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' A a : . ‘ : ay ; ‘ ' ‘ ' ‘ 1 = 2 ‘ 3 ' t ‘ ‘ , fon 3 ' 1 \ ‘ , ' n - ' + ‘ Kah fe 1 I ‘ ‘ ( a o 7 xs : + ‘ 7 i ' , 1 ' - ' Use ‘ ‘ ’ ' 1 & ' cs , a t ‘ i 1? #Ni cS : iGo 1 can I 7 i ; wy : " 7 : oy) ‘ p a : ‘ : a, i 1 ' ® \ +) a ru tat > ree ore nat a ei iN" i . - ' - ; 7 iy 7 vr ' x : ' - : : ' st a a oe ' if i ue ip = , = : 7 5 fi 7 0 = —_ — 7 > nF 7 ey) ated wee s* H : ' > j # - ’ ve a : a a 4 “ FR : a] 2 0 : 7 1 ' = ‘ 4 : a ‘ ¥ - - Vis ‘ 7 1 7 At ‘ “Journal of the ; Bombay Natural History Society 2a ies en fy Pos Vol. 62, No. 1 | Editors H. SANTAPAU, s.)., D. E. REUBEN, ZAFAR FUTEHALLY & J. C DANIEL APRIL 1965 Rs. 15 NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by observing the following instructions : 1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica- tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be submitted. 2. 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Orders for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing. ae | EpITORS, Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural Opp. Lion Gate, History Society Apollo Street, Fort, Bombay 1-BR. VOLUME 62, NO. 1—APRIL 1965 Date of publication : 31-7-1965 CONTENTS THE YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, Vanellus malabaricus (BODDAERT), A TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER. II. Additional data on breeding biology. By S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway. (With a plate) .. cm 1 ON THE ‘ SUDANO-DECCANIAN’ FLORAL ELemMent. By V. M. Meher-Homiji. (With a map and one plate containing 8 graphs) : 15 ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION, INDIA, WITH REMARKS ON SPECIATION. By M. L. Roonwal and O. B. Chhotani 19 THE- VEGETATION OF MANortI AND MADH ISLANDS IN BomBay. By Y. D. Pradhan and Y. Satyanarayan 32 COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES: FAMILY BOMOLOCHIDAE—3. By , N. Krishna Pillai. (With eight text-figures) 38 THE ExOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL. By K. M. Matthew, s. J. 56 A NOTE ON THE MANTIDS AND TETTIGONIDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BomBAY NATURAL History Society. By N. T. Nadkerny 76 ON THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE GuLF oF Kutcu. Part I1I—Pelecypods. By H. L. Kundu. (With fifteen plates) 84. MorE CYANOPHYCEAB OF HOSHIARPUR: III. By P. C. Vasishta. (With two plates) x, a BS, Sle .. 104 MARINE TIMBER-BORING ORGANISMS OF THE INDIAN COAST. Report on a Collection from the South-East Coast of India, with Notes on Distribution in the Indo-Pacific Area. By N. Balakrishnan Nair T4190 REVIEWS 7 : 1. The World of the Tiger. (R.C. M.) we. 132 2. The Mountain Gorilla. (J.C. D.) . 133 3. The Camellia Treasury. (A. J.A.) ty 335 4. Animal Populations. (J. C. D.) 721366. 5. The Oxford Book of Birds. (H. A.) ahi 6. A New Dictionary of Birds. (S. A.) . 138 7. An Introduction to the Mammals of Sabah. (H. A.) . 139 8. The World of Birds: A Comprehensive Guide to General Ornithology. (S. A.) . 140 9. Never Cry Wolf. (Z. F.) catat 10. Call of the Tiger (H. A.) . 144 “a MISCELLANEOUS NOTES: 1. Habits of the Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann) in the Sunderbans, 24-Parganas, West Bengal. By Ajit Kumar Mukherjee and Sumit Gupta (p. 145). 2. Wild dogs and village dogs. By E. R. C. Davidar (p. 146). 3. Breeding of the Indian Wild Ass Equus hemionus khur Lesson in captivity. By F. Gaekwad (p. 148). 4. The Hispid Hare [Caprelagus hispidus (Pearson)]. By H. Khajuria (p. 149). 5. Young of the Indian Gerbille, Tatera indica indica Hardwicke. (With a photograph). By H. Khajuria (p. 150). 6. Some notes on the Painted Partridge [Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby)] around Bombay: A correction. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 152). 7. Food of the Whitebreasted ' Kingfisher [Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus)]. By T. J. Roberts and C. Priddy (p. 152). 8. Notes on Indian Birds 3—The Alpine Swift, Apus melba (Linnaeus), with a description of one new race. (With a _ text-figure). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 153). 9. Swallows Hirundo rustica Linnaeus roosting on wires. (With a plate). By P. V. George (p. 160). 10. On the occurrence of Finsch’s Starling (Sturnus vulgaris poltaratskyi Finsch) near Bombay. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 161). 11. Plants eaten by Uromastix microlepis Blanford and other notes on this lizard in eastern Arabia. By J. Mandaville (p. 161). 12. Occurrence of the Sunfish Ranzania truncata (Retzius) near Veraval, along Gujarat coast. By M. J. Pradhan (p. 163). 13. Remarkable growth of fish in Sandaimedu demonstration tank (North Arcot District, Madras State), with a note on its ecology. By A. Sreenivasan (p. 165). 14. On Eocyzicus sp. (Conchostraca, Branchiopoda) at Panchgani, W. India. (With one text-figure). By Ashok A. Karande and N. B. Inamdar (p. 167). 15. Variant behaviour of Chalybion bengalense Dahlb. (Hymenoptera, Sphecidae). By S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway (p. 169). 16. Ixodes kerri Rao, 1954: A synonym of Ixodes petauristae Warburton, 1933 (Acarina: Ixodidae). (With one text-figure). By T. Ramachandra Rao (p. 172). 17. Description of the nymph and larva of Ixodes petauristae Warburton, 1933. (With four figures in one plate). By P. K. Rajagopalan (p. 174). 18. Fruiting of Plumeria. By D.G. Sevastopulo (p. 176). 19. Micrococca mercurialis (Linn.) Benth.: An addition to the Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain. By K.M.M. Dakshini and R.K.S. Chauhan (p. 177). 20. Pogonatum subperichaetiale Card. et Vard.: A new record from the Himalayas. (With a plate). By B. M. Wadhwa and J. N. Vohra (p. 177). 21. Melhania hamiltoniana Wall.: A new record for Bombay State. (With a plate). By A. R. Chavan, S. D. Sabnis, and S. J. Bedi (p. 179). 22. New record of Utricularia minutissima Vahl in South India. (With one plate). By R. Vasudevan Nair (p. 180). 23. Preservatives for freshwater algae. By N. D. Kamat (p. 182). THE OPENING OF HORNBILL House: 13-3-1965 Notes AND NEws ete gis e5 as we In Vol. 62 at p. 139 in the third line of the Hees of Review No. 7: for ‘ 1946’ read ‘ 1964 ’. JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1965 APRIL Vol. 62 No. 1 The Yellow-wattled Lapwing, Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert), a tropical | dry-season nester II. Additional data on breeding biology BY S. D. JAYAKAR AND H. SPURWAY Genetics and Biometry Laboratory, Government of Orissa, Bhubaneswar (With a plate) “INTRODUCTION We have recently published (Jayakar & Spurway 1965) an account of the incubation behaviour of Vanellus malabaricus in the large exposed gardens of a residential area of New Capital, Bhubaneswar. This paper continues these observations, and provides provisional answers to some of the questions raised. The terrain consists of lateritic rock with a thin top-soil recently cleared in order to be covered with relatively large thinly-spaced build- ings. These building operations ensure that, in addition to the out- door taps, which are a feature of India, there are also many temporary sources of water. The average monthly rainfalls in millimetres begin- ning with January are: 14:5, 23°6, 16:0, 23:4, 67°3, 216°7, 336°8, 320°0, 248°8, 158°0, 53°3, and 4°8. The observations were primarily made from our house, which is shaded in the present map (see Plate) and shown in part in the map in our previous paper. The map shows an area of about 15 hectares or 37 acres which can be critically surveyed from the roof of this house. 2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) Within this area tarred roads are shown hatched. These are bordered by pavements and/or grass verges. Other roads and lanes are shown by parallel lines. To the north and north-east uneven treeless waste- land extends for over 350m. In all other directions visibility is abruptly obscured by buildings (not all of which are marked) and their associated hedges and trees. Nests were of course regularly visited, and were also watched from various verandahs of the same house. This area was surveyed on most days from 21/xii/63 usually for over an hour in the evening while a roosting census was being taken. We have previously discussed the idiosyncracies of wattle and wing coloration by which we distinguish the members of a pair. Similar characters were appreciated in pair 6 but not pairs 5and 7. The male of pair 6 (again defined as the animal who invariably trod during copula- tion) walked awkwardly and flew with his right leg dangling. Once again we thank our neighbour Shri S. K. Ghose for allowing us to watch nest 3’ and the tap, both of which were in his garden. BREEDING ECONOMY Table I lists some figures for the 7 clutches found during 1964 ; and the location of these and the associated territories are mapped in the Plate. TABLE I DATES OF OBSERVATIONS MADE Clutch 3 4 Bi 5 | 62. 7 6’ | | (perhaps | 4”) 0 egg at We a bs 19/iv | ras 15/v ~ 1 egg 21/iv i | 2ily\y. 2 eggs | 22/iv 22/v 3 eggs 12/iv 24/iv 24/v 4 eggs | 8/ii | 12/ii | 13/iv | 19/iv 25/iv 13/v 25/V. 1 egg missing 15/ii —itl/vi 4 eggs missing 19/ii 13/v 1 chick (3 or 2 eggs) 3/ ii? 9/v | 21/iVv 19/vi 2 chicks (2orleggs) | 10/v | 20/vi 3 chicks (1 or O egg) | 10/v 4/vi 1 chick 0 egg | 22/iv 22/vi empty 8/ iii® li/v? | 23/iv 5/vi 22/vi No. of eggs hatched eel ) 3 4 0 4 be Ist chick flying — 4/iv 14/vi | [2/vi?] ~ oh al divi chicks last seen 27/ iv 24/vi | aii 7] 2/vii = |22/ vii No. flying heel “eles parents last seen Res, 29/vi bavi 7 7/ vii |22/vii Norte : Bold face indicates date nest found. 1—helped out of shell (see Jayakar & Spurway 1965). 2__ynhatched eggs collected. JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. HIsT. Soc. » aoe?” » s » x s oo” ®2q 790d? » o 20m Area kept under observation from the roof of our house. The house is closely hatched in the figure. Widely hatched portions indicate tarred roads. Other pairs of parallel lines indicate untarred roads or public areas bordering roads. Nests are indicated by numbered dots. Approximate maximum boundaries of territories shown by broken ines as fOlLOWS > wer eee anew nome ene DAI 3; essemeneennne pail 6; Pegqeesecee ss pair 7 ob gag 0 moe 0 row mut pair 5. fan i Mi, f “ “oR EN aa rads be pt wera tye AN AY baila ere CRG oy He) YELLOW-WATILED LAPWING, A TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 3 Pairs 3 and 6 laid two clutches each: 3 and 3’, and 6 and 6’ respec- tively. On 6/iii, pair 3 led their only hatchling of clutch 3 away from the nest leaving 2 unhatched eggs. On 4/iv, they were first recorded nest-building and copulating in the region where they laid clutch 3’, and one or both of them were seen in this area on several days between then and the finding of the nest. We can presume that the first egg of clutch 3’ was laid on 9/iv or 10/iv. Therefore this pair, who were rearing a first brood, selected a new nest site about 29 days after they had deserted their first nest, and laid the first egg of their second clutch 5 to 6 days later. Pair 6 lost their first clutch completely on 13/v, and within 2 days, on 15/v, they were nest-building on their new site, and they also laid the first egg of their second clutch 6 days after site selection. All seven clutches contained 4 eggs. Pair 3 were incubating before the fourth egg of clutch 3’ was laid ; and pair 6 incubated their first clutch from the laying of the first egg. Indeed they often sat on the nest on 20/iv while nest-building by flicking pebbles. They were not watched during the hotter and therefore critical hours while clutch 6’ was still incomplete. Both clutches we observed through their laying (clutches 6 and 6’) took 5 days to lay, the last egg being 4 days younger than the ‘first, and it seems a rule that birds, unlike reptiles, lay not more than one egg a day. On both occasions where all four eggs hatched (clutches 5 and 7) the whole clutch hatched in approximately 24 hours. In nest 1 in 1963, where the process was watched in detail, the fourth egg-shell was removed from the nest 23 hours 10 min. after the first. The timing of the three hatches of nest 6’ seems abnormally long, but even so it is one day shorter than the laying period of the full clutch of four. Therefore some regulation seems to occur causing the eggs to hatch approximately simultaneously so intra-litter selection need not be invariably biased in favour of the first hatched. Considering the early afternoon tempera- tures to which the nests of V. malabaricus are exposed, it is not surprising that incubation is not delayed until the clutch is complete. Such delay is the device used by birds nesting in cooler microclimates to obtain synchronisation of hatching. One is reminded of the observation that the litters of ‘ live-bearing ’ fish (Poeciliidae) consist of fry which are all born at the same developmental stage though the individual embryonic lives range from 3 to 4 weeks (Turner 1937). We have no undepleted clutch from which to calculate the incubation period defined as the interval between the first oviposition and the first hatch. Using this measure on depleted clutch 6’ we obtain 29 days. Considering the /ast oviposition to the /ast hatch we obtain 27 and 28 days from the depleted clutches 3’ and 6’ respectively. If we are correct that nest 7 was not established on 8/v, the first egg could not have been laid earlier than 9/v, and therefore the incubation period was as short as 26 days. 4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) — Considering these figures we can discuss the fact that clutch 7 was laid in the same scrape as nest 4. Unfortunately we did not learn to recognize pair 4 morphologically. Wynne-Edwards (1962, pp. 156 and 408) gives references to the re-use of a scrape during a series of seasons by different individuals of the same species, or by different species, and we do not yet know for this species how complete the re-apportioning of territories can be within one breeding season. A territory containing this scrape would be expected to extend into gardens which are invisible from our roof, as the territory of pair 7 was later seen to do. Therefore it is possible that pair 4 built a-nest in one of these between 19/ii and 13/v, meanwhile relaxing its hold on the north-western part of its terri- tory which was temporarily taken over by pair 6. Certainly birds were repeatedly seen in this area screaming at inter-specific intruders and dis- playing at the other conspecific pairs. However pair 6 and 7, who both finally held territories to the east of that of pair 3, were not recognized morphologically until they were associated with their respective nest sites. . Using the times obtained from the other nests it is chronologically possible for pair 4 to have built a nest (4’) where it could not be seen by us, from which the young were reared, and that nest 7 represents nest 4”. There were no flying young birds seen accompanying pair 7 in the manner that the survivor of their first clutch accompanied pair 3 for more than half the incubation period of their second clutch (see next section). However, it is possible that the young may sometimes leave their parents as soon as they can fly, or the hypothesised brood 4’ may have been lost late in childhood. The hatching success for 1964 is 15 out of 28, and if we add our two 1963 nests in which all the eight eggs hatched 23 out of 36, i.e. so far, it lies between 54 and 64%. In these estimates we make one logically ‘dubious assumption which is probably biologically correct. The earlier hatchlings certainly step off the nest before all the eggs are hatched. Therefore, if an egg disappears before hatching has begun, we consider that egg lost (we have seen one taken by a crow, Corvus macrorhynchos), but if an egg disappears after hatching has begun, we assume a success- ful hatch, the shell having been removed and the chick having left the nest. Though our only unhatched eggs occurred in nests we were watching, we do not think this is because we minimised predation of the nest. . We are only certain that 4 of our hatchlings survived to fly, on two occasions 32 days after it, or its eldest sibling, hatched. It is probable that one chick of family 5 also survived, but this family was only recog- nized by its territory which was far away. Also, it is just possible that family 7 moved to a region of their territory not visible from our roof before any of clutch 7 were able to fly. That only 5 young from 28 eggs, laid by 8 or 10 parents, survived even infancy may not be disas- YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, A TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER § trous in the light of the mortality rates Spon in V, vanellus (Lack 1954 ; Haldane 1955). The Plate shows, outlined with various broken lines, the areas on - which a given pair was seen feeding at any time during the season. We consider that these feeding areas coincide with the territories. Firstly, at any given instant they were mutually exclusive but contiguous, there being no neutral ground between them. Had there been a neutral ground between territories, at no place would more than one pair dis- play, which was certainly commonly seen. No adult intruder, if noticed, was ever allowed to forage, but was greeted with agonistic behaviour, which was often followed by copulation by the pair in possession. These displays against intruders occurred not only at the boundaries between two territories but well within them. During our continuous watching in February we saw in detail many examples of the latter. If these were attempts by newcomers to appropriate some of the territory held by pair 3 in our garden they were unsuccessful. However pair 6 did move in on some of the territory previously held by 3 in the wasteland. The territory of 3 was at its largest early in the season, the pair staking a claim exceptionally early according to all previous authors. However this territory did not constantly contract but its boundaries fluctuated, per- haps even from day to day, according to whether pair 3 or pair 6 were occupied, for example with incubation, in a region remote from the dis- puted area. From the map, pair 7 appears to have similarly invaded part of the territory of pair 6. However as clutches 4 and 7 were laid in the same scrape, they may well have been laid by the same parents (see above). On this interpretation the relevant area was first held by pair 4 who relaxed their- hold for a while and subsequently re-established it. Secondly, the nests were also in these feeding territories. Nest 3’ was certainly in the area held while nest 3 was being incubated, and nest 6’ probably in the area associated with nest 6. Finally, no chick too young to fly was ever seen feeding outside the territory held by its parents, and this was exceptional even after they did fly. The maximum areas of territories 3 and 6 as shown in the map were 3.47 hectares (8.75 acres) and 2.59 hectares (6.40 acres) respectively. These are much larger than those of the European lapwing V. vanellus which range from 0.5 to around 2 acres. This is correlated with the different economy of V. vanellus where both the adults and the chicks feed outside their territories. These are only exceptionally adjoining, and at a period when V. vanellus was considered a common species, several frequencies ranging from 2 to 3 pairs to 18 pairs per 1000 acres were found on different habitats (Nicholson 1951, p. 77, and Wynne- Edwards 1962 for summaries), compared with the 5 (or 4) pairs of V, malabaricus we observed in an area of about 40 acres. 6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) MEMBER OF A FIRST BROOD ACCOMPANYING ITS PARENTS DURING INCUBATION OF A SECOND BRoop After leaving nest 3, and before we found their second clutch (nest 3’), the parents were regularly seen with their chick in their territory during the 14 or 2 hours before dusk while S.D.J. was making another set of observations from the roof. They were seen on all days when they were looked for, except two, and were seen to copulate three times. It is possible that they had a daily routine of movements within their territory, since on 9 days we saw them in our garden, or the garden to the west, at dusk, having just arrived there from the wasteland to the north. The solitary chick was always seen in the company of its parents until 7/iv, 3 days after it was first seen to fly, and even after that, it could frequently be found with one or other of them. This remained true on and after 12/iv when we discovered nest 3’ with three eggs already present. The chick was seen often enough during the inspections of nest 3’ for us to presume that it still spent a large part of its time in the company of its parents, and this was confirmed during our periods of continuous observation begun on 26/iv. During these periods on 26/iv and 27/iv, the chick groomed and fed in regions of shade near the new nest including the so-called tap-region which had so much valence for the incubating birds (see next section). At this time the young bird was only a little smaller than an adult, and the black of its head and the yellow of its legs and wattles were paler. The wattles were not fully grown and did not overlap over the beak and forehead. The back was brindled instead of a uniform fawn. When watching was continuous, it was observed that both parents pecked, lunged, flew, or ran a few steps at the chick, causing it to retreat. The chick also avoided walking too near to its parents, making detours to avoid passing within 40-50 cm. of either of them. Finally at 14.56 on 27/iv the father flew over the chick causing it also to fly. After both had landed the father performed, for a second or so, the display which a pair use, often together, at a conspecific intruder in their territory. This is derived from a ground pecking movement and quite characteris- tic and conspicuous, being highly ritualized. The father then ran a few steps after the chick. They paused 1.25 m. apart ; then the chick walked east into the next (the observers’) garden and spent about an hour eating, grooming, sitting, and stretching. After flying away, it did not return to its family or to their territory at least until it had further developed so as to have become unrecognizable. This breaking of filial ties, like several other crises in the lives of this species (Jayakar & Spurway 1965, and next section) coincided with a severe storm from 19.30-20.30 the same evening (27/iv). It is not known whether this storm played any part in disrupting the family, nor whether the ritualized display was YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, A TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 7 more potent than the several pecks in driving off the young bird, who had spent over 17 days in the company of its parents after they had started incubating a second clutch. As the whole of the first clutch of pair 6 was lost, there were no half- grown birds to accompany their parents during the incubation of clutch 6’. Lack (1954, p. 95) considers that pairs of V. vanellus never rear more than one brood a year. EGG-WETTING BY PAIR 3 Owing to details of cultivation, we were unable to find in either garden, a viewing point acceptable to the birds, from which we could see enough to justify continuous watching of the second nest (3’) of pair 3. However as this nest was located in the same general region as nest 1 in 1963 and incubated even later in the season, it provided an oppor- tunity to see whether birds who had not wetted their eggs during Feb- ruary and March would do so during April and May. Therefore, beginning just after noon on 26/iv, the tap at which pair 1 had wetted themselves before going to the nest was watched during the hottest hours of the day from the same verandah as had been used previously to watch the earlier nesting behaviour of pair 3 (Jayakar & Spurway 1965). This tap, which is 23 metres from the south hedge of the garden immediately to the west of ours and 5.5 metres west of the hedge bet- ween them, is carried on a vertical concrete post on the west edge of a concrete pavement 1.25 m. square surrounded by a rim about 10 cm. high. The pavement slopes towards a drain in the east side near its south-east corner. As the tap dripped continuously, this drain stimulated . a dense growth of small herbs just east of the rim obstructing observation of that region of the pavement in which there was always standing water. — Among these herbs grows a banana. The Duranta sp. hedge to the east of the tap is fortunately thin in this region, but nevertheless, during the period of observation, there was little unshaded ground between it and the banana. The region of the above-listed objects will be called the tap-region. During the periods of observation, the birds seldom left this tap-region during their off-duty periods, as we have called the period between stepping off and stepping onto the nest, and which we will dis- cuss in detail elsewhere, The birds seldom walked through any of the regions of shade of eddies which had been their favourites while off duty from their earlier nest, and never behaved as though these had any valence for them. Except on 26/iv, watching was always begun before 11.00 and except on 10/v and 11/v continued until 16.30. On 10/v watching was dis- continued at 16.01 because the light was too poor to see the birds both of whom were rushing about and screaming. A violent dust storm began 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) at 16.06 followed by heavy rain at 16.08. This storm may have pre- cipitated the desertion of the nest, and certainly introduced a doubt as to when this occurred. After the female left the tap pavement at 15.19, and the male left the nest at 15.46, neither bird was seen either to enter the tap-region or incubate again, though both parents not only flew but ran about screaming when three chicks and a sterile egg were observed in the nest at 17.10. On 11/v, as the family had not visited either the nest or the tap pavement that day, and as the chicks had walked out of the observers’ field of vision before 13.49, watching was discontinued at 15.05. As 11/v was thus outside the incubation period the hours of watching are not included in Table IV. The nest itself was obscured by the hedge, and during the middle of the day, the high sun flattered the animals’ disruptive coloration making them almost invisible. But when the sun was lower, both in the morn- ing and evening, the sitting bird was more conspicuous. However on all but 4 occasions the bird walked directly from the tap to the nest, so when the bird left the tap it was an indication that a take-over was imminent and this could be watched for. We therefore obtained timings of the duty periods but have not been able to add to our previous notes on the behaviour of the bird on duty on or around the nest. A bird was always present on the nest when watching was begun (except on 11/v), but on 8 occasions, including 10/v, the nest was un- covered when watching ceased. During these observation periods, the female was seen to take over incubation on 43 occasions and the male on 42 occasions. During any one observation period the number of times the two sexes assume duty cannot differ by more than one, because these alternate, but though the difference between the totals for the two sexes will be thus reduced, the virtual equality observed is more than a tautology. When a bird wag relieved from nest 3’, on all but 10 occasions s (in- cluding the 3 last on 10/v and 5 others at the end of the watching period) it approached the tap usually at a brisk walking pace, but in strong sun- shine it sometimes ran and jumped or stumbled over the rim of the pave- ment. They never flew. Once in the tap area, usually on the pavement, it. groomed with high intensity usually drinking immediately on arrival. The choice of the tap and its surroundings as an off-duty resting place during a period of higher temperatures, and the introduction of repeated drinking sooner or later among the grooming movements, confirms our previous interpretation of this grooming as a method of lowering the body temperature by evaporation. The animal usually walked in and out of the tap pavement and the various regions of shade and eddies between its eastern edge and the hedge between the two gardens. The grooming gradually became more desultory as the inter-duty period progressed, but on 58 occasions the animals began to crouch on the wet YELLOW-WATITLED LAPWING, A TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 9 ees | avs | €€ Pots Gas at : i 0 0 Ble 10 jelen\s ance aeG ureye9 2 rr06 | 1's 0€ I Bis face eck: ole ft bo pea aon 5 ! S I | | | | | a | | | Laz l powinsoid & | — ist | Lz fa ian | re 1 1 jt o1 | ¢ ure}I00 } QOULIIVA ! a [e100], pee 6h4| 9€. | 62 | ST | ch it ‘ot 6 | ie Ps) | | | | > soynuru a ba Mod dS detest +[e[e |e pep ome ALNG ONIWNASSVY GNV ONILLAM LSvT NAMA aN, II aTavy, 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) pavement, or in the shallow water sometimes bending forward so that their breasts as well as their bellies were wetted. Usually they walked a few steps in this position. The belly feathers were erected during these movements and the dirty water could be seen smeared on them. This crouching which may occur only once or may be repeated 20 times usually occurred only in the later part of an off-duty period. The exceptions were few and during the hottest periods when the animals in their hurry fell over the rim of the pavement and splashed about in the water immediately. While performing these crouches, the animals sometimes disappeared behind the plants growing by the drain often for several minutes and then walked calmly into view from behind them. At these times we have presumed that the birds were sitting down in the relatively deeper water behind the plants. On the five occasions when only disappearances and no crouches were recorded in off-duty periods, all for the female, we have presumed that she wet her belly, because such a sitting down would be the most efficient method of achieving this. A belly-wetting crouch was frequently the last act performed in the tap-region before the birds stepped off the south rim of the pavement to begin the very characteristic march to the nest. The time taken for this was very variable, but it could be brisk enough to be completed in under a minute. Both birds took a rather stereotyped curved path going con- siderably to the west of the straight line between the tap and the nest. Table II gives the distributions of the time between the last crouch, or failing this the last reappearance from the drain region, and the time at which the bird stepped onto the nest. From this table can be seen how few were the occasions when the period between the wetting and the assumption of duty was so long that it was doubtful if the bird was wet when it took over the nest. No differences were observed between the frequencies with which the male and the female wet their bellies either as the incubation period advanced, or as the ground or air temperatures rose, or at different hours of the day. Therefore, in Tables III and IV, the figures for the two sexes are added together. The figures are arranged in Table III according to ascending values of ground temperatures. These were taken so as to be as similar as possible to those to which the nest was exposed. The maximum air temperatures and the humidities (at some time between 08.00 and 10.00) being collected for another purpose were taken indoors in a non-airtight and frequently opened cupboard. These are thus only correlated with the conditions surrounding the eggs, though it should be stressed that in the tropics the interiors of non-airconditioned houses are much more open and ventilated than in temperate climates. From this table it is clear that the frequency of belly-wetting, and there- fore egg-wetting, increases with rise in temperature. This is confirmed by Table IV in which the data are rearranged according to the hours of YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, A TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 11 TABLE III Re er renner ene teter neeeerneeeee en nnnmmiamaaanee Temperature a ; Assumptions of duty 7 8 ae Bevel BLOB | 5 S watching | a in ce le ln a Pe ga ee 2 Oe Son ee 3 = se | 2s aces. | 3 Be poe O = ra c= ae | | hrs. min. | 44.5 | 33.5 | 74 | Shiva a) alee 3) 3 2 6 49 31.5 MA 26/ IV 4 1 1 1 0 2 0 30:5 33 I 2 fay 6 D4 2 =| 1 als) a2 Sc.) 71 ‘TIN 6 3 3 5 1 .83 53 32.5 74 27/iv 5 58 1 1 Z 0 1.0 54 35 73 6/Vv 6 Salk 3 ta 1 83 Ses 33.5 ql 30/iv 5 SOM eee 2 1 3 ID) 56 34.5 71 2/V 6 Seles, 4 2 .67 56 34 68 3/v 6 Sepia 1 4 v4 57 35 (Ee 4/v 6 37 3 a 2 .67 57 34.5 68 5/v 5 SHA ests! 4 1 8 BPS 4.5 il 71 1/v 6 | ae 0 1.0 58 34.5 74 9/v 6 So 4p} 8 1 89 58 35.5 Te 10/v 3) PGE Gul ca7 Bll 2 85 60 33.5 75) 8/v 6 31) 4 | ae 0 | 1.0 Total..| 86 43 | 43 | 42 | 6 22 Pee | | 47.5 | 35:5 35] 11/v 4 33 | 0 | 0 | 0 nas 0 | TABLE IV ; Debate Change-overs hour of day | . with | without | wetting | WEB. al ¢ J | wetting | wetting | Toni 10.30— 13 03 Bele 5 5 | 6 | 45 11.30— 14 12 7 9 12 4 75 12.30— 15 9 7 12 4 75 13.30— 15 7 eae tae 1 93 14.30— 2) 10 6 14 2 Beis) 15.30— 14 28 4 7, 6 5 S20) Total 86 43 | 43 | 42 | 63 | 22 | the day showing that the frequency has a peak during the period just after noon, 12. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) To sum up: pair 3 who did not damp their first clutch of eggs early in the season repeatedly damped their second clutch produced when the season was more advanced and the weather was, on the whole, hotter. However the relationship between the temperature and egg-wetting is not simple. Though, during the incubation of clutch 3, 54°C. was the highest ground temperature recorded, on no fewer than 21 days out of the 28 days during which this nest was watched temperatures of 44.5°C. and higher were recorded. As the eggs of clutch 3’ were damped at these temperatures this behaviour cannot be a direct response to a ground temperature above a critical value. | In 1963 the female of pair 1 damped her feathers twice within the hour following the removal of the last egg-shell from the nest, but not subsequently. The young, who were still in the nest, were not seen to suck them. It is possible that this continuation of damping after all the eggs were hatched was a lag persisting during the shift to behaviour appropriate to the chick-shepherding stage of parental activities and may be compared with the observation that the last time a parent stepped off nest 3, this was accompanied by nest-building (Jayakar & Spurway 1965). After they deserted nest 3’, neither parent was seen to approach the tap or perform any action in the tap-region, thus suggesting that none of its previous valence remained. This desertion of both sites simultaneously, which probably occurred on the late afternoon of 10/v, was quite complete by the morning of 11/v when the parents and three chicks were observed many times before systematic observation was begun. There was no parental reaction when the unhatched egg was collected at 14.00. However this observation that belly-damping ceases at nest desertion, feathers not being used to carry water to the young birds as in Pterocles spp. (Marchant 1961; 1962) is not as definitive as could be wished, because the storm on the evening of 10/v had caused a considerable drop in the temperatures on 11/v (Table III). It is still possible therefore that water for drinking would be carried to the young at higher circumambient temperatures. It is also possible that the temperature thresholds for watering mobile chicks that can, and do, seek shade might be higher than that for damping stationary exposed eggs. In our previous paper we discussed comparable behaviour in other species. We have since discovered two other descriptions, both of behaviour much more similar to that here described, and both occurring in species which Bock (1958) now includes in the genus Vanellus with malabaricus, which he considers, incorrectly, to be an African species. Owing to the kindness of Rev. W. Serle, we have read his account (1939) of a colony of Xiphidiopterus albiceps in Northern Nigeria cooling their eggs by wetting their underparts. Crossley (in litt.) observed indi- viduals of Hoplopterus spinosus performing the same action in July 1952 ~ - YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, A TROPICAL DRY-SEASON NESTER 13 in Egypt. In contrast, Helversen (1963) observed during May 1962 in north-east Greece that individuals of this species sat continuously on their nest throughout the night, approximately from 18 to 09 hours, and left these unattended for considerable periods during the rest of the day. Therefore, like V. malabaricus, V. spinosus varies its incubation behaviour according to the demands put on it by the environment. In the northern part of the range of the species, incubation is primarily to warm the eggs, whereas in hotter regions at least on some occasions it can be used to cool them. We thank James Ferguson-Lees Esq. for introducing us to Roy Crossley Esq. SUMMARY Seven clutches were laid by 5 (or 4) pairs of Vanellus malabaricus in an area of 15 hectares or 37 acres during the 1964 breeding season. The incubation period ranged from 26-29 days. The earliest that a chick was seen to fly was 32 days after hatching. Young from two clutches laid during the same season, by the same hen, in different scrapes, were raised. A chick of a first clutch, already able to fly, accompanied its parents while they were incubating their second clutch, and was driven from the territory by both physical attacks and agonistic behaviour. A scrape was re-used the same season, but it is not known whether the two clutches were laid by the same hen. The territories in our area were over 2.5 hectares. Unlike those of V. vanellus, they were contiguous and the adults and chicks fed in them exclusively. Their boundaries altered during a season, as areas were ceded, perhaps temporarily, to later arriving pairs. During the hotter parts of the day, and the season, one pair of parents cooled the eggs of their second clutch by wetting their breasts and bellies in standing water immediately before walking on to the nest. This behaviour was not performed during the incubation of their first clutch. REFERENCES Bock, W. J. (1958) : A generic review of the plovers (Charadriinae, Aves). Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.-118 : 27-97. HALDANE, J. B. S. (1955): The cal- culation of mortality rates from ringing data. Acta XI Congr. Int. Ornith., Basel: 454-458. HELVERSEN, O. v. (1963) : Beobach- tungen zum verhalten und zur brutbio- logie des Spornkiebitzes (Hoplopterus spinosus). J. Orn. 104 : 89-96. JAYAKAR, S. D. & SpuRWAY, H. (1965) : The yellow-wattled lapwing, a tropical dry-season nester [Vanellus malabaricus (Boddaert), Charadriidae]. I. The loca- lity and the incubatory adaptations. Zool. Jahrb., Abt. allgemeine Zoologie und Physiologie. Lack, Davip (1954): The Natural Regulation of Animal Numbers. Oxford. MARCHANT, S. (1961): Observations on the breeding of the Sandgrouse Pterocles alchata and senegallus. Bull. B.O.C. 81: 134-141. ——— (1962): Watering of young in Pterocles alchata. Bull. B.O.C. 82: 123- 124. NICHOLSON, E. M. (1951): Birds and Men. London. SERLE, W. (1939): Field observations on some Northern Nigerian birds. Jbis for October : 654-699. TURNER, C. L. (1937): Reproductive cycles and superfetation in poeciliid fishes. Biol. Bull. 72 : 145-164. WYNNE-EDWarDs, V. C._ (1962): Animal Dispersion in relation to social behaviour. Edinburgh and London. 14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) Note added in proof Vince (Nature 203 : 1192-3) has demonstrated that eggs of Colinus virginianus in synthetic clutches, the members of which were put together only after different periods of artificial incubation, hatched at approximately the same time. K. R. L. Hall (Ostrich, Maart 1964: 3- -16) has seen a first brood young of Vanellus (Hoplopterus) armatus stay with its parents until the second brood was hatched. It was then driven away, Hall thinks because of the increased aggressiveness of the parents to any bird that approaches them at this time. Mr. Crossley’s observations on V. spinosus have been published (Brit. Birds 57: 515-6). Hall (loc. cit.) did not report egg-wetting in the closely related, perhaps even conspecific, armatus which he observed in Cape Town which, like Greece, has a ‘ mediterranean’ climate. Thanks to the contributors to the Newsletter for Birdwatchers, Bombay, we learn that chick-wetting has also been observed in Bubulcus ibis in West Pakistan (J. O. Wright, in /itt.) and egg-wetting in the following species : Glareola lactea, Charadrius alexandrinus, Himantopus himantopus, and Vanellus indicus. These last four, together with Sterna albifrons, in which it has previously been recorded, were the only species found by R. S. Dharmakumarsinhji breeding on an exposed island during May 1962 in Saurashtra (Pavo 2: 1-11). Shri Dharmakumar- sinhji (in litt.) has seen it performed by Esacus magnirostris and several Other resident plovers. It seems therefore a widely distributed capacity. SD. al H. S. On the ‘Sudano-Deccanian’ Floral Element BY V. M. MeHER-HoMII Institut Frangais, Pondichéry (With a map and one plate containing 8 graphs) Every natural phytogeographic province is individualized by its special floristic assemblage. This characteristic flora of a phytogeo- graphic province constitutes the floral element of that territory. « The floral elements which concern the dry parts of India fall into two groups : (1) ‘North African-Indian desert’ element (cf. Blatter ef al. 1929) or the ‘ Saharo-Sindian ’ element (cf. Eig 1931), the characteristic area of which includes the Sahara, northern Arabia, Mesopotamia, Persia, and the desertic north-west part of the Indian sub-continent. As examples of this element may be cited Farsetia aegyptiaca Turr., Fagonia cretica L., Heliotropium undulatum Vahl, Launaea glomerata (L.) Hook., Lycium barbarum L., Malcolmia strigosa Boiss., Oligomeris subulata (Del.) Boiss., Peganum harmala L., and Periploca aphylla Dene. (2) ‘Tropical and North African-Indian desert’ element (cf. Blatter et al. 1929) which comprises Senegambia, Sudan, Abyssinia, Eritrea, Somaliland, southern Arabia, Socotra and sends represen- tatives into the dry parts of India especially in the north-west. The following species exemplify this element : Acacia senegal Willd., Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del., Capparis decidua (Forsk.) Pax, Cleome brachycarpa Vahl, Corchorus depressus (L.) Stocks, Dicoma tomentosa Cass., Grewia tenax (Forsk.) Fiori, Melhania denhami Br., Polygala irregularis Boiss., and Zygophyllum simplex L. This element is also known under the name of ‘ North African Steppe’ element. However, it may be pointed out that this term is not thoroughly justifiable, because the element includes species of savanna and thorn-forest and not of a true steppe. Secondly, steppe vegetation type is an expression of cold semi-arid climate and not of warm tropical. - Trochain (1954) has proposed the term ‘ pseudo-steppe ’ for the so-called steppic vegetation of north Africa because the true climax steppe is res- tricted to the chernozem soil. Fig (1931) has designated the term ‘ Sudano-Deccanian’ for this element, giving the following limits to the Sudano-Deccanian territory. 16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) Throughout the breadth of Africa between the Sahara and the tropical forest region extends a vast area of savanna and steppe which extends from Senegambia to Ethiopia and Eritrea; beyond the Red Sea this territory continues in tropical Arabia and seems to terminate in India where certain parts, especially of the Deccan, show many ecological and floristic affinities with Sudanian-Ethiopian savannas and steppes. An analysis of the floral elements of the dry parts of India carried out by me (Meher-Homji 1962) offers some objections to the above statement of Eig and to the validity of the term ‘ Sudano-Deccanian ’ floral element, in that the analogies between the above-mentioned parts of Africa and the Deccan are not so pronounced. Two zones of dry (semi-arid) climates are recognized in India, one in the north contiguous to the desert of Thar, extending into Rajasthan, the Punjab, parts of Uttar Pradesh, and north Gujarat. The other semi- arid zone, situated in the south, includes the Deccan plateau and parts of Coimbatore, Ramanathapuram, and Tirunelveli districts of Madras.. « The strength—of the ‘ Tropical and North African-Indian desert ’ (the so-called Sudano-Deccanian) element in the entire southern semi- arid zone including the Deccan is only 2.6% (Meher-Homyji 1962). The strength of this element is two times higher (5.4%) in the northern semi- arid zone. Thus the concentration of this element is in the northern semi-arid zone rather than in the Deccan. Further, the bioclimatic map reveals a continuous belt of xopical sub-desertic bioclimate (type 5) almost throughout. all Senegambia, Sudan, Ethiopia, southern Arabia, and parts of Rajasthan and the Punjab. This sub-desertic climate does not enter the Deccan. It is also interesting to compare the ombrothermic! diagrams of the stations of the Sudanese region (Graphs 1 to 4 of Nema, Timbuctoo, El Fasher, and Kidal) with those of Rajasthan (Graphs 5, 6 of Bikaner and Jodhpur) which resemble each other so much. On the other hand, the diagrams of the stations of the Deccan (Graphs 7 and 8 of Malegaon and Hyderabad Dn.) differ considerably from those of the Sudanese stations. Therefore, from the climatic point of view, also, the Deccan or the southern semi-arid zone has little in common with the Sudanese region. The region which presents greater similarity with the Sudanese zone is the northern semi-arid zone of India both from the climatic and the floristic view-points : climatically by resemblances in the bioclimatic conditions and ombrothermic diagrams, floristically by higher percent- age of the ‘ Tropical and North African-Indian desert ’ element. Therefore, in my opinion, the term ‘ Sudano-Deccanian’ of Eig is not justifiable. It would be more reasonable to speak of this element 1 Ombros=rain. For details of ombrothermic diagrams reference may be made to Bagnouls, & Meher-Homji (1959, p. 228). V.M.M.-H. 0) Gy oS) Ort (poriad Ap on) f2!soaenb3 (Aap syauow 9-5) WHIpdpy B4aKiq-owssy yp (Asp sysuow g-7) PaeNguerce d13x1qQ-owsayy (4ap SyUoWw z-]) jeridovosayy-qns WIRES WHIPSLY jo 101295 wes scod yO 403995 4) (Aap syquowg porenquarasy I ee, (D.S1> Yyauow (0961 ror (Asp synuow 7-4) jeisoenba-qns saxew san” ) (suoseas Lip OMY wapjo> ay2 jo 4) DaxIg jerjdosose,y (Aap susuows »-¢) 4972B42Y? Pawenusjiy (Aap syiuow 9-S) wApoes2Y WNIPS}Y (UUs O0S1<) uied Aaeaty jo 402995 (uw0$1-0001) ules WNIPayy JO 402395 (ww OOD1>) ules 400d yo 403235 (Aap syawow g-4) l) (4p sysuow g 4232e4RY> porenzus2sy NA t+ tt toeeetttette ttt te ete 2 w 7) g i eo = + n ao = (9.$1< HLNOW $30109 3H2L 40 BUNA VY 3dWID (AYO SAVG LYOHS) IIIdOwL —_ (Aap skep 3u0) uvauedastpazy ST SERIE REE EI STE RES STRIVE ET CREE ET TY ULL BNL LT RET EE a Nf UES AMM ed YS rire Og O€ © Asuapsas sen Bassy (79%) Anuapuas yeridosy ist 3] 4nuapuss ueauessarypayy (74 douapuas 42432444 [Sec] Asuspuss yerdosy Cz] (Asp sysuow 73) Prryeve] douppuar ueauenanpay Poa (4sp sywow 59-6) Dasap-Gns “HwoH-iayap 424V) SLNINILNOD NVISV-OUdV 4O SILYWITDOIS ldVW JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HisTr. Soc. Graph 4 Grewh 2 Ombrothermic diagram of NEMA Mauritania TIMBUCTOO. Sudan €0 30 wy Ce Z =e vt s : 60 AG 20 x ht Le LL UALS A40 COULLYUIEE TAO CASS UXA WG wn GOAL ORL J FMAM J SAS ON D Graph 3 Graph 4 EL-FASHER (Anglo-Egyptian) Sudan KIDAL (French) Sudan Groph § | Graph &. BIKANER JODHPU wnm. Peat eel age ae ee eae WT LO Ne Tin tae l eal LAaZ Le MAM oR eS OUND a@raph 7 Groph g HYDERABAD (On) alan Dry peried | | | | | | | | en a renee An rr ence ee ARE Re er me ree oe Ombrothermic diagrams of the Sudanese region (graphs 1 to 4), Rajasthan (graphs 5 and 6), and the Deccan (graphs 7 and 8) ON THE ‘SUDANO-DECCANIAN FLORAL ELEMENT 17 as ‘ Sudano-Rajasthanian ’, because it is the semi-arid Rajasthan which offers closer analogies with the Sudan region by consideration of the bioclimatic conditions and the ombrothermic diagrams. We have one more reason in changing the term Sudano-Deccanian to Sudano-Rajasthanian and that is on geographical grounds. The entry of the ‘ Tropical and North African-Indian desert’ element directly into the Deccan without penetrating the northern zone does not seem likely, because of the water barrier provided by the Arabian Sea and secondly because of the mountain barrier of the Western Ghats. The entry of this element into the Deccan seems possible only through the northern zone, for it is this zone that is continuous with the Sudan region through Pakistan, Iran, and Arabia. Finally, we may point out that the terminology of ‘ Sudano-Dec- canian ’ element completely breaks down if we consider the distribution of the species cited by Eig (1931, 1939) as *‘Sudano-Deccanian’. As examples may be mentioned Acacia albida, A. laeta, A. seyal, Aristida sieberiana, Ficus sycomorus, Moringa aptera, and Zizyphus spina-christi, which never occur in the Deccan. | As a matter of fact Eig (1931, p. 131) himself admitted the relative floristic individuality of the Deccan from the rest of the Sudanian ter- ritory. : Gruenberg-Fertig (1954) also pointed out the occurrence of only a very negligible percentage of the flora of Sudan and SW. Arabia in the Deccan peninsula and on this ground she suggested the separation of the African and Arabian parts of Eig’s ‘ Sudano-Deccanian’ region from the Deccan as the Sudanian region. It is worth mentioning that the eastern limit of this Sudanian region, which comprised two sub-regions viz. (1) West Sudanian and (2) Eritraeo- Arabian, was judged to stretch up to Baluchistan through the south- western corner of Arabia and southern Iran (Zohary 1962). My present investigation shows that the eastern boundary of the Sudanian region extends up to Rajasthan. In the framework of the present study we may also verify the validity of the term Saharo-Sindian element. On floristic basis, in the Indus delta (Sind) of 279 species that make up its flora 60 (21.5%) are of North African-Indian desert (‘ Saharo-Sindian ’) element, common to the deserts of north Africa and India (cf. Blatter, McCann, & Sabnis 1929). Inthe Thar or the Indian Desert, out of 440 indigenous species 71 (16.1%) are Saharo-Sindian (cf. Blatter & Hallberg 1918). On climatic grounds, Sind and Thar are characterized by a desertic bio- climate like the Sahara (Map ). In view of the high percentage of the element (16 to 21.5%) and of resemblances in the climatic conditions, the original proposal of the term Saharo-Sindian seems appropriate. 3 , 18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY .NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) SUMMARY It is suggested that the term ‘ Sudano-Rajasthanian ’ floral element is more appropriate than the term ‘ Sudano-Deccanian ’ proposed by Eig (1931). The arguments in favour of this change are advanced on floristic and bioclimatic grounds. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Sincere thanks are due to Dr. F. R. Bharucha under whose sugges- tion this work was carried out. The author is also grateful to Prof. H. Gaussen for the excellent facilities offered at the University of Toulouse, and for his valuable suggestions. REFERENCES BAGNOULS, F., & MEHER-Homi, V. M. (1959) : Bioclimatic types of South-East Asia. Inst. fr. Pondichery. Tr. Sect. Sci. & Tech. t. I. Fasc. 4: 227-246. BLATTER, E., & HALLBERG, P. F. (1918): Flora of the Indian Desert. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 218-246, 525-551, 811-818, 967-987. » McCann, C., & SABNIS, T. S. (1929) : Flora of the Indus Delta. Indian Botanical Society, Madras. Eic, A. (1931): Les éléments et les groupes phytogéographiques auxiliaires dans la flore Palestinienne. Fedde, Repert. Beih. 63. (1939) : The vegetation of the light soils belt of the coastal plain of Palestine. Palestine Jour. Bot. Jerusalem, Ser. J, 1: 255-308. GRUENBERG-FERTIG, I. (1954) : On the Sudano-Deccanian: element in the flora of Palestine. Palestine Jour. Bot. 6: 234-240. MEHER-HomyI, V. M. (1960): Les bioclimats du Sub-Continent Indien et leurs types analogues dans le Monde. Thése, Toulouse. Documents pour les Fasies des productions végétales. 4 @) : (1962) : Phytogeographical studies of the semi-arid regions of India. Ph. D. Thesis, Bombay University. TROCHAIN, J. (1954) : Nomenclature et classification des milieux vegetaux en Afrique Noire frangaise. In: Les divi- sions ecologiques du monde. Colloque Intern. du C.N.R.S., Paris. ZOHARY, M. (1962) : Plant life of Palestine: Israel and Jordan. The Ronald Press Co., New York. Zoogeography of Termites of Assam Region, India, with remarks on Speciation aH | BY tte M. L. ROONWAL, Sc. D. (Cantab.), Director, AND O. B. CHHOTANI, M.Sc. (Hons.), Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta I. INTRODUCTION The ‘Assam Region’ of eastern India covers an area of about 1,04,048 sq. miles and is composed of five administrative units, namely the Assam State (50,143 sq. miles), and four centrally administered areas called the North-East Frontier Agency (NEFA) (34,969 sq. miles), Manipur (8628 sq. miles), the Naga Hills and Tuensang Area (6276 sq. miles), and Tripura (4032 sq. miles). It presents a remarkable topo- graphic and ecological variety. Over one-half its area is covered with hills and mountains, some of them of great height and perpetually show- bound. The remaining areas are either cultivated or covered with dense evergreen forests. A detailed account of the plant community in a res- tricted area (the Imphal Valley, Manipur) has been given by Roonwal (1949a, pp. 110-116). The climate is ‘humid tropical’ in the plains, and ‘temperate ’ in the hills. The rainfall is heavy all over the area. The termite fauna of the Assam Region has until recently been studied in a more or less desultory way. The following authorities have contributed to its study: Holmgren (1913), Silvestri (1914), Gardner (1944), Snyder (1949), and more recently Roonwal & Pant (1953), Roon- wal & Sen-Sarma (1956, 1960), and Roonwal & Chhotani (1959-62). Snyder (1949) in his world catalogue listed only eight species from the Assam Region. As a result of intensive work subsequently, Roonwal & Chhotani (1962a) listed 34 species, 13 of which were new. This last paper also gives a map of the area and a full list of references on the termites of that region. In the present paper are discussed the zoogeographical significance of the termite fauna of the Assam Region and its bearing on the speciation problem. | 20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) Il. TAXONOMIC DISTRIBUTION Three of the known 6 families of living termites are represented in the Assam Region, viz. the families Kalotermitidae, Rhinotermitidae, and Termitidae. The families not represented are : Mastotermitidae (Australian only), Hodotermitidae, and Indotermitidae* (the peculiar family recently described by Roonwal & Sen-Sarma (1960) from Burma; _ yide also Roonwal 1958, for a preliminary account). A total of 16 genera and 34 species is represented (Table), the distribution of the genera and the number of species in each of them being as follows : Fam. I. KALOTERMITIDAE (1 subfamily, 2 genera, 2 species) Subfam. (i) KALOTERMITINAE 1. Neotermes Holmgren ; ie Al SSD; 2. Cryptotermes Banks | 1 sp. Fam. II. R#INOTERMITIDAE (3 subfamilies, 3 genera, 6 species) Subfam. (i) HETEROTERMITINAE ; 3. Reticulitermes Holmgren .. 2 spp. Subfam. (ii) COPTOTERMITINAE 4. Coptotermes Wasmann 2. 3 Spp. Subfam. (iii) RHINOTERMITINAE 5. Parrhinotermes Holmgren ; Jit] isp, Fam. III. TrRMITIDAE (4 subfamilies, 11 genera, 26 species) Subfam. (i) AMITERMITINAE 6. Anoplotermes Miller sae BEC 0 7. Speculitermes Wasmann rsp, 8. Synhamitermes Holmgren 1 sp. 9. Microcerotermes Silvestri 1’ sp. Subfam. (ii) TERMITINAE 10. Pseudocapritermes Kemner 1 sp. 11. Capritermes Wasmann op 12 SDD. Subfam. (iii) MACROTERMITINAE 12. Macrotermes Holmgren eS. 13. Odontotermes Holmgren 8 spp. 14. Hypotermes Holmgren 3 spp. 15. Microtermes Wasmann 3 3. spp. 3 Subfam. (iv) NASUTITERMITINAE oe 16. Nasutitermes Dudley Mf 4 spp. Total .. 34 spp.- As is usual in the Indo-Malayan Region, the family most richly rep-- resented is the Termitidae, with 4 subfamilies, 11 genera, and 26 species (comprising 69°% of the genera and 76% of the species known from the Assam Region). The genus best represented is Odontotermes (with 8 species or 24% of the total). The three closely allied genera: Odon- totermes, Hypotermes, and Microtermes contain among themselves- 14 ip eee Te ee ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION pa species or 41% of the total. The genus Nasutitermes is also well rep- resented, with 4 species (12% of the total). TII. ZooGEOGRAPHY AND SPECIATION (Table) For a zoogeographical analysis, the species are arranged below under the following seven categories, while a more detailed distribution is given in the Table at pp. 26-31 below : ‘No. OF SPECIES CATEGORY eee (AND % OF TOTAL : 34) (i) Species endemic to the Assam Region (Assam State, NEFA, Naga Hills and Tuensang Area, Manipur, and Tripura) ng RY 20 (58°8 %) (ii) Species common with peninsular India (below c. 20°N. latitude) only Me : oe none (iii) Species common with whole of India (including peninsular India) and with E. Bengal © Pakistan) only blues | hg 6 (17°6%) (iv) Species common with Bits only is os 1 3%) (v) Species common with Ceylon only se ae _ none (vi) Species common with the Indo-Malayan Region (India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma, Malaya, Indo- nesia), either whole or in part i : 16 (47%) (vii) Species common with the Palaearctic region eo China) only ... ¥. a po 13%) (i) Species endemic to the Assam Region (Assam State, NEFA, Naga Hills and Tuensang Area, Manipur and Tripura) : 1. Neotermes megaoculatus lakhimpuri Roonwal & Sen-Sarma 2. Reticulitermes saraswati Roonwal & Chhotani 3. Parrhinotermes khasii Roonwal & Sen-Sarma 4. Anoplotermes shillongensis Roonwal & Chhotani 5. Speculitermes cyclops rongrensis Roonwal & Chhotani 6. Pseudocapritermes tikadari Roonwal & Chhotani 7. Capritermes latignathus durga Roonwal & Chhotani 8. Macrotermes khajuriai Roonwal & Chhotani 9. Odontotermes assamensis Holmgren 10. Odontotermes flavomaculatus Holmgren & Holmgren 11. Odontotermes giriensis Roonwal & Chhotani 12. Odontotermes horai Roonwal & Chhotani 13. Odontotermes kapuri Roonwal & Chhotani 14. Hypotermes nongpriangi Roonwal & Sen-Sarma _ 15. Microtermes imphalensis Roonwal & Chhotani 16... Microtermes umsae Roonwal & Chhotani 17. Nasutitermes cherraensis Roonwal & Chhotani _~ ~18.- -Nasutitermes garoensis Roonwal & Chhotani -~ 19. -Nasutitermes kali Roonwal & Chhotani 20. Nasutitermes moratus (Silvestri) -_ ae JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) (11) Species common with peninsular India (below c. 20° N. latitude) only : None | (iii) Species common with whole of India (including peninsular India) and with E. Bengal (E. Pakistan) only : 1. Qa | Neotermes megaoculatus Roonwal & Sen-Sarma (The subspecies N. m. lakhimpuri R. & S. is confined to Assam. 3 Cryptotermes bengalensis Snyder? Coptotermes heimi (Wasmann) Synhamitermes quadriceps (Wasmann) Capritermes dunensis Roonwal & Sen-Sarma Odontotermes parvidens Holmgren & Holmgren (iv) Species common with Burma only : Coptotermes gestroi Wasmann (v) Species common with Ceylon only : None (vi) Species common with the Indo-Malayan Region (India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma, Malaya, Indonesia), either whole or in part : We £2: 13: 14. 15. 16. Neotermes megaoculatus Roonwal & Sen-Sarma (The subspecies N. m. lakhimpuri R. & S. is confined to Nee ) Cryptotermes bengalensis Snyder Coptotermes gestroi Wasmann Coptotermes heimi (Wasmann) Coptotermes travians Haviland Speculitermes cyclops Wasmann (The subspecies S. c. VORTENEE Roonwal & Chhotani is confined to Assam.) Synhamitermes quadriceps (Wasmann) aiden Microcerotermes heimi Wasmann Capritermes dunensis Roonwal & Sen-Sarma Capritermes latignathus Holmgren (The subspecies C. /. durga Roonwal & Chhotani is confined to Assam.) Odontotermes feae (Wasmann) Odontotermes horni (Wasmann) Odontotermes parvidens Holmgren & Holmgren Hypotermes obscuriceps (Wasmann) Hypotermes xenotermitis (Wasmann) Microtermes anandi Holmgren (vii) Species common with Palaearctic region only Reticulitermes chinensis Snyder (Central China) It will be seen from the analysis given above that the general zoo- geographical facies of the termite fauna of the Assam Region is, as is to be expected, overwhelmingly Indo-Malayan. Out of the 34 species 2 Ahmad (1952, Proc. 4th Pak. Sci Conf., Peshawar, Pt. 3p. 71) regards C: Censors as a synonym of C. havilandi (Sjostedt). Ww: ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION Lea occurring in the Region, the only one which shows some Palaearctic affinities is Reticulitermes chinensis Snyder (syn. R. assamensis Gardner) which has been recorded, besides Assam, from the Szechuan Province in central China. CAUSES OF SPECIATION A remarkably large proportion of species, 20 out of 34 or 58°8°%, are endemic to the Assam Region. This indicates a high rate of specia- tion in this region which is ecologically characterized by either dense evergreen forests or hills cut up into innumerable small valleys. In both these ecological situations, the movements of termites (even of the winged ones) are relatively restricted by the dense forests or by high ranges. As aconsequence, the termites are cut up into small or medium- sized populations which are confined to their patch of dense forest or their valley, and opportunities of inter-population mixing are few, i.e. the ‘ migration pressure’ is low. Thus, well-known ‘ population effects’ are called into play in which, as has been shown in medium populations [the Wright-Dubinin Effect, vide Dubinin (1931), Dubinin & Romas- choff (1932), and Wright (1931-46)] and in small populations (the Roon- wal Effect, vide Roonwal 1953, 1954) the variation-intensity is increased and the process of speciation speeded up (for a discussion of these effects, vide Roonwal 1947-54). , Of the non-endemic termite fauna, none is common with peninsular India only, and with Ceylon only ; 6 species (17.6%) are common with the whole of India (including E. Pakistan) only, 1 (3%) common with Burma only, and 16 (47%) common with the Indo-Malayan Region (either whole or in part). The species which are rather widely distri- buted over the Indo-Malayan Region are the following : 1. Coptotermes gestroi Wasmann (India ; Burma) 2. Coptotermes heimi (Wasmann) (India ; W. Pakistan ; also probably middle Java, Indonesia) Coptotermes travians Haviland (India ; Malaya ; Indonesia) Microcerotermes heimi Wasmann (India ; Ceylon) Odontotermes feae (Wasmann) (India ; Burma) Odontotermes horni (Wasmann) (India ; Ceylon) _ Hypotermes obscuriceps (Wasmann) (India ; Ceylon) Hypotermes xenotermitis Wasmann (India ; Burma) Microtermes anandi Holmgren (India ; Ceylon). OMNIA Ew Three genera call for special comment : Genus Parrhinotermes Holmgren is a small one comprising only 6 species, of which 5 are Indo-Malayan (India, Malaya, Indonesia) and one Australian. The single species from India, P. khasii R. & S., is from Assam and. was described by Roonwal & Sen-Sarma (1956)—this was the first record of the genus from Indian territory. 24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) Genus Anoplotermes Miiller is characterized by the absence of the soldier caste, only workers and alates (reproductives) being present. It is a large genus, containing about 45 species of which the majority (73 %/) are Neotropical (South and Central America), a few (25%) Ethiopian (Africa), and only one A. shillongensis R. & C., which was recently dis- — covered by Roonwal & Chhotani (1959, 1960a), is Indian (from Assam). Like Anoplotermes, the closely allied but much smaller genus Speculi- termes Wasmann is characterized by the virtual absence of the soldier caste. It has 7 species of which 4 (or 57°1%) are Neotropical and 3 (42:9 °%) Indo-Malayan. One subspecies, S. cyclops rongrenses Roonwal & Chhotani, is represented in Assam. IV. SUMMARY 1. The Assam Region of eastern India, comprising the five administrative units of Assam State, North-East Frontier Agency, Manipur, the Naga Hills and Tuensang Areas, and Tripura, is charac- terized by a remarkable variety of ecological environment. The plains and the lower areas are ‘ humid-tropical’ and are either cultivated or covered with dense evergreen forests. The hilly areas (which comprise over one-half the total area) are ‘ temperate’. The rainfall is heavy all over the area. 2. The termite fauna of the Assam Region has been studied fairly intensively in recent years, and a total of 16 genera and 34 species recorded. 3. Three termite families are represented, viz. Kalotermitidae, . Rhinotermitidae, and Termitidae. The Termitidae contains the largest number of genera and species—11 genera (69%) and 26 species (76%). 4. The genus Odontotermes contains the largest number of species (8, or 24%). 5. The termite fauna has been analysed zoogeographically. A remarkably high proportion (20 species, or 58.8 %) of the fauna is endemic, _and has not been recorded elsewhere. No species is common with peninsular India only or with Ceylon only, and one species is common with Burma only. Six species (17.6%) are common with the Indian Region as a whole (including E. Bengal in E. Pakistan), and 16 species (47%) are common with the Indo-Malayan Region. Only one species — (3%) is common with the Palaearctic Region (central China) only. 6. It is suggested that the very high proportion of endemic species (about 59 %) is indicative of a high rate of speciation in the region. It is further suggested that this is due to the peculiar ecological conditions (dense forests and numerous hill ranges and valleys) which tend to cut up the distribution into small, semi-isolated populations, and this condi- tion accelerates the variation-intensity in terms of the Wright- Dubimin and the Roonwal Effects. . ~~ ZOOGEOGRAPAHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION 25 +; REFERENCES DuBININ, N. P. (1931) : Genetico- automatic processes and their significance for the mechanism of organic evolution [In Russian|. J. Biol. exp. 7: 463-479. Moscow. & RomascuHorF, D. D. (1932): Die genetische Struktur der Art and ihre Evolution [Jn Russian, with German summary]. Biol. Zh.5 : 939-976. Moscow. GARDNER, J. C.-M. (1944): New Termitidae from India and Burma. (Isoptera). - Indian. J. Ent. 6 (1 & 2):. 103-110. New Delhi. -HotmGren, N._ (1913) : -Termiten- studien. 4 Versuch einer systematischen Monographie der Termiten der orienta- lischen Region. K. Sy. Vet. Akad. Handl. 50(2) : 1-276, 8 pls. Stockholm._ RoonwaL, M. L. (1947): Evolu- tionary significance of periodicity of* variation-intensity and population-flux in the Desert Locust. Nature 159: 872-873. London. (1949a): Systematics, ecology and bionomics of mammals studied in connection with tsutsugamushi disease (scrub typhus) in the Assam-Burma War. .. Theatre during 1945. Trans. nation. Inst. Sci. India 3 (2): 67-122, 6 pls., 15 tables. Calcutta. — (19495): Modern trends in Systematics. Presidential Address to the Section of Zoology and Entomology, Indian Science Congress, 1949. Proc. 36th Indian Sci. Congr. (Allahabad, - 1949), Pt. 2, Presidential Addresses, pp. 111-138. Calcutta. (1953): On a new evolu- tionary phenomenon: The sharp in- crease of intraspecific variation in mini- mum populations as evidenced by the Desert Locust. Symposium on Organic Evolution (March 1953): Programme & Abstracts of Papers (National Inst. Sci. India): 10-11. New Delhi. ——— (1954): On a new evolu- tionary phenomenon : The sharp increase of intraspecific variation in minimum populations, as evidenced by the Desert Locust. Rec. Indian Mus. 51 (4) [Dec. 1953] : 481-526-+46, 4 pls. (1 col.). Delhi. (1958): Recent work on ter- _ mite research in India (1947-57). | Trans. Bose Res. Inst. 22: 77-100, 4 pls. Calcutta. & CHHOTANT, O. B. (1959) : New Neotropical element (Anoploter- - mes) in Indian termite fauna. Nature 184 (4703) : 1967-1968. London. ~ (1960) : Anoplo- termes shillongensis, sp. nov., a new ter- mite from Assam, India. Sci. & Cult. 25 (12) :-701. Calcutta. AL ot (1962a) : Termite fauna of Assam Region, eastern India. Proc. nation. Inst. Sci. India (B) 28 (4): 281-406, 26 pls. New Delhi. ROONWAL, M. L., & CHHOTANI, O. B. (19625) : Indian Species of the Termite Genus Coptotermes. pp. ix + 115, 18 pls.~ Indian Counc. Agric. Res., Ent. Monogr. No. 2. New Delhi. 4 a ae eee Ole). A mew neotropical element (Anoplotermes) in the Indian termite fauna, with a fuller description of the-species from: Assam. Rec. Indian Mus. 58 (3 & 4) : 159-168, 1 pl. Calcutta. eae; PANT; G, D. (1953): A Systematic Catalogue of the Main Identi- fied Entomological Collection: at the Forest Research. Institute, Dehra Dun. Part 9. Order Isoptera. Indian For. Leafl. (Ent.) No. 121 (3) : 40-60. - Delhi. - & SEN-SARMA, P. K. (1956) : Systematics of oriental termites (Iso- ptera). No. 3. Zoological Survey of India collections from India and Burma, with new termites of the genera Parrhino- termes, Macrotermes, Hypotermes and Hospitalitermes. Indian J. agric. Sci. 26 (1) : 1-38, New Delhi. (1960) : - Contri- “butions to the Systematics of Oriental Termites. 407 pp. (65 pls.). Indian Counc. Agric. Res., Ent. Monogr. No. 1. New Delhi. | SILVESTRI, F. (1914): Zoological tre- sults of the Abor Expedition. XXXIII. Termitidae. Rec. Indian Mus. 8 (5): 425-435. Calcutta. SNYDER, T. E. (1949) : Catalog of the termites (Isoptera) of the world. Smiths. misc. Coll. 112: 490. Washington. _ WricHT, S. (1931a): Evolution in Mendelian populations. Genetics 16: 97-159. Brooklyn, N. Y. -—— (19316): Statistical theory of evolution. Proc. Amer. Stat. Assoc. 26 (Suppl.) : 201-208. | ——— (1932): The roles of mutation, inbreeding, crossbreeding and selection . in evolution. Proc. 6th int. Congr. Genet. (Ithaca) 1 : 356-366. : — (1935): Evolution in popu- lations in approximate equilibrium. J | Genet. 30 : 257-266. Cambridge. ——— (1940a): The © statistical consequences of Mendelian heredity in relation to speciation. pp. 161-183 in J. Huxley’s The New Svstematics. Oxford. - (19406) : Breeding structure of populations in relation to speciation. Amer. Nat. 74: 232-248. Lancaster. ——— _ (1946): The differential equation of the distribution ‘of gene frequencies. Proc. nation. Acad. Sci. 31 : 382-389, Washington. ~JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) 26 (elpuy “a') ung eiyog 3 ‘seAeyeulyy UIO}SOM 94} JO S|]IYOOJ oy} UI SInd50 ‘eULIeg-usg 3 [eMUOOY snjojnsovsau "lM “AY ‘sotdodsqns [eoIdA} ayy, SyIewWaY (01018 -Oe[ed OSTY) UvAPTeI -opuy UBALTCW ~Opuy uvArleW ropuy snjejg [voryde1z003007 ie o1OYMOS| A (9dUIAOIg | (19upIeDH sis uenysezs) | ! -uaulpssp*y *UKS) JopAUs ae ae a — — | + SISUaUIYD SauldajynIyay “¢— AVGLLINUALONIHY “JJ “wey (uejsryeg "A ® [3Pls puny [esuog * AA) | “py *D 4 =] Jopsug po a a =e — + | Sisuajosuag Saudajojdtay °7 | eULIeS-UdS 3 [ePMUOOY sndunyyvyy a. == ee ao — + | Snjo[nNIODsaUu sauttajoany “{ | AVGILINUALOTVY *] ‘Wey | & a > e | g 5 fe) 1" 8 = % =X) nw = R 2.5 S> |eag © 4 oe: Zr ee. Q a w 2) tr}. Sper >e fe) 3 SCOPES pane eae ie tet Po Bee | fee secre ere oo ao, | eS | zs oO > © 8 ~f& ae A) 5 @. BR Oo | 4.09 8 S z poe e . | a me as 7 uoNNqIsiq yussqy — ‘jUSsoIg + NOIDaY WVSSY AHL WOU GAIACNOOEA AVA OS SAlOddS ALINUAL FHL JO NOLLNEMIsia TVOIHdVuOOdy aTavy, 27 ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION “(eoLyy) ueidomyy pue (voroury [enue 8=6©pue = eoLIOWYy qinog) [edsido1098U AlasIe] SI snues oY], “eIpuy woy Sauldajojdoup snuss 934} Jo P1IOSEI ISI 9} SI (9 ‘VZ9SI “0961 Pur : 6S6]) TURIOYYD 3? [eMUOOY Jo Poel su], *eIPUY WOJJ snuss 9U} JO PIOSEI ISIY OY} St (9C6T) eUlIeS-Usg 2 [eMuUOOY Aq P1oseI oY, ‘soisods uelytel “sny 9uo yy ‘(eIsouopuy “eAR[eI «= ‘VIPUT =: soroads ¢) Uedelep-opuy ApaSiey] SI SAULaJOUIYsDg SNUIS BY], "AoS8 °2 a) (esst1p) Ting JO }seo—solo -ods ae Se ue Anuareddy ‘doreumyu0s spoou—(eIsouOpuy) eaAre opp ul osfe Alqeqolg “UvIsSrkyeG “AM pue vipuy Te Ul peaynqinsip AOPIAA ! 1 uvdryeyy ~opuy a uedryleyy -Opuy — uvdkeleyy -Opuy — uvAeleyy =| *AA) -Opu] neat uvAerey, ‘-Opul : — uvdkyyleyy -opyp | — rea. Cevrrd 7 ; [esusg | (eSsTIO ets) ‘1ing) are Care oe ear ap (aeistyeg vem _ $ BIpuy) | porte fea | tice ; + a. aR -f- + Tue},OyY 2 [PMUOOY Sis “UaZUopjiys Sausaojdoup 6 aVCLUIWNa TIT ‘weg eULIeS-UES 32 [eMUOOY NSDYY = SausdajOUlyAIVg °° purylAaey | SUDIAD. SauldajojdoD ‘L i i 1 i (uor3wjoHT || Snjnadod *> -uks) (uueuU “Se MA) 1U10Y saudajordo,D hee | NG 104]sa3 Saudajojdo °¢ | TUe}JOYYD » [eMU0OY ' NOMSDADS SaudaqyNINay “py 97 TABLE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE TERMITE SPECIES SO FAR RECORDED FROM THE ASSAM REGION + Present ; — Absent S ——T= = sk Ts a || Distribution 3 5 = =| nn ont S sez) s | 3 | ; 3 ; S38] 3 3 s & c agel & 29 3 Sel oom 84 8 oO 3 S goa| 22 | a8 es e| § = ; SAP Be 374 |g 3 hy 3 =z Remacks & Species S23] $8 | Saf (S| eg! 2 q 2 B Ss eis] 22 | sui j3le| 2 | 8 | 3) & 8 a S38 3,2 |o|a fc 1e) a 3 > eee] ae | Boe 2 ra & < MSs) BR | oo 3 8 5 B°:5| § ope Fa S <5 a 71 A 2 guB| 8 é = < B 3 fe _ Kavoren a RMITID. 3 get oe wil | | _ Indo- The typical subspecies, N.m. ~ Eee eae | | | Malayan megaoculatus Roonwal & g dake bona Ke: | | | | Sen-Sarma, occurs in the 4 See | | | foothills of the western & | | | Himalayas, at Dehra Dun 1 c | | (U.P., India) x Indo- ee bengalensis| + | — ats a | S - Shee te 2 C. have | ((W. Bengal] | | Malayan = eee | Pakistan) | | 3 Fam. II. Se m | ; vedios 3 3. Reticulitermes chinensis t ee Manesn Snyder (syn. R. assamen- | Oras) (Also Palae- sis Gardner) Aes a 4. Reticulitermes saraswati || + , _ { — | Indo- Roonwal & Chhotani | | Malayan 5. Coptotermes gestroi|| + — — —|}+ = _— — Indo- Wasmann | | Malayan N 6. Coptotermes heimi (Was- + + + = |= v —_ + Indo- Widely distributed in all- s mann) (syn. C. parvulus! (India ; (Middle 6 Malayan India and W. Pakistan. & Holmgren) Wee | Java— Pakis- Probably also in middle © Pakistan) needs tan) Java (Indonesia)—needs © i | confirma- confirmation. ie | tion) I H z 7. Coptotermes travians'| | + aie + = || ar oF _— _— Indo- Apparently an eastern spe- ‘“ Haviland | (Puri, (Ww. : (Malaya ; Malayan cies—east of Puri (Orissa), ° : | Orissa) | Bengal ; Indo- long. c. 85°E. yy | E. nesia) yy Pakistan) bs i ) 8. Parrhinotermes khasii | + | — _— Indo- The genus Parrhinotermesis Roonwal & Sen-Sarma | Malayan largely Indo-Malayan (5 5 species: India, Malaya, & A Indonesia), with one Aus- tralian species. The record © by Roonwal & Sen-Sarma ™ (1956) is the first record of & the genus from India. 2 Fam. II. Termiripag . = 9. Anoplotermes shillongen-| + | — — —|— _ — — Indo- The record of Roonwal & by sis Roonwal & Chhotani Malayan Chhotani (1959 ; and 1960, & | ‘| 1962a, c) is the first record | of the genus Anoplotermes 3 | from India. The genusis > largely neotropical (South America and __ Central ean America) and Ethiopian | (Africa). re s I aeecumaiaies Fo ie ae RE ee Ie tae nF ee | oe | | | | (sayeig res ‘| o10Shfq \ Be = | : 9 = uvARleY : ‘| Seryyser}| ; a - -Opu] | | ‘| -BYeyAy) UUPUISE AA q ea — A, ie ete as + | Muaay Sautdajodav041 “TI S | uekeyeyy | | | | ! (enyse1 xe : | -opuy ‘|: LI [ueuserew -eyey) (aueseA\) sdao MS : ype | — || a, le =e + +--+ | -Mpsonb saudajuoyuks § *{{ BY ; al (ewung | ne se O pue fuojheg ‘< vIpur-lre) | ° ueAe]e-OPul AjoIUS o1e | . (97-91 “dd “O96T eUIeS-Ues © . BE 9 [eMUOOY apia) soieds | ! 1uej0yyyD = -qns SNorIeA s}i pue uueW | UBALleY eh tae | | 3? yeMuooY sisuassuos “SEM sdojaco "§ soroods ou L. -Opuy —_— — | — 9 f—]— oe — / + .| sdojado Sauddajynzads “OT NI J ae | bs Re | 4 : | | ez) ow ae as eS 2 B. |e >s ms N 4 Ore Bese > R tm - eSe | SB lgBe a ® $ 2) 5 2) 9 | moe] Op ieee a . 5 z E. Be rica te 1 OE el eee alors 7 : S syiewmoy s. o ee Ss 5, 8 = &S +s P o> ~ 'saioedg 2 : ee . = ae, AG es | : rea iki | pe 5S =) 6 ~s mJ 5 ~n | S. A< QB. wp S s | 8 Se eee =F o. } Q = ls Re a | SES na 5 E ei 5 start ted Bee oak Seca EN YO ae CL cee bs Bs uonnquisiq aT Se ) (panu1ju0D)—aTAV 1, | 28. 29 ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION tear WO SI ‘urs uI[OH snyIDUsYD] snyjoUusyv] ") ‘sorsedsqns jeoidA, oy] URAL eI -opuy ueAPl ey ~opuy UvART RIT -Opu] ueceeyy ~opuy uedkeleyyy -Opuy uedeleyy ~opuy uvceleyy -opuy UPvALleyy -Opuy uvdryeyy -Opu] uvAETeIy -Opu] (Tesuog “AA -‘an) - | ? (2181¢ S1OSATA)| (21818 eiysel -eqeyA)) | -(uuvulse AA) 1 usoy Sauda] OJjUOPO | | juRJoUYD 2 [eMuUCOYy SISUAINS SsaudsaJoJUopE [' see UdISWOH, P uUussWwlOoxY snjyjna paunoanny Saultaj0juopO iF (uueUse A) avaf sautdajojuopEO _ UaIBW[OH sis -UAWUDSSD SalllsajoJuopE | rueioyyo » [eMuUooY, pian{oyy ruejoyyO 29 [ePMUO0OYy DsAnp SnYIDUSIID] Sauldajiidoy _ puLreg-uag » [eMuooy, Sisuaunp Saulsaj1ddD) ; rue} | -oyyD 32 [eMUuCOY 10p | -py1f SausdafiAdvz0pnasd SAULIAJOAID]JL - "CC “Te 07 ol “ST WA) “OT “ST tl ed fA TaBLE—(Continued) \ a 8 Distribution Ss $$ - | S 4 2 Ree ea. yt res 3 eI pags ie | 5 Es x Awe Zz ee) "bo | | na Bw BEE| go | 38s 2 | 3 ’ Fos 83 Sarg m4 o 2 & F Bel ae Gs g 3 5 4 Ss Species aiq| s2 Sa o;¢ = s 12 a Remarks 2 Sane: ory =|E g g s S ase] Sm | say | @| 8 2 a FE bb 3 boas ea 34 O!]ma 6 1°) pa 9 s by ao] se sos aay [eat a x % s &, 2 =} S Oo IS) } > Bg >o| 8 a) = a N = <5) 3 ra A S We}, 2 9 g |) ™ m4 5 —— a ny 4 ia) 10. Speculitermes cyclops|' + | { Indo- The species S. cyclops Was- ty rongrensis Roonwal & | Malayan mann and its various sub- > Chhotani | species (vide Roonwal & ‘I | | Sen-Sarma 1960, pp. 16-26) ~ | are entirely Indo-Malayan S | (all-India; Ceylon; and of } | Burma) sy q 11. Synhamitermes quardri- | + + or | | | ! ss ceps (Wasmann) (Maha- |(Rajasthan) | | Indo- | =| trashtra) ia | | Malayan | ° | | = 12. Microcerotermes heimi| + lp t | | RS Wasmann (Maha- |, | | |. Indo- a rashtra, |! | Malayan S & | | Mysore | } fe States) | | 13. Pseudocapritermes _tika- {| ok Indo- dari Roonwal & Chho- | Malayan tani {| 14. Capritermes dunensis +} = + | _ Indo- Roonwal & Sen-Sarma (Dehra \ Malayan N H Dun, iS | UP.) Q 15. Capritermes latignathus | + - Indo- The typical subspecies, C. © durga Roonwal & | Malayan latignathus latignathus Q Chhotani | | | Holmgren, is from Java. ie | ia] 16. -Macrotermes _ khajuriai | + | 3 Indo- a Roonwal & Chhotani | Malayan S 17. Odontotermes assamen- t Indo- S| sis Holmgren Malayan 4 oI 18. Odontotermes feae| +- + at t Indo- 2 (Wasmann) | (Maha- | (Bengal) Malayan ES | Trashtra =) | State) g 19. Odontotermes flavoma-\\ + — — Indo- culatus Holmgren & | Malayan S Holmgren | | ™ hh 20. Odontotermes giriensis | +- — | — —|— — — — Indo- A Roonwal & Chhotani | ] Malayan = 21. Odontotermes horai t | ~ Indo- z Roonwal & Chhotani | | | ' Malayan Q | | | S 22. Odontotermes horni} + + + | + | Indo- (Wasmann) (Mysore } » (U.P. ; Malayan : vy State) {W. Bengal) | ins oO e—eeeoo ere — — —— JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) 30 (jeSuog *q) : (WUBUISe A) oA -opuy <2 =a oe = ueceleyy . ne -Opuy ae oe =< == fice AL a uBceyeyy aS — | + | syiusajouax sausajodayy (wueuse AA) + Sdaa1anosqo sautdajodayyT uvdeleyy BUIVS-U9g 2 [PMUOOY -opuf — — — —|— — — + | 18untadsuou sautsajodcy "(jesueg “q) ur} “siyed “q pue ‘(qefang *M) uvystyeg “A ‘(e10shy ‘quel “ung ‘[esuog “AA ‘uressy) uvALeYy UdISWOF] 3 uoISWTOP wIpUy Ur pamnquasrp AjoprA | -opuy suapiAdpd sattdajojuopE + uvArle TuvjOYYD 32 [eMucoy -Opu] cee a ae a — — + | ~undovy SauLdajoJuOpE ‘i ee iea| P°) | a oO ares’: © Ses B) ig > e) ae =a e) Dn 4 9 ° AE i Se © <7 09 ry p= on zy 2 oO o 22 ROS & 3 oo ao & ‘e) Lan | c fq’) tm: mao be | ore} >s \e) o =. 2h 8 5 < hy 2 =e - gS Lo} j= | (oe) ae) rare pedo peo we syiewsy 3. @ © st 5 2 s OB as [Po > so1edg =, 7m Zao tt Ge teas eo 250 o |e 3 WM 1S Pac ; 0 w = 3 oO 9 eis S Oo. ‘ oo ~n UORNIMsSIg | (panuljuoj—aTavy) | 3) ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION uvdArleyy -Opuy uvALTeyy ~opuy UvARTeIAL —~opuy uvkeyeyy “opu] UuBARTeYI ~opuy uvdceleyy -Opu] UvALT RIT -opuy (paing | -11)sIp A[OpIA\) + “hb + (Iu)seAqIS) SNIDAOUL SaULtajtgNSON 1uvyoyYyD wW [eM -U0OY YOY sautsajljnsony TuejoyyD 2? [eMuoOYy SISUJOLDS §Salda]1JNSON tuejoyYyD 2 [eMuooYy SIsuavsdayD Sautsaj1gnsoN TUvjOuYD 2 [PMUOCOY IDSUN SOULAAJOADL]JN TUv}OYYD Ww [eMUCOYy SIsuajDYdU SauLsajoA1 Jy (uor3unf OF] 1saqo "WW URS) usIZWOH 1pubUun SOULIAJ OAD “6C “82 (TABLE—Continued) Dm cae 5 3 wo Bog] 2 g ei Aga) 2 Sc rt a Ee B 3 — | 88s zg = 2 ae s . E=| A = ion els 3 3 g a Species <=8 3s ERE S| rt a 2 om Remarks Bea] ao | soe | ele] 2 6 A & 2.2 ui o|a 6 1°) 3 roy ae) EZ ESS ia] oO asgeal s6 ao ps faa] 2 as 3 33 eos 6 o ta) 2 ops 3 8 E<3| 3 2" g N $ue| 5 g 4 Au [4 < 2 8 23. Odontotermes _ kapuri + Indo- Roonwal & Chhotani Malayan 24. Odontotermes _parvidens Te Indo- Widely distributed in India Holmgren & Holmgren Malayan Casa, eta jab, Mysore), W. Pakistan (W. Punjab), and E, Pakis- | tan (E. Bengal). 25. Hypotermes nongpriangi Indo- Roonwal & Sen-Sarma Malayan 26. Hypotermes obscuriceps Indo- (Wasmann) Malayan 27. Hypotermes xenotermitis _ Indo- 5 (Wasmann) Malayan 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. Microtermes anandi Holmgren (syn. M. | obesi Holmgren) | : | Microtermes imphalensis | Roonwal & Chhotani | Microtermes umsae Roonwal & Chhotani Nasutitermes cherraensis Roonwal & Chhotani Nasutitermes _ garoensis Roonwal & Chhotani Nasutitermes kali Roon- wal & Chhotani Nasutitermes moratus (Silvestri) + (widely distri- buted) Indo- Malayan Indo- Malayan Indo- Malayan Indo- Malayan Indo- Malayan Indo- Malayan Indo- Malayan 0€ (1) 7 ‘190A ‘AIFIDOS “ISIH T¥YNI¥N AVEWOd "IFNUNOL NOIDA W¥SSY AO SALINUAL AO AHd¥YODOTIOOZ f€ The Vegetation of Manori and Madh Islands in Bombay BY Y. D. PRADHAN AND Y. SATYANARAYAN? Institute of Science, Bombay INTRODUCTION There are several small islands around Bombay City most of which are sparsely populated. Ina preliminary study, these islands were classi- fied into (a) creek or river islands and (b) coastal islands (Pradhan, Y. D. 1957). Inthe former, the waters surrounding the islands are non-saline or have very low salinity during the monsoon but are decidedly saline during the post-monsoon and summer seasons. The waters around the coastal islands exhibit practically no variations in salinity or pH through- out the year, as they are surrounded by sea-water. Salinity is the princi- pal factor influencing the distribution and zonation of mangroves around these islands (Satyanarayan, in the press). In general, the vegetation on these islands can be distinguished into : (a) salt marsh, (6) coastal—strand, salt spray, or littoral dune, and (c) inland vegetation, each characterized by distinct edaphic factors, re- sulting in halophytic, psammophytic, and glycophytic types. A brief account of the vegetation of Madh and Manori Islands is given in this paper. Madh Island is situated off the all vile of Versova on the west coast of Salsette Island, 19 km. north of Bombay. It is approachable from the city by train up to Andheri and then by bus and boat. Recently, it has been connected with Salsette Island. There is a small fort at the - southern edge of Madh Island and the sandy beach on the western side is a fine picnic resort. Manori Island is roughly triangular in outline and is situated opposite the Marve beach of Salsette Island. It is about 8 km. from Borivli station. A ferry service links up the island with Malad on the Western Railway. The inhabitants on this island are mostly fishermen. : 1 Communicated by the Director, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur, Rajasthan. 2 Present address : Ecologist, Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Govt. of India, Jodhpur, Rajasthan. VEGETATION OF MANORI AND MADH ISLANDS IN BOMBAY 33 VEGETATION a. Madh Island. There are three small villages on Madh Island, viz. Madh, Davavali, and Erangal. A small stretch of deep sea separates Madh Island from Manori. Much of the original vegetation on this irregularly-shaped island has been destroyed and the land has been brought under cultivation of rice and market crops. The centre of the island is hilly. The mangrove vegetation is confined to Malad Creek, i.e. to the eastern and northern sides of the island. The creek had originally separated the island from Salsette. Mangroves are abundant in the creek, near the island, because the creek is not very deep due to accumu- lation of mud and silt. But due to biotic influences, the mangroves have assumed a stunted appearance. Avicennia officinalis is the domi- nant species of the mangroves. Around the landing jetty, even at the high water level mark, Avicennia is the only mangrove tree to be seen. A ‘ kutcha’ road leads from the jetty, which is at the south-east corner of the island, to a temple at the southern end of the island. On the left side of the road as one proceeds towards the temple is a salt marsh land dominated by Clerodendrum inerme, Aeluropus lagopoides, and Sporobolus helvolus. On the right side is a shallow ditch which is flooded by tidal waters during the greater portion of the day. This area is dominated by Fimbristylis ferruginea and Sporobolus glaucifolius. Two wells are found on either side of the road, near the temple. Near these wells, the slope of the land increases and becomes rocky and sandy. This area is free from mangroves but is dominated by halophytic vegetation such as Sporobolus virginicus, S. helvolus, Paspalidium puncta- tum, Paspalum vaginatum, Fimbristylis polytrichoides, Lindernia ciliata, and Sesuvium portulacastrum. Beyond the elevated rocky area, Avicennia is again seen in the creek. Two distinct zones of vegetation are present : (a) the mangrove zone of Avicennia and (b) an inner sandy zone of Cyperus rotundus which covers extensive patches. In depressions, how- ever, Fimbristylis ferruginea becomes more abundant. Other species found in this area are Lindernia ciliata, Chloris barbata, Cynodon dactylon, Launaea sarmentosa, and Sesuvium portulacastrum. Beyond the temple is a ‘ pucca’ road, and in the low-lying land on either side of the road there is a dense cover of Kyllinga triceps, Cyperus iria, Cyperus compressus, and Scirpus maritimus. The temple itself is on a small knob of hill. At the foot of the hill the road forks, in the southern direction towards a small fort and the other towards the bus terminus in the west. The roadside vegetation, towards the fort side consists chiefly of Pogostemmon parviflorus, Cassia tora, Celosia argentea, Tephrosia purpurea, Acanthospermum hispidum, A 34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) Euphorbia microphylla, E. hirta, Abutilon indicum, Sida acuta, Melochia corchorifolia, Urena lobata, Vernonia cinerea, Ocimum americanum, Calotropis gigantea, Sesamum indicum, Commelina benghalensis, Indigo- fera enneaphylla, Achyranthes aspera, Ischaemum semisagittatum, Eragrostis unioloides, Eleusine aegyptiaca, and others. Near the fort, the dominant plant is Hyptis suaveolens. Near the temple is a small pond and the vegetation around it ciate chiefly of Asteracantha longifolia, Phyla nodiflora, Euphorbia hyperici- folia, Ipomoea spp., Ammannia baccifera, and Ludwigia parviflora. Inthe pond, only two species were observed, viz. Ipomoea aquatica-and Jussiaea suffruticosa. The hill on which the temple is situated bears a few trees and shrubs of Mangifera indica, Ficus benghalensis, Acacia arabica, Carissa congesta, and Jatropha curcas. : Proceeding from the temple westwards towards Madh village, the topography is seen to be flat. Malachra capitata is very common and associated with it are Solanum xanthocarpum, Amaranthus spinosus, Alternanthera triandra, Abelmoschus manihot, Lantana camara, Pedalium murex, and Urena lobata, all of which are stated to be nitrophilous plants (Bharucha 1950). Beyond the village, dense patches of Acanthospermum hispidum are found growing in uniform patches. On the west of the. island is a fairly wide beach covered mostly by Ipomoea _ pes-caprae along with Eragrostis ciliaris, Leucas aspera, and Launaea pinnatifida. A narrow track which begins near the wells on the eastern side runs across the hill in the centre and meets the pucca bus road on the west. On the hill are found Mangifera indica, Zizyphus mauritiana, Acacia sundra, Anacardium occidentale, Phoenix sylvestris, Annona squamosa, Ficus benghalensis, Syzygium cumini, and Azadirachta indica. Shrubs of Cayratia carnosa, Leea macrophylla, Barleria prionitis, and Calycopteris floribunda are found. At the foot of the hill is a banana grove and around it are found Gynandropsis pentaphylla, Martynia diandra, Gloriosa superba, Dioscorea bulbifera, Cayratia carnosa, Aerua lanata, segecable® ae and Ruellia prostrata. Northwards towards the jetty, along the creek, oan aitbtids right up to the reclaimed land. The Avicennia zone is followed by a zone of Aegiceras corniculatum and Acanthus ilicifolius. This zone in turn is followed by a zone of Salvadora persica and Clerodendrum inerme, which is the innermost zone of the mangrove vegetation, in this island. In the low-lying rice fields the dominant weed is Cressa cretica, while on elevated ground the more common weed is Sphaeranthus indicus. Associated with Cressa cretica are Paspalum vaginatum, Marsilea quadri- fida, Ammannia baccifera, Fimbristylis polytrichoides and Cynodon dacty- lon. The plants along with Sphaeranthus indicus are Grangea maderas- patana, Sphaeranthus africanus, Cynodon dactylon, Ludwigia parviflora, Eragrostis unioloides, Desmodium triflorum, and Setaria ene ee: VEGETATION OF MANORI AND MADH ISLANDS IN BOMBAY 35 ~ bs Manori Island. Manori island has an irregular and rocky topo- Pa eliy with a low ledge of basaltic rocks running approximately south to north. There are four small villages, all situated on the western side of the island known as Manori, Gorai, Utan and Dongri. Of these, Dongri is situated at the northern tip of the island, facing the Fort of Bassein on the mainland. Two large creeks separate Manori from Salsette. The larger of these creeks runs from Marve northwards to Mira Road and Mandapeshwar from where it takes a north-easterly course towards the mainland, joining the Bassein Creek. The mangrove vegetation occurs only along the creeks on the eastern side but not on the western side of Manori island. This is due to the fact that the western shore is quite sandy and is Succ to direct and Powers tidal action from the Arabian Sea. | : The chief mangrove species is Avicennia officinalis whieh Nakee its appearance on the coast between Manori village and Marve on Salsette. Ayicennia is particularly abundant in the mid-littoral zone near the jetty at Manori village and extends all along the creek right up to Manda- peshwar. Off Mira Road, occasional plants of Ceriops candolleana are found, while Acanthus ilicifolius is abundant in the supra-littoral fringe. In the most sheltered areas of Manori Creek, Salvadora persica is. seen with Suaeda Nee and ones SN a in the- ee -littoral zone. ~ At: the junction of Mantohi Creek with Bassein Creek, where - the waters are deeper, Rhizophora mucronata is seen growing amidst Avicennia,’ right up to Bassein Bridge:--At the outskirts of Bassein Fort, on the mainland, the beaches are: ‘regularly bathed by tides and dense patches. of Arthrocnemum ee ate® occur, occasionally uulerspersed with Aeluropus lagopoides. | Near the jetty at Matos. and extending almost up to Manion village are Clerodendrum inerme and Cyperus rotundus. A ‘ kutcha’: road runs almost parallel to this halophytic zone. On the left hand side of the road, as one proceeds towards the village, the ground is dominated’ entirely by Acanthospermum hispidum, Indigofera cordifolia, and Desmodium triflorum.: As the road curves westwards, small. sand hummocks are seen, bearing Sporobolus virginicus, Paspalidium puncta- tum, Cynodon dactylon, and Fimbristylis polythricoides. _Arthrocnemum indicum and Salicornia brachiata are dominant on the strand. On the western side of the island, the kutcha road passes over a small lagoon, on the banks of which Aeluropus lagopoides and Suaeda fruticosa are found. Along the left side of the road are rice fields. In the crevices of the rocky--cliffs only two species are found, viz. Lindenbergia urticaefolia and Apluda mutica. Rarely, a few plants of Ischaemum rugosum are also found. - The rocks ‘were found to contain 10 to 15 per cent. calcium carbonate.» ~~ ie i EO EUETON 36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) Further inland, Acanthospermum is replaced by a community of Cassia tora. Other nitrophilous plants are Solanum xanthocarpum and Xanthium strumarium. On the northern side of the island are grazing lands in a deteriorated condition. The kutcha road ends near Manori village, around which are many rice fields. Dominant weeds in the rice fields are Cressa cretica associated with Sida veronicaefolia, Lindernia ciliata, Cyanotis axillaris, Eleusine indica, Ammannia baccifera, Blepharis molluginifolia, Vernonia cinerea, Blumea eriantha, Panicum psilopodium, Eclipta prostrata, and Euphorbia hirta. From the floristic composition, it is clear that these weeds are generally characteristic of saline conditions. As mentioned earlier, the western aspect of the island is devoid of mangroves but on the sandy beaches Spinifex littoreus is dominant to- gether with Eragrostis ciliaris generally in areas where the rock outcrop is covered with a thin mantle of soil. But, where the soil mantle is deep, Ipomoea pes-caprae dominates along with Borreria hispida, Launaea sarmentosa, and Phyla nodiflora. Further north, the carpet vegetation is replaced by a tall, luxuriant zone of Pandanus tectorius. Behind the Pandanus zone is a large coconut grove and the common species in the grove are Indigofera cordifolia and Desmodium triflorum. If one proceeds towards the left of the jetty, Acanthospermum hispidum is seen to be the dominant plant. The sandy beaches are dominated by - Cyperus rotundus along with Spinifex littoreus. Beyond the Acanthos- permum zone is a fairly extensive grazing land but covered mostly by over-grazed species like Eragrostis unioloides. Other species found in these grazing lands are Curculigo orchioides, Commelina nudiflora, Phyl- lanthus niruri, Euphorbia hirta, Melothria maderaspatana, Rhamphicarpa longifolia, Evolvulus alsinoides, Lindernia ciliata, Indigofera cordifolia, and Urginea indica, all of which are seasonal species of the monsoon. At — places where over-grazing is not severe, the grazing lands are dominated by taller species like Heteropogon contortus, Paspalidium flavidum, Ischae- mum ciliare, and Ischaemum rugosum. Bushes of Holarrhena antidysen- terica and Calycopteris floribunda are also commonly seen further inland. Occasionally, Celosia argentea is found in small patches beyond the grazing lands as one approaches the rice fields. The dominant weed of the rice fields is Cressa cretica and associated species are Sida veroni- caefolia, Lindernia ciliata, Caesulia axillaris, Eleusine indica, Ammannia baccifera, Blepharis molluginifolia, Vernonia cinerea, Blumea eriantha, Panicum psilopodium, Eclipta prostrata, and Euphorbia hirta. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The senior author wishes to place on record his gratitude to the Government of Nepal and the Colombo Plan authorities in India for the VEGETATION OF MANORI AND MADH ISLANDS IN BOMBAY — 37 award of a fellowship, during the tenure of which these studies were carried out. REFERENCES BHARUCHA, F. R. (1950): The Vege- tation of Bombay and its Environs. J. Gujerat Res. Soc. 9 : 12. PRADHAN, Y. D. (1957): Phyto- sociological and ecological studies of the island flora of Bombay. M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. Bombay. SATYANARAYAN, Y. (1958) : Ecological Studies of Bombay coast-lines. I. Strand vegetation. J. biol. Sci. 1: 53-65. —: ditto. 2. Mangrove. ibid. (in the press). ——— vegetation. Copepods parasitic on South Indian _ Eishes: Family Bomolochidae—3 ee, No 'KRISHNA“PILLATi Geran ia ‘euit- Bac 3A Marine Biological Laboratory. Trivandrum, Kerala State ~° ~~ (With eight text-figures) [Continued from Vol. 61 (1) : 59] The present paper describes eight species of Bomolochus, four of which are new. In a previous publication (Pillai 1962) I described a new species, B. aculeatus, closely resembling B. leptoscari Yamaguti (1953) and Orbitacolax uniunguis Shen (1957), and also expressed the opinion that Orbitacolax cannot be considered as distinct from Bomolochus. While describing’ B. aculeatus Pillai, I overlooked its close similarity to Taeniacanthus hapalogenyos Yamaguti & Yamasu (1959). The position of_the maxilliped with respect to the other mouth parts easily distinguishes bomolochids from taeniacanthids. Yet an experienced worker like Yamaguti erred in placing the above- mentioned species under Taeniacanthidae. It is likely that B. aculeatus is the same as B. hapalogenyos (Yamaguti & Yamasu). Wilson (1911), Yamaguti (1939), and Shen (1957) attempted a division of Bomolochus into genera or subgenera. As shown by Stock (1953) this division is quite unnatural and the above-mentioned authors themselves contradicted their own observations. In the present study this division is not followed. Wilson (1911) observed that in Bomolochidae the male is free- living and that mating takes place before the female seeks out a host. Gnanamuthu (1947) and Stock (1953) showed that this is not so. During the course of the present investigation I have been able to collect the males of three species of Bomolochus in good numbers and some of them were actually observed in copulation. It is true that the males of a vast majority of species are unknown, but this is not because they are free-living. The male is invariably small and nearly transparent and hence easily overlooked, Flushing the opercular [31] COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—3 39 chamber with water and examining the residue under a Dmocilat ee ore was. always found highly rewarding. 3 - During the present investigation the detailed structure of the spines arming legs two to four has been found to constitute a very useful diagnostic character. The second antenna of Bomolochus has often been described as two-, three-, or even four-segmented. In all the species I have been able to examine this appendage is three-segmented. What is described as the fourth segment is a linguiform prolongation of the third segment. Similarly the fifth leg has been occasionally described as three-segmented, but it consists of only two segments. Bomolochids are extremely common but only four species, B. megaceros Heller (i865), B. triceros Bassett-Smith (1898a), B. nultispinosus Gnanamuthu (1947), and B. acutus Gnanamuthu (1948) have so far been described from this region. Genus Bomolochus Nordmann Bomolochus triceros Bassett-Smith Bomolochus triceros Bassett-Smith, 1898a, p. 2, pl. 1, f. 1. ? Bomolochus mana- gatuwo Yamaguti, 1939, pl. 3, figs. 28-29, pl. 4. figs. 30-37. Text-fig. 15. Material. 3 females were collected by ‘the author from the inner surface of the opercle of Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen) at Trivandrum. Female. Carapace much broader than long, its antero-median part deeply incised, and posterior border nearly straight. Second thoracic segment posteriorly concave, third segment narrower than second and overlapping the fourth segment, latter short, less than half as broad as third segment, fifth segment very small. Genital segment broader than long, subequal to the first abdominal segment. Abdomen long and four-segmented. Anal laminae longer than broad, with a long distal seta and three smaller setae. First antenna indistinctly seven-segmented, first ‘four segments stout and partially fused, last three segments slender, second segment with a short but broad ‘process carrying three stout but subequal spines, middle spine chitinised and:-blunt, others rugose and apically drawn out,’ second and third segments carrying five modified setae, first seta very long and placed close to ‘the spines. Distal segment of second -antenna with .well-spaced: tubercles. and. produced into a linguiform process, - its. distal border. with seven claws. anda toothed blunt process. (321 40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) Mandibular blades subsimilar, spiny along the lower border. maxilla with four plumose setae, two of them large. Blades of second maxilla long and pointed, with barbed edges. Maxilliped with very long claw and three pectinate setae, claw without accessory process. First w a @ 2e- Q Soetaneta ie ’ z nf Ja eeoe: r Ce, or a8 cae b LYK ta0% yeas AQ eg «4 D i rx {? ee ee e2@ ~e%e< eeatee o%e0e, vecaere tees ratavertvee te Tar eaoete' @ (T ) 7 (ty ase, we Fig. 15. Bomolochus triceros Bassett-Smith. Female: A. dorsal view; B. antenna 1; C. antenna2; D. mandible; E. maxillal; F. maxilla 2; G. maxilliped; H.leg 1; I. same, exopod; J. leg2; K. same, exopod ; L. same, tip of endopod; M.leg3; N. leg 4; O. leg 5 First leg with three-segmented rami. Exopod of second leg with five strong, barbed spines, each with a trigger-like apical spinule, sixth [33] COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—3 41 spine broad and blunt, with an outer flange and pectinate subapical spinule, endopod only slightly broader than exopod, distal segment with two identical short spines, with thin flange and an apical spinule. Exopod of third leg slightly broader than endopod, with five similar spines. Endopod of fourth leg very slender, first two segments with an outer long pectinate seta, third segment with one very long and two short pectinate spines. Distal segment of fifth leg with four spines and three groups of spinules. Egg sacs cylindrical, reaching the tip of the caudal setae. | Total length 2.2 mm. Remarks. There are certain minor mistakes in the description of this species by Bassett-Smith. He described the second antenna as two-segmented, but it is, as usual, three-segmented and the distal segment carries seven and net four claws. The maxilliped has three setae, and not one as stated by Bassett-Smith. The rami of the first leg are three- and not two-segmented. Bomolochus (Pseudobomolochus) managatuwo Yamaguti (1939) is so much like the present species even in minute details that I am almost sure that they are identical. Both are parasites of Pampus argenteus. Bomolochus denticulatus Bassett-Smith Bomolochus denticulatus Bassett-Smith, 1898b, p. 77, pl. 3, f. 1. Text-fig. 16. Material. 28 females and 3 males were collected by the author from the inner surface of the opercle of Sphyraena jello Cuvier at Trivandrum. | Female. Carapace nearly semicircular, second thoracic segment only slightly narrower than carapace, its hind border slightly concave, third segment roughly equal in length and breadth, completely over- lapping the fourth segment, fifth segment much broader than long, partially covered by the third segment. Genital segment slightly narrower than fifth segment. Abdomen three-segmented, anal laminae with one long and four short setae. Basal segments of first antenna completely fused, with a large process carrying three comparatively short processes, middle process longer and chitinised, others pointed and rugose, modified setae four, one of them very short. Distal segment of second antenna sparsely : : [34] Peep te 42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) spiny, with six claws and a toothed process. Mandible and second maxillae as usual in the genus, first maxilla with three setae, its inner process hairy. Claw of maxilliped without accessory process, a minute ‘knob is occasionally present. Ons =e 5 ; NS op a) [re a > ere ote re \ 566 KS ( ~ Ye OOH WS PE efse: Cor2iagiee Be eese \Seg Reseel | foie, a | Ge (cou ceMmla. aa i feces (Ce oscommane eer) RS e) - Fig. 16. Bomolochus denticulatus Bassett-Smith. A-P. Female: A. dorsal . | view ;-B. antenna 1 ;-C. same, spinous processes ; D. antenna 2; E. mandible - | and maxillae ; F. leg 1-;-G. exopod; H. leg 2; I. exopod; J. tip of endopod; - | _K. leg 3; L. tip of endopod; M. spine on exopod; N. leg 4; O. tip of - endopod ; P. leg 5. Q-S. Male: Q. dorsal view; R. maxilliped; S. leg5_. © Rami of first leg very much flattened, three-segmented, first two ‘endopod segments pustulose: Endopod of second leg - flattened, - third segment with two stout but short-winged~- spines, exopod with - Six spines, first five with five to six teeth ‘on the outer border and: -a 135] COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN: FISHES—3 43 pectinate apical spinule, sixth spine apically blunt and - externally pectinate. Third leg with subsimilar rami, spines on third . endopod segment barbed, exopod similar to that of second leg. Endopod of fourth leg slender, with two short outer pectinate spines, third segment with two short and one very long pectinate spines. Fifth leg com- paratively narrow, distal segment with three pectinate spines and a long spine seta. Egg sacs stout and cylindrical, as long as the body. Total length 2.6 mm. | Male. Body slender, carapace nearly circular, with very pro- minent rostral process. Thoracic segments two to four steadily decreasing in length and breadth, fifth segment short, completely free. Genital segment pyriform and large, abdomen three-segmented, with parallel sides. Second and third segments of maxilliped with tuberculate inner border, each with a spine seta. Fifth leg slender, distal segment with long spines and a patch of spinules. Total length 1.3 mm. Remarks. As observed by Bassett-Smith this species can be easily distinguished by the shape of the prominent frontal processes on the first antenna, denticulated claws of the legs and the extremely enlarged third segment of the trunk. Bassett-Smith described the processes on the first antennae as very short, obtuse-ended bristles of about equal length. But the middle spine alone is obtuse-ended, the others are apically drawn out as usual. Generally these processes remain bent and their true shape will be visible only if examined under a cover glass. Bomolochus megaceros Heller Bomolochus megaceros Heller, 1865, p. 153, pl. 13, f. 2. Text-fig. 17 Material. Several females and males were collected by the author: from the gills and inner.surface of the opercle of Par astr omateus niger (Bloch) at Trivandrum. ~ _.Fematle. Carapace nearly twice as Beoad: as long, frontal “incision. shallow and. broad. Second thoracic segment slightly narrower than carapace, third segment as long as second but narrower, fourth Segment - transversely ovate and as long as - third segment. Fifth . segment transversely _ -rectangular,.. - slightly narrower than fourth. [30] Ad JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) Genital segment longer and broader than fifth, abdomen short, three- segmented. Anal Jaminae with two long distal setae and three or four smaller ones. ey a bees “a : one Wa re TSN DIO Sere watcs i : \ 3, Siemens, ‘oh ne F Peer, Sd Bf CJ OOe, a2 eve @O_) COO Fig. 17. Bomolochus megaceros Heller. A-M. Female: A. dorsal view; B. antenna 2; C. mandible and maxillae; D. maxilliped; E. leg 1; F. leg 2; G.exopod; H. tip of endopod; I. leg3; J. tip of endopod: K. leg 4; L. tip of endopod; M. legs 5 and 6; N-P. Male: N. dorsal - view; O. maxilliped; P. leg 5 First antenna with a prominent strongly curved chitinised process and a long and a short modified seta. Third segment of second antenna with longitudinal rows of spines, distal border with six claws and a blunt spiny process. Blades of mandible rather long and spiny. First maxilla with four setae, one of them very small, inner process [ 37] a iene ay ge ba COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—3 45 hairy. Second maxilla with broad barbed blades. Claws of maxilliped strongly curved, with a prominent sharp accessory process. Exopod of first leg as broad as endopod and _ two-segmented. Exopod of second leg pustulose, first spine winged, second to fifth toothed on both sides, sixth winged on one side, all the spines with a subapical spinule, endopod very broad, third segment with two winged triggered spines. Exopod of third leg pustulose, spines barbed only on one side, third segment of endopod with two long pectinate © spines. Exopod of fourth leg similar to that of: third, endopod slender, with two pectinate outer spines and three distal spines, median distal spine very long. Fifth leg with a long simple spine seta and three pectinate spines on second segment. Sixth leg formed of three setae. Egg sacs large, with Bey eggs. Total length 2.9 mm. Male. Carapace nearly equal in length and breadth, with a short but broad rostrum. Trunk segments regularly narrowing, fifth segment broader than fourth. Genital segment longer than broad, broader behind. Abdomen three-segmented. Distal segment of fifth leg long and slender, with two short spines. Inner part of second segment of maxilliped with several rows of pustules, inner border of distal segment with a closely packed row of tubercles. : Total length 1.3 mm. Remarks. Heller’s figure of the entire animal is far from correct and in the illustrations of the appendages he has omitted practically all details. Nevertheless the identity of the present material is very clear. Bomolochus multispinosus Gnanamuthu Bomolochus multispinosa Gnanamuthu, 1947, p. 309, figs. 1-5. Text-fig. 18 Material. 3 females were collected by the author from the inner surface of the opercle of Dussumieria hasselti Bleeker at Trivandrum. Female. Carapace nearly one and a half times as broad as long, slightly concave posteriorly, frontal sinus deep. Second thoracic segment transversely rectangular, third transversely ovate and partially overlapping the fourth segment, latter very narrow, fifth segment stiil Narrower. Genital segment broader than fifth segment. Abdomen [ 38] 46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) three-segmented, narrowing backwards. Anal laminae 24 times as long as broad, with a very long distal seta. re First antenna with a stout basal part carrying three large chitinised processes, middle process slightly longer than the others, modified setae four, first placed close to the third process. Distal segment: of second antenna sparsely spiny, with a ‘spinous process, four claws, and two spine setae. Mandible with two smooth blades, lower Fig. 18. Bomoluchus multispinosus Gnanamuthu. Female: A. dorsal view ; B. antenna 1; C.antenna2;. D. mandible and maxillae; E. mandible; -F. _,maxilla2; G.maxilliped; H.leg1; I.exopod; J.leg2; K-L. spines on exopod; M.tipofendopod; N.leg3; O.leg 4; P.leg5. : pis: blade smaller. - First maxilla with one small and three large setae Second maxilla with a slender spine and two long barbed blades. Claw of maxilliped moderately curved, without accessory process. [39] COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN: FISHES—3 47 Rami of first leg three-segmented, exopod nearly as broad as endopod. Exopod of second leg with six spines, first five with forked tip carrying a spinule, last spine with a frilled external flange, endopod only very slightly broader than exopod, its distal segment with two blunt ovate spines with thin bordér. Third leg smaller than second. Fourth Jeg smaller than third, rami very slender, endopod with two outer pectinate spines and three distal spines, middle distal spine very long. Distal segment of fifth leg with a long spine seta and three pectinate spines. Total length 2.3 mm. Remarks. As Gnanamuthu has given only simple illustrations the more obvious differences alone could be pointed out. The first maxilla has four setae and the second maxilla a slender spine in addition to the two blades. The maxilliped carries three instead of two setae. The terminal segment of the endopod of the first leg carries five and not six setae. Gnanamuthu described legs two to four as similar, but they show clear differences in size as well as in armature. He has described the exopods of the legs as four-segmented, but the strong constriction on the distal segment does not appear to indicate a fourth segment. B. multispinosus has the closest resemblance to B. triceros Bassett- Smith but in the latter only the middle process of the first antenna is chitinised, In the structure of the spines on the legs also they differ. eee -Bomolochus selaroides sp.nov. ~~ Text-fig. 19 Material. 5 females were collected by the author from the inner surface of the opercle of Selaroides leptolepis (Cuvier). at Trivandrum. Holotype, female, is deposited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (Reg. No: C4613/1). se Pee ae Female. Carapace broader than long, sith a broad prominent frontal incision and a pair of shallow lateral ones. Second trunk Segment narrower than carapace, its hind border concave. Third Segment transversely ovate, as long as second but narrower, fourth segment transversely oblong, fifth segment very small. Genital segment large, twice as long as fifth segment but much broader. Abdomen very short, three-segmented. Anal laminae slightly longer than broad. Ege sacs long and elliptical. | First antenna -six-segmented, first {fies esenicars stout and Baaally fused, with a strong apically recurved chitinised process, [40] 48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) fourteen stout plumose setae and three modified setae, middle modified seta very long. Distal segment of second antenna with longitudinal rows of spines, margin with long closely packed blunt teeth, distal border with a blunt toothed process and a bunch of five claws. Mandible with two blades, upper blade large, curved, and spiny, lower 7 ly 7 Fig. 19. Bomolochus selaroides sp. nov. Female: A. dorsal view; B. antenna | ; C. base enlarged; D. antenna2; EE. mandible and maxillae; F. maxilliped ; G.leg 1; H. leg2; I-K. spineson exopod; L.tip of endopod; M. leg3, N. leg 4; O.legs5 and 6; P. tip of abdomen much smaller. First maxilla with four plumose setae, second maxilla with two unequal barbed blades. Claw of maxilliped with a prominent, curved, and acute accessory process. i 41] ae res COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—3 49 First leg highly flattened, with three-segmented rami, first two endopod segments pustulose. Exopod of second leg pustulose, first spine winged, next four not winged, last externally winged, all the spines with a subapical pectinate spiule; endopod very broad, with two short winged spines, each with an apical spinule. Third leg with prominently pustulose exopod, spines externally toothed and with a subapical spinule, endopod only slightly broader than exopod, spines on third segment longer than those on second leg. Fourth leg with comparatively slender rami, both pustulose, exopod spines, similar to those of third leg, endopod with two outer pectinate spines and three distal winged spines, middle distal spine moderately long. Fifth leg prominently spiny, with three pectinate spine sttae and a slender plumose seta. Sixth leg formed of three simple setae. Total length 2.1 mm. ~ Remarks. B._ selaroides closely resembles 8B. decapteri Yamaeuti (1936) even in details. The shape and the armature of the legs are almost identical, but in B. decapteri the body is more robust and comparatively short and the egg sacs almost oblong. Bomolochus hemirhamphi sp. nov. Text-fig. 20 | Material. 20 females were collected by the author from the inner surface of the opercle of Hemirhamphus marginatus Forskal at Trivandrum. Holotype, female, is deposited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (Reg. No. C4614/1). Female. Body short but stout. Carapace semicircular, with shallow median and indistinct lateral grooves. Second trunk segment immersed in carapace, laterally rounded and posteriorly concave. Third segment transversely oblong, immersed in second segment, fourth segment fairly large, overlapping fifth segment, fifth segment as broad as genital segment. Abdomen short, three-segmented. Egg sacs oblong and short. First antenna six-segmented, first three segments stout, with fourteen large plumose setae, a stout curved sickle-shaped spine, and ~ three modified setae. Distal segment of second antenna with longis tudinal rows of spines, margin with a row of closely packed teeth, distal border with a spiny process and six claws. Mandible with broad blades, lower blade much smaller. First maxWla with four setae. Second maxilla with a small spfe and two long strongly barbed blades. Claw of maxilliped with prominent accessory process. [ 42 ] 50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) First leg with moderately flattened three-segmented rami. Exopod of second leg with six spines, each spine with outer wing and subapical C-E,H.K,L, N.0,Q,R 0.} ram Fig. 20. Bomolochus hemirhamphi sp. nov. Female: A. dorsal view; B. antenna 1; C.chitinous process; D.antenna2; E. mandible and maxillae; F. mandi- ble; G. maxilla 2; H. maxilliped; I. leg 1; J. leg2; K.exopod; L. tip of endopod; M. leg3; N. tip of endopod; O. exopod; P. leg 4; Q. tip of endopod; R. leg 5 ; spinule, endopod broad, with two short blunt spines. Third leg with subsimilar rami, exopod very slightly broader, with five spines, very much similar to those on second leg except that the first spine is winged on both sides and the fifth is much longer. Exopod of fourth leg [43] COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—3 51 exactly like that of third, endopod slender, with two pectinate outer spine setae and three distal winged spines, median distal spine very long. Distal segment of fifth leg with three strong, pectinate spines, each with a patch of spinules at its base and a long sparsely pectinate spine, basal segment with a seta and a patch of spinules. Total length 1.8 mm. Remarks. In the general shape of the body and the structure of the appendages B. hemirhamphi closely resembles B. deécapteri - Yamaguti (1936). They agree in the presence of a single spine on the first antenna, shape of the legs, especially of the first, second, and fifth pairs, and also in the shape of the egg sacs. But in B. décapteri the spines on the legs two to four are denticulated and the exopod segments are pustulose. In B. hemirhamphi the spines are winged and the exopod segments are not pustulose. B. hemirhamphi also resembles B. hyporamphi Yamaguti & Yamasu (1959), but in the latter the egg sacs are elliptical and Yamaguti & Yamasu make no mention of the armature of the spines on the legs. B. hemirhamphi has a spinule in addition to the two blades on the second maxilla; according to Yamaguti & Yamasu this spine is not present in B. hyporamphi. The present species also resembles B. tumidus Shiino (1957) to some extent. Bomolochus kanagurta sp. nov. Text-fig. 21 Material. 18 females and 6 males were collected by the author from the inner surface of the opercle of Rastrelliger kanagurta Cuvier at Trivandrum. Holotype, female. and allotype, male, are deposited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (Reg. Nos. C4616/1 and C4617/1). Female. Body stout and tumid. Carapace with a_ broad shallow frontal incision and a pair of lateral grooves, its posterior border nearly straight.. Second trunk segment narrow, its hind border concave. Third segment transversely ovate, longer than second and almost completely hiding the fourth segment in dorsal view, fourth segment overlapping fifth, fifth segment short, slightly broader than _ first abdominal segment. Abdomen four-segmented, steadily narrow- ing backwards. Anal laminae twice as long as broad, with a long stout apical seta. Egg sacs as long as body in front of fourth segment, Narrowing backwards, eggs large and rounded. First antenna with a bunch of three spines borne on a chitinous base and three modified setae successively decreasing in length, £44) 52h JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (i) middle spine shorter than the lateral ones and chitinised. Distal segment of second antenna with longitudinal rows of denticles, distal border with a spiny process and six claws. Mandible with two curved subsimilar blades. First maxilla with four setae, two of them large, inner process spiny and hairy. Distal segment of second maxilla short, with a large spiny spatulate blade, a narrow strongly barbed Fig. 21. Bomolochus kanagurta sp. nov. A-Q. Female: A. dorsal view:; B. antenna 1, base; C. antenna 2; D.mandible; E. mandible, blades enlarged ; F. maxilla 1; G. maxilla2; H. bladesenlarged; I. maxilliped; J. leg 1; K. exopod ;~ L. tip of endopod, leg 2;, M. deg 2;,4N.exopod;; .O: Jeg 3°; Ps leg4; Q.endopod. R-T. Male: R. dorsal view; S. maxilliped; T. leg 5 spine, and a simple third spine. Second segment of maxilliped comparatively broad, claw short, with a small blunt accessory process. [45 ] peat ss RS ag Pad he ie cabiscrt gacg cea lee ate eS sn i ORAS as Ha ee COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—3 a3 First leg with three-segmented rami. Endopod of second leg broad, third segment with two short winged spines, each carrying an apical spinule, exopod with six spines, first spine toothed on both sides, second to fifth only on the outer side, and sixth without teeth, each spine with a pectinate apical seta. Endopod of third leg very slightly broader than exopod, exopod with five spines, last spine pectinate externally. Rami of fourth leg of equal breadth, spines on exopod similar to those on third !eg, endopod with two outer pectinate spines and three pectinate distal spines, median distal spine moderately long. Fifth leg of uniform width, second segment with three pectinate ‘spines and a simple seta. Total length 2.5 mm.: Male. Carapace broader than long, with very prominent rostrum, trunk segments steadily narrowing backwards, genital segment large, abdomen three-segmented, slightly narrowing backwards. Second segment of maxilliped with two rows of tubercles, third segment with a spine and a marginal row of tubercles. Total length 1.4 mm. Remarks. In the shape of the processes of the first antenna B. kanagurta resembles B. triceros Heller, but in the latter the nature of the third and fourth trunk segments and the spinulation of the legs are different. In the over-all shape of the body and the structure of the legs B. kanagurta also resembles B. denticulatus Bassett-Smith, but the structure of the processes on the first antenna easily distinguishes. them. The denticulate and hairy inner process of the first maxilla and the spatulate blade of the second maxilla are very characteristic of B. kanagurta. Bomolochus monoceros sp. nov. Text-fig. 22 Material. 