar ap ae aE oo = O£-S OL -FT Si cL ess Z@ Ynos 
. C8 eet oe + = ats 10:6 O£-ET sf gs oF IT Winog 
te 0-2 +++ +++ = = 12:9 2E-94 - oe € WON 
‘ GZ | ++ +++ a TZ-S OL-ST ee =) @ UNON 
us ¢-9 AD est = i €v-9 c9-ST f ‘s sia IT WON 
f Ge te oe seats als a ats 88: OL-¥2 s s ng © ISOM 
‘: OV tb chen + — +- 89-6 AL at 6: be Zz SOM 
hs 0-2 ++++ ++++ — ate cL-€ Sv-FL i 2 | za I ISOM 
¥ ¢-8 staat ar = = 82-2 ol PL S as use € seq 
66 0-2 ats dh de — —_ OL-z 0£.6 66 ce see zZ seq 
ouleyLV Cah + ++ - = 29-2 06-1T Aokelg | ystyoeig | ee I seq 
20 *7y Sur 20 277 3u1 
-ppe Joy | -Ppe HOUUM 
ueju0o ju9}u00 juayu0. jua}u09 yquin 
Sele a H¢ ane 2 —-] ayeuoqieg | o1ueBip % |eimjstopyy % | MIXOL | TROLO Ses 
AATJONpPOY 


aTavVyL 


puod Aivicdume} 94} punole sjods snoliva 94} WOIy poyaT[0D 


S€TdWVS IIOS dO SISA'TIVNV 


MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 973 


that Fritschiella tuberosa Iyeng. also grows in soils having appre- 
ciable amount of moisture content, organic content and nitrate content. 
In vegetative structural details the present investigation is in complete 
agreement with the observation of Singh (1941). 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


_My sincere thanks are due to Dr. B. N. Mulay, Professor and 
Head of the Department of Botany, Birla College, Pilani, and to 
Professor B. V. Ratnam, Department of Botany, Jaswant College, 
Jodhpur, for their keen interest and encouragement in the work. 


DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, 
BirRLA COLLEGE, Ma Co TOSru 
PILANI (RAJASTHAN), 


June 8, 1957. 
REFERENCES 


Bower, F. O. (1935): Primitive Land Plants. Macmillan , London. 

Fritsch, F. E. (1935): The Structure and Reproduction of the Algae. Camb. 
University Press. 

— — — (1945): ‘Studies in the comparative Morphology of the Algae IV. 
Algae and Archegoniate Plants. Ann, Bot. N.S. ix: 1. 

— — —and Henes, F. M. (1923) : The moisture relations of the terrestrial 
algae. Ann. Bot. 37 : 683-728. 

Iyengar, M. O. P. (1932) : Fritschiella, a new terrestrial member of the Chae- 
tophoraceae. The New Phytol. 31 : 329-35. 

Misra, R. D. (1938) : Edaphic factors in the distribution of aquatic plantsio the 
English lakes. J. Ecol. 86: 411-51. 

Pearsall, W. H.( 938): The Soil complex in relation to plant communities. 
J. Ecol, 86: 108-83. 

Randhawa, M. S. (1939): A pote on cyst formation in Fritschiella tuberosa 
Iyengar. Arch. Protistenk 92: 131-6. (xcii: 131). 

Ratnam, B. V. & Joshi, M. C. (1952): An ecological study of the vegetation 
near abouts a temporary pond in Pilani, Proc. Rajasthan Acad. Sct. 3: 45-59. 

Singh, R. N. (1941) : On some phases in the life history of the terrestrial algae, 
Fritschiella tuberosa lyeng. and its autecology. Zhe New Phytologist Vol. 11 
No. 3, 179-182. 

Singh, R. N. (1947) : Fritschiella tuberosa Iyengar. Annals of Botany N.S. Vol. 
xi, No. 42, 159-164. 


24. A CATERPILLAR-PARASITING FUNGUS 


Lt.-Col. F. M. Bailey in NO PASSPORT TO TIBET, page 196, while 
describing conditions at Kambado Drok, 15,700 ft., says ‘On the pass 
the coolies found caterpillars with the parasitic fungus Cordiceps 
sinensis growing from their heads. I had seen them once before 
near Batang. The descriptive Tibetan name for the parasite and its 
host is Yartsa Gumbu, which means ‘Summergrass Winterinsect’. 

The genus Cordiceps is a fungus that belongs to the Scolecos- 
poreae, and includes about 200 species distributed throughout the 
world. Most of them attack dead insects of various kinds, and only 
form perfect fructifications on substrata rich in proteins, such as the 
cadavers of insects. The fungus infects the insect through ‘hyphae’ 
or slender fungal vegetative strands; the insect is soon mummified, 
thereafter the fungus proceeds to form reproductive bodies, which in 


974 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


some tropical forms assume bizarre shapes and sizes. It is these 
reproductive bodies which are exported from China and Japan in the 
dry condition, and said to be a good tonic and vermifuge. 

A similar group of fungi, the Laboulbeniales, is of interest in that 
such fungi only form their fructifications on the chitinous cover of 
living insects; these fungi, however, do not cause the destruction of 
the insect. On the other hand some species of Entomophthora attack’ 
the living insect and soon plug all its breathing pores and tubes, thus 
causing the death of the insect. Some such fungus seems to be the 
basis of some of the commercial methods of destroying termites or 
white ants; the method, to judge from the results obtained, is 
successful, but at the same time it remains a secret carefully guarded 
by the firms engaged in the protection of buildings against white 
ants. 


BompBay NATURAL History SOCIETY, 


114 APOLLO STREET, 
BOMBAY 1, EDITORS 


September 20, 1957. 


GLEANINGS 


lish Respond to New Bait 


Inshore fishermen are reaping an unusual harvest with a new kind 
of bait which is cheap and lasting. The skipper of an inshore vessel 
which landed its catch at Grimsby yesterday said: ‘We have found that 
by baiting our hooks with small pieces of rubber we are now catching, 
in addition to the usual cod and haddock, large quantities of fish 
known as coalie, which belongs to the cod family, and is very popular. 
This type of fish has never before responded to line fishing. The 
rubber remains on the hooks after the fish are caught and can be used 
for an almost indefinite period’. 


From The Times (London) June 13, 1957. 


Lake Victoria Mud Rich in Food Value 


Mud from the bottom of Lake Victoria in Central Africa is rich 
enough in protein and minerals to be used, when dried, as hog and 
chicken feed, according to Government scientists. 

The finding has emerged from a long-term survey of the fish 
potential of Lake Victoria. Researchers of the East African Fisheries 
Organization found that the absence of plankton, the minute organisms 
on which fish feed, was due to the scarcity in the water of the sulphur 
necessary for plankton growth. 

Sulphur is normally released from mud by bacterial and chemical 
action. The observation that it was missing in the material from the 
bottom of Lake Victoria led to an analysis of the mud. 

The researchers found little evidence of decomposition in layers 
of about thirty or forty feet in depth in which were locked the accu- 
mulated organic riches of thousands of years. The samples contained 
unusually huge amounts of sulphates, nitrogen and other plant 
nutrients. 

. Experiments have shown that the mud begins to decompose when 
dried. It has been suggested that-it be dredged from the floor of 
the lake and spread over the adjacent swampy land. 

R. S. A. Beauchamp, an investigator from the Government Re- 
search Station at Jinja, Uganda, on the northern shore of the lake, 
is convinced that large quantities of the mud could be used as hog 
and chicken feed. He had tasted it, he said, and found the mud 
‘quite palatable’. 


