_ N H O >sv^ *“M q !1 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI^NVINOSHilWS ^S3 1 d Vd E f~* °zl r" *?> —■ rn ^ W 5 — 2 rn _ ._ )N NOlinillSNI NVINOSH1IWS S3 lavaan LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTli C/) &L — 2. . (/) x : co ^ o z 4*L«r s > 'sr- s ^ > n" LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN__INSTITUTION NOIXnXllSN|2NVINOSHims 'VKS22S' 5 >■ I n NoixniiisNi_ nvinoshii ws^5 s 3 1 ava a llZLI B RAR I EsXmITHSONIAN^INSTITUTI « , . Z \ V> _ = (O - UJ XaSTItITX m. \k. UJ Xa^tit(7Jn. ~ i.i Z ~i 2 — 1 2 ^ 2 1 LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVIN0SH1IWS S3 1 dVd 2 1“ 7 r- ^.D.c> rr '^5^ rn £ N^olu^ ro IN NOlinillSNrNVINOSHJLIWS S3 I dVd 9 ll“LI B RAR I ES ^SMITHSONIAN ~INSTITUTI CO Z . __ CO z » . CO ' Z V < < Xv'SOvTx 2 < _«'sX . IS <1- XX I ^ > 5 | -Sj^ 5 _ T LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN*" INSTITUTION NOlinillSNI NVINOSHlIWsXs I a Va “ CO — CO — 00 UJ XaSVA?\ x&X x LlI CO c (Z O '.^ _ V-w^ O nKs^®7 “• o xisS®7 m ^ ^ 2 i -y i BRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOlifUllSNI NVINOSHillMS S3iavaan LM 5 _ <- ... z r H , m -m tn u> ± & \ z DIXfUliSNI NVIN0SH1IINS S3 I HVaa II LI B RAR I ES SMITHSONIAN “INSTITUTION Nc < ^vf5pA^X 2 , < *s5v .V 2 ^ 5J Z o C/5 X OT 2 5 ~ B RAR I ES^SMITHS0NIAN_INSTITUTI0N%0linillSNI_NVIN0SHllWsa>S3 I a V a 9 IT LI 0 _ HiOlllSNI 'tsl V l&IOSHXI SAIS SSiavaan^UBRARI ES^SMITHSONIAN^INSTITUTION^NO 1 ^ r~ z f~ z ° ° 70 fe/fc V I > = " m XW £ ~ m BRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOliniliSNI “nVINOSHIIWS^SB I a Va 9 IT LI ^ Z r CO 2 GO "* s < Av 3£ 2 Ifi u) * v, > '"2252^ s ^ >■" ' I >- 5 ■<- {/) **" 2 cn !iniilSNI_ NVINOSH1IIAIS S3 IdV^ail LIBRARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION N0 z \ 40 . ^ oo 3RARIES SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION NOliniliSNI NVIN0SH1IWS S3IUVU8I1 LI CD TO o|s*» -dpol — w £: — f/) \ Z co iinmsNi nvinoshiiws ssiavaan libraries Smithsonian institution nc ^ zi Z CO CO < s ,< , 2 ^ y. 2 I co O 3 R A R I ES "SMITHSON IAN ^ INSTITUTION NOliniliSNI NVINOSHlIWS^Sa 1 ava 8 11* Ll tn W — a, - CO Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society O , S Jy':: ~’7 j Vol. 68, No. 1 Editors ZAFAR FUTEHALLY J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE APRIL 1971 Rs. 18 (Inland), 30sh. (Foreign) NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by observing the following instructions : 1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica- tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be submitted. 2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered. 3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under- lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a place, e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelid chinensis suratensis or Dimeria blatteri. 4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where identification is based merely on sight, binominals should be used. 5. Photographs for reproduction must be clear and show good contrast. Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8*20 x 5*60 cm. (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper. 6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board. 7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman type), thus : Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268. Prater, S. H. (1948) : The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay. Titles of papers should not be underlined. 8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting Jhe author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958). 9. Synopsis : Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words. 10. Reprints : Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing. Editors, Hombill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural Shahid Bhagat History Society. Singh Road, Bombay 1-BR. VOLUME 68 No. 1— APRIL 1971 Date of Publication : 15-9-1971. CONTENTS A note on P ter opus (Chiroptera : Pteropidae) from the Andaman Islands. ByJ. E. Hill .. .. .. .. .. 1 Foraminifera of the Gulf of Cambay. By K. Kameswara Rao. {With 16 figures in two plates ) . . . . . . . . . . 9 Maturation and Spawning of Bregmaceros mcClellandi (Thompson). By Arun Parulekar and D. V. Bal. {With a plate and three text-figures ) . . 20 Orchids of Nepal — 4. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa . . . . 29 Food-Habits of water-birds of the Sundarban, 24-Parganas District, West Bengal, India — II. By Ajit Kumar Mukherjee. {With two text-figures) . . 37 A Review of the Recovery Data obtained by the Bombay Natural History Society’s Bird Migration Study Project. By D. N. Mathew. {With a text-figure ) . . . . . . . . . . 65 Eco-Toxicology and Control of Indian Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon). By Ishwar Prakash, G. C. Taneja and K. G. Purohit . . 86 The Thalassinoidea (Crustacea, Anomura) of Maharashtra. By K. N. Sankolli. {With four text-figures) .. .. .. ..94 Random notes on Birds of Kerala. By M. C. A. Jackson . . . , 107 Studies on the freshwater and amphibious Mollusca of Poona with notes on their distribution — Part II. By G. T. Tonapi. {With twenty-one figures in four plates) .. .. .. .. ..115 A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History Society — 8. By Humayun Abdulali . . . . . . 127 The nesting of Pareumenes brevirostratus (Saussure), involving a primitive form of co-operation. By S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway . . . . 153 Triops granarius (Lucas) (Crustacea : Branchiopoda) from Tamil Nadu, and a Review of the Species from India. By P. J. Sanjeeva Raj. {With two text-figures) . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Pteridophytic Flora of Kodaikanal. By S. S. Bir and Surinder Mohan Vasudeva . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Some Aspects of Bio-Ecology of Podagrica orbiculata (Motsch.) (Coleop- tera : Chrysomelidae) as a pest of Abelmoschus esculentus at Sehore (M.P.). By R. R. Rawat and R. K. Singh. {With two text-figures) . . 196 Asymmetry in Palm Leaves. By T. A. Davis, S. S. Ghosh and A. Mitra. {With nine text-figures) .. .. .. .. .. 204 Reviews : 1. Beautiful Gardens. (D.E.R.) . . .. 232 2. World Wildlife. (Z.F.).. .. 233 3. Lac Literature. (N.T.N.) . . .. 234 4. The Biocrats. (A.N.D.N.) .. 235 5. The Wealth of India. (D.E.R.) . . .. 237 6. Signals for Survival. (D.E.R.) . . .. 238 7. Nature Conservation in Britain. (Z.F.) .. 238 Miscellaneous Notes : Mammals : 1 . A note on the birth of a Golden Cat (Felis temmincki) in cap- tivity. By L. N. Acharjyo (p. 241). Birds : 2. Occurrence of the Flamingo in interior Maharashtra. By S. M. Ketkar and Lincoln Gray (p. 241) ; 3. Occurrence of the Barheaded Goose, Anser indicus in Jasdan (Gujarat). By Shivrajkumar Khachar (p.242) ; 4. Note on breeding of Ruddy Shelduck, Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas) at Delhi Zoological Park. By J. H. Desai (p. 243) ; 5. The Pied Myna, Sturnus contra (Linnaeus) in Bombay. By N. J. George (p. 243) ; 6. Recovery of a Spotbill Duck {Anas poecilorhyncha) in U.S.S.R. {With a map). By (Miss) Shailaja S. Somane (p. 244) ; 7. Baya Weaverbird Nesting on human habitations. {With eight figures in two plates). By T. A. Davis (p. 246) ; 8. Recovery of ringed birds. By Editors (p. 249). Reptiles : 9. Testudo elegans in Western Rajasthan. By Ishwar Prakash (p. 273) ; 10. The catching of snakes. By Romulus Whitaker (p. 274). Fishes : 11. New locality records of Horaichthys setnai Kulkarni, from Nar- mada and Tapti Rivers. By S. J. Karamchandani and P. K. Pandit (p. 278). Mollusca : 12. On two Doridacean Nudibranchs (Mollusca : Gastropoda), from the Gulf of Kutch, new to the Indian Coast. By K. R. Narayanan (p. 280). Crustacea : 13. Biometrical comparison between Balanus tintinnabulum L. and Balanus amaryllis D. ( With three text-figures). By Arun B. Wagh and D. V. Bal (p. 282). Insecta : 14. A possible explanation of the peculiar accident to the Butterfly, Delias eucharis Drury. By E. M. Shull (p. 286) ; 15. A cure for wasp sting. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 287); 16. A simple and convenient artificial nest for maintaining an ant colony in the laboratory. By A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 288) ; 17. A case of intergeneric competition and replacement in the Ants, Oecophylla smaragdina Fabricius and Anoplolepis longipes Jerdon (Hymenoptera : Formicidae). By A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 289). Coelenterata : 18. A new sea Anemone, Crihrinopsis robertii, (Endomyaria : Actiniidae) from Maharashtra and Goa Coast. ( With three text-figures ). By Arun H. Parulekar (p. 291). Botany: 19. Caralluma edulis (Edgew.) Benth. & Hook: A new record for India. {With a plate). By M.M.Bhandari (p. 296) ; 20. Arthraxon dec- canensis sp. nov., A new grass from India. {With a plate). By S. K. Jain (p.297) ; 21. A new grass from India Arthraxon junnarensis sp. nov. ( With a plate). By S. K. Jain and Koppula Hemadri (p. 300) ; 22. The Taxonomic status of the genus Pongamia Vent. (Papilionaceae). By S. S. R. Bennet (p. 302) Notes and News . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Announcement . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1971 APRIL Vol. 68 No. 1 A note on Pteropus (Chiroptera: Pteropidae) from the Andaman Islands BY J. E. Hill Department of Zoology , British Museum ( Natural History) A small collection of specimens of Pteropus from the Andaman Islands confirms the view that P. tytleri Mason, 1908 should be considered a sub- species of P. melanotus, and that P. satyrus Andersen, 1908 from the outlying island of Narcondam is also subspecifically related to melanotus rather than to P. hypomelanus with which it had been provisionally associ- ated hitherto, being linked to tytleri from the principal islands of the Andamans by specimens from the geographically intermediate island of Barren. Parallelism in colour variation is demonstrated between P. melanotus frpm the Nicobar and Andaman Islands and P. hypomelanus geminorum from the islands of the Mergui Archipelago. Two indigeneous forms of Pteropus are listed currently from the Andaman Islands, namely P. tytleri Mason, 1908, described from Rutland Island and considered to occur throughout the major part of the archipe- lago, and P. satyrus Andersen, 1908 from the outlying island of Narcondam. Although the genus has long been known to occur in the Andamans, relatively few specimens have been obtained, ever since Mason (1908) made the first critical examination of Andamanese examples, recognising tytleri but with the exclusion of satyrus , described almost concurrently and of which Mason was clearly unaware. The current classification of the two forms is based on the classic monograph of the Megachiroptera by Andersen (1912) who placed tytleri in the melanotus group with melanotus from the Nicobar Islands, niadicus from Nias Island, off Sumatra, modiglianii from nearby Enggano Island and natalis from Christmas Island, south of Java, and who associated satyrus with the hypomelanus group, widely distributed throughout Indo-Australia. i JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL tilST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (?) Chasen (1940 : 24*? considered the purely Malaysian members of the melanotus group to be subspecies of melanotus with the comment (p. 29) that although ‘ from P ter opus melanotus to natalis is a long stretch .... the appearance of the intervening forms provides sufficient grounds to justify the use of a trinomial.’ Following this lead, Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951 : 96) and later Hill (1968 : 3) listed tytleri as a provisional subspecies of melanotus. Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (p. 95) thought that from descriptions satyrus was very close to hypomelanusf of which they listed it as a provisional subspecies, a course subsequently adopted by Hill (p. 2). The relationships of the two forms are thus sufficiently uncertain that it is of considerable interest to report material obtained during successive visits by Mr. Humayun Abdulali to South Sentinel, Barren and Narcondam Islands in the Andaman Archipelago. The majority of these specimens remain the property of the Bombay Natural History Society, but the Society has generously agreed that duplicate examples should remain in the collections of the British Museum (Natural History). Pteropus melanotus tytleri Mason, 1908 Pteropus tytleri Mason, 1908 : 162, Rutland Island, South Andaman Islands, 2?$ AN3, AN6, 1 immature? AN 5. South Sentinel Island, South Andaman Islands. 2<&£ 9/70, 11/70; 2?$ 10/70, 12/70. Barren Island, Andaman Islands. 30th April 1970. Included by early authors with specimens from the Nicobar Islands as P. melanotus Blyth, 1863 or P. nicobaricus Zelebor, 1869, Andamanese examples were separated as tytleri by Mason [Dobson had earlier (1876 : 189) invalidly applied this name] chiefly on account of the sexual colour dimorphism which they display and which apparently does not occur in melanotus. Andersen (1912 : 227, 820) gave further descriptions of tytleri , pointing out (p. 820) that it could be distinguished from melanotus by its much darker underparts. Few specimens have been collected since Mason described tytleri and Andersen reviewed it : during the intervening years the holotype and one other specimen from the original material examined by Mason have been added to the collections of the British Museum (Natural History), together with two skulls lacking skins from Rutland Island and South Sentinel Island, and three other specimens, one of these from Port Blair, South Andaman Island, the others from Car Nicobar, all three coming from the Mason Collection but collected many years after his description of tytleri. Males (B.M. 10.7.26.1, the holotype B.M. 13.4.6.6) from Rutland Island have the back and rump blackish brown, lightly streaked with grey, with a dark blackish brown head, sprinkled with a few grey hairs. The mantle is ochraceous buff and very clearly demarcated from the head and back. The ventral surface is dark brown or blackish brown and PTEROPUS FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS 3 lacks any paler mid-ventral area, which is represented only by a small area of hairs tipped with brighter chestnut brown. A young male (B.M. 13.4.6.5) from Rutland has a dark reddish brown mantle but otherwise exactly resembles the adult. A female (B.M. 13.4.6.7) from Rutland is uniformly dark both above and below, the mantle indicated only by a tinge of rufous. The two adult females from South Sentinel Island* collected by Mr. Abdulali, conform to the female from Rutland Island, but one (AN6) has a small mid-ventral patch of buff tipped .hairs, while the immature female from South Sentinel is exactly like the young male from Rutland except only for the presence of a similar mid-ventral patch. A female (B.M. 34.7.2.24) from Port Blair, South Andaman Island has the back more liberally streaked with grey and has a browner, slightly more prominent mantle than do females from Rutland or South Sentinel. A young adult male (B.M. 34.7.2.23) from Car Nicobar is similar in most respects to adult males from Rutland but has a brown head, lacking any grey, and the mantle is dark reddish brown, closely similar to the mantle in young specimens from Rutland and South Sentinel. This specimen, which lacks a skull, is from the Mason Collection and has been labelled 4 ty fieri ’ by Mason. A second specimen (B.M. 34.7.2.56) from Car Nicobar is also from the Mason Collection and has been label- led ‘ Pteropus n. sp. 9 by Mason. It is an unmade skin in poor condition, with the skull in situ , and is very similar to the last but has a paler, more buffy mantle, a poorly defined buffy crown and nape patch and a small ochraceous mid-ventral area. Mason (1908 : 163) remarked that tytleri occurs on Barren Island, where according to this author it shows a tendency to become smaller and to deviate from typical specimens by having a light and conspicuous oval-shaped area of greyish hairs occupying the chest and belly. The four specimens collected on Barren Island by Mr. Abdulali have the back and rump blackish, streaked with grey. The head and nape is similar in colour : a buffy crown and nape patch is present in males but not in females. Males have a prominent pale ochraceous buff or pale rufous mantle : in females the mantle is dark rufous brown or dark brown. The ventral surface in males is reddish brown anteriorly with blackish flanks and anal region but mid-ventrally is markedly paler, in one example (11/70) exactly like B.M. 34.7.2.56 from Car Nicobar, in the other (9/70) more extensively pale, the centre of the pale area becoming fawn to drab as in the specimens from Narcondam discussed below. Both female specimens from Barren are almost uniformly black ventrally, as in tytleri , the mid-ventral region bearing only a few ochraceous-tipped or rufous-tipped hairs. Specimens from Barren Island approach satyrus from Narcondam in some points of coloration, but are referred to tytleri chiefly on account of their larger size (Table 1) and especially larger teeth (Table 2). Measurements (in millimetres) of adults of Pteropus melanotus from the Nicobar and Andaman Islands 4 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1) c £ £ Locality ‘ Nicobars ’ Trinkut 9 9 Rutland 9 9 9 9 South Ser T 3 " S j : 3 § r Z O CVS C/3PQ Narcondam 9 9 oo vo vo moooortt^ O co co »n ’ VO 04 71 CO E 1 o i 6oo\ mnM © © bv do © nmtNNn 00 00 rb A MMNM vb in in 04 04 04 04 VO O OOOrt't'O VO co r-. OO vo 'J- VO 3{qipUBUI JO ipSlLT] in co 04 >n n in in 0 0 00 6v wn^-i1 vb co ON "T •an co in —i •an co 9 9 99 y O •an co i i 00 ON ^ s » <# 3 6 a AO, a s « s Cu E a rl S M s (2*3) 6 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1) Hitherto, large Pteropus from all of the Nicobar Islands have been referred to P. m. melanotus Blyth, 1863, with P. nicobaricus Zelebor, 1869 (the name in common use until Mason wrote in 1908) from Car Nicobar in its synonymy. Specimens from Trinkut and Great Nicobar are avai- lable in the collections of the British Museum (Natural History) and have been described in detail by Andersen (1912 : 224). They differ from P. m. ty fieri in having the head generally browner and less blackish grey, in the presence of a more evident reddish mantle in females and in a much paler and brighter ventral surface in both males and females : the paler area varies in colour from golden ochraceous buff to tawny, some- times medianly faintly drab. Such specimens have been presumed hitherto to occur on Car Nicobar, apparently since Mason (1908 : 161) examined the holotype of nicobaricus and associated it with melanotus. However, the two specimens from Car Nicobar examined during the preparation of these notes seem to link tytleri to melanotus. Both have brownish rather than blackish grey heads : one, a young adult male, (B.M. 34.7.2.23) has a dark reddish brown mantle and uniformly dark under- parts, while the other (B.M. 34.7.2. 56"! has a brighter mantle and ochraceous buff to rufous buff mid-ventral patch similar in colour to that of melanotus but less extensive. Comparison with the description by Zelebor (1869 : 11) suggests that nicobaricus may refer to such a specimen ‘ . . . . the throat, the ventral surface and the anal region dark blackish brown, the occiput, the nape, the sides of the neck and shoulders are a shining glossy reddish fawn with rusty brown border. The indi- vidual hairs of the glossy mantle are fawn at the root, glossy reddish at the tip with a golden lustre. The central part of the chest and the upper abdomen is blackish umber brown with fawn and glossy rust red hair tips.’ Clearly, the precise allocation of nicobaricus must await a re-examination of the holotype in the Naturhistorisches Museum, Vienna but in the meantime the close agreement in size between melanotus and tytleri, combined with a similar colour pattern which differs only in the greater degree of melanism exhibited by tytleri suggests that the two must be considered conspecific. There remains the possibility that pale- bellied melanotus may co-exist on Car Nicobar with dark bellied tytleri, a point to be resolved only by further collecting on that island or per- haps from the holotype. Pteropus melanotus satyrus Andersen, 1908 Pteropus satyrus Andersen, 1908:362. Narcondam Island, Andaman Islands. lc? 8/70 (AN 12) ; 3?? 5-7/70 (AN13-15). Narcondam Island. 29th April 1970. As long ago as 1906 Osmaston noted (p. 622) of Narcondam Island ‘ Among mammals I found two species of Fruit Bats. The Nicobar Flying Fox {Pteropus nicobaricus) and another smaller species.’ Andersen, describing P. satyrus (which may be the Nicobar Flying Fox PTEROPUS FROM ANDAMAN ISLANDS 7 alluded to by Osmaston) was evidently unaware of this reference and later (1912 : 142) suggested that the affinities of satyrus lay with P. hypome - lanus. Specimens obtained from Narcondam by Mr. Abdulali are similar in colour to the holotype of satyrus , with blackish back and rump overlaid with a sprinkling of grey, the head mixed black and grey, with a patch of buff on the crown and nape. The male differs from the reputedly male holotype in its much paler mantle which is greatly ligh- tened with buff to the bases of the hairs, in contrast to the dark chestnut mantle of the holotype in which buff based hairs are found only in its posteriormost part. The three rather younger female examples have the back and rump more generously sprinkled with grey than does the male specimen and the mantle is browner, largely lacking red, the individual hairs brownish to the base. In both male and female the anterior part of the ventral surface is reddish brown, the flanks and anal region blackish grey, with a paler mid-ventral brownish buff area, lightening to drab at its centre. These specimens are smaller (Table 1) and have smaller teeth (Table 2) than P. m. tytleri. Andersen (1912 : 142) thought that satyrus was most nearly related to P. hypomelanus geminorum from the Mergui Archipelago. However, in colour, size and tooth dimensions it is linked to P. melanotus tytleri by specimens from Barren Island which although nearer to tytleri are nevertheless intermediate between the two forms, and accordingly satyrus is considered to be a subspecies of P. melanotus. It is worth noting in this connection that the combined colour variation of P. m. melanotus , P. m. tytleri and P. m. satyrus is closely paralleled by similar variation in the series of P. hypomelanus geminorum in the British Museum (Natural History) from the islands of the Mergui Archipelago, even in specimens of geminorum from a single island. For example, in a series (B.M. 23.1.6.13-20) from Malcolm Island, the back and rump vary from blackish brown in males to predominantly greyish in females : a similar variation occurs in the coloration of the head, sometimes with an extensive buffy suffusion of the crown and nape in males. The mantle in male specimens varies from ochraceous brown or dark rufous to blackish brown and in females from ochraceous brown to dark chestnut brown. The ventral surface in two males has an extensive paler median area exactly as in P. m. melanotus and yet in two other male examples and in two females is uniformly dark brown or blackish brown as in P. m. tytleri , while two further female specimens are more greyish ventrally. Similar variation is found in specimens from the other islands of the Mergui Archipelago and the similarity in colour variation suggests that possibly P. hypomelanus and P. melanotus are more closely linked than is apparent from Andersen (1912). However, the status of the poorly known P. famulus from Car Nicobar (thought by Anderson (p. 143) to represent hypomelanus) requires to be resolved before this point can be properly 8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1) determined : furthermore, niadicus from Nias Island and modiglianii from Enggano (where it occurs with a presumed subspecies of hypo - melanus, P. h. engganus ) are also poorly known and further specimens seem essential to any study of the melanotus group as it is defined by Andersen. References Andersen, K. (1908) : Twenty new forms of Pteropus. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (8), 2 : 361-370. (1912) : Catalogue of the Chiroptera in the collection of the British Museum. I. Megachi roptera. London. Blyth, E. (1863) : Catalogue of the Mammalia in the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Calcutta. Dobson, G. E. (1876) : Monograph of the Asiatic Chiroptera and catalogue of the species of bats in the collection of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. London. Ellerman, J. R. & Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals, 1758-1946. 1st. ed. London. Hill, J. E. (1967) : The bats of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 64 : 1-9. Mason, G. E. (1908) : On the fruit bats of the genus Pteropus inhabiting the Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago, with the description of a new species. Rec. Indian Mus. 2 : 159-166. Osmaston, B. B. (1906) : A visit to Narcondam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 16 : 620-622. Zelebor, J. (1869) : Reise der Oster- reichischen Fregatte Novara um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859. Zoologischer Theil. 1, (1), Saugethiere, 1-42. Vienna. Foraminifera of the Gulf of Cambay BY K. Kameswara Rao1 National Institute of Oceanography , Bombay (With 16 figures in two plates) [Continued from Vol. 67 (2) : 273] Family Rotaliidae Subfamily Rotaliinae Genus Rotalia Lamarck 1804 Rotalia beccarii (Linnaeus) (Fig. 69) Rotalia beccarii Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 704, pi. 107, figs. 2,3 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 67, pi. 30, fig. 3; 1931, 104(8), p.58, pi. 12, figs. 1-7, pi. 13, figs. 1,2; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 73, pi. 3, fig. 112 ; Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958, p. 110, pi. 5, figs. 122, 123. Description : Test many chambered with both faces convex, all chambers visible on dorsal side but only those of the last whorl on ventral side. Outer whorl of eight to twelve chambers. Sutures on the dorsal side limbate, those on ventral side depressed. Umbilicus closed by a mass of shell material or umbonal plug. Wall smooth. Aperture a narrow slit situated on ventral side at inner margin of last chamber. Diameter : 0’54 mm. Locality : Stations A & D. Distribution : North Pacific, Cebu, Philippine Islands, oflf Japan, Mediterranean and Red sea, British Isles, Ceylon coast and Arabian sea Rotalia vemista Brady (Fig. 70 a, b). Rotalia venusta Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 708 and 709, pi. 108, figs. 2 a, b, c; Heron- Alien & Earland, 1915, vol. 20, p. 720, figs. 15-22. Description : Test slightly biconvex, compressed with two coils, the outer coil formed of eight chambers. Sutures slightly depressed and 1 Present Address : Indian Ocean Biological Centre, (National Institute of Oceanography), Ernakulam, Cochin-18, 10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1) distinct on both faces. Wall granulated on the ventral side. Aperture an elongate slit at the inner edge of last chamber. Diameter : 0*14 mm. Locality : Station D. Distribution : South Pacific, Kerimba Archipelago and Arabian sea. Genus Pulvinulina Parker and Jones, 1862 Pulvinulina concamerata (Montagu) (Fig. 71) Rotalina concamerata Williamson, 1858, p. 52, pi. 4, figs. 102, 103 ; Pulvinulina repanda var. concamerata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 685, pi. 104, figs. 19, a-c ; Pulvinulina concamerata Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 52, pi. 25, fig. 1. Description : Test biconvex with six to eight chambers in final whorl. Sutures depressed on ventral side and limbate on dorsal side. Surface of test smooth on ventral side while on dorsal side ornamented with numerous rounded bosses. Diameter : 0T3 mm. Locality : Station D. Distribution : North Pacific, off Japan, British Isles and Arabian sea. Pulvinulina oblonga (Williamson) var. scabra Brady (Fig. 72) Pulvinulina oblonga (Williamson) var. scabra Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 689, pi. 106, fig. 8 a-c; Brady, Parker & Jones, 1888, vol. 12, p. 229, pi. 46, fig. 5 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 53, pi. 27, fig. 5. Description : Test biconvex, chambers few about seven or eight in the outer whorl, the later formed chambers large in size and length. Peripheral edge acute, slightly carinate. Sutures somewhat depressed. Wall granular on the dorsal side and smooth on the ventral side. Diameter : 0*38 mm. Locality : Station C. Distribution : North Pacific, off Philippines, Ceylon coast and Arabian sea. Pulvinulina punctulata (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 73) Pulvinulina punctulata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 685, pi. 104, fig. 17 a-c ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 52, pi. 24, fig. 1, F OR A M1NIFER A OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 11 Description : Test planoconvex, chambers numerous. All chambers visible on the dorsal side but only those of the final whorl on the ventral side. Sutures limbate and curved above and depressed below. Surface smooth but the umbilical region somewhat granular. Aperture a curved slit on ultimate chamber. Diameter : 0’26 mm. Locality : Station C. Distribution : North Pacific, Hawaiian Islands and Arabian sea. Family Globigerinidae Subfamily Globigerininae Genus Globigerina d’Orbigny, 1826 Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny (Fig. 74 a, b) Globigerina bulloides Williamson, 1858, p. 56, pi. 5, figs. 116-118 ; Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 593, pi. 77, pi. 79, figs. 3-7 ; Brady, Parker & Jones, 1888, vol. 12, p. 225, pi. 45, fig. 15 ; Cushman, 1914, 71(4), p. 5, pi. 2, figs. 7-9, pi. 9 ; Sethu- lekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 12, pi. 1, fig. 20 a, b ; Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958, p. 110, pi. 6, figs. 142-146. Description : Test subtrochoid spire with few chambers. All chambers visible dorsally and only three or four chambers on the ventral side ; chambers of the outer whorl much inflated. Sutures deep and dis- tinct. Wall calcareous and hispid. Aperture large situated on the inner margin of last chamber. Diameter : 0*26 mm. Locality : Stations A, C & D. Distribution : This species is world wide in distribution. Globigerina dubia Egger (Fig. 75) Globigerina dubia Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 595, p. 79, figs. 17 a-c ; Cushman, 1914, 71(4), p. 6, pi. 4, figs. 1-3 ; 1924, 104(5), p. 8, pi. 2, figs. 5-8 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 13, pi. 1, fig. 21. Description : Test subglobular with many chambers, all the chambers visible dorsally and only those of the ultimate whorl about five or six inflated chambers on the ventral side. Wall calcareous, coarse and pitted. Aperture opening into the much depressed umbilical region on the ventral side. Diameter: 0T1 mm. 12 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (1) Locality : Stations B, C & D. Distribution : Indo-Pacific region, North and South Atlantic, British Isles, and Hawaiian Islands. Genus Globigerinella Cushman, 1948 Globigerinella aequilateralis (Brady) (Fig. 76) Globigerina aequilateralis Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 605, pi. 80, figs. 18-21. ; Cush- man, 1914, 71(4), p. 12, pi. 2, figs. 1-3, pi. 10, fig. 5 ; 1924, 104(5), p. 25, pi. 4, figs. 7-8. Globigerinella aequilateralis Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 15, pi. 1, fig. 25; Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958, p. Ill, pi. 6, figs. 152-154. Description : Test somewhat circular in shape, many chambered with five to six planospirally arranged chambers visible from lateral aspect. Sutures deep and depressed. Peripheral margin rounded. Wall calcareous, hispid with broken spines. Aperture large and arched, situated at the base of ultimate chamber. Diameter : 0*68 mm. Locality : Station B. Distribution: Indo-Pacific region, Atlantic, Honolulu, off Yokohoma, Guam, Philippine Archipelago, Galapagos Islands, and Kerimba Archipelago. Family Globorotaliidae Genus Globorotalia Cushman, 1927 Globorotalia menardii (d’Orbigny) (Fig. 77) Pulvinulina menardii Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 690, pi. 103, figs. 1,2; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5, p. 239 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 54, pi. 22, fig. 2 ; Globorotalia menardii Cushman, 1931, 104(8), p. 91, pi. 17, figs. 1 a-c ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 17, pi. 1, fig. 28 a, b, c ; Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958, pi. 5, figs. 136, 137. Description : Test planoconvex and compressed with usually two convolutions, the outer whorl composed of about five chambers. Sutures limbate above and depressed below. Periphery somewhat lobulated. Wall finely punctate. Aperture situated on the ventral side at the inner margin of ultimate chamber opening into the umbilical region, Diameter : 0.33 mm. Locality : Stat.ion|C, Plate VII J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (1) Kameswara Rao : Foraminifera Figs. 69-77 : 69. Rotalia beccarii ; 70. Rotalia venusta — (a) dorsal view, (b) ventral view; 71. Pulvinulina concamerata ; 72. Pulvinulina oblonga (Williamson) var. scabra; 73. Pulvinulina punctulata ; 74. Globigerina bulloides — (a) dorsal view, (b) ventral view; 75. Globigerina clubia ; 76. Globigerinella aequilateralis ; 77. Globorotalia menardii. Figs. 78-84 : 78. Anomalina cimmonoides ; 79. Anomalina coronata ; 80. Pal- merinella palmer ae ; 81. Cibicides refulgens — (a) dorsal view, (b) ventral view; 82. Cibicides lobatulus ; 83. Cibicides pseudoungeriana — (a) dorsal view, (b) ventral view ; 84. Planulina waellerstorfi. FORA MIN IF ER A OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 13 Distribution : North and South Atlantic, North and South Pacific, Hawaiian Islands, Mediterranean, Red sea, Ceylon coast and Indian seas. Family Anomalinidae Subfamily Anomalininae Genus Anomalina d’Orbigny, 1826 Anomalina ammonoides (Reuss) (Fig. 78) Anomalina ammonoides Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 672, pi. 94, figs. 2, 3 ; Brady, Parker & Jones, 1888, vol. 12, p. 228, pi. 45, figs. 20-22 ; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5, p. 239 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 46, pi. 19, fig. 2. Description : Test with numerous chambers set in three or four coils, the last coil composed of twelve to sixteen chambers ; chambers slightly inflated. Sutures somewhat depressed. Peripheral edge rounded. On the ventral side umbilical region depressed. Wall cal- careous, coarsely foraminated. Aperture a narrow curved slit situated at the base of margin of last chamber. Diameter : 0*34 mm. Locality : Station A. Distribution : North Pacific, off Hawaiian Islands, Hongkong, Chatham Island, off Guam and between Guam and Japan, Ceylon coast and Arabian sea. Anomalina coronata Parker and Jones (Fig. 791 Anomalina coronata Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 675, pi. 97, figs. 1, 2 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 47, pi. 18, fig. 5. Description : Test biconvex with few chambers, the umbilical region depressed on both faces. Final whorl of test composed of eight in- flated chambers. Wall coarsely perforated. Aperture a long curved slit placed obliquely on the ventral side at the inner margin of last chamber. Diameter : 0*30 mm. Locality : Station C. Distribution : North Pacific, Hawaiian Islands and Arabian sea. 14 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (1) Genus Palmerinella Bermudez, 1934 Palmerinella palmerae Bermudez (Fig. 80) Palmerinella palmerae Cushman, 1959, p. 333, pi. 54, figs. 11 a, b. c; Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958, p. Ill, pi. 6, figs. 167, 168. Description : Test with numerous chambers, much compressed, all chambers visible above, but only those of the last whorl below. Wall calcareous, coarsely perforated. Aperture long slit-like on the last chamber in line with the peripheral margin. Diameter : 0*33 mm. Locality : Station A. Distribution : Occurs in most seas. Subfamily Cibicidinae Genus Cibicides Montfort, 1808 Cibicides refulgens Montfort (Fig. 81 a, b) Truncatulina refulgens Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 659, pi. 92, figs. 7-9 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 30, pi. 12, fig. 2. ; Cibicides refulgens Daniel, 1949, p. 116, figs. 85, 86; Ganapati & Satyavati, 1958, p. Ill, pi. 6, figs. 161-163. Description : Test planoconvex, ventral side much convex, dorsal side flat, chambers numerous, eight chambers in the final whorl ; the early chambers on the dorsal side indistinct. Sutures on the ventral side slightly depressed and somewhat sigmoid ; on the dorsal side sutures broad and limbate. Periphery subcarinated. Wall calcareous, finely perforated. Diameter: 0T5 mm. Locality : Station D. Distribution : Indo-Pacific region, Kerimba Archipelago, Malay Archipelago, Cebu, Tawi Tawi, Makyan Island, Macassar Straits and Indian seas. Cibicides lobatulus (Walker and Jacob) (Fig. 82). Truncatulina lobatula Williamson, 1858, p. 59, pi. 5, figs. 121-123 ; Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 660, pi. 92, fig. 10 ; pi. 93, figs. 1, 4, 5 ; pi. 95, figs. 4, 5 ; Dakin, 1906, vol. 5, p. 238 ; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 31, pi. 15, fig. 1 ; Cibicides lobatulus Cushman, 1959, p. 335, pi. 36, fig. 11. Description : Test planoconvex with numerous chambers. All the chambers visible on the dorsal side and only those of outer whorl visible FORAMlNIFER A OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 15 ventrally ; outer whorl of seven or eight chambers. Sutures slightly depressed. Surface of the test smooth, coarsely punctate or covered with slight protuberances. Aperture a narrow slit situated ventrally at the base of the final chamber. Diameter : (M3 mm. Locality : Station C. Distribution : North Pacific, off Hawaiian Islands, Bering sea, Guam and between Guam and Yokohoma, off Japan, Ceylon coast and Arabian sea. Cibicides pseudoungeriana (Cushman) (Fig. 83 a, b). Truncatulina pseudoungeriana Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 664, pi. 94, figs. 9 a-c ; Cibicides pseudoungeriana Cushman, 1931, 104(8), p. 123, pi. 22, figs. 3-7 ; Daniel, 1949, p. 114, figs. 114, 145 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 34, pi. 2, figs. 49 a, b. Description : Test circular in outline, planoconvex, chambers numerous, the last formed whorl consists of ten or eleven chambers. Sutures depressed below and limbate above in the earlier chambers but become depressed in the last few chambers of the final whorl. Peripheral margin rounded. Wall calcareous and coarsely perforated. Aperture close to the peripheral margin on ventral side. Diameter : 0f34 mm. Locality : Station C. Distribution : Atlantic and Indo-Pacific region. Genus Planulina d’Orbigny, 1826 Planulina wuellerstorfi (Schwager) (Fig. 84). Truncatulina wuellerstorfi Brady, 1884, vol. 9, p. 662, pi. 93, figs. 8, 9; Cushman, 1915, 71(5), p. 34, pi. 12, fig. 3 ; Planulina wuellerstorfi Cushman, 1931, 104(8), p. 110, pi. 19, figs. 5, 6 ; Sethulekshmi Amma, 1958, p. 35, pi. 2, figs. 51 a, b. Description : Test planoconvex, many chambered, the final whorl of nine chambers. Sutures limbate. Peripheral margin rounded. Aper- ture an arched opening situated at the base of last chamber. Diameter : 0*32 mm. Locality : Station A. Distribution : Pacific Ocean, Panama Bay, off Hawaiian and Midway Islands, Galapagos Islands, between Guam and Yokohama and Arabian sea. 16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1) General Considerations Regional distribution of foraminiferal groups : The regions along the Indian and adjacent coasts whose foramini- feran fauna studied in some details are (1 ) Laccadive region (Chapman 1 895); (2) Gulf of Cambay region (present investigations) ; (3) Travancore coast off Arabian Sea (Sethulekshmi Amma 1958) ; (4) Bay of Bengal off Visakhapatnam coast (Ganapati & Satyavati 1958) ; (5) Gulf of Mannar off Krusadi and adjacent areas (Gnanamuthu 1943 & Daniel 1949) ; (6) Gulf of Mannar off Ceylon coast (Dakin 1906). From the above six regions a total number of thirty families representing various species of Foraminifera are on record, they being Astrorhizidae, Rhizamminidae, Saccamminidae, Hyperamminidae, Reophacidae, Ammodiscidae, Lituo- lidae, Textularidae, Verneuilinidae, Valvulinidae, Silicinidae, Miliolidae, Ophthalmidiidae, Trochamminidae, Lagenidae, Polymorphinidae, Nonionidae, Camerinidae, Peneroplidae, Buliminidae, Rotaliidae, Amphisteginidae, Calcarinidae, Cymbaloporidae, Cassidulinidae, Chilos- tomellidae, Globigerinidae, Globorotaliidae, Anomalinidae, and Planor- bulinidae. Of the above families Astrorhizidae, Textularidae, Miliolidae, Lagenidae, Nonionidae, Buliminidae, Rotaliidae, Globigerinidae, and Anomalinidae are common to all the six regions. From the Laccadive region a larger number of families has been recorded. The only families not so far known from this region are Rhizamminidae, Hyperamminidae, and Silicinidae. This region is also characterised by the presence of members of the families Ammodiscidae, and Chilostomellidae which are not known from any of the other five regions. The foraminifera fauna of the Travancore coast is represented by twenty-one families. Rhizam- minidae, Hyperamminidae, Reophacidae, Ammodiscidae, Silicinidae, Polymorphinidae, Calcarinidae, Cassidulinidae and Chilostomellidae are not on record from this region. Visakhapatnam region is characterised by the members of the family Silicinidae which is not known from other regions. Reophacidae, Ammo- discidae, Valvulinidae, Calcarinidae, Cymbaloporidae and Chilostomellidae are not on record. In the Gulf of Mannar off Krusadi including adjacent areas and Ceylon coast, the families Rhizamminidae, Ammodiscidae, Valvulinidae, Silicinidae, Trochamminidae, Cassidulinidae and Chilostomellidae are not known. In the present investigation, from the Gulf of Cambay region fifteen families have been recorded. Species recorded in the Gulf of Cambay region but not known from any of the other five regions are (1) Quinquelo - culina candeiana d’Orbigny, (2) Spiroloculina antillatrum d’Orbigny aequa Cushman, (3) S. depressa var. rotundata Williamson, (4) Biloculina FOR AMI N I. FER A OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 17 lucernula Sch wager, (5) Nodosaria subperversa Cushman, (6) Nonion depressula (Walker & Jacob), (7) Bolivina nitida Brady, (8) Bolivina aenariensis (Costa), (9) Rotalia venusta Brady, (10) Pulvinulina conca - merata Montagu, (11) P. oblonga var. scab'ra Brady, and (12) Anomalina coronata Parker & Jones. Nature of Sediments in stations and species abundance : The distribution of the Foraminifera appears to have some relation- ship to the type of bottom deposits. The sediment sample from Station A which is an admixture of mud and a large amount of coarse sand, has very rich foraminiferal fauna well represented both by the number of species and abundance of specimens. Miliolidae are dominant followed by Rotaliidae, Nonionidae and Textulariidae in the order of abundance. Arenaceous forms belonging to the family Textulariidae are common and lagenids are also found in the same frequency. Among the rotalids the most common are Rotalia , Cibicides and Discorbis. The large sized forms like Nodosaria , Spiroloculina and Textularia are abundant. Plank- tonic Foraminifera like Globigerina bulloides , 6. dubia are present with the former being most common. All specimens are well preserved in the sediment with the exception of a few which have been found worn-out and damaged. In Station B where the texture of the sediment is of very fine particles of mud, small forms like Bulimina , Eggerella and Lagena are most common. The station is poor in the abundance of specimens. Miliolids and Rotalids are sparsely present. Arenaceous forms are lacking. Planktonic forms of the genera Globigerinella and Globigerina have been observed. Globigerina dubia is most abundant and Globigerinella aequilateralis very rare. The sediment from Station C which is slightly rough being composed of a fair amount of mud with a small proportion of sand has foramini- fera represented by Rotaliidae, Miliolidae Nonionidae, Camerinidae, Textulariidae and Peneroplidae. Specimens from this station have been found to be in a good state of preservation. Planktonic forms are re- presented by Globigerina bulloides , G. dubia, and Globorotalia menardii. In Station D where the sediment is muddy, the fauna is extremely poor. Bulimina and Bolivina are common. Miliolids and Rotalids are uncommon. Planktonic forms are represented by Globigerina bulloides and G. dubia . In general, the foraminifera of the Gulf of Cambay are typical of shallow tropical warm waters of Indo-Pacific region. Summary 1. Eighty-four species of Foraminifera belonging to 34 genera under fifteen families viz., Astrorhizidae, Textularidae, Valvulinidae, 2 18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1) Miliolidae, Ophthalmidiidae, Trochamminidae, Lagenidae, Nonionidae, Camerinidae, Peneroplidae, Buliminidae, Rotaliidae, Globigerinidae, Globorotaliidae and Anomalinidae have been collected and reported from dredge samples of INS ‘ Darshak ’ from the Gulf of Cambay. 2. Locations of the stations and the nature of the sediments and foraminiferal complexes therein have been described. 3. Emphasis has been laid on the geographical distribution of the species concerned. The foraminiferal fauna of different areas off the coasts of Bay of Bengal and Arabian sea including Laccadive sea have been compared. 4. Quinqueloculina candeiana , d’Orbigny, Spiroloculina antillatrum d’Orbigny aequa Cushman, S. depressa var. rotundata Williamson, Biloculi na lucernula Schwager, Nodosctria subperversa Cushman, Nonion depressula (Walker & Jacob), Bolivina nitida Brady, Bolivina cienariensis (Costa), Rotalia venusta Brady, Pulvinulina concamerata Montagu, P. oblonga var. scabra Brady, and Anomalina coronata Parker & Jones have been reported for the first time from the Indian coasts. 5. The relationship of Foraminifera to the type of bottom deposits has been briefly discussed with regard to their species distribution and abundance. Acknowledgements The author takes the opportunity to express his sinceregratitudetoDr. N. K. Panikkar, Director, National Institute of Oceanography, C.S.I.R., New Delhi for suggesting the problem and advice, and to Dr. T. S. Satya- narayana Rao, Scientist-in-charge of the Branch of the National Institute of Oceanography at Bombay for constant encouragement given during the course of the investigations. Thanks are due to the officers and crew of INS ‘ Darshak ’ for the collections of the dredge samples and data. FORAMINIFERA OF THE GULF OF CAMBAY 19 References Anon, (1939) : Marine deposits of Arabian Sea. Nature , 144:841-842. (1944): Pelagic Foramini- fera. ibid. 153 : 322. Bagg, R. M. (1908) : Foraminifera collected near the Hawaiian Islands by the steamer "Albatross’ in 1902. Proe. U.S . Nat. Mus. 34. Brady, H. B. (1884) : Report on the Foraminifera. Challenger, Zoology, 9 : 1-814. 5 Parker, W. K. & Jones, T. R. (1888) : On some Foraminifera from the Abrohlos Bank. Trans. Zoo. Soc. London, 12: 211-240. Carpenter, W. B., Parker, W. K. & Jones, T. R. (1862) : Introduction to the study of the Foraminifera. Ray Soc. Publ. London. Carter, H. J. (1880) : Report on specimens dredged from the Gulf of Mannar. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 5, 5, 6, and 7. Chapman, F. (1895) : On some For- aminifera obtained by the Royal Indian Survey Ship. SS ‘Investigator’ from the Arabian Sea. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pp. 1-55. — (1902) : The Foraminifera. Vol. 8, Longman, Green & Co. (1910) : On the Foramini- fera and Ostracoda from soundings chiefly deep water collected round the Funafuti a toll by H.M.S. Penguin. Jour. Linn. Soc. Zoology. 30. Cushman, J. A. (1910-17) : A mono- graph of the Foraminifera of the North Pacific Ocean. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 71. — (1917) : New species and varieties of Foraminifera from the Philippines and adjacent waters. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 51. (1921) : Foraminifera of the Philippine and adjacent Seas. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 100. — — (1918-31) : The Foramini- fera of the Atlantic Ocean, ibid. 104 (1942): The Foraminifera of the tropical Pacific Collections of the “ Albatross ” , 1899-1900. ibid. 161. — (1959) : Foraminifera. Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press. Dakin, W. J. (1906) : Report on the Foraminifera collected by Professor Herdman, at Ceylon in 1902. Rept. Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fisheries, 5,pp.225- 242. Daniel, J. C. (1949) : Encrusting For- aminifera of Krusadai Island. Jour. Madras Univ. 18 : 27-37. (1949) : The Foramini- fera of Krusadai Island and adjacent areas. M.Sc. thesis, Univ. of Madras, Dept, of Zoology. Ganapati, P. N. & Satyavati, P. (1958) : Report on the Foraminifera in bottom sediments in the Bay of Bengal off the east coast of India. Andhra Univ. Mem. Oceanogr. 11 : 100-127. Gnanamuthu, C. P. (1943) : For- aminifera of Krusadai Island. Bull. Madras Govt. Mus. 2, (5) : 1-21. Heron-Allen & Earland (1914-15) : The Foraminifera of the Kerimba Archi- pelago. Trans. Zool. Soc. London 20, pt. 1, 1914. pt. II, 1915. Hofker, J. (1927) : Foraminifera of Siboga Expedition. Siboga Exped. Monogr. 4(1) : 1-78. (1930) : Foraminifera of Siboga Expedition, ibid. 4a : 79-170. Lankester, E. R. (1903) : Treatise on Zoology, Pt. 1, Protozoa, pp. 47-149. Millett, F. W. (1898-1904) : Report on the recent Foraminifera of the Malay Archipelago. Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc. p. 406. Nuttal, W. L. F. (1927) : The localities whence the Foraminifera figured in Report of H.M.S. Challenger by Brady were derived. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 19 (9) : 209-241. Sethulekshmi Amma, J. (1958) : Foraminifera of the Travancore Coast. Bull. Res. Inst. Univ. Kerala. Ser. C. VI (1): 1-88. Stubbings, H. G. (1939) : Stratifi- cation of biological remains of marine deposits of the Arabian Sea. Br. Mus. (Nat. Hist.). John Murray Exped. 1933- 34; Sci. Rept., 1939, 3 (2): 31. Williamson, W. C. (1858) : On the recent Foraminifera of Great Britain. Ray Soc. Publ. London , pp. 107. Maturation and Spawning of Bregmaceros mcClellandi (Thompson) BY Arun Parulekar1 and D. V. Bal2 Institute of Science , Bombay (i With a plate and three text-figures) The maturation and spawning behaviour of Bregmaceros mcClellandi (Thompson), a common gadid fish of Bombay, is studied for the first time. The structure of gonads and the stages of maturity have been clearly des- cribed. The season and periodicity of spawning is determined by ova- diameter measurements and distribution of maturity stages in different months . Fecundity or reproductive potential in relation to different variables is estimated and the equations for conversion found out. The minimum size at maturity is discussed. Ponderal index or condition factor, in respect of size and time, has been determined for both the sexes. Introduction The gadid fish, Bregmaceros mcClellandi (Thompson), locally known as 6 Bengali ’ is quite common around Bombay. It occurs almost throughout the year and contributes about 3000 metric tons to the total annual fish landings made by mechanised and indigenous crafts at Bombay. Except for a short account on the food and feeding habits of this fish by Bapat 8c Bal (1952), very little information about its biology is available. Material and Methods The present study is based on observations of 2000 fish during a period of 18 months in the years 1962-64. The material was collected, once a week from the ‘ dol ’ net catches off the local fish-landing centres at Sassoon Dock and Versova. The fish were properly cleaned, measured, weighed and sexed. The gonads were weighed and their colour and length, noted. A small part of each ovary was examined, microscopically, for determining the stage of maturity. The gonads were then preserved in 5 % formalin, for further examination. The spawning habits were studied by direct observations on mature and spawning fish as well as by measuring the diameter of intra-ovarian eggs. Details of the method of study and discussion are included in the appropriate section of the paper. 1 National Institute of Oceanography, Miramar, Panaji, Goa. 2 Kirti College, Bombay-28. MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF B, mcClellandi 21 Maturation of Gonads The seasonal changes in the development and maturation of gonads, was studied on the basis of arbitrary classification of maturity stages. The classification, which corresponds with the maturity stages adopted by the International Council for the Exploration of Seas, is based on obser- vations, on the formation and extrusion of milt in the testes, and ova- diameter range and yolk-formation in the ovaries. Fish less than 50 mm. were indeterminate juveniles. Male Immature Stage I f Stage II j Maturing-I Stage III . Stage IV f Stage V I Mature 4 [ Stage VI Spent Stage VII Testes in the form of thin thread-like strips of tissue. Crystalline-white in colour, and measuring about 3-5 mm. in length. Testes slightly thick and compact. White in colour. Gonad length 5-9 mm. Testes 9-16 mm. in length. Dorsal wall of each lobe with a prominent ridge. Milt formation commences. Testes much flattened and elongated (14-22 mm.). White to milky-white in colour. Milt oozes out on hard pressing. Testes quite large occupying more than 3/4 of the abdo- minal space. Milky-white in colour. Length 20- 30 mm. Though turgid, there is no oozing of milt. More or less as Stage V. Milt oozes out on slightest pressure. No milt. Testes hard and dull-white in appearance. Female (Plate I) Immature Stage Stage i Maturity 4 Stage l Stage I Translucent and faint-white ovary, with minute ova having a distinct nucleus and clear cytoplasm. Length and weight of ovary varying between 3-5 mm. and 10-18 mgm., respectively. Largest ova 0T83 mm. in diameter. II Ovarian lobes well-developed and asymmetrical (right shorter than the left). White to light-red in colour. Length and weight of ovary varies from 4-12 mm. and 15-45 mgm., respectively. III Ovaries gain in weight. Rosy in colour. A few large ova measuring up to 0'444 mm. in diameter. Yolk formation is in initial stages. Length and weight of ovary generally, varies between 6-17 mm. and 20- 55 mgm., respectively. IV Ovaries containing rounded ova. Dark in appearance due to heavy yolk deposition. Peripheral part of ova having vacuolar appearance. Ovarian length and weight varies within the range of 9-21 mm. and 35- 70 mgm., respectively. Largest ova up to 0’570 mm. in diameter. 22 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (1) Ovaries appear more flattened and have a light-red coloration. Ova with evenly spread granulated yolk. Largest ova is 0-583 mm. in diameter. Length and weight of ovary in the range of 12-29 mm. and 65- 270 mgm. respectively. Ovaries very much distended. Ripe ova free in ovarian space and occasionally come out through the oviduct. Ova heavily yolk-ladened. Oil-globule absent. Dark and granular yolk frequently forming a central pasty core. Presence of a clear, colourless, fluid-filled peri- vitelline space. Length and weight of ovary varying between 15-35 mm. and 90-343 mgm., respectively. Largest ova measures 0*841 mm. or more in diameter. Blood-shot, wrinkled and thick-walled ovary, contain- ing a few residual ova. URATiON of Ovarian Eggs The maturation of ovarian eggs, through different months, was studied by taking ova-diameter measurements of intra-ovarian eggs, in different stages of growth. The procedure followed was the same as that of Clark (1934). The measurements were taken with an Oculometer, giving a magnification of 1 m.d.= 0*07 mm. From each ovary, irrespec- tive of its stage of maturity, 500-800 ova, on an average, were measured, and in all 300 ovaries, examined. The measurements were grouped at intervals of 5 m.d. each. The maturation of intra-ovarian eggs takes place by striking changes in the size and structure of the ova. The oocytes are formed by proli- feration of germinal epithelium of the ovary. The developing ova are borne on the ovigerous lamellae, traversing the ovary. The maturation of the oocyte is accompanied by the deposition of yolk-granules in the cytoplasm, therein transforming the tiny transparent oocyte into a big opaque ripe ovum. The monthly variations in the percentage of ova-diameter measure- ments, as shown in Fig. 1, reveals that the intra-ovarian eggs begin to mature from December (56*04 % of stage V ova) and further advancement in maturation continues up to May. Details of the progression, can be summarized as follows : {a) In June, the ovary predominantly contains immature ova of size described under Stage I. (b) In July and August, majority of ova are in the Stages II and III. (< c ) From September to November, the ovaries contain ova of the size described under Stage IV. ( d ) From December to May, mature and ripe ova of Stages V and VI are conspicuous. The ripe ova (Stage VI), first appear in January and subsequently their percentage goes on increasing till May. { Stage V Mature ^ l Stage VI Spent Stage VII Mat MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF B. mcClellandi 23 The above-mentioned observations tend to show that the spawning season of B . mcClellandi , falls during the months of December to May. tvs »CROfvi ETER DsviS«ONS F^.l Spawning Season The spawning season of B, mcClellandi was determined by macro- scopic examination of gonads in different months. Presented in Table 1 is the maturity stage-distribution data of males and females in different months. O U. 23 24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (1) Table 1 shows that the fish in Stage V occurs throughout the year in varying numbers and individuals in Stages VI and VII form low per- centages. Such low occurrence of actual spawners and spent fish in the Table 1 Maturity Stages d $ Month I II III IV V VI VII Total I II III IV V VI VII Total August 5 8 7 3 1 24 7 11 10 2 1 31 Septem- ber 2 4 11 19 7 43 2 4 12 22 9 49 October 1 4 5 36 23 — — 69 2 5 5 42 29 — — 83 Novem- ber 2 3 20 17 _ 42 1 1 3 25 25 55 Decem- ber 3 2 23 38 5 71 2 1 1 14 22 2 42 January 2 3 3 43 66 6 — 123 3 — 2 50 85 14 — 154 February 1 1 4 34 58 7 — 105 2 1 2 21 36 5 — 67 March — 1 1 11 36 7 1 57 1 — 1 13 41 6 2 64 April 2 1 1 5 34 2 2 47 2 1 — 7 39 4 1 54 May 1 1 2 7 29 6 5 51 1 1 1 6 31 5 3 48 June 17 3 11 12 7 — 18 68 23 4 11 16 5 — 17 76 July 19 30 15 7 5 — — 76 21 27 18 15 8 “ — 89 776 812 commercial catches may be due to the spawning migrations of the species. Bapat & Bal (1952) collected post-larvae of B. mcClellandi in plankton samples from fishing grounds, 5-8 miles away from the coast, which suggests the possibility of spawning migrations. The number of individuals, as seen in Table 1 of boih the sexes in Stage V, goes on increasing from October to May with the highest percent- age (72*22 %) in April. In June, there is a sudden decline in the occurrence of Stage V fish and it continues up to September. From these observa- tions, it can be presumed that the Stage V females in October might spawn within the next two months. This presumption is supported by the appearance of Stage VI individuals in December. Although the number of such individuals is rather low, its very presence in the months of December to May indicates that B. mcClellandi has a prolonged breed- ing season, extending from December to May. Spawning Periodicity : The spawning periodicity in B. mcClellandi was determined by cri- tically examining the distribution of ova-diameter frequencies in 20 ovaries, of which 12 were in Stage V and 8 in Stage VI, respectively. MAW RAJ ION AND SPAWNING OF B. mcClellandi 25 A close examination of frequency polygons in Fig. 2, reveals that there are three distinct groups of ova, represented by modes ‘ a ‘b* and ‘c\ respectively. The mode ‘ a ’ at 5-9 m.d. represents the immature stock. The maturing ova are represented by mode ‘ b ’ at 10-14 m.d., while mature ova (mode ‘ c ’) are spread within the wide range of 25-49 m.d. Thus the mature ova cover more than half the total range of intra-ovarian eggs. Prabhu (1956) observed, 4 in species, exhibiting the spawning of longer duration, the range in size of mature ova is nearly half the total range of intra-ovarian eggs of the entire ovary \ Hence, from ova- diameter measurements, it is evident that B. mcClellandi has a prolonged 26 JOURNAL , tfOA'/iMy NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1) breeding season. Since the mature ova (mode ‘ c ’) are clearly differen- tiated from the immature and the maturing ones, it is clear that there is a definite periodicity in spawning and that the species may spawn in succession, during a definite breeding season (Hickling & Rutenberg 1936). By the time withdrawal of mature ova is effected, the other batches of egg attain maturity and are ready to be spawned, in the same spawning season (Prabhu 1956). Fecundity : Ova from 33 ovaries of Stages V and VI, were counted for assessing the reproductive potential and also to establish the relationship between fecundity and three different variables, namely, total length, body weight and gonad weight. The procedure of Bagenal (1957), was adopted for counting the eggs. The fecundity in B. mcClellandi varies between 1161 and 6015 and the details are as shown in Table 2. Table 2 Total Length, Body Weight, Gonad Weight and Fecundity of 33 Specimens of B .mcClellandi Dtal length (mm.) Body Weight (mgm.) Gonad Weight (mgm.) Fecundity 69-5 1919 110 3418 70-5 1214 119 2350 71*0 2056 139 1554 76-0 2089 143 1161 79-0 2764 172 2823 800 2950 103 2097 80*0 3144 93 1897 800 2494 143 2202 81-0 3073 175 3767 81-5 3143 260 3200 82-0 3081 147 2258 83-5 3119 169 4077 84-0 3514 154 2290 85*0 3465 169 2438 85-5 3852 256 3386 85-5 3580 220 4101 85-5 3584 297 4862 86-0 3697 139 4060 860 4354 365 4588 86-0 4404 213 2609 86-5 4033 342 3370 86.5 4182 229 4186 87-5 3649 204 3074 88-0 4314 324 3875 88-0 4230 222 4202 89-5 4869 204 3685 90-5 4536 286 4787 905 4814 234 4454 910 5220 148 2608 910 3894 224 3692 910 3974 194 2044 930 4599 378 3729 97-0 6054 343 6015 NUCLEUS Plate 1 II 12 tnd. VACUOLAR yOLk^ granular VOLK t yoLK ORANULES 5mdl Co -07171^2) # MATURATION AND SPAWNING OF B. mcClellandi 27 The equations, expressing the relationship, between fecundity and the variables, were calculated by the method of least squares, and these were found to be : Length and Fecundity : Y - (-1*9607) + 2*8325 X Body weight and Fecundity : Y = 1*1961 -f 0*6563 X Gonad weight and Fecundity : Y == 0*5459 -f 1*2857 X where Y — Log F (Fecundity) and X = log. of the variable. Minimum Size at Maturity : The size at first maturity was determined by grouping the specimen into 5 mm. size groups and by classifying them into immature, maturing, mature and spent, depending upon the condition of gonads. It was observed that all fish below 50 mm. were indeterminate juveniles and those between 50-60 mm. were, immature. The maturing fish dominate the size group of 61-65 mm. The mature fish which first appeared in 66-70 mm. size group, were, thereafter, recorded in all the size groups up to 100 mm. Hence, it may be inferred that the fish attains maturity at 66-70 mm. size. The inference is supported by the occurrence of spent fish, for the first time, in the same size group of 66-70 mm, 28 JOURNAL . BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (1) Pondera 1 Index : Ponderal index or condition factor for males and females, was calcu- W lated separately, by the usual formula K = x 100, where ‘ K ’ is the ponderal index, ‘ W ’ the weight of fish and ‘ L ’ the length of fish. As shown in Fig. 3, the ‘ K ’ value for males in 51-55 mm. size group is higher than the corresponding value for females. This observation probably suggests that in earlier stages of growth, the males have a tendency to grow faster than the females. From 55-60 mm. size group, the values for both the sexes go on decreasing until they reach the mini- mum in 66-70 mm. size group. The point of inflexion at 66-70 mm., indicates the length at which the maturity is attained (Hart 1946). The gradual increase in 4 K ’ values of fish larger than 70 mm. is in accordance with the recovery from metabolic strain due to spawning. The monthly variations in ‘ K ’ values for both the sexes exhibit similarity. The decrease in values during December to May is due to spawning, whereas the gradual rise, as seen in Fig. 3, from June to August can be attributed to the post-spawning recovery. References Bagenal, T. B. (1957) : Annual varia- tions in Fish Fecundity. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K. 36 : 377. Bapat, S. V. & Bal, D. V. (1952) : The food of young fishes from Bombay Waters. Proc . Indian Acad. Sci. (B) 36 : 105. Clark, F. N. (1934): Maturity of Californian Sardine ( Sardinela caerulea ) determined by ova-diameter measure- ments. Calif. Div. Fish & Game, Fishery Bulletin 10. Hart, T. J. (1946) : Report on trawl- ing surveys on Patagonian Shelf. Dis- covery Reports 23 : 223. Hickling, C. F. & Rutenberg, E. (1936) : Ovary as an indicator of spawning period in fishes. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U.K. 21 : 211. Prabhu, M. S. (1956) : Maturation of intra-ovarian eggs and spawning perio- dicities in some fishes. Indian J. Fish. 3 : 59. Orchids of Nepal — 4 BY M. L. Banerji1 and B, B Thapa2 [Continued from Vol. 67 (2) : 152] In this instalment, species of Chrysoglossum Bl., Liparis Reiclib., Malaxis Soland ex Sw. and Oberonia Lindl. that have been reported by others and collected by the authors from Nepal, are described. These genera, according to Schultes & Pease (1963) fall under the series Acran - thae of tribe Kerosphaeroideae, thus the subtribes are indicated for convenience. Also, as suggested, we have added a key to the genera. Artificial key to the genera Pollinia append iculate. Viscidium rudimentary, caudicle viscous. Sepals sub- equal, two lateral ones connate to form a sac and adnate to the base of label- lum. Labellum auricled at base, adpressed to the column and adnate to it Column slender Chrysoglossum (Collabieae) Pollinia not appendiculate. Viscidium and caudicle absent — Petals very much smaller than the sepals. Labellum more or less flat with hollow auricled lobes. Column short, winged. Anther on the back of the column. Pollinia not deciduous. Plants terrestrial Malaxis (Liparideae) Petals narrower than sepals. Labellum adnate to the base of the column, basal lobes nil, posteriorly placed by resupination, edge toothed or fringed. Column long, curved, slightly winged at the apex. Plants terrestrial or epiphytic. . . , Liparis (Liparideae) Flowers minute. Sepals subequal, petals smaller than the sepals. Labellum usually 3-lobed, hypochiie concave, column very short ; caudicle absent. Plants epiphytic Oberonia (Liparideae) Chrysoglossum B 1 . Terrestrial orchids with a creeping rhizome, pseudobulbs narrow or absent, with a solitary leaf which is elliptic-lanceolate. Flowering scape lateral from the rhizome, erect ; flowers in a lax raceme. Sepals subequal, lateral sepals connate into a mentum with the base of the lip, petals narrower than the sepals. Lip not jointed on the column, erect, broadly 3-lobed, sometimes the base auricled. Column incurved, margin 2 auricled or in some lobed to the middle ; anthers 2-celled, pollinia 2, not connected. 1 University of Kalyani, Kalyani, W. Bengal. 2 Horticultural Assistant, Indian Co-operation Mission, Kathmandu. 30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1) Chrysoglossum erraticum Hk.f. Ic. PI. t. 2062, 1891 ; F.B.I. 5 : 784, 1890. Flowers green, spotted brown, sepals and petals falcately oblong- lanceolate, acute. Lip hastately 3-lobed, base with 2 auricles, side- lobes broad, recurved, mid-lobe orbicular, spur very short. Flowering during July and August. Collected from Bajrabarahi at c. 1220 m. In F.B.I. Hooker mentions under the species as only one specimen seen ; we have found this species only at one locality, and there were five plants growing. It may be a rare species. Liparis Reichb. The genus is closely allied to Malaxis in its habit. Plants are terres- trial rarely epiphytic, pseudobulbs usually present or absent. Leaves solitary or more, membraneous or coriaceous either continuous with their sheath or jointed on the sheath. Flowers generally small or of medium size in a raceme, resupinate. Sepals spreading, recurved with margins often rolled inwards. Petals as long as the sepals, very slender. Lip adnate to the base of the column, usually broad; column long, curved with 2 small wings on the sides of the stigmatic surface. Artificial key to the species of Liparis A. Lip not crenulate ; leaves 2, 3 or 4 — B. Sepals 1 -nerved— C. Flowering scape flattened or winged. Leaves 2 or 3 platyrachis CC. Flowering scape not flattened or winged— D. Leaves 3 - 4 ; column broadly winged at base and wings with a capillary tail resupinata DD. Leaves 3; column short, obscure viridiflora BB. Sepals 5-nerved. Lip with 2 callii togashii A A. Lip crenulate ; leaf solitary ; sepals 3-nerved— B. Leaf broad, rounded-ovate, deeply cordate, nerves few and faint cordifolia BB. Leaf oblong or linear-oblong, nerves many and slender glossula Liparis cordifolia Hk. f. Ic. PI. t. 1811, 1889 ; F.B.I. 5 : 692, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 24, t. 28, 1896 ; Hara in FI. Eastern Himal. 440, 1966. Plants with short and stout stem, leaf sessile, broad, rounded-ovate, deeply cordate, nerves few and faint. Sepals lanceolate, 3 nerved ; petals with recurved margins. Lip large, flat, obcordate or orbicular- obovate, apiculate, crenulate, yellowish green, base narrow, callus obscure. Flowering during July to September. Collected from Sundarijal below Sheopuri. Distributed at 1650 m. ORCHIDS OF NEPAL-4 31 L. glossula Reichb. f. in Linnaea 41 : 43, 1877 ; F.B.I. 5 : 693, 1890 ; Kitamura in Fau. & FI. Nep. Himal. 104, 1955. Plants 5-8 cm. high, leaf solitary, sessile or shortly petioled oblong or linear-oblong, not jointed at the base on the leaf-sheath, nerves many, slender. Inflorescence stout, 10-15 cm. long, many-flowered. Flowers c. 1.5 cm. across, light green with a purple tinge. Sepals lanceolate, acute, 3-nerved. Lip large, broadly obovate-oblong, cuspidate, crenu- late and overlying the lateral sepals, callus absent. Authority Kitamura. L. platyrachis Hk. f. Ic. PI. t. 1890 ; F.B.I. 5 : 706, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 34, t. 45, 1898 ; Hara, 441, 1966. Plants small, leaves 2-3, jointed at the base upon the leaf-sheath. Inflorescence much longer than the leaves, scape flattened or winged. Flowers c. 4 mm. across ; sepals falcate, oblong, 1-nerved. Lip much shorter than the sepals, recurved, basal portion of the lip with two auri- cles. Authority Hara. L. resupinata Ridley in Journ. Linn. Soc. 22 : 290, 1886 ; Hk. f. Ic. PI. t. 1888, 1889 ; F.B.I. 5 : 705, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 36, t. 48, 1898 ; Hara, 441, 1966. Plants small c.x 2.5 cm. high ; leaves 3-4, sessile, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, submembraneous, 7-nerved. Inflorescence slender, more than 10 cm. in length, many-flowered, bracts exceeding the length of the pedicels. Flowers c. 8 mm. across, yellow, sepals broadly oblong, margin rolled inwards, 1-nerved. Lip broadly ovate-oblong, basal lobes rounded. Authority Hara. L. togashii Tuyama in Hara. FI. Eastern Himal. 