7 females were collected from the inner surface of the opercle of Carangoides talabaricus (Bloch) by the author at Trivandrum. Holotype, female, is deposited in the Indian Museum, Calcutta (Reg. No. €4615/1). : Female. Carapace roughly semicircular, with nearly straight hind border, antero-median groove fairly deep. ‘Trunk segments steadily narrowing backwards. Genital segment enlarged, much longer than adjacent segments. Abdomen short, three-segmented. Anal [ 46 ] 54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) laminae short. Egg sacs long, slender, and cylindrical, nearly as long as the body. “ie MOU ~—S 27a . 2 Soret yet f “ . ts - AR i BSF e/ fe . 7 : . > ee Bate feo CA se re © © = 6 z ft) 22 f ay oa) LX x4) 3- » C) Ce? Sete pened TO AMIS (SC bseei | (et%e z= Boxy vareg5 eq S AX) (TT Ay CHK, Bee 2 OO ro (Oy Seee4 RH TRS > fey ee COX (AS Ld ves ec2s t Hh BeaH $610) RO) CE ad See ee ELAR ee oes" Gear, CY) (HY esommnsss® te ke eis ey Fig. 22. Bomolochus monoceros sp. nov. Female: A. dorsal view ; B. antennal; C. antenna 2; D. mandible; E. maxilla 1; F. maxilla 2; G. maxilliped; H.leg 1; I.exopod; J.eleg 2; K.exopod; I.. tip of endopod ; M. leg 3; N.exopod; O. tip of endopod; P. leg 4; Q. endo- pod; R. leg 5 Basal part of first antenna with a single large chitinised, apically curved spine. Distal segment of second antenna with longi- tudinal rows of denticles, distal border with a bunch of seven com- paratively weak claws. Mandible with broad spiny blades, lower [47] Ap = aay COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FISHES—3 a5 Second maxilla with Claw of maxilliped blade smaller. First maxilla with four setae. a small spine and two subsimilar spiny blades. with well-developed accessory process. First leg with three-segmented rami. Endopod of second leg broad, with two winged spines, each carrying a spinule, exopod with six spines, first spine winged on both sides, last winged externally, others toothed on both sides, each spine with a subapical spinule. Endopod of third leg only slightly broader than exopod, latter with the surface pustulose and carrying five spines toothed externally, fifth spine comparatively large. Exopod of fourth leg similar to that of third, endopod with two outer pectinate spines and three distal spines, third segment distally spiny. Basal segment of fifth leg with a patch of spinules and a plumose seta, distal segment comparatively long and externally spiny, with three pectinate spines and a long spine seta. Total length 1.9 mm. Remarks. In the structure of the legs, particularly the spinula- tion of the exopods, this species resembles B. decapteri Yamaguti (1936) but in the latter the third trunk segment overlaps the fourth considerably and the egg sacs are oblong. REFERENCES BASSETT-SMITH, P. W. (1898a) : Some new parasitic copepods found on fish at clad Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 1(7) : -17. (1898b) : Further new para- sitic copepods found on fish in the Indo- Tropical region. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 2 (7): 77-98. GNANAMUTHU, C. P. (1947) : Bomo- lochus multispinosa sp. nov. an ergasilid copepod observed in copulation. Rec. Ind. Mus. 45 : 309-319. ——— (1948): Bomolochus acuta n. sp. a copepod parasitic on the gills of Dussumieria acuta. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 27 : 18-25. HELLER, C. (1865) : Crustaceen : Reise der Osterreichischen Fregatte Novara in die Sude in den Jehren 1857-59. Zool. Teil : 1-280. Pirtal, N. K. (1962) : On a new species of Bomolochus with remarks on 2 aedeeg Shen. J. Parasitology 48: SHEN, C.J. (1957) : Parasitic copepods from fishes of China. Part 1. Cyclo- poida (1). Acta zool. Sinica 9: 314- 327. SHIINO, S, M. (1957) : Copepods para- sitic on Japanese fishes. 16. Bomolos chidae and Taeniacanthidae. Rep. Fac. Fish. Pref. Univ. Mie. 2 : 411-428. Stock, J. H. (1953) Bomolochus soleae, 1864, and B. confusus n. sp. two hitherto confounded parasitic copepods, with remarks on some other Bomolochus species. Beaufortia 24: 1-13. WILSON, C.B. (1911) : North Ameri- can parasitic copepods belonging to the family Ergasilidae. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 39 : 263-400. YAMAGUTI, S. (1936) : Parasitic cope- pods from fishes of Japan. Pt. 1. Cyclo- poidal: 1-8. (1939) : Parasitic copepods from fishes of Japan. Pt. 4. Cyclopoida II. Vol. Jubil. Prof. S. Yoshida 2: 392-415. ———— (1953): Parasitic copepods from fishes of Japan. Pt. 7. Cyclopoida III. Caligoida IV. Publ. Seto mar. Biol. Lab. 3: 221-231. & YAMASU, T. (1959) : Parasitic copepods from fishes of Japan with descriptions of 26 new species and remarks on two known species. Biol. J. Okayama Univ. 5 : 89-165. — [ 48] The Exotic Flora of Kodaikanal BY K. M. MATTHEW, S.J. For over a century, Kodaikanal (2000-2300 m.) with its quasi- temperate climate has been a favourite hill station in south India. A number of European officials of the British Indian Government and missionaries spent their summer months there or made it their home after retirement from service. It is known that many of these people have introduced various plants at Kodaikanal from semi-tropical or temperate regions of the world. Over the years, these plants became so well naturalized and spread that at present some of the exotic species are among the more prominent members of the vegetation. To a student of botany in India, such species are very interesting on the one hand, but on the other they offer great difficulties with their correct identification. J. S. Gamble and P. F. Fyson, who wrote on the Flora of Madras, mention together just over 100 species of introduced plants at Kodaikanal, but this hardly helps in the identification of these plants, much less in a complete knowledge of the species. Besides, these two authors have left unmentioned a far greater number of species. Botanists visiting the place were often unable to identify the plants or, still worse, gave wrong names to them. Besides the problem of their correct identity, their ecology in the new habitat had to be studied against similar data from their native countries. More recently, numerous queries used to be made regarding the possibility of commer- cial exploitation of some of the economically important plants like wattles, eucalyptus, fruit trees, and grasses. Thus the need for an exhaustive study of the exotic flora was pressing, which the present author made during 1960-1962 (in addition to his previous explorations during 1950-1960), the results of which have been incorporated in a thesis accepted by the University of Bombay towards the degree of PH.D. The work is a taxonomic study of what may be called the per- manent exotic flora of Kodaikanal, consisting of the woody plants and naturalized herbs, leaving out the exotic herbs of the vegetable and flower gardens, which are more or less transient. The term exotic connotes introduced plants from outside peninsular India. A word about the identification of the plants. After checking the plants at five Indian herbaria, including the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, the identity of a number of plants still remain- ed doubtful. Hence the following experts from outside India were THE EXOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL a7 consulted: H. Gaussen, Directeur du Laboratoire Forestier, Toulouse, (Gymnosperms) ; S. T. Blake, Botanic Gardens, Brisbane, (Eucalyptus) ; the Superintendent, Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya, (Palms); and the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Pending the publication of the work in book form, a complete enumeration of the species studied is published here. 344 species from 223 genera belonging to 82 families are enumerated. Families are arranged as in Bentham & Hooker: GENERA PLANTARUM (1862-1883), except for placing the Gymnosperms at the beginning, and for following Hutchinson’s FAMILIES OF FLOWERING PLANTS (1959) in the splitting up of certain families into more uniform groups. Within each family, genera and species are given in alphabetical order. _ Besides making available a full-list of names of the large number of exotic species growing in the area, the present paper gives the correct name of each plant according to the norms of the INTERNATIONAL CODE OF BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE (ed. 1961) with the full reference to the original publication of the name. The basionym and the commoner Synonyms, one of which is often the one in use in India, are added in order to prevent confusion regarding the identity of the plant following the adoption of the less known but scientifically correct name. Plants, the names of which are preceded by an asterisk (*), have been examined only in herbaria from earlier collections from the area, as these no longer grow here. ENUMERATION OF SPECIES GY MNOSPERMAE PODOCARPACEAE 1. Podocarpus brevifolius (Stapf) Foxw. in Philip. Journ. Sci. 6: 160, t. 29, f. 2, 1911. P. neriifolius var. brevifolius Stapf. ARAUCARIACEAE 2. Araucaria bidwillii Hook. in Lond. Journ. Bot. 2: 503, tt. 18 & 19, 1843, PINACEAE 3. Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) G. Don in Loud. Hort. 388, 1830. Pinus deodara Roxb. 4. Pinus canariensis Sm. in Buch. Beschr. Can. Ins. 159, 1825, 58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) *5. Pinus echinata Mill. Gard. Dict. (ed. 8) n. 12, 1768. 6. Pinus insularis End]. Syn. Conif. 157, 1847. P. keseya Royle ex Endl. P. khasiana Griff. P. khasya Royle ex Parl. *7, Pinus pinaster Ait. Hort. Kew. 3: 367, 1789. 8. Pinus pinea L. Sp. Pl. 1000, 1753. 9. Pinus radiata D. Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. 17 : 442, 1837. P. in- signis Dougl. ex Loud. | 10. Pinus roxburghii Sarg. in Silv. N. Am. 2: 9, 1897. P. longifolia Roxb. 11. Pinus torreyana Parr. ex Torr. in Bot. U. S. & Mex. Bound. Surv. 210, tt. 58 & 59, 1858. 12. Pinus wallichiana Jacks. in Kew Bull. 85, 1938. P. excelsa Wall. ex Lamb., non Lam. P. nepalensis De Chambr. P. griffithii McCl. TAXODIACEAE 13. Cryptomeria japonica (L. f.) D. Don in Trans. Linn. Soc. Bot. 18: 167, t. 13 (1), 1839. Cupressus japonica L. f. 14. Cunninghamia lanceolata (Lamb.) Hook. in Bot. Mag. 54: t. 2743, 1827. Pinus lanceolata Lamb. Cunninghamia sinensis R. Br. ex Rich. 15. Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb.) Endl. Syn. Conif. 198, 1847. Taxodium sempervirens Lamb. CUPRESSACEAE 16. Callitris oblonga Rich. Conif. 49, t. 18, f. 2, 1826. 17. Callitris rhomboidea R. Br. ex Rich! Conif. 47, t. 18, 1826; Bullock in Taxon 6 (8): 227, 1957. Frenela rhomboidea Endl. Callitris cupressiformis Muell. 18. Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Murr.) Parl. in Ann. Mus. Stor. Nat. Fir. 1: 181, 1864. Cupressus lawsoniana A. Murr. 19. Cupressus arizonica Gr. in Bull. Torr. Cl. 9: 64, 1882. \ 20. Cupressus funebris Endl. Syn. Conif. 58, 1847. | 21. Cupressus goveniana Gord. in Journ. Hort. Soc. 4: 295, 1849. 22. Cupressus lusitanica Mill. Gard. Dict. (ed. 8) n. 3, 1768. 23. Cupressus macrocarpa Hartw. in Journ. Hort. Soc. 2: 187, 1847, nomen, et ex Gord. in Journ. Hort. Soc. Lond. 4: 296, 1849. 24. Cupressus sempervirens L. Sp. Pl. 1002, 1753. vi 25. Cupressus torulosa D. Don, Prodr. 55, 1825. 26. Libocedrus decurrens Torr. in Sm. Inst. Contrib. Knowled. 6 (1): 7 (Pl. Frem. 7, t. 3, 1853) 1854. 27. Thuja orientalis L. Sp. Pl. 1002, 1753, _ THE EXOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 59 28. Widdringtonia juniperoides (L.) Endl. Syn. Conif. 32, 1847. Cupressus juniperoides L. Callitris arborea Schrad. ex Mey. ANGIOSPERMAE CALYCANTHACEAE 29. Chimonanthus praecox (L.) Link, Enum. Pl. Hort. Berol. 2: 66, 1822. Calycanthus praecox L. MAGNOLIACEAE 30. Magnolia campbellii Hook. f. & Thoms. Fl. Ind. 1: 77, 1855. 31. Magnolia grandiflora L. Syst. (ed. 10) 2: 1082, 1759. 32. Magnolia liliiflora Desr. in Lamk. Encycl. 3: 675, 1791. ™. purpurea Curt. M. discolor Vent. PAPAVERACEAE 33. Romneya coulteri Harv. in Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot. 4: 74, t. 31, 1845. FUMARIACEAE *34. Corydalis lutea (L.) DC. FI. Fr. 4: 638, 1812. Fumaria lutea L. CRUCIFERAE 35. Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. in Ait. f. Hort. Kew. (ed. 2) 4: 109, 1812. 36. Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Med. Pflanzeng. 85, 1792. Thlaspi bursa-pastoris L. 37. Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. Fl. Brit. 2: 691, 1800-1804. Lepi- dium didymum L. Senebiera didyma Pers. 38. Nasturtium officinale R. Br. in Ait. f. Hort. Kew. (ed. 2) 4: 110, 1812. *39. Sisymbrium wolgense Marsch. Bieb. ex Ledeb. FI. Ross. 1 :' 178, 1842, in obs., nomen nudum ; Fourn. Recherch. Crucif. 97, n. 64, 1865, descr. FLACOURTIACEAE 40, Aphloia mauritiana Baker, Fl, Maurit. 12, 1877, 60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) CARYOPHYLLACEAE 41. Polycarpon tetraphyllum (L.) L. Syst. (ed. 10) 881, 1759. Mollugo tetraphylla L. 42. Silene gallica L. Sp. Pl. 417, 1753. HYPERICACEAE 43. Hypericum hookerianum Wt. & Arn. Prodr. 99, 1834. H. oblon- gifolium Hook. f. SAURAUIACEAE 44. Saurauia nepaulensis DC. in Mem. Soc. Phys. Genev. 1: 421, 1822. THEACEAE 45. Camellia japonica L. Sp. Pl. 698, 1753. Thea japonica Baill. 46. Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze, Um die Erde 500, 1881, et in Act. Hort. Petrop. 10: 195, 1887. Thea sinensis L. T. bohea L. T. viridis L. T. chinensis Sims. Camellia thea Link. Thea assamica Mast. Camellia theifera Griff. [Wight in Curr. Sc. 31 (7) : 298-299, 1962, again revises the nomenclature. | 47. Schima wallichii (DC.) Choisy in Zoll. Syst. Verz. Ind. shee 144, 1854. Gordonia wallichii DC. | MALVACEAE 48. Abutilon megapotamicum (Spreng.) St. Hil. & Naud. in Ann, Sc. Nat. (Ser. 2) 18 : 49, 1842. Periptera megapotamica (Spreng.) G. Don. Sida megapotamica Spreng. Abutilon vexillarium E. Morr. 49. Althaea rosea Cav. Diss. 2: 91, t. 29, f. 3, 1786. 50. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Sp. Pl. 694, 1753. 51. Hibiscus syriacus L. Sp. Pl. 695, 1753. 52. Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. Diss. 3: t. 48, f. 1, 1787. Achania malvayiscus Swartz. STERCULIACEAE 53. Brachychiton acerifolius (Cunn.) Muell. Fragm. Phyt. Austral. 1: 1, 1858-1859. Sterculia acerifolia A. Cunn. 54. Dombeya acutangula Cav. Diss. 3 : 123, t. 38, f. 2, 1787, Astra- paea tiliaefolia Sw, fo ¥ BG sx i Abel ce Ea lians THE EXOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 61 *55. Dombeya burgessiae Gerr. ex Harv. & Sond. Fl. Cap. 2, 590, 1862. 56. Dombeya mastersii Hook. f. in Bot. Mag. 93 : t. 5639, 1867. 57. Dombeya wallichii (Lindl.) K. Schum. in Pflanzenfam. 3 (4) : 78, 1890. Astrapaea wallichii Lindl. GERANIACEAE 58. Pelargonium graveolens L’Her. Geran. t. 17, 1787-1788. Gera- nium graveolens Thunb. 59. Pelargonium grossularioides (L.) Ait. Hort. Kew. 2 : 420, 1789. Geranium grossularioides L. OXALIDACEAE *60. Oxalis cernua Thunb. Diss. Oxal. 14, t. 2, f. 2, 1781. 61. Oxalis deppei Lodd. Bot. Cab. 15: t. 1500, 1828. Often erro- neously named O. tetraphylla Cav. 62. Oxalis latifolia H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 5 : 184, t. 467, 1821. 63. Oxalis martiana Zucc. in Denkschr. Akad. Muench. 9: 144, 1823-1824. O. corymbosa DC. 64. Oxalis pubescens H.B.K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 5: 240, 1820. 65. Oxalis variabilis var. rubra Jacq. Oxal. 90, t. 53, 1794. TROPAEOLACEAE 66. Tropaeolum majus L. Sp. Pl. 345, 1753. RUTACEAE 67. Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck, Dagbok Ostind Resa 41, 1757, nomen, et Reise Ostind & China, 250, 1765. C. aurantium var. sinensis L. : 68. Choisya ternata Kunth in H.B.K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 6: 6, t. 513, 1823. | 69. Enuodia fraxinifolia (Don) Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 490, 1875. Rhus fraxinifolium Don. *70, Ruta graveolens L. Sp. Pl. 383, 1753. AQUIFOLIACEAE — *71, Tex aquifolium L. Sp. Pl. 125, 1753. 72, lex opaca Ait. Hort. Kew. 1 : 169, 1789. 62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) RHAMNACEAE 73. Colletia cruciata Gill. ex Hook. in Hook. Bot. Misc. 1 : 152, t. 43, 1829. 3 74. Hovenia dulcis Thunb. Fl. Jap. 101, 1784. *75. Noltea africana (L.) Reichb. ex Harv. & Sond. Fl. Cap. 1 : 478, 1859-1860. Ceanothus africanus L. 76. Pomaderris lanigera Sims in Bot. Mag. 43 : t. 1823, 1816. MELIANTHACEAE 77. Méelianthus major L. Sp. Pl. 639 (err. typ. 939), 1753. HIPPOCASTANACEAE 78. Aesculus indica (Camb.) Hook. in Bot. Mag. 85: t. 5117, 1859. A. indica Colebr. Pavia indica Wall. ex Camb. ACERACEAE *79. Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis, For. Fl. 111, t. 21, 1874. 80. Acer pseudo-platanus L. Sp. Pl. 1054, 1753. | ANACARDIACEAE 81. Schinus molle L. Sp. Pl. 388, 1753. PAPILIONACEAE *82. Castanospermum australe A.Cunn. & Fras. in Hook. Bot. Misc. 1 : 241, t. 51, 1830. *83. Chorizema ilicifolium Labill. Voy. 1 : 405, 1800. 84. Crotalaria agatiflora Schweinf. ex Engl. in Abhandl. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. 1891, 2 : 244, 1892, nomen, et in Hoehnel. zum Rudolph. Append. 13, 1892. *85. Erythrina crista-galli L. Mant. 1 : 99, 1767. *86. Hardenbergia comptoniana (Link) Benth. in Endl. & Fenzl, Enum. Pl. Hueg. 41, 1837. Kennedya comptoniana Link. 87. Laburnum anagyroides Med. in Vorl. Kurp. Ges. 2 : 363, 1787. *88. Robinia pseudoacacia L. Sp. Pl. 722, 1753. 89. Sarothamnus scoparius (L.) W. D. J. Koch, Syn. Fl. Germ. Helv. 152, 1837. Spartium scoparium L. Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link. THE EXOTIC FLORA OF KODAIKANAL 63 90. Spartium junceum L. Sp. Pl. 708, 1753. Genista juncea Scop. 91. Trifolium dubium Sibth. Fl. Oxon. 231, 1794. *92. Trifolium pratense L. Sp. Pl. 768, 1753. 93. Trifolium repens L. Sp. Pl. 767, 1753. 94. Ulex europeus L. Sp. Pl. 241, 1753. 95. Wisteria sinensis (Sims) Sw. Hort. Brit. 121, 1827. Glycine sinensis Sims. Wisteria chinensis DC. CAESALPINIACEAE 96. Cassia didymobotrya Fresen. in Flora 22 (1): 53, 1839; de Wit in Webbia 11 : 241, 1955. 97. Cassia laevigata Willd. Enum. Hort. Berol. 441, 1809. 98. Cassia tomentosa L. f. Supp. 231, 1781; de Wit in Webbia i: 275, 1955. *99. Ceratonia siliqua L. Sp. Pl. 1026, 1753. 100. Schizolobium excelsum Vog. in Linn. 11 : 399, 1837. MIMOSACEAE 101. Acacia baileyana Muell. in Trans. & Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic. 24: 168, 1888. , F *102. Acacia cunninghamii Hook. Ic. Pl. t. 165, 1837. 103. Acacia cyanophylla Lindl. Bot. Reg. (Misc.) 49, 1839. _ 104. Acacia dealbata Link, Enum. Hort. Berol. 445, 1822. A. decurrens (Wendl.) Willd. var. dealbata Muell. ex Maiden. 105. Acacia decurrens (Wendl.) Willd. Sp. Pl. 4: 1072, 1806. Mimosa decurrens Wendl. 106. Acacia elata A. Cunn. ex Benth. in Hook. Lond. Journ. Bot. 1: 383, 1842. 107. Acacia lindleyi Meissn. in Lehm. Pl. Preiss. 1 : 14, 1844. 108. Acacia longifolia Willd. Sp. Pl. 4: 1052, 1806. 109, Acacia maidenii Muell. in Macl. Mem. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales 722, t..29;, 1893; 110. Acacia mearnsii (‘ mearnsi’) De Willd. Pl. Bequaert. 3: 61, 1925; Brenan & Melville in Kew Bull. 37-39, 1960. Ps] yr 7) yy 2: Bh reat A (4 ? / 20mm. [@mm. ais: Y : Sp aD Oe ie Aten ie f ‘ty : ae aa << aa age ste) { toe aoe : x slay ee ete mk { rie ier | a ies i . v. Aa 3 & al eG - —a acl tea ty a Va CO + be pa traint 4 Vena * 2 ae “ a, x Ey » Pape ste tae : Se aS wees s “2a BAe ian se ear) ee Shon as Se nee STAG Sat eed Dy hs . 3 ay aay 3 - “ & fa Ae Fiat a € ean Fe ee SO ods iy ne) Q y BS ¢ < Vix Ed } ik 2 Ly — “ ~ Ned if ¢ } Tabs 3 4, 5 ’ a Md & 5 y 4 " Ky : 4 je ‘i Ne fs Figs. 44a, 44b. Chama fragrum: outer and inner views respectively ; _ Figs. 45a, 45b. Chama reflexa: outer and inner views respectively ; Figs. 46a, 46b. Cardium asiaticum: outer and inner views respectively JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE XIV ae ‘>. ates tm > ‘aagy a MSN eee = 3 o%e «See ~ ee rae Vest Bees : : : Zisky «fs SL Ohi? wh ik ete Pod: ayaa nts [his ra (6 fe S Fp EE Toy Poise o% pe Me Flee she Ae Ma ee) Pepe P TEAL S yt ee 3! (gf ef Fiet E We Deo aire es ACH Vi oof iii E ee a a Cee). Pets: ie Py Z 3 i m £ Cy 34 : z ‘ oe oy? eee eg 3 a “i £8 2 Cy os lp t on e @ wes es Pe | hay Mae hae) tae Fae) | ce & & sgh) ates ° a | Sires teal Se Se ie be TH Os : iy Se Si ba "3 | ec Ba NO dike eh te 47a, 47b. Cardium assimile: outer and inner views respectively ; 48a, 48b. Cardium australe: outer and inner views respectively ; 49a, 49b. Cardium flavum: outer and inner views respectively MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 101 44, Chama reflexa Reeve. Plate XIII, figs. 45a, 45b A very heavy, inflated, flesh-coloured shell, with short tubular spines arranged in circular rows. Report on a Collection from the South-East Coast of India, with Notes on Distribution in the Indo-Pacific Area BY N. BALAKRISHNAN NAIR ; ) Oceanographic Laboratory, University of Kerala, Ernakulam INTRODUCTION Earlier studies along the east and west coasts of India have shown that timber-boring animals cause extensive damage to all sorts of marine underwater structures made of timber (Nair 1961). Systemati- cally, the timber-borers constitute a heterogeneous assemblage repre- senting at least two phyla and eight genera in the Indian waters all sharing a common habitat and working together in the destruction of wood in sea-water, in brackish water, and even in fresh water. The phylum Mollusca is represented mainly by four genera, namely Bankia, Nausitora, and Teredo, which constitute the family Teredinidae or shipworms, and the genus Martesia of the family Pholadidae or piddocks. The crustacean wood-borers are mainly confined to the order Isopoda and are represented by the two well-known genera Sphaeroma and Limnoria. Four species and one variety of Sphaeroma and nine species of Limnoria have been reported from India. The amphipod borer Chelura has not yet been recorded from the Indian coast. The nature of attack by the molluscs differs from that bv the crustaceans and produces different effects on the timber, thus enabling them to share without serious competition a habitat which is limited in extent. While the crustaceans work from the outside, the molluscs penetrate deep into the heart of the timber. The combined action of the two groups of borers converts the wood into a highly porous, MARINE TIMBER-BORING ORGANISMS OF THE INDIAN COAST 121 fragile, and honeycombed mass. The limnoriids even enter the creosoted shell of treated timber but the shipworm larvae seem unable to do this. As suggested by Menzies (1957), this may be due to the , fact that teredines penetrate the wood as larval forms whereas the crustaceans penetrate the wood as adults. The shipworms are important destroyers of timber, since the growth of these highly specialised wood-borers is directly related to the damage they effect on timber and each shipworm during its lifetime destroys a column of wood of the same dimensions as itself. The piddocks are also equally important because of their wide distribution, density of attack, quick development, rapid succession of generations, and high tolerance of lower salinities (Nagabhushanam 1955). Even though the bore hole of the piddock is much smaller than that of the shipworm and does not usually exceed the sizg»of the animal itself, the noteworthy feature is that each generation penetrates deeper and deeper, thereby considerably reducing the useful period of timber structures. Among the crustacean borers along the Indian coasts those of the genus Sphaeroma are the most important owing to their larger size, the burrow being about twice as large as the body, the high density of settlement, and the rapid rate of reproduction. Further, these crustaceans can also tolerate great reduction in the salinity of the medium which enables them to spread to the brackish waters. Three species are commonly met with in Indian waters, namely S. terebrans, S. annandalei, and S. walkeri. The genus Limnoria which is a very serious timber-borer in the higher latitudes is not a serious pest in Indian waters, even though nine species have so far been recorded (including those from Minicoy and the Andamans). They are Limnoria pfefferi Stebbing, L. insulae Menzies, L. wunicornis Menzies, L. platycauda Menzies, L. indica Becker & Kampf, L. bituberculata Pillai, L. tripunctata Menzies, L. septima Barnard, and L. bombayensis Pillai. This small isopod is capable of effecting a progressive tunnel- ling action on wood and can make a burrow many times the length of its body. Metaponorthus and Melita have also been reported as capable of boring wood but are not serious ‘pests. Taxonomic studies have shown (Nair 1961) that at least 28 species of shipworms occur and are active in the Indian waters and constitute one of the most important and highly destructive timber borers along our coasts. They attack and destroy a wide variety of timber structures. It is probable that an extensive search of the wooden underwater structures along the Indian coast, the driftwood cast ashore during the monsoon, and particularly the water-logged timber that can be obtained by dredging would yield very valuable material 122. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) which may expand this list still further. Several expeditions have reported the occurrence of remnants of plant material of land origin in deep water, particularly in theetropics, and the hauls from some parts of the deep sea are extraordinarily rich in different species of plant material and marine boring organisms. Such materials have neither been collected nor studied in any detail from the neighbourhood of India. The data would provide valuable material for understanding the nature, occurrence, distribution, and dispersal of wood borers in these waters. It is of interest to note that all the 17 species of Xylophaga, a wood-boring genus collected from the deep sea during the Galathea Expedition (Knudsen 1961), were new to science, which shows that the forms occurring in these habitats are quite different from those that occur in driftwood or in shallow waters. Further most surveys of marine ®Wood-boring organisms have been restricted to easily accessible sea-coasts and protected harbour areas, where test boards can be easily installed and examined as and when desired. Moreover, the destruction which these borers cause is chiefly detected on the harbour constructions, such as piers and wharves, which quickly attract the attention of harbour engineers and industrialists interested in waterfront structures. So our information about these pests is chiefly confined to their ecology near the narrow coastal zones and harbours. Their occurrence, dis- tribution, relative abundance, conditions of life, and survival during the larval stages, soon after settlement on wood, and also the repro- ducing adult stages in the environment of the distant off-shore waters are all imperfectly understood. A careful study of the reports from the east and west coasts of India and the neighbouring areas indicates that many of these wood- boring animals are widely distributed not only along the coasts of India but also in the Indo-Pacific area extending from the east African coasts, through Indonesia, to Samoa and Hawaii. The present account is based on a collection of wood-boring animals made during December 1961 and February 1962 from two localities, namely Pamban on the Rameswaram Island and Keelakkarai near Ramnad on the south-east coast of India. It is hoped that this report, though not exhaustive, will be beneficial to zoologists, since this and adjacent areas particularly Krusadai are visited by a large number of scientists every vear. The fauna of Krusadai studied in great detail for the last several years does not include a_ single shipworm. as MARINE TIMBER-BORING ORGANISMS OF THE INDIAN COAST 123 WooD-BORING MOLLUSCS Family PHOLADIDAE This family is represented by the Genus Martesia and two species are present in the collection, namely Martesia striata and Martesia fragilis. Genus Martesia Sowerby Subgenus Martesia Sowerby 1. Martesia (Martesia) striata (Linné) 1758. Pholas striata Linné, Syst. Nat. ed. 10: 669. Occurrence. Several specimens were collected from old piles (Borassus flabellifer) both from Pamban and Keelakkarai. Specimens (shells only) have also been collected from driftwood of the following species cast ashore, Mangifera sp., Casuarina sp., Acacia sp., Bamboosa sp. Previous records from India. Madras, Porto-Novo, ‘Tuticorin, Kayankulam (west coast), Cochin Harbour, Bombay, Visakhapatnam, Krishna estuary, and Krusadai. Distribution. Eastern Pacific, Indo-Pacific, Western Atlantic. 2. Martesia (Martesia) fragilis Verrill & Bush 1890. Martesia (Martesiella) fragilis Verrill & Bush, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 20: 777. Occurrence. Several specimens were obtained from a drift log (timber undetermined) cast ashore on Keelakkarai beach on 19 February 1964. Previous. records from India. Porto-Novo, Madras, Cochin. Timber known to be attacked. Myristica fragrans, Mangifera indica, Bamboosa sp. Distribution. Western Atlantic, Eastern Pacific. e Family ‘TEREDINIDAE This family includes the well-known shipworms and are the most important of the wood-borers collected.. The genera Bankia and 124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) Teredo are represented in the collection, the former by four species and the latter by eight species. Genus Bankia Gray Subgenus Bankia Gray 1. Bankia (Bankia) bipalmulata (Lamarck) 1801. Teredo bipalmulata Lamarck, Systéme des Animaux sans Vertébres: 129. Occurrence. Three specimens were collected from a log of Cedrela toona cast ashore during December 1961 at Pamban. Dry shells and pallets have also been recovered from driftwood such as Shorea sp. and other as yet undetermined timber. Previous records from India. Pondicherry, Madras, Kovilam. Distribution. East African coast: Tanganika (Tanga); Sumatra (Babalan, Soeng Sang); Philippines (Mindoro); New Guinea (Manok- wari); New Hebrides (Espiritu Santo); New Caledonia; Hawaii (Oahu). Subgenus Bankiella Bartsch 2. Bankia (Bankiella) indica Nair 1954. Bankia (Bankiella) indica Nair, Rec. Ind. Mus. 52 : 393. Occurrence. Several specimens were collected from a piece of driftwood cast ashore at Pamban. Timber known to be attacked. Cedrela toona, Borassus flabellifer, Melia composita, Albizzia moluccana, Shorea robusta, Hopea sp. Previous records from India. Madras, Adirampatnam, Cochin. Distribution. Felix Roch (1961) feels that the form under con- sideration is probably a synonym of Bankia carinata. B. carinata has been recorded from the following places, namely Reunion, Malacca, the Sunda Islands, and New Guinea. Subgenus Neobankia Bartsch 3. Bankia (Neobankia) nordi Moll 1935. Bankia (Neobankia) nordi Moll, Sitz.-Ber. Akad. Wiss. Wier, Math.-Natw. KI. 1 (144): 272. | Occurrence. Two pallets were collected from the roots of Pandanus sp. cast ashore at Pamban. | Previous records from India. This is the first record of this species © from India. Distribution. Sumatra (Balawan Deli, Tandjoeng Balei): Singa- pore; Rhiouw Archipelago; New Guinea (Fak Fak). 7 MARINE TIMBER-BORING ORGANISMS OF THE INDIAN COAST 125 Subgenus Plumulella Clench & Turner 4. Bankia (Plumulella) lineata Nair 1955. Bankia (Neobankia) lineata Nair, J. Madras. Univ. 25B : 109. Occurrence. ‘Two specimens were collected from a log of Cedrela ftoona cast ashore at Pamban. Shells and paliets have also been recovered from driftwood (probably Rhizophora sp.) from the same locality. | Previous records from India. Madras, Visakhapatnam. Genus Teredo Linneé Subgenus Teredo S. Str. Linné 5. Teredo (Teredo) madrasensis Nair 1954. Teredo (Teredo) madrasensis Nair, Rec. Ind. Mus. 52: 401. Occurrence. Several shells and pallets were obtained from pieces of driftwood cast ashore at Pamban. Previous records from India. Madras, ‘Kayankulam, Tondi, Adirampatnam. | Timber known to be attacked. Cedrelu toona, Mangifera indica, Borassus flabellifer, Tectona grandis, Shorea sp., Terminalia sp. Subgenus Teredothyra Bartsch 6. Teredo (Teredothyra) indomalaica Roch 1935. Teredo (Teredothyra) indomalaica Roch, Sitz.-Ber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.- Natw. Kl. 1 (144): 264. Occurrence.: Two pairs of pallets from a piece of driftwood (Shorea sp. ?) cast ashore at Pamban. Previous records from India. Nil. Distribution. Madagascar, Malacca, Singapore, Rhiouw Archi- pelago, Tandjoeng Penang, Sumatra (Oleh Lheue). Subgenus Lyrodus Gould 7. Teredo (Lyrodus) malaccana Roch 1935. Teredo (Lyrodus) malaccana Roch, Sitz.-Ber. Akad. Wiss. Wien., Math Natw. KI. 1 (144) : 269. Occurrence. Several pairs of pallets were collected from pieces of driftwood (Shorea sp. ?, Myristica fragrans, Bamboosa sp.) at Pamban. A set of four live specimens were collected from the branch of a tree cast ashore at Keelakkarai. 126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) Previous records from India. Visakhapatnam, Mandapam, Cochin, Bombay. , Distribution. Suez Canal (Ismailia), Aden, East African coast: Kenya (Mombasa), Tanganika (Tanga), Madagascar, Rhiouw Archi- pelago, Tandjoeng Penang, Singapore, Sumatra (Oleh Lheue, Belawan Deli), Java (Surabaja), Borneo (Kota Baru), New Guinea (Fak Fak). Subgenus Coeloteredo Bartsch 8. Teredo (Coeloteredo) singaporeana Roch 1935. Teredo (Coeloteredo) singaporeana Roch, Sitz.-Ber. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Math.-Natw. KI. 1 (144) : 266. Occurrence. Four specimens were collected from the floating branch of a tree at Pamban. Previous records from India. Visakhapatnam. Distribution. East African coast: Kenya (Mombasa), Tanganika (Tanga, Pangani), Port Durban, Madagascar, Malacca, Singapore, Rhiouw Archipelago, Sumatra (Sabang, Emmahaven). Lombok (Ampenan). 9. Teredo (Coeloteredo) renschi Roch 1935. Teredo (Coeloteredo) renschi Roch, Sitz.-Ber. Akad. Wiss. Wien., Math. Natw. KI. 1 (144) : 267. Occurrence. Two specimens from the bark of a palm tree (Borassus flabellifer) cast ashore at Keelakkarai. Previous records from India. Mandapam, Cochin. Distribution.. Rhiouw Archipelago, Singapore, Sumatra (Sabang), Java (Surabaja), Flores (Endeh). Subgenus Kuphus Guettard 10. Teredo (Kuphus) manni Wright 1866. Kuphus ? manni Wright, Trans. Linn. Soc. London 25 : 565. f Occurrence. Two pallets were obtained from a piece of driftwood, Tectona grandis, cast ashore at Keelakkarai. Previous records from India. Bombay, Visakhapatnam, Cochin. Distribution. East African coast: Kenya (Mombasa), Tanganika (Tanga, Pangani), Mozambique (Mayotte, San Diego, Beira, Tonga- land), Kerimba Islands, Madagascar, Reunion, Cochin China, Burma (Tavoy), Malacca, Singapore, Rhiouw Archipelago, Sumatra (Babalan, Belawan Deli, Pantai Tjermin, Soeng Sang, Langsa River), Tandjoeng Penang, Celebes (Moena), Moluccas (Amboina), Borneo (Kota Baru), MARINE TIMBER-BORING ORGANISMS OF THE INDIAN COAST 127 Java (Surabaja), New Guinea (Fak Fak, Meranke, Hollandia Harbour, Seegarbui), Philippines (Luzon, Palawan), Bismarck Archipelago, Australia (Queensland). . Subgenus Uperotus Guettard 11. Teredo (Uperotus) clava Gmelin 1791. Teredo clava Gmelin, Syst. Nat., ed. 13, : 3748. Occurrence. Several specimens were collected from the floating seeds of mangrove from both Pamban and Keelakkarai. Previous records from India. Madras, Karaikal, Pondicherry, Tranquebar. Distribution. East African coast: Cape Province (Port Elizabeth), Natal, Mauritius, Ceylon, Java, Moluccas (Amboina), Philippines, Australia (Queensland, Sydney). Subgenus Dactyloteredo Roch 12. Teredo (Dactyloteredo) diederichseni Roch 1929. Teredo (Dactyloteredo) diederichseni Roch, Mitt. Zool. Staatsinst. Zool. Mus. Hamburg. 44 : 6. Occurrence. Several shells and pallets were collected from a big drift log (timber undetermined) cast ashore at Pamban. Previous records from India. Madras, Cochin. * Distribution. Philippines, the Sunda Islands, Phoenix Islands (Canton), Midway Islands, Wake Islands, Hawaii Islands (Kuai, Oahu, Maui, Hilo, Johnston). WoopD-BORING CRUSTACEANS One species of Limnoria and two species of Sphaeroma are re- presented in the collection. Family LIMNORHDAE Genus Limnoria Leach Subgenus Limnoria Menzies 1. Limnoria (Limnoria) indica Becker & Kampf 1957. Limoria (Limnoria) indica Becker & Kampf, Journal of the Timber Dryers and Preservers Association of India 5 (1) : 12-17. Occurrence. Six specimens were collected from green twigs cast ashore at Keelakkarai. All specimens were alive when collected. a 128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) Their burrows were shallow just beneath the bark of the twigs and the infestation was light. | Previous records from India. Mandapam camp, Madras Harbour. Family SPHAEROMIDAE Genus Sphaeroma Bosc 2. Sphaeroma walkeri Stebbing 1905. Sphaeroma walkeri Stebbing, Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fishery Suppl. Rep. PRS PRON Occurrence. Two specimens both in a dried condition were collected from a drift log cast ashore at Pamban. Previous records from India. Neendakara near Quilon, Bombay, Madras, Visakhapatnam. Distribution. Ceylon, Suez, Egypt, New South Wales, South Africa. 3. Sphaeroma terebrans Bate 1866. Sphaeroma terebrans Bate, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. 3 (17) : 28. Occurrence. Several specimens were collected in a dry condition from a large drift log cast ashore at Pamban. Previous records from India. Backwaters of Travancore-Cochin, Madras, Mandapam, Bombay. Distribution. Mediterranean, Mozambique, Zanzibar, North and South Africa, Ceylon, Queensland, Florida, and Brazil. 129 MARINE TIMBER-BORING ORGANISMS OF THE INDIAN COAST i _ H — _— yuesqe — ! USSOId , DADII Opada J, _ oe 14ISUAA Opad? [ — a DubadOdDBUIS Opadsa J, n ay (14408ad8 * J, Masydidapaip) opadsa f. = ae DUDIIDIDU Opada | DIIDJDUOpUI Opa.sa J, = ote pivauly vlyupg = a0 Ipiou biyuog ; as poIpul viyung ; i oy 1UUDUL Opada J, : Dypjnuyodig viyuog UPd9O Bag Bog jeuey onueyw | UreueIoyIpayy poy Zang J | uvIpUy oyloeg wIoMAdTys jo owen SNYOMdIHS JO NOILNELsid aH], ] Tavy JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (A) 130 1 DUDIIDIDU opada J, | DoIvjoUOpUt opada I, sisud -SDAPDUL opada [, pIvaUul] Dung SOSQNTIOW ONTXYOE AG GAMOVLLV SUAEANIL poiput piyuog pynjnutjodiq plyuvg II a1avL DIDIAS DISaJADIN. . _ yUesqe — £ JUOSOId , ‘ds vsooquug "ds naoydozyy ‘ds vadoy DISNGOA DaLOYS! ‘ds viovap "ds snuppuvg ‘ds putonso) DUDIINJOU DIZZ1q]P DIISOdMO0D DIJAW DIIPUL DAASISUDIY DUOO] DjatpaD SUDABDAL DINSIACI “ds oljouiuisa J lafijjaqoyf snssvsog SIPUDAS DUO0JIA L, Joquil} JO ouIeN, MARINE TIMBER-BORING ORGANISMS OF THE INDIAN COAST 131 REFERENCES BECKER, G. & KAmprF, W. D. (1957) : The wood-destroying isopod genus Limnoria at the continental coast of India and description of Limnoria indica sp.n. J. Timb. Dr. Pres. Ass. India 5 (1) : 12-17. KNUDSEN, J. (1961) : The bathyal and abyssal Xylophaga. Pholadidae, Bivalvia. Galathea Report, 5, Scientific Results of the Danish Deep Sea Expedition round the World, 1950-52: 163-209. Menzies, R. J. (1957) : The marine borer family Limnoriidae (Crustacea, Isopoda). Bull. Mar. Sci. Gulf and Caribbean 7 (2) : 101-200. NAGABHUSHANAM, R. (1955): Tole- rance of the marine wood borer Martesia striata (Linn.) to waters of low salinity. J. zool. Soc. India 7 (1) : 83-86. Narr, N. BALAKRISHNAN (1954) : Ship- worms from India. Rec. Ind. Mus. 52 (2-4) : 387-414. (1955) : On a new species of shipworm of the subgenus Neobankia from Madras. J. Madras Univ. 25B (1) : 109-113. (1956) : Destruction of timber structures by shipworms in Madras waters. J. sci. industr. Res. 15C (3): 81-82. (1956) : The development of the wood-boring pelecypod Bankia indica Nair. J. Madras Univ. 26B (2) : 303-318. Nair, N. BALAKRISHNAN (1961) : Some aspects of the marine borer problem in India. J. sci. industr. Res. 20A (10): 584-591. — (1964) : Some observations on the problem of marine timber destroy- ing organisms of Indian Coasts. Fishery Technology 1 (1) : 87-97. PILLAI, N. K. (1955) : Wood-boring crustacea of Travancore. I. Sphaeromidae. Bull. Centr. Res. Inst. Trivandrum 4 (1) : 127-139. Rocu, F. (1955) : Die Terediniden ost- und westindiens der MHollandischen museums-sammlungen zu Amsterdam und Leiden. Zod!. Meded. Leiden 34 (8) : 125-151. ———— (1961): Die Terediniden der Sunda-Inslen und Neu-Guineas. Beaufor- tia, Zool. Mus. Amsterdam 9 (95) : 7-48. TURNER, R. D. (1955): The Family Pholadidae in the western Atlantic and the eastern Pacific, Part II. Johnsonia, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Har- vard University 3 (34) : 65-160. WRIGHT, E. P. (1866) : Contributions to a Natural History of the Teredidae. Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. Zool. 25:561-568. Reviews 1. THE WORLD OF THE TIGER. By Richard | Perry. pp. xii-+263 (22X15 cm.). London, 1964. Cassell & Co. Price 30s. It gives one pleasure to read this book as, in the main, the subject has been well and accurately presented and developed. involving some research and investigation. But, in parts of the book accuracy has been interwoven with fantasy; this I feel must somewhat lower the worth of the work to readers with experience of the tiger in India, while no doubt enhancing its value to the majority of its readers. The author observes in his introduction that the close of this century may see the end of the tiger in its wild state in India, except for a few in Sanctuaries and National Parks. In the first chapter he estimates that the number of tiger in India is now less than four thousand. I do not think there is much risk of the tiger disappearing from India within the next 36 to 40 years. a Nowadays the danger facing the tiger’s existence in India is not so much the ‘sportsman’s’ gun, even though more than 400 tigers are, we are told, still being shot annually. The threat lies in the activities of game poachers all over India. Even assuming there are only about 4000 tigers left in the sub-continent, which I consider an underestimate, and that some 50% of these are tigresses, the natural increase should suffice to keep the number well above the killings. The menace to the tiger’s survival in India is the rapid extermination by poachers of its natural food, deer and pig, and the extension of cultivation into what are the tiger’s domains. It is a provision of nature that as a predator’s natural food supply decreases so does the size of its litters. Even so, the jungles covering the tiger’s habitat are so vast, and parts of them so difficult of access to the poacher, that another 100 years or more should still find tiger ranging over large areas of forest. The author is probably right in agreeing with Corbett that most mian-eaters have become so ‘by accident’, in that this expression covers a wide field. For instance, a great increase in man-eating tigers was recorded soon after the Great Indian Famine, due no doubt to tigers feeding on the abandoned dead and dying all over the country-side. In fact, man-eaters became such a scourge, even in south India, that District Officers issued village headmen with phials of strychnine to be used on human and cattle kills. Some villages were abandoned in S. India and the man-eaters’ victims included REVIEWS 133 ‘Roman Catholic priests, pilgrims to temples and shrines, and travellers. Stone cairns, as described by the author, can be seen—-as well as carved slabs depicting a hunter, or attacked man, driving a spear into a tiger. The author observes that, though a tiger in India may kill during the day, it will not eat till after dark. This is usually the case, but the exception is not uncommon; indeed he gives instances of tiger in India eating in daylight. Again a tiger's ‘pooking’ is, surely. a call of suspicion and un- certainty, far more likely to drive away sambar than to attract them. While I do not claim that tiger have no sense of smell at all, I must disagree with the author’s conclusions on this point. Tiger have a good ‘hound’ sense of smell, that is to say ground, and near-ground, scent. That a tiger can smell a putrid kill is surely no argument; so can we humans. A human can also smell tiger, gaur, sambar, and elephant on entering an area in which they have been shortly before. But this does not mean we can wind these animals from a distance; . nor has it been my experience that tiger can. The tiger can see quite a distance in the dark, even on a ‘pitch black night’; otherwise how does a tiger travel long distances, and that through heavy forest, on such nights? The author refers to the failure of a tiger to return to its kill. Surely, one of the commonest causes is the removal of the kill by men of the low caste communities. This applies particularly to cattle kills. The tiger has learned from experience that it will find no kill. Colonies of these low caste people live outside most hamlets, and pay herdsmen for information about kills, and also for the victims’ hides. Are ‘alligators’ to be found in India? I think not; crocodiles, yes. The author has been at pains to describe the habits of tiger, including man-eaters, and quotes at length from other writers’ books. I am sure he realises that some of the incidents retailed are not necessarily related to facts; but, as I have observed at the outset, this may not affect the ‘readable’ value of the book. R.C.M. 2, THE MOUNTAIN GORILLA. By George B. Schaller. pp. 431 (23-5X15-5 cm.). 35 Plates. Chicago, 1963. The University of Chicago Press. Price $ 10. Since its discovery in the middle of the last century, the Gorilla has remained an object of fascination to man by its size, by its rather 134° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) human appearance, and to its misfortune by the distortion of what little was known of it to present an animal of magnificent strength that apparently resented approach by twisting guns and mangling its human pursuers. Dr. Schaller’s book, the first authentic and detailed study of the animal in the field, finally lays to rest the many misconcep- tions regarding a rather peaceful and solemn animal—a classic instance of ‘a good story being spoilt by an eye witness’. This remarkable book records the study of the ecology and behaviour of the Mountain Gorilla made by Dr. Schaller over a period of twenty months in its natural habitat in eastern Congo, western Uganda, and western Ruanda, primarily in the Virunga Volcanoes | area. His only ‘weapons’ were a pair of binoculars and enormous patience. The difficulties of observing the animal in its natural habitat can be appreciated from the fact that he had only 466 hours of direct observation of the animal during the twenty months he was in the field. In this period of study he habituated six groups of the animals to his presence very near to them. The observations are described and analysed in the sequence of: Methods, Distribution and Ecology, the Animals, Population Density, Structure, and Behaviour, Responses to Environment, Conservation, Summary. Tables and Appendices on skull measurements, weather data, light readings, and an account of the original discovery of the Mountain Gorilla complete’ the text. The complete literature on the Mountain Gorilla, including an article in the Journal of the Bombay Naturai History Society, is available in the Bibliography. The picture of the animal that emerges from the study is of a peaceful and ‘introverted’ vegetarian living within a home range of 10 to 15 square miles in small family groups composed of a dominant silverback or fully adult male, other silverbacks and younger black- backed males in a linear hierarchy, and several females and young, leisurely foraging in the midst of an abundance of food (Dr. Schaller collected 100 species of plants used as food by the animal), building nests out of the undergrowth to rest in during the day and at night. It is a solemn animal that ceases to play at the age of six, living at peace with its environment. The ‘beating of the chest’ which has become so much a part of the Gorilla legend, though occasionally an act of intimidation, is usually a ‘displacement activity’, a release for tension comparable to the slamming of a door by an irate husband leaving the scene of a marital squabble. In Dr. Schaller’s opinion there is no immediate danger of the animal becoming extinct, though considerable inroads have been made into its habitat by agriculturists and pastoralists. One hopes REVIEWS 135 that, in the present unsettled political conditions and the consequent availability of arms to persons who would not normally have them, the animal will not be one of the national assets sacrificed before stability is attained. The book is an invaluable guide to those who wish to undertake such field studies which are a crying need in our country. JCD. 3. THE CAMELLIA TREASURY. By Mrs. Paul Kincaid. pp. 224 (24x17 cm.). 16 colour and 88 monochrome plates. New York, 1964. Hearthside Press Inc. Price $ 9-95. This well-illustrated book by a Camellia lover covers a very wide field including the history of Camellia growing, the Camellia in land- scape gardening, cultivation in the open and in greenhouses, Bonsai, propagation, showing and flower arrangement. It is not possible to deal with all these subjects in much detail in a book of which the text is confined to about 210 pages. That is the book’s chief failing—- trying to deal with too much. However, some very useful information is contained in it, particularly in the chapter on propagation, making the book valuable for any gardener. The Camellia, a native of China and Japan, has achieved a good deal of popularity in the United States, southern Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, apart from the countries of its origin. In the U.S.A. many Camellia societies exist. Northern Europe and northern North America are too cold for outdoor growing and the plains of India too hot. Yet, Mrs. Kincaid records that her plants have withstood a minimum temperature of 2° F. and a maximum of 106° F. Speaking of the plant, which is not very well known in India, the author writes: “The perfection of form, flower and foliage in the - Camellia shrub is equalled by no other plant. Although much admired for its flowers—it would be an empress even for this one quality—the beauty of the plant in the landscape, and its aristocratic behaviour with a minimum of maintenance have given it exalted rank with many connoisseurs of the world’s flora.’ It is not surprising that this flower is very highly rated by flower arrangers, specially in Japan. One half of the book is devoted to flower arrangements, and the majority of the photographs are of the author’s own arrangements. The opinion of an expert on flower arrangement is that, here again, 136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) Mrs. Kincaid has attempted to cover too much ground. She deals with so many styles that the beginner will feel confused and be unable to learn any one of them with the help of this book. : Some of the arrangements in the photographs are very beautiful. Mrs. Kincaid provides. a list of 173 varieties of Camellias for outdoor growing, which she has grown in her own garden in North Carolina, and a further 25 varieties for greenhouse growing. Obviously, plant breeders have been at work on the Camellia. The colours produced are white, cream, light and deep pink to red and blackish crimson. Some varieties are striped, spotted, or edged with different colours. An orchid pink and a lavender pink are also mentioned. In concluding, it is interesting to recall that the Camellia, a ralltite of tea, reached the West in a peculiar way. Some merchants in Britain ordered tea plants from China around 1720, as this drink was becoming very popular. The Chinese merchants, jealously guarding their monopoly, substituted Camellia plants, and thus this a, popular ornamental reached Europe. AJA. ~- 4 ANIMAL POPULATIONS: By T. O. Browning. pp. 127 (19X12 cm.). London, 1963. Hutchinson & Co. Price 12s. 6d. (in U.K. only). . Occasionally one has the pleasure of reading a book that presents the subject with absolute clarity. This book is one among them. Dr. Browning, within the few pages of this slim volume, introduces the Ecology of Animals as a quantitative and experimental branch of science through the study of animal populations. To introduce the complex problems of the subject and to develop an understanding of the concepts, the first chapter describes in detail the ecology of the sheep tick Ixodes ricinus in Great Britain. The next two chapters deal with the: concepts of populations and environment. The _ tive categories of the latter, weather, resources, members of the same species, members of other species, and hazards are examined in detail and illustrated with examples in the five chapters that follow. The interaction of environmental factors and self-regulatory mechanisms are explained separately, and the book ends with a chapter on man’s place in animal ecology and the ecology of man. The book is exceedingly good as introductory reading and the: list of references augments its -value. To those interested: in Natural REVIEWS 137 History, the book offers the methods to develop their interest into an exact science. Ecology is a subject which has very little following in India though the scope is vast, and it is hoped that there will be more emphasis in future on field studies of the type mentioned in the book. RED: 5. THE OXFORD BOOK OF BIRDS. Illustrations by Donald Watson. Text by Bruce Campbell. pp. xvit+207 (24X17 cm.). 96 colour plates and several black-and-white sketches. London, 1964. Oxford University Press. Price 35s. net. Within the last year or two a spate of excellent and profusely illustrated bird books has appeared, and those with limited purses have to be choosy in their purchases. A glance at this book left me with no alternative. Every bird that has been authentically recorded in the British Isles is described, and about 320 different species are illustrated in colour; where the sexes differ, both the male and the female are shown, and also in many cases the immature plumages. In most cases the background of the picture depicts the kind of country where the species is to be found. This and the off-set printing completely remove the shiny ‘glare’ which is almost invariably present in books with coloured illustrations. The text is apt and concise and relates to the species illustrated ‘on the opposite page—in a few instances it is not easy to determine to which picture the caption applies. A simple ‘method has been devised to show at the end of the text relating to each species (a) the months during which it can be seen in Britain, (b) when eggs or young in the nest may be seen, and (c) when their songs may be heard, for instance: on Or oe 8 IO CZ) indicates a summer visitor which is not seen in January, February, and December, and only occasionaily in March and November. Its song may be heard from April to July (underlined), and eggs and young found from May to July (in bold type). A short introduction covers the different families, and the main external parts of a bird are illustrated. At the end, short chapters on Special Features of Bird Anatomy, Flight, Behaviour and Breeding, Migration, Numbers and Age, and Suggestions for Further Reading complete an. exceptionally attractive book, H.A. 138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) 6. A NEW DICTIONARY OF BIRDS. Edited by Sir A. Landsborough Thomson. pp. 928 (c. 25X18:5 cm.). 16 coloured plates, 48 pp. of photographs. London, 1964. Thos. Nelson & Sons Ltd. Price 105s. net. One of the three special enterprises undertaken by the British Ornithologists’ Union to celebrate its centenary in 1959 was the preparation of a comprehensive book of reference for everyone interested in birds throughout the world. This was also to be by way of tribute to Prot. Alfred Newton, F.R.S., who was one of the founders of the Union and author of A DICTIONARY OF BIRDS (1896). In spite of the revolutionary developments in the science of ornithology since that time, the old dictionary still remains a classic of ornithological literature and an indispensable reference for the serious bird student of today. A NEW DICTIONARY is not merely a revised edition of the old. For One thing, unlike its prototype it is not the work of practically a single author but represents the contributions of some 200 of the world’s foremost ornithologists, many of whom are specialists in their own fields. As the Editorial Introduction explains, the aim of the book is to provide authoritative information to the ornithologist outside his restricted field of specialization, to the biologist who wishes to draw upon the specialized subject matter of ornithology, as well as to the more serious non-professional lover of birds. How admirably it fulfils this aim and purpose will be obvious to everyone who turns over its pages. The information provided is of two kinds: (a) on general subjects relating to birds as a Class, and (b) on the different kinds of birds according to families. Under General Subjects come topics like Morphology, Systematics and Evolution, Distribution/and Ecology, Ethology (Behaviour), Birds and Man. A separate list of the major articles on general subjects is given in order ‘to indicate the entries most suitable for deliberate reading as distinct from quick reference on occasion’. To give an example, under Distribution and Ecology the following topics are mentioned: Distribution: Geographicai Distribution, Palaearctic Region, Ethiopian Region, Malagasy Region, Oriental Region, Australian Region, Nearctic Region, Neotropical Region, Oceanic Birds, Antarctic, Range Expansion, Mapping. Migration: Migration, Irruption, Navigation, Moon Watching, Radar, Observatory, Ringing, Trapping. Environ- mental Influences: Climatology, Meteorology, Geological Factors, Vegetation. Ecology and Populations: Ecology, Breeding Season, ~ REVIEWS 139 Predation, Numbers, Census, Count, Population Dynamics, Expecta- tion of Life, Palatability of Birds and Eggs, Pollinators and Distributors. Parasites and Diseases: Ectoparasite, Endoparasite, Disease. Many of the major articles are of encyclopaedia length and, together with the copious cross references and the selected bibliography given at the end of each, they furnish sufficiently adequate informa- tion on the topic concerned. The task of editing, moderating, reconciling, and cross-referring this vast mass of heterogeneous material received from nearly 200 individual contributors, in addition to much else from the editor’s own pen, must have been truly stupendous and formidable. Few others could have undertaken the responsibility and discharged it with such dedication and masterly skill as Sir A. Landsborough Thomson—himself one of the world’s outstanding ornithologists. An old Arab proverb deplores how seldom the Time, the Place, and the Loved One can all be found together. Metaphori- cally speaking, here without doubt is one of those rare occasions. The BOU and all those who will be using this admirable book have indeed cause to be grateful for the finding of the right man in the right place at the right time. All the circumstances have combined and conspired to produce a work that will certainly stand out as the bird book of the century and will still remain a classic in the centuries to conic. it is a fitting memorial to the editor, to the contributors, to ornithology itself in general, and to the BOU in particular the centenary of whose birth it is meant to celebrate. Last but not least, it must be mentioned that the royalties accruing to the Union from the sales of the book have been ear-marked as the nucleus of an endowment fund for the furtherance of ornithological research and for special publications. S.A. 7. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE MAMMALS OF SABAH. By John Harrison. pp. 244 (c. 18x12 cm.). Illustrated by Chong Yus Fatt. Jesselton, 1946. The Sabah Society. It took me some time to ascertain that Sabah is what used to be known as British North Borneo. The latter name, however, brings back to mind the postage stamps depicting the tapir and rhinoceros, and forming, perhaps, my first introduction to natural history. The paperback form appeared hardly compatible with the title, but the author’s name and a glance at the contents were reassuring. While it is hardly possible to provide notes for the field identification 140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) of 56 species of bats, 11 flying squirrels, and 19 squirrels, the excellent keys, short descriptions, and drawings will be of great value to all who are interested. ila Such a book covering Indian mammals is badly wanted. Curiously the price is not mentioned’. H.A. 8. THE WORLD OF BIRDS : A Comprehensive Guide to General Ornithology. By James Fisher and Roger Tory Peterson. pp. 288 (c. 31X24 cm.). With bird paintings by Roger Tory Peterson. London, 1964. Macdonald. Price £5.5.0 net. . According to the authors’ own estimates the total number of full species of living birds today is 8580. They add a further 937 species known from fossils or which have become extinct in the last 350 years. Of this total of 9517 nearly 1200 species are mentioned and 743 illustrated in this book—668 in colour—with the consummate skill and mastery of Roger Tory Peterson. The authors are big names in ornithology today and a book like this embodying their joint labours and individual skills and erudition is something of an event. It is one in the line of large, lavishly illustrated, and somewhat expensive bird books whose proliferation in recent years is a sure and refreshing sign of the growing popularity. bird study has achieved—and largely through the agency of such illustrated books themselves. Not long ago we had Gilliard’s magni- ficent LIVING BIRDS OF THE WORLD. This was soon foilowed by Austin’s BIRDS OF THE WORLD and now we have this equally magnificent THE WORLD OF BIRDS. They may well be called the Bird and World series, and one may well wonder what other permutations the words will still admit! The book covers such a vast range of topics that it is not possible to give an adequate idea of the contents within the limits of a short notice. Much of the recent’ scientific investigations, findings, trends, and hypotheses are described in language which should make them readily comprehensible to the interested layman. The variety of birds. their evolution, attributes _and_ specializations, their distribution, abundance, migrations, social life, food, and behaviour are discussed. The authors believe that ‘the total bird population of the world, including sea birds, may be of the order of a hundred billion’ (=a hundred thousand million). ~ 1From a book news sheet issued by Borneo Literature Bureau ne price ies been ascertained to be M$ 4,00.—Eps, , REVIEWS 141 _ There is a useful chapter on ‘Bird Watching’ with hints for observing, note-taking, and record-keeping, and helpful suggestions concerning equipment such as field glasses, blinds (or ‘hides’), still and movie cameras, lenses, and other gadgets for bird photography and sound recording. Another chapter describes the techniques of modern bird migration study—netting, trapping, and ringing; and moon watching, . and radar. How birds can be attracted by the provision of nest-boxes and feeding trays, and Bird Protection and Bird Sanctuaries forms the subject of another section. Many other topics such as chemical sprays and insecticides and the menace of oil pollution of the sea also find their place. The chapter entitled “The Regiment of Birds’ (covering about 100 pages) of attractively designed distribution maps for all the 199 Families—fossil, recently extinct, and living—together with lists of the genera, number of known species, and probable centre of origin of each is a novel and very useful feature. The families are headed by RIP’s beautiful silhouettes of one of its typical represeniatives. The chapter ‘Birds and Men’ is of particular interest as it deals - with various aspects of economic ornithology showing the debit and credit sides of its balance sheet with inan. The book concludes with a ‘RED LIST’ showing family by family the birds presently in danger of extinction and needing special protection, and a ‘Black List’ show- ing all the species known to have become extinct since about 1600 a.D. The good bibliography, sectioned into Fossil Birds, General and Introductory, Special aspects of Natural History, and Selected standard bird books region- and country-wise, will be invaluable for reference. The book is certainly, as its publishers claim, ‘unique in many ways’, both the illustrations, and the letterpress make it so. And to this it must be added that the layout and printing are superb. S.A. 9. NEVER CRY WOLF. By Farley Mowat. pp. 247 (22x 14 cm.). Boston, 1963. Atlantic Monthly Press, U.S.A. Price $ 4-95. From his earliest youth, Farley Mowat was drawn to the study of animals in their habitat. It was natural therefore that one day he received a summons from the Dominion Wildlife Service to investigate the Canis lupus problem which had assumed national importance. Thirty-seven memoranda had been received from members of the Canadian House of Commons expressing the concern of their con- stituents about the menace they faced from wolves. It was reported 142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) that wolves were killing all the deer and caribou, and the suggestion that human hunters were responsible for the killing had been hooted down as emanating from wolf lovers. A full-scale investigation was therefore deemed desirable. When Mowat arrived at Churchill on the western shore of Hudson Bay en route to his ultimate destination in the desolate wastes of the subarctic barren lands, he had to follow this soulless operational order: ‘You will, immediately upcn reaching Churchill, proceed by chartered | air transport in a suitable direction to the requisite distance and thereupon establish a base at a point where conditions generally are optimal to the furtherance of your operations.’ He reached his destination by chartered plane, with equipment and stores to last him for more than a year. It must require extra- ordinary courage and resourcefulness to face the prospect of life in an uninhabited tundra without human company for months together. It must also require unusual dedication to one’s ideals to follow this part of the operational order: ‘Immediately after establishing a permanent base you will proceed, by means of canoe and utilizing waterways, to make an extensive general survey of the surrounding country to a depth, and in a manner, which will be significant in statistical terms, in order to determine the range/population ratio of Canis lupus and in order to establish contact with the study species’. By a stroke of luck an Eskimo happened to come along with his huskies where the author landed. He had a cabin of Caribou hide not far from this place, and the author grasped the opportunity to house himself and his valuable equipment in the cabin. He then got to work on his problem. Mowat was an ideal investigator for the job for he seemed to have no preconceived notions about the wolf/caribou relationship. On his first tour around his cabin he found four or five hundred caribou skeletons. He assumed that these beasts had been killed by wolves. Later, however, he saw that the density of caribou remains decreased in geometrical ratio to the distance from human habitation. This problem was certainly worth investigation, and by the time he had finished he came te some startling conclusions. Fortunately, the author discovered a wolf den not far from his cabin. It consisted of a couple, whom he named George and Angeline, and an unattached general factotum of the establishment, whom he called Uncle Albert. The book is a gripping account of the life of this family and the four pups. While the pups were being nursed Angeline came to the door of the den, to bid good-bye to George and Albert every night when they left for the hunt. They returned the REVIEWS 143 next morning worn out by the chase. They never came back with anything in their mouths, and the author discovered that the pups were fed by regurgitation. After the pups had grown up Angeline also joined in the hunt. When caribous were not available, the woives lived on mice which were plentiful in the area. The author lived on an exclusively mice diet for several days to check on its food value. The relationships between the adults and the young have been described charmingly and scientifically. Mowat is an experienced and gifted writer and he presents his observations in a manner which make them unforgettable. The opinions of human beings about the viciousness and brutality of wild animals have been proved wrong again and again. In the case of the wolf the author was able to prove conclusively that they kill only for food, and waste very little of what they kill. They con- centrate on killing the weak and unhealthy caribou, thereby aiding the maintenance of healthy caribou stock. The numbers of wolves were nowhere as large as was presumed, because each wolf family requires a large area in which to hunt and live. The decimation of caribou herds was not due to the depredation of wolves but to barbarous killings by trappers who kill several hundred at a time and tto ‘sportsmen’ who are given the opportunity by Safari Companies to corner the herds with planes and shoot the trapped animals as they scamper over the frozen lakes. The hypocrisy of the human race with regard to their attitude towards wild life is exposed unanswerably in this book, and the epilogue, reproduced below, makes distressing reading: ‘During the winter of 1958-1959 the Canadian Wildlife Service, in pursuance of its continuing policy of wolf control, employed several Predator Control Officers to patrol the Keewatin Barrens in ski-equipped aircraft for the purpose of setting out poison bait stations. In early May of 1959, one of these officers landed at Wolf House Bay. He remained in the vicinity for some hours and placed a number of cyanide ‘wolf getters’ in appropriate places near the den, which, so he ascertained, was occupied [This den, incidentally, was the one which had been occupied by Angeline and her family]. He also spread a number of strychnine-treated baits in the vicinity. He was unable to return at a later date to check on this control station, because of the early onset of the spring thaws. It is not known what results were obtained.’ Z.F. i144. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 62 (1) 10. CALL OF THE TIGER. By Lt.-Col. M. M. Ismail. pp. 174 (20°5X 13:5 cm.). London, 1964. Faber and Faber. Price 18s. net. Crime stories are usually written, read, and enjoyed by those who are not concerned with crime or its detection, and in recent years a large number of tiger and other shikar books have been produced on the same lines. This book however is refreshingly different. The author is one of the old brigade, who were prepared to work hard in the forests and pit their wits against the animals on relatively equal terms. There are no heroics or tales of massacre. The reader quietly, but often tensely, accompanies him on his excursions. All the ventures do not produce adventures, nor are all successful, as is true in real life. But the stories, with their background of natural history and shikar knowledge, hold your attention, and are no less interesting than those in which five shots are placed in the heart of the charging tiger. Col. Ismail’s book has the correct perspective. He obviously knows his subject, and every true sportsman and lover of nature will enjoy it—my only objection is to his ‘maneaters’: in the book at least, I would prefer ‘man-eaters’ ! In connection with the continued decline in the number of our larger animals, he has referred to arms-licences in the erstwhile Bombay State increasing from 70,000 to 1,20,000, in which the number of crop-protection licences rose from 20,000 to 70,000 leaving those > for sport unchanged at 50,000. It may be interesting to add that hardly a thousand (2%) of these ‘sportsmen’ apply for game licences every year! The holding of Wild Life Weeks does not help. Together with the resolutions of Wild Life Boards and such bodies, they only serve to divert attention from the real problem, and apparently to satisfy those who do not know the actual position out-of-doors but talk about it and minute pious resolutions. ; H.A. Miscellaneous Notes 1. HABITS OF THE RHESUS MACAQUE MACACA MULATTA (ZIMMERMANN) IN THE SUNDERBANS, 24-PARGANAS, WEST BENGAL The habits of the Rhesus macaque in the Sunderbans have not yet been recorded. In the course of faunistic surveys conducted during the years 1955-1960 A.K.M. had the opportunity of studying the habits of this monkey which appear to differ from its habits in other parts of West Bengal. | In the extensive mangrove forests of the Sunderbans, which thrive in the numerous swamp deltas facing the Bay of Bengal, the Rhesus has. established itself under conditions normally unfavourable to Primate life, namely the absence of fresh water, the submergence of the greater parts of the islands in the spring tides, the soft, muddy, and slippery soil, cyclonic conditions especially during the summer and monsoon, etc. Its predators are terrestrial, arboreal, and aquatic, e.g. the Tiger (Panthera tigris), the Python (Python molurus), the Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodilus porosus), and sharks, which include the Wolf Shark (Alopynus vulpinus) and the Man-eating Shark (Carcharinus gangeticus). Observations were made in the low mangrove forests [Forest type 1 §/2 (a) of Champion (1936, p. 103)]. mostly in the Basirhat Reserve Forest in Arbesi, Jhilla, Harinbhanga, Khatuajhuri, and other adjoin- ing forest blocks along the East Pakistan border. The population of the Rhesus appeared to decrease from east to west. The troupes consist of 20 to 30 individuals. Solitary individuals. are also noticed. They are not very common, and perhaps represent exiled males. Each troupe occupies a territory, generally a complete forest block in an island, but in large islands there are more than one troupe. They are shy and avoid human approach by moving away into the deeper parts of the forests, and never show any aggressive attitude. They are almost entirely arboreal, rarely descending to the ground except during cyclonic weather, when they take shelter in long grass or under Hental (Phoenix paludosa) palms and sometimes on the lower branches of large trees. They avoid swimming in the saline backwater. However, in search of food, some are found to move on mud-flats and sometimes a troupe may boldly swim across creeks at ebb tide and move into the nearest reclaimed area to feed on 10 146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) standing crops. Their food in the forest consists of, the pods, leaves, and fruit of Garjan (Rhizophora conjugata), Goran (Ceriops spp.), Golpata (Nipa_ fruticans), Baen (Avicennia alba), Bhaila (Afzelia bijuga), Gengwa (Excaecaria agallocha), etc. The fruit and leaves of Keora (Sonneratia apetala), however, constitute the principal foddér for the monkeys, and are shared with Spotted Deer (Axis axis), which feed on the leaves and fruits dropped by the monkeys. Further, their vigilance and alarm calls save the deer from predators. the monkeys eating crabs, which are commonly seen in the puddles of water during the ebb tide. We have not seen them catching fish, although local fishermen report that they catch fish. Mushrooms are also included in their menu. Water is obtained by licking dew deposited on leaves, and by eating succulent leathery leaves and long juicy grasses growing on the river flats. The taxonomic status of the Sunderban Rhesus is not definite. | Anderson (1872) referred to a specimen from the Sunderbans as a supposed new monkey, and Khajuria (1954, p. 113) while listing them under the nominate race pointed out that they differ in texture and coloration. The authors observed that in life the Rhesus in the Sunderbans is duller as compared with those from other parts of West Bengal. The orange-red fur on its. loins and rump is_ rather inconspicuous. ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, We have found ~ INDIAN MUSEUM, CaLcuTTa 13, September 15, 1964. AJIT KUMAR MUKHERJEE SUMIT GUPTA REFERENCES ANDERSON, J. (1872): On a supposed new Monkey from the Sunderbans to the East of Calcutta. Proc. zool. Soc. London : 529-33. CHAMPION, H. G. (1936): A prelimi- nary survey of the forest types of India and Burma. Indian For. Rec. (N.S.), Sylviculture 1: 1-286. KuHaAgsurIA, H. (1954): Catalogue of mammals in the Indian Museum. IL. Pri- mates: Cercopithecidae. Rec. Indian Mus. 52: 101-127. 2. WILD DOGS (CUON ALPINUS) AND VILLAGE DOGS We reached our land by Sigur River in the lower plateau of the Nilgiris late in the evening on 31-10-1964. There was a herd of cheetal about 100 yards away. Seeing us they stopped grazing and looked at the car curiously in typical cheetal fashion. AS we were MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 147 watching them from the car, three sambar hinds made their appearance. They were trotting looking behind every now and then. Soon a fawn came into view and, on its trail, a pack of dogs—two wild dogs in front, then two pi-dogs, and behind them following at a leisurely pace half a dozen wild dogs. The leading dogs were closing in when I decided to intervene. The cheetal had fled by this time, but the mother sambar stopped and the fawn took shelter by its mother’s side. The other two hinds halted a few paces away and looked on. When the two wild dogs rushed to seize the fawn its mother, who could have used her fore feet with effect, did nothing of the kind but walked up to meet the attack with out-stretched neck, as if to say ‘Take me, but please leave the kid alone’. ‘ ’ By this time I was within effective shot gun range, and one wild dog seeing me turned and ran to join its companions which were standing some distance away watching me. The other was quite oblivious of my presence. The pi-dogs dashed about barking and trying to help in the hunt. Holding my shot till I got a chance, I fired at the wild dog. It fell, got up, and ran towards the jungle. At the report all the wild creatures except the fawn dispersed, but the pi-dogs rushed in to the attack. ie ewe the fawn down and worried it, but a few well-aimed stones made them let go. I went up to the fawn which was wet and shivering but otherwise unhurt. My wife and daughter joined me and we stood it on its feet and massaged it. It became quite frisky after a while and we let it go to join its family, while I stood by to keep the dogs from having another try. | The pi-dogs also went away after some time. But I doubt if they re-joined the wild dog pack as it had become quite dark by then. As it rained heavily throughout the night I could not recover the wounded dog. The wild dogs did not seem to object to the two pi-dogs joining in the hunt. But would they have accepted the pi-dogs at the ‘kill’? Whether the pi-dogs, which we discovered later to belong to neighbouring patti (cattle kraal), joined in the middle of the hunt or were with the wild dog pack right from the start I am unable to say. They certainly did not join near the end of the hunt, for when we passed the patti on our way to our land the dogs were not there. On 13-12-1964, in the same locality, J came across another instance of wild dogs and village dogs hunting together. It was about 3 in 148. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) the afternoon when we heard a scream from the river. It sounded like a dog in distress. The scream was repeated and I ran towards it. Half way, I met some men, one of them a Game Watcher of the Nilgiri Wild Life Association, and they told me ihat a wild dog and a pi-dog were attacking a sambar fawn and it was the deer that was making the noise. When I got to the spot, the young deer was in the middle of a pool and the pi-dog standing guard on a rock projecting into the pool. The wild dog had decamped. On seeing us, the fawn attempted to get out, but the dog jumped in and attacked. When it tried to seize the fawn a second time, I shot it dead. The fawn had a raw patch on the inside of its right hind thigh but was otherwise all right and limped away. It was a little bigger than the first fawn we rescued and was probably the same animal! The Game Watcher told me that he has seen wild dogs and village dogs hunting together, but once the kill is made the wild dogs take complete charge and only after they have had their fill are the pi-dogs permitted anywhere near the kill. On 1-1-1964 a friend and I saw and photographed some wild dogs on the banks of the Moyar hydro-electric channel about 5 miles away from the scene of agtion described above. One of the dogs had a distinct white patch of hair on its throat, indicating mixed blood. It would be interesting to observe whether the wild dogs mate with their domesticated brethren. THe Nitcirt Witp Lire ASSOCIATION, OOTACAMUND, S. INDIA, Bar. oC. DAVIDAR December 23, 1964. [Cases of association between wild dogs :and pariah dogs have been reported previously (e.g. 1951, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 163). It would be interesting to have particulars of known cases of interbreeding.—EDs.] 3. BREEDING OF THE INDIAN WILD ASS EQUUS HEMIONUS KHUR LESSON IN CAPTIVITY _ I write to report the birth of an Indian Wild Ass, Equus hemionus khur Lesson, 1827, on 13 August 1964, in the Maharaja Fatesingh Zoo at Baroda. As you are aware, this species is on the list of rare MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 149 animals, and I believe has never been bred in captivity. I am informing you of this as I am sure the Society will be interested. LAXMI VIILAS PALACE, F. GAEKWAD, BARODA, Maharaja of Baroda October 5, 1964. [Harper in EXTINCT AND VANISHING MAMMALS OF THE OLD WORLD states that, between 1842 and 1849, 9 Wild Ass foals were born in the Paris Zoo. There is no record of the species breeding in captivity in India.—EDs.] 4. THE HISPID HARE [CAPROLAGUS HISPIDUS (PEARSON)] In continuation of the Editorial Note (Journal 57: 400-402) on the rarity of the Hispid Hare, Shebbeare (Journal 58 : 266-267) reported that it was not uncommon in parts of the Goalpara Forest Division in 1907-1911. During March-April, 1955 and 1957, the writer collected for about seven weeks around: Raimona and Jamduar in the north- eastern parts of Goalpara District, Assam, bordering West Bengal and Bhutan. The species is certainly rare in this area at present because, despite the best efforts of four trained collectors to make a thorough survey of the mammalian fauna of the area, I could see only two specimens, one in the field (not collected) and a young one with a local person who had obtained it around Raimona. The young one was purchased by the leader of the jGerman-Indian Expedition with whom the writer was then working and is now in the collection of the Hamburg Museum. The one seen in the field was seen at dusk near a shallow pool of water just on the left bank of Sankosh River about 3 km. south of Jamduar Forest Rest House. On noticing the presence of the writer at a distance of hardly 15 metres it ran away, then stopped and tried to hide itself behind stones, but finding itself too big to do so it ran up a high bank and disappeared in the bush. On inspection of the spot where it had disappeared a fresh burrow large enough to accommodate the animal was noticed. It was excavated on the top of the alluvial bank, partly below a bush about ten metres from the pool of water. The bank was well covered with tall grass and some bushes and bordered at some distance by a typical sal forest. The area was far removed from human habitation and showed numerous footprints of large and small carnivores, deer, 150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) and several other wild animals. The spot was again visited at the same hour next day but the animal was not seen. CENTRAL REGIONAL STATION, ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, H. KHAJURIA JABALPUR, July 20, 1964. 5. YOUNG OF THE INDIAN GERBILLE, TATERA INDICA INDICA HARDWICKE (With a photograph) A brood of six young (4 ¢@ and 2 oc‘) of the Indian Gerbille Tatera indica indica Hardwicke, each weighing 25 gm., was taken on 20-11-63 by the writer from a burrow at village Manot on Mandla- Dindori Road, Madhya Pradesh. The mother escaped. They were still blind but were well covered with hair. The following unrecorded — differences from the adults, two of which were also collected from the same locality, have been noted. , | Photo: H. Khajuria Sn :| Hair growth is imperfect around the urinogenital organs, the inner side of the thigh, the chest, the throat, the inner side of the front legs, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 151 and the lips. The upper portion of the snout in front of the black patch is almost hairless). There is a large hairless patch behind the ears which in the adult is covered over by white hairs. The black spots on the snout, around the eyes, behind the ears, and behind the ankles are comparatively larger and darker. There is a prominent white patch above the eye extending almost to the ear and a smaller one below it. The ears, especially their posterior aspect, are much more hairy. The whiskers are all white and com- paratively longer. The pencil of long black hairs at the tip of the tail, a characteristic of the adult, is absent. The lateral light-coloured streaks on the tail are shorter. The light rufous and grey patches on the anterior side of the front leg are more pronounced. The soles of the feet are much lighter but the pads are darker. The tail is less hairy. There is very little individuai variation except that the lateral lighter streaks on the tail may be shorter or longer, and the light rufous patch on the upper parts of the front leg may be absent. The clitoris is nearly as large as the penis. Since the testes are not visible and the urinogenital opening is almost invisible to the naked eye, sex determination is difficult. ‘As shown by the measurements given below the proportions of their body parts are different from those of the adults collected from the same locality in the same season: No. & description Head & Body | Ear Hind Foot Tail Measurements in mm. with mean values in parentheses e 6 young 67-75 9.5-11 23.5 25.00 62-66 (69.8) (10) (24.33) (64.8) 1 Adult 196 24 40 210°8 Measurements as percentages of hind foot 6 young 286°9 41.1 — 266.3 1 Adult 490 60 — 527 yy CENTRAL REGIONAL STATION, ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, H. KHAJURIA JABALPUR, April 24, 1964. 152. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) - 6 SOME NOTES ON THE PAINTED PARTRIDGE [FRANCOLINUS PICTUS (JARDINE & SELBY)] AROUND BOMBAY : A CORRECTION In the last issue of the Journal (61 : 447) I said that the Painted Partridge [Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby)] calls only during the courting and breeding seasons, and gave the first and last dates as 8th April and Sth November. While waiting for duck at dusk at Ghoti, Nasik District, Maharashtra, on 25th December 1964, I thought I heard a Painted Partridge ca!! but was not quite sure. _ | On the following day we were driving back from Nasik in the late afternoon to get into position for the evening flight (at Lake Beale) when we ran out of petrol some 10 miles ftom Ghoti. Half an hour after sunset, while still waiting for petrol and thinking of all the duck that had escaped, we heard a Painted Partridge call some distance from the road and a reply from far away. Jamshed Panday and I walked towards the calling bird and kicked about tile bushes, but no bird was seen. As we walked back to the car almost in the dark, a bird rose from the grass at our feet and was dropped and collected. It was a male in non-breeding condition. On the following day we worked the area and got 3 more birds all with undeveloped gonads. I also find the following in my notes made at Vidishi, Sironj (old Tonk State), Madhya Pradesh, on 18 December 1958: ‘In the even- ing the Grey Partridge were calling all around. A few Painted Partridge joined in later and continued after sunset, when the Grey had stopped.’ | It would therefore appear that the Painted Partridge dis call outside the breeding season-—though perhaps only late in the evening, for it is unlikely that we could have missed the €all during the daytime over all these years in the Konkan. 75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI BOMBAY 3, February 2, 1965. 7. FOOD OF THE WHITEBREASTED KINGFISHER [HALCYON SMYRNENSIS (LINNAEUS)] Rawal Lake, situated a few miles north of Rawalpindi, has been newly formed by the construction of a small dam, to provide for the increased water requirements of that city as well as the new capital of Islamabad. It is about 1100 feet above sea-level, and as yet is MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 153 surrounded only by tall grass with no trees or even large bushes in the vicinity. On September 6th the two of us, while motoring past, stopped to watch the birds around an arm of the lake, which extends to the roadside. Among other birds we observed, perched on overhanging brambles on the steep earth bank above the water, groups of 2 or 3 Pied Kingfishers (Ceryle rudis), a solitary Common Kingfisher (Alcedo_ atthis) and- two Whitebreasted Kingfishers (Halcyon smyrnensis) all within a distance of fifty yards from each other—a concentration of kingfishers such as I have never seen before. We had just noticed a flock of about eight Whitethroated Munias (Lonchura malabarica) feeding on grass seed growing on top of this earth bank, when suddenly one of the Whitebreasted Kingfishers darted from its perch and seized’ a munia in its powerful bill. It flew off towards the main body of the lake with the munia protesting loudly and struggling violently. The kingfisher kept on flying till, suddenly, a shower of feathers erupted from its beak and the munia, apparently minus its tail, made good its escape. By this time, the kingfisher was at a considerable distance, but through the binoculars it appeared still to have a bill-full of feathers, almost as bulky as munia itself. KHANEWAL, T. J. ROBERTS WEST PAKISTAN, | -C. PRIDDY December, 1964. [A case of a Whitebreasted Kingfisher catching and eating a smaller bird (probably a While-eye) was reported by S. N. Sen (1944, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44 : 475.—EDSs.] 8. NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS 3—THE ALPINE SWIFT, APUS MELBA (LINNAEUS), WITH A DESCRIPTION OF ONE NEW RACE (With a text-figure) The paucity of specimens available has prevented an appraisal of the races of the Alpine Swift (A pus melba) in India. Stuart Baker in the FAUNA (1927) accepted the nominate race, described by Linnaeus in 1758 from Gibraltar, and mentioned the range thus: ‘The mountains of Northern Africa and of Southern Europe as far north as the Alps; South-West Asia to practically the whole of India and Ceylon. It is found as far east as Assam and is common during the winter in Cachar and Sylhet. He drew attention to the fact that birds from south \ 154. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) India were smaller and darker with the wing 190-195 mm., never exceeding 200 mm. In 1928, on these differences, Hartert separated the Ceylon birds as bakeri and Stuart Baker referred to this in the FAUNA 8, p. 680, indica- ting the differences as identical with those mentioned by him earlier and gave the range as ‘ mountains and hills of Ceylon and Southern India’. In 1954, Koelz described nubifuga from Rathi, Kumaon, the type being a 2 with a 205 mm. wing, and included birds from Mysore with wings 202°5 to 206 as of this race. | Ripley in the syNopsis has accepted three races from India and Ceylon: (a) melba (Linn.): Wintering in West Pakistan and Rerihrwesteny India ; (b) nubifuga Koelz: All India south to Kerala, east to Assam and East Pakistan ; breeding in the Himalayas and in Mysore; (c) bakeri Hartert: Ceylon. In November 1944, I collected one out of a large flock of swifts that swooped down to drink at the Patalganga River, Kolaba District, on the mainland opposite Bombay, and its large 226 mm. wing aroused my interest and led me to examine these birds more carefully, I have subsequently been able to obtain some more specimens from the neigh- bouring areas and, as these together with the other material available do not tally with Ripley’s account in the syNopsis, I attempt a reassessment. The range of measurements in the two sexes is almost identical and, in view of the relatively small number of specimens available for exami- nation, I am referring to both sexes together. There appears to be no difference in the plumages in the different seasons. The material available falls into the following subspecies : 1. bakeri Hartert Only 2 specimens are available from Ceylon. These are darker than 9 skins from south India [Jog (Gersoppa) and other places in North Kanara (7), Palnis (1), and Coimbatore (1)], but can be matched in colour with the two from Yewat, Poona (Maharashtra), referred to in item 2 below. In the two Ceylon specimens the brown edges to the white of the chin appear wider at the level of the gape, making the white narrower. Dr. Charles Vaurie to whom I sent a draft of this note informs me that, allowing for the north to south cline in size, the birds from Ceylon are darker as well as smaller. He measured the wings of 5 males from Ceylon 194-207 (199-5). These measurements agree with those of south Indian birds (see Table), which are different from nubifuga (type locality Kumaon, U.P.) and the birds should either be included with bakeri or described as a separate race, In the absence of sufficient material, I am 155 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Eee... 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The Ceylon birds are said to be subject to considerable erratic local move- ments, and the Gersoppa birds were not seen in June and August by McCann and myself, though McCann noted them inthe Palnis in June and July. A pair shot during Christmas week were in breeding condition (Abdulali 1936, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 829). Meinertzhagen (Birds of East and Tropical Africa. Ibis 1922 : 34-35) saw large breeding colonies on the eastern escarpment of the Nilgiri Hills, but failed to obtain specimens. Daily movements of large numbers far from suitable breeding places have been recorded. 2. I have six specimens from India from the area which may be termed the Bombay Deccan [Yewat, near Poona (2), Tungar Hill, Thana, Bombay (1), Ghoti, Nasik (2), and Chikalda, Berar (1)], which are similar to birds from further south, but in which the breast band is noticeably broader. The two birds from Yewat, a male and female hot out of several parties hawking over the plains in twos and threes, are as dark as those from Ceylon, but of course with broader breast bands. The wider breast band separates them from birds both from the south and the north; in the latter the breast band is narrower than the figures suggest. In series they are darker than nubifuga and also appreciably smaller (see Table). ~ Lt. H. E. Barnes (1886, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 3:47) refers to ‘Mr. Davidson of Malligaum (? Malegaon, c. 55 miles NE. of Nasik— H.A.)’ showing him both nests and nestlings of the Alpine Swift obtained by him from fissures in rocks in the mountains in ‘ that district’. He adds that the nests showed signs of having been attached to the rock on two sides and were of very solid structure in comparison with those of the Common Indian Swift. Later, in April 1887 Davidson took a half- feathered chick at Saptashring, near Nasik, (Whistler, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28 : 30) ; the species is therefore resident in this area. In view of these differences, I would restrict nubifuga to its Himala- yan limits and hereby name the birds from the hills and ghats near Bombay Apus melba dorabtatai subsp. nov. The name is a small token of my appreciation of the generous aid so often given by the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust, Bombay, to the Bombay Natural History Society and to many individuals engaged in scientific research. ; Holotype : gin the Bombay Natural History Society’s collection bearing Register No. 20027, collected by me at Ghoti, Nasik District, Maharashtra State, on 13 February 1955, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 157 Paratypes: 13% No. 19725, 4 92 Nos. 11560, 19305, 19306, 19726 in the Society’s collection. 3. nubifuga Koelz 1954, Contrib. Inst. Regional Exploration No. 1: 25. The original description reads : ‘Type 2 Rathi, Kumaon, June 9, 1948, Thakur Rup Chand collector, W. 205. ‘Compared with the type of A. m. bakeri (Ceylon; A.M.N.H.), paler above, less black in body plumage and with a broader breast band. The race bakeri is described as nearly as dark as A. m. africana; this is confirmed by a study of specimens in American Museum of Natural History. ‘Compared with a long series of A. m. tuneti from Tunis (A.M.N.H.) and Afghanistan, darker, with broader breast band and smaller white throat patch. ‘ Hardly distinguishable in colour from the nominate race melba (Gibraltar ; A.M.N.H.) but averages a bit darker, the breast band wider and throat patch smaller. The wing is smaller.’ The wing of the type specimen appeared to me too small for a northern bird and Mr. R. W. Storer of the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, kindly examined the type. He measured the right wing as 207 mm., and said that he ‘ could not be certain that there was any remnant of a sheath at the bases of the primaries’. The left wing measured about the same, but ‘ the tips of the outer two primaries are damaged. The outer primary is not larger than the next and, judging from our only other skin of the species (an example of tuneti from Afghanistan), the outer primaries lack 3 to 5 mm. of their full growth’. He added that the label bore the remark ‘ Belly patch’, by Koelz, presumably meaning incubation patch, and another in pencil in van Tyne’s handwriting: ‘ Very much like bakeri in colour and size’. It appears that the wing measurements of nubifuga in the original description are not very representative. The measurements of 7 skins. from the northern hills [Simla (4), Chanoli, Garhwal (1), Ghaggar, Ambala (1), and Chitral (1)] are indi- cated in the Table. The $1 from Chanoli, Garhwal, dated 12 May 1899 had enlarged testes, while the Simla specimens include 3 immature birds obtained in August and September, which together with the incubation patch on the type specimen indicates a breeding season from about May to August. There is however considerable local movement. Jones, for instance (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26: 614), refers to seeing large scattered flocks in spring and autumn and says that it departs from Simla at the end of April and returns in October. Whistler (J. Bombay nat. Hist, Soc, 32: 727) noted them on various dates from 11 April to 17 May, and said they were more numerous on autumn migration, 21 August to 24 September, often in very large numbers. 158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) The British Museum have lent me for examination a skin obtained by Davidson at Simla on 23 August 1877, which is paler than the other specimens and has an attenuated tip to the outer tail feathers as in tuneti (q. v.) and may well be of that race. Even if nubifuga is restricted to the northern hills, the paucity of specimens and other information over this wide range is very obvious and requires a much more careful examination. 4. tuneti Tschusi Meinertzhagen (loc. cit.) wrote: ‘1 have recently collected a series of 10 from Palestine and Crete. They are all paler and greyer in colour than those breeding elsewhere in Europe and the Himalayas....... agree with breeding birds from North Africa, tuneti from Tunis.’ He questions the identity of melba Linn., named ‘after a figure by Edwards of a bird from Gibraltar’, and says: ‘ The colour is particularly dark, even darker than most birds from Southern Europe, and melba would apply to South European birds. If tuneti is separable, it would apply to birds breeding in Northern Africa, Somali- land, Arabia, Crete, Palestine, east to Persia, but not to Baluchistan and the Himalayas. ...’. Unfortunately he does not indicate what race inhabits the last area ! This race has not been recorded from India, but the bird shot out of a large flock was obviously a migrant and its size compares well with 6 specimens: from northern Shiraz (1), Murghat Herat, Afghanistan (1), Palestine (3), NW. Himalayas (1), and the Simla specimen referred to above, which all appear to be tuneti (see Table). The specimen was sent to Dr. Mauersberger at the Zoological Museum at Berlin, and he stated that it matched their series of tuneti, and was distinctly paler and greyer than most melba. There is some variation in the colour of the upper parts, but the Bombay bird is paler than any specimen of nubifuga, dorab- tatai or bakeri. In all the eight specimens, the outermost tail feathers appear to taper to a sharper point than in the others, and this character is illustrated in the accompanying sketch. It has been suggested that this is a character which may be dependent upon the age of the individual, but it is not visible in any of the other skins examined. 5. Four birds [Hingolgadh, Saurashtra (3), and Mt. Abu (1)] all taken in September can be picked out from all Indian specimens by the upper parts being grey rather than brown. Salim Ali has identified them as melba and these are probably the specimens of the nominate race from - Saurashtra and Mt. Abu in the Bombay Natural History Society collec- tion mentioned in the SYNOPSIS. One skin was sent to Dr. Mauersberger who found it ‘paler than melba and about matching tuneti’. In series I find them quite different from those which I have identified as tuneti. > ; MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 159 Salim Ali obtained a male at Gujri in Dhar State on 4 September 1939 with a 214 mm. wing which Whistler (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 41: 474) identified as melba, though he noted that the wing was a little a b Outer tail feathers of : (a) Apus melba tuneti; (b) A.m. bakeri small for the typical race. He said it agreed with his series from north- west India, being too pale for bakeri. Perhaps this was similar to the birds described here. The fact that the four skins available from a restricted area are noticeably different from the four races referred to above prompts me to believe that they represent an undescribed race, Butler (Stray Feathers 3:453) said the Alpine Swift ‘ arrives at Mount Aboo in large numbers about the beginning of September and remains during part of -the cold weather’. In the absence of any evidence regarding their breeding in the area and their subsequent movements, I am not separat- ing them at this stage. I trust that further evidence will soon be available and permit a clarification. | I realize that this note is not exhaustive and I hope that those who have the opportunity will obtain more specimens, preferably of breeding birds, to try and clarify matters. With their wonderful powers of flight the swifts probably cover vast distances, but a fairly specialized type. of nesting site is necessary. Many such sites may hold distinct popula- tions and it is not improbable that it may be possible to associate the differences, now visible and accepted as individual variations in the same race, with different breeding populations. _ Tam grateful to the authorities of the Zoological Survey of India, the British Museum, the Colombo Museum, and the Tel-Aviv University for 100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) the loan of skins for examination, to Dr. Charles Vaurie of the American Museum of Natural History for his comments on a prelimi- nary note, to Dr. R. W. Storer of the Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, for notes on the type specimen of A. m. nubifuga, to Dr. Salim Ali for access to several references, and particularly to Dr. G. Mauersberger of the Zoological Museum of the University of Berlin for his comments on the specimens sent to him. 75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI BOMBAY 3, October 17, 1964. 9. SWALLOWS HIRUNDO RUSTICA LINNAEUS ROOSTING ON WIRES (With a plate) I have seen swallows roosting in enormous numbers in reed beds (Phragmites karka Trin.) in Kerala and near Calcutta, and in sugarcane fields in Rajasthan and Kerala. Sdlim Ali (1962)' has reported them as roosting in mangroves at- Bombay. I recently noted swallows Hirundo rustica roosting on electric power lines near Dharavi, Bombay. Swallows collecting in large numbers on electric as well as telephone wires during the day is a common sight but, so far as I am aware, they have’ not been reported as roosting at night on such exposed perches. The roost was first noticed on 12 December 1963, and was — in use as such till 20 January 1964, when I left Bombay for a couple of months. It was found abandoned on my return to the site on 5 April 1964. The roost was already occupied on 30 August 1964, when I visited the place again, and continues to be still in use. The roosting behaviour of these birds is under observation and will be — reported later. The photographs accompanying the note were taken on 2 November 1964 at 9.45 p.m. Bomar NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 91, WALKESHWAR RoOaD, P. V. GEORGE, BOMBAY 6-WB.. Research Scholar February 2, 1965. 1 Salim Ali ; (1962): The BNHS/\ WHO Bird Migration Study SEE J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 (3) : 921-929. JOURN. BomBay Nat. HIstT. Soc. enrerens eer od et ae on ot es on pe ao wP et ca 2 Po+~<> Swallows (Hirundo rustica) roosting on electric power lines at Dharavi, Bombay Photos: P. V. George MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 161 10. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF FINSCH’S STARLING (STURNUS VULGARIS POLTARATSKYI FINSCH) NEAR BOMBAY On 29 November 1964, while shooting snipe at Rewas (across Bombay Harbour), Alibag Taluka, Kolaba District, Maharashtra, I saw a party of about a dozen starlings over marshy land. They settled on telegraph wires in front of my companion Krishna Talcherkar who, at my request, fired into them dropping four, a male and three females. Stuart Baker in the FAUNA (3 : 31 et seq.) accepted seven races from Indian limits, but only five of them are included in Ripley’s SyNopsis (1961). Judged by their wing measurements [128-135 mm. (oo*‘)], purplish heads and throats, and greenish upper- and underparts, the present birds are Sturnus vulgaris poltaratskyi Finsch (Type locality: Marka-Kul, Eastern Kazakhstan). This race is accepted as a common winter visitor to West Pakistan and northern India and, though specimens have been obtained at Madras (Whistler, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36 : 587), it is said to be an uncommon straggler in Gujarat (Salim Ali, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 796). There appears to be no earlier record of this species from the Bombay area. 75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET, BOMBAY 3, - HUMAYUN ABDULALI December 8, 1964. 11. PLANTS EATEN BY UROMASTIX MICROLEPIS BLANFORD AND OTHER NOTES ON THIS LIZARD IN EASTERN ARABIA It is a well-known fact that the spiny-tailed lizard (Uromastix) is herbivorous. The writer has seen many of these lizards during desert trips in eastern Arabia without, however, ever observing one in the act of feeding. Nor was much learned about their diet through obser- vations of captive specimens, for of several lizards kept for weeks at a time all refused to eat anything in captivity. Mr. Harry Alter and the writer made a trip inland from Dhahran on 7-8 May 1964; one of the purposes of the journey was to test the Palatability of Uromastix as human food. Six specimens of Uromastix microlepis Blanford were taken between Nita (27° 13/N., 48° 25’E.) and Abwab (26° 07’N., 48° 56’E.) on May 7-8 in the Wadi al Miyah area, a low-lying region particularly favoured by this lizard. All of the spiny- tailed lizards reported from eastern Arabia have been of this species. 11 162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (A) The last three taken by the writer on May 8 were collected 55 km. west of Al Lidam (‘ Jebel Dam ’), where Gasperetti took a specimen (CAS 84430) in 1946 that was subsequently presented to the California Academy of Sciences (Haas 1957). The writer identified the following plant species from fragments in the stomach contents of the six specimens : 1. Astragalus gyzensis Del. (Leguminosae) : leaves and pods 2. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (Cucurbitaceae) : a few seeds 3. Gramineae: one grass spikelet, not identified (Aristida plumosa L. is common in the area) 4. Horwoodia dicksoneae Turrill (Cruciferae): flowers and (probably) leaves 5. Launaea capitata (Spreng.) Dandy (Compositae) : leaves and flower buds 6. Moltkiopsis ciliata (Forsk.) Johnst. (syn. Lithospermum callo- sum Vahl (Boraginaceae) : leaves and flowers 7. Neurada procumbens L. (Rosaceae) : leaves and fruits 8. Plantago boissieri Hausskn. et Bornm. (syn. P. albicans L. : Plantaginaceae) : leaves and flowers. Several of the lizards killed were females that contained large yellow masses of ovarian eggs. The testes in the males appeared to be enlarged and active. | It was noted that specimens seen early in the morning shortly after sunrise were quite dark in colour—a dark slate-grey. The lizards were extremely wary at this time and seldom ventured further than a few yards from their burrows, diving into their holes at the slightest distur- bance. As the morning wore on and the temperature increased, all the lizards seen became lighter in colour. By midday they were nearly white to bright yellow. Similar colour changes have been reported for Uromastix loricatus (Blanford) in Iran (Anderson 1963), and Schmidt-Nielsen (1964) has discussed the significance of colour changes in controlling the body temperature of desert reptiles. Most of the writer’s specimens were taken at midday, when the lizards’ behaviour had changed almost as remarkably as their colour. At this time they ventured far from their burrows, sometimes to a dis- tance of several hundred yards and were, contrary to expectation, easily approached on foot. They lay motionless and moved in many cases only after being touched ; then they were off for the burrow at a speed that could be matched by a running man only with great effort. All o the specimens killed had full or nearly full stomachs. The lizard apparently feed before noon and then lie in the sun at some distance from their holes, depending on their motionless state and light colour for protection. The general boost in metabolism provided by the noonday heat may be an aid to the digestive process. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 163 Uromastix (Arabic dabb, pl. dubban) is a fairly common element in the diet of many Bedouin Arabs, and specimens are occasionally sold alive in the markets for food. The whole carcass is usually roasted in the skin by burying in hot coals, although most of the meat is found in the tail and hind legs. Any eggs found are put back into the abdominal cavity to roast or are enclosed in the cleaned stomach for steaming. The writer and a companion roasted the tails and hind legs of two specimens and found the flesh ‘tasty, if somewhat fibrous, and stringy. There is no ‘ gamey’ flavour ; it tastes more like somewhat tough lamb than the chicken or fish to which it has been compared. Some portions of the tails were overdone, and the burned horny scales imparted an unpleasant flavour to the underlying meat. Boiling or roasting after skinning thus might be preferred. Uromastix is found over wide areas in the Saharo-Sindian desert region and is fairly easy to capture. It should be considered a primary survival food source for this area. ARABIAN AFFAIRS DIVISION, ARABIAN AMERICAN OIL COMPANY, J. MANDAVILLE DHAHRAN, SAUDI ARABIA, January 10, 1965. REFERENCES ANDERSON, S.C. (1963): Amphibians and Reptiles pone Arabia. ibid., 4th and Reptiles from Iran. Proc. California _ series, 29(3): _ Acad. of Sci., 4th series, 31 (16) : 417-498. Seas gs Ie (1964): Desert Haas, G. (1957): Some Amphibians Animals. Oxford. 12. OCCURRENCE OF THE SUNFISH RANZANIA TRUNCATA (RETZIUS) NEAR VERAVAL, ALONG GUJARAT COAST* On 12 May 1963, an uncommon fish was caught off Jaleshwar Village, about 2 miles north of Veraval, by fishermen operating a gill- net in about 30 metres depth of water. Not having seen this type of fish before, they brought it to this office for identification and it was identified as the sunfish Ranzania truncata. Deraniyagala (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44 : 429) and Chacko & Mathew (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 : 724) have recorded Ranzania truncata from Ceylon waters and Beypore (Malabar coast) respectively. 1 Published with the permission of the Superintending Engineer, Deep Sea Fishing Station, Bombay. i164. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (i) Apart from these two records. there appeared to be no records about its occurrence north of Beypore on the west coast of India’. Its occurrence on the Gujarat coast is therefore placed on record. Also some important measurements (in cm.) are given: Measurements in cm, é Total length—60 2 Length to base of caudal—57°‘2 Depth of body—38°7. Depth of body near pectoral—30°5 Depth of body near dorsal and anal—26:0 Length of head—23°0 Snout—8 4 Diameter of eye—3*7 Distance between eye and opercle—8°9 Length of pectoral—12°3, width of base—3°1 Length of dorsal—19°1, width of base—8°0 Anal damaged—width of base—6:4 Colour: Greyish black above and below in line with dorsal and anal, with some indistinct white bands. Eight cross bands extending from snout to base of pectoral. First two bands without blotches, subsequent bands blotched irregularly, last two indistinct. Sides of body whitish grey. Fins in general black, pectoral transparent and yellowish at the base. Round black spots with white circles in region above anus. The occurrence of the sunfish in coastal waters is rare. Fishermen in South Africa believe that a sudden storm follows its appearance in coastal waters and hence they suspend fishing operations and return ‘to base. It is interesting-to record that, soon after the present capture, the fishermen had to suspend fishing operations owing to inclement weather. A possible reason for its occurrence in coastal waters would appear to be spawning migration, as the specimen examined, a male, was oozing milt even with a little pressure. DEEP SEA FISHING STATION, VERAVAL, M. J. PRADHAN August 21, 1964. 1 It has been recorded from Bombay Harbour (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61: 453-456.—EDs.). MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 165 - 13. REMARKABLE GROWTH OF FISH IN SANDAIMEDU . DEMONSTRATION TANK (NORTH ARCOT DISTRICT, MADRAS STATE), WITH A NOTE ON ITS ECOLOGY The major Indian carps, Catla catla, Labeo rohita, and Cirrhina mrigala, are well known for their rapid growth. Chacko & Ganapati (1950) recorded a weight-increase in catla of 54 Ib. (2°5 kg.) in 5 months in a pond at Kancheepuram. This fish is reported to have erown 7-9 Ib. (3:2-4-0 kg.) in a year in polluted water (Chacko 1948, Chacko & Kurian 1948). Mriga!l grew 3-4 Ib. (1-4-1:8 kg.) in a year in certain ponds in Madras (Chacko & Ganapati 1951). In this context it is interesting to record the remarkable growth of rohu in -Sandaimedu Tank in Chengam Town in North Arcot District, an isolated, square-shaped, perenial tank, with a mean depth of 1:5 m., a maximum depth of 4 m., and an area of 0-4 acre (0°16 hectare). The tank is used for washing clothes and bathing cattle, and slight pollution occurs by domestic drainage from half a dozen huts. Early in 1960 the Madras Fisheries Department took over the tank for the demonstration of fish culture and stocked it with catla, rohu, mrigal, tilapia, chanos, and mirror carp. On 3 February 1960, 7 rohu and 7 mrigal of sizes 12-15 cm. (weighing 50 gr. or less) were introduced and fourteen months later, on 5 April 1961, a rohu weighing 11:25 lb. (5:2 kg.) was taken from the tank. Other species have shown good growth in this tank, though not as rapid as rohu. Mrigal grew to 5:5 lb. (2:5 kg.) in two years. Milk fish (Chanos chanos) grew to 1 lb. (0-45 kg.) in one year and 1-6 Ib. (0°73 kg.) in 14 years, and two of them reached 3:3 Ib. (1:5 kg.) in 21 months. This growth is comparable to that recorded by Chidambaram & Unni (1946). The average weight of chanos caught from this tank is 400-500 ger. Mirror carp (Cyprinus carpiv) grew to 1 Ib. (0-45 kg.) in 8 months, 1-5 Ib. (0°73 kg.) in 9 months, and 1-75 to 2:0 lb. (0°65 to 0-9 kg.) in 1 year, which is better than the growth recorded by Alikunhi & Ranganathan (1946) for this fish. Catla grew to 6°6 lb. (3-0 kg.) in 15 months, but only a few had reached 4-4 Ib. (2:0 kg.) at the expiry of 7 months. Fish production in this tank works out at i300 Ib. (590 kg.) per acre in 1961 and 1076 Ib. (490 kg.) in 1962-63, a fairly good yield for unfertilized water. The ecological features of this productive tank are given below: Chemical quality Free carbon dioxide 0-0-1:76 p.p.m., Carbonate 0-0-26°8 p.p.m., Bicarbonate $81-6-183-0 p.p.m., Chloride 60-0 p.p.m., pH 7-7-9-2, 166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) dissolved Oxygen 2-1-11-0 mg/1, hardness 87-96:0 p.p.m. (as CaCO,). Phosphate 0-0-0-08 p.p.m., Silicate 9-5 p:p.m., Calcium 24-0 p.p.m. and electrolytic conductivity 420-470 » mho. Plankton The secchi disc visibility was low, 15-20 cm. only, owing to plankton blooms. The net plankton 30-40 yJ/L, but the plankton volume was greater when it was allowed to settle with Lugol’s iodine—600 y1/L. | The dominant genera were, Microcystis, Oscillatoria, Euglena, Trachelomonas, Ulothrix, Staurastrum, Coelastrum, Chlorococcum, Scenedesmus, Nodularia, Melosira, Navicula, Cyclotella, Merismopedia, and Oocystis among phyto-plankton, and Daphnia, Cyclops, Brachionus, Eubranchipus, Nauplius larvae, and Anureae among zoo- plankton. The zoo-plankton was as abundant as in cowdung-manured nursery ponds. Abundant bottom fauna of gastropods, molluscs, and chironomid larvae were also present. Marsilea quadrifoliata was noted on the surface of the water. The soil had a pH of 7.8 with an available Phosphorus content “Of 1:05 p.p.m., Calcium content of 40:0 p.p.m., and Ammonia content of 2-0 p.pm. The high alkalinity due ‘to Bicarbonates, the alkaline pH, the medium hardness, presence of nutrients such as Phosphate and Silicate, Calcium, etc., and the high dissolved salts (as indicated by the electrolytic conductivity) indicate the favourable conditions of the water. This is reflected in the good plankton production which in turn has led to good growth of fishes. | FRESH WATER BIOLOGICAL STATION, BHAVANISAGAR, July 7, 1964. A. SREENIVASAN, Assistant Director REFERENCES ALIKUNHI, K. H., & RANGANATHAN, V. (1946): Acclimatisation of Cyprinus car- pio to the plains with notes on its develop- ment. Curr. Sci. 15 : 233. CHACKO, P. I. (1948) : Fish production in religious institutional waters. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Sog. 47 : 764-766. ————, & GANAaApPATI, S. V. (1950) : On the bionomics of the carp, Thynnich- thys sandkhol (Sykes). Sci. & Cult. 15 : 484-485. CHACKO, P. I., & GANAPATI, S. V. (1951): Bionomics of the Mrigal, Cirrhina mrigala (Ham.), in south Indian waters. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 13-19. Cuacko, P. I., & KurRIAN, G. K. (1948) : On the bionomics of Catla catla. (C. and V.) in south Indian waters. Curr. Sci. 17: 191. CHIDAMBARAM, K., & UNNI, M. M. (1946) : Variations in the rate of growth of Chanos. Nature 157: 375-376. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 167 14. ON EOCYZICUS SP. (CONCHOSTRACA, BRANCHIOPODA) AT PANCHGANI, W. INDIA (With one text-figure) Branchiopods in India ‘as in South Africa (Barnard 1929) are found at high altitudes, on the Himalayan range in the north and ‘tthe Sahyadri range along the west. The Tableland at Panchgani (N. _ Satara altitude 4296 ft.) is one such place. {t is unique in that within a radius of a few hundred yards, four phyllopods belonging to four different orders of the sub-class Branchiopoda are found in abundance. The forms recorded in the past are Triops orientalis (Tiwari), 1951 (Notostraca), Streptocéphalus dichotomus Baird _ (Anostraca), Leptestheriella gigas Karande & Inamdar, 1959 (Con- chostraca), and Daphnia sp. (Cladocera). In August 1956 while making routine collections of branchiopods at Panchgani, twenty-five individuals of Eocyzicus sp., commonly known as Estheria, were found, adding one form to the list of phyllopods earlier recorded from this place. Since 1849 seven different species of Evcyzicus have been reported from the Indian sub-continent, three of them from Pakistan and four from India (personal communica- tion from Dr. K. K. Tiwari, Zoological Survey of India). These Eocyzicus forms could be collected only that once at Panchgani and nearly twenty attempts made since 1956 to collect more have failed. The need to collect these Estheriids is particularly © compeliing now as the specimens coilected in 1956 have been misplaced. The total disappearance of these Eocyzicus forms amidst the abundance of other branchiopods is very common in many phyllopod Crustaceans (Fox 1949). The eggs of branchiopods need desiccation prior to hatching (Barnard 1929; Karande & Inamdar 1961) and this kind of prolonged but temporary absence may be caused by two independent factors: (1) inadequate desiccation of the fertilized eggs, and (2) insufficiency of water for wetting and the subsequent hatching process. The following are the taxonemic characters of the Eocyzicus sp. found on the Tableland, Panchgani. ; The shell is rounded-ovate with 30-35 growth-lines. The anterior angle of the rostrum of the male is slightly more than a right angle and the hind angle is rounded quadrate (Fig., 1). The profile between the occipital angle and the eye is straight. The first antenna bears 14-17 hairy papillae (Fig., 1). The second antenna has 13-15 segments on each ramus. 