From The New York Times, February 20, 1957. 


NOTES AND NEWS 


Col. R. Meinertzhagen is collecting information on the predatory 
or piratical habits of all birds whether crows, shrikes, hawks, skuas 
etc. and would be grateful for details of any exceptional or remarkable 
cases which have been observed. He does not want anything relat- 
iug to recognised or normal procedure. He hopes to publish these 
records in book form later on. Full acknowledgement will be given 
to contributors. 

Col. R. Meinertzhagen’s address is 17 Kensington Park Gardens, 
London, W. 11. 


* * * * 


The 12th International Ornithological Congress will be held in 
Helsinki (Finland) from 5 to 12 June, 1958. In addition to the 
reading of scientific papers, discussions, showing of films, and other 
academic and social activities, two one-day excursions to places of 
ornithological interest will be arranged. Also before and after the 
Congress (31 May to 4 June, and 13 to 24 June) excursions will be 
arranged to representative places in the country. 

The Congress fee is 3,000 Finnish marks for those who want the 
Proceedings of the Congress, otherwise 1,c00 Finish marks.! The 
prospectus containing registration form and detailed information 
regarding hotels, cost of excursions, etc. is now available. Applica- 
tions to attend the Congress, and to contribute scientific papers, 
should be sent in before 28 February, 1958 to the General Secretary, 
12th International Ornithological Congress, University, Helsinki, 
Finland. 


1 £1 = 865 Fmk, 


ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY 
SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR ENDING 3lst DECEMBER 1956 


President 
Dr. HAREKRUSHNA MAHTAB, Governor of Bombay 


Vice-Presidents 


Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s. 
Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s,s. 
Mr. Salim Ali 


Executive Committee 


Prof. § . P, Agharkar, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.N.I. as P 
Mr. J. a Singh, 1.F.s. ie i ae } vend 
Mr. G. V. Bedekar, 1.¢.S.... 

Prof. F. R. Bharucha, D.sc., #.N.I. 

Mr. R. E. Hawkins 

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.sc., Ph.D. ri ae 

Mr. De N, Marshall oy a en Bombay 
Mr. D. J. Panday ae 

Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.) os 

Mr. Humayun Abdulali (on. Secretary) 

Mr, M. J. Dickins (Hon. Treasurer) 


Advisory Committee 


Mr. H. G. Acharya, F.R.E.S. ... Ahmedabad 
Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, k&t., ¢.1L£., iL Gs, .. New Delhi 
nev, Er. Dr. J.B. Freeman, M.A., L.T., Ph.D., D.D. Mysore 
Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S. a .. Assam 
Col. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. oe Attikan 
Lt.-Col. E. G, Phythian-Adams, O.B.E., F.Z.S., L re 

(Retd.) ... .. Nilgiris 
Dr. Baini Prasad, D.se._ ... ... Dehra Dun 


Dr. M. L. Roonwal, M.SC., Ph.D., F.Z.S. ie F.N.I. ... Calcutta 
List of members of the Executive and Advisory Committees elected 
for the year 1957: 
President 
SHRI SRI PRAKASA, Governor of Bombay 


Vice-Presidents 


Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s. 
Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J. 
Mr. Salim Ali 


co 
ba I 


8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST] SOCIETY. = Vol, 754 


Executive Committee 


Prof. S. P. Agharkar, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.N.I. ae J 
Mr. J. A. Singh, 1.F.s. a a t Poona 
DE DW 2 Bal, SCs ses 
Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s. 
Mr. R. E. Hawkins Se 
Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, m.sc., ph. D. : oan 
Mr. Do Ne Marshall ier on Pe are): BL BOLOOM 
Mr. D. J. Panday oo 
Mr Neu ben, i-C.s: (Retd.) Z 
Mr. Humayun Abdulali (Ffon. Secretary) 
Mr. M. J. Dickins (Hon. Treasurer) 

Advisory Commtttee 
Mr. H. G. Acharya, F.R.E.S. ... Ahmedabad 
Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., I. rc. S. New Delhi 
Rey. Fr. Dr." Je ‘B: Freeman, M.A, eae Ph.D., 

D. De f a coe. Mysore 
Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., c.M, z. 's. oe. w. Assam 
Col. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.S., F.Z,S. ace Atttkan 
it.-Col, B.5G. ‘Phythian-Adams, © BE:, F.Z.8.4 1 a Se OF 

(Reta): #3 ee a ... Nilgiris 
Dr. Baini Prasad, p.sc._ ... we. Dehra Dun 


Dr. M. L. Roonwal, M.sc., Ph.pD., F.Z.8.1, F.Nel. i..  Galcuiita 


HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1956 


THE SOCIETY’s JOURNAL 


Parts 3 and 4 of Vol. 53 and Part 1 of Vol. 54 were published 
during the vear under review. 


MAMMALS. 


In ‘Hedgehogs of the Desert of Rajasthan, Part I]—Food and 
Feeding Habits’ observations made on captive and _ semi-captive 
hedgehogs are reported by Dava Krishna and Ishwar Prakash. | 

M. A. Wynter-Blyth’s ‘The Lion Census of 1955" 1s a report on 
the second census of Gir lions held between April 11th and 14th, 1955. 
The author first gives an account of the recorded mortality among the 
lion population in the Gir between 1950 and 1955. ‘This is not signi- 
ficantly high, and the present census carried out on lines similar to 
the earlier one in 1950 [| Vol. 49 (3): 456-467] shows a total of 290 
animals as against 224. This increase is bound to- bring up other: 
problems, especially about their food. Though there is no evidence 
of any decrease in the other game animals in the forest, the Jions keep 
to the vicinity of villages and nesses and domestic cattle continue to 
form the major portion of their food. | 


BIRDS 


Six papers were published under this head. sia Uy 
In ‘A Contribution to the Ornithology of Garhwal’ Kates: 
Lavkumar records 135 species from three hitherto little worked valleys 


PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 1956 979 


in eastern Garhwal. Field observations and ecological notes are given 
for some birds. 

‘The Malayan Great Tit’ by James Cairns is an account of the 
natural history of a very rare endemic race, Parus major ambiguus, at 
present known only from a narrow strip of mangrove forest on the 
west coast of Penang Island. The present population is estimated to 
be between 350 and 7oo pairs. Other observations include notes on 
their food and feeding behaviour, breeding seasons, and _ nidification. 

In ‘Notes on the Baya Weaver Bird, Ploceus philippinus Linn.’ 
Salim Ali and V. C.- Ambedkar discuss the breeding biology ‘of. the 
Baya, a paper based on observations made during three seasons, 
June to October 1953-1955, in two colonies, one in the Bombay area 
and the other in Poona. The observations throw some light on 
hitherto little known facts regarding the life and movements of the 
Baya during the breeding season and provide some statistical data 
relating to nesting behaviour, etc. Marking of the Bayas was under- 
taken with dyes as well as with coloured and aluminium rings. Notes 
on the sex ratio, abnormal nests, intelligence, and natural enemies 
and mortality rate are included. 

F. N. Betts records 170 species with field notes in an article 
entitled ‘Notes on Birds of the Subansiri Area, Assam’. The list 
covers about 30 per cent of the species which occur in the area, where 
the author spent about eighteen months making’ field observations 
and occasional collections. 

Prof. J. Berlioz has given a brief account of the natural history of 
‘Sunbirds and Humming-birds’, two fascinating groups containing 
some of the smallest and most brilliantly coloured birds in the world. 
The convergent resemblance of the sunbirds and humming-birds has in 
the past caused considerable confusion in their taxonomy. .The sexual 
dimorphism, food and habits, habitats and geographical distribution, 
and relationships of these birds are discussed. 