441, 1966. Plants small, leaves 3, linear-oblanceolate, acute or acuminate. Inflorescence smaller than the leaves, bracts smaller. Flowers c. 4*5 mm. across ; sepals linear-oblong ; lip much shorter than the sepals ovate-triangular, callii two. Authority Hara. L. viridiflora (Bl.) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 31, 1830 ; F.B.I. 5 : 704, 1890 ; Holttum, FI. Malaya, 1 : 203, 1890 ; Hara, 443, 1966. Malaxis viridiflora Bl. Bijdr. 392, t. 54, 1825 ; Liparis longipes Lindl. ex Wall. PI. Asiat. Rar. 1 : 31, t. 35, 1830, et Gen. et Spec. Orch. 30, 1830 ; F.B.I, 5 : 703, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 29, t. 37, 1898. Leaves 2, jointed at the base upon the leaflsheath. Inflorescence 10-15 cm. long, many-flowered, flowers very small, yellowish or whitish green ; sepals flat, broad not widely spreading, 1-nerved. Lip as long as the sepals, orbicular-ovate, very obscurely 3-lobed, callus absent, column short and incurved. Authority Hara. 32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1) Malaxis Soland ex Sw. Microstylis is a later name for Malaxis , thus according to the rules of Botanical Nomenclature, Malaxis should, therefore, be used. These are terrestrial or rarely epiphytic orchids. The stem is creeping with erect leafy branches. Leaves broad, often unequal-sided at the base, thin, more or less plicate, sheathing at the base. The Inflorescence is terminal, few or many flowered raceme, flowers small, sepals free or the lateral ones connate. Lip sessile, erect or spreading, entire or 3-lobed, concave to saccate, often with a hollow near the base usually with 2 large lobes, the auricles, close to the sides of the column and extending downwards ; column very short, terete, hollow at the top, apex toothed, with or without fleshy arms. Anthers terminal, sessile, erect on the back of the column with its tip pointed upwards, pollinia 4, waxy. Fruit is a capsule which is either ovoid or ellipsoid. The genus Malaxis is distinguished from Liparis in having a superior lip and a very short wing- less column, while in Liparis the lip is inferior, and the column is long with its upper part winged. . Artificial key’to the species of Malaxis A. Sides of lip not produced into auricles ; leaves 2 ; flowers yellowish green lmiscifera AA. Sides of lip produced into auricles — B. Bracts shorter than the ovary — C. Inflorescence scape 8-20 cm. long ; flowers golden-yellow with reddish brown round the column, c. 1.8 cm. in diam josephiana CC. Inflorescence scape 20-25 cm. long; flowers greenish-purple or yellowish, c. 8 mm. in diam acuminata BB. Bracts equalling or longer than the ovary— C. Plants c. 4-5 cm. high ; leaves 3-4 ; flowers 4 mm. in diam khasiana CC. Plants c. 50 cm. tall ; leaves' 2 ; flowers 8 mm. in diam tamurensis Malaxis acuminata D. Don, Prodr. FI. Nep. 29, 1825 ; Hara, 443, 1966. Microstylis wallichiana Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 20, 1830 ; F.B.I. 5 : 686, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 15, t. 18, 1898. Flowers pedicellate, pedicels c. 1 cm. long, yellowish green, purplish near the centre, c. 8 mm. in diam., sepals oblong, lateral sepals oblong, 3-5-nerved, shorter than the dorsal, dorsal sepal 1-3-nerved ; petals 3- nerved, linear, longer than the sepals. Lip shield-like, broadly ovate, tip notched, auricles straight and slightly overlapping. Flowering during July and August. Collected from Tarebhir to Nagi ; Nagarjung; Kakni ; Dhunibesi ; below Sheopuri. Widely distributed at 1650 m. In F.B.I. and also in FI. East. Himal. a variety biloba is mentioned, which has bracts usually longer, shorter pedicels and the blade of the ORCHIDS OF NEPAL— 4 33 lip is contracted, but we have not been able to collect any specimen that would compare well with the description of the variety. M. josephiana (Reichb. f.) O. Ktz. Rev. Gen. 2 : 673, 1891. Micros - tylis josephiana Reichb. f. in Hk. Bot. Mag. t. 6325, 1868 ; F.B.I. 5 : 687, 1890. Inflorescence loosely-flowered, flowers large c. 1*8 cm. in diam. golden- yellow with reddish-brown round the column, sepals broad, connate at the base, 3-nerved, dorsal sepal saccate at the base ; petals broadly linear. Lip deeply cupped, auricles short, broad, rounded, column very short, thickly winged. Flowering during June and July. Collected from Ranibari ; Sankhu. Distributed at 1200 m. Mo khasiana (Hk. f.) O. Ktz. Rev. Gen. 2 : 673, 1891. Microstylis khasiana Hk. f. Ic. PI. 19, t. 1831, 1889 ; F.B.I. 5 : 686, 1890. Plants c. 4-5 cm. high, leaves 3-4. Flowers brownish-red, c. 4 mm. in diam., bracts equalling the ovary ; sepals broad, hooded, auricle of the lip, obtuse, shorter than or equalling the blade, blade constricted into a broadly rounded terminal lobe. Flowering during June and July. Collected from Chainpur ; below Sheopuri ; Dhunibesi. Distributed at 1220 to 1525 m. M. muscifera (Lindl.) O. Ktz. Rev. Gen. PI. 2 : 673, 1891 ; Hara, 444, 1966. Dienia muscifera Lindl. Gen. et. Spec. Orch. 23, 1830. Micros- tylis muscifera (Lindl.) Ridley in Journ. Linn. Soc. 24 : 333, 1888; F.B.I. 5 : 689, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 20, t. 25, 1898 ; Kitamura, Fau. & FI. Nep. Himal. 104, 1955. Plants usually 15-30 cm. tall, leaves 2, sessile. Inflorescence a dense flowered raceme, flowers minute, c. 3 mm. in diam., pale yellowish-green ; sepals broadly lanceolate, petals linear. Lip ovate, acute, abruptly pointed, no auricles, column sessile. Flowering during July and August. Collected from Sheopuri to Bagdoar ; also Chum Gompha (Kitamura). Distributed at 1825 to 3500 m. M. tamurensis Tuyama in Hara; FI. Eastern Himal. 444, 1966. Plants c. 50 cm. tall, leaves 2, nerves 7, prominent. Inflorescence dense-flowered, bracts longer than the ovary, flowers c. 8 mm. in diam., sepals deflexed. Lip 5 mm. long and 6 mm. broad, more or less rounded quadrangular, sides produced into teeth or lobes, apex truncate and subirregular, column small, not appendiculate. Authority Hara. Oberonia Lindl. Erect or pendulous, tufted epiphytic orchids, which are unique. Holttum describes them as 4 the plants are easy to recognise owing to their much flattened leaves, looking as though they have been put into a 3 34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 68 (1) press. The leaves are so flattened laterally that they have practically no upper surface except at the sheathing base He adds ‘ the flowers are never more than 2 mm. long and hardly more than 1 mm The flowers are usually greenish to yellowish, orange or red, sometimes rich brown, they are often beautifully shaped. The inflorescence continues to grow at the base after the middle part is mature ; the middle flowers open first and the basal flowers usually last of all. Usually many fruits are pro- duced’. Sepals are equal among themselves, erect or reflexed, petals usually narrower and shorter. Lip is sessile, concave at the base, fim- briate, entire or more or less 3-lobed. Artificial key to the species of Oberonia A. Leaves ensiform — B. Side-lobes or all lobes of the lip deeply toothed or lacinate — C. Leaves more than 3 cm. long ; flowers pale green ; mid-lobe of lip broadly bifid at tip iridifolia CC. Plants small, leaves c. 2'5 cm. long ; flowers reddish-yellow ; mid-lobe of lip truncate, side-lobes pectinately toothed clarkei BB. Lip entire or 3-lobed, margins quite entire or erose but never pectinate — CC. Petals broad, oblong or ovate — D. Petals and lip pubescent ; lip longer than the sepals, mid-lobe obcordate ensiformis DD. Lip longer than the sepals, mid-lobe deeply 2-lobed myriantha CC. Petals linear— D. Lip orbicular or rounded-ovate, entire or obscurely lobed pachyrachi DD. Lip with very small side-lobes, mid-lobe long — E. Lip twice as long as the sepals, side-lobes obscure at the base ; bracts lanceolate caulescens EE. Lip longer than the sepals, side-lobes filiform, bracts setaceous rufilabris AA. Leaves falcate ; petals linear-oblong. Lip twice as long as the sepals, side- lobes small, directed upwards, mid-lobe deeply bifid falcata AAA. Leaves all radical, elongate, terete, fleshy. Lip with two curved spurs on each side of its tip myosurus Oberonia caulescens Lindl. Fol. Orcli. Oberon. 7, 1852 et Gen. et Spec. Orch. 15, 1830 ; F.B.I. 5 : 682, 1890. Plants with slender stem, leaves ensiform. Flowers subwhorled, pale, bracts lanceolate ; petals narrow. Lip twice as long as the sepals, obscurely lobed at the base and with two parallel lobes at the tip. Flowering during May. Collected from Those to Bhitrikhani. Distri- buted at c. 2250 m. ORCHIDS OF NEPAL-4 35 O. clarkei Hk. f. Ic. PI. t. 1779, 1888 ; F.B.I. 5 : 676, 1890. Plants small with leaves c. 2*5 cm., ensiform. Flowers very minute, whorled, reddish-yellow ; petals broadly ovate, obtuse, nearly as long as sepals. Lip 3-lobed, equalling the sepals, side-lobes pectinately too- thed, midlobe small, truncate. Flowering during January to March. Collected from Hitaura-Bindraban forest area. Distributed at 510 m. O. ensiformis (Sm. ex. Rees) Lindl. Fol. Orch. Oberon. 4, 1852 ; F.B.I. 5 : 679, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 9, t. 9, 1898. Malaxis ensiformis Sm. in Rees, Cycl. 22, n. 4, 1812. Plants with ensiform leaves. Flowers c. 2 mm., orange yellow ; petals broad, ovate, pubescent. Lip longer than or equalling the sepals, pubescent, side-lobes broad, rounded, midlobe obcordate. Flowering during September and October. Collected from Lamidanda ; Pokhra. Distributed at 1220 m. In F.B.I. Hooker mentions that the lip is hardly longer than the sepals. Our observations agree with those of Santapau & Kapadia ( J . Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 51 : 257, 1960). O. falcata King & Pantl. in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 64 (2) : 329, 1895 et. Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calc. 8 : 12, t. 14, 1898 ; Hara, 445, 1966. Leaves falcate. Flowers minute, yellowish green ; petals linear- oblong ; lip twice as long as the sepals, broadly oblong, slightly depressed below the column, side-lobes directed outwards, small, midlobe deeply bifid, divergent. Flowering during July. Distributed commonly at 2100-2300 m. Authority Hara. O. iridifolia (Roxb.) Lindl. Gen. et Spec. Orch. 15, 1830 ; F.B.I. 5 : 675, 1890; King & Pantl. 8, t. 8, 1898; Holttum, 215, 1953; Hara 445, 1966. Cymbidium iridifolium Roxb. FI. Ind. ed. 2, 3 : 458, 1832. Malaxis iridifolia (Roxb.) Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann. 6 : 208, 1861. Plants with ensiform leaves more than 3 cm. long. Flowers pale green in close whorls ; sepals subequal, reflexed ; petals oblong, erose reflexed. Lip more or less quadrate being broader than long, glabrous or slightly pubescent, sides deeply toothed, tip broadly bifid. Flowering during August and September. Collected from Hitaura ; Pokhra ; Brajabarahi ; Sankhu ; Dhunibesi. Distributed at 510 to 1220 m. We have not been able to make out the varieties as given by Hooker in F.B.I., as the lips are not only longer than their breadth but also the tip is bifid, thus the characters of the two var. have been combined. O, myosurus Lindl Gen. et Spec. Orch. 16, 1830 ; F.B.I. 5 : 685, 1890. Plants with leaves elongate, linear, terete, slightly curved. Flowers pale ; petals narrow, linear ; lateral lobes of lip rounded, sinuate toothed, 36 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (I) midlobe of lip oblong-quadrate with sides toothed, two curved spurs on each side of the tip truncate. Flowering during August and September. Collected from Nagarjung. Distributed at c. 1650 m. O. myriantha Lindl. Fol. Orch. Oberon. 4, 1852 ; F.B.L 5 : 679, 1890. Plants with ensiform leaves. Flowers c. 2 mm., yellow-green ; petals broad, entire. Lip longer than the sepals, side-lobes broad and notched, mid-lobe oblong, deeply 2-lobed, lobules rounded. Flowering during August and September. Collected from Rhingmo to Jubing ; Pokhra. Distributed at c. 1650 m. O. pachyrachis Reichb. f. ex Hk. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 5 : 681, 1890 ; King & Pantl. 4, t. 3, 1898 ; Hara, 446, 1966. Plants with ensiform leaves. Flowers minute, c. 0*8 mm. or less, very compact on a thick spike ; petals linear ; lip rounded-ovate or orbicular, entire or obscurely lobed. Authority Hara. O. rufilabris Lindl. Fol. Orch. Oberon. 5, 1852 ; F.B.I. 5 : 683, 1890. Leaves ensiform. Flowers minute c . 8 mm. ; petals linear-oblong ; lip longer than the sepals, oblong, reddish brown with filiform side- lobes, close to the narrow base. Flowering during October and November, Collected from Lamidanda ; Nagarjung. Distributed at c. 1650 m. (to be continued) Food-Habits of water-birds of the Sundarban, 24-Parganas District, West Bengal, India— II Herons and Bitterns BY Ajit Kumar Mukherjee Zoologist , Zoological Survey of India , Calcutta ( With two text-figures) (Continued from VoL 66 (2) : 360) Ardea ciuerea rectirostris Gould, The Indian Grey Heron The Grey Heron, Ardea cinerea rectirostris Gould, is a resident bird of the Sundarban. In the reclaimed area it roosts generally on the larger trees in the vicinity of brackish water fisheries ( bheries ) or fresh- water jheels. During nesting period it is more common in the forested area and nests in large numbers in mixed heronaries on the mangrove trees. It hunts among reeds growing in water and also waits patiently in shallow waters and mud-flats for its prey to show up. Jerdon (1864, p. 738) made a general statement about the food of the Ardeidae that they feed chiefly on fish, also on crabs, frogs and a few on insects which they seek for on land among cattle. Mason & Lefroy (1912, p. 287) stated that the herons, egrets and bitterns mostly feed on fish, frogs and such food as is found in shallow waters and, therefore, not beneficial to man. In India there is a widespread belief that the Grey Heron is a fisher- man’s foe. Since its food consists of fishes, specially these of commercial value, it is regarded as destructive to pisciculture and is, therefore, per- secuted to a great extent. Jerdon (1864, p. 742) states that it feeds chiefly on fish. Dewar (1909, p. 6) considers this bird as 4 eel’s foe ’. Mason & Lefroy (1912, p. 284) obtained three frogs from an examination of a stomach of this heron. Whistler (1928, p. 393) states that its food consists of small mammals and birds, mollusca, insects and Crustacea, but the diet mainly consists of fish whose scales are ejected in the form of castings. Baker (1929, p. 340) mentions that its food may be said to consist of anv living thing small enough to swallow. [17] 38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1) The food of the European subspecies, Ardea cinerea cinerea (Linnaeus), is better known. Archibald (1910, p. 3) states : ‘ The heron is often persecuted by fish preservers. Of course, it eats fish and is particularly fond of pikes and eels. It is not suffi- ciently known, however, that it feeds largely on water-rats, mice, frogs, snails and insects. Like hawks and owls, it disgorges the indigestible portions of its prey in the form of large castings an examination of which is very interesting,5 Florence (1912, 1914, 1915) examined 23 specimens and found that these contained remains of rodents, frogs, fishes, snails, insects (injurious, indifferent, and beneficial), crustaceans, earthworm, eggs of leech, and vegetable matter. Thomson (1923) found that the pellets show the remains of water-beetles, bones of water-vole, mole and other mammalian fur, claws of mole and the claws of a rat ; bones of birds are also included. Collinge (1927, pp. 228-229) examined the stomach-contents of only five specimens and stated that 98.5% of the total food-contents was animal matter of which 9.5% consisted of remains of voles, moles and shrews ; 2.5% of young birds ; 4.5% of frogs, toads and newts ; 61% of fish ; 3.5% of molluscs ; 8.5% of injurious insects; 3% of crustaceans ; 1.5% of earthworms; and 4.5% of miscellaneous unidentifiable matter. The only remains of vegetable matter was 1.5% of fragments of seeds and bits of stems of some aquatic plant. Townsend (1926) states that the fish of all sorts are chief food of the European heron but worms, water-insects, mites, newts, frogs, water-voles and young birds are all taken. Brown (1927) found that the chief large prey were chub 6, eel 10, trout 6, wood-mouse 6, water-vole 7, rabbit 2, obtained from regurgi- tated food in several nests in the Lake District, England. In Italy, Moltoni (1936, 1948) examined the stomach contents of nestling and adult herons during April, May and June. There were 20 snakes, 12 frogs and one mammal and 22 fishes among the large prey. The small prey con- sisted of insects, mole crickets, and beetles. In the opinion of Lowe (1954, p. 65) the heron in Great Britain feeds on aquatic and terrestrial animals such as fish, frogs, beetles, moles, water-voles and rats. It is omnivorous since it swallows much vegetable matter for pellet formation. Owen (1955, 1960) studied the food-habits of the heron in detail and found that it is essentially a fish-eating bird feeding chiefly at the edges of the rivers, streams, ponds and lakes. It also feeds on young water- birds, shrimps and insects. Usually fishes ranging from 50 to 600 mm. long are caught. It shows preference for prey within certain size-limits. He has also made minute observations of the food-habits of the young. He estimated that a brood of heron receives on an average 230 pounds of food during the nestling period and that certain herons tended to specialise on certain species of prey, apparently because they often returned to the same feeding area. Voous (1960, p. 16) stated that its food consists [18] FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS 39 of a wide variety of aquatic marsh animals, apparently mainly fish of medium or small size ; also frogs, newts, aquatic insects, snails, large land snails and small mammals. These records show how different the food habit of the Grey Heron may be in different localities. The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 76 adult specimens of the Indian subspecies that the author collected in the Sundarban is given in Table 4. Table 4 Analysis of the stomach-contents of the Grey Heron (N — Number of examples. Weight — Total weight (in grammes) of examples of all species under a Class. Length of fish — Its standard length). Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks Phylum Chordata Class Mammalia Order Rodentia Family Muridae Mus sp. Total : Class Aves Order Passeriformes Sturms contra ? (chick) Total : Class Reptilia Order Squamata Suborder Serpentes Family Colubridae Natrix sp. Total : Class Amphibia Order Anura Family Ranidae Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider 120 Family Bufonidae Bitfo sp. (tadpole) 15 Partly digested. Not identifiable. 135 450 2.35 10 Partly digested. 10 350 1.8 12 Partly digested. 12 600 3.66 13 Partly digested. 13 400 2 Total : 40 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. 68 (1) Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks Series Pisces Class Teleostomi Order Cypriniformes Family Ariidae Tachysurus sp. 21 Family Clariidae Cl arias batrachus (Linnaeus) 47 Length 30-50 mm. Common in ponds. Family Bagridae Mystus gulio (Hamilton) 210 Length 20-50 mm. Estuarine form. invariably present in stomachs. Order Anguilliformes Family Anguillidae Anguilla bengalensis (Gray) 38 Length 40-70 mm. Estuarine form. Family Muraenidae Muraena tile (Hamilton) 10 Length 50-75 mm. Estuarine form. Order Beloniformes Family Belonidae Strongylura strongylura (Van 7 Length 30-45 mm. Hasselt) - - --- ■ Estuarine form. Order Cyprinodontiformes Family Cyprinodontidae ' Aplocheilus panchax (Hamilton) 176 Length 25-35 mm. Common in inun- dated fields. In- variably found in stomachs. Oryzias melastigmus (McClell- and) 96 . Length 30-50 mm. Common in inun- dated fields. Order Muguliformes Family Mugulidae Mugil fade Forskal 39 Length 30-50 mm. Estuarine form. Mugil parsia Hamilton 47 Length 40-60 mm. Estuarine form. Chelon sp. 6 Length 45-65 mm. Estuarine form. Rhinomugil corsula (Hamilton) 13 Length 30-60 mm. Estuarine form. Order Polynemiformes Family Polynemidae Polynemus paradiseus Linnaeus 29 Length 50-80 mm. Estuarine form. Order Ophiocephaliformes Family Channidae Channa gachua (Hamilton) 28 Length 40-60 mm. [20] F OOD H A HI l S OF H A TER -BIRDS 41 Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks Order Symbranchiformes Family Amphipnoidae Amphipnous cuchia (Hamilton) 35 Length 50-100 mm. Order Perciformes Family Latidae Lates calcarifer (Bloch) 17 Length 50-90 mm. Family Anabantidae Anabas testudineus (Bloch) 62 Estuarine form. Length 40-70 mm . Family Gobiidae Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton) 30 Length 50-75 mm. Family Periopthalmidae Boleopthalmus boddaerti (Pallas) J47 Estuarine form. In- Periopthahnus sp. 203 variably present in stomachs. -do- Order Mastocembeliformes Family Mastocembelidae Mastocembelus armatus (Lace- pede) 14 Length 80-110 mm. Mastocembelus pancalus (Hamil- ton) 18 Estuarine form. Length 70-100 mm. Order Tetrodontiformes Family Tetrodontidae Chelonodon patoca (Hamilton) 6 Estuarine form. Estuarine form. Chelonodon fhiviatilis (Hamilton) 4 Estuarine form. Miscellaneous fish remains Not identifiable. Total : 1303 6500 34.55 Phylum Mollusca Class Gastropoda Order Basommatophora Family Lymnaeidae Lymnaea sp. 22 Freshwater form. Class Bivalvia Family Arcidae Area sp. 104 Estuarine form. Total : 126 750 3.80 Phylum Arthropoda Class Crustacea Order Decapoda Family Penaeidae Metapenaeus brevicornis Milne- Edward 95 Estuarine form. Invariably present in stomachs. 42 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VoL 68 (1) Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks Metapenaeus monoceros Fabri- cius 172 Estuarine form. Invariably present in stomachs. Family Portunidae Scylla serrata (Forskal) 180 Estuarine form. Invariably present in stomachs. Portunus pelagicus (Linnaeus) 16 Estuarine form. Family Grapsidae Vanina litterata (Fabricius) 230 Estuarine form. Invariably present in stomachs. Total : 693 3500 18.27 Class Insecta Order Hemiptera Family Corixidae Micronecta sp. 182 Freshwater form. Invariably present in stomachs. Family Belestomatidae Belestoma sp. 90 Quite common in stomachs. Order Coleoptera Family Dytiscidae Eretes stictus Linnaeus 176 Quite common in stomachs. Family Hydrophtlidae Berosus sp. 62 Fragments of insects * * Elytra, heads, appen- dages etc. Not identifiable. Total : 510 1300 6.80 Class Arachnida Order Araneae Total . . 335 250 1.30 Partly digested. The whole of the food consumed is of animal nature. Of this 2% consists of mammals (rodents), 3.66% birds, 1.80% water-snakes, 2.35% Amphibia (tadpoles, young frogs and toads), 34,55% fishes (except two species all are of commercial value), 3.80% Mollusca, 18.27% Crustacea (prawns and crabs, most of which are of commercial value), 6.80% aquatic insects and 1.30% spiders (Text-fig. 3). [22] FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS 43 Since nearly half the total bulk of its food is fishes and crustaceans of commercial importance, this species may be regarded as non-beneficial to human economy. Ardea purpurea manilensis Meyen, The Purple Heron The Purple Heron, Ardea purpurea manilensis Meyen, is found in well-watered regions of India, and inhabits marshes, jheels, estuarine creeks and the reedy vegetation along tidal rivers. It wades through Ardea cinerea Linnaeus Text Fig. 3. Diagrammatic representation of the percentages of food of Ardea cinerea , Ardea purpurea , and Butorides striattis. [23] 44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Voi. 68 (1) shallow waters and hunts in luxuriant vegetation of marshes, or stands motionless hiding itself in the reeds, grass* or thickets of mangrove waiting for aquatic organisms to come within its darting range to fall victim to it. It feeds mostly in the early morning and late evening hours. Jerdon (1864, p. 744) recorded : 4 It feeds on fish, frogs &c/ Blanford (1898, p. 381) mentioned that ‘ it not infrequently feeds at night.’ Baker (1929, p. 338) remarked : 4 Besides fish, frogs, newts, insects and mollusca, all form part of its ordinary fare and any unfortunate young birds which happen to come its way are at once bolted whole.’ About the food of the European form, A . p. purpurea Linnaeus, Voous (1960, p. 16) states : 4 It seems to eat relatively more small fish and insects than the Grey Heron.’ The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 70 adult specimens that the author collected in the Sundarban is given in Table 5. Table 5 Analysis of the Stomach-contents of the Purple Heron Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt .)-' Remarks Phylum Chordata Class Rep til i a Order Squamata Suborder Serpentes Family Colubridae Achrochordus granulatus (Schneider) 3 Estuarine form. Length 110-170 mm. Natrix stolata (Linnaeus) 27 Length 80-190 mm. Enhydris enhydris (Schneider) 3 Length 80-160 mm. Cerberus rhynchops (Schneider) ? 5 Partly digested, identification doubtful. Family Hydrophidae Hydrophis obscurus (Daudin) ? 10 Estuarine form. Partly digested, identification doubtful. Total : 48 2150 20.57 Series Pisces Class Teleostomi Order Cypriniformes Family Bagridae Mystus gulio (Hamilton) 300 Length 20-40 mm. Invariably presen t in stomachs. [24] FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS 45 Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks Order Anguilliformes Family Anguillidae Anguilla bengalensis (Gray) 198 Length 40-75 mm. Family Muraenidae Muraena tile (Hamilton) 18 Estuarine form. Invariably present in stomachs. Order Beloniformes Family Belonidae Strongylura strongylura (van Hasselt) 3 Estuarine form. Family Hemirhamphidae Hemirhamphus gaimardi Valen- ciennes 4 -do- Xenarchopterus sp. 2 -do- Order Cyprinodontiformes Family Cyprinodontidae Aplocheilus panchax (Hamilton) 29 Common in brack- Oryzias melastigmus (McClelland) 21 ish water and in- undated paddy- fields. -do- Order Muguliformes Family Mugilidae Mugil parsia Hamilton 18 Estuarine form. Mugil fade Forskal 16 -do- Chelon macrolepis (Smith) 9 -do- Chelon oligolepis (Bleeker) 6 -do- Order Polynemiformes Family Polynemidae Eleutheronema tetradactylus (Shaw) 3 Estuarine form. Polynemus heptadactylus Linnaeus 22 -do- Polynemus paradiseus Cuvier & Valenciennes 7 -do- Order Ophicephaliformes Family Channidae Channa gachua (Hamilton) 21 Length 30-70 mm. Channa punctata (Bloch) 7 Freshwater form . Length 60-90 mm. Order Symbranchiformes Family Symbranchidae Symbranchus bengalensis (McClelland) 6 Freshwater form. Length 40-80 mm. [25] 46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1) Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks Family Amphiopnoidae Amphiopneus cuchia (Hamilton) 7 Length 50-100 mm. Order Perciformes Family Latidae Lates calcarifer (Bloch) 18 Estuarine form. Family Gobiidae Glossogobius sp. 6 Family Periopthalmidae Boleopthalmus boddaerti (Pallas) 76 Common in tidal Periopthalmus sp. 81 mudflats and shal- low water. Common in tidal Family Anabantidae Anabas testidineus (Bloch) 19 mudflats and shal- low water. Found in fresh and Family Ambassidae Ambassis sp. 22 brackish water ponds. Freshwater form. Family Theraponidae Therapon puta Cuvier 6 Family Platycephalidae Platycephalus sp. 7 Estuarine form. Order Pleuronectiformes Family Cynoglossidae Cynoglossus lingula (Hamilton) 6 -do- Order Mastocembeliformes Family Mastocembelidae Mastocembelus armatus (Lace- 8 Brackish water form . yeuc; Mastocembelus pancalus (Hamil- ton) 4 -do- Order Tetrodontiformes Family Tetrodontidae Chelonodon patoca (Hamilton) 10 Estuarine form. Chelonodon fluviatilis (Hamilton) 3 -do- Total : 963 6000 57.0 Phylum Arthropoda Class Crustacea Order Decapoda Family Penaeidae Metapenaeus brevicornis Milne- Edward Metapenaeus monoceros Fabri- 29 Estuarine form. cius 17 -do- Family Portunidae Scyl/a serrata (Fors'kal) 31 Estuarine form. Invariably found in stomachs. [26] FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS 47 Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks Portunus sp. 3 Estuarine form. Family Grapsidae Varuna litterata (Fabricius) 106 Estuarine form. Invariably present in stomachs. Family Ocypodidae Uca sp. 18 Estuarine species, inhabiting mud- flats. Total : 204 1500 14.34 Class In sect a Order Dermaptera Family Labiduridae Labidum sp. 7 Order Hemiptera Family Gerridae Halobates sp. 91 Aquatic form. Quite common in stomachs. Order Odonata Suborder Anisoptera Family Libellulidae Libellulids 39 Aquatic form. Suborder Zygoptera Ceriagrion sp. Ischneura sp. 8 9 t 1 o o Order Coleoptera Family Dytiscidae Eretes stictus Linnaeus Miscellaneous insect fragments 25 Not identifiable. Total : 179 800 7.65 The bird appears to have little selection in its food. Anything actively moving is appropriated. Surprisingly, however, frogs and tadpoles are absent from its diet (Text Fig. 3). The main item of diet is fish (57%), but it also has a preference for reptiles (20.57%), specially snakes. Crustaceans and insects are also on the list, but in small per- centages (14.34% and 7.65% respectively). Snakes as long as 190 mm. are swallowed, and fishes 20-100 mm. Most of the fishes are brackish water forms but those birds which have been collected from the fresh- water reedy swamps consumed freshwater fishes also. Since it feeds on some commercial fishes and crustaceans it may be considered as a bird not particularly friendly to the fisherman. [27] 48 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY . Vol. 68 (1) Butorides striatus chloriceps (Bonaparte), The Little Green Heron In Sundarbans, the Little Green Heron, Butorides striatus chloriceps (Bonaparte), is nowhere abundant and is met with only in secluded bogs and swamps. It prefers salt-marshes of tidal zone to freshwater marshes. The mangrove swamps are its haunt where between the knee roots, stilts and pneumatophores, it leads a secluded life stalking stealthily, taking to cover of vegetation when disturbed. It is nocturnal but sometimes hunts in the daytime under the canopy of dense foliage, spe- cially during early morning and late evening. It perches on low branches overhanging water and with its keen observant eyes marks the target by swiftly diving upon it. Its food chiefly consists, as stated by Jerdon(1864, p. 753) of crabs. Blanford (1898, p. 396) found that it looks for crabs, frogs and small fishes. Baker (1929, p. 358) mentions : 4 They live almost entirely on small fish, frogs, crabs and molluscs. . . .’ According to Ali (1955, p. 105) its food is crabs, shrimps, and mudfishes. The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 26 adult specimens that the author collected in the Sundarban is given in Table 6. Table 6 Analysis of the stomach-contents of the Little Green Heron Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks Phylum Chordata Class Amphibia Order Anura Family Ranidae Rana sp. (Tadpoles) 24 Partly digested. Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider ? 2 Sub-adult. Partly digested. Family Bufonidae Bufo melanostictus Schneider 3 Sub-adult. Total : 29 95 13.80 Series Pisces Class Teleostomi Order Cypriniformes Family Cyprinidae Puntius sp. 19 Length 5-20 mm. Not uncommon in stomach. Family Bagridae Mystus sp. 10 Length 10-30 mm. Partly digested. [28] POOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS 49 Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks Family Ariidae Tachysurus sp. Family Clariidae Clarius batrachus (Linnaeus) Family Saccobranchidae Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch) Order Ophiocephaliformes Family Channidae Channel punctata (Bloch) Order Perciformes Family Anabantidae Anabas testidineus (Bloch) Family Gobildae Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton) Family Periopthalmidae Periopthalmus sp. Boleopthalmus sp. Miscellaneous fish remains 1 Estuarine form. Partly digested. 1 Length 35 mm. Common in brackish water ponds. 1 Length 40 mm. Not uncommon in fresh- water jheels 3 Length 30-50 mm. 2 Found in fresh and brackish water. Partly damaged. 5 Length 30-50 mm. Found in fresh as well as brackish water pools. 55 Length 20-50 mm. Invariably present in stomachs. Very common in tidal mudflats. 11 Not identifiable. Total : 108 200 29 Phylum Arthropoda Class Crustacea Order Decapoda Family Penaeidae Metapenaeus sp. 28 Partly mutilated. Family Portunidae Scylla serrata (Forskal) ' 17 Common in brac- Portunus pelagicus (Linnaeus) 3 kish water bheries and also in ponds. Common in brac- kish water bheries and also in ponds. Family Grapsidae Varuna litterata (Fabricius) 30 Very common in Miscellaneous Crustacea (frag- ments) brackish water and mudflats. Not identifiable Total : 78 220 31.80 4 [29] 50 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Foi. 68 (1) Items of diet No. Wt. (g) %(Wt.) Remarks Class Insect a Order Orthoptera Family Locustidak Chrotogonus sp. 5 Pest of paddy and other vegetables. Family Tettigidae Acrydium sp. Order Mantoidea Family Mantidae > Mantis religiosa Linnaeus 6 9 Pest of paddy nur- series. Insect predator. Order Dermaptera Family Apachyidae Ap achy us sp. Family Labiduridae Labidura sp. 3 9 Found in damp places under de- caying leaves, etc. Family Forhculidae Forficula sp. (Claspers) 4 6 pairs. Order Hemiptera Family Gerridae Halobates sp. 7 Brackish water bug. Seen on tidal waters. Family Corixxdae Corixa sp. 3 Freshwater form. Micronecta sp. 1 do Order Coleoptera Family Dytiscidae Eretes stictus (Linnaeus) Miscellaneous insect fragments 11 Freshwater form. Not identifiable. Total : 58 100 14*50 Phylum Annelida Class Chaetopoda Order Oligochaeta Family Megascolicidae Earthworms 9 + Digested beyond identification. Family Naididae Limnodrilus sp. Order Polychasta 100+ Tangled mass. In bits and digested beyond identi- fication. Total : 109+ 25 3’62 Sand and miscellaneous 50 7.25 FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS 51 So far it has been reported to feed only on aquatic animals, but the above analysis reveals that it also takes terrestrial insects, such as grass- hoppers and mantids, and toads. Crustaceans which form the major bulk of its food constitute 31.80% and consist mostly of commercial species. Next to the crustaceans are fishes (29.0%). In the stomachs of 26 birds, altogether 108 examples of fishes were found, representing 11 species of fresh and brackishwater forms, which are mostly mud-fishes of little commercial value. They are small, their length varying from 5 to 50 mm. Except some orthopteran pests of agriculture and the insect predator Mantis , other insects are of minor significance, the proportion of total insect food being 14.50%. More tadpoles than frogs and toads are consumed. They form 13.80% of the total bulk. Annelids, both freshwater as well as brackish water forms, are consumed in very small proportions (3.62%) (Text Fig. 3). It is more or less a harmless bird, the only discredit being that it consumes some crustaceans of commercial value. Ardeola gray!! grayii (Sykes), The Indian Pond Heron The Pond Heron, Ardeola grayii grayii (Sykes), is a bird invariably associated with creeks, estuaries, rivers, tanks, ditches, and other stretches of water. It is found throughout India. In the Sundarban, it is seen both in the reclaimed as well as in the forested areas. It is sedentary and is common in inundated paddy-fields and also in ditches running along embankments. In the forested area it is less common, being seen among reeds and mangroves, and on mud-fiats of creeks and tidal rivers. It generally waits patiently with poised neck at the edge of water and as soon as its prey comes within range, it strikes with its bill and collects the prey. Jerdon (1864, p. 751) stated : * Its special food is crabs, for which it watches patiently, either in the water or in the fields, and specially on the small raised bunds or divisions between rice-fields. It will, of course, also eat fish, frogs, and various aquatic insects.5 Mason & Lefroy (1912, p. 286) examined the stomachs of four examples and found that of the 76 insects taken by the bird, 52 were beneficial, 14 injurious and 10 neutral ; one stomach contained a fish and a prawn, and another a blade of grass. Whistler (1928, p. 397) mentioned : ‘It feeds chiefly on frogs, crabs, small fishes, insects, and the other miscellaneous life that has its being in or near water . . . . ’ Baker (1929, p. 355) wrote : ‘ When waiting for its food, frogs, crabs, mudfish, etc., it sits hunched up, a dowdy patient little figure not easy to spot against a dark background . . . In addition to its fish and reptile diet it eats all kinds of large insects as [31] 52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1) well as worms, grubs, and termites.’ Ali (1955, p. 105) observed that its food is frog, fish, crabs and insects. The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 105 adult specimens that the author collected in the Sundarban is given in Table 7. Table 7 Analysis of the stomach-contents of the Pond Heron Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks Phylum Chordata Class Amphibia Family Ranidae Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider 23 Ram Iimnocharis Wiegmann 18 Common in paddy i fields. Rana sp. (tadpoles) Family Bufonidae 32 Partly digested. Bufo melanostictus Schneider 16 Subadult. Total : 89 640 16 Series Pisces Class Teleostomi Order Cypriniformes Family Cyprinidae Punt ius sp. 17 Length 5-30 mm. Freshwater form. Chela sp. 29 Length 10-30 mm. Danio sp. 6 Length 10-25 mm. Family Bagridae Mystus gulio (Hamilton) 101 Length 30-60 mm. Estuarine form. Invariably present in stomachs. Order Perciformes Family Ambasstdae Ambassis sp. 90 Freshwater form. Invariably, present in stomachs. Family Gobiidae Glossogobius sp. 6 Brackish water form. Total : 249 360 9 Phylium Mollusca Class Gastropoda Order Archaeogastropoda Family Neritidae Nerita sp. 4 Brackish water form. Order Mesogastropoda Family Viviparidae Viviparus sp. 18 Freshwater form. Family Littorinidae Littorina sp. 3 Freshwater form. [32] FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS 53 Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks Family Melanoidae Melanoides sp. 6 Freshwater form. Order Basommatophora Family Lymnaeidae Lymnaea sp. 29 Freshwater form. Family Planorbidae Indoplanorbis sp. 7 Freshwater and land form. Total : 67 640 16 Phylum Arthropoda Class Crustacea Order Decapoda Family Palaemonidae Macrobrachium lamarrei (Milne-Edward) 26 Freshwater form. Quite common in stomachs. Family Atyidae Caridina gracilipes de Man 6 Freshwater form. Family Palaemonidae Macrobrachium rude (Heller) 10 do Family Penaeidae Metapenaeus brevicornis Milne-Edward 40 Brackish water form. Metapenaeus monoceros Fabri- cius 31 do Family Potamonidae Paratelphusa ( Barytelphusa ) jacquemontii (Rathbun) 7 Freshwater form Family Portunidae Scylla serata (Forskal) 18 Brackish water form. Portunus pelagicus (Linnaeus) Family Grapsidae 3 do Varuna litterata (Fabricius) 28 do Miscellaneous Crustacean frag- ments Not identifiable. Total : 169 940 23*50 Class Arachnida Order Araneae Family Argyopidae Araneus mitifica (Thorell) 27 Family Tetragnathidae Ecuta javanica Thorell 12 [33] 54 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (I) Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks Family Lycqscedae Lycosa sp. 16 Hippasa sp. 9 Family Oxyopidae Oxyopes sp. Spiders in fragments 6 Not identifiable. Total : 70 40 TOO Class Insecta Order Orthoptera Family Locustidae Chrotogonus sp. 11 Pest of paddy. Attractomorpha sp. 28 Pest of cultivated plants. Oxya sp. 6 do Acrotylus sp. 37 do Family Tettigidai: Acrydium sp. 6 do Order Dermaptera Family Labiduridae Labidura sp. 18 Family Forpiculidae Forficula sp. Order Odonata • 22 Head and claspers. ? species Almost digested. Not identifiable. Order Hemiptera Family Nepidae Laccotrephes sp. 29 Aquatic form. Family Belostomatxbae Belo stoma sp. 11 do Order Coleoptera Family Dytiscidae Eretes stictus Linnaeus 52 do Laccophilus sp. 33 do Bidessus sp. 17 do Family Grynidae Dineutes sp. 29 do Family Hydrophilidae Berosus sp. 13 do Hydrophilus sp. 31 do Miscellaneous Insect fragments Not identifiable. Total : 343 300 7*50 Vegetable matter Total ; 880 22*00 Partly digested. Unidentifiable. [34] FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS 55 The food consists of arthropods, specially Crustacea (23.5%) and some Insecta (7.50%) representing both aquatic and terrestrial forms. Spiders are taken in very small quantity (1 %). Mollusca found in the stomachs are generally with complete shells, representing mostly small, freshwater forms. Tadpoles, adult frogs and toads are taken in good proportion (16%). Tadpoles are preferred to adult frogs and toads. From the stomachs of 105 birds, 249 examples of fishes were found, representing six species, forming 9% of the total bulk. These fishes represent both fresh and brackish water forms of some commercial value, but are small-sized, the standard lengths varying from 5 to 60 mm. A good quantity of vegetable matter of aquatic origin (22 %) is also added to the menu (Text-Fig. 4). It may be regarded as a harmless bird. Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus), The Night Heron The Night Heron, Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus), is a common bird of the Sundarban area. It is found in colonies, and it occupies groves near about waters of jheels, tidal creeks and mangrove swamps. Its ideal resorts are the trees that stand in water of the brackish water fisheries ( gheries ), where water is sufficient and fishes are in plenty. Though it is nocturnal in habit yet it may be found to start its activities in the afternoon hours, specially on cloudy days. Normally it starts for the marshes for feeding at dusk, and it hunts in shallow waters of rivers, ponds throughout practically the whole night. The food of the Night Heron in India as stated by Blanford (1898, p. 398) is composed of fish, frog, etc. Whistler (1928, p. 399) states that its food is varied ; like that of the other herons, and consists of small fish, Amphibia, Crustacea and aquatic insects. Baker (1929, p. 361) mentions that it feeds on fish, frogs, crabs, Crustacea and worms. Ali (1955, p. 106) stated that the food items are crabs, fish, frogs and aquatic insects. The food of the allied subspecies of the Night Heron in U.S.A. has been studied in greater detail. Judd (1900, p. 435), states that 10 adults and 10 nestlings’ stomachs contained only fish; in another heronry, young were fed on trout, pickerel and herring. Baynard (1912, pp. 167-169) found that 50 meals of young Night Heron in Florida consisted of 60 crayfish, 610 small catfish, 31 small pickerel and 79 dragonflies. Latham (1914, p. 112) mentioned that it was also known to eat algae. ¥/etmore (1920, p. 394) found the birds feeding on dead salamanders in New Mexico. He further observed that it fed on water-dogs (Ambystoma) and frogs, at Lake Burford, New Mexico, where they acted as scaven- gers by eating dead Axolotls, floating on water. Gross (1923, pp. 1-30, [35] 56 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (1) 191-214) stated that at Sandy Neck, its food could be identified as marine annelids, chiefly Nereis virens , crustaceans, represented by numerous shrimps, sandhoppers and a few small crabs, insects (chiefly beetles), flies and dragonflies (nymphs), all present in negligible quantities. Of the Mollusca he found only squids which were probably picked up dead. The only freshwater animals found were tadpoles and adults of Fowler’s toad. He further examined (1923, p. 19) some 100 regurgitations and found that these consisted of 80 % fish, chiefly whiting, herring and din- ners, the whiting found dead on beach, marine worms, crustaceans, in- sects and mollusca, young birds. Shapeles (cited by Bent, 1926, p. 208) found in the stomach of this species a frog and a snake about a foot long. The European subspecies, Voous (1960, p. 18) mentions, feeds on a great variety of aquatic animals, mainly fish. The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of 78 adult specimens of the Night Heron that the author collected in the Sundarban is given in Table 8. Table 8 Analysis of the stomach-contents of the Night Heron Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks Phylum Chordata Class Reptilia Order Squamata Suborder Serpentes Family Colubridae Natrix sp. 6 Total length 40-120 Family Hydrophiidae mm. Partly digested. Hydrophis sp. ? 3 Partially digested. Total : 9 85 7*65 Identification doubt- ful. Class Amphibia Order Anura Family Ranidae Rana sp. (tadpoles) 80 Some partly diges- Rana limnocharis Wiegmann 15 ted. Total : 95 310 27*92 [36] FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS 57 Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks Series Pisces Class Teleostomi Order Cypriniformes Family Bagridae Mystus gulio (Hamilton) 18 Length 5-20 mm. Order Anguilliformes Family Anguillidae Anguilla bengalensis (Gray) 3 Length 20-60 mm. Order Cyprinodontiformes Family Cyprinodontidae Oryzias melastigmus (McClelland) 5 Length 10-20 mm. Order Perciformes Family Gobiidae Goboides sp. ? Family Periopthalmidae Periopthalmus koelreuteri (Pallas) Boleopthalmus boddaerti (Pallas) 3 32 6 Partially digested. Partially digested. Invariably present in stomachs. Order Mastocembeliformes Family Mastocembelidae Mastocembelus pancalus (Hamilton) 3 Length 60-100 mm. Total : 70 115 10*36 Phylum Mollusca Class Gastropoda Order Basommatophora Family Lymnaeidae Lymnaea sp. 20 Freshwater form. Not uncommon in stomachs. Family Planorbidae Indoplanorbis sp. 12 Order Archaeogastropoda Family Neritidae Nerita sp. 1 Order Mesogastropoda Family Viviparidae Viviparus bengalensis (Lamarck) 22 Freshwater form. Not uncommon i n stomachs. Family Melanoidae Melanoides tuberculatus (Muller) 15 Total : 70 180 16*16 [37] 58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1) Items of diet No. Wt. (g) ?/o(Wt.) Remarks Phylum Artftropoda Class Crustacea Order Decapoda Family Penaeidae Metapenaeus sp. 2 Brackish water form. Partially digested. Family Palaemonibae Macrobrachium sp. 5 Freshwater form. Partially digested and partly dam- aged. Macrobrachium rude (Heller) 8 Freshwater form. Family Portunedae Scylla serrata (Forskal) Portunus pelagicus (Linnaeus) Portunus sanguinolentus (Herbst) 2 1 Brackish water form, do do Family Grapsidae Varuna litterata (Fabricius) 9 do Family Ocypodidae Uca sp. 13 Miscellaneous crustacean frag- ments. Not identifiable. Total : 41 135 12T7 Class Insect a Order Orthoptera Family Locustidae Aerydiurn sp. Chrotogonm sp. 4 6 Found on grass and reeds growing near about or in standing water. Order Odonata Suborder Zygoptera Naiads 2 Partially digested beyond identifi- cation. Suborder Anisoptera Family Aeschnidae Aeschna sp. ? (naiads) 5 do Family Libellulidae Pantala sp. (naiads) 7 Order Hemiptera Family Gerridae Gerris sp. 5 Freshwater form. Family Naucorjdae Laccocoris sp. ? 2 do [38] FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS 59 Items of diet No. Wt. (g) % (Wt.) Remarks Family Nepedae Nepa sp. 3 Freshwater form. Family Notonectidae Notonecta sp. 6 do Family Corixidae Corixa sp. 8 Order Coleoptera Family Dytiscidae Gyrinus sp. 2 do Family Kydroprilidae Berosus sp. Miscellaneous insect fragments. 3 Freshwater form. Not identifiable. Total 53 65 5*85 Phylum Annelida Class Chaetopoda Order Oligochaeta Family Megascqlecidae Pheretima sp. Eutyphoeus sp. ? 10 7 Partially digested. Family Naididae Limnodrilus socialis Stephens . . In tangled mass. Order Polychseta 18 Partially digested, therefore not iden- tifiable. Total : 35 70 6*30 Vegetable matter Sand Total : Total : 100 50 9-09 4*50 The food of the Night Heron is chiefly composed of aquatic organisms, namely, aquatic snakes, frogs and tadpoles, fishes, molluscs, crustaceans, aquatic insects and annelids, both fresh and brackish water forms. Besides, it takes vegetable matter of aquatic origin. Mostly small orga- nisms comprise its food ; the length of snakes varies from 40-120 mm, and that of fishes 5-100 mm. The bulk of food is, however, largely made up of Amphibia (27.92%) and Mollusca (16,16%) consisting mostly of freshwater and damp soil inhabiting species. The proportion of Crustacea is 12.17%, which comprises more crabs than shrimps. The bird consumes only 10.36% of fishes which have practically no com- mercial value and are mostly mud-dwellers. Except two terrestrial species (grasshoppers) all the insects are aquatic. It prefers soft-bodied insects, such as naiads of damselflies and dragonflies, and aquatic bugs and a few beetles also. The other group which constitute a comparatively [39] 60 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1) small portion of its diet is Annelida (6.30 %). The vegetable food is made up of aquatic weeds which form 9.0% of the total bulk (Text-Fig. 4). Nycticorax nycticorax ( Linnaeus ) Ixobrychus cinnamomeus ( Gmelin ) rrj^jsrl issii Jlgi + + + + + + 4- + 4 4- + + MOLLUSCA CRUSTACEA REPTILIA VEGETABLE 1NSECTA AMPHIBIA ANNELIDA MATTER PISCES SAND AND MISCELLANEOUS Text Fig. 4. Diagrammatic representation of the percentages of food of Ardeola grayii , Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax and Ixobrychus cinnamomeus. Sand constitutes 4.50% and is perhaps accidentally taken while picking food. It may, therefore, be concluded that it is a harmless bird. FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS 61 Ixobrychus dnnamomeus (Gmelin), The Chestnut Bittern The Chestnut Bittern, Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin), is a com- mon bird of lower Bengal, specially in the Sundarban area. It is a bird of the inner recesses of the mangrove swamps, thick rush and reedy marshes of the still or tidal waters. It is crepuscular in habit, and very secretive, though during the day time under cover of darkness of thick vegetation it frequently forages in a slow stealthy manner. No published data on the food-habits of this bittern could be traced. However, with regard to a close cousin of this bird, the American Least Bittern, Ixobrychus exilis (Gmelin), Bent (1926, p. 88) found that it hunts for various forms of animal life found in the places it lives. The detailed analysis of the stomach-contents of eight specimens of the Chestnut Bittern that the author collected in the Sundarban is given in Table 9. Table 9 Analysis of the stomach-contents of the Chestnut Bittern Items of diet No. Wt.(g.) %(Wt.) Remarks Phylum Chordata Class Reptilia Order Squamata Suborder Serpentes Family Colubridae Natrix stolata (Linnaeus) 1 Length 70 mm. Natrix sp. 6 Length 40-60 mm. Partly digested. Total : 7 75 1340 Class Amphibia Order Anura Family Ranidae Rana sp. (Tadpoles) 30- Partly digested. Rana limnocharis Wiegmann 6 Rana cyanophlyctis Schneider ? 3 Family Bufonidae Bufo sp. Miscellaneous tadpoles 2 Not identifiable. Total : 41 150 26*80 Series Pisces Class Teleostomi Order Ophiocephaliformes Family Channidae Channel punctata (Bloch) 10 Length 3040 mm. Freshwater pond form. [41] 62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo! 68 (5) Items of diet No. Wt. (g) %(Wt.) Remarks Order Perciformes Family Ambassidae Ambassis sp. 7 Freshwater form. Partially digested. Family Sciaenidae Johnius sp. 9 Length 20-30 mm. Brackish water form . Partly digested. Family Gobiidae Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton) ? 2 Length 30-40 mm. Fresh and brackish water form. Family Periopthalmidae Periopthalmm koelreutari (Pallas) Order Mastocembeliformes Family Mastocembelidae Mastocembelus armatus (Lace- pede) ? 40 2 Invariably present in stomachs, some mutilated. Partly digested. Mastocembelus pane aim (Hamil- ton) Miscellaneous fish remains. 10 Length 50-70 mm, Fresh and brackish water form. Not identifiable. Total : 80 110 19*64 Phylum Moliusea Class Gastropoda Order Archaeogastropoda Family Neritidae Ner.it a sp. 6 Partly broken shells. Order Mesogastropoda Family Felidae Pila sp. 19 do. Invariably present in stomachs. Total : 25 65 11-60 Phylum Arthropods Class In sect a Order Orthoptera Family Locustidae Acrotylus sp. Acrydium sp. 15 8 Pest of paddy nur* series. do. Chrotogonus sp. 12 Pest of vegetables etc. [42] FOOD-HABITS OF WATER-BIRDS 63 Items of diet No. Wt.(g) %(Wt.) Remarks Order Dermaptera (Fragments, claspers etc.) Order Odonata Suborder Zygoptera Family Coenagrjjdae Naiads 14 Invariably present in stomachs. Suborder Anisoptera Family Aeschnidae Naiads 2 Order Hemiptera Family Pentatomidae Coptosoma sp. 2 Pest of bean, lab- Aspongopus sp. ? 1 lab. Pest of Cucurbita- Family Nepidae Laccotrephes sp. 2 ceae. Aquatic form. Ranatra sp. 2 do. Family Belostqmattdae Belo stoma sp. 2 do. Order Coleoptera Eretes stictus Linnaeus 9 Mostly elytra and appendages. Aquatic form. Laccophilus sp. 5 v do. Family Grynidae Dineutes indicus Aube 3 do, Family Hydrophilidaf, Hydrophilus sp. 1 do. Family Rutelibae Anomala sp. 2 Pest of garden plants Family Meloidae 1/1 Mylabris sp. 9 Pest of Graminae. Canthris sp. 2 Pest of cowpea. Order Lepidoptera (larvae) Elytra only. Mutilated beyond identification. Total : 91 140 23 21 [43] 64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1) Items of diet No. Wt. (g) %(Wt.) Remarks Phylum Annelida Class Chaetopoda Order Oligochaeta Family Naididae Limnodrilus sp. 100-1- Tangled mass. Family Megascolecidae Pheretima sp. 10+ In bits. Partly digested. Order Polychaeta sp. ? 10+ In bits. Digested beyond identification. Total : 120+ 20 2-56 The food of the Chestnut Bittern consists wholly of animal matter (Text Fig. 4). Amphibia (tadpoles, frogs and toads) form the largest bulk of its food (26.80%). The fishes taken are small 20-70 mm. in standard length, mud-dwellers of fresh and brackish waters, and are of little commercial value. They constitute 19.64% of the total bulk of food. Snakes found in stomachs, representing two aquatic species are very small (total length of 40-70 mm). The insects constitute 23.21 %, comprising mostly of aquatic forms and some terrestrial pests of agri- cultural crops. Out of the 91 examples of insects representing 15 species 51 representing 8 species were found to be injurious pests of agricultural crops. The Mollusca is represented by two species of gastropods (11.60%). A very small proportion of Annelida (3.56%) comprising freshwater Oligochaeta and brackish water Polycha^ta are also added to the menu. From the above analysis it may be generalized that it is a bird helpful to agriculture to some extent. (To he continued) A Review of the Recovery Data obtained by the Bombay Natural History Society’s Bird Migration Study Project By D. N. Mathew ( With a text-figure) Study of bird migration on a continuing basis was started by the Society in September 1959 to investigate (1) the routes used by birds moving into and out of India in autumn and spring and (2) the role of birds in disseminating arthropod-borne viruses. Up to mid 1969, 1, 32, 368 migratory and resident passerine and non-passerine birds of 25 families and 150 species have been ringed, and recoveries recorded of 520 birds ; 451 of these being from places outside India, namely Burma, East and West Pakistan, Afghanistan, the U.S.S.R., and Cyprus, and 69 from within the country. The gross recovery is slightly under 4 birds for every thousand ringed, a figure far too low for suggesting definite conclusions. My aim in this paper is to review the recovery data in a consolidated form and to examine what light these throw on the origin and routes of our migratory birds. The recovery infor- mation on the more numerous species is discussed in detail and com- pared with local observations published in the Society’s Journal and the Ibis within the last fifty years. The data obtained from random ringing of ducks by the Society’s members between the years 1920 and 1940 are also used, but references to the total number of birds ringed mean unless mentioned otherwise only those ringed by the Society or its collaborators at various stations between 1959 and mid- 1969. Recoveries of Ducks and Teals The Society has ringed 7740 migratory ducks and teals (Family Anatidae) mainly at Bharatpur, Rajasthan; Monghyr, Bihar; near Dibrugarh, Assam (M. J. S. Mackenzie) and at Chilka Lake in Orissa. At Orissa ringing was done in collaboration with the Genetics and Biometry Laboratory, Bhubaneshwar. Including recovery data from 5 66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1) other sources I have examined 438 duck recovery records, out of which 386 were either ringed or recovered in the U.S.S.R. One has to examine not less than 50 cases of each species ringed or recovered in their breeding area to know precisely the area of origin of our ducks. This is possible only for one species at the present time. Yu. A. Isakov (1965) demarcated 7 distinct populations of waterfowl in Russia. Area of the main geographical populations of the water fowl of the USSR After Yu. A. Isakov and T. P. Shevareva I. The Northern Baltic — North Sea. II. The European = Siberian— Black Sea = Mediterranean. III. The West Siberian— Caspian — Nile, IV. The Siberian = Kazakhstan— Pakistan = India. V. The East Siberian = Amur— Korean = Chinese. VI. The Far North = Eastern— Japanese. VII. (Not shown on map) The Cheukotka— North American population. Isakov’s grouping is summarised in the map above. As a rule the areas occupied by neighbouring populations overlap one another. Popu- lations II- VI, all contain large numbers of surface feeding ducks (Mal- lard, Teal, Garganey, Pintail, Wigeon and Gad wall) all of which con- cern us. The wintering grounds of population II (Black Sea and Medi- teranean) are getting reduced due to reclamation of wetlands. Mem- bers of IV (Kazakhstan-Indian) should, according to this grouping, be dominant among the ducks wintering in our country. This popu- lation breeds (Isakov 1965), in West Siberia to the north up to the mouth of the Irtish and the greater part of Kazakhstan and Middle Asia. Population V (East Siberian-Chinese) breeds, in an extensive area from the Enisei (longitude c. 90°E), in Central Russia to the Pacific REVIEW OF RECOVERY DATA OF BIRD MIGRATION 67 Ocean and from the Tundra of Siberia to the southern boundaries of Russia. In interpretation of recoveries of ducks ringed in India, one should keep in mind the drawbacks listed below : 1. There are only 438 recovery reports available for examination. 2. There is a possibility of mixing and interchange of breeding populations in areas where their breeding grounds overlap. This is possible in the cases of population II to V. 3. As Isakov points out the wintering grounds get altered by reclamation of wetlands and creation of artificial reservoirs. These may influence the selection of wintering grounds by birds. 4. Migration maps constructed by connecting points of ringing with those of recovery are therefore only of limited usefulness and are not meant to indicate actual migration routes. Anas acuta Pintail Out of a total of 1551 Pintail ducks ringed at Bharatpur, Chilka Lake, Orissa, Monghyr and Dibrugarh, Assam, 64 have been recovered from places in the U.S.S.R between Kara Kalpakskaya (c. 42° 25'N ; 59° 30 'E.) and Yakutian (c. 62° 32 'N ; 113° 48 'E). Out of the 64, twenty-one were recovered within or before the next spring. There were 8 recoveries within Indian limits. Including recoveries of birds ringed elsewhere, I have examined 78 Pintail recoveries. From a total of 22 Pintails ringed by Mr. Mackenzie near Dibrugarh in February 1966, one was recovered in Buriyatian (c. 52° 20'N ; 106° 23 'E) ASSR on 6 May, 1966 and another in Novosibirsk Region (c. 54° 22'N; 77° 18'E) on 5 October 1966. The northernmost point from which a Pin- tail was reported was in Tyumen Region (c. 66° 30'N ; 67° 48 'E) where a Bharatpur ringed (19 October, 1965) bird was reported on 27 May 1967. Twelve other Pintails ringed at Bharatpur in October 1966 were recovered in the USSR (Table 1). A female Pintail ringed at Chilka Lake (c. 19° 49 'N ; 86° 40'E) on 15 January 1967 was reported in Tomsk Region (c. 57° 22'N ; 83° 54'E) on 11 May 1967 at a straight-line map distance of some 4000 km. north of Orissa. There are old records of three Astrakhan Pintails recovered in Gujaranwala district, West Pakistan, Ahmedabad, and 50 km. south of Madras city. Two Kurgaldzhin (c. 50° 30 'N ; 69° 35'E) birds were recovered at Srinagar, Kashmir and Bhuj, Kutch and a Novosibirsk Pintail near Etah, U.P. ( c . 27°N ; 72' E). The oldest recovery is of a pintail ringed at Dhar (c. 22° 35'N ; 75° 29 'E) in February 1926 and recovered near the River Tira ( c . 62°N ; 100°E) on 25 May 1927. The following observations are also interesting : Sheriff (1929) recorded many flights of Pintail between Yarkand and Karghalik (c. 39°N ; 77°E) late in February. Ludlow (1934) noted 68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1) large flocks of Pintail passing through Kashgar, Chinese Turkestan, in late February and saw a female with ducklings at the junction of Rivers Agiass and Tekkas (c. 43°N ; 81'E) on 12 May, and collected Table 1 Recoveries of Pintail ( Anas acuta) ringed at Bharatpur SI. No. Date of ringing Sex Date of recovery Place of recovery Co-ordi- nates Straight- line map distance from Bharatpur 1. 21-X-1966 3-iii- 1967 Kara- Kalpa- kskaya 42° 25'N; 59° 30'E. c. 2250 km. 2. 23-X-1966 1 l-iii-1967 Tashkent 41° 15'N; 68° 00'E. c. 2100 km. 3. 6-X-1966 5-iii-1967 Fergana 40° 13'N; 70° 50'E. c. 1750 km. 4. 6-X-1966 ? 19-iii-1967 Alma-Ata 43° 2TN; 77° 36'E. c. 1750 km. 5. lO-x-1966 7 ► oosc csoe .1 1 1 ! 1 1 «0S2 0002 0051 OOOt 005 0 ■ i 1 * 1 1 M ; 1 1 1 1 1 • 1 i | i i 1 1 1 1 1 ri'| TlrfTlrnl i rf r'i M l’rf j'i i'i 1 i'rM |'i 1 1 1 frVi'r] « S3HW S3di3W01IM Si 4^ 246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (1) Chinese Spotbill ( Anas p. z°norhyncha) being recorded as truly migratory. It must, however, be noted that Dementiev et al. (1952) in birds of the soviet union describe this race as a straggler to the Soviet Union having been recorded from northern Japan to SE. China and Korea. This particular bird had travelled a distance of about 2884 km. in a northern direction from the point of release in about 8 months. Bombay Natural History Society, (MISS) SHAILAJA S. SOMANE Hornbill House, Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay- 1 BR, December 3, 1970. 7. BAYA WEAVERBIRD NESTING ON HUMAN HABITATIONS (With eight figures in two plates) The Baya weaverbird (Ploceus philippinus) distributed throughout India, Burma, Ceylon, Malaysia and Thailand is famous for its intri- cately woven, retort-shaped, dangling nest. Equally important is the bird’s capacity in selecting a variety of trees and other objects most suitable for siting its nests. In India, at least 30 different species of trees have been preferred as hosts besides telegraph and power lines, sides of wells, copium of compound walls and even eaves of houses. Jerdon (1863) 1 wrote about the Bavas in India not using houses as nesting sites thus, Tn India I have never seen the Baya suspend its nests except on trees, but in some parts of Burma, and more particularly in Rangoon, the Bayas usually select the thatch of a bungalow to suspend their nests from, regardless of the inhabitants within. In the Canton- ment of Rangoon, very many bungalows may be seen with twenty, thirty, or more of these long nests hanging from the end of the thatched roof, and, in one house in which I was an inmate, .... a small colony commenced their labours towards the end of April, and, in August, when I revisited that station, there were above one hundred nests attached all round the house’. Smythies (1953) 2 also mentions that the eaves of village huts in Burma is one of the preferred places for Ploceus philippinus to hang their nests. Recent Indian literature on the Baya 1 Jerdon, T. C. (1863) The Birds of India 2, pt. I. The Military Orphan Press, Calcutta. 2 Smythies, B. E. (1953) : — The Birds of Burma. Oliver & Boyd, London. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 68 (1) Plate I Davis i Baya nests Figs. 1 . A complete nest of Baya weaverbird hanging from the corner of a roof ; 2. Another complete nest suspended from the grass-lining under a tiled roof ; 3. A splinter separating from a bamboo split used as a reeper for a roof supports a large, complete nest of the Baya; 4. Seven nests hanging on the eaves of a house. Note the egg-chamber of all the nests facing the wall ; 5. Seven of the approximately 30 nests attached to one side of the grass roof of a house near Lucknow. I Bombay nat. Hist, Soc. 68 (1) Davis : Baya nests Plate II Figs. 6. Closer view of a group of nests hanging on another side of the roof referred to in fig. 5. ; 7. These only two nests (complete) hang on the same roof (same level), 5 metres apart, of another house ; 8. General view of a side of the house referred to in fig. 6 show- ing over 250 nests. Many of the nests were partially damaged at the time of observation. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 247 do not mention the eaves of roofs in India as a site for attaching the nests of this familiar bird. During an alMndia survey conducted to study the Baya colonies in 1964-1966, I did come across a few cases where the bird had selected human dwellings to hang their nests. Some of these are reported here with illustrations. A colleague at the Central Coconut Research Station, Kayangulam, Kerala State wrote to me that a Baya cock made an incomplete nest on the edge of his roof, thatched with coconut leaves. However, by the time I visited the place, the thatch was renewed. Near Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh) I saw four complete nests hanging on one side of a metre- high mud wall demarcating field boundaries. These nests were attach- ed to the grass and brambles that formed a copium for the wall to protect it from the rains. I could not take a picture of these impressive nests. While I was trekking in some suburbs in Uttar Pradesh, a village 30 km. west of Varanasi interested me most. On a tile-roofed house, there were two complete nests of Baya hanging from one of the reepers. One of them seen in Fig. 1 occupied the south-eastern comer of the roof, the other being located two metres away from it but attached to the same reeper (not visible in picture). Several children and grown- ups used to move about just under these nests from morning till night, but the birds did not seem to be disturbed. Figures 2 and 3 show portions of the roof of another house in the same village. This house was also tiled in addition to having a lining of grass below the tiles. The nest in Fig. 2, a complete one, was founded on some fine twigs used for the lining. But the one in Fig. 3 was attached to a strip of bamboo partially separated from a half-split bamboo used as a reeper. The attachment of this nest in particular seemed very weak. But the nest being located on the safe side of the house, there was least disturbance from wind, and hence the single thin strip of bamboo was a sufficient support as is evident from the fact that the nest is a complete one. At the time of observa- tion it was occcupied by two grown-up fledglings. In another house of the same village, I saw seven nests hanging on the reepers of its roof along a side safe from wind (Fig. 4). Very close to this house was a plot of sugarcane whose leaves supplied the nest-building material. It may be noted that the nests in Fig. 4 as well as the earlier ones were built in conformity with a particular alignment. That is, their egg-chamber faced the wall so that the entrance was away from it. This is the convenient alignment for the hen bird to reach directly the egg-chamber during her homeward flights. 248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1) Some of the nests in Fig. 4 were attached to the bamboo splits and the others on the fibrous cords used for tying the bamboos. In a village 10 km. north of Lucknow, I saw a thatched house bearing along an edge of its roof over 250 Baya nests (Fig. 8). On another side of the same roof, about 30 nests were hanging, part of which are shown in Fig. 5. It was late November when I visited the locality and the Bayas had completely deserted the colony. Many of the nests were damaged by rats and birds. The adversities of weather- ing was also apparent on many nests. Practically all the nests were suspended on the grass and fine twigs with which the roof was built. There was no tile roofing for this house. Fig. 6 is a closer view of a portion of the wall (and roof) shown m Fig. 8. Here the mud wall of the house and the grass thatch can be clearly seen. Out of the 15 nests visible here, only one is incom- plete. This particular wall of the house-cum-store for agricultural commodities is about 15 metre long behind which is a two metre wide drain of running water. The drain as well as its margin away from the house were overgrown with many species of grass, some of them being wild sugarcane. The leaves of these plants provided the material for weaving the numerous nests. In addition, the house was surround- ed by paddy fields on the two sides facing the sides having Baya nests. Fig. 7 shows two complete nests from the eaves of another house located in a village one kilometre away from the previous one. The only two nests were hanging along the same direction of the roof about 3 metres apart. As this roof was located in close proximity with another only intercepted by a narrow lane, I could not get a convenient view for photographing the nests, and hence the two nests are shown separately. The roof of the house having the nests was very low and the lane was busy practically throughout the day. In spite of the crowd or because of it, the Baya preferred to select such a place for siting its nests. No one disturbed the birds in this village, even the dogs ignored them. Presuming these nests were long deserted, I pulled out the one shown in Fig. 7 (lower). But from within, seven fairly grown-up fledglings of Munia made their way out. During the all-India survey, I came across as many as 1386 colon- ies of Baya, each colony possessing one to over 250 nests. But only the above limited cases of human dwellings which the Baya selected for building nests were observed. Indian Statistical Institute, T. A. DAVIS Calcutta-35, India, December 7, 1970. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 249 8. RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS Ring No. and Date and place of Date and place of P m o C Sex ringing Recovery lYWllidl Iv o 69-2 Greylag Goose {Anser anser ) Ad. 18-1-1969. Bharat- pur, Rajasthan (c 27° 13' N., 77° 32' E.) 27-1-1970. Near Pyag- Reported by Mr. pur, 15 m. away from V. S. Mathur, Bahraich, U.P. (c. 27° Police Supdt. 