168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) Out of twenty-five specimens examined, carefully bearing in mind Linder’s advice, twenty-three showed 19 pairs of limbs, and only one — Eocyzicus sp. 1. The poe of male with first antenna; 2. ‘Hand’ of the first prehensile limb of male; 3. The telson of male (Semi-diagrammatic) male and one female 20 pairs. In the female the 9th and 10th limbs are ovigerous and in the male the first two limbs are prehensile. The anterior margin of the ‘hand’ is deeply notched (Fig., 2). The dorsal margin of the telson has 19-23 spines in the male, whereas in the female there are 20-29 spines. The spines in both are smooth and sub-equal except the first which is larger and stronger than those that follow (Fig., 3). The enlargement of the foremost spine on the upper margin of the telson is a useful ‘firsthand’ in the identification of the family Cyzicidae. The paired plumose sensory hairs on the telson are present. The dorsal surface of the body segments shows a maximum number of 13 spines. Dimensions: up to. 5 to 7 mm. in the male and 5 to 6 mm. in the female. Some of the female specimens had fertilized eggs under their bivalve shells and were evidently well-grown adults. Colour: pale brown in formalin- glycerine preserved specimens, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 169 _The large number of spines on the telson and the low number of legs distinguish this form from its allied species and, therefore, are features that need further examination. The latter feature particularly may improve the description of the family Cyzicidae. A favourably placed naturalist who can undertake frequent trips to Panchgani during the monsoon months may be able to re-discover this rare bivalve Crustacean and throw further light on its taxonomic position. To help in the search the present communication gives a detailed description of the important taxonomic characters. We thank the. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, for financial assistance towards the expenses of our collection trips. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, ‘THE INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, Bomsay 1-BR, September 29, 1964. ASHOK A. KARANDE N. B. INAMDAR REFERENCES BARNARD, K. H. (1929): Contribu- KARANDE, A. A., & INAMDAR, N. B. tions to the Crustacean fauna of S. Africa. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 29 : 181-270. Fox, H. M. (1949): On Apus: its re- discovery in Britain, nomenclature and habits. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 119: 693-702. KARANDE, A. A., & INAMDAR, N. B. (1959): A new species of the genus (1961) : Some observations on the bio- logy of the Conchostracan branchiopod (Crustacea) Leptestheriella gigas Karande & Inamdar. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56: 215-225. Tiwarl, K. K. (1951): Indian species of the genus Apus (Crustacea, Branchi- opoda) with description of two new Leptestheriella from India. Ann. Mag. species. Rec. Ind. Mus. 49 (2) : 197-206. nat. Hist. Lond. 2 (13) : 305-308. 15. VARIANT BEHAVIOUR OF CHALYBION BENGALENSE DAHLB. (HYMENOPTERA, SPHECIDAE) Chalybion bengalense Dahlb. [Sceliphron violaceum (Fabr.)] (FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, HYMENOPTERA 1 : 240) is a common domestic wasp around this part of India. Jayakar & Mangipudi (1964) and the present authors have recently made some contributions to the biology of this species. The females look for convenient natural cavities including derelict nests of other wasps (Jayakar & Spurway 1964b). These they fill with spiders on one of which they have laid an egg. These cells are then sealed with elaborate lids (Jayakar & Spurway 1964a). The North American species of Chalybion, which were pre- viously believed (Peckham & Peckham 1905; Rau & Rau 1918) to build their own cells, are now considered as semi-parasites on Sceliphron spp., either using disused cells of these species or emptying out the contents 170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) of a cell, recently sealed by the latter, before re-stocking it themselves (Muesebeck et al. 1951; Evans 1963). However, we have never seen an individual of C. bengalense opening a cell occupied by another species. C. beéngalense does not ordinarily seal her cell until she has finished its provisioning. Sceliphron madraspatanum, another of our common Sphecids, and the North American S. caementarium, on the other hand, put a temporary lid on a cell if they leave it overnight partly provisioned. This lid differs visibly from the ‘permanent’ lid put on the cell after it has been completely provisioned (Spurway et al. 1964: Shafer 1949). It is, therefore, interesting to record that we have seen at least three individuals of C. bengalense putting lids on cells which were partly provisioned. These lids were removed the next morning and provision- ing continued. The wasps here described nested in holes in blocks of wood in our house in Bhubaneswar (Unit 5, Type 8, No. 2). Some of these blocks are disused attachments for bathroom fittings and some are designed nest-boxes for wasps (see Jayakar & Spurway 1964b). As we have seen two individuals working simultaneously on the same block we cannot be sure that cells sealed soon after each other contain sibs. However as it is usual for several, or all, the holes in a block to be filled very rapidly, and then for that block to be neglected, sometimes for several months, we consider that these groups usually, but not critically, represent the work of a single female, each of which is referred to by the letters C. b. followed by an Arabic numeral. On this criterion we have now records for about 24 individuals of this species since September 1962. On the morning of 5/9/1963 a hole in a bathroom block was found sealed (C. b. 7). The next day, at 08-36, this lid was found to have been removed. There were 2 or 3 spiders in the cell. More spiders were put in during that day but the cell was not sealed again. On 18/3/64 C. b. 18 made a lid on 1. V which she removed in the morning of 19/3, later sealing the cell permanently. A cell (numbered ‘1. VIII) in a nest-box was sealed on 14/4/1964 (C. b. 21). The lid was noted as being white (see Jayakar & Spurway 1964a) and ‘concave’ (see Spurway ef al. 1964). The next morning, at 09-33. the lid had been removed. Later in the day, the cell was permanently sealed after further provisioning. 16/4 was a wet day. On the afternoon of 17/4 another cell in the same box was sealed, the lid being concave and pink (i.e. a thin layer of white on reddish mud). On 18/4, the cell was reopened and re-sealed with a white lid. On 19/4, the same cell was again reopened and re-sealed, the MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ia lid being white. Another cell !. IV was sealed on 20/4, reopened and re-sealed on 21/4, and again on 22/4. No wasp worked on this block till 2/5 when lids were removed by us, and the cocoons extracted. On 23/4, a hole in the bathroom block mentioned earlier was sealed (C. b. 22). It was reopened and re-sealed on 24/4. Another cell was sealed on 25/4, reopened and re-sealed on 26/4. These dates suggest that these cells may be the work of the individual whose activities were described in the last paragraph, i. that C. b. 22 and C. b. 21 were one and the same wasp. On 13/5, 1. VIII was again sealed. This nest-box was continually worked on till 24/5, when 1. III was deserted with one spider in it. During this period, the wasp (C. 5. 23) left a cell incompletely pro- visioned overnight on 7 occasions on 4 of which she put on a temporary lid but not on the other three. The two methods of leaving an incompletely provisioned cell overnight were intermixed. Two cells were each left unfinished for two consecutive nights. On 3 of these 4 nights, temporary lids were put on, but not on the fourth. It is possible, but improbable, that C. b. 23 and C. b. 22 were the same individual. | It is necessary to summarise the evidence that the individual who removed a lid was also the individual who constructed it. Firstly, as in §. madraspatanum, the lid was removed at the beginning of a day’s work. No other work was done between the construction and removal - of a temporary lid, and no other cell was worked on until this cell had been again sealed permanently. The ravishing of a completed cell by another individual would not be expected to occur so regularly immediately after closure, and it is even more improbable that the same cell should be the victim on two consecutive days. No spiders or debris were found removed from a reopened .cell as we find when wasps prepare a previously used cell for re-use. The temporary lids can sometimes be distinguished from permanent lids by the much thinner layer of white put over the reddish mud. It is curious that any white should be used at all. These temporary lids require more - loads than the 1 or 2 out of which individuals of S$. madraspatanum construct analogous structures. Finally, of the maximum of 5 wasps who have been noted as constructing such lids, 3 constructed more than one of them. We have, therefore, intraspecific variation in the behaviour of this Species, and it is probable that the behaviour of a single individual may also vary in time. As these are the only examples of such behaviour we have seen in this species it is probably rare, te 172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) The advantages of such a behaviour pattern are obvious. Parasites of many kinds are common, for example Chrysid wasps who lay their own eggs in the cell, and so are iabour parasites such as ants and Salticid spiders who remove spiders stocked in the cells. It is surprising that such behaviour has not been evolved in wasps other than Sceliphron. GENETICS AND BIOMETRY LABORATORY, GOVERNMENT OF ORISSA, BHUBANESWAR-3, ORISSA, INDIA, June 2, 1964. ~§. D. JAYAKAR H. SPURWAY REFERENCES Evans, H. E. (1963) : Wasp Farm. New York. JAYAKAR, S.D., & MANGIPUDI, R. SHAS- TRY (1964): Dormitories of Chalybion bengalense (Hymenoptera, Sphecidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61: 708-11. & SPURWAY, H. (1964a) : Use ’ of vertebrate faeces by the Sphecoid wasp Chalybion bengalense Dahlb. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 748-9, MUESEBECK, C. F. W., KROMBEIN, K. V., Townes, H. K. et al. (1951): Hymenoptera of America North of Mexico : Synoptic catalog. U.S. Dept. Agric., Agric. Monograph No. 2. PECKHAM, G. W., & PECKHAM, E. (1905) : Wasps Social and Solitary. West- minster. Rau, P., & RAu, N. (1918): Wasp Studies Afield. Princeton. SHAFER, G. D. (1949): The ways of a mud dauber. Stanford. SPURWAY, H., DRONAMRAJU, K.R., & JAYAKAR, S. D. (1964): One nest of Sceliphron madraspatanum (Fabr.). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61: 1-26. ———~— (1964b): Winter diapause in squatter wasps Antodynerus flavescens (Fabr.) and Chalybion bengalense (Dahlb.) (Vespoidea and Specoidea). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61 : 662-7. iB (ae - A SYNONYM OF IXODES IXODIDAE) 16. IXODES KERRI RAO, 1954 PETAURISTAE WARBURTON, 1933 (ACARINA (With one text-figure) In 1955 the author had the privilege of describing the first member of the genus Ixodes ever collected in India south of the Himalayas. It was described as Ixodes kerri, in the belief that it was a new species after consultation with taxonomists specializing in ticks. However, later when more specimens of the tick were available in the Sagar-Sorab area of Mysore State it was realized that it could be synonymous with Ixodes petauristae which had been described on the basis of a single female from Ceylon by Warburton (1933), Warburton’s specimen was also taken from a flying squirrel, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 173 During the author’s visit to London in 1962, the opportunity was taken to examine the type specimen of Ixodes petauristae in the British Museum (Natural History). It was found that the type specimen tallied in most of the essential characteristics with Ixodes kerri and therefore for taxonomical purposes Ixodes kerri has to be designated as a synonym of Ixodes petauristae. During the examination of the type specimen it was found that the illustration by Warburton of the type specimen though accurate in regard to. the body was not quite accurate so far as the basis capitulum was concerned. From a study of a peculiar posture of the palpi it was noticed that Warburton’s illustration had in fact been made from the type specimen deposited. The inaccuracy in Warburton’s illustration chiefly related to the shape of the postero-lateral border of the basis capitulum. In the illustration by the author of Jxodes kerri, also, the concavity of the postero-lateral border of the basis capitulum has been exaggerated. From a study of the material at the Virus Research Centre it is seen that there is considerable variation in the shape of the basis capitulum. It would be inadvisable at this stage to use it for taxonomical pukposes. However, in order to give a clear description and to set right the inaccuracy, the basis capitulum of Ixodes petauristae (type specimen in the British Museum) is re- illustrated here. i Fig. 1. Dorsal view of the basis capitulum of the type specimen of Ixodes Petauristae Warburton, 1933 Two species of /xodes are now known in south India: J/xodes petauristae and I. ceylonensis. They are so far known to be mainly concentrated in the heavy rainfall areas of the Western Ghats of Mysore State. There are also a few specimens of /xodes sp. from i174. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) Vellore (Madras State) and Bhimashankar (Maharashtra State). These are all new distributional records. Studies on their distribution, bionomics, and potentialities for disease transmission are being separately dealt with. VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE’, POONA, T. RAMACHANDRA RAO January 11, 1965. REFERENCES Rao, T. R. (1955) : Ixodes kerri,a new centor imitans, Amblyomma laticaudae species of tick from a flying squirrel and Aponomma draconis, with notes on from Southern India (Acarina: Ixodi- three previously described species, dae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: Ornithodorus franchinii Tonelli-Rondelli, 860-864. Haemaphysalis cooleyi Bedford and WARBURTON, C. (1933): On five new Rhipicephalus maculatus Neumann. Para- species of ticks (Arachnida : Ixodoidea) sitol. 24: 558-568. Ixodes petauristae, I. ampullaceus, Derma- 17. DESCRIPTION OF THE NYMPH AND LARVA OF IXODES PETAURISTAE WARBURTON, 1933 & (With four figures in one plate) Ixodes petauristae was first described by Warburton (1933) on the basis of a single female collected from a flying squirrel, ‘Petaurista philippensis Link’, in Ceylon. Rao (1955) described both the male and the female of Ixodes kerri collected from Petaurista petaurista philippensis Elliot in south India. This was the first Ixodes found in India south of the Himalayas but subsequently large numbers of two species of Ixodes have been collected in the forests of Mysore State—Ixodes kerri, now regarded as a synonym of J. pefauristae, and Ixodes ceylonensis Kohls. Adults of 7. petauristae are common ectoparasites of the Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica) and the Flying Squirrel (Petaurista petaurista philippensis) in Mysore State, south India, and immature stages have been commonly found parasitizing small mammals of the forest: shrews, rats, mice, and squirrels. They are occasionally found on monkeys but rarely on birds. The present study is based on material 1 The Virus Research Centre is jointly maintained by the Indian Council of Medical Research and The Rockefeller Foundation. The Centre also receives a generous grant from the PL 480 Funds from the National Institutes of Health, U.S.A. JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Ixodes petauristae Warburton 1. Nymph: dorsal view; 2. Nymph: ventral view; 3. Larva: dorsal view; 4. Larva: ventral view MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 175 reared in the field laboratory at Sagar, Mysore State, south India (Rajagopalan 1963). As the nymph and the larva of this species were unknown they are described and illustrated here. I. petauristae Warburton NyMPH (Figs. 1-2) Body: length, excluding capitulum, 1-40', width 0-73; oval in shape, posterior margin rounded; marginal fold prominent, anal groove horseshoe-shaped. Capitulum: length, from tips of palpi to posterior margin of dorsal basis, 0°64; width at level of cornua, 0-39. Basis capituli, dorsally triangular in outline; posterior corners of dorsal basis highly sclerotised to give a cornua-like appearance; posterior margin almost straight dorsally; surface of dorsal basis with fine punctations. Ventrally, the basis is constricted posterior to the _ auriculae; posterior margin broadly rounded at corners; auriculae distinct as flattened lateral extensions. Palpi: length of second and third segments 0°56, second segment distinctly longer than the third. Hypostome: length 0:27, width at mid length, 0-08; dentition 2/2, about 12 teeth per file; lateral denticles larger. Scutum: length 0-91, greatest width 0-72; shape as illustrated, rounded posteriorly, with postero-lateral margins very slightly concave; scapula slight and short, - lateral carinae distinct; cervical grooves shallow, divergent posteriorly and extending up to a little beyond the mid length. Punctations fine, with a few larger ones scattered in the posterior region. A few short fine hairs present. Legs: moderate in size and length. Coxa I to IV each with a distinct, posteriorly directed triangular external spur. The postero-internal margin of Coxa I angular in outline and spur-like in appearance. Tarsus I, length 0-56 tapering gradually; tarsus IV more slender than tarsus I, length 0-43 and tapering gradually (Fig. 1). Spiracular plate (Fig. 2): shape as illustrated; greatest length 0-18 and greatest width 0:21. LarRVA (Figs. 3-4) , Length from tip of palpi to posterior body margin, 0:98; body | oval, length 0°78, width 0:59 and widest near mid length. Posterior margin broadly rounded; anal groove very faint and does not encircle the anus in front. Capitulum: dorsal basis, width 0-21; posterior margin of dorsal basis nearly straight, basis constricted posterior to the auriculae. Palpi: slender; 0:56 long and 0:05 wide; palpal + All measurements are in millimetres and are averages of three specimens. ' * 176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) articles 2 and 3 not distinctly separated. Hypostome: length 0:14; width 0:05; dentition 2/2 with about nine teeth in outer file and 8 teeth in inner file. Scutum: shape as illustrated, slightly wider than long; fength 0-42 and width 0:44. Cervical grooves appear to be divergent both anteriorly and posteriorly. Lateral carinae absent. Légs: Coxa I with a promineni, triangular, posteriorly-directed external spur. Coxa II with a smaller postero-external spur. No distinct spur on Coxa III but the postero-external margin of Coxa III is sclerotized to form a ridge-like projection. Tarsus I tapers gradualiy, length 0-25, width at base 0-09. Tarsus III as illustrated. VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE!, POONA, January 11, 1965. P. K. RAJAGOPALAN REFERENCES RAJAGOPALAN, P. K. (1963): Rearing species of ticks (Arachnida, Ixodoidea) of Ixodes petauristae Warburton, 1933 in Laboratory. Indian Jour. Malariology 17 : 259-262. Ixodes petauristae, I. ampullaceus, Derma- centor imitans, Amblvomma _laticaudae, and Aponomma draconis, with notes on three previously described species, Ornithodorus franchinii Tonelli-Rondelli, Haemaphysalis cooleyi Bedford and Rhipicephalus maculatus Neumann. Para- sitol. 24: 558-568. RAo, T. R. (1955) : Ixodes kerri, a new species ‘of tick from a flying squirrel from southern India (Acarina : Ixodidae). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 860-864. WARBURTON, C. (1933) : On five new 18. FRUITING OF PLUMERIA With reference to Mr. Vaid’s note under this heading (1964, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61 : 215) both the Plumeria species, acutifolia and rubra, and a third species whose name I do not know, with white flowers and darker green leaves with a rounded, not pointed, apex, fruit freely in Mombasa, and obviously hybridise judging from the numerous intermediate trees that exist. Climatic conditions in Mombasa would be more akin to those in Bombay than to those of northern India. P.O. Box 5026, MompBaSaA, EAST AFRICA, November 7, 1964. D. G. SEVASTOPULO 2 The Virus Research Centre is jointly maintained by the Indian Council of Medical Research and The Rockefeller Foundation. The Centre also receives a generous grant from the PL 480 Funds from the National Institutes of Health, U.S.A. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 177 19. MICROCOCCA MERCURIALIS (LINN.) BENTH. : AN ADDITION TO THE FLORA OF THE UPPER GANGETIC PLAIN During our extensive survey of the vegetation of Agra District, Micracocca mercurialis (Linn.) Benth. in Hook. Niger Flora 503, ~ 1849 (Syn. Claoxylon mercurialis Thwaites, Enum. 271; F.B.I. 5 : 412, 1887), a small herb belonging to the family Euphorbiaceae, has been found to occur at some places like Kailash Forest, Keetham Forest, etc. It is interesting to note that the species is usually restricted to the ravines of Agra District. It is common in semi-shaded and moist places of the ravines and its associates are Dichanthium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf Fimbristylis dichotoma (Linn.) Vahl, Eclipta alba (Linn.) Hassk., etc. The plant is a typically rainy season annual, as thie seedlings appear after the first few showers of late July and flourish up to October, after which with the fall in humidity they wither and die off. Older literature cites this species from south India; recently it has been reported from Khetri (Rajasthan); but there is no previous record of its occurrence from the Upper Gangetic Plain. Its spread from the comparatively humid regions of the South to dry regions of Rajasthan and the Upper Gangetic Plain is of interest and needs further cytological and ecological investigation. Our findings regarding the number of anthers and other details of the plant species are in conformity with those of Nair & Thomas (1962) in Curr. Sci. q 31 : 26. DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, AGRA COLLEGE, K. M. M. DAKSHINI' AGRA, R. K. S. CHAUHAN October 6, 1964. 20. POGONATUM SUBPERICHAETIALE CARD. ET VARD.: A NEW RECORD FROM THE HIMALAYAS (With a plate) | While working on a moss collection of Garhwal-Himalayas, the authors came across a very interesting and rare species of the genus Pogonatum of family Polytrichaceae, which has been identified as Pogonatum subperichaetiale Card. et Vard. Brotherus (1925) listed + Present address: Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Delhi 6 12 178 JOURNAL, BOMBA¥ -NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) 25 species of this genus from India and gave the GELL OHae of P. subperichaetiale from south India only. The present specimen was collected at Hamkund (Garhwal) from an altitude of 3500 m. on 31 October 1962 by Dr. U. C. Bhattacharya of Northern Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Dehra Dun, who as a Botanist accompanied the Nilgiris Expedition (Garhwal-Himalayas)— 1962, and it is registered as No. Bhattacharya 4. This is the first record of the taxon from the Himalayas. The only reference of this species, so far, is of the type specimen collected on moist ground from Pambar Ravine, Kodaikanal, from an altitude of 2400 m. by Rev. Fr. G. Foreau on 15 December 1912. There has not been any other report of this taxon from any part of India or from any other place. Foreau (1961) in ‘Moss Flora of Palni Hills’ mentions only the type specimen against this species, and has not referred to any subsequent collection even from that area. Species of this genus are often put with Polytrichum Dill. by some authors, but are readily distinguished by their cylindric capsules. The species in question comes close to Pogonatum perichaetiale (Mont.) Jaeg., because of its smooth margin, but differs from it by its acuminate apex and the upturned margin of the leaf, and also in its long sheathing perichaetial bracts. In the present paper a detailed description of this taxon with illustrations based on the new collection is given. Pogonatum subperichaetiale Card. et Vard. in Rev. Bryol. 50 : 25, t< 1, hig... 15a=b,- 1923; Plants in loose tufts, brownish-green. Stem 1:5 to 2-0 cm. tall, simple, sometimes: forked. Leaves scale-like in lower half, higher up large (about 5 mm. long), when dry erect and clasping the stem, when moist erecto-patent, from an ovate sheathing base lingulate, at apex projected into a short acumen, margin plane slightly upturned; nerve smooth at back, stepping out into a mucro, very broad on the face of the leaf and covered with 30-40 lamellae occupying almost the entire limb; each lamella consisting of 7-9 cells, the uppermost large, roundish to elliptic, thick-walled, brownish, not papillose; areolations at the base of the limb transversely elliptical, very incrassate, 14 wide, becoming roundish-quadrate or sub-rectangular below, at the base rectangular, thin-walled, 18 uw Wide, 3-5 times longer than broad, hyaline near the margin, pale-yellowish near the nerve. Perichaetial bracts with long sheaths, longly acuminate. Seta reddish brown, 2 cm. tall, Capsule erect or slightly inclined, oblong-cylindrical, constricted below the mouth, pale green, finely papillose, rugose when Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. 2eerno £ Pogonatum subperichaetiale Card. et Vard. 4. cells from the shoulder region; 10. 7. capsule when dry ; 6. basal cells ; of capsule from the peristome region ; me us O ss 25 Gy OC bh on wig =e ee ae _ a io) aD poke ee 2S oe Ba oO Bs ne OG = FQ S @. aloe a's @ aoe “= 20 Orn woo & pe pay Syste eaetsipeysen Poets MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 179 dry. Opercuium large with a long beak. Peristome teeth 16, which later on, due to splitting, become 32. orange-brown. Spores circular, 16 » wide. The material has been deposited in the Cryptogomic Herbarium of the Headquarters Organization of the Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, and a part in the Herbarium of Northern Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Dehra Dun, bearing Field No. Bhattacharya 4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors express their thanks to Dr. U. C. Bhattacharya, Botanist, Northern Circle, Botanical Survey of India, Dehra Dun, for putting his valuable collection at their disposal. BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, B. M. WADHWA'! CALCUTTA, J. N. VOHRA October 12, 1964. REFERENCES BrotHerus, V. F. (1925): in Engler Palni Hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. and Prantl, Die Natiirlichen Pflazen- 58: 13-47. familien, ed. 2. 10: 1-542; VARDE, R. P. de la (1923) : Musci ForEAU, G. (1961) : Moss Flora of Madurenses. Rev. Bryol. 50: 17-27. 21. MELHANIA HAMILTONIANA WALL. : A NEW RECORD FOR BOMBAY STATE? (With one plate) In the present note, Melhania hamiltoniana Wall., a common plant of the plains of north India, is put on record for the first time from Bombay State. Melhania hamiltoniana Wall. Pi. Asiat. Rar. | : t. 77; Hooker in -Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 372, 1874. An erect undershrub, about 1 m. high with spreading branches. Leaves ovate sub-cordate, unequally toothed, pubescent, dark green above, white beneath. Peduncles axillary and terminal, usually three- flowered. Bracteoles recurved at the edges. Sepals lanceolate, cuspidate, villous. Petals orange-yellow, obovate, longer than the 1 Present Address: Botanical Survey of India, Central Circle, 10 Chatham Lines, Allahabad 2 The term is used in its former significance to include the present States of Gujarat and Maharashtra. 180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) sepals. Staminodes ligulate, alternating with perfect stamens. Capsule — villous, shorter than the calyx, five-celled, cells many-seeded; seeds oblong, obscurely four-sided, truncate and tubercled. The plant was found on rocky hills in the vicinity of. Idar. Flowering time: August-November. Fruiting time: October-December. Herbarium specimens: Nos. SB 782, 783, 784, 785, collected near — Idar, on rocky hills (19 October 1961). Critical Notes. Hooker mentions the plant as occurring in Western Peninsula and Burma. The plant is fairly common in north, India, from where possibly it has been introduced into the Idar region. Four species of Melhania have been recorded by Cooke from the Bombay Presidency; Melhania tomentosa Stocks is the only species reported by Cooke from Deesa, Gujarat. It would be interesting to study the range of distribution of Melhania hamiltoniana Wall. The authors are grateful to Dr. G. Taylor, Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for identifying the plant. DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, | Be aR: CHAVAN M.S. UNIVERSITY OF BARODA, | S. D. SABNIS BARODA, | S. J. BEDI August 10, 1964. 22. NEW RECORD OF UTRICULARIA MINUTISSIMA VAHL IN SOUTH INDIA (With one plate) — The plant forming the subject of this note was found growing in association with Utricularia coerulea Linn. and Utricularia uliginosa Vahl in water-loggzed scil at Palghat, Kerala State, south India, in October 1963. On detailed examination it was found to be an unfamiliar species of Utricularia. Hence dried specimens together with detailed drawings were sent to Kew for identification. They identified the specimen as Utricularia minutissima Vahl. Hooker (in FI. Br. Ind. 4: 334) mentions this as an imperfectly known species. In view of the fact that this ill-defined species, as far as is known to me, has not so far been recorded from south India, I give a com- prehensive description of it based on fresh specimens. JOURN. BomMBAY Nat. HIstT. Soc. | THE MAHARAJA SAYAJIRAQ UNIVERSITY OF BARODA BOTANY DEPARTMENT HERBARIUM No SBI BS : pag oe Siegen Senate nenabae an Geons Rare C2 a8 co Spieehe$ anenecirmansenra “Ravaitlanions tal ae ae Nm as ate eestor Leg] RY eran rajarat. ie Jafar). Remar ki mn oon ody plant; ees porns. ye tMakitrod bt QA... collec Ls wy frond Ma Op. off Kom ACCKY sess ? Pa CBC K cme ALA aad A cre AM SS oeation 5 hed $> On Sabrury eas JI-Je 6) iCollectyd br Melhania hamiltoniana Wall. JOURN. BomMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. Utricularia minutissima Vahl 1. Entire plant ; 2. Sterile bract and bracteole ; 3. Fertile bract and bracteoles; 4. Flower | (front view); 5. Calyx; 6. Corolla (side view); 7. Spread-open corolla; 8. Mature | stamen; 9. Pistil; 10. T. S. of ovary; 11. L. S. of flower; 12. Fruit; 13. SeedjR 14. Floral diagram; 15. Bladder (side view); 16. Bladder (back view); 17. Bladder (front | view); 18. L.S. of bladder; 19. Absorptive hair; 20. Hair on body surface | “MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 181 _- DESCRIPTION Plants small, slender, prostrate, with erect scapes (Fig. 1). Stem mycelium-like, profusely branched, spreading to diameter of 4-5 cm., with numerous very minute bladders. Leaf simple, alternate. linear, about 1 cm. long, emerging from underground branches, bright green, base filiform, transparent, with one or two bladders. Scape 1-5-4 cm. long, simple, erect, filiform, brownish purple, with sparsely arranged bracts, 1-3-flowered; bracts alternate, simple, up to 0:3 mm. long, purplish, ovate, apex acute, attached by base; upper flowers fertile, lower ones sterile (Figs. 2, 3). Flowers 2-25 mm. long, subsessile, pink, medianly zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, hypogynous, bracteolate; bracteoles 2, lateral, subulate, and nearly as long as bracts (Fig. 3). Calyx about 1 mm. long, purplish, bi-lipped, upper lip obliquely held, acute, lower lip outer, horizontally held, emarginate or with rounded apex (Fig. 5). Corolla bi-lipped, upper lip oblong, emarginate, nearly hidden by the upper calyx lip, light pink; lower lip broader, shortly 3-lobed, spurred, defiexed at the middle and held over the throat of spur, pink with a few purple lines; spur horizontal and up-turned, conically tubular, obtuse, protruding beyond corolla lip and light pink (Fig. 6).. Stamens 2, epipetalous, minute, filament flat, slightly incurved, twisted once; anthers 2-celled, 4-lobed, introrse, spreading open at anthesis. Mature anthers remain connate in front of pistil just below stigma (Fig. 8). Gynoécium minute, bi-carpellary, syncarpous, superior; ovary unilocular, thin-walled, ovules numerous on free central placenta; style short, stigma with depressed centre, margins two-lipped, anterior lip protruding much beyond the rim, spreading, papillose; posterior lip shortly conical, erect, and without papillae (Fig. 9). Fruit very small, held obliquely upon scape, enclosed in persistent calyx, globular, wall brownish, translucent, opening longitudinally along the anterior side or on both sides (Fig. 12). Seeds very minute, globose, amber-coloured, smooth with reticulate testa (Fig. 13). The bladder (Figs. 15-18) is very remarkable in its minuteness, beautiful appearance, and simplicity of insect-capturing mechanism. The stalk is comparatively long, uniting with bladder wall on posterior top corner so that the bladder hangs from the stalk. Cells in front of the stalk forming the roof of the bladder are transversely elongated and arranged as a pavement.. This is flanked on either side by an oblique fan-like wing of paired vesicular cells; one in-each pair with a clavate gland-like cell at tip. At the anterior end bladder wall is extended up into a flat, acute, slightly bent plate. Between this and / 182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) the posterior wing is another, smaller, oblique wing, of a few cells bent backward. Wall cells between these two wings are also pavement-like. Orifice of bladder very narrow, circular, situated at centre on top between the wings, so that the ascending pavements lead to it. The orifice is continued into the bladder as a conical tube hanging down from the roof and opening at the apex. Around this, the inner surface of bladder wall bears a few 4-rayed absorptive hairs lifted upon slender stalks. The rest of the inner surface is naked. Outer surface of bladder as well as other parts bear short vesicular cells joined to a small cell on the body by a very small cubical cell. Cyclops, rotifers, and diatoms were found inside many bladders. Absence of sensitive hairs and trap-doors suggests that the victims fall inside the bladder accidentally. The oblique wings and the ascending paths between them lead the victims crawling on the surface, straight into the precipitous orifice. Escape from within the bladder is virtually impossible, because the exit is at the apex of a hanging tube. The 4-rayed hairs at the base of the tube also prevent free access to the exit. The author is deeply indebted to Prof. N. A. Erady for kindly providing all facilities and for his valuable guidance. The encourage- ment offered by Sri K. Kesavan Nair is also acknowledged with gratitude. GOVT. VICTORIA COLLEGE, PALGHAT, KERALA STATE, R. VASUDEVAN NAIR January 29, 1964. , 23. PRESERVATIVES FOR FRESHWATER ALGAE Different algal workers use different fluid preparations for preserving algae for taxonomic purposes. West & Fritsch (1927) recommend 2-4% formalin as a preservative. According to Smith (1950) the simplest preservatives are 2-4% formalin or a mixture of formalin, acetic acid, and alcohol. Prescott (1951) prefers formalin aceto-alcohol and Transeau’s Solution with glycerine as preservatives. For preserving the green colour of the algae, Keefe’s Solution (Keefe, 1926) is supposed to be the most satisfactory. It was thought worth while to make a comparison by preserving the same algae in different preservatives for some time. Fresh collections of Volvox sp. Chaetophora sp., Oedogonium spp., Pithophora sp., Cladophora sp. Rhizoclonium sp., Spirogyra spp.: \ -_ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 183 Cosmarium spp., Closterium spp., Nitella sp., Euglena spp., Trachelo- monas spp., Anabaena spp., Aulosira sp., Gloeotrichia spp., Oscillatoria spp., and Lyngbya spp. were made for this purpose during eles to December 1957 from Bombay and its environs. ‘Each alga was preserved in triplicate in the - following nine preservatives: (1) ‘Transeau’s Solution or Six-three-one Solution (six parts water, three parts 95% alcohol, one part formalin), (2) Transeau’s Solution with 5 c.c. of glycerine per 100 c.c. of solution, (3) 4% formalin, (4) 4% formalin with 5 c.c. of glycerine per 100 c.c. of solution, (5) 2% formalin, (6) 2% formalin with 5 c.c. of glycerine per 100 c.c. of solution, (7) Formalin- aceto-alcohol (formalin 5 c.c., glacial acetic acid 5 c.c., 50% alcohol 90 c.c.), (8) Mixture of formalin, acetic acid, and alcohol (glacial acetic acid 30 c.c., formalin 65 c.c., and 50% alcohol 1000 c.c.), (9) Keefe’s Solution (50% alcohol 90 c.c., formalin 5 c.c., glycerine 2°5 c.c., copper chloride 10 gm., uranium nitrate 1:5 gm.). | The algae were preserved, after a careful microscopical examina- tion, in specimen tubes of borosil glass with cork stoppers, and were examined after five years. It is found that there is not much difference in the preserving capacity of the first eight preservatives mentioned above. However, formalin-aceto-alcohol is slightly better for most of the Chlorophyceae and particularly desmids. 2-4% formalin with or without glycerine slightly dissolves the colonial mucilage of Gloeotrichia spp. but apparently has no effect on the mucilage of Chaetophora sp. Keefe’s Solution is good for preserving the green colour of some of the Chlorophyceae like Pithophora sp., particularly the akinetes, Volvox sp., Cladophora sp., and also of Euglena spp., but it gives an unnatural colour to other Chlorophyceae. This solution also gives an unnatural colour to the members of Cyanophyceae. In all the preservatives except Keefe’s Solution the material occasionally gets black, possibly owing to the reaction of the cork stopper. we . ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The present work was done in the Botany Department, Institute of Science, Bombay. The author takes the opportunity to thank Professor Ella A. Gonzalves, the then Professor of Botany, Institute of Science, for encouragement. BOTANY DEPARTMENT, COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, N. D. KAMAT NAGPUR 1, November 11, 1963. 184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) REFERENCES Keere, A. M. (1926): A preserving Algae of the United States, Second Ed. fluid for green plants. Science, N. S.,64: New York. 331-332. West, G.S., & FrRItscu, F. E. (1927) : PRESCOTT, G. W. (1951) : Algae of A treatise on the British Freshwater the Western, ‘Great Lakes area. Michigan. Algae. Sameer: SmitH, G. M. (1950): The Freshwater THE OPENING OF HORNBILL HOUSE : 13-3-1965 Our new premises, Horneitt House, in the Prince of Wales Museum compound, were formally opened by Mr. M. C. Chagla, Union Minister for Education, on Saturday the 13th March 1965. Mr. Chagla expressed keen interest, and commended the work of cur Society. He remarked that his own eyes were opened to the wealth of wild life in our country when it was pointed out to him by foreigners who were always puzzled by our own apathy to it. He hoped that the efforts of the Society would succeed is turning the tide and give our young people a real enthusiasm for the treasures at their doorstep. Mr. Karl Khandalawala, representing the Trustees of the Prince of Wales Museum to whose large-heartedness we owe the permission to build on the present site, also spoke and welcomed the Society kindly as a good neighbour should. We give below the text of Dr. SAlim Ali’s speech delivered on the occasion: - | ‘Shri Chagla, Ladies, and Gentlemen, ‘In the unfortunate absence of our President, Shri Cherian, the Governor of Bombay, I have inherited the privilege of welcoming you on this momentous occasion in the history of the Bombay Natural History Society—an occasion for which we have waited, then despaired, then hoped, for over three quarters of a century. The Society was formed in 1883 by a group of 8 residents of Bombay—of whom, it is gratifying to recall, two were Indians—for the purpose of getting together, exhibiting natura] history specimens collected by them in their respective fields of interest, exchanging notes and observations, and for generally keeping alight the spark of common interest in the animals and plants and other natural productions around them, and fostering that interest in others. ‘This is the seed from which the Society has grown. In the beginning this small group used to meet about once a month in the Victoria and Albert Museum in Victoria Gardens. Later, as more kindred spirits rallied round the nucleus and the collections began to swell, the need for their proper housing and care became urgent. They were offered part of his business premises by Mr. H. M. Phipson in what was then 18 Forbes Street, where Greaves Cotton & Co. now stands. Phipson is really entitled to be called the Father of the Society. Himself an exceedingly keen amateur naturalist, he nursed 186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) and nurtured the Society in its early years in a spirit of dedication, and it was during his long term as Honorary Secretary, followed by that of his equally dedicated colleague W. S. Millard, that the true foundations of the Society were laid. ‘When Phipson’s business expanded he shifted to larger premises just across the street, to No. 6 Apollo Street—later to be renumbered 114. I may mention in parenthesis, particularly for the interest of our Education Minister, who may probably know it already, that this same historic building, unhappily doomed soon to disappear, was at one time, about 1860, the residence of the Chief Justice of Bombay, when the old High Court was within a stone’s throw of it. In these premises the Society’s offices, library, and museum lived and grew and outgrew for over 70 years. In 1934 its reference collections were, Owing to congestion of space, transferred to the then newly completed Natural History wing of the Prince of Wales Museum. — Shortage of accommodation even there compelled the office and library to continue in Phipson’s premises. This separation of the research collections from the library rendered systematic scientific ‘work ex- tremely difficult and inconvenient as it necessitated constant shuttling between two places separated by several hundred yards of congested public thoroughfare. The last straw came when Phipson & Co. were squeezed out of their flourishing wine business by the advent of Prohibition in Bombay and obliged to dispose of their premises in Apollo Street. Thus orphaned, the Government of Maharashtra came to our rescue by providing funds for hiring temporary but more spacious accommodation for the office and library on Walkeshwar Road, to which, under an arrangement with the Prince of Wales Museum, were also shifted the Society’s research collections. It was at this period that negotiations with the Government of Maharashtra and the Union Ministry of Scientific Research for a permanent home for the Society, which had already started much earlier, were intensified. What you see here today is the end-product of those negotiations. On behalf of the Society I would like to express our deepest gratitude to the Governments of India and of Maharashtra State, to the Trustees of the Prince of Wales Museum, and to all those individuals, official and non-official, whose sympathetic interest ‘and efforts have contributed towards this gratifying conclusion. ‘A word about the proposed naming of this building as Hornbill House may not be without interest. In the Society’s offices in Phipson & Co.’s premises it kept in an adjoining wired-off cabin a Great Indian Hornbill as pet and mascot. This bird lived with us for over 26 years, It became a great favourite with visitors, and l THE OPENING OF HORNBILL HOUSE : 13-3-1965 187 almost synonymous with the Society. It seemed to enjoy itself as much as it amused and entertained visitors by clever little antics and games. One of its star turns was to catch in its beak with unerring skill a tennis ball thrown fairly hard at it from a distance of several yards. William, as he was called in deference to his enormous bill, died through misadventure by overeating the wire of his cage. His mortal remains have been perpetuated as the foraging father in the hornbill group exhibited in the bird gallery of the Prince of Wales Museum, as his memory is now being perpetuated in this building of the Society of which he was certainly the most effective Public Relations Officer. ‘I shall now outline some of the Society’s more important acti- vities and achievements : ‘1. The Society has, in the course of its long existence, built up and maintains a collection of zoological material from the Indian sub- region which is amongst the finest and most complete in the world. This applies more particularly to Birds and Mammals. This material was acquired through specially organized collecting expeditions and regional faunal surveys conducted by the Society departmentally as well as through the active co-operation of its widespread membership and the financial support of its patrons and well wishers. These collections are available for examination and study not only to members of the Society but to all zoology students and scientific institutions in India and abroad. It is gratifying to mention that many of our collections have formed the basis of important treatises and standard scientific publications throughout the world. The new edition of the FAUNA OF INDIA series volumes on Mammals was made possible by, and is based almost exclusively on, the extensive collections made during the mammal survey of India, Burma, and Ceylon organized and carried out by the Society over several years preceding the First World War. This vast material has since been split up and distributed among various scientific institutions in India and Pakistan as well as abroad, proving for them a veritable windfall. The lesser attention seemingly devoted to the study of plants is far from real. In fact the Society’s Journal always carries a high proportion of important papers on Indian botany, and we have the privilege of having the distinguished botanist Fr. H. Santapau, a Vice-President of the Society, as our botanical editor and expert consultant. ‘That the Society does not also maintain a plant collection is merely in order to avoid unnecessary duplication, it being recognized 188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) that there are other institutions in Bombay, e.g. St. Xavier’s College, which are better placed for handling botanical material and with whom of course the Society works in the closest association. 2. The Society publishes a natural history journal, at present three issues a year, which has enjoyed unbroken publication since its inception in 1885. It is now in its 61st volume. It carries popular illustrated articles as well as more technical scientific papers on every branch of the natural history of India and adjoining countries, and. of the Oriental region in general. The Journal has earned an enviable international reputation for its high standard, and is widely acclaimed the finest natural history journal of the East. It is no exaggeration to say that no research or documentation on Indian animals and plants can be complete, or is indeed possible, without constant delving into this unique repository of scientific knowledge. ‘In addition to the Journal the Society publishes attractive, well-illustrated books for the popularization of science covering a wide range of natural history subjects. Some of these are displayed here and I would invite you all to inspect them later. These publications are seldom free from financial risk which the Society can ill afford, and often also involve considerable financial sacrifice. They are undertaken not so. much with the profit motive as to be in keeping with the primary aims and objects of the Society—namely to popularise and disseminate interest in and knowledge of natural history among the public and thereby enable it to derive the fullest economic benefit and aesthetic enjoyment from the natural products—the flora and fauna with which our country abounds. | ‘3. Another activity, in which the Society has been engaged for the past 15 years with the financial support of the Government of Bombay (now, of Maharashtra), is a scheme for Nature Study educa- tion in schools by means of talks. films, and other visual aids in the classroom, by guided lectures and tours in the Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum, the Zoo and the Aquarium, and also by nature rambles in the beautiful countryside surrounding the City. It is in an activity that has proved its usefulness in arousing interest in school children as well as their teachers. With the better financial assistance we hopefully anticipate, and the facilities that will be available in this new building, we plan to develop and expand this activity to cover other parts of the State as well. It is realized that the lack of interest shown by our young people in nature is largely due to the want of encouragement from their parents at home and from their teachers in school, a disability we aim to remove for future generations. In connection with the Nature Education Scheme the THE OPENING OF HORNBILL HOUSE : 13-3-1965 189 —Society has published simply written, attractively illustrated, and well- printed booklets on Bitds, Mammals, and Plants in English, Hindi, Marathi, and Gujarati. Although priced at only a few Paise per copy, the response from Education Departments, school libraries, teachers, parents, and the general public alike has been disappointing. “The turnover has been too slow and tardy for us to afford the considerable expansion in the series that was contemplated. The sales of the Hindi editions have, paradoxically enough, been the most disappointing of all. And this despite the fact that our late Prime Minister Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru himself had by personal letters drawn the attention of the Chief Ministers of the Hindi-speaking States to the excellence and availability of the booklets. ‘4, An activity which the Society has recently undertaken and developed, and which is of far reaching international public health importance, is the investigation of the problem of bird migration in India and its bearing on the trans-continental dissemination of arthropod-borne viruses. With the financial sponsorship of WHO and the technical co-operation of the Virus Research Centre in: Poona and certain virus research laboratories in the USSR, the Society is Operating a project for nefting and marking migratory birds with numbered, return-addressed aluminium rings to study the origins of the numerous species that visit India in the winter months. Although the project has been running for less than 5 years, a gratifying amount of new information has accumulated about bird movements, their arthropod parasites, and other matters concerning their possible role in the dissemination of viruses affecting man and animals. It is hoped that this fruitful international co-operation received by the Society will enable it to make a significant contribution to the knowledge of the public health aspect of bird migration, in addition to procuring factual data on a subject which until recently had received very little serious attention from biologists in India. ‘5. The Society has been recognized by the University: of Bombay as a _ guiding institution for post-graduate research in Field Ornithology. Zoology students who have done their B.Sc. can now obtain their M.Sc. degree through research under the recognized guide, and it is hoped that the recognition will soon be stretched to cover a doctoral degree as well. With its established ornithological tradition, excellent research collection of birds, and its excellent zoological library the Society feels adequately equipped to function as the central school of ornithology in India. Given funds for award- ing scholarships to promising zoology students there is no reason why we should not attract the right type of persons from all over India 1909 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (1) and build up a cadre of qualified teachers and researchers in ornithology. The lack of teachers is the chief factor that is retarding nature study teaching and biological field research in India today, especially vertebrate ecology-—also other branches of field natural history as distinct from the study of systematics for which facilities already exist, e.g. at the Zoological Survey of India with which the Society maintains close liaison. ‘Thanks to scholarships awarded by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, we have two post-graduate students working at present on different facets of “The Role of Birds in our National Economy”. The lack of jobs and opportunities for qualified ornithologists in India makes it difficult to attract suitable zoology students to this line of study without offering them reasonable induce- ment in the way of stipends. ‘An application for such scholarships has been submitted by the Society through the University of Bombay to the Central Ministry of Education, which it is hoped will receive favourable consideration. ‘In a country like ours which leans so heavily on agriculture and forestry, proper research on the economic aspects of bird life is of very great importance. The status of bird species, whether harmful as crop destroyers or beneficial as enemies of pests, needs to be scientifically assessed before any control measures can be undertaken. This is a fact which has been little recognized in India, though in the more advanced countries of the West such research is paying rich dividends. But, unless we have trained and competent biologists available for undertaking the meticulous type of field and laboratory research which Economic Ornithology demands, we shall continue to lag behind. ‘6. From pre-Independence days the Society has been seriously concerned about the preservation of our vanishing wild life and has played a leading part in the matter of Nature Conservation. The Indian Board for Wild Life which is now the central quasi-governmental advisory organization for the States on policy matters connected with nature conservation—functioning under the Central Ministry for Food and Agriculture—owes its formation to the spade work done in earlier years by the Bombay Natural History Society and the dedicated efforts of some of its far-sighted veteran British members, to whom a grateful tribute is due. Unfortunately the Indian Board for Wild Life as presently constituted and functioning is a less active and potent body than the Society would wish. But it is a step in the right direction, and we are exploring ways and means through the Planning THE OPENING OF HORNBILL HOUSE : 13-3-1965 191 Commission for making it a more effective organization. The Society has been largely responsible for framing, drafting and getting through the Legislatures of undivided Bombay State, the Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act, 1951. This eclectic Act is based on some of the best features embodied in similar acts in more advanced countries of the world, rationally adapted to Indian conditions. It has been recognized as a model of its kind and recommended by the Indian Board for Wild Life for adoption by all the other States of the Indian Union, with modifications to suit their local conditions. ‘This is an outline of a few of the activities and achievements of the Society. With a permanent home which, thanks to the Govern- ment of India and the Trustees of the Prince of Wales Museum, we can at long last call our own, and with the additional facilities in the way of accommodation, equipment, and opportunities—and, let us hope, funds—the Society can look forward with confidence te a long future of service to the country and to science. To achieve this will be its continuing endeavour.’ | . * * * * Replying to Dr. Salim Ali, Mr. M. C. Chagla said that as Union Minister for Education he would do all that he could to further the cause of nature education in this country. The Honorary Secretary proposed a vote of thanks. After the meeting the visitors were shown round the rooms of the Society where the publications and collections of the Society were displayed. Notes and News Orchid Club of Bombay We are very glad to welcome the Orchid Club of Bombay, which has recently entered into the second year of its existence. It is surprising that in a country whose rich stores of native orchids have been exploited for years by enterprising foreigners there has so far been comparatively little local interest. Started by a small group of enthusiasts, the club seeks to create a love for and to spread the knowledge of orchids, to help its members in procuring and caring for them, and to conserve the orchids growing in our forests. To avoid the attachment of a prestige value to-membership and to make it possible for all interested persons to become members the subscription has been kept low. Enquiries for further information should be addressed to: Mr. S. Abdulali, Honorary Joint Secretary, Orchid Club of Bombay, ‘Sahara’, Quarry Road, Devnar, Chembur, Bombay 71-AS. Indian Association of Biological Sciences A new Association, Indian Association of Biological Sciences, was formed during the combined 5Ist-52nd session of the Indian Science Congress Association at Calcutta in January 1965. A steering Com- mittee consisting of Profs. B. R. Seshachar, T. S. Sadasivan (Secretary), Sivatosh Mookerjee, and Drs. B. Mukerji, H. B. Tewari, B. S. Chauhan, with Prof. P. Maheshwari as Chairman, was elected to formulate the detailed scheme of the Association, the main aim of which will be to create a common forum of Indian Biologists and to integrate the research activities of biologists working in Medicine, Agriculture, Veterinary, Botanical, and Zoological sciences, and the borderline fields of Biochemistry, Biophysics, Biometrics, etc. The annual subscription has been tentatively fixed at Rs. 10. Inten- ding subscribers should send their first subscription to the Treasurer, Dr. B.S. Chauhan, Zoological Survey of India, 34 Chittaranjan Avenue, Calcutta-12. Other communications may be addressed to either Prof. T. S. Sadasivan, Director, University Botany Laboratory, Madras-5 or Prof. P. Maheshwari (Chairman), Professor and Head of the Department of Botany, Delhi University. PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M.:PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS 10 CHURCH ROAD, VEPERY, MADRAS—31-7-1965. C2776 EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU, D. E. REUBEN, ZAFAR FUTEHALLY & J. C, DANIEL THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS Mammals The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. 2nd (revised) edition. 28 plates in colour by Paul Barruel and many other illustrations. Rs. 30 (Price to members Rs. 25) Birds The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali. 7th (revised) edition. 64 coloured and many monochrome plates. : Rs. 25 (Price to members Rs. 20) A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan, by S. Dillon Ripley II. An up-to-date checklist of all the birds resident and migrant, including those of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, and Ceylon. | (Price to members Rs. 20) - Snakes Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi: ny Rs. 10 . (Price to members Rs. 8) Miscellaneous | * Some Beautiful Indian Trees, by Blatter and Millard. With many coloured and ’* monochrome plates. 2ndedition. Revised by W. T. Stearn Rs. 20 (Price to members Rs. 16) Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs, by Bor and Raizada. With many colours’ and monochrome plates. Rs. (Price to members Rs. 17.50) Butterflies of the Indian Region, by M. A. Wynter-Blyth. With 27 coloured and 45 monochrome plates. Rs. 28 (Price to members Rs. 22.50) Indian Molluses, by James Hornell. With 2 coloured and many monochrome plates, and text-figures. (Price to members Rs. 4.50) Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets : 1. Our Birps [ (with 8 coloured plates) in Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 0.80 Kannada Rs. 0.62 2. Our Birps II (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. 0.62 3. OUR BEAUTIFUL TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 0.62 4. Our MONSOON PLANTS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 0.80 5. Our ANIMALS (with 8 coloured plates) in English, Gujarati, Hindi, Marathi. Back numbers of the Society’s Journal. Rates on application. Py Correspond with: Honorary Secretary, Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, opp. Lion Gate, Apollo Street, Fort, Bombay 1-BR. Agents in England: : Messrs. Wheldon & Wesley Ltd., Lytton Lodge, Codicote, Near Hitchin, Herts., England. ; The Society will gratefully accept back numbers of the Journal, particularly numbers prior to Vol. 45, from members who may not wish to preserve them. TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and a life membership fee of Rs. 500. Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 5 and an annual subscription of Rs. 30. The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year. MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription, plus postal registration (Rs. 2.50) if required—in all Rs. 32.50—to the Society in Bombay on the ist January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of £2-10-0 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers— The National & Grindlays Bank Ltd., 26 Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C. 2. CONTENTS THE YELLOW-WATTLED LAPWING, Vanellus malabaricus (BODDAERT), A TROPI- CAL DRY-SEASON NESTER. II. Additional data on breeding biology. By S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway ee ON THR ‘ SUDANO-DECCANIAN " FLorat ELEMENT. By V. M. Meher-Homiji .. ZOOGEOGRAPHY OF TERMITES OF ASSAM REGION, INDIA, WITH REMARKS ON SPECIATION. By M. L. Roonwal and O. B. Chhotani ee THE VEGETATION OF MANORI AND MADH ISLANDS IN Bombay. By Y. D. Pradhan and Y. Satyanarayan a COPEPODS PARASITIC ON SOUTH INDIAN FisHEs : FAMILY BOMOLOCHIDAE—3. By N. Krishna Pillai Tue Exotic FLORA OF KODAIKANAL. By K. M. Matthew, s.7. .. A NOTE ON THE MANTIDS AND TETTIGONIDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History Society. By N. T. Nadkerny 7? ON THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE GULF OF KutcH. Part [lI—Pelecypods. By H. L. Kundu Rr es ae = aed More CYANOPHYCEAE OF HOSHIARPUR: III. By P. C. Vasishta .. MARINE TIMBER-BORING ORGANISMS OF THE INDIAN Coast. Report on a Collection from the South-East Coast of India, with Notes on Distribu- . tion in the Indo-Pacific Area. By N. Balakrishnan Nair MISCELLANEOUS NOTES oe os ve THE OPENING OF Hognsi_t House: 13-3-1965 pe Notas aND Nzgws Sie aa <0 Osa ae 15 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society Vol. 62, No. 2 Editors H. SANTAPAU, s.J., D. EB. REUBEN, ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, & J. C. DANIEL AUGUST 1965 Rsuk5 NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by observing the following instructions : 1. Papers which have at the same time been offered’ for publica- tion to other journals or pericdicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be submitted. 2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side = a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered. 3. All scientific names.to be printed in italics should be under- . lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis or Dimeria blatteri. 4, Trinomials referring fo subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually coliected. In all other cases, or where identification is based merely on sight, binomials should be used. 5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8.20 5.60 cm. (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper. 6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board. 7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the. © paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman type), thus : Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268. | Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay. Titles of papers should not be underlined. 8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958). 9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by 4 a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words. © 10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance _ of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and — packing. fu P| EDITORS, — Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural Apollo Street, Fort, Opp. Lion Gate, Pisery Society ‘ Bombay 1-BR. — VOLUME 62, NO. 2—AUGUST 1965 Date of publication : 30-11-1965 CONTENTS NORMAL AND ABNORMAL NESTS OF Eumenes emarginatus conoideus (GMELIN) INCLUDING NOTES ON CREPISSAGE IN THIS AND OTHER MEMBERS OF THE GENUS (VESPOIDEA, HYMENOPTERA). By S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway. (With three plates) si Si A fis .. 193 FURTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE BOTANY OF DANGS FOREST, SESE TS By H. Santapau, s.sj. and G. L. Shah ct Mie a 76.201 ON THE MARINE FAUNA OF THE GULF OF KUTCH. Part I[I—Pelecypods (continued). By H. L. Kundu. (With thirteen plates) Me: noel Eco-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF THE INDIAN DESERT GERBILLE, Meriones hurrianae (JERDON). III. Burrow temperature. By Ishwar Prakash, C.G. . Kumbakarni, and A. Krishnan b oe an el eS] OBSERVATIONS ON THE MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF THE BROWN POMERET, Parastromateus niger (BLOCH) IN SAURASHTRA WATERS. By T.E. Sivapra- kasam. (With a plate) a Ste nf nas es NOTES ON A COLONY OF THE WHISKERED TERN [Chlidonias hybrida (PALLAS)] IN DELHI, WITH COMMENTS ON ITS BREEDING STATUS IN INDIA. By Julian P. Donahue and Usha Ganguli. (With a map) 2, ay o4 ON A COLLECTION OF BRYOPHYTES MADE BY THE INDIAN CHO Oyu EXPEDITION, 1958. By B. M. Wadhwa and J. N. Vohra = te e259 GALL-INHABITING TUBULIFEROUS THYSANOPTERA—I. By T. N. Ananthakrishnan and B. N. Ramamurthi. (With six plates) a a .. 266 FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF PAVAGADH HILL NEAR BARODA, GUJARAT. By G. L. Shah and J. A. Inamdar a 5 155279 ON A NEW SPECIES OF COMMENSAL PORCELLANID CRAB, Polyonyx loimicola SP. NOV., FROM INDIA : (CRUSTACEA, ANOMURA, PORCELLANIDAE). By K.N. Sankolli. (With two plates) Ne Jp ue ape PAs) REVIEWS « 1. The Birds of the Palaearctic Fauna. Non-Passeriformes. (S.A.) .. 292 2. Seaside Plants of the World. (D. E.R.) a, se so 200 3. Mammals of the World, Vols. I and II. (J. C.D.) # 05 ‘ ~4. Birds of Prey of the World. (H.A.) is - a1 296 5, Plant Embryology: A Symposium, (P, V. Bole) aes eo] Si bare ‘ E C r " INS aaaa ohm MISCELLANEOUS NOTES : 1. Partial albinism in Whitebellied Rat, Rattus niviventer Hodgson, from Khasi Hills. (With one photograph). By A.S. Rajagopal and A.K. Mandal (p. 299). 2. Behaviour of Lesser Whistling Teal [Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield) ] in Alipore Zoo, Calcutta. (With a plate). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 300). 3. The Red Kite Milvus milvus (Linn.) in Orissa. By 8S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway (p. 301). 4. Occurrence of the Longtoed Stint Calidris sub- minutus (Middendorff) in North Bihar. By P. V. George (p. 302). 5. The Ashy Minivet [Pericrocotus divaricatus (Raffles) ] : An addition to the Indian avifauna. By A. Navarro, S.J. (p. 303). 6. The Pallas’s Grasshopper Warb- ler Locustella certhiola rubescens Blyth from South India. By P. V. George and Isaac P. Mathew (p. 304). 7. Whiteheaded Yellow Wagtail [Motacilla’ flava leucocephala (Przevalski) | near Delhi. By Peter F. R. Jackson (p. 304). 8 Notes on Indian Birds 4—On the validity of Zoothera citrina amadoni (Biswas). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 305). 9. Recovery of ringed birds. By Editors (p. 307). 10. Note on the seasonal prevalence of Culicoides schultzei (Enderlein) : synonym Culicoides oxystoma Kieffer (Ceratopogonidae : Diptera). (With a plate). By R. Reuben (p. 308). 11. Insect Fauna of Nepal : PartI. Curculionidae. (With a map). By S.R.Wadhi and Baldev Parshad (p. 310). 12. Insect attacks on and disinfestation of some edible fungi in India. By B. K. Varma and S. P. Gurwara (p. 313). 13. Collecting moths by a mercury vapour lamp in the Surat Dangs, Gujarat State: An explanation. By Editors (p. 315). 14. On the occurrence of the tube-worm Loimia medusa (Savigny) in Bombay waters and its commensalism with a porcellanid crab. (With a plate). By K. N.Sankolli and Shakuntala Shenoy (p. 316). 15. A new species of Panicum coloratum Linn. complex. (With two plates). By Prem P. Jauhar and A. B. Joshi (p. 320). 16. Laurentia longiflora (Linn.) Endl. in Pondicherry. By G. Thanikaimoni (p. 323). 17. Solanum khasianum var. chatterjeeanum SenGupta: The possibility of a steroid hormone industry in India. (With a plate). By P.C. Maity (p. 324). 18. On the occurrence of Plantago psyllium Linn. in Gujarat. (With four text-figures). By J.G. Chohan and G.L. Shah (p. 327). 19. Jatropha tanjorensis Ellis et Saroja: A new record for eastern India. By S.S. R. Bennet (p. 329). 20. Notes on the vegetation of Wadi as-Sahba’, eastern Arabia. (With a diagram and two plates). By J. Mandaville (p. 330), 21. A note on the identification of some unrecorded desert plants from Kutch. By M. M. Bhandari (p. 332). ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1964-65 . 336 SUPPLEMENTARY REMARKS BY THE HONORARY SECRETARY FOR THE PERIOD JANUARY TO APRIL 1965... si exe enh | STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY snus San MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING ae «308 CERTIFICATE OF REGISTRATION AND MEMORANDUM OF ASSOCIATION OF THE BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY Ss #4 oat SOM RULES AND REGULATIONS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY AS AMENDED UP TO 1965 ae oid a ee sO NOTES AND NEWS _.. oe eee Oe as “ome GLEANINGS we eat ie si a oe. Bae ‘SI9UIOD Pepunol YIM orenbs “wo 1g-T St UIOD OY] “[] eAT}TUgep oy} pue unZeq 4se] oy} “JYsU aa OY} OF [[90 SJ] VATJIOGe Ue HoT OF [JA9 ‘| ST [[90 [eI}UAD “UOT}JeSop Ja}ye Shep Ef EQg/TX/RT “TL Seutsofrsdd *d sauawmny Jo ISON I aLVIg ‘90S “ISIH “LVN AvaWog ‘Nuaof nS JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL Hist Occ y., SOCTE TY 1965 AUGUST Vol. 62 No. 2 Normal and abnormal Nests of Eumenes emarginatus conoideus (Gmelin) including Notes on Crépissage in this and other members of the genus (Vespoidea, Hymenoptera) BY S. D. JAYAKAR AND H. SPURWAY Genetics and Biometry Laboratory, Government of Orissa, , Bhubaneswar (With three plates) Eumenes emarginatus conoideus (Gmelin) is a fairly common domestic wasp in Bhubaneswar, and all nests here described of this and other species were built indoors, or in roofed-over parts of recent concrete buildings. | Maxwell-Lefroy (1909) and Dutt (1913), who were colleagues and worked on the same material, have written on the biology of E. e. conoideus which, following Bingham (1897), they called E. conica Fabricius. Iwata (1964), in his recent notes on this subspecies from Thailand, quotes and confirms these authors that its maximum nest- size is 10 cells. ; The Table on p. 199 gives data concerning the 12 wasps of this subspecies which we have observed between 23/viii/62 and 9/x/64. Wasps are labelled with c foliowed by a so-called Arabic (or inter- national) numeral; cells within a nest with Roman numerals, Two females (c6 and cl0) were observed during the process of deserting one aggregate of cells and selecting the site for a second, which is designated by the same wasp number followed by a prime (e.g. 6’). Considering wasps c2—cl2 (cl being interrupted) and the thirteen nests they constructed, only three (5, 6, and 10) were completed in the sense thas, 194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) not only was no cell left unfinished or open, but at least the later cells were covered with the granular daubing to which we wish to restrict Roubaud’s (1916) term crépissage [Jayakar & Spurway, in press, to which we refer for elaboration of our references to E. campaniformis esuriens (Fabricius)]. The mothers of two of these nests confirmed their com- pleteness by immediately selecting a second site and beginning a new construct within 24 hours of finishing the crépissage. Nest 9 was built on a white-washed wall and round the edge of a cylindrical wooden base for a latch-type door stop. This was 7.5 cm. in diameter, and the first 12 cells of the nest extended upwards round half of its circumference. The remaining 9 were laid down in 3 rows entirely on the wall above the wooden fitment. The giant first nest of c10 is shown in Plate II. Cells I to XLI were very standardized in size and shape, though wasps of both sexes emerged from them. They were built one above the other on a wooden shutter in the angle between convex edges of the frame and the flat panel. The mother was marked with paint during the construction of cell XX. The remaining five cells, which were unusually long and narrow, were fitted in somewhat irregularly in the upper corner. The first 3 cells of nest 11 were also partly on a wooden fitment and partly on the vertical wall to which it was attached. The remaining 26 were built entirely on the surface of the wall above it, the mother being painted during the construction of cell XV. These three nests show that a maximum of ten cells is not characteristic of the species at least in this part of its range. We think it coincidental that both the second nests 6’ and 10’ were the only ones we found built on cane. The cane on which 6’ was built. was about 14 mm. in diameter, so 6’ like 6 consisted of the half pots cha- racteristic of the species. However 10’ was built on a partially-burnt area of a waste paper basket woven of vertically round canes 5 mm. in diameter and horizontal ribbons. The first cell of 10’ was a complete pot. This was begun, as is usual, as a pair of brackets which were smoothed out and. thickened inwards until they were joined to make a floor which was not quite complete, but its outer surface was moulded into the basket work [compare Olberg 1959, p. 122, upper left, for similar work by E. pedunculatus (Panzer)]. Thus, one marked individual (c10) was seen to construct both complete and half pots, and E. e. conoideus must be added to the list of species which are known to have this architectural versatility. The five later pots had~ similar floors where these were supported by the basket-work, but they were incomplete as they were built overlapping at least one earlier cell. Wasp cl0 was also seen to twice revisit her first nest after she had built on her second site. The first of these visits was on 21/Vviii, 5 hours after she deserted nest 10, while she was building cell 10’ II, but the second was five days later @6/viii). On this second visit, however, she did not land, but only First nest of Eumenes emarginatus conoideus 10. 26/viii/64; after emergence had begun. (Photo: Dr. J. M. Poehiman) PLATE III JouRN. BoMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. Nest of Eumenes emarginatus conoideus 12. 13/ix/64. No further loads were brought. The nest is 10-11 cm. high. (Photo : Prof. T. A. Davis) NORMAL AND ABNORMAL NESTS OF E. E. CONOIDEUS 195 hovered over nest 10 before flying straight to nest 10’ on what was apparently an inspection visit first thing in the morning. As this was the last day she was seen, this visit to nest 10 might have been patho- logical, e.g. due to senility. On nest 10’, she put down several daubs before completing cell 10’ VI which had been left unfinished due to sudden rain the night before. She was not seen after the oviposition made on the completion of 10’ VI. The presence of the egg was checked. A wasp visited nest c7 on 1 /iv which, in the light of the beha- viour of the marked cl0, was probably the mother. Iwata’s (1964, p. 334) observation that a wasp was ‘ plastering a mud coat over the entire surface’ of a 3-celled nest in which all the larvae were already pre-pupae in cocoons suggests that E. e. conoideus wasps may sometimes even return to work on their earlier nests. Female c10 thus laid 52 (46+6) eggs to our certain knowledge, for there is no suggestion of any pathological behaviour concerning the exceptionally rapid construction of her first nest. Dr. Iwata (personal communication) tells us that this may be the record number laid by a solitary wasp, and suggests that tropical species have a greater fecundity than their better known temperate relatives (Iwata 1942). If this is confirmed, these nest-building wasps thus differ from birds in whom clutch size increases with latitude. | The range of work speeds was striking. Though most wasps averaged about one cell built, laid in, provisioned, and sealed a day, c10 rose to an average of 1°84 and c6 sank to 0°42, but for both wasps the excepti- onal speeds were for only one of the two constructs which we saw them build. Wasp c6, when building nest 6’, frequently missed a day without bringing a load, and once two days. These absences always left a cell half built, or incompletely provisioned. They were not due to inclement weather and during them she did not return to her already crépissaged first nest. Crépissage has not, to our knowledge, previously been described in detail for EZ. e. conoideus. This, in wasps of the genus Eumenes, consists of finishing off a group of cells by completely covering them with discretely applied lumps of mud so that the construct is left with the appearance of a minute recent mountain chain, whose subsidiary ranges of peaks extend from the cells to the substrate on which these were ~ constructed. As the loads of mud are not worked together as they are put down, the texture remains granular. Though such a structure must be _ porous, we have once seen a conoideus build a vault under her crépissage as is usually done by E. c. esuriens. Iwata (1942) considers these vaults to be air-spaces which buffer the cells against temperature changes. We consider that they may also provide protection fiom parasites such as chrysid cuckoo-wasps who bore into the walls of sealed cells to oviposit. _ We have seen both conoideus and esuriens leave the earlier cells naked in 196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) large nests, e.g. cl0 (PlateII). Finally, the crépissage of esuriens is made exclusively with the same mud as that with which she builds her cells, in this region red and lateritic. However, all the crépissages we have seen by conoideus have been finished-off with some loads of sandy soil so laid down on the ridges, that, by simulating snow, they increase the resem- blance to mountains. In the only crépissage we have seen constructed by an E. pyriformis pyriformis (Fabricius), ash and cinder dust was used for this finishing (Plate 1). : Returning to the Table on p. 199 we note that though several wasps built unexpectedly large nests, two, c2 and c4, were deserted before even one cell was properly sealed, and two more nests (c3 and c8) were small. Two of these nests also involved disturbances of the normal sequence. Wasp c4, who provisioned but did not seal the only cell she built, put down five loads constructing five abortive brackets at four other sites before adding to the single bracket she had made on the site that had been her first choice. Such intention movements before beginning nest building, which we have also seen made by E. c. esuriens, may be no more pathological than they are in birds, but that c3 provision- ed and sealed her cell I without oviposition is surely a miscarrying of the sequence. | More bizarre is the history of nest 12 (Plate III). This nest was built on the frame and jamb of a window above the stop of the shutter — that was the pair of that on which nest 10 had been started exactly six weeks before. It is possible, as the species is not very common, and perhaps likely, that cl2 was the daughter of cl10. One abortive bracket of probably two loads was made outside the area photographed. Cell I- was small and was left without a lid or an egg overnight. A lip is not an essential feature of a conoideus pot and was often omitted by c10. However, it was possible that for wasp 12 cell I was unfinished as she did not lay in it. Next morning she first confirmed this interpretation by constructing a lip, however she immediately confounded it by con- tinuing working, putting at least 5 loads on this lip (she was not watched continuously) enlarging it into a little tube which she reinforced on the | outside. She spread out the end of this funnel into a lip and | sealed the opening with a little knob. Thus cell I had both an abnormal form and was sealed empty. She immediately built cell II, above cell I, continued work on the lip until it was a funnel, and then spent four minutes approaching her abdomen to its mouth and removing it without actually inserting it. It was then realized that she had previously made similar but more trivial abortive egg-laying movements while building both funnels. Her movements suggested that she had not received the proper stimulus to oviposit, not that she was egg-bound. Her behaviour is in contrast to that we have described in an E. c. esuriens | individual, e5, who on several occasions first thing in the morning during | NORMAL AND. ABNORMAL NESTS OF E.. E. CONOIDEUS 197 provisioning laid an egg, These took a long time and sometimes seemed to necessitate a struggle. These exceptional ovipositions were, we think, stimulated by some change in the egg laid on the completion of the cell. Wasp cl2 extended the mouth of II into a tube 1:7 cm. long which curved downwards and without sealing this she began cell III. She worked on this and the tube alternately until the cell was complete and fairly normal, and the tube 2°5-cm. long, and the awkward way it curved downwards resembled pictures of the temporary flight tubes constructed by Oplomerus spinipes (Linnaeus) [compare Plate II] -with Olberg (1959) pp. 140-149}. Next day, cl2 pathologically added to lip III, and built IV including excrescences which were later added to and became the first two brackets of V. This may not itself be pathological but merely a consequence of the cells being distorted in shape ; cl0, when fitting the later cells of her geeat nest into the corner of the shutter, often left well-worked ridges which she later extended, often with gross modification, to become the brackets of the next, or even later, cells. cl2 was next etherised and painted, and did not return that day. Next morning she thickened lip IV and continued building V above it. Again she made what later was used as the first bracket of VI, but succeeded in ovipositing in V. Though this, her first egg, was present at 13°05, she did not bring her first prey until next day when she inserted the bluish green semi- looper Noctuid iarvae which were the prey used, apparently exclusively, by c10, cll, and cl2. Unfortunately-she put larvae into the egg-less cells III and IV as ‘Well as in V, and then sealed the egg-less IV only. She then built VI so that its walls enclosed the open mouth of V, from _ which a prey walked out into the unfinished cell and was collected by the observers. Next day, she apparently pushed another larva back into V before it had completely escaped, and continued cell VI, finished it, and oviposited. The cavities of cells V and VI were thus continuous. She provisioned cell VI apparently normally, sealed it and built cell VII. She then drew her abdomen up to the lip and relaxed it repeatedly for over aminute. After this frustration, she extended the lip for 1 cm. without curving it in any way. The mud work of this tube was excep- tionally coarse and the loads were extended on to the cell walls of VII. She immediately laid an egg in the mouth of tube VII, doubtless as deep as she could reach with her abdomen. Not till next day did she try to insert prey into this tube. This prey both dislodged the egg and itself lodged in the tube. She sealed VII and built VIII, again above it, oviposited, and provisioned. She may have had trouble with her prey and was once seen standing on her hind legs on tube II while maxillating a cater- pillar. There. is a distinct suggestion in our notes that either cl2 did 19§ JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 62 (2) not render her prey as passive as other wasps, or more likely they could not be inserted so deftly into these cells which were more abnormally shaped than has been emphasised, but which is well shown in Piate III. Cell VIII was sealed by the end of the day. Next day she built IX above VIII, laid, and put in at least one larva. A chrysid was then seen on the nest. cl2 then put down a few daubs and began crépissage. She also dropped at least one load, and took away another not putting it down. A chrysid made another visit, and then two more loads were added to the crépissage. Next morning she made at least two loadless visits, on the second of which she was followed by a sarcophagine fly who, when the wasp had left, oviposited or larviposited in IX. A chrysid again arrived, four minutes later cl2 arrived, and immediately left the nest, and for the next 16 minutes hovered over similar fur- nishings on the verandah, never returning to the construct. She thus made a definitive desertion due to parasitization. Next morning ants removed the prey from III and a spider was captured carrying an apodous larva, perhaps of one of the parasites. A wasp emerged, apparently from VII, not from VIII which was the only normally filled cell. As has been noted, all the cells were contorted in shape. Roubaud (1916) had discussed such dysgenic sequences of behaviour in the African E. tinctor Christ, and interpreted them as responses to the frustrations due to suboptimal microclimates, either seasonal or geographical. We have discussed elsewhere Roubaud’s examples and those we have observed in E. c. esuriens. Such behaviour seems much more frequent in conoideus than in the commoner esuriens in this locality ; however, we have yet to see one female esuriens making two | constructs or any containing more than thirteen cells. This supports | Roubaud by suggesting that conoideus is in some way at the edge of its ecological range, where, as would be expected on some theories of population expansion, some individuals, perhaps genetically excep- tional, do exceptionally well, while other individuals are exposed to strains to which they are unequal. However, cl2 seemed to suffer from an internal insufficiency so that, »though not egg-bound, she only made low intensity attempts to oviposit at the appropriate time in the cycle. Whether or not this was in some way due to the environment (e.g. through nutritional inadequacy) is irrelevant to the demonstrations it gave of the role played by such actions ina cycle of instinctive activities. Oviposition, perhaps because the wasp reacts to the presence of an egg, or because the action of laying provides Sherringtonian proprioceptive consummatory stimuli, inhibits one phase of the cycle (in this example mud working), and therefore permits the initiation of the next phase (in this example provisioning). However, the behaviour of c3 did not conform to this Lorenz-Tinbergen instinct theory analysis. After she had failed to lay in cell I she pro- 199 NORMAL AND ABNORMAL NESTS OF E. E. CONOIDEUS IQAO-P9JOOI SsIOOpIno = 0 {sIOOpuI=I1 “ALON SS SE TSE SEE TERIA SPEC ELVA EE PSE DORSET IEE ETE OE EEG A ge (uonons4s | -U0d [eUIOUQge pure ‘AT “TIT JOYIVIQG 9-€7 O-€€ IT ‘Tut Avy jou pip) uedo x] /x!/H1 sanoge}; /xi/¢o| °° [je eee 981 o | 72 0.72 7-ZE uedO XIXX /X1/T unseq AX | /MA/IZ| °° ae I ZIE r | TT? 0-62 L-Z€ uado TA /mAa/9Z ONS SuNogfes| /MIA/TZ, I rS IS t | .OL sued | 9}90]d (XOAUOD ¢) 9-€7 .£€€ | WOS osessidar19 popees TA IX /wta/ TZ os SuNopes | /MHA/cz| ** a v OGie | O , Ol2 (x9AU09) Cre | OVOP poysiugun 1 Xx é unsaq {x} /A/sz; °° [ease erga 6L9 o | © | | (Avou09 |) 9.€Z 1-0¢ peysrugun Jy /A/61 ous SuNssjas; = /A/zt| °° - Z OL 1 | go 0-72 | 0-8€ uodo AI [ME/LZ usdoy; /m/Ez) ** | (6 I 611 op 0.91 | 2 SE Mt / L Poyoassip isou Jr¥d Usdo x /tHt/¢ ous SuNosjes| —//Olg I | os | ss 99 T | 19 sues 9}9/d | | 9.81 I-Ig | -Wwoo osessidgio poees A] [31/01 unseq {| $9/"/9) Z | eal et O87 o | 99 [e}oul | 9.61 ZT-LE | S}0[AWOd a8essidois paves K /tA/1TZ uado A| /tA/pt| °° | Z 38 SII oO ¢2 $joyoe1q | 9.91 L-b€ uado J /1/L eatoqe; = /mi/g °° I [ ZST 1 | 6-SI E-SE (J ul Ae] Jou pip) usdo JIT /1/17 ays Sunssjas | ¢9/M/eT| °° Peale tee 19 Oo ¢9 ZOLA +162 uado J /1x/¢z ays Sunjoojes| —/Ix/€Z + Z eA 19 ap ae os €-91 1-67 - P9}d9]]09 JoyOUr ungdaq TT} 79/Ix/Ez* eB Z 96 | ) 12 ral | | | 2 WNwUT] |WIN Wx ey s19yjo |AIUOSeU; Ppoom sey 5 Po}1asop po}19sop uno} usyM uno S a) Dee Pe | o7eq yoNIpHO} Seay baie ier eee eee g ae mh uononnsuos#urin 5 Ea atuedi TL 3 | soovjins JO "ON 4 319H 3 , \ ‘ SNaplouod SnIDUISAOWA SAUdUIN|Y dSVM AHL JO ONIGTING-ISAN JO SUVINOILUVd aATavL : 200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) visioned and sealed the cell normally. The oviposition was simply dropped from this cycle, and the absence of either the egg or the | proprioception of ovulation provoked no visible reaction in the wasp. The entirely different consequences of the two failures perhaps lie in differences in the nervous processes which produced them. ” The other abnormal actions of cl12 seemed secondary to this failure to cease building and oviposit, and were as would be expected if her behaviour was instinctive. It was not surprising that all open cells stimulated, or released, the insertion of prey, and that she had no capacity to choose between several, because only in exceptional circum- stances will more than the relevant one be present. Similarly, after the consummatory stimulus of sealing one cell had released the building of walls, is it surprising that an open cell mouth in the middle of the new cell floor provided no releasers to inhibit this building or to alter the . form it took, even though the wasp reacted to this open mouth when prey escaped from it? As has so frequently been pointed out, the instinctive nature of an activity reveals itself in situations where the activity miscarries. Wasp cl12 seemed to be recovering from her primary disabilities when parasitization stimulated her to desert this largely abortive nest, exactly as it stimulates normal nests to be deserted by normal E. c. esuriens. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are very grateful to Dr. J. M. Poehlman and Prof. T. A. Davis for photographing our nests, and to Dr. J. van der Vecht for identifying specimens. SUMMARY Thirteen nests of Eumenes emarginatus conoideus are described. Three were larger than any previously recorded. One was defor- med, apparently primarily because of a failure in the female’s egg-laying behaviour. compared with that of E. p. pyriformis and E. campaniformis esuriens. REFERENCES The crépissage of this species is described, and | BINGHAM, C. T. (1897) : Fauna of British India. Hymenoptera 1. Taylor and Francis, London. Dutt, G. R. (1913) : Life Histories of Indian Insects (Hymenoptera). Mem. Dept. Agri. India, Entomological series, 4: 183-267. IwaTaA, K. (1942) : Comparative Stu- dies on the Habits of Solitary Wasps. Tenthredo 4: 1-146. (1964) : Bionomics of non- social wasps in Thailand. Nature and Life in S. E. Asia 3: 323-383. JAYAKAR, S. D.; & SpPuURWAY, H. (In the press) : The nesting activities of — the Vespoid potter wasp Eumenes cam- paniformis esuriens (Fabr.) compared with the ecologically similar Sphecoid Sceliphron madraspatanum (Fabr.).: J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. MAXWELL-LEFROY, H. (1909) : Indian Insect Life. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta. OLBERG, G. (1959) : Das Verhalten der Solitaren Wespen Mitteleuropas Deut- scher Verlag der Wissenschaften, Berlin. Rouspaub, E. (1916) : Recherches biologiques sur les guépes solitaires et sociales d’Afrique. Ann. Sc. Nat. Zool. (10), 1: 1-160. ee ~ Further Contributions to the Botany of Dangs Forest, Gujarat BY H. SANTAPAU, S.J. AND G. L. SHAH, Ph. D. St. Xavier’s College, Bombay ABSTRACT An account of additional plants, collected from Dangs Forest, is given in this paper. INTRODUCTION The information about the flora of Dangs Forest so far is very meagre. Cooke (FL. PRES. BOM. 1901-08) occasionally cites locality ‘Dangs’. The senior author (J. Gujerat Res. Soc., 1954, 16 : 285-320 and 1955, 17: 1-59) published an account of flowering plants occurring in Dangs Forest, based on collections made at Waghai and Unai. In Blatter Herbarium, there are several sheets of plants collected from various parts of the Dangs, e.g. Sunda, Ahwa, Subir, Kasarbari, by the senior author and his students, the junior author being one of them. In this paper an additional list of plants, not enumerated earlier, is given. In the list we have also included some plants when our observations for those plants are different from the ones published earlier. The general pattern of vegetation in the forests at Ahwa, Sunda, Kasarbari, etc. is almost the same as that described for Waghai and Unai by the senior author ; hence no account is given here. The names of the plants are mostly the same as those given in Cooke’s FLORA; where the name is changed, we give first the name which, according to us, is correct. The name in Cooke’s FLORA, then, is given as synonym. The plants marked with asterisks are not men- _ tioned by Cooke. | ENUMERATION OF PLANTS DILLENIACEAE * 1. Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. Occasional in the forests at Ahwa and Sunda, Noted on 20.xii.63. 202. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) ‘TAMARICACEAE 2. Tamarix ericoides Rottl. Very common and abundant, gregarious, in river beds. Flowers bright pink to purple. Sunda: Shah 10685. MALVACEAE 3. Hibiscus furcatus Willd. Occasional in the undergrowth of forests, in fruit. Sunda: Shah 10709 ; Kasarbari : Shah 10698-99. 4. Hibiscus lobatus (Murr.) O. Kuntze (Hibiscus solandra L’ Her.) Occasional in shade in open forests, in fruit. Sunda: Shah 10708 ; Pimpri : Asrana 3106. 5. Hibiscus vitifolius Linn. Rare ; flowers sulphur-yellow. Subir: Asrana 2831, 2840; Waghai: Asrana 3017. 6. Sida glutinosa Cav. Fairly common in open forests. Flowers yellow. Unai: Santapau 17271 ; Ahwa: Shah 10679 ; Sunda: Shah 10696; Waghai: Santapau — 19673; Dangs: Asrana 5431. TILIACEAE 7. Grewia abutilifolia Vent. Rare, in fruit. Sunda: Shah 10711; Subir: Asrana 2923. LINACEAE 8, Linum mysorense Heyne Common and abundant in Sit grass fields. Flowers yellow. Ahwa : Santapau : 19397-99 ; Asrana 2941 ; Subir : Asrana 3162. MALPIGHIACEAE 9. Aspidopteris cordata (Heyne) Juss. An extensive climber, in flower, abundant in the forest at Susurda, about 10 miles from Waghai. Santapau 19729-30. PAPILIONACEAE 10. Desmodium heterocarpum ee DC. [Desmodium polycarpum (Poir.) DC. } | Common in shade along paths in the forest. For the nomenclature of this plant, see Shahin J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 1963, 60(1) : 296, Waghai : Santapau 19650 ; Panthaki 1744; Asrana 3036. a FURTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO BOTANY OF DANGS FOREST 203 11. Desmodium triangulare var. congestum (Prain) Santapau (Desmodium cephalotes Wall. var. congestum Prain) Fairly common, at times gregarious, along paths in the forest and river banks. Flowers creamy white. Waghai: Santapau 19323; Pimpri: Santapau 19925; Sunda: Shah 10742. 12. Desmodium triquetrum (L.) DC. A fairly distinct species on account of the winged petioles. Flowers bright purple. Waghai: Santapau 19966 ; Panthaki 1717, 2332 ; Asrana 2994. : 13. Desmodium velutinum (Willd.) DC. [Desmodium latifolium (Roxb, ex Ker) DC.] , Occasional in the undergrowth of the forest. For the nomenclature of this plant we have followed Schubert in J. Arn. Arbor., 1963, 44 : 222. Sunda: Shah 10707. 14. Moghania macrophylla (Willd.) O. Kuntze (Flemingia congesta Roxb.) , In Blatter Herbarium there is one sheet of this species (No. 27837) without collector’s name, collected from Waghai in February Me *15. Moghania praecox var. robusta Muk. ’ Fairly common on the edges of the forest. Flowers creamy yellow, | tinged with red. Waghai: Panthaki 2511-13; Pimpri: Asrana 5394. *16. Uraria rufescens (DC.) Schindler i Common in the undergrowth of the dense forests, Flowers bright purple. Pods typical. Waghai: Santapau 19741 ; Panthaki 1727 ; Asrana 2995 ; Unai: Santapau 17339; Ahwa: Shah 10676. CAESALPINIACEAE 17. Cassia obtusifolia Linn. Rare, in shade along paths in thin forest. Kasarbari: Shah 10692. LYTHRACEAE 18. Rotala indica (Willd.) Koehne (Ammannia peploides Spt.) Rare, in the cultivated fields. Ahwa: Shah 10712. CUCURBITACEAE 19, Trichosanthes bracteata (Lamk.) Voigt (Trichosanthes palmata Roxb.) A common twiner on edges of the forest. Waghai: Santapau 19927. 204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62-(2)--— . RUBIACEAE 20. Anotis rheedei Hook. f. Common among grasses and in shade along paths in the forest. Flowers minute, white. Waghai: Santapau 19160; Asrana 3004; Ahwa: Santapau 19351-52 ; Asrana 2811. | 21. Wendlandia exserta DC. Common, scattered or gregarious, along river banks; also found on the edges of forest along Ahwa Ghat Road. Flowers white or pale blue. Sunda: Shah 10717-18. COMPOSITAE 22. Acanthospermum hispidum DC. An occasional weed along roadsides at Ahwa and Waghai. Ahwa: Saldana 6788. 23. Adenostemma lavenia (Linn.) O. Kuntze (Adenostemma viscosum Forst.) Occasional in patches near watercourses, in river bed. Waghai: Shah 10762-63 ; Asrana 5263. 24. vliated eriantha DC. Common along roadsides at Ahwa ; seen on 20.xii1.63. 25. Blumea lacera (Burm. f.) DC. Abundant along railway lines and in open forest. Flowers yellow. Unai: Santapau 17362 ; Waghai: Santapau 18441. 26. Blumea membranacea DC. Occasional in stony ground in dry beds of streams at Ahwa; seen on 20.x11.63. 27. Blumea obliqua (Linn.) Druce (Blumea amplectens DC.) Rare, in moist places at Waghai. Flowers yellow. 28. Sclerocarpus africanus Jacq. Fairly common in hedges along roadsides and on edges of forest. Flowers yellow. Waghai: Asrana 2230. 29. Vernonia divergens Edg. Dangs : Asrana 5491. PRIMULACEAE 30. Anagallis pumila Sw. (Centunculus tenellus Duby) Fairly common on earth bunds and in cultivated fields. Flowers white, often tinged with pink. Ahwa: Shah 10765. rh nea Ae FURTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO BOTANY OF DANGS FOREST 205 APOCYNACEAE 31. Wrightia tomentosa R&S: A common tree in the forests at Ahwa, Sunda, and Kasarbari; seen only in fruit. Kasarbari: Shah 10682 ; Waghai: Jrani 149. ASCLEPIADACEAE 32. Holostemma annulare (Roxb.) K. Schum. (Holostemma rheedianum Cooke, non Spr.) An occasional twiner, in fruit. Ahwa: Shah 10767 ; Pimpri: San- tapau 19313 ; Waghai: Jrani 271. 33. Marsdenia tenacissima (Roxb.) Moon Fairly common in the undergrowth. Flowers and fruits not seen. Waghai: Santapau 19257 ; Irani 153. 34. Telosma pallida (Roxb.) Craib (Pergularia pallida W. & A.) Only one plant seen in hedge near the office of the Forest Depart- ment. Waghai: Jrani 148. GENTIANACEAE 35. Exacum pumilum Griseb. Common in low grasses at Ahwa. Flowers deep blue or bluish purple. Ahwa: Santapau 19400. 36. Canscora concanensis Clke. . Abundant in open ground among grasses on rocky slopes along paths in the forest. Flowers rose-coloured. Subir: Santapau 19418; Asrana 2817 ; Waghai : Santapau 19263 ; Ahwa: Santapau 19300. | CONVOLVULACEAE 37, Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Dangs : Asrana 5409. 38. Ipomoea arachnosperma Welw. (/pomoea pilosa Sw.) Common and abundant. Flowers deep pink. For nomenclature see Verdcourt in 1963, FL. TROP. EAST AFR. (Convolvulaceae) p. 112. Waghai: Asrana 3060. 39. Ipomoea hederifolia Linn. (Quamoclit coccinea auct. non Moench.) An occasional twiner on hedges near Waghai. Flowers deep red. Noted on 24.xii.63. For nomenclature see Verdcourt in 1963, FL. TROP, EAST AFR., p. 132. . 206. JOURNAL, BOMBAY WATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 40. Ipomoea sinensis (Desr.) Choisy [Jpomoea calycina (Roxb.) Clke.] A rare plant, in hedges near Unai. Flowers creamy white. For nomenclature see Verdcourt in 1963, FL. TROP. EAST AFR., p. 101. *41, Ipomoea triloba Linn. An occasional twiner on hedges near Waghai. Flowers bright pink or rose-coloured ; corolla about 18 mm. long. Noted on 24.xii.63. SCROPHULARIACEAE 42, Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janch. (Linaria ramosissima Wall.) Dangs: Asrana/5236, 5464. ACANTHACEAE 43. Barleria cristata Linn. Dangs : Asrana 5471. 44. Carvia callosa (Wall.) Bremek. (Strobilanthes callosus Wall.) Occasionally in large patches along paths in the forest. Ahwa-Subir road: Asrana 3214. 45. Dipteracanthus patulus (Jacq.) Nees (Ruellia patula Jacq.) A few patches seen in the river beds. Flowers pale purple. Sunda: Shah 10716-17, 10739-40. 46. Justicia gendarussa Burm. f. Cultivated as a border plant at Ahwa. 47, Justicia procumbens Linn. Dangs : Asrana 2847. 48. Thelepaepale ixiocephala (Benth.) Bremek. (Strobilanthes ixioce- phalus Benth.) Dangs: Asrana 5441. LABIATAE 49, Anisomeles heyneana Benth. Occasional in the undergrowth of forests and on the edges of cleared forests. Flowers creamy white, tinged with pink. Waghai: Santapau 19991 ; also seen at Sunda on 22.xii.63. 50. Leucas martinicensis R. Br. About 1:5 m. tall among grasses, near river at Pimpri. Pimpri: Santapau 20156-9 ; Subir: Asrana 3198. FURTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO BOTANY OF DANGS FOREST 207 AMARANTHACEAE / *51. Achyranthes aspera Linn. var. porphyristachya Hook. f. Common, in loose patches, in the undergrowth of thin forests. Ahwa: Shah 10675. *52. Alternanthera ficoidea R. Br. An occasional weed along roadsides. Waghai: Shah 10760. EUPHORBIACEAE 53. Euphorbia fusiformis Buch.-Ham. (Euphorbia acaulis Roxb.) A few plants, in leaf, seen in the undergrowth of bamboo forest along river bank near Sunda on 22.x11.63. 54. Euphorbia bombaiensis Santapau (Euphorbia microphylla Heyne ex Roth, non Lamk.) Common in cultivated fields. Dangs: Asrana 5423. *55. Euphorbia perbracteata Gage. Very abundant in cultivated fields mixed with Chrozophora sp. ; bracts perfoliate; glands of involucre without petaloid limb; gland half-moon shaped but serrate or fimbriate ; whole plant pale yellowish green. For the correct identity of the plant see Santapau in Bull. bot. Soc. Beng., 1954, 8(1); 23. Unai: Santapau: 18160-18164. *56, Euphorbia prostrata Ait. Common in cultivated fields. Subir: Asrana 2903. URTICACEAE 57. Girardinia zeylanica Decne. Occasional in dry beds of rivers and streamlets in the forests at Ahwa. Noted on 20.xii.63. HYDROCHARITACEAE 58. Ottelia alismoides Pers. Fairly common in ditches. Flowers white. Ahwa: Shah 10681A. MUSACEAE 59. Ensete superbum (Roxb.) Cheesman (Musa superba Roxb.) This is the wild banana; common in rock crevices on hill slopes along river banks near Sunda. 208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 62 Q) CYPERACEAE 60. Cyperus difformis Linn. Occasional in cultivated fields. Ahwa: Shah 10756. 61. Scirpus supinus Linn. Occasional in cultivated fields. Ahwa: Shah 10745. GRAMINEAE 62. Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.) Hochst. (Arthraxon microphyllus Hochst. ) Waghai: Asrana 3043. 63. Arundinella metzii Hochst. Dangs: Asrana 5448. *64, Capillipedium huegelii (Hack.) Stapf | A large clump seen in the forest undergrowth. Ahwa-Pimpri Road : Asrana 3088. 65. Arundinella pumila (Hochst.) Steud. (Arundinella tenella Nees ex Steud.) . Common, gregarious, in drying pools by the roadsides. Waghai: Santapau 19980-1; Pimpri: Asrana 3088. | *66. Chrysopogon polyphyllus (Hack.) Blatter & McCann Occasional along river banks. A very striking plant because of the golden yellow spikelets. Pimpri: Santapau 20123; Sunda: Shah 10714, 10731. *67, Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Wats. ‘ Frequently found in waste places. Subir: Asrana 3185. | 68. Echinochloa colonum (Linn.) Link (Panicum colonum Linn.) — . | Common in moist places. Pimpri: Asrana 2777. *69, Echinochloa crusgalli (Linn.) P. Beauv. Common in moist places. Pimpri: Asrana 2779. 60. Echinochloa frumentacea Link (Panicum stagninum var. Jrument- aceum Cooke) Cultivated, said to yield inferior sort of grain ; locally known as basti. Along Nasik Road: Santapay 19240-1, 19519. 71. Eragrostis diarrhena (Schuit. /) Steud. (Eragrostis interrupta auct. non Beauv. var. koenigii Stapf) Common in stony places in river beds and in cultivated fields Unai: Santapau 17006 ; Waghai: Asrana 3328; Dangs: Asrana 5459, | FURTHER CONTRIBUTIONS TO BOTANY OF DANGS FOREST 209 72. Eragrostis japonica (Thunb.) Trin. Common, occasionally in dense clumps, in moist places in river beds and cultivated fields. Unai: Santapau 20196; Ahwa: Shah 10746, 10757-58 ; Subir: Asrana 3174. *73, Eragrostis pilosa (Linn.) P. Beauv. In small clumps on river beds; rare. Pimpri: Santapau 20136. 74. Eragrostis tenella (Linn.) P. Beauv. [Fragrostis tenella var. plumosa ; (Retz.) Stapf] Common. Pimpri: Asrana 3089. 75. Melanocenchris jacquemontii J. & S. (Gracilea royleana Hook. f.) Erect grass in small tufts; common on flat rocks. Ahwa: Asrana 2812 ; Pimpri: Asrana 2843. 76. WHackelochloa granularis (Linn. f.) O. Kuntze (Manisuris granularis Linn.) Pimpri: Asrana 2778. 77. Ischaemum diplopogon Hook. f. Common on rocks on hilly slopes. Waghai: Santapau 19688 ; Ahwa: Asrana 3552. 78. Ischaemum goebelii Hack. (/schaemum aristatum auct. non Linn.) Found along railway lines. Waghai: Fernandez 2213. 79. Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. Rare in the undergrowth. Along Nasik Road: Santapau 20063. 80. Oplismenus burmannii P. Beauv. Waghai: Asrana 3042. 81. Oplismenus compositus (Linn.) P. Beauv. Occasional in shade along paths in the forest. Kasarbari: Shah — 10695 ; Badripada: Asrana: 3268. 82. Panicum miliare Lamk. An escape from cultivation. Along Nasik Road : Santapau 20107. 83. Panicum montanum Roxb. Rare, in shade along paths in the forest. Along Nasik Road: Santapau 20060 ; Ahwa: Shah 10628. 84. Panicum psilopodium Trin. Rare. Unai: Santapau 17146. 2 210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 85. Setaria glauca (Linn.) P. Beauv. Dangs : Mehendale 44; Pimpri: Asrana 2756. 86. Setaria italica (Linn.) P. Beauv. This is said to be cultivated at Waghai; but only a few plants seen in fields of Eleusine. *87, Sorghum controversum (Steud.) Snowden 2-3 m. tall, gregarious near water in shaded places. Unai: Santapau 17099. 88. Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers. 2m, tall, in fields near river, not in clumps. Waghai: Santapau 19613 ; Subir : Asrana 3508. *89, Sorghum miliaceum (Roxb.) Snowden var. miliaceum Subir-Ahwa Road: Asrana 2841, 3209. *90. Themeda quadrivalvis (Linn.) O. Kuntze var. quadrivalvis In dense clumps in open parts of the forest; generally 1-1°50 m. tall, sometimes 2-2:50 m. tall. Sunda: Shah 10738; Kasarbari: Shah 10691. *O1. Themeda triandra Forsk. Abundant on the edges of the cultivated fields. Unai: Santapau 16952, 17366-7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are deeply thankful to Dr. N. L. Bor, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for the identification of grasses. On the Marine Fauna of the Gulf of Kutch Part HI—PELECYPODS (Continued) BY H. L. KUNDU Department of Zoology, Birla Institute of Technology & Science, Pilani (Rajasthan) (With 13 plates) [Continued from Vol. 62 (1): 103] Family VENERIDAE (Continued) Genus Paphia (Bolten) Roding Shell oval, smooth, and has either deep or shallowconcentric markings. Pallial sinus deep and the hinge margin is thin and short and the lunule long. These are also called ‘tapestry shells’ as some of them (e.g. _ Paphia textile) have beautiful coloured patterns on the shells. 52. Paphia textile (Gmelin). Plate XVI, figs. 53a, 53b Except the region near the umbo, there are strong concentric grooves all over the surface of the shell. There are also characteristic rust-brown V-shaped markings upon the surface (giving it a tapestry-like appear- ance). The lunule extends to nearly half of the hinge. Inside is glossy and the region near the umbo has a slight orange hue which does not usually extend beyond the pallial line. The pallial sinus is deep and broadly U-shaped. Pirotan Island. 53. Paphia malabarica (Chemnitz). Plate XVI, figs. 54a, 54b A white comparatively short and light shell internally moderately glossy and externally chalky-white with close, fine concentric Striations. The pallial sinus is deep and like an open ‘ V’. In the Gulf of Kutch dead shells of this species are washed ashore _ in large quantities. Pirotan Island. [58] 212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 54. Paphia alapapiliones Roding. Plate XVI, figs. 55a, 55b Shell glossy, nearly twice as long as high and has a pale brown colour. On the outside there are flattened concentric lines which become almost imperceptible at the anterior and the posterior ends. The margin in front of the umbo is slightly upturned and the umbo is more towards the middle than in the two preceding species. The impressions of the adductors are deep and the pallial sinus is narrow and long. Veraval. Genus Pitar E. Romer | Shell ovate or like an isosceles triangle, with or without concentric striations upon the surface, and the three cardinal teeth converge beneath the umbo. The second and the third cardinals are cleft in the middle. 55. Pitar erycina (Linné). Plate XVII, figs. 56a, 56b Shell strong, moderately inflated with distinct concentric ridges all over the surface ; outer surface light-brown with dark-brown bands (4 to 5), radiating from the umbo towards the periphery. In fresh specimens there are fine, brown zigzag markings rendering a tapestry shading ; inside smooth, faint orange towards the umbo and white towards the periphery; pallial sinus wide and deep. There is a slight (but definite) waviness in the postero-ventral side, which creates a small concavity on the peripheral line and a corresponding undulation in the circular ridges. Owing to this, there appears to be a shallow keel running from the umbo to the postero-ventral margin. In some shells this concavity and hence the keel are less pronounced than in others. Veraval. Pirotan Island. 56. Pitar nobilis (Reeve). Plate XVII, figs. 57a, 57b Shell longer than that of P. erycina, white, and the posterior concavity (and the resultant keel) of the rim less pronounced. The concentric rings upon the surface, although distinct, are somewhat flattened. We have two rather worn out shells in the collection. Pirotan Island. Genus Circe Schumacher Although Thiele (1935) synonymized the genus under Gafrarium, both Gravely (1941) and Satyamurti (1956) have given it an independent | status. I have followed them. Flattened, nearly circular shells with close concentric sculpture. The pallial sinus is very small, The cardinal teeth are low and the hinge very thick. [59 ] i Bg 2 mie Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XVI Ms ep. £ Zz ‘ Y . 4 4, s 1 3 ba i? > = i. 4 3 Figs. 53a, 53b. Paphia textile : outer and inner views respectively ; | Figs. 54a, 54b. Paphia malabarica : outer and inner views respectively ; | Figs. 55a, 55b. Paphia alapapiliones : outer and inner views respectively PLATE XVII journ. BomBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. ae —Sa 6 so = SNS ~ Sn oh ~“ e ? e 2 ly d inner views respectively d inner views respectively : outer an ipta : outer and inner views respective bilis 56b. Pitar erycina: outer an $5 Lea ~~ VY SS ALO oye} T 00 WWMM oa \O tf CO Va ov @) ann on oO OO om ors Ors fo, fy MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 213 57. Circe scripta (Linne). Plate XVII, figs. 58a, 58b Shell very flat, fairly heavy with the hind margin somewhat trun- cated. Some of the fine circular ridges tend to coalesce in the rear. There are also fine divaricating zigzag brown markings upon the surface. ~ Adductor impressions are pronounced and their outer sides are somewhat raised. Pallial sinus is slight and the area along with the pallial line is pinkish, the rest faint yellow. Gulf of Kutch (the exact locality was not recorded), Genus Venus Linne Heavy, ovate shells with mostly well-pronounced concentric as well as radial sculpture, three well-formed cardinal teeth, distinct and heart- shaped lunule and crenate inner rim. 58. Venus chemnitzii Hanley. Plate XVIII, figs. 59a, 59b Venus chemnitzii can be easily confused with Periglypta fischeri (Reéecluz), but the pallial sinus in P. fischeri is markedly truncate and in this species it is like a moderate ‘V’. Both the concentric rings and the radial rays are well developed, the concentric rings in the form of thin lamellae, and the radial rays in the form of thin and very close ridges which cross the concentric lamellae in a manner that gives the latter a corrugated appearance. In the area behind the umbo the lamellae aie so closely adpressed that the radial ridges cannot be traced. The radial ridges are more numerous than the concentric lamellae. In this specimen there are about 70 lamellae and 90 to 100 ridges. The lamellae are so thin that chey easily break off. The outside is dull white but streaked with occasional brown radial patches. The inside and the cardinal teeth are white. The pallial sinus is angular. Pirotan Island. 59. Venus reticulata Linne. Plate XIX, figs. 60a, 60b A dull-white heavy and large shell which can be easily recognized by its orange-coloured hinge teeth. The outside presents a reticulate sculpture owing to the presence of thick concentric lamellae and some- what weaker radial lines. As a result of their decussations the surface presents a tuberculate appearance. Moreover the radial lines, especially in the rear, are somewhat wavy. The pallial sinus is like a broad U. Pirotan Island, [ 60 ] 214. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) Genus Sunetta Link The shell has a nearly oval shape, polished internal surface, finely toothed rim, and a depressed ligamentary area. The lunule is also somewhat depressed. 60. Sunetta scripta (Linné). Plate XIX, figs. 61a, 61b Shell smooth but has flattened and somewhat faint concentric lines. There are also brown chevron-shaped colour-patterns upon the surface. The intensity of these patterns varies from place to place. Sunetta scripta from Puri (Bay of Bengal) has a deep and impressive colour- pattern which extends right up to the umbo, but in Swnetta scripta from Gulf of Kutch the pattern is considerably mild and the umbo is practically white. There is a characteristic wedge-shaped concave area behind the umbo. The inside of the shell is white, glossy with mode- rately deep pallial sinus and crenulated rim. Pirotan Island. Hanuman Dandi. Genus Gafrarium (Bolten) Roding The pallial sinus, if sinuate, is only slightly so. The shell is thick and solid with concentric radial sculpturings. Lunule flat and distinct. The rim of the inside is either finely crenulated or coarsely denticulated. 61. Gafrarium divaricata (Chemnitz). Plate XIX, figs. 62a, 62b A roundish and somewhat flattened shell whose outer surface is beautifully sculptured with big concentric and divaricating radial ridges. The concentric ridges tend to fade out posteriorly and anteriorly. Furthermore, there are characteristic reddish brown zigzag markings upon the surface. The inside presents a glossy surface with a slight pallial sinus and a faintly crenate rim. | Hanuman Dandi. 62. Gafrarium tumidum Roding. Plate XX, figs. 63a, 63b - A very heavy, roundishly oval shell with prominent radial and concentric ridges. In relation to the length and height, this is the heaviest shell in our collection from the Gulf of Kutch. Shell greenish white ; radial ribs wide and strong and present a nodular appearance owing to the crossing of the concentric rings ; towards the rim the radia, ribs tend to bifurcate. A single radial rib sends out secondary radial ribs covering the posterior 4th of the shell. The insideis chalky white with somewhat depressed and glossy adductor scars, very faint pallial sinus, and coarsely denticulated rim, These denticulations are absent from [61] JOURN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XVIII 46mm. macs aretestoaleys rn %, 5 Bee E Some: anes é se ieee Wed “h 9 < Ne RAV RO rity ANY RW, ‘ :. TASS \ An NA Ene respectively JOURN. BomMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XIX Figs. 60a, 60b. Venus reticulata : outer and inner views respectively ; Figs. 61a, 61b. Sunetta scripta: outer and inner views respectively ; | Figs. 62a, 62b. Gafrarium divaricata : outer and inner views respectively | MARINE FAUNA, OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 215 the posterior jth of the rim. There is a shallow keel in the middle of the inside and also a dark-brown mark in thé postero-ventral corner. These shells attain a much larger dimension (than the one described here), becoming relatively more thick (as well as elongated), and the posterior dark patch tends to spread upwards. Pirotan Island. Genus Dosinia Scopoli Shell round, flattened with fine concentric ridges and a deep V-shaped pallial sinus, wide hinge, beak-like umbo, and sunk ligament. 63. Dosinia puella Angas. Plate XX, figs. 64a, 64b Shell dull white with fine brown V-shaped markings, with a characteristic angulation about the middle of the posterior margin and somewhat coarse concentric rings (only in comparison with the shells of other families) ; lunule dark brown, small but distinct, depressed and heart-shaped ; line of the rim above the angulation nearly straight. Hanuman Dandi. 64. Dosinia cretacea (Reeve). Plate XX, figs. 65a, 65b Shell thick with alternate concentric shades of blue and white. There is an angulation at about the middle of the posterior rim, and the line above the rim towards the umbo is more or less arched. The hinge is very thick and the angle formed by the posterior cardinal teeth and the lunule is nearly a right angle. Hanuman Dandi. Genus Tapes Megerle von Muhlfeld Shell elongate with hind margins broad and somewhat truncate, and the dorsal margin behind the umbo nearly a straight line. Only one species was found. 65. Tapes radiatus (Chemnitz). Plate XX, figs. 66a, 66b Shell elongate with fine radial grooves and ridges; a few (here 5) strong concentric lines of growth present; pallial sinus very large, U-shaped and nearly horizontal. Only one complete specimen. Veraval. Genus Venerupis Lamarck | These shells are characterized by the presence of concentric widely spaced and crested laminae, The umbo is situated near the anterior end. | | [62 ] ee} 216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 66. Venerupis macrophylla Deshayes. Plate XXI, figs. 67a, 67b A white somewhat rectangular shell with the posterior edge truncated and the umbo directed forwards. A keel runs from the umbo to the postero-ventral corner of the rim. There are a few delicate concentric foliaceous lamellae, whose free margins, towards the postero-ventral end, look somewhat crumpled. In between these lamellae, there are very fine and minute radial lines. The inner surface is smooth and there is a large V-shaped pallial sinus. These live mostly in crevices amongst oysters as a result of which their shape varies a lot. ‘Veraval. Family MESODESMATIDAE Shell heavy, ovately triangular with the anterior side more pointed than the posterior. Genus Mesodesma Deshayes Shell stout, slightly inequilateral with a thick hinge and strong cardinal and elongated lateral teeth. 67. Mesodesma glabratum (Lamarck). Plate XXI, figs. 68a, 68b Hornell (1951) has described this species as Atactodea glabrata | Gmelin. The shell which has a somewhat flattened fulvous outside is characterized by fairly strong and regular concentric rings. There is also a thin dark-yellow pellicle (periostracum ?) which envelops the shell. The inside is glossy and the pallial sinus small. The pallial sinus and the adductor impression together present a bi-cuspid appearance. One point deserves special attention. The pallial sinus is situated in the side towards which the umbo is directed. Pirotan Island. Family MACTRIDAE (False Clams) Shell mostly light and nearly triangularly ovate (except Lutraria). There is a prominent hinge-pit, thin and elongated lateral teeth, and in the left valve only one cardinal tooth. Genus Mactra Linné Shell triangular, the cardinal teeth bifid, ligament well developed, and pallial sinus semi-lunar, [63] JourN. BompAy NAT. HIST. SOc. PLATE XX ASO SSA N y ca Rp UN ; Figs, 63a, 63b. Figs, 64a, 64b. Figs. 65a, 65b. Figs. 66a, 66b. e Ayr 4 { f; Hi Rats i. Hye : yh y I, Y ismm. Gafrarium tumidum: outer and inner views respectively ; Dosinia puella : outer and inner views respectively ; Dosinia cretacea : outer and inner views respectively ; Tapes radiatus : outer and inner views respectively JouRN. BomBAyY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXI 25mm. Figs. 67a, 67b. Venerupis macrophylla : outer and inner views respectively ; | Figs. 68a, 68b. Mesodesma glabratum : outer and inner views respectively ; Figs. 69a, 69b. Mactra gibbosula: outer and inner views respectively ; Figs. 70a, 70b. Mactra cuneata : outer and inner views respectively MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—IlI 217 68. Mactra gibbosula Deshayes. Plate XXI, figs. 69a, 69b Shell light, gibbous, triangularly cordate, inequilateral and has fine hair-like concentric markings all over the surface save the umbo ; inside smooth and light violet; umbo violet but gradually fades into dull white towards the periphery. The anterior side is short while the posterior side is long. Veraval. 