‘The Whitebellied Sea Eagles of Karwar [Haliaetus leucogaster 
(Gmelin)]’ by R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji and K. S, Lavkumar recounts 
observations made during six days in January 1956, at the Oyster 
Rocks off Karwar, on the habits and behaviour of a pair at a nest 
containing well-fledged young. 

C. E. Hewetson in ‘Observations on the Bird Life of Madhya 
Pradesh’ gives a list of 308 species and races with notes on the status 
and habitat, general habits, voice, and nesting of many of them. 
Notes kept on the migrants have helped to give an idea of the general 
pattern of bird distribution in a large part of central India. The 
author recognises five major habitats or biotopes, and a list of the 
species one is likely to come across in each is mentioned. 


REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS 


No papers were published, but it is encouraging to find an increase 
in the number of Miscellaneous Notes on this group. They indicate 
possibilities for further work in Herpetology, and it is hoped that there 
will soon be more response from SIiEals and naturalists who Have 
the opportunity. 


980 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST) SOCIERY, Vols 54 


FISH AND FISHERIES 


Three papers were published in this section. 

In ‘Kashmir—A Fishing Holiday’ the late A. St. J. Macdonald 
writes of the problems that an angler has to confront when visiting 
Kashmir. Mr. Macdonald has given an itemised account of what to 
do and where to go, together with details of formalities of travel and 
notes on fishing, beats, expenses, etc., which every angler intending to 
visit Kashmir should study for the fund of useful information it 
contains. 

The late Dr. S. L. Hora in ‘Some Observations on the Trout Farm 
and Hatchery at Achhabal, Kashmir’ has reviewed the stock position in 
the hatchery and discussed at length diseases and other causes of 
mortality. Fungus infection, lipoid degeneration of the liver, blindness 
and depredation by otters are given as primary factors causing heavy 
mortality, while other minor factors are also discussed. A section is 
devoted to the food and growth of trout fingerlings, and several re- 
commendations and suggestions for the improvement of the hatchery 
are made. 

In an account on the ‘Fishes of Kolhapur’ K. N. Kalawar and 
C. N. Kelkar list 71 species as occurring in the district. The local 
Marathi names of most of them are given with descriptive notes on 
certain species. Botia striata var. kolhapurensis is described as a 
new race. 


INVERTEBRATES 
The following papers were published in this section: 


Nematoda: 


‘Marine Nematodes from the Bay of Bengal-—-I. Phasmidea’ by 
Richard W. Timm contains the descriptions of one new genus, two 
new species, and one new variety of marine nematodes, obtained from 
Sonadia Island, Bay of Bengal, and Cox’s Bazar, East Pakistan. 
The section on ‘Discussion’ under each species and variety, besides 
dealing with nomenclatorial clarifications, includes certain observations 
on the ecology of these little known worms. 


Arthropoda: 

Insecta: Ten papers were published during this period. 

D. G. Sevastopulo’s ‘Notes on the Heterocera of Calcutta. Parts 
I, Il and III’ are based on a series of collections made by him in 
Calcutta between 1930 and 1946. Records of monthly occurrences 
are given for the 1945-1946 period. The author believes that the use 
of a Mercury Vapour light for trapping purposes would have con 
siderably augmented his list. 

A. P. Mathews has given a detailed account of the post-embryonic 
development of Machaerota noctua Dist. (Insecta : Homoptera 
Cercopidae). The successive stages in the life-history of M. noctua 
are traced and the relations of the instars to the tubes in which they 
live discussed. The role of the ‘Primary’ and ‘Secondary’ tubes in 
which the life cycle is completed is explained dispelling the earlier 


PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 1956 981 


view that the narrow short primary tube was meant probably only for 
aeration. 

A study of the copulation in 16 species of Shorthorned Grass- 
hoppers has enabled K. N. Katiyar to classify them mainly under 
three modes (riding mode, lateral mode, and hanging mode), with a 
few showing intergradation with one or the other. These are des- 
cribed in the article entitled ‘Modes of Copulation in Shorthorned 
Grasshoppers (Orthoptera : Acrididae)’. The study suggests that 
some correlation exists between the relative body-lengths of the two 
sexes and the mode of copulation adopted. 

In ‘Bionomics of the Pumpkin Caterpillar—Margaronia indica 
Saund. (Pyralidae : Lepidoptera)’ R. C. Patel and H. L. Kulkarny 
discuss the habits and life-history of an important pest of cucurbita~ 
ceous vegetables, the caterpillars of which cause considerable damage 
to the leaves and fruits. The number of instars varies from 4 to 5 
and the rate of feeding is greatly accelerated during the three davs 
prior to prepupal stage. 

F. L. Wain in ‘Notes on Some Wasps and Bees (Hymenoptera) 
from Poona and the Western Ghats’ records 85 species collected 
at different times during a period of five years. The article is well 
illustrated and contains field notes on the hahits of certain species 
apd remarks on the sexes. 

In ‘Differential Response to Forms and Pattern in two Species 
of Indian Honeybees’ K. K. Dixit throws more light on the fact that, 
as in the case of European Honeybee Apis mellifera, a pattern which 
presents a greater contour is spontaneously preferred to one with 
less, both by A. indica and A. florea. Experiments point to the fact 
that the distance at which the bees make their choice between alternate 
patterns varies for different species. The results thus far obtained 
seem to suggest that A. florea may have a slightly greater visual 
aculty than A. indica. 

A brief account of ‘Some Beneficial Coccinellids of Mysore’ by 
M. Puttarudriah and C. P. Chenna Basavanna deals with 25 species 
and their host-plants. 

In ‘Further Observations on the Biology of the Common ‘Tree- 
hopper’ Otinotus oneratus Walk. (Homoptera: Membracidae) in 
Orissa’ U. C. Panda and B. K. Behura give an account of the 
bionomics of the species based on observations made at Balasore 
and Cuttack, Orissa, during 1952-1953. 15 new host-plants of this 
membracid are listed. 

Arachnida: In ‘Bionomics of the Giant Wood Spider, Nephila 
maculata Fabr.’ M. K. Thakur and V. B. Tembe have dealt with the 
largest orb-weaving spider in India. Sexual dimorphism, mating, and 
breeding habits are given in fair detail, and it is shown that the spider 
has five types of silk glands, the secretion of each having a specific use. 
The authors have classified the silk produced by the spider according 
to its nature and use. This study was conducted with the help of a 
grant made by the Bombay Natural History Society. 


982 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST) SOCI El Yo ol od 


‘Biology of the Scorpions’ by Max Vachon, a much appreciated, 
widely read and profusely illustrated article, was reproduced from 
Endeavour, Vol. XXII (46), April 1953 with the kind permission 
of its publishers. In its present form it contains some additional 
notes by Dr. A. P. Mathew, of Kerala University. Scorpions, which 
may even be termed ‘living fossils’, attained a high degree of perfec- 
tion early in their evolutionary history and have remained unchanged 
for hundreds of millions of years. The complexity of their digestive 
processes, carried on partly outside the body, the mode of nutrition 
of the embryo, the complex system of sensory hairs, the elaborate 
nuptial dances, and their evolutionary significance are all discussed 
here. 