34' N., 81° 36' E.) Pintail ( Anas acuta) F-1012 F-1105 F-1248 F-1350 F-1690 F-1819 F-1880 F-2134 F-2575 F-2952 r»>n Text-fig. 2 : Cribrinopsis robertii sp. nov. : Horizontal section through the basal part of the column. the column and very small in the basal part and, therefore, likely to be overlooked. Frequently, shell fragments are attached to the column. Length of the column 10-18 mm. Ectoderm of the column made up of very high cells, arranged in two layers. The outer cells are mostly glandular and eosinophilic, whereas, the inner cells are narrow with basal innervations. Mesogloea thinner than the ectoderm, with a number of sparsely distributed wandering cells, from which arise the endodermal muscles. Endoderm made up of conical glandular cells with many dark granules in the upper part. Tentacles and Oral Disc. Tentacles hexamerously arranged in 4 cycles of 6 + 6 + 12 + 24 = 48. Inner tentacles longer than outer ones. Tentacles thin and gently tapered. A deep fosse present. Pseudo- spherules present. In between pseudospherules and the last cycle of tentacles, there are 4-6 marginal spherules (acrosphere), with spirocysts. 294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 68 (1) basitrichs and, possibly, atrichs. The marginal spherules, with the ex- ception of basal part, are covered, with nematocysts arranged in row's. Oral disc circular in outline, broad and translucent- Stomodeum slightly raised up. Colour of the oral disc and the tentacles whitish semitrans- parent. In some specimens, the tentacles on their sides possess two longitudinal pink stripes. Ectoderm of the tentacle is about four times the height of the endoderm. The cells are interlocked and covered with long spirocysts. Ectodermal muscles are slightly folded. Mesogloea thin. Endoderm of tentacles and oral disc is laden with algae (zooxanthellae) and pig- mented granules. Mesenteries. Not divisible into macro- and microcnemes. Irre- gularly to hexamerously arranged. 2nd and 3rd cycles of mesenteries, J— — — l °'i vntn Text-fig. 3 : Cribrinopsis robertii sp. nov. : Longitudinal section of sphincter. fertile. In lower part of the column, number of mesenteries decreases and there are approximately half as many mesenteries at the base as in the oral region (Figs. 1 & 2). Retractors of the mesenteries well developed, diffuse and circumscribed. 3 pairs of directives and 3 siphonoglyphs. The presence of more than two siphonoglyphs may be due to asexual fission. As remarked by Uchida (1938), ‘the siphono- glyphs have secondarily formed in the parts corresponding to the mesen- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 295 te rial parts of the first series after the fission. When the fission is repeated, the actinian comes to have more than two siphonoglyphs’. Algae (zooxanthellae) present in the endoderm of the mesenteries. Sphincter (Fig. 3) is small but strong, pinnately circumscribed. Parietal muscles weakly developed. Cnidom. The distribution and size (in microns) of different categor- ies of nematocysts, are as follows: Tentacles : Spirocysts Basitrichs Acrosphere : Spirocysts Basitrichs Atrichs Actinopharynx : Basitrichs Microbasic p-mastigophores 8*4-22-4 x 1-4-2* 1 14-0-16-8 x 2-1 14-4-21-0 x 1-7-3-3 11-1-20-0 x 2-2-3-3 20-2-27-2 x 1*6-3 3 14- 0-16-6 x 2-1 15- 2-17-5 x 1-6-2-8 Column : Basitrichs Basitrichs Atrichs 12-0-16-2 x 2-1 -2-8 20-8-23-1 x 3*5-4 1 7-5-10-6 x 1*4-21 Remarks .- Cribrinopsis roberlii sp. nov., is the first species of the genus Cribrinopsis to be recorded from tropical waters. The new anemone is the third species assigned to this genus, the other two being the type species, C. similis (Carlgren 1921 & 1942) and C. williamsi (Carlgren 1940) reported from low Arctic and Alaska, respectively. C. robertli sp. nov., differs from the previously described species in its habitat, anatomical features as well as in geographical distribution. National Institute of Oceanography, ARUN H. PARULEKAR Miramar, Panjim - Goa, November 15, 1969. REFERENCES Carlgren, O. (1921) : Actiniaria. Part I. The Danish Ingolf Expedition, Vol. 9, Part 1. Copenhagen. (1940) : Actiniaria from Alaska and Arctic Waters. /. Washington Acad. Sci. 30, no. 1. (1942) : Actiniaria. Part II. The Danish Ingolf Expedition, Vol. 12. Copenhagen. Parulekar, Arun, H. (1967) : Two new species of sea anemones (Actiniaria) from Maharashtra. J. Bombay nat. Hist . 5bc. 64 : 524-529. Parulekar, Arun, H. (1968) : Sea Anemones (Actiniaria) of Bombay, ibid. 65 (1) : 140. Stephenson, T. A. & Stephenson, A. (1949) : The Universal features of zona- tion between tide-marks on rocky shores. J. Ecol. 37. Uchida, Tohru (1938) : Report on the biological survey of Mutsu Bay. 33. Acti- niaria of Mutsu Bay. Sci. Rep. Tohoku Imperial Unix, xii Nr. 3 : 281-317. 296 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1) 19. CARALLUMA EDULJS (EDGEW.) BENTH. & HOOK. : A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA (With a plate) During a floristic survey of the Indian Desert, the author collected a species of Caralluma which was identified as C. edulis (Edgew.) Benth. & Hook. This species has been previously reported only from West Pakistan and since there exists no specimen of it at the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta (CAL), or for that account, in any of the Indian Herbaria, a detailed description and a diagram of the plant has been given. Caralluma edulis (Edgew.) Benth. & Hook. Gen. PI. 2:782, 1876; Hook. f. FI. Brit. India 4:76, 1883; Cooke, FI. Pres. Bombay 2:1083; Gravely & Mayurnathan, Bull. Madras Govt. Museum, N. S. (Nat. Hist. Sect.) 4 (1) : 8, t. 1, f. 1-3, 1931. Bouoerosia edulis Edgew. in J. Linn. Soc. 6:205, t. 1, f. 1-8, 1862: B. stocksiana Baiss. FI. Orient. 4:64, 1870. An erect, succulent, branched, perennial herb, 15-60 cm. (often reaching up to 1 metre if growing with Panicwn turgidum Forsk.) high with viscous, watery sap. Stem creeping; stolons whitish; erect branches green or with longitudinal grey blotches throughout, distinctly tapering distally, 4-angled and grooved; angles rounded and toothed with the scars of the fallen leaves. Leaves 6-11x2 mm., opposite, ovate- lanceolate, sessile, acute, caducous, leaving upwardly directed protuber- ances on the stem. Flowers 1-3 in the axil of leaves all along the distal nodes; pedicels 1-1*7 cm. long, filiform, glabrous, terete. Calyx: lobes 3x1 mm., divided to the base, ovate-lanceolate, acute, with mem- branous margins. Corolla companulate, 7-8 mm. across, with longi- tudinal, purplish lines inside; tube inflated, 5-partite, divided half-way down, glabrous; lobes 3-4 mm. long, ovate-lanceolate, acute, margins slightly recurved. Corona 15-fid, in double rows, those of the outer row 3 mm. long, 5-lobed, cupular and each lobe produced into 2, distinct, subulate teeth; lobes of inner corona 1 mm. long, linear, sub- acute. Staminal column short, arising from the bottom of the corolla; pollen masses subhorizontal, pellucid at the apex. Style-apex truncate, not exerted. Follicles in pairs, 12-17x08-09 cm., slender, smooth, terete, tapering to a sharp point. Seeds 9x3 mm. long, brown, mar- gins winged; coma 2-5 cm. long. Local name ; ‘Pinpah J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 68 (1) Bhandari : Caralluma edulis Caralluma edulis { Edgew.) Benth. & Hook. — 1. a plant. 2. open flower. 3. flower with calyx and corolla removed showing corona. 4. corona from above. 5 . one of the corona lobes — lateral view. 6. pollinium. 7. a pair of follicles 8. comose seed. 4 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (1) Jain : Arthraxon deccanensis Arthraxon deccanensis sp. nov. a. habit; b. margin of leaf ; c. part of raceme showing two joints of rhachis, and binary spikelets ; d-j. sessile spikelet: d. lower glume (dorsal) ; e. same (ventral) ; f. upper glume (side view) ; g. lower lemma; h. upper lemma with awn (side view) ; i. stamens ; j. ovary with stigmas ; k. a joint of the rhachis; l-o. pedicelled spikelet: 1. lower glume; m. upper glume ; n. lower lemma ; o. upper lemma ; p. pedicel (All based on type). MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 297 Flowers: Sept.-Feb.; Fruits: Dec.-May. Herbarium specimens examined: JAISALMER Bhandari 1969. Distribution: w. Pakistan, Baluchistan, E. Punjab — Rawalpindi & Multan and Sind — Jamadar Ka Landa, near Karachi (Stocks, Dalzell — Mulir; 6 miles from Karachi, Woodrow); India — Jaisalmer. Field notes: The plant grows abundantly amongst Panicum turgidum, Murat grass, when it sprouts immediately after the first rains. It be- comes concolorous with the grass and getting support from it often reaches up to 1 metre in length. Old stems often become grey during winter and show black and white streaks. The corolla are longitudinally lined internally, the gynostegium is yellow, and the corona lobes are white. Local uses: The plant is used as a vegetable; only the young stems which have a sub-acidic or bitterish taste are edible since on maturity they become fibrous and brittle. The plants are sold in the bazar of Jaisalmer and are also eaten in the form of pickles or are made into ‘chutney’. This species has, up till now, been reported only from Baluchistan, Sind and W. Punjab in W. Pakistan. In the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, there is no sheet of this species. Botany Department, M. M. BHANDARI University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur, May 25, 1970. 20. ARTHRAXON DECCANENSIS SP. NOV., A NEW GRASS FROM INDIA (With a plate ) Arthraxon deccanensis sp. nov. Affinis Arthraxon lanceolato Roxb., ab eodem tamen differt spiculis sessilibus longioribus (6-6-5 mm. longis), carinis glumae inferioris spiculae sessilis ornatis serie arcta spinarum ad 1 mm. longarum. Holotype: R. M. Patil 7825 November 1956, Sinhagad, Poona dis- trict, Maharashtra State (CAL). 298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1) Arthraxon deccanensis sp. nov. (Poaceae — Andropogoneae) Annual. Culms very slender, erect or ascending, 20-40 cm. or more tall, finely puberulous or glabrous. Leaf-sheaths terete or slightly compressed, upper spathaceous, hirsute with tubercle-based hairs on back and margins; nodes shortly bearded. Ligules short, membranous, ciliate. Blades ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate, base amplexicaule, cordate, finely acuminate at apex, 2*5-5 cm. long, 1-1*5 cm. broad, puberulous on both surfaces, the dorsal surface, margins and the midrib below covered with tubercle -based hairs: primary lateral nerves 3-4 on each side of midrib. Racemes 1 -several, slender, green or suffused with purple, 3-6 cm. long, fascicled and borne on a slender puberulous peduncle, partly enclosed in, or far exserted from, the uppermost sheath. Rachis fragile, bearded at nodes; joints 2-2*5 mm. long, slender, broader above, hairy; hairs increasing in length upwards up to 2 mm.; spikelets paired on each joint, one sessile, the other pedicelled; pedicels similar to the joints, slightly shorter. Sessile s pikelet awned, lanceolate or narrowly lanceolate, 6-6*5 mm. long; excluding the tubercles of the lower glume 0*75-1 mm. wide, including the tubercles 1 *5-2*5 mm. wide. Lower glume 5*5-6*5 mm. long, excluding the tubercles linear lanceolate, in- cluding the tubercles oblong lanceolate or elliptic oblong, sometimes slightly oblique, chartaceous, 4-5 nerved, nerves distinct, more or less equidistant, 2 margina1 ones usually more conspicuous than others, back puberulous, rarely faintly muriculate on nerves, strongly 2-keeled, each keel muricate with 20-25 spreading or pointing 0*5-1 mm. long, strong but fine-pointed tubercles; margins hyaline, 0*25-0*4 mm. wide, inflexed. Upppr glume 5*5-6 mm. long, 2 mm. wide, oblong lanceolate, boat-shaped, strongly 1 -keeled, membranous hyaline, 1 -nerved, scabrous on the keel, puberulous on sides of the midnerve, margins hyaline, bearing few but long hairs. Lower floret reduced, neuter; lemma 3 mm. long, oblong lanceolate, membranous, hyaline nerveless. Upper floret hermaphrodite; lemma about 4 mm. long, lanceolate, entire, acute, membranous, hyaline, 1 -nerved, aened from near the base; awn 10-15 mm. long, fine, kneed at about the middle, twisted below.. Stamens 3, anthers 2*5-3 mm long; stigmas 2, feathery. Pedicelled spiketet unawned, lanceolate, acute. Lower glume 5-6 mm. long, lanceolate, slightly oblique, membranous herbaceous, acute, puberulous, scabrous on the outer two, and faintly so on the inner 4-5 nerves, margins hyaline, shortly ciliate. Upper glume 5-6 mm. long, membranous. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 299 hyaline, 3-5 nerved, puberulous and ciliate on margins. Lower floret reduced, neuter; lemma hyaline, 2*5-3 mm. long, oblong lanceolate, obtuse, nerveless, empty. Upper floret male; lemma faintly nerved. Stamens 3, anthers as in sessile spikelet. Holotype: R. M. Fatil 7825, Nov. 1956, Sinhagad, Poona dish, Maharashtra State, India; deposited in Central National Herbarium, Sibpur, Howrah (CAL). Paratypes: V. D. Vartak 5884/6, 16th Sep. 1956, Sinhagad; M. Y. M. E. Ansari 99978 A, 26th Aug. 1964, Sitabai Dara, Arvi, Haveli Taluka, Poona district (BSI). A. P. Young 1884, South Maratha Coun- try and North Canara, Bombay Presidency (Leningrad Herbarium, U. S. S. R.). In nervation of the lower glume of sessile spikelet, this grass slightly resembles ArthrctxOn lanceolatus Roxb., but it markedly differs in following characters: Sessile spikelet 6-6*5 mm. long; lower glume of sessile spikelet not flat on back, but slightly rounded; spines on keels of this glume very stout, projecting out to even 1 mm. A. deccanensis differs from A. prionodes (Steud.) Dandy in larger spikelets, and conspicuous nervation but absence of tubercles on dorsal surface of the lower glume of sessile spikelet. Acknowledgements I am grateful to Dr. K. Subramanyam and Dr. Rolla S. Rao for giving me the opportunity of studying this material. Dr. H. Santapau had kindly provided the Latin translation of the diagnostic characters. My thanks are also due to the Directors of the Komarov Botanical Institute, Leningrad, U. S. S. R., and Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, U. K., for facilities of working in their herbaria. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta - 16, October 28, 1970. S. K. JAIN 300 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1) 21. A NEW GRASS FROM INDIA, ARTHRAXON JUNNARENSIS SP. NOV. (With a plate) Arthraxon junnarensis sp. nov. Affinis A. quartiniano (A. Rich.) Nash; ab eedem tamen differt spiculis multo brevioribus (1*5-2 mm. longis), et gluma inferiore leviter muriculata et nervosa. Holotype: K. Hemadri 106849 A/I, 6-10-1965, Warsubai plateau, 16 km. west of Junnar, Poona district (CAL). i Arthraxon junnarensis sp. nov. Weak annual grass up to about 20 cm. long; stem capillary, ascend- ing and rooting at lower nodes; nodes hairy at length glabrous; leaf - sheath 0-5-1-75 cm. long, striate, clothed by tubercle-based hairs; ligule hyaline, about 0-7 mm. long, lacerated; leaf-blade 1-2-5x0-5-0-75 cm., ovate or ovate-lanceolate, both surfaces and margins with tubercle- based hairs. 1 Inflorescence a short panicle borne on long (up to 3 cm. long) glabrous peduncle; spikes 5-12 in number, 1-1-75 cm. long; rachis- joint 1-25-1-8 mm. long, linear, lower joints glabrous, upper ones with long white hairs; spikelets solitary, sessile, hermaphrodite, 1-5- 2x0-5 mm.; callus minute, of the lower spikelets glabrous and of the upper ones shortly hairy; lower glume 1-2-1-8 mm. long, laterally com- pressed, ovate-lanceolate and acute when spread open, 0 75-0-9 mm. broad, 5-nerved, short bristled to spinulose in the upper half; upper glume more or less as long as the lower glume, boat-shaped, almost laterally compressed, entire or minutely apicuiate at apex, keel some- what thick and short, bristly to spinulose particularly in the upper half; lower lemma minute and hyaline; or absent; upper lemma about 1 mm. long, hyaline; boat-shaped with acuminate, entire or shortly bifid apex and an awn arising from the mid-rib at its base; awn 4-5 mm. long, geniculate, the lower portion smooth and the upper minutely scabrid; J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (1) Jain & Hemadri : Arthraxon junnarensis Arthraxon junnarensis sp. nov. a. a part of leafsheath, and blade showing ligule ; b. a part of inflorescence ; c. one joint bearing single spikelet ; d. lower glume (ventral view) ; e. upper glume (ventral view) ; f. Upper lemma with its awn ; g. stamens ; h. gynoecium ; i. a more mature ovary. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 301 stamen 2, yellow O3-0-5 mm. long, ovary minute; style 2; stigma plumose; grain linear, cylindrical about 1-2 mm. long. Holotype: K. Hemadri 106849 A/I, 6-10-1965, Warsubai plateau, 16 km. west of Junnar, Poona district (Maharashtra State), ‘Small grass, stem weak and rooting at lower nodes. Spikes light green; spikeleis solitary and sessile. Rare, growing in the shade of Euphorbia neriifolia Linn, bushes, on the undulating open plateau’. Isotypes 106849 A/II and A/ III mounted on same sheet, deposited in Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, (CAL). Isotypes K. Hemadri 106849 B-C are deposited in BS1 ; D in K; E in L; F in MO and G in LE. Also de- posited. Paratypes S. D. Mahajan 27170 A-B, 12-10-1957, Wilson Point Road, Mahabaleshwar, Satara District (Maharashtra State) in BSE Arihraxon junnarensis closely resembles A. quartinianus (A. Rich.) Nash in absence of the pedicelled spikelet and pedicel; in shape of sessile spikelets and in size of anthers; but differs in following characters : — A. quartinianus (A. Rich.) Nash A. junnarensis Jain et Hemadri 1. Plant comparatively robust and tall, Plant very weak, capillary, not exceeding reaching up to 75 cm. 25 cm. long. 2. Spikelets 3-4 mm. long. Spikelets L5-2 mm. long. 3. Nerves of the lower glume quite dis- tinct, scabrid, often muriculate Nerves rather faint, scabrid, not so muri- culate, scabrid also between nerves. 4. Lower lemma well developed, 1*75- Lower lemma minute or absent. 2’5 mm. long. Distribution: The species, though located for the present from the Western ghats along Junnar and Mahabaleshwar, is likely to grow along the entire ghat belt extending to Mysore State which, however, needs further study and confirmation. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Director, Botanical Survey of India, for facilities and to Dr. Rolla Seshagiri Rao, Regional Botanist, Botanical Survey of India, Western Circle, Poona, for many useful suggestions. Dr. H. Santapau had kindly provided the Latin translation of the diagnostic characters. Botanical Survey of India, S. K. JAIN Calcutta - 14. Botanical Survey of India, Poona - 1, October 6, 1970. KOPPULA HEMADRI 302 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (1) 22. THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF THE GENUS PONGAMIA VENT. (PAPILIONACEAE) The genus Pongamia Vent, has been treated as a distinct genus from Derris Lour, mainly on the characters, wingless woody pod in the former and winged thin pod in the latter. Derris Loureiro (1790) is conserved against its earlier names Salken Adans. (Fam. 2:322, 600, 1763), Soiori Adans. (1. c. 327, 606) and Deguelia Aublet (PI. Guiane 750. 1775). Pongamia Vent. (lard. Malm. t. 28. 1803) is conserved against its earlier names Pongam Adans. (1. c. 322, 593), Galedupa Lamarck (1788-89), and Pungamia Lamarck (1796). Other synonyms are given by Hutchinson (1964) in his Genera of Flowering Plants- Bentham and Hooker treated these two genera under the subtribe Lonchocarpeoe of the tribe Dalbergieae. Hutchinson raised this sub- tribe to the rank of a tribe. De Candolle (1825) and Roxburgh (1832) have recognised 5 species under Pongamia, but Roxburgh adopted the name Gakdupa. Some more species have been added by few other botanists. Out of the 5 species recognised under Pongamia by De Candolle and Roxburgh some species were with well developed wings on the sutures of the pod. Then except the typical species with wing- less fruit, Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre, all other species have been transferred to other genera, Derris and Millelia, and Bentham (1860), Bentham and Hooker (1865), Taubert (1891) and Hutchinson restricted the circumscription of the genus to the only species. Regarding the generic status of Pongamia , — eventhough the dis- tinctive characters, which were used to keep it as a distinct genus from Derris , were good at the time when these two genera were described, the addition of more and more species to the latter genus made its circumscription to expand in such a way to make clear that the above characters no longer hold good enough to maintain the former as a distinct genus. This will be evident from the facts that the specimens represented in Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, show, wings well developed almost equally on both sutures in Derris marginata (Roxb.) Benth., distinct on upper suture and obscure or minute on lower suture in D. ferruginea (Roxb.) Benth., D. heymana Benth. and D . monticola (Kurz) Prain, narrow or obscure on both sutures in D. microptera Benth. and D. benthamii (Thw.) Thw., distinct only on the upper suture in D. robusta (DC) Benth. and D. pseudorobusta Thoth., or faintly only on the upper suture in D. sinuata Thw. Also in some sheets of D. microptera, in some pods the wings could be hardly seen. Added to that, the pods of Derris cuneifolia f. assamica Thothathri MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 303 (1962) are almost similar to Pongamia in being woody and 1 -seeded, but having distinct to very obscure wing. Prain (1897) raised the variety malaccensis described by Bentham (1860) under Derris cuneifolia to specific rank and described two variet- ies aptera and milbetioides , Prain tentatively placed his new variet- ies under D. malaccensis and while dealing with the systematic position of them states (p. 108) ‘The pods of var.? aptera are however obviously those of a Pongamia rather than those of a Derris , if Pongamia be really entitled to a separate generic position which the writer hardly believes.’ Since the distinctive characters used so far, to distinguish Pongamia as a distinct genus no longer hold good, which is obvious from the above observations and Prain’s remark, and the studies so far done did not reveal any other character to maintain it as a distinct genus, here Pongamia is reduced as a section under Derris. derris sect, pongam (Adans.) Bennet stat. nov. Pongam Adans,, Fam. 322, 593. 1763. Derris iiulica (Lamk.) Bennet comb, nov. Galedupa indica Lamk. Ency. 2:594. 1788-89. Cytisus pinnatus Linn. Sp. PI. 1:741. 1753 (non Derris pinnata Lour. 1790). Robinia mitis Linn. Sp. PI. 2:1044. 1763, (nom. illegit.) Pongamia glabra Vent. Jard. Malm. t. 28. 1803. P. pinnata (Linn.) Pierre, FI. Cochinch, sub. t. 385. 1899; Thothathri in Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. 3:418. 1962. Derris indica var. xerocarpa (Prain) Bennet comb. nov. Pongamia glabra Vent. var. xerocarpa Prain in J. AS. Soc. Bengal 66:95. 1897. P. pinnata var. xerocarpa (Prain) Thothathri /. c. 83. Botanical Survey of India, S. S. R. BENNET1 76, Lower Circular Road, Calcutta - 14, April 28, 1969. 1 Present Address : — Research Officer, Systematic Botany, Forest Research Institute, New Forest P.O., Dehra Dun. (U.P). 304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (I) REFERENCES Bentham, G. (1860) : Synopsis of Dal- bergieae, J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 4 : Suppl. 1-134. , & Hooker, J. D. (1865) : Genera Plantarum 1 : 454, 549-50. De Candolle, A. P. (1825). : Prod- romus 2 : 415-416. Hutchinson, J. (1964) : The Genera of Flowering Plants 1 : 383-384. Lamarck, J.B.A.P.M. (1788-89) : En- cyclopedic Meihodique Botanique 2 :594. (1796) : Tableau Encyclope- dique 2 : t. 603. Loureiro, J. D. (1790) : Flora Cochin- chinensis 432. Prain, D. (1897) : King’s Materials for the Flora of the Malayan Peninsula. J. As. Soc. Bengal 66 : 94-108. Roxburgh, W. (1832) : Flora Indica ed. 2 : 239-243. Taubert (1891) : in Engl. & Prant. Pflanzenfamilien 3(2) : 344-345. Thothathri, K. (1962) : A Taxonomic revision of the genus Derris Lour, in India. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 3 : 175-200. Notes and News Salim Ali-Loke Ornithological Research Fund A very generous donation of £5,000 was received from the Cheng Kim Loke Foundation through the kindness of Lady Peng McNeice, Dato Loke Wan Tho’s sister and one of the Trustees of the Foundation. With this donation the Corpus of the Fund has passed the total which permits the Fund to become operative. Awards Royal Zoological Society, Antwerp, Gold Medal For his contributions in ornithology, ecology and international conservation, Professor S. Dillon Ripley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, received the seldom-given Gold Medal of the Royal Zoo- logical Society of Antwerp, Belgium on September 1, 1970. Sunder Lai Hora Gold Medal The Sunder Lai Hora Gold Medal of the National Academy of Sciences, India, was awarded to Dr. Salim Ali for his contributions to the study of Indian Ornithology. Padma Shri The President of the Republic of India has been pleased to award Padma Shri to Mr. Zafar Futehally, for his services to the Conserva- tion of Indian Wildlife. Announcement GRANTS FOR BIRD STUDY The Bombay Natural History Society has instituted a fund known as the Salim Ali-Loke Ornithological Research Fond for fostering field research on Indian birds. Small grants are available, either ad hoc or tenable for a specified period, to students of zoology and serious amateur bird watchers who wish to investigate a specific problem of bird ecology. The main object is to encourage and foster among all classes an intelligent interest in the living bird in its natural habitat. Preference will be given to young people whether post-graduate or not. Details of the problem, and the ways in which it is proposed to study it, should be submitted with the application, together with evidence of the candidate’s competence and an indication of the financial assistance required, to the Honorary Secretary, Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, Bombay 1-BR. Field Work Grant The Society is in a position to financially assist individual projects in field work in Vertebrate Zoology, including collecting, and would be glad to consider applications for specific proposals. Apply in detail to the Honorary Secretary. PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY C. E. ROSITY AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 10 CHURCH ROAD, VEFERY, MADRAS — 15-9-1971. C2722 EDITORS: ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, J. C. DANIEL & P. V. BOLE THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS Mammals The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. 3rd (revised) edition. 28 plates in colour by Paul Barruel and many other monochrome illustrations. Rs. 30 ( Price to members Rs. 25) Birds ^ The Book of Indian Birds, by Sdlim Ali. 8th (revised) edition. 66 coloured and many monochrome plates. Rs. 25 (Price to members Rs. 20) Snakes Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi. Rs. 16 (Price to members Rs. 8) Miscellaneous Picture Postcards of 12 representative Indian Birds (In colour) per set Rs. 2*50 Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets : 1. Our Birds I (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Marathi, Rs. 0*80 Kannada. Rs. 0*62 2. Our Birds II (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi. Rs. 0*62 3. Our Beautiful Trees (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi and Marathi. Rs. 0*62 4. 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Members residing outside India should pay their subscription by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the amount of the subscription to the Society in Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum of /3*00 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers — The National & Grindlays Bank Ltd., 23 Fenchurch Street, London E.C. 3. The subscription of members elected in October, November, and December covers the period from the date of their election to the end of the following year. CONTENTS A note on Pteropus (Chiroptera : Pteropidae) from the Andaman Islands. By J. E. Hill Foraminifera of the Gulf of Cambay. By K. Kameswara Rao. . Maturation and Spawning of Bregmaceros mcClellandi (Thompson). By Arun Parulekar and D. V. Bal Orchids of Nepal — 4. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa Food-Habits of water-birds of the Sundarban, 24-Parganas District, West Bengal, India— II. By Ajit Kumar Mukherjee A Review of the Recovery Data obtained by the Bombay Natural History Society’s Bird Migration Study Project. By D. N. Mathew Eco-Toxicology and Control of Indian Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon). By Ishwar Prakash, G. C. Taneja and K. G. Purohit The Thalassinoidea (Crustacea, Anomura) of Maharashtra. By K. N. Sankolli Random Notes on Birds of Kerala. By M. C. A. Jackson Studies on the freshwater and amphibious Mollusca of Poona with notes on their distribution — Part II. By G. T. Tonapi A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History Society— 8. By Humayun Abdulali The nesting of Pareumenes brevirostratus (Saussure), involving a primitive form of co-operation. By S. D. Jayakar and H. Spurway Triops granarius (Lucas) (Crustacea : Branchiopoda) from Tamil Nadu, and a Review of the Species from India. By P. J. Sanjeeva Raj Pteridophytic Flora of Kodaikanal. By S. S. Bir and Surinder Mohan Vasudeva Some Aspects of Bio-Ecology of Podagrica orbiculata (Motsch.). (Coleop- tera : Chrysomelidae) as a pest of Abelmoschus esculentus at Sehore (M.P.). By R. R. Rawat and R. K. Singh Asymmetry in Palm Leaves. By T. A. Davis, S. S. Ghosh and A. Mitra Reviews . . . . . * Miscellaneous Notes Notes and News Announcement 1 9 20 29 37 65 86 94 107 115 127 153 161 169 196 204 232 241 305 306 Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society Vol. 68, No. 2 Editors ZAFAR FUTEHAJLLY, J. C DANIEL & P. V. BOLE AUGUST 1971 Rs. 18 (Inland), Sli. 30 (Foreign) NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the editors by observing the following instructions : 1 . Papers which have at the same time been offered for publication to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published elsewhere, should not be submitted. 2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered. 3. 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References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman type), thus : Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(2): 243-268. Prater, S. H. (1948): The book of Indian Animals, Bombay. Titles of papers should not be underlined. 8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958). 9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words. 10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing. Editors, Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural Shahid Bhagat History Society. Singh Road, Bombay 1-BR. VOLUME m. No, 2— AUGUST 1971 Date of Publication : 29-11*1971 CONTENTS An assessment of annual damage to Crops by Elephants in Palamau District, Bihar. By X Mishra. ( With a plate) ... .... ... 307 Cassias commonly occurring or Cultivated in India. By YashcKfanandan Pandey. (With Thirty-eight figures in two plates) ... 311 Studies on the Life History of a predatory Pentatomid Bug Andrallm spimdens (Fabr.). By M. K. Rajendra and R. C. Patel ( With seven figures in a plate and a text-figure) ... ... ... ... — 319 A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History Society — 9. By Humayun Abdulali ... ... ... ... . . . 32$ Additions to Duthif/s Flora of the Upper Gangetic Plain. By V. Singh. . 339 A note on toe status of the Nilgiri Ta.hr (Bemitragus hylocrius) on the Grass Hills :in the Anamallais. By E. R. C. Davidar. {With a sketch map ) .... .... ... ... ... ... 347 Dominance, of Mollusca in the Benthic Population off Cochin, By B. N. Desai, ( With a map ami a text-figure ) ... . . . 353 Some additions to our knowledge of the Plants of Ramtek (Maharashtra). By K. M. Balapure * 363 Motes on a collection of small Mammals from Western Ghats, with remarks on the status of Rattus rufescens (Gray) and Bandicota indica malaharica (Shaw). By 1C K. Tiwari, R. K. Ghose and S. Cfaakraborty, {With a map) .... .... .... Narcondam Island and notes on some birds from the Andaman Islands. * By Humayun Abdulali. {With a plate mid a text-figure ) /First Report of the Yale-Bombay Natural History Society Studies of Wild Ungulates at the Gir Forest, Gujarat, India. By S. H. Berwick and P„ A. Jordan ... The Pigmy Hog, Sus salvanws (Hodgson) in Northern Assam. By Jeremy I. C. Mallinson. {With a plate) ... ... ... ... Reviews : 1. Fishes. (C. V. K.) ... ... ... ... 2. An introduction to Plant Taxonomy, (P.V.B.) 3. Kalidas ke pakshi. (Joseph George) 4. Pollen grains of Western Himalayan Plants. (P.V.B.) ... 5. The Marvellous Animals. (R.R.) 6. Saline irrigation for agriculture and forestry. (P.V.B.) ... 7. Ecological adaptations for breeding in Birds, (R. M, Naik) 8. Flowers of Europe. (H.S. Sc P.V.B.) 37$ 385 412 424 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 Miscellaneous Notes: Mammals: 1, A note on the Hispid Hare {C a pro lag us hispidus (Pearson, 1839). ( With a photo). By Jeremy J, C. Mallinson (p. 443) ; 2. Reaction of Chital [Axis axis (Erxleben)] to Jungle Cat fells chaus Guldenstaedt. By R. K. Bhatnagar (p. 444) ; 3. A foursome of Barking Deer, Muntiacus muntjak (Zimm.) By G. U. Kurup (p. 445) ; 4. Age of sexual maturity of three species of Wild Animals in captivity. By L. N. Achaijyo and R. Misra (p. 446): 5. New records of Rodents from the Rajasthan Desert, By Ishwar Prakash, A. P. Jain and B D, Rana (p. 447). Birds: 6. Occurrence of Eastern Ringed Plover ( Charadrius hiaticuia mndrae Low e) in Tamil Nadu. By Humayun Abdulali and S. A. Hussain (p. 450) ; 7. A second record of the Migratory Jungle Nightjar ( Caprimulgus indicus jotaka Temm. & Schl.) in Indian limits. By Humayun Abdulali and S. A. Hussain (p. 451); 8. Extension of the breeding range of Sykes’s Nightjar ( Caprimulgus mahrattensis Sykes) in Indian limits. By Humayun Abdulali and S. A. Hussain (p. 452) ; 9. Occurrence of the Long- eared Owl [Asio otus otus (Linnaeus)] in North Burma. By Humayun Abdulali and S. A. Hussain (p. 452); 10. House Crow, Corvus splendens Vieillot and Baya’s, Ploceus philippinus (Linn.) nest. ( With two text-figures). By K. S. R. Krishna Raju (p .453); 11. Little Spiderhunter, Arachnothera longirostris (Latham) in the Eastern Ghats. By K. S. R. Krishna Raju and Justus P. Selvin (p. 454); 12. Notes on some interesting birds from the Salt Lakes, near Calcutta. {With two plates). By S. S. Saha, P. V. George, D. K. Ghosal, H. P. Mookerjee, A. K. Poddar, R. K. Ghose, P. K. Das, V. G. Gogate and Biswamoy Biswas (p. 455) ; 1 3. Some interesting bird records from Point Calimere. By K. S. R. Krishna Raju and P. B. Shekar (p. 457); 14. New records of birds from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. By P, K. Das (p. 459). Reptiles: 15. Notes on Indian Snakes— 1. {With two plates). By Romulus Whitaker (p. 461); 16. A Snake-Frog incident. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 463). Fishes: 17. An Abnormal specimen of Brachirus orientals (Schn.) from Puli- cat Lake. By M. Kaliyamurthy (p. 463); 18. On two abnormal sharks from Gujarat. ( With a text-figure). By U. K. Gopalan (p. 465); 19. Notes on the Biometric features of Nemipterus japonicus (Bloch). ( With two text-figures). By R. Alfred Selvakumar (p. 467) ; 20. A note on the Taxonomy of a species of Tachysurus LacepMe (Pisces : Tachysuridae). ( With a text-figure). By P. K. Talwar (p. 473). Insects: 21. Some new food plants of Drosicha mangiferae (Green) in Madhya Pradesh, (Homoptera : Margarodidae). By D. K. Saxena (p. 476). 22. Some observ- ations during Oviposition in the Lemon Butterfly, Papilio demoleus L. By Vidyadhar G. Vaidya (p. 477) ; 23. Cannibalism in the Epilachna Beetle, Henosepilachna sparsa Herbst. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). By V. I. Edona and A. B. Soans (p. 479); 24. A convenient method of collecting the Larvae of Tiger Beetles (Order Coleoptera, Family Cicindelidae) in the field. By A. B. Sodns and J. S. Soans (p. 479); 25. Contri- butions to the study of aquatic beetles (Coleoptera) : 8. A new subgenus of Clypeodytes Regimbart (Dytiscidae). By T. G. Vazirani (p. 481) ; 26. The role of Visual and olfactory factors in the prey-hunting behaviour of Pompilid Wasps (Hymenoptera : Pompilidae). By A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 482) ; 27. Absence of Colony-specific Pheromones in the Ant, Technomyrmex albipes Smith (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). By A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 483) ; 28. A note on Apanteles paludicolae Cameron (Braco- ridae: Hymenoptera) a parasite of Exelastis atomosa W. By B. V. Deshpande and S. C. Odak (p. 484). Acarina: 29. Localized mass breeding of Haemaphysalis bispinosa Neumann, 1897 (Acarina, Ixodidae) in Kyasanur Forest disease area, Shimoga District, Mysore State, India. {With two plates). By H. R. Bhat (p. 485). Trematodei : 30. Occurrence of the digenitic Trematode Astrorchis renicapite (Leidy) (Family: Pronocephalidea) in the Leathery Turtle Dermochelys coriacea (Linne) from the Indian Ocean. ( With a text-figure). By R. S. Lai Mohan (p. 489). Botany: 31. A coral tree from Nepal. By Dibya Deo Bhatt (p. 490); 32. On the occurrence of Amaranthus lividus Linn. ssp. polygonoides (Moq.) Probst. and Fimbri - stylis atboviridis Clarke in W. Bengal. By S. S. R. Bennet (p. 491) ; 33 Notes on Spergula fallax (Lowe) E. H. L. Krause and S. vernalis Willd. ( With a text-figure). By R. P. Bhatt (p. 492); 34. Panicum elegantissimum Hook. f. from India. ( With a plate). By Deb Kumar Banerjee (p. 494) ; 35. Notes on the distribution of Sesamum mulayanam Nair in Maharashtra. By A. R. Kulkarni (p. 495) ; 36. Record of Gnetum ula Brogn. from Central India. By H. O. Saxena. (p. 496); 37. A new variety of Selinum vaginatum (Edgw.) Cl. (Apiaceae) from N. W. Himalaya. By C. R. Babu and S. Chandra (p. 497); 38. A note on the occurrence of Phallus hadrianii Vent, ex Pers. in India. {With a photo). By T. N. Kaul and J. L. Kachroo (p. 498); 39. Studies on Stigonemataceae. ( With two text-figures). By A. Subramaniam (p. 500) ; 40. A Parasite ( Viscum orientate) on another {Dendrophthoe falcata). By H. O. Saxena (p. 502). JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1971 AUGUST Vol. 68 No. 2 An assessment of annual damage to Crops by Elephants in Palamau District, Bihar BY J. Mishra Deputy Conservator of Forests , Bihar ( With a plate ) Introduction It is generally thought that elephants have occurred in Palamau forests from time immemorial. However, D. H. Sunder’s survey settle- ment report of the district of Palamau (1896), though it records even the smallest member of the wildlife, does not include elephants and apparently there were none. Elephants migrated to this area sometime in early 1920. Why and where they came from is being investigated. At the time of this report (1970) the number of elephants in Palamau does not exceed sixty. Every year, since 1950, there has been great publicity on damage to agricultural crops by elephants. Formerly the damage was confined to the thinly populated Garu Range, and was negligible. Slowly in later years the damage spread to Latehar and Barwadih areas. Villages near Betla were the worst affected, for the elephants stayed in Bella from the beginning of the rainy season till the advent of summer. Prior to 1950, elephants had never visited Betla area in the memory of the oldest resident. From 1950 onwards, elephants numbering two to a dozen were recorded to have visited Betla forests. From the year 1965 more elephants started visiting Bella — the maximum number now going up to 45. Another departure that has been noticed in the behaviour of elephants for the 308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (2) last three years (beginning from the year 1968) is their regular visits to Chainpur area, after crossing the River Koel. The reasons for the extension of range have not been investigated. In their movement from one area to another they visit the fields along their way and the crops are heavily damaged by them. Though it was known that there was yearly damage to crops by elephants, the quantum of damage remained unknown till this study was undertaken in the year 1969. I set myself to this work with the help of a handful of staff in the National Park and the credit is theirs in taking all pains to make this study a success. Methods To collect day-to-day statistics of the quantum of damage done to crops by elephants, all forest guards were instructed to find out if there had been any damage to crops by wild elephants in their sub-beats. Any damage was recorded the same day in the following proforma. Name of Village. .............................. .Range Name of villagers Damage in Quintals Date whose crops had been damaged Area Destroyed Trampled Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 Value of damaged Number of elephants Hours of stay Remarks crops visiting the area of elephants 1 8 9 10 The forest guard’s report was checked by the Beat Officer who visited the site and if satisfied made an entry in the register kept in the Range Office for this purpose. This scheme worked well and we received reliable statistics of yearly damage to agricultural crops by elephants at Garu, Lat and Barwadih thanas. For Latehar and Chainpur thanas, the data were collected by a single forest guard deputed for this purpose, as both these areas fell outside my jurisdiction. Results The study started with the rainy season of the year 1969 when elephants began entering maize fields. From August up to April of the J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (2) Mishra: Elephants H; mmk. Elephant herd in the Palamau Forest. ( Photos: Author ) ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGE BY ELEPHANTS 3 m following year, the damage was recorded and therefore the data examined in the present paper covers the period August 1969 to April 1970. The Range-wise abstract of damage to crops in Palamau District is given in the following table. SI. No. Range Produce in Quintals Rate j Total Grand Total 1 Gam Range . . Paddy (good quality) 16.60 50.00 830 Paddy Gora 6.00 37.50 225 Maize 17.40 50.00 870 Sawa 3.20 25.00 80 2,005.00 2 Lat Range Paddy (very good quality) . . 1.60 75.00 120 Paddy Gora 11.20 37.50 420 Maize 16.50 50.00 825 1 364 no JL PUJ.W 3 Chhipadofaar , , Paddy (good quality) 332.60 50.00 16,630 Sugarcane. . 2.40 20.00 48 Gaudli 2.00 | 40.00 80 Mama 4.00 50.00 200 i Jinor 12.12 40.00 485 17,443.00 4 Manika Range. . Paddy (good quality) 80.00 50.00 4,000 Mama 2.00 50.00 100 j 4,100.00 5 Chainpur Range . . Paddy 280.00 50.00 14,000 Mama 12.00 50.00 600 j Jinor 10.00 40.00 ; 400 15,000.00 39,913.00 or say Rs. 40,000 The total yearly damage to agricultural crops by elephants in Palamau works out to approximately Rs. 40,000. Recommendations There is no complete remedy for the damage to crops by elephants, but some suggestions are made: 1. Scaring off elephants: The conventional methods of lighting torches, beating of drums and exploding crackers and providing spotlights and batteries to villagers have been adopted. So far we have concentrated our efforts in Bella areas where we provide the villagers with kerosine 310 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, 1 SOCIETY, , Vol m (2) oil for lighting 4 Masals,* give them torches, and have allotted two 12-volt batteries and two spotlights together with two National Park Guards to help them to organise the searing of elephants. The growing discontent of the villagers necessitated that this be done on a larger scale to cover most of the villages surrounding the National Park. A scheme costing nearly Rs. 5,000 is under preparation for meeting the annual demand. 2. Elephant trench : Our experiments in Betla with the digging of elephant-proof trenches (7'x5'x4') have been very successful. So far, elephants have not been able to cross them. Such trenches cost nearly Rs. 7,000 per mile. The trenches must be extended to all sides of Betla National Park. This will create confidence in the villagers residing round the Park. 3. Compensation to villagers: It is difficult to talk of wildlife protection to villagers when their crops, almost on the eve of harvesting, are destroyed by the elephants. They must be compensated in terms of money. When Government can come to the rescue of villagers affected by flood or fire, there seems no justification why people should not be compensated when their crops are damaged or destroyed by elephants which are Government property. The statistics of damage should be prepared and the payment of compensation made. At least 50% of the value of the damaged crops should be paid as compensation and the rent for the damaged field waived. Until such steps are taken there seems to be no future for the elephants in Palamau District. Cassias commonly occurring or Cultivated in India BY Yashodanandan Pandey National Botanic Gardens , Lucknow (With 38 figures in two plates) Introduction The genus Cassia is known for its ornamentals economic and medi- cinal value. There are 500-600 spp. of Cassia occurring in the tropical and warm temperate regions of the world (Willis 1966). They are trees* shrubs or herbs. Bentham (1869) has given a comprehensive account of the genus containing 338 species. In India* Hooker et ah (1879) have reported 18 spp. of Cassia . Taxonomic description of spp. is given in regional floras by Duthie (1903), Cook (1903)* Haines (1922)* Gamble (1915), Maheshwari (1963) and others. Ornamental species by Blatter et ah (1937), Randhawa (1965) and others. Economical and medicinal species by Watts (1889), Gamble (1902) and Chopra et ah (1956). An artificial key based on broad morphological characters has been prepared and a description of the important species commonly found wild or cultivated in India is presented along with few illustrations. Artificial key to the species of Cassia Linn. A. Trees: B. Pod dehiscent C. siamea BB. Pod indehiscent C. FIs. in lax pendulous racemes, very large CC. FIs. in corymbose racemes : C. fistula D. Bract at the base of flower stalk absent. Young leaflets finely hairy and with coppery tinge. FIs. rose coloured C . grandis DB, Bracts conspicuous at the base of flower stalk, persisting till the fls. open : E. Fls. yellow . . EE. FIs. not yellow : F. Fls. pink : G. Leaflets 6-14 pairs: C. multijuga H. Leaflets pointed at the apex, smooth C. nodosa 312 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (2) HH. Leaflets rounded at the apex, hairy below C. javamca GG. Leaflets 8-20 pairs C. renigera FF. FIs. terracotta-red C. roxburghn SbrobSj, nmdersbntbs or herbs (C. giauca sometimes a. small tree): B. Sepals spathulate obtuse; rachis without glands C alaia BB. Sepals broad, obtuse : C. Rachis without glands between the leaflets D. Leaflets lanceolate, acute; pods slightly curved, not crested C. angustifolia DD. Leaflets oblong, obtuse; pods much curved, crested, on the valves opposite the seeds C. obtusa CC Rachis usually with several glands between the leaflets : D. Large shrubs ; stipules falcate, narrowly lanceolate, caducous C. giauca DD. Large shrubs ; stipules large, semicordate, persistent . . C. auriculata ODD. Herbs or undershrubs ; leaflets 3 pairs ; glands 1-2 only C. torn ccc. Rachis with a single gland at the base : D. Leaflets 3-5 pairs, more or less ovate. . C. occidentals DD. Leaflets 4-8 pairs, not at all ovate C. sophera BBS. Sepals narrow, acute : a Leaflets moderate sized, 2 pairs . . C. absus cc. Leaflets small and many : D. Petiole with a small sessile gland. . C. mimosoides DD. Petiole with a long stipitate gland C. pumila Description of Species Cassia siamea Lamk. (Figs. 1-9) A medium-sized to large tree.. Bark grey. Leaflets 6-12, oblong. Flowers in corymbose racemes clustered at the end of branches, yellow. Pods slightly curved at the posterior end, flat, dehiscent, 20-35 cm. long, 1-3 cm. broad with thickened sutures. FIs. April-July and October-December. Country of origin: Ceylon and Siam. The wood of the plant is hard, and highly valued, though seldom obtained in large size. Walking sticks and mallets are made from the wood. Pods and leaves are used in medicine. Cultivated. Plants can be raised through seeds sown, a couple of months before the rains and seedlings transplanted in pits when they a rp 3 to 4 months old during rains. CASSIAS OCCURRING IN INDIA 313 Cassia fistula L. Popularly known as the Indian Laburnum and in vernacular as Amalias. A medium-sized tree frequently planted in garden compounds and road sides.. The tree is a mass of bright yellow flowers in summer. It has thick greenish grey bark ; leaflets large, 4-8 pairs, gla- brous, ovate, 8-16 x 6 cm. Bright yellow flowers occur in long, droop- ing racemes. Pods cylindrical, dark, brown or black when ripe, 25-65 cm. long, 2-3 cm. in diameter, with many transverse septa. The flat seeds are embedded in sweetish pulp. FIs. April- July. Country of origin : India, The wood of the plant is very durable, it makes excellent posts and is good for carts and other agricultural implements. The plant also yields valuable tanning material. The stem exudes gum used in industry. Root bark, leaves and seeds are used as laxative. Fruit applied in rheumatic pain and snake bite. - Leaves and fruit pulp contain anthra- quinone derivatives. Wild as well as cultivated. The plants are raised through seeds sown in March- April Transplanting can be done in rains when plants are 3-4 months old. Cassia grandis L. A medium-sized tree, popularly known as Horse Cassia. It has deep green foliage. The terminal leaflets have distinctive coppery tinge. Leaflets hairy to touch, 10-20 pairs, oblong, abruptly rounded at both ends. Flowers in axil of leaves in corymbose racemes, rose coloured. Pods 7.5-10 cm. in length, compressed, smooth, cylin- drical and transversely wrinkled. FIs. February -April. Country of origin : Tropical America. Wood is used for making small agricultural implements. Bitter fruit pulp is used as a purgative. Cultivated. Plants can be raised through seeds. Cassia xnultijuga Richard. A medium-sized tree. Leaflets 20-25 pairs, oblong, elliptic. Flowers bright yellow. FIs. February-September. Country of origin: South America. Leaves are known to be used as substitute for senna. Cultivated. Plants can be raised through seeds. Cassia nodosa Bueh.-Ham. A medium-sized evergreen tree. Bark reddish brown or ash coloured. Leaflets 6-14 pairs, oblong, pointed at the apex, smooth. Flowers in racemes, showy, pink, fading to dull white. Pods cylindrical, 30-45 cm. long. FIs. May- June. Country of origin: Burma., India and Malaya. 314 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (2) Cultivated. Plants can be raised through seeds. Cassia javanica L. A medium-sized tree, popularly known as Java Cassia. Leaflets 6-14 pairs, 2.5-5 cm. long, 1-2.5 cm. broad, short stalked, oblong, ovate, rounded at the tips, hairy below. Flowers pink, fading to white. Sepals red. Stamens 10, three with swelling. FIs. May- July. Country of origin: Java, Cultivated. Plants can be raised through seeds. It is reported that H. V. Kemball introduced the plants in Bombay around 1910. Cassia renigera Wall. A medium-sized tree, popularly known as Burmese Pink Cassia. Leaflets 8-20 pairs, pointed at the apex, glossy and kidney-shaped, deciduous; stipules present at the leaf base. Flowers large, pinkish fading to rose white, borne on racemes in leafless branches. Sepals red. Pods smooth, 30-60 cm, long, similar to those of Indian Laburnum. FIs. April-June. Country of origin: Burma. Wood is very hard and well suited for wheel making and handles for tools. Cultivated. Plants can be raised through seeds. In Bombay the plant is reported to have been introduced by R. A. Forbes Sempill around 1902. Cassia roxbiirghii DC. (Syn. Cassia marginata Roxb.). A small tree, popularly known as the Red Cassia. Leaflets 10-20 pairs, leathery above and blunt at the tips. Flowers in small clusters growing from axil of leaves on young twigs. Petals terracotta-red with fine green veins. All stamens bear anthers. The uppermost are the longest, and have no swell- ing in the middle. Base of flower stalk contains pale green bracts. Pods cylindrical, 20-30 cm. long, with transverse partitions. FIs. May- June. Country of origin: Ceylon and India. Heartwood is light brown and very hard. The wood is well adapted for turning naves of wheels and handles of tools are made of it. Cultivated. Can be raised through seeds. It is reported the plant was introduced into Calcutta in 1802. H. P. Dimmock originally planted them in Bombay. Cassia alata L. Known in vernacular as Dadmurdan . A medium- sized shrub, with very thick finely downy branches, mostly cultivated, though uncommonly found wild. Rachis without glands. Leaflets oblong, large. Flowers large, yellow. Sepals spathulate, obtuse. Pods 10-20 cm. long furnished with a wing down the middle of each valve. Seeds 50 or more. FIs. October-December. Country of origin : West Indies. CASSIAS OCCURRING IN INDIA 313 Leaves are used in ringworm and snake bite. Decoction of leaves and flowers used internally in bronchitis, asthma and for washing eczematous patches. The plant is poisonous to. livestock and fish. Plants contain ehrysophanic acid. Mostly cultivated. The plant is uncommonly found wild as a weed in neglected fields and open scrub jungle; it can be raised through seeds. Cassia angustifolia Vahl. Popularly known as Tennevelly Senna and in vernacular as Hindisana. Shrub with leaflets 5-8 pairs, narrow, lanceo- late, acute tapering from the middle towards the apex, glabrous or fur- nished with a scant pubescence. Racemes long with large yellow flowers. Sepals broad and obtuse. Pods flat 3 . 8-6.3 cm. long, 1 . 5-1 .7 cm. broad, slightly curved. Seeds 6-12. FIs. November- March. Country of origin: Somaliland and Arabia. The leaves of the plant yield 44 Senna Drag Leaves and fruits are used as laxative, and purgative. The leaves contain Kaxnpferin, anthra- quinone, ehrysophanic acid, isorh am net in and calcium oxalate. Cultivated usually on dry lands, sowing is either by broadcasting or dribbling. The seeds have a tough seed coat and a certain amount of abrading the surface is necessary to induce even and quick germination. Plants require bright sunshine and occasional drizzling. When leaves are fully grown, thick and bluish in colour, they are stripped off by hand. A second stripping is done after about a month and the plants allowed to bear flowers to set seeds. The wet land crop is also very successful under controlled conditions, (wealth of India 1950.) Cassia obtusa Roxb. (Syn. C. obovata L.). A diffuse herb found as weed. Leaflets oblong, obtuse. Flowers pale yellow in narrow few flowered racemes. Sepals broad, obtuse. Pods much curved, crested on the valves opposite the seeds, flexible, glabrous. Seeds 6-12 obovate. cuneate, separated by the partition, funicles long. FIs. July-October. Leaves are given in stomach ailments like indigestion and irritation. Leaves and pods contain oxymethyl-anthraquinone. The plants are found wild along road sides, and on fallow land, etc. They can be raised through seeds. Cassia glauea Lamk. (Figs. 10-17.) A large shrub (at times a small tree). Rachis usually with several glands between the leaflets. Stipules falcate, narrowly lanceolate, caducous. Leaflets ovate, acute. Flowers in axillary corymbose racemes. Anthers 10, all perfect and subequal. Pods 10-20 cm. long, flat, with 20-30 seeds. Seeds small, smooth, dark 316 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , Vol. 68 < 2 ) brown attached with filiform funicies. FIs. February- July. Country ©f origin: India. Bark and leaves are used in diabetes and gonorrhoea. Wild as well as cultivated. Seeds are sown two months before rains and seedlings transplanted during the rainy season. Cassia auricula ta L. Known in vernacular as Tarwar or Avar am. A shrub or undershrub, cultivated but often found wild, with finely downy branches. Leaflets nearly sessile; rachis grooved, pubescent, furnished with a single linear gland between the leaflets of each pair. Stipules large, leafy, semicordate, persistent. Leaflets 8-12 pairs, 1.3-2. 5 cm. long, obovate, oblong, obtuse or emarginate. Flowers in corymbose racemes, bright yellow. Pods 10-12.5 cm. long, slightly curved, obtuse, glabrous. Seeds 10-12. FIs. October-! anuary. The plant yields valuable tanning material used in leather industry ; it is suitable for clothing barren tracts and as green manure crop. Leaves are eaten as green vegetable in time of famine. Branches used as tooth sticks. Almost all parts of plant except flowers are used in the cure of skin diseases, anthelmintic, ophthalmia and conjunctivitis, in diabetes and chylous urine. The plant is commonly found as a weed in barren tracts and scrub jungle. It can be raised through seeds. The twig bark is stripped off and dried in small cornets. Plants grown on lime rich soils are richer than those grown on red loam and gravelly soils, (wealth of india 1950). Cassia tora L. (Figs. 32-38.) Known in vernacular as Chakramarda ; Dadmari or Chakunda. A herb or under-shrub. Leaflets 3 pairs, 3-5 cm. long, 1.5-2. 5 cm. broad, obovate, oblong, with a gland between the lowest pair. Flowers bright yellow, fertile stamens 7, the upper reduced to staminodes. Pods 15-25 cm. long, 4-6 mm. broad, stout, obliquely septate. FIs. August-October. Country of origin : Tropical America. Leaves are used as laxative. Leaves and seeds are also used in skin diseases like ringworm and itch. Roots used in snake bite. Plant contains emodin, glucosides and an unpleasant smelling fixed oil. The plants are found as weeds everywhere; can be raised through seeds. Cassia occidentalis L. (Figs. 26-31.) Known in vernacular as KasondL A diffuse undershrub found as weed, 60-150 cm., tall. Leaves with an J. Bombay nat. Hist, Soc, €8 (2) P&adey: Indian Cassias PLATE -I. FfG.f-17. Pigs. 1-9. Cassia siamea Lamk. 1. A twig; 2. Apical portion of leaflet showing tip and hairs on lower surface; 3. Flower; 4, Flower (corolla removed); 5, Corolla; 6 &. 7. Stamens ; 8. Pistil; 9: Seed. Figs, 10-17, Cassia gkmea Lamk, 10. A twig; 11. Flower (corolla removed); 12, Flower (caNx removed); 13. Corolla expanded; 14, Stamens; 15, Pistil; 16, Pod; 17, Seed with reside attached. J. Bombay nat. Hist, Soc, (2) Pandey : Indian Cassias PLATE-2. FIG. IQ-38. Figs. 18-25. Cassia pumila Lamk. 18. A branch; 19. A portion of leaf showing two pairs of leaflets; 20. Flower; 21. Sepal; 22. Petal; 23. Stamens; 24. Pistil; 25. Seeds. Figs. 26-31. Cassia occidentalis L. 26. A twig; 27. Flower with buds; 28. Sepals; 29. Petals; 30. Flower androecium and gynoecium shown; 31. Stamen. Figs. 32-38. Cassia tora L. 32. A twig; 33. Apical portion of leaflet showing hairs on the lower surface; 34. Flower (corolla and androecium removed); 35. Corolla; 36. Flower (calyx and corolla removed); 37. Stamens; 38. Staminode. CASSIAS OCCURRING IN INDIA 317 ovoid gland at the base of rachis. Leaflets 3-5 pairs, ovate, oblong, or oblanceolate. Flowers yellow in corymb! form axillary clusters. Fertile stamens 6-7. Pods 8-12 cm. long transversely partitioned. Seeds 15-30 pale brown. FIs. August-November. Country of origin: West Indies. Leaves, seeds and roots are used as tonic, purgative and in skin diseases. Roots are also used in snake bite. Plant contains emodin, oxy- m ethyl anthraquinones, toxalbumin. Seeds contain tannic acid, mucilage, fatty oil, emodin, atoxalbumin and chrysarobin. Common along road sides and in fallow land; can be raised through seeds. Cassia sophera L. Known in vernacular as Kasunda. A shrubby plant. Rachis with a single gland at the base. Leaflets 4-8 pairs, oblong, lanceolate, acute or tapering. Flowers yellow in corymbose racemes. Pods straight or curved transversely septate. FIs. Aug ust- December . Country of origin: S. America. Leaves are used externally in ringworm. Decoction of plant used in acute bronchitis. Plant contains emodin and chrysophanic acid. Common as weeds in unattended places; can be raised through seeds. Cassia ahsas L. Known in vernacular as Chaksu. An erect annual, 30-60 cm. high, clothed with grey bristly viscoid hairs. Rachis with a small linear gland between the leaflets of each pair. Leaves on long petioles. Stipules small, linear, acute, persistent. Leaflets 2 pairs, 2.5-5 cm. long, 2-3 cm. broad. Flowers yellow, small, racemose. Sepals narrow, acute. Petals with long claws, veined. Pods 2. 5-3. 8 cm. long, oblique, beset with grey bristly hairs. Seeds 5-7 compressed, blackish, shining. FIs. August-November. The bitter leaves are used as astringent and cough remedy. Seeds used as astringent, carthartic, for ringworm, skin affections, in conjunc- tivitis and ophthalmia. Seeds contain alkaloid chaksine and isochaksine. The plant grows wild in neglected fields as a weed; can be raised through seeds. Cassia mimosoides L. A low diffuse glabrous or pubescent perennial or sometimes suffrutescent common weed with a simple or much branched stem. Rachis puberulous with a small sessile gland below the lowest pair of leaflets. Leaflets small, 40-60 pairs. Stipules 5 mm. subulate. Flowers solitary or 2-3 together. Stamens perfect, alternately longer SIS JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, VoL m {2j and shorter. Pods 2.5-5 cm. long, flatfish. Seeds 20-25. FIs. July- September. The plants are common as weeds in fields and along road sides; can be raised through seeds. Cassia, pumila Larnk. (Figs. 18-25.) A prostrate, ascending or sub- erect deep-rooted stout herb. Stems and branches often reddish brown. Leaflets small, 10-40 pairs, linear, acute. A stipitate gland is present at the base of pinna. Flowers yellow, usually solitary. Pods 2.5-4 cm. long, 5 mm. broad, straight, flat, torulose. Seeds somewhat rectangular, polished. FIs. September-October. Seeds are given, as purgative. The plants are wild as weeds in crevices of rocks, under the shade of trees, shrubs and in open gravelly soils ; can be raised through seeds. Acknowledgements I am indebted to the late Rev. Fr. Dr. H. Santapau, S.J., Ph.IX, F.N.I. for his keen interest and guidance in this work and to Dr. R. V. Sitholey, Scientist-in-charge, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow for constant encouragement and help. I am grateful to Prof. K. N. Kaul for suggesting the problem. References Anonymous (1950): Wealth of India. Raw Materials. New Delhi: 2: 93-98. Bentham, G. (1869): Revision of Genus Cassia . Tram . Linn.. Sac. London. IS: 503-591. Blatter, E., Sc Millard, W. S. (1937): Some Beautiful Indian Trees, pp. 19-37. Chopra, R. N., Nayar, S. L., Chopra I. C., (1956) : Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants. New Delhi, pp. 53-55. Cooke, T. (1903): Flora of the Presi- dency of Bombay. 1: Pt. III. Duran, J. F. (1903): Flora of the Upper Gangetie Plain. 1: 290-297, Gamble, J. S. (1902): A Manual of Indian Timbers, pp, 271-275. — — — (1915): Flora of the Presidency of Madras. 1: 398-404. Haines, H. H. (1922): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa. 1: 301-306. Hooker, J. D. et al. (1879): The Flora of British India. 2: Id-261. Maheshwari, J. K. (1963): Flora of Delhi, pp. 139-143. Randhawa, M. S, (1965): Flowering trees in India. ICAR. New Delhi, pp. 163-164. Watt, G. (1889): A Dictionary of Economic Products of India. 2: 210-226. Willis, J. C. (1966): A Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and Ferns. Cam- bridge University Press, pp, 205-206, Studies on the Life History of a predatory Pentatomid Bug, Andrallus spinidens (Fabr.) 1 M. K. Rajendra2 and R. C. Patel Institute of Agriculture , Anand ( With seven figures in a plate & a text-figure) Andrallus spinidens (Fabr.) is a predator on a wide range of insect pests of economic importance. Studies on the life history revealed that a single female laid from 11 to 1,084 eggs with an average of 370 eggs. The incubation period of eggs was 5 . 29 0.96 days at room temperature ranging from 85 to 92°F and 7.63 * 0.51 days in a constant laboratory maintained temperature of 80 2°F. No eggs hatched at relative humi- dity 20% and below. The maximum hatching was observed to be 95.09 per cental 100% R.H. The nymphal durations was recorded to be 12.48 •«= 0.50 days when the nymphs were reared in the laboratory at the average temperature of 87.09^ 3. 89°F. When the nymphs were reared at constant temperature of 80*=2°F., the nymphal duration was 21 .98*= 1 . 78 days. When the adults were provided with Prodenia larvae and lucerne leaves, the males and females survived for 43.62 and 49.33 days respectively. Introduction Andrallus spinidens (Fabr.), nymphs and adults were found associated with Heliothis armigera (Hb.) larvae infesting lucerne and redgram crops on various farms of the Institute of Agriculture, Anand. The nymphs as well as the adults were observed to attack the larvae and suck out the body contents. This predatory activity of the bug was quite interesting since Heliothis is a very serious pest of a variety of important crop plants. Studies were therefore taken up to determine the usefulness of this bug to regulate populations of its hosts in nature. Review of Literature Andrallus spinidens was first reported from India in 1902 under the name Audinetia spinidens (Fabr.). A brief description of the species has been given by Distant (1902) and Ramakrishna Ayyar in ichnographia insectorum japoniorum (1956). In 1906, Bengroth transferred it to the genus Andrallus since the generic name Audinetia was preoccupied. Lefroy Sc Howlett (1909) reported the species as a rare insect feeding upon Thermesia rubricans larvae and other caterpillars which are found among herbage and low crops. Subsequently, Fletcher (1914) reported it from south India as feeding on caterpillars of Chloridea obsoleta. Ramakrishna 1 Abstracted from the thesis submitted to Sardar Patel University, Vallabh Vidya- nagar in partial fulfilment of the requirements for M.Sc. (Ag.) degree by the first author under the guidance of the second. 8 Present address: Development Officer, NOCIL, Sandoz House, Dr. Annie Besant Road, Worli, Bombay-18. 2 320 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (2) Ayyar (1940) has mentioned the species as a predatory insect on caterpillars. Cherian & Brahmachary (1941) have briefly listed its distribution, seasonal incidence, hosts, life history and feeding habits. Nageswara Rao (1967) has mentioned this species as (a predator on Parnara mathias Fb., commonly known as the rice skipper. The biology of this bug has not been studied in detail so far. Distribution and Host Range A. spinidens is widely distributed and has been recorded from several islands of the Malay Achipelago; Fiji; Tahiti; E. Africa; Mexico; ' Pakistan; and Japan. In India, it has been recorded in Sikkim, Assam, Khasi Hills, Hamath, Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Madras. The bug attacks a number of insect pests of economic importance which include Tarache nitidula (Fabr.) Farias fabia (Stoll), Orihaga sp., Spodoptera mauritia (Boisd.), Cirphis unipuncia (Flaw.), Psalis pemiatuia (Hb.), Euproctis fraterna (Moore), Utetheisa puichella (Linn.), Argira cribraria (Clirck), Hypsa sericea (Moore), Amsacta albistriga (Wlk.), Stomopteryx nerteria (Meyr.), Sylepta derogata (Fabr.), Tryporyza incertulas (Wlk.), Scripophaga sp., Papilio demoleus Linn., P. aristolochia (Fabr.), Acherontia styx Westw., Melanitis ismene Cram., Parnara mathias Fabr., Achaea janata (Linn.), Laphyygma exigua (Hb.), Leucinodes orbonalis Guen., Prodenia litura F., Corcyra cephalonica Staint and Heliothis armigera (Hb.). Material and Methods A. spinidens adults were found in association with H. armigera larvae infesting redgram ( Cajanus cajan). The adults were held in glass containers 7 . 0 cm. in diameter and 3 . 5 cm. in height along with Heliothis larvae and host plant. Later they were provided with lucerne leaves and Prodenia larvae. To study the effect of humidity on hatching, eggs were held in closed containers having different concentrations of sulphuric acid to maintain desired humidity. Calcium chloride and distilled water were used to maintain 0 and 100 per cent relative humidity respectively. Description of Developmental Stages The eggs are small and cylindrical (Plate 1, Fig. 1) with broader top. The operculum is fitted into a raised rim ornamented with fourteen to twenty micropilar processes. They are creamy white in colour when laid. When the eggs are about to hatch, the colour changes to bright orange reflecting the colour of the nymphs under the chorion. The eggs LIFE HISTORY OF ANDRALLUS SPINIDENS 32! are laid in batches, usually in two or three regular rows. The eggs measured on an average 1 . 149 =*=0.083 mm. in height and 0.840 =*=0.0008 mm. in diameter. At hatching, the chorion ruptures around the margin of the operculum which is then pushed away by the nymph as it eomes out. Newly hatched nymphs are bright orange in colour and measure from 0,960 to 1.200 mm. averaging 1.084 =*=0.046 mm. in length. Fully developed first instar nymphs measure 1.339 =*=0.720 mm. in length and 1.045 =*= 0.063 mm. in breadth and their colour changes to pitch black. The whole surface of the body is covered with setae of which those on the antennae and the legs are quite prominent. Antennae, four- segmented, the distal segment being relatively thicker and lighter in colour. The rostrum comprises of four segments and tapers to a pointed end. First basal segment is shorter and thicker than the remaining seg- ments. The thorax and abdomen are bright orange in colour. Small brownish patches present on first, second and third abdominal segments and two big brown round patches appear covering fourth and fifth and seventh and eighth abdominal segments. The second instar (Pi. 1, Fig. 3) is 1.630 =*=0.082 mm. in length, 2. 690 =*=0.092 mm. in breadth and is closely similar to the first instar except that the rostrum is relatively much longer than in the first instar. A pair of irregularly shaped patches on the second abdominal segment and two oval-shaped big patches covering third and fourth and fifth and sixth abdominal segments are present on the abdomen. The abdomen is raised along the mid-dorsal line and slopes down laterally to join with the connexivum which is flat. Each connexivum has a pitch black patch on either side. At the beginning of this stage, the nymphs remain close together. Later, they begin to disperse to different parts of the plant in search of food. The third instar (PL 1, Fig, 4) is 2.890 =*= 0.121 mm. in length and 2. 