69. Mactra cuneata Chemnitz. Plate XXI, figs. 70a, 70b Shell small, triangular, well inflated and almost equilateral. The inside is violet, but externally the umbo is bluish violet and the rest faint bluish white. Concentric marks are very thin and indistinct. Veraval. Genus Spisula Gray These are triangular shells with nearly equa] antero-dorsal and postero-dorsal sides. 70. Spisula triangularis (Lamarck). Plate XXII, figs. 71a, 71b Shell white with smooth but definite concentric markings upon its surface. The inside is smooth and glossy. The adductor impressions are sunk. In general appearance the shell looks like a wide bilateral triangle with an obtuse apical angle. Pirotan Island. Genus Standelia Gray The valves are inequivalves, white, thin, radially sculptured and gape in front and behind. The pallial sinus is very large. 71. Standella nicobarica (Gmelin). Plate XXII, figs. 72a, 72b Shell easily recognized by its pure white colour, lightness, and fine radial ridges all over the surface; dorsal margin behind the umbo almost straight and the posterior end somewhat truncated. Upon the surface of the hind end the radial ridges are very fine and divaricate from one radial ridge. There are a few shallow growth rings. The pit of the nodule of the ligament is triangular and the cardinal tooth is thin. These shells are washed ashore in large numbers. Pirotan Island. 72. Standella pellucida (Gmelin). Plate XXII, figs. 73a, 73b An elliptical shell with the umbo placed in the middle of the dorsal line ; pallial sinus narrow but deep. The shell is fairly thin and its outer surface bears fine concentric rings. Pirotan Island, [64] 218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) Genus Lutraria Lamarck The hind part of the upper margin of the shell and the lower margin are nearly parallel. The pit for the nodule of the ligament is large and conical and the side teeth as well as the grooves for their reception are thin. 73. Lutraria arcuata Deshayes. Plate XXII, figs. 74a, 74b Shell arcuately oblong; the anterior as well as the posterior sides rounded ; dorsal rim behind the umbo is slightly concavely arched whereas the rim in front of it is convexly arched. Surface covered with a thin greenish brown horny periostracum and sculptured with fine concentric lines (although somewhat irregular). The inside is glossy white and the pallial sinus is large and deep. According to Reeve (1843-78), this species is found in the Philippine Islands too. Pirotan Island. Family DONACIDAE (Wedge Shells) These shells are triangular and have the anterior sides longer than the posterior. The pallial sinuses are large and rounded. Genus Donax Linné The shell is flattened. ‘Ligament in a groove, its nodule external, mounted on a short ledge.’ 74. Donax cuneatus Linné. Plate XXIII, figs. 75a, 75b There is a keel running from the umbo to the posterior ventral corner of the edge. The concentric rings behind this keel are sharp and their rims are granular. The rest of the surface is smoother than this but has fine concentric and still finer radial sculpturings. There are also radial bands of white and purpiish brown. The inside is glossy white, punctuated with wide radial purplish brown marks. Pirotan Island. Hanuman Dandi. Family PSPAMMOBIIDAE These have an oval or elongate shell with the ligament mounted externally on a thin ledge. There are usually two small cardinal teeth and no laterals. The pallial sinus is large, U-shaped, and its lower limb is confluent with the pallial line. Genus Psammobia Lamarck These are broadly elongate shells with a somewhat truncate posterior end. Furthermore the posterior end is slightly narrower than the anterior end. The shells are rather thin but hard, [ 65 ] 2 -JourN. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXII Senin at ALCON VOY Figs, 71a, 71b. Spisula triangularis: outer and inner views respectively ; Figs. 72a, 72b. Standella nicobarica: outer and inner views respectively ; Figs. 73a. 73b. Standella pellucida: outer and inner views respectively; Figs. 74a, 74b. Lutraria arcuata:; outer and inner views respectively JOURN, BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. | PLATE XXIII ( INS ( « = WS Figs. 75a, 75b. Donax cuneatus : outer and inner views respectively ; Figs. 76a, 76b. Psammobia radiata; outer and inner views respectively ; Figs. 77a, 77b. Soletellina diphos: outer and inner views respectively ; | Figs. 78a, 78b. Semele crenulata: outer and inner views respectively | MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 219 - 75. Psammobia radiata Philippi. Plate XXIII, figs. 76a, 76b A large faint-pink translucent shell with fine concentric striations and an indistinct keel running from the umbo to the lower hind angle. The adductor impressions are deep and the area bound by the pallial line is thicker than the rest. Hanuman Dandi. Genus Soletellina Blainville These are thin shells of dark hue. Many of them have one or more whitish streaks radiating from the umbo. Although according to Gravely (1941) these shells are usually large, the shells in our collection are all very small and thin. | 76. Soletellina diphos Reeve. Plate XXIII, figs. 77a, 77b A thin, glossy dark-brown shell (of horny consistency) with very faint concentric striations and the hind end somewhat truncated. There are two characteristic whitish streaks running from the umbo to the rear of the horizontal ventral margin. The pallial sinus is very large, and throughout its ventral side it is merged with the pallial line below. Crichton (1941) has placed this shell in the family Garidae. However I have followed Gravely (1941). Pirotan Island. Family SEMELIDAE Shells mostly circular and rather flattened and the ligament, instead of being mounted on a projecting ledge (e.g. Donacidae, Psammobiidae), is situated internally within a dagger-shaped groove behind the cardinal teeth. The cardinal teeth are either one or two and are usually shallow. Genus Semele Schumacher The shell is almost round (in lateral view) with fine concentric and radial ridges upon the external surface. There are two cardinal teeth (and often a lateral tooth) and a large pallial sinus. 77. Semele crenulata (Sowerby). Plate XXIII, figs. 78a, 78b The almost round valve has equally pronounced radial and circular markings. The markings are somewhat faded on the posterior side and in the vicinity of the umbo. In fresh specimens one can see beautiful pink rays fanning out from the umbo, resembling in shape the figure of Semele sinensis A. Adams as given by Gravely (1941). Pirotan Island, [ 66 ] 220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 78. Semele striata (Ruppell). Plate XXIV, figs. 79a, 79b This shell differs from the previous species in being thicker and in the absence of radial lines. Moreover it is somewhat squarish. Pirotan Island. Family TELLINIDAE (Paper Shells) These are thin shells with large pallial sinus and usually a beaked hind margin. The ligament is situated externally. Furthermore, in addition to the cardinals. the right valve bears lateral teeth. Genus Tellina Linné The front margin is roundish. The pallial sinus is extensive. The valves are characterized by a single cardinal tooth in the left but two in the right, in addition to which there may be lateral teeth. 79. Tellina coarctata Philippi. Plate XXIV, figs. 80a, 80b A large inflated white shell with fairly thin but strong valves. The surface has fine hair-like circular ridges and is characterized by the pre- sence of a strong keel running from the umbo to the lower hind angle. There axe also two shallow keels which follow it and one concave keel that precedes it. The umbo is placed posteriorly. The pallial sinus is large and rectangular. However, it does not extend beyond ard of the distance between the posterior and the adductor scars. Pirotan Island. 80. Tellina pristis Lamarck. Plate XXIV, figs. 81a, 81b A triangular, flattened and somewhat heavy shell with strong concen- tric ridges. The hind margin is nearly straight and always toothed. This toothed nature of the hind margin makes it easy to recognize the shell. The pallial sinus is very large and almost reaches the anterior adductor scar. The shell is white. Pirotan Island. 81. Tellina ala Hanley. Plate XXV, figs. 82a, 82b; figs. 83a, 83b A thin, flattened, and elliptical shell having the surface covered with extremely fine concentric markings ; hind margin notched into a definite beak, rest of the margin evenly rounded and smooth. There is hardly any keel. The pallial sinus is very large and reaches nearly the anterior adductor scar. There is at least one small scar near the ventral hind — angle, outside the pallial line. Tellina ala appears to be a rather variable species. We have in our collection another specimen of 7. ala from the same locality which has a definite keel extending from the beak to the umbo. Moreover this [ 67] - JourRN. BomMBAy Nat. HIst. Soc. : PLATE XXIV Figs. 79a, 79b. _ Semele striata: outer and inner views respectively; Figs. 80a, 80b. Tellina coarctata: outer and inner views respectively ; Figs. 8la, 81b. Tellina pristis : outer and inner views respectively JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOc. PLATE XXV eae PEL ays ——— i "ty 38mm. Figs. 82a, 82b. Tellina ala: outer and imner views respectively ; Figs. 83a, 83b. Tellina ala: (another variety) ; | Figs. 84a, 84b. Tellina emarginata : outer and inner views respectively ; Figs. 85a, 85b. Tellina bruguieri! outer and inner views respectively MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 221 one has a more inflated shell and a smoother surface than the previous one (figs. 83a, 83b). Pirotan Island (both specimens). 82. Tellina emarginata Sowerby. Plate XXV, figs. 84a, 84b Shell very thin (but hard), parabolic, and has extremely fine con- centric markings upon the surface. However, instead of a keel there is a characteristic radial furrow in the posterior side. Hence the posterior rim looks like a ‘S$’, and has a corresponding internal ridge. Pirotan Island. 83. Tellina bruguieri Hanley. Plate XXV, figs. 85a, 85b A faicly strong shell almost triangular with large and somewhat bent cardinal tooth and an elongate scar for the anterior adductors. The right valve has a very large cardinal tooth. All over the surface there are very fine hair-like concentric lines. Pirotan Island. There are some members of this species which are characterized by the possession of a much thinner shell with extremely fine concentric markings. Plate XXVI, figs. 86a, 86b. Pirotan Island. Genus Gastrana These are characterized by the possession of heavy, oval shells having fairly conspicuous and comparatively thick concentric markings (in comparison with members of Te/lina), which in fresh shells look like con- centric lamellae. 84, Gastrana polygona (Hanley). Plate XXVI, figs. 87a, 87b. A heavy shell with strong keels radiating out from the umbo. Two such keels which run towards the hind end are more pronounced than the rest and impart to the hind rim a wavy outline. The anterior rim is round. In fresh shells the outer surface is covered with thin lamellar concentric rings. In old ones these lamellae tend to break off. Inside, near the proximal end of the anterior adductor scar, there is a tooth-like process. The shell is white but when viewed from the inside, the centre of the valve presents a yellowish hue. Pirotan Island. Family GLAUCOMYIDAE These are oval and inflated shelJs with large V-shaped pallial sinus. According to Hornell (1951) these shells are frequent in brackish water. [ 68 | 222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) Genus Glaucoma Characters same as above. 85. Glaucomya cerea Reeve. Plate XXVIII, figs. 94a, 94b The shell is comparatively thin, dull white in colour, and has fine concentric striations all over the surface. The adductor impressions are narrow and the tips of the cardinal teeth are split. _ Pirotan Island. - Family SOLENIDAE (Razor Shells) The shell is tubular with the umbo usually placed at its anterior end. Genus Solen Linné The shells are long and cylindrical. Both the front and the hind margins are truncated. There is only one tooth in each valve. 86. Solen truncatus Wood. Plate XXVI, figs. 88a, 88b The upper and the lower margins are parallel to one another. The front margin is vertical but slightly inclined forwards. The hind margin is a little rounded off. There is also a vertical furrow near the rim of the front margin. The tooth is placed close behind the front margin. The pallial line runs somewhat obliquely from the anterior to the poste- rior end. Belarpur Bay. Genus Cultellus Schumacher The shell is fairly thick, moderately elongated but round at both ends. The umbo is placed far behind the anterior end. The cardinal teeth are two. 87. Cultellus maximus (Gmelin). Plate XXVI, figs. 89a, 89b Shell rather small, white and glossy with fine concentric striations on the surface and the posterior end more tapering than the anterior. The anterior adductor scar is triangular while the posterior one is oval. The pallial sinus is very shallow and semi-lunar. Pirotan Island. Family GASTROCHAENIDAE The shell is somewhat elongated or round, and the ligament is _ external and mounted on a ledge. [ 69 | on JouRN. BoMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC, PLATE XXVI c-— ee we = -- ewer -—- = 88a Figs. 86a, 86b. Tellina bruguieri : (another variety) ; Figs. 87a, 87b. Gastrana polygona: outer and inner views respectively ; Figs. 88a, 88b. Solen truncatus: outer and inner views respectively ; Figs. 89a, 89b. Cultellus maximus: outer and inner views respectively JOURN. BOMBAY. NAT. HIST. SOC. PLATE XXVII = ———————— ' RS —_S===>= . Pe eres on . Figs. 90a, 90b. Gastrochaena lamellosa : Entire animal—lateral and ventral views respectively ; Figs. 91la-91c. Jouannetia cumingii: entire animal—different views: Figs. 92a, 92b. Martesia striata: entire animal—tateral and ventral views respec: tively ; Figs. 93a-93c. Teredo sp.: proximal end of the animal—different views MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—Ill 223 Genus Gastrochaena Spengler These are found mostly among coral rocks. The valves are some- what twisted, the umbo is placed near the anterior end, and the surface has fine concentric sculpture. The siphons are fused into one. 88. Gastrochaena lamellosa (Deshayes). Plate XXVII, figs. 90a, 90b The ventral gape of the entire animal (hiatus) does not reach the hind end. However, the shell is rather inflated and the hiatus is wide. The concentric rings approach lamella-like form towards the hind end. Pirotan Island. Family PHOLADIDAE (Piddocks) These bivalves are borers into wood or coral rock and have white, equi-valved and ribbed (often toothed) shells. The ligament and the hinge margin are absent. The valves are held together by muscles only. In the postero-dorsal portion accessory plates may be present. Part of the anterior end may be folded outwards. Genus Jouannetia Des Moulins The shells are nearly ball-like and a partition divides each valve into a large anterior and a small posterior half. 89. Jouannetia cumingii (Sowerby). Plate XXVII, figs. 91a to 9lc The shell is more or less like a white globule with a tongue-like structure (ledge) protruding from one side. Found among coral rocks. Pirotan Island. Hanuman Dandi. Genus Martesia (Leach) Blainville The shell is elongate and has a conical appearance. 90. Martesia striata (Linné). Plate XXVII, figs. 92a, 92b The anterior ledge looks more or less like a duck’s beak. Except at the posterior end there are fine striations all over the shell. Pirotan Island. Family TEREDINIDAE (Shipworms) The members of this family usually bore into wood and live within long hard calcareous tubes produced by their own secretion. The major portion of the body consists of a long tube formed by the fusion of the siphons. The distal end of this tube is not fused. Upon the juncture of the separate siphons with the fused body there are a pair of tiny cal. careous plates—the pallets. It is said that these pallets protect the animal [70 } 224. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) from the intrusion of undesirable elements into the body tubes. In the proximal end of the body there are two small valves. Genus Teredo Linné Teredos are characterized by the presence of paddle or spoon-shaped pallets. Sometimes these pallets bear a calcareous knob at their terminal ends. 91. Teredo sp. Plates XXVII and XXVIII, figs. 93a to 93h This specimen, which is preserved in formalin, is nearly 165 mm. long. Its proximal end is somewhat wide (about 12 mm.) and generally tapers off towards the distal end where, just before receiving the pallets and the siphons, the body tube dilates outwards like a flower. There is a calcareous patch upon one side of this dilatation (fig. 93d). Each pallet has again a dark, nearly paddle-shaped distal end and a whitish tubular proximal end (stalk). Inside, each valve has a bent blade-like structure (Plate XXVIII, fig. 93e). VI. GENERAL DISCUSSION (a) Distribution and frequency A comparison of the present account with the accounts of pelecypods of Bombay, Karwar, Madras, and Krusadai given respectively by Hornell (1951), Patil (1952), Gravely (1941), and Satyamurti (1956) shows that some species which are absent from one or more of these areas are present in the Gulf of Kutch and vice versa. Also, the relative abundance of the same species may vary from place to place. This has been presented in tabular form (Table IV). Such difference in distribution and abundance may be due to the difference in the habitats. For example, Pholas bakeri Desh. (Pholadidae) is abundant in the Bombay area but not found in the Gulf of Kutch. Furthermore, in the accompanying table (Table IV) an attempt has also been made to give an idea about the telative abundance of all the species in the Gulf of Kutch. (b) Measurements From a survey of the literature a rather high degree of flexibility appeared in the methods of measurement adopted by different workers. Therefore, to avoid confusion, I have’ clearly defined and illustrated all the measurements I have used in this work (Plate I). I have also recorded the dry weights of single valves of each species (Table V). It is found that the valves of some species although of identical geometrical measurements differ considerably in weight. For example the valves of Dosinia puella and Dosinia cretacea (Veneridae) have almost the same [71] JourN. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXVIII Pallets 3\ mm. _ Figs. 93d-93h. Teredo sp. (continued from Plate XXVII, fig. 93a): distal end of ‘he animal—various parts. Fig. 93d : distal end ; figs. 93e, 93f: the inner and outer “ews respectively of one valve; figs. 93g, 93h: both sides of a single pallet. Figs. 94a, 94b. Glaucomya cerea: outer and inner views respectively Yar a \ r yu OT aan bee ‘ 5 een ane rs i A . ' + . Lee Na as re 7 hn aca ‘ ’ ‘ ’ z i Poe : \ ~ ) < Ea MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—IIl 225 dimensions. However, the valve of D. cretacea is almost twice as heavy as that of D. puella. Such findings may not be rare with other species. (c) Length : height indices of Lithophagans (Mytilidae) If we compare the ratios of length to height of these species we find that their indices gradually increase from Lithophaga cinnamomea towards Lithophaga nigra. This will be evident from Table I. TABLE I THE LENGTH : HEIGHT INDICES OF Lithophaga (Mytilidae) Species | Length Height | Length:Height | Umbo Lithophaga cinnamomea 23°2mm. | 10°5 mm. | 221 Ultra-terminal Lithophaga sp. (near 272mm.| 98 mm. Prag) do. cinnamomea) | Lithophaga sp. (near teres) | 262 mm.| 90mm. 2°91 do. Lithophaga teres | 32°6 mm. , 10°0 mm. 3°26 Infra-terminal Lithophaga nigra ; | 40:0 mm. | 10°6 mm. 3°77; do. Two points emerge. First the length: height ratio gradually increases from L. cinnamomea to L. nigra. Secondly, those with the ratio lower than three have ultra-terminal-umbones whereas those with a ratio above three have infra-terminal umbones. This shifting of the umbo from an ultra-terminal to an infra-terminal position ox vice versa must have been the result of gradual change. Unfortunately there is no Specimen in our collection whose umbo is between these two types, i.e. just terminal. But I feel strongly inclined to believe that a more extensive search may lead to the discovery of such an intermediate ‘Stage. (d) Denticuiations in the hinge of Meretrix (Veneridae) On one lateral tooth and its corresponding groove, all Meretrix shells have some fine denticulations. When examined under a microscope, these present extremely fine and varied configurations. Here at least one feature merits special attention. The number of the denticles usually _Varies directly with the length of the groove (or the tooth). Table II will illustrate this point. [72] 226 TABLE. IT JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN. THE NUMBER OF DENTICLES AND THE LENGTH OF THE GROOVE BEARING THE DENTICLES UPON THE HINGE OF Meretrix (VENERIDAE) Length of the Length of the | | | Number of the Specimen valve groove denticulations eA 65:0 mm. Sp 2m. 52 2 63:0 mm. 12°5 mm. 7 3 39°1 mm. 5°8 mm. 39 4 30°8 mm. 5:2 mm. 32 5 30°0 mm. 5°3 mm. 28 6 30°1 mm. 5:1 mm. 26 if 27°8 mm, 3:7 mm. 23 A more thorough study with a large number of shells may lead to the establishment of a correlation between the age of a pelecypod ey and the number of denticulations in its valve. (e) Relation between the shape a the age of the valve During the present work it is noticed that some shells change their shape as they grow. Gafrarium tumidum (Veneridae) has a roundish valve when young. The valve becomes more elongate with age. This will be apparent from Table IIT. TABLE III MEASUREMENTS OF G. tumidum (VENERIDAE) OF DIFFERENT SIZES - | | | Specimen |} Length Height De>th — Length: Height Weight 1° 195271 mm. | 7420 mm. | “21S eum. 1:25 39:995 gm. 2. 449mm. | 355mm. | 14-4 mm. 1-26 14:505 gm. 3° | 40:0: mms |) 332 mm.) 14°6 min. 1:20 12:004 gm. 4 378mm. | 31:0 mm. 12°7 mm. 1:20 9°779 gm. _ 5 | 31-4mm. | 268mm. | 10:5 mm. 117 5703. gm. 6 | 28:0 mm. | 23'5 mm. 9°3 mm. 1:19 4:264 gm. | 7 ( 21°7 tim. 20'0 mm. 5°8 mm. 1:08 1°597 gm. Therefore it is felt, in describing a pelecypod shell, its dimensions and weight are very useful. [73] tN Ww =. MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III TABLE IV DISTRIBUTIONAL FREQUENCY OF THE PELECYPODS OF THE GULF OF KUTCH AND A COMPARISON SHOWING THEIR RELATIVE ABUNDANCE ON OTHER COASTS OF INDIA (XXO = very abundant; XX = abundant : XO= common; X = occasional; O=rare; P= present; P (?) = the author has mentioned the genus : but not the species) DISTRIBUTIONAL FREQUENCY | | SPECIES GULF OF KUTCH BoMBAY (Hornell 1951) KARWAR (Patil 1952) MADRAS (Gravely 1941) (Satyamurti 1956) KRUSADAI Is. es | ARCIDAE Arca gubernaculum Soe O . granosa eal ene . rhombea x . inaequivalvis . cal Ker . tortuosa are OX . symmetrica soll, oO, . navicularis . avellana xX pllnay e A. fusca ee cael OO: Sab bt Xx x moar www = Leap o = @ w~ A. complanata A. bistrigata SP eT ee ee WL Rel [eee alee ecae [UU me] wyU UT | | PU] wey] [ Barbatia obliquata | | ry x MYTILIDAE Mytilus viridis Ala @) Modiolus metcalfei eX @) Septifer bilocularis al O Lithophaga cinnamomea ee) L. sp. (near cinnamomea) . O L. sp. (near teres) sel XO L. teres --| XO _L. nigra oa XO le palate Heard hal eas lvicl isle wee od] | wu PTERIIDAE Pinctada vulgaris sell, XO) | ~ a GLYCIMERIDAE Glycimeris taylori eel, XXO PINNIDAE Pinna bicolor Pinna atropurpurea | | | | | | ro PECTINIDAE Pecten tranquebaricus P. distans Se P. crassicostatus Sn P. pyxidatus Se Spondylus layardi a xox x hay owe Sania wi vit LIMIDAE Lima lima Seal * | | | an) ANOMIIDAE Anomia achaeus oh Placenta placenta. Leet XO- We | | re o 228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) _ TABLE 1V—(Continued) DISTRIBUTIONAL FREQUENCY | a | keh ees @ ae SPECIES su lag, | #2 | oe (eee | g Ses ss Bast Ban Be 1685 | #e-| 2ES | ges OSTREIDAE Ostrea madrasensis calorie aa P P P O. folium 4 = ak [ee es P CRASSATELLIDAE | Crassatella rostrata al XO its P P CARDITIDAE Cardita bicolor eel. GET Vs ae P Beguina variegata shell — P() 3 Re LIBITINIDAE | Libitina vellicata age a ales ei, pec LUCINIDAE | Lucinia edentula enh XO — = P Rt 2 Codakia divergens Sa hae ac as sak ; p/p Divaricella cumingii <1 2@ oa iia Bes. P CHAMIDAE Chama spinosa mai exe eo ita rs C. fragrum dle UX = =— C. reflexa Arp ne — ~~ a ( | CARDIIDAE Cardium asiaticum ee. P et P P C. assimile sie) ORO = —— P P C, australe .-| XO — —— P P C. flavum -», XO — | ae anh P C. setosum --) XO — | oo Pare P VENERIDAE | Meretrix meretrix Ba irs, ¢ @ P P a6 =a: M. casta seine. 4 — _— iP P Paphia textile - | XX P P (?) P P P. malabarica -.| XXO — — P P P. alapapiliones oe == a= P P Pitar erycina Briere. < @ — —— P P P. nobilis aime, 4 = | — == P’ Circe scripta Sol OO — |tgal Go em pees © P Venus chemnitzii <1 RO), — P (?) — P V. reticulata c/n — P(?) — P Sunetta scripta =f | — Ps ot ae P Gafrarium divaricata Bal) Oe ike — bl eo P G. tumidum -.|= XO _— P(?) | — P Dosinia puella 561 XO | — — — P D. cretacea ahi, ¢ — PQ) P ls Tapes radiatus oe | Rew — P (?) — P Venerupis macrophylla ie a he — ees P MESODESMATIDAE | | | : Mesodesma glaberatum =...) X - —- | = yeas MACTRIDAE | | | Mactra gibbosula a) AO — P (?) ! —~ | | eee age MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—III 229 TABLE [V—(Continued) eer eS DISTRIBUTIONAL FREQUENCY | ~ | Foot 2 om ea ON mph a SPECIES Sy | een) 35 | 2R. | oe eee eae Rae | Bae Pee, ee eee Pe eS |g Bo) Ee AS | Me ed zo | | | ee | ) Mo i , : MACTRIDAE —(Contd.) | M. cuneata X —- — = P Spisula triangularis hae Pap. « = eam P a, Standella nicobarica ..| XXO — P (?) — eae 2 S. pellucida vr) OX — — P es Lutraria arcuata xX = P (2) wes an DONACIDAE | | Donax_cuneatus wal OO P — ‘| P | PSAMMOBIIDAE | | Psammobia radiata ee | ee — Het keP — Soletellina diphos ..| XO — _ yd — SEMELIDAE | Semele crenulata Sie lkO. — — — P S. striata ee « ~~ — e le TELLINIDAE 2 Tellina coarctata Arup, 6,4 — — P P T. pristis ..| XXO — — P _ T. ala stk xO — a 2 P T. emarginata »-| »&O — — P — T. bruguieri ..| XO — — eee oes Gastrana polygona i, © 0) P 1 (0) Tf —— fi | GLAUCOMYIDAE Glaucomya cerea Foie, < P — — — SOLENIDAE . | Solen truncatus Wa lee>, &.¢@) P lees P --~ Cultellus maximus Sell coe < — es ar P aa GASTROCHAENIDAE | | | Gastrochaena lamellosa i aS | — eck PHOLADIDAE | Jouannetia cumingti : — — [eee 2 Martesia striata ae Ps€?) 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The figures within brackets a v t describe a specimen the two valves of which are hinge TABLE V SUMMARY OF ALL THE MEASUREMENTS TAKEN ON THE VALVES OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES OF PELECYPODS FROM THE GULF OF KUTCH re those of the valves illustrated in this paper. The word ‘shell’ is used in the second column to d together, and the word ‘ pair’ when the valves have come apart. 132d jg 33 i Weight a9 Length Height Depth g Species a = 3 (range) (range) (range) (range) Remarks 528 mm. mm. mm. gm. ao | — a | — 7 aes Hy lic 7 1 | | | H H ¢ : | 14:1 to 213 | 7°836 to 23°316 Arca gubernaculum 37 ee 0 31 Base si ee) Cine) A. granosa . rhombea . inaequivalvis . fortuosa . symmetrica . navicularis . avellana A. fusca A. complanata A. bistrigata Sa ae Barbatia obliquata Glycimeris taylori Mytilus viridis Modiolus metcalfei Septifer bilocularis Lithophaga cinnamomea L. sp. (near cinnamomea) L. sp. (near teres) L. teres L. nigra Pinctada vulgaris Pinna bicolor P. atropurpurea Pecten tranquebaricus P. distans P. crassicostatus Pecten pyxidatus Spondylus layardi Lima lima Anomia achaeus Placenta placenta Ostrea madrasensis O. folium Crassatella rostrata Cardita bicolor (25:2) to 63°5 7 3 3 24°3 to (26°9) 2 18*1 to (36°6) 8 15°1 to (29°1) 3 15°6 to (16°8) 1 (2974) 10 13°5 to (25°0) 41 23°3 to (38°8) 16 11*1 to (26°6) 3 (33°3) to 37°3 (17°7) 1 (40°5) shell 59 8-8 to (25°7) 2 | 0-8) to 109-6 3 (41-0) (22:5) to 57-2 22:0 to (24'6) 15:4 to (31:5) 7-9 to (13'0) 10°8 to (13°2) (17-0) 8:3 to (14:5) 12°6 to (26:0) 7:0 to (20°5) (18:0) to 20°4 (10°0) (16-0) 7:3 to (24°5) (16'5) to 52.5 (215) if (10°5) to 26°6 11:0 to (13:0) 6'0 to (13°2) 3:0 to (6°1) 5:0 to (6:2) (8°4) 4-4 to (8°3) 4:2 to (8:3) 3:0 to (66) (7:9) to 9:2 (41) (65) 2:0 to (8:1) (6:0) to 180 (8-2) 1 (19°4) (11-2) (46) 1 (23°2, (10:5) (6°6) shell 4 22°8 to 27:3 8:3 to 10°4 47 to 58 pairs (27-2) (9°8) (5°8) 18 | 14:3 to 34:0 6°0 to 12:2 2°8 to 6-2 pairs (26:2) (9:0) (5:0) 8 18:0 to 43:3 6°0 to 13°5 3:5 to 58 pairs (32°6) (10°0) (4-2) 14 | 18:3 to 73-0 4-4 to 18:0 20to 79 Pairs (40:0) (10°6) (4:6) 23 44:1 to 67°3 40°0 to 77:0 70 to 18:4 (59°3) (53°0) (7:0) 15 125-0 to 235-0 63°0 to 145°0 7-1 to 21:0 pairs (200°0) (104-0) (16°6) 4 (264°0) (114-0) (20:0) pairs 1 (24-2) (26°7) (6°4) 2 21°5 to (25:5) 21°5 to (26°2) 2°7 to (2:9) 1 (44:0) (42:0) (11-9) 2 | 41°6 to (43-2) 39°7 to (42°3) , 9:5 to (10°6) 1 (45:0) (49°9) (12°5) 1 (31°5) (26°9) (7-8) 1 (36:0) (34-1) (9°4) 7 86:0 to 106:0 30 ete | (93°0) it (88:0) (167:0) an 1 | (25°5) (350) (14-3) shell (22°7) (29°4) (8:0) 9 | 13°7 to (24°4) 9°8 to (18°0) 2:3 to (5°8) 59 90 ito ay 8°S to 31°6 3°3 to 14:2 (3'364) to 41°520 | 2-781 to (4°514) | 0:577 to (2925) 0°148 to (0°735) | 0:320 to (0:564) | (1:749) | 0°182 to (1°139) | 0°613 to (3-054) 0:070 to (1°681) | (1:735) to 2°537 (0°294) (1°632) 0:078 to (2:267) | (0-358) (1838) 0'780 to 1°436 (1°436) 0:133 to 0:927 (0:927) 0:305 to 0°850 | (0°724) 0:072 to 1:396* (0:794) 4339 to 43-975 (10:245) 5:232 to 72:0 (47:0) (109:0) (1-094) 0:365 to (0°863) (2:574) 2:726 to (3°639) (8°608) (2:431) (2:736) 17°5 to 27-827 (17°5) (430°0) (6°526) (3°687) 0°224 to (1°630) 0'165 to 9°608 (0-952) to 21-620) (1-419) The big one is from Puri (Orissa)+ All were caught alive. Figs. 12a & 12b Figs. 12c & 12d Smaller ones are very common. All of same size. Weight of the whole shell * Only one dry valve _All of nearly same size However we have a large no. of these shells | from Trivandrum | (Kerala) Only the diameters have been given Left valve Left valve Right valve io ( (24°4) (10°3) (3°084) | 087 @ 7 ‘190A ‘XIFIOOS “ISIH TKYNLYN AVAWOE “TI¥NYNOL “II—HOLINY AO JTND JO ¥NAVA ANIMVW TEz JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 232 OZIS WHIPS Jo ole Aytofew soy} ing OZIS owes Ajivou Jo [IV (OSL-€1) ©? 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(49°5) (391) i : 0) A : ma) ae 3 ili F H 19:0 to (28° “0 to (9" i F je B. alapapitionss Be IP otenacay || soma > | Formica | 0376 to 14°700 8 state : (00 | fation | sslee [oul ean ili : ; 17:0 to (20: “5 to (6° i Ee es 35 3p0 te a 17°5 to (48-0) 2-4 to (8:5) _| 0°634 to (13750) ee eS Venus chermnitzii 90 9 47°6 to 55°6 40°0 to 46°1 15-2 to 19°8 | 10°298 to 15°894 (55°0) (46-1) (19°8) | (15894) V. reticulata 5D 6 45:0 to (71°4) 41-0 to (6671) 13°5 to (23°7) 11-594 to (32-858) Sunetta scripta An 4 19°5 to (31°2) 14-6 to (24:0) 3°5 to (7°2) | 0-527 to (2-718) Gafrarium divaricatum Sa 89 11:3 to 40°5 9°6 to 36-4 24to10°0 | 0167 to 7-364 Most of these are of (35°7) (31°4) (8°0) | (4985) large size i} G. tumidum 50 30 21-7 to 52-7 20°0 to 42:0 5°8 to 21°0 1:597 to 39-902 Ss (29'S) (32°6) (15-0) | (12:235) > Dosinia puella BH 31 17:0 to 33°5 17:0 to 330 43 to 10°3 0°412 to 5:575 5 | (26°8) (26°8) (75) (1°823) & D. cretacea oe 4 | 9:3 to (26°7) 9:0 to (26°5) 2:2 to (7°7) 0-072 to (3-292) ny Tapes radiatus 36 3 20°3 to (224) 13°3 to (14:2) 4-0 to (4'5) ° 0-428 to (0°487) All of nearly same 3 | size S Venerupis macrophylla 5S 5 18°6 to 22°5 1370 to 14:5 40 to 5-0 | 0413 to 0:487 2 (18°6) (14°5) (5-0) (0-487) ms Mesodesma glabratum ck 12 24°4 to (35:0) 18°6 to (26:0) 5-6 to (81) | 1:293 to (4:217) oy Mactra gibbosula ne 5 | 22°8 to (31°5) 19°4 to (25:0) 671 to (8°7) 0°629 to (1:994) 7 M. cuneata 50 4 22:0 to (25°0) 19:0 to (21°6) 65 to(7'7) |: 0°835 to (1-273) | Qa Spisula triangularis aE 1 (34:8) (19°2) (5°8) | (1-789) | (a) Standella nicobarica ao 37 264 to 47:0 17°6 to 29:0 5:0 to 8:4 | 0-540 to 1:840 Is (42°3) (27:6) | (8:4) (1840) a S. pellucida 3 32°6 to 51°6 20°0 to 34°5 59to10':0 | 1:192 to 2-470 However, 10 more © (34-0) | (20'9) (671) | (1°192) examples were collected ™ | | from Kiu point (Byet -7 | | Island) in Sept. 1963, © | | (G. of Kutch) a Cutraria arcuata a 3. | (61°5)to79°6 | (30:7) to 36°7 (8°5) to 9°5 (4332) to 8607 a Donax cuneatus 50 14 18°3 to (31°2) 12°8 to (22°2) 3*7 to (5°8) |: 0°475 to (1-911) | Psammobia radiata 30 3 | 70:0 to (74°7) 34:0 to (34:4) (9:2) to 10:0 4:098 to (7:466) SS; Soletellina diphos on 19 | 18:0 to (280) | 10:0 to (15-7) 23 to (4:0) 0:064 to (0°462) = Semele crenulata 30 18 21:0 to 37-0 18°7 to 33°7 4:0 to 8:0 0:305 to 3-774 (31°8) (30:0) (67) (1-720) = SS. Striata oc 4 26°6 to (41°5) 25°5 to (38°3) 5°3 to (9:0) 1-054 to (4482) es Tellina coarctata Bn 1 (58°5) (47-7) (16°7) (6°888) = ‘CT. pristis ei 33 18'5 to 47:2 14:0 to 36°7 23 to 84 0:146 to 4-819 ; (46:0) (36:7) (7:0) (4:819) 8 De) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 4 Leg) aN SoINSY 94} 99S opisul dn poalip fewmiue YU T[9YS = AIp-9JOYAA dAT[e JYSNed AT]SOPI YAS owes Ajivou JO WOg GE8 W kEQ “SSF Q78 F &Z8 ‘SSI syiewloy AIp-O[OUM (OrE-0) 03 180-0 AIp-o]OU AMA, | 80L-1 0} (£66-0) | (Z8I-0) 0} 7Z0-0 (OLS-€) 9} SSr-0 (10I-S) 689-7 01 IOT-0 (L76-£) ©} 690-0 (pEg-S) (ZLE-v) 1} T7Z6-1 (¢¢r-0) (TLL-0) 6P8-0 0} 9€1-0 (978-0) 0} 981-0 ‘ws (o8uel) | IYSIOM ° (L-€) 01. 0-7 (9-9) 01 0-€ (9.1) T-£ 9} 1-7 (¢.8) 03 ¢.Z (0-01) (9.6) 01 1.9 (8-€) (€-r) P70 ¢.7 (L-€) 01 b-Z YypiIm Ue L-LI 01 (0-ST) (€.1T) 03 9.¢ (8.0Z) 01 S.IT (S-61) 7-17 01 0-9 (0-ZZ) 01 €-L | (9.0€) | (L-b£) 01 0.87 (S-9T) (0.02) | | V-€7 OF L-€1 (y-17) 03 7-41 "WOU (asue.1) WYSIOH (panuljuo))—A ATAVL Toys emu (9.81) 010-ZI oS pe] OU} TIM 9.~7 0} (¢-0Z) (L-9Z) 01 0-€1 (L-€L) 01 0.IP (9.071) 0-LZI 01 0-LE (S-€€) 0} 6-41 (Q-S) (0.8€) 010.7¢ (p-87) (8.87) S-ZE 01 €.81 (L-0€) 01 9.02 "wu (osued) qsueT syewurue L s][oys v S[Jous ¢ Ol ¢ UG vl TISys p2ipn}s SOATBA JO JoquinN “ds opasa, DIDIAIS DISAJADIN' 11BU1WND DIJauUuDNo LS DSOJJAWUD] DUADYIOAJSVH) SNUIXDUL SN]JaIND snjvound] uajos’ vada DAWMOINDILH DUOsA]Od DUDAISDH) (SOI91IeA 0G) 14aIN8NAG “TT, DIvUIBADUA * I [eax WIM (q) [29x Woy (v) DID $ SL sarsedg [sl] MARINE FAUNA OF GULF OF KUTCH—IIl 235 VII. SUMMARY A description of 91 species of pelecypods, belonging to 27 families, from the Gulf of Kutch (west India) is presented with illustrations. The various areas surveyed include Pirotan Island, Byet Dwarka, Hanuman Dandi, and Veraval. During the present work it was noticed. that some shells change their shape along with growth; hence, for accuracy in description, certain measurements are used which are clearly defined and illustrated: It has been found thai valves of some species, although of identical measurements, differ considerably in weight. An approximate estimate of the relative abundance of different species of pelecypods for the Gulf of Kutch is discussed and tabulated. It is shown that the different species of Lithophaga vary from each other in a general way, the shape of the valves of Gafrarium tumidum changes with size, and, lastly, the number of the denticles in the RS ga or Meretrix is related to the size of the valve. VIII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS - I feel deeply indebted to my esteemed colleague Mr. P. K. B. Menon for his ready help and advice, to Professor A. K. Datta Gupta for sug- gesting the problem, and to Principal S. M. Mitra for constant encouragement during this work. Sincere thanks are also due to my colleague Dr. S. C. Rastogi for scrutinising the manuscript, to my post- graduate students for help in collection, and to Dr. M. L. Roonwal, Director, Zoological Survey of India, for permitting me to use the library of the Survey. Thanks are also due to Dr. H. C. Ray of the Zoological Survey of India and Dr. S, T. Satyamurti of Madras Museum for identifying some of the specimens, and to Professor V. Lakshmi- narayanan, Director of this Institute, for taking keen interest in the work and partially financing it. IX. REFERENCES CRICHTON, M. D. (1941): shells of Madras. Marine HORNELL, JAMES (1916) : Report to the J. Bombay nat. Hist. Government of Baroda on the Marine Soc. 42 : 323-41. GIDEON, P. W., MENON, P. K. B., RAo, S.R. V., & Jose, K. V. (1957): On the Marine Fauna of the Gulf of Kutch. I. A preliminary survey. ibid. 54: 690-706. GRAVELY, F. H. (1941): Shells and other animal remains found on the Madras Beach. I. Groups other than snails etc. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus., New oe Natural History Section, 5 (1): Zoology of Okha Mandal in Kathiawar. 2. London. ———— (1917): A revision of the Indian species of Meretrix. Rec. Indian Mus. 13: 154-73. ———— (1951): Indian Molluscs. The Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay. pp. 96. PatiL, A. M. (1952): Study of the marine fauna of the Karwar coast and neighbouring islands. III. Mollusca [82] 236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) (contd.)—Scaphopoda, Pelecypoda and Cephalopoda. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51; 29-41. REEVE, LOVELL (1843-1878) : ‘ Concho- logia Iconica’ or Illustrations of the Shells of Molluscous Animals. Vols. 1 to 20. Reeve Brothers, King William Street, Strand, London. SATYAMURTI, S. T. (1956): The Mol- lusca of Krusadai Island (in the Gulf of Manaar). If. Scaphopoda, Pelecypoda [83] and Cephalopoda. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus,, New Ser.—Natural History Sec- tion 1:(2), Part 731-202. THIELE, J. (1935) : Handbuch der sys- tematischen Weichtierkunde. Zweiter Band (Scaphopoda, Pelecypoda and Cephalopoda). Jena. [Reprint, Amster - dam, 1963. 2 vols. (including Gastro- pods, Pelecypods etc.). pp. 1154 with 897 figures. | Eco-toxicology and Control of the Indian Desert Gerbille, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon) III. Burrow temperature BY ISHWAR PRAKASH?, C. G. KUMBAKARNI?, AND A, KRISHNAN? Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur [Continued from Vol. 61 (1): 149] INTRODUCTION Being diurnal, the Indian Desert Gerbille, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon), is more exposed to the vagaries of temperature than the noc- turnal Indian Gerbille, Tatera indica indica (Hardwicke). In the Rajasthan desert the soil surface temperature rises to 55°5° C, where- as for the gerbilles the lethal temperature is 41-42° C. Moreover, gerbilles are unable to tolerate the warm summer afternoon wind (40° C.) for more than 8 to 12 minutes. The Desert Gerbille avoids exposure to this heat and the consequent desiccation of its body by adjusting its daily and seasonal rhythm in summer and winter (Prakash 1962) and by leading a fossorial life. These interesting facts led many workers to investigate the micro- climate inside desert rodent burrows. Vorhies (1945) found that the temperature in the nest chamber, about 45 cm. deep in the earth, of the Banner-tailed Kangaroo Rat, Dipodomys spectabilis, shows almost no diurnal fluctuations. During summer months, the temperature in the nest chamber is just below 30° C. Schmidt-Nielsens (1950) worked out the temperature inside the burrows of Dipodomys spectabilis and D. merriami in the Arizona desert. Petter (1952) also found very little fluctuation inside the burrows of Psammomys obesus in Beni-Abbes. TECHNIQUE EMPLOYED Our experiment was carried out at the Central Research Farm of the Institute at Jodhpur. Burrow temperatures were measured by Soil Moisture and Temperature Bridge model 200 B and Philips Rod Ther- 1 Animal Ecologist 2 Senior Research Assistant 3 Climatologist [ 16] 238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) mistors type 100°092. The bridge which is Wheatstone type measures the DC resistance of thermistors within the range 23,700 and 5240 ohms, corresponding to 0° and 45° C. respectively, when used with this specific type of thermistor which is supplied with a resistance tolerance of + 25%. The thermistors were calibrated at different temperatures which were taken into account while recording the final reading. The Philips Rod Thermistor type 100°092 gives temperature readings accurate to -+- 0:25° C. Itis about 3 cm. long and 0°5 cm. in diameter and is attached to a long wire which is connected to the bridge. Thermistors were in- serted in the burrows at various slant depths 50, 100, 150, and 200 cm., corresponding on an average to 25, 70, 120, and 150 cm. vertical depth, by the following two methods. In straight burrows they were inserted with the help of thick graduated flexible wires. In burrows with bends, the thermistor was tied to the tail of the gerbille by means of a thread. After letting the gerbille inside the burrow, it was stopped at the required depth by holding the graduated thermistor wire. The gerbille got rid of the thermistor by cutting the thread. The thermistors were seldom damaged. The hourly observations were taken on two days of every month and there were four replications for each particular depth. OBSERVATIONS AND DISCUSSION Normal temperature pattern at Jodhpur The climate of Jodhpur is seasonal and the year can be divided into four distinct seasons : winter, hot weather, monsoon, and post-monsoon. The normal air temperature data of Jodhpur, averaged for the period 1901 to 1960, are presented below. These data are recorded by thermometers kept in a well-ventilated Stevenson screen at a height of 120 cm. above ground level. TABLE I NORMAL AIR TEMPERATURE AT JODHPUR (° C.) (Average of figures for 1901-1960) st 7) Ls; o 3 > ~~ | §$] 81.8) =) el al 212.) et, eee al El ee | 2) 2) 3) 2) 2a ee Q. | fo) oO allot Beers | : : 8-30 a.m... | 11° 26:3 | 25°9 | 21°5 18°5 | BSS 292, 5-30 p.m. .. | 23°3 | 27°0 | 32°4 | 37°8 | 40°7 | 38°7 |34°3 | 31'9 | 32°7 | 34:0 | 29°7 |25°0 Mean maximum | 24°2 | 27°3 32:9 | 37-9 411 | 39°9 | 36°0 | 33°2 | 34°5 | 35°4 | 31°0 |26°4 | Mean . | | minimum 9°6} 11°35 | 16°8 | 21°9 | 26°7 | 27°1 | 26°8 | 25°1 | 23°8 | 18°9 | 13-3 10: 3mm [17] ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBILLE 239 The characteristic feature of the normal temperature pattern over Jodhpur is the great extremes of temperature. The period from December to February constitutes the winter with January as the coldest month when mean maximum and minimum temperatures are 24:2° and 9-6° C. respectively. Inthe wake of western disturbance, temperature falls considerably and even frost conditions occur occasionally. In fact the lowest minimum temperature recorded at Jodhpur so far is — 2°2°C. in the month of January. Temperatures begin to rise from March and the period March to June constitutes the hot weather season. May with the mean maximum temperature of 41°1° C. is the hottest month of the year. The highest temperature so far recorded is 48:9° C, ‘With the onset of monsoon showers, which normally occur on the first day of July, temperatures fall and there is less diurnal variation. The mean daily range of temperature which is generally of the order of 13 to 18° C. during other months becomes 8 to 11° C. during this season. After the withdrawal of the monsoon, the temperature curve attains a secondary peak during October and begins to fall during November. These montlis constitute the post-monsoon season. In view of the existence of four distinct seasons the recorded hourly temperatures, at soil surface and at slant depths of 50, 100, 150, and 200 cm. inside the burrows, corresponding to each hour from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m., were averaged season-wise. These values are presented in Table IJ. For the sake of comparison, the seasonal averages of air temperature at Jodhpur for each hour from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m. were com- puted from the thermograph data for the period 1948 to 1952 and are also included in Table II]. These data are available for Jodhpur from 1948 and are published by the Indian Meteorological Department in the respective annual summaries. The thermograph recording these data is placed in a well-ventilated Stevenson screen at a height of nearly 120 ¢ cm. above ground level. Temperature outside burrow a. Average air temperature. Average hourly air temperatures indi- cate a well-defined peak corresponding to 4 p.m. during winter, between 4 and 5 p.m. during the hot weather, between 3 and 4 p.m. during monsoon, and at 3 p.m. during post-monsoon season. The average range of day temperatures during the various seasons is as follows : RANGE (°C.) ACTUAL VARIATION (°C.) Winter i 13*1 to 24:8 le Hot weather ue 28°1 to 39-3 le? Monsoon va, 26°8 to 33°4 6°6 Post-monsoon oe 19°6 to 32°7 13°1 [18 ] 246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) b. Soil surface temperature. The seasonal and hourly variation are the highest at the soil surface. There is a well-defined peak of maxi- mum temperature during all seasons. This occurs at 2 p.m. during winter and hot weather, at 1 p.m. during monsoon, and between 12 noon and 1 p.m. during post-monsoon season; thereby showing that the maximum temperature epoch for soil is generally two to three hours ahead of the maximum temperature epoch of air. The range of soil surface temperatures from 7 a.m. to 7 p.m. recorded during various seasons is as follows : RANGE (°C.) ACTUAL VARIATION (°C.) Winter =; 11°9 to 39°0 et ie Hot weather < 26-7-t0 55°) 28°8 Monsoon be 31°5 to 45°8 14-3 Post-monsoon Me 22,7 to49"3 26°6 Burrow temperature In contrast to the air and soil surface temperatures, there is very little hour-to-hour variation of temperatures inside the burrows during the various seasons. The variation of temperature from season to season is also considerably Jess at all depths. There is no well-defined peak of maximum temperature inside the burrows except in the monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, when a peak is noticed at 50 cm. depth and corresponding to | p.m. Generally the burrow temperatures tend to increase during the late afternoon, after 5 p.m. In winter the burrow temperatures are not only higher during the late afternoon but also at 7 a.m., thereby indicating that the burrow is probably uniform- ly warmer during the night when air and surface temperatures fall con- siderably, and the gerbille has not to encounter the chilly cold winter night. It is further observed from Table II that in winter, the burrow temperatures averaged over all depths are warmer than the normal air temperature from 7 a.m. to 10 a.m. by 2°0 to 7:1°C., and warmer than soil surface by 1:1 to 7°6°C. from 7 a.m. to 9 a.m., and by 3:7°C. at 7 p.m. In the hot weather, the burrow temperatures are in the range of 33°6 to 37-6 considering ali depths, whereas the soil surface temperatures reach as high as 55°5°C. These features indicate clearly that the burrows serve the gerbilles as air-conditioned chambers to avoid the high extremes _ of temperatures noticed in the arid region. Very little variation with respect to depth is noticed in the burrow temperatures. There is, how- ever, a slight indication of temperature decrease with depth during winter and hot weather periods and of increase with depth during the [19] 241 ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBILLE €-S€ ©-Ste i 6-Ve. |. 18-VE L-v¢ SVE | €-ve | DVE | CHE o-PE VVE | §-VE | . 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Wcer |) Zeck Bie | Ie) Zee | 6 9.b0 | Dee) epee lcee || Gree | See | ee epee ice | pize loc) poe “Toe S.ac | Sty i Ge) Se | Oke Pee) GE | ash | Sey | 61 | ike | eee | oze .. ze | | | | aeam | | | | ile | O46") cee | eee || ree |! hee) ede, gre £06 | 9-62 | 8% | SLZ | 8.9% \ NOOSNOJ| \ tee “SF6] JO} oSeIOAe) “tS 007 “WS OCT “WS OOT "WD 0S DOVJ.INS [IOS (ZS6I T18 [RULION “WS 007 "WD OST “Wd OOT "WD OS JORJ.INS [IOS (ZS61 '-8p6[ JOJ ade10Av) JI® [RULION | | | \ ar! 00-61 | COST | 00-41 00-91 | 00-1 | 00-41 “co. | coz joo. - 00-01 00-60 | 00.20 | 00-40 . , eee eee | AvP OY} JO SINOY BUIMO]JOJ 94} 1 (“Oo UT) somnjesIodway, SS SS (panuijuo)) J] aTav ‘ [20] ECO-TOXICOLOGY AND CONTROL OF INDIAN GERBILLE other seasons. The range of the day temperatures at various depths in the burrows is given below for various seasons: SLANT DEPTH WINTER HoT WEATHER MONSOON POST-MONSOON 2c: OF °c: 1 G. 50 cm. 19°9 to 21°1 35°2 to 37°6 28'5 to 34°3 24°6 to 25°7 : (1°2) (2°4) (3°8) (1°1) 100 cm. 19°1 to 20°5 33°6 to 35°2 27°6 to 35°3 27°9 to 28°7 (1°4) (1°6) Cie) (0°8) 150 cm. 19°2 to 20°7 33°9 to 35°4 32°9 to 35:8 30°4 to 31°3 7 (1°5) (1°5) (2°9) (0°9) 200 cm. 19°1 to 20°6 34:2, 10/353 —- 29°1 to 29'9 (1°5) (1°1) — (0°8) / 243 It is interesting to note that the burrow temperatures which have generally a small range, varying from 1 to 2°C., show a considerable increase in range during the monsoon when the air and soil temperatures have the minimum range. The increase in range inside the burrows during this season may be attributed to the occasional flooding of. the burrows with rain water. Table III gives the normal air temperatures and the burrow temperature averaged for the four depths at the time of maximum temperature epoch of the soil surface temperatures recorded during various seasons. | TABLE II THE AIR AND BURROW TEMPERATURES AT THE MAXIMUM TEMPERATURE EPOCH OF THE SOIL SURFACE DURING DIFFERENT SEASONS Winter Hot Monsoon Post- 2p.m weather 1 p.m. | monsoon 2p.m. | 12 &1lp.m (Gam | marge Mes ais MGs °C | os —————— Soil surface ee SEU A Sb) 45°8 49:3 Normal air aa 241 38°6 32°4 31°6 Burrow temperature averaged for the four depths aa Ie 34°7 34°4 28°4 Difference between soil surface | and average burrow tempera- | ture te Ose 20.80 | LEA —20°9 Difference between soil surface | and normal air temperature Sa 14°9 16°9 13-4 ey) Table III shows that, at the time of maximum temperature epoch of the soil surface temperature, burrows are cooler than the soil surface by 192° to 20:9°C. in various seasons except in the monsoon when the difference is 11°4°C., whereas the air temperatures are less than the soil p22] 244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) surface temperatures by 13:4° during monsoon and from 14:9° to 17:7°C. during other seasons. This also indicates that the burrows help the gerbilles in avoiding the extreme temperatures of the desert. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Dr. P. C. Raheja, Director of the Institute, for the interest he took throughout the progress of this work, and to Dr. Pulak K. Ghosh, Animal Physiologist, and Dr. C. T. Abhichandani, Soil Scientist, for suggestions and help. SYNOPSIS Hourly temperatures inside the burrow of the Indian Desert Gerbille, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon), were recorded at Jodhpur. It was found that, at the time of maximum temperature epoch of the soil surface temperature, the burrows are cooler than the soil surface by 19°2° to 20:9°C. in various seasons, except in monsoon when the difference is 11°4°C. only. Fluctuations of temperature inside the burrows are very small. Thus, the burrows serve the gerbilles as air-conditioned chambers to avoid the high extremes of temperatures noticed in the arid regions. REFERENCES PeTTer, F. (1952): Note preliminaire SCHMIDT-NIELSEN, B., & SCHMIDT- sur Pethologie 1’ ecologie de Psammomys NIELSEN, K. (1950): Evaporative water obsesus Cretzschmar. Mammalia 26: loss indesert rodents. Ecology 31 : 75-85. 137-147. VORHIES, CHARLES T. (1945): Water PRAKASH, ISHWAR (1962) : Ecology of requirements of desert animals in the the gerbilles of the Rajasthan desert, southwest. Univ. Arizona Techn. Bull. India. ibid. 26: 311-331. 107 : 487-525. [23] a a ee Observations on the Maturation and Spawning of the Brown Pomfret, Parastromateus niger (Bloch) in Saurashtra Waters BY | T. E. SIVAPRAKASAM Southern Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, Madras (With a plate) INTRODUCTION The biology of the Brown Pomfret, Parastromateus niger (Bloch), has not been studied so far, though it forms a fishery of considerable importance along all the Indian coast and a major fishery along that of Saurashtra. Our knowledge on pomfrets is very meagre, being restricted to the general accounts given by Chidambaram & Venkataraman (1946), Moses (1947), Devanesan & Chidambaram (1948), and other fisheries reports. Rege (1958) made a preliminary study on the biology of the Silver Pomfret, Pampus argenteus (Bloch), in Bombay waters. De Jong’s (1939) observations on the spawning habits of Stromateus niger in the Java Sea is the only account available on this fish. The importance of biological studies on these fish has been stressed by Gokhale (1960). Detailed studies were, therefore, undertaken on the biology of P. niger at Veraval on the Saurashtra coast during 1961-63. The present paper deals with its spawning habits. MATERIAL AND METHODS Samples were collected at weekly intervals from the gill-net catches off Veraval. Some representative samples were also taken from Madh- wad, Mangrol, and Porbandar. In all 620 fish were examined. Large samples were available during September-November and April-May, when the fish forms a fishery. During other months it is only landed in small quantities, and during June-August fishing is called off because of the south-west monsoon. The fish were measured, weighed, and dissected. After noting the sex and stage of maturity, the gonads were measured, weighed, and 246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) preserved in 5% formalin for further examination. The spawning habits were studied by direct observation on mature and spawning fish and occurrence of juveniles, as well as by the indirect method of studying the size-distribution of the ova in the ovary. Details of the method of study and the discussions are given in different sections of the paper. All lengths given relate to fork length unless otherwise stated. STRUCTURE OF THE GONADS The gonads could be distinguished as ovaries or testes in fish of about 15 cm. and more in length. In fish below this size the gonads take the form of a thin strip of tissue and are indistinguishable. The ovary first becomes apparent as two small, compact lobes, wine-coloured and united at the anterior end, and the testes as two thin, long strips of tissue, white in colour. In both the ovary and the testes, the right lobe is Shorter than and about half the length of the left in early stages ; they become subequal later. In contrast to the condition found in most perch-like fishes, the lobes of the gonads extend behind the cloaca on the sides of the intestinal coils, so that the gonads open outside at the anterior end. This condition may be the result of the dorso-ventral deepening of the body, characteristic of the pomfrets. CLASSIFICATION OF MATURITY STAGES For the study of seasonal changes in the gonad condition, an arbi- trary classification of the stages of maturity was made. These stages of maturity, which correspond to the scale adopted by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, were based mainly on the dia- meter and extent of yolk formation in the ova in the case of females, and the presence of milt and the extent of its response to pressure of the testes in the case of males, as followed by Clark (1934) and Bowers & Holliday (1961). They were, however, recognizable externally by such features as colour, shape, and size. The various stages of maturity were defined as follows : FEMALES Stage I. Ovaries thin, small piece of tissue, wine-coloured. Microscopic transparent ova, largest ova 0°21 mm. in diameter, not visible to naked eye. ; Stage II. Ovaries with compact lobes, right lobe often shorter. than the left, pale yellow in colour. Ova with traces of yolk, largest 0°32 mm. in diameter, visible to naked eye. Includes also recovering spent ovaries which are large, bag-like, and bloodshot. Stage III. Ovaries large, yellow in colour. Ova large, semi-opaque, largest 0°42 mm. in diameter. JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. a 25 | Stage I 15 b 5 a 25 b Stage II 15 se | © = cP) Ba casi oO } oO a | fy 20 © = b Stage Ill +, oO quad © a. t 254 a TS b Stage IV 5 a 20 Stage V 10 b afi \ : : ‘ eee: OTT TT epee PRE RRRR BREESE F MNT VASHSSSRRERRRAARRS GY Diameter of ova in m.d. (m.d. =0°021 mm.) Brown Pomfret, Parastromateus niger (Bloch) Ova-size distribution in various stages of maturity MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF BROWN POMFRET 247 3 ; Md Stage IV. Ovaries large, bright yellow in colour. Large ova completely opaque, fully laden with yolk, largest 0°63 mm. in diameter. . Stage V. Ovaries large and jelly-like, < speckled’ appearance due to large transparent ova. Ova largest, maximum diameter 0°95 mm., still retained inside the follicles. Stage VI. Ovaries very much distended, ripe ova shed into the cavity of the ovary and oozing out through the oviduct. : Stage VII. Ovaries shrunken, bag-like, and bloodshot. A few large ova may be present. MALES Stage I. Testes thin, long strip of tissue, white in colour. Stage II. Testes slightly larger in size, compact, right lobe shorter than the left, white in colour. Traces of milt in the central core. Also includes spent-recovering, which are large and hard. Stage III. Testes much longer. Transverse grooves and wavy margins appear. Milt is being formed. . Stage IV. Testes much larger, white in colour, wavy margins and transverse grooves. Milt oozes out when pressed hard. Stage V. Testes very long and broad, milky white in colour, turgid due to milt, but not oozing. Stage VI. Testes as above, but oozing milt. Stage VII. Testes hard, contractéd and dull white in colour. W@pout any milt. MATURATION AND SIZE-FREQUENCY OF OVA It is well known that the size distribution of the ova in a teleostean Ovary is indicative of its spawning habits. A study of the ova-diameter frequency in the ovaries of P. niger was therefore made to show the maturation of ova through various stages and the spawning habits of the fish, on the lines followed by Clark (1934), Hickling & Rutenberg (1936), De Jong (1939), Prabhu (1956), and many others. Samples of ova from ovaries preserved in formalin were spread out evenly on a Slide. The diameters of the ova were measured without any selection by means of a micrometer having a magnification of 1 m.d.=0:021 mm. For determining the exact stage of maturity by the largest ova, only a few ova were measured from each ovary. For the ova-diameter fre- quency studies, three ovaries from each stage of maturity were taken and 300 to 500 ova were measured from each. Ova below 5 m.d. were disregarded except in stage J, as they were too many and evidently immature. The measurements were grouped in intervals of 2 m.d. and plotted against their percentage frequency. These curves of ova- diameter frequencies are presented in the Plate. Before going into the details of the study, it is necessary to describe the development of the ova through the various stages of maturity to 248 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 62 (2) spawning. The oocytes take their origin from ovigerous lamellae which project into the ovarian cavity from all sides of the ovary. Several batches of oocytes are produced every season and undergo a remarkable process of maturation, which is accompanied by yolk formation and increase in size. As maturation progresses, the minute clear and trans- parent ova increase in size and the yolk granules are gradually added, first around the nucleus and then towards the periphery. As yolk for- mation advances the ova become opaque. Before being spawned, the ova again become transparent and acquire an oil globule which aids in floating on the sea. Following Walford (1932) and Prabhu (1956), the various stages of development of the ova can be conveniently classified as follows : 1. Immature: Minute, transparent ova with distinct nucleus and clear cytoplasm, up to 0°21 mm. in diameter 2. Maturing : Small semi-opaque ova in which yolk laying has started but is not yet complete, 0°21 to 0°42 mm. in diameter 3. Mature : Large opaque ova, full of yolk, 0:42 to 0°63 mm. in diameter 4. Ripe : Large, transparent ova with an ‘oil globule, about to be spawned, 0°63 to 0°95 mm. in diameter. The size-distribution of ova in ovaries of stages I to V is plotted in the Blate. In stage I, which is immature, there are only immature eggs extending in diameter from 0 to 12 m.d. with a small mode at 10 m.d. indicating the separation of some eggs. As maturation pro- gresses, this batch of eggs separates from the immature. stock, characterized by gradual increase in size and formation of yolk around the nucleus. This batch of eggs is represented by the mode b at 12 m.d. separating from the general egg stock, a, in stage II. In stage III, this process is carried further forward, with increase in size and yolk formation, and the mode b is formed at 16 m.d. In stage IV, the mode b at 24 m.d. represents the mature eggs, large, fully yolked, and opaque. Thus, there is only one batch of eggs, distinctly separated from the general egg stock. There is no indication of any other batch of maturing eggs. In stage V, the mature eggs increase very much in size and become ‘ripe’, transparent with an oil globule. These ripe eges are represented by the mode b, extending from 30 to 44 m.d. and are about to be spawned during this season. All the mature eggs have already become ripe, and a fresh batch of maturing eggs will be produced from the general egg stock probably only after the spawning season. Thus, in the process of maturation, only one batch of eggs separates from the general egg-stock and undergoes maturation to be spawned during the spawning season. As this single batch of mature ova is distinct from the general egg stock, individuals of this species have a single spawning season in a year, restricted to a short and definite MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF BROWN POMFRET 249 period. De Jong’s (1939) observations on the spawning habits of Stromateus niger in the Java Sea corroborate these observations. Data on the distribution of different stages of maturity and occurrence of juvenile fish also prove this view, but the spawning season for the species as a whole is considerably protracted because all the fish do not spawn at the same time. , SPAWNING SEASON AND SPAWNING GROUNDS The spawning season was also determined by direct observation of the condition of the gonads during different months, and by the occurrence of juveniles. The maturity-distribution of females and males during 1962-63 is given in Table I. The data for 1961-62 give a similar picture and hence are not presented here. The Table shows that, among females, early stages I and II occur throughout the period. Mature fish in stages III and IV start appearing in April and continue till November. Ripe fish (stage V) were recorded only in September, but actual spawners (stage VI) were found in September and October. As there was no fishing during June-July, we do not have data for these months. But the occurrence of spent- recovering fish in August indicates that spawning has already started in July. Spawning is continued till October, with the peak of activity in August-September. | Maturity-distribution among the males presents a similar picture. The early stages occur throughout the period. Stages III and IV occurred during April to November. Stage V was recorded in Septem- ber. Oozing males (stage VI) were not recorded, but spent males were recorded in October. This also suggests that the spawning period extends from July to October. Although individual spawning is restricted to a short and definite period, as seen from the ova-diameter frequency studies, the spawning period of the species as a whole is protracted over a period of four months. ; Juvenile pomfrets first appear in September, and occur in good num- bers in the trawl nets during October to December. This corroborates the spawning period determined for the species. The wide range in the size of the juveniles, from 3 to 15 cm., recorded during November is further evidence of protracted spawning. Mature fish in stage IV or above and also juvenile fish were recorded throughout a 100-mile stretch along the Saurashtra coast from Diu Head (Madhwad) to Porbandar. This indicates that the fish spawn through- out this stretch of coast. A few females in ‘running’ condition (stage VI) were recorded off Veraval at 15-20 fathoms. The ripe ova which oozed out from them had a mean diameter of 0°83 mm. (range: 0:74-0:90 mm.) and the oil globule 0°22 mm. (range: 0:21-0:23 mm.). JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 256 | Zz | ‘IIA : rd { ee I i cA | z= I 9 9 € Z OAL oe } Pry Bae ¢ 9 9 9 ee a ante ao I i Rant p I € ¢ 5 a ZG €] L SP S S % "7 Sede? Gain a Rae eee ae ee eee ee | | | | € TI 9 IIA | | I 6 TA | | | Z A ; | 2 | | [ L SI x4 6 ‘AL 5 | ips! | v ¢ L 9 al fl fees ¢ | z I € C I I ONG £961 AVIN OL 796T LSNONY ONIUNG 4aslu snajvUOssDAVg AO ALIANLYW AO SADVLS SNOIAVA AO NOLLASIULSIG I aTavy, ALIWALVJY JO SFDVLS MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF BROWN POMFRET 251 While the adult fish are pelagic in habit, the juveniles appear to be demersal, as they are caught only in the trawl-nets and bottom-set nets. SEX RATIO The distribution of sexes in commercial fish landings during 1962-63 is given in Table If. Fish below 15 cm. in length, i.e. indeterminates_ were landed in very small quantities. Out of the total 409 sexed, 195 were males and 214 females, showing a more or less equal distribution of the sexes. In the 15-25 cm. group, males and females were more or less equal in number. Males were predominant, about twice as many as the females in the 25-35 cm. group. Females were remarkably numerous, about four times the males, in the next size-group 35-45 cm. In the last size-group, 45-55 cm., there were no males at all. As regards the distribution of the sexes from month to month, females predominat- ed during August to October, during November to March the sexes were more or less equal in number but irregular in their pattern, and during April-May males were predominant. TABLE II SEX RATIO IN VARIOUS SIZE-GROUPS OF Parastromateus niger IN COMMERCIAL FISH LANDINGS Size-Groups Total istos) cant 025235 cms 52450 ona : ASS ein! So ee tt 2 ae oP S28 oa 90 ——_— —=-$ —_________— — = Ase 1962, Aug. — 4 ii 6 14 Ome. 2 10° -* 423 Sept. as es 6h 0 his 147 Orem FI at 1g. |, OF yh ha. 39 Nov =) 1 12 ») ik 3) — 18 15 Dec 48 44 6 1 1 0 — 35 45 h1963, Jan. HoT NG TO 3 OF aac | — 197 = 10 Feb. 138% a. 16 —- — — 13: 16 March — See ne nea 4 — Oa 2G April — 23h 4 e710 — DAs aA May — Os 4 Less 22 ee 10 2 6 Sex ratio over the total TAS 169 <1 100): 49) Ai ys. Ot OMe 5 NOS S214 period 252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) It was pointed out earlier that the fish spawn during July to October, In accordance with some of the classical observations on other species (Van Oosten 1938 ; Nikolsky 1963), in P. niger also the males appear to migrate to the spawning grounds earlier than the females, as indicated by their predominance during April-May. During August-October which is the spawning period, females outnumber the males. It is also found that males are predominant over females in the first size group, become less in number in the next group, and are completely absent in the last group. SIZE AT FIRST MATURITY- The size at first maturity, an important tool in fishery management (Nikolsky 1963), was determined only approximately. Fish measuring below 15 cm. were indeterminates and those between 15-25 cm. immatures. Unfortunately, enough fish were not available in the group 25-30 cm. as the selectivity of the gill-nets was rather high. Most of the fish landed were above 30cm. However, the percentages of mature fish in the various centimetre groups during the spawning season were calculated separately for females and males. The length of the smallest fish with spent gonads was determined. From these observa- tions it was concluded that most of the females attain first maturity at. 32 cm. and the males at 30 cm. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS | Tam thankful to Dr. S. Jones, Director, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Mandapam, for suggesting the problem and provid- ing all the necessary facilities. My thanks are also due to Shri M. V. Pai and Dr. M. J. Pradhan for their help in this study. SYNOPSIS The maturation and spawning habits of the Brown Pomfret, Parastro- ' mateus niger (Bloch), have been studied for the first time. The study was made at Veraval, Saurashtra, where the fish forms a major fishery. — The structure of the gonads, and the stages of maturity have been _ described. The spawning habits were studied by the ova-diameter frequency method, and the distribution of various stages of maturity in time, and the occurrence of juveniles. | The fish has a single, restricted spawning in a year, but the spawning ~ | season is considerably protracted because all the fish do not spawn at the same time. Spawning occurs during July to October in the coastal waters off Saurashtra from Diu to Porbandar, The size at first maturity MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF BROWN POMFRET 253 has been calculated approximately. The sex-ratio in various size- groups during different months is discussed. REFERENCES Bowers, A. B., & HoLiipay, F. G. T. (1961): Histological changes in the gonad associated with the reproductive cycle of the herring. Marine Research No. 6. CHIDAMBARAM, K., & VENKATARAMAN, R. S. (1946) : Tabular statement of the natural history of certain marine food fishes of the Madras Presidency-West Coast. Govt. Press, Madras. CLaRK, F. N. (1934): Maturity of California Sardine (Sardina coerulea) determined by ova diameter measure- ments. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish. Bull. 4: 1-49. DE Jonc, J. K. (1939) : A preliminary investigation of the spawning habits of some fishes of the Java sea. Treubia 17: 307-327. DEVANESEN, D.W., & CHIDAMBARAM, K. (1948) : The common food fishes of the Madras’ Presidency. Govt. Press, Madras. GOKHALF, S. V. (1960): Need for. fisheries research in Gujarat. In ‘ The Fishing Industry of Gujarat’, Ahmeda- bad. HICKLING, C. F., & RUTENBERG, E. (1936): The ovary as an indicator of spawning period of fishes. J. Mar. biol. Assoc. U.K. 21 : 311-317. Moses, S. T. (1947) : Baroda Fisheries. Bull. No. XI, Dept. of Fisheries, Baroda. NIKOLSskKy, G. V. (1963) : The Ecology of Fishes. Academy Press, London. PRABHU, M.S. (1956) : Maturation of intra-ovarian eggs and spawning periodi- cities in some fishes. Indian J. Fish. 3 (1) : 59-90. Rece, M. S. (1958): A study or the Stromateid fishes of Bombay. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Bombay. VAN OOSTEN, J. (1938): The age, growth, sexual maturity and sex ratio of the common white fish, Coregonus clupea- formis (Mitchill) of Lake Huron. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts and Lett., 24 (I): 195-221. WALFORD, L.A. (1932) : The California Barracuda (Sphyraena argentea). Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish. Bull. 37: 1-120. Notes on a Colony of the Whiskered Tern [Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas)] in Delhi, with comments on its Breeding Status in India BY JULIAN P, DONAHUE Department of Entomology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA. AND USHA GANGULI 10 Cavalry Lines, Delhi 7 (With a map) During the late spring and early summer of 1962 we noticed an increasing number of Whiskered Terns [Chlidonias hybrida (Pallas)] on an extensive jheel (expanse of shallow water) near the village of Jhatikra, about 20 miles south-west of Delhi, in Delhi State. One bird was seen on 27 May, seven on 16 June, over 30 on 2 July, several on 5 July, and, | on 17 July, we located the colony, thus establishing the first record of this species breeding in Delhi. Our efforts to obtain the services of a water-worthy craft were futile, so we observed the colony from the shore with binoculars and a telescope. Several young, usually in twos, were sitting on a mass of vegetation about a quarter mile from the shore, while adults were scooping small fish from the water (rather than diving for them) and transferring them, while hovering, to the calling young sitting on the aquatic plants. Once, we saw a young bird catch its own fish, drop it, re-catch it, drop it again, and, with seeming resignation, land to receive a fish from an adult. We also saw adults carrying bits of vegetation, obviously in the process of nest construction on a large mat of floating vegetation about half a mile from shore. On 9 September 1962 UG revisited the jhee/, when large numbers of terns were seen feeding fledglings. One young bird was seen to call and stamp its feet at the sight of an adult approaching with a fish. Adult i: ra ge . i we Pp) Maticy ee ee nye See al eee acetey o . ‘ \ ie * ‘wey st A ’ Aone + . { ‘ . JOURN. BomMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. scale of miles 100 200 300 80° 90° ECD Des eDI Be ie DET yo Ne Be ee Be ke PAD Areas in the Indian region where the Whiskered Tern has bred. THE WHISKERED TERN AND ITS BREEDING STATUS IN INDIA 255 birds were still bringing fish to young at dusk. Some adults had appa- rently begun to lose their breeding plumage, since their bellies were no longer solid black, but streaked with white. The call of the young, when adults are approaching with food, is a plaintive chee, chee. The adults apparently had two calls: a cherrk on a slightly falling scale and a harsh kreek on a slightly rising scale. In mid-July 1963, UG again visited the jheel, but saw no sign of Whiskered Terns, although she did see birds in breeding plumage else- where in Delhi in September. In 1963, the monsoon did not begin until 29 July—one of the latest dates of the century. Consequently, water levels were very low. It is possible that the birds bred later, after the water level had risen, or they may not have bred at all in 1963. Water levels were too high to permit observations in 1964. OTHER KNOWN BREEDING LOCALITIES IN INDIA The several subspecies of the Whiskered Tern breed in south Europe, Africa, Iraq, India, south China, Malay Peninsula, Java, Celebes, Moluccas, New Guinea, and Australia (Alexander 1955 ; Ripley 1961 ; Ticehurst et al. 1922, 1926). In India this bird is known to breed only in Kashmir and eastward through the Gangetic Plain to Assam. Non- breeding birds are seen throughout India and Ceylon (Ripley 1961; Henry 1955). By far the most observed population is that occupying several lakes near the resort city of Srinagar, and elsewhere in the Vale of Kashmir (Baker 1935; Bates 1923, 1925; Bates & Lowther 1952; Davidson 1898 ; Lowther 1944; Osmaston 1927; Phillips 1946; Wilson 1899), The exploitation of the eggs in Kashmir is briefly mentioned by Cott (1953). We have been unable to locate definite breeding records for West Pakistan, although Ripley (1961) says it breeds there. Hume (1873) got second-hand information from local fishermen that it bred during the monsoon in Sind, but this has yet to be confirmed, Waite (1948) observed several of these birds on the Kallar Kahar Lake in the Punjab Salt Range, but never found any nests. These two localities are represented by question-marks on the distribution map. Four colonies have been observed in Uttar Pradesh. Lowther (1944, 1949) has mentioned a colony in Etawah District, while Field (1922) reports that the Whiskered Tern bred on certain jJheels in Gonda District in August. Baker (1935) also mentions that eggs were taken by Gill in Oudh, of which Gonda District was a part. Jesse (1899, 1903) reports that this bird was common in Lucknow District, where it bred during August and September, but he felt that the population was decreasing 256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) because of drainage of the jheels. Baker (1935) says that fresh eggs were taken in September in Fyzabad District. Although Lowther (1944, 1949) said this bird bred in a few Bihar jheels, he specifically mentioned only four colonies in Dhanbad District, of which one colony was active for only a single year. The other Bihar record found was that of Inglis (1899a, 1899b, 1903), who reported breeding activity in Darbhanga District in July and August. In August 1899 the birds were apparently absent and failed to breed where they had bred the year before. The colonies east of those above are presumably of the subspecies C. hybrida javanica (Horsfield), although this population has not been accurately delimited (and Ripley 1961 does not mention it). In East Pakistan Whiskered Terns have been found breeding in Khulna and Sylhet (Baker 1935). Baker (1899, 1935) said he saw many colonies in Assam, but specifies only those in Cachar and North Cachar (the latter is now the district of United Mikir and North Cachar Hills). Baker (1935) said that the birds in Silchar (Cachar District) normally bred from late June through August, but bred earlier if the rains were early or heavy. According to Smythies (1953) and Stanford (1946), there is no record of the Whiskered Tern breeding in Burma, although it does breed in Malaya (Smythies 1953). Hopwood (1912) believes it may breed in Arakan. Mention must also be made of a paper by Hewetson (1956), which says that Whiskered Terns breed on sandbanks in Madhya Pradesh in March and April, before the monsoon. Because this bird is only known to nest on floating marsh vegetation, and because our attempts to substantiate this record were futile, this observation should remain questionable uritil it can be verified. DISCUSSION Some colonies of Whiskered Terns are apparently unstable, for birds will be breeding on a jheel one year, but not the next (Inglis 1899b ; Lowther 1949). Evidence indicates that nesting (excluding Kashmir) is timed to coincide with the south-west monsoon rains, from June to September, so local water conditions may affect nesting success. It seems, however, that drainage of the jheels and raids by egg-collectors would be major factors affecting the abundance of the species. Baker (1935) says that, despite the fact that large numbers of eggs were eaten by villagers in Silchar, the birds continued to lay eggs repeatedly in the robbed nests. 1 We might interject that the similar Blackbellied Tern, Sterna acuticauda J, E. Gray, does nest on sandbanks.—AuTHors. THE WHISKERED TERN AND ITS BREEDING STATUS IN INDIA 257 It is obvious that a study needs to be made of the breeding behaviour — and ecological requirements of the Whiskered Tern, so that the necessary steps may be taken to protect this lovely marsh dweller. Perhaps, if the reproductive capacity is high, seasons may be set aside when eggs may be taken, to be followed by a period when the nests are protected, to ensure the successful rearing of at least one brood. Our knowledge of the breeding range of this bird can certainly be enhanced if the marshes and jhee/s of northern India and West Pakistan are observed for activity during the monsoon. For the Delhi colony we were not sure when nesting commenced, how long the young birds were fed by the adults, why there was an apparent range of ages of young birds, or how large the colony was. Here, as in other places, people may raid the nests to obtain eggs. The authors will be most happy to receive additional! records of esta- blished breeding colonies of the Whiskered Tern in India. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. We gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Sélim Ali and Rollin H. Baker in the preparation of this paper. SYNOPSIS A report is presented on the recently discovered colony of Whiskered Terns in Delhi, India, along with a map and a description of all other known breeding localities of this species in India and Pakistan. REFERENCES ALEXANDER, W. B. (1955): Birds of the Ocean. 2nd ed. Putnam, London. BAKER, E. C. Stuart (1899): The birds of North Cachar. Part X. J. : Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12 : 486-510. ——— — (1935): The Nidification of Birds of the Indian Empire 4. Taylor and Francis, London. Bates, R.S. P. (1923) : Notes on Hugh Whistler’s ‘A contribution to the orni- thology of Cashmere’ in Vol. XXVIII, No. 4. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 29: 798-802. — (1925): Birds’ nesting with a camera in India. Part IV. The Dal Lake and Hokra. ibid. 30 : 600-609. ———— (1929): A treed- bed in the Dal Lake, Kashmir. ibid. 33: 656-666. — & LowrTuer, E. H. N. n1952)-: Breeding Birds of Kashmir. Oxford University Press, London. 3 Cotr, HuGH B. (1953): The explot- tation of wild birds for their_eggs. Ibis 95 : 409-449, 643-675 ; 96: 129-149. Davipson, J. (1898): A short trip to Kashmir. ibid. 4 (7th ser.) : 1-42. FIELD, F. (1922) : Rough list and notes on the birds found breeding in the Gonda District, Oudh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28 : 753-772. Henry, G. M. (1955): A Guide to the Birds of Ceylon. Oxford University Press, London. HEWETSON, C. E. (1956) : Observations on the bird life of Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 595-645. Hopwoop, Cyrit (1912): A list of birds from Arakan. ibid. 21: 1196-1221. Hume, ALLAN O. (1873): Contribu- tions to the ornithology of India. Sindh, No. II. Stray Feathers 1: 91-289. 258 INGLIs, C. M. (1899a) : Breeding of the Whiskered Tern (Hydrochelidon hybrida) in the Darbhanga District, Tirhoot. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 414. ———— (1899b) : The Whiskered Tern (Hydrochelidon hybrida). ibid. 12 : 774. —— (1903): The birds of the Madhubani sub-division of the Dar- bhanga District, Tirhut, with notes on species noticed elsewhere in the district. Part VI. ibid. 15 : 70-77. JESSE, WILLIAM (1899) : Birds’ nesting in and around Lucknow.-No. III. Ibis 5 (7th ser.) : 344-351. [The title is punctuated exactly as in the original JPD + UG] ———— (1903): A list of the birds of Lucknow. Part IV. ibid. 3 (8th ser.) : 148-178. LowTHer, E.H.N. (1944) : Notes on some Indian birds. VIII. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 355-373. ———— (1949): A Bird Photographer in India. Oxford University Press, London. OsMASTON, B. B. (1927) : Notes on the birds of Kashmir. Part Il. J. Bombay JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) nat. Hist. Soc. 32: 134-153. PHILLIPS, B. T. (1946) : A bird photo- grapher’s musings from Kashmir. Part II. ibid. 46: 486-500. RIp.ey II, SIDNEY DILLON (1961): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. SMYTHIES, BERTRAM E. (1953) : The Birds of Burma. 2nd (rev. )edition. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh. STANFORD, J. K. (1947) : Some sugges- tions for field ornithologists in post-war Burma. Part I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 46 : 478-486. TICEHURST, CLAUD B., BUXTON, P. A., & CHEESMAN, R.E. (1922) : The birds of Piso otis: Part IV. ibid. 28: 937- 956. ——-——, Cox, PERCy, & CHEESMAN, R.E. (1926) : Additional notes on the avifauna of Iraq. ibid. 31 : 91-119. WalTE, H. W. (1949): The birds of the Punjab Salt Range (Pakistan). ibid. 48 : 93-117. WILSON, N. F. T. (1899): Nesting in Kashmir. ibid. 12: 634-641. On a collection of Bryophytes made by the Indian Cho Oyu Expedition, 1958° BY B. M. WADHWA? AND J. N. VOHRA Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta In 1958 an Indian mountaineering expedition was sent to scale the world’s sixth highest peak, Cho Oyu in east Nepal, and to make scientific observations particularly in the natural sciences. Shri R. S. Rao, at that time Regional Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Eastern Circle, Shillong, was deputed to accompany the expedition and made a good collection of higher plants and cryptogams. Out of the cryptogams, the lichens were worked out by. Dr. D. D. Awasthi (1960). The bryophytic collection, which was sent to us for identification, comprised 37 packets. Except in a few cases, there was no mixture of mosses in the collection. The specimens were collected from an altitude of about 1905-5185 m., which corresponds to ~ the temperate and alpine zones of the Himalayas, where bryophytes abound in variety. The variety is well reflected in the occurrence of 36 species in this collection of 37 packets. Rhacomitrium heterostichum (Hedw.) Brid. is a new record for Nepal and the Himalayas. In enumerating the mosses, Brotherus (1924-25) is followed, and the nomenclature has been made up-to-date on the basis of Wijk et al. (1959, 1962). For each taxon, the following data are given: habit, habitat, locality, altitude, field number, and date of collection. _ The specimens are deposited in the Herbarium of the Headquarters Organization, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. : ENUMERATION Mosses DITRICHACEAE Garckea comosa (Doz. et Molk.) Wijk et Marg. in Taxon 9: 190, 1960. Grimmia comosa Doz. et Molk. in Ann. Sc. Nat. Bot., ser. 3, 2: 304, 1844. Garckea phascoides C. Muell. in Bot. Zeit. 3 : 865, 1845. 1A paper entitled ‘ The Indian Cho Oyu Expedition, 1958 : Observations of a Botanist Member’, by Seshagiri Rao Rolla, appears on pp. 400-9 of Vol. 60 (2) of the Journal.—Eps. * Present address : Botanica] Survey of India, 10 Chatham Line, Allahabad. 260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) Lax tufts, yellowish brown, on moist soil. Pangboche to Theng- poche, 3965 m. Rolla 13832, 28 April 1958. DICRANACEAE Campylopodium khasianum (Griff.) Paris, Ind. Bryol. 237, 1894. Dicranum khasianum Griff. in Calcutta J. Nat. Hist. 2: 496, 1842. Small, greenish brown, dense tufts along rocky moist crevices below Rhododendron lepidotum bushes. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13752, 20 April 1958. Dicranodontium attenuatum (Mitt.) Wils. ex Jaeg. in Ber. S. Gall. Nathurw. Ges. 1877-78 : 380, 1880. Dicranum attenuatum Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1 : 22, 1859. | Dense, silky, yellowish green, tufts along moist rocky crevices below Rhododendron lepidotum bushes. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13754B, 20 April 1958. It was in association with Rhocomitrium hete- rostichum (Hedw.) Brid. : Dicranodontium uncinatum (Harv.) Jaeg. in Ber. S. Gall. Naturw. Ges. 1877-78 : 381, 1880. Thysanomitrium uncinatum Harv. in Hook. Icon, Pl. Rar. t. 22, 1836. et in Lond. Jour. Bot. 2: 6, 1840. Soft, silky, pale green cushions on Rhododendron campanulatum, Shete-Jumbesi, 3500 m. - Rolla 13688A, 6 April 1958. It was in ‘mixture with Plagiothecium nemorale (Mitt.) Jaeg. Paraleucobryum enerve (Thed.) Loeske. in Hedwigia 47: 171, 1908. Dicranum enerve Thed. in Hartm. Handb. Skand. FI. ed. 5. 393, 1849. Lax cushions along rocky moist crevices below Rhododendron lepi- dotum bushes. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13749B. 20 April 1958. It was in association with Dicranum bonjeanii De Not. forma. Symblepharis vaginata (Hook.) Wijk et Marg. in Taxon 8: 75, 1959, Didymodon vaginatus Hook. Icon. PI. t. 18, fig. 4, 1836. association with Dicranum crispifolium C. Muell. Dicranum bonjeanii De Not. in Lisa, Elenco Muschi Torino 29, 1837. | Yellowish green, close tufts along moist rocky crevices below Rhodo- | dendron lepidotum. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13749A, 20 April | 1958. Dicranum crispifolium C. Muell. in Bot. Zeit. 22 : 349, 1864. : Lax tufts, pale green, along moist rocky crevices. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13757A, 20 April 1958. i" Dense, close, pale green cushions along moist rocky crevices, — Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13757B, 20 April 1958. It was in — i BRYOPHYTES ‘COLLECTED BY INDIAN CHO OYU EXPEDITION 261 Dicranum himalayanum Mitt. in J. Linn, Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1: 14, 1859, Tall tufts felted below with brown tomentum on Rhododendron bushes, also on moist soil near water ditches. Shete-Jumbesi, 3500 m., Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m., Lhenjo-Mozamba,Lake, 5030 m. Rolla 13685A, 13755, 13908. 6 and 20 April and 12 May 1958. Dicranoloma fragile Broth. in Nat. Pfl., ed. 2, 10: 209, 1924. Golden-brown, robust tufts along rocky moraine. Lobucha-Gorashep, 5030 m. Rolla 13790, 24 April 1958. POTTIACEAE Eucladium verticillatum (Brid.) B.S. G. Bryol. Eur. 1:9, 40, 1846. Weisia verticillata Brid. Sp. M. 1: 656, 1801. Small cushions along dry soil and rocky slopes. Dole-Namche Bazar, 4050 m. Rolla 13958, 16 May 1958. GRIMMIACEAE Grimmia ovalis (Hedw.) Lindb. in Act. Soc. Sc. Fenn. 10: 75, 1871. Dicranum ovale Hedw. Spec. Musc. 140, 1801. Grimmia commutata Hueb. Musc. Germ. 185, 1833. G. ovata Web. et Mohr, Naturh. Reise Schwedens 132, 1804. Compact, hoary cushions on rocks all along the track. Lobuche- Gorashep, 5050 m., Gorashep, 5340 m. Rolla 13789 and 13796, 24 and eee — 25 April 1958. Rhacomitrium fuscescens Wils. in Kew J. Bot. 9 : 324, 1857, Lax, brownish green tufts on rock. Thengpochu-Porcha, 3965 m. Rolla 13846, 29 April 1958. Rhacomitrium heterostichum (Hedw.) Brid. Bryol. Univ. 1: 214, 1826. Trichostomum heterostichum Hedw. M. Frond. 2: 70, t.25, 1801. Dense, dark green, many-branched tufts along moist rocky crevices below Rhododendron lepidotum bushes. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13754A, 20 April 1958. It is a new record for Nepal and the Himalayas. Rhacomitrium himalayanum (Mitt.) Jaeg. Ad. 1.: 375, 1872. Grimmia himalayana Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1: 45, 1859. Loose, many-branched, hoary tufts along moist rocky crevices below Rhododendron sp. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13751, 20 April 1958. _ Rhacomitrium javanicum Doz. et Molk. in Zollinger Syst. Verzeichn. 1:25 et 32, 1854. 262. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) Erect or decumbent dark green tufts on rocks. Thengpochu-Porcha, 3965 m. Rolla 13845, 29 April 1958. BRYACEAE Bryum tibetanum Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1 : 72, 1859. _ Small cushions along moist soil of Rebno Lake. Lhenjo-Mozamba Lake, 5030 m. Rolla 13914, 12 May 1958. Bryum trachyrhizon C. Muell. in Par. Ind. Bryol. Suppl. 74, 1900. Dense cushions along moist rocky crevices below Rhododendron lepidotum bushes. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13753, 20 April 1958. Bryum turbinatum (Hedw.) Turn. Musc. Hib. 127, 1804. Mnium turbinatum Hedw. Spec. Musc. 191, 1801. Small tufts or cushions along the running stream of Chokkola. Thaparma-Pheriche, 4200 m. Rolla 13772A. 21 April 1958. It was in association with Philonotis lutea Mitt. BARTRAMIACEAE Philonotis lutea Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1 : 63, 1859. Tall tufts, felted below with brown tomentum, along running stream of Chokkola. Thaparma-Pheriche, 4200 m. Rolla 13772B, 21 April 1958. HOOKERIACEAE Orontobryum hookeri (Mitt.) Fleisch. in Nov. Guinea 12, Bot. Livr. 2: 125, 1914. Stereodon hookeri Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1: 114, 1859. Wide, close, brownish green patches on Rhododendron sp. Shete- Jumbesi, 3500 m. Rolla 13685B, 6 April 1958. - THUIDIACEAE | Thuidium philibertii Limpr. in Laubm. Deutschl. 2 : 835, 1895. | Dense, reddish brown carpets on moist shady soil below Juniperus | bushes. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13748B, 20 April 1958. It | was in association with Ectropothecium sikkimense (Ren. et Card.) Ren. | et Card. Actinothuidium hookeri (Mitt.) Broth. in Nat. Pfl. 1 (3): 1020, 1908. Leskea hookeri Mitt. in J. Linn, Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1: 132, 1859. - | BRYOPHYTES COLLECTED BY INDIAN CHO OYU EXPEDITION — 263 Dense, brownish green carpets on Rhododendron campanulatum Shete- Jumbesi, 3500 m. Rolla 13687, 6 April 1958. AMBLYSTEGIACEAE Cratoneuron filicinum (Hedw.) Spruce, Cat. Musc. Amaz. And. 21, 1867. Hypnum filicinum Hedw. Spec. Musc. 285, 1801. Loose, golden-green carpets along moist soil near water-fall. Namche Bazar-Manjo, 3660 m. Rolla 13994A, 26 May 1958. Drepanocladus uncinatus (Hedw.) Warnst. in Beih. Bot. Centralbl. 13: 402, 417, 1903. Hypnum uncinatum Hedw. Spec. Musc. 289, 1801. Lax, golden-green carpets along moist rocky crevices below Rhodo- dendron sp. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13750 and 13756, 20 April 1958. BRACHY THECIACEAE Brachythecium buchanani (Hook.) Jaeg. in Ber. S. Gall. Naturw. Ges. 1876-77 : 341, 1878. Hypnum buchanani Hook. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 9 : 320, t. 28, fig. 3, 1808. . Loose, golden-green mats along rocky crevices. Chule-Lhenju, 4720 m. Rolla 13901, 11 May 1958. d ENTODONTACEAE Entodon rubicundus (Mitt.) Jaeg. in Ber. S. Gall. Naturw. Ges. 1876- 77: 285, 1878. Stereodon rubicundus Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Suppl. 1: 108, 1859. Dense, brownish green mats on rock. Namche Bazar-Thanu, 3580 m. Rolla 13865, 5 May 1958. PLAGIOTHECIACEAE Plagiothecium nemorale (Mitt.) Jaeg. Ad. 2: 517, 1880. Stereodon nemoralis Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1: 104, 1859. Dense, silky mats on the bark of Rhododendron campanulatum, Shete-Jumbesi 3500 m. Rolla 13688B, 6 April 1958. SEMATOPHY LLACEAE ~ Sematophyllum tristiculum (Mitt.) Jaeg. Ad. 2: 458, 1880. Stereodon tristiculus Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1 : 102, 1859. - Dull green, loose tufts, submerged and along the banks of ice cold lake, Lhenjo-Mozamba Lake, 5185 m. Rolla 13912, 12 May 1958. 264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 62 (2) HYPNACEAE Hypnum revolutum (Mitt.) Jaeg. Ad. 2 : 585, 1880. Stereodon revo- lutus Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1 : 97, 1859. Loose, brownish green carpet along dry soil and rocky slope. Dole- Namche Bazar, 4050 m. Rolla 13957, 16 May 1958. Ectropothecium sikkimense Ren. et Card. in Bull. Soc. R. Bot. Belg. 41(1) : 109, 1905. Close, intricate mats of yellowish green colour on moist shady soil below Juniperus bushes. Pambrchi-Mingbo, 4100 m. Rolla 13748A, 20 April 1958. } POLY TRICHACEAE Lyellia crispa R. Br. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 12 : 562, 1819. Loose, brownish green tufts below Juniperus bushes with dried capsules. Thengpochu-Porcha, 3965 m. Rolla 13847, 29 April 1958. Pogonatum hexagonum Mitt. in J. Linn. Soc. Bot. Suppl. 1 : 152, 1859. Dense, dull green tufts on soil amongst boulders. Jumbesi- Takshindo, 3050 m. Rolla 13691, 7 April 1958. Pogonatum microstomum (R. Br.) Brid. Bryol. Univ. 2: 745, 1827. Polytrichum microstomum R. Br. in Trans. Linn. Soc. 12 : 569, 1819. Loose, dark green tufts on moist soil. Solakumbu. Rolla 13826, 27 April 1958. | LIVER WORTS Marchantia nepalensis Lehm. et Lindenb. in Lehm. Pug. 4: 10, 1832. Thallose liverworts on moist soil along small water-fall. Those- Bhander, 1905 m. Rolla 13633, 4 April 1958. Herberta sp. Leafy liverwort, greyish black on Rhododendron sp. Shete-Jumbesi, 3500 m. Rolla 13684, 6 April 1958. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to Dr. H. Santapau, Director, Botanical Survey of India, for his kind interest and encouragement. They are indebted to Shri R. S. Rao, Regional Botanist, Western Circle, Poona, for putting at their disposal this valuable collection, and to the autho- rities of the British Museum (Nat, Hist.), London, for confirming some of the identifications, BRYOPHYTES COLLECTED BY INDIAN CHO OYU EXPEDITION — 265 REFERENCES AwastTHI, D. D. (1960) : On a collec- Wik, R. V.D., MARGADANT, W. D., tion of Macrolichens by the Indian & FLorscuutz, P. A. (1959) : Index Expedition to Cho Oyu, East Nepal. Muscorum 1 (A-C), in Regnum Veg. 17: Proc. Ind. Acad. Sc. 51 B : 169-180. 1-548. BROTHERUS, V. F. (1924-25) : in Engler —-—-—— (1962) : Index Muscorum 2 & Prantl, Die Naturlichen Pflanzen- (D-H), in Regnum Veg. 26: 1-535. familien, ed. 2, 10 and 11. Gall-inhabiting Tubuliferous Thysanoptera-! BY T. N. ANANTHAKRISHNAN AND B, N. RAMAMURTHI Department of Zoology, Loyola College, Madras—34 (With six plates) Thysanopterocecidia have become a special branch of thrips study, and the contributions of Karny (1911), Karny & Van Leeuwen Reijnvaan (1913, 1914-16) provide valuable information on gall thrips from the Oriental Region, in particular from Java and adjoining areas. Our knowledge of gall thrips from the Indian mainland is due to Ramakrishna (1928), who records about 20 species. Mani (1948) in his work on Cecidozoa and Zoocecidia provides a consolidated list of the gall-inhabiting thrips. It is a known fact that thrips are primitive gall-makers, producing mostly leaf rolls, leaf folds, leaf wrinkles, and — very rarely bud galls, bladder or pouch galls, and horn galls. Studies on gall-inhabiting thrips naturally involve a study of the population within the gall and, consequently, information about: (a) the range of variation of the essential characters of the species involved, (b) the number of species within the gall and their ability to form independent galls, and (c) their host specificity. The observations recorded below are the first of a series to be attempted and, to avoid the monotony of detailed species descriptions, mention is made of the range of variations of some important characters of the species which would be useful for identification. 29 species of gall-inhabiting Tubulifera are discussed below: Alocothrips hadrocerus (Karny) Androthrips flavipes Schmutz Androthrips ramachandrai Karny Arrhenothrips ramakrishnae Hood Arrhenothrips dhumrapaksha Ramakrishna Austrothrips cochinchinensis Karny Brachythrips dantahasta Ramakrishna Cercothrips nigrodentatus (Karny) (new record) Eothrips coimbatorensis Ramakrishna CHONAKRWNO Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I Gall-inhabiting Tubuliferous Thysanoptera : a 4 A. Thilakothrips babuli ; 2. Lothrips crassicornis ; 3. Letradothrips foliiperda ; 4. Brachythrips dantahasta (Photos : T. N. Ananthakrishnan) II aLV1g a ( upuystsypyjUuDUp *N ° 2 $0704 ) snawpur sfrayjoqqv yy *L ‘aspanquol sdisyjosvT “9 £ snqvquaporsiu Sqisyjoosag) °C elojdouesAy]T snosojyngny, surjiqeyur-][es) "90S ‘LSI]{] “LVN AVaWog ‘Nunof GALL-INHABITING TUBULIFEROUS THYSANOPTERA—I 267 10. Eothrips crassicornis (Karny) (new record) 11. Gynaikothrips gracilis Karny (new record) 12. Gynaikothrips fumipennis Karny (new record) 13. Gynaikothrips flaviantennatus Moulton 14. Gynaikothrips karnyi Ramakrishna 15. Gynaikothrips malabaricus Ramakrishna 16. Gynaikothrips moultoni Ramakrishna 17. Gynaikothrips pallicrus Karny 18. Gynaikothrips uzeli Zimmerman 19. Liothrips hradecensis Uzel (new record) 20. Lygothrips jambuvasi (Ramakrishna) 21. Mallothrips indicus Ramakrishna 22. Mesothrips melinocnemis Karny 23. Mesothrips jordani (Karny) 24. Mesothrips vitripennis Katny (new record) 25. Rhynchothrips raoensis Ramakrishna 26. Tetradothrips foliiperda (Katny) 27. Teuchothrips longus (Schmutz) (new record) 28. Teuchothrips priesneri Ananthakrishnan 29. Thilakothrips babuli Ramakrishna Alocothrips hadrocerus (Karny) Trichothrips hadrocerus Karny, 1926, Mem. Dept. Agri. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 9 (6): 220; Ramakrishna, 1928, ibid. 10 (7): 298 ; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian Insects 25 : 41. Alocothrips hadrocerus Priesner, 1951, Indian J. Ent. 13 (2) : 195 ; Ananthakrish- nan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25 : 26-27. This rather uncommon species has been rediscovered after 37 years from the marginal leaf gall of a wild plant, from Shencottah Hills (2500 ft.). Of 15 individuals collected within this gall, 11 are macropterous females, two apterous females, and two brachypterous males. It is a point of interest to observe the divergence in coloration between the three categories of individuals within the same gall. All the macropter- ous forms are brown to pale brown, with only the antennal segment 3 tinged yellow. The apterous females have head, prothorax, all legs, and all antennal segments yellowish, the rest of the body yellowish brown. The brachypterous forms have an intermediate range of coloration, with legs paler brown, as also antennal segments 6 to 8 brown, rest pale. Chaetotaxy of the females. Postoculars 45 to 48 ; anteromarginals 32 ; anteroangulars 38 to 43; midlaterals 45 to 48 ; postangulars 48 to 54 and epimerals 48 to 64 long. Tube very characteristic of the genus, 168 to 182 long, 98 wide at base, 56-70! at apex; accessory fringes on ne forewing 7 to 8. 1 All measurements in microns, 268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol G22) Material. 11 macropterous females, 2 apterous females, and 2 brachyp- terous males, within one gall on the leaf of a wild plant, Shencottah Hills, S. India (2500 ft.), 18.viii.1963. Androthrips flavipes Schmutz Androthrips flavipes Schmutz, 1915, Sitz. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 1031; Karny, 1915, Zeit. Wiss. Insektenbiol. 11:90; Bagnall, 1918, A.M.N.A. 13 (8) : 27-28; Karny, 1926, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 9 (6): 224 3 Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25 : 28. This species is not known as an independent gall-producer. Several individuals were collected during the present studies from four sources— in the galls of Mimusops produced by Arrhenothrips ramakrishnae, in the leaf galls of Memexylon produced by Brachythrips dantahasta Ramk.,, in the leaf-galls of Ficus sp. caused by Gynaikothrips flaviantennatus_ Moulton, and in leaf-galls of Ficus benjamina produced by Gynaikoth- rips uzeli. Yn all these cases Androthrips was not the dominant species. During the peak months of their occurrence (Jan. to Mch.), Androthrips flavipes number 6 to 8 in many galls and 2 to 3 in other months; their number is much less in the smaller galls of Memexylon. Ananthakrish- nan (1964) refers to the range of variations in colour and the thoracic chaetotaxy. Material. 32 females, 19 males inside Mimusops galls, Madras, 19.xii.63 and 28.xii.63; 9 females, 5 males, in Mimusops galls, Chidam- baram, 4.x.63 ; 8 females, 6 males in leaf-galls of Memexylon, Calicut, 5.x.1963; 12 females, 4 males in leaf-galls of Memexylon, Agambe Ghat road, 22.164; 28 females, 7 males, in Ficus benjamina galls, Courtallum, 14.1x.64 ; 18 females, 4 males, in Ficus sp. galls, Madras, 8.v.65. Androthrips ramachandrai Karny Androthrips ramachandrai Karny, 1926, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 9 (6) : 226; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian Insects 25: 44; Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25: 29. This species is not a true gall-producer and, when present, is associated with Austrothrips cochinchinensis Karny within the axillary bud galls of Calycopteris floribunda. In the course of the present studies, nearly a hundred galls of different sizes were examined from parts of Kerala, parts of Mysore, and Courtallum (Tirunelveli District) where the host plant is abundant and about 75 individuals were collected. In a medium-sized gall where the number of Austrothrips cochinchinensis, the gall-makers, ranges from 300 to 400, such as those examined in Courtallum during the months August-October, the number of Androthrips ramachandrai per gall was about the range 9 to 12, The GALL-INHABITING TUBULIFEROUS THYSANOPTERA—I 269 following range of variation is observed in the males and females of this species. FEMALE MALE Postoculars ao 84-112 70-112 Anteroangulars ee 70-98 56-84 Midlaterals ae 84-112 56-112 Postangulars ae 84-112 70-112 Epimerals aa 98-140 84-126 Forefemoral width Y; Sale 96-168 Prothoracic length we ela OR 182 112-168 Tarsal tooth ee. 28-42 14-42 Arrhenothrips. dhumrapaksha Ramakrishna Arrhenothrips dhumrapaksha Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agri. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 10 (7): 280; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940 , Catalogue of Indian Insects 25: 31; Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25: 32. This species is recorded in considerable numbers from the leaf-fold galls of Ficus retusa, from Agambe Forest, Ghat road (Mysore State). The gall resembles that caused by Gynaikothrips uzeli on the same host plant. However, in none of the galls examined did both species occur together. The leaves, in particular the terminal leaves, become folded upwards and, due to the thickening of the leaf blade, the sides of the fold assume a slight convexity. Apart from the clouded nature of the wings, the shorter metanotal setae and the anteroangulars shorter than the anteromarginals are very characteristic of A. dhumrapaksha, not to speak of the host specificity involved in gall production. Experi- mental gall induction on Ficus leaves by Arrhenothrips ramakrishnae did not succeed. FEMALE MALE Head width .. 210-266 196-252 Postoculars os 84-126 56-112 Prothoracic length oe 196-266 196-252 Anteroangulars wy 56- 70 36-42 Postangulars cae 98-112 70-84. Epimerals aatores 98-126 56-98 Forefemoral width eer 90-206 154-238 Foretarsal tooth ae 70-112 56- 70 Material, 35 females and 18 males from leaf-galls of Ficus retusa, Agambe Forest, Ghat road, Mysore State (21.1.1964). Arrhenothrips ramakrishnae Hood (Plate III, 9) _ Arrhenothrips ramakrishnae Hood, 1919, Insec. Inscit. Menstr. 7: 99 ; Rama- krishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 10 (7): 282; Anantha- krishnan, 1954, Agra Bry J. Res. (Science) 3 (2): 463-474; 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25: 31-32. 270, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) This is one of the commonest of gall-producing Tubulifera causing leaf-fold galls on Mimusops elengi. Several hundreds of galls and individuals examined from Mimusops galls from different regions did not reveal the presence of even a single Liophlaeothrips vichitravarna (Ramk.) (= Rhynchothrips vichitravarna). It is clear beyond doubt that only Arrhenothrips ramakrishnae produces the galls. Duration of egg and nymphal stages. Egg, 5-6 days; I instar, 3-4 days; Il instar, 3-5 days; pre-pupa, | day; pupal, 2-3 days; pupa II, 1 day. Austrothrips cochinchinensis Karny (Plate V, 15) Austrothrips cochinchinensis Karny, 1923, J. Siam. Soc. 21: 113; Ramachandra Rao, 1924, Agr. J. India 19 (4): 436; Karny, 1926, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 9 (6): 259; Ramakrishna, 1928, ibid. 10 (7): 297; Mani, 1948, J. Roy. Asia. Soc. Bengal 14 (2): 69, 107; Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25 : 33. This is the only thrips known to produce the axillary bud galls in Calycopteris floribunda. The galls were observed in all stages of development, the larger galls ranging from 25 to 45 mm. in diameter. They were abundant throughout Kerala State and the Kerala-Mysore border’ area, and in Madras State the author collected them. in numbers from Courtallum (Tirunelveli District), The very long, knobbed bristles of the body are very characteristic of the species and the following range is observed in the females : Postoculars 83 to 96, anteroangulars 51 to 64, anteromarginals 58 to 80, midlaterals 64 to 96, postangulars 86 to 96, epimerals 93 to 109. Only two males were observed ; measurements : anteroangulars 54, anteromarginal 61, midlateral 86, epimeral 102. Material. Two males and numerous females, inside galls of Caly- copteris floribunda, Courtallum, Kerala, and Mysore. Brachythrips dantahasta Ramakrishna (Plate I, 4) Brachythrips dantahasta Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 10 (7): 294; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian Insects 25 :~40; Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25: 34- This species has been known to produce galls on Memexylon sp., causing the leaf-margin-roll gall, and in the final stages of gall-produc- tion the leaf blade appears swollen, crumpled, twisted, and tuberculated (see Plate I, 4). The distribution of this species, so far observed by the authors, includes mainly Kerala State, Mangalore, and the Agambe Forest areas of Mysore. The head length in th® females varies from 196 to 224, in the males 196 to 210, the corresponding widths being 210 » SHILAVGDIVU Sf ap OYIWUAL ‘OL (uvuysisyoyjuDUP “AT: SOJ0Yd ) taausatad sdrayjoyona [ *T] “ IDUYSTAYVUDA SGIAYJOUIYALP *¢ Mtr ona rarer wes ~ O- Tit ALV 1d Pe taidare “ Muojnom sdrayjoywuay g 01 od NT) vale] (upuysisyoyjUuvUuPp “NL * $0joyd SNIDINAPOASIU SFIAYIOIAID, “ET eraydoursaAy |, siuuadtaqla SGrAyjOSaP “CT El snosopNqny surjiqeyul-][es) ‘90S “ISI[] ‘LVN AVaWog ‘Nunof GALL-INHABITING TUBULIFEROUS THYSANOPTERA—I 271 to 226 and 210 to 238 respectively. Very few individuals show the head as long as wide (210). Prothoracic chaetotaxy. Females: Postoculars 48 to 64, anteroan- gulars 19 to 22, anteromarginals 19 to 22, midlaterals 29 to 32, postangulars 43 to 48, epimerals 86 to 106, accessory fringes of forewing 6 to 10. Material. 28 females, 12 males, on leaf galls of Memexylon, Calicut, 5.x.63; 32 females, 8 males, on leaf-galls of Memexylon, Agambe Forest, Ghat road, Mysore State (20.1.1964) ; 42 females, 22 males, Courtallum (Tirunelveli District) 13.x.64. Cercothrips nigrodentatus (Karny) (Plates JI, 5 and IV, 13) Acanthinothrips nigrodentatus Karny, 1930, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenzorg 10: 120. Cercothrips nigrodentatus Priesner, 1949, Bull. Soc. Fouad Ier, Entom. 33 : 124. Large colonies of this large-sized Tubuliferan were found feeding on the underside of the leaves of Planchona valida from Courtallum, Moodbidri (Mangalore), Hubli, Shencottah Hills, etc. Over two hundred individuals at a time, including the nymphal stages were found concentrated on single leaf making them wrinkled and crumpled. Prothoracic chaetotaxy. Females: Postoculars 64-74, anteroan- gulars 32 to 54, anteromarginals 16 to 22, midlaterals 32 to 48, postan- gulars 16 to 32, epimerals 80 to 112. Males: 32 to 58, 42 to 58, 16 to 22, 38 to 48,16 to 32, 64 to 96 paper yen 3 in the order mentioned for the females, Eothrips coimbatorensis Ramakrishna Eothrips coimbatorensis Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agri. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 10 (7): 298-299; Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25 : 40-41. £ Eothrips aswamukha Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agri. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 10 (7) : 299-300 ; Ananthakrishnan, 1954, J. Zool. Soc. India 6 (2) : 164. This species has been known to produce the twisted, cylindrical roll- gall of the leaf and very few adults: were recorded during the past studies as most of the forms were immature stages. Ananthakrishnan (1964) gives a detailed description of the species with the range of measurements. | Eothrips crassicornis (Karny) (Plate 1, 2) Dolerothrips crassicornis Karny, 1912, Marcellia 11: 126 ; Karny, 1913, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenzorg 10 : 84-86 ; Hood, 1915, Entomologist 48: 106; Priesner, 1949, Bull. Soc. Fouad Ier Entom., 33 : 94. Only 5 females along with some immature stages of this species, which is a new record to India, were collected from an unidentified plant from Horsley Hills, Madanapalle. < JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 272 | | 07-81 yri-Sol 79-SP 1S €I-IT | ZSI-LPl ZSI-LPI OTI-ZIT | €I-Ol | 821-96 78-08 bL-89 pI-ZI prI-87I 90I-LL LL-v9 71-6 09I-OrI 99I-LtI SOI-96 ‘) | 72-41 9L1-OrI OLI-O€I = HEI -96 | 71-6 O9I-SII | 8ZI-¥8 S11-96 i | sosully sivpnsue | S[VIO} PL] aiqnog | | WiSPNGH™ | sg -PIN (soyeuloy) Sdiyjoylwudy 43O SaIOddS ONILIGVANI-TIVD cc-Ol s]euIsIeW -O19}UV Ocr-OSE pIE-OSE 8EC-HCC V6C-OsT O8C-CST CCE-V6T 9CE-V6C CCE-P6T Olc-c8T VEE-OCT OS¢-087 OCH-9EE bCc-961 CTCTE-O8T azn *) Snddijod Sy 1UO0]JNOUL * SNI1ADGDIDU *D 1AUADY *D siuuadiuunf *9 snjouuajuviavyf * siejnsue -O19JUY | $Iv]Nd0}SOg (suosoNu U1 SJuawadnsvay ) adv yysus] qn |, Yysus] PeoH so1seds \ GALL-INHABITING TUBULIFEROUS THYSANOPTERA—I 273 Genus Gynaikothrips Karny Gynaikothrips Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25 : 45 (All major references to the genus provided). This genus comprises several well-known gall-forming species. Seven species are recorded here: G. flaviantennatus Moulton, G. fumi- pennis Karny, G. karnyi Bagnall, G. malabaricus Ramakrishna, G. moultoni Ramakrishna, G. pallicrus Karny, and G. uzeli Zimmerman. The tabular statement below, indicates the distinctive characters of the species, with the range of variations. | Gynaikothrips flaviantennatus Moulton Gynaikothrips flaviantennatus Moulton, 1929, Rec. Ind. Mus. 31: 98 ; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian Insects 25 : 45. The present record is based on numerous females and males taken inside the leaf-rolls of a wild plant, Madras, 5.v.63. — Gynaikothrips fumipennis Karny Gynaikothrips fumipennis Karny, 1913, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenzorg 10: 104-105. This species is a new record for the Indian mainland, 8 females and 5 males collected from the leaf-rolls of Conocephalus sp. from Courtallum, 18.vili. 1963. Gynaikothrips karnyi Bagnall Gynaikothrips karnyi Bagnall, 1913, A.M.N.H. 13 (8) : 23-31; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian Insects 25:46; Ananthakrishnan, 1952, Indian J. Ent. 14: 201; Ananthakrishnan, 1960, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (3) : 576. es This species causes the marginal-leaf-stitch gall in pepper (Piper nigrum) and is known all over south India. It was collected in the course of the present studies from Kallar, Burliar (Nilgiris), Calicut, Wynaad, Taliparamba, etc. (Kerala). Ananthakrishnan (1960) provides a com- -plete range of variations of the males and females of this species. In so far as the present collections go, only the above species has been noticed within the gall. Material. Numerous males and females inside pepper galls, Gynaikothrips malabaricus Ramakrishna (Plate III, 10) Gynaikothrips malabaricus Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 10 (7) : 302-303 ; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian Insects 25 : 46. 6 374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) This species was described by Ramakrishna from 4 females and 3 males taken from the rolled tubular edges of Ficus bengalensis. More than 120 individuals were taken within similar Ficus galls from Yercaud (Salem) and Guindy, Madras. | Gynaikothrips moultoni Ramakrishna (Plate III, 5) Gynaikothrips moultoni Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ga Calcutta 10 (7): 303-304; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian Insects 25:46; Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Entomol. Ts. Arg. 85. H 3-4: 225-226. This species-is known to produce tubular galls of Ficus sp. jutting out from the lower and upper leaf surfaces more or less similar to the horn galls. 45 females and 14 males were collected within such galls from Salem, 18.vii.1963. Gynaikothrips pallicrus Karny -Gynaikothrips pallicrus Karny, 1923, Treubia 3: 315; Ramakrishna & Margaban- dhu, 1939, Rec. Ind. Mus. 41: 32. While the host plant from which this species was collected by Rama- krishna & Margabandhu from the Nilgiris has not been mentioned, it is of interest to record 4 females and 2 males of this species from the leaf- galls of Pothos scandens, along with the gall-maker Tetradothrips foliiperda (Karny) and the inquiline Mesothrips melinocnemis Karny. Moodbidri, near Mangalore (Mysore State) 21.1.1964. Gynaikothrips uzeli Zimmerman (Plate V, 14) Gyraikothrips uzeli Zimmerman, 1900, Bull. Inst. Bot. Buit. 7 : 12. This is .one -of the commonest: species: of -Gynaikothrips- producing leaf-fold - galls -on: Ficus~ benjamina. ‘Collections were made from identical galls from Burliar (Nilgiris) 7.vi.63, Courtallum (Tirunelveli Dist) 17.viil.63, and Agambe Forest, Mysore, 23.1.64; 23.1. 65. Gynaikothrips gracilis Karny Gynaikothrips gracilis Karny, 1913, Bull. Jard. bot. Buitenzorg 10: 113-115. . This species is found always in association with Cercothrips nigroden- tatus on the leaves of Planchona valida. _ About 7 to 12 individuals on an average are present on a leaf. Localities, as for C. nigrodentatus. Liothrips hradecensis Uzel Liothrips hradecensis Uzel, 1895, Mon. Thys. Taff 7: 262.. Examination of Ficus benjamina galls for G. uzelirevealed the presence in very small numbers of the above species, which incidentally is an inquiline and a new record for India. (UDUYSIAYDYJUDUP “N° [ 2 $0704) SISUAULYIUIYIOIN SPIAIJOAISNP “CT Ijaz SquAypoywuary “F] SI _A_ALVITT $$ JourRN. Bomspay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VI Gall-inhabiting Tubuliferous Thysanoptera 16. Teuchothrips longus (Photo: T. N. Ananthakrishnan ) GALL-INHABITING TUBULIFEROUS THYSANOPTERA—I 275 Material. Courtallum, 5 females inside Ficus galls along with G. uzeli and PL Rage flavipes, 13.x.64. Lygothrips jambuvasi (Ramakrishna) (Plate II, 6) Eothrips Tainbiaast Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Ge 10 (7) : 300-301. Lygothrips jambuvasi Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25: 60-61. Several individuals of both sexes of this interesting gall-maker were taken from leaf-margin galls of some wild species of Eugenia, Kodai- kanal Hills, 2500 ft., 9.xii.1963. The following are the ranges of measurements of the ences. FEMALE MALE Postoculars .. 38-48 22-26 Anteroangulars es Siok!) — _ Midlaterals ie as 13 ~ Postangulars .. 45-64 ~ 45-51 Epimerals .. 45-64 45-51 Mallothrips indicus Ramakrishna (Plate II, 7) lion ibs: indicus Boiatiennal, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 10 (7) : 308; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian Insects 25:50; Priesner, 1949, Bull. Soc. Fouad Ier Entom, 33:91, 93; Ananthakrishnan 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25: 63-65. This species was hitherto believed to make the galls on Eugenia jambolana leaves.” As the’accompanying plate shows, the galls are in the form of several isolated oval brownish patches on the leaf. When these become dry with cracks on the surface, individuals (adults) of this species enter the galls. No nymphal stages are met with within the gall, the actual producer of which is some psyllid species. Anantha-. krishnan (1964) gives an account of the range of variation of the species. . : | Material. 20females, 6 males, 10.vii.63; 14 females, 5 males, Pondi- cherry, 24.vii.63; 28 females, 8 males, Tirupathi, 26.vii.65. Mesothrips melinocnemis Karny Mesothrips melinocnemis Karny, 1926, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 9 (6): 229; Ramakrishna, 1928, ibid. 10 (7): 307; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue of Indian Insects 25 : 49. This species is found in association with Tetradothrips foliiperda within the leaf-galls of Pothos scandens (Plate I, 3). .The material under review. is based on a..collection of these ‘species collected from these galls in. Moodbidri (Mangalore) and Taliparamba (Kerala). 276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) From the meagre number of individuals collected within a large number of galls, this species has to be regarded only as an intruder on the real gall-maker, ZYetradothrips foliiperda, which was found in considerable numbers. Postoculars 128 to 140; anteroangulars and anteromarginals and midlaterals almost subequal, short, 38 to 48 long; postangulars 128 to 144 and epimerals 128 to 147 long. Accessory fringes of forewing, 6 to 9. Material. 2 females and 1 male, Mangalore, 20.i.1964. Mesothrips jordani Zimmerman Mesothrips jordani Zimmerman, 1900, Bull. Inst. bot. Buitenzorg 7:16; Karny, 1912, Marcellia 11: 148; Karny & Vanleeuwen, 1913, Bull. Inst. bot. Buitenzorg 10: 68-69. This species is also a new record for the Indian mainland. It is found in the company of Gynaikothrips uzeli. Twelve individuals (7 females and 5 males) were collected from leaf-galls of Ficus sp., Courtallum, 18.viii.63. Anteroangulars 32 to 64; anteromarginals 32 to 48; postangulars 53 to 64; and epimerals 80 to 112, all dark, strong, almost pointed ; accessory fringes of forewings 11 to 16. The forefemoral width in the males varies from 112 to 280 in the oedymerous forms. Mesothrips vitripennis Karny (Plate IV, 12) Mesothrips vitripennis Karny, 1923, Jour. Siam. Soc. 16 (2) : 149 ;. Priesner, 1926, Treubia 8, Suppl.: 109; Priesner, 1929 ibid. 10 (4) : 452, 458, 460. This species also is a new record for the Indian mainland. Several individuals were collected from the leaf-roll galls of Anogeissus (Combretacea) from Courtallum and Kerala. Prothoracic chaetotaxy. Females: Postoculars 96 to 112, antero- angulars 64 to 73, anteromarginals 48, midlaterals 105, epimerals 96, — double fringes on forewing 7 to 11. | Material. 32 females, 12 males, Courtallum, 17.viii.63 ; 7 females, 2 males, Wynaad, 14.x1.63. Rhynchothrips raoensis Ramakrishna Rhynchothrips raoensis Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 10 (7) : 282. 14 females and 6 males of this species were collected from the leaf- galls of Mallotus philippinensis from Courtallum, 17.viii.63. GALL-INHABITING TUBULIFEROUS THYSANOPTERA—I 207. Tetradothrips foliiperda (Karny) (Plate I, 3) Eothrips foliiperda ‘Karny, 1926, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 9 (6): 222; Ramakrishna, 1928, ibid. 10 (7): 298. Tetradothrips foliiperda Priesner, 1952, Indian J. Ent. 12 (2): 98; Anantha- krishnan, 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Suppl. 25 : 40. This species causes the leaf-roll gall in Pothos scandens. Of over 40 adults taken, only 3 or 4 individuals of Mesothrips melinocnemis Karny were noticed. Postoculars 35 to 48 long; anteroangulars, anteromarginals, and midlaterals, very short, pointed, 35 to 38 long ; postangulars 144 to 166 and epimerals 176 to 198 long. Material. 26 females and 12 males within leaf- -galls of Pothos * scandens, Moodbidri, Mangalore (20.1.1964). Teuchothrips longus (Schmutz) (Plate VI, 16) Mesothrips longus Schmutz, 1913, Sitz. Akad. Wiss. Wien 122 (1) : 1054. The species appears to be a common gall-former, causing marginal leaf-roll galls of Pavetta sp. Only two species of gall-making Teuchothrips are known from this country, 7. priesneri Ananthakrishnan being the other species. Prothoracic chaetotaxy. Females: Postoculars 64 to 70 long, anteroangulars 32 to 48; anteromarginals 26 to 38; midlaterals 43 to 54; postangulars 64 to 80 and epimerals 70 to 93; all setae dilate at apex ; 5 to 8 double fringes on forewings. Material. 34 females, 30 males. on leaf-galls of Pavetta sp., Courtallum, 18.viii.63 ; 25 females, 10 males on leaf-galls of Pavetta sp., Omalur, Salem, 23.iii.64 ; numerous males and females, Alagarkoil (Madura), 15.x.64. a Teuchothrips priesneri Ananthakrishnan (Plate IIT, 11) Teuchothrips priesneri Ananthakrishnan, 1964, Entomol. Ts. Arg. 85. H 3-4: 234-235. This is a stout built species of Teuchothrips causing complete leaf- gall of the terminal leaf of the tree. Several individuals, adult and larvae, seen inside the gall, which in its final stages of development appears twisted and crumpled. Prothoracic chaetotaxy. Females: Postoculars 106 to 112 long, pointed ; anteroangulars 43 to 51; anteromarginals 43 to 48; mid- laterals 70 to 80; postangulars 160 to 166, and epimerals 131 fe 160 long, all pointed. Forewings with 26 to 29 double fringes. The macropterous females are 3°444-3:808 mm. long, while the males are 3°570-3°710 mm, long. 278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) Thilakothrips babuli Ramakrishna (Plate I, 1) Thilakothrips babuli Ramakrishna, 1928, Mem. Dept. Agr. Ind., Ent. Ser., Calcutta 10 (7): 275; Ramakrishna & Margabandhu, 1940, Catalogue -of Indian Insects 25:30; Priesner, 1949, Bull. Soc. Fouad Ier Entom. 