BOTANY 


In ‘Geographical Distribution of the Halophytic Plants of Bombay 
and Salsette Islands’ B. S. Navalkar discusses the distribution of the 
mangrove vegetation, which is chiefly composed of Avicennia alba, a 
prolific grower. Six categories of halophytic plants are recognised 
on the basis of their nearness to the sea and the consequent richness — 
in sodium chloride content of the soil. A comparison of the number 
of halophytes of Bombay and Salsette Islands is made with those of 
the Sunderbans, the Malay Peninsula, and South ‘Africa. 

‘Indian Marsileas: Their Morphology and Systematics’ by K. M. 
Gupta and T. N. Bhardwaja is a review of the systematic position of 
the Indian species based on. the structure and disposition of the 
sporocarp. A key to their identification with brief accounts of the 
morphological nature of the vegetative parts and sporocarp are given. 

J. N. Misra (‘A Systematic Account of some littoral marine 
Diatoms from the W. Coast of India’) lists 69 forms of littoral and 
benthic diatoms from the west coast of India. Of these 45 are 
epiphytic on various higher algae and 24 occur in sediments. 

In ‘New Plant Records from South India-I’ D. D. Sundararaj 
gives six new distributional records. . 

‘Botanical Exploration in the Bhillangna Valley of the erstwhile 
Tehri Garhwal State’ by Raj Kumar Gupta is based on observations 
made during trips to Masar Tal Lake (10,c00 ft.) and collections 
from Sahsru Tal Lake (16,000 ft.) made in the months of May and 
September, and supplemented by observations at Naini Tal and 
Mussoorie. Three climatic zones are recognised. The vegetation of 
the area is described zonally with an annotated list of species collected 
in each zone. 

In ‘Chapters on the History of Botany in India. Il. The 
Advances and in particular the Plant Collecting of the Thirties and 
Forties of the roth Century’ I. H. Burkill reviews a period marked 
with considerable activity both in botanical explorations and in the 
publication of papers and monographs on Indian botany through the 
medium of many new scientific journals which came into being during 
this period. The progress achieved through the untiring efforts of 


PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 1956 983 
‘“ 
Wallich, Griffith, and a score of other enthusiasts was such that, 
besides mere taxonomic work, a beginning was possible at this time 
in other aspects such as plant ecology and phytogeography. 

‘Vegetation of Pilani and its Neighbourhood’ by W. C. Nair and 
G. S. Nathawat is in part a revision of an earlier list published under 
the same head by Bakshi [J/BNHS, 92: 484-514, 1952]. In addition, 
the authors list with field notes 145 species, the distribution of which 
is now extended to this area. 

In ‘Some useful Weeds in and around Cuttack’ H. Pattnaik 
reports on a preliminary survey in which 14 species of useful weeds 
were collected. Notes on the uses of the weed, flowering period, 
and habits are given for each species along with their local Oriya 
names. 


Witp LIFE 


Col. K. Guman Singh’s article ‘Game Preservation in Jammu and 
Kashmir State’ forms in part an addendum to the report of the 
Society’s delegation on ‘Game Preservation in Kashmir’ published in 
Vol. 53 (2) of the Journal. The author concludes by advocating the 
introduction of certain exotic game animals and birds, a controversial 
subject on which opinion has long been widely divided but has now 
crystallised as definitely against. 

In ‘Ducks Unlimited: and Wild Life Preservation in Ceylon’, 
Philip K. Crowe draws attention to the urgent need to save what is 
left of Ceylon’s greatly depleted wild life from complete extermination. 
As an instance,of achieving the impossible, he cites the case of the 
remarkable recovery of the American duck population through the co- 
operation of the sportsmen and the public, in spite of the ever-increas- 
ing number of hunters in that country. Many of his remarks and 
suggestions concerning Ceylon are equally applicable to India. 

Part III of E. P. Gee’s ‘The Management of India’s Wild Life 
Sanctuaries and National Parks’ is a timely contribution. It draws 
attention to the great need for the formation of more National Parks 
and Wild Life Sanctuaries, not only for the protection of our fauna 
and flora from increasing human depredations, but also as attractions 
for tourists and a consequent means of earning foreign exchange. 
The rapidly increasing human population with the demand on land 
for settlement, cultivation, and grazing, presents a grave problem in 
certain parts of the country where encroachments into some of the 
existing Wild Life Sanctuaries have already taken place. The author 
rightly contends that in addition to their aesthetic and scientific value, 
good Wild Life Sanctuaries are of great economic value to the 
country, and should not merely serve as areas to be later opened up 
for settlement or grazing. 


MiBnSGE Lb ANE Os: NOR. ks 


116 notes covering all branches of natural history were published. 
This section of the Journal, as usual, is very popular with readers, 


984. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


but of late there has been a tendency to a decrease in the contri- 
butions received. If this indicates a trend towards flagging interest 
in field observations etc., it needs rectification. Contributions from 
members and others interested in natural history are most welcome. 


NATURE EDUCATION 


The Society’s efforts at Nature Education in schools, financed by 
the Government of Bombay, is now in its tenth year. Its main aims 
are the popularisation and promotion of interest in natural history 
among children and teachers and the publication of well-illustrated 
and inexpensive booklets on rature study. 

In the series ‘Glimpses of Nature’ ouR BIRDS Book No. 2 was 
published in English, Marathi, and Hindi, and the third booklet on 
OUR BEAUTIFUL TREES is in the press. 

The usual activities included guided tours of the Natural History 
Section of the Prince of Wales Museum, the Taraporevala Aquarium, 
and the Victoria Gardens. Four field-trips were arranged for 
members of the Nature Study Clubs and a large number of students 
participated. Two special field-trips were arranged for teachers, one 
to Elephanta Island and the other to Tulsi Lake. Many of the children 
were keenly interested. 

The All India Radio arranged two talks on ‘Nature Rambles’ by 
the Nature Education Organiser. These were broadcast in English, 
Marathi, and Gujarati. 

Special talks on ‘Wild Life Preservation’, illustrated by slides and 
films, and on ‘Insect Life’ and ‘Evolution’, with the aid of exhibits, 
were arranged for children. 


GENERAL 


In addition to the nature films shown at the Annual General 
Meeting on 22-8-1956, the Society arranged for a lecture on ‘The 
Study of Pollen (Palynology)’ by Professor G, Erdtman of the 
Palynological Laboratory, Stockholm, at St. Xavier’s College, on 7th 
December 1956. 

Much useful field work had been carried out under the grants made 
with the assistance of the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust, and we hope soon 
to publish reports thereon in the Journal. 


PUBLICATIONS 


BUTTERFLIES OF THE INDIAN REGION by M. A. Wynter-Blyth, though 
again delayed, is making progress and there is every hope of its publi- 
cation early next year. 

The publication of the ‘Wall Chart for the Identification of 
Poisonous Snakes’ is also in hand. 


PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 1956 985 


REVENUE ACCOUNT 


Total receipts during the year amounted to Rs. 49,373, which 
includes grants of Rs. 4,o00 each from the Government of India 
and the Government of Bombay, as compared with Rs. 51,791-4-3 
during the previous year. 

Sales of some of the Society’s publications and also back num- 
bers of the Journai were appreciably higher than last year. 