690 =*=0.092 mm. in breadth with abdominal patches bigger in size than the earlier instar. Rudimentary wing pads appear and the nymphs start feeding avidly at this stage. The fourth instar (PL 1, Fig. 5) is 5.820 =*=0.920 mm. in length, 4.340=*= 0.180 mm. in breadth and generally similar to the third instar except for the growing wing pads which are more clearly visible than in the earlier instar. The pitch black patches on abdominal segments and connexivum are bigger in size and clearly seen even without magnification. The fifth instar (PL 1, Fig. 6) is 9.740 =*=0.60 mm. in length and 5.662 =*=0.141 mm. in breadth. The lateral margin of the thorax is thorny and the wing pads extend up to the second abdominal segment. The J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (2) Raiendra & Patel : Andrallus spinidens Life history stages of Andrallus spinidens (Fabr.) 322 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Ko/. 6S (2) abdomen is bright orange in colour with black patches all over. There is a pair of black patches on the first abdominal segment, a black stripe and a ‘ spectacle ’ shaped patch on the second abdominal segment and four irregular black patches each covering two abdominal segments. On each connexivum, there is a pitch black patch on either side. The newly transformed adult is yellow to light salmon in colour which slowly changes to pale brown or yellow with slight tinge of brown. The body is elongate and measures from 10.00 to 14.00 mm. in length and 6.40 to 7.00 mm. in breadth. The measurements recorded for 20 males and 20 females showed that females are longer and broader than the males. The average length and breadth are 10.85 * 0.75 mm. and 6.48 =*= 0.056 mm. for males and 13.20=*= 0.69mm. and 6.70=*= 0.058 mm. for females. The head is lobular and somewhat long with a blackish broad line on each side of central lobe. The lateral lobes are slightly larger than the central lobe. The head width varied from 2.24 to 2.40 mm. with an average of 2.341 =*=0.058 mm. Compound eyes are prominent and brick red in colour. A pair of bright red lustrous ocelli is present near the compound eyes. The antennae are five segmented measuring 6.40 to 6.88 mm. in length with an average of 6.520 =fc 0.205 mm. Distal part of the third segment and fourth and fifth segments of the antennae are black. The rostrum averages 5 . 91 6 =*= 0 . 1 62 mm. The pronotum is deflected anteriorly and it bears a pale, smooth and lustrous band between the pronotal angles. The pronotai angles bear straight and pointed spines, the distance between them ranges from 7.68 to 7.92 with an average of 7.758 -0.063 mm. The scutellum is moderately long and slender. The posterior part of the scutellum in the middorsal region as well as its apex are pale yellow in colour. The costal margin of the wing in the corium region is also pale yellow in colour. The abdomen is 6.40 to 6.64 mm. in width, averaging 6.504 =*= 0.072 mm. It is densely punctate and pale yellow with a slight tinge of brown. Life History and Habits After hatching, the nymphs form a cluster on or near the egg mass. This gregarious habit is very pronounced among nymphs for the first two days and the only movement noticed is for adjustment among them- selves. They do not feed during this period and after moulting on the third day they move about in search of food and thus get scattered among the plants. In the second instar, the nymphs suck sap from lucerne leaves or join the older nymphs or adults in sucking the host larvae. LIFE HISTORY OF ANBRALLUS SPIN! DENS 323 Beginning from the third instar, the nymphs suck plant sap as well as attack the host larvae of all stages. When advancing to attack, both nymphs and adults follow the prey with the proboscis extended in front and when they are within reach, introduce the proboscis into the host body and anchor it so firmly that it is not taken out till feeding is over. If the host larva feigns death when attacked and tries to drop down, the victim merely remains suspend- ed at the tip of the rostrum of the bug. On very slight disturbance, they hide under soil clods or plant parts. Since they also suck the sap from the foliage, the predatory nature of the insect is of less significance. The sexes, male and female occur in 1:0. 77 ratio and mate several times during their lives. The female usually lays her eggs on the leaves, but eggs have been found also on stem and cloth surface in the laboratory. The results of fecundity studied for 24 pairs of adults are given in table 1 . Table 1 Fecundity of Andrallm spinidens (Fabr.) from August to December 1965 Pair No. No. of egg batches No,, of eggs in a batch j 1 Total No. of eggs Days in Min. t Max. Aver. Pre- ovi- posi- tion Ovi- posi- tion Post- ovi- posi- tion 1 20 26 83 54.2 1,084 15 49 j 2 7 18 68 28.6 200 27 24 4 3 7 43 111 74.0 518 15 22 7 4 6 29 68 50.0 300 16 22 | 22 5 8 36 91 52.0 416 13 18 2 6 6 16 98 54.0 271 17 20 2 7 10 20 122 70.1 709 14 24 5 8 10 9 64 30.2 302 19 64 1 9 11 15 76 43.2 475 ; 28 38 1 10 4 17 : 54 34.5 138 13 14 ! 2 11 6 26 | 61 47.0 281 22 8 2 12 3 41 60 51.0 153 12 9 1 8 13 2 17 94 55.5 111 58 1 2 14 8 30 ! 121 59.4 475 11 39 12 15 4 13 ! 95 46.7 187 39 18 7 16 5 29 83 65.2 ! 326 32 23 3 17 11 15 111 70.0 769 i 20 27 2 18 1 11 11 11.0 11 1 38 1 16 19 5 14 i 64 46.4 232 30 21 4 20 1 53 1 53 53.0 53 ! 10 1 25 21 2 38 1 39 38.5 77 j 7 6 1 22 12 25 104 68.3 819 12 43 2 23 13 21 i 137 71.3 927 10 79 2 24 1 46 i 46 46.0 46 i 6 1 8 Av. 6.79 54.47 370 t 20.12 23.83 5.87 The temperature in the laboratory varied from 78°F. to 104°F, with a mean of 81.07®F. 324 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (2) The results in the above table indicate that each female laid on an average 6.79 egg batches each having an average of 54.47 eggs. The number of eggs laid by a female varied from 1 1 to 1,084 with an average of 370 eggs per female. The pre-oviposition, oviposition and post-oviposi- tion periods were 20.12, 23.83, and 5.87 days respectively. The effect of relative humidity on the hatching percentage of eggs was determined by holding egg masses in airtight containers having different concentrations of sulphuric acid. The results obtained are given in table 2 and are graphically represented in text-figure 2. Table 2 Effect of relative humidity on the incubation period of eggs at 80^2° F. S. No. R.H. (%) Period of study No. of sets No. of eggs kept for hatching No. of eggs hatched Time taken for hatching in days Percent- age of hatching 1 100 29-3-66 to 24-4-66 3 274 260 9 95.09 2 90 8-3-66 § to 5-4-66 3 200 178 8 88.14 3 80 10-2-66 to 29-2-66 3 191 120 8 62.45 4 70 13-2-66 to 30-3-66 3 254 129 8 50.86 5 60 I 13-2-66 to 3-3-66 3 258 125 8 44.62 6 50 14-2-66 to 26-3-66 3 189 72 8 40.13 7 40 15-2-66 to 4-3-66 3 271 88 8 32.13 8 30 15-2-66 to 2-4-66 3 186 21 8 10.19 9 20 1-3-66 to 1-5-66 3 187 0 0 0 The results in the above table indicate a maximum of 95.09% hatching u: **io LIFE HISTORY OF ANDRALLUS SPINIDEN3 325 at 100% R.H. No eggs hatched at 20% R.H. Between 20 and 100% R.H., the hatching percentage increased with the increase in R.H. EFFECT OF RELATIVE HUMIDITY ON HATCHING OF EGGS AT 80 1 2° F* The number and duration of nymphal instars were determined as indicated in table 3. 326 JOURNAL » BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , Vol 68 (2) Table 3 Duration of different nymphal instars of A. spinidens SI. No. Period of study | Average temp. °F. No. of observ- ations ! Average duration of different nymphal instars in days Total nymph- al period I II Ill IV V 1 6-9-65 to 22-9-65 Room temp. j 87.09 ! *3.89 159 2.00 2.00 2.06 *0.28 2.65 *0.50 3.52 *0.50 12.48 *0.50 2 23-9-65 to 16-10-65 Constant temp. 80*2 1 $6 ; 3.11 *0.06 l 5.00 | *=0.22 ! 3.30 *0.41 f 1 3.46 |*0.10 i 5.38 *0.54 21.98 *1.78 The results in the above table show five nymphal instars in the life of A . spinidens . Tire average duration of nymphal stage was 12. 48 ±0.50 days at the average room temperature of 87.09±3.89°F. whereas it was 2 1.98 ±1.78 days when the nymphs were reared in the constant temperature laboratory maintained at 80±2°F. To determine the longevity of adults and the influence of food on its duration, newly transformed adult bugs were kept in glass containers and provided with different foods. The results obtained are summarised in table 4. Table 4 Longevity of the adult of A. spinidens with different food materials Longevity in days SI. No. Food adults under study Male Female 9 & Min. Max. Aver. Min. Max. Aver. 1 Lucerne leaves 24 24 11 70 43.62 14 91 49.33 with Prodeni a larvae 1 2 Prodenia 15 14 2 37 19.67 15 77 32.00 larvae 3 Lucerne leaves i 16 13 6 18 13.19 10 25 15.92 4 Water 11 12 2 6 3.45 2 7 3.67 5 No food ! 15 12 2 6 3.60 2 7 3.58 LIFE HISTORY OF ANBRALLUS SPINIDENS 327 The results indicate that the female lives longer than the male. The longest survival recorded for the male and female was 70 and 91 days with an average of 43.62 and 49.33 days respectively. The insect can survive both on plant and animal food but both foods are necessary for longest survival. When the adults were reared in the laboratory in glass bowls with lucerne leaves and F. litura larvae, each consumed on an average 100.55 third and fourth instar P. litura larvae with a minimum of 53 and a maximum of 133 caterpillars during their adult life. Acknowledgements The authors are indebted to Dr. M. D. Patel, Director, Institute of Agriculture, Anand ; Dr. R. M. Patel, Principal and Dr. H. K. Patel, Head of Entomology, B.A. College of Agriculture, Anand for providing facilities to conduct this work. They also wish to thank Dr. T. Sankaran, Entomologist, Indian Station, Commonwealth Institute of Biological Control, Bangalore for his helpful comments and the Director, Common- wealth Institute of Entomology, British Museum, London for determining the species. References Cherian, M. C. & Brahmachary, K. (1941): Notes on three predatory Hemip- terous from South India. Indian J. Ent, 3(1): 115-319. Distant, W. L. (1902): The fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Rhynchota, Vol. 1 , p. 253. Fletcher, T. B. (1914): Some South Indian Insects. Govt. Press, Madras, p. 475. Lefroy & Howlett (1909): Indian Insect Life II. Agri. Res. Inst., Pusa. p. 677. Ramakrishna Ayyar, T. V. (1940): Handbook of economic entomology for South India. Govt. Press, Madras, p. 61. (1956): lehnographia Insectorum Japoniorum. Hokuryukan Ltd., Tokyo, p. 209. Nageswara Rao, V. (1967): Andrallm ( Audinetia ) spinidens Fabr., as predator on rice pests. Oryza , 1965, Vol. 2, No. 1, A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History Society -9 Psittacidae BY Humayun Abdulali {Continued from Vol. 68 (1): 152) This part deals with 236 specimens of 23 species and subspecies upto No. 568 in ind. handbook (3: 191) and No. 23465 of the Society’s Register. Miss Shanta Nair assisted with the measurements. 545 Pslttacula eupatria nipalensis (Hodgson) (Nepal) Large Indian Parakeet 4: 199 20: 13 c? d> (3 juv.) 10 9 9 (3 juv.) 2 o? 1 Bhimtal 3500', Kumaon; 1 Nepal; 3 Darjeeling, 1 Darjeeling Terai; 1 Bhutan; 1 Buxa Duars; 4 Jazraguri, 1 Bishmuri, Goalpara; 1 Rema, Sylhet, 1 Larsingah, Cachar, 1 Golaghat, Assam; 1 Kyaukpyu-Sandoway border , 4 Sandoway District, 1 Thayetmyo, 1 Legongyi, Henzada, Burma. In both sexes there is considerable variation in the colour of the breast, as also the green of the underparts. Of the six juveniles, the three males have red breasts, one a red bill and the other two black, a character of the female. The juveniles perhaps show more variation in the colours of the head and breast, and the green of the underparts than the adults. The red-billed juvenile (so listed for its small size) has pale edges to the frayed feathers of the head and cheeks creating a barred appearance, a character lacking in the others and only faintly visible in a of the next race. Wing Bill Tarsus Tail 168-175 av. 171.6 (162-174) 27-28 (23-28) 15-17 (16-17) 160-197 av. 183 (168-189) 9 9 158-170 av. 163.6 (157-162) 25-27 (23-28) 13-15 (16-17) 140-178 av. 154 (145-171)* * See note under next form. [169] BIRDS IN BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOCIETY COLLECTION 333 552 Psittacula alexandri abbotti (Oberholser) (South Andaman Island) Andaman Redbreasted Parakeet 5 : 3(?tf* 1 9? 1 o?juv. 1 Bakuitala, Middle Andamans ; 1 Bambooflats, 2 Wrightmyo, 1 South Andamans. Wing Bill Tarsus Tail > cj as W3 I i III! I I I I I I 2 I >> -O 3 S I I I I I 1 I I I I 3 •a a as 5/5 III! a i i i i i i •o 3 S I I I I 3 I I tj- w> m O fsj V) V) I I I *a 'xS 3 s I I 3 § I I na TJ 3 £ VO ©\ rf rf- ri* i-* I 1 a 3 s a *3 q 3 to Uh 5 § § § a Zj "o I I s Cl 8 | 8* S_ d cO Q) 5 55 1 j .a to if) •s .9 *1 V) eO Si 53 c s 8 o> 00 Q o « r-~" ft© Os Total 6,368 I 0.7818 I 1.510 I 3.453 ' 22.868 I 0,036 » 394.4261 118 Plenty of dead shells. MOLLUSCA IN BENTHIC POPULATION 359 channels. This muddy bottom extended for about 5 miles from the approach channel. Only the empty shells of the bivalve Modiola striatus were found here in large numbers. A few polychaetes were the only live organisms recorded in this area. Station 10 in the backwater was also predominantly muddy, but the fauna here was poor. This might be due to considerable variations in the salinity, which probably reaches unfavourable limits for the benthic animals. None of the molluscs recorded from the nearshore region was present at this station. A small bivalve, Nuculana mauritiana and some newly settled stages of gastropods were the only molluscan representatives. Sandy bottom : Rich and extensive beds of the bivalve, M. ovum were found at stations 4, 7 and 8 which had sandy substrata. Bivalves of all sizes from settling to the adult stages were collected in large numbers; but at station 4 only smaller forms were present. During the monsoon months another bivalve, M. striatus was also seen quite abundantly at stations 7 and 8. This species appears to be an estuarine form which extends seawards when the salinity of water during the monsoon months becomes appreciably low. Cherian (1968) has reported extensive beds of this bivalve off Ernakulam jetty in the estuarine zone of the backwater. Among the gastropods, C. clanguloides was the most common form. N. ceylonica , C. punctatus , Murex sp. and Subulina sp. were also present. Station 12, which was farthest from the sea, was situated in the southernmost part of the backwater and had a sandy bottom. N. mauri - tiana was the only abundant bivalve and the gastropods were represented by newly settled stages. No adult gastropods were normally recorded at this station. Mixed bottom : Substratum consisting of fine or medium sand with varying amounts of silt and clay were found in the Cochin backwater at stations 5, 9 and 11. Station 5 was located in the nearshore region opposite to the coastline of Vipeen Island and station 9 was in the marine zone of the backwater, near the confluence region. These stations supported a rich fauna consisting of M. ovum , M. striatus and C. clanguloides , apart from poly- chaetes and other organisms. Station 1 1 which was situated in the estuarine zone of the backwater and had a mixed type of bottom sediments, had a poor molluscan fauna. N, mauritiana and a large number of settling stages of gastropods were m JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , Fa/. 68 (2) recorded. These probably failed to grow any further due to adverse hydrographic conditions or migrated shorewards where the conditions were suitable for growth. Numerical abundance and biomass The results of the quantitative examination of the samples collected from 12 stations are summarised in Table 1 and text-figure. The results indicate that a large portion of the biomass was composed of molluscs alone, at almost all the stations ; but these were particularly dominant at those stations which had sandy substrata (Fig. 2). From Table 2 it can be seen that the fauna on the whole is poorer in the estuarine region of the backwater and in the nearshore region, excepting at station 12 where because of favourable sandy substratum, the biomass was high. Relatively poor biomass at stations 4 and 6 in the nearshore region, despite the favourable hydrographic conditions, may be because ol the effect of the constant dredging of the approach channel for navigational purposes, thus disturbing the settled animals. QH MOLLUSCS Q other organisms SANDT MIXED MUDCV- Fig. 2 — Present composition of the moliuscan biomass in relation to the total biomass at twelve sampling stations in the backwater and the nearshore regions off Cochin. The highest biomass (386 gm./m2) was recorded at station 8 which is situated at the confluence zone. The presence of rich beds of M. ovum was mainly responsible for this high value. The presence of hard sub- stratum and less turbid waters probably favoured the successful settlement MOLLUSCA IN BENTHIC POPULATION 361 of the molluscan larvae. On a muddy or mixed type of substrata of fine sand with varying amounts of silt and clay, the faunal groups, other than molluscs were better represented. It is evident from Fig. 2 that on a sandy substratum the molluscs contribute as much as 90 to 95% of the total biomass, whereas on muddy and mixed bottoms the total biomass is largely contributed by the other groups, raollusca forming nearly 30 to 60% of the total biomass. Since quantitative studies on the benthos of Indian waters are few, the abundance of molluscan fauna around Cochin harbour cannot be easily compared with those of other areas. Sheshappa (1953) has reported the benthic fauna near Calicut, at 6 to 10 fathoms, ranging from 10 to 35 gm. /nr, which was largely contributed by molluscs. However, the figures given by Sheshappa refer to wet weight of animals with shells and tubes intact and hence it appears that the areas around Cochin harbour sustain a richer molluscan fauna than the Calicut areas. Cherian (1968) has also indicated that a rich molluscan fauna exists in this region. Kurian (1955) while studying the benthic fauna of the Travancore coast showed that the foraminifera, mollusca and the crustaceans constitute the benthos of that region. Several instances of the dominance of different groups in different parts of the world are available. Ellis (1960), for instance, while studying the marine benthos fauna in the Arctic region of North America, stated that various groups of animals were dominant in various places. The lamellibranchs represented between 60 and 80% of the biomass in North Baffin Island and New Godthaab but these were partly replaced by polychaetes in shallow waters in Disco Bay. He reported a biomass of 438 grn./m2 on sandy bottom and 100 gm./m2 on muddy shores. South- ward (1957) described the dominance of polychaetes in the offshore deposits of the Irish Bay. A comparison of these values with those reported in the present communication shows that some areas on the west coast of India are significantly rich in molluscan forms. Their abundance may conceivably be an important link in the food chain of higher carnivores. Although the adults of larger molluscs such as Meretrix may not be directly utilised because of their thick shells, the younger stages of the species may form an important item of food of demersal fish, crabs and prawns. Acknowledgements I am grateful to Dr. N. K. Panikkar, Director, National Institute of Oceanography, India, for constant encouragement and advice and to Dr. S. Z. Qasim, Scientist, National Institute of Oceanography, for 362 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (2) critically reading the manuscript. Thanks are also due to my colleagues, especially Dr. M. Krishnan Kutty for their help in collection of samples. References Cherian, P. V. (1968) : A collection of Molluscs from Cochin harbour area. Mar. biol. Ass. India, Symposium on Mollusca, Emakulam (India). Desai, B. N. & Krishnan Kutty, M. (1967a): Studies on the benthos of Cochin backwater. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 66 (4): 123-142. — (1967b): A comparison of the marine and estuarine benthic fauna of the nearshore region of the Arabian Sea off Cochin. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India , Indian Ocean Symposium number (In Press). Ellis, D. V. (1960): Marine infaunal benthos in Arctic North America. Tech- nical Paper No. 5, Arctic Institute of North America, pp.1-53. Kurian, C. V. (1955): A preliminary survey of the bottom deposits of the Travancore coast within 15 fathom line. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 19: 747-776. Sheshappa, G. (1953): Observations on the physical and biological features of the inshore sea bottom along the Malabar coast. Proc. Nat. Inst. Sci. India 19: 256-279. Southward, E. C. (1957): The distri- bution of Polychaeta in offshore deposits in the Irish sea. /. mar. biol. Ass. U.K. 36: 49-75. Some additions to our knowledge of the Plants of Ramtek (Maharashtra) BY K. M. Balapure National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow In the present communication about 112 species are reported from Ramtek as an addition to the list by Graham in 1912. The families Nymphaeaceae, Linaceae, Loganiaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Alismaceae, Eriocaulaceae and Cyperaceae are here recorded for the first time. The species listed here are accompanied by additional notes and have been grouped as 1. Aquatic and semiaquatic, 2. Weeds, 3. Introduced plants. Each species is provided with short descriptive notes, locality and collection number. Introduction The town of Ramtek, the headquarters of the tehsil bearing the name, is situated at 21° 24' N and 79° 20' E, 45 km. north-east of Nagpur. It is approached by a short deviation on the main Nagpur- Jabalpur road and even from a distance the white-coated temples on the hill can be seen gleaming in the sun. Enclosed in the remains of an old Maratha fortress, the ancient temples of Ramtek are picturesquely situated on the top of a hill about 200 m. high. The little town of Ramtek, which lies at the foot of this hill, derives its name from the temple of Rama, tek mean- ing hill. Hallowed by tradition as a place of pilgrimage, Ramtek owes much of its significance to the rich lore connected with the origin of the temples. The legend goes that Rama stayed for some time at Ramtek on his way to Lanka. There are a large number of lakes and tanks about Ramtek, one of which goes by the name of “Amba Talao.” It has a large number of modern temples built around it, framed against the hills. Pilgrims and tourists begin their trek up the hill from the Amba tank, from where a flight of steps leads up to the temples at the opposite side and another flight descends to the town of Ramtek. The temples on the hill are Ramtek’s pride. In a more earthy way, Ramtek is celebrated for the cultivation of a special quality of “ pan ” which is exported to Bombay and Poona. In the vicinity are also some manganese mines of importance and 8 km. beyond, the pictur- esque Khinsi tank with a dak-bungalow overlooking it, is a favourite picnic spot. 5 364 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (2) R. J. D. Graham visited this area in the first week of September 1912 and made observations on the flora of Ramtek (/. Bombay nat . Hist. Soc. 22: 237-241, 1913). His main object in undertaking this tour was to compare the flora of transition formations with that of the Deccan trap. He collected about 216 plant specimens, which included dicots and monocots and ferns. But he did not include any member of the Cyperaceae and very few grasses and Eriocaulons, as the late rains delayed their flowering. Only grasses, which flowered early, were included. Graham states : “ From a botanical point of view the Central Provinces (in which Ramtek was included previously — before the reorganization of states) form a particularly interesting area as they furnished the meeting place of the Bombay or western flora and the Bengal or eastern flora. Nagpur may particularly be taken as the eastern limit of the Deccan trap and with it the Deccan flora. Eastwards through Bhandara and Chattisgarh the Bengal flora commences.” During the last five years some new records of plants have been published based on the material collected from Ramtek. In 1963, Kapoor and others published “ A note on the occurrence of Rhynchospora longisetis R. Br. (Family : Cyperaceae) in India with some interesting observations ” (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60 : 379-380). This note was based on the material collected by me during 1959 and deposited in the Herbarium, National Botanic Garden, Lucknow. The previous record of this plant was by Graham from Jubbulpore Farm, Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh) which lies about 217 km. north-east of Ramtek. It will be worthwhile to mention here that Graham in his paper on the vegetation of Ramtek, based on the collection made in September 1912, does not report the occurrence of this interesting species in that area. Another taxon of Cyperaceae, a new record for India, is a plant collected from this area by Vinodini P. Donde (Bull. Bot. Surv. India 8: 358, 1966). During her floristic studies on the Cyperaceae of Nagpur and its neighbour- hood she came across Scirpus kernii Raymond, which so far was thought to be restricted to Africa. The material was collected at Amba tank near Ramtek on October 2, 1962, and deposited in the Central National Her- barium, Calcutta. In 1966, the author published “ Some Plant Records from the erstwhile Central Provinces and Berar ” (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62 : 455-462, 1966) and reported the following plants from Ramtek: Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f., Ageratum conyzoides Linn., Tridax procumbens Linn., Vernonia cinerea (Linn.) Less.; and Hypiis suaveolens Poit. Since then there is no record of any published work on the plants of Ramtek. PLANTS OF RAMTEK 365 Some additional notes on the Flora of Ramtek Since Graham explored this area in 1912, a large number of changes in the vegetation have taken place. Some species which were recorded from this locality are not to be found today even after an intensive search while a number of species not recorded in that list, are very common these days. The species which have appeared recently can be divided into the following heads. (1) Those species which have appeared in ponds, lakes and rivers and marshy places. These may be classed as aquatic and semiaquatic plants. These include : Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. ; Jussiaea repens Linn. ; J. linifolia Vahl ; Trapa natans Linn. var. bispinosa (Roxb.) Makino, Nymphoides cristatum (Roxb.) O. Kuntze, Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. ; IJtricularia flexuosa Vahl, Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell; Veronica anagallis Linn. ; Stemodia viscosa Roxb. ; Sagittaria sagittifolia Linn. ; Butomopsis lemceolata Kunth, Eriocaulon quinquangulare Linn. ; Elea- charts atropurpurea Kunth, Cyperus iria Linn.; C, pumilus Nees, C. diffusus Roxb.; C. eleusinoides Kunth, C.flavidus Retz, ; Scirpus supinus Linn. etc. (2) Those species which are found in the undergrowth in the forest, along roads, paths and in waste lands. These may be termed Weeds. A large number of weeds have spread in the forest and have become trouble- some pests in recent years. Mention is made here of Hyptis suaveolens Poit. which is very common in the forests. This is an American plant and has spread in other states also. The following weeds are common these days at Ramtek : Heliotropium ovalifolium Forsk., Indigofera glandulosa Willd, ; /. trita Linn. f. ; Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn. ; Sida acuta Burm. f. ; S. spinosa Linn.; Trichodesma indicum R. Br., T. zeylanicum R. Br. ; Vernonia cinerea Less.; Ageratum conyzoides Linn.; Poiycarpaea corymbosa Lam.; Cor chorus fascicular is Lam.; Alysicarpus rugosus DC.; A. hamosus Edgew. ; Smithia sensitiva Ait., Melothria maderaspatana (Linn.) Cogn. , Goniocaulon glabrum Cass. , Rungia parviflora Nees ; Justicia simplex D. Don; Boerhaavia diffusa Linn.; Aerva lanata Juss. ; Euphorbia hirta Linn. etc. (3) Planted trees : Planting of trees along roadsides, in the fields, parks and near temples and mosques is an important source of introduced plants. In the past a large number of forests have been cut and burnt down. But recently there is a move to plant more and more trees and shrubs to beautify roads and parks. Trees of economic importance are cultivated in the fields and gardens and plantations are raised. Generally near towns and villages there are cultivated forests of “ Babool ” {Acacia 366 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (2) nilotica (L.) Del. ssp. indica Brenan) for firewood and for gum and tannin. This species is also an important source of fodder for goats. This species, it seems, was not introduced in Graham’s time. Graham’s list does not include the mango ( Mangifera indica Linn.) and Acacia farnesiana Willd. ; which is a native of tropical America. The above mentioned trees are commonly cultivated these days. On scanning Graham’s- list, it becomes clear that this area has not been thoroughly surveyed. Some species have been overlooked and there are some recent additions. Some of the common shrubs and trees of economic importance such as ‘ Dikamali ’ ( Gardenia resiniferq Roth), ‘ Nirmali ’ ( Strychnos potatorum Linn, f.), 4 Tendu ’ {DiospyMs mela- noxylon Roxb.) have been left out in Graham’s list. ¥ It was found that the following families were not represented in Graham’s list : 1. Nymphaeaceae, 2. Linaceae, 3. Loganiaceae, 4. Nycta- ginaceae, 5. Alismaceae, 6. Eriocaulaceae, and 7. Cyperaceae. In the present paper more than a hundred species belonging to 35 families have been added to the flora of this region since Graham explored this area in 1912. The author had an opportunity to survey the vegetation of Ramtek and make a collection of plants from this area during two tours, the first in the last week of January 1959 and the second in the middle of October same year. During these tours more than 400 plant specimens were collected. The following localities of Ramtek were visited : 1. Nagar- jun hill forest, 2. Bank of the Sur River, 3. Lakes and ponds about the town, 4. Ramtek Forest Division, the hills near the temples, 5. Khinni tank, 6. Neighbourhood of the town, 7. Cultivated fields and waste lands. In the present paper only those plants have been included which are not given in Graham’s paper. All the specimens have been deposited in the Herbarium of the National Botanic Garden, Lucknow. The plants have been arranged according to Bentham and Hooker’s system of classification and every attempt has been made to adjust the nomenclature of plants according to the latest findings on the subject. After a very short description of the plant, which is helpful in the identification of the plant in the field, the locality from which the plants were collected, is given. The numbers indicate the field book numbers attached to the specimens. PLANTS OF RAMTEK 367 ADDITIONAL PLANTS1 Nymphaeaceae Nymphaea nouchali Burm. f. (N. pubescens Willd.) Large aquatic herb with pink, bluish and pale yellow flowers. Loc, : Common in ditches and tanks about Ramtek (M.S.). (57544). Capparidaceae Capparis zeylanica Linn. A shrub scrambling or climbing by means of its recurved thorns, flowers pink. Common in hedges and thickets. (57507). Malvaceae Hibiscus cannabinus Linn. A tall herb with pink flowers. Cultivated. Yern. Ambadi. (57502) H. iobatus (Murr.) O. Ktze. ( Solandra lobata Murr., Hibiscus solandra L’Herit.) Herbaceous, erect; flowers white; quite common. Loc.: Nagarjun hill forest, Ramtek. (70714). Sida spinosa Linn. Herb with pale yellow flowers. (57511). Favonia zeylanica Cav. Herb, not common. Loc. : Ramtek Forest Division. (57475). Tiliaceae Corchonis fascicularis Lam. Herb with yellow flowers. Common near ponds. (57484). Linaceae Linum usitatissimum Linn. Herb with blue flowers. Cultivated. Vern. Jawas, Alsi. (57538). Malpighiaceae Aspidopterys wallicMi Hook. f. A woody climber with winged fruits. (57471). i The numbers given in brackets represent herbarium specimens funless the contrary is stated, the collectors are Balapure & Party. 368 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (2) Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Linn. Mango tree. Cultivated. Papilionaceae Crotalaria alfeida Heyne ex Roth Herb with yellow flowers. Loc. : Ramtek Forest Division. (57473) Indigofera linifolia Retz. Herb with pink flowers. Common. (57500). I. trita Linn. f. Tall herb with reddish flowers. Common. (57485). L glandiilosa Willd. Herb with pods. Common. (57547. 57495). Alysicarpns rugosus DC, var. styraciffolius Baker Herb with pinkish-yellow flowers. Common. (57509). A. fiasnostis Edgew. Prostrate herb on ground, flowers pinkish. Very common. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70705. Boliclios iablah Linn. Large climber with white flowers. Cultivated. (57504). SmitMa sensitiva Ait. Herb with yellow flowers, very common in wet places. Loc. : Nagar- jun hill forest. Balapure 70790. Phaseolus trilohus Ait. Climbing legume, cultivated. (57488). Besmodium diffusum DC. A legume with yellow flowers. (57491). Cieer arietimim Linn. Herb with bluish-violet flowers. Cultivated. Vern. Harbhara, Ghana. (57549). PLANTS OF RAMTEK 369 Rhyndiosia bracteata Benth. Herb, twining, not common. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70712. Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) W. F. Wight. S. aculeata Pers. Shrub in fruiting state, common near lake. (57501). Lathynis sativus Linn. Cultivated. (57550). Gitoria ternatea Linn. A climber with blue flowers. Common on field hedges. Balapure 70811. Caesalfiniaceae Baubinia raeemosa Lamk. A small crooked tree. Common. (57462). Acacia farnesiana Willd. A shrub with dark yellow flowers. (57537). A, nilotica (L.) Del. ssp. indica Brenan (A. arabica Willd). A small tree. Planted near the town. A. leucophloea Willd. A tree with yellowish bark. Vern. Hivar. (57467) Trapaceae Trapa natans Linn. var. bispinosa (Roxb.). Makino. Cultivated in ponds and lakes. (57530). Omagraceae Jnssiaea linifolia Vahl. Herb, common in dried ponds. Loc. ; Ramtek Forest Division. (57454). J. repens Linn. An aquatic herb. (57531). CUCURBITACEAE Cncumis trigonus Roxb. A procumbent plant with yellow flowers. (57520). 370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 68 (2) Melothria maderaspatana (L.) Cogn. Annual. Common. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. (70716) Rubiaceae Oldenlandia corymbosa Linn. Herb near marshy places. (57525). COMPOS1TAE Ageratum conyzoides Linn. Annual weed with pale blue flowers. (57494), Grangea maderaspatana Poir. A composite herb with yellow flowers. Common in wet places. (57513). Goniocaulon glabruni Cass. A composite tall herb with pinkish-violet flowers. Common in fields. (57510). Vernonia cinerea Less. Herb with pinkish-violet flowers. Common. (57451). Volutarella ramosa (Roxb.) Santapau (V. divaricata Benth. & Hook.) A composite herb. Common in cultivated fields. (57487). Plumbaginaceae Plumbago zeylaniea Linn. Shrubby plant with white flowers. Calyx sticky. Rare. Loc. : On way to Sur River. (70801). Ebenaceae Diospyros meianoxylon Roxb. A medium-sized tree. Common in forest. (57448), Balapure 70881. Apocynaceae Ichnocarpus frutescens Br. A climber in fruiting state. Common. (57468). Wrightia tinctoria R. Br, A small tree in fruiting state, bark white. Most dominant tree. (57460). PLANTS OF RAMTEK 371 Loganiaceae Strychnos potatorum Linn. f. A small tree. Very common. Balapure 70894. Gentianaceae Nympboides cristatum (Roxb.) O. Kuntze ( Limnanthemum cristatum Griseb.) An aquatic floating herb with white flowers. Common. (57523). Nympboides indicum (L.) O. Kuntze ( Limnanthemum indicum Griseb.) An aquatic herb with white flowers. (57522). Exacum pedunculatum Linn. Herb with blue flowers, not common. (57486). Enicostemma littoral e Blume Herb of medicinal importance. (57496), Balapure 70676. Bora gin aceae Heliotropium ovalifolium Forsk. Herb with white flowers; common. (57512). Trichodesma zeylanicum R. Br. Herb with light violet flowers. Common in waste lands. (57508). CONVOLVULACEAE Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. A creeping herb, very common. (57521). I. hispida (Vahl) R. & S. A spreading herb, common. (57557). SCRGEHU LA RI ACE A£ Lindernia ciliata (Colsm.) Pennell ( Bonnaya brachiata Link & Otto). Herb with white flowers. Common. Loc. : Nagarjun hill. Balapure 70703,70620. Veronica anagallis Linn. Herb with violet flowers, common near lake- water. (57519). 372 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 68 (2) Striga euphrasioides Benth. Herb with white flowers, common. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70709. Stemodia viscosa Roxb. Herb in dried pond, common. (57554). Lentiburiaceae Utricularia flexuosa Yahl. Aquatic herb with yellow flowers, common in pond. (57528). Acanthaceae Hygrophila polysperma T. Anders. Herb with white flowers, common. (57517). Baedalacanthus purpurascens T. Anders. Herb with purple flowers, very common in the forest. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70708. Barleria cristata Linn. Herb, common. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. (574501, Balapure 70713. Justicia simplex D. Don. Herb with pinkish flowers, common. Loc.: Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70704. Rungia parviflora Nees. Herb, common. Loc. : Forest near Khinni tank. Balapure 70858, Labiatae Hyptis suaveolens Poit. A tall, rigid sweet-smelling herb with 4-angled rough haired stem. Flowers small and blue. Loc. : Ramtek Forest Division. (57479). Nyctaginaceae Boerhaavia diffusa Linn. Herb, diffuse, common. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70738. Amaranthaceae Amaranthus tricolor Linn. Herb, common. (57514). PLANTS OF RAMTEK 373 Aerva lanafa .fuss. Herb with small white flowers, common. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70735. Nothosaerva. braehiata Wight. Herb with whitish flowers, common. Loc. : Ramtek Forest Division. (57480). Bigera muricata (Linn.) Mart. Herb with pink flowers, common. (57555). POLYGONACEAE Polygonum hydropiper Linn. Herb with white flowers, common. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Bala- pure 70710. Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia hirta Linn. Herb, common. Loc. : Ramtek Forest Division. (57449). E. perbracteata Gage. Herb, rare. (57552). Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn. Herb, common in waste lands. (57505, 57534). Tragia cannabina Linn. f. An evergreen climbing hispid herb with stinging bristles, variable in foliage. Rare. Balapure 70802, (57476). Urticaceae Ficus tomentosa Roxb. Large shady tree. (57482). Commelinaceae Commelina hasskarlii C.B.C1. Herb with blue flowers, common in fields. Loc.: On way to Sur River. Balapure 70785. Cyanotis axillaris (Linn.) Schultz, f. Herb. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70784. 374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (2) Alismaceae Sagittaria sagittifolia Linn. An aquatic herb with white flowers, common. (57524). Bufomopsis lanceoiata Kunth A hydrophyte, common. (57463). Eriocaulaceae Eriocaulon quinquangulare Linn. Herb with small white flowers in heads, quite common in moist places. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70631. Cyeeraceae Bulbostylis barbata Kunth A slender herb, quite common. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70636. Eleocharis atropurpurea Kunth A sedge in water. (57466). Cypenis sanguinolentus Vahl Sedge, quite common. On way to Sur River. Balapure 70752. C. pumilus Nees Sedge, quite common in moist places. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70635, 70726. C, iria Linn. Sedge, quite common near ponds. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Bala- pure 70640, 70737. On way to Sur River. Balapure 70754. C. diffuses Roxb. Sedge, common near lake. On way to Sur River. Balapure 70758. C. eleusinoides Kunth Sedge, common in moist places. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70711. C. flavidtis Retz. Sedge, common near lake. On way to Sur River. Balapure 70757, 70633. PLANTS OF RAMTEK 375 Seirpus supines Linn. Sedge in water. (57466). S. kernii Raymond Collected by V. P. Donde from Ramtek, near Amba tank on 2 Oct. 1962. This is a new record for India. D. 44 (CAL). Fimbristylis sehoenoides Vahl Sedge, common. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70628. F. tetragona R. Br. Sedge, common. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70630. F. monostachya Hassk. Sedge. On way to Sur River. Balapure 70788. F. diphylla Vahl Sedge, quite common. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70637. Rhyncbospora longisetis R. Br. Sedge, common in moist places. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70606. Gramineae Aristida depressa Retz. Common, Ramtek Forest Division. (57446). Brachiaria eruciforaiis Griseb. Common. (57541). Elytrophoras spicatus (Willd.) A. Camus Near ponds. (57464). Eragrostis unioioides Nees Common. Loc. : Nagarjun hill forest. Balapure 70629. E. diarrhena Steud. Spikes, reddish ; common in fields. (57548). E. gangetica Steud. Common near water. (57469). 376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 68(2) E. tenella R. & S. Common grass in waste lands and in cultivated fields. (57492). Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. Common. (57546). I. molle Hook. f. Common near drying ponds. (57489). Iseilema laxum Hack. Common in waste fields. (57490). Oryza sativa Linn. Commonly cultivated rice which is also the staple food here. (57526). Sorghum hkolor Moench. Ramtek near Nagpur. (57516). Theraeda quadrivalvls O. Ktze. Common in waste lands. (57497). Rottboellia sp. An aquatic grass, common in lake. (57499). iMehauthium carkosum A. Camus I), amndatiim Stapf Common. Balapure 70678. Vetlveria zizauioides (Linn ) Nash I am indebted to the Director, National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow for the facilities provided. I also wish to thank Dr. J. K. Maheshwari, Scientist, for the interest in the work and the late Rev. Father H. Santapau, Ex-Director, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta for going through the manuscript and offering valuable suggestions. Anonymous (1908): Imperial Cazet- to the Marble Rocks, Jabalpur (M.P.). teer of India. Vol. 21. New Edition. Bull . Bot. Surv. India 8: 189-196. Oxford. Acknowledgements References 455-462. Donde, V. P. (1966): Scirpus kernii Raymond— a new record for India. (1966): A Botanical tour Bull . Bot . Surv. India 8: 358. PLANTS OF RAMTEK 377 Graham, R. J. D. (1913): List of Grasses and sedges found on the Nagpur and Telinkheri Farms — including a few common species from other parts of the Provinces, Nagpur. (1913): Notes on a collect- ing tour at Ramtek, C. P. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22: 237-241. Hooker, J. D. (1872-97): Flora of British India. Vols. 1-7, London. Kapoor, S. L. et al. (1966): A note on the occurrence of Rhynchospora longisetis R. Br. in India with some interesting observations. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 479-480. Mirashi, M. V. (1959): New Plant records from Nagpur. Proc. 46 th t. Indian Sci. Congr. Part 3 : 286. — - — (1960a) : Some new Plant records for Nagpur. J. Indian bot. Soc. 39: 30-34. — — — (1960 b): Some new Plant records for Nagpur— II. Bull. Bot. Soc. Coll. Sci. Nagpur 1 : 23-30. Patel, R. I. (1968): Forest Flora of Melghat. Dehra-Dun. Raizada, M. B. (1939). Recently in- troduced or otherwise imperfectly known plants from the Upper Gangetic Plain. Indian For. Rec. 1 : 223-236. — (1966): Nomenclature! changes in Indian Plants. Indian For. 92 : 299-339. Santapau, H. (1953): The Flora of Khandala on the Western Ghats of India. Rec. hot. Surv. India 16(1): 1-396. Tiwari, S. D. N. (1954): The Grasses of Madhya Pradesh. Indian For. 80: 601 - 611, 681-689. (1963): Supplement to the Grasses of Madhya Pradesh. Indian For. 80: 593-602. & Maheshwari, J. K. (1964): The Cyperaceae of Madhya Pradesh. Indian For. 90: 147-158, 616-629. Witt, D. O. (1908): List of trees, shrubs and climbers and other plants of Economic Importance found in Berar Forest circle of the Central Provinces in Forest Flora of the Berar Circle. Nagpur. Notes on a collection of small Mammals from Western Ghats, with remarks on the status of Kattus rufescens (Gray) and Bandicota indica malabarica (Shaw) BY K. K. Tiwari, R. K. Ghose, and S. Chakraborty Zoological Survey of India , Calcutta ( With a map ) The present paper is based on material and field observations made during a faunistic survey of the Western Ghats in July-September 1964, by the first and second authors. The langur, Presbytis entellus (Dufresene), in troops and the Ruddy Mongoose, Herpestes smithi Gray, were found to be very common be- tween Wai and Mahabaleshwar on Poona-Mahabaleshwar Road, and in the forest around Sinhagarh Fort and Poona, respectively. However, these and a few other small mammals observed in the field have not been incorporated here. The external and skull measurements (in millimetres) of the speci- mens are in Table 1. We are grateful to Dr. B. Biswas for his valuable suggestions in the preparation of the manuscript. SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT Family Rhinolophidae Rhinolophus lepidus lepidus Blyth, The Horseshoe Bat material: 1 9 ; Khopoli, Kolaba district, 28 September, 1964. Remarks: According to Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951), this bat occurs in 4 Central Provinces, Ganges Valley, Kumaon, Bengal.’ Appar- ently a record by Wroughton (1918, p. 574) of this bat from Koyna Valley (Western Ghats) has been overlooked by these authors. More recently, Brosset (1962) has reported it from various localities in Maharashtra. The specimen was collected with a butterfly net while eating a moth at about 23.00 hours. It had only one pair of mammae (axillary). About 5 mm. area of the skin around each nipple was naked. Measurements of seven species of small mammals of Western Ghats SMALL MAMMALS FROM WESTERN GHATS 379 4 & § m m > ^ IN CN CN 4-4 «n o CN it QOgO 5 62 *- 1 m CO vdt-’ vo C"~’ vd vd vd i> m d 3 CO o l I Cd (N i-H in oo t- o oo (N 4-4 r- vo n- a 3 I m 00 vd i> in in m OV m , 1 I „ u b-B 4-4 CN «n 4-4 Os it © © vo m m P — *r1 i 1 CO m O 4-1 «n vd «n vd in vo CO ov £ o £ 4—4 4—4 4—4 1119 i m m m oo cn 4-4 m so (N CN m m m mm mm msf 1 VO | «n VO p _ m I i 1 1 3 1 ! o it m fc VO £4 m O m 4— 1 . , 10 m cd w cn vo vd 1 • #V © m 4-4 rt m © d CN T-H 4— t * «n O as VO VD 00 VO OS m 4-*4 ^ S o r— 1 d in it it m vo N* vo N- oo vo oo X ^x> «n m 4-4 4—1 4—! T-* T— 1 1 f-H rt H CN Sex o o «b O fb o o •b o r-H CN OO CN o Locality o 04 o «-! 'S 3 60 43 O 3 ’3 cd 60 43 O 3 ’3 2 2 I. ci cS O a o -a c3 CL> !— 3 & 5 o 3 &4 3 Ph £ cs "S n C/3 CO CO • . 1 • • • • mala- s • & 1 - 3 O 2 O O I to <4-4 1 : © <0 3 . , 2 > 4 in birds of u.s.s.r. 6, p. 328. 1604 Phylloscopus trochiloides trochiloides (Sundevall) (Calcutta) Dull Green Leaf Warbler 1 o? Chauldhari, S. Andamans. 5 April 1969. This specimen (BNHS No. 23450) was identified by Dr. Ripley. 1668 Copsychus malabaricus albiventris (Blyth) (Andamans) Shama 1 & Calicut, S. Andamans, 13 April 1969. Except for Zoological Survey Sp. No. 28363 (Wrightmyo, S. Anda- mans, 31 March 1964), this is the only one seen or obtained in recent years. Its numbers would appear to have declined appreciably, unless we have missed some very restricted ecological niches occupied by the species. 1735 Zooihera citrina andamanensis (Walden) (Andamans) Orange- headed Ground Thrush 1 c? South Cinque Island, off South Andamans. This specimen agrees with one collected on Car Nicobar and is amerent Irom others from Camorta and Nancowry, Central Nicobars (JBNHS 64: 186). Hume 1876 ( Stray Feathers 4: 289) doubted the validity of andamanensis , but did not indicate where his Nicobar specimens were obtained. It is possible that the Car Nicobar population is similar to that from the Andamans, in which case the type locality of albogularis (now “ Nicobars”) may well be restricted to Camorta-Nancowry, Central Nicobars. My reference (loc. cit.) to the olive-green wash on the back of the Andaman specimens was unnecessary for this was a sexed female, while the Nicobar birds were males. 1762 TiirdiiS obscums Gmelin (Siberia =Lake Baikal) Dark Thrush 2 cfc? Narcondam Island— 23 April 1969, 30 April 1970. It is curious that this bird, presumably a winter visitor and of which there are only three records from the Andamans, should have been obtained on both the short visits to Narcondam. NARCONDAM ISLAND & BIRDS FROM ANDAMANS 411 1874 Motacilla indica Gmelin (Malabar) Forest Wagtail Osmaston noted it at Narcondam. 1884 Motacilla caspica caspica (Gmelin) (Caspian Sea) Grey Wagtail 1 South Andamans 9 March 1969. Wing 178; tail 64. Osmaston noted it at Narcondam. 1903 Dicaeum concolor virescens Hume (Neighbourhood of Port Blair) Plaincoloured Flowerpecker 1 9 Sipighat, S. Andamans, 20 March 1969, with enlarged ovaries and a dis- tended oviduct. 1913 Nectarinia jugularis andamanica (Hume) (Andaman Group) Yellowbreasted Sunbird 2 c? c? 1 Narcondam Island ; 1 South Sentinel (badly damaged and destroyed). The Narcondam bird (obtained in 1969) has a 60 mm. wing which is larger than in two from Middle Andamans, 50, 54. The South Sentinel specimen had a 57 mm. wing. Osmaston noted it as the commonest bird on Narcondam. I only got a glimpse of it during my short visit. 1936 Zosterops palpehrosa nicobarica Blyth (Nicobars) White-eye 1 & Bambooflats, 2 $ 9 South Sentinel Island, S. Andamans. The male obtained on 9 March had enlarged gonads. 1939 Passer domesticus subsp. House Sparrow 1 o’ Sipighat, 1 9 Chauldhari, S. Andamans. In my Andaman report ( JBNHS 61 : 569) I had referred to specimens from Port Blair (where the species was introduced in 1895) not quite agreeing with those seen in Bombay and other parts of India. The two specimens obtained do not permit me to comment further but a re- examination enables me to re-confirm that the birds from Shwebo, North Burma, are not the same as those occurring in peninsular India. It would also appear that the large numbers of migratory sparrows with pale-coloured bills, which are ringed at Bharatpur are not parkini Whistler as at present accepted, but probably bactrianus Zarudny & Kudashev, which are said to migrate to northwestern India (Peter’s checklist of the birds of the world 6: 12) but has not been included in the fauna or synopsis. First Report of the Yale-Bombay Natural History Society studies of Wild Ungulates at the Gir Forest, Gujarat, India BY S. H. Berwick1 and P. A. Jordan2 ( With a plate ) Introduction This report covers the first four months, March- June, 1970 of field work in the collaborative research project, “ Habitat Relationships, Numbers, and Distribution of Wild Ungulates in the Gir Forest, India”, Smithsonian Institution Grant No. SFG-0-1894 funded under the Public Law 480 foreign currency surplus programme. The Gir Forest in Gujarat State, India, has long attracted the atten- tion of conservationists in India and elsewhere because it holds the last remnant population of the Asiatic Lion, Panthera leo persica. The Gir is further valued by ecologists for having the largest and virtually only representation of the original flora and fauna once widespread through semi-arid northwestern India. During a survey of the threatened fauna of southeastern Asia, Talbot (1960) concluded that the Gir lion was in serious jeopardy both from direct killing and from deterioration of the Gir Forest by excessive livestock pressure. Considering the great difficulty of preserving a natural community of over 400 square miles where exploding population and under-nutrition create a great demand for agricultural development, the Gujarat forest department has done well in holding the Gir as a wildlife sanctuary. It is further encouraging to note that a totally protected 75 square mile na- tional park is being planned within the Sanctuary. The State has received encouragement in these efforts from the Government of India and from conservation groups the world over. Authorities also realise that if large-scale tourism is to be developed, fauna and flora must be preserved. Nevertheless, the continued presence of tens of thousands of live- stock depleting vegetation and soils of the Gir plus slow but steady in- cursions of cultivation around the edges, forces the question of how long can the Gir support the lion and other large wildlife? There are of course both political and ecological questions, all of which must soon be an- swered if this valuable natural community is to be preserved. The present study addresses a key ecological aspect : what are the requirements and 1 Sasan Gir, Gir Sanctuary, Gujarat. 2 Asst. Professor, School of Forestry, Yale University, U.S.A. STUDIES OF WILD UNGULATES 413 current status of the ungulate species of the Gir — that set of animals which comprise the natural or wild food of the lion. In October 1968, Jordan submitted for the School of Forestry, Yale University, a proposal to the Smithsonian Institution to study the wild ungulates of the Gir. Simultaneously, Mr. Futehally submitted for the Bombay Natural History Society a parallel proposal to the Indian Screen- ing Committee, in accordance with procedures for involvement of PX, 480 funds for ecological investigations. In March, 1969, Jordan, accom- panied by Dean Francois Mergen and Professor W. R. Burch of the Yale School of Forestry, visited India to meet collaborators and evaluate research opportunities. Both of the above proposals, after some delay and revision, were approved during 1969. Yale’s participation involves mainly the full-time field work of Mr. S. H. Berwick, a doctoral candidate doing this research for his dissertation. In addition to collaborating with various Indian scientists, Mr. Berwick will assist several Indian student fellows in independent study related to the overall objectives of the Yale-BNHS programme. The studies outlined in the proposal and slightly amended in a subsequent document by Berwick, involve censusing and comparing niche relationships among six species of ungulates now extant and one recently extinct within the Gir. These are the wild boar (Sus scrofa), chinkara or Indian gazelle ( Gazella gazella bemetti ), four-horned antelope ( Tetracerus quadricornis ), nilgai or blue bull ( Boselephas tragocamelus ), chital or spotted deer ( Axis axis), and the sambar ( Cervus unicolor) ; the locally extinct species is the blackbuck or Indian antelope ( Antilope cervicapra ), Ungulate populations at the Gir now are apparently far below levels assumed normal for this region were habitat not disturbed. Res- toration of ungulate numbers is critical not only to maintaining the original natural community but also to providing enough wild prey for the lions as well as for the other large carnivores here — leopards, wolves, and hyenas. Lions, according to Joslin’s studies (1969), now subsist largely on domestic animals, a situation which is neither good for the lions (biologically or politically) nor for the local economy. The Yale-BNHS research in designed to provide heretofore little known information on the comparative ecology of these large herbivores as they coexist in this part of the world. By field observation and ex- periments with penned, semi-tame specimens, feeding niches and climatic tolerances are being compared. Numbers, population dynamics, and habitat affinities are being measured and compared. The combined results 414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (2) should reveal the causes of current underpopulation and hence, suggest management strategies for restoring these species to normal levels. Numbers, Distribution and Composition of Ungulates A first priority at the Gir was estimation of numbers and distribution of each species of ungulate. A survey for this purpose had been made by Joslin the previous year. (a) Techniques To properly sample a large area such as the 450 square mile Gii, one must use a wide ranging, uniform technique. Fortunately the Gir is covered by a network of roads being rather evenly spaced and traversing all habitats except steep hills. Furthermore, density of vegetation during the dry season, i.e. after the many deciduous trees and shrubs have shed their leaves, affords consistent visibility of animals back 20-200 metres from the road. Thus it was possible to use a strip-count sampling similar to that described by Hirst (1969). From west to east along a gradient of diminishing moisture, the density of vegetation diminishes. The Gir was divided into three regions each characteristically different in dominant vegetation — west, middle, and east. Census sampling was then stratified according to this division. Extrapolating density from strip counts requires that strip-width be estimated as accurately as the number of animals within the strip. To estimate average maximum distance at which the average sized ungulate is visible, tests were made with cardboard models the size and colour of chitals, the median-sized species and also the most abundant one. For night spot lighting, a model with eye-like reflectors was substituted. From randomly chosen points along the road, one man moved the model away while another, watching from a jeep, indicated when the model could no longer be seen. The disappearance distance was then measured by tape. For both night and daylight visibility, 70 tests each were made to obtain a mean distance. Hirst (1969) compared stationary-observer results with the spotting of randomly placed models from a moving vehicle and found no significant difference between the two methods. Strip-width equals two times disappearance distance since counts are made from both sides of the vehicle. Strip- widths in 1970 were deter- mined only for the mixed teak forest typical of the middle region : there was inadequate time for testing elsewhere. Widths were 128 and 100 metres for daylight and night respectively. It will be possible to test in several other types next spring. If widths are found to be different else- where, this year’s figures can be subsequently recalculated, since all records are kept by map location. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (2) Berwick and Jordan: Gir Ungulates Above: Acacia Forest, Eastern Gir. Below: Measuring ‘disappearance distance’. ( Photos : Author ) STUDIES OF WILD UNGULATES 415 Counts were made between 23 March and 11 May, Daylight runs were confined to the cool, early hours of 6-9 a.m. while the 2=4 hours of night counting started \ hour after darkness (about 7,45 p.m.). When, for a given area, both day and night counts were made, the same road was run for both counts on the same day. Otherwise there was no repetition of road coverage. For each species in each region, density estimates based on daylight vs. darkness counts were compared, and the higher figure was selected for subsequent calculations. It is reasoned that highest counts will result when feeding activity in the species is greatest, i.e. when most animals are on their feed. Since strip-width estimates are based on visibility of standing animals, consistency dictates that counts be made whenever the greatest portion are on their feet. Densities calculated from the strips are extrapolated for the three regions, and these are then summed for the whole Gir. Areas of the three strata were determined from planimetry of a rather crude map. If and when a better map is available, totals will be recalculated, (b) Results and Discussion Strip counts were made along some 996 km. of roads: 416 km, in daylight and 580 km. after dark. Considering separately each species estimate in each region, higher density estimates resulted from night counts than day counts in 2 out of 3 cases. Of the most abundant species, chital and nilgai, chital were better represented at night while nilgai results were divided about evenly between day and night counts. Of the four less abundant species, sambar and pig were about evenly represented while four-horned and chinkara were consistently more visible at night. Table 1 shows estimated densities and totals for each region and for the entire Gir. The results of this survey agree rather well with Joslhvs (pers. comm.) survey made one year earlier. His counting was all at night, and his calculations were based on an estimated strip-width of 75 rather than 100 metres. Joslin covered 1,025 km. of roads, but this involved some duplications. He estimated a total of 7,200 ungulates with 5,400 chital as compared to our 6,242 and 4,404 respectively. Had Joslin applied a strip- width of 100 metres, then his total would be 5,400 with 4,050 chital. While the agreement is close for chitals, this year’s total of all species is notably larger. It seems reasonable that, by covering the sanctuary more widely this year, a greater diversity of habitat was encompassed, hence the un- evenly distributed, rarer species were probably sampled more represen- tatively. Likewise, inclusion of daylight counts probably improved re- presentativeness of some species. Table 416 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (2) o z Boar 0.038 21 1 0.10 36 2 >o Tj- o 0.09 0.2 102 (total 6,242) 2 5 Chinkara 0.039 21 1 on r- r- — o 0.17 0.4 200 5 12 Four-horned 0.31 166 10 \0 O *n C'l © . ° 0.22 0.6 256 6 15 Sambar 0.35 186 11 0.26 90 5 . ° 0.24 0.6 276 6 26 Nilgai 0.54 291 18 0.83 289 17 1.47 424 41 0.85 2.3 1,004 23 64 Chital 3.05 1,642 100 4.98 1,735 100 3.57 1,027 100 3.75 9.7 4,404 100 389 ^3 a £J O ‘5b o o .2 •2? T3 : 3 : 3 ^ 3 : : 3 s « « ft? fg ®5 eS 3 1 . 8 1 8 1 8 gu y 3 O I_;| Is § 1-1 tr : *3 §3 § g a 1! £ o-o 3 o-o II $co _5> 6 2«S 2 oo |l C/5 OJ 111 J- <>««% J5 ► STUDIES OF WILD UNGULATES Ail Chinkara are probably over-estimated. The species prefers the areas where vegetation is most open, hence where the average distance of visibility exceeds the calculated strip-width. The low figure for wild boar, when contrasted with past observations and reports, suggests a sharp and recent decline in that species. Residents of the Gir claim that boar was the most numerous ungulate but a few years ago. A high frequency of boar among all ungulate skulls now being recovered throughout the forest evidences their recent abundance. While farmers and others are increasing their efforts to eradicate boar from cultivated fields surrounding the Gir, the skulls being picked up for this study are usually well inside the Gir many miles from fields. It is possible the population has suffered a severe epidemic. The stratified analysis indicates interspecies distributional difference within the Sanctuary. Sambar are most abundant in the west, chinkara in the east, and four-horned antelope in the middle region. Chitai and nilgai, the two most numerous species, are more uniformly distributed than the others. Nilgai are notable for existing equally well in the most dense and in the most open of vegetation. Information gathered on the extirpated black buck indicates that this species was once locally abundant in the flat open areas of the western and eastern margins of the Forest. The disappearance of black buck some 15-25 years ago may well be related to incursions of agriculture across the boundaries of the Sanctuary. Sex and Age Composition In travels about the Gir as well as during the census, sex and age are recorded at each sighting ot ungulates as long as it is possible to accu- rately classify every individual sighted at one place and time. During the first months of field work, such classification was impeded by lack of familiarity with growth rates and phenology in the six species. Assuming the necessary criteria will be in hand soon, not only will subsequent classification be more reliable, but some early data can be reanalyzed. Table 2 summarizes population structure as measured during the first months of this study, the dry season, using provisional criteria of classification. Among limited numbers of four-homed antelope and chinkara classified, no small-sized individuals were recorded. For all species, it is suspected that females are under-represented here. Since groups within which all animals are not classifiable are not recorded, it follows that as size of group increases so also does the probability of that group’s not being included in the sample. It appears that females are more 418 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , U?/. 6$ (2) likely to predominate large groups than small ones. If so, females are being undersampled. As a direct consequence, young, as a per cent of the total population, would likewise be underestimated. An adjustment in calculations to avoid this bias has been devised and is being tested: it simply requires that group size be recorded in every encounter whether or not complete classification is achieved. Table 2 Age and sex ratios in five ungulates estimated from observation sampling during March- June, 1970 Species Adult Young Male Female Chital 35 (97) 100 (274) 31 (84) Nilgai 89 (55) 100 (62) 4 (31) Sambar 33 (11) 100 (33) 55 (18) Four-horned 100(11) 100 (11) Chinkara 100 (11) 100(11) “ Young ” is not necessarily year-class I, since criteria of growth and parturi- tion season are not yet available for these species at the Gir. Numbers in parentheses show sample size. The tendency to aggregate, i.e. display positive social cohesiveness as opposed to mere chance proximity, is measured by the average number seen moving together as a group. Variation in group size can reflect differences in density or in sex or age makeup of the local population as well as reflecting a general tendency within a species to aggregate. Aggre- gation can vary with feeding habits, time of day, cover, or the point of the annual reproductive cycle. To factor out what regulates grouping tendency requires many types of information. Assuming this information will eventually be uncovered during these investigations, presentation of quantitative results is defened. Of all the ungulates, the two most common, chita 1 and nilgai, are the most gregarious, at least during the period March- June. No notable differences in group size appeared for any species by region or habitat type. Unlike chital and nilgai, mixed-sex groupings of sambar, four- horned antelope, and chink ara consistently involved a single adult pair. This suggests breeding behaviour in these last three, but again further information will be required. Pursuing these measurements through the year will be important to determining the timing of mating. In this regard it is noted that chital were dropping antlers just before the monsoon (June), while sambar were in velvet (antlers growing) at that time. It is anticipated the entire picture of phenology of mating and parturition STUDIES OF WILD UNGULATES 419 will be defined for the ungulates of the Gir, and this in turn can be related to resource phenologies and climatic tolerances. Vegetation Surveys and Grazing Measurements This phase has not yet produced reportable results; however, consid- erable groundwork has been laid on several phases of investigation. Berwick mastered the identification of the woody flora of the Gir, during which exercise a collection and series of drawings was made of more than 70 species. Familiarization with herbaceous flora was aided by collections prepared and checked by Mr. Hodd. With Mr. Hodd, grasses are being grown free of grazing to assemble a series of tissues representing various growth stages; these will be used in identifying food items from rumen contents or feces. To gain familiarity with vegetation patterns within the Gir, Berwick made an extensive foot survey across the Forest, recording composition and frequency in 78 types. Each of these types can be relocated on the ground as well as on aerial photographs. Sampling information included stem density, diameter of stems, height of trees, and composition of shrub and herbaceous layers. During the walk, a tally was made of droppings of domestic stock within a 5-foot strip except near herdsmen’s villages (nesses). This index will show relationships between livestock distribution during the dry season and vegetation types. Initial analyses of the survey reveal that tree density is somewhat uniform from the west through the middle of the Gir but from there eastward decreases sharply. The same can be said for the Forest’s domi- nant species of tree, teak ( Tectona grandis). On the other hand, diversify of woody species increases from west to east. Grazing-free plots of grass, maintained by fencing out animals, were established in two widely separated locales. Both sites are well removed from nesses, hence from excessive livestock pressure. The production of herbaceous forage will be estimated by clipping samples within the exclosures; differences between inside and outside clippings at selected seasons will provide estimates of grazing removals. Distinc- tion of wild vs. domestic grazing will be possible by using exclosures with differential accessibility: one excludes all ungulates, as well as most smaller herbivores, while the other excludes livestock only. Species of wildlife will be distinguished by feces and by direct observation from concealed vantage points. There are 10 plots exclosed, each 20x20 feet, along with an equal number of matched control plots. In his work with livestock grazing, Mr. Hodd constructed a series of similar exclosures, mostly near nesses. Results from the present study 420 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FW. 68 (2) will complement Hodd’s in that the most heavily and least heavily used areas by livestock will have been studied. Mr. Hodd suffered considerable loss of data from a variety of disturbances within his exclosures. Based on his experience, we have taken special precautions to prevent these serious misfortunes. Total Production and Demand for Grass In order to guide the design of measurements and experiments on grazing capacity at the Gir, a speculative model of grass productivity and usage was constructed. This is but a preliminary exercise ; neverthe- less it suggests the sorts of results which this work, in conjunction with that of Hodd and Joslin, should produce. The following calculations are based on best estimates of forage consumption among ungulates — wild and domestic — and early results of Hodd’s grass production sampling. Data for the entire forest are simulated as means for estimating the optimal stocking level. Criteria of good range management used here are, unfortunately, those relevant to temperate rather than tropical grasslands. North American range experts generally agree that grass ranges which are “good” to “excellent” can remain in such condition if no more than 50-60 per cent of annual production is removed by grazing (U.S. Forest Service, 1963; Stoddart & Smith 1955; Jameson 1962). However, ranges in “poor” condition will degrade further or fail to recover if more than 25 per cent of annual production is removed. There is little doubt that range scientists would classify much of the Gir as currently in “poor” condition. Table 3 lists the estimated numbers of each species of ruminant within the Gir, average live weights, and the calculated live weight biomass of each population. Because this is but a working model and most input data are expressed in English measure, metric equivalents are not shown. Table 4 details the procedure for estimating the amount of grass utilized by each species on a per pound live weight basis*. From this is calculated with data from Table 3 the total annual demand for grass. There are approximately 450 square miles of grazing land within the Gir. Productivity of grass is estimated at 542 pounds (dry weight) per acre (Albertson 1959; Hodd 1969). Domestic animals are given supplements of cottonseed and groundnuts (peanuts) at approximately 1.75 pounds per day. In addition to grass removed by animals or cut by herdsmen for domestic animals within the Gir, some 44 x !05 pounds STUDIES OF WILD UNGULATES 421 of grass are cut and removed from the Forest by fodder cutters each year, according to Gujarat Forestry officials. Table 3 Population and biomass of ungulates in the Gir Forest Species Numbers i Average live weights Species — Average Biomass Lbs. x 105 Zebu Cattle Adults 4,634 Young 2,495 Adults 650 Young 200 35.11 Domestic Buffalo 11,806 6,357 900 270 123.42 Nilgai 770 330 500 200 4.50 Sambar 208 52 400 150 0.91 Chital 3,680 920 125 50 5.06 Four-horned 180 45 50 25 .10 Chinkara 160 40 50 25 .09 Subtotals : Domestic 158.53 Wild 10.66 Total ... 