33 : 67; Hood, 1957, Proe; Ent. Soc. Wash. 59 (4): 194-197 ; rap a pe a 1964, Opuscula Entomologica Lund. Supp!. 25 ; 80-81. Over 170 individuals of this remarkable gall-maker were recently collected from Kolattur, Chingleput District, making the leaf rosettes on Acacia leucophloea. | | Macropterous and brachypterous individuals were found, the range of variations being: Macropterous females—Postoculars 38 to 51, anteroangulars 38 to 51, anteromarginals 38 to 51, postangulars 43 to 48, epimerals 64 to 80, accessory epimerals 32 to 48; males: 32 to 45, 29 to 32, 19 to 32, 42 to 48, 51 to 67, 32 to 38 respectively. This species has been collected subsequently from Secunderabad, Gudur, and Tirupathi in Andhra Pradesh. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT _ The authors are grateful to the U. S. Department of Agriculture for the P. L. 480 grant, during the tenure of which this work was under- taken, Further contribution to the Flora of Pavagadh Hill near Baroda, Gujarat BY G. L. SHAH AND J. A, INAMDAR Department of Botany, Sardar Vallabhbhai Vidyapeeth, Vallabh Vidyanagar, Gujarat ABSTRACT In this paper twenty-six plants are listed, many of which are not reported by earlier workers from this area. Cassia mimosoides L. is reported here for the first time for Gujarat. The occurrence of Argyreia sericea Dalz. and Cynoctonum mitreola Britt. in the present area is an _ additional locality, since the former has been reported from Saurashtra by Santapau (1953) and the latter from Lunavada by Saxton (1922). INTRODUCTION The flora of many of the forests in the hilly regions of Gujarat State except for a few forests, e.g. Gir Forest (Santapau & Raizada 1955), Dangs Forest (Santapau 1954-55), and the forests of Pavagadh Hill, seems to be little known. Pavagadh Hill, about 46 km. NE. of Baroda, is botanically known to some extent by the work of Santapau (1955), Phatak & Joshi (1955), Phatak & Oza (1959), Chavan & Mehta (1959), and Chavan & Oza (1960, 1961, and 1963). The authors visited this hill on 20.9.1964 on a botanical excursion, when extensive collections were made and ample field notes taken. During this outing some rare plants for Gujarat, e.g. Acrocephalus indicus O. Kuntze, Argyreia sericea Dalz., Cassia mimosoides L., Cynoc- tonum mitreola Britt., Eriophorum comosum Wall., Ipomoea iwidied Stapf, etc., were collected. Cassia mimosoides L., eich is fairly common in the vicinity of Bombay, was collected here for the first time in Gujarat. Striga gesneroides Vatke, a root parasite commonly found on Lepidaga- this cuspidata Nees, was noted on L. trinervis Wall. ex Nees. Its occurrence on the latter host has also been reported by Santapau (1960, p. 162). The flowering of Carvia callosa Bremek. (= Strobilanthes callosus Wall.) has been discussed by Santapau (1944, 1950, 1952, 1962). We also found it flowering profusely and it was one of the eomspIcuous plants at this time. : 280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) Most of the plants listed here are not reported by earlier workers in the area. Some plants, already accounted for in earlier works, have also been included, as our observations are somewhat different from those published. The names of most of the plants in the present list are the same as those given in Cooke’s FLORA (1958); where the name is changed, the correct name (according to us) is given first, followed by the name in Cooke’s FLORA as a synonym. At the end of each item, we give our collection number. All the sheets collected from Pavagadh are deposited in the Herbarium of the Department of Botany, Sardar Vallabhbhai Vidyapeeth, Vallabh Vidyanagar. Our identifications have been confirmed by matching the sheets of plants listed with those in the Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay. LIST OF PLANTS MALVACEAE 1. Abutilon ramosum Guill. Perr. et. A. Rich. Rare ; in the undergrowth of forest at the foot of the hill. Flowers yellow. (Shah 11047). TALIAGEAE 2. Triumfetta pentandra A, Rich. Occasional along roadsides and among grasses at the foot of the hill. For the correct identity of this plant see Blatter in /. Bombay nat. Hist, Soc. 34: 890, 1931, and Vartak, ibid. 56 (2) : 365-366, 1959. (Shah 11061) _LINACEAE 3. Linum mysorense Heyne Small herbs, conspicuous by yellow flowers. Common among grasses. (Shah 11065) PAPILIONACEAE 4, Atylosia platycarpa Benth. Occasional among grasses. Flowers yellow. (Shah 11039) 5. Desmodium diffusum (L.) DC. A few plants seen in the undergrowth of forest at the foot of the hill. Flowers bright purple. The glutinous viscid hairs are typical of this plant. (Shah 11059) FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF PAVAGADH HILL 281 6. Indigofera glandulosa Roxb. ex Willd. Occasional in moist ground along margins of a pond. (Shah 11076A) CAESALPINIACEAE 7. Cassia mimosoides L. Rare; a few plants seen among grasses at the foot of the hill. Flowers yellow. (Shah 11050) RUBIACEAE 8. Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook. f. One tree seen near Machi. (Shah 11055) COMPOSITAE 9, Centratherum phyllolaenum (DC.) Benth. ex Clarke Common in shaded spots; also seen on old walls. (Shah 11058) 10. Pulicaria wightiana (DC.) Benth, ex Clarke Occasional among grasses. Flowers bright yellow. (Shah 11064) LOGANIACEAE 11, Cynoctonum mitreola (L.) Britt. [Mitreola oldenlandioides Wall.) Rare ; only two plants seen in the undergrowth of the forest at the foot of the hill. Flowers white. The senior author (1962) has discussed the nomenclature of the present plant. (Shah 11081) CONVOLVULACEAE 12, Argyreia sericea Dalz. A patch seen among grasses. Flowers bright purple. This is an additional record from Gujarat. In the vicinity of Bombay this is one of the commonest twiners during the rainy season. (Shah 11070) 13. Cuscuta chinensis Lamk. A rare parasite noted on Cassia tora L. Flowers pale yellow or creamy-white, (Shah 11081A) 14, Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br. An occasional twiner among grasses. Flowers purple. For the nomenclature of this plant see van Ooststroom in F/, Males 4 (4) : 462, 1954. (Shah 11088) 282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 15. Ipomoea muricata (L.) Jacq. [Calonyction muricatum Don] , A rare twiner. Flowers bright purple. The thickened pedicels of the fruits and muricated stem are typical of this plant. (Shah 11086) 16. Ipomoea sepiaria Roxb. Common on hedges. Flowers white. Santapau (1955) also reported this colour for this plant in this area. In vicinity of Tuva, in Kaira District, white flowers have been observed by. us. However, in the neighbourhood of Baroda, Broach, and Bombay, the flowers seen, so far, have been the normal pink to rosy purple colour. Verdcourt [Kew Bull. 15(1) : 7-8, 1961] has discussed the nomenclature of the present plant and according to him J. sepiaria Roxb. is correct and not I. maxima Don ex Sw. as given in some recent works. (Shah 11054). 17. Ipomoea sindica Stapf Rare; a small patch seen. among grasses mixed with Atylosia platycarpa Benth. Flowers pale yellow or creamy-white. (Shah 11077) 18. Ipomoea sinensis (Desr.) Choisy [[pomoea calycia (Roxb.) Clarke] A rare twiner in the area. Flowers creamy-white. We have followed Verdcourt, FI. Trop. Africa (Convoly.) p. 101, 1963, for the nomen- clature of this plant. (Shah 11082) = | JESS SCROPHULARIACEAE 19. Striga gesneroides (Willd.) Vatke [Striga orobanchioides Benth.] — -A rare parasite on Lepidagathis trinervis Wall. Flowers bright purple. (Shah 11076) | yey LABIATAE 20. Acrocephalus indicus °O. Kuntze [Acrocephalus capitatus Benth.] Rare on grassy slopes, growing along with Lepidagathis trinervis Wall. Flowers blue. (Shah 11078) AMARANTHACEAE 2A: Achyranthes aspera L. var. porphyristachya Hook. f. Common in shaded spots. At the foot of the hill it was found among grass in patches mixed with Pupalia lappacea Juss. and P. atro- purpurea Mog. (Shah 11048) 22. Pupalia atropurpurea (DC.) Mog. Lge at Occasional among grass in stony ground, Spikes tinged bright 4 purple. (Shah 11042) FURTHER CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF PAVAGADH HILL 283 EUPHORBIACEAE 23. Phyllanthus urinaria L. Rare; the minutely echinate fruits are typical of this plant. 11095) (Shah DIOSCOREACEAE 24, Dioscorea pentaphylla L. Occasional twiner with female flowers and young fruits. 11105) (Shah COMMELINACEAE 25. Commelina kurzii Clarke A few plants noted on old walls. Flowers violet purple. This plant may be confused with C. paludosa BI. (= C. obliqua Ham. ex Don) which it resembles in general appearance, but Rao (1962) has shown that the two species are quite distinct. Our plant tallies with the sheets of C. kurzii Clarke in the Blatter Herbarium, identified by ae, and also with the illustration given by him. (Shah 11045) CYPERACEAE 26. Eriophorum comosum Wall. Rare, on grassy slopes. Cooke (3:411) cites } locality Gujarat : Champanir, a village at the foot of Pavagadh Hill. (Shah 11063) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are deeply thankful to Prof. P. V. Bole for giving facilities for work in the Blatter Herbarium. Thanks are also due to Dr. J. J. Shah for facilities and interest in the work. REFERENCES Cuavan, A. R., & MEHTA, A.R. (1959): Grasses of Pavagadh. J. Indian bot. Soc. 38 : 171-185. ——_——— & OzA, G. M. (1960): Cucumis setosus Cogn. A new record for Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 699, t. 1. ————— (1961) : Momordica denudata Clarke (Cucurbitac.) and Trema politoria Planch. (Ulmac.) : New records for Bombay. ibid. 58: 303-304. . (1963): New host ns ts ne es me plants for Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn. f.) Ettings. at Pavagadh. ibid. 60: 472-473. Cooke, T. (1958): The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. Reprinted edi- tion, Calcutta. PHATAK, V.G., & JosHI, B. B. (1955) : Flora of Pavagadh Hill, Eastern Gujarat. J. M.S. Univ. Baroda 4: 73-85. & Oza, G. M. (1959): Occurrence of Curcuma inodora Blatter at Pavagadh (Gujarat). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56 : 368-369, 284 Rao, R.S., & KAMMATHY, R. V.(1962): Notes on Indian Commelinaceae. /. Bom- bay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 58-70, tt. 1 & 2. SANTAPAU, H. (1944-1952): The flower- ing of Strobilanthes. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 605, 1944; 49: 320-321, 1950; 50: 430-431, 1952. ————— (1953): Plants of Saura- shtra. A preliminary list. Rajkot. —————— (1954-55): Contributions to the Botany of Dangs{Forest, Bombay State. J. Gujerat Res. Soc. 16: 285-320, 1954 and 17: 1-59, 1955. ——— —— (1955): Excursion of the Indian Botanical Society to Pavagadh Hill near Baroda on January 7th 1955. J. Indian bot. Soc. 34: 158-189, tt. 6. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) SANTAPAU, H. (1960): The flora of Khan- dala on the Western Ghats of India. Rec. bot. Surv. India 16: (ed. 2.) 162. _ 7 —- — (1962) : Gregarious flower- ing of Strobilanthes and Bamboos. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 : 688-695, t. 1. ——, & RAIZADA, M. B. (1955) : Contributions to the flora of Gir forest in Saurashtra. Indian For. Rec. (N. 8.) 4 (6) : 105-170. SAXTON, W. T. (1922): Plants of Northern Gujarat. Rec. bot. Surv. India 9 (3): 251-262. SHAH, G. L. (1962) : Name changes of some common Bombay plants. J. UMniy. Bombay 30: 32-41. On a new species of commensal porcellanid crab, Polyonyx loimicola sp. nov., from India: (Crustacea, Anomura, Porcellanidae) BY K. N. SANKOLLI Taraporevala Marine Biological Research Station, Bombay (With two plates) _ The commensal porcellanid crab belonging to the genus Polyonyx, dealt with in another paper (Sankolli & Shenoy 1965) belongs to a hitherto undescribed species. The present paper deals with the taxonomic account of this new species. Polyonyx loimicola sp. nov. (Plates I and II) _ Diagnosis. Carapace somewhat quadrangular, proportion of length to breadth being 3: 4; dorsal surface strongly convex longitudinally, smooth with transverse rugae or plications on postero-lateral half behind the cardiac region; carapace regions faintly indicated, latera] margin fringed with matted hairs ; front broad, measuring nearly ? the width of carapace and fringed with matted hairs between the eyes which are remarkably small; rostrum obtuse, scarcely produced; chelipeds unequal, provided with matted hairs ; merus with fine transverse rugae on dorsal surface, its lobe slightly produced ; carpus broadens distally, its dorsal surface almost smooth except for fine rugae proximally, its convex carina edged with granular bead-like tubercles; propodus with few rugae ; fingers of major chela with a gap between them when closed, their tips bent slightly outwards, cutting edge of fixed finger with one big basal tooth and that of movable finger with about 6 teeth, the distal- most being the largest; all the segments of chelipeds matted with hair, merus on the inner surface, carpus thinly along the carina and the inner lower and distal margins, propodus densely matted with hair on the inner lateral surface and along the entire outer lower margin, the 286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) hairs spreading on the entire fixed finger ; finger gap and dactylus fringed with matted hairs; fingers of smaller cheliped with a very little gap and cross each other when closed ; walking legs thickly matted with hair, merus and carpus unarmed, merus of 3rd leg twice as long as broad and propodus of the same leg more than twice as long as broad and armed with 3 distal spinules on posterior margin, no submedian spinule, dactylus four-clawed ; males with a single pair of pleopods. Description. Carapace (Plate I, a) broader than long, proportion of length to breadth being 3: 4. Dorsal surface strongly convex longitudi- nally, smooth with transverse rugae or plications on the postero-lateral half behind the cardiac region. Carapace regions faintly indicated. The lateral margin of carapace is fringed with’ thickly matted hairs. Front broad, straight in dorsal view, measuring nearly ? the width of the carapace, and fringed with matted hairs between the eyes, which are remarkably small; rostrum obtuse, projecting a little and not seen from above (Plate I, b). Antero-lateral margin of carapace takes a fine curve immediately after the base of antennal pedunvle: postero-lateral margin rounded ; :posterior margin concave. Antennule (Plate II, a). First segment smooth, thickened distally ; ; upper plate flat rather than concave; antero-inner lobe not produced beyond upper plate ; lateral margins convergent basally. (eee Antenna (Plate II, b). The first segment broad, elongated, narrowing towards the inner side to : an acuminate point. Remaining segments are cylindrical aid smooth.~ Third maxilliped (Plate II, c). Inner. crest of merus rather narrow, though. rounded and almost symmetrical ; sternum of third maxilliped shorter than the thoracic ‘sternum (Plate II, d) and its anterior margin 1s COTfIVEX. The lateral processes are-long and narrow, slightly projecting upwards. beyond the anterior margin with slightly concave outer lateral border. Chelipeds (Plate I, a). Unequal, left or right being larger ; provided with matted hairs. Merus with fine transverse rugae which are most prominent on the dorsal surface and practically absent on the ventral surface. The-distal end of the anterior margin so slightly produced that it can hardly be called a carina. Carpus twice as long as broad and much narrower proximally than distally, forming a convex carina on its anterior margin which is edged with granular bead-like tubercles. Dorsal. surface smooth except for fine rugae which are present proxi- mally and along the proximal half of the anterior margin. Propodus armed with few rugae, which are prominent about the upper inner side and fade away along the upper outer, inner lower, and ventral surfaces, and towards the fixed finger. The fingers of the major chela leave a gap between them when closed and their tips are bent slightly outwards. Dactyliis’ Has one or two longitudinal plications: which run almost JOURN. BomBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE | Polyonyx loimicola sp. nov. a. Dorsal view; 6. front as viewed from above JOURN, BomMBAYy NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE II 1-O mm. a 1-Omm. e -Omm, (b,c,e) | (d, f) Poiyonyx loimicola sp. nov. a. Basal segment of antennule; 3d. antenna ; c. third maxilliped; d. sternum of third maxilliped; e. third leg; /f. telson A NEW PORCELLANID CRAB, POLYONYX LOIMICOLA 287 parallel to its anterior margin. All the segments of chelipeds matted with hair, merus on inner surface and carpus thinly along the carina and along the inner lower and distal margins ; propodus densely matted with hair along the entire outer lower margin. These hairs also spread on the entire fixed finger starting from about its base ; so also on inner lateral surface of propodus and the finger gap. Dactylus is also fringed with matted hairs. Cutting edge of fixed finger is armed with one big tubercle-like tooth basally and that of the movable finger with six teeth of which the first (basal), fifth, and sixth (distal-most) are longer than the remaining three which are closely set. The distal-most tooth, the largest, is situated slightly ventrally. Smaller cheliped differs from the major in that the fingers leave very little gap between them and cross each other when closed. | Ambulatory leg (Plate II, e). These successively decrease in size, bearing thickly matted hairs all over except the anterior part of ventral surface, on dactylus hairs are scanty; merus and. carpus unarmed; merus of third walking leg about twice as long as wide, and the propodus more than twice as long as wide and armed with 3 spinules on posterior margin, 2 of which are in a pair at the distal end and the 3rd just behind them ; dactylus 4-clawed, the accessory claw being smaller than _ the principal which is the largest, the remaining 2 being very small. Telson (Plate II, f).. .7-plated, the central plate being rather broad. _ Male, A pair of pleopods occur in the males. . __ Material examined. About 50 specimens of- varying. sizes were collected from Chowpatty, Bombay. . _ Holotype (:) a 2 which will, in due ¢ course, be deposited i in ule collec: tion of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. ... Measurements.. Of the material examined, males ranged from 3: 0 to 6-5 mim., non-ovigerous females from 3-00 to 4:25 mm., and ovigerous females from 4°25 to 8°50 mm., in carapace width. Colour in life. The crabs are light brown in-colour, matching well with the inner side of the tube of Loimia medusa, the host organism.. Ecology. This species is a commensal of the Annelid tube-worm Loimia medusa (Savigny) which is quite common in the intertidal zone. Generally a pair of crabs, male and female, is found inside the tube of the host, the size of the crabs varying with that of the tube. In a pair, the female is usually larger than the male. - Ovigerous. females were collected throughout the year except during the monsoon (from June to September) when observations could not be made. Relationship. The new species belongs to the P. sinensis group as defined by Johnson (1958) for the Indo-West Pacific species of Polyonyx. Of this group, P. utinomi Miyake, P. sinensis Stimpson, and P. cometes Walker, especially the last two, are more closely related to the new 288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) species. The salient morphological features of these three and the new species are given in Table at pp. 290-1 below. P. utinomi, which is also a commensal form (Miyake 1943), differs in having the lateral margins of the carapace not hairy ; only inner surface of carpus and merus of the chelipeds somewhat hairy ; meral lobe large ; carpus not broadening distally ; no tooth at the base of the cutting edge of fingers of the major cheliped. As regards P. sinensis, the only available information is Stimpson’s (1858) very short, rather inadequate description and figure, supposed to be based largely on a male (as cited by Johnson 1958). Shen (1936) redescribed this species but under a different name, asiaticus, based on a single ovigerous female, and later Miyake (1943) described a single male as sinensis. Miyake, however, does not compare it with Shen’s asiaticus. My comparison of the new species with the description of sinensis as given by Shen and Miyake shows the following differences from the new species : chelipeds and walking legs much less hairy, i.e. mostly in the form of a marginal fringe ; the cutting edge of dactylus of major cheliped with not more than a single, blunt tooth at the base ; fingers of smaller cheliped not gaping ; a sub-median spinule on the lower border of propodus of walking legs, in addition to the 3 distal ones. Johnson (1958) placed de Man’s (1888) euphrosyne as a synonym of Walker’s (1887) cometes. His conclusions were based on a comparison of the descriptions and figures as given by the two authors. But Johnson’s statement that de Man’s material came from the siphons of the bivalve Aspergillum is incorrect. De Man, in his account of the species clearly stated :.‘ A fine, adult specimen without eggs was found by Dr. Anderson, living along with an annelid in its tube’, and commen- ted on the similar commensal habits of this species and Haswell’s P. transversus, which was found in the siphons of Aspergillum. P. cometes differs from the new species in the following characters : carpus of major cheliped somewhat different in shape and almost uniformly broad except for the narrowing at either extremity (as per de Man’s figure); a prominent meral lobe; a sub-median spinule on the posterior margin of propodus of walking legs ; no tooth at the base of the cutting edge of fixed finger; upper surface of carpus and outer surface of palm minutely punctate in major cheliped. Remarks. Some of the specimens are comparatively less hairy on the sides of the carapace and on the carpus and merus of the chelipeds. The present account brings the total number of Polyonyx spp. known from the Indo-West Pacific region to 16, 14 recognized by Johnson (1958) and another new species, described by me (Sankolli in the press). A NEW: PORCELLANID CRAB,’ POLYONYX LOIMICOLA 289 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am greatly obliged to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, Maharashtra, for critically going through the manuscript, and to Dr. H. G. Kewalramani, Senior Scientific Officer, for valuable guidance during the course of the study. I am specially indebted to Dr. (Miss) Janet Haig of Allan Hancock Foundation, California, for confirming the new species, for providing a photo-copy of Shen’s (1936) paper, and for valuable suggestions. REFERENCES JOHNSON, D. S. (1958): The Indo- West Pacific species of the genus Polyonyx (Crustacea, Decapoda, Porcel- -lJanidae). Ann. Zool. (India) 2: 95-118, text-figs. 1-4. Man, J.G. DE (1888) : Report on the Podophthalmous Crustacea of the Mer- gui Archipelago, collected for the Trus- tees of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, by Dr. J. Anderson, F.R.s., Superintendent of the Museum. Journ. Linn. Soc. “ea (Zool.) 22: 221-222, pl. 15, figs. MIYAKE, S. (1943): Studies on the crab-shaped Anomura of Nippon and adjacent waters. Journ. Dept. Agr., Kyusyu Imp. Univ. 7: 137-144, text figs. 56-59. _SANKOLLI, K.N. (in the press): ‘On a new species of Porcellanid crab (Deca- poda Anomura) from India. J. Zool. Soc. India 15(1). ——— & SHENOY, SHAKUNTALA (1965) On the occurrence of tke tube-worm Loimia medusa (Savigny) in Bombay waters and its commensalism with a porcellanid crab. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 316-20. SHEN, CHIA-JuI (1936): Notes on the genus Polyonyx (Porcellanidae) with des- cription of a new species. Bull. Fan. Mem. Inst. Biol. P2king 6: 279, figs. 1-2. Stimpson, W. (1858): Prodromus descriptionis animalium evertebratorum —Pars VII. Crustacea Anomura. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 10 : 229. WALKER, A.O. (1887) : Note on a collection of Crustacea of Singapore. Journ. Linn. Soc. London (Zool.).20: 116-117, pl. 9, figs. 1-3. . i SSE ASS Dp ES SINE SLES OT SIRE IL AE I EE ELDEST LD LE DORE CES LEE TES IDOE EIR LAE OE LEE TOPE AIES IEEE JTEY [ISTP ; S}i UF XOAUOD ‘YJOOWS UlsieW YOOUWS | dIIj-pesq IJv[NUeIS YIM Pospo JOWIO}UB s}eUTIeS Si < Aypeu pure yYysIeI)s youre ulsIeu | pue XOAUOD UISIeW 10179}Ue “1IxOJd MOJIeU AIOA JOU 3NQ | JONDjUe 9}eUTICS SjE * ‘ A[yeIsIp | oyeuTIVO $I ‘ATTeWIXOId MOITeU X9AU09 Apysys pure yjoouls UIZIVUL ~AOTIOQUe OjeUIIeD Ss} ‘MOIIEU JOYIVI st YW sIOyM Ayteyyxd = Joyo. «yews 3 l9ox9 sojoreqny JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 290) 2 JOYJOAA SIfaiuo2 “GF cree it ss ss eS SS SSSA uosduing sisuauis “_ xAuodjog AO S8IDIAS WAOA AHL JO SABVNALVAA TWOPOOTOHdGHOW LNALIVS peoiq Ajtarjoyun y4souyy Ajjeisip Jsoprorg ‘poyesuo]y suIuspeoOIg jou JOYyIeY AIOA pue A][PISIP suapeolg sndiveg OqO] [eIOW syejNoWUSep 3q0] Ajoynuiws ynq yuouWOId AISA | JUISGE 3qQo} [RIT oqo] [eisw esse] =| [esoW Psonpold ApjYSYs AIBA snIojl Ayuo sovjans | Joyno uo wyed jnq soRjins | iaddn uo 3ye}ound Ajoynutu | aovjins podoid pue sndivo uo Mo sndivo © AjjeysIp Soul] dSJOA Jaddn uo souly oszoasuel} £9)v9 | puv snow UO JUSUTWIOId SsIOW -SUBA} SIGOOSOIOIU YIM SNIOW | SNOIQL{S puke YOOWS ddvJINs | -I]OP UUM podold oO) SNJoW | ‘oesN1 ss1oAsURT] “oUY Spodoid jo sorjins saddn ynq ! Asvey |S osuryy yeusrew e Jo WIC} |! 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SPrvaAjno- 5 ‘6 “34 sur op) Suideg |< paysimy yonw ‘Suldeg | jo o8pa Sunyno : paysimy | 3U0q Apysys sdy ‘sade siesta (ue; op 10d se) (usyg pue syeATPY Jod sv) ; | : ; ; SIO OVI JOAJCAA SaJaw0d * J UosdWINS sisuauis *g SHY AUN BOUIN cl NORIO GREG ey i xduodjod JO SaI0dgdS UNOT AHL JO SAMNLVAT TVOIDOTOHAYOW LNATTV§ (panunjuod)—aTav L , Reviews i. THE BIRDS OF THE PALAEARCTIC FAUNA. Non-Passeri- formes. By Charles Vaurie. pp. xx + 763 (25:5 x 18:5 cm.): H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd., London, 1965: Price £7. 7s: The first volume of this monumental work was reviewed in an earlier number of the Journal (Vol. 56, pp. 307-9). There is perhaps no ornithological institution or scientific ornithologist—more especially one concerned with the Old World—who has not had constant recourse to that volume since its publication in 1959. As predicted by the reviewer and others, it has proved truly indispensable, and the measure of its excellence and authoritativeness is the remarkable degree of acceptance which Dr. Vaurie’s views and dicta have by and large received from his scientific colleagues throughout the world. This second volume dealing with the non-passerine birds brings to a conclusion the ambitious task upon which Dr. Vaurie had embarked, namely bringing up-to-date the knowledge of the geographical distri- bution of palaearctic birds and stream-lining the taxonomy in Ernst Hartert’s DIE VOGEL DER PALAARKTISCHEN FAUNA with modern con- cepts. Like the previous volume this one also is based on the author’s own: critical studies of the wealth of material in the American Museum of Natural History, New York, the bulk of which formed the basis of Hartert’s classic at Tring before it was sold by its owner, Lord Roths- child, to the American Museum and transferred across the Atlantic. That collection has since been vastly augmented by further acquisitions over the years. Jn addition to all this, Dr. Vaurie had opportunities to study relevant material in most of the great museums of the world, including those in the USSR, by personal visits to these institutions or by large-scale borrowings from them. His discussion of problems with leading ornithologists and with specialists in various groups of non-passerine birds fortified his views and has helped to add further authoritativeness to the present work. | Dr. Vaurie’s taxonomic observations and findings, accruing as his studies progressed, were published from time to time as ‘ Systematic Notes on Palaearctic Birds’ in American Museum Novitates in twenty serial numbers (34-53). These are, in fact, comprehensive reviews and, In part, revisions of the various groups summarized in this volume. They form a very important adjunct to it and furnish invaluable references. It is good, therefore, to know that a separate synopsis and a complete index to this series are in course of preparation. “pes REVIEWS 293 The selected bibliography comprising some more recent general works, check-lists, and regional books and papers bearing on the Palaearctic Region forms a useful supplement to the bibliography given in Vol. 1. This is followed, as before, by indices of English, French, German, and Scientific names. In congratulating Dr. Vaurie upon his herculean achievement ornithologists will not omit to congratulate themselves upon the availa- bility in this handy form of the wealth of carefully sifted first-hand information, more particularly from the USSR which is usually denied to most of us by inability to benefit from publications in the Russian language. The coverage of the volume—16 Orders, 46 Families many of them divided into Subfamilies, 192 Genera with their spate of species and subspecies—indicates the stupendous labour that has gone into its making. The re-examination of this vast material and all but a few of the measurements were made by the author himself. There can be no complete finality in a work of this sort. Never- theless, it does not seem rash to predict that these volumes will domi- nate the field of palaearctic ornithology for as long as one can see, and thereafter still continue to remain as indispensable as Hartert’s master- piece is today. ee oie Z. SEASIDE PLANTS OF THE WORLD. By Edwin A. Mennin- ger, D.Sc. pp. 303 (23 x 16 cm.). With 408 photographs. New York, 1964. Hearthside Press Incorporated. Price $ 9.95. The sub-title informs us that this book is meant to be a guide to the planning, planting, and maintenance of salt-resistant gardens. As a nurseryman who has for years catered for owners of seaside gardens the author is well equipped to undertake the task; he has taken freely, besides, of the experience of other gardeners. The first problem of the seaside gardener, protection against salt, sand, and sea, is dealt with generally in the opening chapters. These include a chapter of wider applicability, on erosion and reclamation— it is interesting to learn that as far back as 1307 a sea-weed (Ammophila arenaria) was successfully used to halt shifting sand-dunes. This introduction is followed appropriately by a list of plants suitable for ground cover. They are arranged according to their toughness, those capable of standing full exposure to the sea as on the beach (Belt 1), those requiring a little protection (Belt II), those requiring much pro- tection (Belt Ill). This arrangement, according to suitability for the 294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) three different belts, is followed in the subsequent chapters, which deal in turn with Vines, Grass and Lily-like Plants, Herbs and Sub-shrubs, Shrubs for Seaside Landscaping, Trees, and Palms. There is a certain amount of overlapping as it was not possible, nor would it have made for convenience, to make a rigid distribution between these several groups. The final chapter gives a short account of the way in which these problems are dealt with in Australia and New Zealand, countries in which there is a long length of sea-coast, an enormous wealth of native salt-resistant plants, and wide variations in climatic conditions. Short descriptions are given of the plants listed and many of them are illustrated by photographs, to give laymen an idea of their appearance and to help with their identification. There are also numerous lands- cape photographs to show what can be done by skilful gardening. It is common knowledge that, given suitable conditions, plants that are natives of one country will readily grow in another, and sometimes will even do well in a country with a different climate. So, this list of 2000 plants or more deriving from all the continents will be of use to the gardener, wherever he may be. But he must be prepared to face occasional disappointment, for it is not possible to know all the factors that contribute to the successful growth of a particular plant and it is only by actual experiment that he can find out how it will behave in his garden. For the gardener who has known the joy of successful experimenting the fear of disappointment can be no deterrent, and it! is to such that the book is recommended. Of interest to the general reader is a citation of an observation of R. W. Read, botanist at the Fairchild Tropical Garden: ‘ There is evidently some correlation between an arid or xerophytic environment and a coastal or saline environment, for it has been frequently observed that many palms found naturally only in desert regions flourish along our sea coast. Some desert species even grow better in moist saline soils than in the drier non-saline limestone or sand soils of south Florida.’ A photograph from South Australia shows an expanse of sand about ten feet above high tide mark covered with flowering Arctotis (A. stoechadifolia). Another such photograph, also from South Australia, shows Chrysanthemum frutescens in flower. Looking at these photo- graphs one cannot resist asking the question: ‘If in South Australia, why not in India?’ Who will make the experiment, or has this already been done ? | DEK REVIEWS 295 3. MAMMALS OF THE WORLD, Vols. I and II. By Ernest P. Walker and associates. Vol. I, pp. xlviiit+646; Vol. I, pp. viti+ 647-1500 (26 x 18°5 cm.), numerous illustrations. Baltimore 1964. The Johns Hopkins Press. Price Vols. I and II $25-00. The opening sentences of the Foreword, ‘ The content and scope of these volumes represent a unique and highly valuable contribution to zoological literature. There is no other single series of books that ‘in themselves can be used as a basic source of reference concerning all the known and present genera of mammalian life on this earth’, precisely express the scope and value of this publication. Mr. Walker and his associates are to be congratulated on the excellent result of their effort which in Mr. Walker’s case involved nearly thirty years of devoted labour in collecting material from published literature, in correspondence with Mammalogists all over the world, and in the collection of photographs of representative animals of the genera discussed. The genus, as containing a group of species with many common characters, has been chosen as the unit of description—a sensible arrangement, considering the impossibility of adequately describing the twelve to fifteen thousand species of known mammals. The two volumes describe 1044 genera, included under 125 families and 19 orders of living mammals. The text includes general remarks on the characters occurring (1) in all members of an Order, (2) in all members of a Family. Under each genus, the common and scientific names, number of species, range, measurement and weight, coloration, type of body covering, structural peculiarities, habits, food, gestation period, number of young in a litter, economic importance, and other known facts are mentioned. Each genus described is illustrated by a photograph or picture of a member species. The numerous photographs of shrivelled museum skins are an woeful indication of the lack of material on mammals. The reviewer hopes that in future editions these photographs will be replaced by sketches. The first volume includes a selected bibliography on mammals and the third volume, which the reviewer did not have the opportunity to see, contains exclusively, we are told, a comprehensive, general bibliography of over 40,000 papers. In an encyclopaedic work of this type, one can only comment on the ‘familiar faces’, in this instance the Oriental Fauna. The comprehensive information on each genus would be of value to mammalogists and others requiring information on the mammals of this region. One can safely assume that similar detailed information is available on mammals of other faunal regions. The description of the rarer genera includes the names of Institutions which have specimens. It is- unfortunate that .the authors were not aware of the presence 296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) in the Society’s collections of genera like Hesperoptenus, Tylonycteris, and Otomops—the last mentioned represented by specimens of O. wroughtoni, a species discovered and described in 1913 and seen again only when these specimens were recovered in 1961 from the very cave from which the types were collected. : In a work of this magnitude it is not surprising if some errors creep in. I find for instance that the distributions of Rhizomys pruinosus and R. sinensis have been interchanged. A photograph of the Spiny Mouse, Mus platythrix illustrates the genus Platacanthomys and has been described in the legend as that of the Spiny Dormouse, Platacanthomys lasiurus. These errors, which do not seriously detract from the value of the publication, will no doubt be removed in the next edition. J Cr Ds 4. BIRDS OF PREY OF THE WORLD. By Mary Louise Grossman and John Hamlet. Photographs by Shelly Grossman. pp. 496 (32 x 24cm.). London 1965. Cassel & Co. Ltd. Price £ 6. 6s. This magnificent volume containing a long and comprehensive account of birds of préy of the world covers over 500 pages and includes some 1400 illustrations, 70 in colour, and 283 monochrome photographs. It is divided into two main portions—the first a general account of the groups, the second a brief account of 289 species of hawks and 133 of owls. The chapters of the first part deal with (a) their history through geologic times, (b) their many contacts with man including not only. falconry but also their influence on art and literature since Babylonian and earlier days, (c) their general ecology and habits, (d) the details of structure which assist them in their hunting, and (e) their conservation. This last chapter is of great interest and importance to us in India as we are passing through the initial stages of a problem which has not yet ended even in America. James Fergusson Lees in the Introduc- tion says: ‘ Post-war prosperity (in Europe) has led to an enormous increase in gun licences and introduced a new element of irresponsibility. Many species have been hit hard by the use of organo-chlorine pesticides in agriculture. ...’. The Bombay Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protection Act, 1951, the most advanced legislation of its kind in India, still lists birds of prey as ‘vermin’ and permits them to be killed in and out of season, with or without reason ! The second section deals with the many genera and species through- out the world.- In spite of subspecific differences being ignored, this is a — REVIEWS 297 tremendous task and there are bound to be omissions and errors. We notice that in the maps indicating the distribution, the several harriers Circus macrourus, cyaneus, pygargus, and cinereus, are excluded from India, while that for the Greater Spotted Eagle restricts it to north-western India. Young Longbilled Vultures are said to be entirely dark below streaked conspicuously with buff, but in our experi- ence they are similar to the parents. Many interesting facts are recorded, e.g. Goshawks chasing rabbits on foot through brush (p. 251), Pernis walking and running on the ground with ease of a corvine or gallinaceous bird (p. 219), and Ospreys in North America breeding in dense colonies (p. 369). Some of the colour photographs are the best I have ever seen, and so are some of the black-and-white. But the fact that a disproportionately large number of birds are shown in the actual act of killing their prey cannot but leave the impression that the photographs were taken under controlled and not natural conditions. The small number of pictures and information regarding Indian species is noticeable. However, the whole work was certainly an enormous undertaking and, for the layman, is as nearly perfect as is possible. HAs 5. PLANT EMBRYOLOGY: A Symposium. pp. vi + 274 (25x 16:5 cm.). Illustrated. New Delhi 1962. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research. Price Rs. 20, or 40s. This excellent publication is the report of an all-India Symposium on Plant Embryology held under the auspices of the Biological Research Committee of the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research on 11-14 November 1960, at the Department of Botany, University of Delhi. As Professor Maheshwari, Chairman of the Biological Research Com- mittee and Convenor of the Symposium, has indicated in the preface, the CSIR has been giving much encouragement to the holding of symposia and scientific conferences. This symposium on Plant Embryo- logy was graced by the presence of the Vice-Chancellor of Delhi University and the Director-General of the CSIR attended the Sympo- sium. A list of the participants is not given. Professor Maheshwari gave a review of the ‘ Past, Present and Future of Plant Embryology’ (not included in this publication) and pointed out that, although the study of plant embryology began in India only about 30 years ago, it has already become one of the most well-deve- loped branches of plant science in India. 298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) During the symposium 29 papers were read in seven sessions presi- ded over by seven of the foremost Indian workers in plant embryology. All these 29 papers, with relevant illustrations, and a short preface by the convenor form this published report. On the last day of the Symposium a special session was held for a discussion of the advancement of teaching and research in plant embryology. In this session it was agreed that the time is ripe for the production of an exhaustive volume on the Systematic Embryology of Angiosperms on the lines of Schnarf’s VERGLEICHENDE EMBRYOLOGIE DER ANGIOSPERMS or Metcalf & Chalk’s ANATOMY OF DICOTYLEDONS AND MONOCOTYLEDONS. It was thought that if such a work can be written through the initiative of Indian botanists with the co-operation of colleagues abroad, it will be of great value all over the botanical world. The papers reported here cover a wide range of topics—from a hypothesis (New approach on the Embryo of Monocotyledons) to new facts on ovarian pollination (in Papayer and Eschscholzia). They include information on in yitro cultures of nucelli and embryos (of Citrus and Cuscuta) and the formation of male gametes in the pollen tube of some crop plants besides several other interesting embryological features. As the cover of this publication declares, it highlights the progress of plant embryology in India, to which the school of plant embryology at the University of Delhi has made very valuable contributions and established for itself a rightful place of pride. This publication is truly an essential compendium of researches in plant embryology. It is to \ be hoped that the other branches of botany will be similarly served by | the Biological Research Committee of the CSIR by neve of symposia to encourage teachers and research workers. Pt V. BOLE, Miscellaneous Notes 1. PARTIAL ALBINISM IN WHITEBELLIED RAT, RATTUS NIVIVENTER HODGSON, FROM KHAST HILLS (With one photograph) Albinism is not uncommon in the genus Rattus Fischer, 1803. It is frequently met with in Rattus raitus Linnaeus, and has been recorded by Hossack (1907), Gibson-Hill (1950), and Harrison (1950). Gibson-Hill (1950) and Joshee & Kamath (1963) have reported it in R. norvegicus (Berkenhout). Harrison & Lim (1951) have recorded it in R. cremori- yenter (Miller). So far as is known to us, albinism has not been record- ed in R. .niviventer Hodgson. Hence, the present case of partial albinism is considered worthy of record. Partial albinism in Rattus niviventer Hodgson 1. Left side view; 2. Rightside view; 3. Dorsal view While identifying the rats of the Khasi Hills, where Rattus niviventer mentosus Thomas is quite common, we have come across a partial albino specimen of this race ina lot of 8 specimens collected from Shillong Peak, | 300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 62 (2) The specimen is a male, measuring (in mm.) head and body 136, tail 190, ear. 20, hind foot excluding claw 30. The albinism occurs mainly on the posterior region and is found to some extent on the forelegs (Photo, Figs. 1 and 2). Normally, the pure white colour should be restricted to the belly up to the tip of the mouth ventrally and to the under surface of the feet and toes; but in this specimen it covers the whole right and left hindfeet with a sprinkling of normal brown-coloured hairs on each. The rump is pure white extending forward on both sides—on the right to nearly one-third of the head and body length and a little less on the left. The normal mid-dorsal colour extends to the tail separating the white portions on both the sides (Photo, Fig. 3). R. niviventer, according to Roonwal (1949), is essentially a rat of the dense evergreen jungle and riverain jungle, favouring the vicinity of hill-streams. The locality from which the present specimen was collect- ed is also dense evergreen jungle far from human. habitation. Thus it is unlikely that this instance of partial albinism is a result of the inter- mixing of domestic rat with R. niviventer. “ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, EASTERN REGIONAL STATION, A. S. RAJAGOPAL SHILLONG, - A. K. MANDAL May 4, 1965. REFERENCES Gipsof-HitL, C. A. (1950): Feral al- JosHet, A. K., & KAMATH, K. M. | bino and piebald rats. J. Bombay nat. (1963): A _ piebald Rattus norvegicus | Hist. Soc. 49 : 298. (Berkenhout) from Bombay. J. Bombay Harrison, J. L. (1950): The occur- nat. Hist. Soc. 60 : 449-451. rence of albino and melanic rats. ibid. Roonwa L, M. L. (1949) : Systematics, 49 : 548. ecology and bionomics of mammals ——— & Lim, B. L. (1951): Albinism studied in connection with Tsutsuga- in Rattus cremoriventer. ibid. 49 : 780. mushi disease (Scrub Typhus) in the Hossack, W. C. (1907): An account Assam-Burma war theatre during 1945. of the rats of Calcutta. Mem. Indian Trans. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 3 : 67-122. Mus-¥: 17, 2. BEHAVIOUR OF LESSER WHISTLING TEAL [DENDROCYGNA JAVANICA (HORSFIELD)] IN ALIPORE ZOO, CALCUTTA (With a plate) On my way to the Andamans in February 1964, [ was delayed for a few days in Calcutta. The Alipore Zoo is always an attraction and I i i spent some time very pleasantly there. The lake was full of Whistling | Teal (Dendrocygna javanica), which spend the day here and leave at dusk to feed many miles away. This bird is too slow a flier to afford much (asog svppwmpdys : 070Y4d ) eynoe9 ‘007 aiodrpy ut (vowvavl DUsAIOAPUACTT) [eI], SUITISIYAA JOSsa’T ‘90S ISI] ‘LVN AVaWog ‘Nanof MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 301 sport, but is shot at by all and sundry. In the Gardens, they settled on the shore, less than 15 vards from where we sat and chatted. Mr. R. K. Lahiri, the very active Superintendent, sent some people round the lake, who put them up by banging tins and shouting. When all the birds were in the air, they literally filled the sky and reminded one of the duck shoots of the good old days. Mr. Lahiri said that he had made various attempts to estimate their numbers, and thought there were some 6000. birds. They returned to the lake after a few minutes and were soon settled in peace. Later when we were not paying any particular attention there was a gigantic. splash on the lake. My first impression was that the birds had all risen again, but when we looked there were no birds in the air and only a few remained scattered here and there on the lake. It then dawned upon me that the birds in one part of the lake, say 50 yards by 100 yards, had all dived together. Lahiri said that this was a not unusual reaction to a bird of prey over- head, but none was visible. The teal soon reappeared and kept on open- ing their wings, probably to shake off the water. The simultanecousness of their dive was something to be seen to be believed. Other ducks take off the water as suddenly but, since they remain visible in the air, the effect is not so startling. In the evening, I saw flight after flight, 15 to 30 at a time, going over the city, mostly high up and out of gunshot, Outside the sanctuary, they are no’ tamer than elsewhere. Whistling Teal do migrate locally and their numbers at the Zoo are said to vary from time to time. This appears to be an excellent ee where they could perhaps be captured and ringed. 75, ABDUL Feu ee STREET, - HUMAYUN Ae BOMBAY. 3, ; re February 23, 1965, 3. THE RED KITE MILVUS MILVUS (LINN.) IN ORISSA A large flock of this species was repeatedly observed over several days by Salim -Ali (1954) during March 1945 on the Little Rann of Kutch. Shivrajkumar (1964) saw a single individual on 23.1i1.64 in Saurashtra: We have similar evidence that its range extends to the east coast of India, at least in winter. On 8.1.63 near the shore off Balugaon on Lake Chilka we saw a soar- ing kite which, by reference to Peterson et al. (1954) on the spot, we identified as Milvus milvus. We discovered from Ripley (1961) that this identification was unlikely. Neither of us had seen the species in any other country. On 19.1.64 we accompanied Dr. Bernhard Rensch to Puri where he recognized M. milyus with complete certainty, being 302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) familiar with it in Europe. He is of course familiar with living birds not only in India but in many other parts of Asia, and his certainty was un- shaken by Ripley’s statements. GENETICS AND BIOMETRY LABORATORY, . GOVERNMENT OF ORISSA, Ss. D. JAYAKAR BHUBANESWAR-3, H. SPURWAY February 23, 1965. REFERENCES ALI, SALIM (1954): The Birds of Guja- RIPLEY, SIDNEY DILLON (1961): A rat. I. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 374- Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakis- 458. tan. Bombay. PETERSON, ROGER, MOUNTFORT, Guy, SHIVRAJKUMAR, Y.S. (1964) : New bird & Hoitiom, P.A. D. (1954): A Field records for Saurashtra. J. Bombay nat. Guide to the Birds of Britainand Europe. #ist. Soc. 61 : 446. London. 4. OCCURRENCE OF THE LONGTOED STINT CALIDRIS SUBMINUTUS (MIDDENDORFF) IN NORTH BIHAR Three species of stint, our smallest wader, winter in India. Out of 145 stints collected in Monghyr District, north Bihar, for ringing between 23 November 1964 and 17 January 1965, 34 were Little Stints Calidris minutus (Leisler), 109 Temminck’s Stints C. temminckii (Leisler), and 2 Longtoed Stints C. subminutus (Middendorff). The presence of the last is of particular interest as it has not been previously recorded from Bihar. The range of the Longtoed Stint as given in Ripley’s SyNOPsiIS (1961) is: ‘On winter migration, occurs in Assam, East Pakistan and Ceylon’. The present record represents a westward extension of the winter distribution of this eastern Palaearctic breeder. The measure- ments (in mm.) of the specimen preserved, in the Society’s collection bearing Register No. BNHS 22181, are: wing 89; tail 35; bill (from the skull) 21-; middle toe 23. In the hand, the Longtoed Stint can be easily distinguished from the other two by its long middle toe, 22°5 to 25 mm., while in others it is less than 20 mm. The middJe toe with claw is longer than the tarsus in subminutus while in minutus and temminckii it is more or less equal. Subminutus also has a longer hindtoe (5 to 6 mm.) which in temminckii and minutus 1s shorter (3 to 4 mm.). BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, ! P. V. GEORGE BOMBAY, 1-BR, Research Fellow June 10, 1965. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 303 5. THE ASHY MINIVET [PERICROCOTUS DIVARICATUS (RAFFLES)]: AN ADDITION TO THE INDIAN AVIFAUNAI On 31 January 1965, while collecting birds at Funnel Hill about an -hour’s drive from Bombay, I came across a mixed party of warblers and flycatchers in a rather thick patch of forest. Among them was a pair of unfamiliar birds calling to each other. They looked more like one of the white wagtails. Their calls were quite unfamiliar, resembling the harsh voice of a shrike rather than the melodious and pleasant trilling call of minivets. A specimen was secured and the first impression was that it might be one of the Pied Shrikes of the genus Hemipus. Later, in the evening along with Mr. Pereira of the Society, I saw two more pairs of the same birds just at the foot of Funnel Hill. On further examination of the specimen collected, I came to the conclusion that it was an Ashy Minivet, Pericrocotus divaricatus, an opinion which was confirmed by study of literature available at the Bombay Natural History Society. _ The species is not listed is Ripley’s SyNopPsis. The distribution given in : the FAUNA is as follows : ‘ Breeding in Japan, Amur and most possibly Northern China, and in winter extending to South China, the Indo-Chinese Countries, Philippines, Sumatra, Borneo, Malay Peninsula, entering south Burma as a very rare straggler only.’ It is curious to note that in all the literature consulted the Ashy Minivet is considered to be not only a rare bird, even within its geogra- phical range, but also the most outstanding and conspicuous species of the genus. On both the two occasions when I saw the minivets, I noticed that they moved in pairs in patches of thick forest in the light foliage canopy of trees about 20 feet in height. The specimen collected was in moult but the condition of the flight feathers revealed that it had covered a very long flight. The specimen has been deposited in the collection of the Bombay Natural History Society and bears Register No. BNHS 22152. ST. XAVIER’S HIGH SCHOOL, LOKMANYA TILAK MARG, A. NAVARRO, 5.). BOMBAY, 1-BR, February 20. 1965. [As noted by Mr. Hurmayun Abdulali in his recent paper on ‘ The Birds of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands’ (Journal 61: 557), _ Pericrocotus cinereus Lafr. [=P. divaricatus (Raffles)] was recorded by A. L. Butler (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12: 394) in the Andamans. Butler’s specimen, however, was not preserved being badly damaged and his record has been consistently ignored by later workers.—-EDs. ] 304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 6. THE PALLAS’S GRASSHOPPER WARBLER LOCUSTELLA CERTHIOLA RUBESCENS BLYTH FROM | SOUTH INDIA While collecting birds with mist-nets from reed beds (Phragmites karka Trin.) growing by the side of paddy-field dykes in Rajapuram Kayal (= Lake), c. 10 km. east of Alleppey, Kuttanad, Alleppey District, Kerala, a female Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler was netted on 10 May 1963. The specimen agrees with topotypical specimens of Locustella certhiola rubescens in the Zoological Survey of India collected from Calcutta. Its distribution according to Ripley’s SYNOPSIS is: ‘A wintering form in Burma, East Pakistan, and India in the Calcutta region, Assam (Khasia Hills ?), Andaman Is. and Ceylon.’ Locustella certhiola has not been reported from Ceylon since Legge saw several examples and collected two in the Mutturajawella Swamps in. February 1877 (G. M.. Henry 1955). Froin the Andaman and Nicobar Islands we have only a sight record and a specimen collected ~ by Dr. W.L. Abbott and Mr. C. B. Kloss (Richmond 1903). The author found the species to be rather common in Salt Lake, Calcutta, from January to March. Its occurrence in Kerala, S. India, is a new record for the distri- bution of the species and race. Although Stuart Baker (F.B.1., Birds 2: 400) includes Orissa in the range of its distribution we are unable to trace his source of information. a The measurements of the specimen are : -wing 67 mm.; tail 56 mm.; tarsus 20 mm. Plumage : fresh ; two outermost rectrices of only the right side growing, evidently being replaced after accidental loss. BomBAY NATURAL HISTORY Ee Sf Ghd To POV GEORGES BoMBAY, 1-BR. . Py WGe Research Fellow St, JOSEPH’S COLLEGE, ISAAC P. MATHEW DEVAGIRI, Bs . CALICUT, KERALA, February 4, 1965. ; REFERENCES Henry, G. M. (1955) : A Guide tothe Islands. Proc... U. S. Nat. Mus. 25 Birds of Ceylon. Oxford University (1288) : 287-314. ; : Press. Riecey, S.D. (1961) : A Synopsis of - RICHMOND, CHARLES W. (1903): Birds the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay collected by Dr. W.L. Abbott and Mr. Natural History Society. : C. B. Kloss in the Andaman and Nicobar 7. WHITEHEADED YELLOW-WAGTAIL [MOTACILLA FLAVA LEUCOCEPHALA ‘(PRZEVALSKD ] NEAR DELHI On 11 April 1965 there was large-scale movement of yellow wagtails alongside the Agra Canal, which takes off from Okhla near Delhi. Most-of them were Sykes’s Yellow Wagtails (Motacilla flava beema), but MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 305 there were also some Greyheaded Wagtails (M. f. thunbergi) and a few Yellowheaded Wagtails (M. citreola citreola). My eye alighted on a ‘Yellowheaded Wagtail’, when I realised that in fact it had a white head. I had it under observation for over one minute presuming it to be an aberrant specimen of the Yellowheaded Wagtail. But when I ~consulted the FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA IJ found listed the Whiteheaded Wagtail (M. f. leucocephala), which apart from the white head, generally resembles M. f. beema. This was almost certainly the bird I saw. The only previous record of M. f. leucocephala, according to Stuart | Baker and Ripley (SYNOPSIS OF THE BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN), was one shot by Whistler on 3 May 1913 in Jhelum District, West Punjab. Stuart Baker says the Whiteheaded Wagtail has been found breeding in Mongolia and Manchuria in May, June, and July. The first recorded specimen was taken in Altai. Has anyone else seen it in India? REUTERS, 27 PRITHVI RAJ ROAD, PETER F. R. JACKSON New DELHI 11, April 12, 1965. [Spring males are distinguishable from all other wagtails by the almost pure white crown, nape, and ear-coverts, the last with a faint greyish wash.—EDS. ] 8. NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS 4—ON THE VALIDITY OF ZOOTHERA CITRINA AMADONI (BISWAS) In 1951, Biswas (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49 : 661) described a new race of the Ground Thrush Jurdus citrinus amadoni which was said to occur in Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and north-eastern Madras Province. It — was distinguished from the typical Zoothera citrina citrina (Latham) (Type locality : Cachar) by its white throat, and from Z. c. cyanotus (Jardine & Selby) (Type locality : Bangalore) by its larger wing and the comparative absence of the olive wash on the head. Ripley in ‘The Thrushes ’, Postilla No. 13 (1952) Footnote to p. 37 and the synopsis (1961 :527) synony- mized this with cyanotus which is the only form accepted by him as re- sident in peninsular India. Recently I had occasion to examine the specimens in the Bombay collection and was struck by the fact that several white-throated males, collected by Salim Ali at Badrama and Simlipal Hills, Mayurbhanj, in Orissa, and at Bastar and Kanker in eastern Madhya Pradesh, differed prominently from those from further south and west in having their heads an unsullied orange-chestnut almost as bright as in the typical citrind. 8 306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) No specimens from Chanda, Madhya Pradesh, the type locality of amadoni were available to me, but birds of both sexes south of a line from Songadh?, Navsari District, Gujarat, to Vizagapatam on the east coast had smaller wings and a pronounced olive tinge on the head (rendering it more yellowish khaki than chestnut). I assumed that amadoni would be similar to those from Orissa and eastern Madhya Pradesh, and a short note resuscitating this race on these differences was sent to Dr. Biswas for his opinion. In his reply, Biswas maintained that all recently collected males of amadoni also had an olive tinge on the head and sent me 4 males from Balaghat, Madhya Pradesh, in support. An examination of the material available (41 skins) inclines me to the following conclusions : 2 3 1. Birds from Orissa and eastern Madhya Pradesh are quite dis- tinct from those from the rest of India, being larger than and having more orange-chestnut on the head than cyanotus, and deserve a name; 2. Birds from Jubbulpore and Balaghat (the latter marked ama- doni by Biswas) have slightly sullied heads, but can be separated from cyanotus by their larger wings and the greater amount of orange-chestnut on the head. Biswas’s type specimen, in the American Museum of Natural History, was collected by Elwes in 1867, and it is possible that ‘foxing’ has masked the olive tinge on the head as has happened in two females from Kanara (1890) and Bombay (1906) in the Bombay collection. Though no specimens from Chanda are available, it may be accepted that they approach the Orissa birds in size and colour, as stated in the original description, and the race amadoni must be accepted, though it might have been better to place the type locality in Orissa. Its range would be as specified by Biswas (loc. cit.)—Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and north-eastern Madras Province?. Throughout the ranges of citrina, cyanotus, and amadoni the females — resemble the males, except that they average smaller, show a distinct olive tinge on the back between the head and the lower back, and perhaps have a slightly darker head. This last character may be due to the olive of the back extending on to the head. . I am grateful to the authorities of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, and St. Xavier’s High School, Bombay, for the loan of specimens from their collections. 75 ABDUL REHMAN STREET, BOMBAY 3, HUMAYUN ABDULALI February 23, 1965. 1The single specimen, a male, has been included. with cyanotus, but the wing (116 mm.) is larger, and the head which is yellow rather than chestnut does not show the olive tinge. 2 Now Andhra Pradesh.—Ebs. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 307 9. RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS Ring No. Date and place of Date and place of and species ringing recovery Remarks A-66091 22.9.1964. Hingolgadh) c. 16.5.1965. Fama- |Reported by Mr. Emberiza (c. 22 N., 71 E.)| gusta, Cyprus (c.35°; Loucas Papettas melano- Gujarat, India. N., 34° EB.) cephala 2 AB-10606 17.3.1964. Manjhaul] 16.5.1964. At Nuya,! Reported by Bird- Tringa glare-| (c. 25°23 N., 86°30) Mukhtuya Dist., Ringing Bureau, ola E.), Monghyr Dist.,, Yakutian (c. 60°30 USSR Bihar, India N., 116°10 E.) B-3309 Tringa | 4.12.1964. do. 25.5.1965. 30 km. do. glareola south of Yakutsk,| Yakutian (c. 62 N., 129°40 E.) C-305 Anas 4,2.1964. do. 25.9.1964. 18 km. from) do. crecca & Zheleznogorsk, Irkutsk region (c. 56°35 N., 104°10 E.) C-478 Anas 1,12.1964, do. 13.3.1965. At Yaz’ | do. crecca @ (?) yavan, Fergana | Region, Uzbekistan (40°40 N., 71°45 E.) C-1769 Anas 5.12.1964. do. 9.5.1965. Near Nizh- do. crecca & ne-Ilimsk, Irkutsk | 5 region (57°20 N., 103°15 E.) C-1892 Anas 31.12.1964. do. 18.4.1965. 7 km. from do. querquedula Karaganda Kazakh, 3 SSR (c. 49°50 N., 73°10 E.) | F-3569 Anas 16.3.1964. do. 26.5.1965. At Kyker, do. clypeata & Tungokochen Dist., Chita region, USSR (53°10 N., 115°40 E.) _ C-675 Circus | 25.3.1962. Bharatpur,| 7.5.1965. Near Suly, do. macrourus or| (c. 27°13 N., 77°32} Petropavlovsk region, pygargus 2 E.), India Kazakh SSR (53°45, N., 66°30 E.) | C-1900 Anas 1.1.1965. Bakhri (c.| 18.4.1965. ‘ Kara-Kol do. crecca 2 25°23 N., 86°30E.) Lace’, near Osaka- Monghyr Dist., rovka, Karaganda | India region, Kazakh SSR. (50°33 'N., 72°35 E.)| Moskwa 29.7.1959. Kurgald- | ?.11.1963. 20 miles | Mr. C. D. W. E-555512 zhin Lake (c. 50°30] south of Lahore, | Savage Anas creccag| N., 69°35 E.), Tze-| West Pakistan (c. linograd region, 31°25 N., 74°10 E.) Kazakh SSR | All the birds, except the last, were ringed in the course of BNHS/ WHO Bird Migration Field Project. BomMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, BOMBAY, 1-BR, July 27, 1965. EDITORS 308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 10. NOTE ON THE SEASONAL PREVALENCE OF CULICOIDES SCHULTZEI (ENDERLEIN): SYNONYM CULICOIDES OXYSTOMA KIEFFER (CERATOPOGONIDAE: | DIPTERA) ‘i (With a plate) The biting midge, Culicoides schultzei, is common all over India (Sen & Dasgupta 1959). It has been collected in large numbers in Rajasthan, Poona, and S. India (unpublished data, VRC). Species of Culicoides are regarded as vectors of African Horse Sickness in S. Africa. Though not definitely implicated in the spread of African Horse Sick- ness in India in 1960, C. schultzei was the principal suspect. This was because it was shown to feed on horses, and was widely distributed and abundant. It seemed worthwhile, therefore, to keep track of its seasonal prevalence. The observations reported here were made at a village five miles east of Vellore, North Arcot District, Madras State. The population of the village was about 600, and the main crops were paddy and sugarcane. There were several wells with electric pumps in the area and it was pos- sible to have three crops of paddy a year. METHOD Culicoides were trapped on sticky traps made by stretching brown paper on embroidery frames, 10 in. in diameter, and smearing both sides with castor oil. Two frames were hung in each of five cattle-sheds. Insects, principally Culicoides, were trapped on the castor oil. The brown papers were examined and changed twice a week. RESULTS C. schultzei was the only species of Culicoides taken in large numbers on the sticky traps. C. orientalis and C. peregrinus were occasionally taken. C. anophelis, though often found attached to the abdomens of mosquitoes caught in the same area, did not appear in sticky trap collections. The Figure shows the number of C. schultzei taken on the traps : every week from 14 September 1960 to 2 January 1963 together with rainfall data for the same village. Twelve year averages of maximum and minimum temperatures at Vellore are given in the Table on p. 309. Culicoides collections were high during the rains from about August to November and low for the rest of the year. Usually females were more abundant in the catches than Hebe Of the 17,796 females of C. schultzei collected in the first 81 weeks 23-89% were unfed, 72°5% were freshly gorged with blood, and 3°7% were gravid. ‘ww “TI WdNIVe 9181S SvIpe PLIST FONW YON “OIOTIA JO ISVS Soft AY OSETIA v “IOJ vyep [[eyurer pue ‘ye tazyjnyos saplosynD Jo Yyor~ed ps eG} 's6) O96) 930 AON 190 d3S ONY TAF NAT AUWw UdW YUM G24 RYE O3G AON 1950 d3S ONY TAF NAF AVI dv YYW 634 NYP 930 AON 150 d3S ! oce OOo QO oos Os 008 00! ooo! os! 002! 002 OOF? ‘00S “LSIH “LVN Avawog ‘Nuno¢ AO .o—— H9ZLINHIS SITOIIIND 40 “ON 1 PIT Y il ? " 4 1 { : oy vie ‘ \ , \ Hi! , ’ { be ora Ms, 4 is z , " a i ad - le BALE ae” yy i} ae iy es 3 4 4 leet 7 , ji ' me 4-5 AA ih a hd ' r W < vedhiohes esinvoplenaa he ’ Aye rime 0 ee meni 7 i 1 Sow B 4 > 4 3 * < a ' 4 rors ty 4 te ti « es anes heb rina omeent Or, ony 7 ag ) )? . . *"t as 5 4 t * i * aut rr uae a adel hn aT Ws ad ra saimeanonrhe bid aA ich aenan oat Hinke S alt ; Seu ms : archeomesnenygyeinckcamcaentan arm ff > " « ie “ 1 i be i Fi e ; * i an MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 309 It seems likely therefore that they enter the cattle-sheds to feed, presum- ably on the cattle. TABLE 12-YEAR (1950-1961) AVERAGES FOR MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPERATURES IN °F, AT VELLORE ~ Month Te etre | January ae 84°37 65°07 February x 89°18 66°07 March on 94°85 70°68 April eA 98°42 77°00 May a 100°75 79°81 June a 96°76 79°37 July a 93°30 Tse August is 93-41 76°93, September +o 92°73 75 95 October " 89°53 73°56 November a 85°08 69°17 December = 82°96 65°53 Culicoides larvae have been found occasionally in paddy-field water. Attempts to rear them were not successful. However, several pupae were collected from a corner of a fallow field, where there was a thick scum on the water. These were brought to the laboratory, where 3 male and 4 female C. schultzei emerged. VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE?, R. REUBEN POONA, March 24, 1965. REFERENCE SEN, P., & Dascupta, S. K. (1959): gonidae: Diptera). Ann. ent. Soc. Amer. Studies on Indian Culicoides (Ceratopo- 52: 617-630. 1 The Virus Research Centre is jointly maintained by the Indian Council of Medi- cal Research and the Rockefeller Foundation. The Centre also receives a grant from the National Institutes of Health, U.S.A., from PL 480 Funds, 310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 11. INSECT FAUNA OF NEPAL: PART I. CURCULIONIDAE (With a map) As a member of the Indian Agricultural Research Institute Ex- pedition to Nepal, one of the authors (SRW) made insect collections from there; the present paper deals with the weevils collected. The party trekked from Butwal to Muktinath via Tansen, Pokhara, Birethanthi, Tatopani, and Jhomsum, and then back to Pokhara (see Map). The trek lasted from 31 March to 15 May 1961. The weevils collected were identified in part in the British Museum, and the rest with the help of the National Pusa Insect Collection main- tained in the Division of Entomology, Indian Agricultural Research Institute,“New Delhi, to which collection all the material now collected has been added. The weevils fall under the following 18 genera and 28 species and number over 200 specimens (excluding those of Sitophilus oryzae Linn.), The genera marked * have already been noted from Nepal (Kono 1959, and von Dalla Torre & Voss 1930). The remaining genera and 27 species (excluding S. oryzae) constitute new records for that country. Of the collection, the genus Telephae and the species marked f¢ are not represented in the National Pusa Insect Collection, and hence are new additions. DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE COLLECTION +1. Acanthotrachelus sp. One example. Collected at Jhomsum (c. 2703 m.) on 25-4-61. +2. Apion sp. 1. Six examples. Collected at Modikhola (near Bire- thanthi c. 1115 m.) on 14-4-61. +3. Apion sp. 2. One hundred and forty examples. Most of these specimens were collected from an Adathoda vasica plant at Shishnikhola (c. 620 m.) on 31-3-61. The plant was literally swarming with these weevils. This species was also collected on Citrus at Dana (c. 1420 m.) on 20-4-61 and 7-5-61, at Mashem (c. 1200 m.) on 31-3-61, at Karadi- khola. (near Bhomre c. 650 m.) on 3-4-61, at Ulleri (c. 2019 m.) on 15-4-61, at Ghara (c. 1821 m.) on 8-5-61, and at Birethanthi on 12-5-61. 4. Apion sp. 3. One example. Collected at Mashem on 31-3-61. The salient points that separate these three species from each other are given in Table at p. 312. 5. Apion benignum Fst. Three examples. Collected from a fig tree at Birethanthi on 13-5-61, on a wild plant near Mashem on 31-3-61, and on Adathoda vasica at Shishnikhola on 31-3-61. JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOc. Mustang o Sj axe cS ‘ Depre 5 % Moutikhet y rg z hemitce? Malunga ge CAMP UP Fleder asmwe ROUTE @ CAMP DOWN i scwiny if r) “a Butwal Insect Fauna of Nepal. Curculionidae Map showing area in which collections were made s(n Ap Ali Me MND ting : | * ; | vibe duu: Wai ie ' " a MISCELLANEOUS NOTES » oa 6. Apion clavipes Gerst. Two examples. Collected from wheat plants at Dumre (c. 650 m.) on 1-4-61 and at Mashem on 31-3-61. *7, Apoderus blandus Fst. Two examples. Collected at Nuwankot (c. 1475 m.) on 5-4-61 and at Modikhola on 14-4-61. 8. Balaninus nigricollis Mshll. Twoexamples. Collected at Pokhara (c. 967 m.) on 8-4-61. *9, Centrocorynus scutellaris (Gyll.). Six examples. Collected at Bhagnas (near Dhobadi c. 900 m.) on 2-4-61 and at Ghara on 8-5-61. 10. Emperorhinus defoliator Mshll. One example. Collected at Mattikhan (c. 1350 m.) on 5-4-61. 11. Lixus linguidus Fst. One example. Collected at Ghara on 21-4-61. 712. Lobotrachelus lepidotus Mshll. One example. Collected at Modikhola on 14-4-61. | +13. Lobotrachelus urenae Mshll. Two examples. Collected from Adathoda vasica at Shishnikhola on 31-3-61. 714. Metialma sp. Two examples. Collected at Ghara on 8-5-61. 15. Metialma ? anisomelis Mshll. Nine examples. Collected from Adathoda vasica plant at Shishnikhola on 31-3-61 and from fig tree at Birethanthi on 13-5-61. +16. Metialma cordata Mshll. Four examples. Collected from fig and Citrus at Birethanthi on 13-5-61 and at Modikhola on 14-4-61. Metialma sp. is comparatively larger than both anisomelis and cordata. It also differs in having the funicular segments together equal to the scape and in the pronotum being without a distinct raised area. 17. Myllocerus kashmirensis Mshll. Two examples. Collected at Ghasa (c. 1958 m.) on 21-4-61, and 22-4-61. +18. Myllocerus planoculis Mshll. One example. Collected at Pok- hara on 8-4-61. 19. Myllocerus viridulus Mshll.- Two examples. Collected from peach at Ghasa on 21-4-61. a‘ ~20. Nanophyes sp. Eleven examples. Collected from Adathoda vasica plant at Shishnikhola on 31-3-61, on Sarcococa sp. leaves at Karadikhola on 3-4-61, and at Modikhola on 14-4-61. *21. Paroplapoderus (Paroplapoderus) bihumeratus (Jek.). One exam- ple. Collected at Mattikhan (c. 1350 m.) on 5-4-61. ~22. Ptochus percusus Fst. One example. Collected at Chandrakot (near Lumley c. 1586 m.) on 13-4-61. 723. Rhynchaenus sp. 1. One example. Collected on Citrus at Dana on 7-5-61. 724. Rhynchaenus sp. 2. Three examples. Collected from peach at Ghasa on 21-4-61, at Nuwankot on 5-4-61, and at Modikhola on 14-4-6]. These two species of Rhynchaenus can be separated from each other by the small yellowish beak and elytra without yellowish patches in JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 312 9819S pue uonesund jynoyWM ‘yey pue Ysnol *peoig s[eAio}UT dosp seins Jelnqgo[H rl orld IO4}030} xe1oy} pue peoy uey} Josu0] Yon 9e}9s 1NO -UJIM ‘JueOS UOT}e}OUNA ‘yey pue qoows “peoirqg s[eAsiojUy ouy oeINS Te[nqo[p yor youd I9Y1930} xe1Ioy} pue peroy oy} se BuO, SY yrlag yea ‘UU ¢/.[ “WI ¢.] “WU “utd ¢.€-00-€ ¢ ‘ds ~ ds Ie[nse1 uorejound ‘ovjas UNq -WINDOI YSIIYM 1IOYS YIM XOAUOS S[PAIOJUT JOUTISIp “oUy seIS XOAUOZ) eIyATA snoosnj Isley, ‘o[PPIUl ou} UI snogor}so} YSIMOT[EA §=svIqrL §=“Yoe[q BAIOWJ-pury pue -pIJ, ‘SOIWIUIOI}X9 OM} OY} 3@ AYOUIS PUL S[PPIUT UI SNOdSE}S9} USIMOT[IA IOUS -910.J ‘YOe[g sio} ULYDOI) pue sexoD sso] SNOdD¥1S9} YSIMOT[OA vuuouy 19Yj930} xvIOY} pue proy 9} sv SUC] SY WNISOY youtq Apyieg Apog “WU Q).T . UIPIM “WU (0.€-SL-C y)SuoT | | I ‘ds Iayoeleyy uoidp AO SSIOddS ATUHL AHL JO SUALOVUVHO ONIHSINONILSIG aTav |, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 313 sp. 1 and by the long brownish beak and elytra with yellowish patches in sp. 2. 25. Sitona crinitus Oliv. Two examples. Collected from barley at Ulleri on 19-4-61 and at Chandrakot on 13-4-61. *26. Sitophilus oryzae Linn. Several examples. Coilected at various ‘places all along the route from paddy, maize, and wheat in storage. However, the other species of Sitophilus, S. sasakii, reported earlier (Kono 1959) is conspicuous by its absence in the present collection. 27. Tanymecus ? tetricus Fst. One example. Collected at Suikhet (c. 1187 m.) on 14-5-61. ; +28. Telephae sp. One example. Collected at Birethanthi on 13-5-61. The authors are grateful to Dr. S. Pradhan, Head of the Division of Entomology, for the facilities provided to process the collection and to Dr. M. G. Ramdas Menon, Systematic Entomologist, I.A.R.I., for going through the manuscript and for making some very valuable suggestions. They are also grateful to His Majesty’s Government, Nepal, and Shri Harbhajan Singh, leader of the party, for facilities given for making these collections. The assistance rendered by the British Museum (Natural History) in establishing the identity of a number of species is gratefully acknowledged. DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY, INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, S. R. WADHI New DELHI 12, ; BALDEV PARSHAD December 10, 1964. REFERENCES Kono, T. (1959) : Rice weevilin Fauna VON DALLA Torre, K. W., & Voss, E. and Flora of Nepal Himalayas. Scientific (1930): Coleopterorum Catalogus. (Cur- results of the Japanese Expedition to culionidae: Apoderinae), pars 110: 5,23, Nepal Himalayas 1952-53. Vol. and 29. 1 : 383-385. Edited by Kihara. 12. INSECT ATTACKS ON AND DISINFESTATION OF SOME EDIBLE FUNGI IN INDIA Exporters of the edible fungi, Cantharellus cibarius Fr. and Morchella esculenta Linn., which grow in the Himalayan region of Jammu and Kashmir State, finding difficulty in the acceptance of consignments due to presence of insect infestation, brought the matter to the notice of the Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage. The results of some investigation undertaken by the Directorate, for disinfestation of stocks of fungi are reported here. The two fungi are stored for varying periods between collection and marketing. Insect infestation may occur either in the natural habitat 314. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) or from cross-infestation from other commodities in the store, or from both these sources. From C. cibarius the insects recorded were a tiny beetle belonging to the family Cisidae (order Coleoptera)! and a rust- red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum Herbst.), and from M. esculenta the cigarette beetle (Lasioderma serricorne F.). The extent of infestation and its possible source and the nature of the damage are set out below. INFESTATION The dried specimens of Cantharellus cibarius were attacked by the Cis beetle by making round or elongate holes on the surface of the pileus and the stipe alike and eating the soft pithy core from the inside; on pressure a mass of brownish powder was given out. Severely damaged mushrooms showed innumerable holes. As many as 30 adults were found per mushroom. | The beetle is reddish brown in colour, 2 mm. long, head deflexed and concealed under the pronotum, antennae clubbed, dorsal surface of the body covered with yellowish pubescence arranged on the pronotum on either side of the mid-longitudinal line. The head of the male bears a pair of minute horn-like projections on the frons, and the pronotum another pair, bigger and raised, on the anterior margin. In the female the projections are wanting. | As Cis beetles occur on dead wood and fungi (Beeson 1941) it is probable that the initial source of infestation is the decaying wood over which C. cibarius grows and that the pest multiplies later on the fungi during transport and storage. As Tribolium castaneum is a surface feeder, the damage inflicted by it is not as severe as that of the Cis beetle. It has a wide host range and the infestation on the fungi is presumably from cross-infestation from other stored agricultural commodities. The dried specimens of Morchella esculenta were attacked by adults and larvae of Lasioderma serricorne. Minute round holes in the surface led to irregular galleries inside. Severely damaged morels were hollow and yielded powdery matter on tapping. As many as 8 adults were re- corded in one morel. The infested commodity is unfit for consumption. The green stage of the more! has been reported to be attacked by mag- gots (Vasudeva 1956). L. serricorne occurs as a serious pest of tobacco, but has been reported to attack coriander, cumin, turmeric, chillies, and ginger (Thomas 1946). Morchella appears to be a previously unreported host — of the pest. 1 Specimens have been sent to the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A., for identification, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4 315 DISINFESTATION Infested stock of C. cibarius and M. esculenta were fumigated with methyl bromide in Delhi. Fumigation was carried out in a room made gas-tight by pasting paper on the doors, windows, and ventilators. In all, 90 kg. of the mushroom and 60 kg. of the morel packed in five plywood tea-chests were fumigated at a density of 1 lb. per 1000 cu. ft., with an exposure period of 45 hours at a temperature between 21° C. and 33° C. After fumigation the room was opened and, after thorough aeration for four hours, the stocks were examined for determining the efficacy of methyl bromide. No surviving insects could be collected from the whole stock and, even after one year’s storage, no living insects were observed on the stored fumigated material. The fungi treated in the dry state with methyl bromide and aerated as described are unaffected as regards both taste and edibility and, as no toxicity remains after aeration, may safely be eaten. No chemical change in the fungus attributable to fumigation has been reported or found. The treatment, however, does not protect the fungus against cross-infestation. So proper storage of fumigated fungi in insect-free godowns is necessary. DIRECTORATE OF PLANT PROTECTION B. K. VARMA QUARANTINE AND STORAGE, S. P. GURWARA MINISTRY OF FOOD & AGRICULTURE, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, New DELHI, February 12, 1965. REFERENCES BEESON, C. F.C. (1941): The Ecology grains in India. Entomology in India, and Control of the Forest Insects of India Silver Jubilee number of Indian Journal and the Neighbouring Countries : 180. of Entomology : 352-358. THomas, P. M. (1946): Warehousing VASUDEVA, R. S. (1956): The Wealth of agricultural commodities other than of India. Raw Materials, F. G. 4: 87, 13. COLLECTING MOTHS BY A MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP IN THE SURAT DANGS, GUJARAT STATE: AN EXPLANATION Mr. D. G. Sevastopulo, P. O. Box 5026, Mombasa, writing with reference to the paper ‘ Collecting moths by a mercury vapour lamp in the Surat Dangs, Gujarat State’, published at pp. 281-294 of Volume 61, condemns as non-scientific the listing of genera in alphabetical sequence. He also points out that some of his distribution records from Calcutta have not been listed. 316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) In reply, the authors explain that as their paper is addressed mainly to general readers and field entomologists they have followed a method sanctioned by previous practice—see C.F.C. Beeson (1941) : THE ECOLOGY AND CONTROL OF THE FOREST INSECTS OF INDIA AND THE NEIGHBOURING COUNTRIES ; and M. S. Mani & Santokh Singh (1961 and 1962): ‘ Entomological Survey of Himalaya’, published in volumes 58 — to 60. An errata slip is issued separately to correct errors and omis- sions pointed out by Mr. Sevastopulo. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, BomMBAY, 1-BR, EDITORS April ot 965. 14. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE TUBE-WORM | LOIMIA MEDUSA (SAVIGNY) IN BOMBAY WATERS AND ITS COMMENSALISM WITH A PORCELLANID CRAB. (With one plate) While digging for Thalassinids mud-lobsters at Chowpatty, Bombay, on 14 Jan. 1964, a porcellanid crab (Plate, c and d) was seen emerging from the tube of a tube-worm Loimia medusa (Savigny) [Annelida : Terebellidae] (Plate, a andb). The crab was identified as Polyonyx sp. (Crustacea: Anomura). Further taxonomic determination was not possible as the crab was not represented in the collection of Polyonyx material with the senior author and did not agree with the descrip- tion of any known species. The crab is being described separately by the senior author!. The present paper records behaviour studies of the two associated animals Loimia and Polyonyx, which were always found together in several collections made subsequently. In India, ZL. medusa has been recorded on the east coast from Madras by Fauvel (1930 and 1953) and from Krusadai Island by Gravely (1927), but without any mention about its commensalism. Hence, this is the first record of the worm as a commensal and of its occurrence on the west coast of India. From previous records, the association of Polyonyx with other animals seems to be a common feature. Miyake (1945) found P. utinomi and P. macrocheles both commensal with Chaetopterus. Johnson (1958) described P. macrocheles, P. utinomi, and P. sinensis in association 1See K. N. Sankolli: ‘On a new species of commensal porcellanid crab, Polyonyx loimicola sp. noy. from India: (Crustacea, Anomura, Porcellanidae)’, at pp. 285-291 above, JouRN. BomMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. Loimia medusa (Savigny) and Polyonyx loimicola a. Worm without tube. Note the swollen condition. 6. Broken tuba with the worm inside. c. Commensal crab, male. d. Commensal crab, female (natural size) MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 317 with Chaetopterus sp., P. cometes and P. transversum with the bivalve Aspergillum, and P. telestophilus on the branches of an Alcyonarian, Telesto sp. Haig (1960) describes P. quandrangulatus as commensal with Chaetopterus vario pedatus, mentioning that a the larger tubes had the crabs in them. From India, only two species of Polyonyx, viz. P. obesulus and P. hendersoni have been recorded, and a third is being described (in the press, Sankolli). Of these obesulus is found to occur in sponges (Grave- ly, op. cit.) and as a crevice-dwelling form (Johnson, op. cit.) ; hendersoni, though not living in association with any other animal, occurs in colonies of corals and sponges (Johnson, op. cit.) ; and the new species is found to occur in sponge colonies. None of these three, however, has been reported as a true commensal. Besides Polyonyx, interesting observations have been made on the association of Porcel- lanella sp. with the sea pen Pteroides esperi by Jones (1959). FIELD OBSERVATIONS The tubes of L. medusa project $ to 2 in. above the ground and can be easily spotted during low tide in the intertidal zone. The exterior opening of the tube measures at most 4 in. in diameter and the length of the tube varies between 8 and 12 in. Attempts to take out the entire tube with the worm in it were not successful. The tubes were found mostly on the leeward side of stones or boulders, lying either in sand or in a mixture of sand and mud, where generally Thalassinids, especially Upogebiids, abound. It was often observed that the tubes ran almost parallel to the burrows of the Upogebiids. Each tube is unbranched and is composed mainly of calcareous pieces and sand grains cemented together by a sticky sub- stance. The tube did not wrap the worm along its attachment to the rocky substratum. The worm is 8 to 10 in. long, brownish green in colour, with whitish tentacles, much-branched brownish red gills, and red ventral plates. The commensal crabs are always found in a pair inside a_ tube. They are hairy and light-brown in colour, matching well with the tube. Most of the females were in berried condition. OBSERVATIONS IN CAPTIVITY The behaviour of the worm and the commensal crabs was studied independently and also in relation to each other in a series of small aquarium tanks, each measuring 12 in. x 9 in. x 9in. For simulat- ing the natural habitat, about 3 in. layer of coarse sand gathered from 318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) the locality where they were collected was spread out on the bottom of the tanks. The worms, without tubes or with parts of broken tubes, displayed vigorous rhythmic dilations ahd contractions of the girth of the body, the movements originating from the posterior end of the trunk and pro- gressing to the anterior end. These movements were relatively much less vigorous in worms with almost intact tubes. The worms, especially those deprived of their tubes, would ex- tend their tentacles and contract them immediately on the slightest mechanical disturbance, e.g. if the tentacles or the body were touched with a finger or a glass rod. After a while, if left undisturbed, the activity would be resumed. Ifa tentacle came in contact with a shell piece in the sand, it would start contracting bringing the shell piece with it towards the head end, at the same time repeatedly rolling it as though something sticky was being secreted on to it. After a while the piece would be dropped near the head end. Though this behaviour continued for 8 to 12 hours, the worm failed to build a tube. It would remain contracted in length with occasional attempts to build a new tube, but there would be vigorous pulsations in girth and the main part of the body would continue swollen for hours. In the swollen state the girth was 2 to 24 times the normal girth (slightly less than 4 in.) inside the tube. The naked worms survived for 5-7 days but a few died even earlier than 48 hours. With a view to increasing the survival period and assisting the worm in building a new tube, plastic and rubber tubes of suitable diameter and length were tried but without success as the worm wriggled out of — the tube almost immediately after introduction. Further observations were made with specimens provided with partly broken tubes of 1 to 3 in. length. The shell pieces rolled by the tenta- cles near the head end, instead of being just dropped as in the case of naked worms, were stuck on to the anterior end of the broken tube by the tentacles. These pieces could not be easily pulled out with a forceps, indicating that the shell pieces or sand particles were pasted with an adherent, which is probably secreted by the collar or oral region of the worm. The adherence of the shell particles to the tentacles suggests that the tentacles are also capable of secreting mucous-like sticky substance. 3 The tube material was thus added piece by piece till, in nearly two hours, about 4 in. length of new tube was added to the anterior end of the old tube. After adding the new portion in this manner, the worm gradually pushed itself inside till the whole animal was covered by the tube. The building of the tube, however, continued till it reached a length of 10-12 in. and this was achieved within 48 hours. The length — of the rebuilt tubes, often ranged from 18-24 in., the tubes many a time MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 319 taking a zig-zag course, which might have been due to the limited depth of the sand column and other artificial conditions in the experimental tanks. The tubes always had two openings, one at each end, The worms with the rebuilt tubes ghrived well for as long as 50 to 90 days in the laboratory. The tube thus constructed was composed mainly of shell pieces. Here too the tubes were formed against a hard surface, like that offered by the bottom glass or the bitumen coating along the angles of the tank. The tube when formed on the glass surface had a transparent side, devoid of shell and sand particles. This rendered it possible to make - observations on the worm and its commensals while inside the tube, for the tanks were supported on a stand 6 ft. in height, open from below, permitting necessary observations to be made through the bottom. The commensals invariably held on to the inner surface of the tube and kept their dorsal surface in contact with the body of the worm, behaviour which lessens the danger of hurt to the soft-bodied host. Generally, one crab was found near the head end and the other near the trunk region of the worm. If the worm was disturbed gently, it would either double back on itself or retract and go some distance inside the tube away from the source of disturbance, and the crabs would move along with the worm. After some time, if left undisturbed, the worm would come back to the opening and the crabs would accompany it. If, however, the disturbance was repeated many times or was of vigorous intensity, the worm would move backwards rapidly to the other end of the tube and, a few minutes later, its tentacles might be seen exposed at this opening ; the crabs, however, would normally remain in their original positions. On muddy water with Artemia nauplii being introduced near the opening of the tube, the worm would immediately reach out to the Opening and the activity of the tentacles would be increased accom- panied by intermittent jetting out of water from the mouth of the tube. Now, both the crabs would come towards the head end of the worm and rapid sweeping action of their third maxillipeds could be seen as though they were feeding. It was equally interesting to study the behaviour of the commensals. Alone or in a pair the crabs lived happily in the company of the worm. If they were kept separated from the host and its tube, they were found dead the very next day. If, however, a small or large piece of empty tube was provided, the crab lived inside it for about a month or so. If, now, a worm in its tube was introduced into the tank, the crab would eventually harbour with the host. Crabs, dislodged from their hosts with tubes in the same tank, crawled frantically about and, when they came near the tube or the tentacles of the worms, would immediately make attempts to enter into the tube. During this process, attempts to 320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) dislodge them while still outside the tube made them hold fast to any part of it. On their side the worms did not seem dependent for their welfare on the presence or absence of the commensal crab or crabs. Attempts were made to study,»the hatching of the eggs since most of the female commensal crabs were ovigerous. The eggs successfully hatched only when the crabs were kept along with their hosts in tubes. If a berried female had either a host without a tube or a tube without a host, the eggs were shed unhatched, though the crab was apparently in normal condition.. Hence, the association of the commensal crabs with the host in its tube appears to be a necessity for a successful hatching. : ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are thankful to Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, Director of Fisheries, Maha- rashtra, for giving us facilities for this study, and to Dr. H. G. Kewal- ramani, Senior Scientific Officer, for his constructive criticism. TARAPOREVALA MARINE BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH STATION, K. N. SANKOLLI BOMBAY, SHAKUNTALA SHENOY March 8, 1965. 15. A NEW SPECIES OF PANICUM COLORATUM LINN. COMPLEX (With two plates) Panicum simpliciflorum Jauhar et Joshi, sp. nov. Affinis Panico colorato Linn., a quo tamen differt praecipue (i) culmis gracillimis, penitus glabris, (41) foliis brevibus, angustis, glabris, (ii1) panicula simplici, sparse ramosa, racemi instar, (iv) spiculis brevibus, subacutis, (v) partibus floralibus (glumis et lemmate inferiore) rarioribus et inconspicue nervosis, et (vi) structura distincta epidermali foliorum monstrante ‘cellulas longas’ longas et angustas, ornatas parietibus perpendicularibus tenuiter undulatis et inconspicue cuticulatis. | 2 Gramen perenne, gracile, alte caespitosum, dense fasciculatum, stenophyllum, glabrum, tetraploideum, habitu erecto fruticoso. Culmi 90-110 cm. alti, 5-8-nodi, teretes, ad 1:6 mm. crassi; nodi glabri. Folia brevia, angusta, acuminata, glabra, nervo medio inconspicuo ; folium secundum 14-20 cm. longum, 0°3-0°6 cm. latum; vaginae foliorum glabrae. Ligula 1:3-1‘5 mm. longa, fimbriata. Inflorescentia — sparse ramosa, racemi instar, paniculata, 12-20 cm. longa, 6-9 cm, lata ; rami secundarii emergentes erachide principe supportant spiculas Journ. Bombay NAtT. Hist. Soc. PLATE IT Ta ¢ : ig | . -. 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Panicum simpliciflorum Jauhar et Joshi, sp. nov.: a culm with panicle, spikelet, and constituent parts of a spikelet | 1. Culm with a simple, raceme-like panicle; 2. A portion of leaf showing ligule ; | 3. A pair of spikelets (note the sub-acute apices); 4. Lower glume, a short, orbicular structure, |Inconspicuously 1i-nerved; 5. Upper glume; 6. Lower lemma; 7. Lower palea with apical Margins serrulated; 8. Upperlemma; 9. Upper palea; 10. Pistil and stamens JouRN. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE II mm. 9 Panicum coloratum L.: a culm with panicle, spikelets, and constituent parts of a spikelet iy A; 1. Culm with effuse panicle; 2. A portion of leaf showing ligule; 3. A pair of spike lets; 4. Lower glume; 5. Upper glume; 6. Lower lemma; 7. Lower palea wit serrulated margins; 8. Upperlemma; 9. Upperpalea; 10. Pistil and stamens. | Note conspicuous nervation of the glumes and lower lemma. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 321 geminas, longe inter se distantes. Spiculae subacutae, flaccidae, 2-2- 2°5 mm. longae, 2-florae, flore inferiore staminato, superiore vero hermaphrodito. Gluma inferior brevis (0°8-1:1 mm. longa), orbicularis, spiculam amplectens, inconspicue l-nervia. Gluma superior ut lemma inferius, 5-7-nervia, nervis inconspicuis. Palea inferior 2-nervia, marginibus debiliter dentatis, hyalina. Flos hermaphroditus fere ovalis forma, plano-convexus ; lemma coriaceum, laevigatum. Stigmata ‘Tyrian’ purpurea (Ridgway 1912). Antherae 1-0-1-4 mm. longae, citrinae. _ Oriundus ex Australia, in speciem distinctam elevatus post cyto- taxonomicam investigationem, typus positus in herbario sectionis botanicae Instituti Indici Agriculturae ad New Delhi sub numero P. P. Jauhar 2: isotypi, P,P. Jauhar 2 A, B, C, deponendi in herbario ad Dehra Dun, ad Calcuttam et ad Kew in Anglia. Panicum simpliciflorum Jauhar et Joshi, sp. nov. The species is allied to Panicum coloratum L, (Plate II) but differs from it chiefly in having: (i) very thin, perfectly glabrous culms, (ii) short, narrow, glabrous leaves, (iii) a simple, scantily-branched, raceme-like panicle, (iv) short, sub-acute spikelets, (v) fewer and inconspicuously-nerved floral parts (glumes and lower lemma) (Plate I), and (vi) long and narrow ‘long cells’ with feebly rippled and inconspicuously cuticularised anticlinal walls. The following table shows, in bare outline, the broad points distinguishing the two species (for details, see Jauhar 1963): | P. simpliciflorum Jauhar Panicum coloratum L. et Joshi, sp. nov. Character Morphological features (i) Culms (ii) Leaves and Leaf-sheath (iii) Inflorescence (iv) Spikelets ’ -(v) Nervation of floral parts (vi) Foliar epidermal pattern Medium thick to _ thick, glabrous to glabrescent culms with or without nodal-fuzziness, branched or unbranched above Short to long, mostly glab- rescent leaves and leaf-sheaths A semi-effuse to highly effuse, strongly branched panicle 2'6-3°6 mm. long, generally acute to acuminulate spikelets More- and _ conspicuously- nerved glumes and lower lemma Short to medium-long ‘ long cells’ (100-150 long and 15-234 broad) with feebly to con- spicuously rippled and cuticula- rised anticlinal walls Very thin, perfectly glabrous culms without nodal-fuzziness, branched above Short, narrow, glabrous leaves and leaf-sheaths A simple, raceme-like, scan- tily-branched panicle 2:2-2°5 mm. long, subacute spikelets Fewer- and inconspicuously- nerved glumes andlower lemma Long and narrow ‘long cells’ (135-1654 long and 12- 17/ broad) with feebly rippled and inconspicuously cuticula- rised anticlinal walls 332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 63 (3) The species does not cross with Panicum coloratum ; all concerted efforts, using a variety of techniques and procedures, to obtain a hybrid failed. A slender, highly caespitose, densely tufted, stenophylous, glabrous, tetraploid (4x=2n=36), perennial with erect bushy growth habit. Culms 90-110 cm. tall, 5- to 8-noded, terete, up» to 1°6 mm. thick. Nodes glabrous, i.e. free from nodal-fuzziness. Leaves short, narrow, acuminately pointed, glabrous, mid-rib highly inconspicuous ; second leaf 14-20 cm. long and 0-3-0°6 cm. broad; leaf-sheaths glabrous. Ligule 1:3-1:5 mm. long, fimbriate. Inflorescence, a scantily-branched, raceme-like panicle, 12-20 cm. long and 6-9 cm. broad. The secondaries arising from the main rachis directly bear widely-spaced, paired spikelets. Spikelets sub-acute, flaccid, 2°2-2°5 mm. long, 2-flowered—the lower staminate and the upper hermaphrodite. Lower glume short (0°8-1:1 mm. long), orbicular structure clasping the spikelet, inconspicuously l-nerved. Upper glume, like the Jower lemma, 5- to 7-nerved, the nerves being inconspicuous. Lower palea 2-nerved, with feebly dentate margins, hyaline. Herma-— Phrodite floret almost oval in shape, plano-convex ; Jemma coriaceous, levigate. Stigmas ‘tyrian rose’ in colour (Ridgway 1912). Anthers 1:0-1°4 mm. long, lemon-yellow. Some of the salient features of the epidermal pattern are: Long and narrow ‘ long cells’ with inconspicuously cuticularised and feebly rippled anticlinal walls ; occurrence of rectangular to saddle- shaped ‘short cells ’ between the long cells. The type was isolated from a composite seed lot of Panicum coloratum obtained originally from Australia. On the basis of cytotaxonomic investigations by the authors, the specimen has been © elevated to specific rank. Type P. P. Jauhar 2, in Herbarium, Botany Division, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi ; isotypes to be deposited in the Herbaria of Dehra Dun (P. P. Jauhar 2A), Calcutta (P. P. Jauhar 2B), and in Kew, England (P. P. Jauhar 2C). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are highly indebted to Rev. Prof. H. Santapau, F.N.1., Director, — Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for his valuable suggestions with | regard to the nomenclature of the taxon and for kindly rendering the | diagnosis into Latin. We express our cordial thanks to Dr. M. S. | Swaminathan, Head of the Division of Botany, to Shri H. B. Singh, | Head of the Division of Plant Introduction, to Dr. N. L. Dhawan, Geneticist, and to Shri B. D. Patil, formerly Assistant Agrostologist, all at this Institute, for their critical comments and suggestions. The | MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4 323 senior author is also thankful to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research for the award of a Senior Research Fellowship of the Council for the present work. BOTANY DIVISION, | INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH PREM P. JAUHAR INSTITUTE, A. B. JOSHI New De tut 12, yee, April 6, 1965. REFERENCES JAUHAR, P. P. (1963) : Cytotaxonomic RipGway, R. (1912) : Color Standards investigations in the genus Panicum. and Color Nomenclature. Washington Ph. D. Thesis. Post-Graduate School, D.C. I.A.R.I., New Delhi. 16. LAURENTIA LONGIFLORA (LINN.) ENDL. IN PONDICHERRY Two years ago Mr. Parichand of Shri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondi- cherry, showed me a small herbaceous plant with attractive white flowers. According to him the Mother of the Ashram spoke of it as signifying ‘ Divine Purity’ and, as it grew in the shade, the plant was used in pots as an interior decoration in the Ashram ; this stopped when the gardeners found that the juice of the plant irritates the eyes and causes a temporary blurring of vision; in spite of this numerous plants are found growing as weeds in the gardens, and people who collect the flowers are warned about the harmful juice. Interested by this information, I analysed the characters of the plant and found it to be Laurentia longiflora (L.) Endl. (Campanula- ceae), which was first recorded in India by Fr. Santapau (1955). He recorded it as growing in wasteland at Castle Rock in North Kanara and, as an ornamental introduction in a Bombay garden. Of late it has been seen as a very common weed in many gardens in Bombay and its neighbourhood (Santapau 1964). In the last two years the plant has spread to the adjacent gardens of the Government House and the French Institute, Pondicherry. The following observations were made on the plants growing in the gardens of the French Institute. The flowers are protandrous. I have not observed any biological agent in the act of effecting cross-pollination in this exotic plant ; never- theless it is found to produce about 800-1500 seeds per capsule and c. 70% of the seeds are viable. The occurrence of this plant along seepage canals and the fact that the seeds float in water suggest that they are transported by the canal water. = 324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) The mature capsules are drooping (see the illustration given by Santapau 1955) and open by two loculicidal valves at the top between ~ the persistent calyx lobes. The seeds fall in small quantities when the dry capsules are shaken by the wind, and they germinate readily in moist and shady soil and fresh seeds collected from mature capsules were found to do so in moist sawdust. Since the plant produces flowers and fruits throughout the year, it has a large seed output and in view of the high percentage of seed viabi- lity, the reproductive capacity of Laurentia longiflora is remarkably great. Hence, Fr. Santapau’s assessment that this weed needs watching is justified. For a detailed botanical description and illustrations and for an account of the poisonous qualities of this plant, the following articles are recommended : i SANTAPAU, H. (1955): Laurentia longiflora Endl., a new record for Bombay State. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 (1): 156-157. —— (1964): These exotic weeds need watching. Indian Farming 14 (4) : 20-23, 25. TuyN, P. (1960): Laurentia. Flora Malesiana, ser. 1, 6 (1): 139-141. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I express my gratitude to Dr. P. Legris and Dr. V. M. Meher- Homji for their valuable suggestions. FRENCH INSTITUTE, PONDICHERRY, G. THANIKAIMONI May 6, 1965. 17. SOLANUM KHASIANUM VAR. CHATTERJEEANUM SEN GUPTA: THE POSSIBILITY OF A STEROID HORMONE INDUSTRY IN INDIA (With a plate) = The word hormone is derived from the Greek hormaein which means to excite. Hormones are chemical substances secreted by endocrine glands in small quantities. Steroid hormones, mostly secreted by the cortex of the adrenals and the gonads, include cortisone, the wonder drug for rheumatoid arthritis, and the sex hormones estrone and proges- terone, androsterone and testosterone. The first steroid hormone to be isolated was estrone (Doisy et al. 1929) from the urine of pregnant women and, once the new field was JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. HIstT. Soc. 0 gawr -— oO Solanum khasianum var, chatterjeeanum SenGupta A. portion of the plant with flowers and fruits; B. prickles on stem surface : type; ii. straight type ; F. calyx and ovary ; G. corolla—inner surface ; H. stamen ; I. ovary and style Ls recurved C. glandular hairs; D. corolla and stamens; E. calyx—outer surface ; | ; | —— — MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 5/25) opened up, a series of research laboratories started working with great speed. This is evident from the subsequent isolation in quick succes- sion of natural hormones like androsterone (Butenandt 1931), proges- terone (Butenandt et al. 1934), testosterone (David ef al. 1935), and cortisone (Mason ef al. 1936). The amount of labour and skill involved in these isolations will appear from a single instance, that 625 kg. of ovaries from 50,000 sows were processed for 20 mg. of pure progesterone. Even so, the efficacy of steroid hormones particularly cortisone for human ailments was So great that labour and cost were of no consideration and a total of 1270 lb. of desoxycholic acid equivalent to 600,000 litres of ox bile was processed by Merck & Co. in 1949 to produce about 1 kg. of cortisone at a cost of $200 per gram. However, the supply of desoxy- cholic acid is limited by the number of cattle slaughtered and a less expensive and potentially unlimited plant source was essential. Marker et al. (1940) proved that steroid sapogenins are readily converted to pregnane compounds with the potential chemical framework for steroid hormones. Diosgenin and hecogenin, outstanding among steroid sapo- genins, occur commonly in Dioscoreaceae, which include genus Dioscorea, source of diosgenin, and in certain species of Agave of family Amaryllidaceae, source of hecogenin. So in 1950, with authorisation and funds from the American Congress, a joint programme was initiated. by three agencies, National Institute of Health (NIH), Section of Plant Introduction (SPI), and Eastern Utilization Research Branch (EURB), for increasing the cortisone supply. SPI procured raw plant materials for chemical analysis and developed promising species as crops, EURB found out potential cortisone precursors in the plant materials procured, and NIH synthesised cortisone from suitable plant steroids isolated by EURB. Asa result 5320 plant samples representing 1068 genera in 219 plant families were studied, and two species of Dioscorea having the highest yields of diosgenin on record (8°5% and 10%) and an Agave giving as much as 2°5% hecogenin were discovered. The total outcome Was surprising, for the cost of cortisone fell from $200 per gram in 1949 to $3:50 in 1955-58, and progesterone from $80 per gram to $ 0°48. : ~ While diosgenin and hecogenin were holding the monopoly as start- ing materials in the manufacture of steroid hormones a serious challenge came from an alkaloid, solasodine (Sato et al. 1951). Its chemical structure is very close to diosgenin, from which it differs in having an imino nitrogen in place of an oxide linkage. The importance of solasodine has further increased owing to its facile conversion to pro- gesterone with a remarkably high yield (Sato et al. 1959). In fact, in USSR diosgenin has been replaced by solasodine in the manufacture cf steroid hormones, 326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) Solasodine was first reported in 1905 (Oddo 1929) in the berries of Solanum sodomeum Linn, as a glycoside, named ‘ solanine-s’ to distin- guish it from ‘ solanine-t’ of potato sprouts. The name was subsequent- ly changed to solasonine (Rochelmeyer 1937) and various other names were given to the same glycoside, namely purpurine from S. aviculare Forst. f., solancarpidine from S. surratense Burm. f. (=S. xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl.), and soladulcamaridine from S. dulcamara Linn. — these were later merged as solasonine (Briggs et al. 1937, Boll 1962). Solasodine is an alkaloid and its isolation is comparatively easy since it forms a sparingly soluble hydrochloride. It is present in berries of various species of Solanum which are produced throughout the year in large quantities. The cost of their collection is less than for Dioscorea, in which diosgenin occurs in the deeply growing underground tubers or yams. At present the commercial production of bulk steroid hormones is most competitive, the cost of the final product mainly depending on the starting material. India being rich in native species of Solanaceae with about 33 species of Solanum, attempts are being made in this Depart- ment to find out a rich source of solasodine with help and financial assistance from P. L. 480. So far we have studied twenty species of Solanum of which one has proved to possess the highest quantity of solasodine on record (5.4%). This has been isolated from the mature berries of Solanum khasianum var. chatterjeeanim SenGupta. The taxonomic features in which it differs from Solanum khasianum Clarke are: distinctly recurved prickles on stems, and glandular hairs densely aggregated on stem, leaves, pedicels: and sepals (SenGupta 1961). The plant grows wild in the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Lohit Division (NEFA), Sikkim, W. Bengal, Orissa, and the Nilgiris. It flowers and fruits throughout the year, specially during the summer and rainy seasons. The berries (Plate) are globose, 2:5-3 cm. in diameter, green with faint variegation turning bright yellow at maturity, usually Soltary or in clusters of 2 to 3. ’ The solasodine contents in different parts of this plant and also in plants collected from various regions have been assayed. The results show that plants collected from the Nilgiris contain the maximum quantity of solasodine in the berries. It may be mentioned in this connection that the identity of the plant as well as its economic potentiality have been first established by this Survey. Its physiology is now being studied to find out how the yield of solasodine can be increased, The Development Council for Drugs and Pharmaceuticals, Govern- ment of India, has fixed a target for the production of nearly 1200 kg. of steroid hormones during the Fourth Five-year Plan period for home MISCELLANEOUS NOTES consumption. ao Besides this, there is a high demand all over the world, the USA alone consuming a single item of corticoid drugs worth 100 million dollars in 1958. In India we have potentialities for the richest source of solasodine, with raw materials for the manufacture of steroid hormones, Let us exploit it fully and earn the foreign exchange so essential for our national development, BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, CALCUTTA, March 15, 1965. P. C. MAITY REFERENCES Bo.t, P. M. (1962): Alkaloidal glyco- sides from Solanum dulcamarall. Three new alkaloidal glycosides and a reassess- ment of soladulcamaridine. Acta Che- mica Scandinav. 16: 1819-30. Briccs, L. H. (1937): The identity of solancarpine with solanine-s. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 59 : 2467-68. BUTENANDT, A. (1931): Chemical investigation of the sex hormones. Z. Agew. Chem. 44: 905-8. ————., WESTPHAL, U., & HOHLWEG, W. (1934): The hormone of the corpus luteum. Z. physiol. Chem. 227: 84-98. Davip, K., DINGEMANSE, E., FREUD, J., & LAqugur, E. (1935): Crystalline male hormone from testes (testosterone) more active than androsterone prepared from urine or cholesterol. Z. physiol. Chem. 233: 281-82. Doisy, E. A., VELER, C. D., & THAYER, S. A. (1929): Folliculin from urine of pregnant women. Am. J. Physiol. 90: 329-30. MarKER, R. E., TSUKAMOTO, T., & TURNER, D. L. (1940): Sterols C. dios- genin. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 62: 2525-32. Mason, H. L., Myers, C. S., & KENDALL, E. C. (1936): The chemist1y of crystalline substances isolated from the suprarenal gland. J. Biol. Chem. 114: 613-30. Oppo, G. (1929): 62B : 267-71. ROCHELMEYER, H. (1937): Sterol alka- loids. Arch. Pharm. 275: 336-42. SATO, Y., MILLER, H. K., & MoseETTIG, E. (1951) : Degradation of solasodine. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 73: 5009. ————— IKEKAWA, N., & MOSETTIG, E. (1959) : Improvement in the prepara- tion of 3 B-acetoxy-S—pregn—16 en— 20 one and 3 B-actoxypregna-5, 16-dien —20 one from the steroidal alkaloids, tomatidine and solasodine. J. Org. Chem. 24: 893-94. SENGupTA, G. (1961): A taxonomic note on Solanum khasianum Clarke and description of a new variety under it. Bull, bot. Surv. India3; 411-15. Solanine. Ber. 18. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF PLANTAGO PSYLLIUM LINN. IN GUJARAT (With four text-figures) Plantago psyllium Linn. Sp. Pl. 167, 1753; Fl. Brit. Ind. 4: 707, 1885 (excl. syn.); Kirtikar & Basu, Ind. Med. Pl. (ed. 2) 3: 2042, 1933. Annual herb, erect, 30-45 cm. tall with opposite branches ; stems and branches somewhat tumid at lower nodes, terete, faintly striate, olive green, finely glandular pubescent in older parts, densely so in younger. Leaves 2'5-6:5 cm. long, opposite or subopposite, apparently 328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) appearing whorled, narrowly linear, glabrous except a few hairs on margins near base, subacute or obtuse at apex, sheathing at base; sheath Piped | RAE RS Fig. 4 Plantago psyllium Linn. Fig. 1. Twig (x 0.75); Fig. 2. Flower x 7.5; Fig. 3. Fruit x 7.5; Fig. 4. Seed 7.5. of opposite leaves sometimes united. Spikes 6-10 mm. long, ovoid or oblong, compact, solitary, axillary, on 2°5-5 cm. long, glandular hairy peduncle. Flowers rosy pink. Bract 5-10 mm. long, glandular hairy. Sepals 4, 2°5-3 x +1mm., ovate, acute or subacute, pubescent on outer side, with hyaline, ciliate margins. Petals 4, united, glabrous ; tube 3°5-4 x 1:5-2 mm., somewhat constricted beneath lobes; lobes -+ 1 mm. long, ovate, acute. Stamens 4, exserted; filaments slender, glabrous ; anthers yellow when fresh, pale brown on drying. Ovary 2 X 1:5 mm., glabrous; style 2°5-3 mm., slender, hairy, in fruit pale brown. Fruit 3x 2mm., glabrous, circumsciss a little below the middle. Seed 3 x 1:3 mm., yellowish brown, glabrous, boat- shaped. Collected on 1.2.1965 from cultivated fields of Cuminum cyminum L., about three miles from Vallabh Vidyanagar, where it is common in some | fields (Shah 11380, five sheets). MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 625 From the literature available to the authors, it appears that the plant has not been recorded previously from oe and Maharashtra States. It is reported here for the first time. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors are deeply thankful to-Shri M. B. Raizada, Principal, D.A.Y. College, Dehra Dun, for confirming the identity of this plant. UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, S. V. VIDYAPEETH, J. G. CHOHAN, ™. sc. VALLABH VIDYANAGAR, G. L. SHAH, M.Sc., Ph.D. DIST. KAIRA, GUJARAT STATE, March 30, 1965S. 19. JATROPHA TANJORENSIS ELUIS ET SAROJA: A NEW RECORD FOR EASTERN INDIA This species was recentiy described from south India by Ellis & Saroja (1962) in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 58(3) : 834-836. As it is sofar > not recorded from any other part of the country, its occurrence in W. Bengal is of interest. The author collected this plant at Panpur, Howrah District, on 4 May 1964; some full grown plants, 1-5-3 m. high, ina fence and some smaller ones scattered on open places near by. Since the plant is used for fencing one can expect that in the near future — this may be spread widely by human agency. J. tanjorensis is closely allied to J. glandulifera Roxb., but can be easily distinguisned in the field by its leaves lobed above the middle, and its finely serrated margins, with each serrature gland-tipped. The wide range of its flowering season is clearly evident from’ the date of collection of the type (20 Jan. 1961) and the present collection. Specimens examined Bennet 704. CAL. Thanks are due. to Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, Keeper, Central National Herbarium, for encouragement and to Mr. J. L Ellis, Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore, for confirming the identity of the speci- men with the type. CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM, BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, Ss. 8S. R. BENNET BOTANIC GARDEN P. O., HOWRAH, March 16, 1965, 330. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 20. NOTES ON THE VEGETATION OF WADI AS-SAHBA’, EASTERN ARABIA (With a diagram and two plates) On 10-11 February 1965 the writer made several traverses through the Harad (Haradh)-Central Jafurah area of eastern Saudi Arabia to gather field data for a vegetation map of the Eastern Province. Part of the route lay in Wadi as-Sahba’, and the following qualitative notes on the natural vegetation of the wadi may be of some interest, now that the area has been selected as the site of a major agricultural development project. The writer and a companion. entered the wadi near the new project site, camped in the wadi bed to the south-east, and drove down the channel the next day to.a little beyond the point where it is blocked by dunes of the Jafurah, near longitude 49° 30’ east. At about 49° 02:3’ east, or 8 km. south-east of the project site, a vegetation transect of the wadi was made (see diagram below) with exaggerated vertical scale. The vegetation data gathered here are fairly representative of most of the wadi’s length. At this point the wadi bottom, or say/ bed, runs near the southern bank. At other points it is nearer the centre or the northern bank. The wadi cross-section may, for purposes of description, be divided into four zones : - Harad gravel plain . Wadi walls . Wadi interior slopes . Wadi bottom ‘Kilometres A. The Harad gravel plain. This is an extensive, nearly level plain with a surface of water-deposited pebbles and cobbles derived from the Pleistocene flow of the Sahba’ channel. The vegetation of this plain is very Sparse ; in the Harad area it consists of occasional stunted shrubs of Rhanterium epapposum Oliv. (Arabic : ‘arfaj) with clumps of Rhazya stricta Decne. (Arabic: harmal). About 32 km. north-east of Harad the Rhanterium-Rhazya gives way toa well-defined association of co-dominant Rhanterium and Ephedra alata Decne. (Arabic: ‘alanda). Diplotaxis harra (Forssk.) Boiss, (Arabic; khafsh), Astragalus dactylocarpus Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLaTE I Py i ‘ POU OL OGD PA de gee ee ee ee . Se Ne a ae cee ES I SM BeOS ‘Sj =: ye SA eT a a aa ; eX J % — a : * yo : My 3 & SS ae pe eS 1. Ephedra alata Decne. (0:75 m.) in the Rhantertwm-Ephedra association of the northern Harad gravel plain (24° 28’ N.; 49° 23’ E.). Ephedra, com- mercially exploited in some countries as a source of the drug ephedrine, occurs here with Rhantertwm on small hummocks on the light, gritty soil characteristic of this community. 2. Wadi as-Sahba’ bottom (24° 02-5’ N.; 49° 02-2’ E.), with hummocks of the dominant shrub Haloxylon salicornicum in winter resting stage. In the background, the nearly barren interior slopes and the northern wall. (Photos : James P. Mandaville, Jr.) Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PraTeE II 1. Acacia flava (2-5m.), characteristic of the Haloxylon bottom community in Wadi as-Sahba’ (23° 57’ N. ; 49° 14’ E.) 2. Wadi as-Sahba’ bottom inside the western edge of the Jafurah dunes (23° 50’ N.; 49° 30’ E.). The shrublets on the wadi floor are Haloxylon and co-dominant Azabasis setifera. (Photos: James P. Mandaville, Jr.) MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 331 Boiss. and Daemia cordata R. Br. (Arabic: ghalqah) were noted in sayl channels cutting across the plain from the Ghawar hills at a point 16 km. north-east of Harad. The eastern portion of the plain along the edge of the Jafirah dunes immediately north of Wadi as-Sahba’ supports very sparse and stunted shrublets of Haloxylon salicornicum (Moq.) Bge. (Arabic: rimth) rather than Rhanterium. A few shallow basins in this area had a fairly dense cover of Monsonia nivea (Decne.) J. Gay (Arabic : garnuwah). Travelling north along the edge of the Jafirah, it was noted that scattered Rhanterium again became evident north of latitude 24° 10’ north, and at 24°24’ north the denser Rhanterium-Ephedra association of the northern Harad gravel plain was entered (Plate I, 1). The plain south of Wadi as-Sahba’ was not studied, B. The wadi walls. The wadi walls are quite steep, in some places having the aspect of small bluffs. Run off from the gravel plain attains enough velocity to cut deep channels to the valley floor. Vegetation on the walls is generally confined to these water channels and consists of well-developed Rhanterium, Anvillea garcini (Burm.) DC, (Arabic : nuqd), and tussocks of the grass Lasiurus hirsutus (Forssk.) Boiss. (Arabic: da‘ah). C. The wadi interior slopes. ‘The interior slopes, like the walls, are generally barren except where cut. by water channels. The rate of run- off in this zone is less, however, and the vegetation attains a greater development. This is particularly true of the northern slope, where sand has blown over the wall to form drifts covered and stabilized by Lasiurus and Panicum turgidum Forssk. (Arabic: thumam), with fre- quent shrubs of Lycium barbarum L. (Arabic : ‘awsaj) and Ochradenus baccatus Del. (Arabic : qurdi). D. The wadi bottom. This zone is quite level and of variable width, averaging perhaps 350 metres. Haloxylon salicornicum is the obvious dominant, occurring in relatively closely spaced hummocks that mark the limits of the zone (Plate I, 2). The other conspicuous member of the community is a small tree, Acacia flava Schweinf. (Arabic: salam), that overtops the Haloxylon in a discontinuous line along the lowest part of the channel (Plate II, 1). Infrequent examples of Lycium and Rhanterium were also seen 12 km. south-east of the Jabrin track crossing. Probably the most abundant annual of the bottom community is Neurada procumbens L. (Arabic: sa‘dan), which in some favourable locations forms mats of almost continuous cover. Other annuals noted in the silty bottom among the Haloxylon were: Arnebia decumbens Coss. et Kral. (Arabic: kahal), Plantago ciliata Desf. (Arabic: yanam), Senecio coronopifolius Desf. (Arabic: kura‘ al-ghurab), Sclerocephalus arabicus Boiss., Emex spinosa Camped. (Arabic : hambizan), Koelpinia 332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) linearis Pall. (Arabic: lihyat ash-shaybah), Trigonella stellata Forssk. (Arabic : nafal), Astragalus sp. cf. tribuloides Del. (Arabic: qaf‘a’), and Diplotaxis harra. Anastatica hierochuntica L. (Arabic: kaftah) was abundant. | Nearer the Jaftirah dunes there is a gradual increase in drift sand cover on the wadi floor. Acacia becomes infrequent, and the Haloxylon shrubs are more widely spaced. As the first isolated dunes appear, Anabasis setifera Mog. (Arabic: sha‘ran) becomes co-dominant with Haloxyion in the flats (Plate IT, 2). Haloxylon salicornicum in Eastern Arabia is usually characteristic of areas with a relatively high water table and poorer drainage. The Wadi as-Sahba’ bottom is certainly somewhat more saline than the walls or the plain above, but the presence of such a variety of annuals and the absence of definite salt markers such as Seidlitzia rosmarinus (Ehrnb.) Solms.-Laub. (Arabic: shinan) and Suaeda vermiculata Forssk. (Arabic: sawwad) indicate that this bottom salinity is moderate. The presence of Anabasis further down the wadi may indicate increasingly saline con- ditions in the lower reaches of the channel. A large scale Bedouin settlement programme in Wadi as-Sahba’ would probably result in the eradication of the Acacia now found in the wadi bed as well as most of the Haloxylon, a highly valued fuel shrub in any area of such sparse vegetation. Except where portions of the channel are cleared for cultivation, it might be worthwhile to maintain the Haloxylon cover to help control seasonal run-off. Another sampling of the wadi’s flora in late spring would certainly add to the list of annual plants; annual grasses were notably absent in early February. Some quantitative vegetation data would be useful, and any time spent examining the potentially destructive rodent fauna of the wadi would not be wasted. Jerboas (Jaculus sp.) and gerbilles (Gerbillus sp.) were observed in the Ha/oxy/on community at night ; and sand rats of the genus Meriones, if present or introduced, might prove to be particu- larly troublesome as crop destroyers. ARMACO, Box 1912, DHAHRAN, SAUDI ARABIA, J. MANDAVILLE March 1, 1965. 21. A NOTE ON THE IDENTIFICATION OF SOME UNRECORDED DESERT PLANTS FROM KUTCH While studying the plants of the Indian Desert at the Blatter Her- barium, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, the author came across certain interesting but little known plants from the district of Kutch. These plants were either wrongly assigned or were found in the dubia covers, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 333 None of them has been reported earlier from Kutch (Blatter 1908 ; Cooke 1901-1908 ; Hooker 1872-1879 ; Thakar 1926 ; Jain & Deshpande 1960 ; Jain & Kanodia 1960 ; Kapadia 1954; Palin 1880; and Saxton & Sedgwick 1918) and most of them not even from the adjacent regions of Saurashtra (Santapau 1953, 1962; Santapau & Raizada 1954, 1955). It was, therefore, considered desirable to place on record the occurrence of these species in the Kutch region, which has great phytogeographical importance as it is the meeting ground of the arid elements of the African and Arabian flora with those of the Indian flora. The geographical distribution of these species is interesting. All the specimens are deposited in the Blatter Herbarium. 1. Cleome brachycarpa Vahl ex DC. Prodr. 1 : 240 ; 1824. Irani 5225, 5226, and 5227: ‘Jalender-Bet, 8-9-60. Erect, 14 ft. high ; much branched from the base ; forming a clump; about 1 ft. in diameter ; in flower (yellow) and fruit; occasional in open; locally abundant along road sides.’ This species has been reported only from NW. Rajasthan in India; it is a common species in West Pakistan, Arabia, Abyssinia, and N. Africa. 2. Corallocarpus conocarpus (Dalz. ex Dalz. & Gibs.) C. B. Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind. 2 : 628 ; 1879. Trani 5184, and 5185: ‘ Rest House, Juiju-Wada, 7-9-60. Climbing on Capparis aphylla in the open; leaves fleshy ; fruits green when young, red with age ; leaves eaten as caer ; local name: ‘“ Kadavi- Nai’”’.’ A aa rare species, recently reported (Bhandari 1963) as a new re- cord for NW. Rajasthan. Earlier this species was collected by Dal- zell from Gujarat (no definite locality given) ; by Stocks, probably from Sind, and by Talbot from ‘ Dumbal’. 3. Dactyliandra welwitchii Hook f. in Fl. Trop. Afr. 2 : 557, 1871; Bhandari et Singh in Kew Bull. 19 : 133. 1964. Irani 5198: ‘Kutch, 8-9-60, Climber, in flower (Whitish-green) and fruit; seeds 6-8; the auriculate stipules are very cdnspicuous ; vernacular name: Anj-phutamni’. Irani 5244: ‘ Jalender-Bet, 9-9-60 Climber, in fruit; bracts conspicuous; common; vernacular name Ankh- phutamani.’ Recently reporied as a new genus ee for India (Bhandari & Singh 1964), this species was known earlier only from Angola and south- west Africa (Meeuse 1962). Irani’s specimens were lying in the dubia cover of @xeunbiiaecae at Blatter Herbarium until they were assigned by the author. 334. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (2) 4. Hibiscus punctatus Dalz. ex Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 20. 1861. Trani 5253: ‘Kutch, Jalender-Bet, 12-9-60. An erect undershrub 1-2 ft. high ; in flower ; occasional ; identified as one of the Malvaceae.’ This species has so far been reported from Saurashtra (Jamnagar and Okhamandal) and NW. Rajasthan (Bhandari 1963). 5. Merua arenaria var. glabra Hook. f. & Thom. in FI. Brit. Ind. 1: 171. 1872. Trani 5245 and 5246: ‘ Jalender-Bet, Kutch, 9-9-60. Is it a liana ? The basal portion of the stem is very thick, twines for about 6 ft. and gives out sarmentose drooping branches ; in bud ; very common. It was also very common towards the West but in leaf only; vernacular name: Batakna.’ Identified as Cadaba indica. 7 Young plants of this species from NW. Rajasthan have posed pro- blems to the author as to their identification but the difficulty was solved later when similar young branches were observed growing from the base of some old plants in the same region. This plant has recently been reported from Saurashtra (Santapau 1962). 6. Tephrosia uniflora subsp. uniflora Gillett in Kew Bull. 1958: 114.1958. Trani 5216 and 5217: ‘Kutch, Jalender-Bet, 8-9-60. Erect 1-24 in. in fruit, on dry sloping ground, locally abundant but not common.’ Subsp. uniflora is a common plant in the drier parts of tropical Africa. It is separated from the subspecies petrosa, which is very com- mon throughout NW. Rajasthan and Ajmer, by its more or less spread- ing indumentum, leaflets often up to 7 (sometimes 9), seeds 9-14, and pods 5-6 cm. long. The subspecies petrosa on the other hand has the indumentum of pods, pedicels, and calyx closely appressed, the leaflets very rarely more than 5, seeds 5-8 (rarely 9), and pods 3-5 cm. long. This is the first record of this subspecies from India. 7. Tephrosia uniflora subsp. petrosa (Blatt. & Hall.) Gillett et Ali in Kew Bull. 1958: 114. 1958. Trani 5215: ‘ Kutch, Jalender-Bet, 8-9-60. In fruit; on dry sloping grounds ; locally abundant but not common.’ Irani 5373 (12-9-60) and 5338 (11-9-60) ‘Vernacular name: Jhill; Jalender-Bet, Kutch. ’ SAURASHTRA : Santapau 14597 : ‘T. pauciflora, Rajkot, Praduma Park, 20-8-52 ; flowers purple, on slopes forming cushions’. Bole 612 : ‘Plants poor but most probably this is not 7. senticosa; Jila Garden, Rajkot; 20-8-52, herb ; flowers red, frequent.’ This subspecies has been reported by Gillett (loc. cit.) from Hedjaz, Aden, W. Pakistan (Sind and NW. Frontier Province), and in India it has up till now been found only in NW. Rajasthan and Ajmer, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — 335 ‘ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is indebted to Prof. P. V. Bole, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, for providing facilities to work at Blatter Herbarium and to Fr. H. Santapau for offering valuable comments. BOTANY DEPARTMENT, UNIVERSITY OF JODHPUR, JODHPUR, RAJASTHAN, December 5, 1964. M. M. BHANDARI REFERENCES : BHANDARI, M. M. (1963): Nos@on Indian Desert Plants. 2: New record for N.W. Indian Desert. Proc. Rajasthan Acad. Sci. 10 : 44. , & SincH, D. (1964) : Dactyliandra Hook. f., a new genus in Indian Flora from Rajasthan Desert. Kew Bull. 19 ; 133-138. BuaTTER, E. (1908-1909): On the flora of Kutch. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 18 : 756-777 ; 19 : 157-176. ; Cooke, T. (1901-1908) : The flora of the Presidency of Bombay. London. Hooker, J. D., et al. (1872-1879) : The Flora of British India. Vols. 1 and 2. London. JAIN, S. K., & DESHPANDE, U. R. (1960): Further contribution to the flora of Kutch in Gujrat State. Bull. bot. Surv. India 2 : -87-292. ——-——, & KANOopIA, K. C. (1960) : Additions to the flora of Kutch. Curr. Sci. 29 : 361. KAPADIA, G. A. (1954): Statistical synopsis of the flora of Kutch. J. Gujrat Res. Soc. 16: 90-107. MeeEusE, M. (1962) : Cucurbitaceae of S. Africa, Bothalia 8: 10. PALIN, C.T. (1880) : A list of plants of Kutch. Bombay Gazetteer 5. SANTAPAU, H. (1953): Plants of Saurashtra ;: A preliminary list. Rajkot. ————~— (1962) : Flora of Saurash- tra. Pt. 1. Rajkot. ———_——,, & RAIZADA, M.B. (1954) : Contribution to the flora of Gir Forest in Saurashtra. Jndian For. 80: 379-389, ee (1955): Contribution to the Flora of the Gir Forest in Saurash- tra. Indian For. Rec. 4: 105-170. SAXTON, W.T., & SEDGWICK, L. J. (1918) : Plants of Northern Gujrat. Rec. bot. Surv. India ©: 207-323. i-xiii. THAKAR, J.I. (1926): Plants of Cutch and their utility. Bombay (in Gujarati). ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1964-65 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE President Mrs. Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, Governor of Maharashtra > _Vice-Presidents Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, I.M.s. (Retd.) Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.I. Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J. Hon. Secretary Mr. Zafar Futehally Hon, Treasurer Mr. J. D. Kapadia, I.c.s. (Retd.) Member Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India Elected Membeérs Mr. Humayun Abdulali Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s. (Retd.) Prof. P. V. Bole Mr. R. E. Hawkins Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.Sc., Ph.D. Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D. (from January 1965) Mr. D. J. Panday Dr. T. Ramachandra Rao, D.Sc., F.N.I. Mr. G. S. Ranganathan (up to December 1964) Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.) ¥. S. Shivrajkumar of Jasdan HISTORY \ ex officio | ES a ae A.G.M. 1964-65—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 337 ADVISORY COMMITTEE Mr. H. G. 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Teor SG 106 CIT oe OG [e1O], | SOE SCeN ae ar s | 66'60L‘T | **suoljaajjoD aduadafay fo aounuajulvy C6'TSS‘T oars ge : | Qo'sse "* sasieyO | | 7 | SuIpulg pur [eoIporiog | : 8h SoG | syoog jo sseqoind | | Po PAG VE SONaID0$ | | | | Joyo 0} UONdIIOsqns | qunovop Aavaqiy << | | | peuse'ee | 7° pee Sask eel | | ee ae -- jeuonevonpYy (9) ae liege SNOISITOY (Y) 07 16€ O1 i JooYg souK|eg 0} palsies yWoyaq “ | 2 ISNd], ayy fifo sj2a[q EE. P. Gee) PLATE V in Lower Dachigam, REPORT ON THE STATUS OF THE KASHMIR STAG 389 ‘ The similarity of deer and sheep diets is sure to cause conflict wherever the supply of preferred species is inadequate to satisfy the requirements of both animals’. 2. PARASITES AND DisecAses. There is always great danger that the parasites and diseases of the sheep may spread to the deer. Longhurst (1954) says of blacktailed deer in California that they shared with sheep 21 species of parasites. And that this affected the deer adversely because both competed for the same forage and in the winter the sheep received supplementary food from man, which the deer did not. » As the result of lack of food and parasitism many deer died during the winter while the sheep survived. And Whitehead (1950) says of sheep that they ‘ have so many of the same parasites and diseases that attack deer, and they mayeven introduce other ailments to which deer are not normally exposed ’. My own considered opinion is that unless Lower and Upper Dachigam can be constituted into a sanctuary or national park to be entirely under the jurisdiction of one Department (the Forest Depart- ment) to the exclusion of all other interests except water supply and trout hatchery, and unless all grazing by domestic cattle and firewood collect- ing can be eliminated, and unless the sheep can be removed, and unless the hangul can be given full protection—unless all these measures can be effectively taken, not only will the hangul become extinct but also the catchment area of the Srinagar water supply will ultimately become denuded, eroded and ruined. It has been officially stated by the Kashmir Government that they are shy of making Dachigam into a sanctuary or national park because the entry of visitors would contaminate the water supply. I myself cannot understand this argument. For a few visitors entering by car, on pay- ment of a fee, and stopping at the Draphama Rest House, would not contaminate the area, as must do the labourers working on the road, the men of the sheep farm and so many others ! And when massive fire- wood cutting was once done by 200 labourers, was there then no outcry against contamination ? The steps listed above need to be taken in order to save the area and the wild life from destruction. In addition, I recommend, and have been for the last eight years recommending, that a small number of hangul be kept in an enclosure somewhere between Dachigam and Srinagar for the purpose of ensuring the survival of the deer and also for providing a tourist attraction. This would not be a difficult or expensive step, and it has been done before in the time of the Maharaja. Of capturing these deer and keeping them in captivity, Ward (1921) says : ‘In order to capture full grown stags and hinds it is essentially 390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) necessary to choose suitable ground. A well-wooded southern slope under a ridge of hills with a pronounced low dip in the range is an ideal place. On the southern slopes of the mountains few trees grow, they are covered with grass. ‘The herd of deer having been located in the northern woods are slowly driven upwards by a few well-trained men during the day time when the breeze blows upwards, in other words the deer are “‘ given the wind ”’, If not hustled too much they will work their way to the lower part of the range. When close to the top, the beaters fire a gun or shout, the herd breaks into a gallop, and dashes wildly down the southern side. There in the grass are set long lines of plaited nooses made of sound leather and attached to ropes which are in lengths of about 50 to 60 yards. These ropes are pegged down, but not too strongly. The deer get their feet entangled in the nooses, drag up the pegs, and make off with a line of rope and nooses, but before going far they are pulled up by the bushes, and it is then that the fun begins for nets have to be employed. Stags are easier than hinds to net, for as a rule they lower their heads, and the horns get into the meshes, but the hinds use their feet and strike out violently. ‘Once in the nets, the hard work is over, a collar with ropes on opposite sides is fixed on the neck, and the hinds can be led away. The stags have generally to be picketed on the spot, otherwise they plunge about and knock themselves and their captors out of time. Ina day or two the deer will drink water in which parched flour has been mixed. They are easily tamed, and seldom die. ‘ Another way; but a laborious one is to catch the fawns before they canrun. First they are fed on goat’s milk squeezed from a sponge, then from a baby’s bottle, and finally a nanny goat is a foster mother. Most of the deer at Pandrathan paddocks were thus reared. In captivity the Hangul breeds freely.’ About this species of deer in captivity Ward (1925) says : ‘....the herd wandered about in the day time and returned to their evening feed before dark. At night they were all housed in a shed which was surrounded by a fence in order to save them from leopards, ‘....after the farm and plantations increased, they had to be enclosed in paddocks where they have done well, and bred freely. ‘Kashmir deer do very well in semi-captivity provided the enclosures are not too small, and part of it is roughly covered with stones, these are best placed near the fences where the animals mostly stand. If the ground of the paddocks is smooth and soft the hoofs will grow very long, and eventually have to be cut. ‘The enclosures must be sufficiently large to allow of the deer running round, this they almost invariably do in winter especially when snow is falling. REPORT ON THE STATUS OF THE KASHMIR STAG 391 ‘A variety of food is necessary, mulberry and hawthorn leaves are appreciated, sweet hay, lucerne, sugar-beet and turnips, also horse chest- nuts cut into pieces—sugar-beet and carrots seem to be the favourite foods—bran and salt have to be provided but grain is not necessary, about two pounds of bran will suffice. ‘...In September thick poles must be put into the ground in order that the velvet may be rubbed off by the deer, large branches may be thrown into the enclosure, which the stags will throw about and play with and thus aid the burnishing....it should also be remembered that many gallons of water will be required every day for each animal, and if a hollow can be made where a mud bath can be got the captive deer will be greatly pleased.’ : I am quoting these extracts in full, because the sources of them are difficult to find in a library, and almost impossible to obtain in any book- shop. Of keeping this species in captivity at Woburn Abbey in Britain, the (twelfth) Duke of Bedford (1949) says : ‘The Hangul or Kashmir stag is, of all the races of the Red deer, the one which is most sensitive to internal parasites and the one most incapable of being kept on grass. We had, however, a fine herd in a large yard, up to the time when the war led to their destruction. ‘When elaphine deer are kept in a confined space it is necessary either to breed from very young stags only or, if adult stags are used, to saw off their horns ; otherwise they are very liable to injure their hinds in a fit of jealousy during the rut. The removal of a deer’s hard antlers of course causes no pain, though it spoils his appearance for the rest of the season. ‘The call of the Kashmir stag is somewhat intermediate between that of the wapiti and the European Red deer and I have seen it rather well described by the letters “‘ Aaaungrieeeew”’?! In other respects there is nothing particularly wapiti-ish about the Hangul, but it is a mis- take to describe him, as some writers have done, as “ exactly like” our Red deer. He is a grey beast rather than a red one; his bay tine is nor- mally longer than his brow and he rarely has much of a “cup”. A 10-point head is the normal one and any greater number of points is far more unusual than in the case of the Red deer enjoying equally good feeding. Two Kashmir stags | have known were remarkable, one for a constitutional peculiarity, and the other for a mental one. The former was one of the first deer of the species we had and was tried on grass, with the result that he soon got into miserable condition and became a mere bag of bones. Notwithstanding this he grew an enormous pair of| antlers which for length and width exceeded anything I have ever seen on one of his species. Usually ill-health and poor condition have a very adverse effect on a stag’s horn-growth even if he is well-bred for antler- 392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISY. SOCIETY, Voi. 62 (3) production. Incidentally a deer suffering from internal parasites can normally be restored to health by putting it in a gravel yard and feeding it on dry, nourishing food, with plenty of corn. ‘The other Kashmir stag lived in a small paddock at the London Zoo and was remarkable for the fact that although a normally developed breeding animal, and none too amiable towards the human race, he showed no jealous ill-temper in the rutting season towards the young stags, his sons, who shared the same enclosure with him and his hinds. Any- one who knows anything about deer will realize that such amiability is astounding, and if possible even more remarkable than that of the park master-stag mentioned by Millais, who would allow himself to be photo- graphed by his owner, in October, at a distance of a few feet ; and the fallow buck who, at the same season, would enter the house and lie down beside his master’s chair !’ « VIII. RECOMMENDATIONS I make the following recommendations : 1, That Lower and Upper Dachigam be constituted a sanctuary, and eventually a national park ; and that other activities such as sheep breeding, cattle grazing, firewood collecting, etc. be eliminated. 2. That the full control of Lower and Upper Dachigam be vested in one authority only, preferably the Forest Department, and that all rest houses, roads, etc. be under the jurisdiction of this one authority. 3. That the Kashmir Stag or hangul be given full, legal and effective protection wherever found, both inside and’ outside its sanctuaries. 4. That a scientific study and census be conducted by 4 competent ecologist to determine the exact status of the hangul and to make recom- mendations for better protection and management of the species. 5. That a number of hangul be captured and kept in captivity in a suitable enclosure somewhere near Srinagar, and also at Simla if a Himalayan Zoological Park materializes there. LX. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am grateful to D. P. Dhar, the Home Minister of Kashmir, for his encouragement on several occasions ; and to G. Naqushbund, the Chief Conservator of Forests, for the co-operation of his Department. Also particularly to S. Atta Mohmad Khan, the Game Warden, for his help unfailingly given ; and to Rashid Wani, Soil Conservation Officer, for helping me on two visits to Lower Dachigam. And to Ujagger Singh (Range Officer), Ghulam Hyder (Head Game Watcher) and Qasem Wani (Second Game Watcher) for their interest and assistance to me. REPORT ON THE STATUS OF THE KASHMIR STAG 393 And above all, I am indebted to that keen sportsman, H. H. the Maharaja of Kolhapur, for his help and encouragement in our joint effort to get the Kashmir Stag preserved for posterity. X. ‘GLOSSARY OF LOCAL TERMS bakr-walla. a goatherd barasingh(a). Deer in Madhya Pradesh. gujar. a professional grazier hangul. rakh. shou. tuj. the ‘ Sikkim ’ Stag the same as a ‘ pricket > in British Red Deer the Kashmir Stag in Kashmir, and the Indian Swamp (Lit. twelve horns) the Kashmiri name for the Kashmir Stag a game preserve in the old days, in Kashmir : a young stag with its first and short, stick-like antlers REFERENCES BEDFORD, (TWELFTH) DUKE OF (1949) : The Years of Transition: 246-247. Andrew Dakers Ltd., London. DARLING, F. FRASER (1937): A Herd of Red Deer. Oxford University Press, London. Gee, E. P. (1961) : Report from India : 101-102. Oryx 6 (2). London. oe — (1964): The Wild Life, of India: 105-107. Collins, London. Loncuurst, W. M., DouGLas, J., & BAKER, N. (1954) : Parasites of Sheep and Deer. California Agriculture 8 (7): 5-6. Morig, OLAus J. (1951): The Elk of North America: 297. The Stackpole Company and the Wildlife Management Institute, U.S.A. Morris, R. C., & ALI, SALIM. (1955) : Game Preservation in Kashmir. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 (2) : 229-233. SHAH, K. V., SCHALLER, G.B., FLYGER, V. , & HERMAN, C. M. (1965) : Antibodies to * Myxovirus parainfluenza 3 in Sera of Wild Deer. Bull. Wildlife Disease Assoc. 1: 31-32. SMITH, J. G., & JULANDER, O. (1953): Deer and Sheep Competition in Utah. Journal of Wildlife Management 17 (2): 101-102. STOCKLEY, C. H. (1928): Big Game Shooting in the Indian Empire: 148- 149. Constable and Company Ltd., London. ———— (1936): Stalking in the Himalayas and Northern India: 178- 192. Herbert Jenkins Ltd., London. TALBOT, L. M. (1959): A Look at Threatened Species: 100-104. Fauna Preservation Society, London. Warp, A. E. (1921): Big Game Shooting of Kashmir and Adjacent Hill Provinces. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28 (1) : 45-49. ———— (1925): The Mammals and Birds of Kashmir and the Adjacent Hill Provinces. ibid. 30 (2): 253-259. WHITEHEAD, G. K. (1950): Deer and their Management: 36, 71. Country Life, London. Floral structure and stamens in Ceiba pentandra (Linn.) Gaertn. BY T. A. DAVIS AND ABANTIKA KUNDU Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta (With seven text-figures) INTRODUCTION Ceiba pentandra, a tropical Bombacaceous plant, popularly known as the Kapok or Silk Cotton tree on account of the silky floss produced in its capsules, is distributed in South America, West Indies, Tropical America, India, and Ceylon. It flowers in India and Ceylon during the colder months, from November to March every year. From the aestivation of Ceiba pentandra, \eft- and right-handed flowers are distinguishable as is the case with most other species of Bombacaceae, perhaps all species of Malvaceae and Cochlospermaceae, and a few of Sterculiaceae, Linaceae, Caricaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Pal- mae, and Plumbaginaceae. In a tree, the two types of flowers are pro- duced almost in the same proportion, and the percentage of the lefts does not differ significantly from that of the rights in any large flowering shoot or even a flower-cluster. FLORAL ASYMMETRY A fully-opened flower measuring about 5 cm.x5 cm. has five white oblong petals which are connate at the base and downy externally. A petal is about 3 cm. long and 1 cm. broad. The petals are characteris- tically twisted, either clockwise or anti-clockwise, and this condition is more pronounced in the bud stage. In a Ceiba pentandra tree, the two types of flowers occur almost in the same proportion, a situation observed in many species of Malvaceae (Davis 1964). When viewed apically, a flower is considered left-handed (clockwise contorted aesti- vation) if the inner margin of a petal curves clockwisely towards the periphery, and right-handed if it curves counter-clockwisely. In Figure 1 are seen a right-handed and a left-handed flower. Even from a single petal it is possible to determine the direction of the petal-twist, since FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 395 there is usually a mild depression and a colour-difference on it due to the overlapping of one of the neighbouring petals. Fig. 1. Rig Table I gives-data on floral asymmetry from 8 trees, 4 from near Colombo and 4 from Calcutta. On the totals, the left- and right-handed TABLE I Ceiba pentandra: DATA ON AESTIVATION FROM 8 TREES No. of Aestivation f, | ; Date of observation tecest Leh Right ek ESR X 18-12-1962 te 28 WO F470. 14 .0°4170 20-2-1964 I 53 Bey 83 731 1.6:3795 do. hae 139 i407 6279 1 * 0-0036 do. fo) 192 181, 373 11 —-0°3244 9-3-1964 fer 102 178 370 14 0°5297 Total 8 804 W157 33, >. 16482) x =0°6914 1 X =6:9568 4 flowers are almost equal with a slight excess for the left-handeds. But the difference is not statistically significant, (oa —ogag However, one tree produced significantly excess left-handeds. As this tree has the smallest number of flowers, perhaps with large samples equality for the two types of flowers could be expected. It may be mentioned in this connection that a significant excess of left-handed flowers was observed in Hibiscus rosasinensis in spite of very large samples collected throughout the year and from different places (Davis & Selvaraj 1964 ; : : 396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) “ Davis & Ghoshal in press). Further investigations are under way to get an explanation for the slight excess of the left-handers. DISTRIBUTION OF LEFT- AND RIGHT-HANDED FLOWERS 1. Between large flowering shoots. The aestivation of the corolla’ of flowers from four Ceiba pentandra trees growing at Lunuwila, a vill- age about 50 km. NW. of Colombo, Ceylon, was examined by the senior author on 18 December 1962 and the basic data are presented in Table II. From these trees altogether fourteen flower-bearing shoots were TABLE II Ceiba pentandra: \LEFT- AND RIGHT-HANDED FLOWERS FROM 4 TREES (LUNUWILA, CEYLON, 18-12-1962) be Tp FA a, 2 SH tee 1D eel ee One 2-2) L842 OE 82. Rie! M900 OR oy 62h Moon 30 3 89 PR 1038) Rega ee 4D age ay io epee ORO aa SR ehe4 0 904 5 AS ue B53 eS 5 ee 1s ee ee 6 Es Ao A6y dy SRG oA 126), Bn G6 ee a 7. BR “AT g Ri ST: Rie don 5 Rueion aR oan 8 Rae eR ge og OR otes PRY moog ei 9. Ye agte wm :) go 5120 Ss Re ai Gon eae oo eee 10°. L350. Re 90" Ly ease. Re ee oe 11. L e8eS1 5 sea eAOI Vo Re eld weeR + allan lego eee 12°) «Ro 52% R 92,” ROE? eRe eee 130 ROS 8 Rd eR I ee 420° De $4 De 9a a4 ae ee 1 L855 OR OR aL. 135. 2 gai ee 16 Ls °56 R196. R-.1360 ie eR ee 17 RST Re oF OE rise i ee i) Lo. 580 Le 2 08 RS 138 Re a cee a 19. L359 90 RS 1380) Ro poe a 20. R60. Le 100, E140 22 180 Ree 21,2.R°. 61 RS 10 Ra eR IS ee 2300 Re 622 102 RA eee 53 Re 68 SR 03 Bb 49 Re 83 a a Mo R64 Re AOA 14 OR) 184 Ree 95. 65 1050 Re eRe DG ion IR nO Gowe-sdpped OG eat, (146. Ee eRe lech ren 7 Ro -- Ole > L101 RO MAT Re SS Ree 28) Ro 68 dR 108 Ry 148 8 ene 29. U6 R109" (ER 40)" Oa oe 30° L070 L110” 150, RY 90> i eoee 31 RT Raat RS ie 320) Ea 7!) GR 1d) fy 1 Oa 15D, RE OD) ae 33. Ro 730. eR 183 ye 153 Re Cd ee BA RPA Se) ada a Sd ale a are 35° Ro 75 OR Or iis= © War 165 8 Met 1950) anes mee 36.0 1? 76 RA. REIS 6 16 86 ee eer 87 ba Ts R.A ge 38° RO 98 kd A TB es 158) i ae ee 39) aR FO RE) 119: Do dO ON TRO yas ae 40. Ri §.9180,-2R° 1120. Roe RS 200") Roe FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 397 ee a PAs eS wens 4/321 1) Ro. 36h Ris 40 Ro 444 R: Pi eee 6) Re 92? - L362 > Ro. 40) R” 440°. R Pe ee meneame 6303 Lo 638) IL 403 WL, ¢ 443. R Ply 4 i 304 RR 6d a SR Damme Ree OR See ile 4 325). Ry. 365-5 ple 4050 R445." R View el hee. R326, L366 406 «446° RR DA Re OR Te Da koe by. 367s I AOI: -. Tan 447. L Die as. Re 308. 1s 3368). gk. 4084," 448° OL Pate te 8 289- R | 329 I 8 360° SR 409, CR: 449. °R Phe 00 eR 330) Lk. 370). «Re 410° R=. 450“ -R PS eer a Olmert Re taste UR 87s Re Ai Py 451. OL pe Ree DOF i ag hes B70. eh, WAI . 8452 7, Pai Re 9S ee 335 Ie. 399 oe 4, 453 SR PSR ID Re sd Rosa Ie AI a ASR Pe ee 85. WR 385 eR 375° I O45 IR: 455 0 R Prop ea OoGn 9306) R376. E416 1 456 RR eee OT ho 337 IR 377 OR geal? Re 457 oer Re 208 = RY 6338 R398 eR 418 458 OR icra be 00 WR e397 OR 379) R419 1k. 4500 Pee Ue amoU0e = ORe 3400 1 380. Es 420° 460" LL omen 30la PRewe34l Ro. SRihs STS at 46k OR Ho we e302 R340) R638) OR 422 Re. 462 - L Pipe 2308) Pr 343 OR A383 R= 423 468-8 onl eat be 344 cbs 36421. 6 424° Ro 464. Ae ee iOS oo Le 45 Re 385 a 405 RS aes, Reber G06) > ban s4o ie 386 Re 406 i 466 OL Pope ao07 R34), 2 Ro p.38. R407. a 467) PGCE Raw S08) Reen548 1 bs S4988,- R498) ES - 468 ok Dene i 5007 es esdon Re 3go) 2) 490° R469 One 10) oR s350e > L 6990 R430" OL 4708 = R Pile ek le 5a Lee 301 Lo 4st OR Di Re tee Re eR 390 fF Ro ad2 OR Pepe 2316 UR. 35S \ 30s 4398 OR PRN Ragan Sasha NN Row S04 BRS 4347 TL Dip Rs ERG 3558 Lf . 305 aL A350 L TGR alG RS 5G e L, 306 OR A862 |. 1 il SIG ee B57 OR sO 437 8 Tim A186 Rn 3581 Ine 398 RY 438 OR Pipe e19; 22, R359, 399 er RS 439° oR ° P20) eR 520" R360. Ro 400" L449" eR lopped and the flowers examined branchwise. All the flowers (includ- ing flower-buds) of a shoot were accounted for before proceeding to another, and the number of flowers per shoot ranged from 25 to 60. Unfortunately, data on the actual number of shoots per tree, and flowers per shoot could not be maintained. An examination of the flowers of the above trees showed a slight excess for the right-handeds but not significantly more, the X? value being 0°417. In order to see whether any shoot bore a significant excess of one kind of flower or the other, the data are plotted on a con- trol chart: (Fig. 2) for the proportions of the lefts. The 470 flowers have been arranged into ten groups of 47 each. The central position of p (estimate of proportion of lefts) and the 3-sigma limits on either side of p were calculated, and the corresponding figures for each group 398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) plotted [values for p=0°494, p+-3 S.E. (p)=0°713, and p—3 S.E. (p)= 0275]. It is seen that all the points fall well within the acceptance 1:0 CONTROL CHART FOR THE PROPORTIONS OF. LEFT - HANDED FEOWERS PROPORTIONS OF LEFTS O 2 in Be a 10 GROUPS OF 47 FLOWERS EACH — Fig. 2. Control chart for the proportions of the left-handed flowers : limits. Another point of interest, incidentally, is that 4 points fall clearly below the central line and 4 above it while 2 are almost on the central line. So far as the present observations are concerned, the control chart, suggests that, in the population, the lefts and rights are about in equal numbers on each flower-bearing shoot. 2. Between flower clusters. Flower buds in Ceiba pentandra appeat in clusters from the axils of old or shed leaves at every branch tip. The tree is usually devoid of leaves while blooming. The inflorescence is normally a fascicle, and from the position and/or size it is possible to recognize the flowers according to the sequence of their production— in most Malvaceous species where the flowers are solitary and axillary it is more easy to follow the order of production. The aestivation of the corolla of the entire flowers sampled from 4 trees at Calcutta during the 1964 season was determined and recorded according to the order of their production for every fascicle. Solitary flowers and clusters bear-- FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 399 ing two flowers were rejected. Data on those having three and four flowers per fascicle are given below : TABLE III Ceiba pentandra : FASCICLES OF 3 FLOWERS EACH Observed Expected i L, L | 7 6°3725 L Le R 9 do.. Es R i; 6 do.. = Ly R R 9 do. R R R pe. do. R R L ib do. R i RY: 8 do. R L L 3 do. 5] ‘i _ Of the 51 fascicles, 4 belong to tree 1, 18 to tree 2, 23 to tree 3, and 6 to tree 4. Pb rise bi TABLE IV Ceiba pentandra : FASCICLES OF 4 FLOWERS EACH Observed NN Expected Piles WROTE z aoe ——— 4 R 1 (Peete et S68 75 Lids Saat 7 6°7500 ae 2 R | (Creaesetage tl 10:1250 3 5 Lok | 9 | 6°7500 es : 0 | 1:6875 27 | NR Es a SRY ed AA ee, eel ee Of the 27 fascicles, 7 belong to tree 2, 13 to tree 3, and 7 to tree 4. Inflorescences bearing five and more flowers are dealt with sepa- rately for each tree and the data are presented in Tables V to VIII. _ The X? value and p value for each cluster are calculated. For tree 1, _ the X’ value with seven degrees of freedom is 2°206, for tree 2 with twenty-three degrees of freedom it is 22:245, for tree 3 with thirty-two degrees of freedom it is 25°414, and for the last tree with thirty-three degrees of freedom it is 29-760. It is clear from the above values that there is no suggestion that a fascicle produces significantly an excess of left-handed or right-handed flowers. Since the numbér of flowers per fascicle is rather small, not exceed- ing 12, the application of the X? test under such situation may not be 400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) TABLE V Ceiba pentandra, TREE 1: SPIRALITY OF FLOWERS ON DIFFERENT SHOOTS \ Saeet Flowers . eR P;j 1 RB. Be Le aR e ie eal e dean re 6.4 0°7538 2 Et AR) Aveta lee eR 3 2 1:0000 3/ Risky aL. UR sy sar ae 4 3 1:0000 4 oR "he Ee ace 1, 4 1 0°3750 5 ROSE, ee ie 4 1 0°3750 6 RF Ree | 3.6 9 10000 7 R ob EY SRY Re a ORR ae 5 5 1:0000 8 R 3uR te os a Reece 3 8 1:0000 32 21 : 2 XxX =2:283 1 \, —=2:206 Sf QO, =4-4887 TABLE VI Ceiba pentandra, TREE 2: SPIRALITY OF FLOWERS ON DIFFERENT SHOOTS See Flowers die. Psy 1 RB Re Re oR 4-- 4 0°3750 2 RS ee LL eee Situs 1:0000 3 Ly Selb wae alls feet: Se 0°4531 4 eh Re Roe R Dies 1:0000 5 Le AR spa RoR Rae) 0°4531 6 5 iS aos oem oe ks ee | 0°3750 i Rose Re GRa basa ee 3 4 1:0000 8 ART Ge Ree Rea Ale ey 1:0000 9 RER Ree Rear 0. 5 0°0625 10 Ret eG eee oe 4 3 1:0000 11 RORY. Ree ee Baers 1:0000 12 Ton UR oles a Ree es 5/3 0°7266 13 Rew ee OR Rete ae als 5 4 10000 14 Re lia TAR. AR ele OR Pea | 0°6875 15 Ro ek {Re eA Lae ReGeE 4 4 1:0000 16 Ro Ree baR dds Datos 1:0000 17 Rai) Ree eR AR 1 4 0°3750 18 i oR, Rye ae ea AD, 0:6875 19 Te Das, Ree Dee Pal ee ee he Ge: 548, 0:2891 20 RoR is ed ei Rea 2 4 0:6875 21 Rov bee RoR 1 4 0°3750 22 Ree ee Ree Rae Di 320 0°6875 23 iy "Ree TOR ab aR eo) 10000 24 Re Roe Reis ele tee 2 ae) 1:0000 x,” 0-432 1 2 x * =22:245 23 Q.,=22°6769 FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 401 appropriate. Therefore, a more suitable test, the Pearson’s PA test (Rao 1952) has been applied thus : The exact probability of obtaining as large as or a larger deviation than the | : 1 ratio for the left-handers and right-handers is calculated TABLE VII Ceiba pentandra, TREE 3: SPIRALITY OF FLOWERS ON DIFFERENT SHOOTS Shoot Flowers | ER Ps; hoeRo ee) Bon. TOR. Se ae 6 4531 Deere RaeRe fh, R= LS RR Toe ee te 0.4531 Se Rete bl R 2 20-0875 A one OR< ET, 3. 21-0000 Sgr de TR RAC RS A, 3. 3 10000 awl ole RoR le Rs eR G4 07538 ee cb, be Lok. aR A Dir 2076875 Rerie OR CR Re RoR fhe 51) 00-2188 aah Ride Rick 4. 163750 ire ae eo LR 4 3 / 1-0000 (roa eats oie re Mo es 02188 (er aR PRR LL 2 3 — 1:0000 Cece yee ROL Ek 5a) 02188 iy hn RR Be R 23> = 14,0000 oe eR Eb OR RR 4 4 — 1:0000 ioe ee ERe RO ROT RR D5 4 024531 ime 1g Ri RR 2-3. _4,£:0000 eR eR). ROL 2 3 710000 Deere PRR br io RR 2 502) 04531 Podge ieee Re oh aR 3) £23 10000 Big eh PRO AL ok, 3. 2 — 10000 Peni ie RO RE 6 “Bi 0:2891 aria RL OLR 3-2. 10000 Me Pik Ro Rt Bi a2 120000 Pekar ARR 2 3 1/0000 ee eR si Wo RR 3 0000 el GR RL ROR Be A” 816875 See gk ele by We RE “RR 4 4 10000 Bere te RE 23.2, “0000 seer el ak ROB R 2. 4. 6875 ieee eR OR gi Lk R Aah 1,0000 See BOR eR Lor R 3 Bin, 0000 eR le ROR. oR ea (0:3750 100 101 2 X =0-0049 1 2 2 peace 32 Q.,=25-4193 for each observed shoot for each tree. For each tree, these exact prob- abilities are then pooled up. For the /-th tree on which k; shoots are 402. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 62 (3) observed, if Dz, Pi2,.- >; Pn, denote these probabilities, then the statistic k, 0; =— z log, Pi; is distributed as a X%? with 2 degrees of free- j=} TABLE VIII Ceiba pentandra, TREE 4: SPIRALITY OF FLOWERS ON DIFFERENT SHOOTS Bo Flowers LR Pj i Rn? RoR se 3 eee, Melee ie 4055 1:0000 2 LR RR RCE ROE eR ER Ree 4 8 0°3877 3 Ri RL RE Re 3255 0°7266 4 fo Re. OE es Re oie 333 1:0000 5 L VE De R a Roe ere ee ae SG 2 Bee 0°7538 6 Roi dea Rea Le Ce Be wie el 62 0°2891 a, Ion he Reet bee Re 4 2 0°6875 8 RY Ee OR FR ere 32S 1:0000 9 R LOR Re 213 1°0000 10 Re Ro: ee * RoR A. toe 0°3750 11 De: Beare Rea Am? 0°6875 12 Rieds 4 eel ese REE Da i2 0°4531 13 ie Resi oR oR lee kk 4 4 1:0000 92) ER RR OR ae 3.5 «07266 15 kL RAL sR Re RD oe eee aie 57.16 1:0000 16 R REGS te Lebo! See 6 4 0°7538 17 Rees bee: Aa? 0°6875 18 Rik ks as ATE et 0°3750 19 i A Re aR Re ee en ss ele Sc 83 0°7266 DO Rea eis ORB: NS AS 1°0000 21 Roe Ro Re Date 0°6875 22 R GREE CoRR. Views ue 36) 1:0000 23 Ey ARS bs Re ae BS res 1:0000 24 Bek. ee Re a a ee Semel 0:0391 25 bees Re eRe RR Rea eae 5 16 4:0000 26 fy Re CORO Re Reps 2. 4 0°6875 Zh ToS Re SR Seas leeds 8 x33 0°2266 28 RoR Rea 41 Se Baa Ree ee Ae O6 0°7538 29 Reb Rs ee Ae ip ae 53 0°7266 30 bo EL ARE DL SRO SIR Ree dee ie ae 8 4 0°3877 31 R= By ke. GREG eaRee Re ee Le Say 29) 1:0000 32 Ro i Re Raab Roe 5 ee 0°7266 33 Rob Bo Ra R D2 453 1:0000 34 R Re ORE Chas eR 2° 34 0°6875 139 124 2 Mv =0°8555 x * =29-7603 33 O,=30°6158 dom. The statistic O = &; Q; is distributed as a X? with 2 Sk, degrees of freedom. Table IX gives the values of Q,-’s and Q. FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA § 403 In all the cases Q; fell below the5 per cent point of the correspond- ing distribution. It is thus seen that there is no evidence against the hypothesis of the | : 1 ratio between the left- and right-handed flowers in the various shoots for all the 4 trees observed. TABLE IX Tree No. k; Qi 1 8 | 4°49 2; 24 22°68 3 33 25°42 4 ; 34 30°62 99 O=83'21 d.f. 25k =198 From the results of the foregoing different tests, it may be concluded that the left- and right-handed flowers of Ceiba pentandra are distri- buted in almost equal proportions within flower-clusters, between large flower-bearing shoots, and between trees in centres far away from each other. On the aggregate, there is a slight excess of left-handers, but the difference is not statistically significant. A similar situation was met with in Bombax ceiba (Davis in press). With Hibiscus rosasinen- sis and Abutilon indicum the differences (excess of lefts) were statistically significant. It may be recalled that the leaves of Cocos nucifera are arranged in five spirals running clockwise or anti-clockwise and, here again, the left-spiralled palms in a locality are slightly in excess of the right-handers and this character is not inherited (Davis 1962). How- ever, in the Southern Hemisphere it is the right-handers that are in excess (Davis 1964a). DEVELOPMENT OF THE PETAL-STAMEN CORD By examining several transverse sections prepared in series of young as well as old flowers, especially of the androecium and corolla, which are partially fused at the base and therefore shed together when the flower withers, the following information was obtained. At an early stage, the vascular traces separating from the central core, above the thalamus, can be easily made out. Ere long these sepa- rating traces form somewhat into a ring and a thick, mostly parenchy- matous tissue surrounding these traces separates into the calyx. The calyx covers the corolla and the essential organs of the flower com- pletely during the early stages of development. Due to the difference in the rates of growth of the calyx and the rest of the flower, the dome of the calyx ruptures along three to five lines, and these openings extend 404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) almost half the length of the calyx, thus distinguishing themselves into 3-5 sepals. Incidentally, the flowers of the 4 trees sampled possessed only four (about) sepals each. At an early stage, enclosed by the calyx, may be seen a somewhat wavy ring having 10 prominent vascular traces distributed at regular RIGHT LEFT Fig. 3. Some stages in the development of the petal-stamen cords in right- and left-handed flowers intervals. The wavy ring assumes a pentagonal shape and this petal- stamen cord develops into the whorls of corolla and androecium. In figure 3 are given some stages of the development of the petals (as well FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 405 as the staminal ring) in a right-handed and a left-handed flower. In stage one may be seen the pentagonal petal-stamen cord with five pro- minent vascular traces at the corners and five relatively smaller ones between the corner ones. The corner traces undergo a tangential division once and the peripheral half of each trace forms the initial vascular trace of a petal. The inner half of each corner trace divides into two again, thus resulting in 15 traces for the rest of the ring. The vascular trace at the region of a future petal undergoes further divisions as the petal goes on expanding. By examining the divisions of the traces in the petals of several flowers, it was seen that in a left-handed flower more traces are formed towards the left half of the petal, and vice versa in a right-handed flower. The petal initials at an early stage are located far away from each other (vide fig. 3 stages 2A and 3A) and are completely independent. Later on they are further fused with the rest of the ring which ultimately develops into the base of the staminal ring. However, in stage 2 of fig. 3, three petals appear to be united at the base. At stage 4, the petals tend to twist, one of their distal ends overlapping the petal either on its left or right, and this determines whether the corolla will have a clockwise or counter-clockwise contortion. We do not know yet the factor(s) responsible for the twisting of the petals of a particular flower clockwisely and another conversely. In figure 3 are seen a right-handed and a left-handed flower showing five main stages in the development of the petals up to the stage where their imbrication becomes clear. DEVELOPMENT OF THE STAMENS In stage | of figure 4 is seen the staminal ring possessing fifteen vascular traces. This is the stage just after the differentiation of the petals from the rest of the staminal ring. One vascular trace each from two adjoining corners and the undivided one located between them form the basis for a single stamen. Thus, the fifteen traces go to form the five stamens, on account of which the species is perhaps named C. pentandra. Up to stage 4, the filaments of the stamens are united and, beyond, the three vascular traces of a stamen fuse together end-to- end. These traces gradually curve (concave outside) resulting in the formation of a prominent groove on the peripheral face of each filament. From the fifth stage, the filaments are free and each of them bears three almost reniform anthers at its tip. Each trace connects an anther, and the flower has 15 anthers in all. Cobley (1957), however, mentions that the staminal tube divides at its apex into from five to ten parts, each part bearing a twisted one-celled anther. In figure 5 are seen some of the abnormal forms of stamens. The fifteen anthers are usually borne’ on five filaments, but rarely 406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) the filaments may split or fuse in various ways resulting in two to ten distinct stamens per flower. A stamen may have only one anther sup- Fig. 4. Six stages in the development of the androecium in Ceiba pentandra - ported by a filament whose width is about a third of a normal filament: Presumably this filament has only one of the usual three vascular traces. Another stamen may have two anthers, others may possess anthers ranging up to 10. No combined filament having more than 10 anthers was noticed. Also, no flower was met with where all the filaments remained fused up to the anthers into a monadelphous tube. As these abnormal types of stamens are rather common, their occur- rence was estimated for a population of 100 flowers per tree for the four FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 407 trees (only 75 flowers from tree 1). Data on the left- and right-handed — flowers were accounted for separately as may be seen in Table X. Free Fig. 5. Flowers showing abnormal combinations of stamens TABLE X Ceiba pentandra : PARTICULARS ON FLORAL ORGANS Tree Stamens Petals. : No. Flowers Free Double Treble Others Normal Short Sepals a 5 ge ES ee rey —— Left-handers i l 41 193 — — 141 65 152/41 2 50 215 21 3 — 232 17 178/43 3 50 218 17 1 2 227; 24 188/43 4 50 230 11 2 — 249 -— 155/38 Total 191 856 57 6 Z, 849 106 673* Mean 4°482 0:298 0°031 0:010 4°445 0°555 4:079 Right-handers 1 25 109 5 4 — 95 31 81/20 2 50. 210 14 4 1 238 © 13 176/44 5 50 227 14 1 — 205 45 169/40 4 50 211 14 2 — 250 _ 168/41 Total his Tey) 47 11 ] 788 89 594** Mean 4:326 0:269 0:063 0:006 4°503 0°509 4:097 *Total sepals for 165 flowers ; **Total sepals for 145 flowers 408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) stamens are those that have one to three anthers (mostly three) and the filaments are distinct up to the base where all are united. Double sta- mens possess more than three anthers but not exceeding 6, and treble ones possess anthers ranging from 7 to 9. It may be seen from Table X that both the lefts and rights possess almost.the same number of stamens, free as well as the other combinations. The rights have a slightly smaller figure for the free stamens, but the difference is not statistically significant. SIZE OF POLLEN GRAINS The size of the pollen grains was estimated for a few flowers from only one tree. Two hundred normally developed pollen grains each of six flowers were measured. Though a pollen grain of Ceiba pentandra is somewhat spherical, its trigonous form is distinguishable; the distance between two corners was measured and the data are given in Table XI. TABLE XI Ceiba pentandra: SIZE OF POLLEN GRAINS _Mean length of pollen Variance of pollen Flower No. ~ Dry Soaked Dry Soaked 1 54:1904 62°4272 18°1364 90°9552 2 53°2356 61°2788 29°6460 —s- 604419 3 55°7700 61°8156 11°7109 52°3920 4 53°1476 65°0452 22°6280 31°4813 5 51°4096 61°4460 18°7792 36°7375 6 54°8152 60°7420 21:0772 141°2312 Measurements of dry pollen were taken a few hours after the pollen grains were extracted from the anthers. Further quantities of the dry pollen grains were soaked in distilled water and measurements were made when they swelled to their maximum, to find out the percentage increase in the size of dry pollen. Variances for the values for the dry and soaked pollen grains were also calculated. The over-all mean length of dry pollen grains was found to be 53°7680, and that for soaked pollen 62°4448y. Nair (1962) gave the equatorial diameter of Eriodendron anfractuosum (Ceiba pentandra) pollen as 60p. There is an increase in size of 16°14% when a dry pollen grain swells in water. | In another set of six flowers, the percentage sterile (infertile or underdeveloped) pollen grains was estimated by treatment with 1% acetocarmine solution. The data as given in Table XII show that the particular flowers examined bore 35-95% infertile pollen grains. FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 409 MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS A few peculiarities were observed in some flowers of Ceiba pentandra which are mentioned below. TABLE XII Ceiba pentandra: STERILE AND FERTILE POLLEN Flower No. Sterile Fertile Total 1 25 92 fle? 2 11 105 116 3 31 716 107 4 30 80 110 5 26 103 129 6 60 53 113 183 509 692 % Sterile pollen=35:95 In an appreciable number of flowers of three trees, one or more petals (all petals in some) remained very short ; this is due to certain congestion operating inside the calyx tube at an early stage of unfolding of the petals. Fig. 6. Some abnormal flowers of Ceiba pentandra A. Flower with an additional ovary; B. Flower showing a petaloid stamen; C. Flower with six petals; D. and E. Flowers with some or all petals compressed However, the stamens and style emerge undisturbed to their normal length. The flower in Fig. 6, E has all the five petals affected, while in flower D only two are short, the remaining three petals spreading to their 410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) normal length. 14°67% of the petals from flowers of the three trees showed this peculiarity. However, one tree was absolutely free from this compression of petals. Further details on this may be seen in Table X. In one flower the aestivation of the petals was imbricate with one petal completely in and one of its immediate neighbours completely out. The three others showed regular twisting (Fig. 7, B). . Fig. 7. Partial floral drawing of some abnormal flowers of Ceiba pentandra In another flower (Figs. 6, C and 7, C) an extra petal was observed. The five petals which formed the normal corolla_twisted anti-clockwise and the sixth petal, which was completely out, was located between the calyx and normal corolla. A petaloid stamen was also noticed in one flower (Figs. 6, B and 7, A). One of the four filaments of this flower flattened considerably and assumed the shape and size of a petal. There was no trace of an anther on this petaloid stamen unlike those in many petaloid stamens of Hibiscus rosasinensis or even Bombax ceiba (Davis & Mariamma 1965). Additional ovary was observed in another flower (Fig. 6, A). The flower had the usual syncarpic ovary comprising five pistils which were on 4 FLORAL STRUCTURE AND STAMENS IN CEIBA PENTANDRA 411 fused upto the stigmatic end. An extra carpel free from the rest, though _ underdeveloped, grew from the base of the normal ovary. This carpel had an independent style and stigma. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We thank Shri S: K. De, Artist, Crop Science Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta, for the illustrations. SYNOPSIS The corolla of Ceiba pentandra, typical of Bombacaceae, is contédrted; all the five petals in one flower twisting clockwise and in another counter- clockwise. The left- and right-handed flowers of this species are dis- tributed in a 1:1 ratio within flower clusters and within large flower- bearing shoots, as well as between trees in centres very far from each other. two kinds of flowers. The development of the petals and stamens was studied in the But the mechanism which regulates the asymmetry in the corolla could not be known. The two kinds of flowers bore similar numbers of stamens, both free and combined ones. The size of the pollen grains was estimated. 14°67% of the petals of flowers from three trees. failed to unfold properly. A few flowers showing striking variations are also briefly described. REFERENCES Cos.ey LESLIE, S: (1957) : An introduc- tion to the botany of Tropical crops. Longmans, Green and Co., London. Davis, T. A. (1962) : The non-inheri- tance of asymmetry in Cocos nucifera. J. Genet. 58(1): 42-50. -—=_——. (1964): Aestivation in Mal- Nature 201 (4918): 515-516. (1964a) : Possible geo-physi- cal jafinence on asymmetry in coconut and other plants. Proc: FAO Tech. Work- ing Party on Coconut, Colombo 2 : 59-69. ———— (in press) : Floral structure vaceac,. - and stamens in Bombax ceiba? J. Genet. & GHOSHAT, K. K. (in press): Variation in the floral organs of Hibiscus rosasinensis Linn: J. Indian bot. Soc. 44. ———— & MariAmma, K. O. (1965) : The three kinds of stamens in Bombax ceiba. Bull. Jardin Botanique de I’ Etat: 35 (2): 185-211. & SELVARAJ, C: (1964): Asymmetry in Malvaceae. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61 : 402-409. Nair, P. K. K. (1962): Pollen grains of Indian plants—III. Bull. National Bot. Gard., Lucknow, No. 63: Rao, C.R. (1952) : Advanced statisti- cal methods in biometric research. John Wiley and Sons, U.S.A. Critical Notes on three species of Capparis Linn. from peninsular India R. SUNDARA RAGHAVAN AND ROLLA SESHAGIRI RAG Botanical Survey of India, Poona (With a map and four plates) The genus Capparis Linn. is represented by nearly twenty species in western and peninsular India of which only six, namely C. spinosa Linn., C. heyneana Wall., C. decidua Edgew., C. grandis Linn. f., C. sepiaria Linn., and C. zeylanica Linn., are of some medicinal importance. Recently, in addition to these, C. moonii Wt., practically unknown until now for its virtues as a medicinal plant, has claimed prominence as a drug in the treatment of tuberculosis and skin ailments. However, the exis- tence of contrary views on its efficacy as a drug suggested that there was considerable confusion on the botanical identity of the material dealt with, and that a mixture of two or more species of Capparis was involved in the clinical investigations. Against this background the present investigation was taken up with particular emphasis on C. moonii and a detailed note on the correet botanical identity and various aspects of the clinical studies made has recently been published (Rolia Seshagiri Rao & R. Sundara Raghavan, 1964, J. Sci. Industr. Res. 23: 53). During these studies it was observed that considerable ambiguity éxisted on the botanical identity of two species closely related to Capparis moonii Wt., namely C. roxburghii DC. and C. cleghornii Dunn. From the literature it is clear that many earlier workers, namely Graham, Dalzell, Gibson, Talbot, and Cooke, confused C. moonii with C. roxburghii and these two species with C. cleghornii. Cooke’s description of C. roxburghii DC. is probably based on a mixture of C. cleghornii and C. moonii, and a scrutiny of the few sheets identified as ‘ C. roxburghii DC. ’ in the collections of Cooke and Talbot confirmed that these are all referable to C. moonii Wt. only. The available herbarium sheets for these three species ate scanty, and a reference to the various Indian her- baria revealed that C. cleghornii was not represented in any of the collec- tions. It may be pointed out that C. cleghornii has not been collected since 1846 when Cleghorn collected this species at Ballalrayandurga (Mysore State) for the first time. According to Dr. Jacobs of the Rijksherbarium, who is at present working on a monograph of CRITICAL NOTES ON CAPPARIS LINN. FROM PENINSULAR INDIA 413 Capparaceae, both C. cleghornii and C. roxburghii are poorly represented at Kew, and he could not examine any fruits of C. cleghornii. The present study is based on extensive field observations during the last two years supplemented with a critical study of the herbarium speci- mens available in the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, Blatter Herbarium, Bombay, and the regional herbaria of the Botanical Survey of India at Poona and Coimbatore. Topotypes of C. cleghornii have been collected from Ballalrayandurga in Mysore State in February-March 1963, and a photograph of the type of this species obtained from Kew has also been studied with reference to these collections. | Much of the confusion is due to the incomplete nature of the speci- mens collected at any one time and the poor preservation of the flowers. The degree of pubescence, the density of the stipular spines, and the size, shape, and venation of the leaves are extremely variable characters de- pending on the age of the plants and whether they are collected from young twigs or older branches. The flowering shoots are conspicuously different from the fruiting branches and, coupled with this, the flowers are ephemeral—the sepals and petals being caducous are not properly preserved in the herbarium specimens. For instance, the un- equal petals of C. cleghornii spreading like the wings of a butterfly (Plate III, Photograph B), the one character that readily differentiates this species from the other related species in the field, can never be visua- lized from herbarium specimens alone. On the basis of our observations it may be stated that these three species are quite distinct. -C. moonii can be distinguished from the other two by the larger size of its leaves, flowers, and fruit. C. roxburghii can be separated from the rest by its globose orange-yellow fruit, thin pericarp, and smaller seeds. C. cleghornii differs from the allied species by the fulvous pubescence of the buds, the markedly. unequal petals, the slender stalks supporting the fruits, and the small globular fruits with distinct sharp conical projections at the top and containing fewer seeds, varying from one to four. Except for the flower size, C. cleghornii has a closer affinity to C. moonii than to C. roxburghii. The distribution of these three species is equally interesting. Cc: moonii is very common along the Western Ghats in the moist deciduous and semi-evergreen forests of Maharashtra, Mysore, Kerala, ‘and the coastal islands off the west coast, extending to Ceylon.’ - It is;common from almost sea-level to 800 m. in regions of moderately high rainfall ranging up to 300 cm. per annum. On the other hand, C. roxburghii is abundant along the Eastern Ghats in the deciduous forests of Orissa, _ Andhra, and Madras, extending south to Ceylon. It is confined to lower elevations and to areas of less rainfall, ranging from 100 to 150 cm. per annum.. Unlike the other two, C. cleghornii is confined to the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats in the Mysore State... It: is invariably seen 4i4. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) on the outskirts of evergreen forests in cleared forest areas at an altitude ranging from 700 to 1400 m. with rainfall varying from 300 to 800 cm, per annum (Map). 74 76 ve 78 ] a a BOMBAY gars | : ; zochendale a is : Lonavala " ei ele es ’ yk ea ga) 2 oO RoE SS tn ‘ ore det * pv Kavale durga: +..." Agumbe i b Ballalrayan durga 7 ‘N . \ Pulicat . Tf PORE EES 3-74, fSomwarpet Ga aalineers NBS Mercara Wie Nae Sd +CAPPARIS MOONII WT. (———) ®CAPPARIS ROXBURGHII DC. (--------*- ) ACAPPARIS CLEGHORNII DUNN (--—:—-—-—) =~ ©" Coimbatore Map showing distribution of Capparis moonii, C. roxburghii, and C. cleghornii im peninsular India — ‘ A key to the identification of these three species and a detailed des- cription of these species is given below : KEY TO FLOWERING SPECIMENS OF Capparis A. Young shoots fulvous-pubescent, petiole and midrib purplish, nerves 6-8 pairs, lamina 4-7 cm. long, 2°5-3 cm. broad ; flower buds 1:8 cm. across oF | less, puberulous or glabrous ; petals about equal or very unequal, veins | diverging from base, with or without a prominent median vein ; stamens less than 80, spreading, 3-4°5 cm. across _ CRITICAL NOTES ON CAPPARIS LINN. FROM PENINSULAR INDIA 415 B. Tender leaves pinkish, drying reddish brown, midrib and lamina puberulous abaxially, later glabrous ; twigs evidently spiny ; flower buds fulvous-pubescent ; petals very unequal, with veins diverging from base without a median vein ; stamens 65-80 ; ovules few, less HRD ck Seis GeR & oc xdiake cine Ae hale HIE @ cys C. cleghornii BB. Tender leaves green, drying green, glabrous on both surfaces ; twigs scarcely spiny ; flower buds glabrous; petals about equal, with veins diverging from base, and with a prominent median vein ; stamens 45-50; ovules many, more than 30.................. AA. Young shoots glabrous or hoary, petiole and midrib green, nerves 6-16 pairs, lamina 7-10 cm. long, 3-4°5 cm. broad, flower buds about 2°5 cm. across, hoary, later glabrescent ; petals about equal, with veins diverging from base without a prominent median vein ; stamens over 150, spreading 7-10 CHU ENOSSINN ete RTs ahora chew a mn si4 see chia aes Se bea wy tthe C. moonii KEY TO FRUITING SPECIMENS OF Capparis A. Mature fruits ovoid or globose, conspicuously umbonate, less than 5 cm. long, the fruit stalk (of combined gynophore and pedicel) slender, cylin- drical ; pericarp thin, hard ; ;endocarp scarlet ; seeds few (1-4) ; cotyledons OER py AL PS Oc CR INOO REE URGE ors AED pS EU Meer at aPC PR ae og C. cleghornii AA. Mature fruits globose or sub-globose,emarginate or slightly umbonate, more than 5 cm. long, the fruit stalk (of combined gynophore and pedicel) quite stout, cylindrical or prominently callose at tip; pericarp thin or @ woody ; endocarp scarlet or white; seeds many; cotyledons acute or obtuse B. Leaf 10-16 cm. long, 4-5:5 cm. broad ; twigs conspicuously spiny ; few fruits (mostly 1-3) developing from a corymb; fruits reddish brown, emarginate about 13 cm. long, 10 cm. across, tip of stalk usually forming a callosity ; pericarp woody, hard ; endocarp white, later turning scarlet ; seeds 40-45, obovoid, 16-18 mm. long, and 12-15 mm. broad ; embryo curved, cotyledons acute............ BB. Leaf 5-7 cm. long, 2-3 cm. broad, twigs scarcely spiny, 5-7 fruits developing from a corymb; fruits orange-red, emarginate, apex umbonate, 5-6 cm. across, tip of stalk never callose ; pericarp thin> crustaceous ; endocarp creamy, seeds 35-40, obovoid about 10-12 mm. long, 9-10 mm. broad; embryo contorted, cotyledons MOO OUSC rreee ret eerie ye Bie aia UB iA Nd «She tate: Nensc eS duc C. roxburghii C. cleghornii Dunn in Gamble, Fl. Madras 1: 46, 1915, nomen nudum ; Kew Bull. 61, 1916 ; Blatter, Jour. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31 : 905, 1927. C. roxburghii DC. Hook. f. & Thom. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 1: 175-76, 1875, pro parte, excl. syn. Armed climber ascending 6-8 m., stem about 10 cm. in diameter at _base, profusely branching ; young shoots flagellate, red-purple tinged, 416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) noticeably fulvous pubescent, older shoots puberulous ; stipular spines stout, short, recurved, evident throughout. Tender leaves pinkish when fresh, drying reddish brown, glabrous adaxially, minutely puberulous abaxially ; leaves in flowering shoots smaller than in fruiting branches, 1:2-2°2 times as long as broad, in fruiting shoots 1°8-2°4 times as long as broad, about 3°5-10 cm. long, 2-4°5 cm. broad ; petiole reddish, pubes- cent, 6-10 mm. long, lamina elliptic or obovate, subcoriaceous, glabrous, both surfaces opaque, base narrowed, apex acute, obtuse or shortly abruptly bluntly acuminate, occasionally retuse ; venation indistinct ; midrib dorsally. emphatic, flat or channelled, pinkish, minutely puberu- lous, ventrally obscure, flat, glabrous ; secondary ribs 4-6(7) pairs, divari- cate. Inflorescence mostly terminal (occasionally axillary), corymbose, fulvous pubescent, 6- to 10-flowered, often axillary and solitary in subter- minal shoots gradually merging into the corymb ; pedicels slender, tomentose, lowermost pedicel about 3°5 cm. long. Flower buds globose, 6 mm.-1°8 cm. across, densely fulvous pubescent, bracteate, the bracts spiny. Flowers white, showy, 3°5-4°5 cm. across in full bloom, the unequal pair of petals spread out like butterfly wings. Sepals four, subequal, concave, two seriate, imbricate, caducous, densely pubescent outside, glabrous within, almost similar in size and shape, about 10-12 mm. long, 10 mm. wide. Petals four, white, rosy on ageing, caducous, puberulous near the base, in two unequal pairs, the outer two larger, obovate oblong, about 2°2-2°5 cm. long, 1-1:2 cm. broad, the inner petals obovate, nearly 1°6-1:8 cm. long, 1°2-1°4 cm. broad, prominently veined, veins diverging from base, dichotomously branched. Stamens approxi- mately 65-80 spreading from base of gynophore ; filaments slender, 2:2- 2°5 cm. long, white, purple on ageing; anthers introse. Pistil on a slender gynophore, glabrous ; gynophore 3-3°5 cm. long ; ovary ovoid, glabrous, purple, about 3-3°5 mm. long, 2 mm. across, unilocular ; style obsolete ; stigma capitate ; ovules few (8-10 only) on3 parietal placentae, Fruits baccate, indehiscent, 4-5 developing in a corymb, erect at first, pendant at maturity on a slender elongated stalk, the jointed peduncle and gynophore 6-8°5 cm. long, stalk of gynophore gradually thickening from the base above, never callose at its tip ; fruits ovoid or subglobose , 3-4 cm. long, 2-3 cm. across, apex prominently umbonate, greenish when young, dark violet-purplish when ripe ; pericarp thin, hard ; endocarp pulpy, deep scarlet. Seeds reddish brown, few, 1-4, dorsally compressed large, obovoid or suborbicular about 1°5-1°8 cm. long, 1°4-1°5 cm. across ; testa crustaceous ; embryo coiled, cotyledons foliaceous, folded, about 18-20 mm. long, 7-8 mm. wide, elliptic, acute ; radicle thick (Plate I and Plate III, C 1). Ver. names (Kanarese) : Malaithottinkai, Baduhugli, Badumungri (as used in Agumbe area).; Nayikaremanjehannu (as used in Coorg. area). JOURN. BoMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE I Capparis cleghornii Dunn _ 1. A fruiting twig; la. A flowering twig; 2a. Outer and inner sepals; 2b. Outer and inner petals; 2c. Stamen; 2d. Pistil’; 2e. Ovary in cross-section; 3. Seed; 3a. Seed with testa partly removed showing embryo in situ; 3b. Embryo JourN. BomMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE II Capparis moonii Wt. 1. Immature and mature fruits showing variations in shape; la. Outer and inner sepais ; | Ib. Outer andinner petals; ic. Pistil and stamen; 1d. Ovary in cross-section; le. Seed; if. Seed opened to show embryo in situ; 1g. Embryo Capparis roxburghii DC. | 2. A fruiting twig with an immature fruit cut longitudinally; 2a. Outer and inner sepals ;) 2b. Outer and inner petals; 2c. Pistil and stamen; 2d. Ovary in cross-section; 2e. Seed; | 2f. Seed cut open showing embryo in situ; 2g. Embryo CRITICAL NOTES ON CAPPARIS LINN. FROM PENINSULAR INDIA 417 Habitat. This species grows on rocky slopes in the outskirts of ever- green forests mostly in cleared forest areas. It is of considerable interest to record that this species is very commonly associated with Mezoneuron cucculatum Wt. & Arn., Wagatea spicata Dalz., Elaeagnus conferta Roxb., and Eurya japonica Thunb. in Mysore State. Flowering and fruiting. Flowers develop usually in early March with the first summer showers and*continue to first week of April. Anthesis takes place in the evenings and in the early morning and within a short time the floral parts fall off one after another leaving only the ovary with gynophore. Fruiting takes place from April to July and fully mature fruits are common in August. Uses. The fruits are eaten in Coorg district. Specimens examined. Balalroydroog, India (misspelt for Ballala- rayanadurga, Mysore State), Cleghorn D. 176, 13th April 1846, holotype (K). The photograph of the type sent from Kew was examined by the authors and the important characters of the species have been well made out. (Plate III A). (Subsequently, in 1964, Rolla S. Rao examin- ed the type at Kew.) | Mysore STATE : Chikmagalur district: Ballalrayandurga, A. S. Rao 85349 (BSI) ; Sundara Raghavan 86819, 86822, 86945, 86970 (BSI). Coorg district: Mercara, A. S. Rao 74599, 85569, 85641 (BSI) ; Nalknad Palace, A. S. Rao 85955 (BSI) ; Somwarpet, A. S. Rao 85481 (BSI) ; Talacauvery, A. S. Rao 85748 (BSI). Hassan district : Bisle-Hassan ghats, Mahajan 34816 (BSI). aa Shimoga district : Agumbe, Sundara Raghavan 74216, 80554, 80629; 85312, 86341, 90289, 90391, 97237, 97302 (BSI) ; Gubbiga near Yedur, Sundara Raghavan 80826, 86222, 90153, 97096 (BSI) ; Hulical, Sundara Raghavan 80925; Kavaledurga, Sundara Raghavan 80943, 96956 (BSD ; Kimmane, Sundara Raghavan 81085 (BSI). Distribution. The distribution of this species seems to be very res- tricted. Though the species was first described in 1916, the data on distribution are quite meagre as the species was not re-collected for over a century. A good survey of the region between the Western Ghats and Bababudan Hills of Mysore State including Coorg area, with an altitudinal range of 700 to 1400 m. and a rainfall range of 350 to 800 cm. per annum, clearly shows that C. cleghornii is fairly well distributed in the evergreen forests of the various districts in this region. This species has not been recorded beyond this area. _ Remarks. From the photograph of the type sheet of C. cleghornii it is clear that two labels, one for Cleghorn D 176 attached to the upper 418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) part of the sheet and the other for Wight Herb. Kew Distr. no. 68, 1866- 67, attached on the lower part are involved for identical set of collections, all of them distinctly C. cleghornii Dunn, with tomentose flower buds. It is also equally clear that Cleghorn and Wight did not collect the material at the same time and from the same area. Cleghorn did collect from Ballalrayandurga in Mysore State, but Wight never collected anywhere in these areas. Accordingly the, reference to Kew Distr. no. 68 attached to these specimens from the Wight Herb. appears to be in error. Further, a sheet in the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, with an identical label ‘ Wight Herb. Kew Distr. no. 68, 1866-67’ and carrying no other labels, on a detailed scrutiny was found to be C. rox- burghii DC. (Plate IV, B). Accordingly an enquiry was addressed to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, who clarified that ‘Kew Distr. no. 68’ actually referred to C. roxburghii collected by Wight from Pulicat and Nagari Hills near Madras and under the same number C. cleghornii was also distributed but no locality was known for it. It would appear that Dunn, at the time he described C. cleghornii, did not verify this confusion of two different species distributed under the same Kew Distr. no. 68. He had also not indicated the mixture of specimens of C. cleghornii under two different labels in the same sheet though he had noted at the bottom of the sheet the name of the new species and cited Wight Herb. Kew Distr. no. 68 also along Cleghorn’s collection (Cleghorn D. 176) in his description. On the present evidence it seems likely that an extra label of Wight Kew Distr. no. 68 has been wrongly attached to the sheet bearing Cleghorn’s specimens in Wight Herbarium. From the recent studies, the known distribution of C. cleghornii is limited to the Western Ghats of Mysore State only and does not extend any further. - The various characters and citations given by Hooker f. & Thomson (loc. cit.) under C. roxburghii DC. apply to that species only, but there is one character, ‘ buds usually tomentose ’, which belongs to C. cleghornii ‘as the buds of C. roxburghii DC. are distinctly glabrous. The characters given by Cooke under ‘ C. roxburghii DC.’ are applicable to both C. moonii and C. cleghornii, and in the localities mentioned by Cooke only C. moonii grows in abundance. Since Cleghorn’s collection of the species in 1846, the present series of collections made by the Botanical Survey of India during 1960-63 are the first of their kind. Capparis roxburghii DC. Prod. 1 : 247-248, 1824 ; Wt. & Arn. Prod. 26, 1834; Wt. Icon. t. 1048, 1846 ; Hook. f. & Thoms. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 1 : 175-76, 1875 pro parte; Trimen, FI. Ceyl. 1: 62, 1893; Dunn in Fl. Pres. Madras 1: 44-45, 1915 ; Haines, Bot. Bihar & Orissa 1: 32, 1921. C.corymbosa Roxb. Hort. Beng. 93, 1814 nomen nudum; FI, Ind. 2 : 569 (Carey’s edition 1832) non Lamk. CRITICAL NOTES ON CAPPARIS LINN. FROM PENINSULAR INDIA 419 Armed scandent shrub about 2-4 m. high, much branched from a little above base, base 8-10 cm. in diameter ; young shoots flagellate, fulvous-pubescent, stipular spines few or wanting, older shoots glab- rous, purplish, spiny ; spines recurved, short, geminate. Leaves in flowering and fruiting shoots almost of same size, 1°8-2°5 times as long as broad, 4°5-8 cm. long, 2°5-3°5 cm. broad ; petiole reddish, glabrous, 1:3-2 cm. long; lamina variable in size and shape, ovate or elliptic, subcoriaceous, glabrous, lustrous adaxially (sometimes dull in her- barium specimens), opaque abaxially, base cuneate, apex obtuse, acute or imperceptibly bluntly acuminate ; venation indistinct ; midrib dor- sally emphatic, purplish, ridged, glabrous, ventrally obscure, sunken, flat or channelled ; secondary ribs 5-6 pairs, obscure, ascending or divaricate. Inflorescence terminal, corymbose (sometimes. sub-umbell- ate), fulvous puberulous, 6- to 12-flowered, occasionally solitary in subterminal shoots ; pedicels slender, pinkish, minutely puberulous, later glabrous, the lowermost pedicel upto 3°8 cm. long. Flower buds globose, 8-16 mm. across, glabrous, bracts caducous. Flowers white: showy, about 3-4 cm. across, fragrant. Sepals four, concave, two seriate, imbricate, caducous glabrous, almost similar in size and shape, about 10 mm. long, 8-9 mm. broad. Petals four, white, caducous, spreading, puberulous on both surfaces, more so towards the base, the two pairs of petals almost similar or the outer two slightly larger, obovate (spathulate in bud) about 11 to 12 mm. long, 10-11 mm. broad, the inner petals 11 mm. long and 10 mm. broad, prominently veined ; veins reticulate, diverging from base, the median rib very prominent. Stamens 45-60, spreading from base of gynophore ; filaments slender, 2°5-3 cm. long, white, purplish on ageing ; anthers introse. Pisti] on a slender gynophore, glabrous ; gynophore about 3°5-4°5 cm. long; ovary ellip- soid or ovoid, about 3°5 mm. long, 2°5 mm. across, unilocular ; style obsolete ; stigma capitate ; ovules numerous on 3 or rarely 4 parietal placentae. Fruit baccate, indehiscent, 5-7 developing in a corymb, pendant at maturity, on a much thickened elongated stalk of the jointed peduncle and gynophore 8-10 cm. long, the gynophore cylindrical, never callose at its tip. Fruit globose, about 5-6 cm. across, apex prominently umbonate, greenish at first, turning orange-yellow at maturity, lustrous, purplish brown on drying ; pericarp thin, crustaceous ; endocarp pulpy, creamy or white. Seeds embedded in a pulpy viscous endocarp, reddish brown, 35-40, obovoid, about 1-1:2 cm. long, 1 cm. broad ; testa crus- taceous ; embryo contorted ; cotyledons foliaceous, coiled, about 12 mm. long, 8 mm. broad, elliptic obtuse ; radicle stout. (Plate II, 2, and Plate III, C 2) : Habitat. This species grows on rocky slopes along dry deciduous forests usually associated with other species of Capparis and Acacia, 420 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) Flowering and fruiting. Flowers appear mostly from March to May and, sometimes, late Howeumte upto July ; fruiting period from May to September. Specimens examined. Wight Herb., Kew Distr. no. 68, 1866-67, (CAL) loc. Pulicat and Nagari hills, near Madras (based on information from Kew, see discussion above under C. cleghornii Dunn) ; Wight Herb- presented in 1871, locality possibly lower Nilgiris (MH). on es MADRAS STATE: : Coimbatore district: Anamalais, Cleghorn 1858 (CAL); Kolam- palayam, Fischer 1846, 1862 (CAL) ; Mankara, K. N. Subramanian 235 (BSI) ; Thekkumalai, Sebastine 198 (MH); Sundara Raghavan 74349 (BSI). Madura district: Lower Pulneys, Rodriguez 1833 (CAL) ; Vannathi- parai, Shetty 10273 (MH). Tirunelveli district. Kadayanallur, Madras herb. no. 15187 (MH). ORISSA STATE: Ganjam district: Barkuda, Annandale 1332 (CAL); Baruni hills near Khurda, Haines 4070 (CAL); Chilka lake, Prain s. n. Cal. herb. no. 28751 (CAL) ; Rajabari islands, Hooper 39638 (CAL). CEYLON : Thwaiteg s. n. Cal. herb. no. 28763 (CAL) ; Thwaites C. P. 1065 Cal, herb. no. 28764 yee locality not known, anon. Cal. herb. no. 28765 (CAL). Distribution. This species has a comparatively wider distribution but is mostly confined to-the deciduous forests of south India along the lower Anamalais and Pulney Hills of Madras State, extending towards the north along the Eastern Ghat ranges of Andhra and Orissa States, and towards the south as far as Ceylon. It has so far not been collec- ted in any of the high rainfall zones along the Western Ghats. The record of C. roxburghii DC. in the various floras by Graham, Dalzell & Gibson, and Nairne as occurring in the forests of western India is due to misidentification of Capparis moonii Wt. The description as given by Cooke in his FLORA OF BOMBAY under C. roxburghii DC. is possibly based on a mixture of two species, i.e. C. moonii Wt. and C. cleghornii Dunn. ) Remarks. Roxburgh eriginally used the binomial C. corymbosa in HORT. BENG. and described it later in his FLORA INDICA. As C. corym- bosa Roxb. was a later homonym for C. corymbosa Lamk., an African plant, De Candolle proposed the new name C. roxburghii in his PRODRO- Mus basing it on a specimen in the Banks Herbarium with the manuscript "IM NUOOU "DE FOC MYysdngxos "D °T S UUNG Mus0YsajI*D *{ +: UU sisvddvD Jo syinig 9D “IOMOPY 3 UUNG Mus0Yysaj2 “DQ | “(May ‘suapivy aiuvjog jodoy ‘40JJa4Iq +: ASaJANOD) °89 “OAT “AISI. MAY poysiew Jey Jamo] uo 9SOY} + (9dA} se Pa}eUsSISSP) O/T C U40Ysa/D Pdr||[squi Jfey ioddn uo suowisadg *(€ZLg DANLBON' Moy) JO0US adh] : UUNG MUs0Ys8a/9 SluvddDD °W III aLV1d ‘00S “ISIH “LVN AVaWog ‘NuNOr eld ‘ SHNOOI S.qsInqxoyY jo “SW wos J ‘QxOY OSOQUIA1OD SLiDado yy (TV) 89 ‘ON “HSI MeyY—'OG Ny Singxos suddvyD “A £ 8S] ON 2 bgp ay wept eI) IF Al aLV1d ‘20S “LSIH “LVN Avawog ‘Nunor CRITICAL NOTES ON CAPPARIS LINN. FROM PENINSULAR INDIA 421 name of C.aguba. Incidentally ‘aguba’ is also the vernacular name mentioned by Roxburgh under C. corymbosa in his FLORA INDICA. However, Dr. Jacobs (personal communication) could not locate in the Banks Herbarium, now in the British Museum, the sheet which consti- tutes the type. Since the specimen is not now traceable, Plate No. 158 in the Roxburgh ICONES under C. corymbosa, evidently drawn from the same material as C. aguba of the Banks Herbarium, is now designated as the type. Accordingly a photograph of the above plate from the set of Roxburgh ICONES in the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, is now reproduced in this paper for the first time (Plate IV, A). Capparis moonii Wt. Ill. 1 : 35, 1840; Hook. f. & Thoms. in FI. Brit. Ind. 1: 175, 1875; Trimen, Fl. Ceyl. 1: 62, 1893; Cooke, FI. Bomb. 1 : 46, 1903 ; Talbot, Forest Flora 1 : 59, 1909 ; Dunn in Gamble, Fl. Madras 1 : 44-45, 1915 ; Santapau, Fl. Khandala in Rec. Bot. Surv. India 16: 10, 1953. C. moonii var. tomentosa Blatt. & Hallb. in Blatter, Jour. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31 : 905, 1927 ex char. C. roxburghii auct., non DC. excl. syn. Graham, Cat. Bomb. Pl. 9, 1839 ; Dalzell & Gibson, Bombay FI. 9, 1861 ; Nairne, Fl. Pl. W. India 18, 1894 ; Cooke, Fl. Bomb. 1 : 46-47, 1903 pro parte. | Woody climber ascending over 10 m. ; stem attaining a diameter of 15-20 (25) cm. at base, much branched ; young shoots flagellate, pur- plish, puberulous, glabrescent later, stipular spines few or even absent. older shoots glabrous, conspicuously spiny at base, spines stout, sharp, recurved. Leaves in fruiting specimens larger than in flowering shoots, 2:5-3 times as long as broad, 7-18 cm. long, 3-5°5 cm. broad, petiolate, petiole 1-1°5 cm. long ; lamina elliptic oblong, coriaceous, glabrous on both surfaces, lustrous adaxially, opaque abaxially, base rounded, apex with a twisted acumen, sometimes obtuse ; venation indistinct ; midrib distinct, channelled ventrally, ridged dorsally ; secondary ribs faint, 6-16 pairs. Inflorescence usually terminal, glabrous, 6- to 12-flowered, corymbiform, often solitary, axillary, pedicels stout, lowermost pedicel up to 5°5 cm. Flower buds globose 1-2°5 cm. across. Flowers brac- teate, showy, 7-10 cm. across when in full bloom, white. Sepals four, two seriate, imbricate, caducous, hoary at first, later becoming glabrous, outer sepals slightly smaller than the inner, cup-shaped, about 15 mm. long, 12 mm. broad, the inner sepals about 18 mm. long, 16 mm. broad. Petals four, white, spreading, caducous, puberulous on both surfaces, outer two oblong, slightly narrowed about the middle, truncate and retuse at apex, about 3-3°5 cm. long, 2-2°5 cm. broad, the inner petals slightly smaller, narrowed at base, about 2°8-3 cm. long, 2°2-2°5 cm. broad, prominently veined, the veins spreading from base and dicho- tomously branched. Stamens numerous, approximately 150-170, spread- ing from base of gynophore, filaments slender, 5°5-7 cm. long, white to 422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) scarlet on ageing ; anthers basifixed, introse. Pistil on a slender gyno- phore, 6-8 cm. long ; ovary glabrous, ovoid about 5°5 mm. long, 3 mm. broad, green purplish tinged, unilocular ; style obsolete ; stigma sessile, capitate ; ovules numerous on 3 or occasionally 4 parietal placentae. Fruits baccate, indehiscent, mostly one to three developing in a corymb, apparently solitary, pendant from a conspicuous stout elongated stalk, the jointed peduncle and gynophore 12-16 cm. long, tip of the stalk usually callose ; fruits globose or subglobose, becoming narrowly cylin- drical towards the base, about 13 cm. by 10 cm., apex rounded or um- bonate, immature fruits similar in shape, occasionally ellipsoid, greenish at first, turning reddish brown at maturity ; pericarp at first thin, later becoming woody and much thickened ; endocarp Viscous, pulpy, white or creamy at first, turning deep scarlet on exposure. Seeds embedded in the endocarp, reddish brown, 40-45, dorsally compressed, large: obovoid, about 1°6-1°8 cm. long, 1:2-1°5 cm. broad ; testa crustaceous ; embryo curled ; cotyledons foliaceous, curved and folded, about 20 cm. long, 10-12 mm. broad, ovate, acuminate ; radicle stout. (Plate II,1 and Plate III, C 3). Vern. names. Wagati, Poorwi (Marathi), Luthikai (Konkani). Habitat. The species grows rather abundantly on laterite soil along rocky slopes mostly in the moist deciduous forests of the lower parts of the Western Ghats and also in the semi-evergreen forests along the upper slopes of the ghat region. The species has a good adaptability as to grow along rocky coastal areas including in a few islands off the west coast. It is normally bushy on exposed hillocks, but it assumes a scan- dent habit if proper support is available and ascends over 10 m. It is commonly associated with other species of Capparis such as C. zeylanica Linn. and C.heyneana Wall. besides other species like Pittosporum floribundum Wt, & Arn., Terminalia crenulata Roth, Calycopteris flori- bunda Lamk., Cylista scariosa Roxb., and Carissa congesta Wt. Flowering and fruiting. Flowers appear usually from February to May but there is another short flowering period from October to Decem- ber. Anthesis is mostly in the evenings, floral parts falling off the next day leaving the gynoecium. In N. Kanara district, along the coastal areas this species has two peak flowering seasons, once in October and the other in January-February. Fruiting material is to some extent available in December but is abundant from March onwards. At Khandala maximum frequency of flowering is in March-April and fruits persist till late July. Uses. Talbot records that the leaves and bark are used in curries. - Field observations and local inquiries do not support that the fruits are utilized as vegetable. Of late the fruits are reported to be efficaceous in CRITICAL NOTES ON CAPPARIS LINN. FROM PENINSULAR INDIA 423 the treatment of tuberculosis and skin ailments but investigations so far carried out on these aspects have yielded negative results only. Specimens examined. MAHARASHTRA STATE : Poona district: Khandala-Lonawala, Blatter 18140, 27948 (BLAT) ; Chibber s. n. June, 1909 (BSI) ; Cooke s. n. Jan. 1892 (BSI) ; Gammie 16305 ; 16124; s.n., Feb., 1891 ; s. n., Feb., 1907 (BSI) ; Merchant 853 (BLAT) ; Santapau 41/5 ; 20 ; 23 ; 24 ; 1656 ; 3317; 3318 ; 8601 ; 10712 ; 10713 ; 12265; 15699; 18140 (BLAT); Sundara Raghavan 79648 ; 79649 ; 87101 (BSI). Ratnagiri district: Malwan, Santapau 41/4 (BLAT),; anon. s. n., Blatt. Herb. no. 27560 (BLAT) ; anon. s. n. Cal. herb. no. 28744 (CAL). Mysore STATE: Coorg district ; Makut (?), Arora 32410 (BSI). N. Kanara district: Amboli, Gammie 15049 (BSI) ; Ankola Ghats, Talbot 927 (BSI) ; Bhatkal, Krishnamurthy s. n. B.S.I. Herb., No. 62365 (BSI) ; Sundara Raghavan 74341 ; 79506 (BSI); Kumpta, Anu Pharma s.n. B.S.I. Herb. No. 36434 ; Sundara Raghavan 79408 ; 79447 ; 79458 (BSI). GOA: . St. George Islands, A. O. Hume s. n. Cal. herb,, no. 28742 (CAL). KERALA STATE : Kottayam district; Udumbanchola, Meebold. 719/13112 (CAL) ; Anamalais, Beddome 37 (CAL). Distribution. This species is widely distributed all along the western coast of India including some of the rocky islands near the shore and along the upper slopes of Western Ghats to 900 m. with an annual rain- fall of 250 to 450 cm., covering the States of Maharashtra, Mysore, Goa, and Kerala. It further extends south to Ceylon. It has not so far been recorded from the crest of the Western Ghats or from the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats facing the Deccan plateau where C. cleghornii grows very well. Remarks. From the extensive field observations, it is clear that C. moonii is the most common species along the Western Ghats especially in Maharashtra and N. Kanara district in Mysore State. The descrip- tions of ‘ C. roxburghii DC.’ as given by Graham, Nairne, Dalzell & Gibson are all applicable to C. moonii only. Though Cooke records C. moonii separately in his FLORA OF BOMBAY PRESIDENCY, he mixes up the characters of C. moonii and C. cleghornii in his description of ‘ C. f 424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) roxburghii’, confusing the young fruits of C. moonii with several seeds as belonging to ‘ C. roxburghii’, and this seems to be responsible for the record of C. roxburghii by Cooke in areas where mostly C. moonii and to some extent C. cleghornii only occur. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors wish to express their thanks to Sir George Taylor, Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for providing the type photo- graph of Capparis cleghornii Dunn and relevant data on Kew Distr. no. 68; to Dr. M. Jacobs, Ryksherbarium, for comments on Capparis cleghornii ; and to Prof. P. V. Bole, St. Xavier’s College, Bombay, for facilities to work in the Blatter Herbarium. SYNOPSIS Considerable confusion exists regarding the botanical identity and treatment of the three closely related species Capparis moonii Wt., C. roxburghii DC., and C. cleghornii Dunn in the floras pertaining to penin- sular India.: Graham, Dalzell & Gibson, and Nairne seem to have confused C. roxburghii DC. with C. moonii Wt. Scrutiny of the speci- mens in Cooke’s and Talbot’s collections in the light of the description given by Cooke shows that Cooke based his description of ‘ C: rox- burghii’ on a mixture of specimens of C.-moonii Wt. and C. cleghornii Dunn. As regards C. cleghornii Dunn, the confusion is due to the original scanty description and to paucity of material, this species not having been collected again since the Cleghorn collections from Ballal- rayandurga (Chikmagalur District, Mysore State) in 1846. Exténsive field observations during the last two years and a scrutiny of herbarium specimens in the various Indian herbaria have established that these species are quite distinct with their distribution clearly marked out. Capparis cleghornii Dunn has been collected from the type locality and is known to be confined to the Western Ghats of Mysore State along the outskirts of evergreen forests. A detailed description of the three species with a key is given, and certain interesting observations on the type sheet studied at Kew are elaborated in this paper. The nidification of some common Indian birds—Part 2 BY B. S. LAMBA Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta [Continued from Vol. 60 (1): 133]. 2. THE JUNGLE Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos WAGLER)' Previous Work. Very little is known about the breeding habits of the Jungle Crow. Hume (1873: 411-413) was perhaps the first orni- thologist to collate the data available on the subject, but many interest- ing aspects were left untouched. Many workers have written on the subject since then (Butler 1875; Davidson & Wenden 1878 ; Cripps 1878 ; Scully 1879 ; Vidal 1880; Reid 1881 ; Swinhoe & Barnes 1885 ; Barnes 1886 ; Davidson 1882 ; Taylor 1887 ; Hume 1889 ; Munn 1894; Jesse 1902 ; Ferguson 1903-4; La-Touche 1906; Dewar 1909, 1929 ; Whistler 1928 ; Baker & Inglis 1930; Inglis 1931-34; Ali & Abdulali 1937; Ali 1946, 1953; Baker 1917, 1922, 1932; Aitken 1947; Bates & Lowther 1952, to cite a few), but it is still far from exhausted. _ _ Breeding season. The breeding season of the Jungle Crow differs in different parts of India. Hume (1873: 411 ; 1889: 4) writing about the breeding season of the Jungle Crow stated : ‘March to May is, I con- sider, the normal breeding-season ; in the plains the majority lay in April, rarely later, and in the hills in May ; but in the plains a few birds lay also in February.’ According to Whistler (1928: 4) the various races of Jungle Crow throughout India agree for the most part in laying their eggs from.March to May, but in the plains a few nests will be found with eggs as early as the middle of December. Baker (1932: 7-9) writ- ing on the subject stated : ‘The Northern Indian race breeds during December and January in Bengal and I have myself taken eggs as early as the 27th November in Eastern Bengal. In Bihar a few birds breed as early as the second week in January, but over the rest of its range across India as far west as the United Provinces and as far south as the Central Provinces the normal breeding -season seems to be late March to iy May, most eggs being laid in April before the 20th. of ——— 1 This section is based almost entirely on observations BE when I was working with the Virus Research Centre, Poona. | [14] 436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) that month.... The breeding season of the Jungle Crow throughout southern India seems to be March, April and May. Major C. E. Williams took for me a fine series of their eggs between 9th of March and 3rd of May ; Bourdillon and others took eggs from 27th February to 20th May in Travancore. Davidson and Miss Cockburn give April and May as the breeding months in the Nilgiris, though Darling tooka clutch of six eggs at Ooty as early asthe 12th of February. In theSouth of the Bombay Presidency most eggs are laid in April and March,’ Ali (1946 : 5) on the other hand stated : ‘ The normal breeding season in Peninsular India is between December and March or April ; North of Ganges and in Assam and Burma it is usually later, between March and May.’ In and around Vellore (N. Arcot, Madras) where the present study was made the breeding season in 1956 lasted from early March to early June. Most eggs were found in April-May and most young in May- June. Mating. By the beginning of March small flocks of Jungle Crow which habitually feed in cultivated fields, scrub jungle, and often in and around villages in company with House Crows tend to disintegrate into pairs. Partners are sought out and courted. The pair keep fairly close together. The Jungle Crow, like the House Crow, appears to be rather discreet about the display of connubial affection and sexual inter- course. In spite of its being one of the common birds of India very few people observe the Jungle Crow copulating. Copulation usually takes place in trees, sometimes on house tops or on the ground, and occasion: | ally in the middle of a road (Berriff 1927). The presence of others of the species while the copulation is in progress is ignored nonchalantly, The sexual union may or may not be preceded by a mild head-tickling. The copulation is done in the usual bird fashion, very much like that of the House Crow. No particular timings are observed for the act and the conjugation is very frequent when the nest is under construction. Nest building. Unlike the House Crow, the Jungle Crow seems to be rather selective about the site of the nest. Normally a fork high up in a.-tall tree is selected on the outskirts of, or near, human habita- tion, in well-wooded open land, cultivation, or waste ground. In locali. ties where tall trees are wanting or have already been occupied by others of the species smaller trees are made use of. It does not as a rule build its nest in buildings. Only once has a nest on the top of an old building been recorded (Baker 1932: 8), but there too it built in a small bunch of Ficus growing on the roof. Usually, no other sites are selected, but — I saw one nest of the Jungle Crow in the compound of the Institute of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, Ranipet, Madras, which was placed in a loop made of two insulated electric mains. ~ : [15] NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—PART 2. 427 It is difficult to say which partner has the greater say in selecting the site, perhaps the female. But once the site is selected both partners take a keen interest in building the nest. Dry twigs and sticks are picked up from under the trees and hedges around the field and farm. If fallen sticks are not readily available, twigs from trees and sticks from fences and hedges are wrenched off. Wires are also occasionally made use of. Both the birds go hunting for building material but separately. The female appears to do the bulk of the construction work. The male takes part in actual construction to the extent of arranging the twigs he has brought. If the female happens to be at work on the nest when the male arrives with a twig, he prefers to pass it on to her and go away in search of more. The female may at times rearrange the stick the male has added in her absence. As the twigs are fairly thick she often finds it hard to adjust or bend a refractory stick and may take a few minutes to arrange it to her satisfaction. During construction the birds do not seem to be in much of a hurry. There are long intervals between spurts of building activity. In the earlier stages of construction the nest has the appearance of a bunch of sticks put loosely in a fork their ends projecting in all directions. As more sticks are added and arranged it gradually acquires the shape of a somewhat rounded platform, loosely attached to one or both the limbs of the fork with intertwining twigs and sticks. Further sticks are added on the periphery and the sides, moulding it finally to a massive, broad, cup-shaped structure 35 to 45 cm. in diameter and 12 to 15 cm. deep, with walls 10 to 12 cm. thick. The inner cavity is lined with coconut fibre, grasses, grassroots, palm fibre and bark, and human, horse, or other animal hairs which are sometimes pulled off the backs of live animals or skins laid out for drying (Hutton 1848: 9). The finished inner cavity is about 15 to 18 cm. across and 10 to 14 cm, deep. It usually takes a pair about seven to twelve days to construct a nest: complete with lining: : Territory. There appear to be no territorial troubles. Others of - the species are never attacked if and when they visit the nesting tree. Although highly gregarious otherwise, while breeding the Jungle Crow Certainly appears to respect the privacy of others of the clan and two pairs will never be found nesting in the same tree. All other birds, as long as they are not bitds of prey, are welcome to use the nesting tree in any way they think fit. Birds of prey are always chased and driven off. Other birds including the House Crow seem to be afraid of the Jungle Crow and do not normally dare to come near its nest. Once I saw a female koel resting in the shade of a large Banyan tree in which the nest of a Jungle Crow was located. One of the parents was sitting in the nest incubating and did not pay any attention to the koel. 4 [16] 428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) Laying and clutch size. Egg-laying starts with the completion of the nest and sometimes even before the lining is complete. Three to five eggs are generally laid, at intervals of twenty-four to forty-eight hours (Table II). TABLE IT LAYING PATTERN AND CLUTCH SIZE OF JUNGLE Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) earn aera eeer reese reece eeeeeeeeeceaseeeeerenee erasers ce ce eT SL ZT Se a PT Ss EES Ist egg 2ndegg 3rdegg 4thegg 5thegg Total No. Nest No. laid on laid on laid on laid on laid on laid 1 24/iv 25/iv 26/iv 28 /iv — 4 2 17/iv 18/iv 20/iv oa ae 3 3 17/iv 18 /iv 19/iv 20/iv — 4 4 28 / iv 30/iv I/v 2/V —= 4 5 27/iv 28 /iv 29 /iv I/v — 4 6 b 3/v - 4/v 6/Vv — — 3 7 24/iv 25/iv 26/iVv 27/1V 28/iv 4 8 i, 8/V 9/v 10/ v 11/v — 4 9 ' 8/v 9/v 10/ v 11/v — aie 10 — 27/iv 28/iv 29/iv 30/iv l/v 5 11 27 /iv 28/iv 29/iv — — 3 12 27/iv 28/iv 29/iv 30/iv — 4 Occasionally six (Darling, cited by Hume 1889: 7) and rarely two (Dewar 1909 : 238-39) are also laid. Baker (1932: 8) is of the opinion that ‘ cases in which two eggs have been reported as incubated are prob- ably incomplete clutches’. Recent researches, however, indicate. that a number of environmental factors are responsible for the determination of clutch size in an indeterminate layer like this crow. It will not per- haps bé entirely irrelevant to mention here some of the important factors in brief, although they have not been directly observed i in connection with the present work : 1. Availability of food in the brseaana area : This is perhaps the most important factor soverning clutch size. Abundance of food in the locality appears to induce birds to lay bigger clutches than normal. In a rodent plague the clutch of birds living on them may be double the usual figure or even greater, a phenomenon recorded from the arctic, temperate, and tropical regions (Schneider 1928 ; Elton 1942 ; Moreau 1944). Even the quality of the food avail- able sometimes affects clutch size (Kluijver 1933, cited ae Lack peti 2. Climatic conditions : Climatic conditions varying annually appear to influence the clutch size (Jourdain & Witherby 1918 ; Lack 1947b ; Parkhurst & Lack 1946 ; Walkinshaw 1944). Even a dias of season may affect clutch size os double brooders (Stresemann 1928; Kendeigh 1941 ; Lack 1947a). [17] NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—PART 2. 429 3. The age of the bird : be First year birds lay smaller clutches than older individuals (Ruiter 1941 ; Kluijver 1933 ; Wissel 1927). Very old individuals’ also tend to have as clutches a ourdain 1925). © 4. Individual peculiarities : Sometimes it is observed that an individual bird which laid an un- usually large or an unusually small clutch on one occasion tends to do the same on other occasions (Lack 1947a). Regarding the determination of the average clutch size, Lack (1947a : 315-319) writes: ‘I believe that, in nidicolous species, the average clutch size is ultimately determined by the average maximum number of young which the parents can successfully raise in the region and at the season in question.’ He further states : ‘ The limitation of clutch size must be regarded not as a negative, the inability to produce more eggs, but as a positive act, the cessation of laying’. He also suggests that, in indeterminate layers, laying: presumably ceases in response to either visual or tactile stimuli from the nest. The eggs are broad ovals somewhat compressed towards one end. The shell is compact, fine, and slightly glossy. The ground colour is usually bluish green, olive-green, sometimes almost blue (Baker 1932 : 8), or olive or stone colour (Dewar 1929: 26). They are blotched, streaked, smeared, freckled with brown or pale faded’ purple. The size, shape, ground colour, and the design, intensity, and shade of the markings varies a good deal in eggs from different clutches and, some- times, in the various eggs of the same clutch. The average of thirty- seven eggs measured was 30.3 x 42.1 mm. The Jungle Crow does not appear to be suspicious of or bear any malice towards the Koel (Eudynamis scolopaceus). 1 did not come across a koel’s egg in any of the nests, possibly because extremely few nests of this species with eggs are left till June; when the majority of the koel eggs were met with in House Crows’ nests. Instances are, however, on record (Ali & Abdulali 1937: 91; _SJerdon 1877: : 296). of koel parasitising the brood of this species. _ Incubation. The female starts sitting as soon as the first egg is laid in the nest. Incubation for the most part is done by the female. The male relieves her at intervals. The birds are very close sitters and leave the nest unattended only in the hottest part of the day, when one or both the birds mount guard on the nest sitting in a shady spot near-by. Unlike the House Crow the bird sitting in the nest does not abandon the nest as soon as someone starts climbing the nesting tree. The in- cubating bird keeps sitting in the nest till the climber is very close. After leaving the nest they make menacing threats of attacking the human HeES: | 430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) intruder but seldom strike. The Jungle Crow does not appear to take much notice of a slight change in the appearance of the contents of the nest. I have painted its eggs scarlet with transparent water colours by ones and twos in a clutch in several cases, and in one case all the five, without affecting the composure of the owners in the least. They neither deserted the nest nor made any attempt to destroy or get rid of the painted eggs. They devoured a Paddy Bird (Ardeola grayii) egg placed in an empty nest, but accepted and incubated one when substituted for one of their own in a clutch of four. Period of incubation. In nine cases out of twelve the first fledgling hatched out after eighteen days of the laying of the first egg, in one case in seventeen, and in another in nineteen days (Table III). TABLE III PERIOD OF INCUBATION OF JUNGLE Crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) Nest No. Ist egg laid on Ist fledgling hatched Period of incuba- | on tion in days 1 24/iv 12/v 18 2 17/iv 5/v 18 3 17/iv 5/v 18 4 28/iv 16/v 18 5 27/iv 16/v 19 6 3/v 21/v 18 7 24/iv 12/v 18 8 8/v 26/v 18 9 8/v 25/v 17 10 27/iv 15/5 18 11 27/iv did not hatch 12 29/iv 17/v 18 One clutch that did not hatch out was incubated for twenty-nine days before it was finally deserted. The young in the nest. The young hatch out one after the other, at intervals of twenty-four to forty-eight hours. The newly hatched young are entirely devoid of nestling down. They are unable to stand up and lie helplessly on their delicate and almost transparent abdomens. The body is light flesh-coloured. The eyes are closed. Beak and claws are soft and fleshy, and are of the same colour as the rest of the body. The neossoptiles make their first appearance some time between forty- eight to seventy-two hours after hatching. They consist of prepennae and are duly replaced by regular contour feathers (teléoptiles). The remiges and rectrices appear in the second week in the form of gramo- phone-needle-like structures at first, and then at the needle points appear tufts of hair-like feathers (barbs). At this stage, with elongated stem Per | NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—PART 2 431 and tufts of hair at the distal end, they resemble miniature artists’ brushes arranged in rows of uneven sizes. The tuft gradually elongates into rachis and vane, while the stem ultimately forms the calamus. By the end of the fourth week the young are fully fledged. The colour of the fully fledged young is similar to that of the adult bird. Both the parents feed the young. The young are unable to accept food till they are twenty-four to forty-eight hours old. In the earlier stages the food hunting trips of the parents are arranged in such a way that one or the other of them is always available to guard or warn the nestlings against predators and intruders. All the young that hatch out do not live to leave’ the nest (Table IV). The majority of deaths occur in the first fortnight and mainly for want of food. Rarely is death due to a chance fall or some marauder’s attack. TABLE IV NESTING SUCCESS Nest No. No. of eggs Incubation period Total Fledglings that laid in days hatch survived 1 4 18 4 3 2 3 18 3 3 3 4 18 4 3 4 4 18 4 Pd 5 4 19 4 4 6 3 18 2 2 7 5 18 4 ae: 8 4 18 3 3 9 4 17 3 3 10 5 18 4 3 11 3 19 did not hatch 12 4 18 3 2 38 31 Total 47 = 66% The parent birds usually cannot meet the full demand of a clutch of five and sometimes even four nestlings ; unless of course there is an abundance of food in the locality. The parents seem to exercise no dis- crimination whatsoever in feeding them, and stuff the food in the gaping mouth of one of them, presumably the nearest, until the supply is ex- hausted or the one being fed refuses to swallow any more. This is repeated at every visit and the young which are not fed until their stronger brethren have received all they can take go to the wall in the struggle for existence in the nest. The dead are thrown out without the slightest concern on the part of the parents. The nestlings who survive remain in the nest for three to four weeks. A three- to four-week old nestling is fully fledged and can fly short distances, if forced to do so. Generally [20] 432 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) before leaving the nest they stay around in the branches of the nesting tree where they are fed by the parents. Even after leaving the nest they stick close to the parents, usually the mother, for a few weeks and ‘follow her wherever she goes. As soon as she picks up a little bit of food the demand for. it by the young starts. Generally the mother transfers the morsel to the young. Nesting success. Nesting success in the Jungle Crow depends on a number of factors, the most important ones being the amount of food available for the young at nestling stage, fertility of the eggs laid, and interference by predators. In ‘the present study a total of forty-seven eggs were laid in twelve nests. A total of thirty-one fledglings survived ten IY). It eu works out to sixty-six per-cent. REFERENCES AITKEN, E. H. (1947): The Common Birds of India. 3rd ed. Thacker & Co. Ltd., Bombay. Aut, S. (1946): The Book of Indian Birds. 4th ed. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. ———— (1953): Birds of Travancore and Cochin. Oxford University Press. , & ABDULALI, H. (1937): The Birds of Bombay and Salsette. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 39 : 91-103. Baker, E. C. S. (1917) : On the nidifi- cation of some Indian Falconidae. Jbis. (10) 5 : 354-355. ———— (1922): The Fauna of British - India including Ceylon and Burma. Birds . 1. Taylor and Francis, London. (1932): Birds of the Indian Empire 1. and Francis, London. -BAKER, H. R., & INGLIS, C. M. (1930): The Birds of Southern India. Govern- ment Press, Madras. BARNES, “SL E. (1886) : Notes on the Birds nesting in Rajpootana. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 1 : 38-62. BATES, R.S. P., & LowTHer, E. H.N. (1952) : Breeding Birds of Kashmir. Oxford University Press, London. BERRIFF, A. H. (1927) : Mating of the Jungle Crow (Corvus. coronoides inter- medius). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 32: DN ies BUTLER, Capt. A. E. (1875) : Notes on the Avifauna of Mount Aboo and Nor- thern Guzerat. Stray Feathers 3: 437- 500. : Cripps, J. R. (1878): First list of Birds of Furreedpur, Eastern Bengal. ibid. 7 : 239-315. .Davipson, J. (1882): Rough list of the Birds of Western Khardssl 10 : 279-327. [21] Thacker Lemmings. _Nidification of the, Taylor family of our area. ibid. — _DaAvipson, J. (1898): A short trip to Kashmir. Jbis (7) 4: 1-42. Davipson, C. S., & WENDEN, C. E. (1878): A contribution to the Avifauna of Deccan. Stray Feathers 7: 68-95. Dewar, D. (1909): Birds of the Plains. John Lane, London. (1929) : Indian Birds’ Nests. Spink and Co., Calcutta, Bombay. ELTON, C. (1942): Voles, Mice and Oxford. FERGUSON, H. S. (1903-4) : The Birds of Travancore with notes on their nidi- fication by Bourdillon, T. F. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 15: 249-264. GILL, E. H. N. (1922): A. deserip- _tion of Nests and Eggs of the Common Birds occurring in the plains of United Provinces. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 28 : 1069-74. Hume, A. O. (1873): Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds. Rough draft. Superin- tendent of Government Printing, Calcutta. ———— (1889): Nests and Eggs of Indian Birds. 2nd ed. R. H. Porter, London. Hutton, T. (1848): nidification. of Indian Birds. Soc. Beng. 17 (2): 3-13. _ INGLIs, C. M. (1931-34): The Crow J. Darjeeling nat. Notes on the J. Asiat. Hist. Soc. 6-8 : 48-54. JERDON, T. C. (1877): The Birds of India? PP: oS. D’Rozario)., & 7 Coz Calcutta. Jesse, W. (1902): On the Birds of ‘Lucknow. Ibis (8) 2: 470-490. . . JOURDAIN, F. C. R. (1925): A study on parasitism in the Cuckoos. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond.1 : 639-667. _ NIDIFICATION OF SOME COMMON INDIAN BIRDS—PART 2 433 JoURDAIN, F. C. R. & WITHERBY, H. F. (1918) : The effect of winter of 1916-1917 on our resident birds. Brit. Birds 12: 26-35. KENDEIGH, S. C. (1941): Length of the day and energy requirement for gonad development and egg laying in birds. Ecology 22 : 237-248. KLUuIVER, H. N. (1933): Lack, D. (1947a). Lack, D. (1947a): The significance of clutch size. Jbis 89 : 302-352. (1947b): The significance of clutch size in the Partridge. J. Animal Ecol. 16: 19-25. La ToucHe, J. D. D. (1906): Field notes on the birds of Chinkiang. Ibis (8) 6 : 427-450. MorkEAu, R. E. (1944) : Clutch size: a comparative study with special re- ference to African Birds. Ibis 86 : 286- 347. Munn, P. W. (1894): On ie Birds of Calcutta District. /bis (6) 6: 39-77. OaTEs, E. W. (1884) : Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Birds 1. Taylor and Francis, London. ParKHoursT, R., & Lack, D. (1946): The clutch size of the Yellowhammer. Brit. Birds 39 : 358-364. PycrarT, W. P. (Not given): The in- fancy of animals: 150-151. Hutchinson & Co., London. ——— (1929): Feather. Paedia Britannica. 14th Ed. 9: Rew, G. (1881): The Birds cited by Encyclo- 128-131. of * Not seen in original. Lucknow Civil Division. Stray Feathers 10 : 1-88. Ruiter, C.J.S. (1941) : Waarnenringen omtrent de levenswigze Van de Gerkra- agde Roodstaart. Phoenicurus ph. phoeni- curus (Linn.). Ardea 29: 108. SCHNEIDER, B. & W. (1928): Beitrage zur Biologie .der Schleicreule. J. f. Ornith. 76 : 412-419. SCULLY, J. (1879): A. contribution to the ornithology of Nepal. Stray Feathers 8 : 204-366. STRESEMANN, E. (1928): Handbuch der Zoologie. 7 (2) Bogen 22 bis 27. Walter De Gruyter and Co., Berlin. SWINHOE, C., & BARNES, H. (1885): On the Birds of Central India. Jbis (5) 3: 124-138. TAYLOR, C. J. W. (1887): A tentative list of the Birds of Manzeerabad, Mysore. Stray Feathers 10 : 454-467. VIDAL, G. W. (1880) : First list of the Birds of South Konkan. ibid. 9: 1-96. VAN TYNE, J., & BERGER, A. J. (1959): Fundamentals of Ornithology. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York. * WALKINSHAW L. H. (1944): The Eastern Chipping Sparrow in Michigan. Wilson Bull. Ann Arbor 56: 196-205. WHISTLER, H. (1928): Popular Hand- book of Indian Birds. Gurney and Jackson, London. WISSEL, C. V. (1927): Fasanenzucht als Erwerbsquelle und _ Liebhaberei. Neudamm (Neumann). Cited by Lack, D. (1947a) [ 22 ] On Caulerpa fastigiata Mont. var. fastigiata in India FRANCESCA THIVY AND V. VISALAKSHMI Central Salt & Marine Chemicals Research Institute, Bhavnagar (With 21 figures on two plates) INTRODUCTION From the shores of Bombay City, Boergesen reported Caulerpa fas- tigiata Mont. var. fastigiata. It is being reported, now, for the first time from Gujarat, where its forma minor Web. v. Bosse, which is a new find for India, and its forma delicatula Thivy & Visal. forma nova also occur. A key and descriptions with reference to the only variety of C. fastigiata Mont., known to occur in India, and to the forms of this variety are given ae Key To Caulerpa fastigiata Mont. var. fastigiata AND ITS FORMS 1. Plants up to 3 cm. high; ultimate short branchlets distinctly ATCUALE. 2. Spc eo eee OGL eee ee Pere 2 1. Plants 3-9 cm. high; ultimate short branchlets not distinctly arcuate, 112-250 im: diamefer...3...002) 2 var. fastigiata 2. Plants 0°3-1°5 cm. high; arcuate assimilators 220-300 in diameter at the upper end, thick, not highly arched ; stolons 266-392 4-1 “diameter: 2. ee ee forma minor 2. Plants 3 cm. high ; arcuate assimilators 180-240 y in diameter at the upper end, slender, highly arched ; stolons 168-252 yp in diameter :2)45 Ao ee oe ee forma delicatula Caulerpa fastigiata Mont. var. fastigiata C. fastigiata Mont., Hist. Phys. de l’ile de Cuba, p. 19, t. 2, f. a 1838 ; Web. v. Bosse in Ann. J. bot. Buitenz. 15 : 262, 1898 & Siboga Expedit. 59a : 96, 1913; Boergesen in Dansk. Bot. Arkiv 1(4) : 118, f. 93, 1913 ; idem in J. Indian bot. Soc. 11(1) : 55, 1932, et in Danske Vidensk. Selskab. Biol. Med. 12(2) : 29, 1935 ; Okamura, Ic. Jap. Alg. 4:14, t. 154, ff. 9-13, 1916; Gilbert in Repr. Pap. Mich, Acad, Sci, ON CAULERPA FASTIGIATA MONT. VAR. FASTIGIATA IN INDIA 435 Arts, Lett. 27 : 9, 1942 ; Dawson in Pac. Sci. 8(4) : 392, f. 9g, 1954; Taylor in Univ. Michigan Stud. Sci. Ser, 21 : 136, t. 10, f. 12, 1960. (Plate I, figs. 1-5 ; Plate II, figs. 10-13) Plants 3-9 cm. high, forming mat-like colonies, filiform, with bran- ched stolon bearing erect axes at intervals of 0°1-1'2 cm., green includ- ing stolon, at times chlorotic in the basal region ; stolon 215-400 y dia- meter, with free tips up to 3 cm. long, with stratified wall 5:2-7°8 j dia- meter, having numerous transverse trabeculae 1°5-4°0 y thick and con- torted in the centre of the stolon, with a few longitudinal trabeculae of 1°3 » thickness, with round to pyriform starch grains of 2°0-5°0 » dia- meter and to 7°8 « long or rarely 10°4 » long. Primary erect axes branched to first or second degree and sometimes to 5th degree, cylindrical throughout, 112-275 « diameter, often sub- clavate at tips, slightly thicker at basal region, with obtuse or some- times faintly acute tips, with cell wall 1:°5-3°0 « diam., having numerous transverse trabeculae 0°75-2'5 p» thick, with a few longitudinal trabe- culae 1:3 w diam. with round to pyriform starch grains up to 5:2 » dia- meter, and up to 6:0 » long. Branching of erect axes spiral or dicho- tomous and in the upper part in addition opposite or subwhorled. Branchlets when short 2°5-4°(0 mm. in length, when longer up to 6.0 cm., usually both kinds found intermixed from below upwards. Rhizoids near origin 45-144 » diameter, with wall 5:2-7°8 yw thick, simple, dicho- tomous or alternately branched, tapering to about 27:0 » diameter, and here with walls 2.6 4 thick, when short often ending in attaching discs 70-300 » diameter, when longer (3-8 mm. in length) sometimes with bulbous tip of about 40 « diameter. Specimens examined, Gopnath, Iyengar 452, 24-8-61; Rao 519, 13-10-61 ; Thivy 568, 11-11-61, 1688, 23-4-62, 2800, 29-7-62. Habitat. On the western shores of the Gulf of Cambay, the waters of which are turbid nearly all round the year, Gopnath is situated ; and it has a limestone reef which is about 4 km. long and 100 metres wide very rugged and gradually sloping. The plant grows in the mid-littoral, on the borders of and inside tide-pools and on the sides of low tide streamlets. It attaches itself partly to smooth rock-surface and partly to sand etc., in the silt which, as is well known for the plant, it accumu- lates by means of its numerous and often densely branched rhizoids. At low tide, the plant is exposed to an extent, or fully immersed ; and at high tide it is at a depth of about 2 metres. At all times of the year the plants are covered, often closely, with Cocconeis clandestina Schmitz, the frustules of which are cemented to the surface of stolon and erect branches. In November the submerged plants of C. fastigiata var. 436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) fastigiata were concealed by a brown cloud .of the chain diatoms Biddulphia pulchella Gray and B. levis Ehrenberg. The plants growing in deep silt reach a height of 9 cm., and are characterized by thin assimilators, distinctly dichotomous erect axes, and chlorotic, often rhizoidiferous, basal regions of the erect axes. Plants more superficially embedded attain a height of 5 cm., bear thicker assimilators than the former, and have chiefly alternate, opposite or sub- whorled, rarely in part dichotomous branching of the erect system. At Gopnath, the variety is at its best from the end of July to Feb- ruary, though present all round the year. Geographical Distribution. Bermudas, Florida, West Indies, Hon- duras, Panama, Brazil, Japan (Ryukyu Is.), Friendly Is., Philippines, Indonesia, India. Observations. The stolons are slightly thicker than the branches of the erect system. In transverse section of the stolon the trabeculae are curled and contorted in the middle, but fused central areas formed by the trabeculae are not present as are seen, at intervals, along the length of the stolons in Caulerpa verticillata J. Ag. However, fusions (Fig. 13) at points where a few trabeculae cross are seen. Usually the rhizoids arise on the stolon between the points from where the erect axes start. Rhizoids exhibit special wall thickening, up to 13°0 », at their points of origin. The wall of the stolon has 2-4 distinct layers and these in turn are finely stratified. Stolons have numerous starch grains, Rhizoids and their bulbous tips are at times densely filled with them. The attach- ing discs develop from clusters of short, coralloid processes on the bul- bous tips of’rhizoids. The actively growing tips of rhizoids are slightly distended and have a cap-shaped cover of mucilage (Fig. 12). When assimilatory branches are subwhorled they are in groups of 3-4, rarely 5. The trabeculae are visible through the walls of stolon and erect system, especially in bleached specimens. When growth in the Indian plant is luxuriant, groups of small rhizoids are at times seen all along some of the assimilatory branches at intervals of 1°0-1°5 mm. from apex to base, while some other branches show a group of rhizoids at the apex only. Boergesen (1913) observes that assimilators may serve for vegetative propagation. 3 Discussion. From the West Indian plant our plant varies in the upper range in height, namely 9 cm. in our plant and 3 cm. in the other as given by Taylor (1960). The plant in Japan also reaches a height of 3 cm. according to Okamura (1916). Further the upper limits in dia- meter of the stolon and of the branches of the erect system in the Indian plant are nearly double those of the West Indian plant, ON CAULERPA FASTIGIATA MONT. VAR. FASTIGIATA IN INDIA 437 Caulerpa fastigiata Mont. var. fastigiata f. minor W. v. Bosse in Ann. J. bot., Buitenz. 