The following is a comparative statement showing the different 
sources of Revenue in 1955 and 1956: 


| 
Revenue Revenue Increase Decrease ~ 
in in in in 
1955 1956 1956 1956 
Rs. A. p, RSs A. ee. (Rs: Ax oP. Rs. A P. 
Subscriptions i. | 20,428 0 0: | 21,303 0 0; 875 0-0 we 
Entrance Fees ay 1,372 0 0O 1,589 0: 0 | 217 0 0 — 
Publications : 

Books sae 10,210 0 0 9,677 0 0 _— 533. 0 0 

Journals vee 3,320 0 0 4,421 0 0/1,101 0 0 —_— 
Sundries, Taxidermy, 

Advertisement, etc. 352 0 0 341 0 0 — 11 0 0 
Interest on Investments 4,109 0 0 4,042 0 0 —— | 67 0 0 
Grants : 

Govt. of India a, 8,000 0 0 4,000 0 0 4,000 0 0 

Govt. of Bombay ... 4,000 0 0 4,000 0 0 — —_—— 

otal... |) oL,79) 0° 0 | 49;373 0 © | 2,193 0°°0)|24,61) 0° 0 


The total number of members on our books on 31st December 1956 
was 1187 of whom 232 are Life Members. Subscriptions for 1956 
have so far been received from 710 members. During the year, 
61 new members joined while 3 Life Members, 1 Honorary Member, 
and 5 Ordinary Members died, and 15 resigned. 


STAFF 


The Committee wishes to record its appreciation of the willing 
co-operation of the entire staff in the activities of the Society. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson who 
continues to look after the Society’s interests in the United Kingdom. 


APPENDIX TO THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT 
COVERING THE PERIOD JANUARY TO AUGUST 1957 


‘A report of the activities of the Society up to 31st December 1956 
is already in your hands and I will make a few remarks on those 
during the current year. 


986 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


The long-delayed Butterfly Book is now ready and some _ pro- 
gress is being made with the second edition of THE BOOK OF INDIAN 
ANIMALS. The wall chart for the Identification of Poisonous Snakes 
is also in hand, but we have run into unexpected difficulties in 
procuring suitably large types for printing the editions in Gujarati 
and Marathi. 

The Society has long felt the want of a whole-time worker at the 
office, and during the year, pending finalization of the revised agree- 
ment with the Museum, we have appointed Dr. E. G. Silas as 
Registrar. It is hoped that with his assistance it will be possible to 
render more useful service to members not only in Bombay but also 
those resident outside. 

I may perhaps take this opportunity of expressing regret that 
relatively few members take advantage of our library and such other 
facilities as the Society is able to offer. There are a large number 
of old books on travel, exploration, shikar and other forms of field 
sport. Last year 60 members borrowed 250 books while about 100 
have been issued to 25 members so far during this year. In addition 
to this, students from the Institute of Science, the Taraporevala 
Aquarium and other scientific institutions visit the library for refer- 
ring to books and scientific journals, many of which are unavailable 
elsewhere. 

There is some cause for optimism that our application to the 
Central Government for a building grant to house the offices and the 
reference ‘collections ig being sympathetically considered, and it is 
hoped that as soon as this is achieved it will be possible for the 
Society to be of more active usefulness toa students of various forms 
of animal life. | 

In the last report I referred to a grant of Rs. 3,000 received from 
the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust, for field work in natural history. This 
was distributed among 7 applicants who have been enabled to carry 
out useful work. Some of the reports, we hope, will be published in 
future issues of the Journal. 

We have also been able to arrange, through the interest of Dr. 
W. H. Thorpe of the Cambridge University Zoological Museum, for 
Mr. J. H. Crook, at present engaged in post-graduate studies at 
Cambridge, to visit India for a period of two years to carry out 
field studies on the social organisation of the Bayas or Weaver Birds. 
He will be working with Mr. Salim ‘Ali who commenced these studies 
several years ago. The cost of Mr. Crook’s visit will be met by 
Dr. Thorpe from a grant from the Department of Industrial and 
Scientific Research in the United Kingdom. While engaged in this 
work it is hoped that Mr. Crook will have close contacts with many 
local zoology students and teachers, and enable them to under-study 
him in modern techniques—and later to initiate research in field and 
economic ornithology, a subject of great importance to agriculture 
and forestry but on which almost no work has been done in this 
country. I hope to be able to comment on the progress of Mr. 
Crook’s work more fully in my next report. 

During the current, year 34 members joined: Ht has ’)been 
suggested to us that the entrance fee of Rs. 25 may possibly act as 
a deterrent to many individuals from joining the Society although we 


PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 1956 Ad; 987 


have, for some time, offered to accept this sum in instalments spread 
over a period of five years. Thus, as an experimental measure, the 
Committee has now decided to accept new members for a nominal 
lump-sum entrance fee of Rs. 5. It is hoped that this will induce 
many people on the border-line of decision to make up their minds 
and lend their support to the Society. 

Over the last 10 years the number of members actively interested 
in birds and animals and other forms of wild life in the field has 
unfortunately declined, as reflected in some measure by the rather 
more technical nature of the contributions appearing in the Journal 
of late. The editors are endeavouring to retain and _ resuscitate 
popular interest in a number of ways, but it must be realized that in 
the main the Journal must be what its contributors make it. Unless 
members in India avail themselves of the matchless opportunities for 
field study and observation which lie almost on their doorstep, and 
contribute original and interesting popular articles and notes on 
natural history and sport, there is bound to be an increasing but 
unavoidable tendeacy for the Jowrnal to get more and more technical, 
or ‘dry-as-dust’ for the average reader. 

The following 61 members have joined since the last Annual 
General Meeting : 


FROM 16TH AUGUST TO 31ST DECEMBER 1956 


Mr. D. H. Fordham, Rajahmundry; The President, Mess Com- 
mittee, ist Bn., The Para Regt. (Punjab), Agra Cantt.; The 
Principal, A.M.A.L. College, Anakapalle; Mr. K. Rajgopal, Kovil- 
patti; Bombay Presidency Angling Association, Bombay; Mr. Hans 
Ragnar Edberg, Sweden; Dr. H. N. Maniar, Bombay; Mrs. B. H. 
Pease, Bombay; Mr. Samir Sen, Darjeeling; Mr. N. J. Northover, 
Bombay; The Principal, Government College, Ludhiana; Mr. Z. J. 
Kapadia, Bombay; The Principal, Agricultural College, Bapatla; Mr. 
J. H. H. Peppe, Basti; The Principal, . Agricultural College, 
Muzaffarpur; Mr. Tribeni Prasad Singh, Bhagalpur; Mrs. Swarna 
Subramaniam, Madras; Mr. John R. Whitehead, E. Pakistan; Mr. 
J. Cairns, Penang; Prof. D. V. Bal, Bombay; Jardin Botanique de 
L’Etat, Belgium; Miss D. P. Panthaki, Bombay; Dr. Harold Trapido, 
Poona; Mr. S. R. Choudhary, Orissa; The Principal, Meerut College, 
Meerut; Lt.-Col. T. Barrington, New Delhi. 