169.19 1 Population estimates based on unpublished work of P. Joslin plus the present study. 2 Schaller 1967; Taylor 1969; Ledger 1969; Prater 1965. For those livestock not year-round residents the number shown reflects their number multiplied by the fraction of a year they are present. Table 4 Calculations of grass consumption per annum by the ungulates of the Gir Forest with certain intermediate data shown Species Per cent diet Grass! Grass consumed (lbs.) per live weight pound per day 2 Annual consumption by population Lbs. x 10§ Cattle ... 90 .023 294.75 Buffalo 85 .022 991.06 Nilgai 20 .005 8.21 Sambar 40 .010 3.32 Chital 95 .023 42.48 Four-homed 40 .010 0.37 Chinkara 80 .016 0.53 Totals : Domestic 1,285.81 Wild 54.91 Total grazing 1,340.72 Fodder cutting 44.00 Total removal/year 1,384.72 (138,471,000 lbs. or 69,235 T) * Schaller, 1967 ; Ledger, 1969. 2 Stoddart and Smith 1955 ; Odend’hal 1969; Albertson 1959; Bilby 1969; Abrams 1969. 422 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (2) It is calculated that annual production within the Gir is 1.56x 108 pounds. Our rough calculations of grass removal gives 1.39 x 108 pounds per year or 89 per cent of production. Grazing is heavy at the Gir — perhaps up to 75 per cent overall and approaching 100 per cent in some sectors. It is suspected, however, that the above estimate of annual production is low. There is no allowance for foddei removed by laga- morphs, rodents, and insects — the total of which might well exceed 10 per cent of annual production1. These production estimates were based on sample plots located near nesses where soil and vegetation degradation from long overgrazing and trampling is most severe. On the other hand, Hodd believes that the nes effect extends out 1 to \\ miles, which for 150 nesses distributed rather uniformly, would mean the nes elfect covers the entire Gir. Based on the above figures, if it is desired just to maintain the present low level of wild ungulates while reducing total grass removal to 25 per cent of annual production, a reduction of 74 per cent of current cattle and buffalo grazing is required2. Despite the roughness of these calculations, they offer some notion of how severe is the problem of livestock impact at the Gir. The combined results of Hodd’s study and the present one should provide a foundation from which a plan of forage allocation can be devised. Such a plan must be based upon land-use priorities and the need to restore and assure equilibrium in the soil-vegetation complex at the Gir Forest. References Abrams, J. T. (1968): Fundamental approach to the nutrition of the captive wild herbivore. In Comparative Nutrition of Wild Animals, M. A. Crawford (Ed.). The Zoological Society of London, Aca- demic Press, London. Albertson, F. W. (1959): Improving grasslands in India. Kansas State College U.S. International Co-operation Ad- ministration II CAKSC-1. p. 31. Bilby, Lorette (1968): A pilot scheme to investigate the diets of some of the mammals at the London Zoo. I. Primate diets. In Comparative Nutrition of Wild Animals, M. A. Crawford (Ed.). Academic Press, London, pp. 63-74. Hirst, S. M. (1969): Road strip census techniques for wild ungulates in African woodland. /. Wildl. Mgmt 33 (1) : 40-48 Hodd, K. T. B. (1969): The ecological impact of domestic stock on the Gir Forest. Proc. IUCN 10th General Assem- bly and 11th Technical Meeting, H. 5 GO p.). Jameson, D. A. (1963) : Evaluation of the responses of individual plants to grazing. In Range Research Methods, U.S.D.A., U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, pp. 109-116. Joslin, P. (1969): The Asiatic lion — conservation aspects of its ecology. Proc. IUCN 10th General Assembly and 11th Technical Meeting, I. lb. (16 p.) Ledger, H. P. (1968): Body compo- sition as a basis for a comparative study of some East African mammals, pp. 289- 310. In Comparative Nutrition of Wild Animals, M.A. Crawford (Ed.). Acade- mic Press, London. 1 Also corrections have not been made for increased forage consumption due to lactation in the domestic animals where ghee constitutes a major product. 2 Less than 4% of the grass removed each year is consumed by wildlife and over 90% is consumed by domestic livestock. STUDIES OF WILD UNGULATES 423 Odend’hal, S. (1969): Proc. IUCN 10th General Assembly and 11th Technical Meeting. Prater, S. H. (1965): The book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural His- tory Society, Bombay, p. 323. Schaller, G. B. (1967): The deer and the tiger. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, p. 370. Stood art, L. A. & Smith, A. D. (1945) : Range management. McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc., New York. p. 433. Talbot, L. M. (1960): A look at threatened species. A report on some animals of the Middle East and Southern Asia which are threatened with exter- mination. Oryx 5: 153-293. Taylor, C. R. (1968): The minimum water requirements of some East African bovids. In Comparative Nutrition of Wild Animals, M. A. Crawford (Ed.). Academic Press, London, p. 195-205. U. S. Forest Service, Regioo 1. (1963): Range Analysis Field Guide FSH 2212.02 rl. p. 164. The Pigmy Hog Sus salvanius (Hodgson) in Northern Assam BY Jeremy J. C. Mallinson Deputy Director Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust ( With a plate) Introduction The Pigmy Hog Sus salvanius was first recorded in 1847 and was described by B. H. Hodgson in his paper “ On a new form of Hog Kind or Suidae ” in the May edition of the Journal of the Asiatic Field Society , Bengal. Hodgson stated that it must seem almost incredible that so tiny an animal should effectually resist men, but considered that the Pigmy Hog entirely escaped all notice due to its being exclusively confined to the deep recesses of primeval forest. The scarcity of records during the intervening years, and the fact that the species still remains virtually unstudied in the wild state has led some authors to record that the pigmy hog was now possibly extinct. However, Simon (1970) states in the Survival Service Red Data Book that the meagre evidence available suggests that the pigmy hog survives in parts of Assam, and may well b: distributed in the Nepalese terai. The purpose of this paper is to record all the data collected during my visit to Assam, in May, 1971, and in particular the observations made on the fourteen adults and the four young being kept in captivity in the Mangaldai sub-division, of Darrang division, Assam. Captive Stock At the time of my visit to Assam there were fourteen adult specimens of pigmy hog comprising three males and eleven females, and four young (one male, three females) kept in three separate locations in the Mangaldai sub-division of Assam. One male, six females, and the four young were kept at the Attareekhat Tea Estate; one male, three females at the Paneery Tea Estate; and one male, two females at the Budlapara Tea Estate. The first two groups came under the ownership of Mr. Dick Graves but are now under the trusteeship of the newly formed Assam Valley PIGMY HOG IN NORTHERN ASSAM 425 Wildlife Scheme of which India’s Prime Minister, Mrs. Indira Gandhi, is the patron. Regrettably, I was unable to observe the three specimens in the third group at Budlapara although the tea company concerned were participants in the Assam Valley Wildlife Scheme. Some seventeen specimens were caught in the thatchlands between the Rajagarh Forest Reserve and the Attareekhat Tea Estate on the Bhutan/Assam Border. The reason for the dramatic reappearance and subsequent sightings of this rare and endangered species, was due to an extensive fire amongst the thatch during the twenty-four-hour period 21 -22nd March 1971 which is reputed to have covered approximately fifty square miles. The nearby villages immediately started to catch the pigmy hog to sell them for the pot, and it was then that Mr. Graves intervened and gave the villagers a considerably large sum of money if the specimens were brought to him alive. This timely intervention was prompted by both Mr. Richard Magor, Director of the Attareekhat Tea Company, and founder of the Assam Valley Wildlife Scheme, who in January 1971 told the staff to make an all-out effort to try and secure some specimens of pigmy hog. Also by Mr. John Tessier-Yandell, Secretary of the Assam Valley Wildlife Scheme, who since 1959 had done a great deal of detective work with regard to the whereabouts of the pigmy hog in Assam. The first pair arrived on 31 st March, two females on 3rd April, and the remainder were brought in, at intervals during April. Out of the seventeen brought in, three specimens, one male and two females, died. It is not known what has happened to the skeleton and skin of the male specimen. It is interesting to note that Hodgson (1847: 423) refers to the annual clearance of the undergrowth of the forest by fire occasionally revealing the pigmy hogs, and the herd is thus assailed at advantage. The pigmy hogs were at first all accommodated at the Attareekhat Tea Estate, but on 5th May four specimens were sent to Paneery under the supervision of Mr. Robin Wrangham, as it was quite rightly considered to be essential to split up the hogs into at least two separate groups within the species’ range in order to minimise the consequences of any virulent infection. General Description Adult— The colour of the pigmy hog is blackish brown shaded vaguely with rusty red, the hairs of the specimens examined were quite sparse in comparison to that of a Wild Boar or a Peccary, and the hairs 9 426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 68 (2) do not exceed 2\” in length, the longest of these being at the nape of the neck. Both the tail and ears are short and without hair, and the jaws are shorter than those of the common Hog. The females have only three pairs of teats, half the number possessed by other pigs. Blandford (1888) and Lydekker (1900) state that the young are dark brown, with longitudi- nal rufous bands above and on the sides, white beneath. The young bom at Attareekhat and seen by me at 23 days old had greyish hairs about the snout, forehead, crown of head and ears. The dorsal hairs were blackish brown tinged underneath with rufous. The hairs under the throat and on the stomach were predominantly rufous, the skin having a grey pigmentation. Only on the closest examination could the rufous stripes be observed; the almost absence of any longitudinal bands or stripes at an earlier stage of development was verified by Graves and Singh (in verbis 1971) who saw the young soon after birth. The measurements of one at 25 days old can be seen in Table 2. It is doubted whether the stripes of the young pigmy hog could be seen without handling the animal, which is in complete contrast to the obvious striped markings of the young in the Wild Boar of both India and Africa. The young of the New World peccaries do not have any striped markings. Dimensions There is little information recorded on the measurements and weights of the Pigmy Hog, as can be seen from the following data : — Table 1 Dimensions of Sus salvanius as quoted in literature Specimen Muzzle to base of tail Shoulder height Weight Reference Sub-adult 18"-2Cr 8-10" 7-10 lbs. Hodgson (1847:423) Adult d5 26" 12" — Lydekker (1900: 267) The information given by Blandford (1888 : 563) accredited to Hodgson, of an old male weighing 17 lbs. cannot be traced in the literature cited, and the weight is considered to be highly unlikely. As it was important for me to examine the majority of the animals in captivity in order to assess their general condition I took this invaluable opportunity in taking the dimensions of eleven of the specimens, when I considered that undue stress would not be caused to them. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (2) Mallinson : Pigmy Hog Above: Pigmy Hog Sus salvanius 9 young 25 days old. Assam, May 1971, Below : Pigmy Hog Sus salvanius . Assam, May 1971. ( Photos : Jeremy J . C. Mallinson ) PIGMY HOG IN NORTHERN ASSAM 427 Table 2 Dimensions of Sus salvanim at Attareekhat Tea Estate taken on 23rd May 1971 Sex Muzzle to base of tail Tail Height of shoulder Height of ear Weight Condition Pen No. Code Ref. Adult male 28" IF 9" IF Good I M.l Adult female 23*" IF 00 IF Good 1 F.l Adult female ... 23" IF 00 ^ ' IF Good I F.2 Adult female ... 23*" IF «F IF Good l F.3 Adult female ... 22" IF 8" IF „ Poor 11 F.4 Adult female ... 24*" IF 8 F IF left eye missing, very thin Left hind 111 F.5 Adult femalei... foot amputated skin flaking good IV F.6 Infant, f. at25days2 14*" F 2 F a* 4 — Good 1 1 W F.6 inf. 1 Sow gave birth to 4 young on 28th April, 1971. 2 The remaining 3 young were not measured. Table 3 Dimensions of Sus salvanius at Paneery Tea Estate taken on 23rd May 1971 Sex Muzzle to base of tail Tail Height of shoulder Height of ear Weight Condition Pen No. Code Ref. Sub- adult male Adult female ... 19*" IF 8*" 1*" 3.700 kgs Good I M.2 21F IF 8*" IF 3.675 kgs Poor I F.7 Sub- Adult female ... 19*" | IF | 1 1 | 8" l f IF 3.400 kgs aborted apr. left hind foot removed . Good I F.8 Sub- Adult 19" IF ] 7F IF 2.700 kgs Good I F.9 I left hind foot left toe removed. i 428 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (2) It can be seen in Tables 2 and 3 that the muzzle-base of tail measurement of the adult male is 28", sub-adult male 19^", and in six adult females the measurements range from 21 £"-24^". The shoulder height of the adult male is 9", sub-adult male 8^", and the six adult female measurements range from 8-8 The measurements between the teats taken longitudinally in adult females was found to range from l£"-2". Behaviour Hodgson (1847) states that the pigmy hog seems to have the disposition of the peccary {Tayassu tajacu) as well as the resemblance. The herds are not large, consisting of five or six, to fifteen or twenty. The males fearlessly attack intruders, charging and cutting the naked legs of their human or other attackers with a speed that baffles the eyesight, and a spirit which their straight sharp laniaries renders really perplexing if not dangerous. Hamilton (1921), describing a shooting expedition with the Maharajah of Cooch Bihar in 1891, states that they go about in droves of about fifty, and move through the grass with such incredible rapidity that the eye is unable to follow them. The elephants, oddly enough, are scared to death by the pigmy hogs, for the little creatures have tusks as sharp as razors, and gash the elephants’ feet with them as they rush past them. The ten pigmy hogs handled by me on 23rd May 1971 were surprisingly non-aggressive, and from all accounts when the specimens were caught, no real aggression was encountered. When disturbed from their thatch bedding the pigmy hogs have the ability to move like lightning, keeping close together, the females usually following the males, before reaching a further refuge where they would pile on top of each other. Just prior to giving birth the females are said to make a nest within the thatch, this behavioural pattern was observed by Graves (1971) prior to the parturition recorded at Attareekhat Tea Estate. The literature states that the pigmy hog is nocturnal, however, from my personal observations on the two groups at Attareekhat and Paneery, I saw nothing to support this attribute. The pigmy hog were the most active just after dawn and some two hours before sunset, but on some occasions were seen walking about in their enclosures at Paneery in the middle of the day in the direct sunshine. It is interesting to note that some pigmy hogs were photographed in the Manas sanctuary during the daytime (Jenkins 1971). Breeding In the literature consulted there are no references to the pigmy hog PIGMY HOG IN NORTHERN ASSAM 429 being observed with young in the wild state. However, it is considered, as with so many animals, that parturition will take place when environ- mental conditions are the most favourable, and in all probability breeding seasons are adhered to. Pigmy hogs were born during the four years 1883, 1884, 1885 and 1886 at the London Zoo (Z.S.L.) but regrettably the only reference to the time of the year that parturition took place was 23rd May 1883. However, it is interesting to note that the 4 young born at Attareekhat Tea Estate, which were conceived in the wild state, were born on 28th April 1971 adhering to a similar time of the year as the former. Hodgson (1847) states that the grown male perhaps pairs off for a short period in the breeding season, of which there are said to be two in the year, and the litter to consist usually of but 3 or 4 young ones, similar to the number born at Attareekhat. The records of the Zoological Society of London show that the number of young per litter ranges from 1-4. The South American Collared Peccary in the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust’s collection, normally produce two litters a year consisting of from one to four young with a gestation period of 110-120 days. Diet Hodgson ((847) states that their food is chiefly roots and bulbs, but they also eat eggs, young birds, insects, and reptiles, having a good deal of the omnivorous propensity proper to the whole family (Suidae). When the pigmy hogs were first taken into captivity, they were fed mainly on rice and vegetable matter, the rice was very much their favourite food. However, in order to provide the specimens with nutri- tionally adequate and balanced rations, the following foodstuffs were advised. Papaya — Pumpkin — Tomato — Potato — Egg Plant — Marrow — Cabbage — Corn on the Cob — Banana — Matikali (high in protein) — Pea Nuts — Raw Egg with shell — Unpolished Rice — Skimmed Milk — Insects — Reptiles — Young birds — 4 Becadex ’ (multi- vit preparation including Vits. A, D2, Bj, B12 and C) 2.5 ml.= § teaspoon per specimen daily. Fresh turf with plenty of soil left around roots, and a few branches (to allow the animals to gnaw the bark) to be placed in the outside areas at regular intervals. It was soon observed that com on the cob was one of their favourite 43© JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, , Fo/. 68 (2) foods, for they would carry the cob about the paddock nibbling at them until only the husk remained. Habitat The jungle and thatchlands of the Himalayan foothills. The majority of the thatch grows up to approximately 12 ft. height during the monsoons from June to October, but then starts to wither down to approximately 5 ft. during January to March, unless the thatch had been fired. The Assamese names for the two chief species of thatch are ‘ Boranganni kher ’ and 4 Nulgahuri’, the latter is the local name given to the pigmy hog. It is considered by the locals, that when the thatch becomes too water- logged during the height of the monsoons, the pigmy hog go into the forested areas of the foothills. On 23 rd May T travelled by jeep through the thatchlands in the Mangaldai sub-division to the north of Attareekhat, and with the permission of the local forest officer, to the Rajagarh Forest Reserve, to study the typical habitat of the pigmy hog. On 25th May 1971 I flew in a single engine Cessna 180 over the foothills to the east of the Mangaldai sub-division, in the area to the north of Pertabgurh by the Bhutan and N.E.F.A. borders. On the whole the habitat was continuous, although in some areas small patches of forest and thatch had been cleared by Nepalese settlers who are in increas- ing numbers coming into this area of northern Assam and upsetting the ecology of the pigmy hog’s environment. Possible Distribution The Himalayan foothills in the west start from the Naini Tal district in the State of Uttar Pradesh and continue eastwards along the northern borders into Bihar State and almost up to the West Bengal border, a distance of approximately 600 miles. This habitat is then broken by a stretch of approximately 150 miles of tea estates in West Bengal, before restarting in the valley of the Manas River, north-west Assam and extending eastwards along the foothills bordering Bhutan and N.E.F.A. up to Lakhimpur district in the north-east border of Assam, a distance of approximately 300 miles. The width of this foothill belt being approxi- mately 5-15 miles. During March 1971 Jenkins et al. photographed what they took to be pigmy hogs in the Manas Sanctuary, north-west Assam (the photo- graphs have since been confirmed as of this species). During March-April, further to the east of the Manas Sanctuary, approximately twenty speci- mens came to light after the extensive fire in the thatchlands in the Mangaldai sub-division. PIGMY HOG IN NORTHERN ASSAM 431 Summary and Recommendations During my mission to Assam valuable information was gathered to supplement the fragmentary data about this, once considered to be possibly extinct species. The description of the markings of the young, and the diurnal behaviour of the adults, are contrary to the accepted published data about this species. The comparative measurements taken of the eleven specimens examined, provides us with a clearer picture as to the pigmy hog’s dimensions. It is generally considered that the pigmy hog is still comparatively numerous in the Himalayan foothill area between Bhutan and North West Assam; and that if the habitat was to remain unmolested, the pigmy hog would probably be able to survive in this part of its range. Regrettably, however, due to the great increase of Nepalese settlement in this area, patches of forest and thatch are being cleared, thus upsetting the ecology of the pigmy hog’s environment, and undoubtedly, if the specimens are seen by the settlers they are hunted for the pot. It is estimated by the numerous people I spoke to, that if the present rate of infiltration continues, the majority of the habitat will have dis- appeared within the next five to ten years. In compliance with the I.U.C.N. Survival Service Commission’s policy on the capture of Rare or Endangered Animal species, these units should serve the following objectives {a) To multiply the species in order to provide a reservoir of animals for stocking scientifically managed sites and reserve areas where sufficient protection can be afforded. 0 b ) To permit study of the species’ biology under controlled conditions. It is recommended that, as the pigmy hog’s habitat is threatened by an increasingly intensive human development, steps should be taken when the vegetation is at its lowest, to do a comprehensive evaluation of the habitat to determine what remains of it, and to capture some further specimens. Sufficient animals should be caught in order to strengthen the viability of the two existing captive populations within the species’ range; and to provide the opportunity to translocate some to a scientifically managed site, such as at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust. By this means help to ensure the pigmy hog’s perpetuation and so prevent the pigmy hog from becoming extinct, before the opportunity is lost forever. Acknowledgements In order to consult the majority of the published literature on Sus salvanius I am grateful to the following -Dr. B. S. Kesavan, National 432 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , Fo/. 68 (2) Library, Calcutta; the Bengal Club Library, Calcutta; the Library of the Zoological Society of London ; and the Library of Mr. Gerald Durrell I am grateful to Mr. John Tessier-Yandell for originally informing the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust about the re-occurrence of this species; to Dr. Robin Banerjee for his valuable advice on nutrition; to Mr. Gordon Simpson for allowing me to examine and photograph the skull of Sus salvanius ; to Mr. Zafar Futehally for showing me a head- mount in the collection of the Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay ; and to Mr. Pearson Surita who accompanied me from Calcutta to Assam and gave me his invaluable services throughout. I would like to congra- tulate Sri P. Barua, Chief Conservator of Forests in Assam, for giving his blessing to these captive units, and to the work being carried out by the Assam Valley Wildlife Scheme. My thanks to George Williamson & Co., Secretaries to the Attaree- khat Tea Co. Ltd., for their co-operation in providing quarters and supervision of the hogs; to Mr. Richard Magor, Director of the afore- mentioned company and of Williamson Magor & Co., Calcutta, for sponsoring my journey from Calcutta to Assam and the company being my hosts throughout this part of my mission ; and finally to the Fauna Preservation Society, London, for pigmy hog mission possible, Refei Beddard, F. E. (1909): Mammalia. Macmillan & Co, Ltd, London (ill. woodcut p. 276). Blandford, W. T. (1888): The Fauna of British India. Taylor and Francis, London (text p. 563). Burke, W. S. (1937): The Indian Shikar Book — Seventh edition. Thacker, Spink & Co. Calcutta (text pp. 151-52). Edinburgh, H. R. H. The Duke of & Fisher, James (1970): Wildlife Crisis. Hamish Hamilton, London (caption and artist’s impression pp. 106-7). Gee, E. P. (1964) : The Wildlife of India. Collins Ltd., London (text pp. 142-43, ill. plate 47). Graves, Richard (1971) : ( — in verbis ). Hamilton, Frederic Lord (1921): Here, There and Everywhere. Hodder and Stoughton, London (pp. 31-32). Hodgson, Brian H. (1847) : On a New Form of Hog Kind or Suidae. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal , Vol. XVI May. (text pp 423-28, ill. plate XII). Jenkins, D. (1971) : Oryx Tour. No. 12 to Qatar and India. (3-25 March). Oryx. Journal of the Fauna Preservation Society, Vol XI. No. 1, London (text p. 15). Lydekker, R. (1900): The Great and Small Game of India, Burma and Tibet. sponsoring and making the entire ENCES Rowland Ward Ltd., London (text pp. 266-67, ill. plate, VII, Fig. 8). Prater, S. H. (1965): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History Society and Prince of Wales Museum of Western India. Second edition (text p. 300). Simon, Noel (1970): Red Data Book Mammalia, Vol. 1. I.U.C.N. Merges, Switzerland (code number MA/114/SUS/ SAL June 3). Singh, (1971): ( — in verbis). Sterndale, Robert (1884): Natural History of Indian Mammalia. Thacker, Spink & Co., Calcutta (text pp. 421-22, ill. woodcut). Walker, E. P. (1964): Mammals of the World. The John Hopkins Press, Baltimore, U.S.A. (no mention of Sus salvanius , general inf. on family : Suidae). Wood, H. S. (1934) : Shikar Memories, A Record of Sport & Observations in India & Burma. H. F. & G. Witherby, London (text p. 221). Wrangham. R, & Wrangham, A. (1971): ( — in lit. 10: vi: 71 & 21 : vii: 71). Zoological Society of London (1883- 86): Annual Reports of the Zoological Society of London (records of breeding Sus salvanius at Regents Park). PIGMY HOG IN NORTHERN ASSAM 433 Footnote Wrangham (in lit. 10: vi : 7I) states that female 7 at Paneery died on May 31st with post-mortem findings — T,B, Lymphatic gland. The mother F. 6 at Attareekhat was separated from her four young before they had reached the age of six weeks, as it was considered that the mother had virtually no milk left, and that the young were all but weaned. Female 3 was moved from Attareekhat to Paneery. The male at Budlapara had died. Wrangham (in lit. 21 : vii : 71) stated that females 4, 5 and 6 and the male and two of the three female young, had all died at Attareekhat. The number of pigmy hogs in captivity at the end of July 1971 was nine adults and one young, consisting of 2 males, 7 females and the one female young. Reviews 1. FISHES. By Dr. (Miss) M. Chandy. pp. xi + 166 (20 x 14 cm.) With many illustrations, New Delhi, 1970. National Book Trust, India. Price Rs. 6.00. The book on 4 4 Fishes ” written by Dr. M. Chandy of Delhi Univer- sity, in the series, India — the land and people, is a preliminary account of fishes, useful for general reading. Its first part, dealing with scientific aspect of study of fishes, past and present, their classification, anatomy, adaptations etc. are written fairly satisfactorily. The author has made the difficult task easy for the reader. The language used is simple, under- standable and examples and cross references useful. Many would feel happy about this and in this respect the author deserves our compli- ments. The illustrations given are clear and impressive but they are not always specifically referred to in the text and in some cases typographical mistakes in their captions have remained. Despite these small deficiencies, the first six chapters are, no doubt, very creditably dealt with. Even in the seventh chapter, the epics of the eel and the Salmon migration have been quite lucidly described. How- ever, the factual account of migrations of the Indian species, leave much to be desired. For instance, while writing about migration of our well- known Chanos, on page 73, it is mentioned “ annually they migrate towards river mouth and backwaters of the west coast for spawning. Eggs hatch out and larvae grow into — fingeriings, by which stage they leave for the sea.” This account of Chanos migration is not correct as far as the present knowledge goes. Chanos is known to breed in the sea. Its exact location is not yet known but the larvae are collected along the shore. Similarly, in the case of Bombay Duck the account runs as 44 its natural home is the Arabian sea along the Bombay coast. It has been reported to wander as far away as Bay of Bengal and into the estuaries of the Ganges.” This statement would apparently mean that the same stock of fish as from the Arabian sea wanders right up to the northern boundary of the Bay of Bengal, but this has not been established. As a matter of fact, occurrence of Bombay Duck in the Sunderbans of the Bay of Bengal is sometime cited as a case of discontinuous distribution. Further, on page 73, it is stated 44 Hilsa ilisha is denizen of the Bay of Bengal.” This is not a complete statement of facts, as Hilsa ilisha is found on the west coast also and ascends rivers such as Indus, Narmada, Tapi, Ulhas, etc., where it gives rise to regular fisheries which are fairly REVIEWS 435 well known in the respective areas. A lot more can also be said about different stocks, races and their life cycle in inland waters. As regards part II of the book which deals with “ Common Indian Fishes,” in chapter VIII, the impression is that the information given is too scanty. It is felt that in view of the extensive information that is now available through research papers published during the past few years, the information furnished could be considerably amplified so as to be of some use to any inquiring mind. This has been a common shortcoming all throughout and hence this is not repeated in the comments on each and every fish. Apart from these omissions, there are several mistakes of factual nature throughout the book. As regards local names I have compared only the Marathi names and have found some mistakes. Other names have not been compared. Several typographical mistakes have also remained. The errors of fact and typography are so many and of such a diverse nature that it does not seem feasible that they can be adequately rectified simply by means of errata slips and without considerable rewriting. It is a pity that lack of attention to vetting the text before publication, and faulty proof-reading should have been permitted to mar this well conceived book. One can only hope that due attention will be paid to removing the defects which the reviewer has listed separately for the guidance of the author and publishers and for the benefit of future users of the book. C. ¥. K. 2. AN INTRODUCTION TO PLANT TAXONOMY. By C. Jeffrey, pp. vi + 128 (14 x 21 . 5 cm.). With 20 figs., 8 pis., 8 tabs. London, 1968. J. & A. Churchill Ltd. Price 24.?. The author who is the Senior Scientific Officer at the famous Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew has indeed made an extremely commendable effort to explain in simple terms how plants are classified and named. This little book is intended for teachers, students, gardeners, amateur naturalists and also professional biologists. It has certainly succeeded in promoting an understanding of plant taxonomy. The first two chapters explain with the help of diagrams and familiar examples of daily life, the purpose and fundamentals of classification. The author has warned the reader here not to be put off by the seemingly easy and naive manner of these explanations. The next chapters deal with the process of plant classification, the taxonomic hierarchy and its meaning and the scientific naming of plants which explain the funda- mental rules of plant nomenclature. 436 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , F entwined grasses, roots and cobwebs here and there (Pi. 2, Fig. 2). The inner lining is made up of the delicate inflorescence of reed. The cup is about 5-8 cm. deep. Such a depth prevents the eggs from rolling out of the nest when the reeds are violently shaken by the wind during gales which are of frequent occurrence during the breeding season. The nest is on the whole similar to that described by George (1962) in Kerala. The clutch-size is three to four (PI. 2, Fig. 2), based on observation of five nests with complete clutches of eggs (3 in three nests and 4 in two). Two more nests were found with only single, freshly laid eggs. The texture and coloration of the eggs agree with the description given by Baker (op. cit, pp. 389-390) and George (loc. cit.). Thirteen eggs measure : average 20.2x15.1 mm.; maxima 21.3x15.3 and 20.9x15.8 mm.; minima 18.5x15 and 19.8x14.8 min. Two nestlings taken on 13 September 1964, were about three or four days old (PL 2, Fig. 3). They had down absent, mouth orange, with a pair of somewhat diamond-shaped, glossy, purplish blue directive spots situated on two sides of the base of the tongue; gape yellow, maxilla fleshy horny, mandible fleshy, legs and feet plumbeous, claws horny. Zoological Survey of India, Indian Museum, Calcutta 13, January 15, 1971. S. S. SAHA, P. V. GEORGE, D. K. GHOSAL, H. P. MOOKERJEE, A. K. PODDAR, R. K. GHOSE, P. K. DAS, V. G. GOGATE, BISWAMOY BISWAS R E F E RENCES Baker, E. C. S. (1924): The fauna of British India, Birds. 2. Taylor & Francis, London. (1926): The fauna ,of British India, Birds. 3. Taylor & Francis, London, George, P. V. (1962): On the Indian Great Reed Warbler, Acrocephalus s ten to - reus (Hemprich & Ehrenberg), breeding in Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58 (for 1961): 797. Ripley, S. D. (1961): A Synopsis of the birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., Bombay. Vaurie, C, (1959): The birds of the palaearctic fauna. Passeriformes. Wither- by, London. 13. SOME INTERESTING BIRD RECORDS FROM POINT CALIMERE The Point Calimere Sanctuary, situated on a low forest-covered promontory on the Coromandel Coast about 300 miles south of Madras city and separated by a bare 30 miles of sea from Ceylon, is an ideal area for the study of birds migrating through India to Ceylon. The Society’s bird ringing station maintained at the Sanctuary since June li 458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (2) 1969 has proved extremely valuable for obtaining data on the movements of Passerine and non-Passerine migrants. Information on some of the species which have not hitherto been recorded from the area or have been considered absent during summer or rare in Tamil Nadu, is given below : Linmodromus semipalmatus (Blytb) Two Snipe-billed Godwit ringed on 1 3th October 1970, gave the following measurements : Wing 165, 170; Bill (from skull) 79, SI ; Tarsus 50, 49. There are no records of this bird from south India after Jerdon obtained a specimen from Madras Market in 184S. It is known as an uncommon straggler in eastern India, south to Chilka Lake, Orissa, where five specimens were ringed by our field team during January 1967. Chiidonias leucoptera (Temminck) We have ringed 50 'Whitewinged Black Tern at Calimere, most of them in December 1970. Kinnear & Whistler (1937) questioned the statement in the fauna that it is common on the east coast, and agreed with the assessment of Blanford (1898) that it has not been identified clearly west of Tipperah. The handbook (3 : 41) lists the details of its occurrence in India, and gives it as a rare winter visitor to east India and north Ceylon. Wait (1931) found them in fair numbers in the north- central provinces of Ceylon. In the absence of any published record from Tamil Nadu our specimens would suggest the likelihood of this species often being confused with C. hybrida indica (Stephens). Ceyx erithacus erithacus (Linn.) Four specimens of the Three-toed Forest Kingfisher were ringed between 15th November and 28th December 1970. This is a bird of the moist deciduous and evergreen biotope of the Himalayas, Western Ghats and Ceylon and its occurrence at Point Calimere is intriguing. We cannot be certain whether the specimens were stray vagrants from Ceylon or on passage between Ceylon and their Indian range. Mirafra erythroptera erythroptera (Blyth ) Seven Redwinged Bush Lark were ringed at Calimere. Ripley (1961 : 261) queries the occurrence of this species in Tamil Nadu, but our birds confirm that it does occur, and is perhaps even not very uncommon. Zoothera wardii (Blyth) Five birds of this species were netted and ringed during October 1969. The Pied Ground Thrush which breeds in the Himalayas has MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 459 previously been recorded at higher elevations on the Eastern Ghats having been obtained on 26th April at Sankrametta, Vizag Hills, apparently on the return migration from its winter quarters in Ceylon to its northern breeding grounds. Its capture at Calimere gives an indication of its migra- tory movement through the Peninsula. The other records given by Kinnear & Whistler (1932) are evidently also of birds on the northward migration. Zoothera citrina citrina (Latham) 22 birds of this species were ringed during October/November 1969. This is another record of a passage migrant whose status was not clear as far as Tamil Nadu is concerned. Camp. B.N.H.S. Bird Migration Study Project, Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu, March 22, 1971. References All Salim & Ripley, Dillon S. Eastern Ghats. PL III. /. Bombay nat. (1969): The Handbook of the Birds of Hist . Soc. 36: 78. India and Pakistan 3: 41. Bombay. ___ & _____ (1937); The Baker, E. C. S. (1929): Fauna of Vemay Scientific Survey of the Eastern British India. Birds. 6: 114. Ghats. Pi. XV. ibid. 39: 247. Blanford, W. T. (1898); Fauna of Ripley, S. Dillon (1961): Synopsis of British India. Birds 4: 308. the Birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay. Kinnear, N. B.& Whistler, H.( 1932): Wait, W. E. (1931): Birds of Ceylon, The Vemay Scientific Survey of the p. 380. London. 14. NEW RECORDS OF BIRDS FROM THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS While working on a collection of birds from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands present in the Zoological Survey of India, I came across four examples of birds belonging to two forms, which according to stand- ard ornithological literature (Baker 1924, 1929; Abdulali 1965, 1967; Ripley 1961 ; Ali & Ripley 1969) does not occur in this area. They are as follows i’ — (1) Porphyrin porphyrio poliocephalus (Latham). Indian Purple Moorhen. Three unsexed specimens bearing Z. S. I. Regd. Nos. 13680, 13681 and 13682, collected from Trinkut Island, Nicobars; donated by late E. H. May to the Asiatic Society of Bengal on 4 March, 1886. K. S. R. KRISHNA RAJU P. B. SHEKAR 460 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY \ Fo/. 68 (2) MEASUREMENTS (in mm.) 3 unsexed: Wing 225, 228, 239; tail 78, 81, 83; bill from skull 42, 45, 46; bill from anterior margin of nostril 26(2), 27; length of casque 24, 25, 26.5; width ot casque 26, 27(2) ; tarsus 82, 83, 85, middle toe without claw 88, 90, 93. All these specimens appear to be young birds after their first moult. They resemble the adult, but are not so brilliant in colour (Sharpe 1894, p. 198). Sides of head, chin, throat and neck are tinged with a little cobalt-blue. One of the specimens has a growth on the left ramus of the lower mandible near the gape. The Indian Purple Moorhen is known to occur in southern Baluchistan (West Pakistan) north to Kashmir east to East Pakistan and Burma, south to peninsular India and Ceylon. This appears to be the first record of its occurrence in the Nicobar Islands. (2) Lalage nigra ? subsp. Pied Cuckoo-Shrike or Pied Triller. One male specimen bearing Z. S. I. Regd. No. 28377, collected by Mr. R. V. Sherard of the Zoological Survey of India from Port Blair, South Andaman Island, on 18 March 1952. MEASUREMENTS (in mm.) 1 — « c-i cns m rf -sE •/"& r-'- r~- ®o Head length in cm. 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.6 3.5 3.9 4.4 4.8 5.5 5.9 6.3 6.8 Mini* mum height of body in cm. 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.4 Maxi- mum height of body in cm. 1.5 1.8 2.4 2.9 3.8 4.1 4.8 5.2 6.0 6.4 6.9 7.7 Fork length in cm. 5.7 6.8 8.3 10.2 ,3.6 ! 14.7 ,5.6 18.2 20.4 22,0 23.8 25,2 Stan- dard length in cm. 4.9 5.9 7.1 8.8 11.7 12.9 14.6 15.9 ,7.8 19.3 21.0 22.5 Total length I in cm. 1 6.1 7.4 9.2 11.3 15.0 16.3 18.5 20.3 22.6 24.6 26.9 28.4 Total body ! weight in grn. 3.5 5.6 9.9 17.8 43.6 54.2 79.4 102.1 148.4 181.8 236.5 283.0 No. of speci- mens *— * *— * fSi Class intervals in cm. ooc\0— iC‘»m-itv»\©r'-GOQ's ^ooo— » r-- ©\ — IllllltlSilti ooo^o— ' i«Nf^'qf«n^or^ooo^, rf v© o, a Jl 1 2 3 4 5 6 | 7 « 9 10 11 12 470 JOURNAL t BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (2) faster than the former. Similarly the relative growth of different fin lengths suggests that the dorsal fin grows faster than the other fins, namely the pectoral and the anal. The rate of growth of the dorsal fin falls in between those of the snout to anal and snout to dorsal. Table 2 Consolidated data of different regions of the body of the fish N. japonicus TOGETHER WITH OTHER STATISTICAL INFORMATION No. Body regions Standard length X Y 1 XY X2 a b 1 Total length ... 162.4 206.6 3,297.9 2,592.5 -0.4 1.3 2 Fork length ... 162.4 185.5 2,951.8 2,592.5 0.6 1.1 3 Max. height of body... 162.4 53.5 859.1 2,592.5 0.4 0,3 4 Min. height of body ... 162.4 18.1 285.9 2,592.5 0.2 0,1 5 Head length 162.4 48.9 784.7 2,592.5 0.02 0.3 6 Snout— dorsal 162.4 60.2 955.9 2,592.5 —0.4 0,4 7 Snout— anal ... 162.4 104,5 1,666.5 2,592.5 0.6 0.6 a Dorsal length 162.4 84.8 1,354,4 2,592.5 0.3 0.5 9 Pectoral length 162.4 48.4 771.0 2,592.5 —0.03 0,3 10 Anal length 162.4 30,8 495.9 2,592.5 —0.1 0.2 n Eye diameter 162.4 14.9 226.1 2,592.5 0,4 0,06 Table 3 Tangent values of different body regions No. Body regions ‘ b * value Angle Tangents 1 Standard length— Total length 1.3 60° 1.7321 2 Standard length— Fork length 1.1 46° 1.0355 3 Snout to anal fin 0.6 30° 0.5774 4 Dorsal fin length 0.5 24° 0.4452 5 Snout to dorsal fin 0.4 18" 0.3249 6 Maximum height of body 0.3 15° 0.2679 7 Head length 0.3 15° 0.2679 8 Pectoral fin length 0.3 15° 0.2679 9 Anal fin length 0.2 9° 0.1584 10 Minimum height of body 0.1 4° 0.0699 11 Eye diameter 0.06 3° 0.0524 The data also show that the relative rate of growth, delineated from the regression line angle, is similar for the pectoral fin length, the maximum height of the body and for the head length of the fish. The slowest growing body part, however, is the diameter of the eye while next to it is the minimum height of the body which is one degree faster in its growth than that of the diameter of the orbit. Length-weight Relation : The point of inflation of the curve showing diminution of condition factor with increasing length has been thought to be an indicator of the length at which sexual maturity is attained in fish (Hart 1946). In the present study the modified emperical relationship MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 471 0f w=CLB (Le Cren 1951) was used where W is the weight of fish, L is the length of fish and C and n are constants to be determined empirically. 0.7« " 0.86 0.06 1.05 U7 121 1.26 150 1-55 1391.42 1.45 Fig. 2. Length-weight relationship and the logarithmic transformation of length and weight values in Nemipterus japonicus. I 472 JOURNAL . BOMBA Y NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY . Vol. M (2) The data of length-weight relationship are presented in Fig. 2 together with their logarithmic values. It can be seen from the Fig. 2 that the length-weight relationship in N. japonicus is of non-linear type and formed a parabola. The regression of log length on log weight was observed to be linear. Similarly for Ncmipterus virgatus , Li (1954) reported W=0.022L® and found a linear relationship for the length range sampled, while the relationship between the observed weight and the length was non-linear. The relationship in N. japonicus is best represented by the equation : W =(-2.085) L3*092 thereby indicating that weight increases at the rate of cube of the length. Food : Basheeruddin & Nayar (1961) found that the main items of food of the juveniles of N. japonicus in Madras waters, chiefly consists of prawn larvae, stomotopod larvae, few copepods and amphipods. Similar studies on the gut content of adults from Cochin waters (CM.F.RT. Report 1961) show that the main components of the food were prawns and polychaetes, including Squilla sp. in large numbers. Chacko (1949) reported that the fish is a plankton feeder but very often browses at the bottom and amongst seaweeds. Li (1954) observed small teleosts, decapods, cephalopods and annelids in that order of abundance in the gut contents of J\T. virgatus . During the present observation on N. japonicus a major part of the gut was found to contain bottom dwelling organisms such as poly- chaetes, small prawns, fragments of molluscan shells, pieces of hermit crab and occasionally copepods and amphipods. It can, therefore, be concluded that N. japonicus is largely a carnivorous fish and feeds at the bottom and occasionally on surface plankton. Acknowledgements I am grateful to Professor R. V. Seshaiya, Director, Marine Biological Station, Porto Novo for suggesting the problem and for guidance during the work. Grateful thanks are also due to Dr. S. Z. Qasim, Scientist, National Institute of Oceanography, Ernakulam, for critically going through the manuscript and making valuable suggestions. National Institute of R, ALFRED SELVAKUMAR Oceanography, Panaji, Goa, January 24, 1970. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES m Refer Amarnath, D. (1961): A study of the Biology, biometry' and fishery of Nemip - terns japonicm (Block). M.Sc. thesis, Annamalai University, (Unpublished). Basheeruddin, S. & Nayar, K. N. (1961): A preliminary study of the fishes of the coastal waters off Madras city. Indian J. Fish. 8: 169-188 . Central Marine Fisheries Research Instt. (1961): Annual Report of the Director for the year ending 31st March 1961. Indian J. Fish . 8. Hart, T. I. (1946): Report on trawling H N C E S surveys on Patagonian continen tai shelf '’Discovery Rep. 23: 223-224. Le Crkn, E. D. (1951): The length- weight relationship and seasonal cycle in gonad weight and condition in the Perch (Perea fluviatilis). J . Anim, EcoL 20 : 201-219. Li, Kwan-ming (1954): An Account of the Golden Thread Group Fishery in Hong Kong, and a Preliminary Note on the Biology of Nemipterus virgatus (Houttyun). Hong Kong Univ. Fisheries Journo! 1 : 148. 20. A NOTE ON THE TAXONOMY OF A SPECIES OF TACHYSURUS LACSPfiDE (PISCES: TACHYSURIDAE) ( With a text-figure ) During a study of the shore fishes of Goa, a specimen of Tachysurus Lacepede collected by Dr, S. W. Kemp from Mormugoa Bay in Sep- tember 1916 was tentatively determined as T. jatius (Hamilton 1822). A perusal of the pertinent literature, however, clearly indicates that two species have been confused under the name jatius Hamilton. The first species has an edentulous palate and this is clearly the fish named by Hamilton (1822) and later figured by Day (1877, pi. 56, fig, 4) and re- described by Misra (1959) under the genus Hemipimelodus Bleaker, The other related species has two small oval patches of granular palatal teeth and this lias up to now apparently been confused by Ichthyologists (Blvth 1860; Day 1877; Munro 1955) with, and accepted as jatius Hamilton, This species is described below and is most probably a new species of Tachysurus and not congeneric with Hamilton’s jatius . A new name for this species of Tachysurus is not, however, being proposed for the present in view of the limited material available for study. The type species of the genus Tachysurus Laceptkle, 1803 is Tachy- surus sinensis Lacepdde which has teeth on the palate; Pimelodus borneen- sis Bleeker, the type species of Hemipimelodus Sleeker, 1858, has, how- ever, an edentulous palate. This is the chief taxonomic character for differentiating the two genera (vide Weber & de Beaufort 1913; Fowler 1941; Smith 1945; and Misra 1959). In the collections of tbe Zoological Survey of India Day’s (1877) figured example of Arius jatius (Hamilton) corresponding to Plate 56, Fig. 4 (Reg. No. Cat. 473) and another specimen of A. jatius (Reg. No, F 13460/1) with an edentulous palate, are available for comparison. Unfortunately, no specimen of Day’s Arius jatius with palatal teeth are 12 474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL MIST. SOCIETY, VoL 68 (2) available in the collections for study. A detailed description of the speci- men measuring 126 mm. in standard length, from Mormugoa Bay (ZSI Reg. No. F 6045/2) is given below to facilitate further work on this particular species. Tachysurus sp. DI. 7 A 19 PL 10 G.R. 7+1 + 11, lanceolate. Depth of body 4.84, head length 3.40; both in standard length. Height of head at occiput 1 .44, width of head 1.54; both in head length. Eye diameter 4.11 in head length, 1.50 in interorbital width, 1.50 in snout length. Upper jaw longer than lower jaw, extent of mouth gape Fig. 1. Dentition in the specimen of Tachysurus from Goa (Diagrammatic). equals one-third of head length. Posterior portion of head sparsely granu- lated, occipital process more thickly so; median longitudinal groove MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 475 on head narrow and continued almost to base of occipital process which is keeled and reaches the narrow V-shaped basal bone of dorsal fin. Barbels — six, maxillary barbels shorter than head, reach slightly beyond base of pectoral fin ; outer mandibular reach gill opening. Teeth ( text-figure ) — Villiform in a continuous band on pre- maxillaries, five times as long as wide. Palatal teeth in two small oval groups, globular, separated from jaw teeth by a space equal to one and half times length of patch ; length of patch less than half eye-diameter. Vomerine teeth absent. Fins— -Dorsal spine strong, serrated on both sides, as long as head without snout. Pectoral spine slightly shorter than dorsal spine, serrated on both sides. Base of adipose dorsal 4/5 of rayed dorsal. Caudal (broken) forked. Colour (in alcohol): Light brownish, silvery below. Fins yellowish, upper edge of rayed and adipose dor, sals dusky. Distribution: Goa, estuaries and rivers of Ceylon, and Sitang River (Burma). Remarks: Day (1877) described the teeth on the palate of Arms jatius (Hamilton) as ‘globular, in a small oval patch posteriorly, scarcely exceeding half the diameter of the eye ; they may be entirely absent' and figured a specimen from Burma and remarked “The specimen figured has no teeth whatsoever on the palate and is an Hemipimelodus , but having closely compared it with four more specimens having teeth as described, I feel convinced of their identity.” In our collections we have a specimen registered as Arius jatius (Hamilton) collected by Dr. F. Day from Calcutta [ZSI Reg. No. Cat. 187]. The specimen has palatal teeth in two large, semi-ovate patches, about 1 . 5 times the diameter of the eye and agrees well with Day’s figured specimen of Arius gagora (Hamilton) (ZSI Reg. No. Cat. 421). This specimen has been correctly redetermined as Tacky sums gagora (Hamilton) by Chandy (1953). Munro (1955) reported jatius Hamilton from estuaries and rivers of Ceylon and included the species under the genus Pseudarius Bleeker, 1863 as the palatal teeth are globular, in two small oval patches. Misra (1959), however, described jatius Hamilton with no palatal teeth and hence referred the species to the genus Hemipimelodus . Acknowledgements The author is grateful to Dr. A. P. Kapur, Director, for encourage- ment and Dr. A. G. K. Menon, Superintending Zoologist, Zoological 476 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, VoL 68 (2) Survey of India, for his sustained help and guidance in the preparation of this paper. Zoological Survey of India, P. K. TALWAR CALCUTTA” 13, April 28, 1970. References Blyth, E. (1860): Report on some fishes received chiefly from the Sitang river and its tributary streams, Tenas- serium provinces. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal 29:151-152. Day, F. (1877): The Fishes of India. London : 465-466. Ckandy, M. (1953): A key for the identification of the cat fishes of the genus Tachysurus Lac6p£de, with a Catalogue of the specimens in the collec- tion of the Indian Museum (Zool. Surv.). Rec. Indian Mus. 51 (pt. 1): 1-18. Fowler, H. W. (1941): Contributions to the biology of the Philippine Archi- pelago and adjacent regions. Bull US. Nat. Mus. (100) 13: 753-771. Hamilton, F. (1822): An account of the fishes found in the river Ganges and its branches. Edinburgh: 171. Misra, K. S. (1959): An aid to the identification of the common commercial fishes of India and Pakistan. Rec. Indian Mus . 57: 176. Munro, I. S. R. (1955): The Marine and Freshwater fishes of Ceylon. Can- berra: 51-55. Weber, M. & Beaufort. L. F. de (1913): The Fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago. Leiden 2: 271-329. 21. SOME NEW FOOD PLANTS OF DROSICHA MANOR FERAE (GREEN) IN MADHYA PRADESH (HOMOPTERA: MARGARODIDAE) Drosicha ( Monophlebus ) mangiferae (, stebingi ) (Green), the giant mealy bug, is a widely distributed, sporadic, polyphagous pest, throughout India. During 1959-61, it caused considerable loss to citrus, guava, fig, ber and mango at Gwalior and some other places in Madhya Pradesh. A survey was carried out to investigate its food plants. Rahman and Latif (1944) reviewed the host plants of the pest recorded in India by previous workers and reported sixty-two host plants in the Punjab including twenty-three not previously recorded but found it to be a serious pest of mango only. Wasiual Haque (1955), Sen & Prasad (1956) and Prutki & Batra (1960) added further lists of host plants of the pest. The author (1968) reported sixty-six food plants of economic importance in M.P. and twenty-eight of them, namely Bael ( Aegle marmelos ), Anwala (. Phyllanthus emblica ), Chikoo ( Achres sapota ), Mahandi (. Lawsonia alba), Acalypha sp., Zinnia sp., Quisqualis (j Quisqualis indica ), Poppy ( Papaver sp.), Bouganvillea sp., Madanmasta ( Artabotrys odoratissimus ), Parwal ( Trichosanthes dioica), Mitha neem ( Melia azedarach ), Amaltas {Cassia fistula ), Paper flower {Helicrysum sp.), Askand {Withania so - manifera ), Dhencha {Carthamus tinctorius ), Adhasisi {Xanthium struma- tium ), Akua {Calotropis sp.), Brinjal (Solatium melongena ), Badidudhi (Euphorbia pulcherrima), Waghata ( Capparis zeylanica ), Mohwa (Russia MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 477 latifolia), Kadara (Anthocephalus cadamba ), Panwar (< Cassia obtusifolid). Custard apple ( Anona squamosa ), Torai (Luff a sp.), Aghada ( Achy ran - rims aspera ), and Pennisetum cenchr aides, are new records from India. The author further found Citrus sp. and Guava to be the most preferred food plants in Madhya Pradesh as against mango reported by previous workers at other places in India. Thanks are due to the authorities of the Agriculture Department of M.P. for facilities and to the Director, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta for the identification. Department of Entomology, D. K. SAXENA J. N. Krishi Vishwa Vidyalaya, Jabalpur, M.P., January 24, 1969. References Pruthi, H. S. & Batra, H. N. (1960): Some important fruit pests of North-west India. I.C.A.R. Bull 80: 68. Rahman, K. A. & M. A. Latif, (1944) : Description, Bionomics and Control of giant mealy bug, Drosicha stebbingi (Green). Bull. Ent. Res. 35 (2): 197-209. Saxena D. K. (1968): Host plants of the Giant mealy bug. J. Coll .Agri. Gwalior 8 : 45-48. Sen, A. C. & Prasad, D. (1956): Biology and control of the mango mealy bug Drosicha mangiferae (Green), Indian J. Ent. 18(2) : 127-140. Wasiual Haque, M. (1955): Some new host plants of Drosicha stebbingi (Green) (Rhynchota: Coccidae). Indian J . Ent. 17(1): 137-140. 22. SOME OBSERVATIONS DURING OVIPOSITION IN THE LEMON BUTTERFLY, PAPILIO DEMOLEUS L. Generally, an egg-laying female butterfly would be guided by at least two different stimuli while searching for the larval host plant— the odour of the host plant and the coloration of its leaves. The following few observations on the egg-laying behaviour of Papilio demoleus are of interest from this point of view. While experimenting on the role of visual stimuli in the egg-laying behaviour of this insect, it was noticed that the female was not attracted to the characteristic colour alone presented by the blue-green, green or yellow-green papers of the standardized Ostwald series used in the above experiments. When, however, such papers were offered with the odour of Citrus plant, the larval host plant of this insect, was present (the plant being within the large experimental cage but not in direct view of the insects), the females responded strongly to the coloured paper leaves. On these, the females exhibited, a characteristic ‘dramming response 5 described previously (Vaidya 1956), which is preliminary to oviposition. 478 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 68 (2) This response consists of approaching a coloured surface in flight and then hammering on it alternately with the front pair of legs. This is often accompanied by the simultaneous fluttering of wings and the ventral curving of the abdomen. Under experimental conditions, this response is usually obtained without its culminating in actual deposition of an egg. Thus, with respect to the stimuli essential to the egg-laying female of Papilio demoleiis to evoke a drumming response, it was observed that in addition to a characteristic coloured surface, the odour of the host plant had also to be supplied. Even in the presence of both these stimuli, it could not be successfully induced to lay eggs under experi- mental conditions, except in a few cases. It was remarkable indeed that none of the females actually seemed to search for the host plant, which was the source of odour. The mere presence of this odour served as a. stimulus, which made them respond to the artificial coloured leaves. A similar observation was made by Knoll (1921-26) on the egg- laying hawkmoth Macro glossum stellatarum. A small twig of Gallium , the host plant of this insect, was placed vertically in a test tube about 125 mm. long. The twig being shorter than the length of the test tube, it ended about 20 mm, below the mouth of the tube. The female hawk- moth kept flying at the part of the tube through which the leaves of Gal- lium were visible without taking any notice of the opening of the tube through which the scent emanated. It frequently touched the glass sides of the test tube as if to oviposit. Use ( 1 928) has also made a similar observation (described by her as * Alarmierung durch den Duft 5), in connection with the feeding res- ponse of certain Yanessid butterflies. She found that the presence of a sweet fruity smell of Amyl acetate made the feeding butterflies visit the artificial coloured flowers more actively. The observations on Papilio demoleus give us a clue to the relative importance of odour and colour during its egg-laying state. There is no doubt that the odour of the host plant is, in this case, of prime impor- tance, while colour plays only a secondary role. Department of Zoology, YIDYADHAR G. VAIDYA University of Poona, Poona-7, January 13, 196&. References Else, D. (1928): Uber den Farbensinn der Tagfalter, Z. vergLi Physiol. 8: 658- 691. Knoll. F. (1921-26): Insekten and Blumen. H. 1-6. Abs. zool. bat, Ges. Wien , 12. Vaidya, V. G. (1956): On the pheno- menon of drumming in egg-laying female butterflies, J. Bombay not. Hist. Soc . 54: 216-217. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 419 23. CANNIBALISM IN THE EPILACHNA BEETLE, HENO- SEPILA CHNA SPARS A HERBST. (COLEOPTERA: COCCI- NELLIDAE) Cannibalism in phytophagous insects is an interesting phenomenon. The authors, while making ethological studies on the epilachna beetle, Henosepilachna sparsa Herbst., a phytophagous beetle, generally feeding on solanaceous plants, made the following observations on its occa- sional cannibalistic behaviour in the laboratory and in the field. In the field, the beetles fed on the wild plant, Datura fastuosa , the leaves of which were used for rearing them in the laboratory. Under certain conditions, not yet fully understood, all the feeding stages of the beetle develop a transient cannibalistic tendency, even when fresh leaves of the host plant are available. The adults and the larvae then start eating the eggs. In one case, an adult beetle was observed consuming 1 1 eggs in about 30 minutes, leaving behind only small proximal parts of the chorion attached to the leaf. Laboratory studies also indicate that the female beetle prefers to eat eggs laid by other beetles, if available. The adult also eats all other immature stages. There are four larval instars and the larvae also sometimes feed on the lower instar larvae. In one instance, a late final instar larva fed on a pupa which was attached to the top of the rearing container by its posterior end. The larva attacked the pupa at its cephalic end and consumed most of its soft parts. Department of Zoology, Malabar Christian College, Calicut 1, Kerala, March 29, 1969. 24. A CONVENIENT' METHOD OF COLLECTING THE LARVAE OF TIGER BEETLES (ORDER COLEOPTERA — FAMILY CICIN DELID AE) IN THE FIELD The larvae of tiger beetles are predaceous creatures, living in bur- rows in the soil and are highly specialized for their mode of life and feeding. During the day, the larva generally remains at the top end of the burrow, closing its opening with its head and prothorax, and waiting for prey. At the slightest vibration of the surrounding soil or movements of objects or shadows over or around the opening of the burrow, the larva quickly withdraws itself deep down the burrow. The authors’ experience has shown that the collection of the larvae of tiger beetles in the field is indeed a somewhat tricky business for many V. I. EDONA A. B. SCANS 480 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY \ Fo/. 6S (2) reasons. For one thing, the larva very rapidly moves down the burrow in reaction to slightest disturbance, mechanical or visual. The burrows run quite deep and are narrow. The collection of larvae by digging does not yield satisfactory results because, in more than seventy-five per cent of the attempts, the larvae either escape notice and are lost or may be crushed and damaged. The burrows do not always take a directly vertical course downwards but may often deviate slightly from the vertical, in all directions and this makes the process of tracing their course particularly difficult. Further, collection by digging takes a long time, as the soil has to be removed bit by bit in order to be able to follow the burrow down to its bottom. The authors have been able to collect within a relatively short time and with greater success, large numbers of all instars of the larvae of the tiger beetle, Cicindela cancel lata Dej. in the field, by the following con- venient method. First of all, the habitat of the larvae is determined from the presence of neat, circular openings of their burrows in sandy areas during the period of abundance of tiger beetles. A rectangular strip of steel sheet, about 5 centimetres wide, 25 centimetres long and about 0.5 centimetre thick is prepared and the edge of one of its ends is sharp- ened. The collector sits or squats about half a metre away from the burrow, holding the steel strip, the sharpened end of which is made to rest fiat on the ground, between the burrow and the collector and about 5 centimetres away from the opening of the burrow. The larva, on seeing the approach of the collector, quickly withdraws itself. The collector should be watching the opening of the burrow and generally, within a minute, the larva comes to the surface and its dark head and prothoracic parts appear at the opening of the burrow. At this very moment, the collector briskly drives the steel strip into the soil and across the burrow at an angle of about 45 degrees so that the burrow is blocked at about 5-10 centimetres below the soil surface. The larva is now trapped above the steel strip. This part of the operation should almost coincide with the appearance of the head of the larva at the opening of the burrow. Other- wise, even if the action is slightly delayed, the larva may either be damaged by the blade or may even escape by moving deep down. The soil above the steel strip is slowly raised by levering the end of the strip upwards carefully and the larva is easily spotted and collected. Grateful acknowledgement is made of a grant from the University Grants Commission to one of the authors (A.B.S.). Department of Zoology, A. B. SOANS Malabar Christian College, ,J. S. SOANS Calicut- 1, Kerala, May Z? J96S. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES' m 25. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE STUDY OF AQUATIC BEETLES (COLEOPTERA) : 8. A NEW SUBGENUS OF CLYPEODYTES REGIMBART (DYTISCIDAE) The genus Clypeodytes Regimbart (1894) has about 60 species; nearly 50 per cent of them belong to the Ethiopian region. It is distributed in all the tropical and subtropical zones of the world excepting Europe. Zim.merman.n (1920) reduced it to a subgenus of Bidessus Sharp, but later it was recognised as a genus with three subgenera by Guignot (1959). These subgenera are — Lioclypeus Guignot (1950), Hypoclypeus Guignot (1950) and Clypeodytes (s. sir.). I did not divide the genus into various subgenera, as I had not then seen Guignofs (1959) paper, though a key to the species known from India. (Vazirani 1969), more or less follows this division. On a reassessment of the position of these species, a new subgenus is proposed for the species Clypeodytes hemani Vazirani (1968). Other species, known, from India., are also assigned to the various subgenera. Genus Clypeodytes Regimbart Subgenus Paraclypeus subgen. nov. Type species. — Clypeodytes hemani Vazirani (1968). Diagnosis. — All the characters of genus Clypeodytes Regimbart as redefined by Guignot (1959) plus the following characters. Pronotal striae not continued on the elytra; elytra without any carina or costae. Distribution.— India. Genus Clypeodytes Key to subgenera (modified from Guignot, 1959) 1 . Laterobasal pronotal striae continued on the elytra . . 2 Laterobasal pronotal striae not continued on the elytra . . 3 2. Elytra neither carinate nor with any lateral costae . . Lioclypeus Elytra carinate or with lateral costae, though very feeble . . Clypeodytes (s. str.) 3. Elytra neither carinate nor with any lateral costae . . Paraclypeus subgen. nov. Elytra carinate or with lateral costae, though very feeble . . Hypoclypeus The species known from India are assigned to subgeneric combin- ations as under — Clypeodytes (s. str.) bufo Sharp Clypeodytes ( Lioclypeus ) indicus (Regimbart) Clypeodytes (. Lioclypeus ) orissaensis Vazirani Clypeodytes (Lioclypeus) minutus Vazirani 482 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 68 (2) Clypeodyfes ( Liodypeus ) /lorai Vazirani Clypeodytes (. Hypoclypeus ) duodecimacuiatus Regimbart Clypeodytes {Hypoclypeus) severini (Regimbart) Clypeodytes ( Paraclypeus ) hemani Vazirani Zoological Survey of India, T. G. VAZIRANI Calcutta- 12, May 12, 1969. References Guignot, F. (1950): Trente-deuxieme mote sur les Hydrocanthares— Rev. franc. Ent. Paris 17: 97. ~ — if. (1959): Revision dcs Hy- drocant hares d’Afrique — Ann. Mus . R. Congo Beige Tervuren, (8) 70: 1-313. Regimbart, M. (1894): Voyage de M. E. Simon dans l’Afrique australe. . . . Am. Soc . ent. Fr. Paris , 63 : 227. Vazirani. T. G. (1968): Contributions to the study of Aquatic Beetles (Coleop- tera). 1. A collection of Dytiscidae from Western Ghats with descriptions of two new species. Oriental Ins., New Delhi 1: 99-112. — _ (1969): Contributions to the study of Aquatic Beetles (Coleop- tera). 2. A review of the subfamilies-— Noterinae, Laccophilinae, Dytiscinae and Hydroporinae (in part) from India. Oriental Ins., New Delhi 2: 221-342. 26. THE ROLE OF VISUAL AND OLFACTORY FACTORS IN THE PREY-HUNTING BEHAVIOUR OF POMPILID WASPS (HYMENOPTERA : POMPILID AE) The Pompilid wasps are known to provision their nests in the ground with spiders which are stung and paralysed. The authors made the following observations of the prey-hunting behaviour of a species of Pompilid wasp (unidentified) inside the house during the day. The wasp generally flies into the room, flies dose to the ceiling and the corners of the walls and then hovers around a spider's web. It then makes repeated quick approaches to the central hub of the web, finally seizes the spider and flies away with it. Interestingly enough, the wasp was sometimes found flying around an electric bulb backed by a plate-like shade and mounted on a bracket on the wall. It exhibited for some time, about the same pattern of initial behaviour as that in relation to the spider’s web and then flew away. Closer observation revealed that the wasp was repeatedly dashing against the central circular marking at the distal end of the bulb, bearing details of trade mark, voltage, wattage etc. It is quite likely that the wasp mistook this slightly dark, circular part of the bulb for the denser translucent central hub of a spider’s web where the spider generally remains at rest, and was looking for its prey. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 483 The authors also came across an instance wherein the wasp acciden- tally dropped, the spider while flying away with it. The dropped spider was slowly moving on the floor and the wasp started hovering over the area, presumably trying to locate its lost prey. The wasp then landed on the floor and started making random movements. Within a few minutes, it appeared to have made out the track of the spider and was found moving approximately along the route taken by the spider. It seemed to follow some kind of trail, moving its antennae in a characteristic manner. The wasp finally reached the spider, seized it and stung it before flying away with it. The Pompilid wasp, having distinct preference for spiders, would be at an advantage if it can identify its prey with some degree of accuracy and from a distance to avoid waste of time. In the case of its behaviour in relation to the electric bulb, all stimuli except visual are ruled out. It is therefore inferred that the visual factor either through form-vision or skototaxis initially guides the wasp to the hub of the web containing the spider. The final choice and capture of prey may be conditioned by olfactory or tactile factors which may reinforce or destroy the first impressions. Department of Zoology, Malabar Christian College, Calicut, Kerala, June 4, 1969. 27. ABSENCE OF COLONY-SPECIFIC PHEROMONES IN THE ANT, TECHNOMYRMEX ALBIPES SMITH (HYMENOP- TERA : FORMICIDAE) Highly colony-specific pheromones have been well established in the case of colonies of certain ants, honeybees and other social insects and these pheromones enable the insects concerned to distinguish between members of their colonies and also intruders from other colonies of the same species (Butler 1967). Technomyrmex albipes is a common tramp species occurring in tropical and subtropical countries, with its original home in tropical Asia or Africa (Brown 1964). Colonies of this ant were collected from among the leaf-w'horls of bamboo shoots and transferred to an artificial ant-nest in the laboratory. Mixing a few* colonies of the ants was also tried by dropping the ants, eggs, larvae and pupae of different colonies into the same nest in the laboratory. It was interesting to see that the ants which moved about in the new7 environment for some time, soon A. B. SCANS J. S. SCANS 484 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY \ Fb/, 68 (2) settled down together in one group and arranged all the eggs and immature stages together, forming what appeared to be a single colonial unit. The ants did not, at any stage, show any sign of intercolonial hostility and this indicates the absence of colony specific odours in Technomyrmex albipes . Such a feature has been recorded in a few other ants also (Wilson 1963). Department of Zoology, Malabar Christian College, Calicut, Kerala, March 11, 1969. References Brown, W. L. (1964) : Personal com- Biol Rev . 42 : 42-87. Wilson, E. O. (1963) : The social biology Butler, L. (1967): Insect pheromones, of ants. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 8: 344-368. 28. A NOTE ON APANTELES PALUDICOLAE CAMERON (BRACONIDAE; HYMENOPTERA) A PARASITE OF EXELASTIS ATOMOSA W. Bhatnagar (1948) and Usman & Puttarudriah (1955) have reported Apanteles exelastisae and Apanteles sp. ( Glomeratus group) as the larval parasites of Exelastis atomosa ., a destructive pest of Cajanus cajan in Bihar and Mysore. However, they did not mention anything about the biology, period of activity and extent of parasitisation caused by the braconid to the crop pest. During the course of field observations and laboratory rearing a larval braconid parasite, Apanteles paludicolae C. was recorded. Its biology in relation to symptoms of injury to host larvae and extent of parasitisation were studied. Symptoms of parasitised larva : The third instar larvae of the post were parasitised, and these lose the pinkish colour of the healthy larva changing to a pale white. The size of the parasitised larva was reduced and its feeding activity slowed down. It died soon after the emergence of the parasite. Biology : The parasite lays one to two eggs in the body of the host which hatch in 4-5 days. The grub feeds for 7-9 days inside the body of the host and when full grown emerges by cutting an irregular hole on the lateral side of the fourth abdominal segment of the host. On an average, the full-grown grub measured 3 , 5 mm. in length and 0 . 68 mm. in breadth. Body fleshy, creamy white, covered with very fine short hairs. Some 30 A. B. SOAKS J. S. SOANS MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 485 to 45 minutes after emerging, it spins a cocoon and pupates. Cocoon creamy white, oval in shape and on an average measures 3.5 mm. in length and 1 . 9 mm. in breadth. Pupal period varies from 5-7 days. The adult braconid cuts a hole at the anterior end of the cocoon and emerges. A single life cycle was completed in 18-21 days, and adults lived for 2-5 days. The average duration of each period recorded in 7 cases is summarised in Table 1. Table I Life cycle and longevity of Apanteles paludicolae in days Month Incubation period Larval period Pupal period Life cycle period Adult longevity October 1965. . 4 9 5 18 5 November 1965 5 9 7 i 21 3 December 1965 5 7 6 i 18 2 Extent of parasitism and period of activity : Regular collection of the larvae of the pest made to note the extent of braconid parasitism revealed that it was as high as 18% during the month of October but fell to 10% and 7% during November and December 1965. Acknowledgements We are grateful to the Director, Commonwealth Institute of Ento- mology, London for identifying the parasite and to the authorities of J.N.K.V.V., Jabalpur for facilities. L N. Krishi Vishva Yioyalaya, B, V. BBSHPANDE Gwalior, S. C ODAK April 16, 1969. References Bhatnagar, S. P. (1948) : Studies on Usman, S. & Puttarudriah, M. (1955) : Apanteles Forster (Vipionidae; parasitic A list of insect pests of crops in Mysore Hymenoptera) from India. Indian J. Ent. including the mites. Dept Agri. Mysore 10: 133-203. State Bull, No. 16. 29. LOCALIZED MASS BREEDING OF HAEMAPHYSALIS BISPINOSA NEUMANN, 1897 (ACARINA, IXODIDAE) IN KYASANUR FOREST DISEASE AREA, SHIMOGA DISTRICT, MYSORE STATE, INDIA (With two plates) Introduction The tick, Haemaphysalis bispinosa Neumann, 1897, has been recorded from different localities in India, parasitizing several species of mammals 486 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Fa/. 68 (2) and birds (Sharif 1928, Rajagopalan 1965, Rajagopalan et al . 1968). Outside the Indian continent, the species has been reported to occur in Siberia, Japan, China, Burma, Indonesia, New Zealand and Australia (Nuttall & Warburton 1915, Anastos 1950, and Kohls 1957). However, recent taxonomic studies show that H. bispinosa is restricted to India, Pakistan, Buraia, Thailand, Malaya and Nepal Other distribution records refer to several other species (H. Hoogstraal, personal com- munications). Though H. bispinosa has been known to be a common parasite of domestic animals, information on its bionomics is very scanty. In early studies on the infestation of Haemaphysalis spinigera on cattle in Kyasanur Forest disease (KFD) area (Work et al 1957), it was found that cattle were infested by adults and immature stages of nine species of ticks. The predominant species were : H . spinigera , Boophilus microplus , H . bispinosa , Amblyomma integrum and Rhipicephalus haemaphysaloides. An intensive search made in cattle sheds showed that, of the five pre- dominant species of ticks infesting cattle, only H. bispinosa inhabits cattle sheds (Bhat 1968). The present communication deals with some observations on the mass breeding of the species in cattle sheds at Bhima- neri and other nearby villages in the KFD area. Observations Infestation of H . bispinosa in a cattle shed at Bbimaneri was first observed on 14 June 1963. Subsequently the cattle shed was visited once or twice in a fortnight to study the condition of the tick population. In June 1964, three more cattle sheds with mass breeding of H. bispinosa were found at Kalasi and Kamblikoppa villages about four miles from Bhimaneri. The mass breeding in these cattle sheds subsided during the summer months, from April to June 1965. When the study was discontinued in June 1965, two cattle sheds at Kaisodi village, which were clean during the previous years, were found newly infested with ticks. Ail cattle sheds in which H. bispinosa was found breeding in a mass scale had mud walls and sugarcane leaves thatched roofs or clay tiles. They were without adequate ventilation and were practically dark inside. The other type of cattle sheds in these villages, which were the majority, were open at the sides being without walls. Some were protected with bamboo fencing. These well-ventilated sheds were free from mass breeding, though occasionally a few adults and immature stages were observed. During the first observation at Bhimaneri in June 1963, the shed J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (2) Plate I Bhat: Haemaphy sails bispinosa Above : Cluster of gorged females with egg broods in a crevice on a mud-wall Chalky white dots are tick excreta (x4). Below: Engorged larvae and nymphs in split on wooden pillar (x24). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68 (2) Bhat: Haemaphysalis bispinosa Plate II Above: Engorged nymphs crawling on a wooden pillar (x6). Below : Engorged larvae and nymphs in a split on a wooden pillar. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 487 was infested by a small number of engorged and unengorged adults. A few engorged immature stages were also seen. In July the population of engorged adults suddenly increased. Freshly dropped and ovipositing females were seen in clusters of fifty to sixty along with egg masses inside the crevices of walls, upto three feet above the floor (Fig. 1). Engorged adults continued to appear till the end of August, From September onwards their number gradually decreased and from December to May, they were almost absent. In the next rainy season from June to September 1964, they reappeared and a similar sequence of events followed. In the rainy season of 1965, the mass breeding subsided in the shed under observation (Table 1). About a month after the appearance of engorged adults in large numbers, larvae appeared in clusters of a few to several hundred individuals all over the walls and pillars up to five feet above the floor. Engorged larvae, unengorged and engorged nymphs, and unengorged adults appeared in succession with about 10 to 15 day intervals (Table 1). Clusters of engorged larvae and nymphs were observed in grooves and crevices of wooden pillars, walls and ropes (Figs. 4 and 5). Engorged larvae were found up to five feet and nymphs up to eight feet above the floor. Engorged larvae, nymphs and adults dropped in large number from cattle during early morning hours (6 to & a.m.) and the shed was seen teeming with crawling ticks. The crawling activity subsided after about two hours as the ticks gradually settled in the crevices. A considerable number of engorged stages occurred on the hosts when they were leaving the sheds for grazing. These ticks were missing from the body of the hosts when they returned in the evening, indicating that they dropped in the forests and grazing fields. A large number of the engorged stages were preyed upon by domestic fowls in the shed. Early in the morning fowls were seen devouring a large number of ticks, particularly engorged females, from the body of the hosts as well as from the floor of the shed. The domestic fowls appeared to be partly responsible for keeping the open sheds free from the ticks, where the light permitted them to make a thorough search for the ticks. Discussion Unlike other species of ticks infesting cattle in the KFD area, which usually inhabit forest biotope during their nonparasitic phases, H. bispinosa inhabits forest, grazing field as well as cattle sheds. The mass breeding of H. bispinosa inside the cattle sheds appears to be due to the fact that the engorged ticks dropped during the early morning hours, before the 4 U JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , FoA 68 (2) cattle were driven out for grazing. In the other species, they normally drop while the cattle are grazing in the forest. Adults and immature stages of other species of ticks infesting cattle were seen in their last stage of engorgement during early morning hours, while the major proportion of adults and immature stages of H. bispinosa were dropping inside the sheds. This difference in the time of engorgement appears to determine the dropping of H . bispinosa inside the cattle sheds and of the other species in the forests. For parasitising in the field, each stage has to depend upon a chance encounter of a host, which is comparatively low. On the other hand a continuous availability of the hosts for all the three stages of the tick in the sheds, provides maximum chance for each stage to obtain a blood meal This enables a maximum number of ticks to complete the life cycle in a minimum period of time, resulting in mass breeding, wherever the physical factors are favourable. A similar observation was made on Hyalomma anatolicum anatolicimi by Serdyukova (1945) in Tadzhikistan. The mass breeding in H. bispinosa reaches its peak during monsoon and post-monsoon months, from June to November, when high humidity prevails. The decrease in population after November is probably due to lack of moisture. It is apparent that H. bispinosa maintains populations in wild as well as in domestic conditions. In the wild, the population is maintained at a low* level, due to some unknown limiting factors. But under domestic conditions, the population flares up through a mass breeding, wherever favourable conditions prevail. Table 1 Seasonal prevalence of different stages of H. bispinosa in a cattle shed at Bhmanbri in KFD area Stages Unfed adults Fed adults and eggs Unfed and fed larvae Unfed and fed nymphs January + + hs. & February 4- + km March + mu April + ah ah May -F 1 h ah afa June + + hi July -b + + + + h» August + + + + ttt 4- September + + + -s — ! — r* 4-4~4- October + 4* + + 4- + -H~ + November -F + + + 1 + + ~i r 4~ December + + + hc. i + sfe = Extremely rare. 4- 2= Present in small numbers. + + «b Present in considerable numbers. + 4- *f *= Present in very large numbers. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES , 489 Acknowledgements I am grateful to Dr. T. Ramachandra Rao, former Director, Vims Research Centre, Poona, for his valuable suggestions during the work, and to Dr. Harry Hoogstraal, U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 3. Cairo, for his critical appraisal of the Virus Research Centre, I.C.M.R., Poona-1, November 14, 1970. Refe Anastos, G. (1950): The scutate ticks or Ixodidae of Indonesia. Ent. Amer. 30 (1-4): 1-144. Bhat, H. R. (1968) : Studies on the bio- nomics of Haemaphysalis spinigera Neu- mann, 1897 (Acarina: Ixodidae). Ph.D. thesis (unpublished), University of Poona. Kohls, G. M. (1957): Malaysian Para- sites—XVIII, Ticks (Ixodoidea) of Borneo and Malaya. Stud. Instt. Med. Res., Malaya 28 : 65-94. Nuttall, G. H. F,, and Warburton, C. (1915): The genus Haemaphysalis . Part 3, p. i— xiii, 349-550. In Nuttall et at.. Ticks. A monograph of the Ixodoidea, Cambridge. Rajagopalan, P. K. (1965) : Studies on the Ixodid ticks (Acarina: Ixodidae) of wild birds of Shimoga district (Mysore State) with notes on the ecology of their distribution and prevalence, Ph.D thesis (unpublished). University of Poona. manuscript. H. R. BHAT l E N C E S Rajagopalan, P. K., Patil, A. P. and Boshell M. Jorge (1968) : Ixodid ticks on their mammalian hosts in the Kyasanur Forest disease area of Mysore State, India, 1961-1964, Ind. Jour. Med. Res. 56(4): 510-526. Serdyukova, G. V. (1945) : Local mass reproduction of ticks Hyatomma ana ~ tolicum anatolicum Koch in Tadzhikistan and their causes. Bull. Tadzhik Branch Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R. 6: 60-63. Sharif, M. (1928) : A revision of the Indian Ixodidae with special reference to the collection in the Indian Museum. Rec. Ind. Mas. 30 (3): 217-344. Work, T. H., Trapido, H., Narasimha Murthy, D. P., Laxman Rao, R., Bhatt, P. N., and Kulkarni, K. G. (1957) : Kyasanur Forest disease III. A prelimi- nary report on the nature of the infection and clinical manifestation in human beings. Ind. Jour. Med. Sci. 11 (8): 619- 645. 30. OCCURRENCE OF THE DIGENIT1C TREMATODE ASTRORCHIS RENICAPITE (LEIDY) (FAMILY : PRONOCE- PHAL1DEA) IN THE LEATHERY TURTLE DERMOCHEIYS CO RI ACE A (LINN© FROM THE INDIAN OCEAN (With a text-figure) la April 1962, a large male leathery turtle Dermochelys coriacea (Linne) which had got entangled in the gill nets was discarded by the fishermen near the Pamban landing centre on the Gulf of Mannar side of Rameswaram Island at about 11.00 a.m. The specimen measured 152.5 centimetres from snout to tail. The turtle was dissected and thirty-one specimens of the intestinal parasite Astrorchis renicapite (Leidy 1856) (Fig.) were noticed in the stomach. They were seen among the green algae Enteromorpha compressa 13 490 JOURNAL . BOMBAY'- NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY \ Vot 68 (2) and fish scales which constituted the bulk of the stomach content of the turtle. ol in fs. co 45 cm. S , H (1) Anterior sucker, (2) Cirrus pouch, (3) Uterine coils, (4) Vitellaria, (5) Caeca, (6) Ootype, (7) Ovary1, (8) Testis. Description : Body slender ; head collar not divided. Oral sucker narrow and small. Oesophagus short, caeca narrow waviness terminating at posterior end. Testes branched ; cirrus pouch short, oblique, covering part of seminal vesicles. Genital pore near left margin of body just behind the intestinal bifurcation. Ovary anterior to testis; vitellaria consisting of small follicles extends anterio-laterally. Uterine coils extend medially up to cirrus pouch. Eggs numerous. Some specimens had blood in the caecum indicating their blood- sucking habit According to Deraniyagala (1939, P. 44, tetrapod reptiles of ceylon) Astrorchis renicapite is the only intestinal parasite so far known from Dermochelys coriacea. The fact that the same species of parasite infests the leathery turtle of Mediterranean, Atlantic and Indo-Pacific regions may be of interest in view of the divergent opinions (Deraniyagala op. cit.) on the identity of the leathery turtle of different regions. I am thankful to Dr. R. V. Nair, Deputy Director, Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Mandapam Camp for going through this note critically and offering his suggestions. Central Marine Fisheries R. S. LAL MOHAN Research Institute, Mandapam Camp, October 6, 1970. 31. A CORAL TREE FROM NEPAL The coral tree is a popular ornamental tree in gardens all over the world. In Nepal, some years ago one wild-growing species of this plant was collected from Shivpuri mountain (about 8,000 feet), which was MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 491 identified as Erythrina arborescens Roxb. Dr. Roxburgh had made the following observation about this plant in his (1832) flora indica : “ From Nepal, Dr. Buchanan (later Sir Francis Hamilton and one-time Superin- tendent of the Honourable East India Company’s Botanical Garden) sent seeds to the Botanical Gardens where plants blossomed for the first time in October. In April Dr. B. observed it to be a small tree ten to twelve feet in height; here in seven years they are only five or six feet high and with but few branches.” The plant which is characterised by prickly stem, tri-foliate cordate leaves and flowers borne in packed flaming red arrow-shaped racemes, grows locally more than 40 feet in height. It blossoms during August till middle of October, after which it sheds old leaves. The branches are borne in the form of a crown, which are limited in number. Its size, ease of cultivation and attractive flowers all make it suitable for growing in gardens. Department of Botany, DIBYA DEO BHATT Tri-Chandra College, Kathmandu, Nepal, December 28, 1 970. 32. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF AMARANTHUS LIVID US LINN. SSP. POL YGONOIDES (MOQ.) PROBST. AND FIMBRIS - TYLIS A LEO VI RID IS CLARKE IN W. BENGAL Amaranfhus IMdns Linn. ssp. polygoooides (Moq.) Probst. in Wool Aliens 1949. Euoxolus viridis (Linn.) Moq. var. pofygonoides Moq. in DC. Prodr. 13(2) : 274. 1849. Much branched prostrate to suberect herb growing in waste-lands, preferably on heaped soil or tilled ground. Flowering and fruiting in January to April. In Howrah district common at Dumjoor and rare in other places. Regarding the confusion between this taxon and Amaranthm pofygonoides Linn, see Naik, Indian Forester 95 : 415-416. 1969. Specimens examined : Rennet 528. FimbristyMs alboYiridis Clarke in FI. Brit. Jnd, 6 : 638. 1893; Kern in Blumea 8 : 140. 1955. 25-45 cm. high, erect. Umbels lax. Spikelets 3.5-6 mm. long. Grows along the sides of railway lines among bushes and shrubs ; prefers shade ; rare in Howrah district, collected from Dakshinmaju and Padmapukur. Flowering and fruiting in April to August. Kern stated, “Considered to be endemic in Assam F. alboviridis appears to be rather widely distributed in Malaysia. However, it is rare everywhere.’1 492 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol 68 (2) According to Clarke “the outermost cells of the nut are arranged in 25-30 longitudinal series on each face. This is neither the case in the species determined by Clarke, nor in any of the Malaysian ones. I have always found (12-) 16 vertical rows of cells.” This species has so far not been reported from W. Bengal. In my specimens the nuts have 15-20 vertical rows of cells on each face. Specimens examined : Bennet 724 & 810. Acknowled gements Thanks are due to the Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, for the identification of the Amaranthus specimen and to Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, former Keeper of the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta, for the facilities provided for the exploration of Howrah district. 76-Acharya Jagadish Bose Road, S. S. R. BENNET Calcutta-14, December 9, 1969. 33. NOTES ON SPERGULA FALLAX (LOWE), E. H. L. KRAUSE AND S. VERNALIS WILLD. (With a text-figure) This note reports Spergula fallax (Lowe) E. H. L. Krause as a new record for erstwhile Bombay State from Khedbrahma, North Gujarat and Spergula vernalis Willd. as new record for India from Anand, Kaira District, Central Gujarat and Naka Kalol, Sabarkantha District, North Gujarat. Spergula fallax (Lowe) E. H. L. Krause in Sturm, FL Deutschland (ed. 2) 19, 1901. Spergularia fallax Lowe in Hook. Kew. Journ. 8 : 289, 1856. Spergula pentandra Edgeworth & Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind. 1 : 243, 1872. Arenaria flaccida Roxb. FI. Ind. 2 : 447, 1832. A slender, annual herb. Leaves fleshy, linear-subulate in false whorls. Stipules small, scarious. Flowers white, in much branched cymes. Capsule ovoid-subglobose, 3-valved. Style 3, persistent, recurved. Seeds winged, as broad as the seed body. Noted as a weed in cultivated fields and on sandy river beds. Flowering and fruiting : December-February. Herbarium specimen nos. : Bhatt 2412, 2467 ; Khedbrahma, North Gujarat. Shevade 729 ; Dwarka, Kathiawar (Saurashtra). It extends across North Africa from Macronesia to India. In India it extends from Punjab, Bihar and Bengal to Gujarat and Saurashtra. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 493 Santapau in his Flora of Saurashtra (1962) has not mentioned any member of the genus Spergula from the Saurashtra region. However, a collection from Dwarka, Kathiawar (Saurashtra) dated 23. iv. 1925 made by Prof. S. V. Shevade and housed in the Herbarium of the Depart- ment of Botany, the M. S. University of Baroda, on re-investigation is identified as Spergula fallax (Lowe) E. H. L. Krause. Spergula vernalls Willd. in FI. Berol. Prod. 158, 1787. The plant is very similar in appearance to the preceding species, but can be differentiated from it by its broad, ovate petals, obtuse at the tips, the stamens with dilated filaments and the seeds with narrower wings, apparently narrower than the seed body. The plants grow in association with Spergula fallax as a weed in winter crops, especially near irrigation channels. 494 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 68 (!) Flowering and fruiting : December-March . Herbarium specimen nos. : Bhatt 2563, Naka Kalol, Sabarkantha District, North Gujarat. Thaker 1060, Anand, Kaira District, Central Gujarat. Widely distributed throughout Europe and North Africa. In India, it is an introduced weed of agriculture. The plant, as far as could be ascertained from the available literature, has not been earlier recorded from any part of India. Acknowledgements Thanks are due to the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England and. Dr.. M. Mizushima, of Makino Herbarium, Tokyo, Japan for determination of plants. Thanks are also due to Dr. S. D. Sabins for his guidance and Dr. S. I. Bedi for going through the manuscript and for useful suggestions. This research is financed in part by grant made by the United States Department of Agriculture under PL 480. Department of Botany, R. P. BHATT M. S. University of Baropa, Bargda-2, October 5, 1970. 34. PAN I CUM ELEGANTISSIMUM HOOK. f. FROM INDIA ( With a plate) The grass Panicum elegantissimum was described from Malaya (Hooker, FI. Brit. Ind. 7: 52), and later reported from Burma. Recently this grass has been found growing in the Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah [Banerjee 4860, 14th July 1967, by the side of the Her- barium building, Botanic Garden (Cal)]. This specimen exactly matches the type of Panicum elegantissimum {Ridley 3116, 1892, Lumut, State of Perak. Malay Peninsula), which is available in the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta. Panicum elegantissimum Hooker A perennial tufted grass, 0.6 to 0.9 m. tall. Stems slender. Leaves numerous from near base, linear acuminate, strict, suberect, softly hairy all over, more than 30 cm. long and 5 mm. wide. Panicle lax, spreading, 23 cm. long, branches very slender, scabrid, filiform. Spikelets solitary or in pairs, few, scattered, ellipsoid, acute, purple at the tips, 4 mm. long, lower glume about half or less than half the length of the spikelet, spike- lets gaping. Glume I inserted much below the others. Glume I about half or less than half Glume III, ovate, mucronate and 5-7 nerved. Glume II and Glume III stipitate, .subequal, ovate, cuspidately acuminate. Glume II 7 nerved, 5 of the nerves strong above. Glume III 7 nerves, J. Bombay nat\ Hist. Soc. 6S (2) Banerjee : Panicum elegantissimum Pm i cum elegmtissmum Hook. f. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 495 slender, palea small, ovate. Glume IV elliptic-oblong, obtuse as long as glume II, white, shining smooth. On account of the gaping spikelets, this species is often confused with P. trypheron Schult. but P. elegantissimum has longer spikelets and long hairy leaves. P. trypheron has spikelets about 3 mm. long, gaping widely at anthesis. Acknowledgements I am grateful to the Director and Joint Director, Botanical Survey of India, for their interest in this study. I am also grateful to Dr. S. K. Jain for his valuable comments on this note. Thanks are due to Shri D. C. Pal for the line drawings. Botanical Survey of India, DEB KUMAR BANERJEE Calcutta, October 6, 1970. 35. MOTES ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF SESAMUM MULAYANUM NAIR IN MAHARASHTRA Nair (1963)1 described Sesamum mulayanum .from north India and gave its distribution in different parts of Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. This species has been collected by the author from different areas of Maharashtra during several field excursions, which show that the species is well represented in this state. The details of the species represented in the herbarium of Shivaji University, Kolhapur, are : Herbarium Sheet No. Locality Date of collection Remarks 1125 Kolhapur (Sagarmala) 20.viii.1966 Found along roadsides, in grass and waste lands. Flowering. 1128 Katyayani 9.X.1967 Grows along hilly tracts, flowering and fruiting. 1135 Katrajghats (Poona) 20.ix.1967 1136-37 . Ratnagiri 15.X.1968 3.xi.l969 Grows in association with Pedalium murex , along sandy coast. 1138-39 Malvan 22.ix.1970 23.x. 1970 Along bundhs of rice fields. 1140 Vengurla 22.x. 1970 Forms pure stands along sandy sea coast, behind Ipomoea biloba colonies. i Nair, N. C. (1963): A new species of Sesamum Linn, from northern India. Bull. Bot. Surv. India 5: 251-253. 496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST \ SOCIETY, VoL 68 (2) It was interesting to find the plants growing gregariously along the sandy coast at Ratnagiri and Vengurla, suggesting a salt tolerance, a character which could be used in breeding salt-tolerant strains of Hem- mum indicum. Botany Department, A. R, KULKARNI SmvAJi University, Kolhapur* December 9, 1 970, 36. RECORD OF GNETUM VLA BROGN. FROM CENTRAL INDIA Gnetum , a genus of phylogenetic importance is confined to the tropical, humid regions of the world. Most of its species are endemic to the areas of their distribution. In India the genus is confined to south and eastern India, mainly along the Western Ghats and Malabar Coast. Gnetum uta Brogn. is found all along the Western Ghats and some parts of the eastern Coast of India (Maheshwari, P. and ¥. Vasil, Gnetum ). Bharadwaj (/. Ind. hot . soe. 36: 408-420, 1957) reported it from Bombay, Mysore, Kerala, Madras, Andhra, Orissa (Mahendragiri) and Anda- mans. The present record of its occurrence in Central India from Chhind- wara District of Madhya Pradesh, far from its natural home in coastal regions. The specimen is preserved in the Herbarium, State Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur. Gnetum ida Brogn. (Syn. G. scandens Brand.) Local name : Gandhela. Chhindwara: Sukhabandh. Shukla 13022. H. O. SAXENA National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, December 2, 1970, MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 497 37. A NEW VARIETY OF SELINUM VAGINATUM ( EDGW.) CL. (APIACEAE) FROM N. W. HIMALAYA Selinum vaginatum (Edgw.) Cl. var. garhwalensls Babu et Chandra, var. nov. S. vaginatum (Edgw.) Cl. var. vaginatum omnino simile, $ed a varie- tate vaginatum cum characteribus foliis 2-3 pinnatis, foliomm ultimis segmentis anguste lanceolatis grosse inciso-serratis vel pinnatifidis, var. garhwalensis Babu et Chandra differ t foliis 1-2 pinnatis, foliorum ultimis segmentis vel foiiolis late ovato-lanceolatis acute serratis rar© lobulatis. Erect, perennial herbs, up to 30 cm. tall or more. Rootstock stout, fusiform, clothed with fibrous remains of leaf-sheaths. Stems simple, solitary, terete, striate, fistular, glabrous. Radical leaves none, cauline ones few, reduced to sheaths upwards, imperfectly 1-2-pinnate 6-30 cm. long (inch petiole) ; ultimate leaflets or segments sessile, ovate-lanceolate, with a somewhat oblique, rounded base, sharply acute at apex, sharply serrate, nearly glabrous except puberal ous nerves, reticulations promi- nent, 2-3 x 0.7-1 .2 (—1.5) cm.; petiole 0-5. 8 cm. long; sheaths broad, with ciliolate scarious margins, 2.5-6 cm. long. Inflorescences terminal and axillary, puberal ous compound umbels; peduncle stout, terete, striate, puberulous, 3.7 cm. long; involucres 3-5, linear-narrowly oblong, white-margined, ciliate, puberulous, pinnatifid, 0.6-1 cm. long; rays about 20, subequal, striate, puberulous, 2-3 cm. long; involucels 5-6 ( — 10), oblong, pinnatifid, white-margined, ciliate, puberulous, 1-1.5 cm. long, much exceeding the umbellules; pedicels 15-30, slender, puberulous 0.3-0. 5 cm. Jong; calyx-lobes 5, linear-lanceolate, sharply acuminate, 1 -nerved, glabrous, 0.15-0.2 cm. long; petals 5, white, obovate, emar- ginate through inflexed acuminate tip, 0.15-0. IS cm. long; stamens 5, inflex ed in bud, filaments linear, glabrous, 0.2-0.22 cm. long, anthers oblong, 0.08 ( — 0.1) cm. long; ovary compressed, obovoid-oblong, with 3 prominent winged, primary ridges, lateral ridges broadly winged, glabrous, 0. 18-0.2 cm. long, sty 1 odium globose, 0.05x0.1 cm., styles 2, linear, recurved, 0. 1 cm. long, stigma simple. Fruits not seen. INDIA: Uttar Pradesh: Garhwal, Ramara, alt. 3000 m., 29 Sept. 1958, Ran 8728 (CAL-holotype ; BSI-isotype). Flowers: September. Distribution : Known only from the type locality. Similar to S. vaginatum (Edgw.) CL var. vaginatum in all respects 498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (2) except that var. garhwalensis Baba et Chandra is characterised by 1-2- pinnate leaves with broadly ovato-ianceolate, sharply serrate to rarely tabulate ultimate leaf segments or leaflets in contrast to 2-3 pinnate leaves with narrowly lanceolate, coarsely incised-serrate or pinnatifid ultimate leaf-segments of the former. Central National Herbarium, C. R. BA.BU Botanical Survey of India, S. CHANDRA Howrah-3. July 6, 1970. '38. A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF PHALLUS HADRIAN!! VENT. EiX PERS. IN INDIA ( With a photo) During a survey of mushrooms in the Kashmir valley one interesting PhalJoid was collected from Srinagar. The specimen was sent to Dr. D. M. Bring of Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, England, who determined it as Phallus hadrianii Vent, ex Pers. Tiwari & Khare (1968)1 while reporting on two interesting Phalloids from Uttar Pradesh, India, have suggested the study of a large number of collections to establish the range of varia- tion in the species, in this relatively little studied group in India. The description of the specimen which is also a new distribution record for the. species in India is being given in this note. Phallus hadrianii Vent, ex Pers.- Syn. Method. Fung.; 246, 1801. Expanded fructification (Fig. 4) consisting of a gelatinous volva, an elongated stipe and a pileus, 6-10 cm. high ; Pileus conical and attached round the raised perforated white ring (0.5-1 cm. wide) which terminates the stem; bears the blackish fetid gleba, the exposed surface deeply reticulated with large chambers (3-6 mm. in diam.), white, 2-4 cm. long, covering a thin veil; stipe hollow, white, cylindric, 4-8 cm. tall, 1.5 to 2.5 cm. in diameter at the swollen portion, tapering above and below, spongy, honeycombed (meshes 0.5-1 nun. in diam.); volva cup-shaped, thick, winkled, :and enclosing a thick basal veil : spores , smooth, greenish yellow, elliptical, 1 . 2-1 . 8 x 3 . 3-4fx . i Tiwari, V. P. & Khare, k. B. (1968): Two interesting Phalloids from Uttar Pradesh, bid. Phytopath. 21 (4): 374-378. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:. . 499 Figs. 1=4: i. Phallus hadrianii Vent. ex-Pers. unexpanded fructification with rhizo- morph x 2. Slightly opened fructification x 3. Dissected egg x ;4. Expanded plants x i. Unexpanded fructification (Figs. 1-3) 2.5-4 cm. in diameter, globose, isolated, pinkish, wrinkled, gelatinous, pliant, with a short pinkish rhizomorph at the base, rupturing in the beginning into a bluish egg- shaped structure. Collected on wet soil at the base of Rohinia pseudoacacia , Sanat Nagar, Srinagar (5,200 ft.) T. N. Kaul and J. L. Kachroo, 28. iv. 1969, RRLS. No. 8. Acknowledgements We are grateful to Dr. D. M. Dring of Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, for identification and comments. Thanks are due to Dr. K. Ganapathi, Director, for encouragement. Regional Research Laboratory, Sanat Nagar, Srinagar-5, Kashmir, November 4, 1 970. T. N. KAUL 300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY , VoL m (2) 39. STUDIES ON STIGONEMATACEAE (With two text-figures) Fritsch & Rich (1937-38) figured and described an alga under the name Haplosiphon fontinalis (Ag.) Born, having branches with long cells and without cross walls. As pointed out by H. Welsch (1962) this feature is unrepresented in Haplosiphon fontinalis of Fremy in Geitler (1932). A form of Haplosiphon fontinalis was also reported by Rich (1936) which also differs considerably from the one reported by Geitler. Further, the shortening of cells towards the ends of branches — a charac- teristic and notable feature of Fremy’s drawing in Geitler (1932) and Desikachary (1959) was not indicated by Rich. Welsch (1962) therefore considered Rich’s alga as another species of Haplosiphon . I agree with the view of Welsch that Fremy’s alga where the shortening of cells to- wards the branch ends is prominently shown is the real Haplosiphon fontinalis. Considering these facts the present alga does not agree either with H. fontinalis nor with any other known species of the genus and hence it is described as a new species. Haplosiphon agarkarai sp. nov. (Fig. 1) Thallus terrestrial, greenish black when old, greenish yellow when young, eaespitose. filaments more or less entangled; primary prostrate filaments 8. 5-13. 5ft broad containing cells in two rows, slightly longer than broad; filaments fairly branched, branching tree; branches arise from the prostrate filaments; more or less irregularly curved, slightly narrower than the main filaments 6.0-7. 5 p broad; heterocysts inter- calary, cylindrical, common in the main filaments also, 7.5ft broad 8.5ft long; spores not seen. Partially shaded marshy places in the hospital campus, Jagdalpur. Haplosiphon agarkarai sp. nov. Thallus terrestris vestutus, glaucus, novellus viridis, lutens, eaespites, fibrae plus minusque implicatae fibre, fibrae primariae jacentes 8.5-13. 5ft latae, cum cellibus latibus in duobus seriebus. Fibrae bene ramificatae, ramusque veri, qui emergunt de fibribus prostratis plus minusque in- fiectae, incompositae, leve angustae quam fibrae principals, 6. 0-7. 5 p latae, vagina-tenuis, pigmenta subflava ad hyalani. Cellae ramorum prope rotundae 6.8ft latae. Heterocystes intercalares, cylindrici, com- munes in fibribus principalibus, etiam 7.5ft lati, 8,5ft longi, semina non videbantur. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 501 In locis palustris umbrosisque campi neoscomii, Jagdalpur. Haplosfphon attenuate sp. nov, (Fig. 2) Plants look like small greenish yellow gelatinous almost spherical mass. Thallus consists of irregularly interwoven prostrate filaments of 2.5jjl broad; cells in one row, longer than broad, 2. Op. broad, sheath thick hyaline ; branching lateral, short true, sparse almost regular, nearly as broad as the main filaments containing 3-5 cells of equal size, roughly spherical, apical cell sharply attenuated and cone-like — a feature that dis- tinguishes it from all other known members of the genus. Sheath of the branches indistinct, thin, colourless; heterocysts cylindrical, 2. 0-3. Op, broad, 2.6jt long, intercalory; spores not observed. 1 i5 p> Haplosiphon agarkarai Haplosiphon attenuata On tree trunks in the forest office, Jagdalpur. Haplosiphon attenuata sp. nov. Fungi videntur tamquam molles virides subflair. Thallus cum fibribus jacentibus incompositae contextae, 2.5p, latae, cellae in seriebus singu- laribus, latiorae quam latae, vagina, hyala, crassa, rames laterales, veri breves, sparsi fere ordinati. Prope lati quam fibras principles, cum 3-5 cellis similis mensuribus, ranee globoidis, cella apecis attenuata acuta 35/U> 502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, VoL m (2) sicut conum-proprietas particulars qui separat bane speciem abomnibus speciebus genus, vagina ramorum indistincta, tenuis sine colore. Hetero- cystes cylindrici, 2.3{i lati, 2 . 6|x longi, intercalares, semina non inveni- untur. Super stripibus arborum, in domus silvarum, Jagdalpur. Acknowledgements I thank Dr. J. L. Gnanarethinam of De Nobile College, Poona for providing the latin translation of the species. B-109, H. A. Colony, A. SUBRAMANIAM Pimpri, Poona-18, December 28, 1970. References Desikachary, T. V. (1959): Cyano- phyta, I.C.A.R., New Delhi. Fremy, (1930): Les stigonemataceae de la France. Rev. Alg. Paris. 5: 147. Fritsch, F. E. (1952): Structure and reproduction of algae. Vol. 2. Myxo- phyceae, Cambridge. Gonzalves, E. A. (1949): Observa- tions on the algae of paddy field soils. J. Univ . Bombay (18) 3: 51-55. Welsch, H. (1962): Some new cyano- phytes from South Africa. Rev. Alg. Paris. 3: 227-233. 40. A PARASITE (VISCUM ORIENTALE) ON ANOTHER ( DENDROPHTHOE FALCATA ) Normally the host range of parasitic flowering plants is restricted to n on-parasitic plants but an interesting case of double parasitism was recorded during botanical collections in Bastar, Madhya Pradesh. Vis- cum orientate Willd. was found growing on Dendrophthoe falcata (Linn, f.) Etting which itself was parasitic on Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. ex HK. f. and Anogeissus acuminata (Roxb.) Wall, ex Bedd. Herbarium specimens {Saxena 1627, 1628, Budra, Bastar, 28.iv.65) have been deposited in the Herbarium, State Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur, M.P. National Botanic Gardens, H. O. SAXENA Lucknow, March 5, 1971. Printed By V. K. Joshi for G. Claridge & Co. Ltd., at Shahid Bhagat Singh Road, Bombay 1, and Published by Editors: Zafar Futehally, J. C. Daniel and P. V. Bole for the Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay- 1. THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS Mammals The Book of Indiau Animals, by S. H. 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Prints must be of a size not smaller than 8*20 x 5*60 cm. (No. 2 Brownie) and on glossy glazed paper. 6. Text-figures, line drawings, and maps should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board. 7. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically arranged under author’s name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals underlined (italics) and titles of books not underlined (roman type), thus : Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal. /. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2) : 243-268. Prater, S. H. (1948) : The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay. Titles of papers should not be underlined. 8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting the author’s name and year of publication, thus : (Banerji 1958). 9. Synopsis ; Each scientific paper should be accompanied by a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words. 10. Reprints : Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be given gratis to be distributed among the two or more authors. Orders for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be received within two weeks after the author is informed of the acceptance of the manuscript. They will be charged for at cost plus postage and packing. Editors, Horn bill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural Shahid Bhagat History Society. Singh Road, Bombay 1-BR. VOLUME 68 No. 3— DECEMBER 1971 Date of Publication : 26-2-1972. CONTENTS An ecological Survey of the larger Mammals of Peninsular India. By M. Krishnan. {With eight plates) . . . . . . . . 503 Studies on the Biology of some Freshwater Fishes. By V. S. Bhatt. {With nine text-figures ) .. .. .. .. ..556 Contribution to the flora of Tirap Frontier Division. By D. B. Deb and R. M. Dutta . . . . . . . . . . . . 573 On a collection of Sipunculids from Indian waters. By Peace Johnson. {With four plates ) . . . . . . . . . . 596 Spider Fauna of India : Catalogue and Bibliography. By B. K. Tikader 609 Durgapur Barrage as a Waterbird Habitat. By F. M. Gauntlett. {With a map ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 New Taxa, chiefly of Copepoda described by the late R. B. Seymour Sewell, between 1912 and 1960. By E. G. Silas .. .. ..633 Orchids of Nepal — 5. By M. L. Banerji and B. B. Thapa. {With two text- figures) . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 Parturition in the Indian Vespertilionid Bat, Pipistrellus ceylonicus chrysothrix (Wroughton). By A. Gopalakrishna and A. Madhavan. ( With nine figures in two plates) . . . . . . . . 666 The Thalassinoidea (Crustacea, Anomura) of Maharashtra. By K. N. Sankolli. {With two text-figures) . . . . . . . . 671 Emergence periods of two beetles, Oryzaephilus surinamensis (Cucujidae) and Tribolium casta neum (Tenebrionidae), from dum nuts, Hyphaene thebaica, in India. By M. L. Roonwal. {With two text-figures) . . 683 Food-Habits of water-birds of the Sundarban, 24-Parg-anas District, West Bengal, India — III. By Ajit Kumar Mukherjee. ( With three text-figures) 691 Eco-toxicology and control of the Indian Desert Gerbil, Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon). By Ishwar Prakash . . . . . . 717 Polychaetes from Maharashtra and Goa. By Arun H. Parulekar. {With a map and four plates) . . . . . . . . . . 726 Aquatic and Marshy Angiosperms of Roorkee Sub-division. By Udai Singh Chauhan and A. C. Dey . . . . . . . . . . 750 A Catalogue of the Birds in the Collection of the Bombay Natural History Society- 10. By Humayun Abdulali . . . . . . 756 A Contribution to the Flora of Gangolihat Block in Pithoragarh District. By V. Singh and H. Singh . . . . . . 773 Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of Bhandal Range, Churah Forest Division, Chamba District, Himachal Pradesh. By Rajendra Gupta . . 791 Reviews : 1. The Ecosystem concept in Natural Resources Management. (S. Berwick) 804 2. Bird song : Accoustics and Physiology. (R.A. Melluish) .. .. 807 3. A guide book to the birds of Ceylon. (S.A.) .. .. .. 809 4. First catch your Tiger. (D.E.R.) .. .. .. .. 810 5. Innocent Killers. (C.C.A.) .. .. .. .. 812 6. The Life and Organization of birds. (S.A.) .. .. .. 812 7. Fauna of India and the adjacent Countries. (N.T.N.) . . . . 813 8. Animal Traps and Trapping. (R.B.G.) .. .. . . 814 9. Owls. (Z.F.) .. .. .. .. ..815 Miscellaneous Notes : Mammals : 1. Notes on the Yellow Bellied Weasel Mustela kathiah Hodgson (Mustelidae) from Khasi Hills, Assam. By R. S. Pillai and S. Biswas (p. 817) ; 2. Habits of a small Indian Civet [Viverricula indica (Desmarest)]. By Harry Miller (p. 818) ; 3. The Teppakadu Twins. ( With a plate). By Priya Davidar (p. 819) ; 4. Breeding of the Indian Rhinoceros {Rhinoceros unicornis ) at Delhi Zoological Park. {With a plate). By C. L. Bhatia and J. H. Desai (p. 820) ; 5. White Bison of Manjampatti. By J. C. Gouldsbury (p. 823); 6. Notes on the Nilgiri Tahr {Hemitragus hylocrius). By James L. H. Williams (p. 824). Birds: 7. An Albinistic Gadwall from India. {With two plates). By James M. Harrison and Jeffrey G. Harrison (p. 827) ; 8. On the validity of Otus bakka- moena stewarti Koelz. By Humayun Abdulali and S. A. Hussain (p. 829) ; 9. Calls of the Malabar Jungle Owlet {Glaucidium radiatum malabaricum). By K. K. Neelakantan (p. 830) ; 10. Tibetan Twite {Acanthis flavirostris) in Nepal. By M. Desfayes (p. 832) ; 1 1 . Some birds from Nepal. By Hari S. Nepali and Robert L. Fleming Jr. (p. 833). Reptiles : 12. Crocodile {Crocodilus palustris) breeding at the Jaipur Zoo. By Mahendra Prakash (p. 835) ; 13. A record of the Gharial, Gavialis gangeticus (Gmelin) from Patna (Bihar). By T. Venkateswarlu, Bholanath and D. P. Sanyal (p. 837) ; 14. Cobra and Monitor Lizard. By E. Bharatan (p. 838) ; 15. Striking behaviour in the Common Green Whip Snake {Ahaetulla nasutus ). By Paul S. Soderberg (p. 839). Fishes : 16. The use of Scorpionfish {Pterois spp.) spines as a stimulant!?) in Cock fights. {With a text-figure). By A. G. K. Menon and K. V. Rama Rao (p. 840) ; 17. On the occurrence of Ichthyoscopus inermis (Swainson) off Vizhin- gam, Kerala. By M. D. K. Kuthalingam (p. 841). Bryozoa : 18. Two new records of Bryozoans from Indian Waters. {With three text-figures). By S. R. Madhavan Pillai and L. N. Santhakumaran (p. 842). Insects : 19. On a new host record of Taragama siva (Lef.) (Lepidoptera : Lasiocampidae) from West Bengal. By P. Parui (p. 845) ; 20. Subterranean habitats of Sandflies (Diptera : Psychodidae) in Aurangabad and Bhir Districts;, Maharashtra, India. By G. B. Modi and Vijai Dhanda (p. 845 ) ; 21. A note on the occurrence of Discomyza maculipennis Wiedmann (Diptera : Ephy- dridae) on dried fish. By A. B. Soans and Clement Adolph (p. 847) ; 22. Further collection of the Syrphidae (Diptera) from Central India. By R. S. Gokulpure (p. 848) ; 23. Colony-Fission in the Ant, Monomorium gracilli- mum Smith (Hymenoptera : Formicidae). By A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 849) ; 24. Proximity of the colonies of the tending Ant species as a factor determining the occurrence of Aphids. By A. B. Soans and J. S. Soans (p. 850). Botany ; 25. On the occurrence of Atalantia missionis Oliv. in the district of Burdwan in West Bengal. {With a plate). By R. B. Ghosh, D. N. Guha Bakshi, K. D. Mukherjee and S. K. Mondal (p. 851) ; 26. Euphorbia serpens H.B.K. (Euphorbiaceae) : A hitherto unrecognised species in India. {With a text-figure ). By R. L. Mitra (p. 852) ; 27. Plant records for Maharashtra. By S. K. Malhotra and S. Moorthy (p. 856) ; 28. The Genus Fuirena (Cyperaceae) in Gujarat. ( With a plate). By S. D. Sabnis and S. J. Bedi (p. 857) ; 29. Endogenous Rhythm in opening and closing of flowers in Portulaca species. {With a text- figure). By D. N. Sen, K. D. Sharma and M. C. Bhandari (p. 859). Gleanings Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History Society for the Year 1970-71 Statements of Accounts of the Bombay Natural History Society Minutes of the Annual General Meeting 862 863 870 882 JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY 1971 DECEMBER Vol. 68 No. 3 An ecological Survey of the larger Mammals of Peninsular India BY M. Krishnan ( With eight plates) Introduction This report is based on many years of observation in a great many faunal areas widely distributed over peninsular India. Some of the work was planned, sustained and intensive, the rest of it sporadic and done as opportunity offered. The report is documented by 242 photo- graphs selected from several thousands taken over 12. years, from 1959 to October 1970, and is largely supported by the field notes written up each day during this period (which are appended to the report) and personal experience. This general statement needs amplification both to indicate adequately the factual records of the report and to expose their limitations. While a considerable body of record (observation notes and photographs) prior to 1959 is available, it was decided to make that year the starting point of this survey, because it was only from then on that photography was regularly employed as part of the field work to supplement and com- plement observation. The value of photographic documentation (briefly set out in the section on photography, later here) was realised much earlier, but it took years to build the cameras I needed for the work and to develop an adequately versatile photographic technique, largely owing to personal limitations. All field trips prior to 1959 have been left out of the records of this survey. Many field trips made during the first 10 years of the 12-year period have also been left out because they were to faunal areas outside the region of peninsular India (though a few relevant extracts from trips 504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (3) to the Jaldapara sanctuary of West Bengal, the Kaziranga and Manas sanctuaries of Assam, and the Corbett National Park and the Dudwa preserve of Uttar Pradesh have been included), or because they were mainly floristic or photographic trips, or else because it was not possible to revisit those areas for a check on earlier observation during the last 2 years when intensive work was done on the Jawaharlal Nehru Fellow- ship. The field notes appended1 provide full details of the areas visited, the duration of each visit, and seasonal and other particulars. Brief accounts of the terrain and main floristic features of the Periyar, Mudu- malai, Point Calimere, Bandipur, Kawal, Hazaribagh and Palamau sanctuaries have been provided later in this report. As far as possible, during the last 2 years, two visits were made at the same time of the year to areas already visited earlier and to new faunal areas. The study locations, in 8 States, are listed below (full details will be found in the field notes and photographs) : Kerala : the Periyar Sanctuary (and one isolated record from Quilon); Tamil Nadu: the Mudumalai Sanctuary (which was intensively worked, over years) and the Point Calimere Sanc- tuary (and selected records from Guindy Park in Madras, Topslip in the Anamalais, and Sholinghur); Mysore: the Bandipur Sanctuary (and one isolated record from the Ranganathittoo Sanctuary) ; Andhra Pradesh : the Kawal Sanctuary (and passing references to the Pakhal and Etur- nagaram Sanctuaries) ; Orissa : Balimela, Chilka and surroundings, Tickerpara and surroundings, the Usha Kothi Sanctuary in Badrama and the Raigoda Sanctuary, and the Simlipal hills ; Bihar : the Hazaribagh and Palamau National Parks, with brief visits to the Baresand area, Tholkobad and Karkatnagar ; Madhya Pradesh : the Kanha National Park, with brief visits to Churna (Bori), the Shivpuri National Park, Bastar and Bara Naya Para; Maharashtra : the Taroba National Park. Some important areas with a distinctive fauna, like Gujarat and Rajasthan, were not visited at all. It was not possible to do so because, during the last 2 years when intensive work could be done, it was decided to do it in areas already known and contiguous tracts so as to obtain reliable records from a series of sample surveys, rather than to break new ground. Acknowledgements The grant of a Fellowship for an ecological mammalian survey of peninsular India, by the Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund, enabled me to bring my work until October 1968 to some shape by sustained and continuous field work and photography over the next 2 years, and to complete this report. It was a real privilege to be trusted so entirely to 1 The field notes are omitted in this publication for reasons of space. However, these notes are available in typescript with the Bombay Natural History Society, and are being held by the Society. AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 505 plan and execute an ambitious project. My thanks are also due to the Bombay Natural History Society for suggesting that I might be entrusted with this survey. I can only hope that this report is, in some measure, worthy of the trust reposed in me by the Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund and the Bombay Natural History Society. It is with pleasure and thankfulness that I acknowledge the generosity of the Governments and Forest Departments of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Mysore, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Maha- rashtra in providing me with all facilities for work in their forests. Mem- bers of the Forest Departments of these States, at all levels, have helped with local guidance and advice, and in other ways, and I am grateful to them for help received. To my brother professional photographers in Madras and other friends who have responded so unfailingly to my usually exacting and invariably urgent calls upon their time and skills over the past 12 years, I owe such a polymorphic debt that I can only record my thankfulness to them all here generally. However, I am specially indebted to K. Krishna- moorthy, Conservator of Forests, Kerala (now retired) and to Dr. B, G. L. Swamy, Chief Professor of Botany, the Presidency College, Madras, for identifying plants for me and for discussions of forest ecology in India; to B. V. Seshaiah, ace-photographer, for discussions of ways and means for extending the frontiers of photography to suit my field work; to V. H. Sivamani Nadhan and K. Mani for technical help and advice in the devising of my photographic equipment; and to C. Gowrishankar and K. Krishna Murari Rao for aid in many ways. I also acknowledge help received from my son, M. Harikrishnan of the Indian Forest Ser- vice, with floral identifications, floristics and stray faunal observations, and am indebted to my wife, Indumati Krishnan, for much help with the typescripts. The Photographic Record The main value of a clear photograph in supplementing and comple- menting visual observation in the field is that the camera’s vision is com- prehensive and unbiased. Many particulars that the eye might miss for various reasons, such as the confusion resulting from the movement of a number of animals in bush cover, or by the eye being preoccupied with some displayed feature or action of the subject to the exclusion of less flagrant details, are recorded unselectively by the camera, so that study of a clear enlargement of the photograph often reveals details that the observer might have missed. This truth is widely recognised in the copying of documents by photography to ensure total fidelity, but in- sufficiently appreciated in faunal field work. However, for worthwhile photographic records of wild animals it is necessary that the subject should be truly wild and free — or, to put it in photographic parlance, 506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) that the record should be candid. It is conceded generally by students of animal behaviour that the responses and behaviour of wild animals in captivity and in contrived situations are often misleading. Two practical photographic difficulties arise from this. Obviously, the photographer-cum-observer has his best opportunity when his pres- ence is undisclosed to his subject, as when he is in a hide. Early experi- ments with ground-hides and more portable camouflage soon exposed their limitations. Apart from the lack of mobility which they inevit- ably involve, they have major set-backs when employed for the obser- vation of mammals in Indian forests, excellent as they are for bird photo- graphy. Most forest mammals depend even more upon smell than on sight, and frequently the photographer inside a ground-hide is dis- covered by his subject even before he is aware of its proximity, and there- after naturally never gets even a glimpse of it. Worse still, in elephant country such hides can prove quite dangerous, as I can attest from per- sonal experience. Tree-seats and machans, sited high enough for the human occupant’s smell to pass above the animals’ questing nose, are much more useful, especially as they can give the watcher a good, overall view, but they are easily detected visually. However, some work was done from such elevated stances. With free-ranging animals like gaur, deer and predators, it is often possible, when the initial approach has been displayed and casual from a sufficient distance, and has caused no alarm, to get them to accept human beings in a motor vehicle or on elephant back, and it is there- after possible to edge gradually in for photographs from close up. In this, for some reason, the much quieter sneeze of the Compur shutter seems less acceptable to most animals than the thud of the focal-plane shutter, but undoubtedly a loud thud upsets them, and has to be muffled. It is my experience that animals are much more sensitive to being photographed with an eye-level camera than with a camera held at chest level, where the ground-glass screen can be viewed without looking directly at the animal. Gaur, deer and most predators will not accept men on foot, and though there is a photograph of a gaur and a sambar in the photographic record of this survey, taken on foot, both were photographed not by getting them to accept me but by stealth. Most of the photographs documenting this report were taken from elephant back, a motor vehicle or boat or a tree-seat. Elephants and monkeys are best photographed on foot, though much care is needed in approaching the former in most parts of India. Almost all the elephant and monkey pictures were taken on foot. The second and less obvious difficulty in wildlife photography in the forests of India is that even where the photographer is mobile, he cannot usually choose his stance or the subject’s background, and has to take his pictures as he finds them, so that adequate tonal separation AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 507 between subject and surroundings and clarity of record (an essential) has to be achieved entirely by photographic technical shifts and not by posing the subject, or by waiting for it to reveal itself in a literally more favourable light — such forbearance usually results in his losing it alto- gether ! This consideration is of much greater consequence than may be imagined, for in our forests the lighting is often extremely contrasting, with hardly any reflectance from the highlights into the shadows. For this reason, a thorough understanding of the colour rendering of the emulsion in use as also of the exploitation of the relationship between exposure and development is necessary for good candid pictures.- Considering how integral a part of this report its photographic record is, two further matters may be briefly set out. An original attempt was made to evaluate the comparative size of the same species (average specimens) in different areas, purely by photography. This failed because of accidental damage to the camera specially constructed for this purpose, but is sufficiently interesting to be retailed here. In this camera, the rigid parallelism of the lens board to the film plane was ensured by the lens board moving along two tracks set at right angles to each other. The camera was equipped with a 240 mm. tele- photo lens of hard definition, with a maximum aperture of f 5.6, and the traverse of this lens from infinity to 15 feet was accurately calibrated. Further, a rigid lock was provided so that the lens could be locked at any desired position on the footage scale. The lens was locked when it was focussed at 100 feet, and a rangefinder right beneath the viewfinder was also locked set at 100 feet. Depth of field tables are calculated on contact prints, so that when the negative is enlarged to 10 or 15 diameters, the depth is very shallow even at 100 feet for a lens of the focal length used at its maximum aperture of f 5.6, only about 8 feet. Preliminary experimental work showed that it was not too difficult to move back or forward a few feet, when one was about 100 feet from chital, gaur and other animals, so as to get the split images in the rangefinder to coincide exactly, though at this distance it was not possible to eliminate errors of a few feet. I hoped to use this camera, set up on a tripod if possible a measured distance of 100 feet from some animal path used by chital and other animals, and to photograph them (by remote control, if necessary, the camera being equipped with a solenoid which could be operated from 100 feet away) at 100 feet, broadside-on, in different areas. Errors in the estimation or measurement of the distance would be immediately shown up when the negative was scrutinised through a highpower mag- nifier, and it was proposed to mark all successful negatives with code numbers, to indicate the date and area of each picture, and then to evaluate comparative size in different areas by measuring the 15-diameter blow-ups from the successful negatives. Image size, in such a set-up, being directly proportional to subject size and nothing else, it should 508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vol, 68 (3) have been possible to get reliable comparative data by this method. The main difficulty, in fact, would have been not in the photography so much as in the ensuring that the subject and camera were on a plane more or less (otherwise foreshortening and other perspective errors might have complicated matters). Owing to the footage-scale of this camera get- ting damaged beyond repair in a road accident, soon after it was built, it was not possible to lock the lens at 100 feet and hence the attempt was abandoned. However, since the traverse of the lens was unaffected up to 75 feet (the maximum distance at which pictures could be taken at night with the aid of 2 Metz 502 electronic flashes) it was used ex- clusively for night photography, and all the night pictures in the record were taken with it. In many faunal areas (for example in Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and parts of Bihar) animals which are diurnal in less disturbed habitats have turned crepuscular and nocturnal : in fact, in these locations, only at night could any wild mammals be seen, and it was important to my survey that I should get clear pictures of them. The problem here was twofold. The spill of light from the wideangled flash-heads on to the bonnet and other parts of the jeep resulted frequently in reflection- flares that completely ruined the pictures : hoods to narrow the throw of light were devised for tne flash-heads, and this also helped in the more even illumination of the field from about 30 feet away. The second problem was that driving along forest roads in an open jeep at night, it was seldom possible to> see animals closer than 50 feet away, and in- advisable to open the aperture wider than f 8, as some depth of field was highly desirable — at night the rangefinder could not be used and setting tne lens by guessing the distance, the lens had to be stopped down slightly to allow for small errors in the estimation of distances. The guide-number used by professional photographers for taking pictures of open-air processions at night were far too high in the jungle, even though they used the same film and the same electronic flash as I did. Using 2 synchronised flashes, and forced development, I found that printable negatives could be obtained when the subject was 50 feet away, with the lens aperture at f 8, but not at 60 feet. Finally and somewhat desperately a new technique of forced development was evolved which solved the problem. The film (Kodak Tri-X Pan) was developed in May & Baker Promicrol at a dilution of 1 :2\ and development continued till a slight base-fog built up. The time taken for such unobjectionable fogging was noted, and 4 times the tank capacity of the diluted developer was mixed. Then, fixing the time at a little less than the time fixed originally, the used developer was poured out and replaced by fresh developer thrice, at quarter the development time fixed. Successful negatives were obtained even with the subject 75 feet away by this technique. AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 509 Scope, Bases and Arrangement of the Report Being mainly based on a series of repeated sample surveys, in many of the best faunal areas in peninsular India, carried out over a 12-year period, this report has no pretensions to beirg a study of distribution or a taxonomical natural history of the mammals of the region : it is, in fact, a factually-based ecological mammalian evaluation dependent mainly on the study records specified already, and also on earlier experi- ence and knowledge. All individual faunal assessments, as distinct from the reports of a team of workers, are substantially of this nature, but usually they contain the sum total of the faunal knowledge of the author up to the period of publication. In this report, however, the field records have been limited to a period cf 12 years from 1959 for reasons already stated, and even within this period, the observation made during brief trips, unsupported by detailed, on-the-spot field notes, has been left out. For instance, it will be noticed that the records relating to one of the commonest wild mammals of the region, the bonnet monkey, are quite meagre. I have watched and photographed this monkey in many places where it is the local faunal feature, such as Tirupathi, Courtallam, Papa- vinasam, Siddharkoil, Jalarpet, Kodaikanal Road, and in and around some suburban towns, but these observations have not been included in the field notes here for chronological reasons, or because there are no detailed notes supporting them, or because they were not made in forest areas. Similarly, no mention at all is made of the commonest diurnal wild mammal of peninsular India, the palm squirrel, for though many photographs and even observation notes of it are available, they are wholly unrelated to the forest areas in which the work on the survey was done. The field notes1 have been analysed and the sight-records (varying in duration from a mere glimpse to 3 hours of close watching, and in number from an individual to a herd) of each species mentioned in them separately collected and studied. Since this report is ecological and not on behaviour, the approximate total duration of all observation has not been specified for each species, but other details culled from these field notes have been briefly specified at the commencement of the chapter on each species. In these chapters, as well as in the chapter which provides the overall survey, references are made to photographs and field observations supporting statements and conclusions. For this purpose, the study locations have been prefixed with initials, follow- ing their arrangement in the field notes and photographs, as indicated below : Kerala . . . . . . . . K Tamil Nadu . . . . . . . . TN Mysore . . . . . . . . MY 1 See footnote at p. 504, 510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 6S (3) Andhra Pradesh . . .. AP Orissa , . .. O Bihar . . „ , . . .. B Madhya Pradesh , , .. MP Maharashtra . . ? • .. MR Other miscellaneous areas . . MISC These initials, followed by the year, month and date of the obser- vation, should be quite adequate for the immediate location of the pass- age in the field notes to which reference is made. Similarly, the code number of any photograph will suffice to locate it, by reference to the list of photographs provided. Evidentiary records outside the Report Thousands of negatives from the field trips made during the 12-year period of this survey (roughly, 6000 negatives) have not been printed for this report for various reasons, though they were all scrutinised and many have been printed in the past for other purposes. The main reason for this, of course, was that some reasonable limit had to be set to the number of illustrations to any text. Many of these negatives are repe- titive, being pictures of the same subject taken in sequence at one oppor- tunity; many are of poor quality and are only proof of the subject having been seen in the circumstances set out; a great many have only pictorial and not evidentiary value. Nevertheless, these negatives have been sorted out and stored, so that in the unlikely event of any statement made in this report requiring additional proof, they may be available in case they contain the evidence needed. During the first 10 years, some of the observation notes and photo- graphs from field trips were used in faunal contributions to newspapers and magazines, and also in survey reports to governments, mainly for my ‘Country Notebook’ column in The Statesman. It is therefore possible to establish that these observation notes were anterior in point of time to those publications and reports. Nonprovision of Bibliography The nonprovision of a bibliographic list of the faunal literature con- sulted or relied upon (as an appendix to this report) may be explained here. I am indebted to booklore for much of my knowledge of Indian wild animals, to some 50 books. These are of 3 main categories, shikar literature, the accounts of naturalists and conservationists, and faunas and specialist studies, compilations and reports. Among the authors of shikar books I have read, the following may be mentioned, more or less in chronological order : W. Rice, M. H, AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 511 Shakespear, J. Forsyth, J. Baldwin, E. Braddon, J. Inglis, A. J. 0, Pollock, D. Hamilton, G. P. Sanderson, E. F. Burton, R. Sterndale, C. E. M, Russell, A, Mervyn Smith, A. I. R. Glasfurd, the Maharajah of Cooch Behar, S. Eardley Wilmot, E. P. Stebbing and F. W. F. Fletcher (c. 1860 to 1912): Best, A. A. Dunbar Brander (his is really much more a valuable natural history than a shikar book), R. G. Burton, Hewett, C, H. Stockley, Musselwhite and Wardrop, between the two World Wars : and thereafter, J. Corbett, K. Anderson, A. Locke, A. Powell, Kesri Singh and H. Allen, most of them writing about tiger hunting. Among the books of conservationists and naturalists should be men- tioned two years in the jungle by W. T. Hornaday (who came to India in 1877), with a camera in tiger-land and the jungle in sunlight and shadow by F. W. Champion (notable for their magnificent photo- graphs), the wild life of India by E. P. Gee (a sound over-all account with many fine photographs), .elephant gold and tigers by P. D. Stracey, and the twilight of India’s wild life by B. Seshadri. The faunas and specialist studies and publications include mammals of India by Jerdon, the 2 volumes on mammals in the fauna of British India by W, T. Blanford, Sterndale’s mammalia of India revised by F. Finn, the book of Indian animals by S. H. Prater (second edition, 1965), the deer and the tiger by G. B. Schaller, and notes and articles in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (the last two specially valuable). Naturally, other scientific faunal books not dealing specifically with Indian mammals were also read, but are not indicated here. If this report was primarily concerned, as it is not, with the decline of the country’s mammalian wildlife over the past 100 years, an accurate bibliography of all these and some other books would have to be pro- vided. For example, in the Banjar Valley area of Madhya Pradesh, the faunal decline is graphically indicated by what Forsyth, Dunbar Brander and Schaller have written of the local fauna as they knew it in 1861-63, 1900-21, and 1963-65 respectively: Brander further records the decline within the 20-year period of his knowledge of the area. Where such comparative assessments by different observers, spread over different periods of a century, sustain the argument of the text of a report or analysis, the dates and other details of publication of the sources have value and should be furnished in an appendix. In the present report, limited in period and confined largely to a series of repeated visits to widely scattered faunal areas, an added bibliography would serve no use- ful purpose and can only be pretentious. Further, to be properly done it would entail an enormous amount of work and time — in no book on India’s fauna published in the last 3 decades that I have seen is the biblio- graphy complete or wholly free from error. 