15: 363, t. 20, ff. 1-2, 1898; Boergesen in Danske Vidensk. Selskab. Biol. Med. 20(6) : 36, 1946. (Plate I, figs. 6 and 7, Plate II, figs. 14-16) Plants 0°3-1°5 cm. in height with branched stolon and erect axes. Stolons terete, 266-392 ,. diameter, with acute tips and stratified walls of 5:2-10°5 , thickness, with numerous transverse trabeculae of 2°5- 30 yw thickness and contorted in the middle of the stolon, with starch grains up to 7°8 long and more or less pyriform. Rhizoids 0-1-1°0 mm, long, 48-168 » diameter, with terminal discs 100-480 «. diameter. Erect primary axes in diameter about 200-316 » below, rather narrowed at point of insertion on stolon, with starch grains up to 7°8 uw long, with walls 2°6-5°2 ,« thick, with branchlets alternate, opposite, or subwhorled. Branchlets arising on all sides of erect axes, when short about 1°0-2°5 mm. in length and arched-clavate to cylindrical with lower part of arch 140- 192 « diameter and upper 220-300 ,« diameter, when longer up to 4mm. long and subclavate to cylindrical with 156-240 « diameter. Branchlets with walls 2°6-3°9 ;/+ thick, with starch grains up to 7°8 yu long usually and rarely 13:0 ~ long and having 2°6-5°2 « diameter at broader end, with transverse trabeculae 1.2-2.0 » thick and much contorted in the middle of the branchlets. Specimens examined. Gopnath, Thivy 1694, 23-4-62. Habitat. On vertical, smooth, rocky walls of streamlets, in the mid- littoral of the limestone reef ; at low tide they were found exposed just above the water level. They were attached to membranous polychaete worm cases, to a tough and wiry dendroid coelenterate, to Amphiroa fragilissima as also to shell particles. Geographical Distribution. Brazil, Mauritius. The figures given by Madame Weber van Bosse of f. minor have been of help in identification of the present plant. Caulerpa fastigiata Mont. var. fastigiata f. delicatula Thivy & Visal form. nov. (Plate I, figs. 8 and 9 ; Plate II, figs. 17-21) Plantulae 3 cm. altae, stolone repente ornatae ; stolon 168-252 1 diameter. Axis erectus, inclusa parte basali subverticillata 1-2 cm, longus, 120-204 » diameter, crassior ad basin, parte terminali filiformi 1-2 cm. longa, diametri uniformis 120-170 ». Grana amyloidea in stolone et rhizoideis amplissima 7°8-13°0 , longa. Ramuli late arcuati, clavati, c. 1 mm. longi. Differt a f. minor Web. v. Bosse statura altiore, stolone tenuiore, et ramulis assimilatoriis altius arcuatis. Typus positus in Herb. CS & MCR ad Bhavnagar sub numero Iyengar 719, 1-12-1961. 438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) Plants reaching 3 cm. in height, with creeping branched stolon, and with erect axes. Stolon 168-252 diameter, with pointed tips and wall 2°6-5°2 » thick usually, with transverse trabeculae 2 1 thick, these con- torted in the middle, with starch grains often 7°8-13-0 « long. Rhizoids reaching 7 mm. length, 70-120 » diameter, with wall 2°5 « thick, with starch grains often 7°8-13°0 « long and 3-9-5:2 wide, with discs 216-240 ju dia- meter. Erect axes branched to second or third degree, slender, with lower part subverticillate and upper part filiform. Determinate branchlets on verticillate part short, about 1:0 mm. long usually, in part to 2 mm. long, clavate, arcuate, crowded, alternate, opposite or in sub- whorled groups of 3 to 5, at the upper part of arch 180-240 » diameter, at the lower part 120-180 « diameter, with wall 2°5-3°2 » thick, with thin transverse trabeculae and a few longitudinal trabeculae about 1:5 » thick. Verticillate portion of erect axes 1-2 cm. in length, 120-180 diameter above, thicker below and 144-204 « diameter. Filiform portion of erect axes 1-2 cm. in length, 120-170 diameter. Primary branchlets of fili- form part of erect axes opposite, semiwhorled or alternate, 120-156. diameter, straight, cylindrical with wall 1.3-2.6 w thick, 2 mm. or more in length. Starch grains in erect axes 5:2 » long, commonly 7°8-13°0 long, with broader end 2°6-5°2 w wide, slightly smaller in general than in the stolon and rhizoid. Specimen examined. Okha, at Port Office reef, Iyengar 719, 1-12-1961. Habitat. In lower littoral, at low tide mark, growing on sand-covered limestone reef, with rhizoids attached to shell particles. In general aspect the taller and more branched habit of the new form contrasts with the shorter, less branched plant, f. minor (3:0 cm, against 1°5 cm.) ; on the other hand the upper limit in diameter with reference to the stolon, the erect axes and the branchlets are less in the taller form, namely f. delicatula, than in f. minor (250 p against 400 » diameter in the case of stolon; and 240 yw against 300 ~ diameter in the case of erect axes and branchlets). The trabeculae in the determinate branchlets of f. delicatula are about 1°5 » thick against 2°0 » thick in those of f. minor. The starch grains in the stolon and rhizoids of f. delicatula are distinctly longer than in those of f. minor, being commonly 10°4-13°0 » long in the former and not often longer than 7°8 y in the latter. In var. fastigiata and both its forms, starch grains are often densely packed in the stolon and rhizoids. By and large the trabeculae of the stolon and erect system are transverse in the three taxa and more or less contorted in the middle of the axes, where fusion between pairs of, or a few, trabeculae occur. A few, very fine, longitudinal trabeculae are seen in all three taxa, JouRN. BomBAYy NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE I C.J. MALI Caulerpa fastigiata var. fastigiata from Gopnath: Figs. | and 2. Shorter plants (4:5 cm. high) showing stolon and erect system; Fig. 3. Stolon with rhizoids terminating in coralloid discs, of shorter plant; Figs. 4 and 5. Taller plant (9cm. high): Fig. 4. Showing portion with alternate and opposite branches; Fig. 5. Showing portion of same plant with chiefly dichotomous branching. Caulerpa fastigiata var. fastigiata f. minor from Gopnath: Fig. 6. Stolon with an attaching disc and an erect axis bearing subwhorled determinate branchlets ; Fig. 7. Stolon showing trabeculae, and rhizoid ending in discs. Caulerpa fastigiata var. fastigiata f. delicatula from Okha ; Fig. 8. Habit showing stolon with rhizoids, a large and several small attaching discs, erect axes with subverticillate lower part and filiform upper part ; Fig. 9. Surface view of deter- minate branchlet showing transverse trabeculae PLATE Il Journ. BomBay Nat. Hisr. Soc. 3 < = 3 i>) aulerpa fastigiata Mont. var. fastigiata C For explanations see opp. page ON CAULERPA FASTIGIATA MONT. VAR. FASTIGIATA IN INDIA 439 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writers wish to express their gratitude to Dr. D. S. Datar, former Director of the Institute, for facilities and encouragement received. They thank Dr. H. Santapau, Director, Botanical Survey of India, for kindly translating the diagnosis into Latin. SUMMARY Caulerpa fastigiata Mont. var. fastigiata known from Bombay is reported for the first time from Gujarat State, while forma minor Web. v. Bosse of this variety is a new report for India, and forma delicatula Thivy & Visal. of the same variety is a new form. REFERENCES BoERGESEN, F. (1913-20) : The marine algae of the Danish West Indies. I. Chlorophyceae. Dansk. Bot. Arkiv 1 (4): 1-158+2, 126 figs., map, 1913. ———— (1932): Some Indian Green and Brown Algae especially from the shores of the Presidency of Bombay, II. Journ. Indian Bot. Soc. 11(1): 51-70, tta2, flO: ———— (1935): A list of marine algae from Bombay. Kongl. Danske Vidensk. Selskab. Biol. Med. 12 (2): 3-64, tt. 10, ff. 25. — (1946): Some marine algae from Mauritius. An additional list of species to Part I, Chlorophyceae. ibid. 20 (6) : 3-64, ff. 27. Dawson, E. Y. (1954) : Marine plants in the vicinity of the Institut Oceano- graphique de Nha Trang, Viet Nam. Pacific Science 8 (4) : 373-481, ff. 63. ‘GILBERT, W. J. (1942): Notes on Reprinted from Papers of the Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts, Letters 27, 1941. MONTAGNE, J. F. C. (1842) : Algae, pp. 1-104, tt. 1-5. Jn Ramon de la Sagra, Histoire physique, politique et naturelle de I’Ile de Cuba. Botanique—plantes cellulaires. x-+549 (1838-1842). Paris. (Fide Weber v. B., 1898, p. 262). OKAMURA, K. (1916): Icones of Japanese Algae. 4: 1-205, tt. 200. Tokyo. TAYLOR, W. RANDOLPH (1960): Marine Algae of the eastern tropical and subtropical coasts of the Americas. Univ. Michigan Stud., Sci. Ser., 21: ix+662, tt. 1-80. WEBER VAN Bosse, A. (1898) : Mono- graphie des Caulerpes. Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg 15: 243-401, tt. 20-34. ——— (1913-1923) : Liste des algue- du Siboga. I. Myxophyceae, Chloros phyceae, Phaeophyceae (with Th. Rein- bold), Siboga Expeditie... 59a: 1-186, ff. 1-52, tt. 1-5, 1913. Caulerpa from Java and the Philippines. Explanation to Plate II Caulerpa fastigiata var. fastigiata from Gopnath. Fig. 10. T. S. of stolon showing stratified wall, trabeculae and starch grains ; Fig. 11. Lengthwise half of stolon in surface view showing wall and trabeculae ; Fig. 12. Tips of two rhizoids showing mucilage caps, cell wall, and starch grains; Fig. 13. Two trabecular fusions and some starch grains from T. S. of stolon. Figs. 14-16. Caulerpa fastigiata var. fastigiata f. minor from Gopnath: Fig. 14. T. S. of stolon showing stratified cell wall, trabeculae, and starch grains; Fig. 15. Surface view of arcuate determinate branchlet showing cell wall and trabeculae; Fig. 16. Starch grains, and fusions between trabeculae from T. S. of stolon. Figs. 17-21. Caulerpa fastigiata var. fastigiata f. delicatula from Okha: Fig. 17. Habit showing stolon, erect axes, rhizoids, arcuate determinate branch- lets, and filiform branches ; Fig. 18. T. S. of stolon showing stratified wall, trabeculae, and starch grains; Fig.19. Starch grains, and fusions between trabeculae, from T. S. of stolon; Fig. 20. Rhizoid with a lateral disc formed of short branches ; Fig. 21. Rhizoid with a terminal disc formed by a number of branches. me | Fish Fauna of Muzaffarnagar District, Uttar Pradesh BY C. L. MAHAJAN Department of Zoology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur (With a map) SYNOPSIS A collection of eighty-four species of fish representing forty-nine genera, twenty families, and.eight orders is reported together with brief notes on the maximum size, seasonal availability, breeding habits, etc. of each species. The report is based on two and a half years’ work on the fish fauna of district Muzaffarnagar in the upper Gangetic plain. Analysis of the different species reveals that 75°% of them belong to a single order, the Order Cypriniformes (Berg 1940), thirteen of them air- breathing and eight hill-stream species. Thus, the fish fauna is typical of sub-tropical fresh waters with a mixture of Himalayan forms. The richness of water resources and the possibility of the area developing into a big fish-producing centre is indicated. Distribution and nomenclature of some of the species is discussed in the light of the previous work and the present study. : INTRODUCTION No attempt has so far been made to explore the fish fauna of Muzaffarnagar District in the upper Gangetic plain in spite of the richness of the water resources and a possible zoogeographical significance. Faunal studies covering much wider areas, such as those of Hamilton (1822) or Day (1878), are the only sources of information. More recently fish collections from three adjoining areas have been reported: from Eastern Doons (Hora & Mookerjee 1936 ; Lal & Chatterjee 1962), Meerut (Sinha & Shiromny 1953), and Delhi State (Majumdar 1958). In an earlier communication the author (Mahajan 1961) briefly reported a collection of sixty-two species belonging to seventeen different families based on one year’s (1959-60) study of the fish fauna of Muzaffarnagar District. The present paper records a more exhaustive study of the same area carried out for more than two and a half years (July 1959-February FISH FAUNA OF MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH 441 1962). In all, eighty-four different species were collected representing forty-nine genera and twenty families as compared with sixty species reported by Sinha & Shiromny (loc. cit.) from Meerut and sixty- two by Majumdar (loc. cit.) from Delhi State. MATERIAL AND METHODS The fishes were obtained with the help of fishermen. Cast net was most commonly used although sweeping, towing, and bag nets were also frequently employed. Visits to the Muzaffarnagar fish market were made almost daily during this period (July 1959-February 1962) while collections at the fishing sites were done once every week. Brief notes on the nature and size of catch were made at the spot. Representative specimens of each species were brought to the laboratory. Coloration and any other feature of special interest was recorded from the fresh fish. This was followed by detailed taxonomic examination either in fresh or preserved specimens as convenient. PHYSICAL FEATURES District Muzaffarnagar is situated in the doab of rivers Ganga and Jamuna, between districts Meerut in the south and Saharanpur on the north. On the west, River Jamuna separates it from Karnal District of Punjab, and on the east River Ganga forms the boundary separating it from Bijnor District. It is roughly rectangular in shape with an altitude varying from 256 metres to 238 metres above sea-level and lying between north latitude 29°11’30’-29°45’15” and east longitude nS; 5”-78°7' covering an area of about 4300 sq. km. --Fhere--is--a--considerable slope from north to south. This can be judged from the fact that within half a mile from the northern boundary of the district to within a short distance below the southern boundary no less than five falls are required on Ganges canal to moderate the otherwise excessive slope of the channel canal. This, coupled with the fact that the main rivers have just descended into the plains from the Himalayas, accounts for a number of hill-stream fishes recorded below. FISHERY RESOURCES The district has fich fishery resources (see map). Besides the two large rivers (Ganga and Jamuna) mentioned above, there are eight smaller ones which run through it from north to south. They are : Budi Ganga, Solani nadi, Nagan nadi, Kali nadi, Hindon nadi, Krishna nadi, Katha nadi, and Khokhar nadi. Moreover, there are four irrigation canals : Ganges canal, Anupshehr branch canal, Deoband branch canal, and East Jamuna canal. In addition to these ten rivers and four irrigation canals there are numerous perennial and seasonal ponds and lakes all over the 442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) district which are fed by local canal distributaries, flood, and rainwater drains. Nevill (1903) in the District Gazetteer estimates that approxi- mately 327,310 acres of land was under water. The average rainfall REFERENCES “ive FLOODED AR ; (UNSSEE SD” Moe sey y @ KHADAR M= MUZAFFARNAGAR varies. from 84 cm. to 102 cm. in different parts of the district. This richness of water resources has resulted-in a varied fish fauna fairly | re= presentative of the north Indian fresh waters. ssh hed THe Fisu FAUNA The detailed list of the fishes collected during the period is given below. The classification is after Berg (1940). Local names are given wherever available. Information about the maximum size observed, habitat, seasonal availability, breeding habits, or any other peculiarity noted during the course of the work is also recorded briefly. DISCUSSION An analysis of the fishes listed shows that 75% of the species belong to a single order, viz. Cypriniformes. About thirteen species are known to have varying degrees of air-breathing capacity. Of these, ten have remarkable accessory respiratory organs and one (Amphipnous cuchia) is in the words of Das (1940) the ‘ most highly evolved air-breathing fish epee apes FISH FAUNA OF MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH 443 among the Indian teleosts’. It will also be observed that a number of genera, e.g. Gagata, Glyptothorax, and Garra, characteristic of hill . streams are found here. The only possible explanation of their Occurrence in considerable numbers, specially during winter and mon- soon, is that they are swept along the current and find conditions at least tolerable for survival and growth. In this connection, the presence of an excessive slope as described in the physical features of this region assumes significance. Such genera as Crossocheilus, Glossogobius, Noemacheilus, and Puntius, characteristic of the upper reaches of rivers, are very well represented here. The fish fauna of the district may, there- fore, be characterized as sub-tropical with a mixture of Himalayan forms. The regular availability of Clarias batrachus (Linn.) from a number of ponds in the district throughout the year is interesting in view of the report by Sinha & Shiromny (1953) that the species has only a localized distribution ‘being found only in few ponds at Garh- Mukteshwar in the months of April, May, and June’. It appears that Clarias batrachus is present throughout the year in these ponds, but these fishes are easily netted only in April, May, and June as most of the water dries up at that time and the level is the lowest. Netting from July on- wards becomes increasingly difficult as the water level rises with the onset of rains. The fish finds a safe place in the bottom of the pond which is its natural habitat. The distribution of Mystus corsula (Ham.) is reported (Day 1878) to be from ‘ Orissa through Bengal and Assam’. The only report of its occurrence in this region is by Sinha & Shiromny (1953) from Hindon ~ nadi in Meerut District. Similarly Sicamugil (Mugil) cascasia (Hamilton) has been recorded by Day from ‘ rivers of N.W. Provinces and Assam ’. The only report of the occurrence of this species in this region is from Jamuna River from Delhi State (Majumdar 1958). Although Berg’s classification (1940, 1955) has been followed, certain misspellings and changes in current generic names pointed out by Briggs (1961) and others have been duly taken note of and corrections made accordingly. For example, Noemacheilus (van Hasselt 1823), wrongly spelt as Nemachilus by Berg (1940, 1955) perhaps following Giinther (1868) ; and Channa (Scopoli 1777, as pointed by Myers & Shapovalov 1931) instead of Ophiocephalus (Hamilton 1822) or Ophicephalus (Bloch 1793). Generic names Rhinomugil Gill and Sicamugil Fowler have been preferred following Pillay (1962). Briggs (1961) pointed out that Syn- branchus (Bloch 1795) rather than Symbranchus (Miller 1841) is correct. If so, it would be reasonable to spell the order named after this genus Synbranchiformes instead of Symbranchiformes (Berg 1940). ~ For most of the fishes the breeding season is the monsoon (J uly-Sept. yp but some species are known to breed much before the onset of the monsoon, as has been observed in Mystus, Wallago, Channa, and Mastacembelus. 5 444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) The behaviour, courtship, spawning, migration, etc. of these fishes would be an interesting and important subject for further investigation. ‘At least 33% of the fishes listed are of considerable economic importance. A proper development of the fishery of the area can make it a great fish-producing centre, supplying fish to great consuming centres such as Calcutta and Delhi. Even at present all large-sized fish are sent to Calcutta. This aspect of the subject is proposed to be dealt in a separate paper. | ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Grateful thanks are due to Dr. V. P. Agrawal, ph.p. (Lond.), F.L.S., Head of the Zoology Department, D.A.V. College, Muzaffarnagar (U.P.), for extending all necessary facilities and encouragement during the period of collection. I am indebted to Professor L. S. Ramaswami, D.Sc., F.N.I., Head of the Zoology Department, University of Rajasthan, for reading the manuscript and suggesting improvements. Thanks are also due to the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, for help in identifying some species. REFERENCES BERG, L. S. (1940): Classification of Fishes both Recent and Fossil. Trav. Inst. Zool. Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S. 4 (2): 87-345. (in Russian). Reprinted with English translation. Ann Arbor, Michi- _gan. 1947 *____._____ (1955): Classification of Fishes both Recent and Fossil. (Second Edition). ibid. 20: 1-286. (in Russian). * BiLocu, D. M. E. (1785-1795): Natur- geschichte der auslandischen Fische. Berlin. 9 parts. Briccs, J. C. (1961): Emendated Generic Names in Berg’s Classification of Fishes. Copeia 1961 (2): 161-166. Das, B. K. (1940) : Nature and Causes of Evolution and adaptation of Air Breathing Fishes. (A résumé). Proc. Indian. Sci. Cong. 27th Session, Presiden- tial Address, Zoology Section: 216-260. Day, F. (1878) : The Fishes of India: Being a Natural History of the Fishes known to inhabit the Seas and Fresh- waters of India, Burma and Ceylon, Vols. I & Ul. London. (Reprint, 1958). GUNTHER, A. (1859-1870) : Catafogue of the Fishes in the British Museum. 8 Vols. London. _ ™ HAMILTON, F. (1822) : An account of the Fishes found in the River Ganges and its branches. Archibold Constable, Edinburgh. * VAN HASSELT, J. C. (1823) : Poissons de Java. Alg. Konst. Letterbode. 2 (35) : 133. Hora, S. L., & MUKERJEE, D. D. (1936): Fish of Eastern Doons, United Provinces. Rec. Indian Mus. 38 (2): 133-146. LAL, M. B., & CHATTERJEE, P. (1962) : Survey of the Eastern Doon fishes with certain notes on their Biology. Jour. Zool. Soc. India 14 (2) : 230-243. Mauwagsan, C. L. (1961): Fish Fauna of Muzaffarnagar District. Proc. 48th Session of the Ind. Sci. Cong., Roorkee. Part III. . Abstracts : 432. MAJUMDAR, N. N. (1958): On a col- lection of Fish from Delhi State. J- Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 366-370. * MULLER, J. (1841): Abh. Akad. Berlin, 1839, 245. (Title not available.) * Myers, G. S., & SHAPOVALOV, L. (1931) : On the Identity of Ophiocephalus and Channa, two genera of Labyrinth Fishes. Peking nat. Hist. Bull. 6: 33-7. NEVILL, H. R. (1903) : Muzaffarnagar, A Gazetteer: Being Vol. 3 of the District Gazetteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. Reprint, 1920. PILLAY, S. R. (1962): A revision of Indian Mugilidae. Parts I & Il. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 (1 & 2): 254- 270, and 547-576. : SINHA, B. M., & SHIROMNY, P. A. (1953) : The Fish of Meerut. Rec. Ind. Mus. 51 (1) 61-65. * References marked with asterisk have not been consulted in original and have been quoted from Briggs (1961). FISH FAUNA: OF MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH 445 *(A1eNIG9,J-19qGUI9DEq) I9j}UIM SULINP sIoquINU 190}e913 UI poysty “A[[PUOTSed50 sIQKITeAe SUOWIDSdS MOJ YW “OUTIOATY "Wd T€ "SIOQUINU BIL] UT IVSA OY} NOYSNOAY) I[QLIICAY SOULIOATY "WD OL ) *“SIOQUINU ISILT UI TV9A OY} INOYSNOIY} IIQLIIVAL “OULIOATY "Ud TE€ sepruniddAy Ajimey “TIT INIYdAO UOISIATG SHNUOAININUAD IOPIO *"197eM JNO -YUM SAITe P9JOYIVUW SOWUITJOWUIOG ‘“SIOqUINU Poos A]AeJ UI Ie9K 9Y} NMOYSNOIY) soyvy pur ‘spuod ‘s1ATI WOT 9[QLIIVAYV "UD Cr eunuivy pure esueyH Woy Apsow; "WE Z.] SepliI9jdojJON Aptwuey ‘jy "SIOQUINU OIL] UI IVIK dy} INOYSNo.Iy}) s]qQuTear ‘QUIIOATYY "Wd OT sepiodn[D Ajimey ‘| SANUOAAINID IOPiO ‘C070 SATTIQe]TeAe [eUOSvaS ‘3e}1IQeH) SYIPWIDY PoAsosqo 9ZIS WUNUIXe] aTaVL qriny eyoold BMTTYD ‘TeYD eneg ‘Teynyg OW ‘TeNYO BIOYY owreu [eo0'T (uo) pjog snytavg 9 (uo} Ue) Apdjp vanqnvT ¢ (uoqjrureH) DpIDIDG AASDBAXQ (se]]@d) sndajdojou SndAajdojonNg ¢ (uoj]1Ue}) pjo}1ys snsajdojJonNy ZT (uo}TueH) pdAdvy) visnpoy | aueu SyUSIOG «= ‘ON ‘SS JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) 446 (uoy1UreF]) 01913 snyung 61 (dojWIeH) al4oydos snijung 81 (Aeq) _ sisuaqolund snyung Li f "Wd ¢.Z7] SUT *(JOQUISAON -1OQWIO}d9gG) UOOSUOM Joye A][eIoods ynq © -podox9 JOU 9OZIS (uo} We) IvdKk JY} NOYSNOIY) Dye SIOATI pue spuod wos s[qe[IeAy [ews Jo AT[eIoueDH IN snsajdosdays snyung 9} (Uo}]TWIe HY ) Duss sniung 1 (uoyueH) snluoyouos snyung vi 7 (uo Tue) ‘spuod PUP SIOATI ULOIJ YJOG JaasyeU UOWUIOS JSOUW OU, “WD OF : eyyng ‘ing DUDADS Shijung €1 ‘JouuNs SuLINp JUepuNnqe (uojIaeH) SIOWW JNG ISA 9Y} INOYSNOIY) SIOATI OY} [[e WOIJ sIQUTIVAV "WD Cb ueqiyy, olunsoys snyiung TI (UO}TUIeH) ‘Ipou UOPUIFT JO sosueH Wo ATISO|W "Wd 79 IO, ‘1a0syRpy “4Qy (AOL) snqivg TT (uoyTUeH) ‘eSURD) O} POUTUOS ATISOP| "Wd QZ — sisuapualq sniiivog OT | { (Aeq) SNISAPOU SNIPE 6 “UOWWOSUN IoyIeYy =*soyYe] pue “spuod ‘s1sany "UD OT eidog ( (oj) DABDA SNiJ1IDG 8 / (UoyTUReA) \ pusvog sniliwog L (930 SAT]TIQeyIeae Jeuosess ‘}e1IQLe}) PoAIOsqo AETBTC ATW eee SYIPWUOY 9zIS UINUWIxey\| sureu [80°] : YHuUsINg NS 447 FISH FAUNA OF MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH "QIQUIICAK A]JUONHSIJ ‘OUTIOATI ATISOPW *AIENIGS 0} 19Q0}0O WOJJ UOWIUWIOS d10UL ‘(doquiajdag-Ajnf) UWoosuow BUIINP sso ‘SIOAII pue spuod Yj0q WOdJ IedK 9Y} NOYSNOIY) s[Quyeae Al[essUEH ““jyoyIeUl IeSeuIEyeznp ur divs 10fewl UOWWOS }SOU OY L, “BNL 0} JUSS 1B YSY Pozis-Sig ‘oinyNorosid 10} pas ‘SIOAIT pu Spuod WOlJ YIO0q Ys Pooj poeziid isow sy] ] “STOQUINU OSI] UI SIOAII puv spuod yi0q WoO s[quTeAy ‘yoyIeUL 94} UT Ysy usdes A]JUNNbdIZ ysc.u ay1 Jo BUO ‘3y Ud} 01 dn sysiaay “vNITeD O} USS A]JSOLU YS PozIs-d8ie] “sIOATI pue spuod wos Yyiog nyoYy 10 eed Joye uvy} s[qvireav AjJUONbeI sIO|W "SIOALI puv SpUOd UT YJOq PUNO] nq pojjouU A][eUOISedD0 ATU “BYNSTLD O} JUSS ATISOP] + “POOJ se pozrid ATYSIF{ “SIMYNIIOSIG IOJ POs] “SJOATI Ppue spuod wo s][qeyeay ‘spuod puv SIoATI WO1J IvdK 9Y} Noysno1y} poysy ‘sdied JourWw oy} Suowe juUepuNge sop *sioquinu poos Ajiley UI SsIdAII puke spuod wo 1 yI0q poysy usJO “IOVUIM SulInp pue sulel Joye Ajpeloods s[qujreae A][VUOIseODQ = “SUTIOATY ‘1eak oy} jnoysnory) * qyqeyreae Ajjeuoises0Q «‘spuod pue sidAII Woy YWog “LUD CI “UD CP 6 6) cp “tS 06 “WO [€ "WD 06 “WD OF “WHS O8T “TUS OT "WD OT “UD 0¢ “WD 8T eMITYD esIny suneq|ey nyoy eqoy ‘eieqiey [esl JO ‘UIBIEN ‘TUIEN epey epiny ron 110% PILIOW (uoyiweF) O1OP O0AGVT (uoy We) es SNIUOS OGD (UOyiWeY) ~ : HSVGIDI OIGDT (doje) : DIIYOA O2GV'T (uoyTWEe HY) s Dgad DUIYAALD \ (Woe H ) DIDSISUL DUIY ALN) (uoyIWeH) SNIIMUDP SNUOS | (uoyjue py) DIDI DUDA. (uoypweyy) O09 Ba1yOM (uo tue) © pou upposudsvYy dd] Quy fon sisuaqgolund snijv] SnjlayIOSsosD 4 Vat % (uo WUE). — svsoul vidodopidspy I€ See — ——————— —— S. No. Scientific name 7 Barilius barna | (Hamilton) 8 Barilius vagra (Hamilton) 9 Barilius modestus (Day) 10 Barilius blendensis (Hamilton) 11 Barbus (Tor) tor - (Hamilton) 12 Puntius chagunia (Hamilton) 13. Puntius sarana (Hamilton) 14. Puntius conchonius 17. 18 19 si a 20 tS wa 30 31 (Hamilton) Puntius stigma (Hamilton) Puntius chrysopterus (Hamilton) Puntius punjabensis (ay) Puntius sophore (Hamilton) Puntius ticto (Hamilton) Aspidoparia morar (Hamilton) Crossocheilus latius punjabensis Mukerji Amblypharyngodan mola (Hamilton) Rohitee cotio (Hamilton) Catla catla (Hamilton) Esomus danricus (Hamilton) Cirrhina mrigala (Hamilton) Cirrhina reba (Hamilton) Labheo rohita (Hamilton) Labeo calbasu (Hamilton) Laheo gonius (Hamilton) Labeo dero (Hamilton) Local name Popta Mahseer, Tor Chhiban Durai, Putha Puthi Moraki Rori Mohil Gurda Katla Naini, Narain, or Mrigal Raibata, Reba Rohu Kalbauns Kursa Chilwa Remarks (Habitat, seasonal availability, etc.) Maximum size observed 10 cm. Rivers, ponds, and lakes. Rather uncommon. 20 cm. Mostly confined to Ganga. 62 cm. Mostly from Ganges or Hindon nadi. 45 cm. Available from all the rivers throughout the year but more abundant during summer. 30 cm. The most common mahseer both from rivers and ponds. Generally of small Available from ponds and rivers alike throughout the year size not exceed- but specially after monsoon (September-November). ing 12°5 cm. 18 cm. Both from rivers and ponds. Occasionally available throughout the year. 20 cm. Riverine. Occasionally available specially after rains and during winter. 10cm Often fished both from ponds and rivers in fairly good numbers. 10cm Most abundant among the minor carps, fished throughout the year from rivers and ponds, 180 cm. Available from ponds and rivers. Used for pisciculture. Highly prized as food. Mostly sent to Calcutta. 10 cm. Only occasionally netted but found both in ponds and rivers. 90 cm. More frequently available than either Catla or Rohu both from ponds and rivers. Large-sized fish mostly sent to Calcutta. Weighs up to ten kg. 31cm. One of the ~ost frequently seen fish in the market. Available from both ponds and rivers in large numbers. I 90 cm. The most prized food fish both from ponds and rivers. Used for pisciculture. Big-sized fish are sent to Calcutta. 45 cm. The most common major carp in Muzaffarnagar market. 45 cm. Generally available throughout the year from both ponds and rivers. Less during monsoon (July-September), more common from October to February. 15 cm. Mostly riverine, frequently available. —— 000 eee OPP (6) 29 JOA ‘ALAIOOS “ISTH TKYNLVN AVAWOE 'TYNYNOL Ley HSAG Ud UV LLA ‘LOIMISIG UV¥OVNUVAAFZAW AO VNAKA HSI JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) 448 (wore Fy) *poyjou Ajorel AI9A, "m9 OL — pajuns sdyjyoyoydasopidaey ly *“SN[IAYIDULJON jo soieds oy} Jo Aue uey) UOWWOS s1Oop “59 “Ippu (11ypneygD) TULTOS “7pHU T[eS OYI] SIOALI [[ewWs pue spuod wo s[quireay "md SI eneseg “Iq DIDYIDYO] DOG OP 7 (PUETTPIDOW) "Gd OT = SNUDJUOU SN]1AYIDUGONT 6E = (PURTISIDOW) PoNgisysIp A[OPIM IOUL SI V1J0g Ps | snplayonUla0N yey} 1A90xe VI409 snjlayovUeON SB SWS MSs SHIDUOZ: SHAY OMEN BE ; (uo)]TUIe Fy) "Wd ¢.L = D110q SnjlayavUaON LE “Spooy Joye powsoy sa_ppnd pue sjood ur eunwer (uo}TWIe FH) pue sosury oy} Suo[e UOsves Aurel Sulnp poyou ApSopy "md ¢ = DI1A0D SHlayIDUaON OE 3 sepHiqoD Ape, “AI (uo}TUeH) Sat ‘spuod wo A[UIePy "Ud OT = OMDAap OUD §SE “ipou ey (AvID) pur ipou wue[OS WOIJ poyjou A][BUOISedD0 SUSUUIDedS Moy VW "md CI yeyo 1eyied Dj4J08 VAIO PE ‘spuod (uoyTMeH) pue SIOAII Y}OG UI JvdA OY} JnoOYsNo1Yy) UOWWUOD A[ITeY "Wd 16 = : Snpjlayatop Oaqvy €€ *sloquinu poos (uoj]TWIe HY) Airey UI IVOK OY} INoYsNorY} spuod pue sIsATI WOIS YOg ‘WD CI = _visnsuvd oaqvyT TE : Tee eee ee ee ee) PS Ree Rare Pie Coe ode Coreg Siar he |e ueseas sey GPED) peneed oueu [v00'T sureU SGTHUSIO§ ‘ON $s SYICWIOY EAGER EE EEE GO LEELA LITLE IEEE IO ESR LED OZIS WINUIIXey] a eS a ED 449 FISH FAUNA OF MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH ‘spuod pue S19ALI Ul UOWULOD ‘BIRYBUSIS ULY}] UOWWIOD SsoT YONJY = “SUTIOATT ATISOP] *19VOM JNOYIIA (inoy ue JTey 0} SOJNUTW C]{) SOoULISIP [[eUIS sATTe po}1od -SUBI] oq UPD ‘SIOATI puv spuod Y10q WOIJ UOWIWIOD AIDA ‘IB9K DY} NOYSNOIY) s[qeyieae AJUOUTUOD = “WsY} Inoqgivy osye Avu spuod swos YSNOYIe SIOATI WO ATISOP] : ‘Tidy 10 yoreypy Ur SJIv]s SUIPI0Ig + ‘“spuod Ziq PUR SIOATI [[e WOA} s[QUITePAV ‘Tudy 0} piemuo 19qg0190 WoJ JURpUNqe A][SUISvOIOUT satoseq nq (Joquiajdag-Ajn¢) UOOsuOw SUulInp Uo -Wl0D SSX] “pooj se poztid s10oul sdeyjad pue soysy-7e9 SUOWP IDULIIOMUIT SILUOUODO S}I Ul 17JD OSDIIDA, 0} A[UO 1X9N "IV9A BY} INOYSNOIY) I[QuIIeAv ATUOWIWODS SUTIOALI A]JSOJ] *(YOIvP[-1OQUISAON) FOWUIM Ul[ NUIT soulosaq ynq (Jaquia}deg-A[n¢) UOOSUOUL SuLINp sorvos AJOATVIedWIOD sowodssq Ysy sy “dy JO pUd OY} SPILMO} S}Ie}S BUIPSOIG “OZIS Bde] JO spuod AUPU PUP SIOAII [[e WIS oIqUIeAY “jUeIJOdUT }sOW 9Y} JO dUO A][eOTUIOUODS PUP YSH-}89 UOWIUOD }SOW 9Y} Ie} Ag "uD Cf "WD SL "Wd CI “UD CC “WD 06 sepliseg AjIMey “TA "WO OF “UD OST seplingig Ajmmey “A TANTS UOISIAIG uvsUdT, IOV uRsudy SPAY eIeYSUsIG epqed ryoreyy ‘AaTIN (uo}[TUe HY) ~ 14a yaaTq SNISAJAr (uoyTUeH) AOD (SNISAJA,) SNISA PY (ysolg) SNJDII1A (SNISAPY) SNISTW (G2{G) SHISDADD (SNISAJA) SHISA PY (SOYA) DJDYSuUaas (sns1agoajsCQ) SnISA py (Yoolg) Sn]ojnIvUG YOdUGQ (Joprouyos 7 Yool_) | N]1D OB0]JO 4 8r bt OF Sr ty th Deena EEE Maximum size Remarks S. No. Scientific name Localiname observed (Habitat, seasonal availability, etc.) 32 Labeo pangusia — 15 cm. Both from rivers and ponds throughout the year in fairly (Hamilton) good numbers. 33 Labeo doycheilus — 91 cm. Fairly common throughout the year in both rivers and (Hamilton) ponds. 34 Garra gotyla Pathar chat 15 cm. A few specimens occasionally netted from Solani nadi and (Gray) Kali nadi. 35 Danio devario _ 10 cm. Mainly from ponds. 41 So _- cae ne Sl 43 (Hamilton) Noemacheilus corica (Hamilton) Noemacheilus botia (Hamilton) Noemacheilus zonatus (McClelland) Noemacheilus montanus (McClelland) Botia lohachata (Chaudhri) Lepidocephalichthys guntea (Hamilton) Wallago attu (Bloch & Schneider) Ompok bimaculatus (Bloch) Mystus (Osteobergus) seenghala (Sykes) Mystus (Mystus) cavasius (Sykes) Mystus (Mystus) vittatus (Bloch) Mystus (Mystus) aor (Hamilton) Mystus bleekeri (Hamilton) Billi, Bagatia Mulley, [aichi Pabda Seenghara Kevas Tengan IV. Family Cobitidae 5 cm. Mostly netted during rainy season along the Ganges and Jamuna in pools and puddles formed after floods. 75 cm. Same as Noemacheilus corica except that Noemacheilus 3jcm botia is more widely distributed. 10 cm. 15 cm. Available from ponds and small rivers like Kali nadi, Solani nadi, etc. More common than any of the species of Noemacheilus. 10 cm. Very rarely netted. Division stLuRi V. Family Siluridae 150 cm. By far the most common cat-fish and economically one of the most important. Available from all rivers and many ponds of large size. Breeding starts towards the end of April. The fish becomes comparatively scarce during monsoon (July-September) but becomes plentifulin winter (November-March). 30 cm. Mostly riverine commonly available throughout the year. VI. Family Bagridae 90 cm. Next only to Wallago attu in its economic importance among cat-fishes and perhaps more prized as food. Less com- mon during monsoon (July-September) but becomes increasingly abundant from October onward to April. Available from all rivers and big ponds. Breeding starts in March or April. 25 cm. Mostly from rivers although some ponds may also harbour them. Commonly available throughout the year. 15 cm. Very common from both ponds and rivers. Can be trans- ported alive small distances (15 minutes to half an hour) without water. Mostly riverine. Much less common than Seenghara, Common in rivers and ponds. ee ee eS 8hr (6) 29 104 ‘AILFIQOS “ISIH TVYNLYN AVAWOE “IFNYNOL 6by HSAGW Yd YVLLIA ‘LOM ISIG YPOVNUFAIVZAW AO VND W+ HSI JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) 450 (uo 1GIe Fy) “IedK OY} INOYSNOIY} s[qe[Ieae “OULIOAIL ATJSOPY “WHO O€ enyqoeg onios DuOsIdniy %S “uOOsuOM SULINp | AJUO SIoyjJO pue ‘pou TUe[OS ‘pou ITey] UL “eA 9} JNO ; (UO}[IUIe FY) -Ysno1y} pou vopuTY pue ‘eunwer ‘esueH UT AJUO puNnoy "td OLT puots vIpuojis v1uojisS €S oe *y10ds JUaT[9OXA«*1OJUIM SUTINP Os (uo}IWe Hy) o1OU yng ‘IedA OY} NOYSNOIY} WOWWIOD “sUTIOATI A]ISOP] "WUD ¢¢ eyorg ‘1yyieyD vyava sXkyqyoudounga” 7S seproqiiyog Aye “TITA | (uOj TURF) "eSuUeH WOIJ UsUIDeds oUO A[UC "Wd Z.9[ so DIvYD DIDYD I¢ seproeyy Apel “TIA *JSIXO O} UMOUY 912 SUBBIO AIO} -elidser Arosseooe [eioeds ou ysnoyie (19}3eM yNOYI!M) Sale poyoyIeuL ATJUONboIJ o1v Puv I9}VM OpPIS}No soULUS} -sns Jo 1amod s[qvyIeulol & OAL YSY ssoy], “jUepuNnqe A[UePPNs oul0dEq YSU] UI "Wd QZ[-O¢ SUSWIOsds UOOSUOW JO JOSUO 9} YAM ynq “po}joU o1e YZUS] UT “WO Cy 0} dn suoumoeds Aes ATUO sUNE 0} 13Q0}DO WO *(19qQ019O JO Zuruuiseq) sule1 Jo pus oy} YM siveddesip ATUsppns ; ) ynq UoosuOW SUTINPp UOWUIOS AOA “OUTIOATI AT}SOP “Wd OZI esseyyy (UOIIWIeH) 114 DIY «OS (uojyTWIe Fy) "YUM Jour AT[UOISed50 ATUO “Wd OF +e : DINSAOI SNISAP 6F (oye “AVTIGeIVAR [BUOSvOS “je}IGe}{) PoAlasqo - ; , SYIBUISY oZIS UMNUWIXey eld | sueu SYHUSIS ON. ‘S ee FISH FAUNA,OF MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH 451 ‘Ipou eUYsIIy pue ‘ipou uopulF ‘pou Ie, 01 spusose 11 UOOSUOW ZuUTINp 3nq ‘1vdA 9} Jo 11ed UIvU 9} JOJ (RUNMILL PUL BSULD) SIOATI IOBIVI 0} PO}O1I}Sdy "WUD 781 oepliosig Ajrmey “IX ‘$]0U S,UsULIOYsy 94} odvose ued OY} PUL A[QLIOPISUOD SOSTI Spuod OY} UT [OAS] 10}eM 9U} UsYM 138Q019O 0} A[NF WOT JOU 0} YNOYYIp YSnouIye 13h 947 yNoYysnoIy) Ajyjeonoeid squiIeaAy ‘OISIP AeseU -TEYLZNYY 9} UI soyey] puv spuod pozis-3iq oy} Jo SOW WO1 “WD CF’ oepHIBID Arey “KX -wiay} yoyeo AoY} se[uoos se UsWIOYsy Aq PoAouwier Ap}duIoId are YSIyM souids [e1o}99d , SNOWIOUDA , S}l IOJ poperoig ‘spuod wo Apsow ‘ieos 9} MoYysnoIy, sqQeeay — - tee aks youon INSe[y 1Ysulg oepiyouesqoooes Ayre yt ‘XI “SIOQUINU 931P] UFILOA OY} NOYBNOIY) sIQeIIeAv ‘OUTIOATY “WD QT *P}IND[LD 0} JUSS A]][VIOUSS SUSLIDSds OBIVT “YSIY SI [SAI] JowM UOYM IppU I[ey PU IpoU UOPUIF{ spusose AT] eUOTS “ROO ‘“evUNUIeS PUL LSULH O¥]] SIOATI OIL] 0} PdIoI1ySOy "Wd SZI “Q01BOS IOYISY “SULIOATY "WD HZ Teuseg ‘uedAydeg sesued enyoryH (uoyTUeH) SNLIDSDG SH1ADSDgG (snoeuulTy) SNYIDAJDG SVD] D (Yys01q) SyIssof Sajsnaudosajayy (WOyIUIR}) Yj109 vIjIy (uoj Tue) Snispsund snisvsuog (uoj[ Tue FY) 1M BU008 Snidosopnasg (uoj1ueH) SnLInNU Snidosjopnasg [9 09' 6S 8¢ LS 9¢ ooo Maximum size Remarks S. No. Scientific name Local'name observed (Habitat, seasonal availability, etc.) 49 Mystus corsula _— 30 cm. Only occasionally met with. y. a (Hamilton) 50 Rita rita (Hamilton) Khagga 120 cm. Mostly riverine. Very common during monsoon but ita ri 51 Chaca chaca (Hamilton) 52 Eutropiichthys vacha (Hamilton) 53 Silonia silondia (Hamilton) 54 Clupisoma garua (Hamilton) 55 Pseudotropius murius (Hamilton) 56 Pseudotropius goongwari (Hamilton) 57 Pangasius pangasius (Hamilton) 58 Ailia coila (Hamilton) 59 Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) (60 .Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus) 61 Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton) Charkhi, Bacha Silond Bachua suddenly disappears with the end of rains (beginning of Gast From October to June only stray specimens up to 15 cm. in length are netted, but with the onset of monsoon specimens 30-120 cm. in length become suddenly abundant. These fish have a remarkable power of sus- tenance outside water and are frequently marketed alive (without water) although no special accessory respita- tory organs are known to exist. VII. Family Chacidae 16:2 cm. Only one specimen from Ganga. VIII. Family Schilbeidae 35 cm. Mostly riverine. Common throughout the year, but more so during winter. Excellent sport. ly in Ganga, Jamuna, and Hindon nadi through- see Hous oe att In Kali nadi, Solani nadi, and others only during monsoon. 30 cm. Mostly riverine, available throughout the year. Gachua 24 cm. Riverine. Rather scarce. Pangas 125 cm. Restricted to large rivers like Ganga and Jamuna. Occa- sionally ascends Hindon nadi and Kali nadi when water level is high. Large specimens generally sent to Calcutta. Saptyan, Basmati 18 cm. Riverine, available throughout the year.in large numbers. IX. Family Saccobranchidae Singhi 31 cm. Available throughout the year, mostly from ponds. Dreaded for its ‘ venomous’ pectoral spines which are promptly removed by fishermen as soon] as they catch them. X. Family Clariidae Magur 45 cm. From most of the big-sized ponds and lakes in the Muzaffar- nagar district. Available practically throughout the year although difficult to net from July to October when the water level in the ponds rises considerably and they can escape the fishermen’s nets. XI. Family Sisoridae Gonch 182 cm. Restricted to larger rivers (Ganga and Jamuna) for the main part of the year, but during monsoon it ascends to Kali nadi, Hindon nadi, and Krishna nadi. a OSP (€) 79 ‘JOA ‘ALAIOOS “ISIH TYYNLVYN AVEWOE ‘Ty NYAOF Isp HSAQ¥ Ud YV LILA “LIINLSIG UF OVNAVAIVZAW AO VNAVA HSI JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) 452 “Wd SCI [nes reping “QUIIOATI ATJSOUL SI “PUvY IOYIO 94} UO ‘sNIjn4évUL "Wd OF _ Tynes ‘) ‘pnyops *D Uey} UOWWOS sIOW YOnu o1e snjojound ‘) pure snjviajs “Dd 9s0y1 JO ‘“spuod wolf A[jsou Tesh dU} INOYSNOIY} BIQeIICAR oe (01-89) SoIdeds JOY} ISIE SY], "WD 06 [neg “WD Of TYNeS sepryeydssorydgO Ayimey “TIX SANUOAITVHAIOOIHdO J9PIO *payoa]]oo susuioads OM} ATUC “WNC .b <3 sepidesAjqury Ajrmuey “TK *BUIOZ59 IOJ and & saplAoid Ysy sty} wor, UOoNeIedsid & yey} OTe] UdWIOYST “ON[eA POO} Ou Jo pure “SUTAT[-W0}10q “YSIsSNIS “Ieah OY} INoYSsNnoIY? sqe[ieae YsnoyIe ‘poyou ApoIey 1 WD QI eyueyy “1QWUIA JO SUIeI SULINP ATJUONbIj sIOU “PoyoU AT[PUOISBDDO "Wd CT JONLL “UID QI Poddxe JOU OP S10Y}0 ‘YISUS] UT “WD ¢{ 0} dn sure}je pue yUuonboly JSOUL SI SUAISAPI11A DIDSDY “SODOdS 991} 9894} JO.“ yUOTINS euped oyu} YWM uUMOp jdoMs 9q 0} Wes ADDY} UOYM UOseves AUIel SULINP sporpuny UT pojou oq URS AOU], “SIOATI 91 [fe wo sqeireae ATWYonbosj o1e DJNSYDH Jo sarsads sso} [TV (1010 SANTIQEIIeAe [BUOSBOS ‘]8}1QeH) PoAtosqo auUeU [v0] SYITRUSY oZIS UNIX (uojrureEy) snynsvu DuUDY 7) (uoyrueH) DnNYIDS DUUBY > (YsoTg) SN]D1AJS DuUDY (yoo[g) snjojaund puunyy (uo} TUR) slosuvu Sdasajquy (uoy ue) Ssnsoydopqnos 40815 (woytue Hy) DIJIYIJal XDAOYIOIdA]H (uoj[UeH) SUJISAPIAA DIDBDH (uo We H) DAZUDU DIDEDY (WoyTUeH) DIUAD DIDSBH 69 89 L9 99 $9 oureU SYIUSIDg ‘ON 'S FISH FAUNA OF MUZAFFARNAGAR DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH 453 jUSUTeTY [epnes 13ddn 9y} Suipnyoxe , ‘Ipou TUelog pur ipou iTeyy Woy (raquia}dag 0} A[nf) Uwoosuow sulInp AjUO 9 qQeIIeAW ‘“oUuTIOATY "HID g Isyeyy ‘(Aep ‘Tidy) Jouuins ul 90189s sawioceg 1] *(19qUIsAON -Joquis}dag) Uoosuow 9Y} Joye ysnf st Ajddns Jo porsod yeod yng “1e9K 94} NOYSNOAY} SIOATI MIOIJ ATPISOUL 9IQEITRAY "WUD gE leapuy ‘ere y, oeplyisnyy A[IwWey “TAX SANAOAITIONW IOPIO “SIOALI OY} [[e WO o[quireae Apuonbes4 -QULIOATY "MUD QT TeMny ‘[epoyg “snjpIIspf *D wey uO -W05 SSoT YONU YSNoy}Ie JLI}sIp 94} Ul spuod wooly APSop] "Wd ¢ epieyyy “ysy wintienbe pooh ‘saye] pue spuod Woy 194 oy} jNOYsNoIY} s]qeI TRAY "WD €] epieyy oephurqeuy Ajimey “TAK "JO1.1}SIP 94} 19A0 1e@ spuod woud s[qejreae A][euoIseddO oe sotoeds oy} YIOg "WUD OT eppueyD (ovpissequiy) seprwodojmusy ATIWey “AX "eSULD Pur IpoUu eUYsiIy ‘ipou IURIOS “pou Tey] WOT Poyjou suswIoeds May & A[[PUOISeDDO "MD OZ BAIN sepIqoy AIWey “AIX SANUOAIAAg IOPIO SS I OIE TY TIS SSIES ETE TI EE I PETITE CELL PIED, (oyu Fy) DISDISD) (J18NJAl) [1 s8nuoI15 (wo}jrue Hy) DINSAOD (]18N]JA)) J18NUOUIYY (uojiwueH) snpuou S NPUON (SoUUdIDUZTeA 2? ISIAND) SnD] DSIjOy (1aprouyog 2 Yyoo[g) snjplosv{ oso) DBUDA SISOQU (uoyueH) { (uo} ULB HH) \ | DUDU SISOqUy (uo}[1UIeH) S1IN1B SNIGOSOSSOLH 6L 8L LL OL SL vL €L cL pu Maximum size Remarks S. No. Scientific name Local name observed (Habitat, seasonal availability, etc.) 2 ata cenia 5 5 < ; eee (Hamilton) All these species of Gagata are frequently available from all the rivers. They can be netted in hundreds during rainy 63 Gagata nangra season when they seem to be swept down with the Z (Hamilton) Padna current. Of these three species, Gagata viridescens is most frequent and attains up to 15 cm. in length, others do not 64 Gagata viridescens exceed 10 cm. (Hamilton) 65 Glyptothorax telchitia Tilier 15 cm. Occasionally netted, more frequently during rains or winter. (Hamilton) 66 Sisor rabdophorus Chamla 18 cm.+ Rarely netted, although available throughout the year. (Hamilton) Sluggish, bottom-living, and of no food value. Fishermen claim that a preparation from this fish provides a cure for eczema. XII. Family Amblycepidae 67 Amblyceps mangois => 45cm. Only two specimens collected. (Hamilton) Order OPHIOCEPHALIFORMES XII. Family Ophiocephalidae 68 Channa punctatus Sauli 30 cm. (Bloch) 69 Channa Striatus Saul 90 cm. The first three species (68-70) are available throughout the (Bloch) year mostly from ponds. Of these C. striatus and C. punctatus are much more common than C. gachua. C. 70 Channa gachua Sauli 30 cm. marulius, on the other hand, is mostly riverine. (Hamilton) 71 Channa marulius Guldar Saul 125 cm. a —_ —- __E c se 72 73 74 75 76 77 7B 79 (Hamilton) Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton) Ambasis nama (Hamilton) Ambasis ranga (Hamilton) Colisa fasciatus (Bloch & Schneider) Colisa lalius (Cuvier & Valenciennes) Nandus nandus (Hamilton) Rhinomugil (Mugil) corsula (Hamilton) Sicamugil (Mugil) cascasia (Hamilton) —$—<_______, * excluding the upper caudal filament Order PERCIFORMES XIV. Family Gobidae Gulwa 20 cm. Occasionally a few specimens netted from Kali nadi, Solani nadi, Krishna nadi and Ganga. XV. Family Centropomidae (Ambassidae) Chandla 10 cm. Both the species are occasionally available from ponds all over the district. XVI. Family Anabantidae Kharda 13 cm. Available throughout the year from ponds and lakes. Good aquarium fish. Kharda 5cm. Mostly from ponds in the district although much less com- mon than C. fasciatus. Bhedal, Kuwai 18 cm. Riverine. Frequently available from all the rivers. Order MuGiLiroRMES XVII. Family Mugilidae Tara, Andwari 38 cm. Available mostly from rivers throughout the year, but peak period of supply is just after the monsoon (September- November). It becomes scarce in summer (April, May). Khaksi 8 cm. Riverine. Available only during monsoon (July to September) from Kali nadi and Solani nadi. a TSP (©) 79 ‘104 ‘ALFIDOS “ISIH TV¥MALVYN AVAWOd ‘IVNYNOL Sp HSAChUd MV LL “LOIMLSIG MVOVNUVAAVZAW AO ¥NAVA HSL JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) 454 ‘(QUILT [VDOT OY} JO UOT L[suULI} [eIOU] OY} SI, OyeUS pulT_ .) oyeus B 9q O} POIOPISUOD SI iI Sse UKUTIOUSyY Aq popvoIp uoaq ‘dn Arp Ay} UoYM soyeANsoR pue spuod ur puno,y "CUD QO - aeploudiyduny basically similar in maiy species of anabantids. They-are ola & ‘Tempo ’ is a term used by Aronson ss) in a way comparable t to the pajého: logical terms ‘ drive’ or ‘arousal’, JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE I Circling (male in backgrourd) Beginning of enfolding (female rotates on side, male folds around antero-ventral portion of female) Enfolding and spawning (female upside down, male arched dorsally over female as eggs emerge) Mating postures in Macropodus cupanus JOURN. BOMBAY NAT, HIsT. SOc. . PLATE II 80 4 ececsreee AVE. NO. OF ENFOLDINGS PER 10 MINUTES 05 oO --e--e-- AVE, DURATION OF ENFOLDINGS PER Cp (g 10 MINUTES jee) —e—e— AVE. NO. OF EGGS PER10 MINUTES bo oe e de Oo e e S on jad e (aa 3 es é : = 2 . Z, . QO A Zz. ‘Nee Os i e Se + Z \ N a : = i a R WYN g \ Se ; TNS © oO ti \ N vase ‘ a aa a Py ie s s ie j= te 7 7 ©. “e., .o.. sen *e° @. teak = 10 011 O Orr, g 1282+ @\ 5 10 15 20 25 30 35.738 UNITS OF 10 MINUTES _ Mating pattern of Macropodus cupanus in terms of 10-minute units. Based upon averages of 44 matings. NUMBER OF ENFOLDINGS 467 REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF MACROPODUS CUPANUS (sonuty) SSUIP[OsUS 90M2q [PAIOJUL “AY (spuosas) SUIP[OJUS JO YWSug] “AVY SUIp[OjuS Jad s330 jo ou ‘AY (spuoses) SSUIP[OJUS jenjoe jO Y3U9| [e103 URsI SR3O jo ‘ou [¥}0} Uespy | YISUS] UL9sP] = o> +4 (soynuly)) SUI} JO | Lee b-8P ay 9-C F [-OV IT BOS €-IP cl a eism L-9S 16 surjew 130d ssuljeul SSUIP[OJUS PoAJasqo jo ‘ou Uvo|y snuvdnd snpodossvpy AO ANOIAVHAG AALLONGOUdAY aTav | JO "ON IWLOY, | 6961 AUVONVE | v96l RECIGOS (Gg p96 waa WaAON ————_ __SSS!_aaa—aa i 7 wey . ’ Polos 468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) accurately portrayed for Macropodus opercularis by Innes (1956) and for Colisa lalia by Forselius (1957) and these are very similar to M. cupanus. The duration of enfolding in M. cupanus varied from 5 to 22 sec. with an average of 12°8 seconds (Table). Enfoldings occurred at an average interval of 3°4 minutes. Sometimes in the circling movement the female moves faster and the head region of the male is at the tail region of the female. Now, while the male continues to move, the female stops, so that the mid-body region of the male comes to the head region of the female and enfolding occurs as usual. | ie In the enfolded condition, there is no fin movement of the pair. The male’s anal fin is curved inward and the female’s body takes the form of a shallow ‘S’. After a couple of seconds the grip of the male is slightly relaxed. The pair usually float in the enfolded condition but at the beginning of mating, in the first few enfoldings, they sink slowly down- wards in the enfolded position. The eggs emerge from the cloaca at the anterior end of the base of the anal fin. The release of eggs and sper- matozoa usually occurs within the first 6-8 seconds of enfolding. The number of enfoldings per mating varied from 26 to 102, with an average of 48:4 (Table). The duration of total mating was usually between 2 to 5 hours, and averaged 169°5 minutes. Spawning took place during day-time and more precisely between 11 a.m. to 3 p.m. In the first several enfoldings no eggs are extruded, then the number of eggs gradually increases reaching a maximum in the first half of the mating. There- after there is a gradual decrease in the number of eggs until no more are extruded (Plate II). An average of 14°1 eggs were extruded per enfold- ing with a total average of 646°7 eggs per mating (Table). After extrusion, the eggs sink slowly in the water and both the parents pick them up into the mouth. The eggs are mixed with mucus and * blown’ upwards into the bubble nest. The male is more active than the female in picking up the eggs. Usually the eggs at lower levels of water are picked up first and hence very few eggs drop-to the bottom. When no more eggs are extruded, the pair still carry on enfolding for several times and then the male suddenly chases and drives the female out of the nest territory. The female does not leave the nest readily and on occasions a fight may occur between the pair. The female is always driven out of the nest territory, however, and she is chased into a corner of the tank away from the nest. By this time the female regains her normal colour. The female from time to time continues to swim up to the nest hesitantly, but is driven off by the male. The Table at p. 467 indicates a seasonal influence upon the length and productivity of mating behaviour. There was reduced fecundity in December and January in comparison with November. Mating in November with a mean mid-morning temperature of 80°1° F. averaged REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF MACROPODUS CUPANUS — 469 56°7 enfoldings per mating, an average mating time of 195°2 minutes, and a total average egg production of 698°9 eggs per mating. December and January, with mean mid-morning temperature of 75°5° F. and 75°8° F. respectively, showed reductions in the number of enfoldings per mating (to 41°3 and 40°1 respectively), the length of mating time (to 151°'7 and 140 minutes respectively), and the egg production per mating (to 608°7 and 588°2 respectively). There were no significant monthly differences in the average eggs per enfolding, the average length of enfolding, and the average interval between enfoldings. The latter figures seem to be fairly constant (3°4, 3°9, 3:2) with a very small standard error for the over-all mean (3°38 + 0°01). Our data cannot determine whether these monthly changes in the length and productivity of mating are primarily due to temperature changes, day length changes, or some other factor. Text-figure. Male in nest guarding postures POST-MATING BEHAVIOUR After driving the female away from the nest the male engages in protecting the nest and the brood. He adds new bubbles, re-arranges 470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) the eggs and chases off intruders. While guarding the nest, the male usually faces the corner of the tank and his tail may extend beyond the perimeter of the nest. At this time all the fins of the males are fully extended. Sometimes the male takes a reverse position under the nest, i.e. he faces outwards and his posterior end lies beneath the nest. The male increases the nest area by blowing more bubbles. Hesitant intruders are immediately chased off by the male as in Badis badis (Barlow 1962). But when the intruders come to the nest without stopping the male becomes alarmed and blocks the intruders’ way to the nest by placing his body in their path of movement. Then a fight occurs and’ the intruder is driven away. In every instance observed, the male was dominant in his own nest territory. The embryos hatch approximately 32 hours after the eggs are laid. The newly hatched larvae cling to the nest in a vertical plane. Larvae which move out of the nest or drop from it are immediately picked up by the male in his mouth and put back to the nest. As the larvae grow older, they move about more freely and are picked up by the male as usual. When the young fry are 3 to 4 days old, they swim about rather freely, and at this stage they are usually eaten by the male, if he is not removed. Padmanabhan (1955) stated that males leave the nest in search of food when the larvae are 3 days old—this possibly occurs in natural conditions and not in laboratory aquaria. We have noticed that while guarding the nest the male takes no interest in the food supplied for 2 to 4 days after hatching. DISCUSSION Breeding Season Thomas (1870) stated that Macropodus cupanus breeds during May and June. Jones (1940) collected eggs in January, February, May, September, October, and November and supposed that the fish may be perennial breeders. Padmanabhan (1955) also felt that M. cupanus breeds throughout the year. We are in accord with Jones and Padmanabhan and have observed mating in unheated aquaria through- out the winter months in Calcutta from October 1964 to March 1965. Mating Behaviour Courtship behaviour is an expression of the level of sexual excitability of the individual and it represents a co-ordination of behavioural activities and physiological processes of both sexes so that a well-synchronized spawning results. In general, the mating behaviour of M. cupanus is similar to that of M. opercularis, Colisa sp., Trichogaster, and several other anabantid fishes. The following discussion will consider some specific similarities and differences between M. cupanus and other fish. REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF MACROPODUS CUPANUS 471 At mating time most anabantids exhibit colour changes in both sexes. In M. cupanus, the males assume slightly dark colour and the females become completely dark including the eyes. Darkening of the eyes during sexual excitement is also seen in Lebistes reticulatus (Baerends, Brouwer, & Waterbolk 1955). In the green sunfish, Apomotis cyanellus, the eyes turn black when the fish loses an aggressive encounter (Greenberg 1947). In the climbing perch, Anabas testudineus, males turn deep black during sexual excite- ment (Mookerjee & Mazumder 1946). In M. opercularis there is expan- sion of melanophores on the ventral and lateral sides in both sexes, and colours darken or become more intense (Forselius 1957). Fishes of the genera Colisa, Betta, Macropodus, and Trichogaster are ’ well-known bubble nest builders amongst the anabantid fishes but nest materials often vary. Macropodus cupanus males depend on mucus bubbles, anchored to floating vegetable materials like Pistia, Sylvinia, and Lemora plants and have never been found to collect sand grains, detritus, faeces, etc. from the bottom as in Colisa lalia and Trichogaster leeri (Forselius 1957). Although mating and spawning usually take place after the completion of the nest by the male, mating and nest building in M. cupanus may go on simultaneously. Occurrence of spawning in the absence of a nest has also been reported in C. /alia, C. labiosa, Osphro- _nemus goramy, T. leeri, and T. trichopterus (Forselius 1957). After completion of the nest, the males of most anabantids remain motionless under the nest facing outwards. This has been termed by Forselius as “nest posting’ of the male. Nest posting of the male has also been observed in Colisa and Trichogaster. Badis badis males remain motion- less at the entrance of their burrows (nests) (Barlow 1962). The leading to nest movement in M, cupanus males is similar to that of C. lalia, C. labiosa, T. leeri, and M. opercularis. Betta males show semi- erected fins while leading the female to the nest. Badis badis males on the other hand settle down under the nest at the sight of a receptive female. If M. cupanus males fail to conduct the female to the nest, some will nevertheless persist and eventually succeed. Tinbergen (1953) called this ‘persuasion’. Persuasion has also been reported in C. /Jalia (Forselius 1957). Many males, however, instead of exhibiting persua- sion become aggressive towards the females which do not respond to leading. Aggressiveness of males under this circumstance has been reported by Forselius (1957) in C. lalia, T. leeri, and T. trichopterus and by Barlow (1962) in Badis badis. We have not observed males leading the female to non-existing nests, as reported for Pygosteus pungitius by Morris (1952). Leading to the nest movement has been described in _ sunfishes by Breder (1936) but he did not mention the manner of leading. While approaching males under the nest, females of M. cupanus, like 472 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) those of T. leeri, M. opercularis, and C. fasciata, swim oe head pointed downwards. When mating has actually begun, each successful enfolding seems to stimulate the male to chase off intruders. Enfoldings in which no eggs are released and no (?) ejection of sperm occurs have been termed by Forselius as ‘ pseudo-spawning ’. Pseudo-spawnings occur several times at the beginning and end of mating. The upside down posture of the female also occurs in C. /alia, Betta splendens, and M. opercularis but is lacking in C. fasciata. Betta males take the form of an inverted ‘ U’ while enfolding. Padmanabhan (1955) stated that spawning in M. cupanus occurs only in day-time. We agree with this and have observed that most matings take place between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. In contrast, most of the matings in A. festudineus occurred at night (Mookerjee & Mazumder 1946). A complete mating cycle in M. cupanus lasts from 2 to 5 hours which is a wider range than that stated by Padmanabhan (1955). The number of eggs released in each enfolding averaged 14:1 with variation from 1 to 65 (Table). This is similar to egg production in C. /alia, C. labiosa, and C. fasciata. Jones (1940) stated that the eggs are shot up towards the nest by the force of ejaculation and they float with other eggs. Norman (1936) stated that the eggs are light and they float upwards as a result of buoyancy and not through any intervention by the parents. Padmanabhan (1955) stated that the eggs are picked up only by the male and blown upwards into the nest. But we have observed that the eggs sink and are picked up by both the parents and blown into the nest. Mookerjee & Mazumder (1946) stated that the eggs of A. testudineus are shot up by the force of ejaculation and float on the surface. Duration of enfolding averaged 12°8 seconds with variations from 6 to 22 seconds, which is similar to that of Jones’s (1940) observation. Jones (1940) stated that the number of eggs laid by a female is about 300. This was supported by Forselius (1957). Padmanabhan stated that on an average 400 eggs are laid by a female but we observed an average of 646°7 eggs per mating, with variation from 299 to 973 (Table). The interval between 13 successive spawnings of 7 females averaged 14 days with variation from 7 to 25 days. This agrees with Padmanabhan’s (1955) findings of 12 to 15 days. After the termination of oviposition the male spontaneously becomes aggressive to the female and chases her away from the nest. Most previous workers including Jones (1940), Padmanabhan (1955), and Innes (1956) stated that if the female is not removed from the tank after the termination of spawning she is in most cases killed by the male. Our observations in laboratory aquaria showed that the female is not killed. Forselius (1957) reported that males and females of C. /Jalia and Betta splendens can be kept together without much injury. We kept and bred =~ REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR OF MACROPODUS CUPANUS = 473 a pair of M. cupanus in a tank thrice successively and there was no injury to the female except that her tail fin was partially damaged. All the fry were eaten, however. Aronson (1949) stated that eggs of oviparous teleosts are shed in a flaccid state but rapidly become hard and turgid, i.e. they ‘ water harden ’ (Breder 1934). Hence, to insure fertilization the male must deposit sperm over the eggs within a very short time. In accord with Aronson we are of opinion that egg-laying and fertilization of eggs in M. cupanus take place within first 5-8 seconds of enfolding. Polygamy in M. cupanus has been observed in natural conditions by - Padmanabhan (1955), but we have not observed polygamy in aquaria. A receptive female was introduced in a tank with a male guarding a brood, there was no mating and the female died in ‘egg bound’ condition. Tavolga (1954) reported polygamy in Bathygobius soporator. SUMMARY This paper presents descriptive and quantitative data on the re- productive behaviour of Macropodus cupanus in laboratory aquaria in Calcutta. Reproductive behaviour has been analysed in three divisions: (1) Pre-mating behaviour, which includes sexual displays of both sexes prior to enfolding or copulation, (2) Mating behaviour, which includes the processes of enfolding, egg deposition, and fertilization, and (3) Post- mating behaviour, which includes behavioural interactions between the sexes after enfolding and during parental care. A total of 50 matings have been observed with complete and accurate data on 44 of them, involving 2128 enfoldings. The average number of enfoldings per mating was 48°4 ; average duration of mating time 169°9 minutes ; average number of eggs per mating 646°7 ; average number of eggs per enfolding 14:1 ; average duration of enfolding 12°8 seconds ; and average interval between successive enfoldings 3°4 minutes. 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A qualitative des- cription of the reproductive behaviour in territorial species investigated under laboratory conditions with special regard to genus Colisa. Zool. Bid. Fran. Uppsala 32 : 93-302. GoopricH, H. B., & TAYLOR, H. C. (1934): Breeding reactions in Betta splendens. Copeia 4: 165. GREENBERG, B. (1947): Some rela- tions between territory, social hierarchy and leadership in the green sunfish (Lepo- mis cyanellus). Physiol. Zool. 20: 267- 299. Hervey, G. F., & Hems, J. (1963): Freshwater tropical aquarium fishes. Spring Books, London. 432 pp. INNES, W. T. (1956) : Exotic aquarium fishes. Innes Publishing Co., Philadel- phia. 541 pp JONES, S. (1940) : Notes on the breed- ing habits and early development of Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. and Val.) with special reference to the cement glands of the early larvae. Rec. Indian Mus. 42: 269-296. KULKARNI, C. V. (1943): Breeding habits and early stages of the Gourami (Osphronemus goramy Lacépéde). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 44: 233-243. MOookeERJEE, H. K., & MAZUMDER, S.R. (1946) : On the life history, breed- ing and rearing of Anabas testudineus ‘Instinct in Animals. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) Beh J. Dept. Sci. Calcutta University Morris, D. (1952): Homosexuality in the ten-spined stickleback. Behaviour 4 : 233-261. Norman, J. R. (1936): A History of Fishes. London. PADMANABHAN, K. G. (1955): Breed- ing habits and early embryology of Macropodus cupanus (Cuv. and Val.). Bull. Cent. Res. Inst. University of Travancore, Trivandrum 4 (1), (Series C) : RAJ, S. B. (1916) : Notes on the fresh water fishes of Madras. Rec. Indian Mus. 12. SHAW, EE. (1962): Environmental conditions and the appearance of sexual behaviour in the platyfish. In ‘ Roots of Behavior’, edit. by E. Bliss. Harper Bros., New York. TAVOLGA, W. N. (1954): Reproduc- tive behaviour in the gobiid fish, Bathy- gobius soporator. Bull. Amer. Mus. nat. Hist. 104 : 427-460. Tuomas, H. S. (1870): Report on Pisciculture, South Canara—Madras. THORPE, W. H. (1956): Learning and Harvard University 493 pp. (1953): Social Be- Methuen, London. Press, Cambridge. TINBERGEN, N. haviour in Animals. 150 pp. i ae rey] o vsuvav> Sally Sw3elLous 3 3 ant Cd V¥L030S Or of cam aie ae bead HA | aouxouddp $a9u03s!9 puo SU0/3099} VIdVuVv NVHVOv-YNar ween wae Pat stony ot oly AMDON® 6 Joqooy Dpiopoy] VIdOIHL3I vt Simoyuoge euysiy Opioy eae LAVINGVYUHOVH farce l ng!po, ADIDDW FOP!DY © TOr e DMgOUS Peoies unioge esyosy Ig zoye wtp aS (!S0}0¢ e cS yt vuvor oe ynsoqay Pawoyse uoufone YVANHG @s0z044 oyqye a; 4NVH (GVM yMAHS LVINVY qou0goHe YyISV 5 IIWHSY TV E8Ny Oz N vd Ns 2 Hope o559We 1ySoulfe agreed Ze ze usqore vals 1dvMm = ZVS3AH ISvHO Nev poyoyje o arvNn > 4080 oulpoyye NYWO 40 77N9 Sere _ 2 Ouyounre dAQ3 > oy!ojNe 795 97 Lt ro NVIGIW {loHe 440US ‘Te oe Pass YITOMA YY Lk | V | S bal | d 9U!494707'7¢$¢e udula4e oyoOyOSe =e sno / eounsoy Yyoqoyye~ 121479 T* | S]]@MsjOgo IVNIS ; NVGYOr € 09 es eS os Zs os ar Or ve ce pr Be ge ve ‘005 “LSIH “LVN AVENOg ‘N#aor The Snakes of the Arabian Peninsula and Socotra BY N. L. CoRKILL AND J. A. COCHRANE (With a map) CONTENTS INTRODUCTION e Ae 3 i, Be WATS SYSTEMATIC LIsT __... cif si of. Re i. 34/6 MATERIAL AND LITERATURE ae ee oe Br .. 478 TAXONOMIC AND FIELD DATA .. ag s or os 479) ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... | <6: - ne e em OOS REFERENCES irs S04 i a Se .. 3504 INTRODUCTION In the years 1948-1961, the senior author, while working in Saudi Arabia and the Aden Protectorate, took what interest duties permitted in the local snakes. A number of specimens were left in fairly repre- sentative collections in the Biological Department of Aden College and in the two Health Services Training Centres, situated one in Makhzan Hospital in the Western Aden Protectorate (now the Federation of the Arab Amirates of the South) and the other in Mukalla Hospital in the Qu’aiti State of the Eastern Aden Protectorate. A number were also sent to the British Museum, where a more systematic examination was possible. The data resulting are recorded in this paper. Many speci- mens were too mutilated for complete scale counts to be made. ; While consulting the literature it seemed useful to review that relating to distribution and the vernacular names of those snakes occurring in the Arabian Peninsula as a whole, taking the 30th Parallel as an approximate but convenient northern limit, and including Sinai. The seas surround- ing the Peninsula are included for the sea snakes. The main interest of the paper relates however to the additional records from Western Saudi Arabia, the Yaman, and Aden Territory including the island of Socotra. The collection of specimens was made largely through the staff of various health services in rural areas and as a result a considerable amount of information was obtained about vernacular names and folk belief and practice relating to snakes and snake-poisoning. Apart from 7 476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) clear-cut local applications of the names of snakes, this traditional material will be dealt with elsewhere. 3 Unless otherwise stated, colour when mentioned refers to that of specimens preserved in alcohol or formalin or both. An unhappily large number of specimens are necessarily shown from ‘ Aden Pro- tectorate ’ because the labels giving more precisely the localities in which | they were collected were lost or mutilated in repeated packings. Physiographically, the Arabian Peninsula shows much uniformity, that of a desert of rock and sand, scarred in larger and smaller areas with volcanic residues in the shape of extinct craters and fields of lava. The rocky features occur both as small hills and in major systems, the latter most notably in the mountains of the Yaman with peaks rising to 12,000 feet, which offer a marked contrast in vegetation and humidity with most of the Peninsula. In central Arabia the arid Jabal Tawaik system is a dominant feature. Parallel with the southern coast the mountains con- tinue the Yaman system through the Hadhramaut complex to reach the relatively fertile Jabal Qara and the hills of Oman. Apart from much of the Yaman, Jabal Qara, isolated areas of culti- vation and oases, the Peninsula is characteristically arid, a large part of the south-east constituting the desert known as the Rub-al-Khali, 1.e. the ‘Empty Quarter’. Where oases and cultivation exist, they are watered naturally by springs or floods, or with man’s intervention by means of wells, dams, and the bunding of storm water. Rainfall is largely sporadic and localized, and may be scanty, or so temporarily violent that large watercourses, wadis, may be heavily flooded and damage to life, cultivation, and property may result. The winter is cool and at the higher altitudes the temperature may approach freezing point. The summer is relatively hot everywhere, in most places exceeding at times 100°F. Humidity is high on the coasts which are complexes of rock and sand; reefs of rock and coral are common and lagoons, marsh, and estuarine conditions occur in places where the main watercourses discharge their occasional or perennial floods into the sea. Urbanization does not seem to have had much effect on reptilian ecology so far, for there are few really large towns or seaports apart from Jiddah, Mecca, and Aden and even in these, snakes such as Coluber rhodorhachis, Spalerosophis, Malpolon, and even Cerastes and Echis are encountered. SYSTEMATIC LIST BOIDAE 1. £ryx colubrinus (Linnaeus) 2. Eryx jaculus (Linnaeus) 3. kryx jayakari Boulenger THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 477 COLUBRIDAE! 5. *Brachyophis revoili Mocquard 6. Coluber elegantissimus (Gunther) 7. Coluber gemonensis (Laurenti) 8. Coluber karelinii Brandt 9. Coluber nummifer Reuss 10. Coluber rhodorhachis (Jan) 11. Coluber rogersi Anderson 12. Coluber socotrae (Gunther) 13. Coluber thomasi Parker 14. Coluber variabilis (Boulenger) 15. Coluber ventromaculatus Gray 16. Coronella somalica Scortecci 17. Dasypeltis scabra (Linnaeus) 18. “Ditypophis vivax Gunther 19. Ejirenis arabica Haas 20. Eirenis coronella (Schlegel) i 21. *Lycophidion capense (Smith) 22. Lytorhynchus diadema (Duméril & Bibron) . 23. Lytorhynchus sinai Schmidt & Marx 24. *Malpolon moilensis (Reuss) 25. *Malpolon monspessulana (Hermann) 26. Natrix dubbiosii Scortecci 27. Philothamnus semivariegatus Smith 28. *Psammophis punctulatus Dumeéril & Bibron © 29. *Psammophis schokari (Forskal) 30. Rhynchocalamus arabicus Schmidt 31. Rhynchocalamus melanocephalus (Jan) 32. Spalerosophis diadema cliffordi (Schlegel) 33. *Telescopus dhara (Forskal) 34. *Telescopus hoogstraali Schmidt & Marx ELAPIDAE 35. Naja haje arabica Scortecci 36. Walterinnesia aegyptia Lataste HYDROPHIDAE 37. Astrotia stokesii (Gray) 38. Enhydrina schistosa (Daudin) 39. Hydrophis cyanocinctus Daudin 40. Hydrophis fasciatus fasciatus (Schneider) 41. The Opisthoglypha are marked with an asterisk. Boaedon arabicus Parker Hydrophis lapemoides (Gray) 478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) 42. Hydrophis mamillaris (Daudin) 43. Hydrophis ornatus ornatus (Gray) 44. Hydrophis spiralis spiralis (Shaw) 45. Lapemis curtus (Shaw) 46. Microcephalophis cantoris (Gunther) 47. Microcephalophis gracilis (Shaw) 48. Pelamis platurus (Linnaeus) 49. Praescutata viperina (Schmidt) LEPTOTYPHLOPIDAE 50. Leptotyphlops burii (Boulenger) 51. Leptotyphlops filiformis (Boulenger) * 52. Leptotyphlops macrorhyncus (Jan) 53. Leptotyphlops macrura (Boulenger) 54. Leptotyphlops nursii (Anderson) 55. Leptotyphlops phillipsi Barbour TYPHLOPIDAE 56. Typhlops braminus (Daudin) 57. Typhlops socotranus Boulenger 58. Typhlops vermicularis (Daudin) VIPERIDAE 59. Atractaspis microlepidota andersoni Boulenger 60. Atractaspis engaddensis Haas 61. Bitis arietans (Merrem) 62. Cerastes cerastes (Linnaeus) 63. LEchis carinata pyramidum (Geoffroy St. Hilaire) 64. LEchis colorata Giinther 65. Pseudocerastes fieldi Schmidt 66. Pseudocerastes persicus (Duméril & Bibron) 67. Vipera lebetina (Linnaeus) MATERIAL AND LITERATURE A large proportion of the historic material contributing to this review is in the British Museum (Natural History) having been collected by travellers such as Burton from Midian, Blunt from the Hadhramaut, and Thomas and Philby from southern and western Arabia, or by officials and other workers in the country such as Jayakar, Yerbury, Nurse, and Percival, from Muscat and Aden. American Museums (Chicago and Harvard) have Cee maienee from sources mostly in the northern and eastern areas and Italian workers, notably Scortecci, have collected and recorded material from the _ | Yaman. THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 479 Major organized expeditions have been: that of the British Museum to south-west Arabia in 1937-1938 and the five to Socotra, of Balfour in 1879-1880, Schweinfurth in 1881, that of the British and Liverpool Museums in 1898, Steindachner’s visit to the island in 1899, and the Oxford University Expedition of 1956. Of recent years the Desert Locust Survey have sent specimens to the British Museum from various parts of the Peninsula. In the years 1948-1961 the senior author collected some 205 speci- mens, or records of snakes seen dead or alive but not collected, in Saudi Arabia or Aden Territory, apart from a few sent to him from the Yaman and Muscat. Acknowledgements to most contributors from the field are made below. The literature covering the snake fauna of the Peninsula starts for- mally with Forskal (1775, P. schokari), but the first comprehensive compilation was that of Anderson (1896) an indispensable work of reference and general enlightenment. The catalogues of Boulenger (1893, 1894, and 1896) on the collections in the British Museum (Natural. History) provide a yet broader basis for a starting point for any work on Arabian, as indeed on all snakes. Notable later contributions have been those of Barbour (1914) and Schmidt (1933, 1939, 1953) on the Peninsula in general, Scortecci (1932) and Scott (1947) on the Yaman, Parker (1930, 1931, 1932, 1933, 1938, 1941, and 1949) on south-west Arabia and Socotra on new species and from a critical taxonomic standpoint, Haas (1943, 1957, and 1961), Haas & Battersby (1959), Schmidt & Marx (1956) on the northern and eastern snakes, Gunther (1881), Forbes (1903), Boulenger (1903), and Steindachner (1903) on Socotran forms, and Smith (1926, 1943), and Vols¢de (1939) on the sea snakes. The writings of Abdullah Mansur (1911), Doughty (1921 ed.), Philby (1939), Thomas (1932), Scott (1947), Dickson (1949), and Thesiger (1959), with on-the-spot knowledge of Arabia contain facts of interest from the field, 7 TAXONOMIC AND FIELD DATA The snakes discussed in this paper are those recorded in the literature as coming from the Arabian Peninsula, those preserved in the British Museum, which have been collected in the area under discussion but not previously reported, and a further 205 collected by the senior author. Of these last 29 are from Saudi Arabia, and 176 from Aden Territory. Of the 205, 99 are now in the British Museum. The commonest snakes of the area are Coluber rhodorhachis and. Spalerosophis diadema cliffordi, The commonest. poisonous snakes are 480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 62 (3) Cerastes cerastes and the Echis vipers, E. carinata being commoner than E. colorata. Some species have peripheral distribution only ; ;in the north such are Eryx jaculus, Eryx colubrinus, Coluber elegantissimus, Coluber rogersi, Coluber nummifer, Coluber ventromaculatus, Eirenis arabica, Eirenis coronella, Lytorhynchus sinai, Malpolon monspessulana, Rhynchocalamus melanocephalus, Telescopus hoogstraali, Leptotyphlops macrorhynchus, Typhlops vermicularis, Atractaspis engaddensis, and Pseudocerastes fieldii, and in the north-east bordering the Persian Gulf are Coluber karelinii and Walterinnesia aegyptia. The Yaman has a record for Vipera lebetina, an extrusion well south of its characteristic range. In the west and south, species with more typically African distribution are Dasypeltis scabra, Lycophidion capense, Philothamnus semivariegatus, Psammophis punctulatus (a doubtful record), and Bitis arietans. So far as present re- cords go, peculiar to the south are Rhynchocalamus arabicus, Coluber thomasi, Leptotyphlops burii, Leptotyphlops nursii, and Atractaspis micro- lepidota andersoni. The snakes of Socotra are restrictedly endemic with the exception of Echis colorata, represented by a single record with some doubt cast on the locality of origin. There are certain Arabic names for snakes occurring in many or all Arab countries, found for the most part in standard Arabic dic- tionaries. They thus deserve to be considered in some degree as ‘classical’. They may apply to snakes in general, in the sense of ‘serpent ’, or to categories of snakes that have obtrusive attributes such as horns, or are notably small or large, or are vipers, or dangerously -poisonous, or move very quickly, or burrow in the earth, or are thought to do so. In the general sense of ‘serpent’ are used hanash, tha’aban, and haiya and, in the Hejaz and the Hasa area, dab. Of small snakes, um shibr = ‘of a span’ is used. Spotted snakes are commonly called raqta = ‘spotted’. Swift-moving whippy forms with no other outstanding character are called zarrag = ‘the lanced’ or ‘ the projected ’, or some variant of the same word. Snakes with burrowing habits are called daffan = ‘ burier’ or some variant. In Abu Dhabi in the Trucial States ghul = ‘demon’ is commonly used in addition to haiya and hanash, though it seems pe 2 apply to the cobra. The word afe=‘ viper’ has many variants and from Libya (where liffa or laffa would seem to represent al afa) to Delhi and, especially in Arabia, relates to the common, well-known and feared Echis and Cerastes vipers. These last two groups of snakes, which produce a rustling noise by rubbing their scales together while coiling about, have also a number of colloquial mimetic names inspired by this noise, and involving the sounds f or sh. Keimer.(1945) has discussed at length. THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 481 the relationship of the sound f to the Egyptian hieroglyph in the form of the Cerastes vipers, horned or unhorned. Also the word afa would appear to equate with the Hebrew epheh=‘ serpent’. Parker (1931) has recorded from Dhufar several Shahari names for snakes collected by Bertram Thomas ; one of these shaltum, it appears, is possibly used of snakes in general. At Habarut on the Mahra mainland the senior author collected the word araraidh, which appeared to be used of a snake ina general sense but may bea corruption in form and an application of the Arabic al araidh=‘the broad one’, that is the cobra, forin Libya abu araidha is used of Naja haje. On Socotra, for ‘ snake’ in general in the Socotri tongue shudhim was said to be used. The data given below unless otherwise stated refer to material from within the Peninsula only, with a slight element of margin as regards the northern species. BOIDAE Eryx colubrinus (Linnaeus) Eryx thebaicus, Scortecci, 1932, p. 40, (Yaman, 1). The species is marginal being common in Egypt and the northern Sudan. : Scale count. The scale range given by Boulenger (1893 p. 122) for non-Arabian specimens is Sc. 47-53, V. 171-197, C. 19-28, A. 1. Scortecci gives Sc. 55 at mid-body. Eryx jaculus (Linnaeus) Eryx jaculus Duméril & Bibron, 1844, p. 463, (Arabia, +) ; Anderson, 1896, pp. 70, 86, 90, (in litt.). Scale count. The scale range in Boulenger (1893, p. 125) for Greece to Afghanistan is Sc. 40-50, V. 165-200, C. 15-34, A. 1. Eryx jayakari Boulenger Eryx jayakari Boulenger, 1888, p. 508, (Muscat, 1) ; idem, 1893, p. 129, (in Jitt.) : Anderson, 1896, pp. 82, 88, (in litt.) ; Parker, 1931, p. 514, Jahashi, Rub-al-Khali, 1) ; idem, 1931 (a), p. 228, (in litt.); idem, 1932, p. 341, (in litt.); idem, 1938, p. 481, (Southern Hejaz, +) ; Haas, 1957, p. 79, [Abqaig, Dhahran, Al Alat (oilfields); Sharja, 15] ; idem, 1961, p. 19 (Abqaiq, Al Hasa, 2). Records. The senior author collected specimens from Jiddah, Little Aden, Nuqub in the Baihan area and Al Hazar and Shaq al Maatif near Thamud. ; 5 Scale count. The scale count for the Arabian examples of this species that have been recorded in the literature and taken from specimens in the British Museum are Sc. 37-51, V. 158-184, C. 16-22, A. 1. Coloration. The specimen taken in Little Aden was very much darker than the specimens from Baihan and Thamud, 482. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) Vernacular names. Parker (1931a) records the name difen from the Rub-al-Khali. This recalls the word dafn, ‘ burier’, of the Aden Protec-. torate, which though more usually applied to the Echis snakes, may also be applied to Eryx jayakari. In Baihan the snake was called badan and badhan, suggestive of the Hebrew pethen = ‘ snake’ in general, and it is of interest that there was formerly a Jewish community in Bathan. Habitat. All the specimens were taken from sand. Remarks. Two specimens that were handled made no attempt to bite. COLUBRIDAE There have been 31 species and subspecies of the Family recorded from the Peninsula, including 9 of the Opisthoglypha, the back-fanged division. Certain snakes of this division are relatively large, have strik- ing markings and are frequently encountered, and since they possess fangs capable of inoculating venom and producing appreciable, albeit not lethal, reactions they tend to attract specifically applicable folk names. Boaedon arabicus Parker Boaedon arabicus Parker, 1930, p. 594 (Al Kubar in Haushabi area, 5) ; Scortecci 1932, p. 41 (Sana in Yaman, 5). Boaedon lineatus arabicus Parker, 1941, p. 4 (Jabal Harir, 1) ; idem, 1949, p. 51 (in litt.) ; Schmidt, 1953, p. 260 (Yaman, 1). A Records. The senior author’s collection included one specimen from either the Yaman or the Western Aden Protectorate. Scale count. The scale count range of the Arabian specimens from the literature and of the specimens in the British Museum is Sc. 27-33, V. 220-250, C. 47-62, A. 1. The specimen collected by the senior author had a higher number, 35, of mid-body dorsal scales. *Brachyophis revoili Mocquard Brachyophis revoili, Scortecci, 1932, p. 46 (Sana, Yaman, 1). _Brachyophis revoili revoili, Parker, 1949, p. 81, (in litt. and discussion).. Scale count. The scale count given by Scortecci for his Yaman specimen is V. 106, C. 13. Coluber elegantissimus (Ginther) Zamenis elegantissimus Gunther, 1878, p. 977 (Muwaylah in Midian, 1); Hart, 1891, p. 209 (Akabah, 1) ; Boulenger, 1893, p. 402 (in bes Zeprictsee 1896, pp. 82, 88, (in litt.). Coluber elegantissimus, Parker, 1949, p. “45, (affinity with socotrae and florulentus). ‘Scale count. The scale count given by Boulenger ae p. 402) is Sc. 19, V. 197-200, C. 79-83, A, a. THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 483 Coluber gemonensis (Laurenti) ‘Zamenis atrovirus, Shaw, Hart, 1891, p. 209, (Wadi Nasb in Sinai, 1). Coluber viridiflavus var. carbonaria Bonaparte, 1839. Scale count. Boulenger (1893, p. 396) gives the scale count as Sc. 17-19, V. 171-250, C. 87-130, A. 2. Coloration. The specimen recorded by Hart was of the black carbonarius variety. Coluber karelinii Brandt Zamenis karelinii, Bedriaga, 1879, p. 44, (Ras Masandam, +); Anderson, 1896, pp. 82, 86, 90, (in Jitt.) ; Boulenger, 1893, p. 401, (in Jitt.). Scale count. The count given by Boulenger for specimens from Persia and Afghanistan is Sc. 19, V. 193-212, C. 85-110, A. 1. | Coluber nummifer Reuss Zamenis nummifer, Barbour, 1914, p. 88, (Fairan in Sinai, 1). Scale count. Boulenger (1893, p. 407) gives the count as Sc. 23-25, V. 197-216, C. 79-101, A. 1 or 2. Coluber rhodorhachis (Jan) Zamenis ventromaculatus, Gray, part, Giinther, 1858, p. 106 (Muscat, +) ; Boulen- ger, 1887, p. 407, (Muscat, +). Zamenis florulentus, Parenti & Picaquia, 1886, p. 68 (Aden, ++). Zamenis ladacensis, Boettger, 1892, p. 62 (Aden). Zamenis rhodorhachis Jan, 1864, p. 356 (all localities Persian) ; Gunther, 1878, p. 977 (Midian) ; Boulenger, 1891, p. 632, (in litt.) ; idem, 1893, p. 398, (in litt.) ; Ander- son, 1895, p. 635, (Aden, 4); idem, 1896, pp. 51, 82, 86, 89, 116, (in litt. and Hadhramaut, 4) ; idem, 1898, p. 252, (in /itt.) ; idem, 1901, p. 137 (Abyan, 1); Bar- bour, 1914, p. 88, (Fairan in Sinai, 1). . Coluber rhodorhachis, Parker, 1931, p. 514 (Qara Mts. and Dhufar, 9) ; idem, 1931 (a), p. 228, (in litt.) ; idem, 1938, p. 481 (Southern Hejaz) ; idem, 1949, p. 30, (taxo- nomy discussed) ; Schmidt, 1939, p. 73 (Aden, 1) ; idem, 1941, p. 165 (Wadi Sirra & Jiddah, 4) ; idem, 1953, p. 260 (Hodaida & Sana, 2); Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 29 (Wadi al Shaikh in Sinai, 3) ; Scortecci, 1932, p. 39 (Yaman, 5). Records. Further records based on specimens collected by the senior author are Jiddah, Buraiman, Abha, Jol Bahawa, Bir Ali, Mukalla, Dis, Khirba, and Hazar. The positions of these localities are shown on the map. Scale count: The scale count for the Arabian examples of this species that have been recorded in the literature and taken from specimens in the British Museum are Sc. 19, V: 210-260, C. 119-148, A. 2. The specimens from the senior author’s collection fall within this range. Coloration. The colour in these snakes seen alive was grey, with darker markings, becoming darker in alcohol. A vertebral stripe was present in some specimens. Boulenger (1893, p. 399) reports that in Persian specimens the stripe is pink or red, but in the Arabian specimens in life the stripe is drab. _ 484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) Vernacular names. Parker (193la, p. 229) records the Shahari names for this snake in the Qara Mountains and Dhufar as difen, ojem, and shaltum. In Acen Territory this species is known as al aghbar, al aghbari, and al ghabr, all meaning ‘ the grey snake’, and also commonly as tarrad or ‘ chaser’ and zarraqg=‘ lancer’ or ‘ projector’. These last two names, however, are used for any slender, fast-moving snake. Habitat. Specimens were found in a garden, a mosque tank, and on a sandy sea-shore. It is the commonest snake found near human habi- tation in Aden Territory, both in built-up areas and in the open Country, and is often found in houses. Five specimens fell out of the roofing of a room following anti-mosquito spraying with BHC. Diet. Schmidt & Marx (1956, p. 29) recorded a skink in the stomach contents of a male specimen. Another specimen, taken from a house in Jiddah, contained a bird. : Temperament. One specimen picked up on an early June morning on a sand-and-gravel track near Mukalla bit vigorously when it was handled. When it was released at some distance from a land-rover, it returned twice to the car, climbing under the bonnet and later on to the rear axle. Two other specimens also bit when handled. There was no reaction to the bites. Coluber rogersi Anderson Coluber rogersi, Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 29 (Wadi Lathlali in Sinai, 1). Scale count. The count was Sc. 19, V. damaged, C. 104. Boulenger (1896, p. 623) gives a scale range for Egyptian specimens of Sc. 19, V. 197-201, C. 95-105, A. 2. Coluber socotrae (Ginther) Zamenis socotrae Ginther, 1881, p. 463 (Socotra, 3); Boulenger, 1893, p. 408 | (in litt.) ; idem, 1903, p. 89 (Hadibu, 1). . Zamenis socotrae, Steindachner, 1903, p. 14 [Tamarida (= Hadibu), Ras Shoab, Kallarsiye, Hakari Islet, Samhah Island in Brothers Group, +]. Coluber socotrae, Parker, 1949, p. 42 and 44 (in litt.). Records. In addition to the localities recorded in the literature, there are two specimens in the British Museum, one collected at Hanefu, the other labelled simply ‘Socotra’. The senior author’s collection includes three specimens from the island, two collected in the hills near Hadibu and one from Hasu between Qathb and Qallansiya (=Kallansiye above). Scale count. Parker (1949, p. 41) gives the scale count Sc. 23, V. 219- 227, C. 113-124, A. 2. The senior author collected a specimen with a caudal count of 133; the other counts were within the range given above. Coloration. Boulenger (1903, p. 90) gives a description of the colour as ‘ head olive above ; body with olive sometimes black-edged transverse bands, separated by narrower salmon-red interspaces ; belly yellowish or pale olive.’ A young specimen collected by the senior author was seen THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 485 alive. The colour was canary yellow, barred dorsally with bright cobalt blue. On preservation it faded to grey, barred with black. Vernacular names. The Socotri name bikaili was applied specifically to the young specimen described above. The word shudhim was also used, but this clearly meant ‘ snake’ in a general sense. Coluber thomasi Parker Coluber thomasi Parker, 1931, p. 514 (Qara Mountains and Dhufar, 1); idem, 1931a, p. 228, (in litt.). Records. The senior author’s collection contained a young specimen from the Aden Protectorate, the precise locality being unrecorded. Scale count. The type specimen has the scale count Sc. 15, V. 158, C. 80, A. 2. The specimen collected by the senior author differed only in the caudal count, which was 81. Coloration. In preservation, the young specimen is creamy-white, with black dorsal markings. A prominent row of large spots in the midline of the ventral surface of the tail was a ready guide to identification. Coluber variabilis (Boulenger) Zamenis variabilis Boulenger, 1905, p. 178 (Al Kubar in Haushabi State, 10). Coluber variabilis, Scortecci, 1932, p. 43 (Sana in Yaman, 1) ; Parker, 1941, p. 4 (Jabal Harir, 1). Records. The senior author’s collection contained a specimen from Wadi Shadhan in the Hejaz, collected by Mr. G. Popov of the Desert Locust Survey. Scale count. The scale count for the other Arabian specimens of this species 1s Sc. 17, V. 155-175, C. 80, A. 2. The specimen from Wadi Shadhan was outside this range having Sc. 19, V. 187, C. 82, A. 2. Coluber ventromaculatus Gray Coluber ventromaculatus, Hart, 1912, p. 209 (Wadi Zalagah, Sinai, 1) ; Schmidt, 1939, p. 74 (Al Jubail, north of Bahrain, 1) ; Dickson, 1949, p. 471 (Kuwait, 1); Haas, 1957, p. 79 (Qara Mountains and Dhahran, 5); idem, 1961, p. 20 (Abqaiq and Al Hasa, 4). Scale count. The range was Sc. 19, V. 203-214, C. 91-119, A. 2. Coronella somalica Scortecci Coronella somalica Scortecci, 1932, p. 46, (Yaman, 1). Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 21, V. 209, C. 80, A. 2. Dasypeltis scabra (Linnaeus) . Dasypeltis scaber, Parker, 1949, p. 67 (Al Kubar in Haushabi State, ++). Dasypeltis scabra, Gans, 1959, p. 78, (in litt.). Records. The senior author saw a preserved specimen at the Little Aden oil refinery in 1951, which had been taken locally. The markings suggestive of Echis carinata though faint, were defined. 486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) - Scale count. The recorded counts are Sc. 23, V. 235-244, C. 61-64. Remarks. Corkill (1956) and Gans (1961) have noted the mimicry of Echis carinata by Dasypeltis scabra in shape, colour, and behaviour. *Ditypophis vivax Gunther Ditypophis vivax Gunther, 1881, p. 463 (Socotra, 1); Boulenger, 1896, p. 46, (in litt.); idem, 1903, p. 90 (Hadibu, Adho Dimellus, Jena-Agahan, Homhil, 8); Steindachner, 1903, p. 14 (Shoab, Wadi Felink, +); Parker, 1949, p. 89, (in litt. and discussion). Records. In addition to the specimens recorded in the literature there are six specimens in the British Museum from Hadibu and Kishn including three collected by the 1956 Oxford University Expedition to Socotra. , Scale count. The recorded counts are Sc. 21-23, V. 142-154, C. 37- 44, A. 1. aes Coloration. The colour is recorded by Boulenger (1903, p. 91) as reddish or sandy grey with or without spots. Remarks. The colouring of the snake, in conjunction with its short tail, keeled scales, single subcaudals, and vertical pupil gives a superficial appearance very similar to the mainland viper Echis colorata. Gunther (see below) recorded the latter snake from Socotra, but no specimen has been collected from there since. Nor has any other species been recorded which is non-endemic. The accuracy of the collecting data of Giinther’s specimen has been questioned in the light of these points. The present Socotri Health Assistant on the island was trained at Mukalla on the mainland and was familiar with the Echis vipers, which are fairly common near Mukalla. He insisted that the dhuffa (the mainland name for both Echis species) occurred on Socotra, where it was known as diatib. It would appear that the two genera may be easily confused by the less well-informed, and the statement made in the PERIPLUS OF THE ERY- THREAN SEA (c. 100 A.D.) and quoted by Boulenger (1903, p. 91), that there are a great many vipers on Socotra, is possibly also evidence of easy confusion. Further collecting on the island would decide whether or not Echis colorata occurs there. Eirenis arabica Haas Eirenis arabica Haas, 1961, p. 20 (Abqaigq, 1). Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 15, V. 147, C. 52, A. 1. Firenis coronella (Schlegel) _Eirenis coronella, Barbour, 1914, p. 89 (Petra, 3, St. Catherine in Sinai, 2) ; Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 30 (St. Catherine’s Monastery and Al Raba,.2). Scale count. The scale count was Sc, 15, V. 140-158, C. 39-62, A, 2, THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 487 *Lycophidion capense (Smith) Lycophidion capense, Scortecci, 1932, p. 43 (Sana, Yaman, 1); Parker, 1949, p. 54, (in litt.). Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 25, V. 162, C. 35. Lytorhynchus diadema (Duméril & Bibron) Lytorhynchus diadema, Boulenger, 1887, p. 407 (Muscat, I); idem, 1893, p: 415, (in litt.) ; Maatschie, 1893, p. 19 (Aden, +); Anderson, 1896, pp. 82, 89, (in itt.) ; idem, 1898, p. 272, (in litt.) ; Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 30 (Al Raba, 1). . Lytorhynchus diadema arabicus, Haas, 1957, p. 80 (Abgaiq, Dhahran, Moraiwa Post, 9) ; idem, 1961, p. 21 (Abgaig in Al Hasa, 1). Records. The present collection contained one specimen from Gahma in Saudi Arabia, collected by Mr. G. Popov of the Desert Locust Survey. | | : Scale count. The scale count range for the Arabian specimens is Sc. 19, V. 161-182, C. 35-43, A. 2. Lytorhynchus sinai Schmidt & Marx Lytorhynchus sinai Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 30 (Wadi Fairan in Sinai, 1). Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 17, V. 184, C. 94, A. 2. *Malpolon moilensis (Reuss) ‘Coluber moilensis Reuss, 1834, p. 142 (Moilah in Midian, 1). Coelopeltis moilensis, Anderson, 1895, p. 656 (Aden, 1); idem, 1896, pp. 52 and 82, 89, (in litt. plus Hadhramaut, 2) ; idem, 1898, p. 293 (in litt.) ; idem, 1901, p. 137 (Abyan, 1) ; Boulenger, 1896, p. 144 (Aden, Hadhramaut and Muscat, 3). Malpolon moilensis, Parker, 1931, p. 514 (Wadi Hauf in Rub-al-Khali, +) ; idem, 1931a, p. 228, (in litt.) ; idem, 1938, p. 481 (Jiddah, 1) ; Haas, 1957, p. 47 (Abgqaigq, _ Dhahran, 9) ; Haas & Battersby, 1959, p. 202 (Bir Asakir, Jol, Jabrin, 5). Records. There are 13 specimens recorded by the senior author from Jiddah, Little Aden, Mukalla, and Bir Asakir. | Scale count. The recorded scale range for the Arabian specimen is Se:.17, V_139-176, C..53-73;. A..2. Vernacular names. Parker (193la, p. 228) records the name zaragq from the Rub-al-Khali. There are a number of names in the Aden Protectorate that have been applied to this, as also other snakes; they are hanash, haiya, tarrad=‘ chaser, and ragta=‘ spotted’. The name zarrag =‘ lancer’ or ‘ projector’ might also be expected in this area. A dead one, seen at Bir Asakir, was called hanfish by the garrison (see Naja haje arabica below). Habitat. All the specimens were taken in sandy places, two on tracks. ote Remarks. The senior author was told that the hanfish blew out its throat. This suggests that the species was confused with a cobra al- though Boulenger (1920, p. 399) writes of a report of a specimen in Iraq 488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) dilating its neck, and Angel & Lhote (1938, p. 367) state that in the French Sahara the species erects, and dilates its neck like Naja. **Malpolon monspessulana (Hermann) Coelopeltis monspessulana, Hart, 1891, p. 209 (Jabal Hartah in Sinai, +) ; Werner, 1893, p. 389 (Sinai, 1) ; Anderson, 1896, pp. 82, 91, (in litt.). Scale count. Counts recorded are’ Se;.17; V. 176; C. 112, Av: Natrix dubbiosii Scortecci Natrix dubbiosii Scortecci, 1932, p. 40 (Yaman, 1). Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 19, V. 167, C. 61, A. 2. Philothamnus semivariegatus Smith Philothamnus semivariegatus, Scortecci, 1932, p. 45 (Sana, Yaman, 1); Parker, 1949, p. 58, (in litt.). moe Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 15, V. 176, C. 94. *Psammophis punctulatus Duméril & Bibron Psammophis punctulatus Duméril & Bibron, 1854, p. 897 (Arabia, 1) ; Parker, 1949, p. 68, (in litt., validity of the record from Arabia questioned). *Psammophis schokari (Forskal) Coluber schokari Forskal, 1775, p. 14 (Yaman, +). Coluber lacrymans, Reuss, 1834, p. 34 (Arabia, +). Psammophis lacrymans, Boulenger, 1895, p. 538, (in litt.) ; Anderson, 1895, p. 635 (Haithalmin and Shaikh Uthman in Aden area, 2). Psammophis schokari, Anderson, 1896, pp. 83, 87, 89, (in litt. plus Hadhramaut, 1) ; idem, 1898, p. 299, (in litt.) ; idem, 1901, p. 137 (Abyan, 1) ; Boulenger, 1896, p. 158, (in litt.); Barbour, 1914, p. 89 (Petra, Fairan, and Akaba, +) ; Parker, 1931, p. 514 (Fuzul, Qara Mountains and Dhufar, 3) ; idem, 1931 (a), p. 228, (in. litt.) ; idem, 1933, p. 397, (Qatarat in Rub-al-Khali, 1) ; idem, 1941, p. 5 (Jabal Harir, 1) ; idem, 1949, p. 70 (discussion of status and relationship of P. sibilans and P. schokari) ; Scortecci, 1932, p. 46 (Yaman, 1) ; Schmidt, 1939, p. 86, (Aden, 1) ; idem, 1953, p. 260 (Hodaida Ma’abar area and Ta’izz in Yaman, 4) ; Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 36 (Wadi Fairan in Sinai, 1); Haas, 1957, p. 47 (Qatif, Dhahran, Hail, Qara Mountains, 4); Haas & Battersby, 1959, p. 202 (Jol, 1). Records. In addition to the localities given above, the senior author collected specimens from Buraiman, Sana, Kamaran Island, Jaar, Makhzan, Bir Ali, Mukalla, Tarim, and Dhufar. Scale count. The scale count of the Arabian examples that have been recorded in the literature are Sc. 17, V. 170-196, C. 109-152. Those taken from the specimens in the senior author’s collection fell within the above range. Coloration. In all specimens a light brown, black-bordered line extends from the rostral, through the pre-ocular and post-ocular shields to the neck. In one form this line continues down the side of the snake to the end of the tail, a narrow white line separating it from the broad, grey- THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 489 brown, black-edged dorsal stripe. The ventrals are white. In the other form the line fades at the neck, the dorsum being darker than the venter. Vernacular names. ‘The specific name schokari, given to the snake in the Yaman by Forskal was derived from shigari,‘ of the tree’. This was heard by the senior author in Kamaran Island, applied by the police to a specimen killed in a tree. They said the name was used in the Yaman of the same snake. Parker (193la, p. 228) records that in the Qara Mountains or Dhufar, the Shahari name for the snake is ishor and inshor. In the Aden Protectorate the unstriped form would be called zarraq, tarrad, or al ahmar=‘ the red one’. Several names have been applied to the striped form, ba sharak=‘ with grooves’, mukhatat=‘ line’, ba sharatain=‘ with two stripes’, and abu khatain=‘ of two lines’ the last is also used of the snake in the Trucial States. Because of the suggestion of palm fibre, zaf, it is also called in the Protectorate zaf, zafi, and zaffan=‘ palm fibre’ ‘of the palm fibre’ and ‘ palm-fibred ’ respectively. Habitat. Specimens were taken in a house, on a sandy beach, under a tree near a building, and from a tree adjoining a well. Rhynchocalamus arabicus Schmidt Rhynchocalamus arabicus Schmidt, 1933, p. 9 (Aden, 1) ; idem, 1939, p. 49, (pre- sumed in Jitt.). Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 15, V. 240, C. 81, A. 2. The last 5 subcaudals were entire. Rhynchocalamus melanocephalus (Jan) Oligodon melanocephalus, Hart, 1891, p. 209 (Wadi Arabah, 1) ; Boulenger, 1894, p. 246, (in litt.) ; Anderson, 1896, pp. 82, 87, 90, (in litt.) ; idem, 1898, p. 277, (in litt.). Rhynchocalamus melanocephalus, Barbour, 1914, p. 89 (Petra, 1). Scale count. ‘The scale count in Boulenger (loc. cit.) for Hart’s Sinai specimen was Sc. 15, V. 229, C. 59, A. 2. Spalerosophis diadema cliffordi (Schlegel) Zamenis cliffordi, Giinther, 1878, p. 978 (Tihamat, Midian, 1). Zamenis diadema, Boulenger, 1887, p. 20 (Muscat area, 3) ; idem, 1893, p. 412, (in litt.) ; Hart, 1891, p. 209 (Mount Hor in Midian); Anderson, 1896, pp. 82, 86, 90, (in litt., plus Hadhramaut, 2) ; idem, 1898, p. 269, (in Jitt.). Spalerosophis diadema, Parker, 1931, p. 514 (Salalah, 1) ; idem, 1931a, p. 228, (in litt.) ; idem, 1938, p. 481 (S. Hajaz, 1); idem, 1941, p. 4 (Sana, 1) ; Schmidt, 1941, p.165 (Hulaifa in Najd, and Jiddah, 2) ; Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 33 (St. Catherine’s Monastery and Fairan Oasis in Sinai, 2) ; Marx, 1959, p. 350 (in itt. and adoption of trinomials). Records. Examples of this species were collected by the senior author from Buraiman, Abha, Shaik Uthman, Kod, Makhzan, and Jaar in the Abyan region, Baihan, Ahwar, Jol Bahawa, Mukalla, Dis, and Shihr. 490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) Scale count. The scale counts for the Arabian specimens were Sc. 25-29, V. 211-240, C. 65-80, and the specimens in the senior author’s. collection have scale counts within the ranges given. Coloration. The dorsal surface in life may be green, grey, or brown varying with the locality and with darker heavily defined circular or rhombic blotches themselves with paler edging. The ventral surface is white or straw-coloured. Vernacular names. As Spalerosophis diadema is a relatively large and common snake with prominent markings, it attracts especially applicable names, and is probably the snake most commonly called throughout the Arab world, al raqta=‘ the spotted’. Parker (1931a, p. 228) records the Shahari name from the Qara Mountains and Dhufar as fe’e de’e. In Abha it was called bu bilsain=‘ of the lentils’, and in the Hajr Province in the Qu’aiti State, al musabih=‘ the rosaried’. Rabudh= ‘ spotted ’ is also used in the Aden Protectorate. , Habitat. Specimens were taken in a brick store and from the gardens of houses. One was found in a lucerne patch near a water channel. Remarks. A half-grown specimen was sent in from Baihan with a report that it had bitten a man who developed, among other symptoms, a transient haematuria. In view of its identity as a known harmless species it was suggested that there must be some mistake and further inquiries were made. It then transpired that the snake was brought in later than the case itself, after interest in the type of snake responsible for the bite was Shown by the doctor. It seems most probable that the relatives then sought for a spotted snake in the neighbourhood of the accident and in good faith brought in the first such that was found. They had killed a Spalerosophis, whereas the actual biter was almost certainly an Echis or a Cerastes, both of which occur in the area, most probably an Echis carinata, since haemorrhage is characteristic of poisoning by this species. *Telescopus dhara (Forskal) Tarbophis dhara Forskal, 1775, p. 14 (Yaman, 1) ; Anderson, 1896, pp. 62, 87, 89 (Medina, 1). Dispsas obtusa, Boulenger,. 1887, p. 407 (Muscat, 2). | Tarbophis guentheri, Anderson, 1895, p. 656 (Lahaj, 2) ; idem, 1896, pp. 52, 87, 88 (Hadhramaut, 2);. idem, 1898, p. 287, (in litt.); idem, 1901, p. 137 (Abyan, 1) ; Boulenger, 1896, p. 52, (in litt.) ; Scortecci, 1932, p. 39 (Yaman, +) ; Parker, 1933, p. 398 (Hajaz, 1) ; idem, 1938, p. 481 (S. Hajaz, 1) ; idem, 1941, p. 4 (Jabal Jihaf, 1) ; idem, 1949, p. 87, (taxonomy discussed) ; Schmidt, 1939, p. 85 (Aden, 1). Tarbophis obtusus, Anderson, 1898, p. 286, (in Jitt.). Tarbophis dhara guentheri, Haas & Battersby, 1959, p. 202 (Saiun, 1). Records. The specimens collected by the senior author were from Buraiman near Jiddah, Aden Town, Mukalla, Harshiyat and near-by Dis, Shihr, and Dis al Sharquiya. Scale count. The scale counts recorded for the Arabian specimens THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 49i are Sc. 19-23, V. 226-274, C. 53-82, A. variable. The specimens in the senior author’s collection had scale counts within this range. Vernacular names. The snake is not conspicuous, and is not likely to attract folk interest. The names applied to it in the Aden Territory would be those meaning snake in the general sense, that is haiya, hanash, tarrad, zarraq, and perhaps al ahmar=‘ the red’ as red and brown are not always differentiated colloquially. Habitat. The snake is frequently found in buildings. Specimens have been found in a hole in a wall, in house gardens, in a heap of build- ing debris, and from a drainage pool adjoining a mosque. Diet. This snake and the species related to it have been noted as predators on small birds in Egypt by Anderson (1898, p. 284), and in the Sudan by Corkill (1935, p. 19). In Arabia, two of Anderson’s speci- mens, found in a hole in a wall (1895, p. 656) had birds in the stomach contents. Of the present collection one was taken from a bird’s nest in a school, and one from a garden had an escaped budgerigar in its belly. These snakes are frequently found in buildings which commonly harbour sparrows. | *Telescopus hoogstraali Schmidt & Marx Telescopus hoogstraali Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 33 (Wadi al Shaikh in Sinai, 2). Scale count. The scale counts were Sc. 19, V. 214-216, C. 51-59, A. 2. ELAPIDAE The family is represented in the Peninsula by two genera, Naja and Walterinnesia. For the former there has been specifically established by Scortecci (1932, p. 47) Naja haje arabica, and it seems probable that this will be valid for all Naja in the Peninsula though there are various colour forms. All specimens of Naja seen by the senior author have had two suboculars, a characteristic of Naja haje. Dickson (1949, p. 470) writes of two types of ‘ cobra’ in Kuwait and the Northern Hasa. He killed two at Araifjan which had hoods and were 42 inches and 48 inches long. Confusion with Malpolon moilensis is conceivable if it should prove that the latter in this area erects a hood, but the lengths are rather extreme. The local name is given as hanish. These are probably Naja haje arabica. He also writes of a black cobra, known as ham and iyah. This is probably Walterinnesia aegyptia which has been shown by Marx (1953, p. 189) to be synonymous with Naja morgani of farther north and north-east in SW. Asia. On a recent visit by the senior author to Abu Dhabi in the Trucial States, a snake, ‘ haiya um al ghul’=‘ demon snake’, was described as ‘ large, brown, a killer, and as inflating its throat’. A cobra was certainly the inspiration. 8 492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) Naja haje arabica Scortecci Naja haje, Anderson, 1898, p. 316 (Madina, 1). Naja haje arabica Scortecci, 1932, p. 47, (Sana, +); Parker, 1931, p.514 (Qara Mountains and Dhufar, +); idem, 1931 (a), p. 228, (in litt.); idem, 1938, p. 481 (Najran, 1) ; idem, 1941, p. 5 (Jabal Jihaf, 2) ; Haas, 1957, p. 81 (Jabal Qara, 1). Records. The present.collection contained specimens, from Abha in the Asir, Sana in the Yaman, Abyan, Musaimir (Haushabi), Mukairas, Wadi Duan, Khoraiba, and Dis in the Aden Protectorate and: Khirba Wadi Urf, and Manawara in the Mukalla area. Scale count. Anderson’s female specimen from Madina (1898, p- 316) had counts. of Sc. 21-23, V. 213, C. 54 approximating more to the Egyptian form of N. haje than to the records for N. haje arabica the published range for which is Sc. 19-21, V. 210-226, C. 62-80. Three of the author’s present collection examined in the British Museum were within these latter limits. , | ‘ Coloration. Several_colour varieties were seen. The commonest was pinkish brown with darker head and tail, and variable dark blotching on the venter. In some the head and tail were black, and in some the dorsal scales were edged with black. There were also’specimens of a uniform genoa brown, darker: on the dorsal surface. Some had a white tip: to the tail. : : arnaculescrichiied Rie eerie eae names oneoniiaeal Qara as haut and defen, and ojem for the young. A much travelled British executive from the gold mine in Mahad in Saudi Arabia informed the senior author that cobras were generally called thi’aban and were well known in Taif, Mahad, Rimah, Najd, the Yaman, and Kuwait. In the senior author’s collection, -the-specimen from. Abha., was called. jozari= ‘spring’..-In the Aden Protectorate specimens were called harsh=‘ gnawer’ and ham. These names, howevet, are there given. to any. large snake. Harsh al shams=‘ harsh of the sun’, maharagqi al tarafain=‘ of the two burnt extremities’. and its variants, maharagi al asud=‘ the black maharagqi’ and lazily maharaqi and tarafain, are all names applied specifically to the cobra. Another name believed to apply specially to the cobra is qura =‘pbald’. The name hanfish is given to a snake that ‘ blows out its throat’ and was applied to Malpolon moilensis (see above), but the cobra seems a more likely inspiration. In the Trucial States it seems that um sab ghul would sent to thé Arabian cobra (see above). Arathaid dharafu is a Mahri name collected in Habarut and was said to be used of the cobra. A Marra tribesman inspecting a preserved specimen in the senior author’s office said it was the snake that-inflated its: throat and was called in-Marra, yam. , . Habitat. Specimens.‘mentioned’ above were collected in. a ruined building in Abha, in a tin-smith’s shop where another specimen had been killed three months: before,-in -thé -dark in hilly country,.and-at-night THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 493 near a water-pump. One of a pair was killed ina palm garden near run-. ning water, one was found dead in a watercourse after flooding, and another was killed in, or adjoining, a well from whicha stock of anti- malarial larvivorous fish had disappeared (see below). No specimens were taken in extreme desert conditions, all came from paces near water or potential sources of water. : Diet. Although the local inhabitants blamed the cobra for the loss of the larvivorous fish mentioned above, an investigation of the stomach contents did not reveal any fish. | Remarks. Two lots of pairs were taken. No acceptable history of a bite by a cobra was encountered by the senior author i in thirteen years of travel in the Peninsula. The non-black cobras described by Dickson (see above) from the Hasa were probably N. haje arabica. Walterinnesia aegyptia Lataste Walterinnesia aegyptia, Haas, 1957, p. 81 Par. Dhahran, 3): Marx,. 1953, p. 189 (believes it to be synonymous with Naja morgani Mocquard). Scale count. The scale counts for the species, throughout its: geographic range, are given by Marx (loc. cit.) as Sc. 21-23, V. 180-197, C. 40-53, A. 2. From 1 to 13 of the subcaudal scales are divided. _ Vernacular names. The black cobras in the Hasa of which Dickson writes (see above) are very probably this species. They are known locally as iyah. HYDROPHIDAE -No detailed fecuidls have: been found for the presence ‘ott sea snakes in the- ‘Red Sea but Smith (1943, p.-477) writes that Pelamis platuris‘tias been. recorded. from.-thete- and -the -senior -author in 1949, while fishing in a creek at night at Khor Asfan, just north of Jiddah, saw-a snake a few feet away swimming towards the boat. The accompanying fisherman said they were common and were attracted by lights such as that of the hurricane lamp which was being used to lure fish. Sea Snakes are fairly common off the Aden Territory southern coast but the only one identified: was. a R. platurus picked up by the senior author, on the Khormaksar beach, near Aden. Sea snakes in the Aden Territory coast are commonly called hanash al bahr=‘ snake of the sea ’. In compiling the following records of sea snakes in the seas surround= ing the Peninsula, Bombay has been taken as the southern coastal limit. Astrotia stokesii (Gray) Astrotia stokesii, Smith, 1926, p. 115 (Makran Coast and Karachi, 10), idem, 1943, p. 471, (in litt. +). i eee 2s suet eee Sal) Say Scale count. The range of scale counts! recorded is Sc. 37-47,- 47-59, V. 226-286. : + The first two ranges relate to neck and widest part of bady respectively. a 404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) Enhydrina schistosa (Daudin) Enhydrina valakadien, Boulenger, 1896, p. 303 (Muscat and Karachi, 4). Enhydrina schistosa, Smith, 1926, p. 39 (Muscat and Karachi, 6) presumably includ- ing the foregoing) ; idem, 1943, p. 449, (in /itt. +) ; Corkill, 1932, p. 25, (Persian Gulf, 4); Vols@e, 1939, p. 9, (Gulf of Oman, 3). Scale count. The range of scale counts recorded is Sc. 40-55, 49-66, V, 239-322. Hydrophis cyanocinctus Daudin Hydrophis cyanocinctus, Boulenger, 1896, p. 295 (Persian Gulf, Bushire, Khor Abdulla, Karachi, Muscat, Bombay, 8); Smith, 1926, p. 57, (including the fore- going, +); idem, 1943, p. 454 (inlitt. +); Vols@e, 1939, p.9 (Iranian Gulf, 7) ; Schmidt, 1939, p. 87 (Bahrain, 2) ; Haas, 1957, p. 82 (Al Khobar in Dhahran area, 10) ; idem, 1961, p. 21 (Dhahran area, 1). Scale count. The range of scale counts recorded is Sc. 27-40, 37-47, V. 281-390. Hydrophis fasciatus fasciatus (Schneider) Hydrophis fasciatus, Smith, 1926, p. 95, quoting Wall (1921, p. 344) (Karaciai, +). Hydrophis fasciatus fasciatus, Smith, 1943, p. 465, (in litt.). Scale count. The range of scale counts recorded is Sc. 28-33, 47-58, V. 414-514. : Hydrophis lapemoides (Gray) Distira lapemidoides, Boulenger, 1896, p. 298 (Gwadar in Baluchistan, 1). Hydrophis lapemoides, Smith, 1926, p. 88 (Persian Gulf, Jask, Makran Coast, 4) ; idem, 1943, p. 461, (in litt. +) ; Vols@e, 1939, p. 9 (Iranian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, 8). Scale count. The range of scale counts recorded is Sc. 29-35, 43-51, V. 314-372. Hydrophis mamillaris (Daudin) Hydrophis mamillaris, Smith, 1926, p. 89; (Karachi and Bombay, 10) ; idem, 1943, p: 462, (in litt: +). Scale count. The range of scale counts recorded is Sc. 25-29; 35-43, 3 V. 302-390. Hydrophis ornatus ornatiis (Gray) Hydrophis ornatus, Smith, 1926, p. 83 (Muscat and Bombay, 2) ; Volsfe, 1939, p. 9 (Shatt-al-Arab, 1). Hydrophis ornatus ornatus, Smith, 1943, p. 460 (Persian Gulf, +). Scale count. The range of recorded scale counts is Sc. 28-45, 33-55, V. 209-312. ea he THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 495 Hydrophis spiralis spiralis (Shaw). Hydrophis spiralis, Smith, 1926, p. 50 (Persian Gulf, Gangestum, Karachi, Muscat, 2) ; idem, 1943, p. 453, (in litt. +) 3; Vols@e, 1939, p. 9 (Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman, 4) ; Haas, 1961, p. 21 (Dhahran, 1). Scale count. The range of scale counts recorded is Sc. 25-31, 33-38, V. 295-362. Lapemis curtus (Shaw) Lapemis curtus, Smith, 1926, p. 113 (Muscat, 1) ; idem, 1943, p. 470, (in litt. +); Vols#e, 1939, p. 9 (Persian Gulf, Straits of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman, 12). Scale count. The range of recorded scale counts is Sc. 28-35, 33-43, V. 154-194. Microcephalophis cantoris (Giinther). Microcephalophis cantoris, Smith, 1943, p. 475, (Karachi). Scale count. The range of scale counts was Sc. 21-25, 41-48, V. 404,, 468. Microcephalophis gracilis (Shaw) Hydrophis gracilis, Boulenger, 1896, p. 280 (Jask, 1). Microcephalophis gracilis, Smith, 1926, p. 123 (Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, . Makran Coast, Karachi, 6) ; idem, 1943, p. 472, (in litt. +) ; Corkill, 1932, p. 51 (Shatt- al-Arab, 1) ; Vols%e, 1939, p. 9, (Persian Gulf, 9). _ Scale count. The range of scale counts recorded is Sc. 17-23, 29-43, V. 220-287. Pelamis platurus (Linnaeus) Hydrus platurus, Boulenger, 1896, p. 208 (Karachi, 1). Pelamis platurus, Smith, 1926, p. 119 (Indian Seas, East African Coast, Bombay, 1) ; idem, 1943, p. 477, (in litt. plus ‘ Red Sea’). Scale count. The range of scale counts is Sc. 49-67, V. 264- 406. Remarks. The senior author picked up a dead specimen on Khor- maksar beach, Aden, in the early morning on a falling tide in 1956. It had a black dorsum and yellow venter. Praescutata viperina (Schmidt) Hydrophis jayakari, Boulenger, 1887, p. 408 (Muscat, 1). -Distira viperina, Boulenger, 1896, p. 299 (Bombay, 1). Thallasophina viperina, Smith, 1926, p. 35 (Persian Gulf, 1) ; Vols4 e, 1939, p.9 (Gulf of Oman, 8). Praescutata viperina, Smith, 1943, p. 448 (Persian Gulf, etc.). Scale count. The scale range was, Sc. 27-43, 37-50, V. 226-274. LEPTOTYPHLOPIDAE _ These snakes are not commonly encountered in Arabia and of the species recorded, two are apparently restricted to Socotra, Like the 496. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) family Typhlopidae, they are insignificant snakes and both forms would be spoken of as dud=‘ worm’. Leptotyphlops spp. - Two specimens were collected by the Oxford University Expedition to Socotra in 1956 (Adho Dimellus and Kischen, 2). Leptotyphlops burii (Boulenger) -Glauconia burii Boulenger, 1905, p..178 (Al Kubar in Haushabi State, 1). The species rests on One specimen only considered by Boulenger (loc. cit.) to be near G. nursii. Measurements. The length /diameter ratio was 52, and the total/tail ratio 152. Leptotyphlops filiformis (oulbteen) i Glauconia filiformis Boulenger, 1899, p. 7 ined Dahamis, feng Nese and Homhil, 4) ; idem, 1903, p. 88, (in litt.) ; Steindachner, 1903, p. 13 (Hakari in Socotra ies Leptotyphlops filiformis, Parker, 1949, p. 20, (in litt.). Measurements. The length/diameter ratio was 100-140. aS Remarks. Records of the Species are from Socotra only. Leptotyphlops macrorhynchus (Jan) Records. .The species is new for Arabia, the previous range being Iraq, Iran, and Egypt. The present collection contained a single speci- men from Aden Protectorate. Measurements. The length/ diameter ratio was 105. Leptotyphlops macrura (Boulenger) Glauconia. longicauda (non. Peters), Boulenger, 1899, P. a ENS ete Homhil, Socotra, 8). Glauconia macrura Boulenger, 1903, p. 89, (in litt.). Leptotyphlops macrura,'Parker, 1949, p. 20, (in litt.). Records. Records of the species are from Socotra only. They were taken at altitudes of 350-2500 ft. Measurements. The tenet i. diameter ratio was 40-48 and the total/ tail ratio 5-7. tee tye Leptotyphlops nursii (Anderson) | Glauconia nursii Anderson, 1896, p. 64 (Aden, 2) ; Boulenger, 1896, p. 591, (in litt.)’ Leptotyphlops yemenicus, Scertecci, 1933, p. 165 (Yaman, 1). Leptotyphlops nursii, Parker, 1938, p. 481 (Najran, 2) ; Schmidt, 1953, p. 259 (Taizz, =) Records. The present collection contains three specimens from Mecca and the Aden Protectorate. | _ Measurements. The Leaeey diameter ratio recorded is 50-51, the total/ “tailratio 10-11%. 