FROM 1ST JANUARY TO 15TH AUGUST 1957 


Mr. Onkarnath Dwivedi, Calcutta; Dr. D. K. Lahiri Choudhary, 
Orissa; The Hon’ble Mr. Felix Standaert, Bombay; Mr. A. J. 
Sharman, Madras; Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay; Regional 
Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Shillong; Botanical Survey of 
India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore; Mr. G. H. Mansell, Kerala 
State; Mr. Julian P. Donahue, Kodaikanal; Mrs. T. A. Fairfield, 
Assam; St. Xavier’s College, Palamcottah; Government College, 
Chittur, Cochin; Mrs. Laprelle Edens, California, U.S.A.; Mrs. 
Ralph B. Weidman, Bombay; Botanical Survey of India, Western 


12 


988 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


Circle, Poona; Mr. A. M. G. Brown, Bombay; Officer-in-Charge, 
Naval Chemical and Metallurgical Labs., Bombay; Shri Sri Prakasa, 
Governor of Bombay; Mir Liaquat Hussain, Nizamabad; H. H. The 
Raja Sahib of Nandgaon; Mr. H. T. Joshi, Bombay ; Commandant, 
College of Military Engineering, Poona; Prof. V. V. Apte, Poona; 
The Honorary Secretary, High Wavys Club, Madras; Sq. Ldr. D. S. 
Mayjithia, Gorakhpur; Mr. A. M. Morgan- Davis, Ceylon: The ae ble 
Mr. Henri Dumont, Bombay; Dr. P. Legris, Pondicherry; The Chief 
Forester, Nepal; Prot Laurent Schwartz, France; St. Xavier’s 
College, Ranchi; Mr. R. P. :N. .Sinha,. Delhi; Mr. C. A.- Lister, 
Bombay; Lt.-Col. Ina Shumshere J. B. Rana, Kathmandu, Nepal; 
Mr. Beryl de. Zoete, London. Uy SOU Oe cee 


HUMAYUN ABDULALI 
Honorary Secretary. 


989 


1956 


PROCEEDINGS & ‘ACCOUNTS, 


"O-0T-926°T “SY 0} sjJunoUTe OS6I-ZL-1E }8 SB SUIPUEYs}HO JsetaqUT ay, 


"sIseq YSBo & UO poeulejUleU 918 paAtadas jso1azU] 10} sjunosd¥ sD 


cq 


—) 


at 


bP Le T 


Ter’ 01 


HSS 92 


0€¢ 


PI6 I 


Fee‘83 


& s 


Sa 


** DIBMIOJ PaldIeD c 


UN 
9 I Pse'9z 


TIN 


0 4 &le 
08 Z8L'2 


0 0 Osz'2 


b If #20°16 


ee Steatstot Ao 


9 Th6't 


ZI 8h6 T 
0 o0n0'sz 
OL c18's¢ 
0 0 00m TT 


0 0 082°0T 


oo o;co 


d Vv sy 


¢ ¢ 2@ib'02'T 


| eee  (UBvIDn) Aequiog Jo JueUIUIBAOy 


SODIAIOS pues Sof[ddng 
samomuyl 49410 


eee ove ace eee eee 


spuog jsniy, Mog Aequog %p 000'FI “Sa 8 6 680°S6 
¢ Syuauepsanu] 
J $a8qzsaGOLd a1Qvaomumy 
SLHSsvV qd Vv 8a qv sq 


jSo190}U] 0 OL PFe‘SsS somes, 
} eee eee eae eee seo jaay A ‘ 

LS gSFULPUDISIND 9U0Iu] m pc p 
os ae cr es siaq3O * IL 8 ZPPT 
> eee ceo eee SIDAMEYT ‘¢ ‘ 
ae ‘ ote  — siojaesqu05 * po T &ll 62 
eo rr een coe sooAo[dmy 66 : 
eo ee cae eee S$ooj}sniy, OL T L Lis 6¢ eee 

3: sagunapy 0 9 020‘Ee 
Se ae Pp 8 £29'¢ 
‘< 0-0-082 “" (eis 01) 
suvoJT 193410 
UN UN ° sdrys 
: -Ie]OYoG uvo'T 0 PF SIZ 
injjqne”d pooy 
*(poinoag) - suvo7 
I89h 39} JO} uolelosideq =< Ssa7 
ee JeauS s0ueR[eg Is¥] Jod sev snUuL[LEg 
S SAANJXLT PUD @ANJIUANY 6 ot FIO 
UoPJBJO9Id9q IOj UOISTAOI_ ¢ Ssa7 
ia ts spuog as0usjogd % FEF 09VF 
CoS 
QS6l Jequis.0q STG UO ane E>: hi ; 
000'¢6 ** 0 0 008 T 
ras SZ-026T 
uvoT jJUSUIdOTeASq 3sIIH %E O00'c ‘ 
OP6T UBOT UOIsI9AUOD %E 000'S2 *' 
Q9-906T UBOT SuIpung %¢ O00'9E ~* ; 
“e  Spuod 3sn1L P PF «06S'S6 ~~ eee 
yuoulsAoIdwIyT Aequiog %F OO00*ST “* 8 OT 00¢ 


P1IVMIO} PaTIIVD 


de s0ueleg Wpslg AJIpung “ 
ae ““syisodeq Jeu:9g puv juoy iS 
ce ae (soayy souRIUq 


puv suoijdtiosqns) sooueapy ‘‘ 
soe se oh Ssosuodxy IOV 
5 8979072Q027 
| see * SUQBIVILIQNY PANN] AOL aQadSay 
eo eee eee eon 9290S 
| souR[eg se, Jod se souvleg 
| "uit AAIBANG JDUUuDdY 
| 0 cL E82 eee eon eee IBOA 
34} sUlInp sosusdxy” 3? SsaT7 
0 0 000°T ~ ae ae yoous 
souRleg sel Jed se gouRl[eYy 
“puny aft] VILM 
| ¢ cL IFS’ Z eee eee eee IBIA 
| 94} sulInp sosuedxy - SSa7 
0: £98665 ie : 3990uS 


| aouRjeg jSeT Jiod sB oourley 
“puny 4404 Dar] 


| 
| eee eee sao eon 


3994S 

| aoue[(Vg 4se_T jJod sv a0uvleq 
‘puny uowlpagray 

& Spuny payxyADUADY 432440 


“" Igaé 94} SULINP PaaAleoal JUNOULY - PPP 
| oe JooNS as0uv[ eg Ist] JOd se souLleg 


*pung diysiequieym jl] 
£SNG407) 40 Pun] ISNATL 


SHLLITIAVIT GNV SGNNd 


9561 HAIN AIA BIE LV SV LATHS FINVIVA 
ALWIOOS AYO.LSTA TVWHYNALVN AVAWOP FHL 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 54 


990° 


‘$SquDIUNOIIP pasazsvy yD 


“OO F NOSNOUAA ‘A ‘Vv (PS) 
°9]8D W9A Jo }1Odd1 INO Jad SV 


OLS 2S0'8I'z 


6 6 RSZ°SS 


0 2 6p8°9S 


T 0 Ppr'd2 I 
adv su 


0 0 OSE 
UN 


O12°Sz 


d v¥ Sw 


‘9OISRAT 
‘ITV WITYS (‘PS) 
AJOINOG AIOISI{ [BINIJ¥N Avquiog 407 


| ave BIOL 


aa Jarysed 94) GUM (9) 
saysniy, 94) WIM (9) 


eee sen eee Aequiog 
‘yIOK MON jo yue_ APD [eadolNeN 


Systm yunory 41s0¢aq PexXty ul 2 


(Z-eL-hTF) UVopuo'y 


‘“piy ‘Bipuyt jo yueg [euoljeN 
eee eee eee Avequog 
“pyy ‘elpuy jo yueq [euolyeN 


'Yyjtm qunovp quasany uy ‘{ (Vv) 


| A1Bjo1N9S AlvlouOT 
ee) 