512 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo\. $8 (3) Wherever it is necessary to refer to the opinion or record of any authority either to corroborate some statement in this report, or because my observation or inference differs from that of others, specific citation of such agreement or difference will be made in the text. Population Figures: Quantitative Faunal Assessments In the areas worked, the populations of some free-ranging species, such as elephants and gaur, naturally displayed considerable fluctuations with the seasons; further, even at the same time of the year, there were noticeable fluctuations in their numbers in different years caused, apparently, by climatic or other seasonal variations like drought or unseasonal rainfall. Other species, like chital and muntjac, were widely distributed over many localities either in mobile populations (chital) or individually (muntjac), so that working singlehanded and for a limited period in each area, it was not possible to attempt even a rough count in all localities. Again, the predators were either so largely nocturnal, like tigers and leopards in most places, or so little given to residence in particular localities, like wild dogs, that it was exceedingly difficult to see them, leave alone count their numbers. In many areas where the normally diurnal animals had become furtive creatures of the night owing to sustained disturbance by humanity during the day, drives along forest roads were regularly undertaken, usually both an early drive at nightfall and another late at night, and sometimes predawn drives as well. In places the sanctuary authorities had conducted a regular census, and where this had been done, close inquiry was made into the methods employed, and the official figures studied. All that is expected of a faunal census is an approximation to the truth, and even where the approximation is wide, if it is adequately representative and if the method employed is sound, a census, enumeration or rough count is better than an educated guess. But where the method is unsound and some of those entrusted with the counts are inept, the census figures obtained, while possessing the verisimilitude of all statistical figures comprehensibly displayed, might be widely misleading. Only in a few instances did the official figures seem substantially true. Everywhere, but especially in areas where the animals were hard to see, all means other than actual sight records were exploited to deter- mine the presence of wild animals — by exploring nullahs, the edges of pools and water-holes, and forest paths, and noticing and studying foot- prints (usually with the aid of skilled trackers), forms, faeces, the regurgi- tated stones of fruits by cud-chewing animals, evidence of feeding offered by the vegetation, and by listening carefully for animal sounds, especially early in the morning and late in the evening. Local inquiry was also AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 50 made of forest-side villagers and others, but with experience less and less reliance was placed on hearsay. Summaries of sight records, counts and other observed details ar§ provided at the start of the chapter on each species studied. Ecological Slants of the Survey The circumstantial factors influencing the mammalian wildlife of the areas studied, such as terrain and vegetation (as providing cover and food), as well as the habits of the animals, intra- and extra-specific relation- ships and other details of their life, have been set out in this report based on specific observations as recorded in my field notes, and brief general accounts of certain sanctuaries have been provided in those notes (as already stated). The main features of this report are that it is docu- mented with contemporaneous, on-the-spot photographs, and that both in the field notes and in the report an attempt has been made to study the human biotic factors, generally noticed in ecological reports mainly when they are acutely and overtly hostile (as when poaching or hunting is an appreciable factor), in their entirety, taking all relevant aspects (some insidious or covert) into consideration. The repercussions of forestry and other operations, large-scale projects in and around faunal areas, and of other human activities in and around sanctuaries (such as cattle grazing and the collection of forest produce) on the native unculti- vated flora and fauna of the area have been studied and briefly reported. It may be repeated that this is mainly a contemporary report, and that while influences going back to a distant past have not been ignored, prevailing circumstances have been considered. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF SOME OF THE STUDY AREAS Kerala Periyar Sanctuary Relevant aspects of the history of the sanctuary : In any appraisal where human influences on the native wildlife are taken into considera- tion, certain aspects of the history of the Periyar Sanctuary become rele- vant and may be set out briefly. The Periyar River was dammed about 1897 mainly as an irrigation project; it was then considered a unique feat of engineering skill, and the project still remains an achievement of considerable magnitude : the object of the design (conceived and executed by Col. J. Pennycuick, r.e.) was to divert the waters of a montane river 514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (3) (the Periyar) emptying itself into the western sea, through a long sub* terranean channel, into another river having its origins in these hills and flowing eastwards (the Vaigai), so that a vast tract of barren plains land could be irrigated. Subsequently, the project was also converted into a hydroelectric one, i.e., into an irrigation-cum-hydel project. It was never intended as a sanctuary, ab initio. It was only some 30 years ago that the then Maharaja of Travancore, realizing the great scope of the area as a sanctuary and its magnificent beauty, constituted it as a sanctuary. The authorities who originally built the project, in the British days, took infinite pains to do nothing that would spoil the great natural beauty and floral and faunal wealth of the area. Nothing artificially obtrusive, no modern facilities and no exotic plants, were known in the area in those days. However, it should be noted that since the project was developed as an irrigation-cum-hydel project, as the result of co-operation between the Madras Government and the Maharaja’s Government, certain vested human interests, whose influence on the fauna and flora was not even considered, came to establish themselves in the present sanctuary area, and all around it. Inside the sanctuary, the Madras Government has control over the many-armed lake created by the damming of the river (on a 999-year lease) and the Kerala Forest Department over the extensive forests around the lake. These two government authorities are not the only ones with vested in- terests in the area : several tribals, now organised into a few settlements, had interests here (mainly in its floral and faunal resources) and their interests were, and are, antagonistic to the wildlife. Further, there are some private holdings of land within the sanctuary, and any number of estates and plantations all round. In recent years another human authority has developed interests inside the sanctuary, the Kerala Tourist Corporation, a public limited company which caters to the tourists, mainly to the foreign tourists. There are also other private agencies. Location and extent : Periyar Sanctuary (Thekkady) is not far from the borders of Kerala and Tamil Nadu along the Madurai border of the latter. The extent of the sanctuary is 304 sq. miles and of the lake, its main attraction, variable from about 10 to 12 sq. miles. The maximum level of the lake is 2860 feet above MSL. Terrain and environmental factors: The sanctuary is part of an even vaster mixed deciduous forest with a decided evergreen character in many places, and is hilly, varying in elevation from about 3000' to 6000'. Rain- fall varies but is generally heavy, and there are many creeks and swampy flats. The brief floristic account that follows will be indicative of the edaphic and climatic factors obtaining, and the historical note of its biotic (human) environmental factors. The peripheral forests of the sanctuary have been much depleted in recent years by their exploitation AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 515 for various purposes. During summer, the lake and its ramifications offer the main source of water to the animals. Florist ics : The most interesting floral feature of the sanctuary is not its actual composition so much as the ecological changes induced by the artificial formation of the reservoir and waterspread, by the pent-up waters banking against the hillslopes which, by their very steepness, could have had no source of water originally except during the rains. No study of these changes has been made but it is apparent that at least certain waterside plants such as Ochlandra spp. and some sedges, could not have been found in such profusion on the hillslopes and terraces abutting the water before the formation of the lake. The introduction of exotics into the area has also considerably affected the floral ecology of the sanctuary in places. Near the dam, the hilltops have been extensively planted up with Eucalyptus grandis. Lantana has spread thickly in places, as near Aiyappankurukku. Eupatorium gland- ulosum has, recently, established itself in the area. However, the integrity of the flora of the inner reaches has changed little in the past few decades. The sholas. still retain their peculiar, semi-evergreen nature. Many of the trees found in them are either peculiar to Kerala or attain their best development hereabouts ; examples are Gluta travancorica , Dipterocarpus bourdilloni (other Dipterocarps also occur here — Hopea parviflora and H, wightiana , & Vateria indica should be mentioned), Xylia xylocarpa, Poeciloneuron sp., Dysoxylum malabari- cum, ( D . beddomei, and D.ficiforme also). Besides these, other important trees of the area that should be mentioned are: Artocarpus hirsuta , Stereo- spermum sp., Terminalia spp., in particular a variety of T. tomentosa where the bark is not conspicuously fissured, Adina cordifolia , Lagerstroemia lanceolata and L. speciosa , Messua ferrea , teak, Lophopetalum wightia- num , Mangifera indica , Pterocarpus marsupium, Calophyllum tomentosum , and Tetrameles nudiflora . Teak is common in the deciduous areas. Most of the tree-stumps that are now to be found in the lake, sound in their wood though deeply pitted by time and the elements, belong to the hardwoods in the list above. In the shola and other tree forests, the undershrub is often fairly open and seldom thorny. The hilltops are of the peculiar nature, clad mainly with herbaceous plants, termed ‘downs’ in the Nilgiris. While many grasses, both short and tall, are the dominant components of these downs forests, there are a great many other herbaceous plants besides them, including plants of the order Cyperaceae. The main grasses are : Apluda mutica, Arundinella holcoides, Cymbopogon citratus, Eragrostis gangetica , Hackelochloa granular is, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Panicum repens and P. montanum, Themeda cymbaria and T. triandra. 516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (3) Tamil Nadu Point Calimere Sanctuary Location , extent and general character : Point Calimere is on the eastern coastline of the Thanjavur District, where the coast projects in a sharp nose into the sea, so that the sea runs more or less north and south of its pointed tip. The sanctuary consists of the coastal reserved forest, of about 7J sq. miles of the ‘ Kodiakadu Reserved Forest’ as per the Government Notification constituting the sanctuary in June 1967. The English name ‘Kodiakadu R.F.’ used in official records appears to be a distortion going back to the British days : the Tamil name is ‘Kodi-k-kaadu’, ‘the farthest forest’, and in this note the name will be spelled ‘Kodikadu’. The main faunal feature of Point Calimere is its great assemblies of flamingos and other water-birds in the swampy lagoon. This lagoon, called the Great Swamp, is very shallow and miry, and can be traversed by a Masula boat along certain routes. There are a few islands in the lagoon, one at least large enough for the semi-feral ponies to be grazed in. Misled by a report about mammalian predators preying on the water-birds, much time and effort was wasted in trying to trace them, but it now seems clear that the report was without basis. Apart from its bird life, Point Calimere Sa. (the Kodikadu area) is notable for two main reasons. Agriculture here has been so much frus- trated by the animals (pig, horses, cattle and perhaps chital) raiding the crops, that only tobacco, which the animals do not touch, has been raised here. The second point of interest is that most of the mammalian species inhabiting the sanctuary appear to have been introduced. The ponies and cattle are definitely introduced, though some of the cattle have now run wild and are, unlike the ponies, beyond recapture. The chital have been introduced and the pig seem feral. The bonnet monkeys are known to have been brought into the area in April 1965. The truly indigenous mammals of the area (among the larger animals) appear to be the black- buck, the jackals, and the mongooses on land and the dolphin in the sea around. There are no large predators. Leopards do not occur in the area. Jackals and mongooses seem to represent the only predators on the land. The area is sandy along the coast, and in the forest away from the beach, undulating, densely clad with bushes and stunted trees, but with many paths through the forest, and much frequented by humanity graz- ing^cattle : there isji colony of aborigines inside the forest. The com- monest animals here are the cattle let loose in the jungle to graze, to fend for themselves ; cattle which have become dry or are otherwise unprofit- able to their owners are let loose in the forests, and recaptured as needed. AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 517 The ‘feral ponies’ too, are owned and branded (as foals) but appear to be semi-feral, as they are no longer in demand as they were formerly. Official statistics give the total numbers of blaekbuck and chital in the area in several hundreds. During December, when I visited the sanctuary, there were ample reserves of freshwater to the animals in ponds, ditches and hollows. Being coastal, the forests are exposed to storms and heavy rains. In summer, I understand the water available to the animals is limited to a few ponds inside the forest. Floristics : The vegetation along the coast is very similar to the vegetation of other sandy beaches on the south-eastern coastline, con- sisting mainly of the following : Spinifex squarrosus close to the sea on sand dunes : a few grasses (among which are Cynodon dactylon , Chloris barbata and Eriochloa procera ) on the beach away from the sea; here and there, close to the sea, patches of Salicornia brachiata and Suaeda monoica ; Cyperus rotun- dus on the beach and sandy flats. Herbaceous vegetation of sandy flats : Launea sp., Lippia sp., Oldenlandia umbel lata; Evolvulus alsinoides , Ipomoea pes-caprae; Prosopis juliflora , introduced into the area some 20 years ago, has now spread into the forest away from the shore. A casuarina and an eucalyptus plantation have claimed part of the natural forest. Other exotics in the area are Vinca rosea , Croton sparsiflorus and Tribulus terrestris : in other words, the influence of exotics here is still negligible. Hedges and brakes of pandanus have been planted, and other species introduced into the area are Albizzia lebbek and A. amara. The forest features these tree species : Mimusops hexandra, Meme - cylon edule , Zizyphus mauritiana & Z. oenoplia , Pongamia glabra , Dich - rostachys cinerea , Atalantia. monophylla, Calophyllum inophyllum (planted probably, in a few places near the sea) ; Acacia arabica, Canthium didy - mum, near the lagoon Excoecaria agallocha and Avicenna officinalis. Morinda tinctoria, Randia dumetorum rare. Thespesia populnea and Pithecolobium dulce (rare). There are many shrubs, chief among them the following : Cleroden - drum inerme. Cassia auriculata, Carissa spp., Toddalia aculeata, Cap - paris sepiaria , Acacia intsia. Leucas sp. in patches inside the forest. The flora is similar to that of the coast of Tamil Nadu. Mudumalai Sanctuary Location, extent and general character: Occupying a vast undulat- ing hillside on the north-eastern slopes of the Nilgiris, in south-east Wynaad, the Mudumalai Sanctuary is one of the few areas in the country 518 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) specially blessed by nature with a rich and varied terrain, flora and fauna, and has long been celebrated among hunters (vide sport in the nilgiris and on the wynaad by F. W. F. Fletcher — 191 1). It has had a chequered political history, having been held by Kerala and Mysore in the past. For reasons stated in the General Account of the Bandipur Sanctuary, the area of the Mudumalai Sa. (about 125 sq. miles or 320 sq. km.) cannot be considered faunally or florally or territorially distinct from Bandipur, or from the peripheral forested areas of Kerala, Mysore, or of Tamil Nadu itself. The entire area of about 250 sq. miles is one vast and varied stamping ground to the animals and one continuous vegetative tract, in spite of its great variations and political demarcation into the territories of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Mysore and into the 2 main sanc- tuaries of the last two States. However, the two sanctuaries hold the major populations of the large wild mammals of the area. In saying this, it must be remembered that these animal populations are not fixed or entirely resident. Apart from the animals moving around within the 2 sanctuaries to suit seasonal fluctuations and needs, the gaur and the elephants wander over forests outside the 2 sanctuaries as well. The deer are more restricted in their movements and may be considered resident, broadly speaking. The langur and bonnet monkey populations are also probably local, the leopards seem localised, but the tigers and wild dogs probably cover much ground. Terrain and environmental factors : As said, the sanctuary displays considerable variations of terrain and flora. These differences are not based on differences in elevation so much as on topographical variations, the sanctuary being comprised of hills, hillocks, valleys, ravines, flats, swampy hollows in places, and much cut up by watercourses (rivers, streams and nullahs). The highest elevation is represented by Markun- darai Betta, the top of which is 4154' high ; for the rest, the high elevations %e all around 3500' - 3600': the lowest elevation, at Masinagudi, is around 2900'. The Benne and Doddakatti Blocks, towards the Kerala border, have a more evergreen complexion than the rest of the sanctuary : the Mudu- malai Block consists of rounded hills with hollows in between, the hollows often being swampy, the kind of terrain designated by the local word ‘gadde’. Kargudi is more deciduous, but still close tree forest, and moreover the clearings are choked up with tall grass : Theppakkadu, which features natural teak, is more open, with a floor where the undershrub is generally low. Masinagudi is ravine-cut and flat thorn bush forest, with the canals of the Moyar Project supplying perennial water. The entire sanctuary area is well-watered, with the Moyar and subsidiary streams running through. The average rainfall is around 56 inches. All over the sanctuary, forestry operations are carried on. Selection felling and clear-felling are limited to one coupe per year, but the log- AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 519 gin g, transport and sale of timber involves considerable forest area. Further, departmental collections of bamboo, and plantation work, are carried on over many areas. Furthermore, minor forest produce collec- tions of many kinds are made on a wide scale both by departmental and extra-departmental agencies, and include the collection of honey, bees- wax, myrobalans, bark-lichen, soapnut, tamarind and deer antlers. The Moyar Project and its working, the activities of the populations living in the many settlements within the sanctuary, or close by it, (such as at Masinagudi, Theppakkadu and Lower Kargudi), and the claims of 14 private holdings within the sanctuary area, add further to the constant disturbance by humanity that the wildlife face here. The main motor road from Mysore to Ootacamund, runs through the Mudumalai Sanctuary and cattle destined for the slaughter-houses are herded weekly along this road, in hundreds. These are usually decrepit and sick cattle from which infections might well spread to the wild ungulates. Besides this, great numbers of cattle are grazed in many areas in the sanctuary. Floristics : The floristic variety of the sanctuary is one of its most important features. However, this variety lies not so much in the differ- ences between plant species peculiar to particular areas or Blocks as in the varying stature and dominance that the same species attain in different areas. Anogeissus latifolia , found all over the sanctuary, exemplifies the point. In the Benne and Mudumalai Blocks it attains its best growth and is less gregarious than it is in Kargudi and Theppakkadu, and in Masinagudi it is insignificant both in stature and dominance. Again, while Randia dumetorum is widespread in the drier areas, it is R . uligi- nosa that is found in moist localities, often along with Carey a arbor ea. Along nullahs and streams, brakes of pandanus and Ardisia solanacea occur, and along rivers and major watercourses mango, Syzigium spp. and other evergreens, and figs. Phoenix humilis is common in swampy flats and in clearings, and belts of tall grasses and of bamboo are domi- nant in certain localities. The bamboo of the sanctuary is Bambusa arundinacea. Among the main tree species of the sanctuary, the following may be mentioned: those typical of particular localities are mentioned under those areas : Adina cor difolia; Albizzia procera & A. odoratissima; Anogeissus latifolia ; Bauhinia racemosa ; Bischofia javanica ; Bombax ceiba ; Bridelia retusa ; Buchanania latifolia ; Canthium parviflorUm ; Careya arborea in moist localities ; Cassia fistula ; Cedrela toona in the elevations ; Dalbergia latifolia ; Diospyros melanoxylon & D. Montana ; Elaeodendron glaucum ; Emblica spp. (in the recent revision of the genus, some 4 or 5 species have been assigned to the area, and no taxonomic determination of these by a competent worker has been done so far); Erythrina indica; Ficus 2 520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vat. 68 (3) bengalensis & F. mysorensis ; Gardenia spp. ; Gantga pinnata ; Gmelina arborea ; Grewia tiliaefolia ; Kydia calycina ; Lagerstroemia lanceolata & L. parviflora ; Machilus macrantha ; Madhuca latifolia ; Mangifera indica ; Mitragyna parviflora along streams ; Ougeinia dalbergioides ; Premna tomentosa ; Pterocarpus marsupium ; Pterospermum rubiginosum ; Radermachera xylocarpa; Randia dumetorum & R. uliginosa ; Santalum album (Kargudi, Theppakkadu mainly); Schleichera oleosa; Schrebera swietenioides (distinctive of the Wynaad) ; Semecarpus anacardium; Shorea talura; Stereospermum tetragonum; Syzigium spp. ; Tectona grandis ; Terminalia bellerica , T. tomentosa & T. chebula; Trewia nudiflora in moist localities ; Vitex altissima ; Zizyphus mauritiana ; Z. oenoplia , Z. trinervia & Z. xylopyrus. Pandanus sp. and Phoenix humilis occur in moist localities and in open flats (usually swampy) respectively. Dioscorea spp. and other corms occur all over the sanctuary. Among the twiners may be men- tioned Smilax asp era. Among the shrubs of the forest floor should be mentioned : Abutilon indicum ; Ardisia solanacea ; Butea parviflora (more often found as a flat- spread patch on the forest floor than ascending the trees) ; Desmodium sp. ; Flemingia bract eat a, F. grahamiana & F. wallichii ; Grewia hirsuta and G. aspera ; Helicteres isora ; Hibiscus lampas ; Indigofera sp. ; Limonia alata; Pavetta indica; Triumfetta pilosa; Toddalia aculeata. A variety of tall grasses and a few short grasses, and a great many herbs constitute a most valuable source of fodder to the animals. I was unable to get the grasses identified precisely. A number of epiphytic orchids are found in the Kargudi-Mudumalai area. Mushrooms, puffballs and ledge-fungi of many kinds are found all over the sanctuary, many of them edible. In the Benne and Mudumalai Blocks the trees attain their best deve- lopment, and there is a greater admixture of evergreen species in these blocks, though in the north-eastern reaches of Mudumalai the trees are stunted, featuring small-sized Anogeissus latifolia , Shorea talura , Soy- mida febrifuga and Terminalia chebula. Elsewhere in the Mudumalai Block, where the tree forests are tall, Mussaenda tomentosa is sometimes prominent in the undershrub. While the giant bamboo ( Bambusa arundinacea) is widely distributed in the sanctuary, it occurs in large gregarious belts in Benne, and a not- able feature of these bamboo belts is that they seeded gregariously in the March of 1959, ’63 & ’64. Elaeocarpus serratus (and other species of the genus), Sterculia villosa and Aporosa lindleyana are among the trees of Benne, and Colebrookea oppositifolia occurs in its undershrub. The Kargudi Block features many extensive belts of tall grass, rank and choking up the forests in September-October. Solanum species are a feature of its undershrub in places (as in C.2) and it is here and in AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 521 its reaches towards Theppakkadu (as also certain areas in Masinagudi, like the Avarahalla) that lantana flourishes most luxuriously. The Theppakkadu Block is distinctive in its flora. Natural teak forests, with gregarious patches of Anogeissus latifolia in a few places, are the feature of its tree growth. The forest floor is open, and the shrubs, herbs and grasses that clothe it of low stature in the main (except in a few places where lantana has found a footing). A species of the ground orchid, Habenaria is found on the forest floor here : other features of the undershrub are procumbent Butea parviflora , Flemingia spp., and Desmodium pulchellum , and, in moist, flat locations a carpet of 4 koovai 9 ( Costus speciosus , and perhaps also another plant of the Zingiberaceae) — such patches of ‘koovai’ also occur in places in Kargudi. Apart from teak and Anogeissus , no other tree species occurs here gregariously, but among the species typical of the area are Schrebera smetenioides and Eriolaena quinquelocularis (in fruit in September). Both in Theppakkadu and in Masinagudi, Argyreia fulgens is a feature of the undershrub (and in Masinagudi, of open spaces) with its dark purple flowers. Masinagudi is even more distinctive floristically, featuring a great many spiky shrubs and thorny trees and climbers. Acacia intsia , A. con- cinna, A. ferruginea and A. catechu , all the thorny species of Zizyphus , Capparis spp., Gymnosporia montana, Toddalia aculeata , and Canthium spp. are features of its flora, as also Givotia rottleriformis , and an erect tree-like Euphorbia. Mysore Bandipur Sanctuary Location and extent : The Bandipur Sanctuary (23 sq. miles or 60 sq. kms.) of the Gundlupet Taluk of Mysore is the heart of the Venu- gopal National Park of the old princely State of Mysore and is con- tiguous with the Mudumalai Sa. of Tamil Nadu along a wide border, along the Kakkanhalla and the Moyar. It lies to the east of the Dod- dakatti Block of the Mudumalai Sa., to the north-east of its Mudumalai Block and to the north of its Theppakkadu Block. The Moyar and the Kakkanhalla are fordable at many places along the Bandipur-Thep- pakkadu border, so that the animals commute freely between the two sanctuaries. Terrain and environmental factors : Bandipur is not much lower in elevation than most places in the Mudumalai Sa. : these figures from the Survey of India topo-sheet No. 58A/10 (one inch to the mile) will prove this statement: Bandipur Sa. : Lodges — 3265'; Mulapura Betta: 3768'; Mudumalai Sa. : Upper Kargudi — 3270' ; Lower Kargudi— about 2900' ; Mudumalai — 3285', Theppakkadu — 3050'. However, Bandipur gives 522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (5) the casual visitor the impression of a lower elevation because it is com- paratively much less undulating in its topography, and flatter, and its forests are more open and the undershrub less dense and high. It should be appreciated that Masinagudi and its surroundings, set against the backdrop of the Nilgiris, is actually on a lower elevation than Bandipur, and that the Moyar reserved forests extend on both sides of the river into Mysore and into Tamil Nadu. There is not much difference in rainfall (average about 56" for the Mudumalai Sa.) but apparently edaphic fac- tors differ, and the more uneven ground of the Mudumalai Sa., cut up by many watercourses, is more conducive to tree growth, the same species rarely attaining in Bandipur the stature they do in the Tamil Nadu sanc- tuary. A notable feature of Bandipur is its many clearings holding short grass, which, except in summer, have a lawn-like greenness. Bandipur is much less spiky in its underbrush than certain areas of the Mudumalai Sa. (the Masinagudi area in particular) and holds much less tall grass : being only about 1/6 the size of the Tamil Nadu Sanctuary, it is a closer- knit area and more homogenous in character. Moreover, a notable feature of the area is the number of forest pools and tanks, natural and artificial, that it has, such as Tavarakatte, Kollakumalikatte, Kari Gowdana Katte, Aralikatte, Baisnapur Kere and Moolapura Kere. These provide the wild animals (and also the cattle) with water, and attract elephants and gaur when they hold water. In spite of these differences, both from the point of view of the faunist and of the fauna, the Bandipur Sa. can only be considered a continuation of the Mudumalai Sa. (or the other way around) and territorially and floristically it is closest to the Theppakkadu Block of the Tamil Nadu Sanctuary, though lacking the flow of the Moyar right through it as at Theppakkadu. It also has points of resemblance to Masinagudi in its fauna and flora. A further point of resemblance between Bandipur on the one hand, and Masinagudi and Theppakkadu on the other, which is of importance to any ecological faunal study, is that in both there are abandoned forts, human settlements, and shrines, where the forest has reclaimed human settlements. In Bandipur, the presence of tamarind and banyan trees often marks these locations. Perhaps the most notable feature of the Bandipur Sa. is that it is almost unique in India in that no forestry operations are permitted in it. To appreciate how vastly this has contributed to the faunal wealth of the sanctuary it is necessary to point out that in spite of privileged shikar being allowed in and around Bandipur, in spite of the extensive grazing of cattle in the sanctuary and the free exercise of village rights, the same animals (chital in particular) are much less shy of humanity in Bandipur than in the Mudumalai Sa. Floristics : As mentioned, the tree species here do not attain a notable AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 523 stature and the canopy is generally not too high. The forest floor is fairly open, and the clearings are covered with short grasses : there are also clearings holding tall grasses and hillside flats and slopes covered with herbaceous pasture. The comparatively open nature of the tree forests and the undershrub, are factors that are of great faunal import- ance. The main tree species include the following : Acacia intsia , A. con - cinna and A. ferruginea (not dominant — nowhere near as common as in Masinagudi in the Mudumalai Sa.) ; Albizzia lebbek ; Anogeissus lati - folia ; Bauhinia latifolia ; Buchanania latifolia ; Butea monosperma ; Can- thium parviflorum ; Carey a arborea in moist areas; Cassia fistula; Dal- bergia latifolia ; Diospyros montana ; Elaeodendron glaucum ; Emblica spp. ; Ficus bengalensis and F. mysorensis ; Gardenia spp. ; Garuga pinnata ; Givotia rottleriformis (less common than in Masinagudi); Grewia tiliae- folia ; Holarrhena antidysenterica ; Kydia calycina ; Lagerstroemia parvi- flora and less commonly L. lanceolata ; Machilus macrantha ; Morinda spp. ; Qugeinia dalbergioides ; Premna tomentosa ; Randia dumetorum ; Shorea talura ; Syzigium spp. ; Terminalia bellerica and T. tomentosa ; Vitex altissima ; Zizyphus xylopyrus , Z. trinervia and Z. mauritiana. Tamarind, mango and wood-apple in places. The main bamboo of the area is Bambusa arundinacea but Dendro - calamus strictus is also found. In places Phoenix acaulis. The main shrubs are : Anona squamosa , Flemingea sp., Gymnosporia montana; Grewia hirsuta and Grewia aspera; Helicteres isora; Indigofera spp. ; lantana in places ; Limonia alata ; Pavetta indica ; Solanum spp. ; Toddalia aculeata. The herbaceous vegetation is rich, particularly in September-October. No identification of the grasses was possible. Andhra Pradesh Kawal Sanctuary Terrain and floristics : The forests around Birsaipet and the surrounding areas are said to be the best in the sanctuary. The ground is undulating, rocky in places, and with a few pools holding water in November. In most areas teak predominates, constituting about 60 % of the tree forests ; the other main species noticed were Chloroxylon swietenia, Terminalia tomentosa , T. bellerica , T. chebula and T. arjuna (the last near water), Acacia sundra (catechu), A. leucophloea and A . arabica , Albizzia lebbek and another Albizzia, probably procera, Butea monosperma, Cochlospermum reli- giosum and Sterculia urens, both in yellow, falling leaf and both with remarkably straight boles, Careya arborea here and there, Zizyphus 524 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) xylopyriis, Z. oenoplia & Z. mauritiana , Lannea grandis (uncommon), Boswellia serrata, Madhuca latifolia , Pterocarpw marsupium (in flower) 5 Bauhinia racemosa, Dalbergia paniculata , and Emblica spp. (E. offici- nalis & perhaps another species). In many areas the 'male bamboo’, DendrocaJamus strictus, grew gre- gariously or in clumps amidst the trees, and was in a very leafy and lush phase— the culms here are hollow. In some places teak was sparse or absent, and in such places Chloroxy- lon swietenia and Boswellia serrata were prominent; in places Cleistanthus collinus grew gregariously and dominated the vegetation. The undershrub was very thick and luxuriant, and consisted mainly of regenerating teak and gregarious regenerating T. tomentosa and other trees — evidently the forests were clearfelled some years ago. Butea superba was also prominent in the undershrub. Inside the tree forests there was little grass, though in clearings there was grass,, and there were areas where thatching grass grew in abundance. The forests were dense rather than open, the undershrub in particular being thick. There were paths in a network, overgrown with vegetation in most places in November. I learnt that in summer the forests are much more open and ‘negotiable’. Pakhal Sanctuary Pakhal Sanctuary features a beautiful lake, which has its own wildlife (mainly birds, and crocodiles in one of its reaches). The forest is fairly thick, of a mixed deciduous nature, and holds trees of faunal importance such as Emblica spp., Gmelina arborea , Careya arbor ea , Bridelia retusa , Terminalia bell erica, and mohwa. The undershrub is notable for its comparative scarcity of herbs and grasses and holds many shrubs of faunal importance such as Helicteres isora , and Grewia spp. Eturnagaram has a richer tree growth and features belts and patches of grasses; the forest floor here is generally less shrubby and more her- baceous. Both sanctuaries are in the process of being rehabilitated after being much depleted by years of intensive hunting and poaching — indeed, this is true of all sanctuaries in Andhra Pradesh, and while this is true to some extent of all Indian sanctuaries, I feel that the wildlife of Andhra Pradesh is best assessed or investigated after a fair period of the restora- tive effort. From the point of view of floristic ecology, the floral en- vironment is still quite favourable to mammalian wildlife ; however, the biotic (human) environmental factors may change very considerably, after a comparatively recent period of acute hostility. AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 525 Bihar Hazaribagh National Park History of the recent past. Hazaribagh today is one of the best-forested districts in Bihar, some 45 % of the total area being forested. Nevertheless, its floral history is one of sustained devastation. Haines, in his bofany of bihar and orissa (1925) cites the District Gazetteer of 1917 which contains a note on the flora of Hazaribagh (and Monghyr) by the Rev. S. L. Thompson, formerly Principal of St. Columba’s College, Hazaribagh. The following passage from that note of 1917 is significant: ‘Unfortunately no report on the Hazaribagh flora can omit the most striking fact about it, i.e., its rapid disappearance. The forest is being most wastefully destroyed, and with it a great number of plants of great botanical and economical value are becoming extinct .... where even ten years ago there was considerable jungle.’ (p. 70, Introduction, botany of bihar and orissa by H. H. Haines). Subsequent to 1917 the devastation continued, though certain areas in the present National Park, then the game preserves of the Raja of Ramgarh, were strictly protected and preserved intact. When this zamin forest was taken over about 1948, except for these protected game reserves of the Raja, the rest of the forest was heavily burdened with human rights (right to collect fuel, small timber and mohwa flowers, and to graze cattle), and there were quite a few villages inside the sanctuary area. Those villages are still there, and no dcubt they are no singular exception to the stupendous population increase that has overtaken the country during the past 20 years. Considerable tracts of the forest have been ceded to agriculturists following the taking over of the ex-zamin forests, on a Government decision to cede to agriculture all land bearing traces of the plough. Today, even in those areas which were strictly protected prior to 1947, cattle are grazed and fuel collected. Although fuel col- lection is intended to be limited to dead wood, in actual fact live trees are also cut for fuel, on the sly. The fauna had also been greatly depleted when the forest was taken over by the Government, and inquiry of many people who knew the forest then reveals that few animals could be seen, even at night. Terrain and general factors : The extent of the National Park is about 75 sq. m. Hazaribagh consists of an undulating plateau, of broad, mound- like elevations with broad, shallow depressions in between, cut up by nullahs, and clad in sal and a deciduous tree forest, with an undershrub rich in herbs. The soil is porous, sandy along the nullah, and except in depressed, shallow basins of clay neither the topsoil nor the subsoil is 526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) capable of retaining water. Because of this rapid drainage, and not because of poor rainfall, water is a major problem for man and beast during summer. The climate is cool and dry, and I am told that during the cold weather Hazaribagh is now the coldest place in Bihar, though formerly Ranchi was. Arriving here very early in February when the days were brilliantly sunny, I noticed that even the natives wore shawls and blankets during the day. A National Highway runs through the National Park, and only the area to one side of it (from Pokharia gate to Rajderwa) has been pro- perly developed as a National Park, though 2 watch-towers have been built on the other side, too. The most notable biological factor of the areaSs that during the day there are people all over the forest, collecting firewood, grazing cattle and passing through ; man is much the commonest diurnal animal of Hazaribagh, the wild animals being nocturnal and crepuscular, mainly in consequence of this disturbance by men. Although territorially distinct, it should be realized that the Hazari- bagh forest (National Park forest) is only a part of the forest complex around it, and that the forest is very similar in composition and complexion in outlying areas, like Kodarma and Gomia. The animals no doubt commute between the protected and unprotected areas, but tend to concentrate in the former, the incentive for this being mainly the pro- tection they gain here. Flora ' Hazaribagh is mainly a sal forest, but not a sal forest where Shorea robusta dominates all else, as in the Simlipal hills of Orissa ; the sal at Hazaribagh, cut down in the past, is now in a regenerating phase, and is associated with a number of deciduous species, which grow along with and independently of it, in patches. Besides sal, which occurs in patches, rather than in continuous belts, these are the main tree species. Acacia catechu: Khair, Commoner away from sal, along the nullahs especially, than in the sal patches. Common in clearings ; Adina cor di- folia : Not common. Formerly commoner, as evidenced by old floras; Aegle marmelos : more young trees seen than old ones. A tree of great faunal importance; Ailanthus excelsa: formerly very common, as evidenced by old floras. I saw very few; Anogeissus latifolia : here and there in the interior. Saw no gregarious patches of it, as I have seen elsewhere ; seems to have been commoner formerly ; Bauhinia sp. : Bauhinias are quite a feature of the forest. Among tree species, there seem to be several, none in flower when I saw them. B. racemosa and B. purpurea , and one or two others occur here. The liana, Bauhinia vahlii is very common here ; in fact, I cannot recall any other forest area AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 527 in India where it is so common. I noticed that here, too, it is only rarely or occasionally that it attains to the status of a tree-strangling liana, and that usually it is a harmless, straggling, scandent, low bush, providing lush foliage that is easily accessible ; Bombax ceiba : The red silk-cotton. In flower in February-March, and therefore conspicuous. Along the nullahs. Attracts a great many birds ; Boswellia serrata : Salai. Much the commonest tree here, after sal. Forms gregarious stands covering the hilltops, and also grows along with sal and other trees. In flower in March. Deciduous and bare in February ; Bridelia retusa : Seen occasionally, but probably common in places. Wood seems to be valued as fuel. Saw several branches, with the leaves still on them, being carried by fuel-collecting women on their heads ; Buchanania lati- folia : Very common. In flower in February-March ; Butea monos - perma : Palas. The flame of the forest. Not in flower in February. Less common than in other similar forests in Bihar. The liana, Butea superba, also occurs, usually as a flat-spread bush; Cassia fistula : Not common. I looked for it in the cleared patches where it is often dominant and could not find it commonly there ; Diospyros melanoxylon : Sporadic. Said to be common in certain areas. A tree of considerable faunal importance ; Emblica sp. : Most probably E. officinale : Not uncommon. A tree of considerable faunal importance and definitely not a ‘sal asso- ciate’; Gardenia spp. : None in flower, when I saw them ; Garuga pinnata : A tree of considerable faunal importance. Sporadic ; Lager stroemia parviflora : Very common. I noticed that all the trees I saw were young ones, and that none had attained to a stature of over 30 feet ; Madhuca latifolia : The Mohwa. Common. Beginning to flower in February and in profuse flower in March. The animals do not get a chance to eat the flowers as people camp all night under the tree, with fires lighted, to collect the fallen flowers at dawn. An important item of food to the people here. No reason why they should not, as in the South, plant mohwa groves around villages for human requirements. No such plantations in Bihar ; Mallotus philippensis : Very common, especially away from sal along nullahs — also with sal. In fruit in February ; Nyctanthes arbor-tristis : Fairly common. Drying up in February ; Pterocarpus marsupium : This valuable tree was formerly much less uncommon. Only a few small trees seen ; Terminalia tomentosa : Fairly common. Young, bush-sized saplings in clearings. T. bellerica (a tree of considerable faunal importance) is uncommon : T. chebula (the myrobalan) less so ; Semecarpus anacardium. The bamboo of the area is Dendrocalamus strictus , which grows in clumps all over. An important plant, faunally. Shrubs and herbs : The undershrub and clearings are rich in many plants. I did not try to work out the common spp. for I do not have the botanical knowledge, particularly of the grasses needed. A competent 528 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY , Vol. 68 (3) field botanist, with a good herbarium and good floras to aid him, should find Hazaribagh very rewarding. There are many grasses in clearings, in the undershrub, and along nullahs, short or of medium size, still green in February. Phoenix acaulis ( Phoenix humilis ?) is common in clearings and along the nullahs : it seems to be acaulis , having no stem, or bole, of any height. This is a plant of faunal importance, both the fruit and the young leaves being eaten. Among the shrubs may be mentioned Cassia tor a, Carissa spp., Flemingea chappar and probably another species or two, Indigofera sp., and Holarrhena antidysenterica. Betla Palamau National Park The Palamau National Park of Bihar is in the western part of the Chotanagpur district of Bihar, and is now about 96 sq. miles in extent. However, since I did most of my work in the Betla area of this park, best developed as a sanctuary and only about 12 sq. miles in extent, this note is confined to that area. Betla consists of dry deciduous forests (plains forests at the foot of low hills) and is very dry in summer (when I was there), though it is almost enclosed between two rivers, the Koel and the Auranga, in which there is always some water. The animals do not move out of the dry area to the riversides or to the better-watered forests around during summer, when both the drought and the heat are severe — some of them, the elephants for example, do, but even the tiger and the chital and the gaur stay on here, finding such water as they can in drying water-holes, puddles and the few artificially improved hollows. Rainfall averages about 45 inches. Permanent hides (watch-towers, one, Madhuchuan, a ground-hide) have been built near these sources of water, and observation of the animals, and to a lesser extent photography, is possible from them. Terrain and floristics : Betla is almost flat, though the hills are close by. The main tree species are Acacia catechu , Adina cordifolia (in the moister areas), Aegle marmelos (quite common), Anogeissus latifolia (stunted), Albizzia lebbek , Alangium salvifolium , Bauhinia retusa , Butea monosperma, Buchanania latifolia , Boswellia serrata, Cochlospermum religiosum, Cleistanthus collinus , Cassia fistula , Chloroxylon swietenia , Cordia myxa, Diospyros melanoxylon and D. Montana, Emblica spp., figs., Garuga pinnata, Hymenodictyon excelsum (in places), Holarrhena antidysenterica , Lager stroemia parviflora (stunted), Madhuca latifolia (common), Morinda tinctoria , Nyctanthes arbor -tristis, Lannea grandis , AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 529 Pterocarpus marsupium (stunted), Semecarpus anacardium, Syzigium cumini , Schleichera oleosa , Soymida febrifuga , Sterculia urens , Terminalia spp., Wrightia tomentosa , Zizyphus mauritiana , Z. xylopyrus and Z. oenoplia figs., and the red silk-cotton, near water. The forest floor is fairly open, and covered with grass in places. Among the grasses of the area are Apluda aristata, Crysopogon spp., Heteropogon contortus , Imperata anmdinacea and Saccharum spontaneum. Betla is noted for its bamboo : the bamboo of the area is Dendro- calamus strictus. The grazing of cattle and the collection of thatching grass and fire- wood is allowed or otherwise indulged in. There are villages around. The Report of an Ecological Mammalian, Survey of Peninsular India : 1959-70 The factual bases of this report have been fully set out in the field notes, the introduction, and the discussions of each of the 33 mammals observed during the discontinuous 12-year period of the survey, and do- cumented with 242 candid photographs. In the interests of the factual integrity of this study, there has been no attempt at editing or improving the actual record as written up after each day of observation and photo- graphy, and pains have been taken to collate the observation notes in the discussion of each species and to correlate them to the interpretation directly without the adventitious aid of graphs, statistical columns and other displayed selective analyses. The photographs have been selected not for their pictorial merit but solely for their evidentiary and record value. Further, brief accounts of the floristic and territorial features of most of the study locations, and references to any climatic factor of special interest, have been provided earlier. When all this has been done, there is neither need nor justification for making the final assessment in this chapter long, and if it seems too brief, it is only because much of what may be detailed here has already been detailed elsewhere in the factual bases specified above, and is not repeated. The main reason for such a plan is the avoidance, to the extent possible, of personal bias in the assessment of the observation. However, it must be stated that the convictions and experience of many years of faunal and floral observation, and of the factors that influence wildlife in India, have not been ignored, and are also behind this report. The ecological factors taken into account are not only the climatic, floristic and territorial features, and the inter-relationships of the mammals considered in this report. What is usually termed the biotic factor, i.e., the impact of humanity on wildlife, is of far greater importance than these other circumstantial influences even. This is so over- whelmingly the determining factor in the life of Indian wild animals and 530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) plants today, and has been so overwhelmingly so for the past 50 or 60 years, that it must be the main factor taken into consideration in any ecological report on the wildlife of the country. Giving it the importance that is its due, it will be discussed here as the primary factor affecting wild mammals. Although this is a report of contemporary influences conditioning the life of some of our larger wild mammals, initially it may be noted that some 60 years ago, in the first decade of the century, the repercussions of human activities on the wildlife were not so serious. Not that they had no important impact on the wildlife then — in fact, even then they were the most important conditioning factors, and from all accounts available, even by the middle of the last century hunting, and trapping and snaring, were being indulged in with little inhibition, and the forests were expected (by natural regeneration) to cope with all demands made on them depart- mentally and by the people. Decline, in the circumstances, would be mainly a measure of the recuperative powers of the wildlife falling short of the depletion by human agency. In those days, apparently, there were many natural forests and other faunal areas not deeply penetrated by men, and the human population was much less dense. In the twenties, the decline of some wild animals was noticeable and noticed, and more stringent protective steps were taken, resulting, where the habitats of a threatened species were not exploited by men for forest produce, in an improvement in its status: the special protection accorded to the Nilgiri tahr by the Madras Government and the Nilgiri Game Association is an example of such successful conservation. There were failures, too. The vital, intimate, delicate and complex interdependence of the fauna and the flora, however, was not appreciated, and only in a very few preserves were forestry operations not carried out, and even in them village rights to exploit the forests were ceded. The natural forests were exploited for timber and other produce, clearfelled in coupes, and areas planted up with commercial indigenous species, and exotics like wattle, eucalyptus, casuarina, cashew and rubber. Private plantations, as of tea and coffee, were concurrently developed, and with the population increasing in and around the forests, the demands of the people on the forests for firewood, thatching grass, and other similar produce, and for grazing their cattle, also increased. Between the twenties and the present, the forests have been deeply and systematically invaded by men. A century ago, Sanderson writing of the Mysore forests referred to thriving human settlements within the forests having been reclaimed by the jungle, and cited instances. Even today, the vestiges of such abandoned settlements survive in ruins in and around the forests he wrote of, such as Eeranamunti and Moolapura in the Bandipur Sanctuary, and Marasuranagudi in the|Mudumalai Sanctuary. The position has been AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 531 completely reversed today. There are few natural forests in the peninsula which have not been deeply penetrated by human enterprise, and apart from the forests having been denuded, or converted into plantations, or having degenerated, they have been occupied and are widely traversed by men. The repercussions on the wild animals of this intensive and deep penetration of their haunts by men, particularly its disturbance value, cannot be overestimated. Before considering the causes for the decline of forests and wild animals in India briefly, a historical event that has profoundly alfected the flora and fauna must be mentioned. After the Constitution of inde- pendent India came into force, the Central Government divested itself of such controlling authority as it had over what were, before the event, the provincial forests, and each State gained sovereign authority over its forests. No integrated, mandatory national policy governing the ad- ministration of India’s forests has been possible, in consequence. Inevi- tably, in each State the political party in power has not hesitated, within the span of its unrestricted authority, to take steps which seem incapable of being retracted, with regard to its forests. There is little scope for a speculative analysis of motives, and none at all for polemics, in an eco- logical report, but it may be pointed out, relevantly, that some of these steps, such as the ceding of territorial rights within forests to private parties (as in Bihar and Tamil Nadu), the siting of major projects that affect the area for miles around in or near some of the best faunal areas in the country (as at Parambikulam, Moyar and Ramganga), the increased grant of collection and grazing rights to villagers around sanctuaries and reserved forests, the stepping up of departmental activities within the forests, and similar acts, all have a profoundly depletive influence on the flora and fauna. It is true that these same governments have also set up a number of new sanctuaries and otherwise have shown a conscious- ness of their responsibilities by the wildlife of their area, but even today there is no recognition of the vital interdependence of the flora and the fauna, and no national wildlife policy that is enforceable, and even in the conferences of the national and State wildlife bodies, the term ‘wildlife’ is still used mainly to connote the larger wild mammals, or at times these along with the birds and a few other animals, and the flora is considered something quite distinct, a mere setting at best. Further, there is hardly any functional recognition at any level of the prime need for undisturbed living space for the flora and the fauna. With the enormous growth of the human population and the growth of industries, and the vastly increased and more varied needs of the nation and the people today, the demands made on the forests, wastelands, marshes and other wildlife habitats have also increased and not only in a quantitative manner — these demands have also increased in variety and have a somewhat altered quiddity even when not new. It is no 532 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) longer only a question of established forestry practices on a more in- tensive scale and of the forests being more heavily burdened with village rights. Industries and factories have to be supplied with raw materials (such as bamboo and pulp-wood for the paper and rayon industries) from the forests, land within the forests is found for agriculture, human settlements and resettlements (the Dandakarunya project is an example), factories (munitions factories, for example) and industries are located in and around the forests and also major hydroelectric and other projects. All this has naturally resulted in the forests being further opened up and deeper penetrated, cleared and disturbed. To the extent to which they disturb, alter and destroy the natural flora and environment of the wild animals and affect their interrelation- ships, these multifarious human demands on the forests are very much the concern of any ecological report, and for many years I have studied them in various parts of India, but it is unnecessary to enumerate and detail them here. For the purpose of this report it will be sufficient to briefly mention the main consequences of these human demands and activities. The plains forests have disappeared entirely from many parts of south India and in places I have actually watched their disappearance. In the central and northern parts of the peninsula, there are plains forests left still, some of them dry, open jungles, but everywhere they have deteriorated by human exploitation. Even the hill-forests have been opened up, denuded in places, and deeply penetrated by human enterprise : in many areas they have degenerated. No figures to show the extent of this deterioration and denudation, or the increased extent to which human* activities have entered the forests, are available in official records : all that official records can specify is the total forest area in each State, (which, paradoxically, has remained the same for the past 50 years, except for political readjustments and minor cedings of territory), the extent planted up with various species, the selection and clearfellings sanctioned, and similar details. I have, naturally, satisfied myself that the position is as stated by personal inquiry of various State Forest Departments, and the offices of the Inspector General of Forests and the Planning Commission, before making this statement. However, though unassessed statistically, all those with an informed interest in the forests of India know that there has been substantial deterioration and diminution of the natural forests by way of denudation, and degeneration caused by many influences (all related to human activities — some directly depletive, like wood- poaching) in the course of the past 50 years, especially the past 30, the probable extent of such deterioration being a matter of personal assess- ment and differing in different States. A recent depletive factor that may be mentioned in this connection is that in some States (Kerala, for example) there have been illegal encroachments by private parties, which AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 533 have not been successfully resisted : in others, the tendency to cede rights within the forests to private individuals has been more marked in recent years. The extent of such, and similar, loss of forests is small compared to the total area, and negligible from the point of loss of revenue, but the effects of human occupation, which radiate far outward from small centres, have a powerful depletive influence on the wildlife. Frequent disturbance by human activities has a most unsettling and unfortunate effect on the wild animals, although these activities are not directed towards them and are mainly concerned with the vegetation and terrain. Because of this, the animals may move out from favourable to unfavourable areas, and from protected haunts to areas where they are actively hunted — as one may observe on the outskirts of sanctuaries. When large enough and sufficiently upset by human interference with their normal activities, the wild animals may turn hostile to men, like ele- phants in places. It is necessary to point out again the multifaceted depletive potency of disturbance, as it is the least appreciated major factor in wildlife conservation in India. The increasing growth of human settlements in and around the forests leads directly to an increase (whether officially sanctioned or not) of the exploitation of the forests (even in sanctuaries) by humanity for various reasons, such as the collection of fruits and mohwa flowers (B 68 Apr. 16, 70 Mar. 1), firewood (TN 63 Sep. 25 — the General Account of the Hazari- bagh N.P.), other forest produce such as thatching grass and bamboos, use for passing through from place to place, and cattle droving and graz- ing (practically ubiquitous, but reference may be made to TN 63 Sep. 25, 64 Apr. 13, 66 Oct. 7, 68 Dec. 11 and 16, 69 Sep. 22, 69 Dec. 12, 70 Sep. 15 and Oct. 3 ; K 70 Apr. 20 and AP 68 Nov. 6 to 13). Apart from cattle competing with the wild herbivores for fodder and water, the prac- tice results from time to time in the communication of infections from cattle to the wild herbivores, such as rinderpest and foot-and-mouth disease with disastrous consequences (MY 68 Oct. 5 — notes on gaur, sambar and chital). Officially sanctioned collections of minor forest produce for depart- mental sale, are most deleterious in their impact on wild animals, and where the collections are intensified (as in Madhya Pradesh), naturally the harm they cause to wild animals is also intensified. The spread of exotics into the natural forests is directly related to their opening up by human activities, and has in some areas resulted in serious ecological imbalance. Practically all exotics specially cultivated departmentally, such as casuarina, cashew, rubber and Prosopis juliflora , serve to deprive the wild animals of territory in long-held homes, but none of these is as inhibiting in this regard as the species of Australian wattle and eucalyptus assiduously cultivated departmentally. Curiously enough, some of the exotics accidentally introduced into the forests and 534 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) countryside do not have an adverse effect on the wild animals. The most notable of these today is the lantana which, in places, offers congenial cover to the animals (TN 62 Sep. 12), though as fodder it is of much less importance — elephants, gaur and chital eat it desultorily when it is in fresh leaf. Iodine-rich Eichhornia crassipes , eaten in small quantities by some animals (MISC 68 Feb. 4) may, or may not, have some ultimate effect on those animals. Many plants of the Compositae have entered deep into the forests and appear to be only a hindrance to the wild mam- mals. The harm from pollution, where factories are located close to faunal areas, and the lethal effects of insecticides on animal life, have been widely appreciated in the West; and it is possible this realisation might spread to India, too. The main depletive factors have been mentioned. For two reasons, they have gained increased potency in recent times, first, because the increase in human population has led to greater human demands on wild- life habitats, second, because the decrease in the flora and fauna pro- gressively limits the recuperative powers of the wildlife. For this second reason, I think that it is not the comparatively recently developed dep- letive factors that are currently most hostile to wild animals, but the oldest factor, going back to prehistoric times, hunting. By hunting is meant, here, all modes of encompassing the death of wild animals, by licenced shooting, unlicensed shooting, snaring, netting, baiting, trapping, and organised hunting with bows and arrows, or spears, or both. Because the forests have been opened up and there are few inaccessibly remote retreats left for the wild animals, because the animals have less living space and are therefore easier located, and because pro- tection (however justified the cause of its poverty) is poor, hunting has increasingly assumed a quite menacing depletive potency. No evidence can be adduced in support of my view, but I have studied this problem for years and in many places, making inquiries of poachers, trappers, and many tribals, and I think professional meat-hunters, tribals indulging in regular orgies of hunting (MP 70 Mar, 27 — photograph MP 40) and amateur poachers (many of them high-placed in status) are doing much greater damage to the wild animals today than is generally appreciated. From inquiry made, the main cause for the notable decline of wild animals in areas formerly celebrated for their fauna (in Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Madhya Pradesh, for example) seems to have been poaching by shikaris with guns and tribal hunting with less sophisticated but still lethal weapons and nets. Among tribals, hunting is mainly dependent on the traditions of each tribe ; the tuber-eating Khadias of Orissa, for instance, do little hunting, while in the same State, Kols and Gonds indulge avidly in it. In general it may be said that tribals in the south of J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(3) Plate I Krishnan : Mammals Above : bihar 1968 : hazaribagh n. p. : April 16 — dawn : Men picking fallen flowers from under a mohwa tree — b.1 ; Below : m. p. 1970 : bastar : March 27 : About 9 a. m. at Mukhaveli : Muria hunters, with nets and spears — mp. 40. ( Photos : M. Krishnan) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(3) Krishnan : Mammals Plate II Above: Tamil nadu 1969: pt. calimere: December 18 — p.m. : Feral ponies — tn. 58 ; Below : bihar 1970 : betla : palamau n. p. : February 22 — 1 p.m. : Rhesus at Madhuchuan — b. 32. {Photos : M. Krishnan ) AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 535 the peninsula are less given to hunting than those in the north, but no such regional bias governs poaching. It is practised everywhere. The most obvious reaction of wild animals to sustained disturbance by humanity (and especially to hunting, which panics and unsettles them even when it does not succeed in killing them) is to convert them into shy, fugitive creatures of the night, and to cause them a greater degree of nervous tension than is normal in their lives. Animals which are nor- mally abroad by day, like gaur, sambar and pig, retreat into cover with dawn and stay in hiding till near sunset: the difference between the behaviour of gaur in the Mudumalai and Bandipur Sas. and in Kan ha N.P. is significant. Disturbance also leads to loss of the best feeding grounds and of safe waters (poachers usually sit up over the only avail- able water within miles — MP 70 Mar. 27 and 31) and generally to a decline in animal populations. Many animals have declined dangerously or become locally extinct within the past 20 years. Only the decline of one of them, the tiger, has excited popular interest here and abroad and been widely publicised. It is not as if the tiger became rare in India overnight : experienced men like Corbett predicted its decline over 20 years ago. When even the decline of the tiger, which has captured human imagination in India for some 2000 years, was noticed only at the last stage, it is only logical that the decline of less glamorous animals like the liontailed monkey, the sloth bear, the hyena, the wolf and the dinky little Indian fox has gone largely unnoticed, and even the local extinction of some of these, and the blackbuck and the leopard in areas. In fact, all the mammals mentioned in this report (and a good few comparatively rarer mammals not men- tioned here) have declined noticeably in numbers excepting the elephant, the chital and the pig : of these three, the seeming thriving status of the elephant is almost certainly illusory, as pointed out in the note on the animal, and though it is protected today (and has been so protected for years) all over India, I predict that within a generation elephants, dis- possessed of territory, are likely to be so much in men’s way that in many areas they will be proscribed and destroyed. This apathy to the dwindling of wildlife till the last stages of decline are reached is by no means peculiar to our country. In America and Europe, too, the people and the administrations awoke to the imperative need to preserve wildlife only after having lost much of it (more than we have), some species, like the American bison, by active hunting. Whether we will benefit from the experience of the West and save and revive what is left of our wildlife is a question to which no definite or succinct answer can be provided, and anyway the answer is clearly beyond the scope of this report. However, it may be said that in our national culture there is no scientific interest in nature. In our languages we do not have specific names for many plants and animals, and not even terms to 3 536 JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (3) distinguish the antelopes from the very different deer. Further, being preoccupied with national development and the many pressing conse- quences of overpopulation many people find it hard to appreciate the importance of something that offers no immediate, tangible benefit. Even in the West (where natural history had its origin and growth), it was only after the disillusionment and shattering of normal human values by war, that people came to realise that wildlife provides something much greater than recreation or aesthetic satisfaction, that it provides a fascinatingly varied, entirely natural and authentic, and vital interest in human life. Further, as pointed out already, we have the problem of national integration of the country’s wildlife effort. The next ten years are critical. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE MAMMALS STUDIED The order of arrangement follows the book of Indian animals by S. H. Prater (2nd edition, 1965) and the nomenclature, following that book, the checklist of palaearctic and Indian animals, 1758 to 1946, by Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951). THE BONNET MONKEY Macaca radiata (Geoffroy) (Summary of field notes: Observation records: 22. Locations : Forests 19: Mudumalai Sa., Ranganathittoo Sa., Bandipur, Point Calimere. Temple — 3, Sholinghur. Photographs: MISC 1, TN 47A, TN 60.) This is much the commonest monkey of what used to be termed the Deccan, and south India, and commoner in and around rural and sub- urban areas (in scrub jungles, around villages and towns, and around certain shrines and railway stations) than in interior forests. However, the meagre record of it in the field notes exaggerates this comparative scarcity inside forests, and is partly due to my having ignored bonnet monkeys seen in tree forests, on occasion, in the preoccupation with some other animal. It is found in deciduous forests (MY 68 Oct. 6 & 18, 69 Oct. 9 and TN 70 Sep. 29) and I have seen it in the tall tree forests of Karwar and also in semi-evergreen forests, as in Courtallam. C. G. Webb-Peploe ( JBNHS , Vol. 46 — No. 4, p. 629 et seq.) reports its occur- rence in the semi-evergreen forests of Naraikkadu in South Tirunelveli, along with the liontailed macaque. However, it is not a typical forest animal, and is rare cr unknown in many montane forests. AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 537 Size : Morphological characters As in other macaques, adult size is extremely variable. Prater gives the weight of a full-grown male at 13-f9 lb. and of a female between 7 and 8 lb. The superior size of the male is more evident in macaques than in langurs, but in no troop of this monkey seen was a dominant male so much bulkier than the largest female that its weight could have been more than twice the female’s ; further, even in animals of fair aver- age size, the difference in weight between adult females is often greater than 1 lb. Though the male is considerably larger than the female in adulthood, in this macaque variations in size independent of sex but based on locality and genetical factors can be even more pronounced. This difference in adult size between troops in different area does not seem to be dependent entirely on environment, but to be more complex. It is not in dense forests, but in comparatively open country, in low- elevation hills and around shrines and human settlements, that the bon- net macaque attains its best development. The food advantages of such locations are obvious and probably the sustained intake, over generations, of more nourishing food than is available naturally in the forests has contributed to the physical superiority of this monkey where it is, in a large measure, dependent on humanity for its sustenance, but such a logical explanation does not account for the fact that where it is depen- dent on humanity, it is smaller in some areas than in others : for example, the size attained in Tirupathi, Papavinasam and Jalarpet is not reached at other shrines and railroad communities in the same region. Forest- living monkeys are generally smaller than those in rural and urban areas, and they seem to reach a larger size in the eastern regions of their range than in their western range. What is specially interesting about this macaque is that even in the same area, it may display considerable variations in size from troop to troop. In the Mudumalai sanctuary of Tamil Nadu Wynaad, the bonnet monkey is mainly found in a few troops in the Theppakkadu-Kargudi areas, and is typically the smallish, rather furry forest-living kind. Typical specimens are shown in photograph TN 60. However, in the interior forests, a miniature bonnet monkey was noticed, hardly half the size of the commoner specimens around the human settlement at Theppak- kadu, so fugitive in its response to humanity that it was not possible to observe it closely or for any length of time, and that only one clear pic- ture of it could be taken (TN 59 Mar. 23, 1963 Sep. 28, 66 Sep. 27 and 69 Oct, 5). An adult female was seen carrying an infant only the size of a loris (TN 62 Mar. 25). The photograph (TN 47 A) shows the small size of 2 ‘miniature’ bonnet macaques in relation to the fresh leaves on the culms of the giant bamboo. 538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 68 (3) Distribution The distribution is limited to peninsular India well south of the Gangetic plain. Prater gives the northern limits of the bonnet macaque as up to Bombay on the west, and the Godavari on the east : it may be added that in the central part of this peninsular wedge, in the northern tracts of Andhra Pradesh, its range does not quite reach the river. Within the vast area of this peninsular wedge, its distribution is somewhat dis- continuous : it is absent in some natural forests (and also in some rural areas). Although less likely to be deprived of territory by human occu- pation of the plains forests than most other animals, since it adapts so readily to life around human settlements, it seems to have lost ground in places, but probably this loss has been compensated by the acquisition of new territory elsewhere. An interesting example of such conquest is provided by its introduction, by capture and release, into the coastal forests of Yedaranyam, near Point Calimere. In April 1965 some 30- odd monkeys, captured around Kumbakonam, were brought to the Kodikadu Reserved Forests and liberated : they are thriving in several troops now, with a total population of about 100, and have perhaps been helped in this by the absence of predators in the area. Habits : Behaviour A notable feature of the social organisation of the bonnet monkeys of various areas is that in natural forests they are usually to be found in small groups of from 3 or 4 to a dozen or so, and never in large numbers. They are shy of men in the forests, even fugitive, and spend much time in treetops. The big troops are to be seen in specially congenial areas where they are partly or mainly dependent on humanity for food, as around shrines and railway stations. In such places, a number of troops, probably composed of smaller units, live in loose associations where tolerance of one another within limits, and individual displays of threat and dominance, are observable in a complex, rather than in a pattern. It is noteworthy that with the change in feeding habits, from the indus- trious seeking for small titbits that is typical of life in the natural forests, to plunder and the quick picking up and thrusting into the cheek pouches of scattered human surplus food, they are much more terrestrial and swift-moving, and often gain noticeably in size and power. In the forest they spend much time in finding food, climbing trees to feed on leaf- buds and fruits, patiently combing the seeding heads of grasses with their lips to strip the seeds, hunting insects, or investigating plants growing in the interspaces between rocks for insubstantial fruits and buds ; even when food, such as the tender new leaf of the tamarind, is available in bulk, forestside bonnet macaques feed methodically, filling their cheek-pouches slowly and not stuffing them hurriedly. The vegetarian food includes the leaf-buds of the giant bamboo and the leaf-buds and foliage of many J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(3) Krishnan : Mammals Plate III Above: Tamil nadu 1970: mudumalai sa. : Theppakkadu : September 21 — p.m. : Bonnet monkey grooming young- — -tn. 60; Below: miscellaneous: Sholinghur, Tamil nadu ; 1960 : May 24 — p.m. : Bonnet monkey mother swimming with her young on her back — misc. 1. (. Photos : M. Krishnan ) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(3) Krishnan : Mammals Plate IV tamil nadu 1966 i mudumalai sa. : September 27 : Bonnet Monkeys — tn. 47A. {Photo : M. Krishnan) AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 539 shrubs and trees, a variety of fruits including green fruits, and the seeds of grasses (TN 62 Mar. 13, 62 Sep. 13, 63 Sep. 13, 69 Dec. 12, 70 Sep. 29). Grubs, insects and other such small prey are also part of the diet, and birds’ eggs when available. They eat the eggs rather clumsily. A group of 7 swam across the Kauveri where it was both deep and fast-flowing to a chain of islands on which water-birds were nesting in a packed colony, to raid the eggs from the nests ; incidentally, a crocodile was known to frequent the neighbourhood of these islands ,(MY 67 Aug. 14). Many distinctive vocalisations, attitudes and gesticulations are used in communication, and expressions of dominance or submissiveness, threats and demonstrations. Among the main vocalisations may be mentioned the rattling, reverberating ‘krrrrrr’, well-known as the threat and anger call, and a soft short grunt, used in intraspecific communication when the monkeys are on the ground in company and moving through the undergrowth. A vocalisation I have heard on several occasions in the field, but never seen recorded in the literature available to me on this monkey, is a low, bird-like, cooing ‘pio’, reminiscent of the similar call used by the liontailed macaque. Prater, writing of the Assamese macaque ( Macaca assamensis) mentions ‘a rather plaintive musical call, a low “pio”’: never having heard the Assamese macaque, I am unable to say whether this particular vocalisation of the bonnet macaque is similar, but the quotation from Prater would be a good description of this call as well. There is only one mention of the call in my field notes (TN 69 Dec. 12), but as said, I have heard it several times, and outside the period of this survey have also heard the similar call of the liontailed macaque in the wild. A loud, sustained choking sound, difficult to describe in words except by a contradiction in terms, as a guttural screech, is used in intraspecific combats, and the same sound or a variant as the alarm call. Bonnet macaques come out with this call in frenzied repetition at the sight of a leopard or other predator, but are less unvarying in this than the langur. When up in trees and apparently when confident that they have not been seen, they may remain silent when a predator passes below them, hugging the bole and hiding in foliage. When walking on the ground, without being excited or alarmed, the distal third of the long tail is trailed : naturally, other Indian macaques, which have short tails, never do this, but on occasion the Common Langur does so: however, the trailing of the tail along the ground in this manner is more usual with the macaque than with the langur. Although highly arboreal, the bonnet macaque does not bound about the branches, or leap from treetop to treetop, in the manner of the Common Langur. However, in swarming up trees, sheer rock faces and walls, it is even more expert than the langur. At Courtallam, in April 1967, K. Krishnamoorthy showed me a vast, sheer rock-face up which he had 540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) seen a troop of some 30 bonnet macaques go swarming, clinging on to minute holds, an impressive performance. This monkey is a good swimmer and, like the rhesus, takes to the water to get across from one bank of a pool to the other instead of taking the circuitous path around along the bank. It can enter the water very smoothly when it wants to, and swim submerged for short distances. Females carrying infants also take readily to the water, the young shifting from the abdomen to the shoulders to ride piggy-back and keep above the surface of the water (Photographs MISC 1 : notes MISC 60 May 24 ; MY 67 Aug. 14, 69 Oct. 9 ; TN 69 Dec. 12). In biting their opponents (especially during intraspecific combats), the bonnet macaque, like all monkeys, seizes its adversary with both hands and pushes it at the moment of biting, thereby inflicting a quick, tearing wound that can be quite grievous (MISC 60 May 24). Forest-living bonnet macaques favour the neighbourhood of large rivers and waterfalls. There seems to be no defined breeding season in the wild and infants are seen both in summer and in September-October. An adult female with 2 infants is seen occasionally, but in such cases it is not known whether these are twins, or one is an adopted infant whose mother is no longer with it. The usual rule is one young at a birth. THE RHESUS MONKEY Macaca mulatta (Zimmermann) (Summary of field notes : Observation records : 10. Locations : West Bengal — Jaldapara Sa. : Orissa — around Balimela : Bihar — Palamau, Karkatnagar. Photographs — B 32.) The rhesus replaces the bonnet macaque as the commonest monkey of the country north of the Godavari. In places it is to be found in large numbers around shrines, railway stations and human settlements, but all records in the field notes are of forest-dwelling rhesus. Size : Morphological characters As in the bonnet macaque, size varies considerably with locality, and in adulthood the male is considerably larger than the female. It is easily distinguished from the bonnet monkey by the hair on the crown having a backward slant with no parting, instead of being arranged in a radiating ‘bonnet’, the shorter tail, and the more chunky build ; the burnt sienna to brownish orange colour of the pelage on the rump and lower back is distinctive — for the rest, the coat is an olive-grey, and the skin of the face and ears pink, as in the bonnet monkey. The two are of more AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 541 or less the same size, and Prater gives the weight of the rhesus at from 10-14 lb. Within peninsular India, the rhesus also seems to attain its best physical development in areas where it is dependent on humanity for food. It is said to reach its maximum size in the sub-Himalayan region. Rhesus observed in Bihar were small-sized and almost olive- brown in colour (B 68 Apr. 22, 68 Apr. 25, 69 Feb. 20, 69 Mar. 2). Forest-living rhesus are generally small, and in certain forests a few seem to decline to a miniature size, as in the bonnet macaque. In the Jaldapara sanctuary I saw a group of 4 such miniature rhesus (MISC. 65 Oct. 23). Distribution The rhesus has a wide distribution outside peninsular India, in the sub-Himalayan forests, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam, and farther east into Burma and beyond. Prater gives the southern limits of its territory in peninsular India as the Tapti on the west and the Godavari on the east. In northern Andhra Pradesh it is to be found a little further south than the Godavari. In Orissa, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh the distribution of the rhesus is widely discontinuous. For example it is not to be found in the Hazaribagh and Kanha parks of Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. One probable explanation for this is that with the exception of the liontailed macaque and the Nilgiri langur, the macaques and langurs of peninsular India are all creatures of the deciduous forests and do not occur in evergreen tracts. For this reason the rhesus will not be found where sal dominates the flora. It is true that neither in Hazari- bagh nor in Kanha does sal occur in dense continuous belts, as it does in the Simlipal hills of Orissa; I have not seen the rhesus in the Simlipal hills either, but my acquaintance with their sal forests is limited to 7 days spread over 3 years. Habits: Behaviour Although it climbs trees and rocky escarpments expertly, the rhesus is much more terrestrial than the bonnet macaque, especially when feeding. It takes readily to water and is a powerful swimmer. A troop of 19 was observed in the Palamau N.P. (Bihar), clinging on to the low steep banks of a pool, using one hand to fish out an alga from the water, and eating it (B 70 Feb. 22; photograph B 32). Forest-living rhesus spend much of their day searching for food assiduously, eating leaves, buds and insects, and similar insubstantial morsels. In their feeding habits they are similar to bonnet macaques, but noticeably less arboreal. In their vocalisations, too, they are somewhat similar, though except when screeching and grunting during intraspecific fights and disputes (bonnet monkeys also indulge in this while fighting) they seem to be less vocal. They do not have the low, musical ‘pio’ call, used by bonnet monkeys in treetops. Breeding is not limited to a defined season. 542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) THE LIONTAILED MONKEY Macaca silenus (Linnaeus) (Summary of field notes: Observation record : 1 Location: Varagaliyar, Anamalais. No photographs.) The liontailed macaque has the most restricted distribution of all Indian monkeys, being confined to a few evergreen forests of the Western Ghats in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. It has been much depleted over the past 50 years by systematic poaching for the sake of the pelage and flesh of the adult, and the capture of the young for sale as live specimens. In hunting this monkey and capturing the young, slings and bows are usually used ; the mother is killed or wounded so severely as to be incapable of flight, and the infant then captured. Some 35 years ago I have seen it, and observed it closely, in the ever- green forests of the Thirunelveli district around Courtallam : it is no longer to be found in this location, or in some other locations where it was known then. Its current status is adequately described by the word ‘ precarious \ Size : Morphological characters The size of this forest-living monkey is approximately that of the other two macaques of the peninsular area, the bonnet macaque and the rhesus, but is even more variable among adult individuals ; the superior size of the male in adulthood is noticeable in this species also. The build, especially in adults, is more thickset than in the other macaques. The sleek black coat and the luxuriant ruff of long, warm grey hair around the black face, forming almost a mane, are the distinctive features of this monkey ; the short tail is not leonine, ending only in an inconspi- cuous tuft. The only other black monkey of India (excluding the only ape of the country), the Nilgiri langur, is also usually found in evergreen forests inhabited by the liontailed macaque. Both are arboreal, and the langur also has a warm grey ruff, more brownish grey and less luxuriant, but these details are hard to distinguish in the treetops, as also the more reachy build of the langur. The much shorter tail of the macaque, and its quieter movements, serve to distinguish it from the langur. Distribution Prater gives the distribution as the Western Ghats from North Kanara southwards to Kerala. It seems to have died out in its northern range and to be now limited to its southern reaches, as already said. It is essen- tially a seclusive monkey of the deeper evergreen forests. AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 543 Habits : Behaviour The liontailed macaque is found well away from human settlements, in small parties of from half-a-dozen to a dozen or more. It feeds both in treetops and on the ground, and is similar in its feeding habits to the bonnet macaque. It is more deliberate in its movements and notably less vocal. The only sounds heard in the wild were a rather bird-like intraspecific call (also heard in the Calcutta and Madras Zoological gardens), louder than the musical ‘pio’ of arboreal bonnet macaques but similar to it (MISC 60 Apr. 30), and a soft grunt. I have heard these calls on several occasions, long prior to the period of the present survey, in the wild : they can also be heard where a number of these monkeys are housed together in a zoo. Webb-Peploe ( JBNHS 46 : 4, 629 et seq.) reported that in the evergreen forests of Naraikkadu, South Thiru- nelveli, these monkeys were seen in a troop of about 20, that they were shy of men and deliberate in their movements, and descended from one tree to climb another instead of proceeding along the tree- tops, and that they were feared by the langurs (presumably the Nilgiri langur) and bon- net monkeys ; he records two calls, a subdued grunt and a loud, pigeon- like ‘coo’. Prater (whose book is mainly a compilation), presumably following Webb-Peploe in part, gives this account of vocalisations: ‘The call of the male is said to resemble the human voice. It is compared to the “coyeh” of a man trying to get in touch with his lost companions in the jungle, and again to the loud “coo” of a pigeon’. It seems extremely unlikely that a highly gregarious animal like this macaque should have occasion for a penetrating ‘coyeh’ as of a man calling to lost companions, and I have never heard this call, but in view of the narrow limitation of my personal knowledge of this monkey, made diligent inquiry of tribals in the Anamalais, and the Periyar area of Kerala, who knew it in the wild much better, being those who poached it for pecuniary gain, and they, too, said they had never heard the call, but only the bird-like ‘pio’ — in fact they locate their quarry when hunting it mainly by this call. As to this call being like the loud ‘coo’ of a pigeon, the question is which particular pigeon’s ‘coo’ it resembles : if it is the polysyllabic modulated call of a green pigeon of the genus Treron , the further qualification may be added that the macaque’s call is also modulated and less polysyllabic, being like a phrase of the bird’s call rather than the entire call. 544 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) THE COMMON LANGUR Presbytis entellus (Dufresne) (Summary of field notes : Observation records : 76. Locations : Tamil Nadu — Mudumalai Sa. ; Mysore — Bandipur ; Orissa — Balimela, Raigoda Sa. ; Bihar — Palamau N.P.; Madhya Pradesh — Kanha N.P. ; Churna ; Maharashtra — Taroba N.P. ; Uttar Pradesh — along the Sharada canal. Photographs — TN 17, 43 ; MP 8, 33 ; MR 1, 2, 4, 15.) The grey langur (Common Langur) is the only Indian monkey with a distribution all over India, from the Himalayas to Kanyakumari. Taxonomists have recognized a dozen territorial races within the penin- sula, based, among other considerations, on the colour of the hands and feet. Summing up these distinctions, Prater says that the contrast bet- ween the white ruff around the face and the darker hair of the body, vivid in Himalayan specimens, is less apparent in peninsular animals, but that ‘among them there is variation in the colouring of the hands and feet’ which, ‘ are almost black in langurs from the plains of northern India, become paler as one travels southwards to the Deccan, and are almost white in the dry zone of south-east India’. Perhaps this entire question of races is due for a revision by competent taxonomists. A search for one of the white-handed races described in Blanford’s fauna, in the locality of his type-specimens, proved infructuous, the langur seen being black-handed. Further, the darkest grey I have seen in the pelage of this monkey was a langur seen along the Sharada canal in Uttar Pradesh (MISC 68 May 21). Size : Morphological characters This langur attains its maximum size and richness of pelage in the Himalayan region. Prater gives the weight of peninsular animals as from 20 to 35 lb. The grey langur is much taller and heavier than any of the macaques of the peninsula, with the comparatively slim, long-limbed build of its tribe, and a long tail ending in a white-haired tuft, usually in a con- spicuous tuft. The difference in size between the adult male and female is much less obvious than in macaques, and size variations among adults in a troop are also less flagrant. The question of size in comparison to other species of the genus is interesting, the race occurring in or around each of these other species being taken into account. The grey langur is relatively larger than the golden langur (MISC 68 February 15) and perhaps longer than the Nilgiri langur, but slimmer built. The basal third of the tail is muscular, and the tail is often carried gaily, though the distal half of it is lax and pendent. In adulthood the tail AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 545 is not prehensile, but in infancy it is, and the infant being carried clinging to the abdomen of its mother loops its tail around the base of its mother’s for an additional hold when being carried at a run (MR 68 November 18). The infant langur is black or a very dark grey at birth, but the hair on its coat turns to a pale grey in the first month of its life : apparently the transition is swift, for though I have looked for it, I have not seen young animals in an intermediate stage of this change of colour (TN 59 April 3, 66 April 2, 5, 6 ; MP 69 March 9, 21, 70 March 15, 20). In the bonnet macaque, too, the newborn young is dusky or black. Has this dark colour of the infant changing abruptly to pale grey any phylogenetic significance or is it purely an ontogenetic change? (Photograph MP 33). The grey langur is typically the monkey of deciduous forests and the total number of observation records of it, exceeding twice the sum total of such records of all three macaques mentioned, in the field notes, is a true reflection of its commoner occurrence in the forests, for it was ignored even oftener than those macaques. Prater, following faunas, mentions that it is to be found throughout India ‘except the western deserts’. This statement needs amplification and addition. Not only is the langur not found in desert regions, but it is also absent from the indeterminate peripheral scrub that has become such a feature of human occupation of the plains forests in India over the past three decades, being essentially a forest monkey. A further factor conditioning its distribution, also caused by human agency, is that in places it has been killed out, or so harried by men that it has left the area. Tribals hunt the grey langur for its flesh, and its flesh is also in demand for the sake of the therapeutic potency attributed to it superstitiously. In Sholinghur, where this langur was common, it was wiped out by hunting within half-a-dozen years (MISC 60 May 24). A purely natural factor, also limiting the distribution of the grey langur, is that it is essentially an inhabitant of deciduous forests (including dry deciduous forests, like Betla in Bihar) and does not enter true ever- green forests. In northern peninsular India, where sal is practically the only evergreen species of ecological importance, such forests occur in sizeable belts rather than in patches, and there is no monkey peculiar to the evergreen tracts. In areas where sal occurs in patches, as in the Kanha N.P., the grey langur is common in the areas around, but not in the Hazaribagh park. South of the sal areas of the peninsula, the floristic ecology is quite different. A great number of evergreen tree species, not totally unmixed with deciduous species (in fact, in places sal grows so gregariously that the deciduous ‘sal associates’ are much less common than in southern ever- green forests), form patches and belts of evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, some of them of comparatively low stature and at comparatively low elevations, dependent largely on rainfall and edaphic factors — we 546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) have sholas and patches of evergreen forest. The grey langur is not found in them, though the Nilgiri langur is quite frequently. A fuller account of this interesting question of floristic ecology determining distri- bution is provided in the note on the Nilgiri langur, but it may be said here that in peninsular India today all the man-imposed and natural factors mentioned serve to render the distribution of the grey langur highly discontinuous. Habits : Behaviour Like all Indian monkeys, the langur is gregarious. In the forest areas selected for this survey, it was seen in parties of from 4 to 18. On occasion, large troops of from 18 to 36 were seen feeding together in the treetops on the sprouting leaf-buds or on fruits, or feeding on the ground, but these were obviously composite troops of 2 or more parties, and split into parties in their getaway on being approached (TN 66 April 9, 69 October 4 ; MY 68 October 24 : MR 68 November 29). At other times, a single langur, or 2 or 3 together, were seen, but presumably there were other langur not far away (TN 62 April 4 ; O 69 January 14 & 21). 3 separate parties of langur more or less resident in Lower Kargudi (Mudumalai Sanctuary) were noticed from time to time during April 1966 ; these kept apart and did not mingle, though at times they were very close to one another — it was possible to identify these parties easily by the difference in age between the young in them, and by one containing 2 adult males, another 1, and the third none (the field notes provided here do not contain a detailed record : TN 66 April 2, 3 & 6). A party of 15 observed in the Taroba N.P. in November 1968 was still together a year later, though increased to 19 by new births (MR 68 November 18 & 69 November 26). In parties with a more or less fixed composition, no defined pattern of dominance by one adult male was evident unvaryingly. A party of 9 observed consisted of an adult dominant male, 5 adult females two of which had months’ old grey young with them, and another adult male which was of the party but not in it, keeping to the periphery and avoiding the proximity of the dominant male ; this second male was restive and aggressive, and made several threatening advances towards the groups of females and young. The dominant male ignored him, not even indulging in a threat gesture, but on one occasion when this ‘rogue male’ threatened one of them, 4 adult females joined together and chased him away (TN 66 April 2 & 12 : Photograph TN 43). In another party of 1 1, the domi- nant male, a big langur with a kinked tail, was relaxed in the fork of a teak, while up another teak a pair of young adults sat very close, a male hugging a female, using both hands and a leg to hold her ; for over an hour he just sat there hugging the female, with no overt sign of sexual desire, hardly moving (TN 62 March 30). Plate V J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(3) Krishnan : Mammals Above: Maharashtra 1968 : taroba n. p. : November 16 — about 11 a.m. : Adult female langur — mr. 1 ; Below : Maharashtra 1968 : taroba n. p. : November 18 — a.m. : A langur mother nursing her young — mr. 2. (Photos : M. Krishnan) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(3) Krishnan : Mammals Plate VI Above: Maharashtra 1968 : taroba n. p. : November 22 — around noon : Langur drinking — mr. 4 ; Below : m. p. 1970 : kanha n. p. : March 15 — p.m. : Langur at Sravantal lick. Note black baby — - mp. 33. [Photos : M. Krishnan) AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 547 The young langur stays close to its mother even after it is half-grown, and even when well able to run and climb, rushes to its mother at the least alarm and is carried by her, clinging to her abdomen. Mother langur suckle their young for quite a long time — one infant was suckled for nearly 11 minutes (MR 68 November 18 : Photograph MR 2). When they do not want their young to stray from their side, females restrain their young by holding on to their tails, just above the tip : I have seen a mother langur drinking at a puddle, while holding the tip of her progeny’s tail in one hand. Bonnet macaques, which also have long tails, use the same hold to restrain their young. The normal walk is leisurely and easy, and at times langur even creep silently through the undershrub. But when bolting in alarm, their bounding run has a somewhat laboured and exaggerated action, with the palms, and the soles of the feet, slapping the ground audibly. They are very much at home in trees and can move along branches and climb smoothly, but when scaling a steep rock or going up the bole of a tree, usually go up in a few bounds, and often bound along the boughs with sure-footed, energetic speed, shaking the foliage and twigs with the exuberance of their progress. No doubt their size and weight account for this in part, but for the rest it is the exuberance of their movements. Their acrobatic leaps from treetop to treetop have been commented upon by every observer. To gain momentum for the leap, they run along the bough with a down-pressing action, so that the upward lash of the branch at the moment of taking off adds propulsion to their leap. Many observers have commented on the predisposition of the grey langur (and other monkeys) to leave the safety of the treetops and descend to the ground, where it can be overtaken, when pursued by an enemy. This might be due to the desire for concealment as an escape. This langur will, when closely watched, draw the foliage of the tree it is sitting on around itself, to hide its face, an action that seems peculiar to it. Langur sitting in a tree bare of foliage will leave it at once when approached by a man, whereas where the tree has a leafy crown, they may stay on (TN 66 April 9). The thick, calloused skin on the palms and the soles, and the sitting pads beneath the tail, enable langur to climb trees and run on the ground energetically, as well as to sprawl at ease in repose. The attitudes assumed by them during their midday siesta in treetops are often extremely relaxed, and both on the ground and up a tree a favourite rest-position is to sit on the subcaudal pads, with the tail hanging limp or stretched on the ground behind, with both hind legs stretched out in front and elevated, resting on some support (such as a branch or a stump) at the level of the shoulder, with the arms resting on the legs (TN 62 March 30 ; MR 68 November 27). Their roosting behaviour is interesting. A suitable tall tree is selected, 548 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) probably one already used many times, in the vicinity of where they have been feeding in the evening, and towards sunset the langur repair to it singly and in twos and threes, and climb up to a stout, leafy lateral branch on high. There is much vigorous agitation of the boughs during this ascent to roost, but not many noisy wranglings — the agitation of the branches is, presumably, a territorial staking of claim, but it does serve to dislodge debris and dead leaves and twigs from the tree, and possibly unwelcome earlier occupants, though it is a purely instinctive action. All the langur have ascended by nightfall and thereafter they roost in tight company, in one or two groups, on the selected branch or branches. They are so completely hidden by foliage that only their pendent tails, hanging like clustered aerial roots, are visible from below. A tall mange, and a Lagerstroemia lanceolata in thick leaf were the trees selected in the instances observed, and if a tall tree in leaf is available, it is chosen (TN 64 March 30 ; MR 68 November 25, 26; 69 November 19, 20, 26). Prater mentions that a troop returns to the same roosting tree night after night ; this has not been my experience. In the Taroba N.P. I noticed that an iora had built its nest in the mango tree in which the langur roosted, and a number of roseringed parakeets were also roosting in the top branches, and they seemed in no way affected by the violent shaking to which the langur subjected the tree. Langur seem to be late risers and the roosting party watched in Taroba did not descend till 7 a.m. : prior to descent, too, the tree is shaken. When it rains langur seek the shelter of trees with leafy crowns, especially when there are young in the party. During sustained down- pours, when the drip from the leaves is heavy, they continue to stay in treetops, in huddled immobile groups, some of them little protected by the canopy, with the rainwater cascading from their pendent tails. When the rains stops, they shake themselves like wet dogs, and bound about the larger branches not too energetically to dry themselves — considering that the wet surfaces of these branches are prone to be slippery, this restraint on their exuberance is understandable (TN 66 April 11 & 18). The violent shaking of boughs and foliage, and the display of teeth in a silent snarl, are the main intimidatory gestures. The tail is highly expressive in repose and action. While sitting in a tree in repose, it hangs straight down, at times loosely draped around a branch below, and while resting on the forest floor is laid full length along the ground. Moving at leisure on the ground, it is often trailed, and when walking faster or running, is elevated, with the distal half pendent in a bold loop or flowing behind, depending on the pace of the animal : when about to take a leap, the tail is often raised high and flung so far forward that the tip is above the head of the monkey (Photographs : MP 8 ; MR 1). The two main vocalisations, the normal, loud, joyous-sounding whoops and the repeated, frenzied swearing at the sight of a predator, AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OP MAMMALS OF INDIA 549 have been described by many observers. Regarding the latter, it may be said that it seems to be a compulsive instinctive response to the sight of danger or suspected danger, and also an expression of aggressive intent ; as remarked by all observers, it is sustained only so long as the object of alarm or hatred is in sight. It is indulged in from a treetop or similar elevated stance — langur on the ground run away in silence when a pre- dator approaches, and it is significant that on such occasions their run is much less exuberant than usual, more of a hasty sneaking away than a bounding along, and that the ground is not slapped sharply by the palms and soles. In spite of its keen daytime vision (the main perceptive faculty of the monkey) it swears not only at a live predator but also at the carcass of a leopard or tiger being carried through the forest, and also at any object reminiscent of the pelage of the dreaded predators, the swearing being an instinctive, and not a reasoned response. Years ago, while proceeding in an open jeep along a forest road in Ramgad in Sandur, our passage was marked by the vociferous swearing of every group of langur up trees we passed, which swore hysterically at my wife, who was wearing a saree with a chrome yellow ground patterned with black in a somewhat pantherine pattern! Bonnet monkeys seem more discri- minate in swearing at predators. During such vocal demonstrations, langur violently agitate the tree- tops they are in. Both the frenzied swearing and the agitation of boughs and foliage is freely indulged in during aggressive displays between adult males (MY 68 Oct. 7, 13 & 18). Subadults indulging in rough-and-tumbles screech and squeal. A fear-call oftener heard from very young langur than from adults is a low, tremulous whimper. Grooming activity is similar to that of other monkeys. A display of affection by hugging the object of affection is also noticeable in this monkey, as already detailed, and is probably a common feature of the behaviour of all primates. Like other langurs, it is a strict vegetarian in its diet. Twice, grey langur were observed snatching at swarming termites issuing from the earth after early summer rains (TN 62 March 15, 66 April 18). These were probably aberrant specimens, and if they were not, their haphazard, fumbling attempts at catching the winged insect in the air seemed good evidence of their vegetarianism. The most notable thing about their feeding habits is that unlike other Indian monkeys, their gregariousness while feeding is not almost ex- clusively intraspecific. At times rhesus and bonnet macaques may un- willingly share pickings with other animals, as with dogs at railway sta- tions ; they are then scavenging in competition with other animals rather than feeding in company with them, and it is not mutual tolerance but a fear of each other that sustains the uneasy truce between them, and even 550 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL MIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) so in the heat of competition for scraps there are frequent quarrels. In other forest-living monkeys, 2 or more different parties do not feed together ; the dominant party drives away the literally more recessive one. But grey langur, in an entirely unforced forest setting, frequently feed amicably in a large composite troop of several parties, both in treetops and on the ground (TN 66 April 9, 69 October 4 ; MY 68 October 24 ; MR 68 Nov. 29). At such times, and when a group is feeding by itself also, an adult (especially a dominant male) will threaten an actual intruder on its feeding, and a dominant animal may occasionally usurp the feeding site occupied by a subordinate, but langur feeding in company are re- markably quiet and peaceable compared to macaques. Further, besides feeding amicably along with their own kind, grey langur feed in company with rhesus and bonnet monkeys, and with chital too, on the ground- up trees, they are not seen in company with other monkeys. Both in the Mudumalai Sanctuary and in Kanha N.P. I have seen langur feeding on the forest floor along with chital, but only one instance has been noted down (MP 70 March 20) : on that occasion, the mothers of 2 black in- fants, usually so anxious for the safety of their progeny, were quite unconcerned as the infants pranced about on unsteady limbs among the chital hinds sharing the parched gram at Sravantal lick with the monkeys. Langur feed on a wide variety of vegetarian fare, leaf-buds and leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds, and twigs : I am told they also eat some (unspeci- fied) roots or stolons, and bulbs, and although I have no proof I strongly suspect them of feeding on edible mushrooms and puffballs. In summer, when the deciduous trees are bare of leaf and the leaf-buds are sprouting, they often crowd the treetops in large parties to pick the buds ; fresh, tender leaves are also eaten in quantities, not choosily picked as buds are, but guzzled. In this they may use their hands to strip boughs of foliage, but more often bend the leafy twigs to their mouths with their hands and bite off mouthfuls. In feeding on the buds of the giant bamboo, the monkeys are generally seen singly atop the culms (which cannot support numbers of them). Quite a few herbs, including the basal, succulent parts of certain grasses, are eaten. Eating buds and small fruit, they feed laboriously and over long periods picking each bud or fruit individually and conveying it to their mouth before picking the next : sometimes both hands are used to speed up the process, but economy of movement is not effected by several morsels being picked and then conveyed in a sub- stantial mouthful to the lips. Feeding in this manner in exposed locations, their gregariousness has obvious survival value. At the sight of anything alarming, the individual that is alarmed bolts silently and the others follow it swiftly : there is no sounding of an alarm call. Among the plants eaten, the following may be mentioned : the field notes contain records of the eating of many of these: besides these, a great many other species are also eaten. Food varies with the season. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(3) Plate VII Krishnan : Mammals Above: Tamil nadu 1966: mudumalai sa. : Kargudi : April 2 — p.m. : ‘Rogue’ male langur — tn. 43 ; Below: m. p. 1968 : kanha n. p. : May 7 — a.m. : Langur near the rest-house — mp. 8. ( Photos : M. Krishnan) J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 68(3) Plate VIII Krishnan : Mammals Above : Tamil nadu 1962 : mudumalai sa. : Kargudi : March 30 — p.m. : Langur eating flowers of Radermachera xylocarpa — tn. 17; Below: Maharashtra 1969: taroba n. p. : November 29 — 5.45 p.m. : Langur eating neem foliage — mr. 15. ( Photos : M. Krishnan) AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 551 Leaf buds : Anogeissus latifolia , Bambusa arundinacea, Butea mono- sperma , Dendrocalamus strictus , Grewia aspera and G. tiliaefolia , Garuga pinnata, Zizyphus mauritiana (TN 66 March 28, 66 April 9, 66 September 30 ; MP 69 March 7 & 14). Twigs : Grewia tiliaefolia (TN 62 April 4). Leaves and fresh shoots: Lantana, mango, neem, tamarind, teak. Albizzia odoratissima and other spp., Anogeissus latifolia , Emblica spp., Garuga pinnata , Grewia tiliaefolia , Terminalia tomentosa (young leaves), T. arjuna and T. chebula , Wrightia tinctoria and IT. tomentosa , Zizyphus trinervia (TN 62 March 30, 64 March 28, 66 October 7; MR 68 Novem- ber 26 & 27, 69 November 27 & 29 : photograph MR 15). Foliage is usually guzzled in bulk, and after a spell of feeding the stomach bulges prominently. The leaves and shoots of a number of cultivated plants in the ornamental garden at Taroba N.P. were also eaten eagerly — in fact, it was this garden that drew the langur to the rest-house area (MR 68 November 17 & 18). Flowers : Mohwa, Baithinia racemosa (unopened buds mainly), Butea monosperma (buds), Bombax ceiba , Hibiscus lampas, Radermachera xy locar pa (full-blown flowers eaten with avid zest) : (TN 59 March 6, a.m. & p.m., & 13, 66 April 10 & 12 ; MP 69 March 14 : photograph TN 17). Fruits : Mango, neem, jamun, custard apple. Aegle marmelos, Aporosa lindleyana, Bombax ceiba (immature fruit), Carissa carandas and C. spinarum, Cordia myxa , Diospyros melanoxylon, Emblica spp., Ficus glomerata , Grewia tiliaefolia and G. hirsuta, Terminalia bellerica , Santalum album , Zizyphus mauritiana (TN 63 March 30, 63 September 14 and 22 ; MY 68 October 18 ; MP 69 March 10 ; MR 68 November 29 ; B 70 February 24). Langur were seen digging and picking up something small from the forest floor and eating it, but it could not be identified (TN 62 March 26 ; MY 68 October 18). Earlier observation of the drinking habits of langur was checked at the Mudumalai Sanctuary and Taroba N.P. (MR 68 November 22 : photograph MR 4). I have seen bonnet macaques scooping up the water in their palms and drinking it, when they were up trees and the water was in a hollow between the main forks of the tree. Langur invariably come down to drink, and while drinking crouch low, with the body close to the ground, and bend over to reach the surface of the water with their lips. They seem to distrust large sheets of water or deep rivers, and where possible prefer to drink from a pool of clear water in a hollow in a rock or ground, but will not drink muddy water. Apparently they do not enter the water to bathe or swim, though in heavy rains they get comprehensively drenched. Langur seen in the Moyar area of the Mudumalai Sanctuary, 552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) along either bank of the Maravakandy canal, invariably used the many bridges across the narrow canal to cross it. There does not appear to be any defined breeding season, and young were seen in various stages of development to subadulthood from in- fancy both during summer and in the cold weather. Prater says that ‘while mating may and does take place in any month of the year there is apparently a marked breeding season’ and adds that ‘in peninsular India most of the young are born between January and March’. Since it is not known on what evidence he came to this conclusion, it is difficult to differ from this guarded opinion, particularly as he was a careful and well- informed naturalist, but the personal and hearsay evidence at my disposal does not warrant such a conclusion. THE NILGIRI LANGUR Presbytis johni (Fischer) (Summary of field notes : Observation records: 6. Locations : Tamil Nadu — Topslip in the Anamalais : sholas along the road from Ootacamund to Gudalur. Kerala — Periyar Sa. No Photograph.) This is the only mammal whose position has improved during the period of this survey. Prior to 1959, sustained hunting for the sake of the handsome pelage and the flesh (credited with rejuvenating and thera- peutic powers by superstition) had rendered it extremely fugitive, and driven it deeper into the remote evergreen sholas. Determined poachers pursued it into these retreats, where the chances of detection were much less. A combination of 3 factors seems to have contributed to the improvement in status of the black langur in recent years. Apparently poachers are finding the game increasingly less worth the candle, protection seems to be better organised, and in places the monkey seems to have taken to living in the deciduous forests around human settle- ments, where it is difficult to poach it furtively. Whatever the reason, the fact remains that this langur, threatened with local extinction in many locations, is now less rare, and less fugitive in places. My field notes show them as shy and hard to see in Topslip in 1960 (MISC 60 April 26 & 30) today it is almost common in the area. Size : Morphological characters The Nilgiri langur is more or less the size of the grey langur, shorter in the tail and slightly heavier in the body. The difference in adult size between the male and female and between members of a party is not great. The coat is sleek and glossy, black or a warm black, with the hair on the crown and the rulf around the black face a brownish grey. The young are a warm black : J. C. Daniel and Poirer specify the colour of the infant pelage as a reddish brown. AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 553 Distribution This is exclusively a monkey of south India, like the liontailed macaque (with which it is found in places) and essentially a monkey of the sholas, though it may also be found in deciduous forests around. At present its range is restricted to the central and southern reaches of the Western Ghats and connected hills in Tamil Nadu and Kerala including the Palnis and other high elevations, and in these hills follows the discon- tinuous distribution of the sholas. Since these sholas have their own floristic variations and occur in comparatively small patches (mainly in the creases between hill slopes), and further since the black langur is not found in all these hill ranges (for example, it is absent from Kodaikanal), a comparison of the typical semi-evergreen and evergreen sholas where it is found may lead to a better understanding of the langur’s ecology. Straightaway it may be said that it seems to prefer sholas in which is an admixture of deciduous species to the purer evergreen sholas. In the Nilgiris, human activities have ousted it from many of its former haunts. The conversion of the shola forests in and immediately around Ootacamund into commercial plantations of exotics has shifted it farther out, but it is still there in the peripheral sholas, for example along the road from Ootacamund to Pykara, and from Pykara to Gudalur ; after Gudalur, there are no evergreen patches, and the black langur so not to be found. The following trees are among those typical of these sholas of the Nilgiris : Cinnamomum wightii , Cryptocarya neilgher- rensis, Elaeocarpus munroii, Euonymis crenulata , Eurya japonica, Fragaea obovata, Ilex wightiana, Isonandra perwttetiana, Michelia nilagiricd, Meliosma wightii , Photinia notoniana, Schefflera racemose Syzigium montanum , Viburnum hebanthum. This langur occurs in the sholas of the higher elevations of the Bolampatti range in Coimbatore, where the forests are little affected by human activities, and at my request M. Harikrishnan has provided the following brief account of the range. ‘Bolampatti range : eastern slopes of the Western Ghats in the Coimbatore Dt. Elevation varies from about 300 to 1800 m. Rainfall increases sharply with elevation from about 850 to 5000 mm. Soil con- ditions are not uniform, though there is a general improvement with increase in rainfall and elevation. Patches of poor soil, however, occur at all elevations. The main peaks are Kunjaramalai (zb 1800 m.) and Velingiri (zb 1740 m.) and the ascent is achieved in about 12 km. At lower elevations there are rocky, dry deciduous patches containing Sterculia mens , Cochlospermum religiosum, Givotia rottleriformis &c. Anogeissus latifolia occurs on the fringes of such patches, and extends into the deciduous forests that form the predominant type of forest below approximately 750 m., where it reaches a large size. Other species of these deciduous forests are Pterocarpus marsupium , Grewia tiliaefolia , 554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) Wrightia tinctoria , Dalbergia latifolia , Lagerstroemia lancealata & c. Around 900 m., the deciduous forests give way to a semi-evergreen to evergreen type of forest. Some of the trees here reach a height of 30 m., but most are smaller. The top canopy consists of Toona ciliata, Arto- carpus hirsuta , Hydnocarpus laurifolia, Elaeocarpus serratus , Mesua ferrea , Alstonia scholaris, and Bischofia javanica, Syzigium cumini and Mangifera indica on stream banks. Calophyllum elatum and Mesua ferrea are the commonest species around 1200 m. Above 1200 m., Mesua ferrea forms almost pure patches in which the trees have short boles and large crowns. The lower canopy is almost exclusively ever- green with Murraya exotica , Neolitsea zeylanica, Flacourtia montana , Schleicher a oleosa , Cinnamomum wight ii, Syzigium montana, Garcinia sp., Diospyros sp. & Actinodaphne lanata among the main components. Above 1500 m., montane sholas similar to the Nilgiri sholas make their appearance — short trees, all evergreen, with stunted boles and spreading crowns ; among the main species of this elevation are Eurya japonica, Eugenia spp., Litsea sp., Meliosma simplicifolia , Memecylon malabari - cum, Tsonandra perrottetiana, Cryptocarya sp. and Euonymus crenulata. The peaks are mainly herbaceous, with a few shrubs, among them Hyperi- cum mysorense, Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Qldenlandia sp., Osbeckia sp. &c. Ochlandra sp. occurs in moist patches between 800 and 1500 m. Elephants and the Nilgiri langur are said to be the main animals of these forests’. Habits : Behaviour The Nilgiri langur lives in comparatively small groups of from half- a-dozen to a dozen, and is much more arboreal than the other monkeys of peninsular India. It feeds mainly in the treetops, but descends to the ground to drink, and may occasionally feed on the berries and buds of the plants of the forest floor (K 70 Apr. 29). It does not associate with other animals in the treetops, and several groups do not unite into a large foraging party like the Common Langur. It seems to be exclusive, and in areas where it has taken up residence in the deciduous forests (as at Topslip), the grey langur seems to concede the locality to it. It is said to have much the same feeding habits as other langurs. While feeding in the treetops, it was noticed, the members of a party did not keep more or less together, but were loosely dispersed (K 60 Apr., 70 Apr. 26). It was heard indulging in a rasping whoop, basically similar to the grey langur’s whoop but different in tone : probably this helps members of a group to keep in touch with one another while feed- ing spread out. Inquiry of those who knew it in numbers in certain localities in the past does not show that it was socially more gregarious then. Fleeing from men in the tree forests, it did not descend to the ground in the manner of grey langur, but sought escape along the tree- AN ECOLOGICAL SURVEY OF MAMMALS OF INDIA 555 tops (M1SC 60 Apr. 26). However, it is said that where the forests are not extensive and the crowns of the trees close, it descends to run along the ground from one clump of trees to another. Besides men, leopards and wild dogs are the predators that hunt it, and both apparently catch it on the ground when opportunity offers. Infant black langur were observed in March in the Nilgiris, and in April in the Periyar Sa. of Kerala (TN 56 Mar. 5, 66 Mar. 27 ; K 60 Apr. 7, 70 Apr. 26). (to be continued) Studies on the Biology of some Freshwater Fishes Part V. Mystus vittatus (Bloch) BY v. S. Bhatt National Institute of Oceanography, Panaji (Goa) (With nine text- figures) Introduction Mystus vittatus (Bloch) is one of the commonest Indian catfishes. 3t is abundant in all types of freshwater environments. The serrated pectoral spine, unless held carefully can cause injury and for this reason, the species is locally known as ‘Katua’ or ‘Katia’, meaning thorny. The fish is small sized — the largest specimens recorded by Day (1878) were 18-8 cm. to 21-3 cm. long. Estuarine specimens measured by Prabhu (1956), were of 16-5 to 17-5 cm. in length. At Aligarh the largest specimen recorded by the author during the 16 months observations, was only 15-4 cm. long. The colour of the fish differs in different environments and Day (1878) has figured two varieties. He says about the colours : Silvery or golden, old specimens at Madras have a light bluish band along the middle of the side, and a narrow light one above and below it, a dark shoulder spot, and sometimes another near the base of the caudal fin. More to the eastward as Orissa and Bengal the colours are more vivid, usually of a golden hue, with a black shoulder spot, a narrow black band along either side of the lateral-line, a lighter parallel one below, and two wider ones above. Sometimes these fish appear to be dark, with 5 longitudinal silvery bands. Tips of fins usually dark. At Aligarh the specimens were of both types. Those which came from rivers, particularly from the River Ganga and its irrigation channels, were dull coloured with lighter bands; but those which came from the weedy ponds were brightly coloured with darker bands. The light coloured fishes when kept in aquaria developed dark bands aft?r some days. Mystus vittams has a wide distribution and occurs throughout India, Burma, Siam and Ceylon (Day 1878). STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 557 Little attention has been given towards the biology of this fish and barring a few comments on its spawning season (Prabhu 1956; Qasim & Qayyum 1961), there is no other information availably, Material and Methods Samples were collected in the second half of each month, from the Aligarh fish market, and the investigation was spread over a period of 16 months, from September 1962 to December 1963. The fish were preserved in 10% formalin and examined as soon as possible. The techniques of examination were the same as described earlier (Bhatt 1970). Length Frequency Distribution Since the fish has no scales, and no other hard structure of the body had annulations as growth checks, the length frequency dis- tribution alone was used to get some information on the growth rate (Fig. 1). From Fig. 1 it is difficult to identify the various modes, excepting perhaps from the histogram of January -March, where two modes can be seen, and from the histogram of April-June, where three modes can be distinguished. This probably indicates that the maximum longevity of this fish is about 2 to 3 years. The progression of various modes in different quarters could not be followed. Breeding Like other species, in this fish also, the classification of gonads into 5 maturity stages was made according to the scheme adopted by Qayyum & Qasim (1964) which is arbitrarily based on the shape, colour, size and weight of the gonads. Size of fish at first maturity The various size groups falling in different maturity stages have been given in Table 1. It is clear from the table that in males higher stages of maturity appear at 8*0 cm. and in females at 8-5 cm. All the males below 8-0 cm. and females below 8-5 cm. were immature. NUMBERS 558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) Fig. 1. Length frequency distribution of M. vittatus. Each histogram is based on the pooled samples of three months. Maturity stages of M. vittatus in various length groups STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 559 m -h oo m (N i— < oo oo n't^iOrf m o Cr) 1 1 1 1 1 | 1 1 1 1 1 y—* m rt- l l 1 l l | | CO (N Tt 1 9 1 1 l-H 1 [ oo i-H n | rr 111 1 1 1 in | n I ri 1 1 1 m t-h I i-H O I tj- vo «n i—i VO | — i it oo »n ri 1 m 1 CJ in 1 -HMMTt On | MNCn 1 in 1-1 vo 1 mn-iH 1-H O 1 inMNM (N 1 — 1 lot"- vo 1 co 'it 1 't 1 in | co r- ro nj m | m oo m oo O 1 ’-i n | r-- i- 1 VO 1 1 00 1 » • 1-H c/5 HSS>> t*H 1— l o 3 o O b © 3 60 13 5 s H 13 a o 2" 0\ 03 o H < 560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST . SOCIETY, Vo\, 68 (3) Sex-ratio and sex- dimorphism During the period of investigation about 1420 specimens were sexed by internal examination. Of this, 594 were males and 826 females. Thus the ratio of males to females was about 1 : 1*5. Some size difference between males and females was also noticed. The maximum size of the male was found to be 14*2 cm. while the largest female was 15-4 cm. in length. Females in general were usual- ly bigger and more abundant in the samples than the males. Unlike Mystus seenghala (Bhatt 1970), sexual dimorphism in Mystus v it tat us is of a permanent nature and can be easily seen in the males in the form of a genital papilla. This papilla is a projection of the genital aperture and varies from 2 mm. to almost 1 cm. in length. The genital papilla is prominent throughout the year and gets more enlarged during the spawning season. Although its function is not yet known, its presence probably helps in sex recognition during the spawning con- gregation. Since females lack this structure, it can be utilized for the identification of the two sexes with absolute certainty. Cycle of maturation and depletion of gonads Fig. 2 shows the five maturity stages occurring in different months of the year. It can be seen from the figure that the immature fishes (stage I) do not occur throughout the year. This indicates that the fish matures in the first year of its life and that the immature fishes advance towards the next maturity stage (stage II) in March, when they are hardly six months old. The ripening fishes (stage III) appear first in March and their percentage reaches maximum in June and July. No ripening fish is seen after July. The ripe fishes (stage IV) of both sexes were first seen in June, and their maximum number occurred in August. The spent males (stage V) were observed, for the first time, in August but the spent females were seen only in September. The maximum number of spent fishes in both sexes occurred in the month of September (Fig. 2). These spent fishes found in September and October are probably late spawners. The males in the spent condition continued to occur till November and December. The occurrence of only spent males in November and December show that recovery in males starts very late. The spent testes continue to remain in a shrunken state having a dull grey colour for a longer time. From the cycle given above, it can be concluded that the spawn- ing season in this species starts late in August and continues till about September, and is almost over by October. Peak spawning probably occurs in September. PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 561 Fig. 2. Percentage of M. vittatus at each of the five stages of maturity in different months of the year. 562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) Seasonal changes in gonad weight Monthly records of gonad weight in both the sexes has been shown in Fig. 3. The figure shows that the gonads of both sexes record an increase in weight in March. In August they reach maximunr values. From August onwards they register a rapid fall. This fall seems to be due to spawning. The gonad weight recorded in October 1962 was far greater than that recorded for the same month in 1963. This indicates that in 1962 1963 Fig. 3. Seasonal variation in gonad weight as percentage of body weight of M. vittatus of males (broken line), of females (continuous line), STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 563 1962 the spawning season probably continued till October; but in 1963 was more or less over in September. The second possibility which could lead to such a variation in the gonad weight during the two years of investigation may be because of an inhibition of spawning in a large number of females in October 1962, which probably did not occur to that extent in October 1963. The statement that ‘in cat- fishes too, due to varying conditions of food and shelter prevailing in different ponds, there occurs in some ponds either a delayed spawn- ing or its total inhibition’, made by Qasim & Qayyum (1961) seems to be true in this particular species. While summing up the spawning season of Mystus vittatus at Aligarh from the observations on the maturation cycle and the seasonal changes in the gonad weight, it seems important to point out that the months when maximum spawning occurs are August-September. This con- clusion differs from the deduction made by Qasim & Qayyum (1961) in the same locality that the time of maximum breeding in this fish is July-August and the probable duration of breeding is June-Septem- ber. The author did not observe any spent fish in the months of June or July. The spawning season of this species also differs some- what from that given by Prabhu (1956) as October and November in brackish water. Spawning periodicity The ova diameter frequencies were studied from March to August and have been shown in Fig. 4. The figure shows that the maturing batch of eggs gets separated from the original stock in April and forms a mode at 0*60 mm. The maximum size of the eggs in this month is 0-75 mm. In May (Fig. 4 C) there is no increase in the size of eggs and the mode does not shift any further. However, there is a clear increase in the frequency of large-sized eggs. In July the stock of eggs likely to be spawned gets widely separated from the yolkless eggs and the size of eggs becomes uniformly large (Fig. 4 E). In August (Fig. 4 F) more or less the same condition prevails, but in September no eggs are left in the ovaries. It is, therefore, evident that each individual spawns only once during the season and that there is no periodicity in the spawning. This agrees with the deductions made on the frequency of spawning of this fish by earlier workers (Prabhu 1956; Qasim & Qayyum 1961). Condition factor The condition factor of 1420 fishes belonging to both sexes was determined by the formula K=100/L3. The mean ‘K’ value of adult 564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vo'l. 68 (3) Fig 4 Size frequency distribution of intra-ovarian eggs of M. vittatus from March to September. Broken line indicates the area of small immature eggs which were not measured. MEAN K * VALUE STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 565 fish (excluding the immature fishes) in different months have been shown in Fig. 5. 1962 1963 Fig. 5. Ssasonal changes in the condition factor ‘K5 of both sexes of M. vittatus, of males x x, of females 9 — 1. A comparison of the seasonal changes in the condition factor with the feeding intensity (Fig. 6 b & c) reveals a high degree of correlation between the two. High feeding rate in January corresponds with the high ‘K’ value in the same month. In other months also the fluctua- tions in the feeding rhythm are in close agreement with the ‘K' values. It is, therefore, evident that the changes in the ‘condition factor’ are directly related to the rate of feeding. A comparison of the ‘K’ values with the seasonal changes in gonad weight will reveal an entirely different picture (Fig. 6 a & c). The rise and fall in the gonad weight does not seem to be strictly connected with the fluctuations in the condition factor. 566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 68 (3) Fig. 6. Seasonal variation in (a) Gonad weight, (b) Feeding rhythm and (c) Condition factor ‘K’ of M. vittatus. MEAN 'K' VALUE STUDIES ON THE BIOLOGY OF SOME FRESHWATER FISHES 56? The mean ‘K’ values of various length groups have been shown in Fig. 7. It can be seen from the figure that there are many points of Fig. 7. Mean condition factor ‘K’ of M. vittatus at different lengths of males (broken line) and of females (continuous line). inflection in the curve and none of these correspond to the size of the fish at first maturity as has been determined by a more direct method (Table 1). The abovementioned observations on the condition factor of Mystus vittatus agree well with those recorded earlier in Mystus seenghala (Bhatt 1970). Food and Feeding Habits Food of M. vittatus was analysed over a period of 16 months. During this period 948 guts were examined; of which, 751 were found to contain food and the rest (197 guts) were empty. The monthly 5 fishes ( Mystus vittatus) 568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vot. 68 (3) M a 3 5 g § Dec. — «oot-~^-<^m©'/^ uv^btNiN^b^ -h ro \o O t-h «n «o ^ 1 rt 0 bbb-H cn 1—1 ^ 65-2 10-6 Nov. f^OrnOOf^OO bboobbbbb tJ- >n cn (Si tn ^ '^t oO^^irin . b b b b b 1 co ^ m Tj - o 1 1*6 68-8 19*7 45*9 May m 9 m vo O 9 9 b b b b 00 00 I vo co nl tT 1 99 1 1 00 00 | 1 40*0 13*3 Apr. vo 9 l> | b b b b b oo I b b 9 b ^ ^ 9 ' (N OO — I rt 1 OO OO’-i O’- 'O'. Ov f'~ *— i i— t 9 7*" 9 T"1 ininON^Ot^N'bii'bO'oooin On tJ- f** ^ ^ in oo in co 5: « £; «« «2 C g.ts 8 8 g^&'S o g jags |’S.5P(2 b£uQfco