2 : ~ a THE: SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND. SOCOTRA 497: Habitat. The Taizz specimens were taken from a rubbish heap in the town. The Mecca specimen was collected in a house garden after dark. Leptotyphlops phillipsi Barbour Leptotyphlops phillipsi Barbour, 1914, pp. 87-88 (Petra in Sinai, 13). | Measurements. The length/ diameter ratio was 86, the total / tail ratio 125. The nostril does not reach the level of the eyes asin L. macrorhynchus and the second post-ocular labial is much larger than in the latter. TYPH LOPIDAE The snakes of utig family like those of the Leptotyphlopidae would be simply called what they resemble, that is dud=‘ worm’. Typhlops braminus (Daudin) Typhlops braminus, Boulenger, 1893, p. 16 (Muscat, 1). Measurements.. The counts were Sc. 20 and the length/ diameter ratio 35-55. The length is given as ne mm, Typhlops socotranus Boulenger Typhlops sp., Giinther, 1881, p. 462 (Socotra, 2). Typhlops socotranus Boulenger, 1889, p. 362, (in litt.) ; idem, 1893, p. 21, (in litt.) ; idem, 1903, p. 88, (in Jitt. +, eons, 2D ; Parker, 1949, p. 26 (in litt. and taxonomy). Typhlops sokotranus, eueieimen: 1903, p. B (Socotra, +). Records. Records are from Socotra only. Measurements. The length/diameter ratio was 37-50. The tail was as long as broad. There were 26-28 scales round the body. Boulenger gives the length as 200 mm. Typhlops ential: (Daudin) | Typhlops vermicularis, Duméril & Bibron, 1844, p. 303 (Sinai, 4); Anderson, 1896, p. 81, (in litt.). Measurements.. The length/diameter ratio is given as 40-52 and the total/tail ratio 62. VIPERIDAE Right species of vipers are recorded from the Peninsula, of which three are relatively common, Cerastes cerastes, Echis carinata, and Echis colorata, the last two being the commonest cause of accident and death from snake bite. Though deaths do occur, the fatality rate is thought to be low. Peripheral rarities in the north are Pseudocerastes fieldii, Pseudocerastes persicus, and Atractaspis engaddensis. Vipera lebetina 498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) recorded in the Yaman is a species that is normally found much further north and Bitis arietans, a typically African species, is recorded from the | west and south, in hilly areas. Certain of these snakes being fairly common and dangerously veno- mous, as might be expected, inspire the largest amount of folklore and the greatest number of folk names for snakes in the Peninsula. : In classical Arabic, viper is afa. Kopf (1960, p. 214) discusses the word and considers it fits particularly the Echis snakes and the horned viper (Cerastes cerastes cerastes). The word is discussed in relation to vipers in general above (p. 480). In thesenior author’s experience, from Libya to the Sudan and Aden, and through Arabia and Persia to Delhi, the word _ or its variants are applied more particularly to the Echis snakes, and seemingly are derived from the f sound, made by both the Cerastes and Echis when coiling about. At the same time, clear-cut difference in form, for example the presence of horns and excessive abundance, have not ruled out the use of many other colloquial names for certain vipers (see below), most notably, the Cerastes when horned, and the commoner, and thus more dominating, FE. carinata of the two Echis species. Atractaspis microlepidota andersoni Boulenger Melanelaps mcphersoni, Wall, 1906, p. 27 (‘ Dhali’=Dhala?, N. of Aden +). Atractaspis andersoni Boulenger, 1905, p. 178 (Al Kubar in Haushabi, 5) ; Parker, 1931, p. 514 (Aizet in Qara Mts. or Dhufar, 4) ; idem, 1931 a, p. 228, (in /itt.) ; idem, 1949, p. 108 (discussion). Atractaspis microlepidota andersoni, Laurent, 1950, p. 10 (revision of genus). Records. In the present collection the specimens were collected from Kod in the Abyan area, one found preserved in a jar in Sheikh Uthman, and from unspecified localities in the western Protectorate. There is also a specimen in the British Museum, collected by Haythornwaite from Dhala. | z Scale count. The range of scale counts is Sc. 23-25, V. 219-254, C. 27-33, A. 1. The specimens in the author’s collection fell within this range. In two specimens from Kod, the tail terminates in a small. white spike. Vernacular names. Parker records the Shahari name as disos, The Kod specimens were referred to as abu ashara dagiqa=‘ of ten minutes ’, presumably in relation to the interval between bite and death. This may have been brought to Kod by the Sudanese officials at the cotton ginnery, since both the name and the belief exist in the Sudan (Corkill 1935, p. 30) applied to Atractaspis microlepidota. The name sul was also used in both Kod and the Sudan and was heard later in Abu Dhabi in the Trucial States of a black snake said to be lethally poisonous. Although only few specimens have been collected the snake is well known throughout the Aden Protectorate, where it is usually referred to as al aswadi or al aswad=‘the black one’, In Mukairas the word THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 499 jahas is used of it and in Mudia, al munassi=‘ the forgotten’. This last name is connected with the belief that the symptoms do not develop until three days after the bite, when it has been (sic) forgotten. In the Wahidi State the delay was said to be twenty-five to forty days. In Mahra at Habarut the snake was called arathaid harut=‘ snake black’. Atractaspis engaddensis Haas Atractaspis engaddensis, Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 36 (Fairan Oasis and Wadi, in Sinai, 2). Scale count. Scale counts were Sc. 28-29, V. 275-282, C. 34-36, A.1. Bitis arietans (Merrem) . Vipera arietans, Anderson, 1896, p. 55 (Hadhramaut, 1). Bitis arietans, Boulenger, 1896, p. 494, (in litt.) ; Parker, 1931, p. 514 (Qara Moun- tains and Dhufar, In, Fazul and Sa’arin, 3) ; idem, 1931 a, p. 228, (in litt.) ; idem, 1941, p. 5 (Haz in Yaman, 1) ; Schmidt, 1953, p. 253 (Taizz, 2). Records. The present collection contained two specimens, both from Sana in the Yaman. Scale count. The recorded scale range for the Arabian specimens is Sc. 25-33, V. 126-138, C. 16-25, A. 1. Vernacular names. Parker (193la p. 228) records the Shahari name dolalat from the Qara Mountains and Dhufar. Scott (1947, p. 238) writes that in the Amiri highlands, the snake was called haiya and hanash, both general names for snakes. At Raidat Maarar in a Hadhramaut escarpment the senior author heard talk of a snake, ‘ a big killer in the hills ’ called tarsha=‘ deaf one’. In the Sudan Bitis arietans shares the name nawama=‘ sleeper’ with Python regius because of their similar sluggish behaviour. In Iraq, Vipera lebetina is called the haia tarsha= ‘ deaf snake ’, and in Cyprus, kufi, which also means ‘ deaf’, apparently because it seems sluggish. In parallel B. arietans may be the ‘ deaf snake ’ of the Hadhramaut escarpment, from which in any case it has. already been recorded. Remarks. The species is characteristically African, and does not appear to be common in Southern Arabia. It is found discontinuously in the hills of the Yaman, Hadhramaut, and the Qara Mountains. Cerastes cerastes (Linnaeus) Vipera cerastes, Strauch, 1862, p. 359 (Arabah in Midian). -Cerastes cornutus, Werner, 1893, p. 359 (Sinai, +) ; Anderson, 1896, p. 82, (in litt.) ; idem, 1901, p. 151 (Abyan 1) ; Boulenger, 1896, p. 503 (Arabia, Sinai, Timaht in Midian, and Hadhramaut,4) ; Barbour, 1914, p.91 (Sinai, +). Parker, 1931, p. 514, (in Jitt.). Aspis cerastes, Parker, 1938, p. 481 (South Hadjaz, 3) ; Schmidt, 1939, p. 88 (Al Jubail, 1) ; idem, 1941, p. 165 (Junaitha, 1) ; Haas, 1961 »D. 19 (Al Hasa, 3); Haas & Battersby, 1959, p. 202 (Jabrin, 1). 500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) Cerastes cerastes, Haas, 1957, p. 82 (Dhahran, Abqaiq, Shimal and oe Shaiba in the oilfields, 23). | Records. Apart from the records mentioned above the species has been written of by various other authors. Doughty (1921, p. 313) writes of encountering it in his mid-nineteenth century travels in Midian, the Hejaz, and Najd. Thomas (1932, p. 59) writes of its being encountered . in the Rub-al-Khali as ‘inevitable’. Thesiger (1959, p. 108) writes of it as common in Atarit in the same desert. Dickson (1949, p. 470) writes of it in Kuwait and Hasa, Scott (1947, p. 25) says that it is plentiful in Shaik Uthman in Aden Territory. Philby (1939, p. 106) tells of encoun- tering three one night at Shabwa in the Hadhramaut, and Abdullah Mansur (1911, p. 337) gives an account of them between Aden and Lahej. The present collection numbers fourteen specimens of which five were horned. These came from Marrath Oasis in Saudi Arabia, Little Aden, Ahwar, Baihan, and the Thamud area on the edge of the Rub-al- Khali. Scale count. The counts given in the literature for the Arabian speci- mens are Sc. 26-39, V. 139-166, C. 31-39. Coloration. The ground colours in live specimens were yellowish, but preserved specimens ranged from yellow, through brown and pink, to grey. The specimen from Little Aden was much darker than the others. Vernacular names. Doughty (1921, p. 313) gives the name of the species in north-west Arabia as um janaib,=‘ sideways one’. Thomas collected the name of kabsh=‘ ram’ from the Rub-al-Khali, recorded by Parker (1931, p. 230, 1932, p. 344). In Baihan, the snake was called haiya which, although frequently used of snakes in general, is most commonly applied to small, yellow, superficially similar forms, such as Cerastes, Echis, and Eryx. Haiya biqurun=‘ horned haiya’ is the usual term in conversation. The name kabsh was used by a Manhali from Thamud. Other names used of this species were haiyat al qurun=‘ the haiya of the horns’, haiyat al jabal= ‘the haiya of the hills or wilderness ’, abu qurain=‘ of two horns’, and um al qurun=‘ of the horns’. At Habarut on the Mahra mainland, the corruption of the Arabic name is rabudh biskarun=‘ spotted one of the horns’. Because of its habit of occupying burrows or lying superficially buried, in sand, it shares the name dafn with Echis and Eryx. Specimens have also been labelled bathan (cf. Hebrew pethen)=‘ serpent’ and hanash al argat=‘ the spotted hanash’, which indicates some confusion with the last two genera. _. Habitat. The snake is common throughout the sandy deserts of the Peninsula, and is also found in north Africa, Iraq and Iran. Remarks. A boy was seen in Baihan playing fearlessly with large horned and unhorned specimens, and two small horned ones, one of which he teased until it bit a piece of rag. THE SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 501 Echis carinata pyramidum (Geoffroy St. Hilaire) Echis carinatus, Ginther, 1878, p. 977 (Midian, 1) ; Boulenger, 1887, p. 5. 407 (Muscat, 7); idem, 1896, p. 506, (in litt.) ; Anderson, 1895, p. 635 (Lahej, 1) ; idem, 1896, p. 83 (Hadhramaut, 1) ; idem, 1898, p. 341, (in litt.) ; idem, 1901, p. 13 (Lahej, 1); Boettger, 1892, p. 63 (Aden, +); Parker, 1931, p. 514 (Zik in Qara Mountains or Dhufar, 1); idem, 1931a, p. 228, (in litt.) ; idem, 1949, p. 106, (discussion). Echis carinata Pe i Constable, 1949, p. 156 (Snakes of Arabia referred to this sub-species).: . ‘ Records. The senior alithor’s collection included specimens taken from Buraiman, Lahej, Makhzan, Kod, Mukalla, Bagarain near Ants ale: Mola Matar, and Ghail Bawazir. —'* Scale count. . The scale counts for the Arabian Eels of this species are Sc. 27-32, V. 159-184, C. 27-48. A. female specimen in the senior -author’s collection had a ventral count of 189 and mid-body scale count of 31. It was not possible to count ihe subcaudal scales, as the specimen was damaged. — Coloration. The dorsum may be grey or yellow to brownish or reddish with darker markings having paler edging, and with or without a paler marking suggestive of a broad arrow or bird’s foot on the head. The effect of the paler markings is to suggest a wavy line down each flank. In a well- marked’ specimen the aptness of the name, ‘carpet viper ’, is clear. The belly may be clear white or tinged yellow, or may be speckled black or brown. In some specimens ‘markings may be insignificant. Vernacular names. Echis carinata shares several folk names and folk attributes with Echis colorata, due to the great similarity between the two species. In Aden Territory, a common name applied to them both is ofa with its variants, perhaps more frequently in the West. In the East dhuffa=‘ cow-pat’” is commoner, and. refers to their appearance when coiled up and lying on the ool The most commonly used name, however, .is dafn = ‘“burier’. Tiiis last: is widely applied to the Echis snakes and i inspires a local jingle, one version of which is : idha ladagak. al dafn jahiz al. ganna wa al kafn. 5... TIf-you are bitten by the dafn Prepare for Paradise arid the shroud.] | The word afa has many variants, such as fa, fai, fai, fau, which may be regarded as partly mimetic in origin (see above, p. 480). Inspired by the rustle of the coils moving over one another, more definitely so are the names fakhukh, fakhakk, fakhakha, and fashish. These are more local in.application, and together with the forms um jahausha, majahausha, (=um jahausha), and warash recall the mimetic colloquial names for E. carinata in the Sudan (Corkill 1935, p. 29), involving f and sh sounds. In reference to the white wavy lines along the sides of the typical E.. carinata, the classical name dhu al tafitain=‘ of the two festoons ’ G =_ 5902. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) was heard once in 13 years. When the markings present are clearly defined as spots, the names ragta, rabudh, and hanash argat all meaning ‘ spotted ’ are used. In Jiddah specimens were called um janaib (a name used of Cerastes in Najd and Iraq), a Najdi giving the variant um jannab. A visiting Marra tribesman seeing a specimen in the office at Mukalla, said it was an invaisha. At Raidat Abdul Wadud, a local official said the dhuffa was also known as jid al Saiban=‘ the male ancestor of the Saiban’. The latter are a local tribe on the Hadhramaut escarpment. The name rather suggests a pre-Islamic cult vestige. Habitat. The snake is usually found in rock, sand, gravel, and sparse xerophytic vegetation. Records of places in which specimens were taken include: near hospital buildings, near prison buildings, in a village, in a palace and other gardens, in cotton cultivation, and on a road in flooded ground. . Diet. A gerbille was found in the stomach of one of the specimens in the senior author’s collection. Remarks. In Ghail Bawazir, a small boy was seen handling the snake quite fearlessly. Two specimens responsible for non-fatal bites were brought in with patients, in Makhzan and Mukalla. The cases recovered but on the whole the lethality implied in the jingle (see above, p. 501), exaggerated though it is, is borne out by clinical experience. All serious cases of snake poisoning in the Territory for which there are acceptable records have had haemorrhagic symptoms characteristic of poisoning by this species. Occasional deaths undoubtedly occur. Echis colorata Gtnther Echis coloratus Giinther, 1878, p. 988 (Jebal Sharr in Midian, 1) ; idem, 1881, p. 463 (Socotra, 1); Boulenger, 1887, p. 408 (Muscat, +) ; idem, 1896, p. 507, (in litt.) ; idem, 1903, p. 91 (discussion on Socotran record) ; Anderson, 1896, p. 83 (Hadhramaut, 1); idem, 1898, p. 343, (in litt.) ; Barbour, 1914, p. 90 (Akaba, 1); Parker, 1938, p. 481 (Hajaz, 1) ; idem, 1949, p. 105 (discussion on Socotran record) ; Dickson, 1949, p. 470 (Kuwait area, 2) ; Schmidt & Marx, 1956, p. 36 (Fairan Oasis and Al Raba in Sinai, 3) ; Haas & Battersby, 1959, p. 202 (northern Hadhramaut, 1). Records. The present additions number 10 specimens from ‘ Aden Territory ’, Little Aden, Jaar in the Abyan area, Jol Bahawa, and Fuwa, Khurba, and Riyan in the Mukalla area. Scale count. The scale counts for the Arabian specimens were Sc. 31-35, V. 174-205, C. 44-54. The two specimens in the senior author’s collection that were not too mutilated to be accurately counted had scale counts within this range. Vernacular names. This species is frequently confused with E. carinata, and it is not therefore surprising to find that apart from dhu al tafiten (inspired by a boldly marked E.carinata) the same names, already mentioned above, are used by the Arabs for both species. As mentioned above the health assistant from Socotra, who was trained in Mukalla and who knew the snakes of both the island and the Tiiii SNAKES OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 403 mainland, insisted that the dhuffa, the word used on the mainland of both Echis species, occurred in Socotra, and was there known as diatib. E.colorata has, in fact, but possibly erroneously, been recorded from the island (see above). He could not remember any serious cases of snake bite on the island, however, and none at all that had suffered from hae- maturia, a characteristic of viperine poisoning. Every other species recorded from the island is endemic, and it is possible that the snake is confused with the viper-like Ditypophis vivax (see above, p. 486). Unless another Echis colorata is found on the island, its occurrence there must remain doubtful. Habitat. Of the specimens collected by the senior author, one came from under palm branches in a grass hut, one from water in a water- course, and one from a mud hut. Remarks. One bit a boy who, although up and about the next day, was said five months later to be still troubled with a swollen foot limiting complete freedom of movement. Pseudocerastes fieldi Schmidt Pseudocerastes fieldii Schmidt, 1930, p. 227 (Bair Wells and Um Wa’al in Jordan 1) ; idem, 1939, p. 88, (in litt.) ; Flower, 1930, p. 224 (South of Hassanat in Sinai, pre- sumed fieldii, 1) ; Haas, 1957, p. 82 (Sakara near Jauf, 1). Pseudocerastes persicus (Duméril & Bibron) Pseudocerastes persicus, Laurent, 1948, p. 9 (Lingah, Persian Gulf, 1). Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 25, C. 44. Vipera lebetina (Linnaeus) Vipera lebetina, Scortecci, 1932, p. 39 (Sana in Yaman, 1). Scale count. The scale count was Sc. 23-27, V. 147-180, C. 29-51, A. 1. Records. This is the southernmost record for the species, and rather remote from the normal distribution some 15° further north. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Acknowledgements are gratefully made by the senior author to Dr. H. W. Parker, formerly of the British Museum, for identification of certain material over many years, and by both authors to Miss A. G. C. Grandison of the Museum’s present staff for personal help, facilities, and access to comparative material related to the additions to the Museum’s collection, which are dealt with in this paper. For specimens, field notes or records of snake poisoning, it is a pleasure to express indebtedness to Dr. A. Affara, Aden B. P. Refinery Hospital, K. R. M. Anthony Esq., Maj. St. J. Armitage, Shaikh Hadi Bahayan, Z. R. Beydun Esq., Dr. A. Bittar, P. K. Booker Esq., Dr. K. P. Cruse, 504. JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) - Dr. H. Duhm, Dr. A. L. Fawdry, Mr. Gunn, Dr. E. T. Gonnet; Dr. Hayatt, Dr. A. S. Hassan, J. Hewitt Esq., Dr. E. Hoek, Dr. T. S. Japan: wala, Dr. C. R. Jones, P. Kershaw Esq., Shaikh Mohammed Kharusi, Capt. F. Mansfield, J. McEwan Esq., Dr. G. D. Morris, H. St. J. Philby Esq., G. Popov Esq., Dr. K. V. Ranade, Group Capt. Rice, Dr. H. K. Robertson, Dr. B. R.'‘S. Gupta, Dr. R: B. Smith, Lt. Col. I. E: Snell, A.C, Trott Esq., Mr. Wade, G. Wall Bele Mrs. B. peellss and D. Watts Esq. Special thanks are due to the Amb staff of the Aden: Protectorate Health Service, notably Abdul Hamid Abdul Qawi, Abdullah Audhali, Abu Bakr Awadh Abaad, Ahmad Muhammad Aidarus, Ali Said Shaabi, Awadh Nasir, Fadhl Said, Hassan Ahmad ba Abad, Mahfud al Amari, Muhammad Ahmad Mahairi, Muhammad Ba Ras, Muhammad: Abdul Rabu, Muhammad Qasim Muflahi, Muhamad Salim Ali, Muhammad Salim Yafa’i, Muhammed Uthman, Nasir Farid, Salah Rubaiya Ghabri, Salim Ahmad Bajuban, Salim Ahmad Hassani, Salim Mahfud Haidar, Shaikh Ahmad Bawazir, and Thani bin Ali. Particular acknowledge- ment is made to Chief Health Inspector Sayyid Omar Khamur of the Qu’aiti State Service for much of the material collected, and to the senior author’s clerical staff, Mr. Hussain Rugai, and Mr. “Muhammad Ockba for translation of manuscripts, labels, Ln. notes. -~cRBHFERENCES ~* ABDULLAH MANSUR — “agity? Land of Uz. pp. 337. London. Macmillan. ADEN PROTECTORATE HEALTH SERVICE (1957) : Quinquennial Report 1951-55 on the Aden Protectorate Health Service including the Annual Report for 1955 65.- -Aden: - Government ee ANDERSON, J. (1871): A’ list. p shen Reptilian Accessions to the Indian Museum; Calcutta, from-1865-1870, with -- Descriptions of new Species. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 40 (2) : 12-38. ———— (1889): Report on _ the Mammals, chiefly from the Mergui Archipelago, collected for the Trustees of the Indian ‘Museum. J. Linn. ‘Soc. Lond. 20 : 331- 350.- eed (1895) : On a collection of Reptiles and Batrachians made by Col. Yerbury at Aden and its neighbourhood. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. : 635-663. - —— (1896): A Contribution to the Herpetology of Arabia. London. R.H. Porter. ———— (1898) : Zoology of Egypt. 1. Reptilia. and Batrachia. London. Bernard Quaritch. ——— (1901): A list of the reptiles and batrachians obtained by-Mr.-A.-B. - .->- The’ Reptiles and Batrachians,~ DRS sie ry Bercivali in Rouiheat Atabia Broz. ‘ool. Soc. Lond. 11 : 137-152. ANGEL, F.; & -LHOTE,. ay? (1938):: Reptiles et amphibiens du Sahara central --et du :Soudan. Bulls €om: A.O.F. 21; Base -384. BALOZET, “L- Cosa = La vipere 1ébé- tine et son venin. Arch.. Inst. Pasteur Alger. 35 : 220-295. BarsBour, T. (1914) : reptiles from Sinai and Syria. New Engl. zool. Club 5 : 73-92. __BEDRIAGA, J. V. (1879) : Verzeichniss Notes on: Sonne Proc: -der Amphibien und Reptilien Vorder— Asiens. Nat. _ Moscou, 27 22-53..- BoettcrEr, O. (1892).: Mitteilung uber Bull. Soc. - eine Reptiliensendung von Aden in Sud Arabien: Ber. Offenb. Ver. Nat. 29 (30) : 61-63. BOuULENGER, G. A. (1887): A list éF the Reptiles and Batrachia obtained near Muscat, Arabia, and presented to the British Museum, by Surgeon Major A. S. G. Jayakar. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (5) 20 : 407-408. ——_—— (1887a): Description of a new snake from Nase Arabia.. ibid. (6) 2: 508, pe ‘ Sg tae Fie Ne wee et THE SNARES-OF THE ARABIAN PENINSULA AND SOCOTRA 305 BOULENGER, G. A. (1889) : Description of new Typhlopidae in British Museum. ibid. (6) 4: 360-363. #4 —_——— (1890): Fauna of British India including Ceylon and Burma. Reptilia and Batrachia. Fauna of India Report : 365. London. ————_ (1891): Notes on Trans- caspian Reptiles. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. : 628-633. 2 7(1891a) : Trans. ‘zool: Soe. Lond. 13 : 15. yj = 5 (1893): Catalogue .of the Snakes in the British Museum l. London. British Museum. (1894) : ditto 2. (1896) : ditto 3. (1895): An Account of the Reptiles and Batrachians collected by Dr. A. Donaldson Smith in Western Somaliland and the Galla Country. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. : 530-540. _—_—— _ (1899) : Description of new Species of Reptiles collected by Dr. H. O. Forbes and Mr. W. R. Ogilvie- Grant in the Islands of Abd-el-Kuri and Socotra. Bull. Liverp. Mus. 2: 4-7. (1903): The reptiles of Socotra. In Forbes (1903), pp. 88-94. (Snakes 88-91). ———— (1905) : Description of three new snakes discovered in S. Arabia by Mr._W. G..Bury. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (7) 16:178.... . era Seek “a (1920) 7A. list. -o€ Snakes from Mesopotamia. J. Bombay nat. Hist.. Soc. 27 :. 347-350. aed Buck Ley, E. E., & PorGes, N. (1956) : Venoms. Publication No. .44-.of the American Association. for the. Advance- ment of Szience, Washington, D.C. :.-311. ConSsTABLE, J. D. . (1949) :- Reptiles from the Indian Peninsula in the Museum of. Comparative Zoology. Bull. .Mus. Comp. Zool. Harv. Coll, 103 (2) : 156. -— CorkiLt, N. L. (1932): Snakes. and Snake Bite in Iraq: 51, London. Bail- liére, Tindall and Cox. a » iF -_ (1935): Notes. on Sudan Snakes : 19. . Khartoum... Sudan Government. | — (1956): Snake poisoning in the Sudan : 311, in Buckley & Porges (1956). ———— (1962): The Snakes of Aden Territory. Aden Port Annual 1961-62: 78-81. Aden. Port Authority. Dickson, H.R. P. (1949): The Arab of the Desert: 470-472. London. G. Allen and Unwin Ltd. Doucuty, C. M. (1921): Travels in Arabia Deserta. 1 : 251, 313, 328, 448; 2: 299. London. Jonathan Cape Ltd. DumeérIL, A. M. C., & BIBRON, G. (1844): Erpétologie Generale 6: 303. Paris. (1854) : ditto 7. Fiower, S. S. (1930): On the occur- rence of Pseudocerastes in Sinai. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (10) 6: 224. Forsses, H. O. (1903): The Natural History of Socotra and Abd-el-Kuri. Bull. Liverp. Mus. Boulenger on reptiles : 88-94. Liverpool. Henry Young and SOUS. ae: ForskaL, P. (1775): Descriptiones Animalium etc. : 14. Gans, C. (1959): A taxonomic re- vision of the African snake genus Dasy- peltis (Reptilia : Serpentes). Ann. Mus. Roy. Congo Belg., ser. 88°, Sc. Zool. 74: 1-237. (1961) : Mimicry in procrypti- cally colored snakes of the Genus Daw poe eee 15 : 72-91. UNTHER, .. (1858): Catalo } Snakes: 106. London. im iat as = (3/8) One reptiles from Midian collected by Major Burton. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. : 977-978. === (1881): Descriptions of the amphisbaenians and ophidians collected Pe ates spliced ahs in the island of Socotra. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond. 3 461-463. Paine Haas, G. (1943): On a collection of reptiles from Palestine, Transjordan end. sina: Gopeia: 10415. —— + ii — .(1957).: Some amphibians and reptiles from..Arabia. -Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci. (4).294 : 47-86. -------—- are — Dees plage of rabian reptiles. Ann. -Carneg.- Mus. 36: 19-28. Soe oo ——, & BATTERsBY, J. C. (1959): Amphibians and. reptiles -from--Arabia. Gopeia:: 196-202, ° 0) elt eG _ Hart, H.C. (1891) : Flora and: Fauna of Sinai, -Petra -and.-Wadi Arabah 209-210: London. A. P. Watt. - JAN, G. (1865) : In De Filippi. in Pers. : 356. me Ree : KEIMER, L. (1945) : Notes au sujet de I’hieroglyphe (Aspis cerastes) etc. Etudes d’Egyptologie, No. 7: 1-49. i Kopr, L. (1960): The Encyclopedia of Islam: 214.- Leiden. E. J; Brilt. KRAMER, E., & SCHNURRENBERGER, H. (1958) : Zur Schlangenfauna von: Libyen: Aquar. Terrar \(a): 56-59. : — (1959): Ziir Systematik Lybischer Schlangen. Mitt. naturf. Ges. Bern., N.S., 17: 1-17. LAURENT, R. (1948) : Notes sur quel- ques reptiles appartenant a la collection du Museé2 Royal d’ Histoire Naturelle de Belgique. 11, Formes asiatiques_ et neoguineennes. Bull. Mus. Hist. nat. Belg. 24 (17): 1-12. (1950): Revision du genre Atractaspis A. Smith. Mem. Inst. roy. Sci. nat. Belg. (2) 38: 1-49. Viagg. 506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) MAATSCHIE, P. (1893): Ueber einige von Herr Oscar Neumann bei Aden gesammelte u beobachtete Saugethiere, Reptilien und Amphibien. Sitz. Ges. naturf..fr.. Beris: 27-34... Marx, H. (1953) : The elapid genus of snakes Walterinnesia. Fieldiana, Zool., 34: 189-196. PARENTI, P., & PICAGLIA, L. (1886) : Rettilied anfibi raccolta da P. Parenti nel viaggio di circumnavigazione della, R. Corvetta ‘ Vettor Pisani’. Atti Soc. Modena, Mem. (3) 5 : 26-96. PARKER, H. W. (1930): Three new reptiles from Southern Arabia. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (10) 6 : 594-598. ———— (1931): Some reptiles and amphibians from South East Arabia. ibid. (10) 8 : 514-522. ——— (193la): Reptiles and am- phibians. In Bertram Thomas’s (1931) ‘A Camel Journey across the Rub-al- Khali’. Geograph. J. 78: 228-230. (1932) : Reptiles and amphi- bians. In Thomas’s ARABIA FELIX: 341-44. London. Jonathan Cape. (1933) : Reptiles and amphi- bians. In St. J. B. Philby’s THE EMPTY QUARTER : 397-8. London. Constable and Co. Ltd. ———— (1938) : Reptiles and amphi- bians from the Southern Hejaz. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (11) 1: 481-492. (1941): British . Museum (Nat. Hist.). Expedition to S.W. Arabia, 1937-8 : 11; Reptiles and amphibians : 3-6. London. British Museum (Nat. Hist.). (1949): The Snakes’ of Somaliland and the Sokotra Islands. Zool. Verh. Leiden 6: 1-115. Putsy, R. St. J. B. (1939) : Sheba’s Daughters: 106. London. Methuen and Co. Ltd. Reuss, A. (1834) : Mus. Senck.1 : 142. ScHMIpDT, K: P. (1930): Reptiles of Marshall Field North Arabian Desert Expeditions 1927-28. Zool. Ser. Field Mus. nat. Hist. Chicago 17: 223-30. ———-—=— (1933); A‘: new Snake (Rhynchocalamus arabicus) from Arabia. ibid. 20 : 9-10. (1939) : Reptiles and amphi- bians from South-Western Asia. ibid. 24 (7) : 49-92. —— (1941): Reptiles and amphi- ee aoe Central Arabia. ibid. 24 (16) : (1953): Amphibians and reptiles of the Yemen. Fieldiana, Zool., 34(24) : 253-261. ———, & Marx, H. (1956): The herpetology of Sinai. ibid. 39(4) : 21-40. ScortTecci, G. (1932): Rettili dello Yemen. -»Aztti Soc: ‘ital: Sci... nat. Ti = 39-49. ———— (1932a): Descrizione preli- minare di un nuovo ofidio ed un anfibio della Somalia Italiana. ibid. 71 : 58-60. (1933) : Leptotyphlops yemenicus, sp. n. ibid. 72: 165. : ScoTT, H. (1947) : Inthe High Yemen : 25, 72, 238. London. J. Murray. SMITH, M. (1926): Monograph of the Sea-snakes. London. British Museum. (1943) : The Fauna of British - India, Ceylon, and Burma, Reptilia and Amphibia. 3,Serpentes. London. Taylor and Francis. STEINDACHNER, F. (1903): Batrachier und Reptilien aus Stidarabien und Sor Os Sber. Akad. wiss. Wien. 112: STRAUCH, A. (1862): Essai d’une Erpétologie de l’Algerie. Mem. Acad. Sci. St. Petersb. 7 (7): 1-85. THESIGER, W. (1959) : Arabian Sands : 108. London. Longmans. THomas, B. (1932): Arabia Felix. : 59-148. London. Jonathan Cape. VoLsE, H. (1939) : The sea snakes of the Iranian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. Danish. Sci. Invest. in Iran. Copen- hagen. Part I: 9. WALL, F. (1906): A new snake (Melanelaps mcphersoni) from the Aden _Hinterland. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 17 : 27-28. WERNER, F. (1893) =, Bemerkungen iiber Reptilien und Batrachier aus dem - tropischen Asien und von der Sinai Halbinsel. Verh. zool. bot. Ges. Wien. : 349-359. See Metrical and Non-metrical Variation in the Skulls of Gir Lions BY NeiL B. Topp, Ph. pb. Animal Research Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts (With three plates) INTRODUCTION The story of the Indian lion has been told and retold in nearly as many ways as times, but with the exception of the papers by Pocock (1930, 1935), Dharmakumarsinhji & Wynter-Blyth (1951), Wynter-Blyth (1949, 1951, 1956), and Wynter-Blyth & Dharmakumarsinhji (1950) very little of value has been contributed to the topic. Even Pocock’s admirable and very useful efforts were greatly hampered by a lack of evidence and material, for when his paper of 1930 was published the frag- mentary remains of only a dozen or so Indian lions were available to him - throughout the world. Furthermore, only three skulls which he was able to study represented wild-killed animals. This unfortunate situa- tion has been corrected in part by subsequent collection of material and especially by the good fortune of recently obtaining a series of nearly complete skulls and mandibles representing 20 Gir lions. These skulls were ‘found’ in November 1963, in a compound adjacent to the Forest Guest House at Sasan Gir. They had been gathered from the Sasan Range of the forest by shikaris over the preceding 5-10 years and allegedly were the remains of animals which had died natural deaths. Although this paper commences with a comparative study of Gir and African lions, it must be stated at the outset that this comparison is made only to demonstrate features characteristic of Gir lions which may then be studied within the Gir population. Beyond this there are serious theoretical objections attaching to the interpretations of an inter-popula- tion comparison. The principal objection revolves around the fact that 1 Some may have been dispatched by local herdsmen both by poisoning and in at least one instance by what might be reasonably interpreted as a gunshot wound. It was also mentioned by shikaris that some lions had drowned during the monsoon season in 1963. The condition of these specimens is tolerably good in spite of the fact that most of the canine teeth have been removed and the turbinals in most cases are missing. Some of the specimens show the results of having been molested by village dogs, which may also account for the missing mandibles. 9 508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) the Gir population has been and still is subject to phenomena peculiar to small populations. Ordinarily differences which are found between two populations are attributed directly or indirectly to extrinsic factors on the assumption that both populations approach the classical Hardy- Weinberg model where the effects of inbreeding and chance are insigni- ficant. The Gir population which apparently dwindled to about 25 animals around the turn of the century (Wynter-Blyth 1951) obviously does not conform to this ideal, thereby limiting or invalidating the usual interpretive procedures. A detailed intra-population study is under way, some aspects of which will be discussed below, but the main part of this undertaking will be presented in a future paper. METHODS As a preliminary to the investigation of the Gir lion skulls, a sample of African skulls! was measured in order to generate, albeit somewhat arbitrary, a reference population. This reference population consists of a group of 31 skulls best described as ‘ P. /eo-African races’. More precisely it is comprised of the individuals indicated in Table I. All TABLE I SUBSPECIFIC AND SEX IDENTIFICATIONS (AS PER MUSEUM NOTES) OF THE REFERENCE POPULATION ‘ P, Jeo-African races ” tm ee reno ee ee at ea Male Female ? P. leo krugeri 8 P. leo massaica 2 P. leo nyanzae y) P. leo abyssiniae 0 2 14 P. leo subspp. captive-born or raised animals, where known or suspected, have been rejected, as these have been shown to be greatly modified by captivity, especially as regards the skull (Hollister 1917). Only those specimens whose sex was recorded and a few which were unmistakably those of males or females because of size and age characteristics have been placed in one or the other category. In the unsexed group there are probably rather more females than males. The only fundamental objection to this group as a reference for the present purpose is that there appears to 1 Specimens in the collection at the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University. VARIATION IN THE SKULLS OF GIR LIONS 509 have been some preference for large size in assembling the Museum collec- tion. This problem, however, has been taken into account as will be discussed in the analyses reported below. Table II gives the measure- ments of the sample ‘ P. /eo-African races’ and Table III presents the same measures taken of 16 of the Gir skulls collected in 1963.1 The “measures made are only a portion of those which would ordinarily be employed in a ‘ classical’ study, but they are more than sufficient for the various statistical analyses which have been performed. All measure- ments have been made to the nearest millimetre. i DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Three analyses of the data from the measurements have been made. All were performed on the IBM 7049 computer, Computation Labora- tory, Harvard University. The first, a component analysis* serves to indicate principal underlying components in the total variance of the sample and is a measure of redundancy in the measurements taken as a whole. The first principal underlying component explains approximately 95% of the total variance, and represents size almost assuredly as the ranking of individual specimens on this scale reveals. The second com- ponent, accounting for about 3% of the total variance, perfectly discri- minates between the populations of ‘ P. /eo-African races’ and ‘ P. leo- Gir’ and, therefore, may be thought of as'a measure of ‘ African-ness ’ r ‘Gir-ness’ of these groups. The third component, accounting for about 2% of the variation in these samples, has not been attributed to any particular characteristic, and none of the remaining components clearly relate to sex, a fact which serves to increase confidence in comparisons of the two populations, as there might otherwise be reservations about the differences in sex ratios of the two groups. The second analysis? examines the differences in the means of indi- vidual variables between the populations. The variables chosen for this analysis are the ratios of measurements to a standard length (condylo- basal length), i.e. a series of indices. This manipulation effectively elimi- nates size as a variable. In Table IV the means for each variable and the 1 Measurements were made as follows: (1) Condylobasal length=basal length from anterior end of premaxillary to inferior notch between condyles; (2) Palatal length=length from anterior end of premaxillary to anterior end of posterior nasal opening ; (3) Muzzle width=greatest width across muzzle at border of canine alveoli ; (4) Intraorbital width =least width between superior border of orbits ; (5) Postorbital constriction=least width; (6) Zygomatic width=—greatest width across zygomatic arches; (7) Palatal width=width between inner roots of superior carnassials; (8) Mastoid width=greatest width across mastoid processes ; (9) Condyle width= greatest width across condyles. 2BIMD 02—Component Analysis. BIMD Computer Programs Manual, eon of Biostatistics, School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles. 1961 SBossert, Wm. Analysis of Taxonomic Character Difference. Unpublished Manuscript. 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SIOVA NVOIWAY-09] ‘dg, JO SINAWANNSVAW TIONNS ° Il aIav S11 VARIATION IN THE SKULLS OF GIR LIONS 9¢ SUOT}eULIAGXd IO} J] IQeI, 99S "LON aR RR SSS SSS SSS SSS SSS SS SS SSS ee ra Se OY a Gin CC) DG RG GLC eee ae 5 (BE) OC LOG nC soc BC Lem AOS a ee YIPIM e[ApuoD Sm Slee COl = Vil = POle REL + Cle LN aPid PURIT ee COL: Cll O11la SIl— cect lies om UIPIM PIOse eC a Oe erika P99: PL ACR tie Ch Ob a0 Oe. GRE IG) te EY BO. SG), a 3g: a5 2s WIPIM Tee[ed Sie a2 SOC .. 061 10G (SLI) = S61 920 = E61 SBI POT - See- OTS Lol= “Set ca “* UIPIAA OFRUOSKZ Coe oranCG Fey 0G Fe SC CC mae ec wee ce ao apt PORES UOIDIISUOD [e}1G.10)S0d Ciera lO = OG eek 2 CG C88 Ci Le EG A OF REL ye CO: Pe cia Ng — = bo | "* UPI Teyqsoeruy 1G OSL EO tu che CPt aeCR Zou Sy iis Te Sy ie ag Ss 8 © cess eae B UIPIA AZZ] Cla SEN is, SEL Sal ST LCE s Ghl ae Cele sy Pel wa SCL Spl, Hele Cla LCL OFT | te yisusT [eyed O8S 8SZ SEZ OST 2% O9T PBZ Phe GET HST OBZ Gh Bre ISzZ zz | yisusT yeseqo[Apuop CEL COEL IGET GEL POEL E9EL ESET GZEE E6ZI Z6TI 89TI LOTE SSZI_ PSZI Jaquinu uswisedg 16cI SSS SSS ee .JID-0a] ‘gd , JO SLINANAYNSVAW TIANA TI] STav LE 512, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) distance (standard deviation) between the two means are presented. As a distance of 2°0 or two standard deviations indicates a significant difference at the 95% level, it can be seen at once that in no single index is there a significant difference. Statistically this means that there is nothing to explain and biologically it implies that the individual differences explain nothing. As a matter of interest, the same procedure was performed to compare independently both of the present lion popu- lations to a series of measurements made on tiger skulls. Again, no significant differences between individual variables were found. The third analytical procedure employed was a discriminant analysis. 2 Stated simply, this statistical manoeuvre reduces all the indices of all the specimens of the respective populations to two numerical values. These values are, in fact, the means of the distributions of the individual speci- mens which, similarly, may be represented by single numerical values. For each of the indices a coefficient of discriminant function is generated. This coefficient times the means for each of the indices of the respective populations gives the means of the populations, while the sum of the products of these coefficients times the indices of a given specimen yields a value representing the position of that specimen in the population distri- bution. According to the relationship of the two distributions to one another, conclusions regarding the significance of difference between the distributions can be made. In this particular case, the distance between the means of the two population distributions exceeds 2°0 standard devia- tions and there is no overlap between the distributions. The conclusion is, therefore, that in addition to being significantly different at the 95% level, a perfect discrimination can be made for individuals drawn from either of the populations compared on the basis of the measurements taken. Table V shows the distribution given by this analysis while Table IV gives the means, coefficients of discriminant function, products of these, and the per cent contribution to the difference between the population means for the eight products. While these latter calculations cannot be directly equated to the relative importance of the eight variables used in the discrimination, they do fairly draw attention to those which contri- bute most to the discriminating potential. This in turn stimulates curiosity as to the possible biological significance of the aggregate differences. Referring to Plate I, the regression lines for all measure- ments vy. standard length have been plotted. Since the regression line for any two variables passes simultaneously through the means of the two variables, that point defines the mean ratio of the two variables. These mean ratios are, in fact, the indices which are employed in the discriminant analysis. However, it must be remembered that it is the 1BIMD 05—Discriminant analysis-two groups. .BIMD Computer Programs Manual, Division of Biostatistics, School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles. 1961. a3 VARIATION IN THE SKULLS OF GIR LIONS UOISSNISIP JOJ 1X9} 9OGS—"ALON ~ a a nen ee eee 000-1 0£90-1 — ¢8ss-0- suv UOT}e]Ndod 961 - c£80-1 IC81-1 9L0C-S c89- 80C- LCC: PIAA SJApuoD £10- T€c0-1 — y9c0-1 — COET-C — £80- COP: 6SP- WIPIM Prowse ¢LO- pris -i— LOLY Vis 60S1-S— 68C- V6C- 998: QIPIM [eye] ed 900- LEle-= O80C- — ¢S9¢-0— CCE C6L- SEsl- YIPIM OeUIOSAZ PLI- £098. C8h6- ILLI-P CVS: 90¢- LCC- UOTSITJSUOT) ]ey1g.10180g COs 9660- C60: 9100-0 I8Z- 8VC- CEC: UIPIM [e11g10eI}U] L87: VO9E / VICE — T8SE-O1 — Leo. SCE: IT¢- WIPIM 22207 19¢- L8I0-€ COST-€ 9686-S 998- vOs- 9cS- ysusT [eyeyed (9) (suvsy] soUudIOyIG DEX 7 aT uoljouny oy} U90M490q AID , Sd0e1 UPDTIY 0} UOTNGII} ura uray JUCUTWTIOSIGG SUOT}EIANG piep -OI] “d, -0I] “d, -U0Z 1099 13g ynpolg ynpoig JO WUSIOYJI0_D -UP}S) 9OULISIC, ZNVAW I NVAW nnn neers eres seers errr SSS SSS SSS SS ssl SSSR, SSS SISATVNV LNVNIWIXOSIG GNV FJONFaaIIG AALOVAVHO OIWONOXVL JO SISATVNV NI GHAOTAWa SANTVA INGEECKCAR 514. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) distributions about these means and not the means themselves nor the regression lines which form the basis of the discrimination between populations. Hence the differences or similarities between any pair of regression lines cannot be taken as implying anything about significance, as shown by the second analysis. Nevertheless, as the aggregate TABLE V / POPULATION DISTRIBUTIONS GIVEN BY DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS ‘P. leo-African Races’ *P. leo-Gir’ Rank 1 —0°3635 2 —0°3861 3 —0°4066 4 —0°4099 5 —0°4125 6 —0°4237 7 —0°4528 8 —0°4926 9 —0°4978 10 —0°5015 11 —0°5124 12 —0°5141 is —0:5200 14 —0°5282 15 —0°5380 1L6P ox —0°5511 17 —0'5688 18 —0°5696 19 —0°5697 20 —0°5723 21 —0:5907 22 —0°6265 23 —0°6545 24 —0°6600 25 —0°6623 26 —0:6847 27 —0°6945 28 —0°7091 29 —0°7249 30 —0:7250 31 —0:°7474 32 —0°8332 (BNHS 1364) 33 — 09322 (BNHS 1329) 34 —0:9730 (BNHS 1293) £5) —0°9974 (BNHS 1392) 36 —1:014 (BNHS 1292) 37 —1:067 (BNHS 1393) 38 — 1:067 (BNHS 1353) 39 — 1:07] (BNHS 1255) 40 — 1084 (BNHS 1363) 4] — 1:096 (BNHS 1254) 4? Sette (BNHS 1268) 43 vires, (al 1G bo (BNHS 1267) 44 — 1°134 (BNHS 1389) 45 —]°149 (BNHS 1396) 46 —1:165 (BNHS 1291) 47 —1°203 (BNHS 1391) ities Se a SS [pee ano! Sapa jee r eh ea aerate sliver . Py UW AGy aby yAL wey, A ins Pot fl Udy ah ONE a BT Ra ahaa ae a nee wiih tat ae a ney ’ i a) 1 : Bene ) ier, rn) f a f x2 A “UOISSNDSIP JOJ 3X9} 99G “UPI ONVWIOBAZ = AZ * UpIM [eyejed = Ad ‘yjduay, peyejed = Tq { yIpIM a[zznw = ZW SwPIM pilose = SW fWpPIM yeyqornul= oO; {yp aApuos = qo (C1) soovs uvolW-o0a/ ‘qd pue (QO) WH-0a ‘d JOJ (WUE UT) USUI] PIepUeys ‘4 S}USWOINSvOUT [[NYs JO Soul] WOIssoIBIY OSZ Ovez O€2 O22 O12 O02 O6I O8i OL! O9I OSI Ovi Of! Oci Olli OO! O6 O8 OL O9 OS OF [eles ;O1€ ee) O2e [| dLVTd 00S ‘LSIH ‘LVN AVaNog ‘Nuno¢ VARIATION IN THE SKULLS OF GIR LIONS 515 differences are significant it is therefore profitable to look at the nature of the individual differences, especially those which contribute most to the discriminating potential. In comparing the skulls of the two popu- lations a differentiation into a facial and cranial portion or neuraxial and non-neuraxial portion appears. The measurements~ indicate that the Gir lion tends to be broader but shorter in the facial or non-neuraxial region than the African lion, while in the cranial or neuraxial region this tendency is reversed. In Gir lions, the mastoid dimension shows an interesting pattern when compared to African animals. The smaller (and presumably younger) Gir specimens are relatively narrower in this measurement while larger specimens are relatively broader. It would appear that the mastoid width is determined by a neuraxial influence (brain size) in younger animals but in progressively more mature indi- viduals, a non-neuraxial relationship becomes more pronounced as its development is increasingly influenced by musculature. These observa- tions suggest that the determination of cranial capacities for the two populations might yield interesting results. With regard to non-metrical and inter- and intra-population studies it is appropriate to consider the following facts at this time. Pocock (1930), in summarizing the differences between Indian and African lion skulls, mentions the flatness of the auditory bullae in the former. Among _ the present sample this distinction is readily apparent. Pocock’s state- ment, ‘ but beyond question they [the bullae] are in almost all cases considerably more inflated in African skulls than in the Indian specimens I have seen’, is perfectly applicable to the present groups. A second feature which Pocock found remarkable about the Indian lion was the frequent division of the infraorbital foramen, either unilaterally or bila- terally, into upper and lower openings which were separated by a bridge of bone. In African lions such a situation is unknown. In Tables VI and VII are summarized the condition found in 15 skulls which date from 1822-1931 and in 19 specimens from the 1963 Sasan ‘ find’. Of the earlier 15 animals, a total of ten show this peculiarity. Whether significant or not, it is interesting to note that this trait was manifested in four out of five skulls recorded for the 19th century, while in ten skulls described between 1910-1931 it is present in six. Finally, among the most recent material, 1953-1963 approximately, a divided foramen is seen in Only 5 out of 185 (as one side of one specimen is missing and one skull is fragmentary) individuals. At the same time as the incidence of affected individuals appears to diminish, the extent of the affection also diminishes. If affected foramina rather than individuals are totalled the differences become much more striking (? and significant), i.e. 1822- S57, 7/10 or 700%, 1910-1931, 8/20 or 40:0%, 1953-1963, O37 0m le? . The temptation is great, even if not justified, to speculate that the condition and its expressivity and/or penetrance are under the influence JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) 16 5 “KIO [PINION Winesnyy OSVIIYO—HNWO * Wnesny] Ysitt S SUOdZING JO 9BaT]OD [ePAOY—SOU £ Aya1I90g JOIST [RINIeN AeQuoog—SHN« + 410}sSTH{ [eiNjeN Jo unesnypy UeoIouY—HNW V—"SLON EEO EEO EOE ———E_Ee—V—V_ uojing "JOD Aq AyoIDN0G 9Y4} 0} poyUssold usuTDedS [ewION JeuULION 976SIN SHNG Wy If6] 2 699 ‘d 9}0U “pa (O€6]) Y090d aes ypeseunf JO qeMeN oy) “HH Aq 104s [BULION [PULION beLSW SHN@ AD T€6l 99R.1} JOUULS—ILSCULCMENT JO Yefereyey 9} 1 gjqnoq [ewI0ON Jit OC6l "H ‘H Jo suounoeds ¢99 -d (O€61) YOOD0d 99g e1qno0q JBWION dE) O¢6l 9081} JoOUULS—~aSSOPY *[OD Jo usunseds ¢gg ‘d a30U “po (O€61) Y9090d 99g é é SpLS SHN4 | Ip Orel | e]qnoq s1qnoq 9667S HNINV WD 676] [BULION [eULION c66rS HNN V JID) 6c6r s[qnod 31qnod IcIl€é HNWO WD) 0c6l ({ [eWION 31qnoqd £°9°9'0€ WE TIOULY O16! 3 L¢o9 ‘d (O€61) Y9O90d 99G =— Ys TQnOG JeuLION €9°9'0E WE TOU O16! ? | ]eWION JeuON, 199 0€ Wa 4IoUy O16] 2 Ayiatydes ul “std Z “9 Joye poaiq ]WWJION [PULION, LPoULS Wa HD LSsl AEN cs < ejqnoq 21qn0q é cesl 2 LS9 €¢o9 dd (O61) yI0D0d 99S }sO'T | | a]qnoq s1qnoq é €ESl °2 { [eWwIoN quod S8rv SOU punssy O¢sI 1p6|—3uIquiog ul pososoq yereing L gjdiy s1qnoqd b8brr SOU YON CC8I YSIY oT SyIVW9Yy BUIWPIOJ [LUIGIOVIjUI “ON 29 unesnypy AyeoO'T eq Jo uolpuog SNOIT NVIGN] NI VNIAVYOdI TWLIIYOVUINI JHL JO NOILIGNOO JHE, IA J1aVL VARIATION IN THE SKULLS OF GIR LIONS 517 of only a few polygenes which have shown considerable shifts in frequency over the past 140 years, possibly due to genetic drift. The pivot point or bottleneck for population size is around the turn of the century when TABLE VII THE CONDITION OF THE INFRAORBITAL FORAMINA IN LIONS OF THE 1963 GIR ‘ FIND’ Condition of infra- orbital foramina Remarks Date Locality Museum & Left Right No. 1 1953- Gir BNHS 1254 Normal Double 1963 2 BNHS 1255 Normal Normal 3 BNHS 1261 Normal Right side broken away 4 BNHS 1267 Normal Normal 5 BNHS 1268 Normal Normal 6 BNHS 1291 Normal Normal 7 BNHS 1292 Double Normal 8 BNHS 1293 Normal Normal 9 BNHS 1329 Normal Double 10 BNHS 1353 Normal Normal 11 BNHS 1363 Normal Normal 12 “BNHS 1364 Normal Normal 13 BNHS 1389 Normal Normal 14 BNHS 1391 Normal Double 15 BNHS 1392 Normal Normal 16 BNHS 1393 Normal Normal 17 BNHS 1396 Normal Normal 18 BNHS —— Double Double Number notavailable 19 BNHS —— Normal Normal Number not available 20 BNHS —— ——— oa A very broken skull, no number _§as- signed the number of animals dwindled to about 25 and the effective breeding population might have been as low as half a dozen animals. Seven additional skulls not recorded in Table VI are in the collection of the British Museum. While dates of death are not ascertainable for most of these, six represent a time span from April 1865 to 1 January 1945. Among these six there are six divided and six normal foramina. This frequency of 50% is identical to the cumulative frequency for the 15 animals noted in Table VI for the time span 1822-1931. The seventh specimen which died in 1951 or 1952 has both infraorbital foramina normal. As the intra-population studies are pursued, both through extracting data from older material and through the collection on new material, these considerations will hopefully be clarified. An additional feature characteristic of Gir lions as a group is the variability of the third lower premolar. This variation appears to have escaped notice in any literature to date. In the African lion Pm3 is $18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) universally present with two well-developed, distinct roots. Table VIII tabulates the condition as found in the present sample and’ Plates TABLE VIII : THE CONDITION OF PM IN LIONS OF THE 1963 GIR ‘ FIND” a Condition of Permanent Lower Third Premolar Museum & No. Lets . Right 2 roots fused | absent | 2 roots fused absent BNHS 1254 1Daf6 | 100% BNHS 1255 4 xX BNHS 1261 no left ramus 25% BNHS 1267 no mandible BNHS 1268, no mandible BNHS 1291 100% 100% | BNHS 1292 100% | ? (tooth broken and abnormal—perhaps | slight fusion) BNHS 1293 xX 4 BNHS 1329 100% X BNHS 1353 90% 90% BNHS 1363 50% no right ramus BNHS 1364 x X BNHS 1389 xX X BNHS 1391 100% | ee 00, 0A BNHS 1392 eager, | XxX BNHS 1393 no left ramus | 90% BNHS 1396 100% | -ehOOT, BNHS ——: XxX xX BNHS —— deciduous teeth being replaced by permanent BHHS —— : | 90% | hat | 90% Norte. X = as per column heading II-III show X-rays of mandibles in which this tooth is lacking. The latter is interpreted as a demonstration that the apparent absence of this tooth is not due simply to a failure to erupt. In one specimen (BNHS 1364) © the deciduous alveoli of one side are clearly present but there is no trace of a permanent replacement tooth. Furthermore, in all cases where Pm3 is absent, the diastema created by the missing tooth appears porous with surface irregularities and occasionally there is tissue which appears grossly ~ to be enamel although it is not organized into anything resembling a tooth. Tentatively, it is concluded that the deciduous Pm3 is present and that no replacement tooth is produced. Twelve of the earlier speci- mens (American Museum of Natural History, 2; Bombay Natural History Society, 3; Chicago Museum of Natural History, 1; British Museum, 6) have this tooth bilaterally, while in three others (British Museum) there is unilateral reduction to a rudiment. The earliest of these latter is c, 1910, the other two prior to 1931. Unfortunately the (PPOL ‘G°N ¢ sojoyg) v9IEL SHNA De Sc¢l SHNG ee II alvidg "00S “LSIE][ “LVN AVaWwog ‘Nuaof (ppOL “IN + S0104dq) eug Jo aduasqe ay} SULMOYs SOI] IED Jo saqrpueut oy} Jo sydvidojoyd Aevi-x o6E€L SHNA 68E€L SHNd VW evel ‘LVN AVaWog ‘Nwaof VARIATION IN THE SKULLS OF GIR LIONS 519 four earliest known specimens (1822-1833) are no longer available, for two of them could not be traced by Pocock (1930) and two which were in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, were destroyed in a bombing of 1941. It can only be presumed that the teeth were bila- terally present in these specimens as their absence would probably have been noted. It is more likely that the variation in the root condition of ~ this tooth may have gone unnoticed by previous investigators. In the specimens thus far seen, a number have not been sufficiently investigated, as this will require X-ray in order to avoid damage. However, the Chicago Museum of Natural History specimen shows complete bilateral fusion of the roots as do a number of British Museum specimens. Finally, other dental anomalies, such as the fusion of roots of MI have been noted and will be reported at a later date. In one form or another the question of the taxonomic position of the Gir lion is often posed. It would appear from the foregoing considera- tions, admittedly in need of further detailed study and elaboration, that this problem is imaginary. It would make as much sense to ask what ts the taxonomic position of lions in zoological gardens in Europe and North America. One can only say that the taxonomic status of zoological speci- mens is peculiar and indeterminate. Similarly goes the argument for Gir lions. Nevertheless, the present Gir population and its ancestors and descendants offer an interesting situation in which small population phenomena may be profitably studied. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This investigation was supported in part by a Public Health Service Fellowship (No. 1-F2-MH-18,520-01) from The Institute of Mental Health, Public Health Service. Additional support was given by the Committee for the Study of Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University. The assistance and co-operation of the Forest Department of Gujarat State and the Bombay Natural History Society are gratefully acknow- ledged. To Dr. William Bossert, Computations Laboratory, Harvard University, go special thanks for the computer analyses and much valuable assistance. SYNOPSIS 1. It is noted that inter-population studies of African and Gir lions are useful only as a means of detecting peculiarities of the latter. This arises from the fact that the Gir population has been and still is subject to small population phenomena. 2. No one of nine skull measurements made discriminates between African and Gir lions (or between either and tigers). $20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) 3. Ina discriminant analysis, a significant and perfect discrimination was made between 31 African and 16 Gir lion skulls. This discrimination is equated roughly to the relatively shorter palatal, broader facial, and more constricted cranial proportions of the Gir lion. 4. In non-metrical characteristics, two features which are restricted to, although not universal among, Gir lions are noted. These are the division of the infraorbital foramen and the variation in development of the third lower premolar. The general decrease in frequency of foramina division over the last 140 years is suggested to be related to gene frequency shifts possibly resulting from genetic drift. The fusion of the roots of Pm3 is noted to be a common trait in Gir lions, although not previously reported. The absence of this tooth appears for the first time in a skull of c. 1910 and appears to have increased in incidence among skulls of animals which died between approximately 1953-1963. 5. While the taxonomic position of the Gir lion is a meaningless concept, the population affords an interesting opportunity to study small population phenomena. REFERENCES DHARMAKUMARSINHJI, K. S., & Asia. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 34(3) : WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A. (1951): The Gir Forest and its Lions. Part III. VJ. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 49(4): 685-694. *HoeEL, P. G. (1962) : Introduction to Mathematical Statistics. Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. HOLLIsTER, N. (1917): Some Effects of Environment and Habit on Captive Liens. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 53: 177- 193. *KENDALL, M. G. (1957): A Course in Multivariate Analysis. Hafner Pub. Co. New York. Pocock, R. I. (1930): The Lions of 638-665. ———— (1935): The Story of the Indian Lion. Asiatic Review, London, July, 1935. WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A. (1949): The Gir Forest and its Lions. Part Il. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48(3) : 493-514. ———— (1951): The Indian Lion. Oryx 1(2) : 99-101. ———— (1956): The Lion Census of 1955. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53(4) : 527-536. ———, & DHARMAKUMARSINHII, K. S. (1950) : The Gir Forest and its Lions. Part II. ibid. 49(3) : 456-470. * General reference ha tad 4 =. . ey ey ai i‘ hl ripe bat, L , Wa) i, ae ae f Norte} ea ae Wi SHAAN ey met ee ms (as v tray Wi Avra a eae ay u 5 2 5 £ th oO oD eas a] on = E,. Reuben del. ensis 1 nipa subfurcatus ejensis galil 1S . lens singa Sketch showing markings of races of Apus affinis (J. E. Gray) in India (Diagrammatic) Notes on Indian Birds 5— The races of Apus affinis (J. E. Gray) in the Indian Region BY HUMAYUN ABDULALI (With one plate) Stuart Baker (1927, FAUNA 4 : 332) accepted four races of the Common House Swift [Apus affinis (J. E. Gray)] from the Indian Region and drew attention to the Ceylon birds being very dark. The distribution of the races was however very unsatisfactorily indicated and led to much con- fusion among subsequent workers. Ripley (1961, SyNopsis : 210-211) accepted an additional form ‘from Ceylon and possibly Kerala’, and remedied to a great extent the distributional limits of the other races. Recently (1964, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 731) I referred to a swift (A. affinis) blown into Bombay on 11 November 1957, which I had been unable to name trinomially in Bombay. It was sent to the _British Museum (Nat. Hist.) whence Mr. J. D. Macdonald wrote : * Sp. No. 20056 Apus affinis: We are unable to determine with certainty the race to which this specimen belongs. In size it agrees most | nearly with subfurcatus of which we have specimen wings 140 and 141 mm. But it is paler than our specimens of this race and agrees best in tone of colour with specimens of nipalensis. It very nearly matches typical affinis except for slightly darker wings and larger size.’ _I have subsequently been able to get together and/or examine some 120 specimens and, though the straggler into Bombay does not fit clearly into any named group, the general results of the inquiry appear to be worth recording. The measurements of the different subspecies or groups referred to are incorporated in the table below and the accompanying sketch illustrates the differences in markings between the races referred to in this note. Supplementary remarks are included under each subspecies. affinis (J. E. Gray, 1832) (Ganges, restricted to Cawnpore by Stuart Baker) Races affinis and galilejensis are separable from the other races by the upper surface of the tail being appreciably paler than the back. They have also no fork in the tail. $22. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) The picture of affinis in ILLUSTRATIONS OF INDIAN ZOOLOGY, which forms the original description, shows a distinctly pale head and fore- head and no intense black on the back, but the drawing does not appear -accurate enough to warrant a subspecific identification thereon. . The type locality was restricted to Cawnpore by Stuart Baker (loc. cit.), a fact that is overlooked in the SyNopsis. In the Indian specimens available, there is some variation in the intensity of body colour and the amount of grey on the forehead. In most, there is a thin whitish eye- brow but it is often necessary to ruffle the feathers to make it visible. There is a slight decline in size from the Punjab in the north to Cuddapah in the south whence the southernmost specimens are available. A series of 9 from Mitauri and Hyderabad (Sind), about 80 miles east of Karachi, agrees with these birds and in size forms a part of the cline referred to. The white of the rump is wider’ (av. 14 mm.) than in the Punjab birds (av. 11°6 mm.) which though slightly larger than those from the south do not appear to show any difference from them in this character. Birds from Calcutta appear to be nearer in this respect to those from Hyderabad (Sind) than to those from the Punjab. Race abessynicus (Streubel) (Massawa) is said to be identical with affinis and the one specimen which I have seen from Yemen (Arabia) shows no character which would separate it from Indian birds. The form occurring in south-west India has still to be determined, though it is believed to be singalensis. galilejensis (Antinori, 1855) (Sea of Galilee) Ticehurst in ‘ Birds of Sind ’ (bis 1923, p. 36) identified the birds from Karachi as galilejensis, though he said they were a little smaller (wings 131-134 against 132-137); but Whistler & Kinnear (1935, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38 : 31), comparing the Punjab birds with those from south India, said that there was no point in recognising them as separate and recommended the removal of galilejensis from the Indian list. This was probably due to their assuming that the Karachi birds would be the same as those from further north and eastwards in peninsular India. Fifteen specimens from Karachi and one from the Mekran Coast can be distinguished from affinis by the much more prominent ashy white on the forehead and the wider patch of white (av. 14-4 mm.) on the rump. This last character is retained in the series of 9 birds from Hyderabad (Sind) (supra) and reappears in 11 adults taken at Calcutta. It is curious that it should not be apparent in a north-south cline. The Karachi birds have been accepted as galilejensis, but they differ from the few topo-typical and other non-Indian Middle East specimens 1 Throughout this paper the ‘width’ of the white patch is measured from front to rear along the middle of the body. ee ii aiaiaiices eee NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS NO. 5: THE RACES OF APUS AFFINIS 523 of galilejensis available for examination in that the white on the fore- head, which varies in extent but is distinctive in most, is formed by white- tipped feathers creating a very distinct scaly appearance that does not show in the others—some indeed are almost indistinguishable from affinis. This character appears in a single specimen from Mt. Abu (Rajasthan), but a nestling obtained at the same time and place does not differ from another of the same age from Bombay. In affinis the black central feathers of the back are longer and mask the white of the rump in the centre leaving it on an average about 11 to 12 mm. wide against 14 to 15 mm. in galilejensis. The white eyebrow is more pronounced than in affinis. singalensis Madarasz, 1911 (Ceylon) The head and tail are darker than in affinis, the tail being only slightly paler than the back. In nipalensis and subfurcatus the tail is as dark as the back. The Ceylon birds differ from nipalensis in having more gloss on the head and are very similar to subfurcatus except for the shorter tail (44-6 mm.), more white on the rump (12 mm.), and the less distinctly forked tail. The white feathers of the chin and rump have dark shafts more often than in Indian birds, another character shared with subfurcatus. Whistler & Kinnear (1935, loc. cit.) said that two specimens from Travancore agreed with the Ceylon birds rather than with affinis and this 1S possibly the basis of Ripley’s statement quoted earlier. nipalensis (Hodgson, 1836) (Central region of Nepal, restricted to Khatmandu by Biswas) It was described as ‘ sooty black glossed with green’ with no other characters mentioned to distinguish it from affinis. Stuart Baker (loc. cit. : 332) said that it differed from affinis in having the crown and fore- head all brown against grey, not white, in affinis. He added that it was a much darker bird than affinis and galilejensis and he extended its range southwards to Mysore, Travancore, and Cochin. The form in the south-west has yet to be identified but, even if it is found to be similar to nipalensis, the distribution is certainly broken in peninsular India, which is occupied by affinis. The description is generally correct, but in some of the specimens from Nepal (which include old specimens labelled sub- furcatus) the back is dark brownish and does not show the green gloss mentioned in the original description. Three specimens from the British Museum (Nat. Hist.) have dark glossy backs and brown heads, indicating that the specimens retained in India have either faded and lost this colour or they represent a juvenile plumage of a nature which does not show itself in galilejensis or affinis. , 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) 524 ZI AP ET-O1 9-pp “AB Cp-EV €-6C] “AB OEI-LCI is 160) 71) 9 SISUO|VSUIS ppt “A® Li-cl 9-0p “AB TH-6E EGT Ae CeLecl "+ (J) URL, Pue (Nour uryeIoags) tyoRIey OT L-pl “A® LIi-cl b-Tp “AP Sp-S -OV C-CEl AG CET-OET 7 (1) zerryg “seq o[PPI] “ours9]ed Ol sisuofajies pl ‘Ae OT-eT C-Ip “Ae pP-6€ 8-6CL “AB CET-ECI a (pulg) peqeropAH pur lineyyy 6 (poinseow {f) (poinsvoul ¢7) (poinsvout /) - Cy] “Ae LT-Ch Ip “AP Pp-8E 6CI “AB CET-VCL ByNo[eD LI ee. nhs WAS €9 ‘Cg os (poinseou OM} A[UO) soyTuUSANe 9 ‘ - Op “Av : “AB -€71 esueyqied ‘yedeppny E-L} “AB CT-8 7-OF €p-Le ¢-LCl CELE edloplin kbamod (nner amine) cunt cotee : QJ] AR €T-IL 9-1p “A® Eb-OF ¢-ZET “AR CET-OET z (1) tulad “qefund 9 stunye ped suouioeds JO o[pprw Zuoye poinsvout) [el SUI susutoeds Jo srepnoiyieg JO ‘ON. duwinJ uo ou1UM suiffo sndp JO SAOVa JO (‘WU UI) SINSWAANSWAW JO ATAV NOTES ON INDIAN BIRDS NO. 5: THE RACES OF APUS AFFINIS 525 6 cl CT AG CT-TT cl (ur poyon) Ivodde sj1v1) 01-8 é b-CI “AP €T-O1 pll ‘A® €I-8 g AB (BOORTRIA]) Z[-(Sueyeg) 9 8V 8V L-Ly A® 6b-9F 44 Ch AR CHIP Sp AR 6b-CL Pr AP OP-CL G-0S “AB EC-8r €-1S “AB HS-6P ert cel SET “AP 6ET-CET cel TET “AG SET-8CI (popnyoxe SI SUIM ‘WU QT] WIA OU) CET “AG SET-CET €-CET “AV LET-8CI LULU A® 2 OFT - 5 STI S-LEL “Ae P Ob - 3S SEI ‘JaY}030} Pole[Nqe} ore syUOUTOINSLOUT Jo IOQUINU PojTUNT] 9Y} ‘SoXES OY] W99MIOq OZIS UI At Sergo (50 km. NE. of Bodaibo), Irkutsk region “(c. 38°15-'N:; 114°50 E.) +, 28.8.1965. In Obskoe near Kamen’-na-Obi, Altai territory, USSR (c. 53°38 N., 81°40 E.) +, 30.5.1965. At ‘ Kusalan-Kel’ ’ Lake near Dyullyu- kyu, Yakutian, ASSR (c. 63°43 N., 120°30 E.) +, 22.8.1965. Near Chistoozernoe (‘ Ozero Kusche- vatoe’), Novosibirsk region, USSR (c. 44°42 N.,-76°35 E.) +,26.9.1965. At ‘ Gusinoe’-Lake, 2 km. south of Gusi- noe Ozero, Bur- yatiaj, USSR (c.; 51°05 N., 106718 E.) | | ) \ +, in spring 1965, c.' May. Near Erzin: (The Tuvin ASSR) (ce. 50°15 Nes 10 E.) ASSR, | Reported by Bird-— Ringing -Bureau,~ USSR =) do. do. do. do. do. do. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 565 GREAT SEL ARS SLATS aa Ed OT AD i | ALS AME ITT As IIE 2 PANS SE TI TD Ring No. Date and place of Date aie ‘ities of ® ° . k and species ringing recovery Remarks US Fish & | 5.3.1961. Gonzales| x (died in captivity), | Captured by Mr. Wildlife Videla Base, Antarc-; 7.8.1964. -Udyavara| Pappu Marakala Service ; tic Peninsula. (c.} (South Kanara),| of Udyavara and _ 647-27146 64°49 S., 62°51 W.,| Udipi (c. 13°23 N.,| brought to Mr.. Catharacta skua| a Chilean Inter-| 74°45 E.), Mysore| M. Madhva Raj, maccormicki national Geophysi-| State M.L.A., Malpe, Dark-phase cal Year Station in South Kanara bird the Antarctic. Ringedby the United States Antarctic Research Program (U.S.A. R. P.) Bird _ Banding Project, Antarctica PREITY EY | RES BATTEN A Note. -+ =shotor killed by man. x = found dead, or ill/exhausted, ad eventually died. BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, HornBiLL House, | ~< ° “EDITORS BOMBAY 1-BR, | | | January 28, 1966. 21. PLANTS EATEN BY UROMASTIX MICROLEPIS BLANFORD AND OTHER NOTES ON THIS LIZARD IN EASTERN ARABIA. I was very interested in what Mr. Mandaville has written in your publication (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. Vol. 62, No. 1) for April 1965. My experience in Kuwait with young spinytailed lizards, which used: to be given to us for the children to play with, was that they would eat: green alfalfa, which we gave them daily in their box. As Mr. Mandaville observed, the full stows Beans in captivity would eat nothing. That they eat locusts also is possible. I quote from THE ARAB OF THE DESERT, by H. R. P. Dickson: ‘In 1932 .. . I remember once, when coming home with my wife from the Batin iy car, meeting a swarm of locusts flying very low across the plain west of Jahra. It was near sunset, and we saw several full sized dhubs and wurral on the side of the track chasing the flying locusts. and jumping in the air to catch them. We were so much interested at the sight that we stopped our car and watched for some five-minutes, 566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) There were eight large monitors—wurral. In their excitement they appeared oblivious of our presence.’ I have also eaten a piece of the lizard’s tail roasted and found it good. SEEF, Kuwalt, (Mrs,) V. P. DICKSON, C.B.E£. October 23, 1965. 22. LAND MONITOR PREYING ON BATS On 26 August 1965 at about 9 a.m. I saw one young of the large land monitor (Varanus sp.) going up a jak fruit tree. Three small bats were hanging from the first limb of the tree, about 3 metres from the ground. The monitor, went towards the bats very slowly and cautious- ly, repeatedly stopping and watching them. When it was hardly 30 cm. from the bats, it made a quick rush and caught the nearest one head first and camé down the tree with the bat still fluttering in its mouth. The other two flew off. After coming down the monitor swallowed the bat with three or four jerky movements. The whole operation from catching to swallowing took hardly a minute. The monitor was 75 cm. tail included. © So far as I know bats have very few natural enemies—the smell of bats is a good defence. I have seen these monitors going up trees quite often, and thought they were after the young and eggs of birds. If a 75 cm. monitor could do this, it is possible that full-grown monitors prey on bigger bats. RANGE FOREST OFFICE, | MaAzBAT, DARRANG, K. K. GUPTA ASSAM, September 2, 1965. [Most species of bats have distinctive smells but there is no reason to believe that this is protective and prevents their being eaten by the normally carnivorous predators, for instance the Hobby (Falco subbuteo Linn.), which is more crepuscular than other hawks, is well known to take bats when they appear at dusk. Large populations of bats in the famous Limestone Caves in Malaya are preyed on by a dark-coloured hawk Machaerhamphus alcinus Westerman which appears to feed entirely on bats and swifts. A snake Elaphe taeniura ridleyi(Butler) which inhabits these caves also specializes in a diet of bats (A. L. Butler 1899, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 12 : 424-6).—EDs. ] MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 567 23. GAMBUSIA AND MOSQUITO CONTROL (With a text-figure) Gambusia is the famous ‘ Top minnow’ that has been very widely used in anti-malarial measures in different parts of the world. It was imported into India about half a century ago from Italy and Thailand and is flourishing today at different parts of the country (Hora & Mukerji 1953). Gambusia affinis holbrookii (Girard) Myers (1965) in a recent article entitled ‘Gambusia, the fish destroyer ’ has shown that Gambusia is a very dangerous fish to introduce into a place where it does not occur naturally, and is little or no better as a mosquito destroyer than other less dangerous species. Observations made at San Jose, California, during the last seven years (Myers 1965) have proved that Gambusia in a new habitat is destructive, not only to fishes of similar size but even to much larger fishes, whereas in its natural habitat it is kept in check by its natural enemies, and smaller fish have evolved a defence against it. As to the damage Gambusia has already caused Myers reports thus : ‘In certain of our southwestern streams, the native Poeciliopsis is gone ; Gambusia was introduced. In the canals of Bangkok, Thailand, the common native Aplocheilus panchax is now rare and the unique little Phenacostethus (known only from there) has disappeared ; Gambusia is common. In the creeks around Laguna de Bay, in the Philippines, Gulaphallus is gone and Gambusia reigns. In the lower Nile, the native Micropanchax schoelleri cannot be found, but Gambusia is common.’ 568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) Even though we have no record of the damage caused to our fish fauna by the introduction into India of Gambusia the Public Health authorities would do well to be cautious and abandon further propaga- tion of Gambusia affinis affinis (Baird & Girard) and G. a. holbrookii (Girard) for malaria control in India. . | | It may be noted that Poeciliidae, to which Gambusia belong, are closely related to the Cyprinodontidae of which five species, namely Aplocheilus panchax (Ham.), A. lineatus (C. & V.), A. blocki (Arnold), Oryzias melastigma (McClelland), and Asphanius dispar (Riippell), are found in India, and detailed investigations conducted by Hora and Nair, Gravely, Job, John, etc. (see Hora & Mukerji 1953) have already shown that these fishes are as good as larvicidal fishes as any of the exotic species. They are perennial breeders, and A. /ineatus is remarkable in its occurrence in all types of water such as hill-streams and reservoirs at high altitudes, and in rivers, tanks, and wells of the plains, low-lying paddy fields, swamps, estuaries, and backwaters (Chacko 1949). All these species are known to be easy to breed in the aquarium, and it is worth while trying commercial breeding of them in aquaria to make them available at a nominal cost for anti-malarial work. ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 34, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE, CALCUTTA-12 April 20, 1965. A. G. K. MENON REFERENCES CHAcKo, P.I. (1949): Some-obser-— vations on Aplocheilus lineatus.(Cuv. & Val.) in Madras Province. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 48 (3) : 604-605. Hora, 8S. L., & MUKERII, D.D. (1953) : ‘Table for the identification of Indian fresh-water fishes, with description of certain families and observations on the relative utility of the probable larvivorous fishes of India. Malaria Bureau No. 4, ed. 3. Delhi. Myers, G. S. (1965) : Gambusia, the fish destroyer. Tropical Fish Hobbyist : 31-32, 53-54. New Jersey, U.S.A. 24. SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR IN LYCOSA CHAPERI SIMON (ARACHNIDA : ARANEIDA) (With four text-figures) a“ ~ SYNOPSIS Observations have been made on the sexual behaviour of Lycosa chaperi Simon. The act of copulation in this spider is preceded by two distinct behavioural phases, viz. precourtship and courtship. During the precourtship phase the male spider charges its intromittent (palpal) MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 569 organ with semen through a process called sperm induction. This unique process involves transferring the spermatozoa from the internal gonadial system to the palpal organ borne by the pedipalp. Sperm in- duction is followed by a 24-hour rest period. It is suggested that the spermatozoa undergo certain physiological changes during this period. The courtship period in L. chaperi is of comparatively short dura- tion, probably because the male and the female individuals are of similar stature. In a majority of spiders the males are much smaller than the females and thus courtship is a lengthy process. During copulation the male mounts the female from the opposite direction while she lies in a state of catalepsis. The male uses palpal organs alternately for insertion into the female genital opening. The duration of the sexual act may vary from two to forty-five minutes. INTRODUCTION Male spiders lack a primary intromittent organ and have developed instead at the apex of each pedipalp a secondary intromittent apparatus called the palpal organ. Prior to copulation the male spider transfers the spermatic fluid from seminal vesicles in its abdomen to the palpal organs by a process known as sperm induction. The female genital organs, located ventrally near the base of the abdomen, are specialized -to receive and store the spermatozoa, _ This paper records observations on sexual behaviour in Lycosa chaperi, which comprises four distinct phases ; precourtship, courtship, precopulation, and copulation. = | The observations were made in the zoological laboratories of the Panjab University, Chandigarh. The authors are grateful to Prof. G. P. Sharma, Head of the Department, for providing the necessary facilities. OBSERVATIONS Precourtship. Precourtship comprises sperm induction in the male, with no corresponding process in the female. Prior to this the males seem incapable of mating and it has been observed that L. chaperi males with empty palpal organs make no effort to copulate. This has also been observed by Petrunkevitch (1911) in a Theraphosid spider Dugesiella hentzi. Kaston (1948) mentions that. ‘ fullness in the testes ’ and ‘emptiness in the palpal organs’ are the probable factors that sti- mulate sperm induction. : In L. chaperi sperm induction was observed in a laboratory cage that consisted of a lantern chimney placed on a petri-dish containing dung- pieces. The males, upon reaching sexual maturity show distinct signs -570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) of restlessness and run around within the chimney. Finally, a sheet of web is constructed with one side attached to the wall of the chimney and the other to the bottom. The male then vibrates its abdomen rapidly sideways rubbing it against the web and finally depositing a spermato- phore on the sheet web. The abdominal action seems to be correlated with concentration of heavy setae around the genital orifice and presu- mably produces a tactile stimulation, which causes ejaculation of the seminal fluid. After ejaculation, the male moves slightly backward bringing its palpi below the sheet and applies the palpal organ to the semen, presumably in order to ‘suck’ the fluid. Contrary to the experience of Petrunkevitch (1911) with Dugesiella hentzi, L. chaperi males are extremely sensitive to disturbances of any kind during this process. For approximately 24 hours after sperm induction the males of L. chaperi do not attempt to mate. It is possible that during this period the spermatozoa undergo physiological changes in the palpal organ. Courtship. Montgomery (1903, 1910) mentions the importance of secondary sexual characters in courtship. In L. chaperi there is no marked development of secondary sexual characters apart from the conspicuously black tarsi and metatarsi of the front pair of legs. The courtship period is very short, presumably because the two sexes are of equal strength and build. Petrunkevitch (1911) and Kaston (1936) mention that courtship in spiders exploits the senses most highly developed in them. Kaston (1936) remarks that either or both the senses of sight and touch are involved in the courtship of certain vaga- bond spiders. It appears that both sight and touch are involved in the courtship of L. chaperi. The sense of touch seems to be of greater importance, because males were noticed to attempt mating upon random contact with females. Savory (1928) and Gertsch (1949) have reported the use of signals through the silken threads of the web during courtship in some spiders. Gering (1953) also observed similar behaviour in three species of Agelena. As, however, /. chaperi is a ground-dweller, the females do not always spin a web and the approach of the male to the female is direct. When placed together in a cage, both the male and the female remain inactive for a few minutes. Courtship begins only when the male accidentally comes across the female. Immediately, the male poses with raised body and extended pedipalps (Fig. 1). Slowly he advances towards the female with palpi and front legs elevated and the latter directed towards her (Fig. 2). The metatarsi and the tarsi of the front legs tremble violently during the advance, as if performing a dance. When he reaches close enough to her there is an interplay of the front legs of both. She tries to drive him away, but he overpowers her and climbs on her (Fig. 3). MISCELLANEOUS NOTES j 7a Precopulation. During precopulation the male establishes contact with the female after proper positioning. The female meanwhile remains passive in a state of catalepsy, involving the entire body especially the Fig. 1. Position of a male on contact with a female Fig. 2. Posture of a male while advancing towards a female Fig. 3. A male and female in readiness for copulation legs. As soon as the male establishes contact the female drops to the substratum, with the first and the second pair of legs pointing forward and third and fourth pair pointing backward. The male lifts her body and turns her abdomen slightly with his first pair of legs. After adjust- 13 572. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) ment of the body position his body lies at an angle of about 45° with the long axis of her body (Fig. 4). Fig.4. A maleand a female engaged in copulation There is no resting stage following the positioning phase and copula- tion follows immediately. Copulation. In spiders copulation may be defined as the physical contact between the palpal organs of the male and the epigynum of the female. | ; In L. chaperi, immediately after the positioning phase, the male begins to tap the epigynum of the female with his palpi. The number of attempts made before inserting the palpal organ into the female Opening vary. Finally, contact is established by a slight twist of the palpus and further adjustment in the body position (Fig. 4). The palpal organ fits into the furrow-sac at the anterior end of the epigynal opening. The furrow-sac can be compared with the coupling cavity in Agelenid spiders (Gering 1953). The right and left palpal organs are used alter- nately for insertion into the female organ. During this act the male jerks his abdomen and hind legs vigorously and taps the abdomen of the female with his forelegs. The duration of copulation in L. chaperi may vary from two to forty-five minutes. A single female has been observed to mate with as many as 10 males on the same day, but a male after one mating avoids contact with females. PANJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, LUDHIANA (PUNJAB), R. D. S. BHATNAGAR DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, PANJAB UNIVERSITY, G. L. SADANA CHANDIGARH (PUNJAB), | April 7, 1965. lie Pe MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 573 LITERATURE CITED BrISTOWE, W. S., & LocKET, G. H. (1926): The courtship of British Lycosid spiders, and its probable significance. Proc. zool. Soc. London 2 : 317-347. GERING, R. L. (1953): Structure and function of the genitalia in some Ameri- can Agelenid spiders. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 121 (4): 1-84. GERTSCH, W. J. (1949): American spi- ders. New York. KASTON, B. J. (1936) : The senses in- volved in the courtship of some vaga- Somes Ent, Amer., N.S., 16 (2) : 97-167. 70 : 1-874. MontTGoMery, T. H., Jr. (1903) : Studies on the habits of spiders, particu- larly those of the mating period. Proc. Acad. Sci. Philadelphia 55 : 59-149. (1910): Significance of the courtship and secondary sexual characters of araneads. Amer. Nat. 44: 151-177. PETRUNKEVITCH, A. (1911): Sense of sight, courtship and mating in Dugesiella hentzi (Girard), a theraphosid spider from Texas. Zool. Jahrb., Anat. 31: 355-376. es en ee ee -——-— (1948). Spiders of Connec- ticut State. Geol. nat. Hist. Sury. Bull, Savory, T. H. (1928) : The biology of spiders. Sidgwick and Jackson, London. 25. A NEW SPECIES OF EPICROSEJUS BERLESE (ACARINA : EPICROSEJIDAE) FROM SITALA IN WEST BENGAL (With two plates containing ten figures) The genus epicrosejus Berlese is, at present, represented by five species: angelioides Berlese (1904) from Java, E. seioides Berlese (1910) from Java, Tahiti (Berlese 1918), Marquesas Islands (Vitzthum 1935), E. scutatus Berlese (1923) from Sumatra; E. zimmermani Tragardh (1953) from Mangareva Islands, E. porosus Domrow (1956) from Green Ant Islands. The species, described below from India, is the second record of the genus from the Indian Sub-Region. Epicrosejus abinashi sp. nov. _ Female. The dorsum (length 0°684 mm.; width 0:540-0-558 mm.) is partly covered by the anterior, median, and posterior shields. All dorsal setae are pilose. The anterior dorsal shield is triangular, a little wider than long, and bears about thirty-one pairs of setae. The anterior shield is surrounded by inter-scutal membrane except at the anterior end (Plate I, Fig. 1). The median dorsal shield ig somewhat rectangular in shape and bears twelve pairs of setae (omitting the setae on the ‘cunei- _ form areas’). The anterior and posterior ‘ cuneiform areas ’ are provided with five and two setae each, respectively. The median shield is entirely surrounded by inter-scutal membrane. The posterior dorsal shield consists of two shields with a median longitudinal groove bearing no setae, which is continuous with a similar ventral strip behind the anus. Each of the two posterior shields bears ten to eleven setae. The 574. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) posterior shield does not extend to the margin of the body except at the posterior edge. The tritosternum has a basal part and a pair of pilose laciniae. It is flanked by variable number of processes. The most distinctive feature of the intercoxal region is shown in Plate I, Figure 2. The ventri-anal shield is large and provided with a number of setae, The postero-lateral margin of the ventri-anal shield carries two pairs of projections, the median pair much shorter than the lateral pair. Each lateral projection terminally bears avery long seta, 0°224-0:230 mm. in length; the remainder of the chaetotaxy of this projection is composed of short setae as arranged in the figure. Each median projection carries a seta, 0:144-0:154 mm. in length. Ventrally, the inter-scutal membrane bears about eight pairs of setae, some of-which are situated on a distinct sclerite (not shown in the figure). The stigma lies between coxae III and IV; the peritreme extends beyond coxa 1. The peritremetal shield is anteriorly coalesced with the dorsal shield whilst its post-stigmatal extension partly encircles coxae IV. The tectum is two-pronged and ey eal with numerous small spiniform processes at the base (Plate I, Fig.3). The trochanter, femur, and genu of the pedipalp (Plate I, Fig. 4) are provided with two, five, and six setae respectively. The apotele of tarsus is two-pronged. The dentition of the chelicera is shown in Plate I, Figure 5. The gnathosoma very characteristically lacks capitular setae and is provided with numerous spiniform processes which are arranged in a pattern as shown in Plate II, Figure 6. The rostral, external posterior, and internal posterior rostral setae are 0°040, 0:036-0°040, and 0:052-0:060 mm. long respectively. Seven rows of deuto-sternal denticles lie on the ventral groove of the gnathosoma. Tarsus I (c. 0:164 mm. in length) bears terminally a pair of long setae (0:076-0°080 mm.) and lacks an ambulacrum (Plate II, Fig. 7). Tarsi II-IV terminate in relatively long pretarsi provided with pulvilli and claws. Male. The structures and chaetotaxy of the dorsum (length and width of the slightly distorted specimen have not. been measured) are essentially the same as those of the female (Fig.8). The venter resembles the female’s, excepting the ‘ sterniti-genital ’ area. The genital orifice lies between sternal setae I and II,and is covered by a circular disc (Plate II, Fig. 9). The anterior margin of the sterniti-genital shield is ill defined and its posterior end is situated at the level of coxae IV. It bears seven pairs of setae, indicating that it is composed of the sternal, metasternal, and part of the ventral shields. The ventri-anal shield has the same facies as that of the female, and the terminal setae of the median and lateral projections measure 0-142-0-152 and 0:204-0.216 mm. in length, respectively. The structures of the tectum and the pedipalp are apparently the same JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE I Epicrosejus abinashi sp. nov. Figs. 1-5. Female: 1. dorsum; 2. venter; 3. tectum; 4. genuof pedipalp; 5. chelicera JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. PLATE II Epicrosejus abinashi sp. nov. Figs. 6-7. Female: 6. venter of gnathosoma; 7. tarsus of leg I. Figs. 8-10. Male: §&. dorsum; 9. venter; 10. chelicera MISCELLANEOUS, NOTES 575 as in the female. The chelicera is shown in Plate II, Figure 10. The rostral, external posterior, and internal posterior rostral setae are 0:036-0:040, 0:040, and 0:052-0:056 mm. long respectively. The capitular seta is absent. Tarsus I is 0°152-0°160 mm. long and terminally bears a pair of long setae, 0°076-0.080 mm. long. It lacks an ambulacrum. Tarsi II-IV have ambulacra. Locality: The holotype female, allotype male, and thirteen paratype females from rotten straw (Sitala, near Sonarpur, 24 Parganas District, West Bengal, S. K. Bhattacharyya, 5.10.1963), are deposited in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta. Remarks: Epicrosejus abinashi sp. nov. is closely related to E. porosus Domrow, 1956 and E. zimmermani Tragardh, 1953. The new species may be readily distinguished from E. porosus by the number and disposition of the setae on the dorsum, the shape and setation of the ventri-anal shield, the distinctive features of the sterniti-genital shield and its setation in the male, and the dentition of the chelicera. The‘new species is also readily separated from E. zimmermani by the presence of the four ‘ cuneiform areas’ and the total absence of any longitudinal suture on the median shield, the posterior shield lacking fusion in the middle, the shape and setal pattern of the ventri-anal shield, the shape of the genual setae on the palp, and the dentition of the chelicera. This species is named after the author’s father, Professor Abinash Ch. Bhattacharyya. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Iam indebted to Dr. D. N. Raychaudhury for his keen interest in the work, to Prof. J. L. Bhaduri for giving me the necessary facilities in his Department. This investigation was supported by a Seniom Research Fellowship from the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research of India. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA, CALCUTTA, February 19, 1965. . S. K. BHATTACHARYYA! REFERENCES Reef. Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. W.81: BERLESE, A. (1904): Acari nuovi. Manipulus IV. Acaridi Giava. Redia2: 197-216., 154-176. TRAGARDH, I. (1953): Acarina, col- __——-— (1910) : Lista di nuove specie e uovi generidi Acari. ibid.6: 242-271. ——-— (1918): Centuria quarta di Acari nuovi. ibid.13: 115-190. ——-— (1923): Centuria sesta di acari nuovi. ibid. 15 : 237-262. Domrow, R. (1956): Some Acarina Mesostigmata from the Great Barrier 4 Present address : Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta 20. lected by the Mangarevan expedition to South Eastern Polynesia in 1934 by the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawaii Mesostigmata. Ark. Zool. Sto- ckholm 4: 45-90. VitzTHuM, H.G. (1935): Terrestrische Acarinen von den Marquesas. Bull. Bishop Mus. Honolulu 142: 64-99. 576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) 26. ODONTOTERMES OBESUS (RAMBUR) [TERMITIDAE : MACROTERMITINAE] AT 4500 FT. IN KUMAON HIMALAYAS On 14 October 1962 in the course of geological exploration in the Binsar area of the Kumaon Himalayas (Almora District, Uttar Pradesh), I came across an active mound of the termite Odontotermes obesus (Rambur) at Siya village (4500 ft. alt. ; c. 29° 40’ N., 79° 55’ E.) ; about 10 miles NE. of Binsar. The mound made of brownish earth was about one metre high with a number of narrow buttresses all around. It was the sole mound seen by me in that area and was situated in a grassy patch on a hill-slope and near two small pine trees. The rock in that area is mostly ferruginous quartzite and pink slates. I collected from the mound some soldiers and workers which have been deposited in the Zoological Survey of India and were identified by Mr. O. B. Chhotani as Od. obesus. Tam informed that this is the common mound-building termite in the plains and foothills practically all over India, but its occurrence at the present high elevation is uncommon, though records from south India are available (Holmgren & Holmgren 1917, pp. 146-149) up to 4500 ft. in the Shevaroy Hills and 4600 ft. in the Bababudin Hills. DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY, PATNA UNIVERSITY, GANPAT SINGH ROONWAL PATNA, April 10, 1965. 27. STUDIES ON THE MORPHOLOGY AND TAXONOMY | OB INDIAN BOSTRYCHIDAE VI. A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS BOSTRYCHOPSIS LESNE FROM INDIA (COLEOPTERA : BOSTRYCHIDAE) (With one plate) Bostrychopsis roonwali sp. nov. MALE Colour :; Piceous ; antennae, palpi, and tarsi fusco-piceous. Head strongly convex, densely, finely punctate, with a narrow longitudinal line at middle and short, fine, longitudinal, parallel carinae on occiput, pubescence consisting of short, recumbent, whitish hair ; clypeus convex, densely, coarsely punctate, densely clothed with short semi-recumbent, yellowish white hairs, arcuately emarginate anteriorly ; clypeal suture depressed at middle, obscure at sides ; labrum subtruncate an ve Oy oh) i iit ae x Ra Areas f / , ‘4 4 ‘ i ht ee i a VMN Oh! ae ¢ . eye EF ala , 4 Pi Pe A 2. iM a ee rer ; He se Vind oe } , oe ‘ MAY apaeh , ie | } qe bie Awl ain tit A oN ats ; Pier Y wii , Bia mf ihe * san <1 t wel ee hie 4 Te Van , Re Maradae be ty 1 Pe einer Bisa _ 5 to 7 a oy fn Hh os kee a se . ee Go Rie eS JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. Bostrychopsis roonwali sp. nov. a. Male, dorsal view; 5. Female, dorsal view; c. Clypeus, dorsal view ; d. Labrum, dorsal view ; e. Antenna; /. Pronotum, side view; g. Elytral punc- tures ; A. Hind tibia (a portion) and tarsus; i, Male genitalia, dorsal view : LL—late- ral lobe ; MIL—median lobe MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 577 and densely pubescent anteriorly, finely, indistinctly punctate. Anten- nae 10-segmented ; antennal club sparsely pubescent, first and second segments of antennal club subtriangular; third oval; antennal club longer than funicle (1:2 : 0°9 mm.). Pronotum strongly convex, distinctly longer than wide (5:5 :4°9 mm. ), widest behind middle ; sides broadly rounded posteriorly ; converging anteriorly, with a long, stout, unciform horn at apical angles ; anterior margin truncate; postero-lateral angles broadly rounded ; surface densely coarsely imbricate—punctate on basal half, densely, irregularly dentate on apical half, the teeth broad, semi-erect, variable in size and rasp-like, with six larger ones on each side along antero-lateral margin ; pubescence consisting of short, recumbent, inconspicuous, whitish sparse hair. Scutellum subquadrate, rounded at apex, finely, sparsely punctate. Elytra strongly convex, more than one and a half times as long as pronotum (9:6 : 5°5 mm.), sinuate at base; sides subparallel, slightly expanded posteriorly, conjointly, broadly rounded at apices; surface densely, coarsely, deeply, irregularly punctate, punctures smaller on sides. Elytral vestiture consisting of short, recumbent, inconspicuous, whitish hair. Apical declivity obliquely deflexed, with a small, blunt tubercle on each side along lateral margin; sutural margins slightly, broadly, uniformly elevated on apical declivity. Ventral surface: Piceous, densely, finely punctate, densely clothed with moderately long, recumbent, yellowish hairs ; last visible abdominal sternite rounded and densely pubescent at apex. Genitalia as figured (Plate, i), elongate, subparallel. Median lobe bluntly pointed at apex, shorter than lateral lobes, which are rounded and moderately pubescent at apices. FEMALE Differs from the male as follows: Clypeus less densely pubes- cent; pronotum without horns at apical angles; tubercles on apical declivity of elytra less prominent; last visible abdominal sternite subtruncate at apex. Length: 14°5-15 mm. Breadth: 4°7-4°8 mm. Type-LocALtiTy. Lachhiwala (Dehra Dun District, Uttar Pradesh, India). Type-Host.. Shorea robusta Gaertn. f. Type MATERIAL. Holotype, male: Lachhiwala (Dehra Dun District, Uttar Pradesh, India), 25. viii. 1962, K. Rai. Allotype, female: same data as for holotype. Paratypes, 2: same data as for holotype. Material deposited in the Entomological Collection, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. Known only from the type locality, COMPARISON. This species is allied to B. bengalensis (Lesne), from 578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) ‘which it is distinguished as follows: pronotum widest behind middle ; larger size ; each elytron with a small, blunt tubercle on apical declivity, tarsi shorter. I name this species after Dr. M. L. Roonwal, Director, Zoological Survey of India, in token of the high regard in which I hold him. ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, 34, CHITTARANJAN AVENUE, KULDIP RAI CALCUEBIA 12, Asst. Zoologist May 14, 1965. 28. A STUDY OF THE LARVAL STAGES OF BRANCHINELLA BISWAST K. K. TIWARI (CRUSTACEA: BRANCHIOPODA) (With: two plates) MATERIAL Adult male and female specimens of the shrimp Branchinella biswasi (Plate I) were netted from Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan, in the month of August 1962 after plentifulrain and were released in an empty cemented salt pan in which rain-water had collected. After a few days the females were examined and were found to have large ovisacs full of eggs. The females averaged 27 mm. in length and 6 mm. in breadth with the ovisac extending to the 4th abdominal segment. The size of the males recorded prior to their release in the pan was 20 mm. tn length and 4 mm. in breadth at the cephalic region. The animals became senile and died after a short time leaving floating masses of light brown eggs. As the breeding behaviour was not observed it was not possible to state whether the shrimps copulated in the pan and, if so, whether the eggs were fertilized or not. The eggs had shells and averaged 0°10 mm. in diameter. HATCHING or SEEDING After a lapse of one year the eggs were sprinkled over the surface of clear fresh water in a -glass trough and left undisturbed. The room temperature varied between 28° to 38° C.in twenty-four hours. The larvae were collected every twelve hours and examined. The Branchinella undergo few changes during their larval develop- ment, due to their simple anamorphic growth by which the body and the appendages are completed and brought to adult condition through successive stages. The Branchinella are thus of interest as they show - JouRN. BompBay NArtT. Hist. Soc. PLATE I FEMALE Branchinella biswasi K. K. Tiwari—Adult JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE II Branchinella biswasi K. K. Tiwari Fig. 1. Unhatched prolarva 8 hours after seeding; Fig. 2. Newly hatched nauplius larva at 12 hours after seeding; Fig. 3. 24-hour old metanauplius larva; Fig. 4. Advanced metanauplius larva at 48 hours MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Biyie! development from the simple nauplius to the adult. The development is accompanied by specialization of the post-gnathal appendages for swimming purposes. The antennae change from biramous stenopoda to phyllopoda at the end of the process. OBSERVATIONS Unhatched prolarva Plate II, Fig.1 shows the unhatched prolarva 8 hours after seeding in fresh water at room temperature. It is still encased within the transparent shell membrane, the body of the post embryo is disting- uished into cephalic and trunk regions by a slight constriction situated approximately 4 distance from the summit. A pair of rudimentary first appendages are visible as small stumps. The entire structure is a congregation of cells aggregating mostly at the margins of the prolarva. Nauplius larva The newly hatched larva is a typical Branchiopod nauplius. Plate II, Fig. 2 shows it at 12 hours after seeding at room temperature. [Its size ranges from 1:27 mm. to 1:34mm. The anterior region is segmented and posteriorly the trunk ends in a median anal opening. It has three pairs of cephalic appendages—a pair of antennules, antennae, and a pair of mandibles. There is a conspicuous median simple eye and rudiments of maxillae are discernible below the mandibles, and a large labrum. The antennae. are the main swimming appendages. The larvae swim vigorously on the water surface in search of food particles and are -phototropic. The alimentary canal is clearly visible with dark particles all along its length. Metanauplius larva The 24-hour old larva (Plate II, Fig. 3) is about 2°5 mm. in length. Internal compound eyes are visible, due to their pigmentation. The antennules are still short and unsegmented. The antennae and the mandibles are reduced in length. The post-gnathal lobes are very well developed and the maxillary gland is visible below the mandibles. The posterior part of the body is greatly lengthened and bears six pairs of _ well-developed ‘ phyllopodia’ type legs in addition to five pairs of leg rudiments. At the terminal end there isa protuberance on the left side which develops into the caudal furcum. Advanced metanauplius larva At 48 hours (Plate II, Fig. 4) the metanauplius larva measures 3-5 mm. in length. The thoracic appendages are progressively developed from the cephalic to the caudal end in a regressive sequence. Each of the 580 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) phyllopoda is now biramous, anterior thoracic appendages. are clearly divisible into a bilobed exopodite and a broad segmented endopodite and an epipodite at its base. All the segments of the appendages bear spines. The antennae now tend to lose their typical stenopodial biramous structure adapted for swimming and appear as broad phyllopods as in the adult. The caudal furci are represented by a pair of stumps with scarce bristles. | Juvenile stage The juvenile attains a length of 4 mm.at the completion of larval development. It more or less resembles the adult except for the difference in size and the absence of the ovisac or a pair of penial structures. The sex of the animal is not ascertainable at this stage. The eyes, sessile in their first appearance, now become pedunculated. The lateral lobes on which they are located lengthen and separate from rest of the head. region. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The author is grateful to Dr. K. K. Tiwari for his kindness in identifying the specimens obtained by him for the purpose of these observations. GOVERNMENT COLLEGE, AJMER, RAJASTHAN, TEJ SINGH October 2, 1964. ¢ 29. FURTHER RECORDS OF MARINE WOOD-BORERS (TEREDINIDAE : MOLLUSCA) FROM BOMBAY WATERS Shipworms of the family Teredinidae are fairly common in Indian waters and nine species have been recorded from the Bombay coast (Palekar et al, 1964). In the course of a systematic study of the incidence and control of marine wood-borers at Bombay, two additional species hitherto unrecorded from the Bombay coast were collected and are briefly reported in this note. : During March 1964, a single specimen of Bankia nordi Moll 69 mm. long (terminal portion of the pallets missing) was ‘collected from a destroyed timber piece at the Sewri timber pond. On 2 November 1964, four specimens of Teredo clappi Bartsch (all ovigerous females, ranging from 17 mm. to 21 mm.in length) were collected from the base of a living mangrove tree at Cuffe Parade. The holes on the mangrove stem were situated 7 to9 in, above mud level and about 36 in. below high MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 581 water mark. Subsequent attempts to procure additional specimens of the above two species have not been successful. B. nordi has been recently recorded from Pamban (Rameswaram) (Nair 1962) and the present record extends its distribution to the west coast of India. Singapore, Indo-China, Sumatra, and New Guinea are the other localities from which this species has been reported. Certain borers belonging to the genera Teredo, Bankia, and Bactro- nophorus are known to attack living mangroves (Roonwal 1954, Ganapati & Rao 1959), though T. clappi has not so far been known to have this tendency. This species, known from Florida, Bermuda, West Indies, the Caribbean coast (canal zone), Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico, has not so far been recorded from the Indian coast. However, Turner (personal communication dated 3-1-1965) is of the view that T. (Zopoteredo) trulliformis Miller reported from Visakhapatnam (Naga- bhushanam 1955) and 7. (Coeloteredo) renschi Roch reported from Madras (Nair 1964) are synonymous with 7. clappi. If this view is accepted 7. clappi, with the present record from Bombay, would appear to be not so very rare in Indian waters. The author is indebted to Dr. (Miss) Ruth D. Turner for help in identification of the species and to Shri K. H. Alikunhi for guidance and encouragement during the course of this study and for critically going through the manuscript. WooD PRESERVATION CENTRE, CENTRAL INSTITUTE OF FISHERIES EDUCATION, P. B. No. 5075, BOMBAY 9-BR, November 4, 1965. : L. N. SANTHAKUMARAN, Research Officer REFERENCES GANAPATI, P. N., RAO, M. V. LAKsH- MANA (1959) : Incidence of marine wood borers in the Mangroves of the Goda- vary Estuary. Curr. Sci. 28(8) : 332. NAGABHUSHANAM, R. (1955) : A syste- matic account of the molluscan wood borers of Visakhapatnam harbour. Rec. Indian Mus. 53 (1 & 2): 1. Narr, N. B. (1955) : Shipworms from India—Part II. Seven more shipworms from South India. ibid. 53 (1 & 11): 261. ———— (1962) : Incidence of marine wood boring molluscs on the South East Coast of India. Curr. Sci. 31 (7) : 290. ——-—— (1964) : Some observations on the problem of marine timber des- troying organisms of Indian coasts. Fishery Technology 1 (1) : 87. PALEKAR, V. C., SANTHAKUMARAN, L.N., & BAL, D. V. (1964): A preli- /minary note on the Teredinidae of Bombay coast. Jour. T. D. & P. A., India 10 (3): 11. RoonwaL, M. L. (1954) : Bactrono- phorus thoracites (Gould) as a pest of living trees in the Sunderbans, Bengal, ee Teredinidae). Curr. Sci. 23 (9): 582. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) 30. OZOBRANCHUS BRANCHIATUS (MENZIES, 1791) (HIRUDINEA : ANNELIDA) FROM PULICAT LAKE, SOUTH INDIA As revised by the present author (1954) the genus Ozobranchus de Quatrefages, 1852 which includes the rather rare gill-bearing leeches, has six species all of them generally ectoparasitic on chelonians. Of them, only O. shipleyi Harding, O. papillatus Kaburaki, and O. poly- branchus Sanjeeva Raj were then recorded from India. Subsequently (1959), the author recorded O. margoi Apathy, more than a thousand specimens, collected from Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus) on the coast at Ennore (12 miles north of Madras). Recently Ghosh ef al. (1963) recorded O. branchiatus (Menzies) from an unidentified turtle on Pirotan Island, Gulf of Kutch. On 14th October 1964 some post-graduate students and I, while collecting on Pulicat Lake, a large brackish-water lake north of Madras, found two large dead Chelonia mydas (Linn.) on the shore. These two turtles were said to have been captured the previous day from the lake, about half a mile from the sea. Both were infested heavily, on the carapace as well as the plastron, with large-sized Chelonobia testudi- narium Linnaeus. One of the turtles carried on its plastron, just adjacent to the Chelonobia patch, a large cluster of leeches recently dead but still quite fresh, gorged with the host blood. They were removed with a scalpel into strong alcohol, about one hundred of them, all be- longing to Ozobranchus branchiatus (Menzies, 1791). All these leeches were light flesh-coloured except the posterior part of the abdomen, which was blood-red due to their blood-gorged gut. They ranged from 2 mm. to 9mm. in total length (inclusive of suckers) and about 1 mm. to 3 mm. in width (inclusive of gills). The younger specimens (from 2 mm. to 3°5 mm. in total length) clearly showed a pair of dark eye-spots on the dorsum of the neck just over the anterior sucker, which really ought to be segment IV. The anterior sucker in most diagrams of this leech has been figured as cup-shaped, but in the present collection some of the younger specimens, up to 2°5 mm. in total length, show the anterior sucker as well spread-out and circular, very much like the posterior sucker but about half its diameter and rather thinner and more translucent. The rim of the anterior sucker is so thin that soon after death it curves inwards so as to look like a cup. Ghosh et al. have erroneously called this the mouth; the mouth isa small circular opening, a little anterior to the centre of the sucker, often not easily conspicuous to the naked eye (Sanjeeva Raj & Penner 1962). Additional information about this leech including a description of the annulation of the neck is given by Sanjeeva Raj & Penner (1962). The MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 583 presence of eyes in younger forms and their apparent absence in adults is due to their sinking into the parenchyma (MacCallum & MacCallum 1918, Sanjeeva Raj & Penner 1962). The specimens from Pirotan Island showed no eyes, but in the present collection eyes are visible in indivi- duals up to a total length of 3-5 mm. and, even after that stage, they can be demonstrated either by clearing or by pressing the eye region strongly between two slides. 7 The host for the Pirotan Island recovery was not identified. Apart from this O. branchiatus has so far always been collected from the Green Turtle, Chelonia mydas (Linn.). It is interesting to note that when the host gets into brackish waters, both the host and its epizoic - forms like Chelonobia and this leech tolerate prolonged exposure to lowered salinities. Members of this genus have been collected from estuarine waters before, namely O. polybranchus Sanjeeva Raj from the Vellar Estuary at Porto-Novo (1951). These leeches can live for some time on the host after the death of the host and can tolerate dessication to some extent as they have a mucous exterior. In most earlier collec- tions, this leech has been found associated with either bruised parts or tumorous growths on the host. Similarly, this time it was found around patches bruised by the attachment of Chelonobia. It is obvious that such oozing patches on the horny exterior of the chelonians provide an easy blood meal. Ozobranchus branchiatus (Menzies) is now known from the Tropical Pacific, Australia, Isles of Ogaswara (Japan), Florida, Sarawak, and the ‘east and west coasts of India. Therefore, its range of distribution though broadly confined to the tropics and subtropics is now extended throughout the Indian coast and even into brackish waters. The leech seems to be rather host-specific to Chelonia mydas (Linn.). MacCallum & MacCallum (1918), who obtained egg-capsules of this leech from Florida, noted that just-hatched young ones may be about 1:2 mm. in total length. Many individuals of the present collection measured about 2°0 mm. indicating that these leeches were probably recently hatched, so that we may take it that they breed in about the month of October in the Pulicat Lake.area. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, | MaprAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, P. Jj. SANJEEVA RAJ TAMBARAM, SOUTH INDIA, April 3, 1965. is 584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) REFERENCES GHosH, J. M., PEACE JOHNSON, & NA- YAR, C.K. G. (1963) : On the occurrence of the leech Ozobranchus branchiatus (Menzies, 1791) (Hirudinea) in India (Gulf of Kutch). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.60 (2) : 469-471. MacCa.L_um, W. G., & MACCALLUM, G. A. (1918): On the anatomy of Ozobranchus branchiatus (Menzies). Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 38 : 395-408. SANJEEVA Raj, P. J. (1951) : Ona new species of Ozobranchus (Annelida : Hiru- dinea: Family Ichthyobdellidae) from ———— —— (1954): A synopsis of the genus Ozobranchus (de Quatrefages nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 473-480. —— (1959): Occurrence of Ozobranchus margoi Apathy (Hirudinea : Annelida) in the Indian seas. Curr. Sci. 28 : 496. ———-———. & Penner, L. R. (1962) : Concerning Ozobranchus branchiatus (Menzies, 17913) (Piscicolidae: Hirudi- nea) from Florida and Sarawak. Trans. Amer. Mic. Soc. LXxx!: 364-371. ees es Porto-Novo, South India. J. Zool. Soc. India, 3: 1-5. 31. STUDIES ON THE CHAETOGNATHA OF THE INDIAN SEAS. PART VIII. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF SAGITTA FEROX DONCASTER AND S. HEXAPTERA D’ORBIGNY IN THE WATERS OFF VISAKHAPATNAM! During the course of our work on the plankton of the waters of the — Visakhapatnam coast (1952-58), 16 species of Chaetognaths have already been reported to occur here (refer previous Parts I-VII). In the present note the occurrence of two more species namely S. ferox and S. hexap- tera, recorded for the first time from the waters off Visakhapatnam, are dealt with. 3 Sagitta ferox Doncaster _ | There has been some confusion in the literature with regard to the proper identification of this species. As S. ferox bears a very close resemblance to S. robusta Doncaster, there have been attempts to synony- mise the two species. Ritter-Zahony (1911) placed S. ferox as a synonym of S. robusta and similarly Burfield & Harvey (1926) merged the two species on the grounds of similarity of head armature. However, Thomson (1947) kept them separate and has recorded certain constant differences in body proportions and in the shape of seminal vesicles between the.two species. Besides, in S. robusta the head and collarette are broader than in S. ferox and the former attains a larger size than the latter. Doncaster (1902), also, found similar differences between the two species occurring here as shown in the following table. For comparison ‘Warren ’ material from Thomson (1947) is added just to show the range of variation in the species. 1 Read at the seminar on ‘ Some Aspects of Plankton Research’ held at Porto Novo in March 1964. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 585 Tokioka (1956) recorded S. ferox from the central part of the Indian Ocean. In the waters of the Lawson’s Bay it is present from February to May and occurs in fewer numbers than S. robusta. ‘ Warren’ material Lawson’s Bay material robusta ferox robusta ferox Width Si 6°1-6°6 5°5-5°8 6°0-8°7 4°4-6°74 Width of head lp HAMA! 78:3) ah 832100 | 87-120 Length of anterior fin .. 25°5-30°4 21°1-22°7 28°0-30°98 22°2-24°0 Length of posterior fin.. | 25°4-30°8 25°0-27°8 26°3-28°5 26°8-27°7 : Nore. The measurements are percentages of the total length of the body. S. hexaptera d’Orbigny, 1843 This is probably the largest species found in the present collection and has been obtained from the plankton during March to May, but absent in other months. The following are the average measurements of the adult specimens from this coast : Maximum length .. 28mm. Tail segment .. 17:9 to 21°3 (%t otal body length) Width of the head ia 2d 2 to 6:0 do. Anterior fin be aD SELON 43 do. Posterior fin eo @2 87 toL23:3 do. Distance between anterior and ventral fins .- 13°0to 14°6 do. Percentage of posterior fin in front of tail septum .. more than 60% Jaws .. T0Oto 8:0 Anterior teeth .. 20 to40 Posterior teeth -> 3°O:to.7°0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to acknowledge the help and counsel provided by Prof, P. N. Ganapati, Head of the Zoology Department, during the course of this work. DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, ANDHRA UNIVERSITY, T.S. SATYANARAYANA RAO! WALTAIR, September 30, 1965. 1 Present address: Indian Ocean Expedition, Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Bombay 1-BR. 586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) REFERENCES - BuRFIELD, S. T., & HARVEY, E. J. W. (1926) : The Chaetognatha of the ‘ Sea- lark’ Expedition. Trans. Linn. Soc. London 19, part 1, pp. 93-119, pls. 4-7. Doncaster, L. (1903) : Chaetognatha, with a note on the variation and distri- bution of the group. The fauna and geography of the Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagoes. 1 : 209-18. RITTER-ZAHONY, R. VON (1911): Re- vision der Chaetognathen. Deutsche Sudpolar Exped. Bd. 13 (5) : 1-17. GANAPATI, P. N., & SATYANARAYANA Rao, T. S. (1954) : Studies on the Chae- tognatha of the Indian seas. I. Seasonal fluctuations in relation to salinity and temperature. Andhra Univ. Mem. Ocea- nogr. Ser. 49,1: 143-150. SATYANARAYANA RAO, T. S. (1958a) : Studies on the Chaetognatha of the Indian seas. II. The Chaetognatha of the Lawson’s Bay. ibid. 62, 2 : 137-146. —————-—(1958b): op. cit. 32. STUDIES ON IV. Distribution in relation to currents ibid. 2: 164-167. ———_—_——_———— (1960) : op. cit. V. Distribution of the Chaetognatha off the Kakinada coast. Proc. All India Congr. Zool. 2 : 370-375. —————————— & GANAPATI, P. N. (1958): op. cit. III. Systematics- and distribution in the waters off Visakhapatnam. Andhra Univ. Mem. Oceanogr. Ser. 62,2 : 147-163. & KELLY, SARADA (1962a): op. cit. VI. On the biology of Sagitta enflata Grassi in the waters of Lawson’s Bay, Waltair. J. Zool. Soc. India 14 (2) : 219-225. Se (1962b) : op. cit. VII. Some remarks on Sagitta bombay- ensis Lele & Gaeibid. 14 (2) : 226-229. THOMSON, J. M. (1947): The Chaetog- natha of south-eastern Australia. Council Sci. Ind. Res. Australia. Bull. No. 222, pp. 43. — SS THE CHAETOGNATHA OF THE INDIAN SEAS. PART IX. DIURNAL VERTICAL MIGRATION OF SOME SPECIES OF CHAETOGNATHA IN THE WATERS OFF VISAKHAPATNAM ? INTRODUCTION Diurnal vertical migration of the planktonic organisms in the surface layers of the sea is a well known phenomenon. The works of Michael (1919), Russel (1931), and others have confirmed the occurrence of vertical migration and they attribute this phenomenon mostly to the effect of light on the plankton. More recently Moore et al. (1953) and Owre (1960) have established some relationship between the vertical distribution and temperature. The present observations on the vertical migration of Chaetognatha are based on the analysis of 94 samples of plankton collected at hourly intervals both from the surface and at different depths during the drifting cruises Nos. 2, 7, and 31 conducted in the waters off the Visakhapatnam coast. A Nansen-type -of closing net was used for vertical hauls of plankton. In the following account the vertical distri- bution of 4 species of Chaetognatha, namely Sagitta enflata Grassi, S. neglecta Aida, S. serratodentata Krohn, and Pterosagitta draco Krohn, is described (see Parts I-VIII for other details of distribution in space and time). 1 Formed part of the Doctoral thesis submitted by the author to the Andhra University. 587 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES SULIVMS SO}CSIPUT , “PuUNo} 100 Sem SaIdads SITY) YOIYM UI [NeY & ssyeoIpul x Sees = ie a — = x ae = = Osb/Oss Z oe eae’ ¢ x me a au ie a v — x |. oo¢/o0s L se €€ Or =a en 3 aor re oe Sp = ( 0S7/00P Z € v I Z a = I = ai = v ee Oc) 088 L 91 oe = 0€ 8Z SZ aces ean ae os = Ve eee 0 0ve 1€ SI 81 ¢ L a = vl ae 67 aE Z x 0/0SI | ih 07 = — = a — se ae ¢ ad = 0/001 C ger quate SZ : — 6z a SI — L9 Z oes op ts = = = = oe = * = P IT Ivl SS had ‘op L = a LE = ~ - — = = II ral 89 oovjins Z | v/€ Gi O/EC. | CO/VE<- O0C/61 SI LUOV* “SU/Ph = Cl/Cl POL — 6/8 us | Bes Pee eae See Nn ct kl be welts Rea mea ate eee Stes So ae eee” Nae yo} “ON Ur osuey "ID LHOIN AVd ele (T€ pure £ ‘Z “ON sosiniD Wo eyep 94) Jo ATeWUING) ojo {ua 0jJ18SD0§ VHIVNDOLAVHD AHL JO NOLLASTULSIG: TWOLLYAA, I Alavi 14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) 588. 691 0/0rz S¢ Otic tas, x aoe sins ¢ 00¢/00S ST OSI /OSE oP 0/OSI CI 0SZ/0St $81 Sovjins 309] [BIOL Ul OSULY LHOIN (ene SE ; | oS 0/009 (6 9 78 0/0vz ae | : : : cr i 8 002 a9¥jINS 9 4 v -00¢/00s G | g ra OST/OSE 7 | Li 0/00€ ae L 8 67 0/01 p | | : * oovjins 4 J | ; 0 Osr/Oss I | € 8S 002/00r € | : €8 001/S7Z € we : € 891 dovjins 9 | hese 104 eS aa ; AVG ee LS ST a Ea I IE ETI ET MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 589° VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION Sagitta enflata (Table I) Michael (1911) describes this species as_ strictly epiplanktonic. According to Thiele (1938) the distribution of S. enflata is mostly confined to the upper zone, extending between 0-50 metres, and it might be present in waters below 400 metres. Owre (1960) has reported the occurrence of diurnal vertical migration for this species in the Florida current and found most of the forms occurring in the upper 200 metres. Off the Waltair (Visakhapatnam) coast S. enflatais the most widely distributed of all the species of Chaetognatha. Most of the forms were collected in the upper 500 feet. A study of the Table I reveals the interesting fact that there is a gradual decrease (see average values) in numbers of this species with increase in depth both during the day and night. S. neglecta (Table II) This is next only to S. enflata in abundance on this coast. Michael (1911) found this form to be a typical surface-dwelling Chaetognath and he never obtained it in open or closed vertical nets off San Diego. During Cruise No. 2, this species showed a distinct increase in number with depth during the day and surface concentrations in the night, while the reverse was the case in the material collected during the cruises No. 7 and 31. Like S. enflata this also is a surface-dwelling form and perhaps does not show any large scale vertical diurnal migration on this coast. S. serratodentata (Table IIT) Fowler (1906) considers this form to be surface-dwelling and also mesoplanktonic. Owre (1960) found this form oddly distributed like Sagitta enflata and S. hexapterain the waters of the Florida current. S. serratodentata occurs in these waters only from January to August and is considered as an indicator species of the northerly current flowing past this coast during the above period. From the data presen- ted in Table III it shows a scattered distribution at different depths both during the day and night. However, the average values for the day and night during the cruise No. 7 indicate an instance of vertical diurnal migration. But in the material of the cruise No. 31 higher concentration of this species was found in the surface waters both during the day and night. Pterosagitta draco (Table IV) Fowler (1906) considers this form to be both neritic and oceanic. Burfield & Harvey (1926) found this form to be distinctly epiplanktonic — 590: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) Mee Ge a ee EX se So es Slee yas Sree eee a= Sy aT A Vig see ae eee eae emt Soya ae x L ¢ — Se aK te ee ei gee ee ee, OO ee SI, ee ages as oe eh oe = Bes ee pa eres aes CE ay 5 an oa am ares 6 Cle ex x rte ee eee ge Se ee X x € x Se a Oe ae, Woe ES WE eee ne ee Ne sen Peale Agee | ees ay Pe re I ne Be ep Ae ee EX g b/€ Z/I 0/€Z Conic 02/61 81 fe WN St/pl €l/7l 1/0 6/8 L/9 AVG eas (Ig pue /£ ‘JON Sasinig Wolf vyep 94} JO Ayewung) DjJajsau 4130S VHIVNOOLAVHD FHL JO NOILNGIYISIG TWOILMAA II a1avL ad OSP/0SS O0E /00S 007/00 OST /OSE 001/S7Z OST /081 0/0FZ 0/0S1 0/001 ‘op ‘op ooejins oof Ul OsULY 591 MISCELLANEOUS NOTES SULIEMS SO}Vd;PU! ‘puUNoJ JOU sem SaIdods sIy} YOIYM UT [NY VB S9}VOIPUT Xx = s 0 0/009 Cae LI 0/0rz 9 | 0 0/0rz y | I 0/071 b | ey oe y | a € 9ovjins Q | CZ doRjins Ons) C 00€/00$ ee 0 00 /00S Gas 7 v1 OST /OSE 8 0 0st /OSE | v - ‘ 3 s 0/00€ € | b Ze 0/0ST 8 ¢ 0/0s I v | bibs ae a * soe jINs , - - “ ¢ Osr/0Ss I 0 0SZ/0Sb «g 69 002/00r € | = a 2 0z O01 /S7Z € : Zl 9oRjins € I Sovjins 9 [R1IOL JooJ Ul OSULY sjney JO "ON [210.L yoo} UI ODULY sjneyq JO “ON 5 $$} ies LHOIN EEN AT AE Sa oanowes | JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 62 (3) - 592 8 — x xX x I ZI Z x 6 g I = = rl =~? py 9 b ZZ = 86 € € = vi CE I x * Rs ieee oe Meggan e —mes e = Ze x = a = ZI x cad a eo za L a pi Ehe = = a == cl x = = 0€ 4 x = = = = El x — 6 — — —- x x A, iia Ba — x piste yee oe, = 8 ee 6€ = x = 97 — ~- X — 4 4 x — ¢ b/€ Z/T G/cz.