Aq poeyiqisos sv ‘Japun JO -jsoo JV 
ipupy uo syoog Jo 4IOIS' 
pleMIOJ JYSNoIG 


| S.LASSV 


‘L561 40 478 ‘AVaWOg 


*ISNIT, 9Y} Jo SjossyW Puy AyIOdOIg 9y3 Jo puL satiffiqery pue spung ay} jo 


Ors 2so'st'2 


:Ssaouning yung puv yssz |S 0 OF LP 


¢ S eros T 


dv sy 


b2 60L°F 


16 @ 6rE'2s 
| 


av sy 


JUNO 91} BV SUTBIUOD Jol[9q AU Jo }S9q 9} 0} JOOYS souBle sAoqe sy yp 


yunooNYV 91n} 
-Ipusdxy pue suloouy Jed sv jloyaq - ssa7 


see jyooys souv[eg jsvl Jod sv souvl[vg 
Syunoop aénpipusgxy Pun amojus 


“ pleMloj JUSNoIg 


SHILITIAVIT GNV SANN4 


(panutju0r)—956I MAIWAIA WIE LV SV¥ LYAHS AINV TVA 


991 


1956 


PROCEEDINGS & ACCOUNTS, 


SJUDIUNOIIY pe1a14vY > 


RS a aS SSL SSE SSeS SEES 


& €& Sh6‘ST 


EL 026'2 
0 2 8&1 
6 ST 6SI 
It /ST 
0 0zE's 
L S2v'‘z 
Lele 
Vv Sy 


Le ee >) 


“OO 8 NOSNDAGA “av ("psS) 


i810 7, 


see souvleg yuEg ** 


asejsog ‘ 


‘gouvASAUOD ‘A19U0I}¥IS) sosuddx] [eloueny ¢ 


ae WNnoosY JUBINH UOIOI[Gng ‘' 


JasJUeSIOQ UCT}EONpYA oinjeN Jo Asvjes ¢! 


syoog puv sjojydweg Apnjg sinjeN jo 3s0p “ 


"BOY souvleg js¥] Jod se {J9100g 94} 0} onp souRIeEg Ag 


SINAWAVg 


& € Sh6‘ST 


9 TZ 
6 S$ LEgte 


0 0 on0's 


0 0 OOL‘S 


d V SY 


eiey 


eee 


2561 copy yig ‘AvaNog 


eee ese 


AJOIOS = AIOISI ET 


“* (QOUVADV ) 
[Benen <Avquiog ° 

eee So[BS 
syoog pue sjol[ydmeg Apnys sinjyen * 


aa Aequiog JO JUSUIUIaAON) 
twolj jyunosdy yuRIg uolzeor[qng * 


Aequiog jo JUSWIUIOAON) WI] JUBID OF, 


SLalaoay 


9S67 42QMIIIT JST € papua AVIA 34) AO] JUNOIIP Sjuatthvg puv 844919907 


AWAHIS NOILPFINWA AANLIVN 


ALAIOOS AYOLSIH TWYNLVN AVEAWO 


paren ase 


54 


Vol. 


JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, 


992 


SS LL a LE SE SS SS SSS SS SSS SESS SSE SSS SS SS SS SSS PS SSS SSUES SSS 


£ L ¢80°rS “ PIBMIOJ palseyD € 1 ges‘ss ““ PAVAdO} pallsey 
bp 2 60L'b e a - * yogeq “© FS 6 28L'T 
0 0 002 | se abe JUNODSF ONnUsADI 0} JORG 0 SL £8T ser se re se XBL sores 
IYSAOIQ Pasi[1}NuN pieme AJONSIPA [BINIEN * 0 SI O9T _: 5 re “  9OUBINSUT 811 y] 
: | S $I Zr‘ ge ; a sesivyy [elouer) 
¢ St Zeert Nasal /Sasuagdxa snosuvjzjaastpy *' 
6 SI 68 ; ot ae suoHeosTqng J9TIO : 
|6 §& IS : SF 3 st "010 ‘AWIOPIXBY, IEN ——— 
0 cI 8162 see : - ae sivpual[eg os sae ae ets ase SUIOY 19410 
OL ST 02 oe 38 ou Ill ‘IOA SPIIg ouer eS i 2s SJUIY s[Qqviaaooa11] 
£ VI Let a Pp ** SOSD[LOJ UBIPUT ie ke z ob sdiyssepoyos uvo7y 
0 g LAS see see coe eee Usia BuUf}IOdS IIN, eee cas eae eee s1iqoq ped 
. \Jeyjo pue Joasyeyy 941 SuljueauINoITD “ JJO uajiz4m tunomp ** 
£ 6 goL'y | ah Seel], UeTpUT [hjInveg atM0g 0 0 os /Saaq qipnp ** 
@ Sl pez ‘se “ ee  squays IN “Sasuegxy JosaTy ** 
pay Si9quUl[Q uvfpuy [NyJynesq eawos IEIN 6 SaaJSNAT 07 uotivsaUnmMay 
2 0 gzo'1 | aes ‘“sTealluy UBIpUuy Jo yoog é 
¢ £ 9692 ste cae Splig We¥lpuy Jo yood 012 SOS*Ig Ste 
2 °94a sxyo0g 0 0 CSF ee mei he sce (ssoding 
9 0 Ic r *y ics oe bt) soleg [eulinor s , TOUO}SSIMMOD AYIeY4D) ypny peloeds 
: °SILJOAW SuotjvIzjqgnd ‘* 0 0 612 Ad ch “"  JUSWISSI}JIOAPV 
é I ¢c68 2 : 0 0 002°C SOSUddXH SUI[[VACIT, $,10}1P 
0 OL 6RS T aS ee a “" gs90q 900¥v1]0q 0 OT O86 sso ae ae T2001e}S pue 30101 
Zant SOs" 12 see +e see 00 suOoI}dIJOsSqns Ol SL BLTT see see eee 98B1SOd 
“ SOIANOS 49410 WoOsAT aucoquT “ 0 0 60Fr'2 $8 st 3 ee eh yuay 
6 0 090°8 | : 0 & &860°T sme ae is me CO jovetian| 
0 9 0007 ae a * Sequiog jo JUsMIUIBAON JUSPIAOIg YeIS 0} UOT]NGII}GOD $.A4}9190S 
0 0 000% ee 5 ™  BIpuy jo JUSTMITIBAOY) 0 IL &Z0'¢2 (90UVMO[LV SSOUIVIG SUIPNIOUL) saz1el[eES 
a 2S7uD4y ‘* sSasuagxray juauyszjqvjsq *' 
_ uty 40 ys? U2 SuoLzvUuET * 
IIN puspii®§ ** TIN 
8 OT 2ro'r ae | 6 ee oe EY ‘*  (sjuourjsn[ pe 
0 8 682, fies ee junosoy yueg °° JO UOIS!AOIg Jo AeM Aq) uoljeoaided 
8 2 &Sct | fe as “"  saljlin0ag UG ai con om nee sou eansuy 
| © (paszjpa3z) Jsazaqzur oo ore ae SOLIBLES 
LIN = LEN coe eee see eve eouvuoOIeIN 
ae ed os Posi vay pue ‘siledsy ‘sessoD ‘saxey, ‘soley 
UN | - : ac “ peniosoy sfzuay A J Satgsagord JO JadGSaa Ut SasuaG@xy of, 
qd V Sy dvi Si | HINOINT d W Sy d VV Sy AaXALIGNad XY 
4) 9961 MHAN ADA BIE CHUINY AVHA AHL XOX LNNODIV AYNLIGNYdUXY ANF ANWOINIT “AT 


XI ATOGAHHOS 


ALHIOOS AYOLSIH TVYALVN AVENOP 


ee de) 


993 


1956 


ACCOUNTS, 


oa 


DINGS 


= 
v] 


PROCEE 


"29JSNAT 


‘ITV WIT¥S (pS) 
AJ@IDOS AIOWIP [BALYeN Avquiog JOW 


LL 230’ rs 


L < @g0'6S 
qd ¥ sy 


er nS SCANNER TES CORE BORLA 


* 


on Vw Sa 


180], 


PABPMIOJ JY SNoIg 


AWNOONT 


*“S7UDIUNOIIP Pasaz4vYy yD 


. 


Af Z80'PS 


vy ST O2S‘8T 


0 2 £20*2 


€ I 82S‘t¢g 


d Vv sy 


———— 


“od 9 NOSNOYVAAN “A “V (’PS) 
a}yep UXAD Jo }10da1 Ino Jed sy 


HN 
9 S$ 260'T 
O16 2PZT 
| UN 


|0 £4 $22 


0.0 ose't 
| 


d Vv Sy 


‘L561 toy yg ‘AVaKOg 


see $}0a[qo s[qeIlIeYys J3yIO (Pp) 
**AJIDAOd 50 Jolfay ‘jal[al [eorpeyw (7) 
3 a5 Ayeiqry 
** sasuedxq [veuJnor—leuoljeonpyY (¢) 
so ess tee “* STOLSITaYy (Dv) 

2 SNA T, 942 JO $790L9Q UO aanjtpUuagxT OF 
ne aes ae ee omm}uIng UC 
S\IUT}SeAUT UO 

- u014 DLIGAGIG OL 
ee pleMJoy }Ysn01g 


AUOLIGNAdXY 


4) (panuyuor)\—9661 YTIWAITG IE GAUGNA AVIA AHL XO LNNOIJIIV AXOLIGCNAAXY ANF HWOINI “A 


(panutyuor)—X1 ATINGAHOS 


MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE 
BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY HELD IN THE 
CONFERENCE HALL OF THE B.E.S. & T. UNDER- 
TAKING, ELECTRIC HOUSE, ORMISTON ROAD, 
BOMBAY, ON WEDNESDAY THE 21st AUGUST 
1957 AT 6 P.M. WITH REV. FR. H. SANTAPAU, 

s.J., IN THE CHAIR 


1. A message from Shri Sri Prakasa, Governor of Bombay, re- 
gretting his inability to preside at the meeting due to illness was read. 

2. The Honorary Secretary’s Report for the year ended 31st 
December 1956, having been circulated, was taken as read. The 
Honorary Secretary then enumerated the activities of the Society 
during the period January to August 1957. (See pp. 985-988.) 

3. The balance sheet and statement of accounts presented by 
the Honorary Treasurer were approved and adopted. 

4. The Committee’s nominations to the Executive and Advisory 
Committees, as previously circulated to members, were accepted by the 
meeting. 

After conclusion of the formal business of the meeting, two films: 

Lone FiicuT, loaned by British Information Service and 


WiLp LirE AND THE HumANn Toucu, loaned by the United States — 


Information Service, were shown to members and their friends, and 
greatly appreciated. 


PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS 
18 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS—24-12-1957. C8767, 
EDITORS: SALIM ALI, AND H. SANTAPAU 
114 APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY 


ee a 
Fi 


— i Se 
> 


C= ee = -—) —= 
P — c 


7 ee ee 
. J 4 


EE a a ee eS 
> . 


NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS 


Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the 
editors by observing the following instructions: 

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for 

publication to other journals or periodicals, or have already been 
published elsewhere, should not be submitted. 


2. The MS should preferably be typed (double spacing) on 
one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered. 

3. All scientific names, to be printed in italics, should be under- 
lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial 
letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and sub-specific 
names always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a 
person or a place, e.g., Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis 


suratensis or Dimeria blatteri. 


4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used 
where identification has been authentically established by comparison 
of specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identi- 
fication is based merely on sight, binomials should be used. 


5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good 
contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 34x24 inches 
(No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper. 

6. Text figures, line drawings and maps should be in Indian 
ink, preferably on Bristol board. 

7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the 
paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name with the abridged 
titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics), and titles of books 
not underlined (roman type), thus: 


Roepke, W. (1949): The Genus Nyctemera Htibner. Trans. ent. 
Soc. Lond. 100 (2): 47-70. 


Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals, Bombay. 


Titles of papers should not be underlined. 
Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting 
the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Roepke, 1949). 

9. Synopsis: As recommended by the Royal Society Scientific 
Information Conference (July 1948), the editors consider it desirable 
that each scientific paper be accompanied by a synopsis appearing at 
the beginning, immediately after the title. ‘The synopsis should be 
factual. It should convey briefly the content of the paper; draw 
attention to all new information and to the author’s main conclusions. 
It should also indicate newly observed facts, the method and conclusions 
of an experiment, and if possible the essential points of any new 
finding, theory or technique. It should be concise and normally not 
exceed 200 words. 

When the synopsis is completed it should be carefully revised by 
the author to clarify obscurities, and further compressed wherever 
possible without detracting from its usefulness. 


114 Apollo Street, Fort, EDITORS, 


Bombay 1 JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY 
NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 


Pe 


THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS 


Mammals 
The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. With many coloured and black 
and white plates. 2nd (revised) edition. (dn preparation) 
Birds 
Game Birds of India, by E. C. Stuart Baker. Vol. III. Pheasants, 1st Edition. 


: Rs. 20 
(Price to Members Rs. 15) 


The Book of Indian Birds, by Sdlim Ali. With 56 coloured and 22 black and 
white plates, 5th (new) edition, revised and enlarged. Rs, 20 


(Price to Members Rs. 16) 
Fish 
Circumventing the Mahseer and Other Sporting Fish in India and 
Burma, by A. St. J. Macdonald. With coloured and black and white plates. 


: Rs. 15 
(Price to Members Rs. 12) 
Miscellaneous ss 
Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many coloured 
and monochrome plates. 2nd (revised) edition. Rs. 20 


(Price to Members Rs. 16) 
Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With 
many coloured and monochrome plates. : Rs. 22 
(Price to Members Rs. 17.50) 
Butterflies of the Indian Region, by M. A. Wynter-Blyth. With 27 coloured 
and 45 monochrome plates. Rs. 28 
| (Price to Members Rs. 22.50) 
Indian Molluscs, by James Hornell. With 2 coloured and many monochrome 
plates, and text figures. Rs. 6 
(Price to Members Rs. 4.50) 
Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets: _ | 
Our Birps, 1 (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada 


and Marathi. 62 nP 
Our Birps, 2 (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi and 
Marathi. 62 nP 
Our BEAUTIFUL TREES, 3 (with 8 coloured plates) English. 62 oP 


(Editions in provincial languages in preparation) 
Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jackal, 
etc. Rs. 2.50 
Identification of Poisonous Snakes—Wall charts in English, Gujarati and 
Marathi. (Jn preparation) ; 
Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application. 


Obtainable from: 
The Honorary Secretary, 
Bombay Natural History Society, 
114 Apollo Street, Bombay |, 
Agents in England: 
Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley Ltd., 
Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Nr. Hitchin, 
Herts, England. 


TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP 


Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and a life membership fee of 
Rs. 500. 


Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and an annual subscription: 


of Rs. 30. 
The subscription of members elected in October, Nevember and December 


covers the period from the date of their election up till the end of the following 
year. 


MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA 


The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members 
should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the 
amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 32.50—to the Society in 
Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum 
of £2-9-8 should be paid annually to the Society’s London bankers—The 
National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. 


N INSTITUTION LIBRARIES 


—6 


8 01205 0928 


‘ahipseeti